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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Universal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XXXV.

W

AIPUHIOLDY 9

TISNONINE Isatsdints

SHITAASTIN GAA 6do4N4 OTs

. y x 4 jd, AO /

THE

ereuror 4 DITA.

OR,

v

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Arts, Sciences, and Literature,

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

OS

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXV.
a

LONDON:
PrinteD ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, ParTernostEr-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND O0O,y
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

KABRARSS
VC 21 1965
aX

Bary 0 ge FON or /
1016006
=.

“CKYCLOPEDIA:

ade OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS. and

i

A confonant, and the nineteenth letter in the alpha-

9 bet: the-found of which is formed by a ftrong

-expulfion of the breath through the mouth, upon a fudden

drawing back of the tongue from the fore part of the palate,
with the lips at the fame time open.

The T, at the beesnning and end of words, has always
the fame found, nearly refembling that of D, for which
reafon they are often put for each other; and Quinétilian
even rallies thofe who made any fcruple of writing the one
indifferently for the other: as at for ad, fet for fed, haut for
aud, &c.

The cuftomary found of T ts that which occurs in the
words take, teniptation ; but before an i, when followed by a
vowel, it has the found of an obfcure s, as nation, falvation,
except when s precedes ¢, as Chriffian; and in derivatives
from y, as mighty, mightier.

he T is one of the five confonants which the abbot de

Dangeau calls palatal: thefe five are D, T, G, K, and N;

the firft ie which have the fame relation to each other,

* as the labials B-P and V-F have; D, for inftance, having
the fame relation to 7, that B hasto P, and V to F.

The T, the fame author obferves, is a letter of a ftrong
found; fo that a feeble one cannot be heard before it.
Hence, to form the fupine of rego, the T of tum changes
the g, and ftrengthens it to the found of a c, fo that we Ey
redum ; as in the preterperfeét tenfe rexi, which we pro-
nounce reck/i.

Th has two founds: the one foft, as thus; the other hard,
.as thing. The found is foft in thefe words, then, thence,
there, with their derivatives and compounds, that, thefe, &c.;
and in all words between two vowels, as father; and be-
tween + and a vowel, as durthen. In other words it is hard,
as thick, thunder. Where it is foftened at the end of a word,
an e filent muft be added, as breath, breathe. Johnfon.

VoL. XXXV.

Printed by A. Strahan,
Wew-Sueet-Square, London,

S.C. EN-C.ES.

T is ufed as an abbreviature on ancient monuments, &c.
for Titus, Titius, and Tullius.
T, among the s4ncécnts, was ufed as a numeral letter, fig-
nifying 160, according to the verfe,
‘< 'T quoque centenos & fexaginta tcuchi¢,??

When a dafh was at the top, thus, T, it fignified 160
thoufand.

T’, with a kind of acute accent over it, denoted among
the Greeks 300}; and if the accent was below it, thus T,,
it denoted 300,000. The ~) of the Hebrews fignified 9;

and with two points fixed horizontally over it, thus, %, it
fignified gooo.

Sometimes an acute accent over this, or any one of the
firft nine letters, multiplies its value by a thoufand.

We thall here obferve, that the number is fhould be
reprefented by FJ’, ic. 10 and 5; but, becaufe thefe
letters conftitute part of the word -q}71!, Jehovah, the
letters {9, i.e. g and 6, reprefent 15, to prevent, as the
Jews allege, the profanation of the peculiar name of God.
For the fame reafon, 0, #¢. g and 7, are ufed inftead of
}), ze. 10 and 6, to exprefs 16.

T, on the French coins, denotes thofe that were ftruck
at Nantes. y

When the Roman tribunes approved of the decrees of the
fenate, they teftified their confent by fubferibing a T.

T, in Mufic, is the initial of tenor, vocal and inftru-
mental ; of ¢acet, for filence: as adugio tacet, when a per-
former is to reft during the whole movement. In concertos
and fymphonies, ¢ is the initial of tutti, the whole band, after
a folo part. It alfo frequently ftands for ¢rillo, or 4, a
fhake.

T is alfo a mark or brand, with which by ftat. 4 Hen. VII.
every perfon convicted of eye fave murder, and admitted

% ts

T é

to the benefit of the clergy, Thall be marked on the brawn
of the left thumb.

T, or Tau, in Heraldry, is a kind of crofs-potent, or
truncated; found in all the armories of the commanders of
the order of St. Anthony.

The azure T, or Tau, is feen in arms above 400 years
old. Its origin, according to fome authors, is taken from
the Apocalypfe ; where the fame is a mark that the angel
imprefles on the foreheads of the eleét : others take it to re-
prefent a crutch, a fymbol proper enough for this order,
which was fworn to hofpitality. But the truth, F. Menef-
trier obferves, is, that it is the top of a Greek crofier.

The bifhops and abbots of the Greek church wear it ftill ;
and if it be found on the habit of St. Anthony, it is only to
fhew that he was an abbot.

T Bandage, in Surgery, is fo called from its refembling
that letter in thape. It confifts of two bands of linen, of
greater or lefler breadth, according to circumftances. The
tranfverfe piece of the bandage ferves to go round the body
above the hips. The perpendicular portion is fewed at one
of its ends to the middle and back point of the band, which
furrounds the pelvis; and its other or anterior extremity is

enerally flit into two portions, or tails, about fix or eight
inches in length. The perpendicular piece of the T bandage
applies itfelf between the glutei mufcles and to the peri-
neum; while the two tails, which we have juft now de-
{cribed, are carried between the thighs and the pudenda to
the right and left, and are laftly ftened to the tranfverfe
piece, which furrounds the body. The T bandage is chiefly
employed for keeping on the dreffings, after the operation
for the fiftula in ano, in difeafes of the perineum, and in
thofe of the anus, groins, &c.

Befides the common T bandage, furgeons make ufe of
another, which they call double, and which is furnifhed
with two perpendicular pieces, fewed to the tranfverfe one,
about four inches apart. The double T bandage io repre-
fented to be particularly calculated for cafes of lithotomy,
and for difeafes in the perineum; becaufe the two perpendi-
cular bands may be made to crofs each other on the part
afteéted, and leave the anus uncovered ; an advantage which
the fingle T bandage certainly has not.

The T bandage admits of application alfo in other modes.
When the crofs Band is broad, it may be applied round the
cheft, while the perpendicular portion, being flit into two,
may be made to pits over the fhoulders, fo as to keep the
bandage from flipping downward. There is no kind of
bandage which can be more conveniently applied to the
cheft, than that which has juft now been defcribed. See
BANDAGE.

TA, in Geography, a fortified city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in the province of Se-tchuen; 650 miles S.W.
of Pekin. N. lat. 31° 18’. E. long, 107° 15/.—Alfo, a
river of China, which runs into the Eait fea, N. lat. 36° 55!
E. long. 121° 34!

Ta, Lough, a lake of the county of Wexford, Ireland,
not far from Carnfore Point. It receives two or three {mart
rivulets, and having no outlet, the waters accumulate, and
gradually overflow the adjacent grounds; till the peafantry,
once in three or four years, let them off, by making a cut
through the high fand-bank that parts the lake from the fea ;
which cut very foon fills u again.

TA, a name given in Chins to their pagodas. Thefe are
moft numerous in hilly parts of the country, upon the fum-
mits of which they are frequently ereéted, They are gene-
rally from 120 to 160 feet high, which height is equal to
four or five of their diameters at the bafe ; and they confitt
moftly of an unequal number, five, feven, or nine galleries

EAB

or ftories, diminifhing as they rife, with as many projecting
roofs.

Ta, ra, one of the four fyllables ufed by the ancient
Greeks in folmifation, or the firft leffons in finging.

TAAIF, in Geography, atown of Arabia, in the* pro-
vince of Hedsjas, fituated upon a lofty mountain, in a country
fo agreeable, that the Arabs compare its environs to thofe
of Damafcus and Sana. This city fupplies Jidda and Mecca
with excellent fruits, particularly raifins; and carries on a
confiderable trade in almonds, which abound in its territories.
Near Taaif is the lofty mountain of Gazvan, which, accord-
ing to Arabian authors, is covered with froft and fnow in
the midft of fummer.

TAAMBOOTERA, a large town of the Birman
empire, on the Irawaddy.

TAAPAN, a town on the eaft coaft of Mindanao. N.
lat. 7° 38'. E. long. 124° 5/.

TAAS, or TAxs, a city of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen, fituated at the foot of the fertile hill of Sabber, and
encompaffed with a wall, between 16 and 30 feet thick, and
flanked with feveral towers. Within the circuit of the walk
ftands the fortrefs of Kahhre. The city has only two gates,
each fortified with three towers ; affording a very infuflicient
defence againft any aflault but that of Arabs, unfkilled in
the ufe af. artillery. The faint who is the patron of Tags is
the famous Ifmael Mulk, reported by tradition to have been
once king of this country. His remains are interred in a
mofque bearing his name. Near this mofque is a garden,
which was pofleffed by Ifchia, his fon. The city has feveral
other deferted and ruinous mofques. The laft lords of Taxes
have chofen to diftinguifh themfelves, not by mofques, but b
noble palaces, and have contented themfelves with a fm:
kubbet for their oratory and burial-place. Thefe palaces
are now the ornaments of the city. Near the city are the
ruins of two ancient cities: one called Thobad, fituated
near mount Sabber ; and the other Oddena, upon the fum-
mit of mount Sabber, over-againft Kahhre. This was for-
merly the refidence of the kings of the country. Its only
remains are the ruins of fome mofques. Tas has under-
gone feveral revolutions ; but after various events, which we
cannot recite, the Imam fent a Dola to this city, and it is
now under the fame government as the other cities in his
dominions ; 48 miles E.N.E. of Mocha. N. lat. 13° 33'.
E. long. 44° 10.

TAASINGE, an ifland of Denmark, about 16 miles in
circumference, fituated between Funen and Langeland, with
a town upon it of the fame name. N, lat. 55°. E. long.
107977!

TAAUT, Tuoyt, or Thot, in Ancient Mythology, the
name of a deity among the Pheenicians, and probably the
fame with the Egyptian Thoyt, Thot, or Hermes, the
Theutate or Teutat of the Greeks, and the Mercury of the
Latins. His cofmogony has been tranfmitted to us by the
Pheenician writer Sanchoniathon, whofe account is preferved
by Eufebius, De Prep. Ev. lib. i. cap, 10. To him the
Phoenicians afcribe the firft invention of letters, See MER«
CURY.

TAAWIRRY, in Geography, an ifland in the South
Pacific ocean. There are two fituated within the reef of
the ifland of Otaheite, and on the eatt fide of the main ifland.
Within thefe iflands there is anchorage within the reef
that furrounds them. The French veflels under the com-
mand of M. Bougainville lay here. The name of the other
ifland is Boourou,

: TAB, the ancient Arofis, a river of Perfia, in the pros
vince of Fars or Farfiftan, formed by the junétion of two
ftreams, within a few miles of the town of Zeitoon. ae

theie

at AB

*hefe fireams take their rife in the recefles of the mountains
of Fars; the firft at the foot of the high hill of Kamarah,
and the other near that of Ardicoone, 12 furfungs (the
furfung being eftimated at three Englifh miles and three
guartérs) N.W. of Shirauz. This branch of the river is
mentioned by Arrian in the march of Alexander. It divides
Fars from Chufiftan, and paffes through the centre of the
town of Endian, being navigable for boats of 20 tons burthen.
Nine mules above the town isa ford ; and 16 miles below it,
the Tab falls to the fea, When the river paffes Zeitoon,
the waters are perfectly fweet ; but in its courfe over the
hills, towards Endian, they become corrupted, and at that
place are fo brackifh as to be hardly fit for ufe.

TABA, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coatt.

Tasa Jflands, four {mall iflands in the Eaft Indian fea,
lying north-weit and fouth-eaft near the eaft coaft of Borneo.
N. lat. 2°6'. E. long. 118° 12!.

Taba, or Tabo-feil, in Modern Hiftory, a name by which
the Negroes, who inhabit the Gold Coaft in Africa, de-
fcribe their king, whofe power is very arbitrary, infomuch
ira they regard him as a being fuperior in nature to them-

elves.

TABAB MANAM, in Geography, a town of Abytf-
finia; 100 miles $.S.E. of Gondar.

TABACUM, in Botany, whence comes its common
Englifh name Tabacco, or, at prefent, Tobacco. (See
Nicotrana.) Bauhin fays, after Monardez, that this ap-
pellation is derived from an ifland fo called; but it fhould
feem to originate from the Indian name of the plant, Tubac,
or Tubacka.

TAB, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Ci-
licia.—Alfo, a town of Afia, on the confines of Pifidia, on
the coaft of the fea of Pamphylia.— Alo, the name of three
towns in Afia Minor; one in Caria, another in Perza, and
a third in Lydia.

TABAFRA, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
ivory Coaft ; 15 miles E. of Druin.

TABAGO, ar ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the coaft
of Mexico; about three miles long, and two broad. It is
mountainous, and on the north fide the high land declines
with a gentle defcent to the fea. Near the ttrand the foil is
a black mould, and deep, but towards the top of the moun-
tain ftrong and dry. The north fide of the ifland makes a
very pleafant appearance, and feems to be a garden of fruit-
trees, inclofed with others of the foreft-kind. The prin-
cipal produéts are plantains and bananas, which grow very
well from the foot to the middle of the mountain ; but thofe
near the top are {mall, as wanting moifture. There was
formerly a {mall town near the fea, on the north fide of the

ifland ; but it was ruined by the privateers that then fre-

quented thofe feas. Before it is a good road, about a mile
trom the fhore, where fhips may ride very fafely in 16 or
18 fathom water; 18 miles S. of Panama. N. lat. 8° 4o!.
W. long. 80° g!.

TABAGUILLA, or Little Tabago, a {mall ifland in the
Pacific ocean, near Tabago.

TABAJANA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Woolly ; 12 miles W.S.W. of Medina. -

TABALLAR Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of the
ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 2° 12!. E. long. 117° 4!.

TABALTHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
on the route from Tuburbum to Tacapz, between Celle
Picentine and Septimunicia. Anton. Itin.

TABALUM, a town of Afia Minor, in the vicinity of
Tonia. Herodotus. :

TABANA, Manxoup, a town in the interior of the
Tauric Cherfonefus. Ptol.

MS

TABANIE’, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
eaft branch of the Nile; 6 miles S.W. of Macias.

TABANUS, the Ox-fly, in Entomology, a genus of the Dip-
tera order of infects; the generic charaéters of which are,
that the mouth has a flefhy probofcis, terminated by two
lips, and that the roftrum is furnifhed with two awl-fhaped
palpi, placed on each fide of, and parallel to, the probofcis.
Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnean fyftem, enumerates
38 fpecies.

The infects of this genus very much refemble thofe of
the Mujfca; which fee.

Species.

Rostratus. With brownifh eyes, and fucker of the
length of the body.

Barsatus. With black eyes; and fucker half the length
of the body. Both thefe {pecies are found at the Cape of
Good Hope.

Mavriranus. With blackifh eyes, a black {pot on the
fecond fegment of the abdomen, and fucker equal to the
body. Found in Barbary and Spain.

Bovinus. Greenifh eyes ; marked down the back by a
feries of large, whitifh, triangular fpots, and on each fide
is a fimilar appearance, but lefs diftin& than that of the
dorfal row. This is the largeft of the Britifh fpecies, and,
like others of its f{pecies, is fed generally in the hotteft part
of the day, during the middle and the decline of fummer. It
is very troublefome to cattle. Its larva is large and dufky
yellowifh, like that of a tipula, marked by tranfverfe
blackifh ftreaks or rings; refiding under ground in moift
meadows, &c.; and changing into a cylindric brownifh
chryfalis, with a roundifh or flightly pointed extremity,
from which within a month proceeds the perfect infeét.

Autumnatis. With glafly wings, and brown abdomen,
and a whitifh three-fold fpot. Found in Europe.

Caxans. With green eyes, a white line on the back,
and red antenne. Found in South America.
Taranpinus. With green eyes and feet, and the feg-

ments of the abdomen yellowifh at the margin. Found in
the north of Europe.

Exzstuans. With green eyes, the fegments of the
abdomen white at the margin, and whitifh legs. Found in
Surinam.

FERVENS.
tenne, and brown head and thorax.
America.

MEeExIcANUS.

With green eyes, yellow abdomen and an-
Found in South

With a livid body, green antennz, and
greenifh wings. Found in Surinam.

Rusticus. Cinereous, with grey eyes, and two black
points in the front. An European infect.

Bromius. With a purple fafcia about the eyes, and
cinereous body. Found in Germany, and the northern part
of Europe. :

OccrpeNTALIS. With eyes having double brown fafciz,
a brown body, and the abdomen marked with three yellow
lines. Found in Surinam.

Troricus. With eyes having triple purplifh fafcie, and
the fides of the abdomen ferruginous. An European infect
of a brown colour, {maller than T. bovinus, and lefs com-
mon, troublefome to cattle, and efpecially to horfes.

Anrtarcricus. With eyes like the former, black ab-
domen, and fegments with whitifh margins. Found rarely
in Norway. i

Pioviais. With eyes waved with four-fold fafciz, and
brown-fpeckled wings. This is an European {pecies, very
troublefome with us in the aes part of fummer, faitening

2 on

TAB
on the legs, hands, &c., and peculiarly teafing on the ap-
proach of fits: ‘ ;

Cxcutiens. With eyes that are of a very lucid green,
marbled with black {pots and ftreaks; and wings marked
by large black bands or patches. This is an European in-
feé&t, not uncommon with us in autumn. ;

Lucusris. With black eyes and body, brown wings,
and white {pots. Found in Europe.

Morio. With eyes and body wholly black, and glafly
wings. An inhabitant of Barbary. _

Lingatus. With greenifh eyes, lineated thorax, ob-
fcurely blueifh abdomen, and red antenne. Found in
America. .

Fascrarus. With green eyes, brown body, and wings
having a brown fafcia. Found in Sierra Leone. :

Arratus. With blueifh abdomen, and black wings.
An American infeét,

Peitucens. Black, with fafciated eyes; the firft feg-
ment of the abdomen blueifh, and whitifh legs. A German
{pecies. wR

-Ruriconnis. With fafciated eyes, white wings, brown
fide, and red antennz. Found in America.

Pacanus. With green eyes, three yellow fafcie, and
both fides of the abdomen ferruginoufly fpotted. Found
in England.

Iraticus. Cinereous, with brown eyes; obfcure zbdo-
men, with the bafe palely pellucid. Found in Italy.

CAYENNeENsIS. With eyes brown before, and behind
green; black abdomen; the tecond and third fegments yellow,
the reft white at the margin. This and the next are found
in Cayenne.

Puncratus. Cinereous, with teftaceous eyes, and white
wings {peckled with black.

Inanis. Cinereous, like the former, with brown eyes,
and pellucid abdomen, having a brown apex.

Boreas. With eyes having three purplith fafcia, black
abdomen, and the margins of the fegments whitifh. Found
rarely in Norway.

Lonaicornis. With {potted eyes, wings half brown,
a white fpot, and longer antenne. Found in Brafil.

Srutatus. Cinereous, with brown abdomen, and three
abbreviated white lines. A Chinefe fpecies.

Bipentatus. Ferruginous; the abdomen having on
each fide two yellow f{pots, and the fcutellum bidentated.
Found in Auftria.

Bisrinosus. Brown, ferruginous, abdomen black at the
bafe, and fcutellum bifpinofe. Found in Gottingen.

Manens. Varied with whitifh and black ; black eyes ;
white wings ; fide and fafcia black. Found in Cayenne.

Gniseus.* Black, with greyifh thorax ; the fecond feg-
ment of the abdomen having on the hind part a cinereous
fafcia, the fourth, fifth, and fixth being on both fides cine-
reous, and the wings ferruginous.

Axpires. With eyes having four fafcie ; the abdomen
with a black ring, and the legs white. Found in Bulgaria.

Manitimus. Cinereous, with glafly wings; margin
and broad fafcia black. Found in Carniola, Auftria, and
France.

TABARA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon; 14 miles N.W. of Zamora.

TABARABA, a river of Mexico, in the profifice of
Veragua, which runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 8° 4o!.
W. long. 82° 48!

TABARCA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, fituated on the north coaft, at the month of the
Zaine, of which little but ruins are exifting, and a {mall
garyifon ; 60 miles N.W, of Tunis. 4

rn 3S

Tasarca, or Tabaguer, an ifland in the Mediterra-
nean, near the coaft of Africa, at the mouth of the river
Zaine, which feparates Algiers from Tunis. The Lomel-
lines, a noble Genoefe family, have been in poffeffion of
the little ifland that lies before Tabarca, at the mouth of
the Zaine, ever fince the time of the famous Andrea Doria,
to whom the Tunifeans gave it, with the folemn confeut of
the grand feignior, in ranfom for one of their princes,
whom Andrea had taken captive. This place is defended
by a {mall caftle, well armed, and in good order, and pro-
teéted the coral fifhery which was carried on in thefe feas,
But, in the year 1740, that monfter of princes, Aly Bafhaw,
the reigning king of Tunis, took it by treachery from the
enol ; and, contrary to all juftice and the right of nations,
put fome of them to the fword; and the reft, in num-
ber 300 or 400, he carried into captivity. N. lat. 36° 55/.
E. long. 9° 8',

Tasarca. See PLANna.

TABARD, or Taxzern, derived from the low Latin,
tabarda, denotes a fhort jacket or coat, open on both fides,
with a fquare collar and hanging fleeves. From the wear-
ing of this garment, fome of thofe on the foundation of
Queen’s college, Oxford, are called Taberdarii.

From an inn in Southwark, whofe fign was the Tabard,
afterwards changed to the Talbot, Chaucer and his compa-
nions fet out on a pilgrimage to the fhrine of Becket at Can-
terbury ; on which was founded his Canterbury Tales,

TABAREK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
8 miles S.E. of Cafbin.

TABARIA, or Taperayan, or Tabarieh, anciently
Tiberias, a town of Paleftine, fituated on the weft bank of
a lake, called in the fcriptures the ** Lake of Gennefareth,”’
and the * Sea of ‘Tiberias,’ and at the foot of a high and
fharp mountain ; furrounded with walls, except towards the
water. This town was built by Herod Antipas, to the
honour of Tiberius, and was long the capital of Galilee,
and after the deftruction of Jerufalem, for fod time the re-
fidence of the high prieft. This city Herod was obliged
to people moftly with Galileans and ftrangers, becaufe it be-
ing built on a ground which was full of fepulchres, the
gomng over which pollutes the Jews feven whole days,

e could fearcely get any of that nation to fettle there,
though he endowed it with confiderable privileges, and gave
its inhabitants the greateft encouragement, viz. lands to
fome, houfes to others, to take off their qualms of con-
fcience about treading on dead bodies. At the deftruétion
of Jerufalem the town fubmitted to Vefpafian, and received
the Jews which efcaped. In the year 1100, it was taken
by the Chriftians under Godfrey ; but in 1116, it was re-
taken by the Saracens, through the treachery of Ray-
mond IIT. count of Thouloufe. During the time of Chrif.
tianity it was the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Nazareth.
Near it are fome warm baths. The Chriftians have a church
here, and the Jews a feminary. In 1759, it fuffered much
by an earthquake; 16 miles S. of Safad.

TABAS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 34
miles S. of Dignizlu. ee ‘

Tazas, the ancient Tubienne, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Chorafan, fituated ina range of hills, 337 miles
from Herat and 150 from Yezd. It contains a population
of about 20,000 perfons, and carries on a trifling trade with
Herat and Yezd.

TABASCO, a ae of Mexico, bounded on the
north by the gulf of Mexico, on the eait by Yucatan, on
the fouth by Chiapa, and on the weft by Guaxaca, about
100 miles in length, but narrow. The climate is not rec»
koned healthy, nor is the foil remarkable for its ere

The

TAB

The inhabitants, however, have good farms well-ftocked
with cattle, which fell to good advantage. They have alfo

eat plenty of Indian corn and cocoa-nuts, which they
fond to Vera Cruz. Mboft of the country is flat and moilt,
has many marfhes and lakes well-ftocked with fifh. It rains
nine months out of the twelve, fo that the air is exceflively
damp; and in February, March, and April, remarkably.
hot, when infinite {warms of gnats and other infeéts are pro-
duced. The coaft, from the beginning of September to
the end of March, is fubjeét to tempeftuous northerly winds,
which render failing dangerous during that feafon. The
Spaniards brought hither vines, lemon, orange, and ‘fig
trees, which all thrive here very well. Here are large
thickets of mangroves and bamboos, and woods of cedar,
Brafil wood, &c. frequented by lions, tigers, wild bears,
and deer. They have a great number of rabbits, apes, and
{quirrels, with the cemmon fruits of America; and three
or four harvefts of maize in a year; befides rice, barley,
and all forts of garden-herbs, different fpecies of European
fowls, and others to us unknown. This province was ac-
cuftomed to pay its tribute to the ancient kings of Mexico
in chocolate.

Tasasco, a river of North America, which runs into
the bay of Campeachy, N. lat. 18° 15. W. long. 93° 40’.
On the banks of this river are fome of the largeit cabbage
and cotton trees fuppofed in the world. ‘

Tapasco, a town of Mexico, and capital of a province,
to which it gives name, called alfo by the Spaniards “ Nuef-
tra Sennora de la Vittoria,” from a great victory obtained
here by Cortez, on his firft arrival. It ftands on an ifland,
at the mouth of the river Grijalva, which divides itfelf near
the fea into twe branches, of which the weftern falls into
the river Tabafco, which rifes in the mountains of Chiapa ;
and the other continues its courfe till within four leagues of
the fea,” where it fubdivides, and feparates the ifland above
mentioned from the continent. Near it are plains, which
abound with cattle and other animals, particularly the
mountain-cow, fo called from its refembling that creature,
and feeding on a fort of mofs found on the trees near great
rivers. The ifland of Tabafco, on which the town of that
name is built, is about 12 leagues long and 24 broad. The
town is not very large, but well-built, and confiderably en-
riched by a conftant refort of merchants and tradefmen at
Chriftmas. N. lat. 18° 20’. W. long. 93° 46.

TABASHEER, in Medicine, a drug of high repute in
many parts of the Eaft, the knowledge of which has been
communicated to the weftern world by the works of the
Indian phyficians, by all of whom it is mentioned as an
important article in the Materia Medica; and it is ftill con-
fidered to be adminiftered under this and other names in
Turkey and in various parts of India. The Arabian medical
writers generally agree, that the Tabafheer is a production
of the Indian reed. The genuine Tabafheer, according to
Dr. Patrick Ruffell (Phil. Trenf. vol. xxx. p. 275.) is
undoubtedly a produétion of the Arundo Bambos of Lin-
meus; and the bamboo in which it is found, is vulgarly
called the female bamboo, and diftinguifhed by the large-
nefs of its cavity from the male, employed for fpears and
lances. The bamboo, however, yields this drug only in a
{mall quantity, varying according to the foil or fituation in
which the bamboo grows. For a farther account of it, we
refer to the Phil. Tranf. ubi fupra. See ARruNpo.

TABASO, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, between Bynda and Pfeudofiomus.
Ptol.

- TABASSERAN, in Geography, a diftri& of the tra& of
jand fituated along the Cafpian fea, between the rivers Terek

TAB

and Kur, and one of the divifions of the province of Daghef-
tan, dependent on Perfia. It lies between the Durbach and
Rubas, towards their fources ; extending about fix German
miles inland from above the territory of Derbent as far as the
higheft ridge of the Lefgian mountains, which is here very
rocky and woody. Reineggs calculates the flrength of the
different tribes inhabiting Tabafferan, who, befides the Tar-
tarian, fpeak another language peculiar to themfelves, at
about 10,000 families: and, according to him, the reigning
family have held the fovereignty over the country for more
than 600 years. See Reineggs’ General Hiftorico-topogra-
phical Defcription of Caucafus, &c. The town of Tabaf-
feran is the refidence of a prince, and the centre of the
trade carried on between Perfia and Dagheftan.

TABAXIR, in Botany, pronounced Tabafheer, appears
to be a Perfian name, appropriated to the Bamboo, Arundo
Bambos of Linneus, or rather originally to an internal fecre-
tion of the ftem of that plant. This is at firft of a milky
afpeét, but fubfequently concretes into a folid form, and yery
hard fubftance, compared to fugar, but more like fand or
pebbles, being indeed a real filiceous earth. The difcovery
of its true nature was made by Mr. Macie, now Smithfon,
and publifhed in the Philofophical’Tranfaétions for 1791,
vol. vii. p. 368. See ARuNpDO, and TABASHEER.

TABAZET, a word ufed by fome writers to exprefs
highly-refined fugar.

TABBAJEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Neola.
S. lat. 13°32’. W.long. 11°8!. :

TABBAY, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland,
near the eaft coaft of Skye. N. lat. 57° 16!. W. long.

oases
4 TABBY, a mixture of ftone and mortar, which becomes
as hard as a rock, ufed in Morocco. The walls of the city
are formed of this-fubftance.

Tassy, in Commerce, a kind of thick filk, ufually wa-
tered. It is manufactured like the common taffety, ex-
cepting that it is ftronger and thicker both in the woof
and warp.

The watering is given it by means of a calender, the rolls
of which are of iron, copper, or wood, which, bearing un-
equally on the ftuff, render the furface of it unequal, {o as
to refle& the rays of light differently.

TABBYING, or Watering, the paffing a ftuff under 2
calender, to make the reprefentation of waves on it as on
a tabby. It is ufual to tabby mohairs, ribbands, &c. Tab-
bying is performed without the addition of any water, or
dye ; and furnifhes the modern philofophers with a ftrong
proof that colours are only appearances.

_ TABE, in Geography, a river of Pruffia, proceeding from
the Niemen, and running into the Curifch-Haff.

TABEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in the Greater Phrygia. Strabo.

TABEIPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 25 miles W.N.W. of Bangalore.

TABELLA, or Taster, Tebularium, in Pharmacy, a
folid kind of ele@tuary, or confeétion, made of dry ingre-
dients, ufually with fugar, and formed into little flat mor-
fules, or {quares, more ufually called lozenges, and fometimes
morfelli, troches, &c.

Powders, fruits, falts, &c. are diffolved with fugar, and
made into tabule, as thofe of the juice of liquorice for colds,
&ce.

We have cordial, flomachic, aperitive, and hepatic tablets.
Jellies and broths are fometimes reduced into a fort of
tablets, to be carried in the pocket, and called fpocket-
foup. Tabelle manus Chriffi are made of fugar of rofes pearled.
Tabelle magnanimitatis are a fort taken by feeble old ihe

I when

TAB
when matched with young wives, to affift them in the affair

ef generation. :
ABELL Votive, in Antiquity, a name given to certain
tablets, which were hung up in the temples: for, seg 4
to an ancient cuftom, which prevailed all over Greece, fuc
as recovered from any diftemper ufed to write in a tablet the
nature and fymptoms of their refpeétive maladies, and the
remedies which had been moft fuccefsful. Thefe tablets
Hippocrates is faid to have copied and followed when he
frit began to practife: and, if we believe Pliny (lib. vii.
c. 37+), he learned from thefe the firft rudiments of phyfic.

‘A tablet of this nature was difcovered at Rome, not
many years ago, among the ruins of the ancient temple of
#Efculapius, with this infcription in Greek. Julianus bemg
affliéted with vomiting of blood, and abandoned by men, the

ods haftened to his relief, and having nourifhed him for the
f ace of three days with honey, reftored him to his health:
te which favour he came to return them thanks in the pre-
fence of the people. ‘Tables of a fimilar kind, under the
fame denomination, were hung up in the temples by thofe
who had efcaped fhipwreck, &c.

TABELLIO, Tasurarivs, in the Roman law, a fcri-
vener ; a kind of officer often confounded with the notary,
notarius : yet the two differed in this ; that the notaries only
drew up and kept the minutes of aéts and inftruments on
paper, and in notes, or fhort-hand ; whereas the tabelliones
delivered them engroffed fair, on parchment, in the full
executory form. he fame alfo put the feals to contra&s,
and rendered them authentic.

The domeftic clerks of thefe tabelliones, who at firft
wrote under them, in procefs of time came to be called
notaries.

Pafquier obferves, that the tabelliones at Rome were
public flaves, appointed for the keeping of contracts made
between private perfons. According to Loyieau, a con-
tract written by a notary was not perfect, or obligatory,
till the tabellio had written it fair: after which, the parties
fub{cribed it, i. ¢. they wrote at bottom, that they ap-
proved the contents ae fignatures were not then in uf.
See SIGNATURE.

*« Quoniam tabellionum ufus in regno Angliz non habetur,
propter quod magis ad figilla authentica credi eft neceffe,
‘ut corum copia facilius habeatur, ftatuimus, ut figillum ha-
beant non folum archiepifcopi, et epifcopi, fed eorum offi-
ciales.”’

TABENNE, in Geography, an ifland in the river Nile,
between Dendera and the ruins of the ancient Thebes;
famous on account of the retreat of the monk Pacomius and
feveral hundred of his brethren.

TABENUS Cameus, in Ancient Geography, a country
of Afia Minor, on the confines of Phrygia and Myfia.
Strabo.

TABERG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Smaland, fituated on a mountain of the fame name,
which abounds in iron-ore ; 2 miles S. of Jonkioping.

TABERISTAN. See Mazanveran.

TABERN, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied
to a cellar, or other fimilar excavation, for the containing of
liquor of the domeftic kind.

TABERNA Menitorta, among the Romans, Mars’
hofpital, or a place where difabled foldiers were maintained
at the charge of the government.

TABERNACLE, Tapennacutum, g. d. a tent ; among
the Jews, was a kind of moveable chapel, fo contrived as to
be taken to pieces, and put together at pleafure, for the
convenience of carrying it from place to place, during the
migration of the Airaclites in the wilderneis for forty years.

TAB

It was ere&ted by Mofes, in confequence of the exprefy
command of God, partly to be a palace of his prefencé as
the king of Ifrael, and partly to be the medium of the moit
folemn public worfhip, which the pone were to pay to
him. It was ereéted on the firit day of the firft month of
the fecond year after the Ifraelites’ exodus from Egypt.
Exod. xl. 2. 17. 26. 29. 34, 35-

The tabernacle was of a rectangular figure, thirty cubits
long, ten broad, and ten high ; or, according to Dr. Cum-
beriand?s reduction to Englifh meafure, fifty-five feet long,
eighteen broad, and eighteen high. The two fides and one
end were compofed of broad boards, ftanding upright ; each
board being about two feet nine inches broad, faftened at
the bottom by two tenons in each board, fitted into two
mortifes on the foundation ; at the top by links or hafps,
and on the fides by five wooden bars, which run through
rings or ftaples in each of the boards. Each fide confifted
of twenty of thefe boards, and the end of eight. Both the
boards and bars were overlaid with gold; and the rings and
hafps were of the fame metal. The foundation, on which
they flood, confifted of folid blocks of filver, two under each
board ; each of which was about fixteen inches long, and
weighing a talent, or about an hundred weight. The num-
ber of thefe blocks was about an hundred; ninety-fix of
which were laid under the forty-eight boards, and the other
four were the bafes of the columns that fupported the yeil
or curtain, which divided the infide of the tabernacle into
two rooms. Hence fome have derived the ancient fafhion
of fetting porphyry columns on bafes of white marble.

The tabernacle had four different coverings, or carpets,
thrown over one another. The firft and loweft was made of
fine linen, richly embroidered with figures of cherubims, in
fhades of blue, purple, and fearlet ; and confifted of ten
breadths, which were joined together with blue loops and
clafps of gold. The next over this was made of a fort of
mohair, the breadths of which were joined with clafps of
brafs. The third carpet was made of ram’s fkin dyed red ;
and the uppermoit of all was made of tacha/b, i.e. as has
been generally fuppofed, badger’s fkins, :

The eaft end of the tabernacle had no boards, but was
fheltered with a fine embroidered curtain, hung upon five
pillars of Shittim wood, overlaid with gold, and fuppofed
by Philo to touch the ground.

The infide of the tabernacle was divided into two rooms,
by means of a veil or curtain, hung upon four pillars ; the
veil was curioufly manufactured of the richeft ftuff, and
adorned with cherubims and other ornaments, embroidered
upon it. By this veil’the tabernacle was divided, and learned
writers have reafonably conjectured, in the fame proportion
with the temple, afterwards built aceording to its model :
that is, two-thirds of the whole length were allotted to the
firft room, and one-third to the fecond ; fo that the room
beyond the veil, which was called the holy of holies, was ex-
aétly {quare, being ten cubits each way : and the firft room,
called the fanéuary, was twice as long as broad.

Round the tabernacle there was a f{pacious court, one
hundred cubits long, and fifty broad, furrounded with pillars
fet in bafes of brafs, and filleted with filver, at the diftance
of five cubits from one another. The chief things in this
court were the altar of burnt-offering, and the brazen laver.
See Exod. ch. xxviii. and ch. xxx.

In the fanétuary, or firft room of the tabernacle, were the
altar of incenfe (Exod. xxx. i—io.), the golden candle-
fick (Exod. xxv. 31, &c.) valued by Cumberland at up-
wards of five thoufand and feventy-fix pounds fterling, and
the table of fhew-bread, deferibed Exod. xxv. 23—30,
Within the fecond veil, in the holy of holies, was the ark of

8 teRimony,

TAB

teftimony, and its lid or cover, called the mercy-feat, de-
fcribed Exod. xxv. 1o—21- See ARK of the Covenant.

The learned Spencer (De Leg. Hebr. diff. i.) fuggefts,
that Mofes projected the tabernacle, with its furniture and
appurtenances, after the fafhion of a fimilar ftru€ture, which
he had obferved in Egypt, and which was in ufe among
other nations; or, at leaft, that God direéted it to be made
with a view of indulging the Ifraelites in a compliance with
their cuftoms and modes of worfhip, fo far as there was
nothing in them really finful: and he alleges evidence of
fuch portable temples among the heathens, in which they
depofited the moft valuable facred or religious utenfils. But
it has been replied to this conjeCture, that it is not probable.
But, on the other hand, it fhould feem more likely, that the
heathens took thefe things from the Jews, who derived the
whole of their religion from God, than that the Jews, or rather
that God fhould take them from the heathens: and, befides,
the Jewifh tabernacle was ordered to be dire@lly the reverfe of
the heathen tabernacles, both in its form, which was capable
of being taken to pieces, whereas theirs was carried about
entira; and ip its fituation, which was accommodated to
the people’s worfhipping towards the Weft ; whereas it was
the general praGtice of the heathens to worfhip with their
faces towards the Eaft. (See Ezek. viii. 16. and Virgil
féneid. xii. 1.172—174.) The value of the gold and filver
only, ufed for the work of the tabernacle (Exod. xxxviii.
24, 25.), amounted, according to bifhop Cumberland’s re-
duGtion of Jewith talents and fhekels to Englifh coin, to up-
wards of one hundred and eighty-two thoufand five hundred
and fixty-eight pounds. Jennings’s Jewifh Ant. vol. ii. b. 2.
e.1. Ane. Univ. Hift. vol.i. partii. p. 651, &c. folio.

We have alfo an account of two other tabernacles before
the building of Solomon’s temple, befides that above de-
fcribed. One of thefe was erected by Mofes for himfelf ;
in which he gave audienee, heard caufes, and inquired of
God ; and, perhaps, alfo the public offices of religious wor-
fhip were performed in it for fome time; whence it was
called the tabernacle of the congregation (Exod. xxxiii. 7.)
The other was that which David erected in his own city,
for the reception of the ark, when he received it from the
houfe of Obededom. 2 Sam. vi. 17. 1 Chron. xvi. 1.

TABERNACLES, Feaft of. See ScENOPEGIA.

TABERNACLE is alfo ufed, of late, for a place of religious
worthip, appropriated to the ufe of thofe that are called
Methodifts.

‘TABERNACLE, in ArchiteGure, an ornamented cheft, gene-
rally made of precious wood, metal, or marble, and seed
upon Roman Catholic altars, as a receptacle for the cibo-
rium and pyxis.

TABERNACLE, in Pointed Archite@ure, a niche furmounted
by a canopy of tracery work.

TABERNZMONTANA, in Botany, was fo called by
Plumier, in memory of one of the fathers of modern botany,
James Theodore, furnamed Tabernzmontanus, that being
the latinized appellation of Berg Zabern, a town in the
diftri& of Deux-Ponts, where he was born. He died at
Heidelberg in 1590, having publifhed a ponderous and
earned German Kreuterbuch, or Herbal, the wooden figures
of which were fubfequently printed by themfelves, under the
title of Tabernemontani Eicones, in long quarto.—Linn. Gen.
118. Schreb. 165. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1244. Mart.
Mill. Did. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.2. 71. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 535. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 467. Plum.
Gen. 18. t. 30. Juff. 145. Lamarck Did. v. 7. 527.
Hlluftr. t. 170.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Contarte, Linn. Apocineey Jufl. Brown.

TAB

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, {mall, in
five acute converging fegments, permanent. Cor. of one
petal, falver-fhaped; tube cylindrical, many times longer
than the calyx, tumid at the bafe ; limb horizontal, in five
deep, oblong, obtufe, obliquely twifted fegments, {earcely
fo long as the tube. Ne@tary of five cloven glands, fur-
rounding the germen. Stam. Filaments five, {mall, inferted
into the middle of the tube; anthers erect, arrow-fhaped,
converging, generally enclofed in the tube. Pi/?. Germens
two, fimple; ftyle folitary, central, thread-fhaped; ftigma
oblong, capitate, cloven, dilated at the bafe. Peric. Fol-
licles two, horizontally fpreading, tumid, pointed, each of
one cell and one valve. Seeds numerous, ovate-oblong, ob-
tufe, rugged, imbricated, imbedded in pulp.

Eff. Ch. Corolla falver-fhaped ; its limb obliquely twifted,
in five deep fegments. Anthers arrow-fhaped, within the
tube. Follicles two, tumid, divaricated. Seeds imbedded
in pulp.

« A genus of fhrubs, with oppofite fimple eaves. Stipulas
between the footftalks, conneé&ted below, loofe above.
Cymes fomewhat forked. @alyx permanent.” —Brown, by
whofe remarks we have profited in fome of the above
charaéters. The fpecies are all of tropical origin, and con-
tain more or lefs of an acrid milky juice. The flowers are
white or yellow, moftly fragrant and ornamental. Two
North American herbaceous {pecies, with alternate /eaves,
and blueifh flowers, one of them, 7. Am/onia of Linneus,
having a funnel-fhaped corolla, and no pulp in the fruit, are
well feparated by Walter, Michaux, and other late writers,
under the generic name of Am/onia. t

1. T. citrifolia. Citron-leaved Tabernemontana. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 308. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. x. Jacq. Amer. 38.
t. 175. f. 13. (T. lactefcens, citri foliis undulatis ; Plum.
Ic. 246. t. 248. f.2, T. n.13; Browne Jam. 182.)—
Leaves elliptical, pointed. Panicles axillary, ftalked, cy-
mofe, of few flowers.—Native of the Weft Indies. Jacquin
obferved it in Martinico; Browne in Jamaica. The French
in the former ifland call it Bois laiteux, from the milky juice
with which every part abounds. The /femis fhrubby, ereét,
branched, from five to eight feet high, {mooth like every other
part. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, from four to fix inches
long, and from two to three and a half broad, of a fine
fhining pellucid green ; paler beneath ; wavy at the edges ;
furnifhed witha central rib, and many ftrong, curved, nearly
oppofite, tranfverfe ones. F/oqwers white, with a light agree-
able {cent, in oppofite, axillary, fomewhat umbellate, ftalked
panicles, about twice or thrice the length of the foot/falks.
Jacquin defcribes the follicles as always green, acute, filled
with foft orange pulp, enveloping the brown rugged /eeds.

2. T. /aurifolia. Laurel-leaved Tabernemontana. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 308. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n.2. Jacq. Amer. 39.
(Nerium arboreum, folio latiore obtufo, flore luteo minore 5
Sloane Jam. v. 2. 62. t. 186. f. 2.)—Leaves elliptical,
bluntifh. Panicles axillary, nearly feflile, cymofe, {mooth,
fhorter than the foot{talks.—Native of banks of rivers in
Jamaica. We have feen no fpecimen. Sloane defcribes
this as a free, whofe trunk is as thick as one’s leg, fifteen feet
high, with long crooked branches, leafy at the end. The
leaves appear to be rather lefs pointed than in the former,
and of adarker green. Flowers yellow, very fweet-fcented 5
the tube of their corolla half an inch only in length; in the
firft fpecies it meafures full an inch. The fower-ftalks are
{mooth, not fcaly. Linnzus erroneoufly refers Browne’s
plant to this fpecies, on the authority of Solander, who
marked the original fpecimen 7. /aurifolia.

3. T. /quamofa. Ta no ucla ha camel

TABERNZ MONTANA.

ovaté, bluntifh, Panicles from the forks of the branches,
cymofe, with fcaly flower-ftalks.—Gathered by Commerfon,
in the ifland of Mauritius. The ranches are round, forked,
rough with minute white tubercles. Leaves three or four
inches long, and two or three broad, very {mooth, opaque,
flightly wavy, with one rib, and many tranfverfe veins, on
f{mooth footflalks three quarters of an inch in length. Pant-
cles in pairs from the forks of the branches, each cloven and
eet fubdivided, divaricated, of about ten apparently
white or yellowith flowers; their partial ftalks clothed with
numerous, roundifh, imbricated bradeas, gradually larger
upward, which we have not feen in any otherfpecies. ‘Tube
aithe corolla above an inch long; limb fomewhat fhorter,
rough with glandular hairs, on the upper fide, about the
centre. We cannot refer this to any defcribed f{pecies, even
in Lamarck.

4- T. odorata. Fragrant Tabernemontana. ‘ Vahl
Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2. 22.’? Poiret in Lamarck Di&.
n. 17. (Cameraria Tamaquarina; Aub]. Guian. 260. t. 102.
C. lutea; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1244.)—Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, pointed, fmooth and fhining, on fhort ftalks.
Umbels from the forks of the branches, of about four flowers.
Corolla flightly downy externally—Found by Aublet, on
the banks of rivers in Guiana, flowering in May. Vahl was
induced by the remarks of Von Rohr to remove this plant
hither. (See CAMERARIA, n. 3.) The /eaves in Aublet’s
Specimen are highly polifhed, about four inches long, and
above one wide. Partial flower-falks above an inch long,
{mooth, naked, fimple. Flowers yellow, with a {weet
pleafant fmell; their limb longer than the tube, which
meafures about three quarters of an inch.

5- T. echinata. Prickly-fruited Tabernemontana. Aubl.
Guian. 263. t.103. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves on fhort ftalks,
elliptic-lanceolate, pointed ; fomewhat downy beneath. Um-
bels denfe, many-flowered, from the forks of the branches.
Follicles muricated.—Native of Guiana, flowering in Au-

ft. The /lems are numerous, knotty, four or five feet
og Leaves five or fix inches long, and two broad, fmooth
and green above ; clothed with a flight whitih down beneath.
Flowers {mall, yellowith ; their tube dotted with red. The
follicles are ovate, deflexed, an inch long, covered with crowded
foft tubercles. Aublet. We have feen no {pecimen. The
author mentions no pulp in the feed-veffels.

6. T. grandiflora. Large-flowered Tabernemontana.
Linn. Mant. 53. Willd. n. 4. Jacq. Amer. 40. t. 31.
Lamarck f. 2.— Leaves ovato-lanceolate, acute. Stem
forked. Segments of the calyx unequal, very lax.—T ound
by Jacquin in woods at Carthagena, but rarely, flowering from
July to September. A /brub eight feet high, with forked
divaricated, leafy branches. Leaves three or four inches
Jong, tapering at each end, fmooth and fhining, on fhort
ftalks. Flowers large, inodorous, two or three together on
a ftalk, at the fide of each uppermott fork of the branches.
Calyx divided into five whit, flat, ovate fegments, ve
unequal in length, and loofely {preading, ill agreein with
the ufual charaéter of the genus; but the fruit, which is in
this cafe much more important, is that of a Tubernemontana.
Its furface is fmooth and green. Jacquin.

7 T. poale Cymofe Tabernemontana. Linn. Mant.
53- Willd. n.5. Jacq. Amer. 39. t. 181. f. 14.—Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, acute. Cymes axillary, many-flowered.
Stamens in the bafe of the tube. Folliles coloured, re-
curved, very obtufe.—Frequent in woods and bufhy places
at Carthagena, flowering in July and Auguft.—An -£ ant
Sorub, from fix to fifteen feet in height. Leaves flightly
wavy, half a foot long. Cymes large and handfome, convex,

denfe, each of about forty dirty-white or reddifh {centlefs
flowers, the fize of the firft or fecond fpecies. Follicles
large, very blunt, red, fpotted with brown; one of them
generally abortive.

ae 6 abinfa- Blunt-leaved Tabernemontana.—Leaves
obovate, obtufe. Panicles terminal, aggregate, forked, level-
topped, many-flowered.—Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifle
of Bourbon. The /eaves are three or four inches long, flat,
fmeoth and fhining, with fine clofe tranfverfe veins; very
obtufe, and often emarginate at the extremity ; tapering at
the bafe into a foot/ffalk about an inch in length. Panicles
three, in our {pecimen, at the end of the branch, on ftalks,
nearly equal to the adjoining leaves, repeatedly forked, con-
fitting of numerous yellow flowers, {maller than in moft of
the foregoing. We know nothing of the fruit.

g- T. amygdalifolia. Almond-leaved 'Tabernzmontana. —
Jacq. Amer. 39. t. 181. f. 15.—Leaves oval-lanceolate,
acute, {mooth and fhining. Anthers projeéting out of the
tube.—Frequent in woods and thiekets at Carthagena. A.
branching milky /brub, fix feet high. Leaves flat, highly
polifhed. Flowers but few on a ftalk, white, powerfully
fcented. Filaments in the upper part of the tube, fo that
their anthers proje& above the orifice, in the form of a
pointed cone. Follicles pointed, green and fhining, refem-
bling thofe of 7. citrifolia, but {carcely half, or one-third,
fo large; their pulp orange. When this fhrub begins to
flower, it is moftly without leaves. - Jacquin.

10. T. difcolor. Two-coloured Tabernemontana. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 535. Willd. n. 7. Poiret in Lamarck
n. 3.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, fmooth, tapering at each
end. Stalks two-flowered, terminal, thread-fhaped.—Na-
tive of buthy places in Jamaica. Swartz. The flemis fix
feet high, with fmooth, oppofite branches, quadrangular
when young, leafy at the ends. Leaves two or three
inches long, ftalked; dark green above; pale beneath.
F aoppelis bordered, about half an inch in length, Flower-
fialks very flender, {mooth, one and a half or two inches
long, divided rather below the middle, and bearing’ two
whitifh or yellowith flowers, with one or two ftraggling
braGeas. Tube of the corolla half an inch long ; Sime
fhorter. The inflorefcence is terminal in Dr. Swartz’s own
{pecimen, as he defcribes it; and yet it is called axillary in
the fpecific charater ; perhaps becaufe it is, as in other
fpecies, clofely attended by leaves.

11. T. multiflora. Many-flowered Tabernemontana.—
Leaves eilliptic-lanceolate, {mooth, pointed. Stalks lateral
and terminal, many-flowered, thread-fhaped, corymbofe.—
Gathered by the late Mr. Chriftopher Smith, in the ifle of
Banda. This much refembles the laft in general habit,
though the leaves are fomewhat larger, with an oblong ob-
tufe point, and more reticulated beneath. The flowers too
are rather larger, and differ effentially in compofing ample,
repeatedly fubdivided, corymbofe panicles, about the ends
of the branches, accompanied here and there by very mi-
nute, fcattered, {cale-like Jrafeas. The corolla eae flefh-
coloured in the dried {pecimen, with long flender fegments ;
Its tube an inch long.

iz. ‘I’. undulata. | Wave-leaved 'Tabernemontana.
“Vahl Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2. 20.?? Poiret in Lamarck
n- §.—Leaves _lanceolate-elliptical, pointed, undulated,
fmooth, nearly feffile. Branches forked. Flowers fomee
what cymofe. Follicles fmooth.—Native of South Ame-
rica, and the ifland of Trinidad. The /eaves are five or fix
inches in length, tipped with a long point ; contraéted at
the bafe; bright green above ; pale and yellowith beneath,
Flowers three or four together, in fmall, folitary, axillary

or

TABERNA MONTANA.

or terminal, cymofe cluffers. Tube an inch long. Follicles
an inch and a half in length, reflexed, even, rather pointed.
We have no knowledge of this fpecies, or of the two fol-
lowing, but from the authors quoted.

13. IT. heterophylla. Various-leaved Tabernemontana.
«Vahl Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2. 22.’ ~ Poiret in Lam. n. 7.
—‘* Leaves elliptic-lanceolate; partly fomewhat heart-
fhaped, pointed, rather wavy, fmooth. Branches forked.
Flowers racemofe.’’—Native of Cayenne. The /eaves im-
mediately. under the forks of the branches are lanceolate,
three or four inches long, and moderately ftalked: the reft
are feffile, much fhorter, and almoft heart-fhaped. The
flowerJftalks are folitary, in the forks as well as at the fum-
mits of the branches, fmooth and flender, each bearing
from five to feven flowers, whofe corolla is half an inch long,
with fome filky hairs about the mouth. Vah/.

14. ‘T. Pandacaqui. Pandacaqui ‘Tabernemontana.
Poiret in Lam. n. 8. (Pandacaqui; Sonnerat Nouv.
Guin. 49. t. 19.)—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, f{mooth, with
a blunt point. Panicles axillary, corymbofe, many-flowered,
half as long as the leaves.—Native of the Philippine iflands,
where it was found by Sonnerat. He fays the natives of
the ifle of Lucon apply the milk of this fhrub to their
wounds. The /m is four or five feet high. Leaves two
or three inches long, fmooth, even, and quite entire, on
fhort ftalks. Flowers white ; their tube an inch long ; limb
fearcely half that length. He did not fee the fruit. The
younger Linnzus moft unaccountably referred this plant, in
the Supplement, to Chiococca racemofa, with which it accords
as little as can well be. It is now, on Juffieu’s authority,
removed to the prefent genus ; and as he {peaks decifively on
the fubje&, Gen. Pl. 145, we prefume he was acquainted
with the follicles.

15. T. perficariefolia. Knot-grafs-leaved Tabernemon-
tana. Jacq. Coll. v. 4.139. Ic. Rar. t. 320. Willd. n. 8.
Poiret in Lam. n. 9.—Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, tapering at
each end. Corymbs from the forks of the branches, in
pairs, divided.—Native of the ifland of Mauritius. The
jtem is thrubby, ereét, flender, repeatedly branched. Leaves
four or five inches long, more or lefs tapering at the end,
dark green, fhining, with a white rib and veins; their mar-
gn flightly undulated. Fraot/alks hardly an inch in length,

lowers yellowith-white ; their tube and limb each meafuring
nearly aninch. We have from Commerfon a fpecimen col-
leGted in the ifland above-mentioned, which anfwers to Jac-
quin’s defcription and figure, except the eaves being lefs
elongated ; but it can fcarcely be more than a variety.
Another from the ifle of Bourbon would appear to be the
fame plant, but its inflorefcence is lateral, from the bofoms
of the leaves, not from the forks of the branches. Still we
dare not defcribe this as a feparate {pecies.

16. T. zxeriifolia. Oleander-leaved Tabernemontana.
« Vahl Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2.21.’ Poiret in Lam. n. 10.
—Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, veinlefs, acute at each end.
Clufters axillary, folitary, of few flowers. Limb of the
corolla downy about the mouth. Stamens prominent.—
Native of Porto-Rico. Allied to the laft. eaves two or
three inches long, fcarcely wavy at the margin; paler be-
neath ; marked with a few fine lateral diftant ribs. Foot-
fialks half an inch long. Cluffers twice the length of the
footftalks, each of three or four flowers, with a {mall, linear,
deciduous braGea to each of their fhort partial ftalks. Co-
rolla about half an inch long, with wedge-fhaped fegments,
a little downy on their inner fide towards the bafe. The
fiamens, (we prefume the anthers only,) projeét out of the
tube. Vahl. The Specific character given by this author

Vout. XXXV.

being quite infufficient, we have yentured to enlarge it from
his defcription, without feeing the plant.

17. T. mauritiana. Brittle Tabernemontana. Poiret in
Lam. n. 11.—Leaves ovate, obtufe, membranous ; fearcély
downy beneath. Cluiters axillary, of few flowers. Branches
with brittle joints.—Gathered by Commerfon in the ifland
of Mauritius, and by Sonnerat in the Eaft Indies. We
find no fpecimen in our colle€tion anfwerable to Poiret’s de-
fcription. He fays the plant is remarkable for its woody,
cylindrical, ftriated, fmooth dranches being jointed at the in-
fertion of the leaves, and very brittle at thofe joints; bear-
ing very {mall, oval, whitifh tubercles. Leaves thin, mem-
branous, oval, obtufe, rounded at each end, entire, a little
wavy at the edges, three or four inches long, and two-and
a half wide ; green and rather fhining above ; paler beneath,
and very foft to the touch, but hardly pubefcent ; having
one ftout yellowifh mid-rib, with fine parallel tranfverfe
veins. Foot/talks thick, from fix to eight linesinlength. Clu/-
ters fhort and nearly fimple, towards the ends of the
branches, a little drooping. Corolla yellowifh-white ;_ its
tube three or four lines long ; limb fhort and obtufe. Fruit
not examined. Poirei.

18. T. Sananho. Sananho Tabernemontana. Ruiz
and Payon. Fl. Peruv. v. 2. 22. t. 144.’ Poiret in Lam.
n. 12.—Leaves oblong, pointed, {mooth, fomewhat wavy.
Corymbs with four or five branches. Braéteas inverfely
heart-fhaped. Follicles roundifh-obovate, pointed.— Native
of the extenfive forefts of Peru, flowering in Auguit and
September. A /brub twelve or fifteen feet high, or more,
with fmooth cylindrical branches. Leaves fix or eight
inches long, ftalked, fhining, fomewhat veiny. Flowers
yellowifh-white, lateral and terminal, from fifteen to twenty
in each corymb. Corolla large, with a very long angular
tube. Follicles the fize of an apricot, of a dirty white,
containing many brown ftriated feeds lodged in pulp.
Poiret.

19. T. arcuata. Curve-fruited Tabernemontana. ‘ Ruiz
and Pavon Fl. Peruy. v. 2. 22. t. 143.””. Poiret in Lam.
n. 15.—Leaves obovate-oblong, pointed, entire, on fhort
ftalks. Corymbs axillary, ternate, many-flowered. Fol-
licles recurved.Common in the great forefts of Peru,
about Pozuzo, flowering in November and December. A
tree, thirty or forty feet high, difcharging, when wounded,
a very copious milky juice, which hardens in the air into a

um-refin of a brown hue. The dranches form an ample
Paty head, and are forked, pale, flightly compreffed.
Leaves eight or nine inches long, on fhort, rather twifted,
ftalks. Flowers yellowifh-white, with fmall, oval, pointed
braGeas. Follicles oblong, thick, three inches in length,
reddifh, full of red wrinkled feeds, in a crimfon pulp.

20. T. fafciculata. Clutter-flowered Tabernemontana,
Poiret in Lam. n. 14.—Leaves oval-lanceolate, pointed,
fmooth, ribbed. Clufters axillary, fomewhat umbellate,
many-flowered. Segments of the corolla linear. Branches
jointed. Native of Cayenne. Seen by Poiret in Lamarck’s
herbarium. He deferibes the Jranches as very brittle at the
infertion of the Jeaves, which are ftalked, two or three
inches long, an inch or more in width, rather obtufe, though
pointed ; fhining above, reddifh beneath. Flowers plenti-
ful about the ends of the branches, in fhort, tufted, in-
clined corymbs, whofe ramifications are fomewhat forked
and jointed, with little fhort deciduous braéeas. Tube of
the corolla but two or three lines long; limb in five narrow,
linear, obtufe fegments. Fruit unknown. If it fhould
prove muricated, Poiret thinks this {pecies may not differ
much from T. echinata of are See {pecies 5. is

Zi, ke

TABERN Z MONTANA.

21. T. coronaria. Garland Tabernezmontana. Ait.
n. 3. Roxburgh MSS. ‘Nee coronarium ;/ Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1236. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 52. N. divarica-
tum; Linn. Sp. Pl. 306. Willd. ibid. Jafminum zeylani-
cum, folio oblongo, flore albo pleno odoratiffimo ; Burm.
Zeyl. 129. t.59- Nandi-ervatam; Rheede Hort. Malab.
vs 2. 10$- 107. t» §4, 5§5-)—Leaves elliptical, pointed,
fmooth. " Stalks forked, corymbofe, from the forks of the
branches, as long as the leaves.—Native of the Eaft Indies,
in a fandy foil, flowering two or three times in a year. It is
faid to have been introduced into the Englifh ftoves by the
late Mr. Gordon, in 1770. This plant blooms at various
feafons, and is ornamental as well as fragrant, though in-
ferior in both refpeéts to the Gardenia ‘ford, with which
fome of its fynonyms have been confounded. Its genus is
now more correétly determined in the fecond edition of
Hort. Kew. than in the firft; but a faulty fpecific charac-
ter ftill remains, taken (as it feems) from Jacquin’s plate,
which exhibits a weak imperfeét f{pecimen. The /fem is
fhrubby, bufhy, fmooth, three or four feet high, with
copious forked fpreading branches. Leaves two or two
and a half inches long, ae beneath, on channelled footfalks
half an inch in length. The corymbs, in various wild or cui-
tivated, fingle or double-flowered, fpecimens before us, con-
fift of from three to fix cream-coloured flowers, and are
elevated on a ftalk, an inch and a half long, always folitary,
from the forks of the branches. The fingle corolla has a
rather flender tube, an inch long, with broad fegments to
the limb, about the fame length; but in a double ftate both
parts are much enlarged and thickened.

Mr, Brown has determined the Nerium divaricatum of
Linnzus, erroneoufly marked as biennial, to be the fame
plant with the above. We fhall now proceed to enumerate
three new {pecies from his Prodromus.

22. T. orientalis. Smooth Indian Tabernemontana.
Brown n. 1.—* Leaves lanceolate-oblong, pointed, very
f{mooth, aswell as the branches. Cymes repeatedly compound,
{mooth. Braéteas awl-fhaped, not foon deciduous.’’—Ga-
thered in the tropical part of New Holland, by Mr. Brown,
who fufpeéts the Curutu-Pala, Hort. Malab. 83. t. 46,
cited by Linneus for his 7. alternifolia, {ee our 25th f{pecies,
may belong to the prefent plant, the eaves being erroneoufly
reprefented as alternate.

23. T. pubefcens. Downy New Holland Tabernemon-
tana. Br. n. 2.—‘ Leaves elliptic-oblong, fomewhat
pointed, downy beneath like the young branches. Branches
of the cymes ereét, hairy as well as the calyx. Braéteas
very minute, deciduous.’’—Native of the tropical part of
New Holland. Mg. R. Brown.

24. ‘T. ebrafeata. Naked-flowered Tabernemontana.
Br. n. 3.— Leaves fomewhat elliptical, downy as well as
the cymes. Branches and flower-ftalks fpreading. Brac-
teas none.”’—Found by Mr. Brown in the fame country as
the two lafl. We have feen no fpecimens of any of thefe
three {pecies.

25. ‘I. alternifolia. Alternate-leaved Tabernemontana.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 308. Willd. n.1o. Poiret in Lam. n. 20.

Curutu-Pala; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 1. 83. t. 46.)—

eaves {cattered, ovato-lanceolate.—Native of fandy ground
on the coaft of Malabar, flowering all the year, but efpe-
cially in the’ rainy feafon. A {mall tree, from fix to nti
feet high, a foot in diameter. The /eaves are three or four
inches long, pointed, on fhort thick fsotfalks, more or lefs
alternate, or difperfed, according to the figure, which is
our only authority for that chara¢ter. Panicles lateral or
terminal, corymbofe, drooping, of about sine white fra-

grant flowers, whofe tube # near two inches long, the limb
dilated and notched, very much twifted. Follicles tawny,
ovate, an inch long, with a recurved point. Linneus de~
pended folely on the Hortus Malabaricus for this {pecies, of
which he had no fpecimen. The circumftance of the alter-
nate /eaves, unexampled in any known Tabernemontana,
has excited a reafonable fufpicion of error. See our 22d
{pecies.

26. QT. bufalina. Buffalo-horned Tabernemontana.
Loureir. Cochinch. 117. (Capficum fylveftre ; Rumph.
Amboin. v. 4. 133. t- 67-)—Leaves lanceolate, fmooth.
Stalks lateral, in pairs, fingle-flowered, pendulous.—Na-
tive of moift fhady vallies in Amboina, and of bufhy places
in Cochinchina, where it is called Cdy fang tau. A fhrub
five feet high, branched, nearly erect. Leaves oppofite,
from five to eight inches in length, ovato-lanceolate, fhining,
entire. Flowers white, on long fimple ftalks. Tube long
and flender, inflated at the bafe. Follicles rather long,
pointed, fwelling, fmooth, with an unequal furface. Seeds
oblong, angular, imbedded in red pulp. The fruit im’
Rumphius’s plate is more like the folowing. Loureiro. f

27. T. bovina. Bull-horned Tabernemontana. Loureir.
Cochinch. 118. (Cay fang 63 of the Cochinchinefe. )—
Leaves lanceolate, {mooth. Stalks axillary, folitary, nearly
ereét, about five-lowered.—Native of the plains of Cochin-
china. A /brub four feet high, with drooping branches.
Leaves oppofite, entire. Flowers white. Follicles fhort,
recurved, tumid, pointed, even in the furface. Seeds
roundifh, angular, lodged in red pulp.

Loureiro, from whofe work and that of Rumphius all
our knowledge of the two lait fpecies is derived, attributes
to them an emollient and relaxing quality. Their vifcid
milky juice is faid gently to draw out thorns from the
fleth.

The herbaceous plants, fuppofed by Linnzus to belong
to this genus, conftitute, as we have already faid, and as
Ljnnzus himfelf originally thought, a very diftin& one, of
which we fhall now treat by the nameof Am/onia. Wecan
give no pofitive account of the meaning or origin of this
name, except that its author, according to Miller, was
Clayton. Linnzus, in his own copy of Gronovius’s Flora
Virginica, ed. 1. p. 26, has written Am/onia, as a generic
name, to what Clayton took for a f{pecies of Nerium, and
has fubjoined alfo in manufcript the chara¢ters of the fol-
licles and feeds. This plant, in the fecond editionof Sp. Pl.
is the Tabernemontana Amfonia ; and fo it remained, till Mr.
Walter reftored it to rank as a genus ; but without throwing
any light upon the name. A fimilar obfcurity envelopes the
nearly fimilar name of AMAson1A, (fee that article, ) which is
reported in the Supplementum of Linnzus to be dedicated
to the honour of Amafon, a traveller in America, whom
M. De Theis has baptized Thomas. But we have never
been able to learn any tidings of fuch a perfon. Whether
Amfonia, being an error in orthography for Anfonia, may
have been i a to commemorate the great lord Anfon,
who brought home a new efculent pea, and deferved bota-
nical commemoration as much as any other eminent naviga-
tor not a profeffed botanift ; and whether 4ma/onia be a ful
further corruption of the fame name, we mutt leave in doubt.
We have only to obferve, that if both thefe names fhould —
prove to have the fame origin, or be thought, as they cer-
tainly are, too nearly alike, the former, Am/onia, ought to
be retained in preference to the latter, which is of much
later date.

AmsontaA. Walter Carolin. 98. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. vy. 1.121. Purfh 184. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 72. -

—Clafs

TABERN Z MONTANA.

—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Con-
forte, Linn. Apocinee, Jufl. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, in
five deep, acute, triangular, fpreading fegments, perma-
nent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube many times
longer than the calyx, gradually {welling upwards, hairy in
the throat; limb about as long as the tube, in five deep,
lanceolate, varioufly {preading, oblique fegments. Neétary
of five minute glands, furrounding the germen. Svam. Fi-
laments five, {mall, inferted into the upper part of the
tube ; anthers ereét, arrow-fhaped, converging, within the
tube. Pi? Germens two, fimple, ovate; ftyle folitary,
central, thread-fhaped, about as long as the tube; ftigma
oblong, obtufe. Peric. Follicles two, ereét, long, cylindri-
cal, pointed, deftitute of internal pulp. Seeds numerous,
pointed, rough, naked, abrupt and oblique at the point.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped; its limb in five deep
oblique fegments. Annthers arrow-fhaped, within the tube.
Follicles two, cylindrical, erect. Seeds cylindrical, naked.

1. A. latifolia. Broad-leaved Amfonia. Michaux n. 1.
Purfh n.i. Ait. n. 1. (Tabernemontana Amfonia ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 308. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1246. Apocy-
num virginianum erectum, alternis afclepiadis foliis, floribus
pallidé ceruleis, radice craffa; Pluk. Almag. 35. Phyt.
t.. 115. f. 3.)—Stem fmooth. Leaves ovato-lanceolate ;
flightly hairy beneath. Panicle taller than the lateral
branches. Limb of the corolla afcending.—Native of fhady
wet woods in Carolina, flowering in May. Pur/h. Culti-
vated by Miller in 1759, and hardy in our climate. The
root is flefhy, perennial. Stem herbaceous, erect, a foot
high, round, leafy, nearly or quite f{mooth, terminated by
a compound {mooth panicle of greyifh-blue fcentlefs fowers,
and bearing two or three alternate leafy éranches, which do
not rife above the panicle till the flowers are paft. Corolla
very hairy about the mouth; its tube pale, nearly half an
inch long. The /eaves are all alternate, on fhort footftalks,
entire, pointed, two or three inches in length, and one in
breadth; paler beneath, and minutely hairy about the edges
and veins.

2. A. triftis. Brownith-flowered Amfonia.—Stem fmooth ;
its branches overtopping the panicle. Leaves ovate ; flightly
hairy beneath. Limb of the corolla reflexed.—Brought
from North America, by Mr. Lyon. We received a {peci-
men in flower, in June 1808, from Mr. Vere’s garden, at
Knightfbridge. This is rather taller than the foregoing, and
diftinguifhed by its leafy lateral branches rifing high above
the panicle. The flowers are {maller, of a dingy brown
hue; the fegments of their limb ftrongly Leiered: at leaft
in fading. Follicles {mooth, cylindrical. Perhaps Mr. Wal-
ter might have this f{pecies in view when he attributes tawny
flowers ( flores fulvi) to his A. ciliata, our 4th f{pecies.

3. A. falicifolia. Willow-leaved Amfonia. Purfhn. 2.
—‘* Stem fmooth. Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute at each
end, very fmooth.’”’—Gathered by Mr. Lyon in Carolina
and Georgia, flowering in May. lowers the fame as the
firft fpecies, more abundant. Pur/b.

4. A. ansuftifolia. Narrow-leaved Amfonia. Michaux
n.2. Purfh n.3. Ait. n.2. Venten. Choix. t. 29.
(A. ciliata; Walter n. 2. Tabernemontana anguttifolia ;
Willd. Sp. Ph. v. 1. 1247.)—Stem downy. Leaves linear,
ere&t, fringed.—In fandy barren ground of Carolina and
Georgia, flowering in May and June. Flowers of the fame
difpofition and colour as in A. latifolia and falicifolia. Purfb.
This fpecies is faid to have been introduced into the Englifh
gardens, in 1774, by the late Mr. James Gordon. Its
copious narrow /eaves are glaucous beneath, and fmooth,
except at the edges, where they are fringed with long foft

hairs, fuch as clothe the um Ventenat fays the upper ones
are quite fmooh, but this is not the cafe in our {pecimen.
The teeth of the calyx are fometimes tipped with a tuft of
hairs. Walter fays the flowers are tawny ; others defcribe
them, as we find them, like thofe ef 4. Jatifolia, blue, with
a pale, or fomewhat tawny, tube. The follicles of all the
fpecies, as far as we have feen, are flender, cylindrical, and
fmooth, about two inches long.

TABERNEMONTANA, in Gardening, contains plants of
the woody, exotic, and hardy perennial kinds, among which
the fpecies chiefly cultivated for garden purpofes are, the
citron-leaved tabernemontana (T. citrifolia); the laurel-
leaved tabernemontana (T. laurifolia) ; the Virginian taber-
nemontana (T. amfonia); and the narrow-leaved taberne-
montana (‘T. angutftifolia).

Thefe are all plants of the more tender and delicate kind,
but more efpecially the two firft forts, which require the
conftant aid of artificial heat in this climate.

Method of Culture.—All thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, which muft be procured from the countries where the
plants grow naturally, and be fown early in the fpring on a
hot-bed ; and when the plants are come up, and fit to re-
move, be carefully planted out into fmall pots filled with
light rich earth, and then plunged into a hot-bed of tanners’
bark, being careful to fhade them in the heat of the day,
until they have taken new root; after which they fhould
have free air admitted to them every day when the weather is
warm ; but on cold nights have the glafles of the hot-bed
covered with mats every evening, foon after the fun goes off
from the bed: they muft be abe refrefhed with water, but
not in large quantities, efpecially while they are young, as
they are full of a milky juice, and are fubje& to rot with
much moifture: they may remain during the fummer feafon
in the hot-bed, by ftirring up the tan to renew the heat when
it wants it, and a little new tan being added ; but when the
nights begin to be cold, the plants fhould be removed, and
plunged into the bark-bed in the ftove, where, during the
winter feafon, they muft be kept in a moderate degree of
warmth, and in cold weather have but little water given
them: they fhould conftantly remain in the ftove, where,
in warm weather, they may have free air admitted to
them by opening the glafles, but in cold weather be
kept in a warm ftate. With this management they
thrive and produce flowers; and, as their leaves are always
green, make a pleafant diverfity among other tender exotic
plants: they may be increafed likewife by cuttings in the
fummer feafon, which fhould be cut off from the old plants,
and laid to dry in the ftove five or fix days before they are
planted, that the wounded parts may heal over: thefe fhould
then be planted in pots filled with frefh light earth, and be
plunged into the hot-bed of tanners’ bark, and clofely co-
vered with a hand-glafs, fhading them from the fun in the
middle of the day in hot weather, refrefhing them now and
then with a little water: when they have taken root, they
may be planted out into feparate pots, and be treated in the
fame manner as thofe raifed from feeds are recommended
to be.

It may be noticed, that the third and fourth forts are ca-
pable of living in the open air here, provided they are planted
in a warm fituation: they love alight foil, rather moift than
otherwife ; of courfe, when planted in dry ground, they
fhould be frequently watered in dry weather, ‘They are
beft increafed by offsets from the roots, which fhould be
planted out in the autumnal feafon.

Among thefe, the two firft forts afford variety in the ftove,
and the latter forts in this as well as the borders in mild

climates.
C2 TABER-

TAS

TABERNEMONTANUS, James Tueopore, in Bis-
graphy, a phyfician and botanift, was born at Berg-Zabern,
in Alface, and having praétifed as an apothecary, and ac-

uired fame knowledge of botany, went to France, where he
took the degree of M.D. Advancing in his profeffion, he
became firft phyfician to the Ele&tor-Palatine, the bifhop of
Spire, and other perfons of rank. He died at Heidelberg,
whither he had removed from Worms, in the year 1590-
Apprehending that Providence had furnifhed every country
with remedies fuitable to its difeafes, he confided much in
the efficacy of herbs; and Fanaoulay in the powder of
mugwort. His German Herbal confifts of three volumes,
publithed feparately in the years 1558, 1590, and 1592, and
containing figures, copied either by him elf or others from
nature. his work was well received, and has been often
reprinted. He alfo publifhed in German a treatife on baths
and mineral waters. Haller. Eloy. Gen. Biog. _

TABERNAS, in Gorgraply, a town of Spain, in the

rovince of Grenada; 15 miles N.N.E. of Almeria.

TABERNE, a town of Curdiftan; 50 miles E.S.E.
of Kerkuk. f

TABES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
mountains of Parétacéne, upon the frontiers of Perfia and
Babylonia. Strabo and Quintus Curtius.

Apes, in Medicine, a wafting or confumption of the
body, accompanied with heétic fever. The diftinétion which
nofologifts have made between tabes and atrophia, is founded
on the prefence of heétic fever in the former, and its abfence
in the latter form of difeafe. Such a definition of tabes,
however, would comprehend phthifis, a term which is ge-
nerally reftriéted to that {pecies of confumption which has
its origin in difeafes of the lungs. (See ConsuMPTION. )
The ground of the diftinétion between tabes and atrophy, has
already been fully difcuffed under the head of Arroruy :
and the train of fymptoms conttituting the fever that accom-

anies tabes, is fufficiently detailed under the article Heélic
Goren Dr. Cullen has enumerated three {pecies of tabes ;
the firft, which he calls the purulent, arifing from fuppura-
tion, either of an internal or external part, and the feat of
which may be various, according to the organ originally dif-
eafed ; the fecond, the /crofulous, being the confequence of
ferofula affecting different parts, but more efpecially the
mefenteric glands ; and the third, the venenata, proceeding
from the operation of a poifonous fubftance received into
the body. The other affections which had been claffed by
Sauvages under tabes, fuch as the tabes dorfalis, nutricum,
fudatoria, a fanguifluxu, fyphilitica, and a hydrope, are re-
ferred by Dr. Cullen to the genus Atropuy ; which fee.

Tanes Dorfalis, a {pecies of confumption arifing from the
exceflive evacuation of femen: its fymptoms and treatment
are detailed under ATRopny.

Tasers Mefenterica, or mefenteric confumption, is a dif-
eafe that more particularly affeéts children, and arifes from
obftrudtion and enlargement of the mefenteric glands.
Children are liable to its attacks from the age of three or
four years, and become lefs fo when they have attained that
of eight or ten, unlefs they are of {crofulous habits, in which
cafe the difeafe may fupervene at a much later period. Its
relation to {crofula is A marked, from its more frequent
occurrence in families where this difeafe is hereditary : but
it may, at the fame time, arife independently of that affec-
tion, from a great variety of caufes. It may be induced by
any protracted difeafe of infancy producing much conftitu-
tional difturbance, and more efpecially by fuch as are at-
tended with diforder of the funétions of the alimentary canal.
It may often be traced to improper treatment, or unwhole-
fome food's to long-continued irritation from teething ; to

» TAB

the fuppreffion of eruptions, or the incautious {topping of
diarrhoea ; and fometimes appears to be the confequence of _
exanthematous fevers, as the meafles, {mall-pox, or fearlatina.
The prefence of worms in the inteftines, has very frequently
been accufed of laying the foundation of this difeafe : but it
may be quettioned, vies they are not more generally the
confequence than the caufe of derangement in the prime
viz attendant on this diforder.

The fymptoms which attend the early ftages of this affec-
tion, and before the enlargement of the glands has become fen-
fible, are fimilar to thofe which accompany many of the difeafes
of the alimentary canal, more efpecially thofe produced by
worms, and can hardly be diftinguifhed from them. Indi-
eae occurs in various degrees, denoted by the ufual
igns, fuch as acid eruétations, fetid breath, great irregu-
larity in the aétion of the bowels, and in the appearance of
the ftools ; occafional fever, occurring, however, lefs in rezu-
lar paroxy{ms than happensin the remitting fever of infants,
but giving a heétic flufh to the cheeks, which, when the fever
has btided, are of apallid hue. The appetite is extremely
irregular ; fometimes it is-nearly gone, at other times it is
voracious, and attended with a fenfe of craving, unlefs {pee-
dily fatisfied. The fymptom which particularly character-
ifes this difeafe, when occurring in conjun¢tion with thofe
above ftated, is fhooting pains in the abdomen, varying con-
fiderably, both in their feat and their intenfity, at different
times. Thefe pains, though felt more or lefs every day,
occur only at intervals, and frequently, after a longer inter-
miffion than ufual, they return with more feverity than
before. :

The belly now begins to {well and to grow hard, while,
at the fame time, feta and countenance are emaciated :
the ftrength and fpirits decline; the heétic fever is more
and more diftinély marked, and exerts its ufual underminin
influence on the conftitution. Cough frequently attends
this complaint in its latter {tages, and the fymptoms become
blended with thofe of true pulmonary confumption. The
difeafe of the mefenteric glands is often, indeed, found, on dif-
fection, to have extended to other vifcera, and more efpecially.
to the lungs : and tubercles, and even purulent matter, are not
unfrequently found in them, although the fymptoms during
life did not particularly indicate any affeétion of thefe organs.
The mefenteric glands themfelves exhibit different appear-
ances, according to the progrefs which the difeafe has made:
in the early ftages they are enlarged in their fize, and are
fomewhat boftes to the touch than in a natural ftate: but
upon being cut into, do not exhibit any fenfible deviation
from their natural ftructure. If the patient; however, has
not already funk from the exhauition of the conftitutional
affeétion, the difeafe proceeds to fuppuration, the pus being
intermixed with the white, foft, and curdy matter which is
fo peculiar to ferofula.

Mefenteric confumption is a difeafe of frequent occur-
rence, and when it has proceeded a certain length, is almoft
invariably fatal. Yet we find, in fome rare inftances, that the
powers of the conftitution are fometimes called forth in an
extraordinary manner under the moft unpromifing circums
{tances, and the difeafe recovered from. In the ear y periods
of life, indeed, we fee nature abounding in refources, which a
more mature age cannot fupply: and there is, to ufe the
language of the late Dr. Gregory, “a greater luxuriancy.
of life and health in infancy than at any other period. In-
fants, it is acknowledged, are more delicately fenfible to
injury than thofe advanced in life ; but to compenfate this,
their fibres and veflels are more capable of diftention, their
whole fyftem is more flexible, their fluids are lefs acrid, and
lefs difpofed to putrefcence ; they bear all evacuations more

eafily,

yA “6B

eafily, except that of blood ; and, which is an important
circumftance in their favour, they never fuffer from the
terrors of a diftracted imagination. Their {pirits are lively
and equal; they quickly forget their pait fufferings, and
never anticipate the future. In confequence of thefe ad-
vantages, children recover from difeafes, under fuch unfa-
vourable circumftances as are never furvived by adults. If
they waite more quickly under ficknefs, their recovery from
it is quick in proportion, and generally more complete than
in older people ; as difeafes feldom leave thofe baneful effects
on their coniftitutions fo frequent in adults. In fhort, a phy-
fician ought fearce ever to defpair of a child’s life, while
it continues to breathe.”

The plan of treatment to be purfued in this difeafe, muft
be founded very much on the fame principles as that of
ferofula in general, modified, however, in fome degree, by
its peculiar feat, and by the functions of the parts affected.
It is chiefly in the earlier flages that we can expect much
efficacy from an alterative courfe of remedies in the re-
moval of the glandular obftruétions. As there is often much
ambiguity between the fymptoms of this difeafe and thofe
occafioned by the prefence of the round worm in the intef-
tines, we fhould firft fatisfy ourfelves that this is not the fole
caufe of the diforder. In both difeafes there is a tumid
belly, and emaciated extremities ; fo that the chief ground
of diftinétion is derived from the effect of ftrong purgatives,
which bring away worms in the one cafe, and none in the
other. It is. obferved by Dr. Baillie, that ftartings and
grinding of the teeth during fleep, occur very commonly
in worms, but are rarely obferved as fymptoms of {crofulous
enlargement of the mefenteric glands. Some difcrimination,
likewife, between the two difeates, may fometimes be derived
from examining ftri€tly into the nature of the conftitution.
If decided marks of fcrofula fhew themfelves in an external
part of the body, they will lead a practitioner more fatisfac-
torily to the opinion, that the mefenteric glands are alfo
affected with the fame difeafe.

The principal alterative remedy on which any dependence
can be placed is mercury, particularly in the form of calo-
mel ; half a grain, or a grain of which, may be given two or
three times a week, in conjunétion with, or fucceeded by,
fome mild purgative. On the intermediate days, {mall dofes
of alkalies, with rhubarb, may be exhibited. Great atten-
tion fhould, at all times, be paid to the ftate of the bowels,
which fhould be kept freely open: while the acrimony of
their contents fhould be counteracted by abforbents, fuch as
magnefia, when there is no diarrhcea, or by prepared chalk,
or gentle aftringents, in {mall dofes, when this latter ftate
prevails. For the removal of fever, the fame means are to
be employed as have already been pointed out when treat-
ing of the infantile remitting fever, under the head of Di/-
eafes of InrANTS. The calomel, combined with purgatives,
may be continued, for feveral weeks, till a favourable change
has been effected in the fize and hardnefs of the belly. The
milder vegetable tonics, fuch as chamomile, or cafcarilla,
may then be tried, and according as the conftitution will
bear them, preparations of iron fhould be given, in order to
ftrengthen the digeftive organs, and the fyftem in general.
Together with thefe means, every circumftance which can
contribute to general health fhould be attended to. Pure air,
regular es gentle fri€tions of the body and limbs, an
eafy drefs, frequent wafhing of the whole body with foap
and warm water in young children, or the cold bath in older
children, and efpecially a light and nutritious diet, with fuch
mild aromatics as may affift digeftion, are fome’ of the prin-
cipal and moft effe€tual means of fecuring the ground that
has been gained, and of preventing a return, as well as

TAB

guarding againft an attack, of the difeafe. For greater de-
tails on thefe points, fee Difeafes of INranvs, and Scro-
FULA.

TABEYRO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Ga-
licia; 5 miles S.E. of St. Jago.

TABIANA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Per-
fian gulf, near and weit of the ifle of Sophthe, and over-
again{t the promontory of Taoee.

TABIANA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Parma ;
13 miles W. of Parma.

TABIDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town in the in-
terior of Africa, towards the fource of the river Bagrada.

TABILLOLA, in Geography, a town on the fouth
coaft of the ifland of Machian. N. lat. 0° 13’. E. long.
Layo ins : i

TABINSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Upha, on the Bielaia; 40 miles S. of Upha. N. lat. 54°.
E. long. 56° 14!.

TABLADA, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Carthagena; 80 miles S. of Mompox.

TABLANATZ, a town of Iitria; 24 miles N.E. of
Pedena. t ‘

TABLAS, one of the Philippine iflands, about 25 miles
long from north to fouth, but narrow and interfeGted by a
deep bay on the eaft and weft coafts. N. lat. 12° 30! E.
long. 121° 4o!.

TABLATURE, in Anatomy, a divifion or parting of
the fkull into two tables.

TasratureE, Zablatura, in Mufic, in general, is when
to exprefs the founds or notes of a compofition, we ufe let-
ters of the alphabet, or cyphers, or any other charaéters not
ufed in the. modern mufic.

TABLATURE, in its ftriéter fenfe, is the manner of writing
a piece for the lute, theorbo, guitarre, bafs viol, or the
like ; which is done by writing on feveral parallel lines (each
of which reprefents a itring of the inftrument) certain letters
of the alphabet, referring to the frets on the neck of the in-
ftrument : of which A marks, that the ftring is to be ftruck
open, 7. ¢. without putting the finger of the left hand on the
head ; B fhews, that one of the fingers is to be put on the
firft ftop; C, on the fecond; D, on the third, &c.

The time of the notes is fignified by marks over the letters
of a hooked form, that anfwer to the minim, cretchet,
quaver, &c. in the French tablature; but the Italians and
Spaniards, till of late years, made ufe of figures inftead of
letters.

The tablature of the lute is ufually written in letters of
the alphabet, and that of the harpfichord in the common
notes.

TABLE, Tasuta, a moveable, ufually made of wood,
or {tone fupported on pillars, or the like; for the com-
modious reception of things placed upon it.

Mofes made a table, in the tabernacle, for laying the
fhew-bread upon, defcribed by Philo Judzus as two cubits
long, one broad, and one and a half high.

Among Chriftians, the table, or Lord’s table, fignifies the
facrament of the Lord’s fupper. See Communion.

Tasie, Round, Knights of the Round Table, a military
order fuppofed to have been inftituted by Arthur, the firft
king of the Britons, in the year 516.

They are faid to have been twenty-four in number; all
feleéted from among the braveft of the nation.

The round table, which gave them their title, was an
invention of that prince, to avoid difputes about the upper
and lower end, and to take away all emulation as to places.

Lefley affures us, he faw the table at Wincheiter; at

leaft, he fays, if he might believe the keepers of it, —
ew

TAB
fhew it with great folemnity. He adds, that the names of

a great number of knights, written around it, feemed to
configm the truth of the tradition.

Larrey alfo, and feveral other authors, make no fcruple
to relate this fable of knighthood as matter of hiftory: but
that it is a fable, is certain; F. Papebroch having fhewn,
that there was no fuch thing as an order of knights before
the fixth century.

Camden alfo obferves, that the table at Winchefter is of a
ftru€ture much more modern than the fixth century. It is
to be added, that Arthur himfelf is efteemed by many no
more than a fabulous prince.

An excellent hiftorian obferves, that Arthur was ur-
doubtedly a great general, though his actions have given oc-
cafion to innumerable fables ; and though the inftitution of
the “ Knights of the Round Table” has ferved as a found-
ation for many fabulous relations, it is not to be deemed al-
together chimerical. For where is the improbability that
Arthur fhould inftitute an order of knighthood in Britain,
when we learn from the letters of Caffiodorus, that Theo-
doric, king of the Oftrogoths, inftituted one in Italy in the
Same century. Rapin’s Hift. of Eng. vol. i. p. 36. fol.

However, others have fuppofed that the round table was
not any military order, but rather a kind of juft, or military
gach, between two perfons armed with lances. Several
authors fay that Arthur, duke of Bretagne, renewed it.
See Matthew Paris, the abbot Juftiniani, and F. Helyot.

Paulus Jovius fays, it was under the empire of Frederic
Barbaroffa that the knights of the Round Table firft began
to be talked of; others attribute their origin to the factions
of the Guelphs and Gibellins. King Edward I. built a
houfe called the Round Table, the court of which was two
hundred feet in diameter. Du-Cange Gloff. Tabula.

Taste, in Archite@ure, a {mooth, fimple member, or or-
nament, of various forms, but moft ufvally in that of a long
{quare. See PLaTBANp.

Tase, Proj-ding, is fuch a one as ftands out from the
naked of the wall, pedeftal, or other matter which it adorns.

Tasie, Rakd. See Raxtyc-Table.

Tasie, Razed, an emboflment in a frontifpiece, for the
putting an infcription, or other ornament, in fculpture.
This 1s what M, Perrault underftands by abacus in Vi-
truvius.

TABLE, Crowned, that covered with a corniche, and in
which is cut a baffo-relievo, or a piece of black marble in-
cruftated, for an infcription.

Tair, Rujlicated, that whichis picked, and whofe fur-
face feems rough, as in grottos, &c. See Rustics.

Taste, Water. See Warer-Table.

Tasie, Plain, a furveying inftrument.
Table.

Tasxx, in Perfpedive, denotes a plain furface, fuppofed
to be tranfparent, and perpendicular to the horizon.

It is always imagined to be placed at a certain diftance
between the eye and objects, for the objeéts to be repre-
fented thereon by means of vifual rays pafling from every
point thereof, through the table to the eye.

Whence it is alfo called per/pefive plane.
SPRCTIVE.

TAsxe, in Anatomy. The cranium is faid to be com-
pofed of two tables, or laming ; i. ¢. it is double, as if it
confifted of two bones laid one over another. See SkuLL.

Taste of Pythagoras, called alfo multiplication-table, is a
fquare formed of an hundred or more leffer {quares, or cells,
containing the products of the feveral digits, or fimple num-
bers, multiplied by cach other. See this table under Mut-
PIPLICATION. 4

See PLaiIn

See Per-

TAB

Tasies, Laws ff the Twelve, were the firft fet of laws
of the Romans; thus called, either becaufe the Romans
then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tables, covered with
wax ; or, rather, becaufe they were engraved on tables, or
plates of copper, to be expofed in the moft noted part of the
public forum. Wood, brafs, or ivory, might be fuccef-
fively employed.

After the expulfion of the Kings as the Romans were
then without any fixed or certain fyftem of law ; at leait,
had none ample enough to take ‘in the various cafes that
might fall between particular perfons; it was refolved to
adopt the beft and wifeft laws of the Greeks. ;

One Hermodorus, to whom a ftatue was ereéted in the
forum, was firft appointed to tranflate them; and the de-
cemviri afterwards. compiled and reduced them into ten
tables. After immenfe care and application, they were, at
length, enaéted and confirmed by the fenate, and an affembly
of the people, in the year of Rome 303. ;

The following year they found fome things wanting
therein, which they fupplied from the laws of the former

‘kings of Rome, and from certain cuftoms, which long ufe

had authorized: all thefe, being emgraven on two other
tables, made the /acw of the tzwelve tables, fo famous in the:
Roman jurifprudence ; the fource and foundation of civil or
Roman law. See Crvin Law.

The laws of the twelve tables were alfo called decemviral
laws, from the officers entrufted with the compofing them,
See DeceMVIRI.

Thefe laws of the decemviri were diated by the rigid
and jealous fpirit of an ariftocracy, which had yielded with
reluétance to the juft demands of the people. But the fub-
{tance of the twelve tables was adapted to the ftate of the
city ; and the Romans muft have emerged from barbarifm,
fince they were capable of ftudying and embracing the intti-
tutions of their more enlightened neighbours. Mr. Gibbon
fuggefts, that a motive of national pride induced Livy and
Dionyfius to believe, that deputies from Rome vifited
Athens under the wife and fplendid adminiftration of Pe-
ricles, and that the laws of Solon were transfufed into the
twelve tables. If fuch an embafly, fays the hiftorian of the
Roman empire, had indeed been received from the bar-=
barians of Hefperia, the Roman name would have been
familiar to the Grecks before the reign of Alexander, and
the fainteft evidence would have been explored and cele-
brated by the curiofity of fucceeding times. But the
Athenian monuments are filent; nor will it feem credible
that the patricians fhould undertake a long and perilous navi-
gation, to ne the pureft model of a democracy. In the
comparifon of the tables of Solon with thofe of the decem-
virs, fome copied refemblance may be found; fome rules
which nature and reafon have revealed to every fociety ; fome
proofs of a common defcent from Egypt or Pheenicia.
But in all the great lines of public and private jurifprudence,
the legiflators of Rome and Athens appear to be ftrangers
or adverfe to each other.

Whatever, as the fame hiftorian proceeds, might be the”
origin or the merit of the twelve tables, they obtained
among the Romans that blind and partial reverence which
the lawyers of every country delight to beftow on their:
municipal inftitutions. ‘The ftudy is recommended by Cicero.
as equally pleafant and inftructive. ‘ How admirable,”? ,
fays the Roman orator, with honeft or affected prejudice,
** is the wifdom of our anceftors! We alone are the matters.
of civil prudence ; and our fuperiority is the more confpi-
cuous, if we deign to caft our eyes on the rude and al-
moft ridiculous jurifprudence of Dracon, of Solon, and of
Lycurgus,”’

The

€ AB

The twelve tables were committed to the memory of the
young, and the meditation of the old; they were tranfcribed
and illuftrated with learned diligence ; they had efcaped the
flames of the Gauls, they fubfifted in the age of Juftinian,
and their fubfequent lofs has been imperfeétly reftored by
the labours of modermi critics.

It is a great pity this fyftem of law fhould have perifhed
through the injuries of time: we have now nothing of it,
but a few fragments difperfed in divers authors. J. Go-
throfed has collected them together, and we have them in
Rofinus, and fome other authors. The Latin is very old
and barbarous, and remarkably obfcure. See Civit Law.

Although thefe venerable monuments of antiquity were
confidered as the rule of right and the fountain of juftice,
they were overwhelmed by the weight and variety of new
laws, which, at the end of five centuries, became a grievance

_ more intolerable than the vices of the city.

The laws of the twelve tables have been juftly charged
with inexcufable feverity. They are written, fays Mr.
Gibbon, like the ftatutes of Draco, in charaéters of blood.
They approve the inhuman and unequal principle of retalia-
tion; and the forfeit of an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth, a limb for a limb, is rigoroufly exatted, unlefs the
offender can redeem his freedom by a fine of 300 lbs. of
copper. Befides the flighter chaftifements of flageHation
and fervitude very liberally diftributed by the decemvirs,
nine crimes of a very different complexion are adjudged
worthy of death: viz. 1. Any ad of treafon againft the
ftate, or of correfpondence with the public enemy ; 2. Noc-
turnal meetings in the city, under any pretence of pleafure,
or religion, or the public good ; 3. The murder of a citizen ;
4. The malice of an incendiary; 5. Judicial perjury; 6. The
corruption of a judge, who accepted bribes to pronounce an
iniquitous fentence ; 7. Libels or fatires; 8. The nocturnal
mifchief of damaging or deftroying a neighbour’s corn ;
9. Magical incantations. The cruelty of the twelve tables
againft infolvent debtors merits peculiar notice. After the
judicial proof or confeffion of the debt, 30 days of grace
were allowed before a Roman was delivered into the power
of his fellow-citizen. In this private prifon, 12 ounces of
rice were his daily food: he might be bound with a chain
of 15 pounds’ weight ; and his mifery was thrice expofed in
the market-place, to folicit the compaffion of his friends and
countrymen. At the expiration of 60 days, the debt was
difcharged by the lofs of liberty or life: the infolvent debtor
was either put to death, or fold in foreign flavery beyond
the Tyber ; but if feveral creditors were alike obftinate and
unrelenting, they might legally difmember his body, and
fatiate their revenge by this horrid partition.

When the manners of Rome were infenfibly polifhed, the
criminal code of the dec®mvirs was abolifhed by the hnu-
manity of accufers, witneffes, and judges; and impunity
became the confequence of immoderate rigour. ‘The Por-
cian and Valerian laws prohibited the magiftrates from in-
fliGing on a free citizen any capital, or even corporal
punifhment ; and the obfoiete itatutes of blood were artfully,
and perhaps truly, afcribed to the fpirit, not of patrician,
but of civil, tyranny. Gibbon’s Decl. and Fall, &c.
vol. viil.

TAasLes of. the Law, in Scripture Hiftory. See Deca-

"LOGUE.

Taxes, New, Tabule Nove, an edi& occafionally pub-
hifhed in the Roman commonwealth, for the abolifhing all
kinds of debts, and annulling all obligations. ;

It was thus called, in regard that all antecedent acts
being deftroyed, there were nothing but new ones to take

Ce

TAB

Tasxe, among Jewellers. A table diamond, or other pre-
cious ftone, is that whofe upper furface is quite flat, and
only the fides cut in angles: in which fenfe, a diamond cut
table-wife, 1s ufed in oppofition to a rofe-diamond. See
Diamonp.

Tasrz, in the Glafs-Manufadure, denotes a circular theet
of finifhed window-glafs. Thefe tables are generally four.
feet in diameter, and each of them weighs 10, 104, or 5)
pounds. Twelve of thefe is called a fide or a crate of glafs.
Some tables of glafs have been four, and even five feet in
diameter. Such have been made by Mefirs. Attwood and
Smith, formerly Hammond and Smith, of Gatefhead, in
the county of Durham; and thefe tables are the more valua-
ble, as they yield larger fquares than ever were made, except
in plate-glafs, and the quality alfo is of the beft kind. The
centre of the table of glafs, where the punting iron was at-
tached, is of courfe fomewhat thicker, and is denominated
by the workmen “ bull’s eye :”” neverthelefs, the reft of the
plate is of an uniform thicknefs.

TABLE is alfo ufed for an index, or repertory, put at the
beginning or end of a book, to direét the reader to any pal-
fage he may have occafion for.

Thus we may fay, table of matters ; table of authors quoted ;
table of chapters, &c. Tables, of themfelves, fometimes
make large volumes, as that of Dravitz on the civil and
canon laws.

Tapes of the Bible, are called Concordances.
CORDANCE.

Taswe-Rents. See Borp-LAnps.

Tases of Houfes, among Aftrologers, are certain tables,
readily drawn up, for the affiftance of praétitioners in that
art, for the ere¢ting or drawing of figures or {chemes. Ste
House.

Tasves, in Mathematics, are fyftems of numbers, ealcu-
lated to be ready at hand for expediting aftronomical, geome-
trical, and other operations. See Canon.

Tasies, Affronomical, are computations of the motions,
places, and other phenomena of the planets, both primary
and fecondary. See each planet.

The oldeft aftronomical tables are the Ptolemaic, found in
Ptolemy’s Almageft ; but thefe now no longer agree with
the heavens.

In 1252, Alphonfo XI. king of Caftile, undertook the
correction of them, chiefly by the affiftance of Ifaac Ha-
zen, a Jew; and {pent four hundred thoufand crowns there-
in. Thus arofe the a lg tables, to which that prince
himfelf prefixed a preface. But the deficiency of thefe,
alfo, was foon perceived by Purbachius and Regiomon-
tanus ; upon which Regiomontanus, and after him Walthe-
rus and Warnerus, applied themfelves to celeftial obferva-
tions, for the farther amending of them; but death pre-
vented any progrefs therein.

Copernicus, in his books of the celeftial revolutions, in-
ftead of the Alphonfine tables, gives others of his own cal-
culation, from the latter, and partly from his own ob-
fervations.

From Copernicus’s obfervations and theories, Fraf. Rein-
holdus afterwards compiled the Prutenic tables, which have
been printed feveral times, and in feveral places.

Tycho de Brahe, even in his youth, became fenfible of
the deficiency of the Prutenic tables ; which was what deter-
mined him to apply himfelf, with fo much vigour, to celef-
tial obfervations : yet all he did, by them, was to adjuft the
motions of the fun and moon; though Longomontanus,
from the fame, to the theories of the feveral planets pub-
lifhed in his * Aftronomia Danica,’? added tables of their
motions, now called the Dani/h tables; and Kepler hikers

rom

See Con-

TAB
from the fame, in 1627, publithed the Rudolphine tables,

which are much efteemed.

Thefe were afterwards, anno 1650, turned into another
form, by Maria Cunitia, whofe aftronomical tables, com-
prehending the effect of Kepler’s phyfical hypothefis, are
exceedingly eafy, and fatisfy all the phenomena, without
any Leable of calculation, or any mention of logarithms ;
fo that the Rudolphine calculus is here greatly improved.

Mercator made a like attempt in his Aftronomical Inftitu-
tion, publifhed in 1676, and the like did J. Bap. Morini,
whofe abridgement of the Rudolphine tables was prefixed
to a Latin verfion of Street’s “ Aitronomia Carolina,” pub-
lithed in 1705.

Lanfbergius, indeed, endeavoured to difcredit the Ru-
dolphine tables, and framed Perpetual tables, as he calls
them, of the heayenly motions; but his attempt was never
much regarded by the aftronomers; and our countryman
Horrox warmly attacked him, in his defence of the Kep-
lerian aftronomy. ~

“Since the Rudolphine tables, many others have been
publifhed ; as the Philolaic tables of Bullialdus; the Bri-
tannic tables of Vincent Wing, calculated on Bullialdus’s
hypothefis; the Britannic tables of Newton ; the French
ones of the count de Pagan; the Caroline tables of Street,
all calculated on Dr. Ward’s hypothefis, and the Novalma-
if tables of Ricciolus. Among thefe, however, the

hilolaic and Caroline tables are efteemed the beft; info-
much that Mr. Whifton, by the advice of Mr. Flamfteed
(a perfon of undoubted authority in fuch cafes) thought fit
to Ebon the Caroline tables to his aftronomical leétures.

The Ludovician tables, publifhed in 1702, by M. de la
Hire, are conftruéted wholly from his own obfervations, and
without the affiftance of any hypothefis; which, before the
invention of the micrometer, telefcope, and the pendulum
clock, was held impoffible.

Another fet of tables, Dr. Halley, the aftronomer royal,
long laboured to perfeét.

M. le Monnier, in 1746, publifhed in his * Inftitutions
Aftronomiques”’ tables of the motions of the fun, moon, and
fatellites, of refraétions, and of the places of the fixed ftars.
M. de la Hire has alfo publifhed tables of the planets, and
M. de la Caille tables of the fun. Mayer conftructed tables
of the moon; and we have many aftronomical tables of va-
rious kinds, and computed with different views, in our mo-
dern books of aftronomy, navigation, &c. For an account
of feveral, and efpecially of thle publifhed annually under
the dire€tion of the commiffioners of longitude, fee ALmaA-
wac, Eruemertpes, and Lonoirupe.

For Tastes relating to annuities, &c. fee ANNUITIES,
Expectation of Life, Lire-Annuities, Morratity, and
SURVIVORSHIP.

Tasies, Sexagenary. See SEXAGENARY.

For Tanues of the Stars, fee CATALOGUE and STAR.

Tasies of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, of every degree
and minute of a quadrant, ufed in trigonometrical opera-
Fi are ufually called Canons ; which fee. See alfo

INE.

Tasies of Logarithms, Rhumbs, ufed in geometry, navi-
gation, &c. See LocarituM and Ruume.

Tastes, Loxodromic, are tables in which the difference of
longitude, and quantity of the way in any rhumb, are exhi-
bited to every ten minutes of every degree of the quadrant
variation of the latitude. Sce Ruums.

Tanve of Heights, in Englith feet, from the level of the fea.

The Cafpian fea, lower by =e a eee)
The Thames at Hampton, Roy - -— - 14y
The Tiber at Rome - - - - - 33

TAB

The Seine at Paris, mean height = 364

The Thames, at Buckingham-ftairs, 15} feet below
the pavement in the left-hand arcade = - 43

By barometrical comparifon with the Seine and the
Mediterranean ; but this height is probably too great.
Roy fuppofes the low water of the fpring tides at
Ifleworth to be only one foot above the mean furface of
the ocean. He allows feven feet for the difference of
the low water at the Nore and at Ifleworth, and taking
18 feet for the height of the {pring tide, adds one-third
of this for the mean height of the fea. At Hampton,
the Thames is 135, feet above low water-mark at Ifle-
worth. :

The pagoda in Kew gardens, from the ground 116}
The weit end of the Tarpeian rock = - 151
The Palatine hill - = = ES : = 166
The Claudian aquedu@, bottom of the canal -. 208
The Janiculum - = - a 2 x 293
The crofs at St. Paul’s, from the ground - - 340
St. Peter’s, fummit of the crofs E z = 535
From the ground 471
Arthur’s feat, from Leith pier-head - = 803
Lake of Geneva - - - - - - 1230
Its greateft depth 393
Mount Vefuvius, bafe of the cone - Ee - 2021
Skiddaw - - - - - - - 3270
Chamouny, ground floor of theinn - - - 3367
Mount Vefuvius, mouth of the crater - - 3938

For the heights of other mountains, &c.; fee Moun-
TAIN.

It may be obferved, with refpe& to general Roy’s calcu-
lation of the mean height of the fea, that it does not appear
that in rivers, or even in narrow feas, we ought to add one-
third of the height of the tides only to that of low water,
in order to find the level; for it is probable that even the
original tides may often refemble thofe of lakes, where,
for want of breadths, the effects of a {pheroidical tide cannot
aa place, and the elevation and depreffion are very nearly
equal.

Tasxr, in Heraldry. Coats, or efcutcheons, containin
nothing but the mere colour of the field, and not char,
with any bearing, figure, or moveable, are called tables
d’attente, tables of expeéation, or tabule rafe.

Taste Bay, in Geography, a bay fituated on the weft
coalt of the fouthern extremity of Africa, near which are
the fort and town of the Cape of Good Hope. This bay
is formed by three lofty mountains. Cape Town, the capi-
tal of the colony, lies on the S.E. angle of the bay. The
primary object to which Table bay is feb iengene is the con-
venience of a plentiful ftream of pure limpid water, rufh-
ing out of the mountain, and this circumftance determined
the firft fettlers in their choice of the {cite for the town. If
this had not been the cafe, the firft fettlers would unquef-
tionably have given the preference to Saldanha bay, the
only defeét of which is the want of frefh water near it ;
whereas Table bay is faulty in every point that conftitutes
a proper place for the refort of fhipping, and fo boifterous
for four months in the year, as totally to exclude all fhips
from entering igto it. ‘The anchoring ground in this bay is
tolerably good; but the shifting of the fand leaves bare
fometimes whole ridges of the fame kind of hard blue fehif-
tus that appears pag where on the weit fhore of the bay.
Thefe rid es are fo arp, that a cable that comes acrofs
them wil be cut in pieces. Hence it has happened, that
the bay is full of anchors, which have never been fifhed up,
and thefe contribute, as well as the rocks, to cut and chafe

the

TA 'B

the cables of fhips. If fome pains be not taken to remove
the anchors, the number of which is annually increafing,
a clear anchorage for a fingle large fhip will not be found.
It has been propofed to fink mooring-chains for large fhips,
inftead of their lying at anchor. During the S.E. winds,
which blow from SBieenber to the end of April, and
which is the feafon when all fhips bound for the Cape re-
fort to Table bay, the only danger is that of their being
driven out to fea from the wear and tear of the cables.
However, as the fea is not high, it is hardly poffible for a
fhip to go on fhore, unlefs it be on the S. point of Robben
ifland, which being diftant feven or eight miles, may be
always avoided. Within this ifland and the contment
there is excellent anchorage, where fhips fo driven out
ufually bring up. Here alfo fhips intending to come into
Table bay generally wait the abatement of a S.E. wind, if
it fhall happen to blow too ftrong for their working up
again{t it. This ifland is too fmall and too far to afford the
leaft fhelter to Table bay from the N.W. winds that blow in
the winter months. Naval officers feem to be divided in
opinion as to the preference of Table bay or Simon’s bay,
(fee Stmon’s Bay,) which lies on the eaftern fide of the
peninfula, in the great bay of Falfe, and which is the ufual
refort of fhipping for five months in the year. Both are
defective, but the latter appears to be more fecure, from
the circumftance of few, if any, fhips having been ever
known to drive on fhore from their anchors, whilft fearcely
a feafon pafles without the lofs of fome in Table bay. In
the winter months, when the wind blows from N. to N.W.,
40 or 50 fhips may lie at anchor perfe@tly fecure in Simon’s
bay, and eight or ten may be fufficiently fheltered in the
ftrongeft fouth-eaftern. From a furvey of the Great Falfe
bay in 1797, the exact fituation was afcertained of a very
dangerous rock, placed direétly in the paflage of fhips into
Simon’s bay. The months in which fhips ufually refort
to this bay, are from May to September inclufive. The dif-
tance from Cape Town, being 24 miles, and the badnefs
of the road, moftly deep fand and fplafhes of water, render
the communication at all times difficult, but more efpecially
in winter ; and few fupplies are to be had at Simon’s town,
a name given to a collection of about a dozen houfes. We
have a chart of this bay in the fecond volume of Barrow’s
Africa. S. lat. 53° so’. E. long. 18° 15'.—Alfo, a bay
on the E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 53° 44'. W. long.
Zon 7

Taste Jfland, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Spitz-
bergen. N. lat. 80° 57’. E. long. 20° 30!.—Alfo, one
of the New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat.
15° 38’. E. long. 167° 7!.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, near th@ifland of Paraguay. N. lat.

Pas'. E. long. 118° 2!—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the
aft Indian fea. N. lat. 14° 8!. E. long. 93° 32!.

TasLe Mountain, a mountain of Ireland, in the county
of Wicklow; 15 miles W. of Wicklow.—Alfo, a moun-
tain of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, fo called
from its flat fummit. In fine weather this mountain is vifible
at fea at the diftance of 28 or 30 miles. Table mountain
fupplies Table bay and Hout bay with ftreams of water.

TasLe Mountains, mountains of North Carolina. N.
lat. 36°. W. long. 81° 4o!.

Tasie Point, a cape on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Bali. S. lat. 8° 45!. E. long. 115° r1!.

TaBLe River, a river of Louifiana, which runs into the
Miffifippi, N. lat. 37° 12!. W. long. go° 11'.

Tasre-Wheel, in Rope-Making. To lay ropes, &c. from
a fix-thread line to a two-inch and half rope, a table-wheel is
fixed in the wheel-houfe, at the upper end of the rope-walk,

Vou. XKXV.

TA AB

in a frame fixed in the ground, with two fliding cheeks. The
bands which work the whirls, go feparately over each whirl,
and round the turning-wheel. Some have fix fets of whirls
of different fizes, with iron {pindles, and nibbed or fore-
lock hooks at the outer end. A tackle-board, twelve inches
broad, and three inches thick, with fix holes for the hooks
to go through, is fixed above the cheeks upon cleats.

TABLEAU, Fr. This word is ufed frequently in
mufic, fays Roufleau, to exprefs the whole defign of a
compofition in the fcore : as “this {core is quite a piéture ;”’
** this opera is full of admirable paintings and imitations of
nature.”’

TABLET, in Pharmacy. See TABELia.

TABLIER, Lg, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Vendée; 6 miles S.S.E. of La
Roche fur Yon.

TABLING of Fines, is the making a table for every
county, where his majefty’s writs run ; containing the con-
tents of every fine pafled each term. .

It is to be done by the chirographer of fines of the com-
mon pleas; who, every day of the next term, after engroff-
ing any fuch fine, fixes one of the faid tables in fome open
place of the faid court, during its fitting ; and likewife de-
livers to the fheriff of each county a content of the faid
tables made for that refpeétive county, the term before the
aflizes, to be affixed in fome place in the open court, while
the juftices fit.

TABLING, in Ship-Building, letting one piece of timber
into another by alternate {cores or projections from the
middle, fo that it cannot be drawn afunder either lengthwife
or fidewife ; fuch are beams, &c.

Tasiine, in Sail-Making, a broad hem made on the
{kirts of fails, by turning the edge of the canvas over and
fewing it down. It is to ftrengthen the fail for fewing on
the bolt-rope.

TABO Dacrov, or Little Dieppe, in Geography, a town
of. Africa, on the Grain Coatt.

Taso Dune, a fea-port of Africa, on the Ivory Coaft ;
90 miles from Cape Palmas.

TABOA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira,
on the Mondego; 9 miles S. of Vifeu.

TABOCANA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Quoja. N. lat. 5° 55/.

TABOCURU, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
Atlantic, near the ifland of Maranhao. §. lat. 2°40! W.
long. 45° 30!.

TABOGA. See Tapaco.

TABOLATO, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Culiacan ; 30 miles W. of Culiacan.

TABON, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iflands to a bird called in other
places daie, and remarkable for the largenefs of its eggs ;
though fome accounts of thefe are certainly fabulous.

TABONES, in Geography, one of the {mall Philippine
iflands, near Mafbate. N. lat. 12° 12/!. E. long. 123° 5!.

TABOO, a town of Africa, and capital of a country,
fituated to the E. of Sahara. N. lat. 24°. E. long. 12° ro’.

Tasoo, aterm ufed in the Sandwich iflands to denote a
kind of religious interdi&tion, of very powerful and extenfive
operation. With places and perfons that were tabooed, all
intercourfe was prohibited. The word was alfo ufed to ex-
prefs any thing facred, or eminent, or devoted. Cook’s
Third Voyage, vol. iti. p. 164.

TABOR, or Hradiftie Hory Tabor, i. e. the camp of
Mount Tabor, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Bechin, founded by the Huflites, fituated on a
mountain, near the river Meanie is naturally ftrong, and

T

TAB

it is fortified in the ancient manner, with a ditch, walls, and
bulwarks. It had been the camp of John Zifka in the year
1420, and was raifed to a royal borough by the emperor
Sigifmund. It was taken by ftratagem by Rodolph If. in
1611, and alfo in 1621, 1648, and 1744; 10 miles N.E.
of Bechin. N. lat. 49° 27!. E.long. 14° 28/.

Tanor, Mount, a mountain of Paleftine, frequently men-
tioned in the Old Teftament. (See Jofh. xiv. 22. Judg.
iv. 6.32. Pf. Ixxxix. 12. Jer. xlvi. 18. Hof. v. 1.)
It ftands about the middle of Lower Galilee, between
Nazareth and the country of Gennefareth. According to
Jofephus, it is 30 furlongs in height, and 26 in compafs.
It is an infulated mountain, fituated on a plain (that of Ef-
draelon), and having a level area at the fummit, very fer-
tile and pleafant. According to Maundrell, this area is
of an oval figure, extending in breadth about a furlong, and
two furlongs in length. Jofephus fays, that he caufed it
to be furrounded by walls, within the {pace of 40 days,
that he might thus, without doubt, render it more inaccef-
fible to the Romans.

An ancient tradition informs us, that Jefus was tranf-
figured upon mount Tabor (fee Matt. xvii. 2. Mark, ix. 2.
Luke, ix. 28.), and that this is the place which is called
by St. Peter the “holy mount.”? (2 Pet. i. 18.) Some
learned authors, however, are of opinion, that the tranf-
figuration happened upon a mountain near Cefarea Philippi,
i. ¢. upon mount Panium, which is very high, according to
Jofephus. We find the city called Tabor, mentioned
1 Chron. vi. 77; but it isnot well known, how it was fituated
with relation to the mount.

Tasor, Tabour, Tabret, or Tabourin, a {mall drum;
which fee.) It is an accompaniment to a fmall pipe or
fe ; inftruments very animating in a country dance.

TABORITES, or Tuasorires, in Ecclefiaflical Hif-
ory, a branch or feé& of the ancient Huflites.

re Huflites, towards the beginning of the 15th cen-
tury, dividing into feveral parties, and about the year 1420,
into two great faétions; one of them retired to a little
mountain or rock, fituate in Bohemia, 15 leagues from
Prague, and there put themfelves under the condu& of
Zifka; building themfelves a fort or caftle, and a regular
city, which they called Tubor or Thabor, either from the

neral word thabor, which in the Sclavonic language figni-
es caftle; or from the mountain Tabor, mentioned in Scrip-
ture; and hence they became denominated Thaborites.
Thofe of the other party were denominated Calixtins.

The Taborites not only infifted upon reducing the reli-

ion of Jefus to its primitive fimplicity, but required alfo
that the fyftem of ecclefiaftical government fhould be re-
formed in the fame manner, the authority of the pope de-
ftroyed, and the form of divine worfhip changed: they
demanded the ereétion of a new church and hierarchy, in
which Chrift alone fhould reign, and all things fhould be
earried on by a divine direction and impulfe. In maintain-
ing thefe demands, fome of their leaders went fo far as to
flatter themfelves with the chimerical notion, that Chrift
would defcend in perfon upon earth, armed with fire and
{word, to extirpate herefy, and purify the church from its
numerous corruptions. This enthufiaftic clafs of Huflites
alone, Mofheim fays, we are to look upon as accountable
for all thofe aéts of violence, which are too indifcriminately
laid to the charge of the Huffites in general, and to their
two leaders, Zifka and Procopius, in particular. After the
time of the council of Bafil, in 1433, which endeavoured,
though without fuccefs, to reconcile the T'aborites with
the Roman pontiff, they began to review their religious
tenets, and their ecelefiaftical difcipline, with a defign to

9

TAD

render them more perfe&t. This review, conducted with
great prudence and impartiality, gave a rational afpe& to
the religion of this feé&t, who withdrew themfelves from the
war with Sigifmund, in which they were engaged, abandoned
the doétrines, which, upon ferious examination, they found
to be inconfiftent with the genius and fpirit of the Gofpel,
and banifhed from their communion all thofe whofe dif-
ordered brains or licentious manners might expofe them to
reproach. The Taborites, thus new-modelled, were the
fame with thofe Bohemian brethren (or Picards, i. e. Beg-
hards, as their adverfaries called them) who joined Luther
and his fucceffors at the Reformation, and of whom there
are at this day many of the defcendants and followers in
Poland and other countries. Moth. Eccl. Hift. vol. tii.

TABORNOST, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Darah; 120 miles S.E. of Morocco.

TABORO, a mountain of Naples, in Principato Citra,
on the confines of Lavora.

TABOROWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Kiev; 16 miles W.N.W. of Bialacerkiev.

TABOTUVO, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coat ;
45 miles S.W. of Druin.

TABOU, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coaft ; 36
miles $.W. of Druin.

TABOURET, Privilege of the, in France, is a privilege
fome great ladies enjoy, to fit, or have a ftool, in the queen’s
prefence.

TABRE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 15 miles E. of Volconda.

TABREEZ, or Taunis, acity of Perfia, the capital of
the province of Adirbeitzan, or Azerbijan. Sir William
Jones, and other learned perfons, are of opinion, that this
city was the ancient Ecbatana. M. D’Anville, adjudging
that honour to Hamadan, conceives Tauris to be Gaza, or
Gunzaca, where Cyrus depofited the treafures of Croefus,
and which was afterwards taken by Heraclius. Accordin
to the Perfians, Zobeida, the celebrated wife of Haroun-ul-
Rafhid, was its founder ; but on their authority we can place
little reliance. It is certain, however, that Tauris was a
favourite refidence of Haroun-ul-Rafhid ; and though he had
not the honour of founding this city, it is probable that he
improved and embellifhed it in a confiderable degree. In
the days of Chardin, it was one of the largeft and moft
populous cities in the Eaft, and, according to that traveller, -
contained half a million of inhabitants. But no town has
fuffered more from the ravages of war. Situated towards
the frontiers of contending empires, it has alternately been oc-
cupied by ‘Turks, Tartars, and Perfians, and has been cap-
tured and facked eight different times ; but its ruin has been
chiefly owing to the number of earthquakes which have, at
different times, levelled its proudett edifices with the duft.

_ Tabreez does not now contain more than 30,000 inha-
bitants, and is one of the moft wretched cities in Perfia. It
is feated on an immenfe plain at the foot of a mountain, on
the banks of a {mall river, the waters of which are: confumed
in the cultivation. This river, called Agi, proceeds from
the mountains at Buftum, and enters the plain of Tabreez
three miles N. of that city. This city is furrounded with
a decayed wall, and the only decent houfe in the place is a
new barrack, erected by the prince for the accommodation
of his troops. The ruins of the ancient city are very ex-
tenfive and very mean, being nothing but a confufed mafs of
old mud walls. Tabreez is fituated in N. lat. 38? TO, Ge
long. 46° 37'. Kinneir’s Mem. of the Perfian Empire.

ABUDA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Belgic
Gaul, in the country of the Morini, near Gefforiacum,
Navale. Prtol.

.

TABUE,

TAC

TABUE’, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the Nile ;
g miles S.W. of Menuf.
TABUIL, a town of South America, m the province
of ‘Tucuman; 20 miles E. of St. Fernando.
TABULAR Spar, in Mineralogy, Spathon tables, Haiiy ;
a fpecies of lime-ftone, generally of a greyifh-white colour,
but fometimes inclining to greenifh-yellow or reddifh-white.
It occurs maffive and cryftallized in retangular four-fided
‘tables. The luftre of the principal fra€ture is fhining and
pearly ; the ftru€ture is imperfeétly lamellar. Tabular {par
occurs in large diftinét prifmatic concretions, which are
promifcuoufly aggregated: it is tranflucent, and phofpho-
refces when {cratched with a knife: its fpecific gravity is
2.86. It isfometimes friable. When put into nitrous acid
it effervefces, and then falls into grains. It is infufible by

the blowpipe. The analyfis, as given by Klaproth, is
Silex - = = 50
Lime - + * 45
Water - - - 5

This mineral is of rare occurrence ; its locality, as given
by Stiitz, is at Dognafka, in the bannat of Temefvar, in
Hungary, where it occurs in blue-coloured primitive lime-
ftone, with garnets, aCtinolite, tremolite, and variegated
copper. It is faid by Eftner to occur at Ozavitza. In
the new fyftem of mineralogy propofed by Berzelius, this
mineral is denominated a bifiliciate of lime ; the oxygen con-
tained by the different conftituent parts being in the propor-
tion of 6.3 and 1; the filex containing twice the oxygen
of the lime, and the water the fixth part.

TABULARIUM, among the Romans, the name of
that part of the treafury where the Elephantine books were
kept.

TABULARIUS. See Tasettio.

TABULARUM Apertura. See APERTURA.

TABULATUM. See Taserta.

TABUM, a word ufed by medical writers, to exprefs a
thin, fanious, and putrid humour, flowing from old ulcers,
or from mortified parts, in cafes where the vital powers are
not fufficient for the generation of a perfeé& or concocted
matter.

TABY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Goth-
Yand ; 14 miles S.E. of Nordkioping.

TACA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xicoco; 20
miles S.W. of Tofa.

TACALALPO, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Tabafco; 23 miles S.W. of Tabafco.

TACALAYO, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Chaco; 35 miles N. af St. Salvador de Jugui.

TACALEA, a town of South America, in the province
of Carthagena, at the conflux of the Cauca and Madalena ;
85 miles S.E. of Carthagena.

TACAMAHACA, in Gardening, a tree of the orna-
mental and fweet-fmelling kind, which is often planted out
in fhrubberies, borders, and other parts of pleafure-grounds
with much propriety and advantage in its appearance, and
the grateful odour which it diffufes all around it. See
PoPuLus.

TacamManaca, or Tacamacha, a kind of refinous gum,
diftilling from the trunk of a very large tree, a fpecies of
poplar, growing in New Spain, Canada, and other parts of
America; but in the greateft abundance, as it is faid, in
the ifland of Madagafcar.

The tree is not unlike our poplar-tree, only bigger and
taller ; its leaves long and green, its fruit red, of the fize of
our walnuts, exceedingly refinous, and containing a ftone
like our peaches. See Porutus Bal/amifera.

TAC

The wood of the tree makes good timber for fhips, and
the gum it yields ferves there for their caulking, though its
chief ufe with us is in medicine.

Two forts of this refin are fometimes to be met with.
The beft, called tacamahaca in hells, from its being col-
le&ted in a kind of gourd fhells, is fomewhat un@uous and
foft, of a pale yellowifh or greenifh colour, a bitterifh aro«
matic tafte, and a fragrant delightful {mell, approaching to
that of lavender and ambergris. This fort is very rare.
That commonly found in the fhops is in tranfparent grains
or globes, of a whitifh, yellowifh, brownifh, or greenifh
colour, and of a lefs grateful {mell than the foregoing.

The firft is faid to exude from the fruit of the tree ; the
other from incifions made in the trunk. The tree, as raifed
among us, affords inits young buds, or the rudiments of the
leaves, a refinous juice of the fame kind of fragrance.

Tacamahaca is chiefly ufed as an ingredient in warm
nervine plafters ; though the fragrance and tafte of the finer
fort indicate its being applicable to other purpofes, as an
internal balfamic corroborant. Both kinds diflolve in rec-
tified {pirit into a gold-coloured liquor, with a {mall quan-
tity of remaining impurity: they alfo impregnate water
confiderably with their {mell and tafte, but give out very
little of their fubftance to this menftruum. Lewis. The
Indians are faid to ufe it for all kinds of pains. Schroder
See that he has feen intolerable pains in the leg removed

y it.

TACAMES, or Aracames, in Geography, a government
of South America, in the province of Quito, fituated W. of
the weftern Cordilleras of the Andes, bordering northward on
the department of Barbacoas, in the government of Popayan,
weitward on the South fea, and fouthward on the territory
of Guayaquil, and reaching along the coaft from the ifland
of Tumaco and the houfe of Hufmal, which lie in N. lat.
1° 30!, to the bay of Caracas, and the mountains of Balfamo,
in S. lat. 0° 34'. This jurifdi€tion was long negleéted after
the conquett of it by Sebaftian de Belalcazar, the introduc-
tion of the Chriftian religion, and its homage to the king of
Spain. At length, however, it was difcovered that by
making fettlements here, the intercourfe and commerce be-
tweeen Quito and Terra Firma would be facilitated ; and
with this view, Paul Durango Delgadillo was, in the year
1621, appointed governor of Atacames and Rio de las
Efmaraldas. He was fucceeded by Francifco Perez Me-
nacho in 1626, and other governors, who failed in the ac-
complifhment of the objeét for which they were appointed :
at length Don Pedro Vicente Maldonado, in 1741, laid
open a direét communication betwixt Quito and the Rio de
las Efmaraldas, and in recompence of his fuccefs he was
confirmed as governor in 1746, and in the following year
the country was formally conftituted a government. This
government contains twenty towns, which are but {mall and
poor, five of them fituated on the fea-coaft, and the others
being inland places. The inhabitants of the five towns are
Spaniards, Meftizos, Negroes, and Cafts, which {prung from
thefe three claffes. Thofe of the other fifteen are in general
Indians, among whom are few Spaniards, Mulattos, or
Negroes. The {fpiritual concerns of the diftri@ are entrufted
to eleven priefts, who refide in the great towns, and occas
fionally vifit the others, in which are chapels of eafe.

The temperature of Atacames is like that of Guayaquil,
and accordingly it produces the fame kinds of vegetables,

" grains, and fruits ; fome of them to greater perfection, on

account of its more elevated fituation. It likewife pro-
duces in great abundance vanillas, achote, farfaparilla, and
indigo. Confiderable quantities of wax are made here, and
the iurclts of the country afford a great variety of trees of

Dz large

TAC

large fize and lofty height, fit for domeftic and naval pur-
poles (Juan and Ulloa’s Voyage, vol. i.) M. d’Anville,
in his map of Quito, has marked the fuppofed loft mine of
Emeralds, about 20 miles to the fouth of the town of Taca-
mes, which is fituated in a bay of the Pacific ocean, to
which it gives name; 110 miles N.W. of Quito. N. lat.
o° 52'. W. long. 62°.

ACAPHORIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in the interior of Marmarica. Ptol.

TACARIGUA, Bay or Lake, in Geography, is fituated
im the government of Caraccas, in America, about one anda
half league from the mouth of the river Tuy. Its form is
circular, and its meafure is about feven leagues from the fea,
on the N.E. to its deepeft recefs on the S.E. It abounds
in all kinds of fea-fifh, and is remarkable for the great
number of alligators which are feen init.

TACASARTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt,
upon the route from Memphis to Pelufium. Anton. Itin.

TACASUKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon ; 12-miles N.W. of Meaco.

TACATO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
48 miles S.S.W. of Jedo. :

TACATUA, Tackus, in Ancient Geography, a town
fituated on the coaft of Africa, between Ruficades and
Hippone ; E. of the promontory of Tapfos, and W. of that
of Hippi.

TACAU, in mE town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; 90 miles N.W. of Jedo.

‘TACAXI, a {mall ifland of Japan, on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Ximo, at the entrance into the gulf of Ximabara.

TACAZZE’, a nver of Africa, next to the Nile the
largeft in Upper Abyffinia. Its principal branch rifes in
Angot, ina plain champaign country, about 200 miles S.E.
of Gondar, near a {pot called Souami Midre. It has three
{pring-heads, or fources, like the Nile: near it is the {mall
village Gourri, fignifying cold. The other branch of the
Tacazzé rifes in the frontiers of Begemder, near Dabuco,
whence, running between Gouliou, Latta, and Beleffen, it
joins with the Angot branch, and becomes the boundary

ween Tigré and Amhara. This river was called the
Siris, or the river of the dog-ftar, whilft the uncivilized peo-
pe, the Cufhites of the ifland of Meroé, refided upon its

anks. It was then called the Tannufh Abay, or the leffer
of two rivers that {welled with the tropical rains, which was
tlie name given to it by the peafants from a comparifon of it
with the Nile. It was the T'acazzé in Derkin, or the dwell-
ing of the Taka, before it joined the Nile in Baja, and it
was the Aftaboras of thofe of the ancients that took the Nile
for the Siris. It is now the Atbara, giving its name to that
peninfula, which it inclofes on the E. as the Nile does on
the W. and which was formerly the ifland of Meroé.
Tacazzé is a pleafant river, fhaded with fine lofty trees, and
having its banks covered with tamarifks and bufhes fingu-
Jarly fragrant. Its ftream is very limpid, its water excel-
lent, and it abounds with a great variety of fifh : its coverts
are alfo full of all forts of game. During the inundation, it
carries in its bed nearly one-third of all the water that falls
in Abyffinia, rifing to about three fathoms, tearing up rocks
and large trees in its courfe, and forcing down their broken
fragments f{cattered in its ftream, with a noife like thunder
echoed from a hundred hills, This river, though in many re-
{pects beautiful, has its difadvantages. From the falling of the
firft rains in March till November, it is death to fleep in the
Sora adjoining to it, both within and without its banks.
The inhabitants retire and live'‘in villages on the top of the
neighbouring mountains; and thefe are all robbers and
aflaffins, who defcend from their habitations in the heights to

10

TAC

lie in wait for, and plunder the travellers who pafs that ways
Its abundance of fifh draws together a number of croco-
diles : in its adjacent thickets are vaft multitudes of lions and
hyznas. he ford of this river is fituated in N. lat. 13°
42! 45". Bruce’s Travels, vol. iii.

TACCA, in Botany, a Malay name, ufed by Rumphius,
and adopted by the claffical Forfter, as well as by the
younger Linnzus. The word being, though barbarous and
unmeaning, eafy of pronunciation, we are induced to ac-
quiefce in thefe authorities, and to retain it, along, with
Aucuba, Pandanus, anda few other names fo cireumftanced.
Sir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander had called the fame
genus, very elegantly and judicioufly, Chaitea, from xaing
a flowing mane, or head of hair, in allufion to the fpreading
tuft of long capillary filaments, apparently a fort of braéteas,
or abortive ftalks, accompanying the flowers.—Forft. Gen.
t. 35. Linn. Suppl. 37. Schreb. 229. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.
200. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl.
vy. 1.340. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 306. Juff.56. Jamarck
Illuftr. t. 232. Gertn. t. 14.—Clafs and order, Hexan-
dria Monogynia. Nat.Ord. Narciffi, Jufl. Akin to Aroidee
and Ariffolochie, Brown. F

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in fix very
deep, elliptic-oblong, equal, converging, permanent feg-
ments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments fix, oppofite to the
fegments of the calyx, into whofe bafe they are inferted, and
half as long, equal, dilated, flat, oblong, incurved and
vaulted at the fummit ; anthers feffile in the hollow of each
filament, of two diftiné lobes. Pi/?. Germen inferior,
roundifh ; ftyle fhort, cylindrical, with three furrows ; ftig-
mas three, {preading, dilated, cloven. eric. Berry ovate,
angular, of one cell. Seeds numerous, ovate, ftriated, ‘ in-
ferted into three receptacles annexed to the coat of the

berry.” Brown.
Eff. Ch. Calyx in fix deep equal fegments. Petals
none. Filaments vaulted. Stigmas ftellated. Berry infe-

rior, angular, with many feeds.

1. T’. pinnatifida.- Pinnatifid Tacca, or Otaheite Salep.
Linn. Suppl. 251. Forft. Prodr. 36. Pl. Efcul. 59.
Willd.n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Loureir. Cochinch. 300. (acca ;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 324—328. t. 112—114. Chaitea
Tacca; “Banks Ic. Ined. apud Bibl. Linn. Leontice
Leontopetaloides; Linn. Sp. Pl. 448. ‘ Leontopetaloides ;
Amman. in Comm. Petrop. v. 8. 211. t. 13.”?)—Leaves
pinnatifid.— Native of the Eaft Indies, Cochinchina, the
tropical part of New Holland, and the Society Iflands ;
brought to England by Capt. Bligh, in 1793, but has not.
yet flowered. Aiion. The root is tuberous and perennial.
Leaves one or two, radical, on long ftalks, ereét, deeply
three-cleft, with deeply and varioufly pinnatifid, acute,
entire lobes, a foot [orgs fmooth, reticulated with veins.
Heat hollow, fmooth. Flower-flalk radical, about a
yard high, hollow, ere&, unbranched, terminating in a fimple
umbel of feveral drooping, green, fomewhat glaucous,
flowers, accompanied by an involucrum of about as many
upright, partly pinnatifid, green leaves, near two inches
long 3; with a greater number of much longer thread-fhaped
bodies, fufpeéted by Mr. Brown to be abortive flower-ftalks.
The berries are black, larger than a goofeberry, but little —
juicy when ripe.

Forfter fays the frefh root is intenfely bitter and acrid
though fomewhat milder when cultivated. By being
grated, and repeatedly wafhed in frefh water, it yields a
very white mild powder, like ftarch, which is dried in the
fun, and then ferves for food, either in the manner of Salep
or baked in the form of cakes, which are even better thay
thofe made of Sago. The former mode of ufing this powder

3

EAC

is cuftomary in the South-fea, the latter in the Molucca,
iMands. This root is alfo applied as a plafter, we prefume
frefh, for deep wounds made with darts or other weapons.
It is well known that a fimilar powder, or mild wholefome
flour, is obtained, by wafhing, from the roots of Jatropha
Manihot, and various {pecies of Arum, even. our common
Arum maculatum, as well as from raw potatoes.

2. T. iniegrifelia. Entire-leaved Tacca. Gawler in
Curt. Mag. t. 1488. Ait. Epit. 375.—Leaves ovate, undi-
vided.—Native of the Eaft Indies, from whence it was fent
by Dr. Roxburgh to fir Abraham Hume, and flowered in
the ftove at Wormleybury, in June 1812. The /eaves are
four or five inches long, probably often more, {mooth, quite
fimple and entire, with one rib and many oblique veins ;
each on a fitout, channelled, brown foot/falk. Flowers um-
bellate, erect or decumbent, of a dingy green, with purple
ftalks. Leaves of the involucrum large, ovate, pale green
with many purple ribs, and accompanied by a few white
thread-fhaped ftalks, refembling the former. We have feen
no fpecimen in flower.

TACE, Ital., in Mujfic, be filent.

TACET, Lat., is ufed when a vocal or inftrumental
part is to be filent during a whole movement: as in a mafs,
Clrefe tacet ; in aconcerto or fonata, Largo tacet, Kc.

ACET, JOSEPH, in Biography, an eminent performer and
mafter on the German flute, born, we believe, in France; but
who came to England {fo early, and continued here fo long,
that by forgetting his own language, he fpoke Englith like a
rative of the ifland. He was the firft to adopt the addi-
tional keys of Quantz to the German flute, in order to corre&t
the bad notes, and increafed their number from three to five ;
though, we believe, he feldom ufed them all.

TAC-FREE, in Old Charters, an exemption from pay-
ments.

TACHAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe
fea, near the coaft of Cochinchina. N. lat. 12° 35!.
E. long. 109° 14!.

TACHAR, atown of Thibet ; 23 miles S. of Tourfan.

TACHARD, Guy, in Biography, a French Jefuit, who,
after accompanying chevalier de Caumont, and the abbé de
Choifi, on an embafly to Siam, returned to Europe in 1688,
and having made another voyage to the Indies, died at
Bengal about 1694. His “Two Voyages to Siam,” in
2 vols. Paris, 1686 and 1689, re-printed at Amfterdam in
1700, well received at the time of their publication, have
funk in reputation on account of the credulity and exag-
geration of the author, of which fatisfactory evidence has
been given by chevalier de Forbin, in his Memoirs. Nouv.
Did. Hittor.

TACHAR-SEGHIN, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;

o miles S. of Tourfan.

TACHAS, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome authors
to the manati, or fea-cow.

TACHASARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the interior of Media, between Zalaca and Pharambara.
Ptol.

TACHAU, or Tacuow, in Geography, a town of Bohe-
mia, in the circle of Pilfen, taken by Ziika by aflault, and
facked in the year 1427 3 34 miles W. of Pilfen. N. lat.

°47', E. long. 12° 4o!.

TACHBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Meinungen.

TACHEMAL-ONDOUG, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary. - N. lat. 45° 59/. _E. long. 122° 31'.

TACHEMPSO, or Tacuomreso, in Ancient Geography,
an ifland of Ethiopia, in the vicinity of Libya, partly oc-
eupied by the Egyptians, and partly by the Ethiopians.

DAE
» TACHENS, in Geography, a lake of the archbifhopric

of Salzburg, five miles long, and about one wide ; 14 miles
N.W. of Salzburg.

TACHIA, in Botany, called Tachi by the Galibis in
Guiana, becaufe the hollow ftem and branches of this fhrub
ferve as a retreat for ants, the above word fignifying, in the
language of thofe people, an ant’s neft. Aublet Guian.

5. t.29. See Myrmecta.

TACHIBOTA. See Sarmasta.

TACHIGALIA, Tachigali of the Galibis in Guiana.
See Cupma.

TA-CHOUI-CAO-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of
Corea ; 425 miles E. of Peking. N. lat. 409 11’. E.
long. 124° 53/.

TACHYGRAPHY, called alfo Bracuycrapny,
formed from sxxu:, /wift, and ypu0n, writing; the art of
quick or fhort writing.

There have been various kinds of tachygraphy invented :
among the Romans, there were certain notes ufed, each
of which fignified a word.

The rabbins have a kind cf tachygraphy formed by ab-
breviations, which made a kind of technical words ; where-
in each confonant ftands for a whole word: as []435",
2w7, rafchi; which ftands for rabbi Schelomoh Jarri. See
Noraricon.

In France, &c. the only tachygraphy ufed is, the re-
trenching of letters, or even whole fyllables of words, as in
Jdm for fecundum, aut for auten, d for fed, a for non, parti-
cipaon for participation, &c.

The firft printers imitated thefe abbreviations; but at
prefent they are almoft laid afide, except among {criveners,
&e.

In England we have great variety of methods of tachy-
graphy, or fhort-hand; more by far, and thofe much bet-
ter, eafier, fpeedier, and more commodious, than what are
known in any other part of the world: witnefs Shelton’s,
Wallis’s, Rich’s, Mafon’s, Webfter’s, Welton’s, Macaulay’s,
Annet’s, Gurney’s, Lyle’s, Byrom’s, Rees’s, and feveral
other fhort-hands. See STENOGRAPHY.

TACISSO, Jeune, in Geography. See Tassasupon.

TACIT Accrerprance. See AccEPTANCE.

Tacit Community. See Community.

Tacit Decree, in Roman Antiquity, fecret deliberations,
to which none but old fenators were jummoned.

J. Capitolinus mentions a decree of this fecret kind,
which he calls S. C. facitum, and fays, that the ufe of them
among the ancients was derived from the neceffities of the
public, when upon fome imminent danger from enemies, the
fenate was either driven to fome low and mean expedients,
or to fuch meafures as were proper to be executed before
they were publifhed, or fuch as they had a mind to keep fe-
cret even from friends ; on which occafions they commonly
recurred to a tacit decree, from which they excluded their
clerks and fervants. performing that part themfelves, left
any thing fhould get abroad. Capitol. de Gordian. c. 12.

In the early times of the republic, there are feveral in-
ftances mentioned by hiftorians of fuch private meetings of
the fenate, fummoned by the confuls to their own houfes ;
to which none but the old or proper fenators were admitted,
and of which the tribunes ufually complained. Vide Dion-
Halic. 1. x. go. 1. xi. 55. 57. Middlet. of Rom. Sen-

Pp: 90.
TACITUS, Caius Cornetius, in Biography, a well-
known hiftorian, was born about the year of the Chriftian
era 57, at Interamna, or the modern Terni. Hie father
was a Roman knight, and procurator of Belgic Gayl.
Deyoted from his youth to the cultivation of literature and
rhetoric,

TAC

rhetoric, his reputation at maturity was fo well eftablifhed,
that he was permitted by Julius Agricola, at the expiration
of his confulate, which occurred in the year 77, to form
a matrimonial conneétion with his daughter. Thus intro-
duced into public life, he was honoured by the patronage of
Vefpafian, Titus, and Domitian. Having difcharged the
office of prztor, he withdrew from the capital for four
years ; and on his return he found the latter emperor exer-
cifing a tyranny which he bitterly lamented. His profpects,
however, were brightened by the acceffion of Nerva to the
confulfhip, in the year 97; and as his affociate Verginius
Rufus died before the termination of his office, Tacitus was
appointed to be his fucceffor, and commenced his literary ca-
reer, if the Dialogue concerning Orators’’ be not his com-
pofition, with an eloquent oration at the funeral of qa
of whom Pliny fays that he “ crowned the felicity of his life
by poflefling the moft eloquent of eulogifts at his death.””
In the early part of Trajan’s reign, he concurred with his friend
Pliny the Sees, in the accufation of Marcus Prifcus for
the crimes with which he was chargeable during his procon-
fulate of Africa. The condué of Tacitus and Pliny on this
occafion was honoured by the encomium of the fonaté in
their fentence and condemnation of the culprit. The future
circumftances of his life, and the precife time of his death,
are unknown; but as he makes no allufion to the reign of
Adrian, it is moft probable that he did not furvive that of

Trajan.

The principal works of Tacitus were his “ Annals,” and
his “ Hiftory.’”? The former comprehended the Roman
affairs from ie death of Auguftus to that of Nero; but it
has been tranfmitted to us in a very mutilated ftate. The
latter comprifed the period from the end of Nero to the
death of Domitian ; and now exifts in an imperfeét ftate, as
the narrative does not extend far beyond the acceffion of Vef-
pafian. His other works are, a “ Life of Agricola,” and a
treatife “ On the Manners of the Germans.’”? The ftyle of
his writings is fingularly concife, abrupt, and elliptical, fo
that the reader is often at a lofs to comprehend his meaning.
His aim feems to have been to comprize much in a fm
compafs, and he has thus furnifhed a great variety of politi-
cal maxims, which, by the brevity with which they are ex-

fled, are peculiarly adapted to imprefs the memory. — It
is obferved, however, by one of his biographers, that he
occafionally difcovers ‘ an affectation sh rcarieereisc com-
mon remarks into aphorifms, and of philofophizing when
he was only required to narrate.’’ Neverthelefs, as the fame
author remarks, ‘no profe writer in any language furpaffes or
perhaps equals him in force of defcription, and the choice
of circumftances by which he dramatizes a fcene, and brings
it before the eyes of his reader ; and no want of perfpicuity
appears in his ftyle when employed in the relation of ftriking
events.”? The writer whom we are now citing extols the
moral merits of Tacitus as an hiltorian, and gives him his
full {hare of praife for inculcating the nobleft principles of
aétion, both public and private, and difplaying the evils
arifing from uncontrolled power, united, as it generally
mutt be, with vice arid tyranny. ‘“ He was guarded,” fays
the biographer, “ by philofophy againtt credulity, and by
the love of truth againft calumny.’? He adds, “ upon the
whole, whatever defeéts may be juftly imputed to him, his
works can never fail to keep a diftinguifhed place among the
moft valuable treafures which antiquity has bequeathed to
us.”” The following editions of the works of Tacitus are
thofe which are held in the higheft eftimation: viz. Ryckii,
Lugd. Bat. 1687, 2 vols. 12mo.; Gronovii, T'raj. 1721,
z vols. 4to.; Ernefti, Lipf. 1752 and 1772, 2 yols, 8vo.;
Brotier, Paris, 1771, 4 vols. 4to. and 1776, 7 vols, 12mo,

TAC

Many tranflations in different languages are extant. Bro-
tier Pref. Gen. Biog.

Tacitus, M. Crauprus, an emperor of Rome, who
was advanced to this eminence from the rank of fenator, to
which he belonged at the time of Aurelian’s death, A.D.
275. He was then about 75 years of age, having been
conful twice, bearing the charatter of diftinguifhed wifdom
and moderation, and enjoying a patrimony valued at between
two and three millions fterling. An interregnum took place
in confequence of the refufal of the army and fenate to nomi-
nate an emperor, and had lafted nearly eight months. Tacitus
wifhed to refer the choice to the army ; but finding that he
was the perfon to whom the attention of the public was di-
rected, he withdrew to his country feat in Campania, and
continued there two months. At length, the conful con-
voked the fenate, and Tacitus appeared in the affembly.
Being afked his opinion on the fubjeét that had occafioned
delay, he arofe to reply ; but he was immediately faluted,
amid general acclamations, with the titles of Auguftus and
emperor. The plea of his age and infirmities was of no
avail ; conftrained to accept the high honour on Sept. 25,
A.D. 275, he entered on his office ; the Roman people and
the pretorian guards approving and confirming his eleGtion.
His firft objet was to reftore to the fenate rights and privi-
leges, which ferved to render the conftitution a limited mo-
narchy. After thus gratifying the fenators, he proceeded to
regulate and reform the public morals; exhibiting in his
own conduét an example of fimplicity and frugality, whilft
he was unufually munificent in his attention to public objeéts.
To literature he was a diftinguifhed patron ; and he paid
particular refpeét to his anceftor, the hiftorian Tacitus, di-
recting ten copies of his works to be annually depofited in
the public libraries. In order to fecure the attachment of
the army, he vifited the camp at Thrace at the commence-
ment of the year 276, promifed the ufual donative, and in-
flicted punifhment on the principal perfons who had been
concerned in the murder of Aurelian. In procefs of time,
diffentions broke out amongft the troops, and the malcon-
tents being joined by the murderers of Aurelian, who had
made their efcape, either by direét violence, or by the vexa-
a re matey occafioned to the aged emperor, terminated

is life at Tyana, in Cappadocia, after a reign of 2
Geeaiicnenrme oo” ot ae

TACK, in Sail-Making, the foremoft lower corner of all
fore and aft fails.

Tack, a rope ufed to confine the clues of the main and
fore courfes forward occafionally in a fixed pofition, and
alfo to confine the tacks of ftay-fails, boom-fails, and fore-
fails of floops; and the outer lower corners of ftudding-
fails. The tacks of the main and fore courfes are ropes
cable-laid, and made tapering, having a large wall-knot at
~ end, which prevents its drawing dioupl the clue of the

ail.

Tack is alfo applied by analogy to that part J
to which the tack is huaally tied A this i fad ake
the ftarboard or larboard tack when fhe is clofe-hauled, with
the wind upon the ftarboard and larboard fide: and in this
pre “a A halon fails in that pofition is confidered
as the length of the tack; althou is i
called a fae. Falconer. oe ee

Tack, To, in Sea Language, is to change the courfe from
one board to another, or to turn about the fhip from the
{tarboard to the larboard tack, in a contrary wind.

Tacking is alfo ufed, in a more enlarged fenfe, to fignify
that manceuvre in navigation, by which a fhip makes an
oblique progreffion to the windward, in a zigzag direGtion,
This, however, is more ufually called beating, or turning to

windward,

TAC

windward. In order to explain the theory of tacking
a fhip, recourfe muft be had to the two firft laws of
motion, recited under Laws of Nature: according to
which, it is eafy to conceive how a fhip is compelled
to turn into any direction, by the force of the wind acting
upon her fails in horizontal lines. For the fails may be
fo arranged as to receive the current of air, either dire¢tly,
or more or lefs obliquely : hence the motion communicated to
the fails muft neceffarily confpire with that of the wind upon
their furfaces. To make the fhip tack, or turn round with
her head to the windward, it is therefore neceflary, after fhe
has received the firft impreffion from the helm, that the head-
fails fhould be fo difpofed as to diminifh the effort of the
wind, in the firft inftant of her motion, and that the whole
force of the wind fhould be exerted on the after-fails, which
operating on the fhip’s ftern, carries it round like a weather-
cock. But fince the action of the after-fails to turn the
fhip will unavoidably ceafe, when her ‘head points to the
windward, it then becomes neceflary to ufe the head-fails to
prevent her from falling off, and returning to her former
fituation. Thefe are, accordingly, laid aback on the lee-
fide, to pufh the veffel’s fore-part towards the oppofite fide,
till fhe has fallen into the line of her courfe thereon, and
fixed her fails to conform with that fituation.

The firft effort to turn the fhip in tacking, communicated
by the helm, which is then put to the lee-fide, being an-
nounced by the pilot, or commanding officer, who then
calls out, Helm’s a-lee! the head-fails are immediately made
to fhiver in the wind, by cafting loofe their fheets or bow-
lines. The pilot then calls, Up tacks and Jheets! which is
executed by loofening all the ropes which confine the cor-
ners of the lower fails, in order that they may be more
readily fhifted to the other fide. When the fhip has turned
her head direétly to windward, the pilot gives the order to

turn about the fails on the main and mizen-matts, by the

exclamation, Haul main-fail, haul! the bowlines: and traces
are then inftantly caft off on one fide, and as expeditioufly
drawn in on the other fide, fo as to wheel the yards about
their mafts: the lower corner of the main-fail is, by means
of its tack, pulled down to its ftation at the chefs-tree ; and
all the after-fails are, at the fame time, adjufted to ftand
upon the other board. Finally, when the fhip has fallen off
five or fix points, the pilot cries, Haul off all! or, let go,
and haul! the fails on the fore-maft are wheeled about by
their braces ; and as the fhip has then a tendency to fall off,
fhe is checked by the effort of the helm, which for that
purpofe is put hard-a-lee.- The fore-tack, or the lower
corner of the fore-fail, being fixed in its place, the bow-
lines are hauled ; and the other fails, which have been ne-
gle&ted in the hurry of tacking, are properly arranged to
the wind; which exercife is called trimming the fails. Fal-
coner.

Tack of a Flag, a line fpliced into the eye at the bottom
of the tabling, for fecuring the flag to the haliards.

Tack-Stopper. See STorrer.

Tack, in Rural Economy, a term provincially made ufe
of in fome diftriéts, as Gloucefterfhire, to fignify a fort of
fhelf, within the dairy, for laying cheefe upon while they
are drying, and afterwards.

Tack, or Tack of Land, in Agriculture, is a word ufed
in fome parts of the nation, as thofe of the north, for the
term of a leafe. It, in fhort, denotes the means by which
land is holden by the farmer, from the proprietor or real
owner, in the intention of cultivation and improvement, for
the advantages of the produce. It was in its origin a fort
of feudal or military tenure of land: accordingly it 1s found,
the writer of the corrected Agricultural Report of the

TAC

County of Peebles fays, that, as military tenants, at firft,
became tenants for life, from being tenants at will; fo the
firft notion of giving the fecurity of independence to the cul-
tivator of the foil, in Scotland, as elfewhere, was to give
him fecurity of poffeffion for life. The life-rent tack feems,
it is faid, the firft adopted fpecies or kind of tack-holding,
rendering the poffeflor independent, his fituation refpectable,
and his rights and interefts regarded. Superior privileges
were accordingly beftowed upon the life-rent tack ; the pro-
perty in this tack was, and is, confidered to be fo complete,
as to imply the full power of its alienation, in defiance of the
proprietor’s fuppofed effential and inherent right of the
deleétus perfone ; and, when granted to a woman, was not
confidered as forfeited upon her marriage, as implying af-
fignment contrary to the proprietor’s right of deledus, in
confequence of its falling under the hufband’s jus mariti ;
although fuch, it is faid, is the abfurd conftruétion of Scots
law, in regard to the effeét of a woman’s marriage, upon a
tack for definite time, to which fhe fhould fall heir by in-
heritance, or even, perhaps, acquire by perfonal contra&,
The period of nineteen years feems, it is faid, in Scotland,
to have been confidered as equivalent to the life of a perfon
of age to enter upon a life-rent tack ; and that, from this
analogy, various privileges, originally communicated to the
life-rent, would feem to have been extended to this {pecies
or kind of tack. As nineteen years may, however, be con-
fidered as a favourable exchange for a life-rent, this is, it is
thought, probably the reafon why the Scots tenant feems to
have generally preferred this fecurity ; infomuch that the
mention of a tack, without fpecification of the term, in
common habit fuggefted the idea of a nineteen years’ leafe.
The privileges granted to cultivators, by legiflating pro-
prietors, feem, it is faid, to have been granted flowly, with
reluctance, and to no greater extent than what indifpenfable
utility obvioufly and abfolutely required. A fhort-fighted
avarice, it is obferved, wifhed to grafp at the fruits of the
cultivation effeéted by the tenant’s flock, as {peedily as pof-
fible ; even fo prematurely, as to allow no fuflicient fecurity
of time for their being effected at all: and the genius of
law feems, it is thought, to have been univerfally inimical,
both in modern and in ancient nations, to the long duration
of leafes, which feemed to keep back the proprietor from
reaping the benefit of the increafed value of his property. |
And that, when fubfequent views of utility fuggefted the
propriety of tacks of {till longer duration, they were ven-
tured upon with timidity, as an extenfion of a f{pecies of
tenure, to which the genius of law was unfriendly ; which,
as yet, fhe had not recognized to that extent, and which
fhe might be ferupulous in fantioning. Such tacks, there-
fore, it is faid, fought fhelter under the form of the privileged
tack of nineteen years, which had acquired an analogical {ta-
bility, and whofe talifmanic influence was thought able to pro-
te&t them: the whole term meant durft not, it is faid, be
avowedly expreffed ; but the tack was granted for two nine-
teens, or three nineteens of years, until the number of years
propofed fhould be completed in nineteens.

The tack, though ftill fomewhat loaded and encumbered
by a remnant of the fhackles and tyranny of the feudal ftate,
fo as to confiderably obftru€& and impede the credit and
enterprize of agricultural purfuits, yet probably, in confe-
quence of the different ena&tments and decifions fince made,
empower the holders by it, in the above part of the king-
dom, perhaps to enjoy more fecurity, it is thought, than
what was ever, beftowed upon the actual cultiva‘ors of the
foil or land, either in ancient or in modern times. See
Tenant and TENURE.

TACKLE, in a Ship, a machine formed by the com-

munication

TAT

munication of a rope with an aflemblage of blocks, and
known in mechanics by the name of pulley.

Tackles are ufed in a fhip to raife, remove, or fecure
weighty bodies, to fupport the mafts, or to extend the fails
and rigging. They are either moveable, as communicating
with a runner; or bued, as being hooked in an immoveable
fituation ; and they are more or lefs complicated, with blocks
and fheaves, in proportion to the efforts which they are in-
tended to produce. That part of the tackle which is fixed
to one of the blocks, &c. is called the flanding part; all
the reft are called running parts; and that on which the men
pull, when employing the tackle, is called the fall. The
application of the tackle to mechanical purpofes is termed
Avifling or bowfing. Falconer.

The power of a tackle will be, the fri€tion not confidered,
as the number of parts of the fall that are applied to fuftain
the weight. If a tackle confifts of a double and a fingle
block, and the weight to be hoifted is hung to the double
block, there will be four parts of the fall; and the weight
refting upon four ropes, equally {tretched, each muft bear
the fame part of the weight. Thus, fuppofe the weight
hung to the double block be four hundred, then one hun-
or applied to the fall or hauling part will fufpend it;
and if as much more power be applied as will overcome the
friction, it will purchafe the weight: but had the weight
been hooked to the fingle block, it would have refted on
three ropes only, each of which would bear a third part of
the weight ; therefore, a third part of the weight being ap-
plied to the hoifting part of the fall, would fufpend the
weight, when hooked to the fingle block ; as much more
being applied as will overcome the friétion, would purchafe
the weight.

The blocks that are fixed are only for the convenience of
turning the direétion of the fall; they add nothing to the
power of the purchafe, but, on the contrary, deitroy fo
‘much as is neceflary to overcome their friction, and are,
therefore, to be avoided as much as poffible.

Ropes, if tight laid, will not eafily bend round fmall
fheaves, but wiltaks up a confiderable part of the power to
force them into their proper direétion : hence it follows, that
blocks with {mall pins, large fheaves, and flack-laid ropes,
are the beft materials to obviate fri€tion, and make tackles
with more eafe.

The anchor-lock tackle is compofed of a double block and
a fingle block, ftrapped, with a hook and thimble. Boom
tackles are compofed of double and fingle blocks, ftrapped,
with tails, and are ufed in getting the ftudding-fail-booms
in or out. Bowline tackle is compofed of Pgs tackle,
and a fingle block, ftrapped, with a hook and thimble: it
is ufed to bowfe up the main-bowline, when the fhip is
upon a wind. Burton tackles are compofed of double and
fingle blocks, and are ufed with pendants, to fet up the
fhrowds, fupport the topfail-yards, &c. Pep Burton.)
ft Aft tackle is compofed of a long tackle, and a fingle
block, ftrapped, with eyes, and is fed with a pendant, to
fifth the anchor, and get it into its place. Garnet tackle is
compofed of a double block and a fingle block, ftrapped,
with a hook and thimble: it is hooked to the {ciatic-ftay
in merchant-fhips, and is ufed to hoilt goods, &c. in or out.
(See ie creek Jigger tackles are compofed of double
and fingle blocks, flrapped, with tails, and are ufed for
topping the main and fore-yards by the lifts, &c. (See
Jiccer.) Luff tackles are compofed of double and fingle
blocks, ftrapped, with a hook and thimble, and are iifed
occafionally at any part of the fhip. Outhauler tackle is
compofed of two gle blocks, ftrapped, with tails, and is
mfed to bowfe out the jib-boom. ort tackles are com-

ra €

pofed of a fingle block, attached to a {pan made faft to the
outfide of the port-lid, and a runner with two fingle blocks,
all of which are made faft to the fide of the beam_neareft
the port, and are ufed to hoift and lower the port-lids.
Quarter tackles are compofed of double and fingle blocks,
{trapped, with eyes, and lafhed to the outer quarter of the
yard and the lower block, with a hook and thimble: they
are ufed to hoift up water and provifions. Reef tackles are
compofed of two double or two fingle blocks: one block is
{pliced into a pendant, and the other is ftrapped, with an
eye; they are ufed to draw the extremities of the reefs clofe
up to the yard-arms for reefing the fail. (See Reer.)
Relieving tackles are luff tackles, ufed at the fore end of
the tillar, when the tillar-ropes are ee (See Rr-
LievinG Tackle.) Ridge tackle is compoted of a double
block, and a fingle block, ftrapped, with an eye, and is
ufed to fufpend the awning in the middle. Rolling tackles
are luff tackles, ufed to the topfail-yards, to fupport them
under a prefs of fail, and preferve the parrals. Rudder
tackles are compofed of a long tackle block and a —
block, ftrapped, with hooks and thimbles: they are uiled
to fave the rudder, if unfhipped by accident, or to fteer by,
if the tillar is broken. Runner tackles are compofed of
double and fingle blocks, and a pendant ; the lower block
is ftrapped, with a hook and thimble: they are ufed to fet
up the fhrouds, and to get the mait-heads forward, for
ftaying the mafts. Stay tackles, main and fore, are com-
pofed of double and fingle blocks, ftrapped, with hooks and
thimbles, except the block {pliced into the pendant: they
are ufed for getting the provifions, &c. out of the fore and
main hold, and for getting the boats in or out. The pen~
dant formerly tegeliea on the ftay, by iron thimbles; but
this has been difcontinued in the navy, as they much injured
the ftay by the friction. Stay/ail-ffay tackles are compofed
of double and fingle blocks ; the lower blocks are ftrapped,
with a hook and thimble: they are ufed to fet up the jib,
and other ftayfail-flays. Shifting back-flay tackles are com-
pofed of double and fingle blocks, ftrapped, with a hook
and thimble, and are ufed to fet up the fhifting back-ftays,
where wanted. Topmafi-flay and preventer-flay tackles are
compofed of long tackle blocks and fingle blocks; the
lower blocks are —i with a hook and thimble: they
are ufed to fet the topmaft and preventer ftays. Fore-t
gallant-flay tackle is compofed of a double and fingle block,
and is ufed to fet up the fore-topgallant-flay. Tack tackle
is compofed of a double and fingle block, f{trapped, with
hooks and thimbles, and is ufed for bowfing down the tack
of fore and aft main-fails. The ¢op tackle is compofed of
double or treble blocks: it is attached to the top-rope-
pendant, and is ufed to ereét the topmafts, at the heads of
the lower mafts. Tru/s tackles are compofed of two double
blocks, ftrapped, with hooks and thimbles, and are ufed to
fecure the lower yards to their mafts, being hooked to the
trufs-pendant. Winding tackle is compofed of a fourfold
and a treble block, or a treble and a double block, ftrapped,
with eyes : it is attached to the winding-tackle-pendant, and
is chiefly ufed to get in and out the guns, ats Plate TJ.
Rigging, fig. 17.) Yard tackles are compofed of double
and fingle blocks; the double blocks are fpliced into the
lower ends of the pendants f, and the fingle blocks are
{trapped, with hooks and thimbles; they are ufed to haift
the boats in or out.

Tackie-Fall, that end of the rope of a tackle which is
bowfed on, or the rope which compofes the tackle.
_ Tackwe, Gunner’s, that which ferves to hale the ordnance
in.or out.

Tackre Pendants, See Pexpanrt,

TACKLE,

© AC

"Tackxe, Tack, is a {mall tackle ufed occafionally to pull
down the tack of the principal fails of a fhip to their reipec-
tive itations. There is alfo a tackle of this kind conitantly
fixed to the tacks of the main-fail in brigs, floops, and
{chooners, for the fame purpofe. Falconer.

TACKRAMAH, in Geography, a town of Africa, on
the Gold Coaft. N. lat. 4°52'. W. long. 3° ro’.

TACKSMAN, in Agriculture, the tenant or perfon who
holds or takes a tack of land of another. In fubfetting, the
original perfon of this kind is, it is faid, by the writer of the
Peebles Corrected Agricultural Report, confidered as
bound to the proprietor, as well as the fub-tenant ; whilift,
in aflignment, the original tenant is free, fubitituting the
other in his place. In conformity to the analogy of the
feudal law, therefore, it is faid, as well as to the greater
fecurity of the proprietor, the Scottifh law is confidered
as more favourable to fubfet, than to aflignation ; becaufe,
in fubfet, the firft tenant does not relinquifh his pofition
as a quafi vaflal, and the purpofes of the metaphorical de-
Zeus may be, thus, confidered as metaphorically, or ana-
logically fulfilled by this fio juris, or quafi: moreover, too,
the fecurity of the proprietor, fo far from. being weakened,
is greatly {trengthened, im having his right of hypothec un-
impaired, and the fecurity of two inftead of one. Upon this
principle, it was confidered, it is faid, by the Scottifh law
oracle, Erfkine, that a power of fubfet was implied, ‘in all
cafes where the contrary was not direétly expreffed; until
the decifion, m 1791, came to rectify the mifconceptions of
the people, when it was decided, that, in a tack of nineteen
years, it was implied, in law conftru€tion, without any formal
itipulation in the leafe to that effet, that the power of de-
Zeus was retained ; and that the tack was neither affignable
nor fubfetable.

But even Erfkine allows, it is faid, that, upon legal prin-
ciples, an exprefs ftipulation in the tack againit affignees,
both /egal and voluntary, would prevent the tack from bein
evicted by the tenant’s creditors: otherwife a tack, aaa
fignable by the tenant’s voluntary deed, would, according to
kim, be eyiétable by adjudication, at the inftance of the
tenant’s creditors : but even in that cafe, the creditors would
be guilty of Je/e-majeffe towards the facred right of the de-
JeGus, were they to bring the reverfion of the Jeafe to a fair
fale to the beft bidder: they are debarred, therefore, it is
faid, from fuch unhallowed and irreverend meafures ; they
can only enter upon adminiftration, as refponfible fators
Of the tenant’s concerns.

TACKUMBREET, in Geography, a town of Africa,
or, as it may be rather denominated, the ruins of an ancient
town called “ Siga,’’ or “ Sigeum,’’ once the metropolis of
Mauritania, fituated on the coaft of the Mediterranean, at
the mouth of the river Tafna; 44 miles S.W. of Oran.
N. lat. 35° 30'.. W. long. 0° 55!. ,

TACKYSERAT, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 35
miles W. of Lucknow.

TACLAOUR, a town of Thibet. N. lat. 38° 5’. E.
long. 80° 51.

TACOLA Imperium, in Ancient Geography, a port on
the weftern coaft of India, on this fide of the Ganges ; and
now Junkfeylon.

TACOMA, in Geography, a town of Mexico ; 16 miles
N. of Mexico,

TACOMAR-T Rex, a name by which fome authors call
the fugar-cane.

TACON Moontary, in Geography, a mountain of Ame-
rica, in Maffachufetts, S. of Great Barrington.

TA-CONG-TO-CHE, a town of the ifland of For-
mofa, N. lat. 22°22', E. long. 120° 4/,

Vor, XXXV.

TAC

TA-COO, a town of China, in the province of Pe-tche-li,
within the mouth of the Pei-ho, or White river, and the firft
place of any note in the NE. frontier of the country. The
grand embafly to China arrived at this town in Augutt 1795,
and found here a confiderable number of yachts, or large
covered barges and boats of burden, fit for paffing over the
fhallows of the Pei-ho, (which fee,) and deftined to convey
the whole of the embafly as far as the river led towards the
capital of the empire. Many of thefe veffels were eighty
feet long, and very capacious ; and yet they were fo con-
ftruéted of light wood, as not to fink more than eighteen
inches into the water, though they were lofty above it. The
cabins were high and airy above: there were births for the
crew, and beneath the floors were lockers for fecuring the
neceflaries. The yacht appropriated to the ambaflador had an
apartment, confifting of an anti-chamber, a faloon, a bed-
chamber and a clofet ; and its windows were adorned with
a great number of glafs-panes ; whereas the frames of the
windows of the other yachts were generally filled with a kind
of paper, manufactured chiefly in Corea, haying in its com-
polition an unctuous fubftance, which rendered the paper
more durable when expofed to the weather, as it was much
lefs affected by the rain or any kind of moifture, than that
which is made in Europe. During the ambaflador’s flay
before T’a-coo, he was vifited by the viceroy of the province,
who, by order of the emperor, came from Pao-ting-foo, his
ufual place of refidence, at the diftance of a hundred miles ;
and who took up his abode at the principal temple of Ta-
coo, confecrated to the god of the fea, to whom invocations
were frequently addrefled under the appellation of « Toong- ”
hai-vaung,” or king of the Eaftern fea. Of this idol there
were feveral figures in different brilliant edifices of porcelain,
within one inclofure. Sir George Staunton, in his account
of this embaffy, has given an engraved reprefentation of this
Chinefe Neptune, bearing in one hand a magnet, whilft he
is fitting on the waves, with firmnefs, eafe, and di nity, and
thus confcious of his own fecurity ; and in the other, a dole
phin, denoting his power over the inhabitants of the ocean.
His beard flowed in all direGtions, and his agitated locks
feemed to be intended for a perfonification of the troubled
element. At a {mall diftance from the “ Hai-chin-miao,’’
or temple of the fea-god, is the hall of audience of Ta-coo,.
fituated in the midft of a {pacious court.

TACOTALPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guaxaca, on the river Alvarado’; 6 miles S.E. of Alvarado.
—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Tabafco;
30 miles S.W. of Villa Hermofa.

TA-COU, a river of China, which runs into the fea,
7 miles E.N.E. of Kiao.

TACOUR, a town of Hindooftan, ia Myfore ; 10 miles
S. of Bangalore.

TAC-POU-CHAI, a town of Thibet; 250 miles
S.E. of Laffa.

TAC-POU-NAI, a town of Thibet ; 240 miles S.E-
of Laffa. :

TAC-POUY Courou-wam«in, atownof Thibet ; 145
miles S.E. of Laffa, y

Tac-pouy Lafoi, a town of Thibet ; 120 miles S.S.E.
of Laffa.

TACPOY, a town of Thibet, and capita of a diftri ;
126 miles S.E. of Laffa. N. lat. 27° 53’. E. long.

Doaneler w

TACQUET, Anprew, in Biography, a mathematician,
was born at Antwerp in 1611, and having entered into the
order of Jefuits in 1629, was a teacher of the languages and
mathematics for feveral years. He died in 1660. Tacquet
was the author of feveral mathematical works, pie

w

TAC

which we may enumerate the following : viz. “ Cylindri-
corum et Annularium, Libri V. Elementa brevi hiftorica
Narratione de Ortu et Progrefflu Mathefeos,’” &c. printed at
Venice in 1737, with Whifton’s additions ; ‘* Arithmetice
Theoria et Praxis ;’? “ Theoremata felecta ex Archimede.”
After his death, feveral of his treatifes were publifhed under
the title of “ Andrex Tacqueti Antverpienfis Opera Mathe-
matica,’’ containing “* Aftronomiz Lib. VIII.,”’ “ Geome-
trix Practice, Lib. III.,” “ Architecture Militaris,
Lib. I. :”” diftinguifhed by their perfpicuity. Montucla.
Gen. Biog. ;

TACSAI Rakt, in Geography, a lake of Thibet, about
36 miles in circumference. N. at. 32°. E. Jong. 88° 34!.

TACSANLU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
23 miles N.N.W. of Kiutajah.

TACSONIA, in Botany, Jufl. 398, a name of Peruvian
origin, given by that author to fuch. fpecies of Paffion-
flower, as bave a tubular elongation of the bafe of their
calyx. See PAssipLora.

ACTICS, caxzixx, formed from zafs, order ; the art
of difpofing forces in form of battle, and of performing the
military or naval motions and evolutions. The {cience of
taétics is either military or naval.

Tactics, Military, comprehend great or general tactics,
la grande taétique of the French writers, which includes every
thing that relates to the order, difpofition, and formation of
armies, their encampment, and every other circumftance per-
taining to ftores, baggage, &c.; and alfo particular or
fubordinate taétics, more immediately comprifing their
movements and evolutions. With the Semmes every general
officer ought to be thoroughly acquainted ; whilft the latter
fhould be well underftood by inferior officers and foldiers,
and cannot be totally difregarded by thofe of the former
defcription.

The Greeks were very {kilful in this part of the military
art ; having public profeffors of it, called tadici, who taught
and inftrndied their youth therein. We have an account of
the progrefs of this art among them in Thucydides, Xeno-
phon, and Polybius. /£lian alfo hath a particular book on
this fubject; and there is a great deal of it in Arrian, in his
Hiftory of Alex. M. and in Mauritius, and Leo Imperator.

From the Greeks this art was tranfmitted to the Romans,
among whom it arrived at its higheft perfection. Vegetius
has given us a compilation and abridgment of authors who
have written on this fubjeét ; and his work contributed in a
confiderable degree to the eftablifhment of military difcipline
in Europe ; for which we are greatly indebted to Maurice,

rince oF Orange, Alexander famek, duke of Parma, Co-
igny, Henry 1V. Guftavus Adolphus, &c.

Voffius, De Scient. Mathemat. mentions twenty-four an-
cient authors on the fubject of taétics.

It does not appear what was the field-exercife of the in-
fantry in our ancient armies. After the Revolution, our fyf-
tem of difcipline was chiefly taken from the Dutch, who,
under prince Maurice, were the beft regulated troops in
Europe. Previoufly to this, the Spaniards were reckoned
to have the. beft difciplined infantry. The exercife was, at
the commencement of the laft century, and for many years
afterwards, encumbered with a number of ufelefs motions.
The manner in which the foldiers were armed, with their
heavy mufkets, bandoliers, &c. obliged them to make wide
motions, and to draw up with very extended ranks and files.
For an account of the exercife and evolutions of the in-
fantry and cavalry at this period, we refer to Grofe’s
Military Antiquities, vol. i. Of late, great alterations
have taken place in the field-exercife and mancuvres both
of the cavalry and the infantry. Mott of the dragoon regi-

TAC

ments have been made light ; and a new fword-exercife has
been adopted for the cavalry. The whole fyftem of the army
has been rendered uniform, by regulations iffued from the
adjutant-general’s office. Within the laft 60 or 70 years,
the Britith infantry has been gradually falling into-the Pruf-
fian fyftem; and the new regulations are almoft wholly
founded on the Pruffian inftitution. For the particulars,
the reader is referred to the “ Rules and Regulations for
the Formation, Field-exercife, and Movements of his
Majefty’s Forces,” and the articles Manuat Exercife and
BATTALION.
The fubjeé&t of this article has been already difcuffed

under the following heads; wiz. Army, Ba?racron, .

Battie, Order of Battie, Came, Campaicy, Cas-
TRAMETATION, CoLuMN, ENGAGEMENT, EVOLUTION,
Exercisr, Line, PHavanx, in which order the Gauls
and other nations fought in the time of the Romans, and
which order {till prevails, under fome difadvantages, through-
out Europe; War, &c. &c.; fo that we have here Jittle
to add. .

We fhall here obferve, that the principal obje& of the

Pruffian taGtics under Frederick the Great was that of con- ©

centrating forces, and attacking the chief points of the
enemy, not at one time, but one after another ; whereas the
taétics which have been uniformly purfued by the French,
fince the commencement of their revolution, have been
founded on the principle of attacking all points with
divided forces at the fame time ; thus extending their force,
whilft that of the Pruffian was comprefied.

Tactics, Naval or ‘Maritime, comprehend the orders
and fignals which are directed to be obierved by fleets pre-
paring for aétion or aétually engaged, together with the
manceuvres and modes of attack that are then to be prac-
tifed, and alfo a knowledge of the rates of fhips, their vari-
ous appendages, and the mode of conftru€ting them. Of
this branch of taétics, a copious account will be found under
feveral articles, particularly Barrie, ENGAGEMENT, Ex-

ERCISE, and Line of Battle, under which laft article we -

have referred to Clerk’s (not Clarke’s) Effay on Naval
Taétics, of which a fecond edition was publifhed in 1804,
which thofe who are defirous of information on the various
modes of attack to windward and leeward, .and by cutti1 :
the line, will confult ; but which does not admit of abridg-
ment within the limits that we are under the neceflity of
preferibing to ourfelves. a Hh

Tactics is alfo ufed for the art of inventing and making
machines for throwing of darts, arrows, ftoncs, fire-balls,
&e. by means of flings, bows, and counterpoifes. Vege-
tius, Hiero, &c. have written on thefe machines: and we
have them deferibed and figured by Lipfius. ‘

TACTILE, or Tancisrr, in the Schools,
that may fall under the fenfe of feeling.

_ Though atoms be corporeal, yet are they not either tac-
pee vi ible, by reafon of their {mallnefs.

e principal tangible qualities are, |
hardnefs, dnd Hasidic te Eickn Re Tae a

TACTION. Sce Frezinc.

Taction, in Geometry. See Tancenrr.

TACTUS, the Touch, in Midwifery, is the exploration
of the ftate of the vagina and uterus, and of the fituation
of the feetus, and whatever elfe is contained in it. Hippo-
crates, in his Treatife on the Difeafes of Women, has oe
very full and exa& in his dire&tions upon this fubjeet.

Tactus, Tad, in Mufic, before the ufe of bars, implied
nearly the fame thing as a bar: that is, the time when the

hand or foot is beaten down in marki
a arking the meafure.
Ital., the fame. J deme

‘fomething

TACUA,

TAD

TACUA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
Liguria, E. of Rutuba.

Tacua, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Arequipa; 20 miles E. of Arica.

TACUBA, a town of Mexico, N.W. of the city of
Mexico.

TACUMADARS, or TicuMmepgEs, a town of Africa,
in the country of Darah, the original country of the reign-
ing fherifs of Morocco. ;

TACZLI, a river of European Turkey, which runs
into the Danube, near Kilia, in Beffarabia. :

TADAPOOLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;

miles §.E. of Sattimungulum. ‘

TADCASTER, a market-town in the Weft Riding of
the county of York, England, is niné miles S.W. from the
city of York, and 190 miles N. of London. In the year
1811, it contained 382 houfes, and 1483 inhabitants. The
name of this place implies a Roman ftation, and accordingly
we find, that the Calcaria of Antoninus was fituated on the
courfe of a Roman road, between Eboracum or York, and
Mancunium or Manchefter, at nine miles diftance from the
former ; and this agrees with the {cite of the prefent
town. Dodfworth and fome other antiquaries, however,
place the Calcaria at Newton-Kyme, about a mile and a
half W. of Tadcafter. Horfley m “ Britannia Romana,’
and Drake in “ Eboracum,” are decifive in fixing the Ro-
man ftation at Fadcafter. It appears that many Roman
coins have been found here: fome banks and ditches fur-
round the town, and on the fouth fide of the river are re-
mains of intrenchments, called the Caftle. A confiderable
quantity of ftone was taken from this fortrefs to build a
bridge over the river Wharf at the beginning of the 18th
century. This bridge is generally defcribed as a very fine
ftruGture ; and its centre marks the union of the Weft
Riding of the county, with the Ainity of York and liberty
of St. Peter. Tadcafter has a weekly market on Wednef-
days, and four annual fairs.

Tadcafter and its vicinity have been twice diftinguifhed
and annoyed by the deftructive effeéts of civil warfare : firft
in the conflicts between the houfes of York and Lancatter :
and fecondly, between the royalifts and the republicans, about
the middle of the 17th century. On the former occafion,
it is related, that between 30,000 and 40,000 Englifhmen
* fell in deciding the queftion, whether a tyrant or an ideot
fhould be their mafter.”” After Edward IV. had been pro-
claimed in London, Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI.,
raiied an army, in the north, of about 60,000 men, all at-
tached to the Lancafterian interefts. Thefe were affembled at
York. When Edward with his army arrived at Pontefra@,
feveral fkirmifhes foor took place on the banks of the Aire,
and on Palm-Sunday, 29th March, 1461, the memorable
and fatal battle of Towton enfued. On this day it is faid,
that Henry’s army confifted of 60,000 men, and Edward’s
of about 48,600. Thefe commenced an engagement early
in the morning, and fought with great fury during the
whole day, with various degrees of fuccefs. At length,
however, Henry’s foldiers fell back, whilft Edward im-
pelied his forward with increafedimpetuofity. Many of the
former were drowned, and feveral noblemen were flain, whilft
Henry and Margaret fled into Scotland. Edward and his
foldiers retired to York, and afterwards went to London,
where the new monarch was crowned. In the year 1642
another battle occurfed at or near T'adcafter. Sir Thomas
Fairfax, with about 700 men, occupied this town in beh
of fhe Parliament, and were attacked by the royal army
under the earl of Newcaftle. After fighting a whole day,

TAD

the former retreated during the night, and left the royalifts
in poffeffion of the place.

About five miles S.E. of Tadcafter is Scarthingwell-
Hall, the feat of lord Hawke, who has paid particular at-
tention te agricultural improvements; and has fitted up a
farm with every convenient and ufeful accommodation.
(See Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of the County
of York.) Three miles fouth of the town is Haflewood-
Hall, the feat of the Vavafours, diftinguifhed for the fine-
nefs of its fcenery, and the variety and beauty of the pro-
{pects from its grounds. Bramham Park, the feat of James
Lane Fox, efq., is about four miles S.W. from 'Tadcafter.
—Drake’s Eboracum, fol. 1736. Beauties of England,
Yorkfhire, by J. Bigland, 8vo., 1815. Hargrove’s Hif-
tory, &c. of Knarefborough, 6th edit. 1809.

TADCUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 6 miles
S.E. of Caveripatam.

TADEMERI, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
100 miles N.E. of Chittledroog. N. lat. 14° 35") E.
long. 78°. ?

TADEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein; 14 miles
E. of Meldorp.

TADEPATRY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Cuddapa ; 24 miles N. of Gandicotta.

TADIPOODY, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda;
20 miles S.E. of Combamet.’

TADIVAN, or Tapuan, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan, fituated on a pleafant plain, in the
midft of ftreams, which defcend from the neighbouring
mountains, and planted with a variety of excellent fruit-
trees; 60 miles S. of Schiras.

TADMOR. See PArmyra.

TADORNA, the Anas tadorna of Linneus, in Orni-
thology, a name given by many authors to a fpecies of duck,
called by others wvulpanfer, and in Enghih the /hiel-drakes
or borough-duck ; and by fome the bergander. See Ducx.

It.is of a middle fize between the duck and goofe; its
beak is broad, fhort, and red; and at the origin of the
upper chop there is a large red tubercle of flefh; the head
and upper part of the neck are of a fine blackifh-green,
the lower part of the neck white; the breaft and upper
part of the back furrounded with a broad band of bright
orange-bay ; the coverts of the wings and middle of the
back are white; the neareft {capulars black, the others
white; the greateft quill-feathers black ; the exterior webs
of the next are of a fine green, and thofe of the three fuc-
ceeding orange; the coverts of the tail white, and the tail
of the fame colour, except the two outmoft feathers, which
are tipt,with black; the belly white, divided lengthwaye
by a black line; the legs are of a pale flefh-colour.

They inhabit the fea-coafts, and build in deferted rabbit-
holes ; but their flefh is not well tafted. -

When a perfon attempts to take their young, they divert
his attention by flying along the ground as if wounded, till
the brood are fecure, and then’return and colle& them to-
gether. Turner, therefore, concludes, that this bird is
the chenalopex, or fox-goofe of the ancients; and the
natives of the Orkneys at this day call it the /ly-zoo/e.

Thefe birds lay 15 or 16 white roundith eggs. In win-_
ter they collec in large flocks. Ray and Pennant.

TADOUN, or Tapivan, in Geographys a town of
Afiatic Turkey, in Armenia, fituated on the weft coaft of
the lake of Van, having a harbour for boats; 120 miles
§.S.E. of Erzerum.

TADOUSAC, a town of Lower Canada, at the mouth
of the Saguenay, on the left fide of the river St. Lawrence.

E2 The

TZN

The native Indians refort hither to exchange furs for cloth,
and other European goods. It was firit fettled by the
French, taken by the Englifh in 1629, retaken by the
French in 1633, and it was ceded with the reft of Canada;
100 miles N. - of Quebec. N. lat. 48° 5’. W. long.

°
TADPOLE. The animal called by this name is no other
than the frog in its firft ftate from the {pawn ; and this crea-
ture furnifhes the curious in microfcopic obfervations with a
beautiful view of the circulation of the blood, efpecially
when young. [ :

The method of procuring them for this purpofe in the

teft perfection, is this: let a {mall quantity of frog’s
pawn be kept for fome oii in water, and from this will
be produced a vaft number of young tadpoles ; thefe, while
very young, are perfeétly tranfparent, and when placed be-
fore the double microfcope, the heart may be eafily feen,
and its pulfation regularly obferved ; and the blood pro-
truded doce may be beautifully feen circulating through
the whole body ; but particularly in the tail, where, though
fo very minute, more than fifty veflels may be feen at one
view. The young brood grow more and more opaque every
hour, and in a day or two the circulation of the blood can
only be feen in their tail, or in the fins near the head. Baker’s
Microfcope, p. 126.

TZEDA, in Pharmacy, a term ufed by fome authors to
exprefs certain compofitions made up in form of troches.
Thefe are fometimes meant as peffaries ta be introduced
into the vagina, and therefore made into this form; fome-
times they are‘compofitions of fragrant or other ingredients
for fumigations.

Tzpa, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the
pinafter, or common wild pine, or mountain-pine.

TAEL. See Tare.

TANARIA, sasaex, in Antiquity, a feltival in honour
of Neptune, furnamed Tenarius, from Tenarus, a promontory
in Laconia, where he had a temple.

Tanai, or Tenarium, now Cape Matapan, in Ancient
Geography, a promontory of the Peloponnefus, S. of La-
conia, between the gulf of Meffenia and that of Laconia.
Here were formerly a grotto, and a temple of Neptune, which
rendered the place very famous, fo that it was reckoned to be
one of the mouths of hell, through which Hercules and
Pfyche defeended thither. The temple was accounted an
inviolable afylum. On this promontory there were #fo, a
ftatue of Arion, feated on a dolphin, and playing on the
lyre, and a fountain ofrwonderful efficacy.

TAENARIUM, a town of the Peloponnefus, upon the
promontory above defcribed.

Taxanium Marmor, the name of a marble ufed by the
ancient architects and ftatuaries. There were two kinds of
it, very different in colour, but perfectly agreeing in hard-
nefe, and in the high polifh they are capable of: ‘The firft,
or moft frequent kind, was black, and was dug from the
promontory called Zenarus, in the Lacedemonian fate ;
the other, which was more fearce, and much more beautiful,
was of a green colour, witha caft of yellow ; this was dug in
the Tagetan quarries, and was called by. fome marmor her-
hofum, and xanthon.

TAENIA, or Tanta, in Architedure, a member of the
Doric architrave, refembling .a fquare fillet, or reglet ; and
ferving in lieu of a cymatium.

The word is Greek, zawa«, which literally denotes a
fSwathe, bandage, fillet, or the like. Barbo renders it by /iftel,
but Palladio ufes the old name tenia. :

Lcon Baptilta Alberti calls the tenia, regule, and fa/-

TAN

ciola; and Daviler; bandeleties: Philander fays, there
are two kinds, viz. that above-mentioned, which he calls
the lower ; and an upper, which ferves for a capital to the
triglyphs. . ; j
aera; in Ichthyology, the name of a fith of the anguil-
liform, or eel-fhaped kind, common in the Mediterranean
fea, and brought to market in Italy and elfewhere. This
is a {pecies of cepola in the Linnwan fyftem. See Cepoza.

Tenia Cornuta, the horned tenia, a name given by many
authors to the fpecies of cobitis, named by Artedi, the
cobitis with a forked prickle placed under each eye. This
fith is the cobitis tenia of Linneus. See Cosiris.

Tznta, in Zoology, a genus of the Inteftina order of
worms; the chara¢ters of which are, that the body is flat
and articulated, and that the head is furnifhed with four
fucking bladders. Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnean
fy {tem, enumerates eighty-fix {pecies, befides feveral varieties.
Their habitations are the vifcera of men and of different
animals. Our limits will not allow us to fpecify and de-
feribe them. For an account of the tenia inteftinorum of the
human body, or lumbricus latus, we refer to Tapg-Worm.

TAENIOLONGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, upon the Iberian fea.
Prol. : bs dike

TENITIS, in Botany, from roinx, a ribband, or fillet,
becaufe of ‘the long narrow fhape of the frond.—Swartz
Fil. 24. Willd. Sp. Pl. vy. 5. 135.—Clafs- and order,
Se oo Filices. Nat. Ord. Filices. f+

“ff. Ch. Sorus linear, nearly uninterrupted, longitudinal,
between the rib and outer margin of the frond. Involucrum)
none. }

1. T. blechnoides. Pinnate Tape-fern. Swartz Fil. 220-
Willd. n.1. (“'T. pteroides ; Schkuhr Crypt. 21. t. 6.’
Sprengel Crypt. 411. t. 10. f. 106. Pteris blechnoides ;
Willd. Phytogr. 13. t. 9. f. 2.)—Frond pinnate ; leaflets
linear-lanceolate, tapering at each end, entire, fmooth,—
Native of the Eaft Indies. The whole frond is from eighteen.
to twenty-four inches, or more in height, {mooth, with a
fmooth, alien ey bluntly angular falk. Leaflets oppofite,
the lower ones oceafionally alternate, five or fix pair, equal,
about five inches long, and Half an inch wide in the middle.
Line of frudification on each fide of the mid-rib, about half
way between it and the margin. We mutt rely on the

authors cited as to the abfence of an involucrum. See
Sorus.

2. T. furcata. Forked Tape-fern. Willd. n. 2. “(Pteris
furcata; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1531. Swartz Fil. .o5. ingua

cervina furcata; Plum. Fil. 122. t. 141. Phyllitis afpera,
furcis lineatis; Petiv. Fil. n. 125. t.6. f. 6. )—Frond fimple,
repeatedly forked, linear-lanceolate, acute, wavy ; fealy be-
neath.—Gathered by Plumier in the woods of Hifpaniola.
No other botanift appears to have even feen afpecimen. The
root is tufted, fealy, bearing feveral fronds about a foot
high, leafy to the very bafe, once or twice forked, and
rather {preading, of a very thin membranous textures of a
fine green, and very fmooth, in front ; paler at the back,
clothed with reddifh pointed fcales, and furnifhed. with
a black fhining rib. The Jradification is ftationed in
a /orus, or line, two or three inches long, on each fide of
the nib, but nearer the margin, in the upper part of each
very acute lobe of the frond, the margin in that part being
even, not wavy. The want of an involucrum is. only pre-
fumed from Plumier’s figure, nor do we efteem the generic

character, of this {pecies at leaft, to be very certain.
Dr. Swartz hints at another poflible {pecies, the Blechnum
Jeminudum, Willd. Phytogr. 13. t. 8. f.2. But if it be fo,
the

TAF
the genus can have little pretenfions to be efteemed natural ;
and as Willdenow himfelf has not fubfequently followed this
hint, we prefume he thought it unauthorized by his own
f{pecimen, which has the afpet of a confluent Grammitis.

TAENSAPAVA, in Geography, a river of Weit Florida,
which runs into the Ibberville, N. lat. 30° 19’. W. long.
10° 12!, :

TAFALE, a river of Africa, which runs into the fea,
between the rivers Senegal and Nunez.

TAFALISGA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Jaaga, at the union of the Falema with the Senegal. _N. lat.
14° 42!. W. long. 10° 12!.

TAFALLA, a town of Spain, in Navarre, honoured
with the name of city by Philip IV. It has an univerfity ;
15 miles S. of Pamplona. N. lat. 42° 35!. W. long.
1° 43!.

TAFARA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam-
barra, on the. Niger; 115 miles S.W. of Sego.

TAFEELALAT, a town of Africa, in Sahara; 200
miles N. of Tombuétoo. N. lat. 19° go'. E. long. 2° 15/.

TAFELBERG, atown on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Ceram. S. Jat. 3° 20! E. long. 131° rol.

TAFELICHTE, a mountain on the borders of Lufatia,

540 feet above the level of the fea. »

TAFFAREL, or Tarr-raiz, in Ship-Building, the
upper part of a fhip’s ftern, ufually ornamented with carved
work, or mouldings, the ends of which unite with the
quarter-pieces.

TAFFAROWY, in Geography, a mountain of Algiers ;
13 miles S.E. of Oram.

TAFFETY, or Tarrary, in Commerce, a kind of fine,
fmooth, filken ftuff ; having, ufually, a remarkable luftre, or

ofs. :

Alamode,

Luftring,

Taffetas noir luftre of the French, is our alamode.

Non luftreis our luftring.

There are taffeties of all colours; fome plain, others
ftriped with gold, filver, filk, &c. others checquered, others
floweted, others in the Chinefe point, others the Hungarian ;
with various others to which the mode, or the caprice of the
workmen, gives fuch whimfical names, that it would be-as
difficult, as it is ufelefs, to rehearfe them: befides, that they
feldom hold beyond the year in which they firft rofe. \ The
old names of taffeties, and which ftill fubfitt, are, taffeties of
Lyons, of Spain, of England, of Florence, of Avignon, &c.

The chief confumption of taffeties is in the fummer-
drefies for women, in gowns, linings, window-curtains, &c.

There are three things which contribute chiefly to the
perfeCtion of taffeties, viz. the filk, the water, and the fire.
The filk is not only to be of the fineft kind, but it muft be work-
ed a long time, and very much before it beufed: the watering
is only to be given very lightly, ard feems only intended to
give that fine luftre, by a peculiar property not found in all
water: laftly, the fire, which is paffled under it to dry the
water, has its particular manner of application, on which the
perfection of the ftuff depends very much.

Odtavio. May, of Lyons, is held the firft founder of the
manufaéture of gloffy taffeties; and tradition tells us the
occafion of it. OGavio, it feems, going backwards in the
world, and not able to retrieve himfelf by the manufaQure
of taffeties, fuch as were then made, was one day mufing on
his misfortunes, and, in mufing, chanced to chew a few
hairs of filk which he had in his mouth: his reverie being
over, the filk he fpit out feemed to fhine, and, on that ac-
count, engaged his attention. He was foon led to refle&t on
the reafon; and, after a good deal of thought, concluded,

the taffetas noirs of Lyons.

Az

that the luitre of that filk muft come, 1. From his having
prefled it between his teeth. 2, From his having wetted it
with his faliva, which had fomething glutinous in it. And,
3- From its having been heated by the natural warmth of
his mouth. All this he executed upon the next taffeties he
made, and immediately acquired immenfe riches to himfelf,
and to the city of Lyons the reputation it. {till maintains, of
giving the glofs to taffeties better than any other city in the
world,

It will not, we Conceive, be lefs ufeful than curious, to
infert here the defcription of the engine contrived by Oc-
tavio to give the glofs to taffety ; and to add the manner of
applying it, and the compofition of the water ufed in it.

The machine is much like a filk-loom, except that, in-
ftead of iron points, here is ufed a kind of crooked needles,
to prevent the taffety from flipping: at the two extremities
are two beams, on one of which is rolled the taffety to take
the glofs ; and on the other, the fame taffety, as faft as it
has received it. The firft beam is kept firm by a weight of
about two hundred pounds, and the other turned by means
of a little lever paffing through mortifes at each end. The
more the taffety is Feiches the greater luftre it takes:
care, however, is to be ufed that it be not weakened by
oyer-{tretching,

Befides this inftrument: for keeping the ftuff ftretched,
there is another to give it the fire: this is a kind of carriage,
in form of a long {quare, and of the breadth of the tafféties :
it moves on trundles, and carries a charcoal fire under the
taffety, at the diftance of about half a foot.

Thefe two machines prepared, and the taffety mounted,
the luftre is given it by rubbing it gently with a ball, ora
handful of lifts of fine cloth, as it rolls from one beam to
the other ; the fire, at the fame time, being carried under-
neath it to dry it. As foon as the piece has its luftre, it is
put on new beams to be ftretched a day or two ; and the
oftener this laft preparation is repeated, the more it increafes
the glofs.

For black taffeties, the glofs is given with double beer
and orange or lemon-juice ; but this Jaft is the leaft proper,
as being apt to whiten them. The proportion of the two
liquors is, a gallon of orange-juice to a pint of beer, to be
boiled together to the confiftence of a rich broth. For
coloured taffeties, they ufe gourd-water diftilled in an
alembic.

There are alfo feveral different forts of taffeties manufac-
tured in China; as corded taffeties, which wear well; and
alfo fome with flowers, and others beautifully ftriped ; and
a particular taffety, of which they make drawers, and other
kinds of wearing apparel. ‘This laft is thick, and yet fo
pliant, that it may be folded and preffed with the hand, with-
out leaving any mark init. They alfo wath it, like other
ftuffs, without its lofing much of its luftre. The Chinefe
workmen give the luitre to this taffety with the fat of the
river-porpoife, which they purify by wafhing dnd boiling ;
and then with a fine brufh, ‘they give the taflety two beds in
the fame dire€tion, on the fide which ‘they intend to render

lofly.
a TAFFI, ANDREA, in Biography, was one of thofe early
matters to whom the revival of the arts in Italy is attributed.
His fhare lay in. the praétice of mofaic painting, which he
learned of a Greek monk, named Apollonius, who had been
called to. Venice to work in the great church of St. Marco ;
and who afterwards accompanied Taffi to Florence. Andrea

-was born at Florence in the year 1213, and died there at the

age of 81.
TAFILET, or Tarizett, in Geography, a diftrié, for-
merly a kingdom of Africa, in the empire of Morocco, and
. country

TAF

country of Biledulgerid, caging. along the eaft fide of
mount Atlas; the habitations of which are about 1500 fcat-
tered houfes, and of thefé feveral are defended by a tower,
and each of them ftands amidft an inclofure of gardens, cul-
tivated grounds, and plantations of palm-trees,, forming a
variegated and pleafant country, interfected by man rivers
and rivulets, defcending from the eaft of mount Atlas, and
ferving to water their lands. Tafilelt, as well as Draha,
produces a fuperior breed of goats, and a great abuadance
of dates, which are fmall, but good, conftituting the
wealth of the country, and fupplying food for the people,
and even for the cattle. Although the Koran prohibits the
“ ufe of fpirituous liquors, yet by ancient cuftom, brandy is
made at Tafilelt of dates, which is very ftrong, and drank
fo immoderately by the therifs, that wine produces no effect
upon them. Moft.of thefe fherifs are poor, and employ
themfelves in their grounds and gardens, and very frequently
pillage one another. The countries fituated near the banks
of the rivers of Draha and Tafilelt have feveral plantations
of Indian corn, rice, and indigo. The town of Tafilelt,
after which the kingdom was named under the fherifs of the
reigning houfe, is not an ancient city. It derives its name
from the word “ Fileli,’’ which denominates the inhabitants
of the country, and alfo the ftuffs and carpets which are
here manufaétured. The foil’of the extenfive plain on which
it is fituated is a whitifh clay, which when moiltened refem-
bles foap ; and though it paffes a river that rifes in the At-
las, Be Bhar a courfe ie the S.W. to the N.E., being
at Tafilelt about as wide as the Thames at Putney, its
water, traverfing the faline plains, is brackifh: after a courfe
of about 450 miles, it is abforbed in the defert of Angad.
It has feveral caftles of tarrace on its banks, inhabited by
the fherifs or princes of the reigning family of Morocco.
Wheat and barley have been lately cultivated near the river
and the caftles. Another river of inferior note rifes in the
lains N. of Tafilelt, and flowing in a foutherly direétion,
1s abforbed in the Great Defert or Sahara. The water of
this river is alfo brackifh, and unfit for culinary purpofes.
The inhabitants of this country, it is faid, poffefs fuch a
fenfe of honour, that a robbery is fearcely known among
them, though they ufe no locks. Commercial tranfaétions
are carried on amongft them by barter or exchange, fo that
they have little fpecie ; but in all tranfactions of magnitude,
gold-duft is the circulating medium. They live in the fimple
patriarchal manner of the Arabs, differing from them only
in having walled habitations, which are invariably near the
river. “Phe climate during a great part of the year is in-
tenfely hot, and the fhume, or hot wind from Sahara, blow-
ing tempeftuoufly in July, Auguft, and September, and
carrying with it particles of earth and fand, 1s very perni-
cious to the eyes of the inhabitants. A confiderable trade
is carried on from Tafilelt to Tombuétoo, Houffa, and
Jinnie, S. of Sahara, and alfo to Morocco, Fez, Sufe, Al-
giers, Tunis, and T'ripoli.. Indigo abounds, but by reafon
of the indolence of the cultivators, it is of inferior quality.
Here are alfo mines of antimony and lead-ore. The common
drefs confifts of a loofe thirt of blue cotton, with a fhawl or
belt round the waiit. A caravan pafles annually from hence
to Tombuétoo, Woollen haiks, of a curious texture,
being light and fine, are manufactured here. The Tafilelt
goats are very prolific, and afford a rich milk in great
abundance : and therefore they conftitute an article of confi-
derable export. The Tafilelt leather is very foft and fine,
and much juperior to that of Morocco : it is as foft and pliable
as filk,and impervious to water. The tanners ufe the leaves
of a fhrub called tézra, which grows in the Atlas moun-
tains, to which fome have aferibed the peculiar quality of

TAG

the leather ; though others afcribe it to fome quality in the air
and water. The population of the diftri& of Tafilelt is
ftated by Mr. Jackfon at 650,000. ‘The town is 140 miles
E.S.E. of Morocco. N. lat. 31° 20’. W. long. 6°.

TAFNA, a river of Algiers, which runs into the Me-
diterranean, near Tackumbreet.

TAFO, or Tara, a town of Africa, on the Gold
Coatt. d

“TAG, or TacceE, in Rural Economy. See TEs...

Tac, or Tag-Sore, a difeafe in theep, which confifts, as
{tated in a paper in the third volume of the “ Tranfaétions
of the Highland Society of Scotland,” of fcabs and fores
fituated on the under fide of the tail; arifing, in warm wea-
ther, from its being fouled with purging and other dif-
charges. The matter hardens there, irritates the tender
veffels, and produces fores, which, if not attended to, run
into mortification, and prove fatal, as in the legs. See
Sweiuinc or Leg-Evil. —

It is fhewn by the fheep turning frequently round to bite
the tail. ‘

As this complaint arifes principally from purging, and the
naftinefs caufed by it, &c. the firft thing to be done is the
reftraining and cure of this evacuation ; after which the tail
of the animal is to be clipped, and the fore part laid bare,
wathed carefully with milk and water, blood-warm, and
then with lime-water. The fheep is then to be turned out _
into a dry pafture, and looked at again in two or three da
and if not then well, the wafhing muit be repeated, and
parts anointed with greafe and tar mixed together in equal

roportions. "

TAGABONA, in Geography, a river of Weft Florida,
which runs into the St. Mark, N. lat. 30° 22/.. W. long.
84° 34!. ;

TAGADEMPT, Tacapeont, or Tigedent, a town of
Algiers, anciently called Vaga; 60 miles E.S.E. of Oran.

TAGE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Par-
thia, near the river Oxus, and on the confines of Hyr-
cania.

TAGAT, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Simbirfk; 48 miles W. of Simbirfk. N
lat. 54° 20’. E. long. 47°.

AGAL, a town of the ifland of Java, on the N. coaft,
the refidence of a Dutch agent for the purchafe of rice ;
35 miles E. of Cheribon.

TAGALA, Ta-Gala, or Gala language, is among the
Philippines what the Malayu is in the Malay iflands, or the
Hindoftani in Hindooftan Proper. It poffefles the com-
bined advantages of the four principal languages in the
world:; it is myfterious as the Hebrew; it has articles for.
nouns, both appellative and proper, like the Greek; it is
elegant and copious as the Latin; and equal to the Italian,
as the language of compliment or bufinefs. This language
has been cultivated only by the Spanith miffionaries. The
Tagala grammar of Fra. Gafpar de San Auguitin, was
printed in 1703, and again in 1787. The alphabet confifts
of feventeen letters, three of which are vowels, and four-
teen confonants. The Tagala chara@ters are faid to have
been derived from the Malays, and they are read with as
much difficulty as the eafe with which they are written. This
Tagala is written with an iron ftyle on bamboos and palm-
leaves, and the Spanifh miffionaries affert, that the ancient
mode of writing was from top to bottom, like the Chinefe.
This language, with a confiderable number of peculiar vo-
cables, and great fingularity of idiom, is neverthelefs to be
confidered as a cognate language with Malayu, Bujis, and
Javanefe. Few languages, on a curfory examination, pre-
fent a greater appearance of originality than the Tagala.

For

TL AG

For a farther account of it, we refer to Dr. Leyden’s Effay
on the “ Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinefe
Nations,” inthe Afiatic Refearches, vol. x.

_ TAGALAZ, in Geography, one of the Fox iflands, in
the North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 53° 30'. E. long.
185° 26’.

AGAMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in the interior of Libya, upon the bank of the Niger.
Ptol.

Tacama, in Geography, a country of Africa, in Nigri-
tia, W. of Cafhna.

TAGANROG, a fort of Ruffia, on the fea of Azoph,
firft built by Peter the Great in 1696; 32 miles W.N.W.
fue: zok hy

Taganrog is fituated upon the cliff of a very lofty pro-
montory, commanding an extenfive profpe& of the fea
of Azof, and the whole European coaft to the mouths
of the Don. The number of inhabitants does not at pre-
fent exceed 5000. The mole in the haven is fo fhallow, that
fhips performing quarantine lie off at thé diftance of 10
miles, and all veflels drawing from g to 10 feét of water
cannot approach nearer to the town than this diftance. This
town has funk into decay; and all the beft houfes are in its
fuburbs. If it had water, its fituation is very favourable
for commerce ; but it can be carried on here only for three
months in the year. In the winter the fea is frozen. Here
are three fairs in the year. The fith caught in great abund-
ance in the fea of Azof is dried and fent over all the fouth
of Ruffia. Fruit is brought from Turkey, fuch as figs,
raifins, and oranges; Greek wine from the Archipelago,
with incenfe, coffee, filk, fhawls, tobacco, and precious
ftones. Copper of a very inferior quality comes from Tre-
bifond, and is forwarded to Mofcow. Among the principal
exports are caviare, butter, leather, tallow, corn, fur, can-
vas, rigging, lines, wool, hemp, and iron. The greateft
advantage this town enjoys is its being the depofitory of Si-
berian produétions. The Calmucks form large fettlements
in the vicinity of Taganrog. It is the refort of people
from a great variety of countries ; infomuch that the inha-
bitants of fifteen different countries have been obferved in
this place at the fame time.

TAGAPOLA, a {mall ifland among the Philippines ;
25 miles W. of the ifland of Samar. |

TAGARA, an ancient city of India, known to the
Greeks about 2050 years ago. Arian, in his Periplus
Maris Erythrei, fays that it was a large city, and all kinds
of mercantile goods throughout the Deccan were brought
hither, and hence conveyed in carts to Baroach, or Bary-
gaza. Arian alfo informs us that Tagara was fituated at
about 10 days’ journey E. of another famous mart, called
Plithana, or. Pluthana; that Pluthana was 20 days’ journey
S. of Baroach ; and that the road to it was through-the
Bala-gaut mountains. Pluthana, now called Pultanah, is
fituated on the fouthern bank of the Godavery, about 217
Britifh miles to the fouthward of Baroach. If we divide
thefe 217 miles by 20, the number of days travellers {pent
in pafling from between Pultanah and Baroach, according to
Arrian, we fhall have nearly 11 miles per day, or.5 cofs,
which is the ufual rate of travelling with heavy loaded carts.
Arrian informs us, that Tagara was about 10 days’ journey
W..of Pultanah. Allowing thefe 10 days to be equal to about
100 Britifh miles, Tagara, by its bearing and diftance from
Pultanah, falls at Deoghire, or Deogire (which fee), a
place of great antiquity, and famous through all India, on
account of the pagodas of Eloura. It is now. called Dow-
latabad, and about four cofs N.W. of Aurungabad. It ap-
pears in Arrian’s Periplus, that on the arrival of the Greeks

3

2 ee

into the Deccan, above 2000 years ago, Tagara was the
metropolis of a large diftri@ called Ariaca, which compre-
hended the greatelt part of fubah Aurungabad, and the
fouthern part of Concan. About the middle of the firft cen-
tury, Tagara was no longer the capital of Ariaca, rajah
Salbahan having removed the feat of the empire to Pattan.
However, the rajahs, headed by Salbahan, having revolted,
they gave him battle, and he was flain. Tagara became
again the metropolis of Ariaca; at leaft this was the cafe
towards the latter end of the eleventh century. When the
Maffulmans carried their arms into the Deccan, about the
year 1293, Tagara or Deoghir was itill the refidence of a
powerful rajah, and remained fo till thetime of Shah-Jehan,
when the diftri& belonging to it ‘became a fubah of the
Mogul empire. Thus ‘Vagara was deferted, and’ Kerkhi,
four cofs S.E. of it, became the capital, now called Aurun-
gabad. Thus the ancient kingdom or rajahfhip of Tagara
was deftroyed, after it had exifted, with little Interruption,
above 2000 years. Aiatic Refearches, vol. i.

TAGASA, a town of Fez, feated on a river about
three leagues from the Mediterranean; 20 miles W. of
Melilla.

TAGASTA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Africa, ix
Numidia, on the route from Hippone to Cefarea. An-
ton. Itin.

‘TAGAVAST, in Geography. See Tacoasr.

TAGAZEE, a town of Africa, on the’ road from
Mourzouk to Agades; 260 miles S. of Mourzouk. N.
Jat..23? ga’ Pjilongs 12° gst \.\-

TAGAZOUTE, a town of Algiers ; 45 miles §.E. of
Oran.

TAGEBACHI, an ifland in the Red fea. N. lat.
257 2h. ihoe

TAGETES, in Botany, a name which Fuchfius tells us
is applied by Apuleius to the Tanfy, but which he himfelf
adopts for a plant, not very diflimilar in foliage, now vul-
garly called the French, or African, Marygold. He is
ollowed by Dillenius, Linnzus, and every fubfequent
writer. De Theis derives the word from Tages, an’ Etruf-
can deity, grandfon of Jupiter, and teacher of divination ;
and fuppofes the beauty of its flowers may have procured
the plant this mythological appellation. OF this intention
we can find no traces in the above writers.—Linn. Gen.
430. Schreb. 561. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2126. Mart.
Mill. Dict. vy. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 88. Tourn.
t. 278. Juff. 182. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 684. Gertn.
t. 172.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fuperflua.
Nat. Ord. Compofite oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.

Gen. Chs Common calyx perfeGly fimple, of one leaf,
tubular, oblong, with about five teeth, and as many longitu-
dinal angles. Cor. compound, radiant. Florets of the ele-
vated difk numerous, all perfeé&t, tubular, longer than the
calyx, ereét, cut half way down into five linear fegments,
villous at the infide: thofe of the radius five, ligulate, fe-
male, longer than thofe of the difk, their limb almoft as
broad as ed very obtufe, contraéted and downy towards
the tube, permanent. Stam. in the perfeé florets, Filaments
five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical
tube. Pi/f. in the perfeét florets, Germen oblong; ftyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigma divided,
flender, reflexed. Peric. none, the calyx remaining un-
changed. Seeds, to both kinds of florets, folitary, linear,
comprefled, rather fhoxter than the calyx ; crowned with five,
more or lefs, ereét, pointed, unequal {cales. Recept. naked,
fmall, flat.

Qbf. Ina cultivated flate, the two common garden fpe-
cies have ufually, from Juxuriance, more fegments in the

calyx,

TAGETES.

«calyx, and more florets in the radius, than is natural; one of
thefe luxuriant flowers is what Gertner has delineated.
Some more recently difcoyered {pecies, on the other hand,
have naturally but three or four radiant florets.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seed-down of feveral ereé&
pointed fcales. Calyx fimple, of one leaf, tubular, with five
teeth. Florets of the radius five, permanent.

y. T. patula. French Marygold. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1249.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Loureir Cochinch. 504. Curt.
Mag. t. 150. (Flos aphricanus minor, fimplici flore ; Ger.
Em. 750. Caryophyllus indicus minor ; Camer. Epit 407.)

8. T. minor, flore fulvo maculato; Dill. Elth. 373.
t. 279.—Stem fpreading. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets lanceo-
late, with hair-pointed ferratures. Stalks fingle-flowered,
fomewhat {welling upwards.—Native of Mexico, from
whence it was brought to the gardens of Europe, about the
middle of the fixteenth century, and hence difperfed over
other countries, being now, according to Loureiro, com-
monly cultivated in pas ite China, and various parts
of India. With us it is a tender annual, raifed ona hot-bed
in {pring ; and being planted out after midfummer, decorates
almoft every garden throughout the autumn. Its appella-
tions of French Marygold, and African Flower, are alto-

ether founded in error. The flem is about a foot or 18
ches high, branched and widely fpreading. Leaves oppo-
fite, of five or fix pair of dark green fhining leaflets, with an
odd one ; all gradually {maller downwards. Flowers about
two inches in diameter, yellow, with broad lateral ftripes, or
{pots, to each radiant floret, of a peculiarly rich brown.
They vary in fize and tints, as well as fcent, and are gene-
rally more or lefs double. The plant of Dillenius hardly de-
ferves to be marked as a variety. The herb when bruifed is
very fetid, acrid, and fuppofed to be poifonous, though too
naufeous to be very dangerous. Few flowers are morg
itriking in appearance.

2. f. eredla. African Marygold.
Willd. n. 3. Ait. Die (Flos aphricanus major; Ger.
Em. 749. Caryophyllus major indicus; Befl: Eyftet. eft.
ord.14.t.2. C. indicus; Camer. Epit. 406. )—Stem ereét.
Leaves pinnate ; leaflets lanceolate, with hair-pointed fer-
ratures. Stalks fingle-flowered, {welling upwards.—Native
of Mexico ; introduced into the gardens of Europe about
the fame time as the foregoing, nor is the epithet of African
more correétly applied to one than to the other. The fame
mode of culture fuits both, and both are equally common.
This fpecies is much the talleft,and grows erect. The eaves
are rather paler, F/owers twice as large, of a golden uni-
form yellow ; fometimes orange-coloured. Columna, in his
Ecphrafis, part 2. 47. t. 46, reprefents a quilled variety, as it
is termed, whofe radiant forets are funnel-fhaped, arid another
nero rape are all of that fort.

3. T. elongata. Long-ftalked American Marygold.
Willd. n, 4.—Stem ereét, nearly fimple. Leaves pinnate ;
leaflets linear, ferrated at the na | ; thofe of the lower leaves
wedge-fhaped. Stalks fingle-flowered, elongated, flightly
{welling.—Native of South America. Root annual. Stem
from three inches to a {pan high, either fimple, or furnifhed
with a branch or two from the bottom. Leaflets of the
lower leaves obovato-lanceolate, ferrated at the extremity 5
thofe of the upper linear, with a few flightly hair-pointed
ferratures at the end. Sta/& folitary at the top of the ftem
or branch, and almoft as long as the ftem ithelf. Flower
deep yellow, agreeing in form and ftruéture with 7.
patula,

4. 'T. minuta. Small-flowered Chili Marygold. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1250, Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 4. f multiflora,
ginuto flore pee | Dill. Elth, 374, t. 280.) —Stem

Linn. Sp. Pl. 1249.

ereét, denfely panicled. Leaves pinnate; leaflets lanceo-
late, ferrated. Stalks many-flowered, {caly.—Native of
Chili. Cultivated in Dr. Sherard’s garden, before the year
1728. A hardy annual, flowering in autumn, but feldom
preferved in colleétions. The flemis ten or twelve feet hist
covered with Jeaves, which are {maller than thofe of the fir
fpecies. The flowers are very {mall and pale, forming denfe,
compound, tufted, ereét panicles, at the ends of the branches ;
their flalks clothed with briftly {cales. Calyx cylindrical.
Radius of two, three, or four varioufly lobed florets. _'Fhis
is furely the Chili plant of which Feuillé (quoted by Dillle-
nius ) defcribes two varieties, differing in the number of their
radiant florets ; and which he fays is extremely hot in qua-
lity. The Indians eat it to warm themfelves after their
return from fifhing. :

. T. caracafana. Long-ftalked South American Mary-
gold. Willd.n. 6. (T. peduncularis ; Cavan. Leccion.
201. n. 494.?)—* Stem corymbofe, furrowed, ere&t. Leaves
pinnate; leaflets lanceolate, ferrated at the end. Stalks
elongated, fingle-flowered, erect. Calyx cylindrical.”’—
Gathered by Baron Humboldt at the Caraccas.— Root an-
nual. Stem corymbofe at the top. Leaflets linear-lanceo-
late, ferrated at the’end, not fringed. FVowers like thofe of
the next fpecies, on long alternate ftalks. Leaflets of the
uppermoft leaves entire. Willdenow. ‘The plant ef Cava-
nilles was raifed in the garden at’ Madrid, from fee col=
leéted at Cumana by Bonpland, the companion of the cele-
brated Humboldt. The /lem is defcribed a foot and-a half
high, furrowed, much branched. Flower-flalks fix inches long,
tumid near the calyx, leafy in their lower part. Corolla en-
tirely yellow, with fix or eight rays fhorter than in the fol-
lowing. We find nothing in his account which is not con-
formable to the plant before us, and fhould have been glad
if we could have adopted his greatly preferable {pecific
name.

6. 'T. tenuifolia. Fine-leaved Peruvian Marygold. Cavan.
Tc. v. 2. 54. t. 169. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5.—Stem pani-
cled. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets linear, ferrated ; their lower
ferratures elongated. Stalks alternate, fingle-flowered. Ca-
lyx club-fhaped.—Native of Peru.. Cavanilles.. We have
{pecimens from Mutis. Mr. W. Malcolm is faid in Hort.
Kew. to have cultivated this fpecies in 1797, but being a
rig roe annual, greatly inferior in fize and beauty to
the popular {pecies of the fame genus, it has probably not
been preferved. The appearance of the dried {fpecimens is
like a ftarved 7. patula, with more numerous, much fmaller,

flowers than ufual. The calyx abounds with oblong glan~
dular dots, of which tracesare likewife found in that {pecies.
The corolla is defcribed of a full unfpotted yellow.

9. T. elliptica. Oval-leaved Peruvian M: gold.—Stem
erect, branched. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets elliptical, with
fhallow ferratures. Stalks corymbofe, with lanceolate brac-
teas.—Native of Peru. We received a dried fpecimen from
the late abbé Cavanilles, in-1804. The fem has a fhrubby
appearance, and is much branched, leafy and furrowed.
Leaflets {carcely vifibly ferrated, pointed, fmooth and even 3
the lower ones of each leaf gradually {maller, and moftly al- «
ternate. Flowers rather numerous, aot very much fmaller
than in 7. patula when not luxuriant; their partial ftalks
accompanied by alternate lanceolate bradeas.. Calyx marked
with cattered, apparently glandular, lines. This is cer-
tainly very diftiné from all the fpecies we can find dee
fcribed.

8. T. micrantha. Small-flowered Mexican Marygold,
Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 31. t.352. Willd. n. 8.—Stem much
branched, {preading. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets linear-awl-
fhaped, entire. Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered.—-Gathered by

Louis

TAG

Louis Née, near the town of Querétaro, in New Spain.
it flowered in the Madrid garden, in O&ober 1796. Root
annual. Stems hardly a foot high, round, rather woody,
f{mooth like every other part of the plant. The flendernefs
of the eaves, and f{mallnefs of the flowers, give this {pecies
the appearance of a Pectis or Herrrospermum (fee thofe
articles) ; but the calyx is perfeGtly fimple, tubular, with
five furrows and five teeth. Florets of the radius two only,
whitifh and undivided: thofe of the difk generally five,
yellow, fcarcely more than four-cleft. Seeds long, com-
prefled, each crowned with two briftles, and two intermediate,
notched, unequal f{cales.

9- T. lucida. Sweet Chili Marygold. Cavan. Ic. v. 3.

33. t. 264. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Curt. Mag. t. 740.
Andr. Repof. t. 359.— Leaves fimple, finely ferrated.
Panicle corymbofe.—Native of New Spain. Its feeds were
brought to England in 1798, by the late marchionefs of
Bute, along with many other novelties from the gardens of
Madrid. The root is perennial, and will endure our ordi-
nary winters, with a flight degree of protection. Stem erect,
about two feet high, round, ftriated, leafy, {mooth ; branched
inthe upper part. Leaves one and a half or two inches long,
oppolite, on fhort, broad, combined foot/alks, elliptic-oblong,
fmooth, veiny, full of pellucid dots; their lower ferratures
tipped with briftly points, or hairs. Panicle level-topped,
many-flowered ; its {talks angular, fmooth, with linear-lan-
ceolate braéeas. Calyx half an inch long, befprinkled with
Santuler dots. Flowers of a golden yellow, agreeably
cented ; their radiant florets generally three, very broad.
Seed crowned with from two to five linear-lanceolate unequal
feales. The ferratures of the leaves are very incorreétly re-
prefented in Cavanilles’s plate, where they are made to re-
femble a fringe of fine hairs, which only belongs to the lower
ones and is not exprefled in any of the figures hitherto pub-
ifhed. ’

Tacetes, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the herbaceous
ennual kind, among which the fpecies moftly cultivated are,
the French marygold (T. patula), and the African mary-
gold (T. ereéta).

The firft fort has feveral varieties, as the pale yellow-
flowered, deep yellow-flowered, golden yellow-flowered,
erimfon-coloured, velvety, variegated crimfon and yellow,
ftriped crimfon and yellow; each of which has both fingle
and double flowers: and there are the large-flowered, {mall-
flowered, {weet-fcented, and the dwarf French marygolds.

In the fecond fort, alfo, there are varieties ; as thofe with
pale yellow or brimftone-coloured flowers, with deep yellow
flowers, with orange-coloured flowers; the fweet-fcented
and the dwarf, &c.; each with fingle, double, and fiftulous
flowers ; the middling African, with orange-coloured flowers,
and the fweet-fcented African, and perhaps fome others.

Method of Culture—ANl thefe plants are increafed by
feeds, which fhould be fown in the beginning of April upon
a hot-bed ; and when the plants appear, they fhould have
plenty of frefh air, and, after they have attained fome
growth, be tranfplanted on to another hot-bed, which is
arched over by hoops, at the diftance of fix inches; water-
ing and fhading them well till frefh-rooted, being afterwards
gradually inured to the open air; and about the beginning
of May they may be taken up with balls of earth about
their roots, and be planted in pots, to be fet out in the
courts, yards, &c. about the houfe, fhading them till frefh
rooted, and giving them water occafionally. But the firft
fort divides and fpreads out widely near the ground, in a
rambling manner, and requires to be trimmed up at bottom
to a fingle ftem, and its branches occafionally, to preferve
the head fomewhat regular, and within due bounds.

Vor, XXXV.

2 ALG

Tn raifing them in the open ground, in cafe of the default
of hot-beds and other conveniencies, the feed fhould not be
fown before the beginning of April, when the plants are to
be covered and protected in the nights, and in fevere
weather ; and when otherwife, not until the middle or latter
end of it, and then in a warm rich fituation, -either in drills
of half an inch in depth, or on the furface, and raked in
lightly. After the plants are a few inches high, they fhould
be planted out either finally into the borders and other parts,
or, when too fmall, into nurfery-rows for a little time, and
then fet out where they are to remain.

Two or three plants may be placed nearly together, in
patches at five or ten feet diftance; and when they fhew
their flowers, fo as to judge of their properties, the worft
may be cleared away, and one only of the beft left to eack
patch, &c. The fame way may be had recourfe to in
planting in pots, &c.

In the future culture of all thefe kinds of plants, occa-
fional waterings are neceflary, frequently the firft and fecond
weeks after planting out, but more feldom afterwards.
Thofe in pots fhould have it three times in the week con-
ftantly, and morning and night in very hot weather.

Stakes are requifite to the itrong large-headed plants, one
to each. They fhould alfo be properly trimmed in their
fide-branches near the bottom, and the too great ramblersy
to produce regularity.

However, the fecond fpecies in particular, and the va-
rieties of it, as they always grow firmly ereét, both in {tem
and branches, require but very little trouble after their final
planting out: they afford ornament and variety, among
other plants, in the borders, clumps, and other parts of
pleafure-grounds, as well as in pots for particular places
about the houfe, among other potted annual plants. The
feeds of each fpecies, and their varieties, fhould be annually
faved from the beit plants.

All the forts grow very well and freely in any common
garden foil, which is in an open expofure, exhibiting a par-
ticularly confpicuous autumnal bloom, in long fucceffion ;
and when properly arranged, and difpofed in affemblage
with other forts of plants, afford a highly ornamental variety
and effeét, in the great diverfity of the yarious forms and
colourings of the flowers, in the different forts and varieties.

In faving the feed, it fhould be colleéted only from the
fineft and fulleft double flowers, when perfectly ripe, keep-
ing that of the different varieties quite diftin@. The prime
large heads of feed of each fort, after being well dried, may
either have the feed beat and rubbed out, or kept in them,
putting the whole up into bags, boxes, or drawers, until
the period of putting them into the ground, Frefh feed
fhould conftantly be ee every year, as that of more than
one year old will feldom grow well, ;

TAGGAH, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Algiers; 24 miles S.E. of Seteef. ;

TAGGIA, a town of the Ligurian republic ; 4 miles
N.E. of St. Remo.

TAGGING. See SHEARING,

TAGHAYOOG Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft
coalt of the ifland of Paraguay. WN, lat. 25° 2/.

TAGHMON, a poft-town of the county of Wexford,
Ireland, on the road from New Rofs to Wexford, which
was a borough before the union, and fent two members to
the houfe of commons. It is 73 miles S. by W. from
Dublin, and about g W. from Wexford.

TAGIA, a fmall ifland in the bay of Gunong-Tellu, on
the eaft coaft of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 30’, E. long. 122° 6’.

TAGIABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 15 miles E, of Natens

sh F TAGIAH,

TAG

TAGIAH, ariver of Algiers, which runs into the Medi-
terranean, 24 mi . of Oran. ;

TAGIDOG, ariver of North Wales, which runs into
the Alen, 4 miles N. of Wrexham.

TAGIL, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Tura,
48 miles W. of Turinfk.

TAGILSKOI, Vercuner, a town of Ruffia, in the
province of Ekaterinburg ; 52 miles N. of Ekaterinburg.

Tacusko1, Niznei, a town of Ruffia, in the province of
Ekaterinburg ; 60 miles N. of Ekaterinburg.

TAGIOURA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Tripoli; 10 miles E. of Tripoli.

TAGLARET, a town in the department of the Po ;
7 miles W. of Pinerolo.

TAGLIACOZZI, or Taxtacotius, GAsPpaARo, in
Biography, was born at Bologna in 1546, and practifed with
celebrity as a phyfician and furgeon in his native city from
the year 1570 to 1599, where he died. The peculiar prac-
tice, implied in his name, was that of reftoring loft parts by
infition ; and this praétice he derived from fome Neapolitan
and Sicilian furgeons. It was founded on the principle, that
two raw furfaces of living bodies or parts, attached to each
other in clofe contaét, will adhere and mutually tranfmit
circulating fluids. On this fubjeét he publifhed two trea-
tifes: viz. ‘ Epiftola ad Hieronymum Mercurialem de
Naribus, multo ante abfciffis, reficiendis,’? Francof. 1587 ;
and “ De Curtorum Chirurgia per Infitionem, Lib. duo,
additis.Cutis traducis, Inftrumentorum omnium, atque De-
ligationum, iconibus et tabulis,’? Venet. 1597, fol. A
fimilar practice has anciently prevailed in India, and is now
occafionally adopted after the common punifhment of am-
putating the nofe; for reftoring which, a piece from the
{kin of the forehead is ingenioufly engrafted. Modern fur-
geons have availed rhenefateer of the principle, by bringing
over flaps of the adjacent fkin, in order to accelerate the
healing after amputation, and other operations. Haller.
Eloy. Gen. Biog.

TAGLIACOZZO, in Geography, a town of Naples,
in Abruzzo Ultra; 18 miles S.W. of Aquila. N. lat. 42°
4. E. Leif 1% 19!.

TAGLIATO, Ital., in Mujfic, is ufed for meafure,
which the French call darré ; that is, when the character for

common time is thus marked, Db or eh. with a per-

pendicular line drawn through the middle of the C; it
implies quick time, in which the notes are played or fung
twice as rapidly as in the ufual common time; a femibreve
being vt sa fs like a minim, a minim like a crotchet, a
crotchet like a quaver, &c. A breve, double the length of
a femibreve, ufed to fill abar; whence the terms alla breve.
This time is ftill ufed in mufic @ capella, and alla Paleftrina ;
in which the notes being chiefly open, and in fugue, mufi-
cians ufually call a fugue confifting chiefly of femibreves
and minims a white fugue. The time, too, when a line is
drawn through the C, is called cut time.

TAGLIER, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Venice. N. lat. 44° 10’. E. long. 15° 17.

TAGLIO, a river of the Ligurian republic, which runs
into the Mediterranean, 4 miles E. of St. Remo.

O Bay, a bay on the fouth coaft of the ifland of

Mindanao. N. lat. 6° 8', E. long. 125° 40’.

Tacio Point, a cape on the north-weft coaft of Min-

danao.
TAGNON, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardennes; 8 miles S.W. of Rethel. i
TAGOAST, Tacaosr, or Tagava/l, a large town of

DA

Africa, iri the kingdom of Sus; faid by fome to have beer
the birth-place of St. Auguftine; fituated in a fertile
country, and defended by a garrifon of 400 men; 140 miles
S.W. of Morocco.

TAGODAST, a town of Morocco, near the foot of
mount Atlas; 60 miles N.E. of Morocco.

TAGOLANDE, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about 10 miles in circumference. N. lat. 2° 18. E. long,
125° 6:

TAGOMAGO, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean,
near the eaft coaft of the ifland of Iviga.

TAGORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Numidia. Anton. Itin.

TAGOURIE, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary, in the province of Hami; 40 miles N.N.E. of Ha-
tamtam.

TAGOU-ZAINAH, the towns of Taggah and Zaina
in Algiers, being contiguous, and feparated only by a fmall
brook ; 50 miles S.W. of Conftantina.

TAGTE-RUSTAN, a mountain of Perfia, very much
reforted to by the Gentoos ; 4. miles from Ifpahan.

TAGTESSA, atown of Morocco; 120 miles W.N.W.
of Morocco.

TAGUA, a town and alfo diftri& of Africa; 250 miles
N.E. of Bornou. N. lat. 19° 10!. E. long. 27° 20!.

TAGUAN, in Zoology. See Sciurus Petaurifta.

TAGULMEMMET, in Geography, a town of Algiers ;
5 miles S.E. of Muftygannim.

TAGULO, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Mindanao. N. lat. 7° 30!/. E. long. 124°. é

TAGUMADERT, a town of Africa, in the country
of Darah; 20 miles S. of Tattah. }

TAGURIN, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland of
Lugon. N, lat. 16° 20’. E. long. 120° 48).

TAGUS, or Taso, a river, which rifing in the moun-
tains of Molina, that feparate the kingdom of Aragon from
Old Cattile, paffes by Aranjuez, Toledo, Talavera de la
Reyna, croffes Caftile and Eftremadura, and enters Por-
tugal at Montalvao; traverfing Eftremadura, it pafles by
Abrantes, Santarem, &c. and runs into the Atlantic about
10 miles below Lifbon. Its current is broken by many
cataracts, fo that on this account, and alfo on account of its
rocks, it is not navigable far above Lifbon.

TAGYPEEL, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the N.E. coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 29! E. long.
117° 54).

TAGZA, a town of Algiers; 12 miles S.S.E. of Con-
ftantina.

TAHA el Medain, a town of Egypt; 5 miles S.W.
of Samalut.

TAHABUCKOO, a town of Thibet ; 5 miles N.W.
of Jhanfu-Jeung.

TAHAIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Savo-
lax ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Nyflot.

TAHAL, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ;
8 miles N.N.E. of Purchena.

TAHATE, a town of Arabia, in Yemen ; 12 miles W.
of Zebid.

TA-HEAN, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Yun-nan; 1130 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 25 mate
a - TOT sol.

AHEJ, a town of Hindooftan, in Cutch; 1 i
W. of Amedabad. N. lat. 23° 16’. E. long. oe

TA-HE-KAN, a {mall ifland near the coaft of China.
N. lat. 37°57’. E. long. 120° 30!

TAHGUM, a town of Bengal; 14 miles W. of
Koonda.

TAHIAO,

CAM
TAHIAO, a town of Corea; 35 miles S.S.E. of Long
Kouan

TAHIRAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
45 miles E.S.E. of Cafbin. N. lat. 35°50’. E. long.
°

ree
“ TAHNUM, a town of Gorkah; 20 miles N.W. of
Gorkah.

TA-HOOROWA, one of the fmaller Sandwich iflands,
fituated about nine miles from the S.W. part of Mowee ;

~deftitute of wood, with a fandy, barren foil. N. lat. 21° 4o!.
E. long. 199° 30’.

TAHOU, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coaft. N.
lat. 4° 50'. W. long. 6° 50!.

TAHRIE,, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan, on the coaft
of the Perfian gulf; 12 miles E.S.E. of Konkum. N. lat.
27°45'. E. long. 52° 20!.

TAHTA, atownof Egypt, on the Nile; 32 miles S.
‘of Siut. N. lat. 26° 57'. E. long. 31° 22!.

TAHUK, or Tasux, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Nedsjas ; 176 miles S.S.E. of Jerufalem.

TAI, acity of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-fi ;
175 miles W.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 39° 6’. E. long.
112° 30'.—Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Kiang-nan ; 22 miles E. of Yang-tcheou. N. lat. 32° 30!.
E. long. 119° 36'.—Alfo, a large lake. See Tar-noo.

Tat-drabs, an ancient and noble tribe, the mention of
which often occurs in the Roman hiftory. They {till con-
tinue in poffeffion of the fame traét of country which they
had in the time of Julian, viz. between Moful, Nifibin, and
the Khadour.

TAJACU, or the Sus tajacu of Linnzus, in Zoology, the
name of an animal common in fome partsof America, called by
many authors aper mofchiferus, or the mufkk-boar. (See Sus.)
It is of the fhape of our hog, but much fmaller, and has no
tail, and its head is broader, and the fnout much lefs pointed
than in our hog ; it has two tufks in each jaw, thofe in the
upper jaw pointing down, and hardly apparent when the mouth
is fhut, the others hid ; the neck is fhort and thick, and the
whole body of a grifly colour, or mixture of black and grey ;
its body is covered with hairs, much thicker and ftronger
than our hog’s-briftles, fomething like the briftles of the
hedge-hog, and like them alfo variegated with circles of
black and white ; thefe are four or five inches long on the
back, and gradually diminifh to the fides ; on the middie of
its head, between the ears, it has a fort of creft, made up of
black briftles ; the belly almoft naked ; from the fhoulders
to the breaft is a band of white ; its ears are {mall and ereét,
and its eyes {mall ; its fnout, feet, and hoofs, are juft like
thofe of the European hog ; but the two pofterior or ex-
terior hoofs are longer than in any other of the cloven-footed
beatts.

What is moft fingular, however, in this creature, is a
certain gland which he has upon the back, and which has

iven occafion to fome to fay its navel was placed there.
This gland is fituated on the very ridge of the back near the
rump, and is fo clofely covered with long briitles, that till
they are removed by blowing, and keeping them back with
the hand, the gland is not to be feen: when thefe are re-
moved, there is feen a {pot almoft naked, in the middle of
which the top of the gland is feen ; the lips of this gland
ufually ftand a little way above the flefh, and its aperture
eafily admits a large ftylus; and this gland, when lightly
prefled, {pews out a liquid fubftance of a brownifh-yellow
colour, and {cent fomething like that of mufk or civet. The
gland itfelf is placed between the fkin and flefh, and is not
wholly covered by its conftringing mufcle, but only fur-
rounded by it at its bottom.

TAL

This animal inhabits the hotteft parts of South America,
and fome of the Antilles ; lives in forefts, on the mountains,
is very fierce, and if wounded, will turn on the hunter. It
feeds on fruits and roots, toads and ferpents, which it fling
with great dexterity. It is reckoned very good food ; but
unlefs the dorfal gland be cut out as foon as it is killed, the
flefh will be infeéted by it. The Indians call this animal
pequaris, whence its name pfecary. Ray and Pennant.

TAJAMENTO, or TaGiiamen 709, in Geography, a river
which rifes in Friuli, and runs into the gulf of Venice ; ro
miles S.S.E. of Concordia.

TAJANGJE, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
lantic, S. lat. 27° 35/.

TAJARA, in Ichthyology. See Rata.

TAIBEH, in Geography, a fortified town in the defert
of Syria, having near its gate a fountain of frefh water ; 85
miles E.S.E. of Aleppo. N. lat. 35° 10’. E. long.
38° 45!.

TAI-CHAN, a town of Corea; 20 miles W. of Hai-
men.

TAIDENT, a town of Africa, in Fezzan ; 130 miles
S.S.W. of Mourzouk.

. TAJE-ELT, a town of Algiers; 35 miles S.S.E> of
ona.

TAIEZA, a town of Croatia; 45 miles E. of Bihacs,

TAIGAREE. See Trcerry.

TAI-HOO, or Tat, a beautiful lake of China, faid to
be near fifty leagues in circumference, dividing the provinces
of Kiang-nan and Tche-kiang, and furrounded by a chain of
picturefque hills. It fupplies Sou-choo-foo, at a {mall dif-
tance from it, with fifh, and ferves the inhabitants alfo as a
place of public refort:and recreation. Many of the pleafure-
boats on this lake are rowed by a fingle female ; and the
rowers are faid to follow more than one profeffion.

TATIBI, in Zoology, the name of an American animal,
defcribed by Marcgrave and other authors, and fuppofed by
fome to be only the male of the opoffum. The Portuguefe
in America call it the cachorro de mato, and by the Dutch it
is called bofchratte. See Dinevputs.

TAIJEOURA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Adel; 15 miles N.W. of Zeilzh.

TAIL, Caupa, that part of an animal which terminates
its body behind.

The tail is different, both in figure and ufe, in the various
fpecies. In land-animals it ferves to rid them of flies, and is
ufually covered with hair, and ftrengthened with bones : in
fifhes it is cartilaginous, and ferves them as a helm to fteer
their courfe withal in fwimming.

In birds it 1s covered with feathers, and greatly affifts in
all afcents ‘and defcents in the air; as alfo to render their
flight fteady, by keeping the body upright in that fubtile
and yielding medium, by its ready turning and anfwering to
every vacillation of the body.

Tain of Fi. This part in the fifh-kind is the fubje& of
very great diitinétions, among the charaéters of the feveral
genera. It differs in the feveral kinds of fifh in a very obvi-
ous manner, in number, fituation, and figure. In regard to
the firft difference, the acus lumbriciformis, and one of the
kinds of the ferpens marinus, have no tail at all ; in all other
fifh there is a tail, and it is never more than one on each
fifth.

In regard to fituation, there is this great difference, that in
fome it is placed perpendicularly, in others horizontally. In
almoft all the known fifhes it is placed perpendicularly, ex-
cept in the dolphin, the phoczna, the orca, the manati, and
all the whale-kinds ; for in all thefe it is placed horizontally,

when the body is laid in its natural pofture.
Pag Tn

PAY

In figure it has many very remarkable differences, which
are of great ufe in ichthyolo ical diftin@tions. 1. In fome
fith it is rounded at the end; as in the cottus, and fome
others. 2. In fome it is cut off even as it were at the end,
fo that the whole tail is a fort of parallelo: ; as in the
tench, and fome of the falmons. 3. In fome fifhes it is
cufpidated at the end, as is the cafe in the conger, the eel,
and the petromyzon. 4. In others it has as it were a {mall
fegment of a circle cut out at the end, and fo is flightly
hollowed out ; this is the cafe in the caraffius, and fome of
the falmons. 5. In many fifh it is forked or opened into
two points, making an acute angle : this is the figure of the
tail in the perches, the cyprini of many kinds, &c. 6. Fi-
nally, the tail is falcated in many fith, that is, it is of the fhape
of a crefcent ; as in the fword-fifh, the tunny, mackarel, and
the like. Artedi, Ichthyolog.

Tai, in Anatomy, is fed for that tendon of a mufcle
which is fixed to the moveable part. In oppofition to
which, the tendon fixed to the immoveable part is called
the head.

Taw, Dove, or Swallow’s-Tail, among Carpenters.
Dove-TZail.

Tait, Peacock’s, aterm applied to all circular comparti-
ments which go enlarging from the centre to the circum-
ference ; imitating, in fome meafure, the feathers of a pea-
cock’s tail, when fpread.

Tat, Dragon’s, cauda draconis, in Aflronomy.
Gon, and Nope.

The aftrologers take care to put this in all their horo-

See

See Dra-

fcopes.

Tait, Horfés, among the Tartars and Chinefe, is the en-
fign or flag under which they make war.

Among the Turks, it is the ftandard borne before the

and vifier, the bafhaws, and fangiacs ; in order to which, it
as fitted on the end of a half-pike, with a gold button, and is
called toug.

There are bafhaws of one, others of tavo, others of three
horfes’ tails. The horfe’s tail placed on the general’s tent,
is a fignal of battle. For the original of this cuftom, it is
related, that in a certain battle, the ftandard being taken by
the enemy, the general of the army, or, as others fay, a pri-
vate horfeman, cut off the tail of his horfe, and faftening it to
the end of a half-pike, encouraged the troops, and gained the
vi&tory. Inmemory of which noble aétion, the grand fignior
appointed that ftandard to be borne, for the future, as a fym-
bol of honour. Ricaut.

Tait, in Heraldry, &c. is particularly ufed for the tail
ot ahart; thofe of feveral other creatures having peculiar
and diftin& names.

As, that of a buck, roe, or any other kind of deer, is
called the fast 5 that of a boar, the «wreath; of a fox, the
brufh ; of a wolf, the flern; and of a hare and rabbit, the

cut.

Tat of a Comet. See Comer.

Tat, or Toile, in Common Law, fignifies a limited fee,
as oppofite to fee-fimple.

It is thus called from the barbarous word ¢aliare, whence
the French tailler, to cut ; becaufe fuch fee is fo minced or
parted, as it were, that it is not in the owner’s free power
to difpofe of it; but is, by the firft giver, cut, taille, and
divided from all others, and tied to the iffue of the donee.
= “ye limitation of tail is either general or /pecial. See Fex-

ail.

Taw after poffbility of iffue extin®, is where land being

iven to a man and his wife, and the heirs- of their two
odies, and the one outlives the other, without iffue between

them begotten: the furvivor upon this fhall hold the land
8

TA1

for term of his own life in quality of tenant in tail after thé
offibility of the iffue extind.

pops eftate le be created by the a& of God, i. «. by
the death of that perfon out of whofe body the iffue was to
fpring, for no limitation, conveyance, or other human a@,
can make it. It partakes partly of the nature of an eftate-
tail, and partly of an eftate for life. The tenant is, really,
only tenant for life, but with many of the privileges of a
tenant in tail; as, not to be punifhable for waite, &c.; or he
is tenant in tail, with many of the reftriétions of a tenant
for life ; as, to forfeit his eftate if he aliens it in fee-fimple ;
whereas fuch alienation by tenant in tail, though voidable by
the iffue, is no forfeiture of the eftate to the reverfioner ;
who is not concerned in intereft, till all poffibility of iffue
be extiné. But, in general, the law looks upon this eftate
as equivalent to an eftate for life only ; and, as fuch, will
permit this tenant to exchange his eftate with a tenant for
life: which exchange can only be made of eftates that are
equal in their nature. Blackit. book i. &c.

Tam, Fee. See Fer-Zail.

Tait, Several. See INHERITANCE.

Ta, or Taile, is alfo ufed for what we vulgarly calf
tally, taille de bois. :

Tart, in the Manege. Many affirm that the dock of «
horfe’s tail ferves to point out his fixth or feventh year;
faying, that about the time that the black {peck or eye of
the bean begins to difappear, and the cavity to be filled, the
dock of the tail becomes longer, becaufe the vigour of the
young years Ee to abate; and nature has not ftrength
enough to nourifh and keep up the joints or knots that form the
dock ; fo that when the horfe is fix years old, one of thefe joints
flackens and begins to fall down ; and a year after, another
defcends in like manner. But this relaxation or downfalling
happens fooner in fome than in others, according as they
have been well or ill kept, with reference to feeding, houfin
and working. Accordingly we find the marks Br a horfe’s
age, taken Bom his tail, are fo erroneous, that many jockies
maintain, that the firft joint defcends when he is nine, an
the fecond when he is ten years old. fafa

Tait, Docking of. See Dock.

In the praétice of docking and fhortening this part of
fheep, with the intention of Teepints them more clean and
free from dirt and difeafe, it is ufually done fo as to leave
a few joints of the tail remaining, as the length of four or
five inches, or more. It is common to cut off the tails of
all the lambs at the time of caftrating the male ones, in fome
places; but in others they perform it at different other
fuitable times. It fhould, however, always be done while
the animals are young. The bleeding which fucceeds this
operation is fuppofed by fome to be alfo very beneficial to
the fheep. :

Tatt-Locks, the locks of wool which are cut off from
about the tails and the infides of the legs and thighs of
fheep, in order to prevent dirt and naftinefs attaching to
and fixing upon them. They form a fort ef wool, 4
is ules or inferior purpofes. See Woon.

t is always a good praétice to keep theep as clear a: -
fible from chefe tke % pie ea

Tait-Rot, a difeafe affecting cows that are ill fed during
the winter. See YeLLows, Joint.

Tait-Soaked, a difeafe incident to cows, by which the
joint of the tail near the rump is affeéted.

Tai of the Trenches, in the Military Art. See TRENCH.

Tait, in Sea Language, is a name given by failors to the
extremities of a hurricane, in which the violence is confider-
ably exhauited.

Tait-Block, in a Ship, a {mall fingle block, having a

fhort

WAI

Short piece of rope attached to it, by which it may be faf-
tened to any objeét at pleafure, either for convenience, or
to increafe the force applied to the faid obje€t. Falconer.

Tart of a Lock, in Inland Navigation, the lower end, or
entrance into the lower pond.

Tam of a Seed, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, isa
generally downy or feathery appendage to fome feeds, formed
of the permanent elongated ftyle. Examples are found in
Clematis, Anemone, Dryas, and Geum. The ufe of fuch an
appendage is either to ferve as a wing, for the purpofe of
conveying the feed through the air; or to attach it to the
coats of animals, by which the fame end is anfwered, of
tranf{porting it to a diftance from its original ftation.

Tat-Piece of a violin, tenor, or bafe, is generally a
piece of ebony attached to the end of the inftrument, to
which the ftrings are faftened below the bridge.

Tail-piece, or addition to a mufical compofition, in Italian
is termed coda; which fee.

TAILE, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which
runs into the Mahanada at Sonepour.

TAILINGS, in Agriculture, a term applied to the
lighter parts of grain, which in clearing fall to the hinder
parts of the heap, efpecially where the wind is had recourfe
to in the operation.

TAILLE’, or Taicies, in Heraldry. See TRancut.

Tarte, Fr., in Mujic, implies the tenor part, vocal and
inftrumental. In vocal mufic it unites the bafe with the
counter-tenor; in inftrumental compofitions it unites the
bafe with the fecond violin. See Tenor and Compass of
Voices, Viora, and Ato Viola.

TAILLEBOURG, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Lower Charente; 6 miles N. of
Saintes.

TAILLOIR, in Archite@ure, a term which fome of our
writers, after the French, ufe for abacus.

TAILOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore; 10 miles N.N.W. of Vencatighery.

AIM, a town of Brafil, on the E. coaft of lake
Merim. _S. lat. 32° 32’.

TAIMA. See Trxo.

TAIMEN, in Jchthyology. See SAvmo.

TAIMURSKAITA, in Geography, a gulf or bay of Ruf-
fia, in the Frozen ocean, between Cape Sievero Voftochnoi
and Cape Sievero Zapadnoi. N. lat. 75° to 77°. E. long.
94° 10! to 98° ro!

TAIN, a town of France, in the department of the
Drome; 9 miles W.N.W. of Romans.

Tain, or Thane, faid to be derived from the Scandina-
vian ting, or court-day, a royal borough, and the county-town
‘of Rofsthire, Scotland, is fituated on the fouthern fhore of
the Frith of Dornoch; 201 miles N. by W. from Edin-
burgh. The town is old and irregularly built ; but a num-
ber of new houfes have lately been erected. Several acres
have alfo been recently built on, forming a fuburb, which is
feparated from the town by a {mall river, over which is a
bridge. The parifh church, which was built in 1471, was for-
merly collegiate. Tain is a chartered royal borough, and
unites with Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall, and Wick, in
fending a reprefentative to parliament. A well-fupplied
market is held weekly, and fix fairs annually.

The parifh of Tain extends about eight miles in length,
and two in breadth. Its furface is in general flat, except
towards the weft, where it rifes into fmall hills. ‘The only
amanufaétures carried on are the {pinning of flax, and the
tanning of leather. Here is a parochial fchool, which is
ably conduéted, and is in a flourifhing condition : befides
which, there is a fociety’s fchool in the eaftern diffna.

TAT

The population of the borough and parifh, according to the
return to parliament in the year 1811, was eftimated at
23843 the number of houfes 526.—Carlifle’s Topogra-
ee Diétionary of Scotland, vol. ii. Beauties of Scotland,
vol. v.

TAINACH, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into
the Nagold, 2 miles S. of Calw.

TAI-NGHAN, acity of China, of the fecond rank,
in Chan-tong ; 255 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 36°
15’. E. long. 116° 50’.

TAINHA, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to a
fpecies of mullet caught in the American feas, and more
ufually called the curema.

TAINT, in Law, fignifies either, fubftantively, a con-
viction, or, adjeétively, a perfon convicted of felony, trea-
fon, &c. See ATTaint.

TAINY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Din-
digul; 4 miles N. of Outampaleam.

TAJO.. See Tacus.

TAI-OUAN, a city and fea-port, fituated on the weft
coaft of the ifland of Formofa, and the capital of the ifland.
The ftreets, which are drawn nearly in a line, almoft a league
long, and from 30 to 4o feet broad, abound with fhops of
filk, china-ware, and other commodities, in which the Chi-
nefe excel. The houfes are moftly covered with clay and
bamboo. The town is neither walled nor fortified. The
harbour is fheltered from every wind, but its entrance is
difficult, on account of the increafing accumulation of fand.
N. lat. 23° E. long. 113°.

TAIPARA, or Turpara, in Ornithology, the name of
a Brafilian fpecies of parroquet. Itis of the fize of a lark,
and of a pale green colour over its whole body ; its tail is
fhort, not reaching beyond the tips of the wings when
clofed ; its beak is red, and its legs are grey ; near the ori-
gin of the beak it has a femi-lunar red fpot on the head, and
a yellow {pot on the middle of each wing. It builds in the
deferted abodes of ants on trees. Marcgrave’s Hilt. Braf.
See Psrrracus.

TAI-PING, in Geography, a city of China, of the firftrank,
in Kiang-nan, on the Yang-tfe river ; 525 miles S. of Peking.
N. lat. 31° 38’. E. long. 118° 14, Alo, a city of China, of
the firft rank, in Quang-1i ; it is built on a point of land, almoft
furrounded by a river; fortified on the land fide by a wall.
Its territory is very fruitful, well cultivated, and populous.
It has a number of forts, on account of its vicinity to the
kingdom of Tonquin; 1175 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N.
lat. 22°25’. E. long. 106° 34’. : :

TAI-SANG, a town of Corea; 17 miles S.S.E. of
Hoang-tcheou.

TAISERO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ;
75 miles N. of Nangafaki. N. lat. 33° 30’. E. long.
TB20Ky!.

TAISUGAN KARAKOL, a lake of Ruffia, in
the government of Upha; 132 miles S.S.W. of Orenburg.
N. lat. 54° 32!. E. long. 53° 44’.

TAI-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Tche-kiang. This city, which has fix others in its diftrigt, is
fituated on the bank of ariver, in a very mountainous coun-
try. The neighbourhood of the fea fupplies it with all
things neceflary. The moft remarkable thing is, that they
can catch a kind of thornback, whofe fkin is proper for fe-
veral ufes, efpecially to make fcabbards for cutlaffes, of
which they carry ona great trade in the country, and tran{-
port them into Japan, and throughout the empire ; 722 miles
S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 28° 55'.. E. long. 121° Alle

TAITI. See Orangite. A

TAI-TING, a city of China, of the fecond ae in

OFl=

TAK

Koei-tcheou ; 967 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 27° if
E. long. 105° 14!.

TAL- ONG, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Chan-fi. It is fituated in a mountainous country, and is the
only place expofed to the incurfions of the Tartars: it 1s

well fortified, according to the manner of the Chinefe,
ae has a very ftrong garrifon ; its territory is furrounded
by the great wall, is Ba has forts from place to place 3 its
jurifdiétion is very large, and extended over four great cities
of the fecond order, and feven of the third: its mountains
abound with all kinds of fimple and medicinal herbs, which
the botanifts gather with great care. Lapis lazuli isin great
plenty here ; and there 1s a kind of jafper, which is tranf-
parent, and as white as agate: orphyry, marble, and jaf-
per of all colours are very plentiful ; and here is alfo a great
trade for fkins; 155 miles W. of Peking. N. lat. 40° si.
E. long. 112° 44!.

TAITOU SAHA, a {mall ifland in the fea of Japan.
N. lat. 42° 32'. E. long. 130° 42’. }

TAI-TSANG, acity of China, of the fecond rank, in
Kiang-nan ; 567 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 31° 30.
E. long. 120° 24/.

TAIVERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the province
of Dindigul ; 8 miles N.W. of Outampaleam.

TAJUNA, a river of Spain, which rifes in the north

art of New Caftile, and runs into the Karama, a little be-
Fre its union with the Tagus.

TAIWAN. § See Formosa.

TAL-Y, acity of China, of the fecond rank, in Quang-
fi, on the fouth fide of the Pofoi; 1125 miles S.S.W. of
Peking. N. lat. 23°24'. E. long. 106° 18.

TAI-YUEN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Chan-fi; 230 miles W.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 54!.
E. long. 111° 56!.

TAIZALUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
the ifle of Albion, between the mouth of the Celnius and
that of the Diva. (Ptol.) This is fuppofed to be Kynaird-
Head, near Fraferburgh, in Buchan ; the Celnius being the
river Spay, in the fhire of Elgin, and the Diva the river
Dee at Aberdeen.

TAK, Et, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro
vince of Segeftan ; 15 miles N. of Zareng.

TAKA, a town of Nubia, capital ofa diftri&, called
Takaki, on the Belefe ; 50 miles S.E. of Tak.

TAKAGUS, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon;
60 miles N.W. of Meaco.

TAKAKAKKAN, a {mall ifland in the Eaftern Indian
fea, near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 3°8'. E.long. 116°51'.

TAKALUOTO, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 39’. E. long. 21° 10'.

TAKAMIDJA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon ;_ 150 miles‘S.W. of Meaco.

TAKAUL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
4o miles N. of Cogni.

TAKE and Leave, in Sea Language. The failors fay, a
fhip can take and leave upon her when fhe will; when the
faike fo well, that fhe ean come up with another, or outfail
her at pleafure.

Take, Thifile. See Tristve.

Taxe-Jn, To, in Ship-Building, is to come-up a fett and
make it faft again clofer to the plank, as it nr nearer to
the timbers.

Take-Jn Sail, To, is to diminith its furface by reefing,
&e. particularly when the wind increafes too much. See
"TAKING-IN. f

TAKENO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Ximo; 40 miles £85. of Ikva.

12

TAL

TAKERS—Carr-Takers. See CaAnr-TAKERS. ~

TA-KIA-TCHE, in Geography, a town of China, on
the W. coaft of the ifland of Formofa.
E. long. 119°.

TAKING-IN, in Sea Language, denotes the a@ of
brailing-up and furling the fails at fea, particularly when
the wind increafes. It is generally ufed in oppofition to
Jetting. :

TA-KIRON-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of the
kingdom of Corea; 425 miles E. of Peking.

TAKLACOT, a town of Thibet; 60 miles N.E. of
Kerion.

TAKMITZSKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk, on the Irtifch; 36 miles S. of "Tara.

TAKPO, a large province of Thibet, which is fub-
divided into feven takpos. On the N. it has the province
of U, on the S. Combo, on the E. Cobang, and on the
W. Tzhang.

TAKTANG, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Lis, N. lat. 62° 24!. E. long. 89° 44!.

TAKY, atown of Bengal; 30 miles E. of Calcutta.

TAL, a name ufed by fome writers on the materia
medica to exprefs the dung of peacocks; and by fome of
the chemical writers for any alkali falt.

TALA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors call
the plant, whofe feed is the fefamum, or oily purging grain
of the fhops. ;

TALABON, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft of
the ifland of Gilolo. N. lat. 1° 40’. E. long. 127° 2o!.

TALABONG, in Ornithology, a name given by the in-
habitants of the Philippine iflands to a fpecies of heron,
common among them; which is much fmaller than our
heron, and Bi white all over.

_ TALABRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
in Lufitania, towards the fouth, upon the Vatna, not far
from the fea, S.W. of Langobriga.

TALABROCA, the name of one of the moft cele-
brated towns of Hyrcania. Strabo. '

TALACACHA, in Geography, a town of South
America, in the province of Tucuman; 15 miles S. of St.
Miguel de Tucuman.

_ TALACOUAN, a town of Lower Siam, on an ifland
in the Mecon; 30 miles S. of Juthia.

TALZDITES, rarusournc, In Antiquity, gymnical ex-
ercifes in honour of Jupiter Tadcio:.

TALAFA, in Geagrapiys a {mall ifland in the South
gaat ocean, among thofe called Hapaae, S.W. of Ho-
aiva.

TALAGIR, a fmall ifland among the Philippines ;
miles W. of Samar. Fineness

_TALAGOS, a town of Africa, in the country of
Sierra Leone. N. lat. 10° 20!. W. long. 13° 4o!.

TALAGUADA, a town of South America, in the
province of Carthagena; 10 miles N.N.W. of Mompox.

TALAHSECHTE, an Indian town of Eaft Florida,
on the river St. Juan, near the bay of Apalache, in the
gulf of Mexico; 52 miles N. of St. Mark. This town
contains about 30 habitations, conftruéted of frame-work ;
and covered with the bark of the cyprefs-tree. The in-
habitants form large handfome canoes of the trunks of
cyprefs-trees, capable of holding 20 or 30 warriors. In
thefe they defcend the river on trading or hunting expedi-
tions on the fea-coaft, iflands, and keys as far as the point
of Florida; and fometimes they crofs the gulf and fail to
the Bahama iflands, and even to Cuba, returning with car-
goes of fpirituous liquors, coffee, fugar, and tobacco.

TALAIT-

N. lat. 24° 22". *

ie a ee 9 ee Pm: i eae ia art

PAL

TALAI-HAI, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.
44° 17!. E. long. 120° 45/.

TALAI-HOTOC, atown of Thibet ; ros miles S.W.
ef Haratoubé.

TALALALUM, or TuHaratatum, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Africa Propria, on the route from Ta-
cape to the Greater Leptis.

TALAMANCA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
New Catftile ; 14. miles N.W. of Guadalaxara.

TALAMATA, atown of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore ;
15 miles N. of Damicotta.

TALAN, a {mall ifland in the fea of Ochotfk.
59° 30. E. long. 149° 14.

TALANGBOANG, a town on the W. coaft of Su-
matra. S.lat. 4° 21'. E. long. 105° 44).

TALANT, a town of France, in the department of
the Céte d’Or; 2 miles N.W. of Dijon.

TALANTA, a town of European Turkey, in the
ifland of Negroponte; 34 miles N.W. of Negroponte.—
Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia; 18 miles
N.E. of Livadia.

TALA-OSO, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of Hami; 28 miles E.S.E. of Hatamtam.

TALAPOINS, a name given in Siam to thofe who de-
dicate themfelves to religion. See Sram.

TALAPOOSEE, in Geography, the great N.E. branch
of the Alabama or Mobile river, in Florida. It rifes in the
high lands near the Cherokees, and runs through the high
country of the Oakfuflee tribes, in a wefterly direction, being
full of rocks, falls, and fhoals, till it reaches the Tackabatches,
where it becomes deep and quiet ; from thence the courfe
is W. about 30 miles to Little Talaffee, where it is united
with the Coofa or Coofa Hatcha. The lower part of this
river is, in moft maps, called Oakfufkee.

TALAPORUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Calicut ;
20 miles N.N.W. of Tellicherry.

TALARHO-KARA-PALHASSUM, a town of
Chinefe Tartary, in the country of the Eluths; 715 miles
N.W. of Peking. N. lat. 47° 34!. E. long. 102° 34’.

TALARIUS Lupus, among the Romans, a game
fomewhat refembling our dice-playing, and performed with
a kind of gold or ivory dice, which they fhook as we do in
a box, before they threw them. There was this difference,
however, between their game and ours, that our dice have
fix fides, becaufe they are cubical; but theirs had but four,
and were conically fhaped. They made ufe of them for
divination, as well as playing; and they concluded upon a
good or evil augury, according to what came up. As they
ufually threw four of them at a time, the beft chance was
when four different fides came up. ‘The fides were called
by the name of fome animal, as the dog, vulture, bafilifk,
&e.: or of fome deity, as Venus, Hercules, &c. Some
authors have been of opinion, that they were marked with
the forms of animals, or images of gods, and not with
numbers or dots, as our dice are.

TALARN, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Cata-
Jonia; 22 miles N. of Balaguer.

TALASSEE, or Taxuassez, a county confifting of a
tract of land bounded by Eaft Florida on the S., N. by Ala-
tamaha river, E. by Glynn and Camden counties, and W.
by a line extending from the W. part of Ekanfanoka{wamp,
in a N.E. direGtion till it ftrikes the Alatamaha river, at
the mouth of the Oakmulgee.—AlIfo, a town of the Upper
Creeks, in the Miflifippi territory, on the S. fide of Tala-
poofee river ; called alfo Big Talafice.

N. lat.

heAeAy
TALASSIO, among the Romans, an acclamation ufed

at marriages.

TALATUM, in Ancient Geography, the name of a
temple of the fun, erected in Laconia, on the fummit of
mount Taygetus.

TALAVAN, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Eftre-
madura; 25 miles S. of Plafencia.

TALAVERA Ja Real, a town of Spain, in Eftrema-
dura ; 13 miles S.E. of Badajos.

TALAVERA /a Reyna, a town of Spain, in New Cattile,
on the Tagus, fituated in a valley, and fortified ; famous
for its earthen-ware ; 35 miles W. of Toledo.

Taxravera /a Viega, a town of Spain, in New Cattile;
6 miles W.S.W. of Toledo.

TALAVERUELA, or Talavera de Badajos, a town
of Spain, in Eftremadura, on the Guadiana; g miles E. of
Badajos.

TALAUMA, in Botany, a word probably of South
American origin, applied in the herbarium of Surian, now
poffeffed by Juffieu, to the plant on which Plumier origi-
nally founded his genus Macnozta. See under that article,
{p. 2, our reafons for not receiving Talauma, for the prefent
at leaft, as a diftin& genus.

TALBERT’s Istanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland in
the Atlantic, on the coaft of Georgia, the N. point of
which is in N. lat. about 30° 44/, where St. Mary’s river dif-
charges itfelf into the ocean, between this ifland and Amelia
ifland on the N. N. lat. 30° 36/. W. long. 81° 42!.

TALBOT, anifland on the coaft of Eaft Florida, eight
miles long and two wide.—Alfo, a county of Maryland, on
the E. coaft of Chefapeak bay, bounded E. by Choptank
river, which divides it from Carolina county, and S. by the
fame river, which feparates it from Dorchefter. The foil
of this county is rich and fertile; and it contains 14,230
inhabitants.

Taxsor, in Zoology, a fort of dog, noted for its quick
{cent, finding out the tracks, lodgings, and forms of beafts,
and purfuing them with open mouth and continual ery, with
fuch eagernefs, that if not taken off by the huntfman, he is
often fpoiled. :

TALC, in Mineralogy, Idem, Hauy. The name tale, in
the prefent fyftematic arrangemment of Werner, is placed
both as the head of a genus and a family. Brongniart re-
{triGts the namé to thofe minerals which poffefs the follow-
ing charaéters : they are foft and unétuous to the touch, and.
leave upon the nail, or on the furface of cloth on which
they are rubbed, a white mark, which has fometimes a nacry
luftre. The texture of tale is lamellar, or fibrous: the
lamin are flexible but not elaftic. Talc has always a fhin-
ing luftre, ard is fometimes fplendent and nacry ; it is tranf-
lucent, and often tranfparent; it yields eafily to the nail.
The laminz of which it is compofed, open a little by the
action of fire or of the blowpipe ; the fragment fwells, and
the extremities of the lamine are with difficulty fufible into
a white enamel. Thefe characters, which are eafily recog-
nifed, ferve to diftinguifh talc from chlorite and nacrite, which
are very fufible ; and from {fteatite, ferpentine, or the unc-
tuous clays, which are compaét, have an earthy or fealy
fraéture, and but little un@uofity. Talc_has another re-
markable property ; it acquires pofitive ele¢tricity when
rubbed with refin. Tale is fufceptible of cryftallization,
and forms hexagonal lamine. ‘The primitive form of the
cryftal is a right rhomboidal prifm, in which the angles at
the bafe are 120° and 60°. Its fpecific gravity varies from
2.58 to 2.87.- The prevailing colours are white, apple-
green, and yellow. :

Tale

TALC.

Tale is divided by fome mineralogifts into three fub-
fpecies, viz. common talc, indurated talc, and columnar
talc.
Common talc ; talc laminaire, Hauy. Its colours are thofe
before enumerated, but the green fometimes pafles into
dark blue. The laminz are very tender and flexible, but
not elaftic: by this they may be diftinguifhed from the
laminz of mica, which poffefs a confiderable degree of elaf-
ticity. In France this tale is called craie de Briangon ; it is
found in confiderable maffes in rocks of ferpentine, accom-
panied with aétinolite, ular lime-ftone, and dolomite,
along with indurated i The conftituent parts are as

follow :

Vauquelin. Klaproth.
Silex ap) ukayn lat 162 61.75
Magnefia ete “oan 30.50
Alumine - - - 1.50
Potafh © - ai Py Ew 2.75
Oxyd of iron - -~— = 3-50 2.50
Waterss 21. dich ir ae dnc’ 6 2.25

It is found in Aberdeenfhire and Bamfithire, in Scotland,
and in various parts of the continent of Europe, where rocks
of ferpentine and porphyry occur. The tale which is
brought from the mountains of the Tyrol is called in com-
merce Venetian talc.

Talc enters largely into the compofition of the cofmetic
named rouge. This fubftance is prepared by rubbing to-
gether in a warm mortar, generally of ferpentine, certain

roportions of carmine and finely powdered talc, with a
m: ortion of oil of benzoine The Romans prepared a
beautiful blue or purple colour, by combining this fubftance
with the colouring fhuid of the buccinum reticulatum and
buccinum lapillus, teftaceous animals abounding on the
coafts of the Mediterranean. The flefh-coloured polifh on
figures made of gypfum is given by rubbing them with talc.
The Perfians, according to Tavernier, whiten the walls of
their houfes by means of lime-water, and then powder them
with filver-coloured talc. Tale has fometimes been ufed
medicinally by the Chinefe and Europeans.

The chief ufe of the Ruffian is as a fereen or cover for
paintings in miniature and crayons; to which purpofe thin
flices of it are ufed. The Venetian is fometimes alfo ufed
for a fucus; in order to which, by reafon of the difficulty
of pulverizing it, &c. they content themfelves to ra{p it
with the fkin of a fea-dog, and to pafs the rafpings through
a fieve.

Pliny, in his Natural Hiftory, lib. xxxvi. c. 22. obferves,
that the Romans not only ufed the Ruffian fort for window-
lights, but they alfo paved the circus with a kind of it.
See GLass. ;

Indurated talc is \efs flexible and lefs tranflucent than the

receding : it occurs in mafles, and has fometimes a radiated
Prasure, its colours are various fhades of green and
greenifh-grey, It forms beds of confiderable fize in moun-
tains of gneifs, mica-flate, and ferpentine ; it approaches
nearly to pot-ftone, and even to fteatite, in many of its cha-
racters. It occurs in Perthfhire and Bamfffhire, in Scotland,
and in France, Sweden, Saxony, Siberia, the Tyrol, and
Switzerland, It is employed for drawing lines by car-
penters, taylors, hat-makers, and glaziers, Jt is fometimes
made into culinary veffels, like pot-ftone, and is employed
in powder for removing ftains of greafe from filk.

Columnar tale occurs in thin columnar prifmatic concre-
tions, and it is opaque. The conneétion between talc,
pheRtus, pot-ftone, ferpentine, chlorite, and even mica, may

be traced by their apparent graduation into each other, par-
ticularly in fome of the rock formations. See AsBESTUs,
TONE, &c.
Pothe patie of tale with different kinds and quantities of
glafs may be fuccefsfully performed with a violent fire, but
not with a fmaller degree : thus three parts. of talc, with one
part of cryftalline glafs, make only a fpongy and friable.
mafs in a common fire; but in a more violent one, they be-
come a firm and folid mafs of a brown colour. Minium, or
glafs of lead, mixed in equal quantities with talc, and fet in
a violent fire, runs into a yellowifh glafs, refembling the
opaque pieces of amber ; and two parts of minium to one of
talc, produce a clear and tranfparent yellow glafs, which is
of a hardnefs capable of giving fire with fteel. The alkaline
earths, mixed with talc, produce a mafs fcarcely vitrifiable
by any fire: hence appears the reafon why copels made of
lime and talc are fo very hard to vitrify. Minium, added
to thefe mixtures, make them combine into a firm mafs, but

without perfeét fufion; but borax added to them, melts _

them readily into a true glafs. The gypfeous earths mixed
with talc, will not unite into a mafs in any degree of fire ;
but if borax be added, the talc readily melts. Thus two
parts of talc, two parts of that {par or
called glacies Marie, or the common plated fpar, with one
part BS borax, run into a yellow mafs refembling a topaz.

The argillaceous earths do not vitrify with tale ; but they
run into a mafs of great hardnefs, which will give fire with
fteel, and is very Cocciie to make crucibles of, thefe.
yeffels not fuffering the glafs of lead to run through them.
Talc, joined with the vitrifiable ftones, forms no remarkable
body, but the mafs remains friable ; but from thefe maffes,
by the addition of proper matter to render them fluid, great
variety of elegant compounds may be made. Thusif t:
mixed in equal quantities with powder of flints, on
to the whole a fourth part of cryftal-glafs, the whole uni
into an opaque but folid white mafs. Akali-falt, added in
equal quantity to talc and flint, gives a tranfparent yellow
glafs; and white fand, talc, and a fixed alkali, in equal
quantities, afford a green glafs; with other mixtures of this
kind, in different quantities, the refemblances of many
beautiful ftones are produced ; and what is very remarkable,
fome grains of metalline matter are often found on the fur=
face of the maffes.

Czfalpinus, Aldrovand, and fome others affirm, that talc
melted with copper, or added to copper, while in fufion,
gave it a white rs : this being taken for granted, authors
have hence agreed that talc contains an arfenical earth. But
experiment fhews this to have been a falfe aflertion, in regard
to talc; and probably it only owes its origin to the cant lan-
guage of fome of the alchemifts, who haye called the flowers
of zinc talc, though thefe alone mutt render copper yellow,
not white. Antimony and talc, firft calcined with nitre,
run in a violent fire into a fort of flint, which will give fire
with fteel. With regulus of antimony and the black flux,
it runs intd a black mafs; and with bifmuth it calcines into
a grey powder, So little is there in the propofals of the
cnemifts for the metallization of talc by antimony and bif-
muth. Mem. de l’Acad. de Berlin, Ann. 1746.

In what part of Mr. Boyle’s works the learned author,
from whom the foregoing extra was taken, has found that
tale may be reduced by common fire to a gypfum in an
hour, we know not; but we find that Mr. Boyle fays, that
the calciriation of talc is fo very difficult, that eminent chea
mifts have looked upon calxes of tale as counterfeits.
Works abr. vol. i, p. 160.

Mr. Boyle mentions the extracting of gold from talc, as

having

feous matter

EA E

having fometimes fucceeded. See Works abr. vol. i. p. 160.
but vide /upra.

Tatc, Philofophic, a name given by fome of the chemical
writers to the flowers of zinc.

This fubftance, diffolved in vinegar, affords what they
have in their unintelligible language called off of talc, and
extolled as a thing of vaft power in the fixing of mercury,

‘and many other imaginary operations ; and befides this, they
call it a fovereign remedy for all difeafes.

TALCAGUANDO, or Tatcacuana, in Geography, a
fea-port of Chili, nine miles within the point of the fame
name, and about fix from the town of Conception. This is
the principal port in the bay of Conception, and is much
the moft frequented, as fhips that anchor here have not only
better ground than in any other part of the bay, but are in
fome meafure fheltered from the north winds. The town,
or village, as Peroufe calls it, has been built fince the city
of Conception was deftroyed by an earthquake in 1751: it
ftands on the river Biobin, and is faid to contain 10,000 in-
habitants. Here are the epifcopal cathedral, the feat of the
bifhop, and all the religious houfes. The government of
the adjacent diftri@ has been wholly military and ecclefiaf-
tical. The country round it is very healthy and fertile.
Great numbers of cattle are annually killed for their hides
and tallow, which are fent to Lima. About 200,000 dol-

lars’ worth of gold is annually colle€ted from the fands in
the rivers of this bifhopric. The Indians of the country
have numerous herds of cattle, and plenty of horfes, and
live more like the Tartars of Afia than the favages of North
America. Ships are here fupplied with water, wood, and
other neceffaries. N. lat. 36° 42'. E. long. 73° 6’.

TaLcaGuano Point, a cape on the coaft of Chili, 11
leagues N.E. of the ifland of Santa Maria, and 2 N. of
Port St. Vincent.

TALCAN, a town of Afia, in Tokariftan, befieged by
Gengis Khan in the year 1221, and taken after a fiege of
feven months ; 100 miles S.E. of Termed. N. lat. 36° 45/.
E. long. 67° g!. °

TALCKENSTEIN, a mountain of Silefia; 4 miles
N.N.E. of Loewenberg.

TALCONAH, a town of Bengal; 30 miles E. of

Goragot.

TALCOT, a town of Hindooftan, in Concan ; 25 miles
N.E. of Goa.

TALCOTE, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 20 miles
W.S.W. of Candy.

TALCOUS State, in Geology, is confidered by fome

eologiits as a variety of clay-flate, but it has a nearer re-

phe. to mica-flate. The colour is goperel a greenifh-
grey, with a fhining luftre, like that of the finer kinds of
mica-flate. It is fofter than mica-flate, but is frequently
divided into lamine by thin feams of quartz, and has a
twifted or contorted form. The flate on fome of the moun-
tains of the higher Alps, as defcribed by Sauffure, feems
to be of an intermediate kind between mica-flate and talcous
flate. Talcous flate occurs on the weftern fide of the ifland
ef Angiefea, and in many alpine diftri€s, forming beds in
clay-flate. See Sarr.

TALDINGA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 15
miles W. of Biffunpour.

TALE, in Zaw. See Count and DeciaraTion.

Tae, or Tart, in Commerce, a weight for gold and
filver in China, and certain parts of the Eaft Indies; and
alfo amoney,of account. In China, each tale is 10 maces =
Zoo candareens = 1000 cafh. A tale of fine filver fhould be
worth 1000 cafh, which cafh is compofed of fix parts of

Vou. XXXV.

-ribbands all along the borders.

Ti ALL

eépper, and four of lead, haying a {quare hole in the middle,
fo that they may be ftrung on a ftring or wire ; but on ac-
count of their convenience for common ufe, their price is
fometimes {9 mueh raifed, that only 750 cafh are given for
the tale.

Gold is not confidered as. money, but as merchandize ; and
it is fold in ingots of a determinate weight, called by the
Englith ‘ fhoes’’ of gold; the largeft of which weighs 10
tales, and the gold is reckoned 94 touch (i. e. 94 parts fine
in 100), though it is only 92 or 93. Of late, from 100 to
110 tales of filver of g4 touch, have been given for ro tales
of gold of 92 or 93 touch; and fometimes from 110 to 120
tales, or even more, of Spanifh dollars, reckoned at gz
touch, have been paid for io tales of gold. When gold is
exchanged for filver, its price is always valued by is ten-
tale weight, and it is fold either above or below touch, as
follows: viz. if the gold be 96 touch, and fold at 5 under
touch, fubtraé&t 5 from 96, and gr remains: then gt tales
of filver are paid for roof gold: if gold be fold at 10 above
touch, the finenefs being ftill 96, add 10 to 96, and 106
tales of filver are paid a 10 tales of gold. Silver ingots
are ufed as money, and are from i to 100 tales, their .
value being determined by their weight. In payment of
{mall fums, they fometimes lay the ingot on the fire, and by
ftriking it with a hammer, detach fmaller pieces from it.
The Englifh reckon the tale of filver at 6s. 8d. fterling, fo
that 1/. iterling is = 3 tales. The catty of 16 tales weighs
19 oz. 6 dwts. 4 grs. Englifh troy ; fo that 10 tales would
weigh 5792 Englifh grains. Upon the whole, the weight
of a Chinefe tale may be taken at about 580 grains Englifh
troy ; and therefore 48 tales = 58 ounces troy weight.
One hundred Spanifh dollars weigh about 722 tales. The
heavielt weight for merchandize (peculiar to the coaft of
Canton) is called pecul, and contains 100 catties or 1600
tales, with the fame decimal divifion as above. Hence’a
pecul = 132lbs. 8 oz. g dr. avoirdupois: and a catty
= 21 oz. 34dr. avoirdupois.

At Acheen, in the ifle of Sumatra, accounts are kept in
tales, pardows, mace, copangs,and cafhes. A tale = 4 par-
dows = 16 mace = 64 copangs. The coins of the country
are mace and cafhes. The mace is a {mall gold coin
weighing nine grains, and worth about 14d. fterling. The
cafhes are {mall pieces of tin or lead, 2500 of which ufually
pafs for a mace, fubje& to occafional variation. In Siam,
accounts are kept in catties, tales, ticals or tuals, miams,
fanangs, and cowries. The catty is 20 tales: the tale = 4
ticals = 16 miams = 32 fanangs: the fanang is = 800
cowries. In Tonquin, accounts are kept in tales of 10
mace or 100 candareens. The tale weighs here 1 oz. 4dwt.
144 grs. Englifh, which is about 10 grs. more than the
Chinefe tale. Kelly’s Cambitt.

TALED, in the Jewi/h Antiquities, a fort of habit that
the Jews wore, chiefly when they repeated their prayers in
the fynagogue. Numbers, xv. 38. Deuteronomy, xxii. 12.

It ferved inftead of that {quare garment they wore here-
tofore, to which Mofes had appointed that they fhould
faften borders of blue to the four quarters, and fringes or
But at prefent, that they
may not be expofed to the laughter of the people for the
too great fingularity of their drefs, they content themfelves
with wearing a fquare piece of cloth underneath, with four
tufts at the four corners, and when they meet in the fynagogue
to fay their prayers, they cover their heads with a {quare
woollen veil, which has four tufts at its four corners. It Is
this they call thaled, or taled. Calmet, Di&. & Leo o
Modena, Ceremonies of the Jews, p. i. ch. 11.

TALEGONG,

TAL

TALEGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Dowlatabad 5 15 miles S. of Oudighir.—Alfo, a town of
Baglana; 12 miles S. of Chandor.

ALEKAN, a town and caftle of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Khoraffan; 160 miles N.E. of Herat.—Alfo, a
town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 30 miles N.E. of
Hamadan.

TALENNI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
160 miles W.N.W. of Meaco.

TALENT, Taentum, a weight, and a coin, both very
famous among the ancients ; but very different in different
countries.

The value of the talent it is very hard to affign in Englifh
money, as being ufed among all the people throughout the
Eaft, and its value, and the manner of computation, being
different among each: a difficulty abundantly fhewn by
Budzus, in his Lined treatife “De Affe.””

There were various kinds of talents, both with regard to
weight and to fpecies ; the value of thefe laft ftill increafing,
as the metal of which they confifted was purer, though the
talent weights contained the fame number of pounds and
drachms. Accordingly, all talent weights are equally fixty
minz, and the mina one hundred drachme ; but the drachma
of one place exceeding that of another, there hence arofe a
difference in the talents.

The common Attic talent then (the talent weight we
mean) contained fixty Attic ming, or fix thoufand Attic
drachme ; equal, according to Dr. Arbuthnot’s reduction,
to fifty-fix pounds, eleven ounces, feventeen and’one-feventh
grains, Englifh troy weight.

There was another Attic talent, by fome faid to confift of

ighty, by others of one hundred mine. The Egyptian
talent was eighty mine; the Antiochian alfo eighty ; the
Ptolemaic of Cleopatra eighty-fix and two-thirds ; that of
Alexandria ninety-fix ; the Tofular talent one hundred and
twenty ; and that of Antioch three hundred and fixty minx.
In the valuation of money, the Grecian talent, according to
Dr. Arbuthnot, was equal to fixty min, or reckoning the
mina at 3/. 4s. 7d. equal to 193/. 15s.; the Syrian talent in
this valuation confifted of fifteen Attic mine ; the Ptolemaic
of twenty ; the Antiochian of fixty ; the Euboic of fixty ;
the Babylonic of feventy ; the greater Attic of eighty ; the
Tyrian of eighty ; the Eginean of one hundred ; the Rho-
dian of one Feiaired ¢ and the Egyptian of eighty mine.

See Arbuthnot’s Tables of Ancient Coins, &c. p. 33, and

ab. 18, 19. 23, 24.) Stating the Attic drachm of Aver at
nine-pence of our money, the beit medium value, the mina of
Athens will be worth 3/. 15s.; and the Athenian common
talent, 225/.; and the reft may eafily be eftimated in pro-
portion.

But Mr. Raper makes the Attic talent, which confifted
of fixty mise, or fix thoufand drachme, each drachm being
equal to fixty-fix grains and a half troy weight, or 3/. 175.
4ifod. fterling, equal to 232/. 3s. See Dracum.

This ingenious writer alfo obferves, that hiftorians and
others mention the Eginean and the Euboic talent. The
former weighed ten thoufand Attic drachms; but, like
other talents, contained only fix thoufand of its own; which
being fo much heavier than the Attic, the Athenians called
it waxrny dpaxenr, or the thick drachm. © This talent was
ufed at Corinth ; and ina paffage of Aulus Gellius, lib.i. c. 8.
it is valued at ten thoufand Attic drachms; and was pro-
bably ufed in moft of the cities of Peloponnefus. If the
Attic drachm weighed fixty-fix and a half troy grains, the
Eginean fhould weigh one hundred and ten and five-fixths,
which Mr. Raper ftates at one hundred and eleveng Thie

3

FAL

Eginean talent he concludes from the mean drachm of fix
acedonian coins, which he found to be one hundred and
eleven grains and one-fourth, muft have been the ftandard of
the Macedonian money, till Philip changed it. And it ap-
pears likewife to have been the ftandard of the Ptolemaic
money in Egypt. Pliny indeed ( Nat. Hitt. lib. xxxiii. c. 3.)
tells us, on the authority of Varro, that the Egyptian talent
weighed eighty Roman pounds ; but he fuppofes that this is
a falfe reading, and that for AZgyptium we fhould read
Euboicum : for Pliny is fpeaking of the riches of Afia,
where the Euboic talent was ufed for weighing gold ; and
it is known, that the weight of that talent was fettled at
eighty Roman pounds, by the treaty between the Romans
and Antiochus. ‘There is a paflage in Pollux (lib. ix.
c. 6. § 86.) which makes the Egyptian talent contain fifteen
hundred Attic drachms. But this, he apprehends, is an
injudicious interpolation in the laft colleGtion of that author,

The Euboic talent, fays this writer, certainly came fro
Afia ; for Herodotus (lib. iii. fe€&t. 89.) tells us, the kings.
Perfia weighed their gold by that talent : in the fame place
he informs us, that the Babylonian talent weighed feventy
Euboic minz. Pollux fays, it weighed feventy Attic minz.
Therefore the Euboic talent fhould be equal to the Attic.
But A£lian (Var. Hitt. lib.i. c. 22.) tells us, that it weighed
feventy-two Attic mine; and if fo, the Euboic talent
fhould be heavier than the Attic, in the proportion of
feventy-two to feventy. By two paflages, cited by Mr.
Raper, from Xenophon, Exped. lib. i. it appears probable,
that the Babylonian talent weighed above feventy Attic
mina, and above feventy Euboic minz ; and if Pollux took
his value of the Babylonian talent from Herodotus, as the
text now ftands, and /Elian his value of the fame from a
more corre¢t copy of that author, or from fome‘better autho-
rity, the Euboic talent muft have been equal to the Attic.
Accordingly it contained fix thoufand Attic drachms. Phil.
Tranf. vale Ixi. part ti. p. 483, &c.

There is another talent much more ancient, and much lefs
than any of thofe already mentioned, which Dr. Arbuthnot
calls the Homerical talent of gold, fuppofed, he fays, to be
equal to three Attic aurei. Pollux {peaks of fuch a talent.
Euftathius upon Homer reckons it worth twenty-four
drachme. Theat value was fmall, whether fixed or un-
certain, is conjectured from the paflage of Homer, where,
defcribing the prizes at the funeral of Patroclus, two talents
of gold ate propofed as a more inconfiderable prize than a.
mare with foal, &c. Hence Mr. Raper, ubi fupra, p. 527.
concludes, that it was the fame that the Dorian colonies Tac
ried to Sicily and Calabria: for Pollux tells us, from
Ariftotle, that the ancient talent of the Greeks th" Sicily
contained twenty-four nummi, each of which wei hing an
obolus and a half, the talent muft have weighed fix Attic
drachms, or three darics ; but the daric weighed very littl
more than one guinea ; and if two talents weighed about fix
guineas, we may reckon the mare with foal worth twelye ;
which was no improbable price, fince we learn froma paflage
in the Clouds of Ariftophanes, that, in his time, a running
horfe coft twelve minz, or above forty-fix pounds fterling ;
byte this ape to have been the ancient Greek talent,

efore the art of ftamping money had i

wre from Afia sel Eerie Ts

ccording to this ancient talent, fays Dr.

fome reckon the treafure of king David, ied heat
mentioned 1 Chron. xxii.14. which, according to the common
reckoning, would amount in gold talents to the value of
547,500,000/. and the filver to above’ 342,000,000/.; of
reckoning according to the decuple proportion of gold to

filver,

LAL

filver, the two fums would be equal. As David reigned in
Judea after the fiege of Troy, it is not improbable but
Homer and he might ufe the fame numeral talent of gold.

It is fuggefted by Mr. Pinkerton (Effay on Medals,
vol.i. p. 65.) that all the ancient coins of Afia, Africa, Greece,
Magna Grecia, and Sicily, were reducible to three talents
or ftandards. 1. That of Egina, ufed in moft of the more
ancient filver coinages ; and as it would feem in even the
later of Egypt, Carthage, Greece, &c. 2. The Attic,
being the Afiatic gold ftandard; afterwards ufed by Phidon,
king of Argos, in eftimating gold, and called Euboic, from
Eubeea, one of the quarters of the city of Argos. It was
afterwards ufed in Athens, and the greater part of the
world, as the ftandard both of gold and filver. 3. The
Doric, or Sicilian talent, of 24 nummi, each worth an obolus
and a half: whence the talent is eftimated at fix Attic
drachms, or three darics. Thefe weights continued to be
the ftandard of money after it began to be diftinguifhed by
impreffion ; nay, to the fall of Greece, and prevalence of
the Roman empire.

Among the Romans there were two kinds of talents, the
little and the great talent ; the little was the common talent ;
and whenever they fay fimply talentum, they are to be under-
ftood of this: the /it/le talent was fixty mine or Roman
pounds; the mina, or pound, eftimated at one hundred
drachmz, or denarii: it was alfo eftimated at twenty-four
great fefterces, which amounted to fixty pounds.

The great talent exceeded the lefs by one-third part.
Budzus computes, that the little talent of filver was worth
75/. fterling ; and the greater gg/. 6s. 8d. iterling. The
greater of gold was worth 1125/. iterling.

TALENT, as a fpecies, or money, among the Hebrews, was
fometimes ufed for a gold coin, the fame with the /hekel
of gold, called alfo fore, and weighing only four drachms.
The Hebrews reckoned by thefe talents as we do by
pounds, &c. Thus a million of gold, or million of talents
of gold, among them, was a million of fhekels, or nummi ;
the nummus af gold being the fame weight with the fhekel,
wiz. four drachms.

But the Hebrew talent weight of filver, which. they
called cicar, was equivalent ‘to that of three thoufand fhekels
(Exod. xxxviii. 25. 28.) or one hundred and thirteen pounds,
ten ounces, one pennyweight, ten grains and two-feventhis,
Englifh troy weight, according to Arbuthnot’s compu-
tation.

It fhould be obferved, however, that the talent was not
every where the fame. The Hebrew talent weighed more
than that of the Greeks, and is faid to have amounted to
341/. tos. 44d. and. Thecommon Attic talent might be
worth about 193/. 15s. which might probably have been
ufed by the Jews in their commerce.

TALES, in Law, a fupply or addition of men for thofe
impannelled on a jury of inqueft, and not appearing, or at
their appearance challenged by either party as not indifferent.

In fuch cafe, the judge, upon motion, grants fupply to be
made by the fheriff of one or more tales, fuch as are prefent
in court, equal in reputation to thofe impannelled._ For this
purpofe, a writ of decem tales, offo tales, and the like, was ufed
to be iffued to the fheriff at common law ; and mutt be ftill
fo done at the trial at bar, if the jurors make default ; but
at the affizes, or nifi prius, by virtue of the ftatute
35 Hen. VIII. c. 6. and other fubfequent ftatutes, the
judge is impowered, at the prayer of either party, to award
a tales de circumftantibus, of perfons prefent in ‘court, to be
joined to the other jurors to try the caufe ; who are liable,
however, to the fame challenges as the principal jurors.

This is ufually done till the legal number of twelve be com-

fA E

pleted. ‘The tales de circumftantibus is in fome meafure ren-
dered ufelefs by the ftatute for regulating juries, 3 Geo. II.
c. 25. See CHALLENGE and Jury.

TALGA, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 8 miles
N. of Tokay. hae sine

TALGARTH, a fmall town in a hundred of the
fame name, and county of Brecon, South Wales, is fituated
on the banks of the river Llyfni, at one end of the Black
Mountains, which ftretch hence into Herefordfhire : from its
fituation it derived its name ; Talgarth meaning literally the
front of the hill. The town is a borough by prefcription,
but without privilege, jurifdi€tion, or municipal officers.
The parifh church is a fubftantial edifice, but has no archi-
te€tural elegance, nor is it enriched by any remarkable
monuments, ancient or modern: it has a tower, which forms
a confpicuous objeét from moft parts of the furrounding
country. The population of-the parifh, which, befides the
borough, contains five hamlets, was in the year 1811 re-
turned to parliament as 1124, the number of houfes being
274. Nolefs than eight annual fairs are held here.

In the Foreft hamlet of the parifh of Talgarth are fome
veftiges of Dinas-caftle, which, at a remote period, was 2
fortrefs of importance, but has long fince been demolifhed.
In Leland’s time, it was “ruinus almoft to the hard

ound.” From his defcription, it muft have been of con-
fiderable dimenfions. It confifted of three wards “* waullid
about,’”’ and had three parks and a foreft attached to it.
From the fame writer we learn, that the caftle was deftroyed
by the natives, that it might not be occupied by the favourers
of Owen Glendwr.—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xviii. South Wales, by T. Rees, F.S.A. Carlifle’s
Topographical DiGtionary of Wales.

TALGAUTPORAM, a town of Hindooftan, in My«
fore; 6 miles S. of Bangalore. :

TALGRISTAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 50 miles E. of Nehavend.

TALGUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 10 miles
S.S.W. of Sirpy.

TALHA-KIAMEN, a poft of Chinefe Tartary. N.
lat. 46° 16’. E.long. 123° 44!.

TALHAM, a town of Auftria; 2 miles S.S.W. of
Voglabruck.

TALI, atown onthe W. coat of the ifland of Formofa.
N. lat. 23° 36’. E. long. 129° 41’.

Ta-Li, a city of China, of the firft rank, in Yun-nan.
This is the principal place where they make curious tables,
and other ornaments of fine marble, which is got from 2
mountain called Tienfung, and is naturally beautified with
different colours, in the form of mountains, flowers, trees,
and rivers. T'a-lihas under its jurifdition four cities of the
fecond order, and three of the third; 1205 miles S.W.
of Peking. N. lat. 25° 45'. E. long. 100°.

TALIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Upper
Meefia, on the route from Viminatium to Nicomedia. Ant.

Itin.

TALJARA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 46 miles
S. of Curruckdeah.

TALIFAY, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Lugon. N. lat. 14° 21’. E. long. 123° 24!.

TALIGALEA, in Botany, an unexplained name,
Aublet Guian. 625. t. 252. Jufl. 109, appears to be the
fame genus, and even the fame fpecies, as AMASONIA of
Linneus. (See that article.) The fruit of the latter
having been examined in a drier ftate, may folve all the
difficulty.

Aublet deferibes his only {pecies, T. campeftris, as an herb
with a perennial roof, crane creeping. Stems annual,

2 two

TAL

two or three feet high, fimple, leafy, downy. Leaves alter-
nate, ftalked, elliptical, pointed, from three to fix inches
long, downy, with tooth-like ferratures. The variety with
a creeping roct has {mooth leaves, and we fhould prefume it
may be a diftinét {pecies. The flowers are yellow, about an
inch long, numerous, in a long compound clufter, with ovate
purple drafeas. Berry black, with two hard feeds.—This
plant grows abundantly in the fandy meadows of the ifland
of Cayenne, as well as on the continent of Seuth America,
bearing flowers and fruit all fummer long.

TALIGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 7 miles N. of 'lerriore.

TALIGOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Riga ; 24 miles N. of Dorpat.

TALIHOU, a {mall ifland, with alazaretto, on the coaft
At low-water the land which joins to the con-
N. lat. 49° 36’.

of France.
tinent is dry; 3 miles N. of La Hogue.
W. long. 1° gj.

TALINA, a town of Peru ; 50 miles E.S.E. of Lipes.

TA-LIN-HO, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat. 41°
10. E. long. 120° so!.”

TALINUM, in Botany, a genus of Adanfon’s, well
feparated by him from the Eosean Portutaca. (See that
article.) Its name no one, not even De Theis, has under-
taken to explain ; Adanfon having given fo many barbarous,
and even arbitrary ones, that the inquiry might well be
deemed alike hopelefs and unprofitable. We conjeéture,
however, that he muft have had in his mind the verb §2AAs,
to be verdant, or flourifbing, and confequently S2Ao:, or Sarjay
a green bough ; tor he often wrote words with a T which in
Greek begin with a 9; and the above idea is fuitable enough
to the fucculent, and durably verdant, habit of the genus.
We hence learn the true accentuation of the word, Tuhinum.
Ehbrhart called this fame genus Riilingia, after Dr. John
Philip Riilings, who publhifhed at Gottingen, in 1774, a
catalogue of the genera of plants, difpofed in natural orders.
Linnzus had formerly diftinguifhed it by the name of
Anacampferos.—Adanf. Fam. v. 2. 245. Juff. 312. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2.862. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 148. Purth 365.
Lamarck Illuftr, t. 402. Gertn. t. 128. (Rilingia; Ehrh,
Beitr. hf 132. Orygia; Fork. Egypt.-Arab. 103.
Anacampferos ; Linn. Gat ed. 1. 152. Sims in Curt.
Mag. p..1367.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia.

Dodecandria Monogynia, Willd.) . Nat. Ord. Succulente,
inn. Portulacee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of two or five oblong,
rather unequal, 5 ac leaves. Cor. Petals five, fpread-
ing» ovate, obtufe, as long or longer than the calyx. Stam.
Filaments numerous, .capillary, not half fo long as the
corolla; anthers incumbent, oblong. Pi/. Germen fupe-
rior, roundifh ; {tyle fimple, about as long as the corolla ;
ftigmas three, oblong, reflexed. Peric. Capfule ovate, of
one cell, and three, five, or fix valves. Seeds numerous,
roundith, affixed to a globular central receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Petals five. Calyx of two or five leaves. Cape
fule 7 with from three to fix valves, one cell, and
many feeds.

Seétion 1. Stipulas none. Seeds without wings.

1. T. ¢riangulare. . Triangular-ftalked Yellow Talinum.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n.1. (Portulaca triangularis ; Jacq.
Amer. 147. Obf. fafe. 1. 35. t. 23. P.racemofa; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 640. Helianthemum frutefcens, portulace folio ;
Plum. Ic. 142. t. 150. f. 2.)—-Leaves flat, channelled,
wedge-fhaped, emarginate, with a fmall point. Clufter
fimple, with a triangular ftalk. Stem f{preading.—Native
of the fea-fhores of the Weft Indies. Cultivated in Chelfea
garden in 1739- Mr. Aiton fays it blofloms in the ftove,

TAL

moft part of the fummer. The flem is thrubby, two feet
high, round, fmooth, branched, decumbent in the lower
art. Leaves {cattered, about one and a half or two inches
ong, fucculent, {mooth, fhining, brittle, entire at the edges 3
occafionally convex, being reflexed at the fides, tapering at
the bafe into a fhort footitalk. Flowers two or more, on a
terminal triangular ftalk, very elegant, of a brilliant yellow,
without feent. Calyx of two leaves. Capfule with three
valves. ‘

2. T. craffcaule. Thick-ftemmed Red Talinum. (ne
craffifolium; Willd. n.2. T.patens; Andr. Repof. t.253.
Ait. n. 2. Portulaca crafficaulis; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3.
29. t. 52. P. craffifolia; Murray in Linn. Syft. Veg. ed.
14. 446.)—Leaves flat, obovate, entire at the point. Co-

mbs compound, elongated. Stem erect.—Native pro-
bably of the Weft Indies. Jacquin cultivated it at Vienna,
and we have feen it flowering in many of the Englith ftoves,
This differs from the former in its more ereét and thicker
lem, as well asin the fine pink colour of its flowers. The
leaves moreover are not emarginate. The corymbofe, or
panicled, many-flowered ffalks, at firft terminal, are fome-
times overtopped by the aggregate leafy branches, and thus
become lateral, or axillary. urray, from mere inadver-
tence in tranferibing, altered Jacquin’s original name, for
one which has here no appropriate meaning.—Willdenow
feems to have copied him, without feeing the work of Jac-
quin ; which from this, and fome other inftances, we fufpeét
he had not in his poffeffion. We do not think it neceffary
to perpetuate fuch anerror, any more than that of Andrews,
who took this plant for Willdenow’s 7. patens, fee n. 4.

3. T. fruticofum. Shrubby White Talinum. Willd. n. 7.
(Portulaca fruticofa; Linn. Syit. Veg. ed. 13. 371. P.
paniculata; Linn. Sp. Pl. 640. P. americana Jatifolia
erecta, floribus albis ; Comm. Hort. y. 1. 7. t. 4.)—Leaves :
flat, obovate, fomewhat emarginate. Corymbs compound,
elongated. Stem ere€&t. Calyx of five leaves.—Native of
the Weft Indies, or of South America. This fpecies, a
mena to our gardens, appears to differ effentially from the
two foregoing in having five leaves to the calyx, inftead of
two; to fay nothing of the white petals. In habit, leaves, -
and inflorefcence, it comes very near the laft, The cap/ule is:
faid to confilt of three valves in both. ;

4. T. patens. Panicled Red Talinum.
Haworth Succ. Pl. 123. (T. paniculatum; Gertn. v. 2.
219- Portulaca patens; Linn. Mant. 242. Jacq. Hort.”
Vind. v.2. 71. t. 151. P. paniculata; Jacq. Amer; 148.) —
—Leaves flat, obovate, obtufe. Panicle repeatedly. com- -
pound, forked, many-flowered.—Native of rocks 6n the
fea-coaft of Martinico and Hifpaniola. Jacquin. We have:
feen it in the Englifh ftoves, as Mr. Haworth likewife
appears to have done, when he remarks that the patens of
Andrews is a widely different plant. (See our 2d {pecies. )
That before us has an upright thrubby /fem, one and a half
or two feet high, branched ; fomewhat quadrangular below.
Leaves {eattered, or imperfeétly oppofite, obovate, lanceo-
late or oval, more or lefs obtufe, very {mooth and juicy ; the
lower ones three inches long, the reit fhorter ; all tapering
at the bafe into a fhort footftalk. Panicles folitary at the
top of the flem and branches, ereét, from fix to ten inches
long, with numerous, moftly oppofite, repeatedly fubdivided
and partly forked, flender, {mooth, {preading ftalks, adtanis
panied here and there by fmall lanceolate bradeas at their
bafe, Flowers numerous, {mall, inodorous. Calyx of two
orbicular, concave, red, widely fpreading leaves. Petals
five, obovate, red, thrice the fize of the calyx, likewife
widely fpreading. Cap/ule globofe, {maller than a pepper-
corn, ite three valves, which Jacquin defcribes as double, or of

twe

Willd. n. 4.

TAL

two layers, fufpended from the top of three intermediate
fibres. See Gertner’s figure and defcription, where the
fynonym of Commelin, which belongs to the foregoing,
is very erroneoufly cited for the prefent fpecies. This muit
have arifen from Linnezus’s having once called the former
Portulaca paniculata, and Gertner’s having copied the above
fynonym without examination.

5. T. reflexum. Panicled Yellow Talinum. Cavan. Ic.
v. I. 1. t. 1: Haworth Succ. Pl. 124. Curt. Mag. t. 1543.
Ait. Epit. 375. ('T. patens 8; Willd. n. 4.)—Leaves
fomewhat convex, elliptic-lanceolate, acute. Panicle twice
compound, many-flowered.—Native of South America.—
An annual or biennial, {carcely fhrubby, plant in our itoves.
Mr. Haworth obferves, it is more tender, and much taller,
than the lait, of which Willdenow thought it a mere variety.
We arenot fure that the differences indicated in dur f{pecific
charaéters are fufficient or permanent, not having had an
opportunity of comparing the two plants. The flowers of
T. reflexum being yellow, feems an important diftinGtion in
this genus. Both fpecies are faid to be abundantly pro-
pagated by feed.

6. T. cuneifolium. Wedge-leaved Talinum. Willd. n. 5.
(Portulaca cuneifolia ; Vahl Symb. v. 1. 33. Orygia por-
tulacifolia; Forfk. /Egypt.-Arab. 103-) — Leaves flat,
wedge-fhaped, obtufe, with an occafional point. Panicle
many-fiowered ; its lower branches umbellate, three-
flowered.—Native of Arabia Felix.—A /hrub three feet
high. Leaves eatable, alternate, {preading, feffile, taper-
ing at the bafe, about an inch long, thick and fmooth.
Calyx of two unequal leaves, deciduous. Petals of a violet
red. ‘Stamens green, with yellow anthers. Capfule three-
angular, of three valves. Seeds black, comprefled, {mooth.
Forfkall.—Vahl fays this fpecies is akin to 7. patens, n. 4,
but differs in having thicker flower-falks, the lower ones
bearing three-flowered umbels.

7. T. decumbens. Decumbent Glaucous Talinum. Willd.
n. 6. (Portulaca decumbens ; Vahl Symb. v. 1.33. Orygia
decumbens; Forfk. /Egypt.-Arab. 103.) — Leaves flat,
obovate, pointed. Clutters axillary. Stem decumbent.
Calyx of five leaves——Native of Arabia Felix, in ftony
places near Mufa, but not common. For/kall. Stem fhrubby,
with angular branches, clothed, like the reft of the plant,
with a glaucous mealinefs. Leaves diftant, ftalked, thickith,
fomewhat wavy. Cluflers from the bofoms of the uppermoft
leaves, with an awl-fhaped fcale, or braéea, oppofite to each
partial ftalk. Capfule of five valves. Vahl—Forfkall de-
{cribes numerous lanceolate petals, about twenty, of a reddifh
violet ; and five cells, as well as valves, to the cap/ule.

8. 'T. teretifolium. Cylindrical-leaved Talinum. Purfh
n. 1.—‘€ Leaves cylindrical, flefhy. Corymbs ftalked, ter-
minal.’’—On funny rocks in Delaware and Virginia, flower-
ing in July. Perennial, Flowers purple. Pur/b.

Section 2. Stipulas withinfide of the leaves, jagged. Seeds
winged.

oe T. Anacampferos. Round-leaved 'Talinum. Willd.
n. 3. Ait.n. 3. “ Decand. Pl. Grafles, t. 3.” ( Riilingia
Anacampferos ; Ehrh. Beitr. v. 3. 133. Haworth Succ.
Pl.124. Portulaca Anacampferos ; Linz. Sp. Pl. 639. P.
africana fempervirens, flore rubicundo ; Comm. Hort. v. 2. 177.
t. 89. Telephiaftrum folio globofo ; Dill. Elth. 375.t. 281.)
—Leaves ovate} acute, {mooth ; convex and tumid beneath.
Stipulas filamentous, many times fhorter than the leaves.
Petals obovate.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Cul-
tivated by Sherard in 1732. A greenhoufe plant, flowering
in July. A humble fhrubby fpecies, whofe extremely thick
and fucculent /eaves, about an inch long, give it the habit of
an Aloe. They are feffile, of a pale glaucous green, not

9

ye

fhining ; their upper fide nearly flat, with a longitudinal
furrow ; the under very convex. Stipulas fhort, in many
capillary fegments. Fowers crimfon, the fize of our fecond
or third fpecies, in long-ftalked terminal fimple cluffers,
which are fometimes two together. Calyx of two leaves.
Petals {omewhat pointed. The /eeds are faid to be winged.
Ebrhart calls them arillata, tunicated.—The fpecific name,
borrowed from Pliny, derived from 2zxapxlw, to return, and
e0¢y love, was at firft adopted by Linnzus asa generic appel-
lation for the prefent plant, when he confidered it as a dif-
tin& genus from Portulaca, in his earlier publications. But
this name, and the foolifh fuperftition to which it alludes, of
the very touch of the herb reftoring alienated love, rather
belongs to the Sedum Anacampferos of Linnzus, and its near
relation S. Telephium. See SepuM.

10. T. arachnoides. Cobweb Talinum. Ait.n. 4. (Ana-
campferos arachnoides ; Sims in Curt. Mag. t.1368. Riilin-
gia arachnoides ; Haworth Succ. Pl. 125.)—Leaves ellip-
tical, acute ; flightly convex, and covered with cobweb-like
down above ; tumid beneath. Stipulas filamentous, fhorter
than the leaves. Petals elliptical Found by Mr. Maffon
at the Cape of Good Hope, and fent to Kew about the year
1790. It is treated like the lait, and agrees with that {pecies
in general habit, though fmaller in fize. The /eaves are lefs
glaucous ; the lower ones covered with a kind of web.
Stipulas longer and more robuft. Flowers white, with a faint
blufh. Seeds obferved by Mr. Haworth to be lefs winged.—
The leaves are reprefented in the Botanical Magazine with a
tinge of purplifh-brown. Perhaps Mr. Haworth’s Riilingia
rubens, n. 3, may be only a higher-coloured variety.

11. T. filamentofum. Thready Talinum. Ait. n. 5.
(Anacampieros filamentofa; Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1367.
Rulingia filamentofa ; Haworth Succ. Pl. 125.)—Leaves
ovate, bluntifh, tumid and covered with cobweb-like down
on both fides. Stipulas filamentous, longer than the leaves.
Petals lanceolate. — Found by Mr. Maffon, at the Cape
of Good Hope, and fent to Kew a few years after the
lait, from which it differs in having fmaller, blunter /eaves,
and much longer, more confpicuous, /fipulas, whofe feg-
ments are linear and flattened, like fhavings of horn. The
petals are rofe-coloured, and elliptic-lanceolate, very fuga-
cious, as in the two foregoing fpecies. We have never feen
Mr. Haworth’s Riilingia lanceolata, n. 5, but it feems, by his
definition, nearly akin to this.

The winged feeds can hardly entitle the f{pecies of this
feétion to form a feparate genus, there being fo little differ-
ence in habit. If they did, the name of Riilingia mutt cer-
tainly be preferred to Anacampferos, the latter, notwithftand-
ing its right of priority, having been arbitrarily and errone-
oufly appked to thefe Cape plants, with which the ancients
were of courfe unacquainted. See our remark under the
gth fpecies. t

TALIO, Lex Talionis, or Pena Falionis, a retaliation, or
punifhment, by which an evil is returned perfe€tly like that
committed againft us by another ; which is what we ufually
exprefs by the words, eye for eye, tooth for tooth.

The pena talionis was enjoined by the law of Mofes,
among the Jews ; it was efteemed a natural piece of juftice,
and yet the Romans fet it afide, inafmuch as fuch a parity
or equality of punifhment could not always be obferved.
For this reafon the prztor allowed fuch as had fuffered an
injury to make an eftimate of it in money, that juftice
might be done him that way ; only referving to himfelf the
power of moderating the fame. And this was what was
conftantly practifed, and thus the pena talionis became quite
difufed with them. :

TALISIA, in Botany, a barbarous name of pe se

whic

TAL

which he appears to have fabricated out of the Caribbean
appellation of the plant in queftion, Toulichi. We thould be
inexcufable in giving more than a aur fanétion to fuch
a name, till the genus is either better known than at prefent,
or fet altogether afide——Aubl. Guian. 349. Juff. 247.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 310.—Clafs and order, O@andria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Sapindi, Juff. ;

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, acute fegments. Cor. Petals five, ovate, inferted into
the orbicular receptacle of the flower beneath the germen.
Ne@tary of five fhort, hairy, upright fcales, one inferted into
the bafe of each petal, covering the ftamens. Stam. Fila-
ments eight, fhort, inferted into the orbicular receptacle ;
anthers oblong, of two cells. Piff. Germen fuperior, mi-
nute, roundifh, of four cells; ftyle one, very fhort; ftigma
fimple, obtufe. Peric. unknown.

~Ch, Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five.
Neétary of five hairy fcales, attached tothe petals. Germen
of four cells.

1. T. guianenfis. Toulichi of Guiana. Aubl. Guian. 349.
t. 136.—Native of banks of rivers in Guiana, flowering in
Oéober.—A fhrub, whofe trunk isthree or four feet high, and
as many inches in diameter, with a greyifh bark, and whitifh
wood ; the branches long, compound, varioufly {preading.
Leaves alternate, pinnate, very large, each confifting of
about thirty alternate, ftalked, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed,
entire, {mooth, veiny /eaflets, befides an odd one, from five
to fix inches long, and above one broad. Cluflers axillary
and terminal, doubly compound, many-flowered, all over of
a fine rofe-colour, with a {mall {caly bra@ea under each fub-
divifion. Flowers {mall, in little tufts, nearly feffile—No-
thing is known of the fruit, except that the germen has four
cells, nor is any thing recorded concerning the qualities or
ufes of this plant.

TALISKERAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Adirbeitzan; 100 miles N.N.E. of Ar-
debil. :

TALISMANS, magical figures engraven or cut under
certain {uperftitious obfervances of the charaéterifms and con-
figurations of the heavens ; to which fome aftrologers, her-
metical philofophers, and other adepts, attribute marvel-
lous virtues, particularly that of callie down celeftial in-
fluences. J

The word is pure Arabic ; though Menage, after Salma-
fius, thinks it may come from the Greck Tite pte, operation,
or confecration. Borel {ays it is Perfian, and fignifies literally
an engraven conftellation. Others derive it a talamacis literis,
which are myfterious characters, or cyphers, ufed by forcerers,
thus called from talama/ca, a phantom, or illufion.

The author of a book, entitled, Tali/mans juflifiez, fays,
a talifman is the feal, figure, charaéter, or image of a hea-
venly fign, conftellation, or planet, engraven on a fympa-
thetic ftone, or on a metal correfponding to the ftar, &c.
in order to receive its influences.

The talifmans of the Samothracians, fo famous of old,
were pieces of iron, formed into certain images, and fet in
rings, &c. ‘They were held prefervatives againft all kinds
of evils. There were other talifmans taken from vegetables,
and others from minerals.

In the general, we may diftinguifh three kinds of talif-
mans. Aflronomical, which are known by the figns or con-
ftellations of the heavens engraven on them, with other figures,
and fome unintelligible characters. Magical, which bear very
extraordinary figures, with fuperftitious words and names of
angels unheard of. And mixt, which confift of figns, and
barbarous words ; but have no fuperftitious ones, or names
of angels.

TAS

Some rabbins maintain, that the brazen ferpent, raifed by
Mofes in the wildernefs, for the deftruction of the ferpents
that annoyed the Ifraelites, was properly a talifman,

All the miraculous things wrought by Apollonius Tya-
nus are attributed to the virtue and influence of talifmans :
and that wizard is even {aid by fome to have been the in-
ventor of talifmans.

Some authors take feveral. Runic medals, at leaft medals
whofe infcriptions are in Runic characters, for talifmans ; it
being notorious, that the northern nations, in their heathen
ftate, were much devoted tothem. M. Keder, however, has
fhewn, that the medals here {poken of are quite other things
than talifmans. <

TALISSE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the N. coaft of the ifland of Celebes. N.
lat. 1° 40, E. long. 124° 50!. —

TALK, in Mineralogy. See Tate. '

TALKAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro~
vince of Irak; 30 miles E. of Sultania.

TALKEAVE, atown of Perfia, in Khoraffan ; 50 miles
E. of TabafkilimAlfo, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan ; 25
miles $.W. of Kin.

TALKHAN, a town of Grand Bucharia; 80 miles
S.S.W. of Balk.

TALKING. See Sprakine.

TALLAGH, in Geography, a poft-town of the county
of Dublin, Ireland, where is the ancient and noble refidence
of the archbifhops of Dublin; 5 miles S.W. by W. from
Dublin.

TALLANO, a town of Corfica, and capital of a dif-
trié, in the department of the Liamone, fituated in a bay
of the Mediterranean, called the “ Gulf of Tallano ;’?
30 miles S.S.W. of Corte. N. lat. 41° 33’. E. long.

Pint! ; ‘

TALLAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 22
miles N.E. of Lucknow. ,

TALLARAPESCET, a town of Perfia, in the pros
vince of Mazanderan; 21 miles S. of Fehrabad.

TALLARD, a town of France, in the department of
the Higher Alps, on the Durance; 9 miles S. of Gap.

TALLARO, in Commerce, a filver coin of Tufcany,
Venice, and Ragufa. At Florence the tallaro is = 6 lire
or g paoli, the lire being worth about 8d. The new tallari
of Ragufa, called libertine, coined between 1791 and 1794, _
are of the weight of 10z. 10 carats, containing 9 parts of
pure filver to 6 of alloy ; and the value of the t was
reckoned at 80 groffetti. Since 1796 there have been coined
ducats of 40 groffetti, containing 9 parts of pure filver and
11 of alloy. The ducat of 1796 is worth 133d. fterling,
which is nearly the value of the Turkifh piaftre of the lateft
coinage. ;

By Mr. Bingley’s affay, the mint price of filver in Eng-
land being 5s. 2d. per ounce ftandard, the tallaro of Venice

4, &c. in proportion) is worfe than Englifh ftandard (W.)
1oz. 3dwts., its weight 18dwts. 103 grs., its content in
pure filver 367.1 grs., and value in fterling 4s. 34d. The
tallaro and its divifions are marked with the head of a
woman, legend, Re/publica Veneta; reverfe, a winged lion,
and a book; legend, the reigning doge’s name, thus Paulo
Rainario duca.

The affay of the tallaro of Ragufa, or Ragufian of 1
is W. 402. 2dwts., its a hme dwts. Lane its pd
tent in pure filver 256.4 grs., and its fterling value 2s. 113¢
That of 1774, W. 402. 4dwts., weight 18 dwts. 84 gra,
content in pure filver 253.3 grs., and value 2s. 1144. That
of 1794, W. 3 07. 19 dwts., weight 18 dwts. 173 grs., con-
tent 267.6 grs., and fterling value 3s. 14d. The ducat of

1797s

HAE

1797, W. 50z. 11 dwts., weight 8 dwts.. 173 grs., content
97 grs-, and value 1s. 13d.

he tallaro of Ragufa is marked with the head of the
chief magiftrate, called the rector; legend, Redor Reip.
Rhacufin ; reverfe, arms of the city ; legend, Ducat et Sem.
Reip. Rac. In the Levant, and other places, the term tal-
laro is applied to dollars in general. Kelly’s Cambift.

TALLEVENDE, in Geography, a townof France, in the
department of the Calvados, containing near 3000 inhabit-
ants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of earthenware ;
2 miles S.W. of Vire. :

TALLIAGE, Tarmacium, a certain rate, according
to which barons and.knights were anciently taxed by the
king towards the expences of the ftate, and inferior tenants
by their lords, on certain occafions.

That raifed to the king was on his demefnes, efcheats,
and wardfhips, and upon the cities and burghs of the realm.
When it was paid out of knights’ fees, it was called /cutage
(which fee); when by cities and burghs, ¢alliage; when
upon lands not of a military tenure, Aidege ; which fee.

This latter talliage of the cuftomary tenants was fome-
times fixed and certain, and fometimes at the pleafure of the
lord ; and was alfo fometimes compounded for.

Talliages were anciently called cuttings ; which name is
ftill retained in Ireland, though in a different fignification.

Talliage, fays fir Ed. Coke, is a general name including
all taxes ; and is derived from the French ¢aille, tax, founded
on the tally of petty tradefmen; as the country people
appointed to colleé it, not being able to write, {cored down
what they received on tallies. See Lanp-rax and Sup-
sIDY. 5

TALLIKA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Bondou, inhabited by Foulahs of the Ma-
hometan religion, in the road of the caravans; 70 miles
W.S.W. of Fatteconda. N. lat. 13° 56’. W. long. 11° 4o!.

_TALLIPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 10
miles S.E. of Hajypour. :

TALLIS, Tuomas, in Biography, the matter of Bird,
and one of the greateft muficians, not only of this country,
but of all Europe, during the 16th century, in which many
able contrapuntifts flourifhed.

He was born early in the reign’ of Henry VIII.; but
though it has frequently been afferted that he was organift
of the chapel royal during the reigns of that monarch, Ed-
ward. VI., queen Mary, and queen Elizabeth, yet it would
be difficult to prove that, in the three firft of thefe reigns,
laymen were ever’ appointed to any fuch office. In the
reign of Henry, and his daughter Mary, when the Roman
Catholic religion prevailed, the organ, in convents, was
ufually played by monks; and in cathedrals and collegiate
churches and chapels, by the canons, and others of the
priefthood. The firft lay organilts of the chapel royal upon
record were Dr. Tye, Blithman, the mafter of Dr. Bull,
Tallis, and Bird ; all during the reign of queen Elizabeth.

Though the melody or plain-fong of the cathedral fervice
was firft adjufted to Englifh words by Marbeck, yet Tallis
enriched it with harmony. Indeed the melody ufed by
‘Tallis isnot exaétly fimilar to that of Marbeck, it is only
of the fame kind ; confifting of fragments of the ancient ec-
elefiaftical canto fermo. But the harmony in which he has
clothed it is admirable; and the modulation being fo an-
tique, chiefly in common chords or fundamental harmony to
each note of the diatonic feale, often where the moderns
have fixths, fevenths, and their inverfions, produces a folemn
and very different effeét from any mufic that has been com-
pofed during the laft century. As all melody, in which
the femitones are avoided, muft refemble that of Scotland ;

RA Ll

fo all harmony, in which neither the ¢ritonus nor falfe fifth
occurs, and where the fecond, third, and fixth of the key,
are only accompanied with common chords, muft remind us
of that which prevailed in the fixteenth century ; and though
fo ancient, appear new to our ears, from its long difufe.

There are two compofitions by Tallis for the organ, pre-
ferved in queen Elizabeth’s Virginal Book, one of which is
dated 1561, and the other 1564; both built upon a dull
and unmeaning ground, or fragment of plain-chant (felix
namque), and both alike dry, elaborate, and difficult, to
hands formed by modern mufic. The little melody and
rhythm in the compofitions of thefe times required all the
harmony that could be crowded into them. Notes are mul-
tiplied without end, and difficulties created without effe&.
It is not by the inftrumental mufic, which had been but
little cultivated, that we muft judge of the genius of ald
matters; but by vocal, in parts: where the harmony and
contrivance compenfate tor want of accent, tafte, and inven-
tion. ‘The Latin motets and hymns, or ‘ Cantiones facrz,”?
which he publifhed jointly with thofe of his difciple Bird,
are perhaps the beft of his compofitions that have been pre-
ferved. Thefe appeared in 1575, under the following title :
“ Cantiones que ab Argumento facre vocantur quinque et
fex Partium. Autoribus Thoma Talliffio et Gulielmo
Birdo, Anglis, Sereniflime Regine Majeftati a privato
facello Generofis et Organiitis.”” At the time of this pub-
lication, a very arbitrary and monopolifing patent was
granted by queen Elizabeth to thefe compofers, for twenty-
one years, not only for the publication of their own produc-
tions, vocal and inftrumental, but thofe of all other mufi-
cians, whether Englifh, French, or Italian, as well as for
the fole ruling and vending of mufic-paper.

Moft of thefe excellent compofitions, of which the words
were originally Latin, were afterwards adjutted to Englifh
words by Dr. Aldrich, and others, for the ufe of our
cathedrals. The canons, inverfions, augmentations, dimi-
nutions, and other learned and fafhionable contrivances of
the times, which were of very difficult accomplifhment, are
carried to a wonderful degree of ingenuity in thefe pro-
duétions.

Dr. Thomas Tudway, of Cambridge, made a very valu-
able colleGion of Englifh church mufic, in fcore, from the
Reformation to the Reftoration, in fix volumes, thick 4to.
for Lord Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, which is now
among the Harleian manufcripts, in the Britifh Mufeum,
No. 7337- In the firft volume of this colletion we have
the whole fervice of Tallis in D minor, in four parts, con-
fitting of the Te Deum, Benedidus, Kyrie Eleifon, Credo,
Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, and Litany, as printed in 1760,
by Dr. Boyce; with feveral anthems in four and five parts ;
as, ‘* Wipe away my fins;’? ‘ With all our hearts and
mouths ;”” “ O Lord, give thy holy f{pirit ;?? ‘* I call and
cry ;? and his anthem, “ Difcomfit them, O Lord !’’ er-
roneoufly faid by Dr. Tudway to have been fet for the vic-
tory over the Spanifh Armada, 1588. .

In Chrift-Church, Oxford, are manufeript feores of his
Préces, Litany, and Anthems, among others by Bird,
Farrant, Bull, Gibbons, and Child. Five of his motets
and full anthems, in five parts, to Latin and Englifh words,
are likewife here preferved among the works of other Eng-
lith mafters, in Dr. Aldrich’s colleGion. But the moft
curious and extraordinary of all his labours was his “* Song
of forty Parts,’? which is ftill fubfifting, and now before
us. This wonderful effort of harmonical abilities is not di-
vided into choirs of four parts: foprano, altus, tenor, and
bafe, in each, like the compofitions a molti cori, of Benevoli,
and others; but confilts of eight trebles, placed under each

other ;

TAL

other ; eight mezzi foprani, or mean parts; eight counter-
tenors ; eight tenors ; and eight bafes ; with one line allotted
to the organ. All thefe feveral parts, as may be imagined,
are not in fimple pear ee or filled up in mere harmony,
without meaning or defign, but have each a fhare in the
fhort fubjeéts of fugue and imitation, which are introduced
upon every change of words. The firft fubject is begun
in G, by the firft mezzo foprano, or medius, and anf{wered
in D, the fifth above, by the firft foprano; the fecond me-
dius in like manner beginning in G, is anfwered in the o¢tave
below by the firft tenor, and that by the firft counter-tenor
in D, the fifth above; then the firft bafe has the fubjeét in
D, the eighth below the counter-tenor ; and thus all the
forty real parts are feverally introduced in the courfe of
thirty-nine pore, when the whole vocal phalanx is employed
atyonce, during fix bars more. After which a new fubject
is led off by the loweft bafe, and purfued by other parts,
feverally, for about twenty-four bars, when there is a general
chorus of all the parts; and thus this {tupendous, though
perhaps Gothic, Cenchien of human labour and intelle&t, is
carried on in alternate flight, purfuit, attack, and choral
union to the end; when the sla spew phenomenon is ter-
minated by twelve bars of univerfal chorus, in quadragin-
tefimal harmony. The entire compofition confifts of one
hundred and thirty-eight bars, in alla breve time.

This venerable mufician died in November, 1585, and
was buried in the old parifh church of Greenwich, in Kent.
The following epitaph, which Dr. Boyce has printed in the
firft volume of his Colleétion of Cathedral Mufic, Strype,
in his Continuation of Stow’s Survey, printed 1720, fays
he found engraved in Gothic letters, on a brafs plate in Te
chancel.

* Enterred here doth ly a worthy wyght,
Who for long tyme in mufick bore the bell :
His name to fhew was Thomas Tallis hyght,
In honeft vertuous lyff he did excell. :
He ferv’d long tyme in chappel with grete prayfe
Fower fovereygnes reignes, (a thing not often feene) ;
I mean king Henry and prince Edward’s dayes,
Quene Marie; and Elizabeth our quene,
He maryed was, though children he had none,
And lyv’d in love full three and thirty yeres
With loyal fpowfe, whos name yclept was Jone,
Who here entomb’d, him company now bears.
As he dyd lyve, fo alfo dyd he dy,
In myld and quyet fort, O happy man!
To God ful oft for mercy did he cry,
Wherefore he lyves, let Deth do what he can.’

The ftone to which this plate was affixed had been re-
newed by Dr. Aldrich; but the old church having been
pulled down, about the year 1720, in order to be rebuilt,
no memorial remains of Tallis, or any other illuftrious per-
fon, who had been interred there anterior to that period.

TALLOW, a fort of animal fat, melted down and cla-
rified. There are {carcely any animals but a fort of tallow
may be prepared from ; but thofe which yield the moft, and
of which the moft ufe is made, are the horfe, bullock, theep,
hog, goat, deer, bear, and viper. Some of which tallows,
or fats, are ufed in medicine, and called axungia.

Mott of the reft are ufed in the making of foap, and the
dreffing of leather ; but chiefly in making of candles. For
this purpofe, large quantities are annually imported from
Ruffia in cafks, (See Cannte.) Tallow-chandlers alfo
melt tallow, which is done by chopping the fat, as it is
taken from oxen and fheep, and then Sime it for fome time

in a large copper ; and when the tallow is extra¢ted by this

FAL

procefs, the remainder is fubjeéted to the operation of a
ftrong iron prefs ; and the cake that is left, after the tallow
is expreffed from it, is called a “ greave.”” With this dogs
are fed, and moft of the ducks that are reared in the vale of
Ayle(bury, and which fupply the London markets. It is
alfo fometimes given to oxen and pigs, but certainly withou
meliorating the flavour of the meat. ae
It has been obferved, that candles fhould be made without
any admixture of oil or greafe ; and when laid up, fhould
be preferved from the aétion of the atmofphere. For this
purpofe, fome perfons keep their candles clofely covered up
in bran. If tallows are weak, apart foon becomes con-
verted to an acid by expofure to the air ; and this renders the
whole, when melted together, unfit for candles. Tallows,
alfo, that contain a large portion of febacic acid, require
much more barilla than good tallow, in the manufacture of
foap, and yet produce a lefs quantity. Foreign tallows,
which frequently contain a large portion of acid, rendering
them inferior to the Englifh, may be purified at an infignifi-
cant expence by chemical means; and by the proper appli-
cation of chemical agents, other brown tallows may be ren-
dered beautifully white, and fit for the beft purpofes. The
mode, fays a chemical writer of reputation, which naturally
prefents itfelf as the beft for feparating the febacic acid from
tallow, is that of melting it in water containing fome alkali 5
but old tallows may in general be fuffi¢iently purified from
their rancidity by melting them upon lime-water, and giving
a confiderable agitation to the whole mixture ; for when the
water is again faffered to fubfide, it will be found to be of-
fenfive in fmell, and to have fubtra¢ted moft of the impurities
of the tallow. If the tallow, however, fhould not be fuffi-
ciently purified, a repetition of this procefs would completely
effeé&t it. Parkes’s Chemical Effays, vol. i. p. 67, &c.
Tattow-7ree, in China, is a tree growing in great
plenty in that country, which. produces a fubftance like our

tallow, and ferving for the fame purpofe. See Croron
Sebiferum. :
ll the preparation they give it, is to melt it down and

mix a little oil with it, to make it fofter, and more pliant.
It is true, their candles made of it yield a thicker {moke,
and a dimmer light than ours ; but thofe defeéts are owing,
in a great meafure, to the wicks, which are not of cotton,
but only a little rod or {witch of dry light wood, covered
with the pie of a rufh, wound round it; which being very
porous, ferves to filtrate the minute parts of the tallow,
plisasind by the burning ftick, which by this means is kept
urning.

TaLtow-Chandlers’ Greaves, in Agriculture, the refufe
of tallow-chandlery, which is found at the bottom of the
pan, after the melting of tallow, in a fort of cake, and
which is an excellent manure; which fee.

TALLow, in Geography, a poft-town of the county of
Waterford, Ireland, fituated within half a mile of the river
Bride, on which there is a village called Tallow-bridge. It
was a borough which returned two members, previous to
the Union. “It is 104 miles S.W. by S. from Dublin, and
4S. from Lifmore. ;

TALLow Point, a mark for anchoring in the harbour of
Port Royal, in Jamaica.

TALLOWING, in Rural Economy, aterm applied to
the property or means of forming tallow internally in animals
of fome kinds, efpecially thofe of the fheep and neat cattle
forts. It has been ftated in the corre@ted Agricultural Re-
port of the County of Saffex, that it is by no means a fettled
point upon the South Downs of that diftri@, how far a fheepy
which gathers its fat upon the inteftines, is or is not pre-
ferable to another which colleés it upon the back and the

neck,

LAL

neck. The Leicefterfhire graziers, it is faid, contending
as much for the latter as the former, is confidered as a tett
of merit in Norfolk, and various other counties. But when
it is confidered, that it requires a certain portion of food to
create a given quantity of fat, the queftion is, it is thought,
which is the beft part to colleé& it upon,—within or without ?
As long as the fat of the latter will fell at more than one-
third af the other, it would feem, it is faid, that there can-
not be a doubt which of the two is preferable; and that,
upon the principle of food eaten to produce the tallow or
fat, that which tallows the leaft is the beft breed. The tal-
low, with the major part of the fifth quarter, is all the
butcher’s profit, it is faid, who would no doubt encourage
that breed which tallows beft, and yields moft offal.

It is noticed, however; that the South Down fheep are
not great tallowers, compared with fome other forts; but
that what they lofe in tailow, they make up in a difpofition
to fatten. The tallow of a wether, in common management,
will, it is faid, generally average from an eighth to a tenth
part of its dead weight. In a fat wether of Mr. Ellman’s,
one-feventh part of the dead weight was, it is faid, infide
fat (caul and loofe fat); and that in another which was
fince killed, one-fixth was infide fat. In others, too, that
have been flaughtered, the variation has been found from a
feventh to a tenth. The quantity of infide fat depends, it
is faid, much upon the age and time of fattening. It
gathers itfelf much more in old fheep than in young ones.

The bad ill-formed breeds of fheep, for the moft part,
tallow in the largeft and moft favourable manner; and the
fame is moftly the cafe in neat-cattle ftock, as thofe which
have the beft forms and difpofitions for fattening have com-
monly the leaft property of tallowing well, or afford the leatt
proof, as it is often called.

In regard to the fuperiority of fat meat, it may be juit
noticed that, in fome great thoroughfares for travelling, the
inn-keepers agree with the butchers to give them a penny the
pound above the common price for mutton, provided it be
very fat. It is likewife the fame with beef. This is faid to
be the cafe at Petersfield, and to ftrongly fhew that very fat
mutton, or meat of any kind, will go much farther than that
which is not equally fo. It, however, makes againit tal-
lowing in animals of thefe kinds. See Live-Stock and
SHEEP.

TALLWATER, in Geography, a river of Ireland, in
the county of Armagh, which runs with the Callen into
Blackwater, near Charlemont.

TALLY, Tatze, or Taille, a piece of wood on which
retail traders ufe to {core or mark, by notches or incifions,
the feveral quantities of goods they deliver out on credit,
to fave the trouble of writing down fo many little articles in
books.

Each fcore confifts of two pieces of wood, or rather of a
fingle piece cleft length-wife, the parts of which falling
in with one another, things delivered are {cored on both
at the fame time; the feller keeping one, and the buyer
the other.

Tallies are taken as evidences in courts of juftice, as
much as books. The ancient way of keeping all accounts
was by tallies; the debtor keeping one part, and the cre-
ditor the other. Hence the ¢allier of the exchequer, now
called the ¢eller, *

There are three kinds of tallies mentioned in our ftatutes,
and long ufed in the exchequer; viz.

Tauies of Loans, one part of which is kept in the ex-
chequer, and the other part given to particular perfons, in
lieu of an obligation for the monies they have lent to the
government on aéts of parliament, This laft part is called

VoL. XXXV.

TAL

or Jrock, and the former the counter-tock, or the counter-
tail.

The tallies are numbered, and bear the perfon’s name,
and the fum lent: thus we fay, the tallies, N°-have been
paid, or difcharged ; tallies are rifen, fallen, 4, 5, &c.

Tatutes, of Tailes of Debt, are a kind of acquittances
for debts paid to the king.

£. gr. The univerfity of Cambridge pays yearly 1o/. for
fuch things as are by charter granted them in fee-farm. He
that pays this receives a faile, or tally, for his difcharge,
with which, or a note of it, he repairs to the clerk of the
pipe, and there for the tally receives a full difcharre on
parchment.

TAttiés of Reward, or allowance. © Thefe are made to
fheriffs, for fuch matters as (to their charge) they have per-
formed in theiy office, or by fuch money as is by courfe caft
on them in their accounts, but which they cannot levy.

In the exchequer there is a ¢ally-court, where attend the
two deputy chamberlains of the exchequer, and the tally-
cutter.

Tatty-Counter. See Counrer.

Taxus, Cutter of the. See Cutter.

Tatty, Petty. See Perry.

Taxuies, Writer of. See WRITER. :

Tacty the Sheets, at fea, a word of command, when the
fheets of a main-fail or fore-fail are to be hauled aft. See
SHEETS.

Tatty for Flowers and Plants, in Gardening, that fort
of mark or contrivance, either by pieces of lead or flips of
wood, employed for diftinguifhing them.

The practice of marking flowers, trees, and plants, with
tallies of fome kind or other, is always highly ufeful and
neceflary in regulating their culture, as’ well as for many
other purpofes.

TALLYOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 8 miles N.W. of Dindigul.

TALMAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme ; 9 miles S. of Dourlens.

TALMAY, atown of France, in the department of the
Céte d’Or, at the union of the Vigenne and the Sadne ;
18 miles N.E. of Dijon.

TALMOND, a fea-port town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Charente, on the right fide of the Gi-
ronde, with aharbour; 18 miles S.W. of Saintes.

TALMONT, a town of France, in the department of
the Vendée; 6 miles E.S.E. of Sables d’Olonne.

TALMUD, or Tuatmup, from 395), doérine,
from 99, he taught, a Jewifh book, which contains a col-
leétion of all that relates to the explication of their law.

The Tatmud is the body of the Hebrew law ; a compila-
tion of expofitions of the duties impofed on the people,
either in f{cripture, or by tradition, or by authority of their
doétors, or by cuftom, or even by fuperftition: to fpeak
more plainly ftill, it is the courfe of cafes of conftience, or
of. moral theology, in which the duties are explained, and
the doubts cleared, not by reafoning, but generally by au-
thority, by the cuftom of the nation, and by the decifions
of the moft approved of the ancient doétors.

The Talmud confifts of two general parts, the one called
the Mifchna, the other the Gemara; which firft part is
alfo frequently called abfolutely the “ 'Talmud,”’ the general
name of the whole work.

The Jews divide their law into written, which is that con-
tained in the books of Mofes; and unwritten, which is that
conveyed by tradition. This latter is, in effeét, no other
than a glofs or interpretation of the former, given by the,
ancient rabbins.

H The

TAL

The Talmud then contains the traditions of the Jews,
their polity, doétrine, and ceremonies, which they obferve
as rehgioufly as the law of God itfelf: they would never
put them in writing till they were compelled to tt by the de-
ftru€tion of Jerufalem, and till they faw themfelves difperfed
throughout the world.

They had two famous fchools ; the one at Babylon, and
the other at Jerufalem: in thefe they made two feveral col-
keGtions of thofe traditions ; the firft at Jerufalem, the other
at Babylon; but both called Talmud, both exceedingly re-
verenced, efpecially the Babylonian, though full of extra-
vagancies. This was compiled by the Jews of Mefopotamia,
about 500 years after Chrift, according to Buxtorf: but
Father Morinus offers feveral reafons to prove that it was
not finifhed till the year 700. The laft edition of this Tal-
mud, at Amfterdam, is in twelve folios.

The Talmud of Jerufalem is the leaft efteemed. It was
compiled by thé Jews of that city, and particularly by
Rabbi Jochanan, reétor of the academy at Tiberias, about
300 years after Chrift, according to Buxtorf ; but Father

orinus, in his “ Exercitationes Biblicz,’’ lib. ii. exerc. 6.
judges, from feveral barbarous terms found in it, of Vandalic
or Gothic extraGtion, that it did not appear till the fifth
century. This is publifhed in one large folio.

The Babylonian Talmud confifts of two parts: the one
the text, the other the glofs or comment: the comment,
called the Gemara, contains the decifion of the Jewith doc-
tors, and their expofitions of the text.—This we find
ftuffed with dreams and chimeras; together with much ig-
norance, and many impertinent queftions and difputations :
the ftyle is alfo very coarfe. on the contrary, the text
called the Mifchna, is written in a tolerably pure ftyle, and
the reafonings generally much more folid.

The Jews pretend that this was compofed by Rabbi Juda,
furnamed the Saint; and that God revealed to him the doc-
trine, and the chief myfteries of it. But this is only to
be underftood of the Mifchna, not of the Gemara, the
compilation of which was not begun till the fixth century,
after the deftruétion of the fecond temple.

Rabbi Juda is faid to have compofed the Mifchna under
the empire of Antoninus, in the fecond century ; but the
do not all agree about this antiquity, fome carrying it rn
much farther. ,

It is the Talmud of Babylon that is ufually read, and moft
frequently confulted, among the Jews; fo that when they
fay fimply “ the Talmud,’”’ they always meant this ; never
quoting the other without the addition of Jerufalem.

Maimonides has made an abridgment of the Talmud,
which Scaliger prefers to the Talmud itfelf ; as being purged
of many of the fables of which the other is full. It is a
fyftem of the laws and cuftoms of the Jews, both of their
eivil and their canon Jaw, and the beft of their traditions.

About the year 1236, a Jew of Rochelle, well verfed in
the Hebrew, becoming Chriftian, made a journey to pope
Gregory IX., and difcoyered to him a number oF errors in
the erouis thefe the pope fent, in thirty-nine articles, to the
archbifhops of France, with a letter, appointing them to feize
the books of the Jews, and to burn all fuch as fhould con-
tain thofe errors: in confequence of which erder, about
twenty cart-loads of Hebrew books were burnt. He wrote
to the fame effect to the kings of England, France, Ara-
gon, Caftile, &c.

His fucceflor, Inapcent IV., giving commiffion to his
Aegate, Eudes-de Chateauroux, to examine the Talmud,
and other Jewifh books, more carefully, and to tolerate fuch

errors a8, were not contrary to the Chriftian religion; the”

legate wrote to the pope, that to tolerate them was to ap-

TAL

prove them; and the r5thof May, 1248, he alfo condemn®¢
them juridically to the flames ; and Paul IV. ordered 12,000
volumes of the T'almud to be confumed ; and Clement VIII.
ordered all the talmudic books that could be found to be de-
{troyed; a zeal worthy of the Papal fee! See Miscuna,
Gemana, Canaites, and RAwBINIsTs. _

TALO-CHAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the
coaft of China. N. lat. 29° 57'- E. long. 122° 4.

TALOIRE, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc; 8 miles S.S.E. of Annecy.

TALON, in Ornithology, the claw of a bird. 2

TALon, in Archite@ure, a kind of moulding, confifting
of a cymatium, crowned with a fquare fillet ; frequent]
found to terminate ornaments of joiners’ work, as thofe o
doors, &c.

The word is French, and literally fignifies heel. :

The talon, more properly fo called, is a moulding con-
cave at the bottom, and convex at top; having an effeét juft
oppolite to the doucine. <

When the concave part is at top, it is called an inverted.
talon. so

The talon is ufually called by our Englifh workmen ogee,
or 0.G. and by authors an upright or inverted cymatium.

TALOO, in Geography, a harbour on the N. coaft of Ei-
meo; which fee. ,

TALOVKA, a river of Ruffia, which unites with the
Analik, and runs with it into the Irgis, 32° miles E. of
Volik, in the government of Saratov.

TALPA, the Mole, in Zoology, a genus of the Mam-
malia Fere, the charaéters of which are, that the front
teeth in the upper jaw are fix and unequal, thofe in the lower
jaw are eight; the canine teeth are one on each fide, the
upper ones being the largett ; and that the grinders are feven
in the upper jaw, and fix in the lower. - Gmelin enumerates
four fpecies, befides feveral varieties.

Species. , na

Evrop®s; Common Mole. Has a fhort tail, and pen-
tadactylous or five-toed feet. The. body is thick and cy-
lindric ; the fnout flender, but very ftrong and tendinons ;
the head not diftinguifhed from the body by any appearance
of neck; the legs fo extremely fhort, as f{carcely to projeét
perceptibly from the body ; the fore-feet fituated obliquely.
outwards, exceflively ftrong and broad, and furnifhed with
very large and ftout claws, : as to give the animal the power
of working under the furface with the utmoft eafe and readi-
nefs; the Find-feet are {mall in proportion to the fore-feet,
and are calculated for throwing back with eafe the mould
from behind the creature, during his fubterraneous progrefs ;
the tail is fhort and fmall; the fkin is much thicker and
tougher in proportion than in other quadrupeds, and the fur
with which it is covered equally furpafles that of other ani-
mals in finenefs and foftnefs. ‘lhe mufcular ftrength of the
mole is very great, and it is enabled to force itfelf into the
ground with an extraordinary degree of celerity. The ge-
neral length of the mole is about five inches and three quar-
ters, elglatves of the tail, which meafures one inch. This
animal is fuppofed to oie the power of hearing in an ex-
quilite degree ; and if at any time it emerges Fen a fub-
terraneous retreat, inftantly difappears on the approach of
any danger. When firft taken, either by digging it out or
otherwife, it utters a fhrill feream, and prepares S defend by
exerting the ftrength of its claws and teeth. According to
the count de Buffon, fo lively and reciprocal an attachment
fubfifts between the male and female, that they feem to dread
or difrelifh all other fociety.

It has been doubted whether the mole has eyes adapted to

vifion,

TAL

vifion, or merely for the purpofe of apprizing it of the ap-
proach of light, fo as to warn it of the danger of expofure.
Galen is of ‘the former opinion. Sir Thomas Brown refers
this to the clafs of vulgar errors; but Derham, by diffec-
tion, and the aid of a microfcope, confirmed the opinion of
Galen, This animal is faid to feed not only on worms and
infe&ts, &c. but on the roots of vegetables: however, it is
more carnivorous than frugivorous. In particular circum-
ftances it is very fierce and voracious. Without damp mould
for its refidence, it is kept alive with difficulty in a itate of
confinement. Like other animals of a black colour, the
mole is fometimes found perfetly white, or cream-coloured,
and fometimes f{potted. Gmelin reckons four varieties, viz.
the variegated or {potted mole of Edwards, the white, the
yellow, and the cinereous. Of its furprifing power in
iwimming, we have a curious inftance recorded in the 3d vo-
lume of the TranfaGtions of the Linnzan Society ; which
is that of a mole that was feen {wimming towards a {mall
ifland in the middle of the loch of Clunie, in Scotland, at
the diftance of 180 yards from the land. Linneus and
Gmelin affirm that the mole pafles the winter in a ftate of
torpidity ; but this is contradi€ted by Buffon, and he alleges
facts to prove the contrary. The mole is {aid to be unknown
in Ireland. In Siberia it attains a larger fize than in Eu-
rope, and its fur is fo foft and beautiful, that it would make
the moft elegant articles of drefs, were it not for the difficulty
of curing and dreffing the fkin. See Move.

Astatica. Has no tail, and tridactylous foré-feet. This is
the Siberian mole of Pennant. It is fomewhat {maller than
the common mole, its length being four inches ; and is a na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope.

Loneicaupata. Witha tail of middling length, and
pentada@tylous feet, the hinder ones fcaly. This is the
long-tailed mole of Pennant : its length from nofe to tail is
four inches and fix-tenths; and it is a native of North
America. .

Rusra; Red Mole of Pennant.
da€tylous fore-feet, and trida¢tylous hind-feet.
to be a native of America.

Dr. Shaw mentions fome other fpecies, as the T. purpu-
ra/fcens, or black mole, with a glofs of purple, pentada¢ty-
lous feet, and white tail, firft defcribed by Seba, and by
him faid to be a native of Virginia :—the T. radiata, or black
mole, with white feet, and nofe radiated with papille ; an
imhabitant of North America :—the Sorex ‘criflatus of Lin-
nzus ; a variety, as Dr. Shaw fays, of the T. /ongicaudata :—
and the 7. fu/ca, or brown mole, with white feet and tail, the
fore-feet very broad ; a native of, North America, and fup-
pofed to be the fame with the Sorex aquaticus of Linnzus.

Tawra, (a mole,) in Surgery, a tumour, which makes its
way under the fkin, as-a mole under the furface of the

ound. Such is faid to be the derivation of the term.

alpa is often ufed in the language of furgery, to exprefs
an encyited tumour, which forms on the head, and contains
a pap-like matter. See ATHEROMA.

TALPAR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ; 70 miles N.W. of Hamadan.

TALPARIA, in Surgery, an encyfted tumour, filled
with a pap-like matter. See Tanpa.

TALPIA, in Geography, atown of Chinefe Tartary, in
the country of Hami; 28 miles N.E. of Hatamtam.

TALSENGHE, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ;

to miles $.W. of Vifiapour. j

TALSHIDE. See Tatwoop.

TALSPERG, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine; 12 miles E. of Porentrui.

Has a fhort tail, tri-
This is faid

TAM

TALTITZ, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ; 4
miles S. of Plauen.

TALUS, in Anatomy, a name formerly given to the
altragalus, or that bone of the foot which is articulated to
the leg. (See Exrremities.) This bone in the pecora
has a cubic fhape; and was employed by the ancients in
their famous game, ludus talorum. (See Ariftotle, Hift.
Anim. lib. ii. c. 1.) For the various appellations of this
well-known bone in moft of the European and Oriental
languages, and for its form in different animals; fee Th.
Hyde, Hiftoria Talorum, in vol. ii. of his Syntagma Dif-
fertationum, Oxon. 1767, 4to.

Tatus, or Talud, in Architeéure, the inclination or flope
of a work; as of the outfide of a wall, when its thicknefs
is diminifhed by degrees, as it rifes in height, to. make it
the firmer. :

Taxus, or Talzd, in F ortification.—Talus of a baftion, or
rampart, is the flope or diminution allowed to fuch a work ;
whether it be of earth, or ftone; the better to fupport its
weight.

The exterior talus of a work, is its flope on the fide to-
wards the country ; which is always made as little as pof-
fible, to prevent the enemy’s efcalade, unlefs the earth be
bad, and then it is abfolutely neceffary to allow a confider-
able talus for its parapet, and fometimes to fupport the earth
with a flight wall, called a revetement.

The interior talus of a work, is its flope on the fide to-
wards the place.

This is larger than the former, and has, at the angles of
the gorge, and fometimes in the middle of the curtains,
ramps or floping roads for mounting upon the terre-plain of
the rampart. j

Taxus, Superior, of the parapet, is a flope on the top
of the parapet, that allows of the foldiers defending the
covert-way with fmall-fhot, which they could not do if it
were level.

TALWOOD; Tatiarura, in our Old Writers, firee
wood cut and cleft into billets of a certain length; it is
otherwife written talghwood and talfhide. Stat. 34 & 35
Hen) Vit. cog... «7 Edw: Vil.ve. 72 043 Elizl coras

TALYSIAN, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of
the ifland of Borneo. N. lat.. 1° 48’. E.long. 117° 4o!.

TAM, a river of China, which runs into the Ta; 5 miles
§.E. of Khi, in Pe-tche-li.

Tam, £/, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan, on the Heer-
mund; 25 miles E. of Zareng.

TAMA, a town of Circaffia, on the Black fea; 60 miles
E.N.E. of Theodofia.

TAMACH. See Tainacn.

TAMACHABAD, atown of Hindooftan, in Benares;
18 miles W. of Benares,

TAMACLIPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca; 52 miles N. of Panuco,
~- TAMACUIL, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatteca; 40 miles S. of Panuco.

TAMAHOO, a {mall ifland in the Eaftern Indian fea,
near the weft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 0° 7/. E. long.
109° 21. :

TAMALAMEQUE, a town of South America,
in the province of St. Martha, on the river Magdalena ;
160 miles S. of St. Martha. N. lat. 8° 40’. W. long.
73° 56".

37 MALAPATRA, in the Materia Medica, a name by
which fome authors have called the folium Indicum, or Ine
dian leaf, ufed in medicine.

The tree which produces this leaf is the /aurus cajffia of

H 2 Linnzus,

TAM

Linnzus, or caffia lignea tree. It is a large and lofty tree,
the flowers and fruit of which refemble- the cinnamon-tree.
Its leaves, when full grown, are ten‘inches or more in length ;
and fix or eight in breadth. The flowers ftand in clufters,
in the manner of umbels on the tops of the branches, and
are of a greenifh-white colour. The fruit is of the bignefs
of our currant.

The ancients recommended Indian leaf as ftomachic,
fudorific,. and cephalic. At prefent, it is utterly difre-
garded, being only kept in the fhops as an ingredient in
mithridate and theriaca; and is, in its greateft perfection,
far inferior to the mace which our college direéts as a fuc-
cedaneum to it. See Cassia Lignea.

TAMALIPAN, in Geography, a chain of mountains in
Spanifh North America, called by Alcedo, in his.defcription
of New Leon, the Grand Sierra, and a branch of which is
called the Eaftern Tamalipa by Alzate. This laft branch
extends from the defarts of Jaumape to the eaftern coaft of
the province of Santander, where it is marked in the Spamifh
chart of the gulf of Mexico by the names of various peaks ;
while the mountain of Orcafites, vifible at fea at the diftance
of 160 miles inland, muft nearly equal Orizava in height,
and appears to belong to the fame branch of the grand mdge
of Tamalipa.

TAMALMA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Kawar; 120 miles N. of Kanem.

TAMAMES, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon; 15 miles E. of Civdad Rodrigo.

TAMAN, anifland at the mouth of the Kuban, and a
principalit belonging to it, and alfo a town on the fame
Mand, called Phanagoria, (which fee.) This principality
was anciently occupied by the Chazares ; but it was wrefted
from them in the year 965 by the Ruffian combined with the
Byzantine Greeks, who made themfelves mafters of the
countries bordering on the fea of Azof in tors, and com-
pletely overturned the Chazarian ftate, creating a diftiné
principality on, the ifle of Taman, to which both the Cha-
zares and the Zichians were for a long time tributary. See
TMUTARAKAN. P

Towards the end of the 11th century, while Ruffia was
torn by inteftine broils, the principality of Taman was loft
to that empire. At length, in 1221, the Mongoles made
their firft attack. The Komanes were expelled or fubdued,
but the Ziches fought for their liberty, and could not be
made to fubmit till the year 1277, when they were over-

owered by Margu-Timur-Khan and the famous Nogay.

Neverthelebs, they retained fome degree of independence in
their. woody and mountainous regions. The Ottomans
indeed, in 1484, conquered the cities and forts of ‘Taman,
Temryuk, and Atfchuk: but they gained no fovereignty
over the T'{cherkaffians or Circaflians. At the peace of
1774 the fultan of the Ottomans relinquifhed his poffeffions
in thefe parts; but, contrary to treaty, held Taman and
Temryuk in a ftate of fiege, till the Crimean khan, by the
aid of the Ruffians, drove the Ottoman garrifon out of
them. By the treaty of the year 1783, Ruffia obtained,
together with the Crimea .and the Eaitern Nogay, the
northern part of the Kuban as far as the promontory of
Caucafus.

The Zichians or Tfchekians, called by the Ruffians
Yafi, are the principal inhabitants of the ifle of ‘Taman.
They formerly paid a {mall tribute to the Crimean khan,
but in all othen refpeéts are governed by their own beys.
The ifle Atfchuk or Atfchuyef is likewife inhabited by
Zichians. Thefe two tribes, which, properly fpeaking, are
only one collateral branch of the Teherk ians, have be-

TAM
longed to the Ruffian empire, as inhabitants of the Kuban,
fince the.year 1783. . oj

Taman, the ffrait or channel that forms 4 communi-
cation between the Black fea and the fea of Azof.

TAMANAH, a fea-port town of Hindooftan, on the
coait of Malabar, in the country of Concan; 25 miles S.
of Gheriah. N. lat. 16° 30’. E. long. 73° 15'.

TAMANDUA, in Zoology, a creature called in Englifh
the ant-bear ; and by the Brafilians tamanduaguacu ; and the
tamanoir of Buffon: different {pecies of the fame genus.
See MyrMECOPHAGA.

TAMAR, in Geography, a confiderable river, which
originates in the county of Cornwall, England, and fepa-
rates that county, except for the {pace of a few miles, from
Devonthire. It rifes in a moor in the parifh of Morwinitow,
about three miles from the North fea: paffing near Whit-
{tone, about ten miles from its fource, it reaches Tamerton,
which takes its name from this river; here it receives the
waters of the Werrington, and about a mile and a half fur-
ther its current is increafed by the Attery, which’ runs
under the walls of the town of Launcefton: at Poulfton-
bridge it is a wide and rapid ftream; a mile below Graifton-
bridge it is joined by the Inney, which, rifing in Alternon,
pafles through the parifhes of Lewanick-and Lezant. In
the parifh of Stoke-Climfland, the Tamar has a high, ftrong,
itone bridge, called by Leland “* Hawtebrig,”’ or the High
bridge, now commonly Horfe-bridge. The laft or loweft
bridge on this river is in the parith of Calftock, and was
begun, according to Leland, by fir Piers Edgecombe. . Five,
miles farther the Tamar receives the Tavy from the eait,
and having made a creck into the parifhes of Botesfleming
and Tandilph on the welt, becomes a fpacious harbour ;
and after pafling near the ancient borough of Saltafh, ‘is
joined by the Lynher creek and river. Increafing in import-
ance as it winds along, it next forms, between Dock and
Saltafh, the noble bafin called the “ Hamoaze,” or Ply-
mouth Harbour, where a large proportion of the Britifh
navy rides in complete fecurity. Having made two lar,
creeks, one called St. John’s, the other Milbrook, on
weit, and Stonehoufe creek on the eaft, the Tamar, after a
courfe of about 4o miles nearly fouth, falls into the fea, having
mount Edgcumbe for its weftern, and the lands of Stone-
houfe and St. Nicholas ifland for its eaftern boundary, and
produces the noble road for Singing named Plymouth
Sound. ‘The Tamar is one of the moit confiderable rivers
in the weit of England; its banks are richly diverfified with
rocks, woods, and meadows; and the {cenery in various
parts of its courfe is extremely interefting and beautiful.
The views about the Cater-marther rocks, Spavittock-New.
bridge, the Morwell rocks, Cotele and Pentilly, are pecu-
liarly romantic, and can fearcely be equalled by any other
river in the weitern part of the kingdom. (See PLymouTH
Harbour.) Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, Be iii. Cornwall.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. Cornwall. - By
J. Britton and E.W. Brayley.

TAMAR, a town of Arabia,
40 miles N.N.W. of Karac.

Tamar Bay, a harbour in the {traits of Magellan, E. of
Cape Tamar. ;

TAMARA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain,
which rofe in the mountains W. of Lucus Augufto, and
difcharged itfelf into the fea to the W. of a {mall ulf, on
the banks of which were Grandinirum and Acre Softies
Mela calls this river Tanaris. The Tamarifci inhabited its
banks.

TAMARA, a town of the ifle of Albion, affigned by Pto-

lemy

in the province of Hedsjas ;

TAM

lemy to the Damnonii or Dumnonii. Mr. Horfley thinks
it was Saltafh; but Mr. Camden and Mr. Baxter fuppofe
it, more probably, to be Tamerton, which {till retains its
ancient name.

Tamara, in Geography, a town of Morocco, on the
coaft of the Atlantic ; 30 miles W. of Tarudant.—Alfo,
a fea-port town on the N.W. coaft of the ifland of Soco-
tora, and refidence of the king.

Tamara Jfles, or Iflands of Idols, a clufter of iflands
near the coaft of Sierra Leone. N. lat. 8° gol.

Tamara’, in Botany, the Hindoo name of a very cele-
brated plant. (See our article Cyamus, written by the late
Rev. Mr. Wood.) The above name fhould feem to origi-
nate from the Hebrew "ym, Yamar, a Palm-tree, whence
dates are called Tamara by. the Spaniards; and it may
allude to the form of the feeds of the Cyamus, refembling
dates ; or to their fimilar ufe as an oriental article of food.
Tamar is alfo the Arabic name of the fame fruit. See
TAMARINDUS.

TAMARACA, Tamarica, or Jfamaraca, in Geo-
graphy, a diftrict of Brafil, in the jurifdiction of Fernam-
buco. It has its name from an ifland on the coaft, near the
mouth of the river Tamaraca, which conftitutes the prin-
cipal part of its diftriét, though the territory thereof ex-
tends inland between 30 and 40 leagues, having Parayba on
the north, Fernambuco on the fouth, the ocean on the eaft,
and unfubdued Indians on the weft. It was reckoned one
of the moft ancient and flourifhing captainfhips in Brafil ;
but Parayba and Fernambuco have fince exceeded it. The
ifland is parted from the main land by a very narrow chan-
nel. It is fertile and pleafant enough; producing large
quantities of Brafil wood, cotton, cocoa-nuts, fugar, melons,
citrons, &c. befides a good deal of timber for fuel and
other purpofes. It is about nine miles in length, and three
in breadth, and about 22 in circuit. It has a commodious
haven on the fouth fide, with fome good fprings and rivulets
of frefh water. The entrance into the port is by a channel
of between 15 and 16 feet water, commanded by a cattle,
built on an eminence, and formerly taken by the Dutch: who
alfo built Fort Orange at the mouth of the channel, which
was inacceflible, by reafon of the marfhes furrounding it ;
fo that the veffels that failed down from the ifland were ex-
pofed to it, and they had in fome meafure {topped all the
avenues from the Portuguefe. This ifland, and the terri-
tory on the continent belonging to it, pay 3000 ducats to
the governor of the captainfhip, and in it are reckoned to
be about 22 fugar-mills. The French had formerly a can-
ton or fettlement on this coaft, {till called from them “ Porto
dos Francefe ;”” but the Portuguefe obliged them to eva-
cuate it. The capital, called “ Noftra Segnora de Con-
ceizao,”’ or “ Da Tamaraca,”’ ftands at the entrance into
the river of the latter name; and near it is a {mall cattle
with a redoubt, commanding the avenues; and about four
miles N. of the mouth of the river is the famous point de-
nominated ‘* Punta Pedro.’’

Tamaraca, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
Jantic, S. lat. 7° 52!. :

TAMARIL, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, fituated
about a mile from the fea-coaft; 2 miles N.E. of Tar-
ragona. : .

TAMARINDUS, in Botany, the Tamarind-tree, is fo
called from Tamar, which is Hebrew for a Palm-tree, (and
likewife the Arabic appellation of its fruit, the Date,) com-
bined with the Latin word Jndus, Indian. The form of the
pod, and its ufe as an article of food, may well have given
rife to the name. (See Tamara!.) — Linn. Gen. 23.

Schreb. 450. Willd. Sp. Pl. vy. 3. 577. Mart. Mill.
I2

Re Ay Mi

Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 134. Juff. 347.
Lamarck Illuftr. t.25. Gertn. t. 146.—Clafs and order,
Triandria Monogynia, Linn. Monadelphia Triandria, Schreb.
Willd. Nat. Ord. Lomentacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Juaff.
Gen. Ch. . Ga/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf: tube tur-
binate, compreffed, tapering at the bafe, oblique at the
mouth, permanent ; limb in four deep, ovate, acute, flat-
tifh, reflexed, coloured, deciduous {egments ; the upper
and lower ones rather the broadeft. Cor. Petals three,
ovate, acute, concave, crenate, wavy, reflexed, the length
of the calyx, inferted into the mouth of the tube; the two
lateral ones rather the largeft. Stam. Filaments three; in
ferted into the mouth of the calyx in the vacancy oppofite
to the uppermoft petal, awl-fhaped, as long as the corolla,
conneéted in their lower half, curved upwards; anthers
ovate, large, incumbent. There are befides feven rudiments
of ftamens ; five of them fetaceous threads, capitate, very
fhort, alternate with the above, connected in their lower
part, two lower than the reft ; and two minute briftles, pro-
ceeding from the calyx beneath the filaments, and lying upon
them. Pi/?. Germen oblong, compreffed, incurved, feated
on a ftalk, which fprings from the bottom of the calyx, and
is attached longitudinally to the back of its tube within,
the projecting part downy along its upper edge; ftyle awl-
fhaped, afcending, downy at its lower edge, rather longer
than the ftamens ; ftigma tumid, obtufe. Peri. Legume
oblong, compreffed, obtufe, with a point, fwelling at the
feeds, of one cell, not burfting; its coat double; the outer
dry and brittle; inner membranous ; a quantity of foft
pulp being lodged between the two. Seeds few, orbicular,
fomewhat angular, flattened, hard, polifhed, with a central
circumfcribed difk at each fide.
Eff. Ch. Calyx in four deep fegments. Petals three.
Barren filaments feven. Style one. Legume pulpy within.
1. T. indica. ‘Tamarind-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 48. Willd.
ni.) Ait. mr. Jacq. Amer. fo. t. ro. and t. 179.
f. 98. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 166. (Tamarindus ; Rumph.
Amboin. v. 2. go. t.23. Ger. Em. 1607. Balam-pulli;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 1. 39. t. 23.)—This tree, a native
of Egypt, Arabia, and the Eaft Indies, is generally pre-
ferved, rather than cultivated, in both Indies for the fake,
both of its fhade, and its acid, cooling, and highly grateful,
as well as falutary, frait ; the pulp of which, mixed with
boiled fugar, is frequently imported into Europe, and highly
efteemed. The ¢runk is lofty, and of confiderable thicknefs,
crowned with wide-extended branches, bearing umbrageous
tufts of alternate, abruptly pinnate, {mooth, bright-greeen
leaves, each compofed of many pair of elliptic-oblong,
feffile, entire /eaflets, rather glaucous beneath. Flowers
in fimple cluiters, terminating the fhort lateral branches.
Petals yellow, elegantly veined with red. Fruit pendu-
lous, like large beans. Gertner obferves that the Welt
Indian Tamarind pod is fhorter than what Rheede and
Rumphius reprefent, and has fewer feeds. “Hence he
diftinguifhes two fpecies, which appear from hiftory as
well as obfervation to be mere varieties, the plant being
more at home in the eaftern than in the weltern fide of
the globe, though almoit perfectly naturalized in the
latter. It is often feen in our ftoves, but feldom in bloffom.
—As Dr. Woodville has given an original coloured plate of
this interefting plant, drawn by Mr. Sowerby from a fpeci-
men that flowered in Kew garden, and the only one of au-
thority extant; we conceive his work, in this inftance, if
not in every other, might -have been cited with advantage,
by our friend Mr. Aiton, in the Hortus Kewen/is.
TAMARINDUS, in Gardening, contains a plant of the exotic
tree kind, of which the {pecies is the tamarind-tree (T. .;
dica) ;

PAM

dica) ; which grows to a very large fize in the countries
where it is_a native : the {tem being very large, and covered
with a brown bark, dividing into many branches at the top,
which fpread wide évery way ; the flowers come out from
the fide of the branches, five, fix, or more together, in loofe
bunches ; the pods being thick and compreffed ; thofe from
the Weft Indies from two.to five inches in length, contain-
ing two, three, or four feeds; but thofe from the Eait
Indies are almoft twice as long, and contain five, fix, and
even feven feeds. The tree is a native of both the Indies,
and of fome other places. >

Method of Culture.—This is a plant which is incréafed
from feeds, which fhould be fown in the {pring on a hot-
bed, and when the plants are come up, each’ planted in a
feparate {mall pot, filled with light rich earth, plunging them
into a hot-bed of tanners’ bark to bring them forward,
watering and fhading them until they have taken root ;
and as the earth in the pots becomes: dry, they mutt be
watered from time to time, and have air given in proportion
to the warmth of the feafon, and the bed in which they are
placed. When the pots in which they are planted are filled
with their roots, the plants fhould be fhifted into pots of a
larger fize, which mutt be filled up with rich light earth,
oo again plunged into the hot-bed, giving them air as
before, according to the warmth of the feafon ; but in very
hot weather, the glaffes fhould be fhaded with mats in the
heat of the day, otherwife the fun will be too violent for them
through the glaffes ; nor will the plants thrive if they are
expofed to the open air, even in the warmeft feafon ; fo that
they mutt be conftantly kept in the bark-ftove both fummer
and winter, treating them in the fame manner as the coffee-
tree. Thefe plants have a good effe& in the ftove col-
leétions.

It is the feed-pods of this tree which form and conttitute
the preferve called tamarinds, which is fold in the fhops ; and
is of faci a pulpy acid quality, as to be of great ufe in
abating and quenching thirft, and in cooling and allaying
exceffive heat. It is brought hither from bark the Eaft and
Wet Indies ; but though the pods of the trees of the former
fituation are much finer and larger, the preferve from the
latter is generally confidered better, and of courfe moftly
preferred.

There is nothing peculiar in the making of this fort of
preferve, exactly the fame methods being followed as are com-
mon in the preferving of other fubftances of fimilar kinds.

TAMARINDUS, in the Materia Medica. The-Eaft India
tamarinds are longer than thofe of the Weft; the former
contaimng fix or feven feeds each, the latter rarely above
three or four; neverthelefs they feem to be the produce of
the fame plant ; the Oriental fort is drier and darker-coloured
than the Occidental, and has more pulp ; the former is fome-
times preferved without addition, but the latter has always an
admixture of fugar.

In the Weft Indies, the pods are gathered in June, July,
and Auguft, when fully ripe ; and the fruit, freed from the
fhelly fragments, is placed in layers in a cafk, and boilin
fyrup poured over it till the cafk is filled. When cool, the calle
is headed for fale. When tamarinds are good, they are not
in any degree mufty ; the feeds are hard, flat, and clean ; the
ftrings rough and entire, and a clean knife:thruft into them
does not receive any coating of copper. They fhould be
preferved in clofely covered jars.

We owe the knowledge of the ufe of tamarinds, in medi-
cine, to the Arabians. he ancient Greeks knew nothin
of them ; and Serapion, Mefue, and Avicenna,.are the fi
authors who prefcribe them.

The fruit of the tamarind, which is what we ufe, is only

TAM

the piftil of the flower fwelledinto a pod ; this is greenifh at
fir, but grows brownifh or reddifh as it ripens; its com-
mon fize is four inches in length, and one in breadth 3 and it
is undulated on the back, and deeply notched in three or four
places at the front, which is terminated by a large rib, that
runs from the pedicle on which it grows, to the end of the
pod, and there frequently terminates in a fort of hook.

This fruit is, properly fpeaking, compofed of two pods,
the one inclofed within the other: the outer pod is flefhy,
and of the twelfth of an inch in thicknefs when frefh, and
the inner one is as thin asa fine piece of parchment : between
thefe two there is an intermediate {pace of about a quarter of
an inch all the way ; and this fpace is filled up with a very
foft and pulpy fubftance, of a tart but very agreeable tafte,
which is what we ufe in medicine. This is blackifh, and of
a vifcous texture, and is traverfed by three large veffels, or
rather bundles of vefiels, one of which runs along the
back of the pod, and the two others are placed on the oppo-
fite fide, and often there are feveral ramifications of veflels,
which run off different ways from thefe. Thefe veffels
carry the vinous juice, which afterwards hardens into the
vifcous matter of the pulp ; but this is not all their office, .
for they alfo convey nourifhment to the feeds in the inner

od. f ’
: We ufe the tamarinds only in medicine ; but the Africans,
and the people of many of the Oriental nations, where they
are common, make them into a fort of confection re fugar,
which they eat as a delicacy, and which cools them in the
violent heats of their climates ; and at the fame time keeps
their bowels in a proper ftate of laxity. The four tafte of
this fruit proves, that acid particles abound greatly in it ;
and a chemical analyfis of it gives further proof of this.

According to the analyfis of Vauquelin, the pulp contains,
independently of the fugar with which it isemixed, fuper-
tartrate of potafs, gum, jelly, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic
acid, and a feculent matter. The acid tafte chiefly depends
on thecitric acid, as its quantity exceeds that of the others
3xvj of the prepared pulp, containing 3ifs of citric acid,
but only 3ij of tartaric acid, 3{s of fupertartrate of potafs,
and 3{s of malic acid. Annales de Chimie, vol. y. p. 92.

The effential falt of tamarinds, as Beaumé obferves, may
be obtained more expeditioufly, by clarifying the decoétion
of the tamarinds with whites of eggs, than by filtering and
evaporating it to a proper confiftence, and fetting it to cool:
the falt fhoots into cryitals of a brown colour, and very acid
tafte, but in diffolving and cryftallizing them again, or barely
wafhing them with water, they lofe almoft all their acidity ;
the ne principle of the tamarind feeming not to be truly
eryftallizable. F

The pulp of tamarinds is an agreeable laxative acid, of
common ufe in inflammatory and putrid diforders, for
abating thirft and heat, correéting putrefaétion, and loofen-
ing the belly. The dofe, as a laxative, is two or three
drachms ; an ounce or two prove moderately cathartic. Itis
an ufeful addition with this intention to the purgative fweets,
caffia and manna, in increafing their aétion, and rendering
them lefs liable to produce flatulencies; the refinous ca=
thartics are faid to be fomewhat weakened by it. Lewis.

This pulp is an ingredient in confectio caffi, confeétio
fennz, and in the Soka Tia tamarindi cum fenna.

TAMARISCUS, in Botany. See Tamarix.

TAMARISK P ant, in Agriculture, is a plant of the
large fhrubby kind, which has lately, it is faid, been em-
ployed in fome fouthern fituations sy La are much expofed
to the fea air, and other effects of it, with great utility. It
is capable of ist readily raifed and propagated by means
of cuttings of the laft year’s growth, as they take root with.

out

TAM
out any difficulty, and are, of ecourfe, admirably adapted as
plants for forming hedges. It is the French fort that is
made up of in this way. See Quicxser-Hedge.

TAMARITE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon;
16 miles E.S.E. of Balbattro.

TAMARIX, in Botany, Tamarifcus of Tournefort, and
of fome, but not all, of the older botanifts, is fuppofed to de-
rive its name from the Tamarifci, a people who inhabited a
country on the other fide of the Pyrenées, where the moft
common {pecies of this genus abounds. Such at leait is the
opinion of De Theis. Martyn fays, fome deduce this word
from the Hebrew Zamaris, to wipe or cleanfe ; but we feel
no great fatisfaction in either of thefe etymologies.—Linn.
Gen. 148. Schreb. 200. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1498.
Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm, Fl. Brit. 338. = Prodr. Fi.
Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 208. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.1971. Juff.
313. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 213. Gertn. t. 61.—Clafs and
order, Pentandria Trighnia. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn.
Poriulacee, Jufl. ;

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep, obtufe, erect,

ermanent fegments, half the length of the corolla. Cor.
Petals five, ovate, obiufe, concave, fpreading. Stam. Fila-
ments five at lealt, capillary ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Ger-
men pointed ; {tyle none ; ftigmas three, oblong, feathery, .
revolute. Peric. Capfule oblong, pointed, triangular, longer
than the calyx, of one cell and three valves. Seeds nu-
merous, minute, each with a ftalked feathery crown.

Obf. T. germanica has ten ftamens, five of which, alter-
nate with the others, are external and fhorter ; all are con-
neéted at the bafe. Linn.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep fegments. Petals
five. Capfule of one cell and three valves. Seeds with a
feathery crown. aye thd ;

1. T. gallica. French Tamarifk, Linn. Sp. Pl. 386.

Willd.n.:. Fi. Brit. n. 1. | Engl. Bot. t. 1318. Sm.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 291. unpublifhed. Mill. Ic. t. 262. f.1.
(Tamarifcus narbonenfis ; Ger. Em. 1378. Lob. Ic. y. 2.
218. Myrica; Camer. Epit. 74. f. 1.)—Stamens five.
Clufters lateral. Branches fmooth. Leaves lanceolate,
imbricated, {purred at the bafe.—Native of rocks and banks,
or of fwampy ground, efpecially towards the fea, in the
fouth of Europe, and north of Africa, very abundantly. ° It
is plentiful about the coafts of Cornwall, Hampfhire, and
Suffex, undoubtedly wild. This fhrub appears to have been
eommon in the Englifh gardens, as it {till is, in Gerarde’s
time ; and yet Camden, in his life of queen Elizabeth, at-
tributes to archbifhop Grindall, who died in 1583, its being
firft brought into England, and made known as “ exceeding
good to eafe the hard diftemper of the {pleen.”” (See our
7th fpecies.) Mr. Hudfon has not admitted any of this
genus into his Flora. Dr, Sibthorp found this plant com-
mon in rather moift fituations in Greece, nor can there be
any doubt that it is the vem of Diofcorides. The Turks
eall it Z/ Ghin. On the eaftern coaft of Italy we have ob-
ferved it to be the favourite food of fheep, probably on ac-
count of a faltifh flavour, pereeptible to our tafte. This is
an elegant, drooping, flender-branched /brub, with {mooth
and fhining twigs, of amahogany red. Leaves minute, rather
flefhy, lanceolate, acute, fmooth, deciduous, with a pofterior
{pur, as in fome {pecies of Sedum ; imbricated on the youngett
fhoots ; feattered on the older twigs. The floqwers appear in
July, in copious, long, cylindrical cluffers, rather than /pikes,
at the fides of the lait year’s fhoots.. Braéeas awl-haped,
folitary, at the bafe of each fmooth and naked partial ftalk.
Calyx bell-fhaped, acute, fmooth. Corolla and flamens white
or rofe-coloured.

Willdenow’s variety £ we fhall next defcribe as a diftin&
6

TAM

fpecies ; his 43 the T. africana of Poiret! gathered by this
traveller in Barbary, is faid to have peculiarly fhort, thick
and denfe /pikes, but we are not furnifhed with any further?
information on the fubject.

2. ‘T'. tomentofa. Downy-branched Tamarifk. (T. gal-
hea 8; Willd. n.2. T. pentandre varietas; Pall. Rofs.
VY. I, p. 2.72. t. 79. BCD.)—Stamens five. Clufters la-
teral. Leaves imbricated, awl-fhaped, elongated, hoary and
downy as well as the branches.—Found by Pallas in falt
fandy deferts about the Cafpian fea. He fpeaks of this
plant as a fingular very elegant variety of the preceding, about
fix feet high, with all its branches downy and hoary ; the
younger ones thicker than in the common 7. gallica, (which
he choofes to call pentandra,) and the leaves longer, hoary,
denfely imbricated ; all the parts being thicker and more
crowded.» In the clu/fers and flowers he obferved no differ-
ence. Willdenow’s fuggettion, of this being probably a
diftinét {pecies, is apparently well-founded.

3. T. articulata. Jointed-branched Tamarifk. | Vahl
Symb. v. 2. 48. t.32. Willd. n. 2. (T. orientalis ; Forfk.
figypt.-Arab. 206. Thuja aphylla; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1422,
excluding the fynonym of Shaw. )—Stamens five. Spikes
lateral. Branches jointed. Leaves fheathing, abrupt, with
a fhort fpreading point.—Gathered by Forficall in Arabia.
The original fpecimen, erroneoufly confidered by Linnzus,
for want of fruétification, as a Thuja, appears to have been
brought from Egypt, or the Levant, by Haffelquift. The
plant of Shaw is Thuja articulata, which will hereafter be de-
{cribed under its proper genus. We find no certain evidence
of the Tamarix before us being a native, as Vahl fays, of the
Eaft Indies, and we imagine he confounded with it our next
fpecies. The true plant of Haffelquift and Vahl has co-
pious flender branches, appearing when young as if jointed,
each joint being crowned witha minute dotted fcale-like leaf,
whofe annular bafe encircles the branch, and whofe fhort,
erect, keeled, acute point projects on one fide. Thefe leaves
are permanent, enlarged, and membranous on the older
branches. The flowers are defcribed by Vahl as forming
lateral /pikes about the ends of the branches, each flower
being fefhile, accompanied by a braéea refembling the leaves,
but with a widely-{preading point. Segments of the calyx
roundifh and obtufe. Petals the fize of T. gallica, linear, or
rather elliptical. Stamens five. Capfule with four angles,
pyramidal.

4. T. epacroides. Eaft Indian Tamarifk.—Stamens five.
Clufters lateral and terminal. Leaves ovate, acute imbri-
cated, clafping the ftem; gibbous at the bafe. Braéteas
awl-fhaped, longer than the flowers.—Found by Keeni
growing plentifully on the banks of a river in the Fatt
Indies, whigh he calls fumen Colloram maximum. We have
the fame from Rottler and Roxburgh. This is unquef-
tionably diftin& from the preceding, and hitherto unde-
{eribed. ‘The young éranches have no jointed appearance,
nor do the /eaves furround them with an annular permanent
bafe. The latter are fucculent, of a broad triangular fhape,
tapering into an inflexed point ; the floral ones, or bradeas,
much narrower, coloured, ftrongly keeled. Flowers very
{mall, on fhort partial ftalks. Segments of the calyx broad
and obtufe, frmged. Petals elliptical. Cap/ule’ {carcely
above a line in length, prifinatic, accompanied by the per-
manent filaments, whichare generally rather longer. Whether
the 7. chinenfis of Loureiro be this plant, his defcription is
not fufficient to determine. He fays the petals are linear.

5. T. mucronata. Pointed Tamarifk.—Stamens eight or
ten. Spikes lateral andterminal. Leaves fheathing, abrupt,
pointed. Braéteas taper-pointed, lanceolate—The fpeci-
mens of this very diftin& {pecies, in the Linnzan neha

ve

TAM

have no mark by which we’ can afcertain its native country,
though we fufpeét them to have been fent from the Eaft
Indies. The jointed appearance of the young branches, and
the fheathing abrupt form of the ‘aves, approach thofe of
T. articulata; but the leaves have much more elongated and
tapering points, and every part is twice the fize of that
fpecies. The foliage moreover is much lefs evidently dotted.
Flowers large, feflile, with lanceolate, membranous-edged
braéeas, whofe points are longer than the calyx, and very
flender. Segments of the calyx elliptical, obtufe, flat.
Petals obovate. Stamens eight or ter, we cannot be certain
which is their general number. Capj/ules prifmatic, glau-
cous, three-quarters of an inch long, Sted-down long and
feathery.

6. Y'. fongarica. Songarian Tamarifk. “ Pallas Nov.
A&. Petrop. v. 10. 374. t. 10. f. 4.”? - Willd. n. 3.—* Sta-
mens eight or ten. Flowers axillary, fomewhat {piked.
Leaves ficthy, obtufe, triangular.’”»—Gathered by Pallas, in
a falt foil, on the banks of the Songari. We know nothing
of this fpecies but from Willdenow. The “ triangular blunt
leaves’ indicate an effential difference from the lait.

7. T. germanica. German Tamarifk. Linn. Sp. Pl. 387.
Willd.n.4. Ait.n.2. Fl. Dan.t.234. Mill. Ic. t. 262.
f.2. Pall. Rofs.v.1. p.2.73- t.80. (Tamarifcus ger-
manica; Ger. Em. 1378. Lob. Ic.218. Myrica; Camer.
Epit. 74. f.2.)—Stamens ten, monadelphous. Clutters
terminal. Leaves linear-lanceolate, feffile, obtufe.—Native
of fwamps in Germany, Siberia, Switzerland, and the
mountains of Dauria and Caucafus. Common in our gar-
dens, where it flowers in the open air from June to Sep-
tember. Mr. Aiton fays, on Hakluyt’s authority, that this
was the fpecies introduced by archbifhop Grindall ; fee 7.
gallica. Gerarde {peaks of both as profpering well in the
Englifh gardens. The prefent is a more upright and glau-
cous /brub than the gallica, as well as larger in all its parts.
Leaves feffile, imbricated, channelled, dotted, entirely point-
lefs, not dilated at the bafe. Braéeas ovate, pointed, with
membranous edges. Segments of the calyx ovato-lanceolate,
likewife membranous at the fides. Petals obovate, flefh-
coloured, not much longer than the calyx. Cap/ule glaucous,
the fize and fhape of our 7. mucronata. Ballcheva longs and
finely feathery.

Pallas figures what he conceives to be an annual herbaceous
variety of this {pecies, of which, not having feen it, we do
not feel ourfelves competent to give an opinion.

Tamarix, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the hardy,
deciduous, tree and fhrub kinds, of which the fpecies that
are cultivated are, the French tamarifk (T. gallica) ; and
the German tamarifk (‘T. germanica).

Though the firft in its native fituation grows, to a tree of
middling fize, in this climate it feldom rifes more, than four-
teen or fixteen feet high, fendmg out many flender branches,
molt of which bicted ont flat, and hang downward at their
ends, being rather of a fhrubby nature. It is prevalent in
the fouth of France, and in other fouthern countries.

But the fecond fpecies is rather a fhrub than a tree, having
feveral woody {talks arifing from the fame root, which grow
quite cred, fending out many fide branches, which are alfo
ere&t. Itis found in many parts of Germany, &c.

Method of Culture.—AlI\ thefe plants may be increafed
either by laying down their tender fhoots in autumn, or by
planting eat in an eaft border, which will take root in
a fhort time, if they are fupplied with water in the fpring,
before they begin to fhoot in dry weather ; but they fhould
not be removed until the following autumn, at which time
they may be either placed in a nurfery, to be trained up two
or three years, or where they are defigned to remain, mulch-

TAM

ing their roots, and watering them according as the feafon
requires, until they have taken root ; after which, the only
culture they will require is to prune off the ftraggling fhoots,
and keep the ground clear about them. :

The layer method is not only tedious, but unneceflary, as
the cuttings grow readily, and the layers often will not
ftrike at all. The cuttings fhould be of the laft fummer’s
fhoots, and a moift border is moft proper for them. In two
years they will be good plants for the fhrubbery, and may
be planted out in almoft any foil, though they like a light,
moift earth beft, efpecially the latter fort, which grows na-
turally in low watery fituations.

Both thefe plants are of a rather hardy nature, and beau-
tiful in their foliage and fine {pikes of flowers. They will
fucceed in almolt any fort of foil and fituation.

They are very ornamental in the fhrubbery borders, clumps,
and other parts of grounds. E

The former fort has likewife been lately recommended as a
beneficial plant for forming quick or living hedges with, in
fuch fituations as are ecached much to the fea-air and blafts,
as it has been found to ftand fuch expofures remarkably. well,
where. not affected by the winter frofts, of which it is ra-
ther impatient. See Quick Hedges, and TAMARISK-
Plant.

TAMARUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the ifle of
Albion, which {till retains its ancient name, being called
Tamar, from Tamara, a gentle river; and its mouth is
Plymouth haven. .

TAMASA, or Tamast, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name
given to the goddefs Parvati, in her black charaéter ; the
word meaning blacknefs or darknefs. The name of Tamas,
or Tamafa, was given to a dark, gloomy, aftronomical cha-
ra¢ter, called Rahu, (fee that article,) and Ketu, the names
feverally of the dragon’s head and tail, or the afcending and
defcending nodes of aftrologers. One of the fons of Pa-
vaka, the Hindoo fire-king, is likewife named 'Tamafa.
(See Pavaka.) Alfo one of thofe mythological, or hif-
torical perfonages, called Menus, of whom fee under Menu.
In the Sanfcrit tongue, the root tam is prolific of derivations’
indicating properties of a dark, or gloomy, or malignant
tendency. :

TAMASA, in Geography, a river of Afia, in Mingreli
which difcharges itfelf na the Black fea. ee
_ TAMASIDAVA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated
in the interior of Lower Meefia, at fome diftance from the
river Hierafus. :

TAMASQUI, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guaiteca; 36 miles W.S.W. of St. Yago de
los Valles. ;

TAMASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the interior of the ifle of Cyprus, W. of Ledra, on one of
the ftreams which formed the Pedzus. “

TAMATAMQUE, or Villa de las Palmas, in Geogra-
phy, a town of South America, in the kingdom of Gra-
nada, on the river St. Martha ; 25 miles S. of Teneriffe

_TAMATIA, in Ornithology, the name of a very ftrange
bird of the Brafils. It is a {pecies of Bucco in the Linnzan
fyftem by Gmelin, and the fpotted-bellied barbut of
Latham.

__ Its head is very ae ; its eyes large and black ; its beak
is two fingers breadth long, and one broad, fhaped fome-
what like a duck’s, but pointed at the end ; its upper chap
is black, its under one yellow ; its legs are long, and the
thighs in great part naked ; its toes are long ; its tail is very
fhort ; its head is black, and its back and wings of a plain
dutky brown ; its belly is of the fame brown, variegated

with white,
TAMATMA,

TAM
TAMATMA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the

kingdom of Bornou.

TAMBA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Ben-
guela; 165 miles E. of Benguela.—Alfo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Vifiapour ; 20 miles S.W. of Sattarah.

TAMBA-AWRA, or Tampaoura, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Bambouk, having in its vicinity a gold-
mine; 108 miles S.E. of Gallam. N. lat. 13° 20!. W.
long. 9° 25'.

TAMBAC, or TamBaqua, a mixture of gold and
copper, which the people of Siam hold more beautiful, and
fet a greater value on, than gold itfelf.

Some travellers fpeak of it as a metal found in its peculiar
mines ; but upon what authority we do not know.

The abbé de Choify, in his Journal of Siam, doubts
whether this may not be the eled@rum, or amber of So-
lomon.

The ambafladors of Siam brought feveral works in tam-
bac to Paris in the reign of Lewis XIV., but they were not
found fo beautiful as was expeéted. See TomBac and Gotp-
coloured Metal.

_. TAMBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Gotha; 6 miles N-E. of Smalkalden.

TAMBACUNDA, a town of Africa, in the country
of Woolly ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Medina.—Alfo, a town
of Africa, in the country of Neola; 52 miles W. of Ba-
niferile.

TAMBERCHERRY, a town of Hindooftan ; 18 miles
N.E. of Calicut.

TAMBILLO, a town of Peru; 56 miles N. of
Oruro.

TAMBO, a town of South America, in the province of
Popayan; 12 miles W. of Popayan.—Alfo, a town of
Paraguay ; 250 miles E. of Affumption.

Tameo de Oeros, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Cufco; 136 miles W.N.W. of Cufco.

TAMBONA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Travancore ; 40 miles N.E. of Travancore.

TAMBOOKIES; a people of the colony of the Cape
of Good Hope, fituated N.E. of the Kouffis, or the Kooflis,
N. to the Orange river and tropic of Capricorn, are fup-
pofed by Mr. Barrow to be of Arabian extract, as they
widely differ from the Hottentots and the Negroes, and are
acquainted with the {melting of iron, and fome other rude
arts. He conceives that a belt of this race {preads acrofs
to the Atlantic. The Demaras on the Copper mountains are
Kouflis; and their country is fo barren and fandy, that
they cannot keep cattle. The Orange river, called the
Groot or Great river, feems to rife about S. lat. 30% E.
long. 28°, and pafies W. by N. till it falls into the fea be-
tween the Great and Little Nemakos. It has high cataraéts
and inundations like the Nile.
ans, calcedonies, agates, and variolites.
River.

TAMBOPALLA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Arequipa, at the mouth of the Nombre de Dios ; 48 miles
S. of Arequipa. S. lat. 17° ro’.

TAMEOS, in Peruvian Antiquity, buildings placed at
certain diftances, for the lodging of the princes of that
country, in their travels through their dominions. See M.
de la Condamine, in Mem. de |’Acad. de Berlin, tom. ii.
P- 435; who tells us (p. 438.) that he faw feveral remains
of thefe tambos, in his journey from Quito to Lima.

TAMBOV, in Geography, a city of Ruffia, on the Tzna,
eapital of a government, and fee of a bifhop; 228 miles
S.E. of Mofcow. N. lat. 52° 48’. E. long. 41° 4/.

TAMBODR, in <Architefure, a term applied to the

Vor. XXXV. ‘

See ORANGE-

On the fhores are carne- —

TAM

Corinthian and Compofite capitals, as bearing fome refem-
blance to a drum, which the French call sambour.

Some choofe to call it the va/e, and others campanay or
the bell.

Tampour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber work,
covered with a ceiling, withinfide the porch of certain
churches ; both to prevent the view of perfons pafling by, f
and to keep off the wind, &c. by means of folding-doors,
&e.

Tampour alfo denotes a round courfe of ftone, feveral
of which form the fhaft of a.column, not fo high as a dia-
meter.

TAmpsouR, in the Arts, is a {pecies of embroidery.

The tambour is an inftrument of a {pherical form, upow
which is ftretched, by means of a ftring and buckle, or other
{uitable appendage, a piece of linen or thin filken ftuff;
which is wrought, with a needle of a particular form, and
by means of filken or gold and filver threads, into leaves,
flowers, or other figures.

Tampour, Fr., a drum; which fee.

Tamspour de Ba/que, a {mall drum ufed by the Bifcayans
as an accompaniment to the flageolet, or octave flute: a
tabor and pipe. ,

TAMBOURIN, a French dance, much in favour for-
merly on the French {tage in all the opera dances of Lulli
and Rameau. The air is gay and in common time.

TAMBOURISSA, or Tamsourécissa, in Botany,
Sonnerat’s name for what is now called MiruriparTea ; fee
that article. The French appellation of this tree, Bois Tam-
bour, or Drum-tree, might be fuppofed to allude to the
lightnefs and hollownefs of the wood, or to its ufe, were not
this word evidently derived from the Madagafcar name of the
fame tree, Ambora.

TAMBOVSKOE, in Geography, a government of Ruf-
fia, bounded on the north by the government of Vladimir,
on the eaft by the governments of Nizegorod, Penza, and
Saratov ; on the fouth by the government of Saratov 3
and on the weft by the governments of Riazan and
Voronez ; about 200 miles in length, and from 80 to
100 in breadth. N. lat. 51° 36! to 55° 20!. E. long. 38°
30! to 48°.

TAMBRAX, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in”
Hyrcania, which, according te Polybius, was large, and
had a royal palace.

TAMBRAY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Travancore ; 60 miles N.N.W. of Anjenga.

TAMBRO, ariver of Spain, which runs into the At-
lantic, near Muros, in Galicia.

TAMBUCO, or Tasuco, a town on the eaft coaft of
the ifland ef Celebes, fituated in a bay to which it gives
name. S. lat. 2° sol.

TAME, a river of England, which rifes near Winflow,
in the county of Buckingham, and runs into the Thames
at Dorchefter, in Oxfordfhire.—Alfo, a river of England,
which rifes near Dudley, in the county of Stafford, and
runs into the Trent, about 7 miles above Burton.

Tame. See THAME.

TAMEGA, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Duero, 10 miles S. of Amarante.

TAMEGAN, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 48 miles
S. of Candi.

TAMERLANE, in Biography. See Timour.

TAMETAVE, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of
Madagafcar. S. lat. 18° 5’. E. long. 49° 41/.

TAMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifle of
Albion, in the vicinity of Banatia and Alata Caftra. Pto-
lemy, affigns it to the Macomge:

TAMI-

TAM
TAMIAGUA, in Geography, a river of Mexico, which

joins the Tufpa at its mouth.—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in
the ince of Guafteca.

°

AMIEH, a town of Egypt, on acanal which forms a
eommunication between the Nile and the Birket el Kerum ;
2 miles N.E. of Fayoum.

TAMINIZ, a river of Carniola, about four miles in
extent’; 4 miles S.E. of Veit. It has no vifible communi-
cation with any other river.

TTAMINO, ariver of Switzerland, which runs into the
Rhine, 2 miles §. of Sargans.

TAMISRA, denoting darknefs, a name of one of the
hells of the Hindoos, of which they had upwards of a fcore.
Another of the Hindoo hells is named Andha 'T'amifra,
meaning wfter darknefs ; and as thefe purgatories are dif-
ferently placed, this is fuppofed to be the one fituated in the
bowels of the earth, and its degree of punifhment an ag-

vation of the eafier penalties infliéted in Tamifra. In the

nftitutes of Menu it is ordained, that “a twice-born man,
who barely affaults a Brahman with an intention to hurt him,
fhall be whirled about foy a century in the hell called Ta-
mifra.”? (Ch. iv. v. 165.) By “ a twice-born man”’ is meant
an individual of one of the three firft tribes or feéts, they
being fufceptible of regeneration by the inveftiture of the
zennaar; which fee. See alfo O’m, and Sects of Hindaos.

TAMLOOK, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 35
miles S.W. of Calcutta.

TAMMAPUL, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 105 miles N.W. of Panuco.

TAMMELA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Tavaftland ; 22 miles S.W. of Tavafthus.

TAMMERFORS, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Tavaitland ; 36 miles N.N.W. of Tavafthus.

TAMMESBRUCK, a town of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia, near the Unitrutt; 1 mile from Langen Salza.

AMMOWISCHKEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania ;
3 miles E. of Infterburg.

TAMNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia
Aquitanica, upon the route from Burdigala to Auguftodu-
gum 3; now Ta/mon.

TAMNUS, in Botany, Tourn. t. 28. Juff. 43, a more
eorreét name, perhaps, than that of Tamus, ufed by Lin-
nexus, which will be found in its proper place. The word
has been corrupted occafionally into Zamarus and Tannus.

TAMOATA, in Ichthyology, the name of an American
frefh-water fith, called by the Potiy ruefe foldido.

It is a fmall oblong fifh, with a flat head, fomewhat like
that of a frog. Its mouth is fmall, and from each angle of it
there hangs a long fingle filament, by way of a beard. It
has no teeth, and its eyes are extremely finall. It has eight
fins ; two at the gills, of one finger in feet, and hard and
firm like horns ; two on the belly, of a fofter fubftance ;
and one on the middle of the back, another near the tail, and
another {mall one oppofite to it on the belly ; its tail is the
eighth ; its whole head is covered above with a hard coat
like a fhell; and its body with a fort of coat of mail made
up of oblong, hard, {quamofe bodies, dented at their edges ;
its colour is a fort of rufty iron-colour. It is accounted a
very well-tafted fifh. It lives only in frefh-water rivers ;
and, it is faid, when the water where it is dries up, it
will crawl out upon the land, and go in fearch of more.
Marcgrave.

TAMOLA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
yince of T'avaltland ; 20 Pails S.W. of Tavatthus.

TAMONEA, in Botany, a name of Aublet’s, faid by De
Theis to be in ofe among the inhabitants of Guiana, but this
does not appear from any thing mentioned in the original

10

TAM

author. Aubl. Guian. 659. t. 268. Jufl. 109. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 542. Verbena lappulacea of Linneus is referred by

Juffieu to this genus. (See Verpena.) We are not certain -

whether Tamonea ought to be admitted as a genus, and
therefore need not ftay to obje& to the name.

TAMONTACA, in Geography, a town on the’ weft
coaft of the ifland of Mindanao. N. lat. 7°2!. E. long.
124° 36'.

TAMOOK, 2 {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 6° 21’. E. long. 121° 58!. ’

TAMOS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory which
formed mount Taurus, in the Eaftern ocean. ot

TAMPASSOOK, in Geography, a town on the north-
weft coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 21!. E. long.
116° 13).

TAMPICO, a fea-port of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca, fituated in the bay of the gulf of Mexico;
30 miles S.E. of Panuco. N. lat. 22° go’. W, long

8° 26'.
‘ co a name given to a river of Spanifh North
America, called the Paruco; which fee. oe

TAMPING a Hole, in Mining, is ufed for filling the
upper part of a hole, bored in the rock for blafting with
gunpowder, upon the charge of powder, with clay or ftony
matter rammed down very clofe and tight : and the clay and
{tone are called the tamping. This operation is called, in
the North of England, ftemming a hole. >

TAMPION, Tompion, Tambin, or Tomkin, a kind of
plug or ftopple, ferving to clofe a veffel. y

The word is formed from the French tampon, a bung,
ftopper, &c. Some derive it from the Englifh tap. :

In Gunnery, the tampions are wooden cylinders put into the
mouth of guns, howitzers, and mortars, in travelling, to
prevent the duft or wet from getting in. They are ed
round the muzzle of the guns, &c. by leathern collars. At
fea they are carefully encircled with tallow or putty, to
prevent the penetration of the water into the bore, by which
the powder contained in the chamber might be damaged or
rendered incapable of fervice. They are alfo fometimes:
ufed to put into the chambers of mortars, over the powder,
when the chambers are not full. Tampions are alfo iron
bottoms, to which the grape-fhot defigned for fea-fervice
are fixed. :

TAMPISCO, in Geography, a river of Mexico, which
runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 10° 38. :

_TAMPOE, in Natural Hiftory, the name of an Eaft Tn-
dian fruit, approaching to the figure of the mangouftan, but
not near fo agreeable to the tafte. This fruit is very much of
the fize, fhape, and colour of fome of our common fummer--
apples ; but its fkin is very thick and tough, and it has no
crown. The Indians eat it in places where better fruits are
fearce, and in fome places call it the mangouftan.

TAM-SAN-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of Chinefe
Bd N. lat. 40° 20/, E. long. 123° 48!. “4

TAMSHUC Movnrarys, mountains of Thibet ; 30
miles N. of Dharmfaleh.

TAMSWEG, a town of the archbifhoprie of Salzburg +
12 miles W. of Muehrau.

; TAMUADA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana.

TAMUGADA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania, on the:
route from Lambefe to Cirta Coloniz.

TAMUS, in Botany, an old name, fometimes writter
Tamnus, fee that article, and fuppofed to be taken from
the Uva Taminia of Pliny, which appears to have belon
to the plant now called Black Bryony. To this therefore
the above name is at prefent appropriated. Linn. Gen. 524.

Schreb.

SS :
- _ < 2 EE eee

—

TAM

Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.772. Mart. Mill. Dia.

Schreb. 691.
Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2.

v. 4. Sm. FI. Brit. 1078.

258. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 386. (Tamnus; Tourn.
t. 28. Juff. 43. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 817.)—Clafs and
order, Dioecia Hexandria. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn.
Afparagi, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth in fix deep, ovato-lanceo-
late fegments, moft expanded in their upper part. Cor.
none; except the calyx be fo confidered, which we have
recommended in a parallel cafe, fee Sminax. Stam. Fila-
ments fix, fimple, fhorter than the calyx (or corolla) ; an-
thers erect.

Female, Ca/. (or Cor.) of one piece, bell-fhaped, in fix
deep, lanceolate, fpreading fegments, fuperior, deciduous.
Ne@tary an oblong depreffion in the bafe of each fegment, at
the infide. Pi/?. Germen inferior, large, ovate-oblong,
fmooth; ftyle cylindrical, three-cleft, the length of the
calyx (or corolla); ftigmas three, reflexed, emarginate,
acute. Peric. Berry ovate, of three.cells. Seeds two in each
cell, globofe.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx (or rather Corolla) in fix deep
fegments. Female, Calyx (or rather Corolla) in fix deep
fegments. Style three-cleft. Berry inferior, of three cells.
Seeds two in each cell.

1.°T. communis. Common Black Bryony. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1458. Willd. n.1. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. gr.
Mill. Illuftr. t. 89. (Bryonia nigra; Ger. Em. 871. Vitis
nigra; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 622. Camer. Epit. 988.)—
Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided.—Native of hedges, woods,
and bufhy places, in the more temperate parts of Europe,
as well as in the Levant. It is common in England, not
in Scotland, flowering in’ June, and laden with bunches of
{earlet berries in autumn, till rotten with wet and froft.
Dr. Sibthorp found this plant frequent in Greece, as well
as in the ifles of Crete and Cyprus. The young fprouts
boiled are eaten in the latter, like afparagus, to which they
are naturally allied. The flefhy perennial root is blackifh ex-
ternally, whence the ancient, as well as Englifh, name.
Stems annual, herbaceous, branched, twining round every
thing in their way, and thus climbing, without tendrils, to a
confiderable height, till they become elegantly pendent in
feftoons. Leaves alternate, ftalked, entire, acute, many-
ribbed, fmooth. Svipulas fmall, awl-fhaped, fpreading, in
pairs at the bafe of each footiftalk. Flowers in long, green-
ifh, axillary clufters. Berries oval, the fize of a large cur-
rant, bright red, infipid. The root is acrid. Its pulp Peaped
has formerly been ufed as a ftimulating plaifter.

2. T. clephantipes. Tuberous Cape Black Bryony. L’Herit.
Sert. Angl. 29. Ait.n. 2. Wilild.n.2. Curt. Mag. t. 1347.
—Leaves kidney-fhaped, undivided. Root elevated, corky
and teffellated.—Found at the Cape of Good Hope, near
the town, by Mr. Maffon, who fent it to Kew in 1774.
A male plant flowered there, in the ftove, in 1783, from
whence l’Heritier caufed a drawing to be made, but this
plate never appeared. A female, originally imported by
Mr. George Hibbert, flowered in Mr. Knight’s greenhoufe,
and being publifhed in the Botanical Magazine, has deter-
mined the genus, by its inferior germen, a point previoufly
only gueffed at. The fingular appearance of the great
flethy root, rifing out of the ground, a foot in diameter, and
covered with angular, teffellated, brown knobs, more refem-
bles the clumfy thell of fome huge tortoife, than an elephant’s
foot. This uncouth mafs fends forth in the fpring a flender,
twining, annual ffem, about eight feet long, not unlike the
laft ; but the /eaves are very different, kidney-fhaped, with
{trong ribs ; their ends either emarginate, or abrupt with
a fmall point. Footfalks tumid, or jointed, at each end.

‘rAM

Flowers yellowith-green. Germen oblong, furrowed. Fruié
not yet obferved.

3. T. cretica. Cretan Black Bryony. Linn. Sp. Pl.1458,
Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t.. 958, un-
publifhed. (Tamnus cretica, trifido folio ; Tourn. Cor. 3.)
—Leaves three-lobed.—Not rare in the woods and hedges of
Crete and Cyprus, as well as Greece: Sibthorp. Miller
appears to have cultivated it in 1739, but we have never
met with a plant in gardens, nor is this fpecies likely to be
a popular favourite. It differs from the firft chiefly in
having a deep lateral finus, on each fide of the /eaves, and
twin cluiters of fowers, one much longer than its companion.
We know nothing of the fruifz.—The young fhoots are eaten
boiled.

Tamus, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the hardy, herba-
ceous, climbing, perennial kind, among which the fpecies
moit generally grown are the common black bryony (T-
communis) ; and the Cretan black bryony (T. cretica).
The firft fort has a very large tuberous root, which is black-
ifh externally ; the ftems are fmooth, twining about every
thing in their way, and thus afcending, without the aid of
tendrils, to the height of ten or twelve feet in hedges or
among bufhes, which their feftoons of tawny leaves and red
berries decorate in the autumnal feafon.

But the fecond f{pecies has a rounder root than the former ;
yet the ftalks twine in the fame manner.

Method of Culture.—AI\ thefe plants are readily increafed
by fowing the feeds foon after they are ripe, under the fhelter
of bufhes, where, in the {pring, the plants will come up, and
require no further care ; or in beds to be afterwards planted
out. The roots will abide many years, and fometimes
fend up fuckers, from which plants may be raifed by fet-
ting them out in the autumn or {pring where they are to
remain.

The thick flefhy root of the firft fort is fometimes culti-
vated for ufe in the fhops.

Both the plants are ufeful in thickets, and in the wilder-
nefs parts of pleafure-grounds.

TAMUSIDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana, between Banafa and Silda.

TAMUSIGA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Tingi-
tana, on the fea-coaft, between the port of Hercules and the
promontory Ufadium.

TAMUZ, in Chronology, the fourth month of the Jewifh
ecclefiaftical year, anfwering to part of our June and July.
The 17th day of this month is obferved by the Jews as a fait,
in memory of the deftru€tion of Jerufalem by Nebuchad-
nezzar, in the 11th year of Zedekiah, before Chrift 588.

TAMWORTH, in Geography, is a borough and market-
town, fitnatéd partly in the hundred of Offlow, county of
Stafford, and partly in the hundred of Hemlingford, county
of Warwick, England: at the diftance of 22 miles S.E.
from Stafford, 27 miles N. by W. from Warwick, and 116
miles N.W. from London. It is feated near the confluence
of the rivers Tame and Anker, the former of which runs
through the town, and divides it into two nearly equal
parts. ‘Tamworth appears to have been of confiderable
note at an early period; and was the occafional refidence
of the Mercian kings. Offa datesa charter to the monks of
Worcetter from his palace here in the year 781 ; and feveral
of his fucceffors in the next century alfo date their grants from
the fame place. At that period, a ditch, forty-five feet in
breadth, proteéted the town and royal demefne on the north,
weft, and eaft ; the river ferving as a defence on the fouth
fide. Of this ditch, fome veftiges can {till be traced, and at
two angles which it forms, are two mounts, probably raifed
as foundations for towers. On the invafioa of this ee

lz 3

TAM

A

by the Danes, Tamworth was almoft, or totally, deftroyed.
Ethelfleda, the daughter of the illuftrious Alfred, is faid to
have rebuilt it in 913, after fhe had, by her prudence and
valour, freed her brother’s dominions from the invaders.
She alfo ere&ted a tower on an artificial mount, which forms
the fcite of the prefent caftle ; and here fhe generally re-
fided till her death, in 918. The caftle was beftowed by
William the Conqueror on Robert Marmion, whofe de-
fcendants held it till 20 Edward I., when it paffed by mar-
riage to the Freville family ; that of Ferrers fucceeded in
the reign of Henry VI.; and they were followed by the
Comptons. This venerable fabric is ftill in a good ftate
of prefervation, as to its exterior ; but the infide has fuf-
fered much from age and negle&t. The rooms are numerous,
but ill-fuited to the liberal domeftic manners of the prefent
era; and the whole is chiefly attraétive as a monument of
antiquity. The town of Tamworth is large and well-built.
It was incorporated by queen Elizabeth on a fcale pecu-
fiarly liberal: the corporation confifts of two bailiffs, a re-
corder, high fteward, under fteward, a town-clerk, and
twenty-four principal burgeffes : one of the bailiffs is chofen
from each county. Tamworth has fent two reprefentatives
to parliament ever fince the year 1563. The right of elec-
tion is in the inhabitants paying {cot and lot: and the
members are returned jointly by the fheriffs of Warwickhhire
and Staffordfhire. The church isa fpacious edifice. The
moft ancient portion exhibits two round-headed arches, em-
bellifhed with zig-zag mouldings: whence it feems probable
that the original edifice was conftruéted foon after the Con-

ueft. The church was rendered collegiate by the Marmion
amily at an early period for a dean and fix prebendaries ;
with feveral lay prebendaries, which are ftill attached to the
church. The college was granted by queen Elizabeth in
1581 to Edward Downing and Peter Afhton. An hofpital
was eftablifhed in this town by Philip Marmion in the 15th
year of Edward I. On its fcite another was founded and
endowed by Mr. Guy, to whom the borough of Southwark
is indebted for the noble hofpital which bears his name.
A mar-fchool, founded by queen Elizabeth, is {til
well fupported. Here are fome manufa&tures, the chief of
which is that of fuperfine woollen cloths: but this trade,
though ftill refpeétable, has much decreafed. The print-
ing of calicoes, the tanneries, the manufacture of flax, and
the {pinning of yarn, are branches of bufinefs which have
confiderably advanced. A weekly market, under queen
Elizabeth’s charter, is held on Saturdays: and three fairs
annually. In the population return of the year 1811, the
Staffordhhire divifion of Tamworth was ftated to contain
279 houfes, and 1327 inhabitants; the Warwickhhire divi-
fion 325 houfes, and 1666 inhabitants: making a total of
2993 perfons, occupying 604 houfes.

About four miles fouth-eaft of Tamworth is Pooley-Hall,
the feat of the honourable colonel Finch. The lands at-
tached to this refidence formed part of the poffeffions of the
Marmions ; and after f{everal intermediate tranfmiffions, came
to the family of Cokaine, in the latter part of the 14th cen-
tury. It is afcertained that fir John Cokaine refided at
Pooley in the reign: of Henry IV., and his defcendants, for
many generations, made it their principal feat. The pre-
fent manfion was erected by fir Thomas Cokaine, temp.
Henry VIII., and is a fine but irregular building, varying
in charaéter between the embattled ftyle of the previous
troubled and fufpicious ages, and the open amplitude of
conftru€tion then firft growing into pra€tice.—Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. xiii. Stafford(hire, and vol. xv.
Warwickhhire, by J. N. Brewer.

Tamwortn, a town of America, in New Hamp-

TAN

fhite ; 56 miles N. of Portfmouth ; containing 1134 in-
habitants.

TAMYRACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Euro-
pean Sarmatia, near the Czrcinite gult.

TAN, the bark of the oak, chopped, and grote by «
tanning-mill into a coarfe powder; to be ufed in the tan-
ning or dreffing of fkins. See TANNIN.

New tan is the moft efteemed ; when old and ftale, it lofes
a great deal of its effet, which confifts in cone
clofing the pores of the fkins ; fo that the longer the {ki
are kept in tan, the greater ftrength and firmnefs they
acquire.

This bark, which is more abundant in the gummy refinous
part than any of our common indigenous aftringents, and
which, on account of its aftringent, gummy, refinous pro-
perty, ferves both to preferve leather from rotting, and to
render it impervious to water, is preferred to all other fub-
ftances for the purpofe of tanning. It is ufed either in the
way of infufion, which is called ooze 5 or the dry powder is
ftrewed between layers of hides and fkins, when thefe are laid
away in the tan-pits. The ooze is made by macerating the
bark in common water, in a particular fet of holes or pits,
which, by way of diftin@tion from the other holes in the tan-
yard, are called letches. See TANnniNG.-

Every part of the oak-tree, of what age or growth foever,
is fit for the tanner’s ufe, and all oaken coppice-wood, of
any fize or age, being cut and procured in barking-time,
will tan all forts of leather; at leaft, as well as the bark.
alone. When this material is got at the proper feafon, it
mutt be very well dried in the fun, more than the bark alone ;_
ence it is to be cut up, and preferved in a covered place
or ufe.

When it is to be ufed, the greater wood muft be firft
cleft {mall, to fit it for the beating and cutting-engine :
and the {maller muft be put into the engine as it 1s: which
done, it muft be again dried upon a kiln, and after that,
ground inthe fame manner that the tanners grind their bark.
Such wood as is to be ufed prefently after it is gotten, will
require the better and the more drying upon the kiln; and
if this is omitted, it will blacken and f{poil all the leather it
is ufed about. Where oak is {carce, black-thorn, or floe-
tree, will tolerably well fupply its place ; and where that is
not to be had in fufficient plenty, the white-thorn will do.
Phil. Tran. N° 108.

Birch alfo, being ordered in the fame manner with oak,
is fit for fome pice in tanning, particularly it does very
well for tanning of fhoe-fole leather. All thefe ingredients
will tan much better than bark alone; and that with much
lefs charge ; fo that this difcavery may very well fave the
felling of trees when the bark is wanted, at a feafon when
the fap is.up, which, when it is done, caufes the outfide of
the trees to rot and grow worm-eaten ; whereas, if the trees
had been felled in winter, when the fap is down, they would
have been almoft all heart, as the people exprefs it, and not
fubje&t to worms. This manner of ufing the wood with
the bark, in tanning, will alfo increafe the value of under-
woods very confiderably. Phil. Tranf. N° ros.

The engine neceffary for cutting the wood confifts of a
long fquare wooden black, and fome pieces of iron to be
faftened on and ufed about it, viz. a hammer, an anvil, an
iron holding the wood to be bruifed and cut, and a knife to
cut it. The whole is a very fimple and cheap machine, and

is deferibed at large, and figured in the above-mentioned | -

number of the Philofophical TranfaGtions.

By M. de Buffon’s experiments upon different fkins, it
was found that a decoétion of young oak-wood fucceeded
perfectly well in tanning fheep and calves’ fkins, but did

not

TAN

not do equally well for ox, and the other harder kins.
This, however, he imagines, might be only for want of
knowing the beft method of ufing the wood. And certainly
thefe trials deferve to be farther profecuted ; fince the fmall
branches of the oak, which are of little value, might be thus
made to fupply the place of a much dearer commodity, the
bark ; and as in many trees the bark of the young branches
is found to be of greatly more virtue than that of the larger
branches, or the trunk, the ufe of thefe fmall boughs, bark
and all, might very probably be found to anfwer to all the
effeéts of the bark of the larger kind alone. Memoirs Acad.
Scienc. Par. 1736.

The Society of Arts, &c. granted a premium of Ioo/.
in the year 1765, for the difcovery of a method of tanning
with oaken faw-duft ; but the acquifition has not hitherto
had its defired effect ; though it is faid that the ufe of oaken
faw-duft has been advantageoufly adopted in Germany.
Doffie’s Mem. of Agr. vol. i. p. 227.

We are told, in Phil. Tranf. N° 36, that the operation of
tanning is performed, on leather, better in the Weft Indies
than in England. They ufe three forts of bark, the man-
grove-bark, the olive-bark, and another; and the whole
bufinefs is fo foon done, that a hide delivered to them, is in
fix weeks ready to be worked into fhoes, though they beftow
lefs labour than we do.

Mr. Albert Gefner, firft phyfician to the duke of Wir-
temberg, having made fome experiments on the duft of
heath, dried in an oven, and afterwards pulverized, as a fub-
ftitute to that of oak-bark in tanning, found that the leather
prepared by this method was very good ; but he obferves,
that the operation is much more tedious. (Hift. R. A. S.
Paris, for 1756.) Others have propofed a trial of the {mall
branches of heath, and the leaves of oak.

Tan, in Gardening, a fubftance of the oak-bark, or other
fimilar kinds, after it has been ground and foaked in the
ooze of the tanners’ vats, and properly dried, is ufed for
the purpofe of making hot-beds, for forcing many forts
of exotic plants that require a durable fteady heat.

It has not been of very long ufe in England, and was
brought to us from Holland in the reign of king William,
and then ufed for the raifing of orange-trees ; but after this
period it became difufed; and it is of a much later date,
viz. about the year 1719, that it has been brought into ufé
again for the raifing of the pine-apple, fince which time it is
become generally ufed, wherever it is to be had, for all the
purpofes of the hot-bed, in raifing tender exotic plants.

Refufe tan, made up into cakes, ferves as fuel, in circum-
ftances where a gentle and continued fire is advantageous.
See Bark-Bed, Hor-Bed, Hor-Hou/fe, and Stove.

Tan, Flower of, is aname given by the people employed
in the tanning-trade, to a yellow fubftance, often found upon
old tan, or oak-bark broken to pieces, which has been ufed
as tan, and is of no farther fervice.

The name, however, is very improper ; and though every
body converfant in tan-yards muft have feen the thing, yet
it has always paffed as an efflorefcence of the bark, till the
curious. Mr. Marchand inquired more accurately into its na-
ture, and found it to be a plant of itfelf, wholly different
from the matter of the tan; and to which the bark, which
had been often wetted and dried again, ferved as a proper
matrix. He found it to be more nearly allied to the fpunge,
than to any other genus of plants, and therefore named it

ongia fugax mollis aki & amena in pulvere coriaria nafcens,
Ap beautiful, yellow-fading fpunge, growing on tanners’

ark.

it makes its appearance moft frequently in the fummer-

i

T A N

months, and is then feen in {mall tufts of a beautiful yellow
colour, on different parts of the old heaps of bark. It ap-
pears at firft in form of a thin yellow fcum, and is of a fort
of jelly-like ftruéture ; but it every day grows larger and
thicker, till it ftands above half an inch out from the furface
of the bark. As it grows, its furface becomes more and
more cavernous and fpungy, the pores or holes being of dif-
ferent diameters, and the interfticial matter forming a fort of
net-work more or lefs regular, and often interrupted by ir-
regular prominences in feveral parts ; and, in fine, when the
growth is complete, the whole more refembles a fpunge
than any vegetable fubitance, and is of a deep yellow co-
lour, and confiderably thick and tough confiftence ; there
are no roots to be difcovered iffuing from it ; its fmell is like
that of rotten wood, and its tafte is fomewhat ftyptic. It
always appears in the warm months, and always upon fuch
old tan as has ngs to ferment, and is in the ftate in which
our ae ule it for hot-beds. If it happens to ftand
expofed to the fouth fun, it is but of fhort duration; but
if it be in a fheltered place, it will laft a confiderable time,
and often fpread itfelf to a great extent, and make a
very beautiful figure for many weeks. Mem. Acad. Par.
1727.

Tan-Bed, in Gardening. See Bark-Bed.

Tan-Pit. See Bark-Pit.

Tan-Spud, in Rural Economy, the name ufually given to
a particular fort of tool ufed for peeling of the bark from
oak, and fome other trees, in certain diftriGs ; but in others
they employ feveral different implements for effecting this
purpofe.

Tan-Stove. See Hor-Hou/e and Stove.

TANA, in Geography, the moft confiderable river in
Finmark.

TANACETUM, in Botany, Tanfy, a barbarous Latin
word, of which, like O/munda, it is fearcely poffible, as
Linneus remarks, PAi/. Bot. 160, to determine the mean-
ing, or from what language it is derived. Of OsmunDA
we have attempted an explanation. (See that article.) De
Theis cites Linnezus and Dodonzus as deducing Tanacetum
from Adthanafia; but we find no fuch etymology given by
them, though feveral writers fpeak of thefe words as fy-
nonimous, and fome lexicographers give that explanation.
ASovoo1x, as exprefling an unfading, or everlafting, flower,
is little applicable to our Tanfy.—Linn. Gen. 417. Schreb.
549. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1809. Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 4.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 862. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 167.
Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 5. 1. Purfh 522. Juff. 184. Tourn.
t. 261. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 696. Gertn. t. 165.—Clafs
and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fuperflua. Nat. Ord. Com-
pofite difcoidée, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx hemifpherical, imbricated, with
acute compact fcales. Cor. compound, tubular, convex.
Florets of the difk numerous, funnel-fhaped, with five re-
flexed fegments in the limb, all perfect: thofe of the radius
few, {mall, three-cleft, moft deeply divided at their inner
fide. Stam. in the perfect florets, Filaments five, capillary,
very fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. P2/?. in
the perfe@& florets, Germen oblong, {mall; ftyle thread-
fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigma in two revolute
fegments: in the female ones, Germen oblong; ityle fimple ;
{tigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none, except the unchanged
calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong, crowned with more or lefs
of a flight margin. Recept. convex, naked,

Ob{.: Sometimes the radius is wanting, all the florets
being, in that cafe, perfect. The feeds of fome fpecies are
faid to want the crown. eee

uff,

TANACETUM.

Ef. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seeds crowned with a
border. Calyx imbricated, hemifpherical. Florets of the
radius three-cleft, obfolete, fometimes wanting.

1. T. veflitum. Leafy Cape Tanfy. Thunb. Prodr.
147. Willd. n. 1.—“ Leaves flender, triangular, imbri-
cated. Panicle terminal.”—Native of the Cape of Good

Hope. Thunberg.
2. T. longifolium. Long-leaved Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr. 147, Willd. n. 2.“ Leaves linear-thread-fhaped.

Clufter terminal, level-topped.””— Found in the fame
country.

3. I. linifolium. Flax-leaved Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr, 147. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 1. (Athanafia lini-
folia; Linn. Suppl. a ei linear-lanceolate, chan-
nelled, taper-pointed. Clutter terminal, fimple, corymbofe.
—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Sent to Kew by
Mr. Maffon in 1774. A green-houfe fhrub, flowering in
Auguft. The flem is fimple, round, and {mooth, clothed
with alternate, fimple, linear or awl-fhaped leaves. Flowers
ovate, fmooth, yellow. The length of the /eaves is variable.

4. T. axillare. - Axillary Cape Tanfy. Thunb. Prodr.
147 Willd. n. 4.—“ Leaves linear-thread-fhaped, com-
bined at the bafe. Flowers axillary, feffile.””—Gathered by
Thunberg at the Cape.

5- T. uliginofum. Marth Levant Tanfy. Prodr. Fl.
Grac. n. 2029. Fl. Grec. t. 855, unpublifhed. (San-
tolina vermiculata cretica; Tourn. Inft. 461 ?)—Leaves
linear ; the lower ones with one lateral tooth. Stalks foli-
tary, terminal, fingle-flowered.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp
in boggy parts of the ifle of Cyprus, intermixed with Juncus
ps Heap The root is annual, fimple, tapering, with many
whitifh fibres. Stems feveral, afcending, branched from the
bottom, three or four inches high, round, fmooth, leafy.
Leaves alternate, feffile, an inch long, acute, channelled,
{mooth, moftly entire ; a few of the lower ones only dilated
flightly at the end, and furnifhed with a lateral tooth.
Flowers terminal, folitary, yellow, hemifpherical, each on a
fimple, naked, fmooth, ereét /la/k, two or three inches in
length, purplifh at the top. Seed, according to Mr.
Bauer’s drawing, crowned with an oblong tubular feale,
fplit on one fide.

6. T. fuffruticofum. Shrubby Cape Tanfy. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1183. oi a lace Ane ab Thunb. Prodr. a

T. africanum fruticans multiflorum, foliis tanaceti velgaris

ecupld minoribus; Comm. Hort. v. 2. 199. t. 100.)—
Leaves in many pinnate, fubdivided, acute, fomewhat down
fegments. Stem fhrubby. Flowers corymbofe, ot
topped.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
the Dutch obtained feeds above a century ago, and it pro-
bably foon found its way into our more curious green-houfes.
The plant has little to attra¢t general admiration, though
the eaves are delicately divided, and the leafy branches are
terminated by abundance of little golden corymbofe flowers,
whofe calyx is membranous and fhining.

. T. fibiricum. Long-leaved Siberian Tanfy. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1183. Willd. n.6. (T.n. 116; Gmel. Sib. v. 2.
134. t. 65. f. 2.)—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets linear-thread-
Shapes entire ; undivided or three-cleft. Flowers corym-
bofe, level-topped. Calyx-fcales nearly orbicular, {mooth,
—Gathered by Steller, in dry mountainous parts of Siberia,
beyond the lake Baical, flowering in June and July. The
root is brown, rather thick, with many fibres running deep
into the ground, and apparently perennial. Stems about
eighteen inches high, erect, round, ftriated, {mooth, fome-
what leafy ; branched and corymbofe at the top. Leaves
acute, not unlike thofe of Southernwood, but fmooth ; the

lower ones on long ftalks; the uppermoft feffile, at the bafe
of each branch. Flowers bright yellow, partly drooping,
encompafled by the white membranous edges of the green
orbicular feales of the calyx.

8. T. argenteum. Silvery Armenian Tanfy. Willd. n. 7,
« Fjufd. Achill. sr. t. 2. f. 4.” (Achillea argentea; Lae
marck Di&. v. 1. 29. Ptarmica orientalis, foliis argenteis
conjugatis ; Tourn. Cor. 38. )—‘* Leaves pinnate, i oe

with filky down ; leaflets lanceolate, flightly toothed at the

extremity. Corymb terminal.’’—Gathered by Tournefort
in Armenia. This is faid to bear fome refemblance to the
Achillea Clavenne. The flem is about a foot high, fimple,
channelled, covered, like the reft of the herb, with filk

down. Leaves alternate, ftalked, with linear or lanceolate
leaflets, moft of which, efpecially in the radical leaves, have
two or three teeth towards the end. lowers probably
white. Receptacle con{tantly naked. Calyx membranous at
the edge of the inner feales. Lamarck, Willdenow. t

g. T. angulatum. Dropwort-leaved Tanfy. Willd. n. 8.
« Fjufd. Achill. 52. t. 2. f. 3.” (Achillea filipendulina ;
Lamarck Dié. v. 1. 27. Ptarmica orientalis, tanaceti folio
et facie, flore minimo; Tourn. Cor. 38.) — Leaves, pinna-
tifid ; fegments lanceolate, ferrated. Corymb denfe. -Ca-
lyx angular.’? — Gathered in the Levant by Tournefort.
Stem a foot, or rather more, in height, channelled, almoft
{mooth, but fparingly leafy in the upper part. Lower
leaves two or three inches long, deeply pinnatifid, green,
and fmooth ; upper about half as long. //oqers yellow, in
a {mall denfe corymbus. Florets of the radius fearcely more
than two or three, very fhort. Receptacle elevated, furni
with a very few feales at the margin. Willd. Lamarck.

10. T. microphyllum. _Small-leaved Siberian Tanfy.
(Achillea n. 164; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 198. t. 83. £2. Ptar-
mica millefolii folio tomentofo, flore luteo ; Gerb. MSS. in
Herb. Linn. )—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets bipinnatifid, hairy
obtufe. Merde corymbofe, hairy. Se
Gathered by Gerber, in deferts, on both fides of the river
Don, near upper Kundrufchewa. He remarked that the
receptacle is devoid of fcales, which induces us to introdtice
this plant here, though referred to Achillea by Gmelin.
Linnzus has paffed it over. The root is woody and appa-
rently perennial. Stem a {pan high, more or lefs branched,
leafy, angular, and downy. Leavs ftalked, hairy, finely
fubdivided and notched. Flowers yellow, rather hemi-
{pherical than cylindrical. Calyx-feales oblong, ending in a
fuddenly dilated white membrane ; the bafe of the outward
ones only occafionally hairy, or fringed. . Florets of the
radius very fhort, three-toothed. -

11. T'. incanum. Hoary Oriental Tanfy. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1183. Willd. n. 9. (Abfinthium orientale ineanum
tenuifolium, floribus luteis in capitulum congettis et furfm
{peétantibus; Tourn. Cor. 34.)—lLeaves pinnate, hoary ;,
leaflets crowded, in deep finger-like fegments. Corymbs,
denfe, compound, fomewhat panicled.—Native of the Le-
vant. The /lem is faid by Linneus to be fimple, leafy, and!
very fhort. We have feen neither {pecimen nor figure.

12. T’. cotuloides. May-weed Cape Tanfy. Linn. Mant.
282. Willd. n. 10.— Leaves deeply pinnatifid, pointed,
hails igek Bien madly branched. Flowers fomewhat
panicled. alyx-feales elliptical, nearly e .—Nati
the Cape of Good Hae, a‘ sha hh ee
many fibres; Linneus judged it to be annual. Stem about:
a {pan high, copioufly branched, round; branches afcend=
ing, leafy, hairy. Leaves numerous, feattered, ftalked,
hardly an inch long, in feven or nine deep, acute, entire feg=
ments, clothed, on the lower fide at leaft, with very long

Rraight

Root fomewhat woody, with -

:
:
:
{

TANACETUM.

ftraight loofe hairs. Flower-/lalks panicled, hairy, leafy,
fomewhat corymbofe. Flowers fmall, hemifp-rical, rather
convex, yellow, with few or no radiant florets.’ Calyx-/cales
acute, rather lax, roughifh, with thin pale edges.

13. "I. orientale. Silky-leaved Oriental Tanfy. Willd.
n. ii. (Abfinthium orientale incanum, capillaceo folio,
floribus in capitulum congeftis ; Tourn. Cor. 34. )—‘* Leaves
filky and hoary ; the radical ones pinnate ; leaflets in three
deep, linear-thread-fhaped, acute fegments; ftem-leaves in
three deep, lanceolate fegments. Panicle denfely corym-
hofe.”’—-Native of Armenia. Root perennial. Leaves of
the root and barren ftems about three-quarters of an inch
long, on ftill longer footffalks ; thofe of the flowering ftem
broader, their fegments flat, occafionally divided. Panicle
corymbofe, terminal. FYowers feffile, in round heads, upon
crowded ftalks. Calyx downy. Receptacle naked. Willd.

14. T. annuum. Annual Tanfy. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1184.
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 3. (Santolina corymbis fimplicibus
fafticiatis, foliis linearibus confertis ; Mill. Ic. t. 227. f. 1.
Elichryfon; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 326. Elyochryfon, five
Coma aurea; Ger. Em. 645.)—Radical leaves doubly pin-
nate; thofe of the ftem deeply pinnatifid, downy ; their
fegments fharp-pointed. Corymbs level-topped. Calyx-
{cales oblong, hairy.—Native of Spain and Italy. Very
foon introduced into our gardens, where it proves a hardy
annual, flowering in July and Augutit. The /fem is two or
three feet high, round, furrowed, much branched, clothed
with innumerable {mall crowded pinnatifid /eaves, of a rather
hoary green. Flowers yellow, in terminal flat corymbs ; the
f{cales of their calyx unequal, imbricated, keeled, hairy,
tipped with a rounded membrane.

15. TL. obtufum. Blunt-leaved Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr. 147. ‘Willd. n. 13.—‘* Leaves doubly pinnate,
fmooth ; leaflets linear, obtufe. Heads of flowers {folitary,
{mooth.”—Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good
Hope.

16. T. grandiflorum. Large-flowered Cape Tanfy.
Thunb. Prodr. 147. Willd. n. 14.—** Leaves doubly pin-
nate, villous; leaflets linear, acute. Heads of flowers foli-
tary, downy.”—From the fame country.—We have not
feen either of the two laft {pecies. Willdenow underftands
Thunberg’s expreflion, capitulis folitariis, as meaning floribus
JSolitariis ; but the fuppofition of fo great an iaccuracy is
fearcely warrantable. We therefore preferve the original
fenfe; whether it be accurate or not muit remain with the
author.

17. T. multiflorum. Many-flowered Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr. 147. Willd. n. 16.—** Leaves doubly pinnate, vil-
lous; leaflets acute. Panicles compound, level-topped.””—

. Found by Thunberg at the Cape.

18. T. myriophyllum. Milfoil Tanfy. Willd. n. 17.
“ Ejufd. Achill. 50.” (Achillea bipinnata; Linn. Sp. Pl.

. 1265. Ptarmica orientalis incana, foliis pennatis, femiflof-
eulis florum vix confpicuis; Tourn. Cor. 38.)—Leaves
doubly pinnate, downy ; leaflets ovate; thofe of the ftem
toothed ; of the radical leaves entire.—Native of the Le-
vant. Only to be feen perhaps in Tournefort’s herbarium,
or in colleétions extraéted from thence.

19. T. vulgare. Common Tanfy. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1184.
Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 4. Fl. Brit. n. 1. | Engl. Bot.
t..1229. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 115. Fl. Dan. t. 871.
(Tanacetum; Ger. Em. 650. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 259.
Camer. Epit. 650.)—9. T. crifpum anglicum ; Ger. Em.
650.—Leaves doubly pinnatifid, fharply ferrated, naked.—
Native of banks, hedges, and borders of fields, in moft
parts of the middle of Europe ; very frequent in England,

flowering in July and Auguft. Root perennial, creeping.
Herb two feet high, leafy, dark green, with a ftrong bal-
famic fcent, and bitter tafte. It was formerly more ufed
than at prefent to give a flavour, as well as a green colour, to
arich kind of pudding. The /eaves are copious, feffile, a fpan
long, fometimes a little hairy underneath ; clafping the {tem
with their dilated bafe. FYowers compofing a large, flattith,
terminal, golden corymbus. The radius is {carcely remark-
able but in hot feafons, though its rudiments may generally
be deteéted. The curled-leaved variety is efteemed mott
aromatic and wholefome.

Willdenow’s fifteenth fpecies, 7. monanthos, Linn. Mant,
111, having a f{caly receptacle, is referred to SANTOLINA,
(fee that article,) in the Prodr. Fl. Greca, by the fpecific
name of S. rigida. This is a depreffed annual plant, with
doubly-pinnatifid pointlefs eaves ; fingle-flowered afcending
hairy fa/és ; anda hairy calyx, whofe fcales are nearly equal.
The flowers are yellow. This is a native of Cyprus, and
very nearly akin to S. anthemoides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1180;
whofe calyx is imbricated on all fides, and its eaves have
briitle-pointed fegments.

TANACETUM, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the her-
baceous and fhrubby perennial kinds, among which the
{pecies moft commonly cultivated are, the common tanfy
(T. vulgare) ; the annual tanfy (T. annuum) ; the coft-
mary tanfy (T. balfamita) ; the Siberian tanfy (‘T. fibiri-
cum) ; the fhrubby tanfy (T. fuffruticofum) ; and the fan-~
leaved tanfy (T. flabelliforme). :

In the firit fort there are varieties with curled leaves,.
called double tanfy ; with variegated leaves ; and. with larger
leaves, which have little fcent.

Method of Culture —AN\ the different herbaceous fpecies
are increafed by parting the roots, and by feed.

In the firft mode the bufinefs is effected by flipping or di-
viding the roots in autumn or winter, when the ftalks are
decayed; or early in {pring, before new ftalks fhoot forth ;
planting the flips at once where they are to remain ; thofe for
the kitchen-garden, as the common tanfy, &c. in any bed or
border a foot and a half afunder ; and thofe intended for va-
riety in the pleafure-ground, fingly here and there, at
fuitable diftances, to effeét a proper diverfity.

The feed faved in autumn fhould be fown in the {pring
following, in beds of light earth, broad-caft and raked in,
when the plants will foon come up, and in July be fit to
prick out in beds, in rows a foot afunder ; fome to remain,
and others to be planted out in autumn where they are to
grow.

All the fhrubby forts are eafily increafed by cuttings of
the branches, which fhould be planted any time in {pring
and fummer, choofing the young and mott robuft fhoots,
which fhould be cut off im proper lengths, and if early
in fpring, &c. be planted in pots of good earth, feve-
ral in each, plunging them in a hot-bed, where they will
be rooted, and fit for potting off feparately in fix weeks ;
or if in fummer, the young fhoots may be planted in the full
ground, in a fhady border, or where they may be fhaded
with mats from the fun ; or in pots, and placed in the fhade,
or under a garden-frame, &c.: in all of which methods,
giving plenty of water, they will readily take root; but
thofe m the hot-bed will be forwardeft : they, however, will
all be well rooted the fame feafon, and fhould then be tranf-
planted into feparate pots, and managed as other fhrubby
greenhoufe plants. See GREEN-HOUSE Plants.

Moft of the former forts require to be afterwards kept
free from weeds, cutting down the decayed ftalks annually
in autumn ; and as the roots increafe fait into large bunches,

~ fpreading

T AS
{preading widely round, they fhould be cut in, or be flipped
occafionally, otherwife they are apt to overrun the ground ;
and to have the ground dug between the plants annually.

All the latter forts are fomewhat tender, but only re-
quire fhelter from froft, being kept in pots, and depofited
among the greenhoufe plants, and treated as other fhrubby
exotics of that colleétion. They effect a very agreeable
variety at all times of the year, but particularly in fummer
and autumn, when in flewer.

The common tanfy has been long cultivated in the garden
as a culinary and medicinal herb ; the leaves being ufed oc-
cafionally while young and tender, in fallads during the
{pring feafon, as well as for making cakes, puddings, and
many other fimilar articles. The powder of the dried leaves,
the feeds, and the flowers, have alfo been fometimes employed
as a remedy againft worms.

The a Be and variegated forts or varieties are principally
made ufe of for ornamental purpofes.

The earl of Dundonald has propofed the cultivation of
the tanacetum, or tanfy, for the produétion of potafs,
afferting that it will yield more of this alkali than can be
procured from an equal weight of any other vegetable.

TANACETUM, in the Materia Medica. See Tansy.

TANADASSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, on the route from the Grand Leptis to Tacape.

ANZECIUM, in Botany, fo named by Dr. Swartz,
on account of its very long climbing ftem and branches,
from ravanxns, fretched ot, or rather having an elongated point.
—Swartz Prodr. gt. Ind. Occ. 1049. t. 20. Schreb. Gen.
412. 834. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 312- Mart. Mill. Dict.
vy. 4.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord.
Luride, or perhaps Putamince, Linn. Swartz. Akin to
Solanacea, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
undivided, abrupt, nearly or uite entire. Cor. of one
petal, long ; tube cylindrical, dilated upwards, limb {pread-
ing, in five, fomewhat unequal, or two-lipped, deep feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments four, fhorter than the tube of the
corolla, two of them rather fhorter than the reft, with an
intermediate rudiment of a fifth; anthers two-lobed. Pi/l.
Germen fuperior, roundifh, feated on an annular receptacle ;
ftyle fimple, about the length of the ftamens ; ftigma of two
thick {preading lobes. Peric. Berry very large, globofe or
oblong, on a fhort ftalk, of two cells, with a hard coat.
Seeds {mall, numerous, oblong, angular, inferted into a
central globofe receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Calyx cylindrical, undivided, abrupt. Corolla
tubular, rather unequal, five-cleft. Rudiment of a fifth
ftamen. Berry coated, of two cells, with many feeds.

Obf. This genus furely belongs to the Luride of Lin-
nus, and is confiderably akin to another genus of Swartz’s,
the SoLANDRA, fee that article, though he does not appear
to advert to this affinity.

1. T. parafiticum. Simple-leaved Tanecium. Willd.
nei. Swartz Ind. Occ. 1053. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
v. I. 61. t. 115.—Leaves fimple, ovate, coriaceous. Stem
fhrubby, climbing parafitically.—Native of woods in the
weftern part of Jamaica. Stem when young clofely at-
tached by fibrous radicles to the trunks of trees, round,
with a grey rugged bark ; when full-grown, it often de-
cays below, fupporting itfelf altogether parafitically, and
fending out round, {preading, fmooth, leafy branches,
Leaves oppofite, on fhort thick ftalks, five or fix inches
long, entire, acute, fcarcely pointed, fmooth, of a fine
fhining n, with one re, and many oblique veins.

Flower-flalks axillary, fhort, each bearing about four elegant

+ aN

drooping flowers, about an inch and a half long. Calyx
{welling, purplith-red, contraéted at the mouth, quite en-
tire. Corolla with a pale yellowifh tube, and crimfon,
{preading or reflexed, border, whofe fegments are rounded,
and nearly uniform, the lowermoft only a little the largeft,
and folding over the mouth like a lid, before the flower ex-
pands. Berry globofe, as big as a {mall apple, with a
pa aga brittle coat. Swartz once found a fruit with three
cells.

2. T. Jaroba. Three-leaved Tanecium. Willd. n. 2,
Swartz Ind. Occ. 1050. t. 20. f. 1. (Jaroba; Marcgr.
Brafil. 25. Pis. Brafil. 173. Cucurbitifera fruticofa tri-
folia fcandens; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 175.)—Lower leaves ter-
nate ; upper in pairs, with an intermediate terminal tendril.
Stem climbing.—Native of woods, on the banks of rivers
in the weftern part of Jamaica. Swartz found it in flower
in February, climbing to the top of a tree of the Bignonia
leucoxylon. The fhrubby /fem mounts to a great height,
where it has an opportunity of fupport, fending out long,
pendulous, round, flightly {ftriated, herbaceous branches.
Leaves oppofite, ftalked; the lower ones with three ovate,
pointed, entire, ribbed, {mooth, fcarcely coriaceous, leaflets,
each half a foot long; upper of two rather fmaller ones, ~
with a flender rigid tendril in the place of a third leaflet, by
which the pets are fupported on thofe of neighbourin
trees. Cluflers axillary, of few flowers, ‘with thick, roun'
oppofite ftalks. Flowers white, fhort-lived. Calyx gibbous
at the bafe; fometimes very minutely five-too at the
margin. Corolla funnel-fhaped ; its tube fix or feven inches
long, {welling at the top, downy both within and without ;
fegments of the limb ovate, wavy or plaited, about three-
quarters of an inch in length, all nearly equal, though the
two uppermoft are, as in the former fpecies, lefs deeply fe-

arated. Berry very large, a foot long, oval, pendulous,
mooth, brittle when ripe. Seeds large, broad, compreffed,
lying clofely over each other. The Portuguefe call this
plant Ca/ca amargofa, on account of its bitternefs.

3- T.? pinnatum. Pinnate Tanecium. Willd, n. 3.
(Crefcentia pinata ; Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 203. t. 18.)—Leaves
pinnate. Stem arboreous, ereét.—Native of Mozambique
where it is called Kigeliteia, aud from whence it was carried
to the ifles of Mauritius or Bourbon, and thus got into the
imperial gardens at Schoenbrun, being accompanied by a dif-
fected drawing of the flower, which is all that Jacquin has
exhibited of the plant. The young tree, about feven feet
high, and four inches in the diameter of its trunk, bore in
the ftove feveral branches, with alternate pinnate leatios each
of four pair of oblong leaflets with an edd one, all cori
ceous, obtufe with a point, undulated, {paringly and fharpl
ferrated ; {mooth above ; roughifh to the touch peed
the largett near fix inches long; the odd one on a confider-
able partial flalk. The flowers are faid to w on the
trunk and older branches, but of their mode of infertion or
inflorefcence we have no account. The calyx is ovate, tu-
bular, fmooth, paleifh-green, about an inch long mii five
acute, rather deep, red fegments. Tube of the corolla ¢ -
lindrical, pale, the length of the calyx; limb very lar,
bell-fhaped, three inches long, with five acute, ste id
flexed, marginal lobes ; its outfide ftrongly and copioufl
ribbed, pale, with a tinge of red; the whole infide of a fine
crimfon. The fifth /lamen is apparently perfe@, with an
anther, though but half the length of the others ; alll the
filaments hairy. Germen accompanied at the bafe b five
glands. Stigma of two lanceolate plates. Berry as be ag
a man’s head, coated, full of pulp, in which the feeds are
lodged.—Jacquin was doubtful of the genus of this magni-

ficent

TAN

ficent and curious plant, which is faid to form, in its native
country, a very large tree. There feems as much reafon to
refer it to Cre/centia as to Tanacium, the calyx not anfwering
well to either, and the internal ftruCture of the fruit being
unknown.

TANAEIM, or Tenarem, in Geography, a town of
Arabia, in the province of Yemen, famous among the
Arabian Jews, who had anciently their chief feat, and many
confiderable fynagogues in it; at prefent it is almoft defo-
late; 30 miles S.E. of Sana.

TANAGA, one of the Fox iflands, in the North Pacific
ocean, about 40 miles in circumference. N. lat. 53° 20!.
E. long. 182° 14!. \

TANAGER, J] fume Negro, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Italy, in Lucania, according to Virgil. It has its
fource in a mountain called Albufnus, now monte Poitig-
lione, and difcharges itfelf into the Silanus.

TANAGRA, a confiderable town of Bebdtia, towards:

the weit, feated on an eminence, at fome diftance from the
mouth of the Afopus. In a temple of Bacchus at this town
was a fine ftatue of this god, and above, a triton of ad-
mirable workmanfhip. Befides the temple of Bacchus, here
were temples of Themis, Venus, Apollo, and Mercury.
In the moft confpicuous place of this city was the tomb of
Corinna, fo famous for her beauty and poetical talents, fo
that at Thebes fhe gained a prize in preference of Pindar.
Here was alfo the tomb of Orion. Paufanias.

Tanacra, anager, in Ornithology, a genus of the order
Pafferes ; the characters of which are, that the bill is conic,
acuminated, emarginated, fubtrigonous at the bafe, and in-
clining at the apex. Gmelin enumerates forty-fix

Species. °

Jacapa. Black; the forehead, neck, and breaft, crim-
fon-coloured. This is the jacapu of Marcgrave, the red-
breaited blackbird of Edwards, and the red-breafted tanager
of Latham. It is found in America.

Brasiz1a. Crimfon, with black tail and wings. This
is the cardinal of Buffon, and the Brafilian tanager of La-
tham. Found in South America. Of this bird there are
two varieties, one of which is the rumplefs blue, red, and
black Indian fparrow of Willughby.

Rusra. Red, with black wings and tail, .and tail?
feathers white at the apex. This is the Canada tanager of
Pennant, and the red tanager of Latham. Found in Canada.
Of this the fcarlet {parrow of Edwards, or merula brafilienfis
of Ray and Willughby, is a variety.

Jacarina. Violet-black, with wings whitifh beneath,
and tail of two divaricated branches. This is a bird of Brafil
and Guiana, the jacarini of Marcgrave.

Viotacea. Violet, and the under part very yellow: the
teitei of Marcgrave, the golden titmoufe of Edwards, and
golden tanager of Latham. A variety of this, found in
Brafil, Surinam, and Cayenne, is fhining black, with the ab-
domen, breaft, and front pale yellow, and the outer tail-
feather having on its inner fide a white {pot.

Oxivacea. Olive; the throat and breaft yellow, the
abdomen white, the quills and tail-feathers brown, with a
white margin. This is the olivet of Buffon, and found
in Cayenne.

Gyroxa. Green, red-headed, yellow collar, and ceru-
Jeous breait : the rouvardin of Buffon, the red-headed green-
finch of Edwards, and red-headed tanager of Latham.
Found in various parts of South America.

Cayana. Yellow, green back, red cap, and black
cheeks. A bird of Cayenne, cf which there is a variety,

Voi. XXXV.

TAN

underneath golden-coloured, back green and yellow, head
ceruleous, wings and tail green.

ArratTa. Shining black: the black tanager of Latham.
Found in India.

Mexicana. Black, underneath yellowifh, breaft and
rump blueifh: the black and blue titmoufe of Edwards,
and black and blue tanager of Latham. The tangara bar-
badenfis cerulea of Briffon is a variety. Found in Cayenne,
Guiana, and New Spain.

Tarao. Violet, black back, yellow rump, green head,
and violet breaft and wings: the titmoufe of paradife of
Edwards, the paradife tanager of Latham, and the tangara
of Briffon, Ray, Willughby, and Buffon. Found in
Guiana.

Avsirosrris. Black, with a {pot on the wings, and
tail yellow, and a white beak: the white-billed tanager of
practi Of this there is a variety. It is an American

ird. :

Guraris. Black, beneath white, red head, and purple
throat: the rouge-cap of Buffon, and red-headed tanager
of Latham. Found in Cayenne and Guiana.

CayeEnNENsis. Black, both fides of the breaft and under
part of the wings yellow. Found in Brafil, Guiana, and

ew Spain.

Brasitiensis. Black, under part white, throat and rump
blueifh, face and breaft black: the guira-genoia of Marc-
grave, the turquin of Buffon, and turquoife tanager of
Latham. A Brafil fpecies.

Dominica. Black-fpotted, above brown, and below
whitifh : called from the place of its refidence, by Latham,
the St. Domingo tanager.

Miziraris. Brown; breaft, neck, throat, and fhoul-
ders fanguineous: the military tanager of Latham, and
greater bulfinch of Edwards. Found in South America.

Grisea. Grey-olive, under grey, with wings and tail
black, grey at their margin. Found in Guiana and Loui-
fiana.

Episcopus. Cinereous, with wings and tail externally
blueifh : the bifhop tanager of Latham. Found in Cayenne.

Sayaca. Hoary, with blueifh wings: the fayacu of
Maregrave. Found rarely in Cayenne.

Puncrata. Green, pointed with black; under yel-
lowifh-whitifh : the fyacoa of Buffon, {potted green titmoufe
of Edwards, and fpotted tanager of Latham. Found in
Cayenne.

Virens. Green, under yellowifh, cheeks and throat
black: the green tanager of Latham. Found in New
Spain, Peru, and Braiil.

Mississipensis. Wholly red: the Miffiffippi tanager of
Latham. Of this fpecies there are two varieties ; one found
on the river Miffiffippi, and the other in New Spain.

Cristara. Blackifh, golden creft, throat and rump
yellow: the houppette of Buffon, and crefted tanager of
Latham. Found in Guiana.

fEstivA. Red, bill yellowifh: the fummer red-bird of
Catefby and Edwards, and fummer tanager of Pennant and
Latham. Found in Carolina and Virginia.

Maena. Olive-brown; under reddifh; legs, front, and
temples blueifh ; vent-feathers and throat red, and the middle
of the throat white: the grand tanager of Latham. Found
in Guiana and Cayenne.

CmruLea. Blueifh, black bill, and light-red legs: the
blue tanager of Latham. A Cayenne bird.

Varrapitis. Green, partly blueifh and partly brown,
black band about the eye, quills and tail-feathers black, with
green margins: variable tanager of Latham.

K TRICOLOR.

TAWN

Tricoton. Green; head, chin, throat, and breaft pale
fea-colour; black neck-band, head and fides of the neck
golden-green, a large {pot on the throat, and back black,
the breaft-band blueifh, the abdomen and vent-feathers yel-
lowifh-green: the green-headed tanager of Latham. Of
this there is a variety. :

Guranensis. Green, head cinereous-grey, front and
head-band on both fides from the front to the nape red: the
grey-headed tanager of Latham. Found rarely in the forefts
of Guiana. :

Nicricotiis. Olive, beneath yellow, black throat,
golden breaft, feathers of the wings and tail-feathers brown,
with olivaceous margins : the black-throated tanager. Found
in Guiana.

Ruricoitts. Black and blue, with a large red ftreak on
the throat, and black wings and tail: the rufous-throated
tanager of Latham. Found in Jamaica.

Leucoceruata. Black and brown, white front, reddifh
throat, purple breaft and wings, and yellowifh abdomen and
vent-feathers: the quatoztli of Seba. Found in the moun-
tains of Brafil.

Frava. Yellow throat, breaft and fpots of the abdomen
black, quills and tail-feathers black, fea-coloured at the
margin. This is the guiraperea of Ray and Willughby,
and the yellow tanager of Latham. Found in Brafil, of the
fize of a lark.

Ampornensis. Varied with black and blue, black vertex,
blueifh-green rump ; cheeks, chin, throat, and breaft blueifh ;
abdomen and vent-feathers white. Found in Amboina, and
called calatti.

Canora. Blueifh, varied with yellow ; black tail, white
at the apex; and wings partly blueifh and partly yellow :
the xiuhtototl of Fernandes. Found in New Spain.

Srxensis. Olivaceous, beneath yellow, with the quills
and tail-feathers black, yellow at their margin: the Chinefe
tanager of Latham.

Bowartensis. Black and violet, with a flight greenifh
tint in the wings and tail: the violet tanager of Latham.

Arra. Cinereous, with the face, chin, and throat black,
re of the female yellow:) the camail or cravatte of

uffon, and black-faced tanager of Latham. Found in
Guiana.

Pineata. Blueifh-cinereous, beneath filvery, with the
vertex, temples, and fides of the neck black,’ and the ocular
fpot white ; the hooded tanager of Latham. Of this the
tijepiranga of Ray and Willughby is a variety. Found in
Guiana and Brafil.

Mevanicrera. Above ferrugiious, beneath very yel-
low, head and nape black, wings {treaked with white,
and tail brown: the black-crowned tanager of Latham.
Found on the Caucafus and in Georgia:

Sisimmica. Black, the tips of the down between thie

fhoulders and the rump ciliated with white. A Siberian
fpecies.
- Arnicarmeia. Reddifh and rufous; head, tail, and
wings fhiniug black, with a roundifh tail: the mordoré of
Buffon, and black-headed tanager of Latham. Found in
Guiana.

Sraiata. Beneath yellow, with a head ftriated with
black and blue, back above blackifh and beneath golden,

ills and tail-feathers black, with a blue margin: the
onglet of Buffon, and furrow-clawed tanager of Latham.
Found in South America,

Nicerrima. Black, with a white fpot within the wings :
ahe Guiana tanager of Latham. i

Carensis. Above ferruginous-brown, beneath ferry-

TAN

inous, varied with white ; the middle of the tail black, its
ides ferruginous-rufefcent, the bill yellowifh, the legs black.
Found at the Cape of Good Hope. ; ee

TANAH, in Geography. See San. ;

TANAIS, the Don, in Ancient Geography, a large river
which had its rife towards the eaft, in the territory of the
Thyrfagetes, traverfed the country of the Sarmatians,
turned its courfe to the fouth, and difcharged itfelf in the
lake of Mezotis. Its courfe was fo rapid, that it never.
froze. Its borders were inhabited by the Sarmatians. "The
two mouths of the Tanais were diftant 70 ftadia from one
another, according to Strabo.—Alfo, a town of European
Sarmatia, fituated between the mouths of the river of the
fame name.—Alfo, a river of Africa, which ran into the
Mediterranean, towards the fouth-weft, at five miles from
Thena.

Tanais, in Mythology, a divinity peculiar to the Arme-
nians, to whom were confecrated the flaves of both fexes ; and
it is alfo faid, that the people of better rank offered to him
their daughters, who, as foon as they were confecrated to
this god, were authorifed by the law to proftitute themfelves
to the firft comer, until the time of their marriage. Nor
did this conduét by any means prevent the addreffles of
fuitors.

TANAK Point, in Geography, a cape on the north
coaft of Java. S. lat. 6° 24/. E. long. 108° 36!. ak

TANAKAKA, a {mall ifland near the fouth-weft coaft
of Celebes, belonging to the Dutch. S. lat. 5°30’, E,
long. 119° 42!.

TANALITZKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Upha, at the conflux of the Urdafim and Ural ;
120 miles E. of Orenburg. ie

TANAMBE, a town on the eaft coaft of Madagafcar.
S. lat. 16° 20!. E. long. 50° 20!. ,

TANAON, atown on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Leyta. * N. lat. 11° 10!." EB. long. *125° 1/2

TANAOSIMA, one of the Japanefe iflands, about
100 miles in circumference. N. lat 30° 20!. E. long,
132° 30! :

TANARGUE, a mountain of France, whieh gives name
to a diftri@ in the department of the Ardéche; 20 miles
S.W. of Privas. stad

TANARO, one of the fix departments of Piedmont,
after its union with the French republic, Auguft 26, 180
formerly Acqui and Afti, in N. lat. 44° pe welt of Ma-
rengo, containing 197 fquare leagues, and 311,458 in-
habitants. It was divided into three circles, viz. Ati,
including 131,910; Acqui, 82,914; and Alba, 96,634 in-
habitants. The foil is broken by torrents, which form many
lakes and marfhes. The fouth-wett diftrié& confifts of barren
{pots and fruitful vallies ; the northern part is fertile, and
the hills yield abundance of wine of an inferior quality.
The principal produéts of the department are grain, fruits,
and paltures, with quarries of ftone, mineral f{prings, &e. :

i ANARO, a river of France, which rifes in the mounted
near Tenda, paffles by Coni, Cherafco, Alba, Afti, Alex-
andria, &c. and joins the Po, 3 miles E, of Valerizas

TANA RUS, the Zanaro, in Ancient Geography, a river
= Italy, ‘s Liguria, pie ian ta been formed by the con-

uence of many rivers, difcharged itfelf j
abit ieoaiud = Redes ; arged itfelf into the Padus,
ovis eee ala in mtg
LE, a town of France, i
ofthe Cantal 4 miles W.S.W. of St. lei aa
a town of Naz : i '
Catmandu. ° es ae NET Baer

hy. See Stam.

of
TANBAY,

TAN

TANBAY, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of

Negros. _N. lat. 10° 3/.. E. long. 123° 1/. :
ANCACA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatteca ; 50 miles W.S.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANCALE, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 50 miles N.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANCANCHY, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura ;
8 miles S. of Vadagary.

TANCARVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine; ro miles S.E. of Montevilliers.

TANCHOY, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatteca ; 35 miles N. of Panuco.

TANCICUY, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatteca; 15 miles S.W. of Panuco.

“33 eee a town of Abyflinia; 40 miles N.N.E. of
iné.

TANCOBANCA, ariver of Perfia, which runs into the
fea, 69 miles W.N.W. of Port Jaques.

TANCOS, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura, at the
conflux of the Zezare and the Tagus; 21 miles N.E. of
Santarem.

TANCUYLABO, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Guafteca; 30 miles S.S.E. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANCYTOWN, a poft-town of Maryland; 27 miles
N.E. of Frederickftown.

TANDA, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of Min-
danao. N. lat. 8° 48!. E. long. 126° 12!.

Tanna, or Zanrah, a town of Hindooftan, called fome-
times Chawa/pour Tanda, from the original name of the
diftri€t ins which it was fituated. It was a fhort time,
in the reign of Shere Shaw, about the year 1540, the
capital of Bengal, and became the eftablifhed capital under
Acbar, about 1580. It is fituated very near to the {cite
of Gour, on the road leading from it to Rajemal. There
is little remaining of this place, fave the tampart ;: nor do
we know for certain when it was deferted. In 1659 it was
the capital of Bengal, when that fubah was reduced under
Aurungzebe. .

TANDAH, a town of Bengal; 12 miles S.E. of Cal-
cutta.

TANDAM, a town of Bootan; 57 miles N. of Dinage-

our.

TANDAMORGONG, atown of Hindooftan, in Goond-
wanah ; 25 miles E. of Nagpour.

TANDEGO, a town of Africa, on the St. Domingo

‘river; 25 miles E. of Farim.

TANDERAGEE, a poft-town of the county of Ar-
magh, Ireland, which has a good linen market. It is near
the Newry canal, and 61 milgs N. by W. from Dublin.

TANDLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa; 72 miles
W. of Ougein. . N. lat. 23° 5’. E. long. 74° 301.

TANDOO Baas, ‘a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archi-
pelago. N. lat..5° 8’... E. long. 120° 15/.

Tanpoo Battoo, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 5° 9! E. long. 120° 12!. ;

TANDORYF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz ; 20 miles E. of Konigingratz.

TANE, a river of Finmark, which runs into the Frozen
fea, N. lat. 70% 48!. j

Tang. See TAROATAIHETOOMO.

TANG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft Goth-
land; 30 miles E.N.E. of Uddevalla.

TANGA, in Commerce, a money of account at Goa, in

. the Eaft Indies ; fome of which are good, and others bad.
A pardo is worth 4 good tangas or 5 bad; 16 good vintins,
or 20 bad, are equal to 300 good bafaruccos, or 360 bad.
The coins are the St. Thomas, a gold piece of money of

TAN

nearly the weight of a ducat, which pafles for 11 good
tangas, more or lefs. The filver coins are the pardo xera-
phin of 5 good tangas, and the common pardo of 4 good
tangas. The copper and tin coins are the good and bad
bafaruccos. Venetian fequins are worth 16 good tangas ;
paresass 1o good tangas; and Spanifh dollars, 550 good
bafaruccos, all more or lefs.. A good tanga is worth about
7id fterling ; a pardo, 2s. 6d.; and a xeraphin, 35. 32d.
{terling nearly. Kelly’s Cambitt.

TANGALA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the S. coaft of Java. S. lat. 8° 20’. E.
long. 111° 45/. ;

TANGALE, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 92 miles
S. of Candy.

TANGARAG, in Botany, a poifonous Brafilian plant ;
but the root, fays Pifo, is an antidote to the leaves, flowere,
and fruit. Boyle’s Works, Abr. vol.1, p. 14.

TANGAWA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Ximo ; 30 miles S.E. of Kokura.

TANGE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 21
miles N. of Gotheburg.

TANGEN, a town of Norway, in the province of
Aggerhuus ; 2 miles E. of Stromfoe.

TANGENE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
26 miles FE. of Uddevalla.

TANGENT, in Geometry, a right line which touches a
circle, that is, meets it in fuch manner, as that, though
infinitely produced, it would never cut the fame ; that is,
never come within the circumference.

Thus the line AD (Plate XV. Geometry, jig. 3-) is a tan-
gent to the circle in D.

It is demonftrated in geometry; 1. That if a tangent,
AD, and a fecant, AB, be both drawn from the fame
point, A ; the fquare of the tangent will be equal to the
rectangle, under the whole fecant A B, and that portion of
it, A C, which falls without the circle.

2. That if two tangents, AD, AE, be drawn to the
fame circle from the fame point A, they will be equal to
each other.

As a right line is the tangent of a circle, when it touches
the circle a clofely, that no right line can be drawn through
the point of contaét between it and the arc, or within the
angle of contaét that is formed by them; fo in general,
when any right line touches any arc of a curve, in fuch a
manner that no right line can be drawn through the point
of contact, betwixt the right line and the are, or within the
angle of contaét that is formed by them, then is that line the
tangent of the curve at the faid point. l

The tangent of an arc is the right line that admits the
potition of “all the fecants that can pafs through the pot of
conta&t, though, ftri@ly fpeaking, it is no fecant. Macl.
Flux. art. 181. 505. ‘

TANGENT, in Trigonometry.—A tangent of an arc is 2
right line, raifed perpendicularly on the extreme of the
diameter, and continued to a point, where it is cut by a
fecant, that is, by a line drawn from the centre through the
extremity of the arc of which it is a tangent. ;

A tangent of an arc A (Plate V1. Trigonom. fig. 13-) 1s a part
of a tangent of a circle (that is, of aright line, which touches
a circle without cutting it), intercepted between two right
lines drawn from the centre C, through the extremes of the
arc E and A.

Hence the tangent F E is perpendicular to the radius
1 (Oe

And hence the tangent FE is the tangent of the angle
ACE, as alfo of that of ACI; fo that two adjacent
angles have only the fame common tangent.

K 2 TANGENT,

TANGENT.

TANGENT, Co, or Tangent of the Complement, is the tan-
gent of an arc, which is the complement of another arc to a
quadrant.

Thus a tangent of the arc AH, is the co-tangent of the
arc A E, or the tangent of the complement of the arc AE.

To find the length of the tangent of any arc, the fine of the
arc being given : fuppofe the arc A E, the given fine A D,
and the tangent required EF. Since both the fine and
tangent are perpendicular to the radius E C, they are parallel
to each other. Wherefore as the cofine D C is to the fine
AD, fo is the whole fine to the tangent EF. See Sixt.

Hence, a canon of fines being had, a canon of tangents is
eafily conftruéted from it.
< ANGENTS, Artificial, are the logarithms of the tangents

arcs.

Tancents, Line of, is a line ufually placed on the feétor,
and Gunter’s fcale ; the defcription and ufes of which, fee
under Sector.

TANGENT of a Comic Scion, as of a parabola, is a right
line, which only touches or mects the curve in one point,
and does not cut or enter within the curve. See Conic
Scions.

Tancents, Method of, is a method of drawing tangents
to any algebraical curve, or of determining the magnitude of
the tangent and fub-tangent, the equation to the curve being

ven. -

The method of tangents is nearly related to that of maxima
et minima; and the fame authors, who in the early ftate of
algebra attempted one of thofe cafes, never failed of touchin
alfo on the other. Hence we have the methods of Det.
cartes, Fermat, Roberval, Hudde, &c. We have already
explained under the article Maxima et Minima, the feveral
methods of thefe authors relating to the latter fubject ; and
as their methods of tangents differ in no refpeé from this, we
fhall not repeat them again in this place, but merely explain
the principle which led to fo intimate a connection between
the two problems.

Defcartes’ Method of Tangents.—It has been fhewn under
the article above referred to, that Defcartes’ method of
maxima and minima, depended upon his making two roots
of his equation equal to each other, and the fame principle
led him alfo to his problem of tangents.

Let us conceive, for example, a curve A B b, ( Plate XIV.
Analyfis, fig. 16.) defcribed on an axis A C; and from any

int in this axis, C, as a centre, let there be defcribed a
circle, which fhall cut the curve at leaft in two points, as
B, 4; from thefe draw two ordinates, which will neceflarily
be common both to the circle and curve: let us now imagine
the radius of this circle to decreafe, while its centre remains
fixed; and it is obvious that thus the two points of inter-
feétion will approach each other, and finally coincide, in
which cafe the circle will touch the curve at the point E,
and the tangent at that point will be common to both, and
perpendicular to the radius of the circle at that point.
Thus the problem of determining the tangent to a curve, is
reduced to finding the pofition of a perpendicular to the
curve, drawn from any point in its axis. In order to effeét
this, Defcartes fought, in a general manner, the points of
interfeétion in the curve made by a circle defcribed with a
given radius from a given point in the axis. He thus ar-
rived at an equation, which, in the cafe of two interfections,
ought to contain two unequal roots, expreffing the diftance
of the two ordinates from the vertex of the curve. But
when the two points of interfe€tion are united in one, as in
the cafe of the circle touching the curve, then'the two roots
of the equation are neceffarily equal to each other. His
objet, therefore, was, in the equation firft obtained, and of

which the co-efficients were indeterminate, to give them fuch
values, that the two roots fhould be equal ; for which pur-
pofe, he compared the propofed equation with an equation
of the fame degree, having two equal roots ; and hence, by
equating the co-efficients, obtained the value of thofe in his
firft equation.

In order to illuftrate this, let A B 2 (fig. 16.) be a para-
bola, and Béda circle. Make CA = a, AD = »,-the
radius CB = 7, then CD = a — »; and fince the ordi-
nate B D belongs to the circle, we have

yar —CD'=r'— (a—x) =r — a + 2ax— x

But the fame ordinate belonging alfo to the parabola, we
have from the known property of that curve, y* = px, p
being the parameter ; therefore

r? — a* + 2ax — x? = px, or

x* + (p—2a)x4+ (a*—r*)=9,
which, being an equation of the fecond degree, muit necef-
farily have two roots, or values, of x, anfwering to the two
abfcifles AD, Ad: for we fhould arrive at the fame con-
clufion, if our equation had been deduced with reference to
the point 6; and it is obvious that thefe roots depend entirely
upon the relation of the co-efficients (p — 2a) and
(a? — r*), or upon the ratio of the quantities a, p, and r,
to each other; and, confequently, fuch values may be
given to thefe quantities, that the two values of x may be.
equal.
ah order to find this ratio, Defcartes formed an equation
of the fecond degree, having two equal roots, as «* — 2@x
+e? = 0, viz. (x — e) (x — e) = 0; and comparing this
with that found above, he obtained the equation x — a =
CD = 44, which fhews that in the parabola, the fub-
normal is equal to half the parameter ; whence it alfo fol-
lows, that the fub-tangent is equal to double the abfcifs,
which is the known property of the curve.

Defeartes had alfo another method for tangents, a little
different from the above in praétice, although it was the
fame in principle ; thus he conceived a right line to revolve
about a fixed point in the axis of the curve produced,
which at firft fhould cut the curve in a certain number of
points, but by its revolution, thefe points of interfeGtion ap-
proaching each other would finally coincide, and thus the
revolving line become a tangent to the curve. For this
purpofe he alfo firft obtained the general equation, which he
afterwards equated with another having two equal roots, and
thus determined the feveral relations of his indeterminate
co-efficients, exactly as in the cafe above given.

Fermat's Method of Tangents.—It will be found by com-
paring the above method of tangents of Defcartes, with
that of his maxima and minima, that the two ultimately de-
pend upon the fame principle, viz. of making two roots of
an equation equal to each other; and the coincidence of
Fermat’s methods for thefe two problems is ftill more ob-
vious ; in faét, he f{carcely treats of them as diftin& cafes,
but refers immediately for the folution of the cafe of tangents
to that of his maxima and minima. In order, fays this
author, that a line may be a tangent to a curve, as for ex-
ample to the parabola A B4, at the point 4, (ig. 17.) it is
evident that every ordinate, except B C, will meet that tangent
beyond the curve, asin C. Thus the ratio of BC? : ce’,
which isthe fame as C D?: ¢ D?, will be lefsthan that of C B?:
c6*, or than that of C A toc A; but if we fuppofe thefe
ratios to be the fame, and confequently the diftance ¢C to
vanifh, the points B, 4, will coincide, and we fhall have an
equation, which, treated in the fame manner as in his method
de maximis et minimis, will give the ratio of CD: CA.

As

ee

TANGENT.

As to the methods propofed by Hudde, Roberval,
Huygens, &c. they differ from thofe given above, only in the
fame manner as in their methods of maxima and minima ; it
would therefore be ufelefs to defcribe them in this place.

Barrow’s Method of Tangents.—It is obvious from what is
faid abave, and what has been ftated under the article Maxi-
ata et Minima, that both the method of tangents, and that
for the greateft and leaft ordinates, were very nearly related to
the prefent fluxional way of treating the fame fubjeéts ; but
with regard to tangents, a {till nearer approach was made by
Dr. Barrow.

This accurate geometer confidered the little triangle
formed by the difference of the two ordinates, their diftance
from each other, and the indefinitely {mall part of the curve,
as fimilar to that which is formed by the ordinate, the tangent,
and fub-tangent. He then fought by the equation of the
curve, the ratio of the two fides da, Ba, ( fg. 18.) of the
triangle Ba, when the difference of the ordinates is infi-
nitely little ; and then faid, as a : Ba :: ordinate B P : the
fub-tangent T P.

In the cafe of the parabola, for example, whofe equation
is y= px; fuppofing P¢ the increafe of the abfcifs = e,
and 4a the correfponding increafe of the ordinate y = a;
then the equation for the ordinate p 6 becomes

(y +a) =p (x +e), 0%
J +2ayt+a=px+t pe
Subtracting from both fides y* = px, there remains
Zay+a=pe.

Alfo a being itfelf infinitely fmall, its fquare a* may be
entirely neglected, and there refults 2ay= pe; therefore
ate::p:2y7; buta = ba, ande=Ba, alloy= Vpx;
therefore, from the propofition ftated above, viz.

ab :aB:: ordinate : fubtangent,
we have P
pi 2/ pris /px:2x, the fubtangent required.

Such were the principles employed in the folution of this
interefting problem prior to the brilliant difcovery of the
fluxional calculus, which from its generality fupplanted them
all, and they are now therefore merely matters of hiftorical
curiofity ; but as they exhibit the flow and progreffive ad-
vances of genius and fcience towards an ultimate {tate of per-
feGtion, they are highly deferving of the attention of the
mathematician, who will find in them much to admire ; they
will at the fame time enable him duly to appreciate the tran-
fcendant talents of that great philofopher, who formed out
of them one general and comprehenfive principle of folution,
which will apply with equal facility to algebraical curves of
every order.

The Method of Tangents according tothe Dodrine of Fluxions.—
Its ufe is very great in Geometry ; becaufe in determining the
tangents of curves, we determine at the fame time the quad-
fature of the curvilinear fpaces: on which account it well
deferves to be here particularly infited on.

To find the Sub-tangent in any algebraic Curve.—Let the pro-
pofed curve be A M O ( Plate XIV. Anal. jig. 19.), and the
right line TMQ a-tangent to it at the point M ; let the
femiordinate p m be infinitely near another PM, and MR
parallel to AH; then the relative celerities of the point M,
moving along the curve from A towards O, in the directions
MR and P M, with which A P and P M increafe in this po-
fition, will be truly expreffed by MR and R m; but the
eelerities by which quantities increafe are as the fluxions of
thofe quantities ; therefore (M m being the fluxion of the
curve line AM) MR and Rm are the correfponding

fluxions of the abfcifs A P, and the ordinate PM; and,
becaufe the triangles M m R and TM P are fimilar, we have
Rm:MR::PM:PT. Let, therefore, the abfcifs A P
be put =x, and the ordinate P M = y, and we fhall have
Dp eaice oe = PT. By means of this general expref-
fion for the fub-tangent, and the equation of the curve ex-
prefling the relation between x and y, the ratio of the
fluxions ~ and j will be found, and from thence the length
of the fub-tangent ; whence the tangent itfelf may be eafily
determined and drawn. This we fhall illuftrate in the fol-
lowing examples : :

I. The equation defining a circle is ax — x x = y*; and
by taking the fluxions of thefe quantities, az —2x%=

299 3 confequently sol pg eet ea a 7 J ; and, multi-
. , x

plying both fides by , we have 7% = SE ANe = the fub-
J pi t8

tangent P T (fee fig. 20.) ; whence (a — x), or AC —
AF, ie. CP: (y) PM:: (y) PM: PT; aproperty of
the circle deduced from the principles of common geo-
metry.

Il. The equation defining the common parabola is a x
cy’, a being the parameter, x the abfcifs, and y the ors

: i ; x 2
dinate; hence a% = 295, and —= eS ; confequently,
3 a

Picea 2) ye le 2a ezhoe
ae = 7 =~“ 2x; therefore the fub-tangent PT
, a a

(fg. 19.) 1s the double of its correfponding abfcifs A P ;
which is a well-known property of the parabola.
III. The general equation for parabolas of any kind

—=

being a” x” = y™*"; we’ have na™x""'x= m+n X

‘ x m+nxy™ tn?
y™*+"~1 4; and, therefore, — = ns 3 whence
J n a™ xe) i

ye omtnx y™t™ mtnxa™x"
at ee J = (becaufey™*” = ax")

|

m ..n—T

J na” x na” x

m 72 .
ils x x =the true value of the fub-tangent ; which,
n

therefore, is to the abfcifs in the conftant ratio of m + 2 ton.

IV. The. equation defining an ellipfis is 6* x ax—x*
=“ 7, AP (fs. 21.) beng= x, MP =, A B= 2,
and the leffer axis =; for by the property of the el-
lipfis, we have a*: 3? :: ax — x” (AP x PB): »* (MP?*);

and, therefore, 6* x ax — x* =a’ y*?; whence 6 x

—<———— ay x 2 ay

ax—2xx— 2a y 7, and —= —-—— ; and, con-
Mi a tO* Krale2 to

fequently, the fub-tangent P'T =) ee
y

BPxa~i2nx

= ————— ; whence the point

T being given, through which the tangent muft pafs, the
tangent itfelf may be drawn.

V. Becaufe the equation, exhibiting the nature of all
kinde

TANGENT.

“kinds of " ellipfes, (putting a and for the two prin-

3 cipal diameters) is a— x)" x x"= we fhall

atm
>

pag
a J

rare,

— c
have — mx x a— xO" x x" nx x"! a a le

; : yx
x m+n x y7t"— +53 and, therefore, = i

c ”_
xm+nx yr"

—n

xa— xi

ee a ”
—mx* a— x) © Xe + mx
a

= x! *
aS ———,, (becaufe ‘ x

mx xX a— x" 40x" Kas

m+n x

——E

m+nxka—-xxXx mpnxXxax—x

na—-n+mxx

mtn gq — x!" x x” —
J 2 ) —mx +nxa~x

= the fubtangent required.
VI. The equation defining the hyperbola is c’. x
ax + x'=a'y’, a and ¢ being ufed to denote the two

principal diameters ; whence we have, c x ax+2x%x

a’y ye
—; and*— =

—

x
=2a'y53 confequently —=
Jos 4 ar cxta+x

: a eee Te ae
gh OW TM a phi fubtangent ;

fa+x

whence the diftance of the point of interfection of the

tangent and axis from the vertex, which is equal to the

difference of the fub-tangent and abfcifs, may be found;
ax +x’ 1 as a eee: , ;

ae =r a I ; and, therefore, that point

being given, the tangent may be eafily drawn.

The manner of drawing tangénts to all forts of hyper-
bolas univerfally, will be the aie as in the ellipfes, the
equations of the two kinds of curves differing in nothing
but their figns.

After the manner above explained, the fubtangent, in
curves whofe abfcifles are right lines, may be determined ;
but if the abfcifs, or line terminating the ordinate, on the
lower part, be another curve, then the tangent may be
drawn as in the following example.

VII. Let the curve BR F Pate XIV. Anal. fig. 22.)
be a ccycloid; whofe abfcifs is here fuppofed to be the femi-
circle B P A, to which let the tangent P T be drawn, as
above. Moreover, let r RH be a tangent to the cycloid,
at the correfponding point R, and let G Re be parallel to
T Pw; putting the arc, or abfcifs, BP =z, its ordi-
nate PR=y, AF=4, and BPA =c; then, by the
property of the cycloid, we fhall have ¢ (BPA) : 4

(AF :: 2 (BP): y (PR) ); therefore y = vis and j =
c

ay
eexdat+x exhtat+ex

4.5%

ahhg But by fimilar triangles, re (j):Re(=Pv
oe) see I (y): PH =2* = « (becaufey = °*); con-

fequently, if in the right line PT, there be taken PH
a to the arc PB, we hall have a point H, through
which the tangent of the cycloid muit dah.

The preceding examples relate to curves, whofe ordinates
are parallel to each other. We fhall now ae! illuftrate
the method of drawing tangents to curves of the {piral kind,
all whofe ordinates iffue from a point: fuch as the fpiral BA G
( Plate XV. Anal. fig. 1.) whofe ordinates, GEE A, CG, are
referred to the point C, called the centre of the fpiral. Let
SAN be a tangent to the fpiral at any point A, and let
C'T be perpendicular to it, and let the arc CBA (confi-
dered as variable by the motion of A towards G) be de-
noted by z, and the ordinate CA by y. Then &: #2:

MCs) (AT ae. Hence, if upon CA, as a dia-

meter, a femicircle be defcribed, and in it, from A, a right
line equal to JI be inferibed, that right line will be a tan-

gent to the fpiral at the point A.

VIII. Let the nature of the curve C BA be fuch, that
the arc CBA may be, always, to its correfponding ordi-
nate C A in a conftant ratio, viz. as a to 6: then, becaufe

| » and. z= ee and, confe-

b

2:y:: a:b, we have z=

= a

quently, A T Ce) = = = b x AC: therefore AC

and A T being in a conftant ratio, the angle CA T mutt
alfo be invariable ; which is a known property of the loga-
rithmic {piral.

‘IX. Let BAA (fg. 2.) be the fpiral of Archi-
medes ; whofe nature is fuch, that the part E A of psi
nerating ordinate, intercepted by the {piral, and a circle,
BED, defcribed about the fame centre C, is always in a
con{tant ratio to the correfponding arc B E of that circle.
Suppofe An perpendicular to AC; BC =c, CA=y,
and the given ratio of AE to BE, that of 6 toc; then

.b:eny—c (AE) oS = BE; whofe fluxion is =
¢ i If the right line CE A a be fuppofed to revolve about ,

in the perpendicular direGion An, will be to t

the centre C, the angular celerity of the penevatiig pink B.,
at of I
as AC to EC; and as the latter of thefe celerities is =: :

x. ys

or re which is to s, the celerity of A in the direétion

prefled by p the former will be exprefled by J

“
Aa, as ; to unit, or as y to 4. Confequently, CT and

AT are in the fame ratio, nd AC: CT ss V yy +6
zy; and AC: AT:: V yy 4 55:5; whence CT and

5 along and a re-
Vv yy + bb Vv yy + bb
{pettively ; from either of which expreffions the tangent
AT may be drawn; and, in the fame manner, meget
pofition of the tangent of any other fpiral be determined.
Simpfon’s Flux. vol. i. feét. 3.

As to the method of inveitigating tan tows,
gents by fluxions

fee Macl. Flux. book i. c. 7. where it is demon beeline
dependently of tafinitefimals.

AT are given, equal to

To

TANGENT.

‘T'o determine the'tangents of curves, fuppofed to be de-
feribed by the interfections of right lines revolving about
given poles, fee Mr. Maclaurin’s Fluxions, art. 210, feq.
{n finding the tangents of curves by the method of iniinite-
fimal differences, it has been objeéted that the conclufion is
found by a double error. 1. By taking the curve fora
polygon of an infinite number of fides. 2. By the falfe
rule for taking the differential of a power. But there is no
need of fuch fuppofitions in the method of fluxions, for it
may be geometrically demonftrated, that the fluxions of the
bafe, ordinate, and curve, are in the fame proportion to
each other, as the fides of a triangle refpeétively parallel to
the bafe, ordinate, and tangent. When the bafe is fup-
pofed to flow uniformly, if the curve be convex towards
the bafe, the ordinate and curve increafe with accelerated
motions; but their fluxions at any term are the fame as if
the point which defcribes the curve had proceeded uniformly
from that term in the tangent. Any farther increment
which the ordinate or curve acquires, is to be imputed to
the acceleration of the motions with which they flow. See
Maclaurin’s Fluxions, book i. chap. vii. and viti.

Any two arcs of curve lines touch together, when the
fame right line is the tangent of both at the fame point.
But when they are applied to each other in this manner,
they never perfe€tly coincide, unlefs they be fimilar arcs of
fimilar and equal figures.

In the Philofophical TranfaGtions, we have the following
method of drawing tangents to all geometrical curves, with-
out any labour or calculation, by M. Slufius.

Suppofe a curve, as DQ (Plate XV. Anal. fiz. 3.)
whofe points are all referrible to any right line given, as
EAB, whether that right line be the diameter or not ; or
whether there be more given right lines than one, provided
their powers do but come into the equation. In all his
equations, he puts w for the line D A, y for BA; and for
EB, and the other given lines, he puts 4, d, &c. that is,
always confonants only. '

Then, fuppofing D C to be drawn touching the curve in
D, and meeting with E B produced in C, he calls the fought
line, C A, by the name of a.

To find which, he gives this general method. 1. Reje&
out of the equation all members which have not either
v or yin them; then put all thofe that have y on one fide,
and all thofe which have v on the other ; with their figns +
or — ; and the latter, for diftinGtion and eafe fake, he calls
the right, the former the left fide. 2. On the right fide, let
there be prefixed to each member the exponent of the power,
which v hath there; or, which is the fame thing, let that
exponent be multiplied into all the members. 3. Let the
fame be done alfo on the left fide, multiplying each member
there by the power of the exponent of y ; adding this more-
over, that one y muft, in each part, be changed into a.
This done, the equation thus reformed will fhew the method
of drawing the required tangent to the point D ; for, that
being given, as alfo y, v, and the other ‘quantities exprefled
‘by confonants, a cannot be unknown. Suppofe an equa-
tion by — yy = vv, in which EB is called 6; BA =y,
DA =z, and let a, or AC, be required fo as to find the
point C, from whence CD being drawn, fhall be a true
tangent to that curve QD in D. In this example, nothing
is to be rejected out of the equation, becaufe y or v are in
each member : it is alfo difpofed, as required by the rule 1 ;
to each part, therefore, there muft be prefixed the expo-
nent of the powers of y or v, as in the rule 2; and on the
.left fide, let one y be changed into a, and then the equa-
tion will be in this form, ba — 2ya= 204, which equa-

10

tion reduced, gives eafily the value of a =

And fo the point C is found, from which the tangent DC
may be drawn. i

To determine which way the tangent is to be drawn, whe-
ther towards B or E, he dire&ts to confider the numerator
and denominator of the fraGtion. For, 1. If in both parts
of the fraétion all the figns are affirmative ; or if the affirm-
ative ones are more in number ; then the tangent is to run
towards B. 2. If the affirmative quantities are greater than
the negative in the numerator, but equal to thofe in the de-
nominator, the right line drawn through D, and touching
the curve in that point, will be parallel to A B; for in this
cafe a is of an infinite length. 3. If in both parts of the
fraction the affirmative quantities are lefs than the negative,
changing all the figns, the tangent muft be drawn now alfo
towards B; for this cafe, after the change, comes to be
the fame as the firit. 4. If the affirmative quantities are
greater than the negative in the denominator, but in the
numerator are lefs, or vice verfd, then changing the figns in
that part of the fra€tion where they are lefs, the tangent
mutt be drawn a contrary way ; that is, A C mutt be taken
towards E. 5. But whenever the affirmative and negative
quantities are equal in the numerator, let them be how they
will in the denominator, @ will vanifh into nothing : and,
confequently, the tangent is either A D itfelf, or E A, or
parallel to it ; as will eafily be found by the data. This he
gives plain examples of, in reference to the circle, thus: let
there be a femicircle, whofe diameter is E B ; in which there
is given any point, as D (fg. 4.), from which the per-
pendicular D A is let fall to the diameter. Let DA — V;
BA=y, BE =4; then the equation will be by —yy=
vv, and drawing the tangent DC, we have AC, or a=

20”
b—2y
be drawn towards B; if lefs, towards E; if it be equal to
it, it will be parallel to E B, as was faid in the firft, fecond,
and fourth rules.

Let there be another femicircle inverted, as NDD
(Ag-5-), the points of whofe periphery are referred to the
right line B E, parallel and equal to the diameter. Let NB
be called d, and all things elfe as before; then the equa-
tion will be by — yy =dd + vv — 2d; which being ma-

- Now, if 4 be greater than 2, the tangent muft

naged according to his rules, you have a 22 a NE:

b—2y
Now, fince v here is fuppofed to be always lefs than d;
if 6 be greater than 2y, then the tangent muft be drawn
towards E ; if equal, it will be parallel to BE; if lefg
changing all the figns, the tangent muft be drawn towards
B, as by rules foe fifth, and third. But there could be
no tangent drawn, or at leaft E B would be it, if NB had
been taken equal to the diameter. Let there be another
femicircle, whofe diameter NB (fg. 6.) is perpendicular
to EB, and to which its points are fuppofed to be referred.
Let NB be called 4, and all things elfe as above; the

equation will be yy = 6v— 9, anda =

now, 4 be greater than 2 v, the tangent muit be drawn to-
wards B; if lefs, towards E; if equal, DA will be the

tangent, as appears by rules fourth and fifth.
Tancents, Inverfe Method of, is amethod of finding the
equation, or the conitruction, of any curve ; from the tan-
gent

TAN
gent of any other line, whofe determination depends on the

tangent given.
his method is alfo one of the great refults of the new
calculus integralis. be
Its application we fhall give in what follows. The flux-
ional expreffions of the tangent, fub-tangent, &c. being de-
livered under the laft article, if you make the given value
equal to the fluxional expreffion, and either fum up the
fluxional equation, or, if that cannot be, conftruét it, the
curve required is had. For example :
1. To find the curve-line, whofe fub-tangent = 22.
Since the fub-tangent of an algebraic line is = 2* we
D 2 .
have 2= = re, and ayx = 2y* 5, and ax = 2y 5;
J
therefore (taking the fluents by the inverfe method of flux-
ions) ax = y".
he curve fought, therefore, is a parabola; whofe cons
ftruétion is fhewn under PARABOLA.
2. To find the curve, whofe fub-tangent is a third propor-

tional to La — x and y. Since La — xi yt y: 7, we
have La — xy (sty ty*) 2:93 %5 confequently ax
—xx = yj, and, taking the fluents, ax — tx* = dy,
ie. ax —x* = y* he curve fought is, therefore, a

circle.

3. To find a line, wherein the fub-tangent is equal to the
femiordinate. Since - =y¥3 yx =yJ, andx = 5; there-
fore x = y-

Hence it appears, that the line fought is a bg line,
which refpeéts the cathetus of an equicrural triangle, as an
axis, or the hypothenufe of an equicrural rectangled triangle.
If x had been taken for the are of a circle, the line fought
had been a cycloid.

TANGER, in Geography, a river of Weltphalia, which
runs into the Elbe at ‘l'angermunde.

TANGERE, Noli me. See Nout.

TANGERMUNDE, in Geography, atown of Weftphalia,
in the Old Mark of Brandenburg, fituated on the Elbe, where
veffels pay a toll: the chief trade of the town is brewing ;
24 miles N. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 52° 32'. E. long.
12° ale

TANGHOO, or Tennoa, a capital of a province of
Tonquin, fituated on a fmall river near the W. coat of
the gulf of Cochinchina. Rice and cattle conftitute the
chief riches of the province. The town is called “ Cua-
bang.”’ N. lat. 19° go’.

ANGIA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas; 50 miles W.N.W. of El Catif.

TANGIBLE. See Tactixe.

TANGIER Istanps, in Geography, feveral iflands of
the Chefapeak, near the coaft of Maryland, oppofite to the
mouth of the Potomack. N. lat. 38° 12’. W. long.

6.13".

TANGIERS, anciently called Tinjis and Tingia, and
now by the Arabs Zinjiah, a town of Africa, in Fez, fituated
at the weftern mouth of the ftraits of Gibraltar, about a day’s
journey from Tetuan. This town was firlt poffeffed by the
Romans, who took it under Sertorius ; next by the Goths ;
and it was furrendered by count Julian to the Saracens. It
was taken in 1471 by Masts, king of Portugal ; and given

8

FT AN

to Charles IJ., king of England, in 1662, as a marriage
portion with the princefs Bashan of Portugal. The
Englifh abandoned it in 1684, after deftroying the mole and
fortifications. Although now almoft in ruins, it ftill re-
tains fome batteries, in tolerable condition, facing the bay ;
at the bottom of which are a river, and the remains of the
bridge of Old Tangiers ; but on account of the accumu-
fated, fand, the bridge, if it had continued, as well as the river,
would be ufelefs. The bay of Tangiers, independently of
Ceuta, is fo fituated, being the narroweft part of the ftraits,
that it muft be favourable to Moorifh piracy ; but Tangiers
can never be a commercial town, as it has few produétions in
its vicinity ; the Spaniards, however, formerly {hipped in this
place, eggs, vegetables, and fome fruits ; and the Englith at
prefent obtain fupplies for their garrifon at Gibralter.
The bay of Tangiers is not very fafe when the wind is in the
weft, having been encumbered by the ruins of the mole and
fortification, as the cables are liable to be rent, and the fhips
to be driven on fhore. The beft anchorage for frigates and
the larger veflels, is at the eaftern point, whence they ma

eafily fail whatever way the wind fets : however, the bay is
only dangerous in winter ; 108 miles N.N.W. of Fez, and
38 W.S.W. of Gibraltar. N. lat. 35° 42’. W. long. 5° 50!
Chenier’s Morocco. ;

TANGLAKE, in J/chthyology, the viviparous blenny of
Pennant ; the muftela vivipara of Willughby, Ray, &e. ;
and the blennius viviparus of the Linnean Ttebal

TANGMEW, in Geography, atown of the Birman empire,
on the right bank of the Ava; 1o miles N.W. of Prome.

TANGO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
65 miles S.W. of Meaco.

TANGOLOTANGO, a feaport town of Mexico, in the
province of Guaxaca, near the gulf of Mexico; 100 miles
S.S.E. of Guaxaca. N. lat. 16°8!. W.long. 97° 36, ~

TANGONE, a town of New York; 9 miles W. of

ee
ANGOUZI, a town on the eaft coaft of Madagafcar.
S. lat. 19° 5’. E. long. 49° 12!. :

TANGOUZLIO, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia ; 70 miles E.S.E. of Smyrna. lode 7

TANGU, a city of Pegu, and capital of a province
which was formerly a kingdom ; fituated a confiderable dif-
tance to the north of Pegu. ,

TANGUEY, or Toncuey, a town of Chili, on the coaft.
S. lat. 30° 30’. :

TANGUIA, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which rifes near
mount Ilha, and running nearly fouth, falls into the river
Ya-lou-kiang.

TANGULAW, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh Main, near
the Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 13° 35/. W. long. 83° s5/.

TANGUT. See Tuer.

TANG-YANG, a lake of China, about thirty miles ia
circumference ; 32 miles N. of Hoai-ngan. é

TANIALA, a town of Hindooftan, in Palnaud ; 25
miles E.N.E. of Timerycotta.

TANIBOUCA, in Botany, a Caribean name, to be tole+
rated only till the genus is properly underftood.—Aubl.
Guian. 448.
gynia. Nat. Ord. Eleagni? jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
internally downy ; its limb in five deep, roundifh, acute fe
ments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments ten, thread-fh %
inferted into the tube of the calyx, as long as its limb ;
anthers oval, of two lobes. Pif. Germen inferior, round-

ifh 3 ftyle folitary, thread-fhaped, curved ; ftigma fimple. ©

EM

Juff. 76.—Clafs and order, Decandria Mono--

LAN
Eff. Ch. Calyx bell-fhaped, five-cleft, fuperior. Corolla

none. Fruit.....

1. T. guianenfis. Aubl. t. 178.—Native of marfhes in
Guiana, flowering in May. A ¢ree, whofe trunk is twenty
feet, or more, in height, and two feet in diameter, with a
whitifh, light and brittle wood ; the bark greyifh. Branches
fpreading every way ; their young fhoots leafy at the ends.
Leaves deciduous, alternate, ftalked, obovate, pointed, en-
tire, coriaceous, {mooth ; the largeft feven inches long, and
three broad. Spikes axillary, folitary, ftalked, about three
or four inches long, of many fmall, alternate, greenifh, fra-
grant flowers, clothed internally with white hairs. Aublet
not having met with the fruit, nor having been able to deter-
mine any thing of the internal ftruéture of the minute germen,
we are left in great doubt as to the effential character of this
genus, and even its natural order. Nothing is recorded of
its ufe or qualities.

TANICHI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 16 miles S.S.W. of Tritchinopoly.

TANILA, a river of Mexico, which runs into the gulf
of Mexico, N. lat. 18° ro’. W. long. 95° 6'.

TANINGE, a town of France, in the department of the
Leman ; 24 miles S.E. of Geneva.

Tansonc Currang, a town on the welt coaft of the ifland
of Lombock. S. lat. 8° 31/. E. long. 115° 48'.

Tansone Putus, a town of Malacca, on the north fide of
the river Pera, where the Dutch have a fatory.

TANJORE, a country of Hindooftan, included in the
Carnatic ; bounded on the north and weft by part of the
Carnatic, and on the eaft and fouth bythe gulf of Bengal :
about ninety-five miles in length from north to fouth, and
fifty in breadth from eait to weft ; watered by the river
Cauvery, which divides itfelf into feveral ftreams. Though
forming a part of the Carnatic, it is governed by a prince or
rajah, and pays an annual fubfidy to the Englifh of 160,000/.
iterling.

“fale wie; a town of Hindooftan, and capital of a country
to which it gives name, fituated in a plain between two
branches of the Cauvery ; including the Fivuxbs; about two
leagues in circumference ; a double wall and a large ditch
are the only defence. The palace is fituated to the eaft of
the town, and is a grand fquare, fortified with a wall and a

wet ditch, abounding in crocodiles. It was originally only a,

pagoda. In 1773, this city was taken by the Britifh under
general Jofeph Smith; 176 miles S.E. of Seringapatam.
N. lat. 10° 46’. E. long. 79° 10!

TANIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, fitu-
ated between the Mendefian mouth of the Nile towards the
weft, and the Pelufian mouth to the eaft. It lay on a {mall
branch of the Nile, and gave its name to one of the mouths
of the river. This town was the capital of the nome called
Tanites.

TANISTRY, Tantsreia, an ancient municipal law, or
tenure, which allotted the inheritance of lands, caftles, &c.
held by this tenure, to the oldeft and moft worthy and
capable perfon of the deceafed’s name and blood, without
any regard to proximity. This, in reality, was giving it to
the ftrongeft ; and this naturally occafioned bloody wars in
families; for which reafon it was abolifhed under king
James I. .

Sir John Davies defcribes it thus : “‘ Quant afcun perfon
morutt feifie des afcuns caftles, manors, terres ou tenements
del nature et tenure de tenifiry; que donques me{mes le caitles,
&c, doent defcender, et de temps dont memory ne court ont
ufe de defcender, Senipri ct digniffimo viro fanguinis et cogno-
minis de tiel perfon,” &c.

VoL. XXKV.

fA N

TANITICUM Ostium, in Ancient Geography, the name
of the fixth mouth of the Nile, in paffing from the weft to
the eaft.

TANKABAT, in Geography. See TANTABEE.

TANKARD Tvurnm, m Agriculture, the common
Englifh name of a particular fort of this kind of root, which
has the property of ftanding high above the ground. It is
a good fort for feeding off before the froft fets in, in the
winter feafon ; but after that has taken place, it is not fo
valuable or ufeful, as being more liable to be injured and
affeGted by it than the other forts, in confequence of itand-
ing expofed fo much above the furface of the land. See
Turnip.

TANKERDSONG, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;
230 miles E. of Laffa. N. lat. 29° 50’. E. long. 100°.

TANKESIR, a town of Perfia, near the gulf; 9 miles
N. of Bufheer.

TANKISA, a town and fortrefs of Thibet, at the foot
of a mountain, which is faid to exhale fuffocating fumes ;
120 miles N.W. of Taffafudon. N. lat. 28°23!. E, long.
87° zo!.

TANKROWAL, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Kaen, with a faCtory belonging to the Englifh African com-
pany, near the river Gambia. The Portuguefe have a church
there. The chief trade is in wax. N. lat. 13° 10’... W.
long. 14° 27.

TANKUNNY, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar; 20
miles W. of Ellichpour.

TANLAY, a town of France, in the department of the ©
Yonne ; 6 miles E. of Tonnerre.

TANLOCOM, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatteca ; 40 miles S.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANNA, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, and one
of thofe called New Hebrides, difcovered by captain Cook
in the year 1774 ; about twenty-two miles in length, and ten
in breadth. The inhabitants would not fuffer captam Cook,
or any of his company, to advance far into the ifland. The
produce, as far as could be feen, is bread-fruit, plantains,
cocoa-nuts, a fruit like a neétarine, yams, tarra, a fort of
potatoe, fugar-cane, wild figs, a fruit like an orange, which
is not eatabie, and fome other fruits and nuts. Captain Cook
doubts not but nutmegs likewife grow in this ifland. The
bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and plantains, are neither fo plenti-
ful nor fo good as at Otaheite ; on the other hand, fugar-
canes and yams are not only in great plenty, but of fuperior
quality, and much larger. One of the latter weighed fifty-
fix pounds, every ource of which was good ; hogs did not
feem to be fearce ; but they faw not many fowls. Thefe
are the only domeftic animals they have. Land-birds are
not more numerous than at Otaheite, and the other iflands ;
but they faw fome fmall birds, with a very beautiful plu-
mage, which they had never feen before. There is a great
variety of trees and plants. The inhabitants of this ifland,
as well as thofe of Erromango, were at firft thought to be
a race between the natives of the Friendly Iflands and
thofe of Mallicollo; but upon further acquaimtance, it was
found that they had little or no affinity to either, except in
their hair, which is generally black and brown, growing to
a tolerable length, and very crifp and curly. Their beards,
which are ftrong and briftly, are generally fhort. One of
the languages which they {peak is nearly, if not exaétly, the
fame with that of the Friendly Iflands: the other, which is
alfo that of Erromango and Annatom, is properly their own.
Thefe people are of the middle fize, rather flender than other-
wife many are little, but few tall or ftout ; moft of them
have good features and agreeable countenances, are, like i

1G the

tA N

the tropical race, aétive and nimble, and feem to excel in the
ufe of arms, but not to be fond of labour. Both fexes are
of a very dark colour, but not black ; nor have they the leaft
charaéteriftic of the negro about them. They make them-
felves blacker than they really are, by painting their faces
with a pigment of the colour of black lead. They alfo ufe
another’ fort, which is red; and a third fort, brown, or a
colour between red and black. All thefe, but efpecially the
firft, they lay on with a liberal hand, not only on the face,
but on the neck, fhoulders, and breaft. The men wear no-
thing but a belt, and the wrapping-leaf, as at Mallicollo.
The women have a kind of petticoat, made of the filaments
of the plaintain-tree, flags, or fome fuch thing, which reaches
below the knee. Both fexes wear ornaments, fuch as brace-
lets, ear-rings, necklaces, and amulets. The bracelets are
chiefly worn by the men; fome made of fea-fhells, and
others of thofe of the cocoa-nuts. The men alfo wear amu-
lets ; and thofe of moft value being made of a greenifh ftone,
the green ftone of New Zealand is valued by them for this

urpofe. Necklaces are chiefly ufed by the women, and
made mottly of fhells ; ear-rings are common to both fexes,
and thofe valued moft are made of tortoife-fhell. Thefe
people, befide the cultivation of ground, have few other arts
stk mentioning. They know how to make a coarfe kind
of matting, and a coarfe cloth of the bark of a tree, which is
chiefly ufed for belts. The workmanfhip of their canoes is
very rude; and their arms, with which they take the moft
pains in point of neatnefs, come far fhort of fome others.
Their weapons are clubs, fpears, or darts, bows and arrows,
and ftones. The clubs are of three or four kinds, and from
three to five feet long. Captain Cook knew no more of their
cookery, than that it confifts of roafting and baking ; for
they have no veffels in which water can be boiled. Nor did
he Pics that they had any other liquor but water, and the
juice of the cocoa-nut. They were utter ftrangers to their
religion, and but little acquainted with their government.
They feem to have chiefs among them, at leaft fome were
pointed out to him by that title ; but they appeared to have
very little authority over the reft of the sik They gave
ntimations that they pra¢tifed circumcifion, and that they
allowed themfelves to eat human flefh; but captain Cook fays,
that it admits of doubt whether they are cannibals. The
ifland contains a very confiderable volcano, and fome hot
{prings were difcovered, which raifed the thermometer from
80° to 170°, and in one place to 202°. Captain Cook
named the harbour where he lay, Port Refolution, from the
name of the fhip, which was the firft that had ever entered
it: which is fituated in S. lat. 19° 32! 25". E. long.
169° 44! 35". The variation of the needle was 7° 14! 12E. ;
and the dip of its fouth end 45° 2;!. The time of high
water on full and change days was about 5" 45™, and the
tide rofe and fell three et,

Tanna, a town of Hindooftan, in the ifland of Salfette,
on the eaft coaft; 15 miles N.E. of Bombay. N. lat. 19° 13’.
E. long. 72° 53/.

Tanna, or Thann, a town of Saxony, in the county of
Reuffen ; 17 miles S.W. of Greitz. N. lat. 50° 25!. E.
long. 11° 57/.

Tanna Balloo, a {mall ifland in the Eaft-Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 52'. E. long.
r18? 21!

Tanna Mera, a fmall ifland in the Eaft-Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 3° 45’. E. long.
4 be

TANNAR, a town of Bengal; 35 miles. E.S.E. of
Moorfhedabad.

2 AWN

TANNAS, a town of Sweden, in Harjedalen; 15 miles
N.W. of Langafchantz. ,

TANNASER, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Delhi. This place was formerly held facred by the Hindoos-
In 1011 it was taken by Mamhood, king of Gizni; 45 miles
N.E. of Hiffar. N. lat. 29° 31/.. E. long. 76° 20!.

TANNAY, atown of France, in the department of the
Nievre ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Clamecy.

TANNDORIF, a town of the principality of Culmbach ;
8 miles S. of Culmbach.

TANNEBERG, a town of Auftria; 8 miles S. of
Aigen.

ANNED Hine. See Hime and Leatuer.

TANNENBERG, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the province of Oberland; 6 miles S.S.W. of Hohenftein.
—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg; 6
miles S.W. of Wolkenftein.

TANNER, Tuomas, in Biography, an Englith prelate,
and eminent antiquary, was the fon of a clergyman, who was

vicar of the parifh of Market img Dok in Wiltfhire, where

he was born in the year 1674. e entered into Queen’s
college, Oxford, in 1689, and having graduated as B.A.,
he removed to All-Souls college in 1694, of which he became
a fellow in 1696. At the univerfity he devoted himfelf very
much to the ftudy of antiquities, and in 1695 publifhed his
“ Notitia Monattica,”’ or “ A fhort Account of the religious
Houfes in England and Wales,”’ which attraéted notice ; and
foon after Dr. Moore, bifhop of Norwich, appointed him his
chaplain, and in 1701 made him chancellor of his diocefe ;
which office led him to acquire an extenfive and corre& ac-
quaintance with municipal and ecclefiaftical law, fo that he
was often confulted by the dignitaries of the church.
Having married the bifhop’s daughter, he obtained in fuc-
ceffion various preferments ; and in 1710 he took the de,

of D.D. In 1723 he became canon of Chrift-church, Ox-
ford; in 1727, prolocutor of the lower houfe of convo-
cation ; and in 1732, bifhop of St. Afaph. He died at
Chrift-church, in 1735, where he was buried. He was
thrice married, but left only one fon. He was diftinguifhed
by the exemplary difchargeof his clerical funGtions, and by
the liberality of his charities. Availing himfelf of papers
prefented to him by Wood, he publifhed a fecond edition
of his ‘* Athene Oxonienfes,”? much corre@ted and enlarged,
with the addition of more than five hundred lives from the
author’s MS. Lond, 1721. 2 vols. fol. A poflhumous work,
founded on his Notitia, and entitled “ Notitia Monaftica ;
or, an Account of all the Abbies, Priories, and Houfes of
Friars, heretofore in England and Wales, and alfo of all the
Colleges and Hofpitals founded before 1540,’? was pub-
lifhed by his brother, the Rev. John Tanner, Lond. 1744.
fol. Another elaborate work, on which he had beftowed
the application of forty years, entitled “ Bibliotheca Bri-
tannico-Hibernica; five, de Scriptoribus qui in Anglia,
Scotia, et Hibernia, ad Sxculi xvii. initium floruerunt, lite-
rarum ordine juxta familiarum nomina difpofitis Commen-
tarius, &c.’’ was publifhed in 1748, fol. under the care of
Dr. Wilkins, who prefixed to it a learned preface. He
had alfo made collections for the hiftory of his native
county of Wilts, but by removal to a diftance he was pre-
vented from profecuting his defign. ‘To the Bodleian lie
brary he bequeathed many valuable papers, tending to illuf-
trate the hiftory of thefe iflands, and he made feveral com-
munications of a fimilar nature to the Society of Anti-
quaries, of which he was a member. His various labours in
this way rank him among the molt valuable contributors to
Britifh literature and ecclefiaftical hiftory. Biog. Brit.
Gen. Biog.

TANNER,

|
|

AL IN

Tanner, a perfon who manufa¢tures hides and fkins by
tanning.

It is only within a few years pait, that the tanners of this
country have been liberated from a variety of penalties and
prohibitions, which were extremely oppreffive, and long re-
tarded the progrefs of the manufacture.

In the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. when patents of
monopoly were in exiftence—when the true principles of trade
were not well underftood—and when the leather manufac-
ture was conducted by unfkilful perfons, fome rules and re-
gulations as fo the mode and manner of tanning, the ma-
terials to be employed, and the time to be confumed in the
procefs, might, perhaps, be in fome degree neceflary : but
fuck prohibitions and reitriCtions were wholly inapplicable
to the prefent enlightened age. It was not, however, till
1808, after a long parliamentary inyeftigation, that the ac
1 James I. c. 22, and others of a fimilar tendency which had
long difgraced our ftatute-book, were at length repealed
by the 48 Geo. III. c. 60. By this act, the tanner is
now allowed, like all other manufacturers, to exercife his
ingenuity in the difcovery of new materials or new methods,
in abridging the time or improving the procefs. Nor can
any injury thereby arife to the community ; for the compe-
tition which in this country exifts in every branch of trade,
combined with the credit and the intereft of the parties, will
always infure to the public the production of the beft ar-
ticles which can be manufaturéd. See LEATHER, TAw-
inG, and VELLUM.

TANNER’s Bark, is the bark of the oak or other tree,
which, after it has been ground in a mill into a coarfe pow-
der, is ufed in tanning Biileattiers When the tanning prin-
ciple has been wholly exhaufted, it is taken out of the pits,
and called tan. It is then fold to the gardeners, who ufe
it in hot-houfes to produce an artificial heat, for the pur-
pofe of raifing pine-apples, &c. After a certain time the
tan ceafes to caufe fermentation : it is then taken out of the
hot-houfe, and, when entirély rotted, becomes a vegetable
mould, and is employed as a manure in kitchen-gardens and
on grafs-land.

With refpe& to its advantages as a manure, different opi-
nions are entertained. Miller, Mortimer, and others, have
reprefented it as highly nutritious, while more modern agri-
eulturalifts confider it of very little value. When, however,
it is blended and incorporated with other vegetable fubftances,
ar with lime or earthy matter in certain proportions, cautioufly
employed, and laid on foon after Michaelmas, it will be found
2 good top-dreffing for ftiff and cold grafs-land.

TANNETE, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft of
the ifland of Celebes. S. lat. 4° 14/. E. long. 120° q!.

TANNEWANG, ariver on the S. coatt of the ifland of
Celebes, which runs into the fea, 5 miles W. of Bonthain.

TANNHAUSEN. See THannuAuseEn.

TANNIN, in Vegetable Chemifiry, a peculiar fubftance
which is naturally formed, and exifts in a great number of
vegetable bodies, fuch as oak bark, galls, fumach, catechu,
&e. Its name is derived from the effeét it has in converting
the gelatine into leather.

Several proceffes have been given to obtain pure tannin,
which have been fo various in their refults, as to induce che-
mifts to fufpe& the identity of tannin.

The procefs recommended for procuring pure tannin, is
to powder nutgails, and make an infufion in water, which will
be of a deep brown colour. Evaporate the infufion with a
gentle heat till it is very ftrong, but ftill retaining its humi-
dity. Add to this a faturated folution of carbonate of potafh.
A yellowifh-white precipitate is formed, which is faid to be

LAN

pure tannin. When the liquid part is poured off, a little
cold water mult be added to wafh the precipitate, as a large
quantity would diffolve it again. When the precipitate is
feparated and dried, it aflumes the appearance of refin, having
a vitreous frafture. It is of a brown colour. Its tatte is
bitter, and ftrongly aftringent. It is very foluble in water.
The folution becomes frothy by agitation, as if it contained
foap. It diffolves ftill more plentifully in alcohol. The fo-
lution is of a dark-brown colour, differing little in its pro-
perties and appearance from what has been termed tin@ture of
galls.

For our firft knowledge of this fubitance in a definite ftate,
we are indebted to Deyeux. Seguin afterwards feparated
it by means of a folution of gelatine, the matter which was
precipated being a fub{tance, having the fmell and many
other properties of leather. Thefe facts led to the great
improvements he made in the procefs of tanning, of which
no true theory was known before his time.

For a more minute inveftigation of the properties of
tannin, we are indebted to Prouft. He obtained his tannin
by adding an acid to a concentrated infufion of nutgalls.
A preeipitate is obtained of the confiftency of pitch. This
precipitate is to be wafhed witha little cold water, withthe fame
caution obferved in the laft procefs. The precipitate is now
to be diffolved in boiling water, and carbonate of potafh
added, which takes up the acid and precipitates the tannin.

Prouft recommends the following procefs for procuring
pure tannin. Drop into an infufion of nutgalls, a folution of
muriate of tin. This gives a yellow precipitate, which being
feparated, wafhed, and dried, is of a buff-colour. This is a
compound of oxyd of tin and tannin. He then mixes this
powder with water, and paffes through it fulphuretted hy-
drogen gas. The fulphur combines with the tin, and
becomes infoluble, while the tannin diffolyes in the water.
When the fulphuret is feparated, and the folution of tannin
evaporated with a gentle heat, a brown fubftance is left be-
hind, which he confidered as pure tannin.

Another procefs for obtaining tannin from infufion of
nutgalls, has been given by Merat Guillot. This confifts in
mixing pure water with an infufion of galls. If to this
mixture dilute nitric or muriatic acid be added, a deep
brown precipitate is formed, which, when dry, becomes black.

“This he fuppofes to be pure tannin.

Trommidorff has fhewn that all thefe proceffes are infuf-
ficient to produce pure tannin. As the fubftance called
extract was contained in all the above precipitates, and more
or lefs gallic acid, he made a great number of experi-
ments to obtain pure tannin; and although he obtained it
nearer to a ftate of purity than any of his predeceffors, his
labours were not completely fuccefsful. He evaporated the
infufion of galls with a gentle heat to one-fourth its bulk.
The liquid became muddy from the precipitation of ex-
tractive matter, and was feparated by ftraining. It was
now further evaporated to the confiftence of jelly, and ulti-
mately dried by a gentle heat. He now digefted the .mafs
with pure alcohol, till no more gallic acid could be taken up.
He then confidered the mafs left behind as pure tannin, or
nearly fo. In order to afcertain if it {till contained extra,
he re-diffolved it in pure water, and evaporated this and
future portions of water from it, judging that if any extra&
fill remained it would become fread e by oxygenation,
and thus be precipitated, but no depofition took place. Suf-
pecting it might contain mucilage, he left the folution in a
warm place for fome time. It became covered with mould,
which he attributed to the prefence of mucilage. The
mould was feparated by filtration, and the folution evapo-

Lz rated

TANNIN.

rated to drynefs, which left the tannin im a ftate of con-
fiderable purity.

He full, however, found that it contained a portion of
{ulphate of lime. In order to feparate this falt, he diffolved
the tannin in water, to which he added carbonate of potafs :
this caufed a precipitation, which has been already noticed.
The clear liquor being feparated, a folution of acetite of lead
was added to it. A precipitate fell down, which confifted
of tannin, combined with oxyd of lead, and probably ful-
phate of lead. The lime alfo combined with the tannin,
forming an infoluble compound. He then feparated this
precipitate, mixed it with water, and paffed a ftream
of fulphuretted hydrogen gas through it. The lead and
fulphur became feparated, and the combination of lime
and tannin unchanged, while the pure tannin remained in
folution, which was obtained by evaporating the feparated
liquid to drynefs. The tannin thus obtained, approaches
much nearer to purity than that obtained by any of the
former procefles. But we fhall thew further on, that, even
in this flate, its purity is doubtful.

Tannin obtained by the above procefs does not differ
much from that formed by the other procefles. We have
already ftated it to be foluble in alcohol: when, however,
both the tannin and alcohol are pure, the tannin does not
diffolve.

Moft of the metallic oxyds form infoluble compounds
with tannin. There is, however, great reafon to believe
that the gallic acid, which is difficult to feparate from it,
has a much greater effect upon thefe bodies. It is fup-
pofed that when the metallic oxyds are precipitated by tan-
nin, the latter combines with the oxygen, and, in fome
inftances, converts the tannin into extract.

The common method of detaching the prefence of tannin
is by a folution of gelatine in water. Lfinglafs is moftly
ufed for this purpofe. The folutions both of the tanain and
the gelatine fhould be in a confiderably concentrated {tate ;
as weak folutions of either rediflolve, to a certain extent,
the precipitate which the tannin forms with the gelatine.

he gelatine fhould be quite frefh, as the precipitate is
imperfect when it has the leaft figns of putridity.

Sir Humphrey Davy ftates that the proportion of the
gelatine to the water fhould be 120 grains of the former to
20 ounces of the latter.

According to the authority of the fame chemift, the com-
pound formed by the tannin and gelatine dried at 1 50°, is

compofed of
Gelatine - a = bs 54
Tannin - - 3 " 46
100

Potafh, foda, and ammonia, combine with tannin, forming
compounds which are lefs foluble in water than pure tannin.
Thefe alkalies have a ftronger attraétion than gelatine for
tannin; as the alkaline folutions do not precipitate gelatine
till the alkali is faturated by an acid.

The combinations of the earths with tannin are moftly
infoluble. Thofe with barytes and lime are flightly fo, and
do not precipitate gelatine till an acid is added.

Mott of te a form infoluble compounds with tannin ;
but when extraé& is prefent, it is alfo precipitated: hence
abe Inpertettiog of the procefs for feparating tannin by
acids.

When perfe&tly free from gallic acid it has no aétion
upon ay te of iron; but it produces a deep blue pre-
cipitate from the oxyfulphate; hence its effet in common

5

writing-ink and black dye. The black is not complete
without expofure to the air. The precipitate which the
tannin forms is very heavy, and almoft immediately feparates
from the water; while that formed by the gallic acid re-
mains longer fufpended, and certainly, on that account
alone, is an effential ingredient in writing-ink.

Tannin exifts in a great number of vegetables in fome
proportion, but is the moft abundant in nutgalls; and of
them, the Aleppo galls afford the moft. Sir Humphrey
Davy has given the following analyfis of the Aleppo 3
He extracted, by infufion with water, all the foluble part
from 500 grains of powdered galls. This folution he fub-
mitted to flow evaporation, from which he obtained, in folid
matter, 185 grains. Thefe he found to confift of

Tannin -— - sees ay 130
Gallic acid, with extraGtive matter =
Mucilage and matter rendered infoluble

by evaporation ag <eye 12
Calcareous earth and faline matter fs 12
—

185

—

We are indebted to the fame diftinguifhed chemift for
bringing into notice a new fubftance, which contains a lz
proportion of tannin. This fubftance is brought from
Eaft Indies, and is known by the names of catechu, or terra
Japonica. It is produced by the evaporation of a vegetable
fufion from the wood of a fpecies of mimo/z, which grows
in India. : ‘a

There are two varieties of this fubftance, one brought
from Bengal, and the other from Bombay. The former is
of a chocolate colour, of the fpecific gravity 1.28; the
latter of a lighter colour, of the {pecific gravity 1.39.
Both have an aftringent tafte, leaving an impreflion of fweet-
nefs. They are not changed by expofure to the air.

Sir Humphrey procured an infufion from this fubftance
by long decoétion, the fpecific gravity of which was 1.102:
500 grains of this infufion yielded, by evaporation, 4.1 grains
of folid matter ; 34 of which were tannin, and 7 of a pe-
culiar extrative matter.

This fubftance, in its original ftate, feems to contain a
very large proportion of tannin. The above chemift found
that 100 grains of the powdered catechu required 18 ounces
of water for its infMfion. The refiduum, or undiffolyed
part, is feldom more than -?,th of the original weight, and
confifts of calcareous and aluminous earth, with a little fine
fand: 200 grains of the Bombay catechu gave

‘Tannin - = d 2 Z

: ; 109
Peculiar extra - - ~ 2 3 68
Mucilage - - - a E 2 13
Of the refiduum above-mentioned = 10

200

The catechu from Bengal gave, in 200 grains, ;

‘Tannin - - - - - = 97

Peculiar extra@tive matter - = ~ 73

Mucilage - < ¥ 5 . 2 16
Refidual matter, confifting of lime, alu-

mine, and fand : 2 = t a

200

The

TANNIN.

The great uncertainty which has prevailed pelopating the
definite nature of tannin, feems to have been completely
removed by the very important difcovery made by Mr.
Hatchett, who has fucceeded in forming artificial tan-
nin. An account of his experiments may be found in
three papers in the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1805
and 1806.

The moft dire& procefs which is given for obtaining it,
is by pouring an ounce of nitric acid, diluted with two
parts of water, upon 100 grains of charcoal, in a matrafs.
This is to be placed in a fand-heat. Great effervefcence
takes place, and much nitrous gas is difengaged. At the
end of two days he added a fecond ounce of acid, and
fometimes even a third. The digeftion is continued till
the whole is diffolved. This folution is of a reddifh-brown
colour. It is then to be flowly evaporated to dryneds,
which produces a brown glofly fubftance, exhibiting a refi-
nous fraéture.

This fubftance has the following properties :

1. It diffolves in cold water and alcohol.

2. The flavour is highly aftringent.

3. Expofed to heat, it fmokes a little, fwells up, and af-
fords a bulky coal.

4. The folution in water reddens litmus paper.

5. It copioufly precipitates the metallic falts, efpecially
the muriate of tin, acetite of lead, and oxyfulphate of iron.
The precipitates are commonly of a brown colour.

6. It precipitates gold in the metallic fate.

7. It precipitates the earthy falts; fuch as the nitrates of
lime, barytes, &c.

8. When the alkalies are added to this folution, the
colour becomes deeper, and ultimately turbid.

9. A {olution of ifinglafs added to the fame folution pro-
duces a precipitate, which is infoluble in boiling water, re-
fembling in its effential properties the precipitate formed by
the natural tannin.

Mr. Hatchett produced the fame fubftance by treating
various kinds of coal in the fame way, fuch as pit-coal, coke,
and animal charcoal. What may feem very curious, he
formed it from the coal of one portion of ifinglafs to pre-
cipitate another portion diffolved in water ; and hence afferts
that one portion of the {kin of an animal may be employed
to convert the other into leather. A

Of the different fubftances employed, he found thofe the
beft which confifted of carbon unmixed with other vege-
table matter, .which always reduced the quantity; and
that thofe vegetable fubftances which contained gum or
mucilage, produced the leait tannin.

When he fucceeded in producing tannin from other vege-
table fubftances, fuch as indigo, refin, lac, and many
other bodies, it was by repeatedly adding frefh nitric acid ;
by which he very properly fuppofes that the carbon be-
comes feparated, fo as to put it under fimilar circumftances
to the charcoal itfelf. Indigo produced the moft in this
way. At the commencement of his paper he mentions the
fa& of Mr. Chenevix having found that coffee-berries ac-
quired, by roafting, a portion of tannin. He made fome
experiments which, although not very fuccefsful, convinced
him that the chief chara¢teriftic properties of tannin may be
formed or developed at fome particular temperature and
under favourable circumftances, by very fimple means.

He ingenioufly conjeétures, that the tannin found in fome
varieties of peat has been produced in this way.

In making ufe of fulphuric acid to char various fubftances,
he found that, in fome inftances, the artificial tannin, or a
fubftanee nearly refembling it, was formed. He firft diflolved

100 grains of camphor in an ounce of concentrated fulphurie
acid. The camphor firft diffolved, without producing much
change of colour. In a little time it became brown, and
ultimately black. During this change, fulphurous acid gas
was difengaged. After two days, during which time the
alembic had net been heated, the difengagement of gas dimi-
nifhed, and the veflel was placed in a moderate ly heated fand-
bath. This increafed the ation. At the end of two days,
fix ounces of cold water were added ; the liquid changed to
a reddifh-brown colour ; the difengagement of gas ceafed, and
was fucceeded by a fmell refembling a mixture-of the oils
of lavender and peppermint. By gradual diftillation, the
water came over impregnated ftrongly with the above
odour, and accompanied by an effential oil, which weighed
three grains.

When the whole water had come over, two ounces more
were,added. The fmell before mentioned did not return, and
the evaporation was continued to drynefs, The blackifh-
brown refiduum was not a¢ted upon by water, but by feveral
digeftions with alcohol, leaving behind a compat coaly re-
fiduum, which, when dried and heated to a red heat ina
clofe veffel, weighed 53 grains. The alcohol was then drawn
off from the falution by diftillation in a water-bath, leaving
a blackifh-brown mafs, of the appearance of a gum refin,

and the {mell of calomel. Its weight was 49 grains. The

whole of this therefore confifted oF

The effential oil above-mentioned - - - - 3

A compact hard coal in fmall fragments - = ' 53

A\nd the blackifh-brown mafs above-mentioned - 49
105

This increafe of five grains Mr. Hatchett attributes to
the oxygen unitedto-the carbon bythe acid, or the water
combined with the blackifh-brown fubftance.

This latter fubftance had the following properties :

x. It had an aftringent tafte, and when diflolved in cold
water, formed a dark-brown folution.

2. It yielded a dark-brown precipitate with fulphate of
iron, acetite of lead, muriate of tin, and nitrate of lime.

3. It precipated gold in its metallic ftate.

4. It formed fo complete a precipitate with a folution
of ifinglais, that the liquid became colourlefs as water.

The precipitate was nearly black, and was, like the
other compounds of tannin and gelatine, infoluble in hot
water.

Mr. Hatchett obferves that although this fubftance pof-
feffes the general charaéter of that obtained by the nitric acid
with charcoal, yet it feems to aét lefs powerfully upon flin.
The precipitate, at the time of its formation, is more floc-
culent and ‘lefs tenacious than that produced by the other
procefs.

Mr. Hatchett fuppofes this difference may arife from the
want of azote, which feems to exift in that produced by
nitric acid and charcoal.

He afcertained this by fubjeGting to analyfis a portion
which had been prepared from vegetable charcoal. He ex-
pofed ina retort fome of this tannin in the dry ftate, to the
heat of a lamp conneéted with a jar, to obtain the gafeoua
produét.

Firft a {mall quantity of water rofe; then a little nitri¢
acid, which had not been expelled in the evaporation. Next
a {mall quantity of yellowifh liquor, which ftained the neck
of the retort. The fire was then raifed, when a quantity
of gas was explofively difengaged, and upfet the jar.
This gas he judged from the fmell to be ammonia. He alfo

obferved

; TANNIN.

obferved fome white fumes, which refulted from the nitric
acid uniting with the ammonia.

On replacing the jar, he continued the procefs. The
future gas which came over was carbonic acid, and a little
of another, which he fuppofed to be nitrogen.

Although the artificial tannin appears in almoft every re-
{pe& fimilar to the natural tannin, it might be expe¢ted that
each would have been fimilarly affeted by nitric acid, yet
Mr. Hatchett found that the one was deftruétible by that
acid, while the other was not in the leaft affeéted by it. He
frequently. diftilled nitric acid from the artificial tannin,
without producing any change upon it.

The fame acid being added to infufion of galls, fumach,
Pegw cutch, and kafcutti, completely deftroyed the tannin.
‘The common catechu and oak bark treated in the fame way,
had not the whole of their tannin deftroyed. He then made
infufions of equal ftrength of nutgalls, fumach, fhavings of
oak wood, oak bark, and the artificial tanning fubftances.
To half an ounce of each of thefe, one drachm in meafure
of ftrong nitric acid was added. The tannin of all were
deftroyed, with the exception of the oak bark and the ar-
tificial tannin. Mr. Hatchett obferves that the tannin of
thofe bodies containing much mucilage is the moft liable to
deftruétion by the nitric acid; and that in the cafes where
the tannin is deftroyed, the oxalic acid is moftly formed.
The oak bark and the common catechu contain little or no
mucilage, and hence have lefs of their tannin deftroyed.

Thefe faéts feem to prove that pure tannin, unmixed with
other matter, is not affected by nitric acid, and that in thofe
inftances in which it is deftroyed, the effeé&t muft arife from
fome new fubftance being formed by the aétion of the acid
upon the extraneous matter, and alfo that mucilage contri-
butes the moft to this change.

Mr. Hatchett has not given us any precife analyfis of this
fubftance, but concludes, from its formation, that it has car-
bon for its bafe. From the circumftance of its being formed
with greater facility when the nitric acid is diluted, he thinks
that fe water is decompofed, and that the hydrogen enters
into its compofition.

In the pty of its decompofition by heat, the formation
of ammonia led him to believe that azote was alfo one of its
elements.

This, however, does not agree with the faé&t of its being
formed with fulphuric acid and vegetable matter only. Al-
though this objeétion feems partly to be removed by the cir-
cumftance of the tannin from fulphuric acid being different in
fome of its properties from that produced from the nitric
acid and charcoal, it may, however, be here obferved that
the natural tannin, which is not known to contain azote,
more nearly refembles that formed with nitric acid, than that
from the fulphuric acid. :

It does not appear probable that azote is a component
part, even of the natural tannin. ‘The ammonia which Mr.
Hatchett obtained might be in combination with the tannin,
and may perhaps always be formed when the tannin is formed.
The circumftance of the tannin not being changed by re-
peatedly digefting it with nitric acid, would feem to favour
the idea of its confifting of carbon and oxygenonly. The
importance of this fubitance in the art of tanning, ought to
be a fufficient ftimulus to future experiments.

If in the procefs of forming artificial tannin, the nitric
acid is decompofed merely into nitrous gas, it might be
practicable to sarah back to its original ftate by the oxy-
gen of the atmofphere only, and thus produce a valuable
produét, which is now obtained at confiderable expence from
certain vegetables.

The following table fhews the proportions prefent of na-
tural tannin in a variety of fubftances.

Catechu from Bombay - - - 54.5
—_—_———- Bengal = = bys ie cal ely
Aleppo nutgalls - - - - 26
Sumach - - - - - - 18
Souchong tea - - . - - Ir
Green tea - - - - - g-2
Leicefterfhire willow bark - - - 765
Oak bark = - - = - 6.6
Spanifh chefnut bark - - - 5
Elm bark - - - - 3
Common willow bark - - - 2.5

Mr. Biggin alfo has publifhed, in the Philofophical
TranfaGtions for 1799, the refult of fome experiments on
the proportions of tannin in various kinds of bark, whick
nearly correfponds with the preceding ftatement, ‘as will be
feen by the following table, in which the maximum of the
tanning principle is poled to be 20.

Tanning Principle. —~

a
By the Weight
Hydrometer. in Grains,

Elm - SAN - - 2.1 28
Oak (cut inwinter) = - . 2.1 30
Horfe chefnut = - - - 22 30
Beech - - - - 2.4. 3
Willow (boughs) =n cami ue 31
Elder - - - - 3-0 41
Plum-tree— - - - - 4.0 58
Willow (trunk) - - - “4.0 52
Sycamore - - - - 401 53
Birch Seem ey 54
Cherry-tree = - = | Aa 59
Sallow - - - - 4.6 59
Mountain afh - - - 47 60
Poplar De Re Awe she 79 8
Hazel ae iS - - 6.3 79
ug = Ae = nie acs = 6.6 82
Spanifh chefnut - = = 9.0 98
Smooth oak a - 9-2 104.
Oak (cut in fpring) - - 9.6 108
Huntingdon or Leieefter willow 10.1 109
Sumach ee am meee 158

It appears from this table that fimilar barks, when taken
from trees at different feafons of the year, differ as to the
quantities of tannin contained in them. In the winter they
contain the leaft, and in the {pring (which is the ufual time
of felling oak-timber), if the feafon is very cold and un-
genial, the quantity is diminifhed. This is well known to
practical men, as likewife that all barks contain the greatett
proportion of tannin ; at the time when the buds of the trees.
begin to oe It is found by experience that, om an
average, four or five pounds of good oak bark are required
to form one pound of leather.

Sir Humphrey Davy obferves that the aftringent princi-
ples in barks vary confiderably, according as their age and
fize are different. That in every aftringent bark, the in-
terior white bark (which is the part next to the alburnum)
contains the largeft quantity of tannin. The proportion of
extractive matter is generally greateft in the middle; but
the epidermis feldom furnifhes either tannin or extra@tive
matter. The white cortical layers are, comparatively, moft
abundant in young trees; and hence their barks contain, in
the fame weight, a larger proportion of tannin than the

barks

|

TANNING.

barks of old trees. (Phil. Tranf. 1803, p. 264.) From
thefe obfervations, founded on experiments, Mr. Hatchett
infers that theré is an intimate connection between the form-
ation of new wood and the formation of tannin in fuch ve-
getables as afford the latter; and this idea is corroborated
by the chemical nature of thofe fubftances.

It has been fuggefted that the extraGtive matter found
in barks, or in fubftances ufed in tanning, affects the
colour, if not the quality of leather. Thus, fkin tanned
with gall-nuts is much paler than {kin tanned with oak bark,
which contains a brown extractive matter. Leather made
from catechu is of a reddifh tint.

It is found that the precipitates obtained from infu-
fions containing this principle or tannin by ifinglafs, when
dried, contain at a medium rate about 40 fer cent. of vegetable
matter ; and that it is eafy to obtain the comparative value
of different fubftances for the ufe of the tanner, by com-
paring the quantities of precipitate afforded by infufions of
given weights mixed with folutions of glue or ifinglafs.
In order to make experiments of this kind, an ounce
or 480 grains of the vegetable fubftance-in coarfe powder,
fhould be a¢ted upon by half a pint of boiling water: the
mixture fhould be frequently ftirred, and fuffered to ftand
twenty-four hours ; the fluid fhould then be paffed through
a fine linen cloth, and mixed with an equal quantity of folu-
tion of gelatine, made by diffolving glue, jelly, or ifinglafs
in hot water, in the proportion of a drachm of glue or ifin-
glafs, or fix table fpoons full of jelly, toa pint of water. The
precipitate is to be colleéted by paffing the mixture of the
folution and infufion through folds of blotting paper, and
the paper expofed to the air until its contents are quite dry.
If pieces of paper of equal weights are ufed, in cafes in
which different vegetable fubftances are employed, the dif-
ference of the weights of the papers when dried, will indi-
cate, with tolerable accuracy, the quantities of this principle
or tannin contained in the fubftances, and their relative value
for the purpofes of manufa€ture.

TANNING, the art of converting the gelatinous part of
the fkins of animals into the fubftance called leather, by im-
pregnating it with tannin or the tanning principle, in fuch a
manner as to render it tenacious, durable, and impermeable
to water.

It is difficult to fay at what period the art of tanning was
difeovered. It was doubtlefs known to the ancients in fome
degree of perfeétion ; and it is highly probable that the fkins
of animals were employed by man asa covering long before the
art of tanning was known: but they would require in this
ftate to be conftantly kept dry, as moifture would foon
bring them into a ftate of putrefa¢tion.

The aftringent matter, which converts the {kin into leather,
abounds in fo many vegetables in every country, that ac-
cident would foon lead to fome method of producing the
change. Independent, however, of vegetables, many earthy
and metallic fubftances have the property of rendering fkins
incorruptible to a certain extent ; and fome mineral waters
containing copper or iron will occafion this change.
Hence we may conclude that fome means of giving ares
vation to the fkins of animals muft have been known at a
very early period.

Though there has been no radical alteration or any great
practical improvements in the art of tanning, yet for the
laft twenty or thirty years it has attraéted the attention of
many celebrated chemifts and philofophers in all countries,
who have inveftigated the fubjeét with great accuracy and
precifion. Previous to this period we occafionally find fome
experiments and obfervations by men of fcienee on the ma-

terials of tanning, as by the Hon. Charles Howard in 16745
(Phil. Tranf. vol. ix.) by the abbé Nollet, Gefner, Gle-
ditfch, Buffon, de la Lande, and others, in Mem. Acad.
Sc. Paris and Berlin.

In the year 1765, the Society of Arts and Sciences in
London granted a premium of too/. for the difcovery of
a method of tanning with oak faw-duft; and in 1795 the
Rev. G. Swayne fuggefted the ufe of oak leaves. It is
unqueftionably true that all thofe fubftances, and indeed
every part of almoft every vegetable in nature, poffefles a
certain portion of the tanning principle; but, exclufive of
oak bark and two or three other well-known articles, the
quantities of all the reft added together would be fo incon-
fiderable, and the proportion of tannin contained in them
fo inadequate to the purpofes of manufaéture, that, except
for philofophical curiofity and chemical experiment, they
are unworthy of notice. As the theories of fpeculative
minds they are ingenious and amufing, but they afford very
little ufeful information on the nature and properties of
tannin, and have produced no beneficial refults in praétice.

Deyeux, about 1793, (Annales de Chimie, vol. Xvil. )
appears to be the firit chemift who fuccefsfully explained
the true principles of tanning ; which afterwards, with more
practical application, were ftill further developed by the
labours of M. Seguin in 1795. Before his inveftigation of
this fubje@, the theory of tanning was ftri€ly mechanical.
The aftringency of vegetables, which produced the change
in the fkin, was confidered as a refinous body, which had the
effect of giving firmnefs to the fibres of the {kin, and render-
ing it infoluble. :

Seguin faw the operation in a chemical point of view :
he examined the nature of the procefs {cientifically, and
difcovered that the change which the fkin underwent in
the operation of tanning, was the refult of a chemical union
between a fubftance furnifhed by the vegetable employed,
and the gelatinous part of the fkin. Thefe principles he
confirmed, by combining the vegetable febitance in queftion
with the gelatine of a folution of ifinglafs.

It will be feen, from our article Tannin, that the com-
pound difcovered by Seguin, and which is precipitated when
an infufion of nutgalls is added to a folution of ifinglafs, is
an infoluble fubftance, having many properties common to
eather. See Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. i. p. 271. 4to.

The pra€tice which M. Seguin founded upon his theory
was generally admired. He ft extraéted the tannin from
the vegetable, which was oak bark, and applied it to the pre-
pared {kin in a more concentrated form, with a view to im-
pregnate it as {peedily as poffible with the tannin. This was
faid to be done with great fuccefs in one-third of the ufual
time, and to have produced fuperior leather. The fame of
this difcovery foon fpread throughout Europe, and Mr.
Defmond, a man of education and intelligence in this country,
took out a patent for the exclufive right of ufing M.
Seguin’s method of tanning.

Although this procefs of fufpending the hides vertically
in a very ftrong folution of bark faved much time, yet it
was foon found to be adapted only to the thickeft hides
ufed for fole leather, and quite unfit for the lighter kind of
fins which required flexibility and tenacity. ‘This method,
therefore, of Seguin’s, however chemical and philofophical
it might appear, did not anfwer in the refult; and as it
was attended with much additional expence; has never been
generally praétifed in England.

It was not, however, till 1803, when fir Humphrey
Davy (a name ever to be recorded'in the annals of fcience

with gratitude and admiration) began to inveftigate the ns
AJB,

TANNING.

je@, that the art of tanning was thoroughly underftood, and
reduced to fcientific principles. He inftituted a feries of
experiments on the various fubftances employed—examined
their chemical affinities and agencies—their action upon
animal matter, and combination with other bodies—and
developed and explained the whole with a fimplicity and
perfpicuity which forcibly elucidated the effential principles
on which the art depends. If this elucidation has not been
productive of any material improvements in the mode of ma-
nufaéturing leather, it may perhaps be attributed more to
the prejudices arifing from long habit, than to any defect
in the theory and demonftrations of that enlightened philo-
fopher. And here it may be remarked, that thefe demon-
flrations and that theory derive additional importance, and
are entitled to peculiar attention, from having been ftrongly
confirmed and fuccefsfully praétifed by an intelligent and
refpeétable manufacturer (now retired from bufinefs), to
whom we are chiefly indebted for this article.

From thefe and other fources of information now open
to the public, and from the general diffufion of knowledge
among all claffes, the man of fcience and the manufacturer
are daily becoming more affimilated to each other; and if
the latter fhould be taught to difeard all unfounded preju-
dices, and to adopt more fcientific principles, there is reafon
to believe that the various proceffes of the art of tanning
may yet be capable of great praétical improvement.

In the two valuable papers which fir Humphrey Davy has
given in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1803, he confiders
the procefs of tanning as depending fimply on the chemical
union of the tanning principle with the matter of fkin, fo
as to form an infoluble compound. He has fhewn that
Seguin’s quick method of tanning is not the beft ; becaufe
the exterior ftrata of fkin being perfeétly combined with
tannin, before the interior ftrata are materially aéted upon,
thereby prevent the latter in fome degree from imbibing
the full aétion of the folution. This renders the texture of
the leather lefs equable, makes it harfh and brittle, liable to
crack, and of courfe lefs durable.

Sir Humphrey thinks it probable that another fubftance,
befides tannin, combines with the fkin, namely, the extract,
to which it owes much of its fupplenefs and tenacity—that
the leather gets more of this fai tance from weak infufions
of bark, than from the ftrong ones recommended by Seguin
—that it is equally infoluble in water—and that, upon the
whole, the methods now generally in ufe, may, with a few
alterations, be confidered the beft.

The various difcoveries pretended to have been made, and
the numerous patents obtained for their ufe and application,
have hitherto tended very little to the advancement of fcience
or the progrefs of the art. This may fairly be inferred from
the conclufion of the celebrated chemift above-mentioned.
Indeed it appears by the fpecifications annexed to the pa-
tents, that moft of thefe projected improvements purport
to be either for the different conftruétion and arrangement
of the various pits—for the application of mechanical appa-
ratus to diminifh labour—or for extra¢ting the tannin and
warming the infufion by artificial heat, with a view to acce-
lerate the procefs. ‘Thefe fancied improvements are only
the idle theories and vifionary projeés of {peculative minds :
but as it may afford information to the curious, and furnith
hints for future difcovery, we fubjoin

A Lift of Patents for Tanning.
1790. Anthony Fay, efq. of London, for a mechanical

apparatus to diminifh the labour of Aandling; to grind the »

bark very fmall, and to concentrate it, by boiling, into a
{trong extract. J :

1794. Samuel Afhton of Sheffield, for. tanning hides
and {kins with certain mineral produ€tions. As fuch mate-
rials were prohibited by the ftatute of James I. an act of
parliament was pafled to legalize the ufe of them. _ ;

1795- Mr. Tucker of Wickham, Hants, for triple pits
compofed of wood, metal, and bricks, to keep up a con-
ftant fire at the bottom, to warm the infufion and expedite
the procefs. i E

1796. William Defmond, efy. of London, for a new
mode of tanning, according to M. Seguin’s method, as be-
fore ftated. ’

1797- Robert Crofs of Lancafter, for pits on a new
conftru@tion, to enable him to apply artificial heat and to
tan quickly. ;

1799. Francis B: , efq. of London, for a peculiar
conftruétion and arrangement of pits, and for the ufe of
machinery, &c.

1802. John Lawrence, for the ufe of oak faw-dult in
tanning. het 2
1802. Thomas Martin of London, for conftructing pits

on a new plan, &c. ;

1802. John Cant and John Miller of Montrofe, for boil-
ing the bark, &c. fo as to extraé the tanning principle more
effectually. ’

1807. Robert John Stanley of Lincolnfhire, for tanning
light leather without bark, for a peculiar preparation pre-
vious to the application of ooze, and for boiling the mate-
rials of tanning.

1813. Sparks Moline, for the ufe of the folid extract
of bark.
1815. Thomas Afhmore, efq. for the ufe of all kinds

of foot, whether from coal, wood, peat, or bones, and the
oils and empyreumatic liquors arifing from them by diftilla-
tion or combuftion, to be applied to the purpofes of tan-
ning.

Of the utility of the laft-named patent, we fhall give no
opinion at prefent ; but of the remainder it may be a
that none of the methods therein recommended have ever
been much practifed : fome of them which were adoptetoy
a few individuals, were attended with confiderable lofs; and
as moft of them are now laid afide, we may reafonably con-
clude that they have not proved beneficial to the projectors
or to the public.

Before we defcribe the prefent method, it may be ne-
ceflary to premife, that in different parts of the kingdom,
the fame terms and denominations are fometimes employed
to defignate diftinét kinds of leather : but all tanned leather
is technically claffed and uriverfally known under two. gene-
ral denominations ; namely, Aides and Shins. The former
term being commonly applied to the larger animals, as bulls,
oxen, cows, &c. which are chiefly intended for the foles of
{tout fhoes, and other purpofes requiring very thick and
folid leather; while the latter term is ufed for calves,
feals, &c. which, being thinner and more flexible, are in-
tended for the upper leathers of fhoes and boots, for faddlés,
harnefs, &c.

The heavieft and ftouteft of the bull and ox hides are
generally feleéted to malze what are technically called: butts
or éacks, and are manufaétured in the following manner.

When the horns, &c. have been removed, the raw hides
are laid on a heap for two or three days, and are then fuf-
pended on poles in 4 clofe room, called a {moke-houfe,
which is heated fomewhat above the common temperature
by a fmouldering fire: this occafions incipient putrefaétion,

which

TANNING.

which loofens the epidermis, and renders the hair and other
extraneous matter eafy of feparation from the true fkin.
This is effe€&ted by extending the hide on a wooden horfe or
beam of a convex form, and fcrapmg it with a large two-
handled knife, called a fle/bing-knif2, which is bent, to fuit
the convexity of the beam.

The hides are then immerfed in a pit containing water
flightly impregnated with fulphuric acid. This operation,
which is called raifing, by diftending the pores and {welling
the fibres, prepares the hide for the reception of the tannin,
and renders it more fufceptible of its aCtion.

When the hides are fufficiently rai/ed, they are removed
into a pit, in which they are lain fmooth with a itratum of
oak bark ground toa coarfe powder between each.

The pit is then filled with the tanning lixivium or ooze,
prepared from oak bark and water, and the hides remain
a month or fix weeks without being moved. At the end of
this time, the tanning principle being exhaufted, the ooze
and {pent bark are taken out of the pit, and the hides put
in again, ftratified with frefh bark, and covered with frefh
ooze as before. Here they remain about three months,
when the fame procefs is repeated, at about the fame inter-
vals, three feveral times or more, according to the ftrength
of the lixivium and the fubftance of the hides. When
fufficiently tanned, they are taken out of the pit, hung up
in a fhed to dry gradually, and being comprefled with a
fteel inftrument, and beaten {mooth to render them firm and
denfe, the operation is complete ; and having been numbered,
weighed, and ftamped by the excife officer, to afcertain the
amount, and denote the payment of the duty (which will be
noticed at the end of this article), they are ready for fale, and
are termed butts or backs. Thefe form the thickeft and moft
fubftantial fole leather for very ftrong fhoes, and are chiefly
intended for exportation.

Crop hides are thus manufa€tured. The horns having
been removed, the hides are immerfed in pits containing a
mixture of lime and water, where they remain three or four
days, being occafionally moved up and down, that each
part may be uniformly expofed to the a¢tion of the lime-
water. They are then taken out of the lime-pits, and the
hair and other extraneous matter being {craped off on a
wooden beam, as before defcribed, are wafhed in water, to
free them from the lime and filth adhering. They are now

immerfed in a weak ooze, and by degrees are removed into "

other pits, containing folutions gradually increafing in ftrength,
during which time they are taken up and put down (techni-
cally termed handling) at leait once in every day, that all
parts of the hide may be ated upon by the tanning principle
equally and uniformly. This is continued for about a month
or fix weeks, when they are put into other pits with ftronger
ooze and a {mall portion of ground bark ; from whence, as
the tannin becomes exhaufted, they are removed to other
pits in regular fucceflion, with frefh ooze and frefh bark, for
two or three months.

At the end of this period, the hides are put into larger
vats, called /ayers, in which they are ftratified, or lain {mooth,
in a lixivium of greater ftrength, and with a larger quantity
of ground bark between each fold. Here they remain about
fix weeks, when they are taken up and relaid in the fame
manner, with frefh bark and ftrong ooze,. for two months.
This procefs is repeated, with little variation, once, twice,
or thrice, at the difcretion of the manufaurer, till the
hides are thoroughly tanned ; when they are taken out of
the pits, fufpended on poles to dry, and being comprefled
and {moothed, nearly in the manner before defcribed, are

called crop hides, and form the principal part of the fole,

leather which is ufed in England.
Vou. XXXV.

The procefs of tamning /Rins (calves, feals, &c.) is fome-
what different from hides. They are continued in the lime-
pits for ten or fifteen days; they are then depilated and
wafhed in water, after which they are immerfed in an in-
fufion of pigeon’s dung, called a grainer, having the pro-
perty of an alkali. Here they remain for a week or ten days,
according to the ftate of the atmofphere and other circum-
ftances, during which time they are frequently handled, and
{craped on both fides upon a convex wooden beam. This
{craping, or working, as it is termed, with the action of the
grainer, helps to difcharge all the lime, oil, and faponaceous
matter, and renders the {kin foft and pliant, fitted to imbibe
the tanning principle. They are now removed into pits con-
taining a weak folution of bark, where they undergo nearly
the fame procefs of handling, &c. as crop hides ; but they
are feldom ftratified in /ayers; and the time occupied in tan-
ning them is ufually from two to four months, according to
their nature and fubftance. The {kins are then dried, and
fold to the currier, who dreffes and blacks them for the
upper leathers of boots and fhoes, for harnefs, and various
other purpofes.

The light and thin fort of cow-hides and horfe-hides un-
dergo nearly the fame procefs in tanning as calf-fkins, and
are applied to fimilar ufes.

Thefe procefles are fuch as are now commonly praétifed,
varying, however, with the nature and condition of the pe-
culiar kind of hides and fkins—with local habits and cir-
cumftances—and with the fkill and experience of the manu-
facturer. The greateft defect in the common methods ap-
pears to exiit in the means of extraéting the tannin from the
bark. Cold water is chiefly ufed for that purpofe; but
fome perfons conceiving that this does not entirely exhauit
the tanning principle, fubjeét the bark, as before obferved,
to the action of boiling water, &c. If, however, as fir Hum-
phrey Davy has ftated, the extra as well as the tannin
combines with the fkin, the extraGtion of the tannin by heat
would tend to oxygenate the former, and render it infoluble
in the liquid.

The late ingenious Dr. Macbride of Dublin invented
and publifhed in 1778 a new method of tanning, the leading
feature of which was the ufe of lime-water, which he con-
ceived would extra& the virtues of oak bark more com-
pletely than plain water.

It has, however, been obferved, that both natural and artifi-
cial tannin form compounds with the alkalies and the alkaline
earths, and thefe compounds are not decompofable by fkin.
Lime forms with tannin a compound not foluble in water,
and therefore Dr. Macbride’s fyftem is founded on erroneous
principles, as fo much of the tannin as combined with the
lime contained in the water was loft. It was alfo found, by
the praétical experience of tanners, that this method was in
all refpets injurious rather than beneficial; and as it has
long been univerfally rejefted, it is not neceflary to enter into
the detail. The reader who is defirous of further information
on this point, may refer to Phil. Tranf. vol. lxviii. parti. art.8.

The application of fome new and cheap fubititute for
oak bark has been long a defideratum in tanning. Cate-
chu, the fubftance we have fpoken of under the article
Tannin, has been recommended, and its powerful tanning
properties have been fully afcertained by experiment and
actual practice: but it is not likely that the article can be
procured in fufficient quantity, or at an adequate price,
for the purpofes of manufaGture. The bark of elm, wil-
low, larch, and other trees, together with vallonia (the
acorn of a peculiar fpecies of oak in Turkey), have all been
employed in tanning with confiderable effect.

The greateft hope which ee {cience prefents, is the

pro-

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probability that the tanning principle will, at fome future
period, be formed artificially in fuch quantities and at fuch
expenfe as will admit of its general application to pra¢tical
purpofes. The important difcovery of Mr. Hatchett al-
ready goes far towards the accomplifhment of this object.
He Be diftinétly afcertained that a fubftance very analogous
to tannin may be produced by expofing carbonaceous mat-
ter, whether vegetable, animal, or mineral, to the a¢tion of
nitric acid; and has a¢tually converted ficin into leather by
deal faw-duft, afphaltum, pit-coal, wax-candle, and even by
a part of the fame fort of fkin itfelf. The changes pro-
duced in thefe bodies, by difuniting and recombining their
elementary principles, may by further developement fead to
a more economical procefs of tanning, and thus render ef-
fential fervice to the arts and manufactures.

Tanned leather is fubje& toa very heavy excife duty. In
the ninth year of queen Anne, a duty of 1d. per lb. was laid
on all hides and {kins tanned in Great Britain. In the fol-
lowing year an additional 4d. per lb. was impofed. Thus it
remained, amidft all the financial difficulties of fucceffive
chancellors of the exchequer, till 1812, when, by the aét
52 Geo. III. c. 94. afurther duty of 14d. per lb. was added,
making the whole duty on tanned hides and fkins 3d. per lb.
The annual revenue arifing therefrom now amounts to up-
wards of 500,000!.

it may not be improper here to remark, that the excife
duty on Lind, tanned in Ireland, is levied and colleéted in a
different manner.

The a& 40 Geo. III. c. 9. paffed in Ireland in 1800, in-
ftead of impofing a certain duty per pound weight, as in
England, on all hides and fkins tanned with oak bark, im-
pofes a duty of nine pence by the year, for every cubic foot
contained in all the pits in the yard of the tanner, allowing
a deduétion of two-ninths for certain pits called /atches, which
are ufed folely for the purpofe of preparing the lixivium or
ooze. By this aét the tanner was permitted, on giving cer-
tain notice, to difcontinue not lefs than one-fourth, and by
43 Geo. III. c. 97. not lefs than one-eighth for fix months,
receiving a proportionate deduétion from his monthly pay-
ments of the duty. By the 48 Geo. III. c. 62. thofe aéts
were made perpetual.

Previous to the paffing the Irith a& 40 Geo. III. the wri-
ter of this article was confulted by the then chancellor of the
exchequer in Ireland, on the relative amount of the intended
duty of nine pence per cubic foot ; and upon accurate cal-
culation it was found to bear a fair proportion to the duty
then exifting in England. If the prefent duty on leather
tanned in this part of the united kingdom were propor-
tionably commuted on a fimilar plan, it would materially
tend to the progrefs of the manufaéture.

The chieh obftacle to great praétical improvement is the
excife duty—not fo much from its amount ares that is
very confiderable), as from the mode in which it is now
levied and afcertained, namely, by weight, when the leather
is dry and fit for fale. ‘This mode neceffarily requires a
fyftem of rules and regulations, which, from their multi-
plicity and complicated nature, fubjeét the manufacturer to
daily inconvenience, and to occafional hardfhips. For, not-
withftanding the repeal of the oppreffive act 1 James I.
cap. 22, and other fubfequent ftatutes, the tanner is ftill
reftriéted, by various excife laws, from advantageoufly
fhaving and reducing his hides and fkins—from mixing and
removing them at his difcretion—and alfo from exercifing
the trades of a currier, &c.

Thofe rettrictions, it mutt be acknowledged, are in fome de-

neceflary for the proteétion and fecurity of the revenue,

while the duties are impofed and colleted upon the prefent

TAN

fyftem. But if a different mode of taxation and colleétion (as
in Ireland, on the admeafurement of the pits; or on the raw
material, or any other plan) could be adopted, the benefits
which would refult, both to the manufaCturer and to the
community, are incalculable. It would leave the tanner at
full liberty to condué his bufinefs entirely according to his
{kill and judgment, and to unite with it the trades of currier
and leather-cutter, which are fo naturally conneéted with his
own. It would enable him to facilitate the procefs ; to fave |
much fuperfluous labour; to economize the materials of tan-
ning, which are now unavoidably wafted on ufelefs or inferior
leather ; to fhave, divide, feleét, and appropriate certain
hides and {kins, or parts of hides and {kins, at the proper time
for their peculiar purpofes ; to prevent the injury which lea-
ther often receives in drying at particular feafons ; and ulti-
mately to improve the quality and reduce the price of one ef :
the moft ufeful articles of general confumption.

Thefe are matters well worthy the confideration of the
executive government and the legiflature. Some attention
has already been given to this fubjeét by the houfe of com-
mons in the feffions of 1815 and 1816, and we have no
doubt that by further inveftigation, intelligent and unpre-
judiced perfons might eafily arrange and complete a plan
which would afford perfeé fecurity to the revenue, weuld
fimplify the colleétion, would prevent the poffibility of
fraud, and at the fame time prove extremely beneficial to the
manufacture and to the public. :

TANNRODA, in Geography, a town of the principa
lity of Weimar ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Weimar.

TANORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Calicut ; 25 miles S.S.E. of Calicut. N. lat. 10° 58'.

E. long. 75° 5q!.
TANO 5, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of Crete,
TANOT, in Geography, a river of North Wales, which
rifes in the county of Montgomery, and runs into the Severn,
7 miles below Welfhpool. r
TANOUMDAIN, a town of the Birman empire ; 30
miles N.E. of Pagahm.
TANREC, in Zoology, a name given by Buffon to the
Erinaceus Ecaudatus ; which fee.
TANSA, in Geography, a branch of the river Mobile.
TANSCHA. See Tanaia.
TANSE, a town of Brafil,in the jurifdiGtion of St. Paul.
TANSIFT, or Tensirv, vul arly called Wed Marakofh,
or the river of Morocco, becaufe it pafles through the dif-
trict of that name, a river that rifes in mount Atlas, E. of
Morocco, and taking its courfe about five miles N. of that
city, proceeds through the territory of Morocco, and Ra-
hamana, and nearly divides the two maritime provinces of
Shedma and Abda; difcharging itfelf into the Atlantic
ocean, about 16 miles S. of the town of Saffy. In its
courfe it receives fome tributary ftreams iffuing from the
Atlas, the principal of which is the Wed Niffis. In many
places it is very deep ; and about fix miles from Morocco
it is crofled by a bridge, ereéted by Muley El Manfor,
which is very ftrong, but flat, with many arches. At the
mouth of this river, on the N. fide, amid fome fands and
marfhes, are the ruins of a {mall town, called by the Moors
Suera, from which the infalubrity of the air, or the inunda-
tions of the T'anfif, have driven the inhabitants. On the
other fide of the river, which is pafled by fording, or on
rafts made of reeds tied to leathern bags inflated with wind
is a fquare caftle, built in the reign of Muley Ifhmael a
defend the paflage of the river, during the time of the in-
— sere o the empire. This caftle at prefent
only contains a few families ; it i
i Sas 3 and the country round it is un-
TAN.

TAN

TANSILLO, Lutat,in Biography, an Italian poet, was a
native of Nola, and born about the year 1510. The firft {peci-
men of his talents in T'ufcan poetry, when he was twenty-four
years of age, was his “ Il Vandemmiatore,”’ firft printed in
1734, and it afterwards pafled through feveral editions, under
the title of ‘* Stanze amorofe fopra gli orte della Donne.”
This poem was fucceeded by another of the fame licentious
character, entitled ‘* Stanze in lode della Menta.’’ His re-
putation was fo much funk by thefe publications, that all
his poems and other pieces were configned by pope Paul IV.
to the lift of prohibited books. The author, deeply morti-
fied by this circumitance, addreffed a penitential letter to the
pope, fupplicating forgivenefs, and informing him that he

made reparation by compofing a devout poem, entitled
«Le Lagrime di San Pietro,” or, “ The Tears of St.
Peter.”? The apology was admitted, and his name was
erafed from the lift. In 1569 he was judge-royal at Geta,
and being then declining in health, he probably did not
long furvive. His “ Tears of St. Peter’? was publifhed,
after his death, in fifteen cantos, and much applauded. It
was tranflated into French by Malherbe, and alfo into
Spanifh. His other poems have been often printed ; but
the moft complete edition is that of Venice in 1738. Two
other elegant poems, entitled ‘ La Balia”’ and “ I Podera,”’
were publifhed in the year 1767 and 1769. Some perfons
have reprefented Tanfillo as equal to Petrarch ; but though
this degree of praife fhould not be allowed, he is confidered
by the beft judges as one of the moft elegant and fpirited

oets of his age. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

TANSITARO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Mechoacan.

TANSOR, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez,
30 miles N. of Fez.

TANSOU, atown on the E. coaft of Madagafcar. S.
lat. 15° 40'. E. long. 50° 8.

TANSUCHE, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatteca ; 83 miles N.W. of Panuco.

TANSY, or Tanzy, in Botany. See TANACETUM.

Tansy, in the Materia Medica. The leaves and flowers
of tanfy have a ftrong, not very difagreeable fmell, and a
bitter fomewhat aromatic tafte. They give out their virtue
both to water and fpirit, but moft perfectly to the latter:
the tin€ture made from the leaves is of a fine green; from
the flowers, of a bright pale yellow colour. Diftilled with
water, they yield a greenifh-yellow effential oil, f{melling
ftrongly of the herb, and probably containing camphor ; the
remaining decoétion, infpiflated, affords a ftrong, bitter,
fubfaline extraé.

According to Bergius, the virtues of tanfy are tonic, fto-
machic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, and refolvent, qua-
lities ufually attributed to bitters of the warm or aromatic
kind. Tanfy has been much ufed as a vermifuge, and its
efficacy has been afcertained by the teftimonies of many re-
{pe€table phyficians.

The feeds have been chiefly recommended in this laft
intention, and fubftituted for thofe of the /antonicum,
from which they differ not a. little in quality as well as
in appearance, being much lefs bitter, and of a more aro-
matic flavour.

Dr. Clark mformsus ( Eff. and Obf. Phyf. and Lit. vol. iii.)
that in Scotland tanfy was found to be very beneficial in va-
rious cafes of gout, and Dr. Cullen fay$, that he has known
feveral who have taken it without any advantage, and fome
others who reported that they had been relieved from the
frequency of their gout. Toanfy is alfo recommended in the
hyfteria, efpecially when this difeafe is fuppofed to proceed
from menftrual obftructions.

cific gravity varies from 7.15 to 7.953.

TAN

The leaves of this plant may be given in powder to the
quantity of 9j to 3j, for a dofe twice a day; but it has
been more commonly taken in infufion, or drank as tea.
It is now fearcely ever ufed, except as an anthelmintic for
expelling lumbrici, to which it has certainly fome preten-
fions. Lewis. Woodville. Thomfon.

Tansy, Wild. See CinQueErol.:

TANT, in Natural Hiffory, an Englifh name for a {mall
fpider of the phalangium kind, having only two eyes, and
eight very long legs, and commonly fuppofed to be very
porfonous.

It is all over of an elegant {earlet colour, refembling that
of the flowers of the red poppy when full blown, except
that the belly has a whitifh caft. Four of its legs are in-
ferted in the upper part of the breaft, and the other four
near the belly ; and near the origin of each leg there is a {mall
black fpot. Its body is round and full, and it is all over co-
vered with a fine, fhort, velvety down. It is not unfrequent
in dry paitures in the animes It is terribly dreaded
by our farmers, who fuppofe that an ox will die who chances
to fwallow it. Ray’s Hitt. Infeéts, p. 44.

TANTABEE, or Tanxasast, or Lop, in Geography,
a town of Little Bucharia, on the river Yarkan; roo miles
S. of Tourfan.

TANTALAM. See Licor.

TANTALITE, in Mineralogy, the ore of a newly difco-
vered metal called tantalium, ortantalum, (See TanTAtium.)
This ore has been called columbite by Mr. Hatchett, who
obtained a f{pecimen of it from Maffachufetts bay, in North
America, and difcovered the metal which he denominated
columbium, and which is now found to be the fame with
tantalium. The colour of tantalite is iron-black, fometimes
with a tinge of blue. It occurs imbedded in angular pieces,
from the fize of a pea to that of an hazle-nut. It is alfo
cryftallized in acute o€tohedrons, with {quare bafes. The
furface of the angular pieces is uneven ; that of the cryftals
is fometimes fmooth, and fometimes ftreaked; it has a
fhining metallic luftre, inclining to refinous. The fra€ture
is uneven and granular, inclining to compaét or conchoidal.
The fragments are irregular, fharp, and angular. It
{cratches glafs, and gives a few fparks with fteel. The
{treak is dull, and the powder a brownifh-black. The fpe-
The columbite,
according to Hatchett, is 5.918. ‘Tantalite is infufible be-
fore the blow-pipe, without addition; and it fuffers no
change but a diminution of luftre.

The conftituent parts of tantalite from Finland are, ac-
cording to

Wollafton. Vauquelin. Klaproth. — Berzelius,
Oxyd of tantalum 85 83 88 83.2
Oxyd of iron ie) 12 fe) 7.2
Oxyd of manganefe 4 8 2 7-4.
Oxydoftin - o co) fo) 0.6

The North American columbite contained, according to
an analyfis of Dr, Wollafton, 80 parts of oxyd of tantalium,
15 of oxyd of iron, and 5 of oxyd of manganefe.

Tantalite occurs in the parifh of Kemito, in Finland, dif.
feminated in coarfe red granite. It bears a confiderable
refemblance to feveral other minerals, particularly to mag-
netic iron-ftone, tin-ftone, wolfram, yttryotantalite, and
gadolinite. It 1s diftinguifhed fram magnetic iron-ftone by
its greater fpecific gravity, and by not affeting the mag-
netic needle ; from compact black tin-ftone, by its metallic
luftre, and by the aétion of the blow-pipe, which reduces
tin-{tone on charcoal ; from wolfram, by the abfence of the
foliated fraGture ; from yttryotantalite, by the form of the

M 2 cryttals,

TAN

cryftals, and by refifting the aétion of the blow-pipe, by
which yttryotantalite is melted into a grcenifh-yellow flag ;
laftly, tantalite is diltinguithed from gadolinite, by its

eater fpecifie gravity, uneven fraéture, and infufibility.
Y ceryutantalite, another ore of tantalium, contains the new Y
difcovered earth called yttria, from Ytterby, near Rof-
lagen, in Sweden, where it was firft difcovere See Tan-
TALIUM and YTTRYOTANTALITE.

TANTALIUM, or Tantatum, the metal obtained
from tantalite and yttryotantalite. The method of reduc-
tion confifts in boiling the ores with’ alkalies, and adding
nitro-muriatic acid to the folution. ‘The oxyd of tantalium
is thrown down in white powder: this muft’ be wafhed,
dried, and ftrongly ignited in a crucible lined with charcoal.

Berzelius retical the oxyd into a cavity of the fize of a
goofe-quill, made in a lump of well-burned charcoal, and
expofed it to a violent heat, in a Heffian crucible. The
reduced metal was not melted, but the particles of it
firmly adhered together, and formed a mafs, through which
water ‘would not penetrate. The grains were hard enough
to feratch glafs. The fpecific gravity, as afcertained by
Dr. Wollatton, was 5.61; but as the mafs had not been
melted, the weight of tantalium muft be fomething heavier.
Its colour is ant ey ; and when fcratched with a knife, it
affumes the metallic luftre, and has the appearance of iron.
It may be reduced to powder by trituration ; the powder is
of a dark brown colour, without the fmalleit metallic luftre.
This powder is not in the leaft altered by muriatic or nitric
acids, nor by aqua regia, though it be digefted with them
for feveral days. In this refpect it agrees with chromium,
titanium, ofmium, iridium, and rhodium. .

When heated to rednefs, it takes fire, burns feebly with-
out flame, and goes out directly if it be removed from the
fire. By this means it is converted into a greyifh-white
matter, which may again be reduced to the metallic ftate by
heating it with charcoal: 100 parts of tantalium, treated in
this manner, combine with 8.5 or 4.5 of oxy But by this
procefs it is {carcely poffible to oxydize tantalium completely.

If tantalium, ra Be pulverized, is mixed with nitre, and
thrown into a red-hot crucible, a feeble detonation takes
place. The mafs is fnow-white, and is a compound of pot-
afh and oxyd of tantalium.

The mean of four experiments on the redution of the
oxyd of tantalium to the metallic ftate, makes it a compound
of 100 metal with 5.485 oxygen. The fuppofition that the
exygen in the water, which converts the oxyd into a hy-
drate, is twice as great as that in the oxyd, would make it
a compound of 100 metal with 5.5 oxygen. Muriatic acid
throws down oxyd of tantalium, from its combinations with
potafh: it i8 then a hydrate of a white colour; and when
wathed and dried, it is compofed of 100 of oxyd of tan-
talium and 12.5 water. From experiments of Berzelius, it
tial that the oxyd of tantalium poffeffes acid properties.

efucceeded in alloying feveral metals with tantalium, as tung-
ften andiron. Thomfon’s Annals, September, 1816, p. 233.

TANTALUS, in Ancient Geo aphy, a town in the ifle
of Lefbos.—Alfo, a town in Afia Minor, upon the bank of
the Meander.

Tanrarus, one of the many names given by chemifts to
mercury.

Tawtatus, in Mythology, a king of Lydia, Phrygia, or
Paphlagonia, according to fome, but, according to others,
the fon of Jupiter by the nymph Plota, who is hid to have
prefented the mangled members of his fon Pelops, whom he
murdered, to the gods, at a fealt, in order to prove their
divinity ; or, according to the modern explication of this
fable, he offered up his fon as a faerifice to the gods.

9

PAN

Others, however, have charged him with revealing therfe-
erets of the gods, i.e. the myfteries of their worfhip, of
which he was the high-prieft. But whatever was the nature
of his crime, the poets reprefent him as condemned to hell,
and tormented there with perpetual hunger and thirft in the
midit of plenty of both meat and drink. Some reprefent
him as ftanding up to the chin in water, which he was in-
capable of reaching ; or as ftanding under a tree, fome of
the branches of which, loaded with the fineft ripe fruits,
hung down juft before his mouth, which, the moment he
endeavoured to take, always waved out of his reach. Others
reprefent him as ftanding under a heavy ftone, which was
fufpended over his head, and which he fufpeéted would
every moment fall and crufh him.

Horace (lib. i. fat. i. v. 71.) feems to make Tantalus
only an emblem of the covetous: as Lucretius (lib. iii.
y. 1015.) makes Sifyphus, who is reprefented as bendin
under the weight of a great ftone, or labouring to heave it
againit the fide of a iteep mountain, and which always rolls
precipitately down again before he can fix it on the top, as
an emblem of the ambitious.

TAnTALUs, in Ornithology, a genus of the order of
Grallz. Its charaéters are, that the bill is long, thick at
the bafe, and fomewhat incurvated ; the face naked; the
tongue fhort and broad; the noftrils linear ; and the feet,
with four toes, palmated at the bafe. Linnzus enumerates
twenty-one

Species.

LocuLator. With a blueifh face, reddifh bill, quille
and tail-feathers black, and white body: the curicaca of
Marcgrave, the wood pelecan of Catefby, and wood ibis of
Pennant. It is found in New Holland and South America.

Farecieiius. With a black face, blueifh legs, wings
and tail violet, and chefnut body : the bay ibis Pennant
and Latham, and green courlis of Buffon. A variety is the
numenius caftaneus of Briffon. It is found in flocks about
the lakes of Italy, fouth of Germany, Denmark, the Ural
defert, and the Cafpian and Euxine feas. se

_Mixvrtus. With face, bill, and legs greenifh, ferru-
the leffer ibis of Edwards and

poser body, beneath white :
atham. Found in Surinam.

Isis. With red face, luteous bill, grey legs, black
quill-feathers, and reddifh-white bedy : the Egyptian ibis ef
Latham. Found plentifully in Egypt. See hall

Ruser. With face, bill, and legs red, fanguineous
body, and the apices of the wings black: the guase
Maregrave, Willughby, Ray, &c. and the fearlet ibis |
Pennant and Latham. Found gregarious in the Bahama
iflands, in parts of America between the tropics, particularly’
Eaft Florida. J

Axsus. With red face, bill, and legs, white body, and
the tips of the wings green: the white curlew of Catefby,’
and white ibis of Pennant and Latham. Found in the Bra-
file and in Carolina.

Fuscus. With red face, bill, and legs, brown body, ©
beneath white: the brown curlew of bie ma reailig
of Pennant and Latham. Found in the warmer parts of
America, and in fummer in Carolina. enctt

_Viripis. With black face and legs, green and cyaneous
wings, neck cinereous-black, beneath fafeiated with white,
upper part of the body and tail green-golden, beneath and
rump brown-blackifh : the green ibis of Latham.

Ieneus. With black head and neck, en legs, :
cyaneous, refplendent with green, beneath blackifh-red, with
re —_ and tail-feathers green-golden : the glofly ibis of

atham. a da

Levco-

TAN

LeucocePHatvus. With white head, neck, and body, bill
and face yellow, legs pale, and rump with very long rufous fea-
thers : the white-headed ibis of Latham. Found in Ceylon.

Carvus. With white head, the hinder part of the neck
tuberculated, with the jugular bag bare, the crown, bill,
and legs black, and body black: the bald ibis of Latham.
Found in the weitern parts of Africa.

Manritensis. With the bill and orbits greenifh, legs
vermilion-coloured, and body red-brown: the Manilla ibis
of Latham. Found in the ifland of Lucon.

Cristatus. With pale face, head, part of the neck,
tail, and vent black, the creft on the hinder part of the head
long with feathers partly white and partly black, ferru-
ginous body, and whitifh wings: the crefted ibis of Latham.
Found in Madagafcar.

Nicer. With face, bill, and legs red, and black body :
the black ibis-of Latham. Found in Egypt, near Da-
mietta.

Coco. With face and bill yellow-flefhy, legs flefhy pale,
body white, wings as far as the apex white, the three outer
quill-feathers black above at the apex. Found in the Ca-
ribbee iflands.

Pirtus. With face, bill, and legs brown, body white,
quill and tail-feathers black. Found near the rivers and
lakes of Chili.

Cayennensis. With face obfcurely reddifh, obfctre
bill, body black and fhining green: the Cayenne ibis of
Latham. >

Mexicanus. With blueifh bill, reddifh face, head and
neck obfcure and white, a little varied with green and yel-
low, back, rump, and legs black, breaft and abdomen
brown, tail and quill-feathers braffy-green: the acalotl of
Ray and Willughby, the acalot of Buffon, and the Mexican
ibis of Latham. Found near the lakes of New Spain.

Metanoris. With bill, face, and nails black, crown
yellow, neck and breait yellowifh, the feathers of the back,
the feapulars, and tail-feathers, and pectoral band, cimereous,
brown at the margin, the eyes and tail green-and black, and
the legs red: the black-faced ibis of Latham.

Axpicotiis. With black bill, head and neck rufous-
white, body brown with grey waves and fhining green, and
red legs: the white-necked ibis of Latham. Found in
Cayenne.

Grisrus. With fpadiceous: bill, face and nails black,
hind part of the head and neck grey, body whitifh, back,
rump, quills, and tail greenifh-black, and reddifh legs: the

ey ibis of Latham, and matuiti of Willughby and Buffon.

‘ound in Brafil. :

Tanratus’s Cup, in Hydraulics, isacup, as A ( P?. VITE.
Hydraulics, fig. 6.) with a hole in the bottom, and the longer
leg of the fiphon B € E D cemented into the hole ; fo that
the end D of the fhorter les D E, may almoft touch the
bottom of the cup within. Then, if water be poured into
this cup, it will rife in the fhorter by its upward preffure,
extruding the air before it through the longer leg; and
when the cup is filled above the bend of the fiphon at F,
the preffure of the water in the cup will force it over the
bend of the fiphon ; and it will defcend in the longer leg
CBG, and even through the bottom, until the cup be
emptied. The legs of this fiphon are almoft clofe together,
and it is fometimes concealed by a {mall hollow ftatue, or
figure of a man placed over it; the bend F being within the
neck of the figure as high as the chin. So that poor thirfty
Tantalus ftands up to the chin in water, according to the
fable, imagining it will rife a little higher, and he may drink;
but, inftead of that, when the water comes up to his chin,
it immediately begins to defcend, and therefore, as he cannot

- Pontchartrain lake, N. lat. 30° 18!.

FT A.O
{toop to follow it, he is left as much tormented with thirft
as ever.

TANTAMOUNT, fomething that amounts to, or is
equivalent to, fome other.

TANTANEH, in Geography, a mountain of Africa,
which forms the fouth boundary of Berdoa.

TAN-TCHING, a town of Corea; 33 miles W.S.W.
of Tfin-tcheou.

TANTECO, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca; 25 miles N. of Panuco.

TAN-THOUI-TCHING, a town on the W. coaft of
the ifland of Formofa. N. lat. 25° 8!. E. long. 120° 40’.

TANTRA, the name of a branch of literature among
the Hindoos, of which we have hitherto received but very
imperfeé& information. The books bearing this title appear
to contain directions for certain religious ufages adopted by
fome feéts and condemned by others. (See Saxra.) The
name Tantra, or Yantra, is alfo given to myfterious hiero-
glyphics, facred to particular deities. See Mantra, YAN-
TRA, and ParusHA.

TANTUM Decies. See Decies.

TANTUMQUERI, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the country of Fantin, on the Gold Coaft, with two forts,
one belonging to the Englifh, the other to the Dutch. N.
lat. 5° 20'. W: long. 2° 54!.

TANTUR. See Torrura.

TANUM, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 3%
miles N.W. of Uddevalla.

TANUO, a town of Peru, in the archbifhopric of Lima,
and jurifdiction of Cagnete.

TANURI, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Bahus ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Uddevalla, _

TANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece, in
the Peloponnefus, which had its fource in mount Parnon,
traverfed the Argolide, and difcharged itfelf into the cult
of Thyrza.

TANXIPA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guafteca, at the foot of a mountain; 70 miles
N.N.W. of Panuco.

TANYGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar; 36
miles W. of Nagpour.

TANZIPAO, a river of Louifiana, which runs into
W. long. go® 10’.

TANZU, a town of Africa, in Angola, near the coait ;
20 miles S.W. of Loando.

TANZY, in Botany, &c. See Tanacetum and Tansy.

TAOCE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
interior of the Perfide, near the town of Orebatis.—Alfo,
a promontory of Afia, on the coaft of the Perfide, 500
ftadia from the mouth of the river Oroatis, and 700 ftadia
from that of the river Rhogomagus.

TAOCENA, a country of Afia, in the Perfde.

TAOCHI, a people of Afia, in the mountains of Ar-
menia. ®

TAO-LOU-SAC, or Ta, in Geography, a town of
Lower Canada. N. lat. 48° 5!, W. long. 69° 30.

TAONABO, in Botany. See Tonanea and TERN-
STROMIA.

TAONEROA, in Geography. See Poverty Bay.

TAOO Istanp, one of the Friendly iflands, in the
South Pacific ocean, about 24 miles in circumference.

TAOOK, a town of Curdiftan, fituated in a barrea
country, N. of an extenfive vale, which is about zo miles
over, and has a cham of mountains on each fide, running E.
and W.

TAORMINA, the ancient Tauromenium, a town of
Sicily, in the valley of Demona, fituated on the E. coatt,

on

TAO

on a narrow level above a precipice of mount Taurus, and
overhung by immenfe maffes of rocks. According to
Swinburne it contains 3000 inhabitants. It has been much
celebrated for its coftly marble and excellent wine. The an-
-jent T'auromenium was much more extenfive than the pre-
fent town, and comprehended within its walls the town
of the promontory of St. Andrew, where was a theatre

laced between two high rocks, and commanding a full view
both of A&tna and of the plains. This theatre is reckoned
the moft beautiful monument of antiquity extant. A con-
fiderable portion of this building has efcaped the ravages of
time, and affords the antiquary, as well as the architect, an
opportunity of examining that divifion of a theatre on which
the aGtors ftood ; a part that is wanting in almoft all other
ruined theatres. The arcades are all compofed of brick,
the reft of the walls of pebbles, and covered with cafings
of marble. ‘The whole range of the vomitoria and galleries
that encircled the feats is yet ftanding as high from the
ground as the bottom of the fecond order ; the profcenium,
which formed the chord of the arch, is almoft entire ; it is a
thick wall, with a large opening in the centre, and three
niches; a {mall door, and a fourth niche on each fide ; be-
tween each of thefe apertures, or receffes, are marks in the
wall, where columns were placed. According to the plan
deduced from thefe ruins, the ftage was a parallelogram of
138 feet by Fil on each fide was a lofty fquare building,
confifting of a bafement and two upper ftories, from the
higheft of which a communicating gallery was carried along
the back fcenes: the diameter of the femicircular part of
the theatre, where the audience fat, was 142 English feet.
The ftreets of the modern town, the courts and houfes, are
every where interfperfed with fragments of antique walls,
aqueduéts, and cA pavements. The afcent to Taormina
is very {teep and difficult ; but the charms of the landfcape
amply recompenfe the labour of attaining the height. Every
thing belonging to it is drawn in a pei fublime ityle ; the
mountains tower to the clouds; the caftles and ruins rife on
weighty maffes of perpendicular rock, and feem to defy the
attacks of mortal enemies; A®tna, with all its fnowy and
woody {weeps, fills half the horizon ; the fea is ftretched out
upon an immenfe fcale, and occupies the remainder of the
profpect. The beach is confined by high cliffs, that are cal-
careous and confifting generally of a {pecies of red and white
marble, which was in high efteem among the ancients. The
houfes in the vicinity are inhabited by peafants, who occupy
them with their children and cattle. Thefe feveral monu-
ments are undoubtedly coeval with the Romans ; that is, pof-
terior to Czfar, who, having expelled the inhabitants of
Tauromenium, placed in it a Roman colony. The origin
of this city is loft in the obfcurity of ages. It is known
that it was confiderably augmented, when Dionyfius, in the

4th Olympiad, 443 years B.C., having taken and deftroyed
Po. caufed it to be deferted by its shatitentes who fettled
here. This proud city was at length deftroyed by the Vene-
tians, and fortified by the Norman conquerors ; and it {till ex-
ifts in a reduced ftate. When it was taken by the Saracens
from the Greek emperor in the 1oth century, it was one of
the flrongeft places in the ifland, and called by them “ Al
Moezzia,”” ats name it retained for a confiderable time ;
27 miles S.S.W, of Meffina. N, lat. 37° 51', E. long.
15°2 Y

TAOS Lapis, the peacock-flone, a name given by fome
of the ancient writers to a yery beautiful variegated agate,
refembling, in fome degree, the great variety of colours in
the peacock’s tail.
TAOSANLJU, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia; 20 miles NW. of Kiutaja.
10

LAE

TAOUKA, one of the Society iflands, in the South Pa-
cific ocean. S. lat. 14° 30’. W. long. 145° 9).

TAP, among Hunters. A hare is faid to tap, or beat,
when fhe makes a particular noife at rutting-time.

Tar. See TAPPING.

Tar-Root, that fort of root which fhoots direétly down-
wards to a great depth. There are many roots of this na-
ture, which are in conftant ufe by the farmer, fuch as the
carrot, parfnip, beet, &c.; and there are many plants of the
tree kind which have tap-roots, as the oak, &c. See
TAPPING.

In the vegetable kinds of tap-rooted plants, they all re-
quire a deeply broken-down and prepared foil, in order to
grow them with any fuccefs, and to any confiderable fizes.
And, as in the tree forts, they muft always rife from the
feeds where they are fown; as they cannot be tranfplanted
out with any kind of propriety or advantage. Where the
land is not properly prepared to a fuitable depth, they are
ufually fhort, forked, and of aukward growth; and when
raifed by tranfplanting, very {mall and ftunted; but fome of
them cannot be at all grown in the laft method.

Tav-Rooted Turnip, % Agriculture, that fort which grows
much with this kind of root. It is not a favourable kind of
growth for this fort of crop. See Turnip.

TAPACRI, in Geography, a town of Peru; 20 miles
N.E. of Cochabamba.

TAPAJOS, a river of Brazil, in the Capitania of
Matto Groffo, which runs N. between the Madeira and the
Chingu for 300 leagues, flowing into the Amazons, in lat.
2° 24! 50! and long. 55°, the geographical pofition of the
town of Santarem fituated at its mouth, This river rifes in
the plains of the Parexis, fo called from an Indian nation
which inhabits them. From thefe elevated plains defcend
the two greateft rivers of South America, viz. the Para-
guay, and the Madeira, the largeft river that flows into the
Amazons on the fouth. The Tapajos flows in a contrary
direétion from thefe mountains. Its wefternmoft branch is
the river Arinos, which entwines its fources with thofe of
the Cuiaba at a fhort diftance from thofe of the Paraguay.
The largeft and wefternmoft branch of the Tapajos is the
Juruena, which rifes in lat. 14° 20', 20 leagues N.N.E. of
Villa Bella, and running N. 120 leagues, flows into the
Arinos, and with it forms the bed of the Tapajos. The
Juruena may be navigated to its upper fall, within two
leagues of its own fource. From the geographical pofition
of the Tapajos, it is evident that this river faeatitaee naviga-
tion and commerce from the maritime city of Peru to the
mines of Matto Groffo and Cuiaba, by means of its large
branches, the Juruenaand Arinos. The Tapajos is known
to be auriferous through a great part of its courfe.

TAPANA, a name of the Hindoo regent of the fun.
It means the inflamer. (See Surya.) One of the five ar-
rows with which the Hindoo Kama, or cupid, wounds his
votaries, is named T'apana. Its head is formed of a flower
of a fuppofed inflaming quality. ;

TAPARICA, in Seas an ifland at the entrance of
All Saints’ bay, on the coaft of Brafil, about 2 5 miles long,
and 5 broad. S, lat. 13°.

TAPAS, the name of a fpecies of devotion, to which
great merit and efficacy are afcribed by the Hindoos. It
confitts of intenfe contemplation, accompanied by aufterities,
See Jap.

The performance of the Tapas, or, more corre&tly writ-
ten, Tapafya, is {trongly recommended in Hindoo books ;
and numerous inftances are there given of benefits conferred
on ag ga by the gods fo propitiated. Avn individual,
while in the performance of the penances of Tapafya, is

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TALE
called Tapafwi: he is much revered, and his prayers are
earneftly folicited by the fuperftitious as neceflarily efficacious.
(See Ravena.) Among his aufterities he went through
the following feries, each of the eleven fpecific mortifica-
tions enduring one hundred years.

1. He ftood on one foot, holding the other and both
hands up toward heaven, with his eyes fixed on the fun.
2. He ftood on one great toe. 3. He took as fuftenance
nothing but water. 4. He lived fimilarly on air. 5. He
remained in the water. 6. He was buried in the earth, but

continued, as in the other inflexions, in inceflant adoration.
7. The fame in fire. 8. He ftood on his head, with his feet

upwards. 9. He ftood on one hand. 10. He hung by his
hands on a tree. 11. He hung on a tree with his head
downwards.

Some of the Puranas, or books of divine authority, con-
tain a feries of eighteen {pecific mortifications. One is now
lying before us, and we give their denominations, with fome
explanatory obfervations.

1. T’hedefir, is an elevation of the head, as the word de-
notes, during life: in this penance fome devotees profefs
never to fit. 2. Akas-muni: this means etherial contempla-
tion: the afpirant in this cafe looks conftantly on the heavens.
3. Med’ ha-muni, indicates felf-examination : the arms are ufu-
ally croffed over the breaft, and the penitent preferves a
thoughtful pofture or gait, with downcatt looks. 4. Pherfa-
babu, with arms projected horizontally. 5. Dhamr-pana,
inverfion ; by fufpenfion on a tree, &c. head downwards,
over a fire. 6. Patala-muni: this is the reverfe of Akas-
muni, meaning fubterrene contemplation ; Patala being the
name of the lower regions, and Yama the lord thereof. The
Patala-muni conftantly looks downwards to the earth.
7- Muni, preferving continued filence in aid of abftraétion.
The word means a wife man, a fage, or faint, as well as
wifdom and contemplation. We know of no difference be-
tween this {pecies of devotion and that called Jap, which fee.
8. Chourafi-afin: the meaning of this compound word is
eighty-four fitting pofitions; but it may have fome other
more myfterious and lefs obvious meaning. It would feem
to be the reverfe of fome other penances, the merit of which
confift in preferving one pofture ; whereas this implies an in-
ceffant variation to the extent of eighty-four changes.
g. Kaffali: the Areka or betle-nut penance. This con-
fifts in ftanding foles upwards, the head refting on the nut
placed on the ground. This is done at ftated times; but
cannot, one would think, be long continued. 10. Patali,
the earthly or fubterrene penance. This is defcribed to bea
partial burying of the body up to the breait, head down-
wards, and of courfe under ground, with the feet in the air,
as in the laft. One can fcarcely fee at firft how this can be
done ; but probably the earth is placed very loofely about
the head, &c. with the body or legs fupported againft
a tree or wall. 11. Urd’ha-bahu, with elevated hands,
keeping them above the head. This is a common penance,
perfevered in fometimes till the arms become mere fkin and
bone, the fore-arms fixed immoveably, croffing horizontally,
and the finger-nails perhaps perforating the palms. A moft
eminent Urdha-bahu is defcribed, with a portrait, in the
fifth volume of the Afiatic Refearches, art. ii. 12. Bditfiri,
fitting pofture, never rifing or lying. 13. Nyas-d’hean, re-
taining the breath. To this practice great merit is afcribed,
and it is perfevered in to a very extraordinary extent ; till at
length no refpiration is vifible. In this ftate impoftors pre-
tend to beatific vifions, and the credulous of courfe admire
the wonders they relate. 14. Chourangi-afin, a quadrupedal
pofition, obtained by refting on the elbows and knees, put-
ting the hands backwards over the fhoulders, and keeping

igs ie

hold of the toes. This muft be a very aukward and un
eafy pofture, and not obtainable without much practice.
15. Brahm-hanfa: this is a ftage of aufterity much vene-
rated, and eafily pratticable, at leaft oftenfibly. The de
votee profeffes total indifference to every thing fublunary :
he provides or afks for no food or clothing : he wanders or fits
naked : if any one bring him food, he eats: his whole time,
in fhort, is occupied in divine contemplation. 16. Panch-agni,
five fires. The devotee fits on the ground, with a fire to the
cardinal points, intenfe and near in proportion to his ability
to bear them. The fun over head is the fifth fire. (See
PANCH-AGNI.) 17. Tirbanghi, ftanding on one foot. This
Lakfhmi is related to have done for 100,000 years in the
flower of the lotos, during one of her terreftrial incarnations,
that fhe might be reunited to her lord Vifhnu. (See Pavaka.)
18. Surya-varti, propitiating Surya, ’or the fun. This is
done in various ways. Sometimes by abftinence merely till
he is rifen, or until other prefcribed ceremonies have been
performed. Fixing the eyes conftantly on the fun is another
mode. See Surya.

TAPASSANT, among Hunters, denotes lurking, or
Jquatting. Hence alfo, to tappy, is to lie hid, as deer may do.

TAPA-TACSO, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 45
miles N.E. of Laffa.

TAPAUACA, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Darien; 40 miles E.S.E. of St. Maria de Darien.

TAPAYAXIN, in Zoology, the name of a very remarks
able fpecies of lizard, called by Hernandez the Jacertus
orbicularis.

It is not of the long and flender fhape of the common
lizards, but as broad as it is long, and much refembling the
ray-fifh in fhape, though feldom exceeding four inches in
length or breadth. It is a cartilaginous lizard, of a very
beautiful variety of colours, always very cold to the touch,
and fo fluggifh a creature, that it often will not move out of
its place even on touching it. Its head is exceedingly hard
and elate, and has a fort of crown of prickles for its de-
fence ; yet it is a perfeCtly harmlefs animal, and fo far from
haying the fear of man, and fhynefs that other beafts have,
that it loves to be taken up and played with, and will ftand
perfeétly ftill, and feem very happy while played with. Her-
nandez, lib. ix. cap. 16.

TAPE-Wonrm, a {pecies of worm breeding in the human
bowels, and called by authors tenia, and lumbricus latus, or
the broad worm. See TnIa.

The Greek and’ Roman phyficians, as well as thofe of
our own time, have defcribed thofe forts of worms to which
the human bowels are fubjeé&t. The common long worms,
which refemble earth-worms; the afcarides, or fmall worms;
and this tape-worm, which they have alfo called vermis cucur-
bitinus, or the gourd-worm, from its refembling, in fome
degree, the feeds of that fruit.

The interpreters of fome of the Greek phyficians have,
however, been guilty of a great error, in confounding the
gourd-worms and the afcarides together, though nothing
can be more unlike. The ancients ae to have had a very
juft opinion of this animal in calling it vermis cucurbitinus,
fince it is plain by this, that they underftood every joint, as
we call them, of this creature, to be a diftin@ worm; and
what we call a fingle worm, to be a long feries of thefe
worms, joined together end to end.

The true hiftory of this animal is, that it is fhort and
broad. What is called a link of the long worm is really a
diftin@ worm; and when one of thefe multiplies in the
bowels, its young adhere to it, and to each other endwife,
fo as to form a fort of chain, which lengthens as they con—

tinue

TAP

tinue to increafe, and in fine becomes immoderately long.
Hence it is that the breaking, as it is called, of this worm,
does not deftroy it, and that the voiding large pieces of itis
no cure, fince it {till recovers that length again by new young
ones. Every feparate link of fuch a chain, if examined, is
found to be entire, lively, and brifk, and not at all injured
by the feparation.

Dr. Tyfon, in the Phil. Tranf. N° 146, gives a curious
account of this worm; it is always fingle; it lies varioufly
convoluted, being fometimes as long as all the guts, and
fometimes it very much exceeds that length. Olaus Bor-
richius aflures us, that a patient of his, in a year’s time,
voided eight hundred feet in meafure of this worm, Seong?
in that length he did not meet with the head ; in voiding, the
patient always obferved it to break off.

Dr. Tyfon parallels this cafe with that of a pace of
his, who difcharged vaft quantities of this worm for feveral
years, but in various pieces, of two, three, four, fix, or more
yards long, but all put together, would (he fays) much ex-
ceed the Pagth of that of Borrichius.

The joints in this worm are very numerous. In one of
twenty-four feet long, Dr. Tyfon numbered five hundred
and feven joints. Above the middle of the edges of each
joint, he obferved a protuberant orifice. Thofe orifices he
takes for fo many mouths; the beft microfcopes difcovering

no mouth in that part which ufually paffes for the head. .

This worm is common in moft kinds of animals, as dogs,
oxen, crabs, herrings, pikes, &c.

Some authors have afferted, that it is not one, but many
worms linked together, and included in a {polium of the
inteftines; and that this fpolium is not animated, but
receives its fenfe and motion from a fort of vermiculi cucur-
bitini enclofed in it. This Gabucinus, de Lumb. Com.
fays, he has plainly difcovered; but Dr. Tyfon abundantly
evinces the contrary.

Authors who have treated of thefe worms as a difeafe,
have given a canine appetite, or unnatural appetite to food,
as one of the fymptoms ; but this is wrong, oe it has never
been found, in reality, that thefe worms, even where moft
numerous, have at all increafed the natural appetite; and
indeed it is very difficult to judge of their being in the body
by fymptoms, fince they occafion none which are not alfo
common in many other difeafés. Many people have had
them a long courfe of time, without being fenfibly hurt by
them; and there has never been known an inftance of their
occafioning any one’s death, or indeed any confiderable dif-
order.

Fern-root has been long known as aremedy againft worms.
See Difeafes of Inrants, and Worms.

However, it was funk into negleét till a few years ago,
when it again came into notice, by being difcovered to be
the remedy which had become greatly celebrated in Switzer-
land as a fpecific in the cure of the tenia or tape-worm. The
fecret was purchafed by the king of France, after its
efficacy had been attefled upon Pa 5 by fome of the princi-
pal phyficians at Paris.

the following has been publifhed as the mode of its ex-
hibition. After the patient has been prepared by an
emollient clyfter, and a fupper of panada with butter and
falt, he is direéted to take in bed in the morning a dofe of
two or three drachms of the powder of male fern-root. The
dofe to infants is only one drachm. The powder muft be
wafhed down with a dranght of water, but nothing elfe
muft be taken till two hours after, when a bolus of
calomel, joined with fome of the ftrongeit cathartics, is to
he ae If this does not operate, it muft be followed by
a dofe of purging falts. By this mcthod the worm is

T A

commonly expelled in a few hours. If the trial does not ~
fucceed, the procefs muft be repeated at due intervals.
Lewis’s Mat. Med. by Aikin, 1784.

TAPEANDURIAN, in Geography, a town on the E.
coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 1° 24!. E. long.
II ° t

PAPEANTAN, a fmall ifland in the Soolbo Archi-
pelago. N.lat. 6° 15'. E. long. 122°). :

TAPECON, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the
fifh generally called the uranofcopus, or itar-gazer. :

TAPEINIA, in Botany, a little plant of the ftraits of
Magellan, fo named by Commerfon, from tazeswos, Aumble, or
low; Juli. 59. This is the /xia pumila of Forfter, Pl.
Magell. 11. t. 2, referred by Vahl to Witsenta. . See that
article. :

TAPER, Tarerine, is underftood of a piece of timber, -
or the like, when broad at one end, and gradually diminifhing
to the other ; as is the cafe in pyramids, cones, &c.

To meafure taper timber, &c. fee Stipine-Rule.

Taver-Bored is applied to a piece of ordnance, when it is
wider at the mouth than towards the breech.

Taper alfo denotes a kind of tall wax-candle, placed in a
candleftick, and burnt at funeral proceffions, and in other
church folemnities.

Tapers are made of different fizes; in fome places, as
Italy, &c. they are cylindrical ; but in moft other countries,
as England, France, &c. they are conical or taper; whence
poffibly the name; unlefs we rather choofe to derive taper
in the adjective fenfe from the fubftantive taper, in the Saxon
tapen or tapon, cereus, wax-candle. ; ein

Both kinds are pierced at bottom, for a pin in the candle-
{tick to enter.

The ufe of lights in religious ceremonies is of a long
ftanding ; the ancients, we know, ufed flambeaux in their
facrifices, and particularly in the myfteries of Ceres; a
they had tapers placed before the ftatues of their gods. _

Some fuppofe that it was in imitation of ‘this
ceremony, that lights were firft introduced into the Chriftian
church; others take it, that the Chriftians borrowed the
practice from the Jews; but recourfe need not be had to
the one or the other. Doubtlefs, as in the firft ages of
Chriftianity, they had their meetings in obfcure fubterraneous
vaults, there was a neceflity for tapers, &c.; and there was
even occafion for them after they had the liberty of building
churches, thofe being contrived in fuch a manner as only to
receive very little light, that they might infpire the greater
awe and refpect by the obfcurity.

This original of tapers in churches is the moft natural ;
but it is now a long time fince the ofe of tapers, which
neceflity firft introduced, is become a mere ceremony.
St. Paulinus, who lived at the beginning of the fifth cen-
tury, obferves, that the Chriftians of his days were fo fond
of = ag that they even ponies them in their churches,

ere are two ways Of making tapers, the i
ladle, the fecond by ol Sua ae wah

In the firft, after the wicks (which are ufually half co
half flax) have been well ae and cut of i due ie
a dozen of them are hung, at equal diftances, around an.
iron hoop, direéily over a large copper bafon full of melted
wax. 2

Then taking an iron ladleful of the wax, they pour it
gently over the wicks, a little below the tops of them, ane
after another; fo that, the wax running down them, they
become foaked and covered with it, and the furplus re~
turns into the bafon, under which is a pan of coals to kee
it in fufion. Pp
.. Thus they continue to caft on more and more wax for ten

or

ASP

or twelve times, till the tapers be brought to the required
dimenfions. The firft caft only foaks the wick, the fecond
begins to cover it, and the reft give it the form and thick-
nefs ; in order to which, they take care that every caft, after
the fourth, be made lower and lower below the wicks to
make them taper. The tapers, thus formed, are laid, while
yet hot, one againft another, in a feather-bed, folded double,
to preferve them foft; and afterwards taken out thence, one
after another, to be rolled on a long {mooth table, with an
oblong inftrument of box, polifhed at the bottom, and fur-
nifhed with a handle aboye.

The taper thus rolled and polifhed, a piece of its larger
end is cut off, and a conical hole bored in it, with a boxen
inftrument, into which the pin or point of the candleftick is
to be received.

While the broach is yet in the hole, they ufe to ftamp
the maker’s name and the weight of the taper, with a boxen
ruler, on which proper characters are cut. The taper is then
hung up to harden, after which it is fit for ufe.

Making of Tapers by Hand.—The wicks being difpofed,
as in the former manner, they begin to foften the wax, by
working it in hot water, in a narrow, deep, copper veflel.
They then take a quantity of this wax out with the hand,
and apply it gradually on the wick, which is faftened to a
hook in the wall, at the end oppofite to the collet ; fo that
they begin to form the taper by the large end, and proceed,
fill leffening the thicknefs to the neck or collet.

The reft is performed after the fame manner as in tapers
made with the ladle, except that they do not lay them in
the feather-bed, but roll themon the table as faft as they are
formed.

Two things there are to be obferved in the two kinds of
tapers; the firft, that, in the whole procefs of tapers with
the ladle, they ufe water to moiften the table, and other
inftruments ufed therein, that the wax may not ftick; and

at, in the other, they ufe oil of olives, or lard, for the
fame end.

Taper, Pa/chal, among the Romaniffs, is a large taper,
on which the deacon applies five bits of frankincenfe, in
holes made for the purpofe, in form of a crofs; and
which he lights with new fire in the ceremony of Eafter-
Saturday.

The Pontifical makes pope Zofimus the author of this
ufage; but Baronius will have it more ancient; and
quotes a hymn of Prudentius to prove it. That pope he
fuppofes to have only eftablifhed the ufe of it in parifh-
churches, which till then had been reitrained to greater
churches,

F. Papebroch explains the original of the pafchal taper
more diftinély in his “¢ Conatus Chroni¢o-Hittoricus,”’ &c. It
feems that, though the council of Nice regulated the day on
which Eafter was to be celebrated, the patriarch of Alexan-
dria was enjoined to make a yearly canon of it, and to fend it
tothe pope. Asall the othermoveable feafts were to be regu-
lated by that of Eafter, a catalogue of them was made every
year; and this was written on a taper, cereus, which was
leffed in the church with much folemnity.

This taper, according to the abbot Chaftelain, was not a
wax-candle made to be burnt; it had no wick, nor was it
any thing more than a kind of column of wax, made on pur-
pofe to write the lift of moveable feafts on; and which
would fuffice to hold that lift for the {pace of a year.

For, among the ancients, when any thing was to be
written to laft for ever, they engraved it on marble or fteel ;
when it was to laft a long while, they wrote it on Egyptian
paper ; and when it was only to laft a fhort time, they con-
tented themfelves to write it on wax. In procefs of time,

Vor. XXXV.

Lt ZAGP

they came to write the moveable feafts on paper, but they
ftill faitened it to the pafchal taper; which Seiad was eid
ferved fora long time at Notre Dame, in Rouen, and through:
out the order of Cluny. Such is the original of the benedic-
tion of the pafchal taper.

TAPERA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of fwallow. Sec
Hirunpo. :

Tavera dos Bocas, in Geography, a town of Brafil, in the
Caps of Para, on the Guanapu ; 90 miles S.W. of

ara.

TAPERI, a town of Peru; 16 miles N-E. of Cocha.

TAPESTRY, or Tapisrry, a curious kind of manu-
facture, ferving to adorn a chamber, or other apartment,
by hanging or lining the walls of it.

Some ufe tapeftry as a general name for all kinds of
hanging, whether woven or wrought with the needle ; and
whether filken, woollen, linen, leathern, or of aper, (in
which they are countenanced by the etymology of the word,
formed from the French tapiffer, to line; of the Latin tapes,
a cover of a wall or bed, &c.) But, in the common ufe
of our language, the term is now appropriated to a kind of
woven hangings of wool and filk, frequently raifed and en-
riched with gold and filver, reprefenting figures of men,
animals, land{capes, &c.

The invention of tapeftry feems to have come from the
Levant ; and what makes this the more probable is, that
formerly, the workmen concerned in it were called, at leaft
in France, Sarazins, or Sarazinois.

Some have fuppofed that the Englifh and Flemifh, who
were the firft that excelled in it, might bring the art with
them from fome of the croifades or expeditions againft the
Saracens. Accordingly they fay, that thofe two nations
were the firft who fet on foot this noble and rich manufac-
ture in Europe, which afterwards became one of the fineft
ornaments of palaces and churches, &c. At leaft, if they
be not allowed the inventors, they have the honour of being
the reftorers, of this curious and admirable art, which gives
a kind of life to wools and filks, in fome refpeéts not inferior
to the paintings of the beft mafters. However, it does
not appear at what precife era this manufacture was intro-
duced into Europe ; nor is it certain to whom it was owing.

Guicciardin, in his “* Defcription and Hiftory of the

’ Netherlands,”’ printed at Antwerp in 1582, afcribes the

invention of the art of making tapeftry hangings to the
Netherlanders, but he does not affign the time of the
invention.

The art of weaving tapeftry was brought to England
by William Sheldon, efq. about the end of the reign of
Henry VIII. See Dugdale’s Warwickfhire in Stemmate
Sheldon, p. §84.

In the reign of king James, the manufacture of tapeftry
was fet up at Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, indeed, in his
hiftory of that county, dates its inftitution in the fubfequent
reign ; but Lloyd (State Worthies, p. 953.) is not only
pofitive for the former era, but affirms, that at the motion
of king James himfelf, who gave two thoufand pounds to-
wards the undertaking, fir Francis Crane erected the houfe
at Mortlake for the execution of the defign; and this is
confirmed by authentic evidence ; for, in Rymer’s Feedera,
yol. xviii. p. 66, there is an acknowledgment from king
Charles in the firft year of his reign, viz. 1625, that he owes
fix thoufand pounds to fir Francis Crane for tapeftry ; and
he grants to him two thoufand pounds yearly, for ten years,
towards the maintenance of the faid work.

Thefe works at Mortlake, which at firft had been con-

duGted after old patterns, were afterwards formed from
defigns,

TAPESTRY.

defigns, both in hiftory and grotefque, furnifhed by Francis
Chey, and thus ean to Soule perfection.

Prot the deed above recited, it is plain that the manu-
“fature was then arrived at great perfection. See Mr.
Walpole’s Anecdotes of Painting in England, vol. ii. p. 36.

In the year 1663, a ftatute was enacted (cap. 15.) for the
encouragement of the linen and tapeftry manufactures of
England, and difcouragement of the very great importation
of foreign linen and tapeftry.

The firft eftablifhment of a tapeftry manufaéture at
Paris was under Henry IV., in the year 1606 or 1607, by
means of feveral excellent artifts, whom he invited from
Flanders.

But this fell with the death of that prince. Under
Lewis XIV. the manufaéture was retrieved by the care and
addrefs of the great M. Colbert, to whom is owing the efta-
blifhment of the Gobelins, a royal tapeftry manufactory,
which has produced works of this kind fearcely inferior to
the fineft Englifh or Flemifh tapeftry, either with regard to
the defign, the colours, or the ftrength.

In this manufactory both wool and filk are ufed, and
fometimes gold and filver. The fineft paintings may be
copied in this work, and the greateft’ mafters have been
employed in draughts for the tapeftry weavers.

The weavers of the Gobelins work behind, or on the
wrong fide of the loom, which ftands upright, and the pat-
tern is placed on either lide of the workman.

As the tapeftry of the Gobelins is made of pieces of a
certain breadth only, there are other workmen, called ren-
trayeurs, or fine-drawers, who are employed in fewing or
fine-drawing the feveral parts together, fo that no feam is
difcerniblé, but the whole appéars as one defign, like a piece
of filk from a loom. Thiele workmen are alfo ufeful in
mending and cleaning tapeftry when damaged or fullied.

The tapeftry-men diftinguifh two kinds of work; viz.
tapeltry oF the high and the low warp, though the difference
is rather in the manner of working, than in the work itfelf,
which is, in effeét, the fame in both, only the looms, and
confequently the warps, are differently fttuated; thofe of
the Jow warp being placed flat, and parallel to the horizon,
and thofe, on the contrary, of the sigh warp, erected per-
pendicularly.

The French have had three confiderable tapeftry manu-
factories befides that of the Gobelins ; the firft at Aubuffon,
in Auvergne ; the fecond at Felletin, in the Upper Marche ;
and the third at Beauvois: they were all equally eftablifhed
for the high and the low warp ; but all laid afide the former,
excepting that of the Gobelins.

There are admirable low warps in Flanders, generally
exceeding thofe of France; the chief and almoft only

Flemith manufactories were at Bruffels, Antwerp, Oudenard,
Lifle, Tournay, Bruges, and Valenciennes.

At Bruffels and Antwerp they fucceeded both in human
figures and animals, and in Waist and that both with
refpect to the defigning and the workmanthip. At Oude-
nard their landfcapes and animals were good, but their
human figures not well executed. Lifle, and the other
cities named, came behind Oudenard. The French manu-
fa&ture of Felletin has done tolerably well in landfeapes,
Aubuffon in figures, and Beauvois in both.

The ufual widths of tapeltries were from two ells to
three ells and a half, Paris meafure.

The manufacture of tapeftry of each kind (though lefs
fafhionable and in ufe than formerly) is too curious to be
here paft over without a fhort defcription. We hall give
each under its feparate article.

Manufa&ture of Tapefiry of the High Warp.-—The loom

on which this is wrought is placed perpendicularly: it
confifts of four principal pieces ; two long planks or cheeks
of wood, and two thick rollers or beams. . The planks are
fet upright, and the beams acrofs, one at top, and the
other at bottom, a foot diftance from the ground. -They
have each their trunnions, by which they are fufpended on
the planks, and are turned with bars. In each roller is a

cove, from one end to the other, capable of containmg a
Ee round piece of woed, faftened in it with hooks. Its
ufe is to tie the ends of the warp to. The warp, which is
a kind of worfted, or twifted woollen thread, is wound on
the upper roller ; and the work, as fait as woven, is wound
on the lower.

Withinfide the planks, which are feven or eight feet high,
fourteen or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick,
are holes pierced from top to bottom, in which are put thick
pieces of iron, with hooks at one end, ferving to fuftain the
coat-{tave: the pieces of iron have alfo holes pierced in them,
by putting a pin in which, the ftave is drawn nearer, or fet
farther off ; and thus the coats or threads are itretched and
loofened at pleafure. The coat-ftave is about three inches.
diameter, and runs all the length of the loom; on this are
fixed the coats, or threads, which make the threads of the
warp crofs each other. It has much the fame effeé& here as
the {pring-ftave and treddles have in the common looms.
The coats are little threads faftened to each thread of the
warp, with a kind of fliding-knot, which forms a fort of
math or ring. They ferve to keep the warp open, forthe
paflages of broaches wound with filks, woollens, or other
matters ufed in the piece of tapettry.

Laitly, there is a number of little flicks, of different
lengths, but all about an inch diameter, which the workman
keeps by him in bafkets, to ferve to make the threads of the
warp crofs each other, by paffing them acrofs: and that the
threads thus crofled may retain their proper fituation,
packthread is run among the threads above the ftick. ;

The loom thus formed, and mounted with its warp, the
firft thing the workman does, is to draw, on the threads of
this warp, the principal lines and ftrokes of the defign to be
reprefented on the piece of tapeftry ; which is done by ap-
plying cartoons made from the painting he intends to copy,
to the fide that is to be the wrong fide of the piece ; and then
with a black-lead pencil following and tracing out the con-
tours of them on the thread of the right fide ; fo that the
{trokes appear equally both before and behind. As to the
original defign the work is to be finifhed by, it is hung u
behind the workman, and wound ona long {taff, from i
a piece is unrolled, from time to time, as the workman
proceeds. ‘

Befides the loom, &c. here defcribed, there are three other
principal inftruments required for working the filk, or wool
of the woof within the threads of the warp. Thefe are a
broach, a reed, and an iron needle. }

The broach is of hard wood, feven or eight inches long,
and two-thirds of an inch thick, ending in a point, with a
little handle. It fervesas a fhuttle, the filks, woollens, gold,
or filver, to be ufed in the work, being wound on it. The
reed, or comb, is alfo of wood, eight or nine inches long,
and an inch thick at the back; whence it ufually grows
par ap lefs, to the extremity of the teeth, which are more
or lefs apart, according to the greater or lefs d -
nefs of a intended oak: es Poke ae

_Laitly, the needle is in form of a common needle, onl
bigger and longer. Its ufe is to prefs clofe the wool mat
fil _ when there is any line or colour that does not-fit
well.

All things being prepared for the work, and the work-

mare

TAPESTRY.

mian ready to begin, he places himfelf on the wrong fide of
the piece, with his back towards the defign; fo that he
works, as it were, blindfold, feeing nothing of what he does ;
and being obliged to quit his poft, and go to the other
fide of the loom, whenever he would view and examine the
piece, to correét it with his preffing-needle.

To put any filk, &c. in the warp, he firft turns and
looks at his defign ; then taking a broach full of the proper
colour, he places it among the threads of the warp, which
he brings acrofs each other with his fingers, by means of the
coats or threads faitened to the ftaff: this he repeats every
time he is to change his colour.

The filk, or wool, being placed, he beats it with his reed,
or comb ; and when he has thus wrought in feveral rows
over each other, he goes to fee the effect they have, in
order to reform the contours with his needle, if there be
occation.

As the work advances, they roll it up on the lower
beam, and unroll as much warp, from the upper beam, as
fuffices them to continue the piece : the like they do of the
defign behind them. When the pieces are wide, feveral
workmen may be employed at once.

We have but two things to add: the firft, that this high-

warp tapeftry goes on much more flowly than the low-warp,
and takes almoft double the time and trouble. The fecond,
that all the difference the eye can obferve between the two
kinds confifts in this, that m the low warp there is a red
fillet, about one-twelfth of an inch broad, running on each
fide from-top to bottom; which is wanting in the high
warp.
Manufaéure of Tapefiry of the Low Warp.—The loom,
or frame, on which the low warp, is wrought, is much like
that of the weaver’s: the principal parts of it are two
ftrong pieces of wood forming the fides of the loom, and
bearing a beam, or roller, at each end: they are fuftained at
bottom with other ftrong pieces of wood, in manner of
treftles ; and to keep. them the firmer, they are likewife
faftened to the floor with a kind of buttrefles, which prevent
any fhaking, though there are fometimes four or five work-
men leaning on the fore-beam at once.

The rollers have each their trunnions, by which they are
fuftained: they are turned by large iron pins three feet long.

Along each beam runs a groove, in which is placed a wich, a *

piece of wood of about two inches diameter, and almoft of
the length of the roller: this piece fills the groove entirely,
and is fattened in it, from {pace to fpace, by wooden pins.
To the two wiches are faftened the two extremities of the
warp, which is wound on the farther roller ; and the work,
as it advances, on the nearer.

Acrofs the two fides, almoft in the middle of the loom,
paffes a wooden bar, which -fuftains little pieces of wood,
not unlike the beam of a balance: to thefe pieces are
fattened ftrings, which bear certain {pring-ftaves, with which
the workman, by means of two treddles, under the loom on
which he fets his feet, gives. a motion to the coats, and makes
the threads of the warp rife and fall alternately. Each loom
has more or fewer of thefe fpring-ftaves, and each ftaff
more or fewer coats, as the tapeitry confifts of more or
fewer threads,

The defign or painting, the tapeftry-man is to follow, is
placed underneath the warp; where it is fuftained from
{pace to {pace with ftrings, by means of which the defign is

rought nearer the warp.

The loom being mounted, there are two inftruments ufed
in working of it: wiz. the reed, and the flute. The flute
does the office of the weaver’s fhuttle ; it is made of an hard
polifhed wood, three or four lines thick at the ends, and

fomewhat more in the middle, and three or four inches long.
On it are wound the filks, or other matters, to be ufed as °
the woof of the tapeftry. The comb or reed is of wood or
ivory ; it has ufually teeth on both fides ; it is about an inch
thick in the middle, but diminifhes each way to the ex-
tremity of the teeth: it ferves to beat the threads of the
woof clofe to each other, as faft as the workman has paffed
and placed them with his flute among the threads of the
warp.

, The workman is feated on a bench before the loom, with
his breaft againit the beam, only a cufhion or pillow between
them ; and, in this potture, feparating, with his fingers, the
threads of the warp, that he may fee the defign under-
neath, and taking a flute, mounted with a proper colour,
he paffes it among the threads, after having raifed or ~
lowered them, by means of the treddles moving the fpring-
ftaves and coats.

Lattly, To prefs and clofe the threads of the filk or yarn,
&c. thus placed, he ftrikes each courfe (i.e. what the
flute leaves in its pafling and coming back again) with the
reed.

What is very remarkable in the manufaéture of the low
warp, is, that it is all wrought on the wrong fide; fo that
the workman cannot fee the right fide of his tapeftry, till
the piece be finifhed and taken out of the loom.

M. Le Blon, in endeavouring to fix the true harmony of
colouring in painting, found that all vifible objeéts may be
reprefented by the three primitive colours, red, yellow, and
blue; becaufe out of thefe, all others, even black itfelf,
may be compounded.

From the principle of producing any vifible objet with
a {mall number of colours, and from obferving the com-
pounded colours which were reflected from two pieces of filk
of different colours, placed near to one another, he arrived
at the {kill of producing in the loom all that the art of paint-
ing requires. In weaving, indeed, he hath been obliged to
make ufe of white and black threads, befides red, yellow,
and blue ; and though he found that he was able to imitate
any picture with thefe five colours, yet for cheapnefs and
expedition, and to add a brightnefs where it was required,
he found it more convenient to make ufe of feveral inter~
mediate degrees of colours.

In his new way of weaving tapeftry in the loom with a
draw-boy, it may be performed almoft as expeditioufly as
fine brocades ; for when the loom is once fet and mounted,
any common draught-weaver, unacquainted with drawing or
painting, and indeed hardly knowing what figure he is about,
may exactly produce what the painter hath reprefented in
the original pattern: and thus a piece of tapeitry may be
woven in a month or two, which, in the common way of
working, would take up feyeral years; and what in the
common way cofts a thoufand pounds, may, by this means,
be afforded finer and better for a hundred,

The main fecret of this confiits in drawing the patterns,
from which any common draught-weaver can mount the
loom ; and when that is done, the piece may be made of any
fize, by only widening the reeds and the warp; and a re-
verfe may be made with the fame eafe ; which is done by the
boy’s pulling the lafhes up again in the fame order in which
he pulled them down before: by which contrivance the
tapeftry may be fuited to any room, whether the light comes
in on the right, or on the left, The patterns are painted
upon paper, on which are printed {quares from copper~
plates, and. thefe fubdivided by as many lines as anfwer to
the threads of the warp, which run lengthwife of the piece ;
then they try how many threads of the fhoot anfwer in
breadth to every me the fquares. Every aise:

2 a

TAPESTRY.

of the warp goes through a {mall brafs ring called a male, or
through a loop in the leifh, and hath a {mall long weight or
lin hung below, to counterbalance the packthreads,
which going from the top of the rings or loops, are paffed
over the pullies in the table direétly over the loom, and are
eontinued nearly in an horizontal pofition on one fide of the
loom to a convenient diftance ; where they are all fpread on
a crofs piece faftened to two ftaples: thefe are called the
tail of the mounture ; and from each of thefe packthreads,
juft by the fide of the loom, are faftened other packthreads,
ealled fimples, which defcend to the ground; fo that by
pulling thefe fimple cords, you raife any of the threads of
the warp at pleafure: wherefore they faiten a loop er pot-
lart to as many of thefe fimple cords as there are threads of
the warp to be pulled up at every fhoot, or every throw of
the fhuttle ; by which means the fhoot fhews itfelf on the
right fide, where the warp is pulled up: and in ordering
this, they are guided by the pattern, on which they count
the diftances of the fubdivifions, which contain the fame
colours in the fame line, and can be fhot at once: then they
faften potlarts to the feveral fimple cords that draw up the
rings, through which thofe threads of the warp run, which
are to lie behind this colour; they tie all thefe loops to-
gether, and faften a piece of worfted or filk to the knot, of
the fame colour that the workman is to throw; and the
boy, when he pulls each loop, names the colour, that the
weaver may take the proper fhuttle, and fo on for every
eolour to be thrown. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. vi. p. 469, &c.
To conneétion with this fubjeét, we are naturally led to
ive a brief account of the manufa¢ture of carpets. This is
Eid to have been introduced into France from Perfia, in the
reign of Henry IV., where it has been diftinguithed by ex-
traordinary encouragement. The moft confiderable manu-
faétory of this kind was that of Chaillot, or the royal manu-
faétory of La Savoniere, or the Soap-houfe, about a league
from Paris. This manufaéture was altogether of wool, and
worked in the manner of velvet. All forts of figures of
animals may be imitated in this work, but fruits and flowers
anfwer beft ; and it is moft fuccefsfully applied to the manu-
faéture of carpets and all forts of fereens.

The carpets are, in fome refpeét, wrought by the upright
way of tapeftry. The two rollers are placed the fame way :
the warp 1s braced from the top downward ; the chain, with
its loops, keeps all the threads of the warp equally per-
pendicular ; the ftick, which facilitates their crofling, runs
through them in the fame manner, and feparates the fore-
moft threads from the reft; the lizier-pole holds all the
ftrings, which ferve to draw the fore-threads in their turns,
and then the oppofite threads, in order to infert the fpindles
of wool. But the method of working in this manufactory
differs from the upright way of tapeltry in the following
particulars,

The warp is divided, both before and behind, into parcels
of ten threads, nine white and one blue ; which is regularly
continued through the whole width of the piece. The
weaver works on the fore-fide, and confequently fees what he
does. ‘The defign or pattern is traced in its proper colours
on cartons, tied about the workman, who looks at it every
moment, becaufe every ftitch is marked upon it, as it ought
to be in his work. By this means he always knows “gn
colours and fhades he is to ufe, and how many ftitches of the
fame colour. In this he is affilted by {quares, into which
the whole defign is divided ; each fquare 18 fubdivided into
ten vertical lines, correfponding with each parcel of ten
threads of the warp; and befides, each fquare is ruled with
ten horizontal lines, crofling the vertical lines at right angles.
She workman having placed his {pindles of seid i,
1°

begins to work on the firft horizontal line of one of the
{quares. Thefe lines marked on the carton are not traced
on the warp, for this would be endlefs; becaufe an iron-
wire, which is longer than the width of a parcel of ten
threads, fupplies the place of a crofs line. This wire is
managed by a crook at one end, at the workman’s right
hand ; towards the other end it is flatted into a fort of kmife,
with a back and edge, and grows wider to the point. The
workman fixes his iron wire, or red, horizontally on the
warp, by ae fome turns of a fuitable thread of the,
woof round it, which he paffes forward and backward, be
hind a fore-thread of the warp, and then behind the oppofite
thread, drawing them in their turn by their leifhes. After-
wards, if it be neceffary, he brings his woof-thread round
the wire, in order to begin again to thruft it into the warp.
He continues in this manner to cover the iron rod or wire,
and to fill up a line to the tenth thread of the warp, which
isthe blue one. He is at liberty either to ftop here, or go
on with the fame crofs line in the next divifion. Accordi
as he paffes the thread of the woof round the iron wire,
into the warp, the threads of which he caufes to crofs one
another at every inftant; when he comes to the end of the
line, he takes care to ftrike in, or clofe again all the ftitches
with an iron reed, whofe teeth freely enter between the
empty threads of the warp, and which is heavy enough te
ftrike in the woof he has ufed. This row of ftitches is again
clofed and levelled, by a dweet of blue thread doubled,
which the workman puts into the warp, fliding his hand
over the whole length of line he has wrought. e crofles
the fame threads of the warp, and then rete through
them another fingle blue thread. He beats in thefe two
threads, one after another, with his reed ; thefe dweets of
crofs thread, which are a fupport to each line, will be hid
by the pile om the fore-fide, and they indeed diminifh the
beauty of the wrong fide; but this is of no confequence-
This done, the workman draws the iron rod or knife out of
the loops cf the woof that covered it ; and as it is wider to-
wards its end, thefe loops refift its paflage ; but being edged
at its fore part, it cuts them through. Then the workman
with his left hand lays a ftrong pair of hears along the
finifhed line, cuts off the loofe hairs, and thus forms a raw of
tufts perfectly even, which, together with thofe before and
after it, form the fhag. One line of this fort comprehend-
ing the row of ftitches and woollen pile, with the two blue
threads which fupport them, fomewhat furpafs in thicknefs
the fpace between the firft and fecond crofs line of a fquare.
= this means the workman always fees what he is doing.
¢ follows, ftitch for ftitch and colour for colour, the plan
of his pattern which he is at, and. paints magnificently, with-
out having the leaft notion of painting or drawing.

The manufacture of carpets, after the manner of Chaillot,
was introduced into London in the year 1750, by two
workmen who left the manufaétory in difguft, and came
here to procure employment. They were encouraged and
furnifhed with materials by Mr. Moore, to whofe affiduity
and zeal the eftablifhment of this fort of manufaéture has
been principally owing. However, thefe men afterwards
connected themfelves with a Mr. Peter Parifot, who, under
the patronage, and by means of the pecuniary afliftance of
his royal highnefs the duke of Cumberland, purfued the
manufacture of a carpet already begun at Paddington.
This undertaking was foon removed to Fulham, and, under
the munificence of the duke, promifed ta be durable and’
advantageous. In 1752, Parifot, the undertaker, propofed
a plan of fubfeription, the nature of which it is now needlefs
to recite ; as the whole fcheme, as far as he was concerned
imit, foon came to nothing. But Mr. Moore, being pro-

vided

ee ee ee ee ee ee ene

ui Wee eh &

vided with the neceflary materials, and engaging proper
workmen, and rifking a very confiderable expence, fuc-
ceeded in eftablifhing this important and ufeful manufature,
infomuch that, in 1757, he obtained a premium from the
Society of Arts, &c. for the beft carpet in imitation of the
Turkey carpets; and by his ingenuity and perfeverance in
bringing this manufaéture to perfection, it is now arrived at
a very high degree of reputation.

Mr. Whitby and Mr. Paffavant were alfo honoured with
premiums for carpets of their manufacture by the Society
of Arts in 1757 and 1758. We have alfo manufactories
for carpets that are much efteémed at Axminiter and Wil-
ton; not to mention thofe of Kidderminiter and other

laces.

TAPETI, ia Zoology, the name of an animal common
in the Weft Indies, and called by fome cuniculus Americanus,
the American rabbit.. In the Linnean fyftem, this animal
is a {pecies of hare, or /epus Brajilienfis. (See Lepus.) It
has large ears like the common hare ; a white ring round the
neck, though fome have not this ring ; the face of a reddifh
colour; the chin white, the eyes black ; colour of the body
like that of the common hare, but darker ; the body whitith,
without a tail. Thefe animals inhabit Brafil, live in woods,
do not burrow, are very prolific, and afford good meat.
The tapeti is found alfo in Mexico, where it is called citi.
Pennant.

TAPHICESIUS Lapis, a name given by Pliny and
the anetents to a {pecies of etites, or eagle-{tone, found in a

lace of that name near Leucadia.

‘TAPHNEUS, a word ufed by fome writers to exprefs
any thing when depurated or purified to the greateft degree,
as the falts, by repeated folutions and crytftallizations, and
the like. Paracelfus ufes it for a fpecies of earth, the things
produced from which, he fays, never alter their nature by
calcination or reverberation, or the like operations.

TAPHNIS, in dncient Geography, a town of Egypt,
mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah, to which he and the
Ifraelites that were with him retired.

TAPHRA, 2a town fituated in the ifthmus of the Tau-
ric Cherfonefus, mentioned by Pliny and Strabo.

TAPHROS, a name which was given to the ftrait that
feparates the ifland of Sardinia from that of Cortfica.

TAPHRURA, or Tapura, atown of Africa Propria,
upon the gulf of Numidia.

TAPHUA, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Juda.
—A\lfo, a town of Paleftine, which belonged to the tribe
of Ephraim, and was fituated upon the frontier of that of
Manaffeh.

TAPIA, in Botany, an American name, adopted by
Plumier from Pifo. See Crateva.

Tapra, in Geography, atown of South America, in the
kmgdom of New Granada, and province of St. Martha.

TAPIAN Pornt, 2 cape on the W. coaft of Mindanao.
N.lat.7°. E. long. 124° 30!.

TAPIAU, a town of Praffia, in Samland, on the Pregel ;
20 miles E.S.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 54° 36'. E. long.
2E? 13h.

TAPICURU, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
fea, S. lat. 12° 20!.

TA-PI-HOTUN, a town of Corea; 690 miles E. of
Peking. N. lat. 40°zo!. E. long. 125° 22!.

TAPINOSIS, carsvociz, in Rhetoric, the fame with di-
minution ; which fee.

TAPION, Leg, in Geography, a town on the W. coatt
of Hifpaniola; ro miles E. of St. Marc.

TAPIR, or Tapiserere of Marcgrave, in Zoology, the
same of an animal found im fome parts of America, and:

2 AP

called by the Portuguefe anta, by others danta, by Dampier
vache montagnarde, and by others elan, and Jus aquaticus, and
in the tenth edition of the Linnwan Syttem, Aippopotamus ter-
reftris. Gmelin makes it a diftin@ genus; and his generic
charaéters, amended by Dr. Shaw, are as follow 3 front
teeth in both jaws ten ; canine teeth in both jaws fingle, incur-
vated ; grinders in both jaws five on each fide, very broad 3.
feet with three hoofs, and a falfe hoof on the fore-feet.
This animal (Zapir Americanus) is of the fize of a. young
calf, or heifer, and in fhape fomewhat approaching to the
figure of the hog, and the back arched; its head is thicker
than a hog’s, and ends in a fharp ridge at top ; and the male
has a fnout, or fort of probofcis, hanging over the opening
of the mouth, in which he has a very {trong mufcle, ferving
to retraét it at pleafure; the nofe of the female is deftitute
of the probofcis, (this circumftance is doubted by Sonnini,)
and the jaws are of equal length; its eyes are fmall, and
very like thofe of the hog; its ears roundifh, bordered with
white ; and thefe he can draw forward at pleafure ; its lege
are thick, and not longer than thofe of our hogs; its fore-
hoofs are divided into three portions; and a fort of falfé
hoof behind; but its hind-hoofs into three ; its tail is very
fmall; the fkin is hard and folid ; and the hair fhort, and of
a pale brown, and when young, variegated with white fpots;
and along the neck is a briftly mane, an inch and a half high.
It lives in thick woods, on the eaftern fide of South America,
from the ifthmus of Darien to the river of the Amazons ; and
fleeps all day, but at night, or early in the morning, goes out
for its prey: it feeds on vegetables, and is particularly fond
of the ftalks of the fugar-cane; it often takes the water,
and fwims excellently: the natives, in places where it i8
common, eat its flefh, which is faid to be good: the In-
dians fhoot it with poifoned arrows, and cut the fkin into
bucklers. This animal is falacious, flow-footed, and fluggith,
and makes a kind of hifling noife ; but perfeétly harmlefs :
the young are eafily tamed, and may be rendered domettic,
which is fhid to be the cafe in fome parts of Guiana. When
attacked by dogs, it makes a vigorous refiftance. The tapit
produces but one young at a birth, of which it is very care-
ful, leading it at an early age to the fea, and inftruéting it
to fwim. Ray and Pennant.

TAPIRIA, in Botany, Juff. 372, flightly altered from

. the ftill more barbarous Tapirira, Aubl. Guian. 470. t. 188,

which is itfelf an alteration of the Caribbean name Tapiririy
by which this tree is known in Guiana. See JonQuETIA.

TAPIR-TALA, in Geography, a town of Chinefé
Tartary. N. lat. 43° 15'. E. long. 120° 30).

TAPIS. See Tunica.

TAPL, in Geography. See Tope..

TAPLAKEN, a town of Pruffia, in Samland, on the
Pregel; 24 miles E. of Konigfberg.

TAPLEYS, a town of North Carolina; 12 miles N.E.
of Hillfborough.

TAPLINGS, in the Engli/h Salt-Works, the name given
to certain bars of iron which fupport the bottom of the
pan in which the brine is boiled.

Thefe pans are very large, and cover a wide furnace;
but as their width would make them apt to bend in the mid-
die, which would fpoil the working of the falt, there is a
fort of wall of brick carried along the middle of the fur-
nace, and on the top of this are placed thefe taplings: they
are about eight inches high, and from four to fix in thicknefs,
being fmalleft at the top. Thefe are placed at about three
feet diftance one from another, and the wall which’ fupports
them, and which’ is called the mid-feather, is broad at the
bafe, and fo narrow at the top, ae barely to give room’ for
the bafes of the taplings.

TAPOA-

TA?

TAPOAMANAO, in Geography.
Saunveks’s [/land.

TAPOANA, ariver of Brafil, which runs into the fea,
S. lat. 21° 10/.

TAPOCOROI,a river of Brafil, which runs into the fea,
S. lat. 27°.

TAPOGOMEA, in Botany, from the Caribbean name
of one of the fpecies, Tapogomo ; Aubl. Guian. 157. Juff.
208. See CALicocca.

TAPOOKAS, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia, on the Yazoo. N. lat. 35° 57’. W. long.
89° 51’.

TAPOOL, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 5°°37!. E. long: 120° 52!.

TAPOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Myfore ;
15 miles $.S.W. of Darampoory.—Alfo, a river of Hin-
dooftan, which runs into the Cauvery, 4 miles N. of Cave-
ripatam..

TAPOSIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt,
at fome diftance from the fea, between Cynoffema and Pin-
thyna.—Alfo, another town, called Parva Tapofiris, on a
tongue of land bétween the fea and the canal which pafled
from Canopus to Alexandria.

TAPPA, in Geography, one of the {mall Molucca iflands ;
feparated by a narrow channel from Latalatta: on it is a

1 of frefh water; a little to the north of the line.

. long. 127° 5’.

TAPPAHANOCK, a town of the United States
of America, in Virginia, on a {mall river, which runs into
the Rappahanock ; 43 miles N.E. of Richmond. N. lat.
37° 58'. W. long. 76° 55’.

TAPPALANG, a town on the welt coaft of the ifland
of Celebes. S. lat. 2° 25’. E. long. 119° 5.

TAPPAN. See ORANGE-TOWN.

TAPPANOOLY, a fea-port town of the ifland of Su-
matra, fituated on the weft coaft, in the country of Batta,
on a {mall ifland called Punchongeacheeie. The bay is
very deep, capable of containing the united navies of Eu-
rope, and confifting of a number of harbours within one
another. The bay ftretches into the heart of the Batta do-
minions, and its borders are inhabited by that people, who
barter here the produce of their country for fuch articles zs
they want. The Englifh Eaft India company have a fac-
tory here. N. lat. 1° 40’. E. long. 98° 12!.

TAPPI, or Tart, called by the Moors Chedder, a river
of Hindooftan, which, as Thevenot fays, has its fource
ten miles from the little town of Brempare, in the kingdom
and mountains of Deccan, and runs into the fea about 24
leagues below Surat. ‘The Banians and Gentoos efteem this
a very holy river.

TAPPING, the aé& of piercing a hole in a veffel, and
applying a tube, or cannula, in the aperture, for the com-
modious drawing off the liquors contained therein.

Tappine, in Agriculture, isthe making an incifion in the
bark of a tree, and letting out the juice. ES

To tap atree at the root, is to open it round about the
root.

Ratray, the learned Scot, affirms, that he has found by
experiment, that the liquor, which may be drawn from the
birch-tree in the f{pring-time, is equal to the whole weight of
the tree, branches, roots, «and all together,

In the tapping of trees, the juice, taken in from the
earth, afcends from the root ; and, after it is concoéted and
aflimilated in the branches, &c. it defcends, like a liquor in
an alembic, to the orifice or incifion where it iffues out.

One of the moft effectual ways of tapping, fo as to obtain
the greateft quantity of fap in the fhorteit time, is not only

See Sir Charles

gO <

to pierce the bark, or to cut the body of the tree almoft te -

the pith, with a chiffel (as fome have directed), but to bore
it quite through all the circles, on both fides of the pith,
leaving only the outermoft and the bark on the north-eaft
fide unpierced.

This hole is to be bored floping upwards, as large as the

largeft auger will make; and that alfo through and under a
large arm near the ground. So will it not need any ftone to
keep open the orifice, nor tap to direct the fap imto the
receiver.

By this method the tree will, ina fhort time, afford liquor
enough for brewing ; and with fome of this fweet fap, one
buthel of malt will make as good ale as four bufhels of malt
with ordinary water. The large maple, which we call the.
fycamore, is faid to yield the bet brewing fap, its juice
being yery {weet and wholefome. See Beruca. _ :

To preferve the Sap for Brewing.—Infolate it by a conftant
expoiure to the fun in proper veffels, till the reft be gathered
and ready, otherwife it will contract an acidity : when there
is enough, put into it as much very thin cut and hard-toafted
rye-bread, as will ferve to ferment it; and when it works,
take out the bread, and bottle up the liquor. A few cloves

« in each veffel that receives the fap, as it oozes from the tree,

will alfo, certainly, preferve it a twelvemonth. See Dr.
Tonge’s Obf. in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, N° 43, 44.
46. 68. or Abr, vol. ii. p. 673, &c.

TappinG of Oaklings and other Trees, the praétice of cuttin
off the tap-roots of young oaks and other trees or plants ES
that kind. j

It has been noticed by Mr. Nicol, in his work on planting,
that thofe who are in favour of this method, rather than that
of fowing the feeds of thefe forts of trees, fuppofe that
tapping the downward roots of the young plants while they
are in the nurfery plantation, has the power and capability
of making their roots ever afterward have a horizontal ten-
dency in the earth or foil; that in confequence of it they are
not liable to injury by infinuating themfelves downwards into
bad foil ; and that by a aeaen planting of nurfing plants,
to draw them upright, the neceflity of hee them down
is prevented. But that thefe are correct and folid arguments,
he thinks, it is much to be queftioned. No doubt, he fup-
pofes, exifts that tapping is of infinite advantage to all tap-
rooted plants of the tree kind, previous to their Ot =
fince it caufes them to put forth fibres on the upper part of
the root, which they otherwife would not have done ; fittin
them thereby for being tranfplanted into fhallow foils, ate)
for feeking pafturage aS the fuftenance of the plants. But
that the roots will, ever afterwards, have a horizontal ten-
araeys may it is believed, be fairly denied. Every plant,
unlefs conftrained, it is maintained, will follow its own na-
tural inclinations and habits of growth. Nor can all the art
of man prevent a downward tendency in the roots of thefe
forts of tree-plants, and at the fame time allow them depth
of foil. See Tap-Root.

Tarrine of Springs, the practice of boring through the
furface covering materials of land with the auger, and
letting off the hurtful water which is pent up, confined,
and contained in the clayey bed or ftratum below. See
SprinG-Drain.

_ TapprnG, a term applied to an operation which is fome-
times performed on fheep for removing a difeafe of the local
dropfical kind in the head. "
of a very large pin, or a trocar made for the purpofe. See
Sturpy. re

TarpixG, in Mechanics, aterm applied to the making and,

rectifying of female {crews by means of a tap, i. ¢. a ferew
prepared and referved for this purpofe, The procefs, which
3 confilts

It is executed either by means _

EPA

confifts of various manipulations, is minutely defcribed in
* Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. i. p. 160—163. See Screw.

Tappina, in Surgery. See PARACENTESIS.

TAPPOOS, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft of
Sumatra; 25 miles N. of Tappanooly.

TAPROBANA, or Tarprozansg, in Ancient Geography,
a name anciently given to the ifland of Ceylon; which fee.

TAPSAGUN, a town in the interior of Africa, and
one of thofe which were fubjugated by Cornelius Balbus.

TAPSAS, a river of Africa, which ran near the town
of Ruficada.

TAPSON, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 50 miles
E. of Tchontori.

TAPSUS, or Tuaprsus, in Ancient Geography, a penin-
fula on the eaftern coait of Sicily, between Hybla parva
and Syracufe.—Alfo, a promontory of Africa, 12 leagues
E. of the promontory Tritum. This formed the eaitern
extremity of the Sinus Numidicus.

TAPTEE, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, formed
by the union of feveral {maller rivers in the Candeifh country,
which runs into the gulf of Cambay, about 12 miles below
Surat. See Tappi.

TAP-TOO. See Tar-roo.

TAPUI-TAPERA, in Geography, a town of Brafil,
on the coaft; 15 miles N.W. of St. Luis de Marannon.

TAPURA, in Botany, an unexplained name of Aublet’s.
See Rowria.

Tapura, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
mountains of Leffer Armenia.

TAPURI, or Tapyrti, a people of Afia, in Media.

Tapurt Montes, mountains of Scythia, on this fide of
mount Imaus. Ptolemy.

TAPUYAS, in Geography, a river of Brafil, which runs
mto the river of the Amazons; the banks of which are in-
habited by Indians, independent of the Portuguefe.

TAQUARI, a river of Brafil, having the largeft of its
many mouths in the Paraguay, in lat. 19° 15’, and long.

°o
STH AR. See PAMLIco.

Tar, or Tarr, a thick dark-brown or black refinous ad-
hefive juice, iffuing from the wood and bark of old pines or
firs, either Pesinrally, or by burning. See Pryus.

Some modern writers inform us, that tar flows from the
trunks of pines and firs, when they are very old, through
incifions made in the bark near the root ; that pitch is only
tar infpiffated ; and both are the oil of the tree grown thick
and black with age and the fun. The trees, like old men,
being unable to perfpire, and the fecretory duéts obitruéted,
they are, as one may fay, choaked and ftuffed with their
own. juice. But the method ufed by our colonies in America
‘of making tar and pitch, is, in effet, the fame with that
of the ancient Macedonians; as appears from the account
given in the Philofophical Tranfactions. And the relation
of Leo Africanus, who defcribes, as an eye-witnefs, making
of tar on mount Atlas, agrees in fubftance with the methods
uded by the Macedonians of old, and the people of New
England of this day. The greater part of the tar im-
ported into Britain is brought from the Baltic, and is ftill
prepared in nearly the fame method which is defcribed by
Diofcorides as having been praétifed by the ancients. The
branches of the trees are cut into billets, and piled up in
large ftacks, which are covered with turf. Fire is then ap-
plied: to the wood, and it is fuffered to burn with a flow
{mothered fiame, during which procefs the tar is formed by
the decompofition of the refinous juice, which flows to the
bottom, and runs out through a {mall channel cut for the
purpofe. The ftacks are generally built on the flope of a

.

ARR

hill, fo that the tar is eafily colleéted, and put into barrels ;
in which ftate it is brought into this country, ‘The procefs
now defcribed is termed ‘ diftillatio per defcenfum.” See
PINE. of

A more expeditious and economical method of obtaining
tar 1s practifed in France and Switzerland. The wood is
heated in large brick ovens, conftruéted for the purpofe,
and thus it is charred more equally, and the tar is of a more
uniform and better quality. In the Vallais the pines are
felled in the preceding year, that the wood may be fuffi-
ciently dry, and when the outer bark and twigs are {tripped
off, the remainder of the tree is cut into billets of tolerably
equal fize. The oven is conftruéted of ftone or brick, of
the fhape of an egg placed on its {mall end: the floor is
made either of a flat ftone, feooped out into a hollow, or
of feveral {tones accurately joined together. On one fide of
it, about five inches above the loweft part, is a hole, in
which a gun-barrel is thruft, and this ferves to convey off
the liquid tar that is colleted. A large iron grate is laid
at the bottom of the oven. The largeft of thefe ovens are
about ten feet high, and five or fix feet in the largeit dia-
meter. In charging the oven, bundles of billets are thrown
in and {pread as evenly as poflible, the interftices being filled
with chips, till the charge nearly reaches the top. The
whole is then coyered with a layer of chips, and the top
of the furnace is clofed with flat ftones heaped upon one
another, gradually leffening the opening, and forming a
kind of vaulted chimney, the mouth of which is four or
five inches acrofs. The dry chips at the top of the furnace
are then fet on fire, and the heat {preads downwards, till the
whole charge is fufficiently kindled. The chimney is then
entirely sere with a large ftone, and wet earth is heaped
on the ftones at top, and thrown on wherever the {moke is
obferved to burit out too ftrongly. The melting then be-
gins, and the tar falls to the bottom, fills the hollow of the
floor (which detains any bits of wood and other impurities ),
and runs off through the gun-barrel into cafks placed for
receiving it. The fire mutt be occafionally refrefhed by
letting ina fmall draught of air through fmall holes left for
the purpofe in the fides of the kiln. When the procefs is
finifhed, the wood, completely charred, is taken out, and the
oven, after having been cleared out, is again filled. The
xed wood and knots, being the richeft in refin, are found
to yield about one-fourth of their weight of tar; but the
general average product is about 10 or 12 per cent. of the
weight of the whole charge. After each procefs, a quantity
of “ lamp-black’’ is colleéted beneath the ftones that form
the vault of the temporary chimney.

According to Theophraftus, not only the turpentine-
trees, the pines, and the firs yield refin or tar, but alfo the
cedars and palm-trees ; and the words pix and rofin are taken
by Pliny in fo large a fenfe, as to include the weepings of
the lentifcus and cyprefs, and the balms of Arabia and
Judea ;_ all which perhaps are near of kin, and in their
moft ufeful qualities concur with common tar, efpecially the
Norwegian, which is the moft liquid and beft for medicinal
ufes. Thofe trees that grow on mountains, expofed to the
fun or north wind, are reckoned to produce the beft and
pureit tar; and the Idan pines were diftinguifhed from
thofe growing on the plain as yielding a thinner, fweeter,
and better {cented tar. Every part of the tree, which is at
all refinous, is fit for yielding tar; but the red wood and
the hard roots yield the beft in quality as well as the greateit
in quantity.

Every kind of wood will produce the pyroligneous acid
(which fee), and tar by the deftrudtive diftillation. Peat
alfo will yield it in abundance.

. There

TAR.

There is alfo a kind of tar, the proje&t of making which
was fuggefted by Becher, the celebrated chemift, in the
time of king Charles I]., which has for feveral years been
prepared from coal in the bifhopric of Liege, and in other
parts of Germany: we alfo make confiderable quantities in
England, efpecially near Brofeley, in Shropfhire, and at
Briftol. In the bifhopric of urge the coal 1s diftilled in a
kind of ftill, compofed of two arge caft-ron pots. In
England the coal is put into ovens, which are heated by fires
lighted under their bottom, and the liquid matter is forced
through an iron pipe inferted into the top of the oven, and
which communicates with proper condenfing veffels. Wat-
fon’s Chem. Eff. vol. ii. p. 346, &c.

The earl of Dundonald, in Scotland, has lately invented
the art of extracting tar and pitch from pit-coal, by a new
procefs of diftillation. See Addrefs and Propofals by fir
John Dalrymple, 1784.

A fubftance refembling tar, called ‘ brai-gras,’’ and much
ufed by the French for careening fhips, is made in the follow-
ing manner. The oven, defcribed in the preceding part
of this article, is charged with alternate layers of chips of
green wood, and billets of dry, and all the refufe matter of
turpentine, &c. Over the whole is laid a ftratum of “ brai-
hee,”’ or rofin, and the gun-barrel pipe is ftopped up, and
not tapped till the whole of the wood is reduced to char-
coal. The vault of the oven is alfo covered more carefully
after the charge is fufficiently kindled, and the whole pro-
cefs is carried on more flowly, and the heat of the fire melts
the rofin at the top, which mixes with the refinous fap, and
the whole concretes into a dark refinous liquid at the bot-
tom. When it is fufficiently cooled, it is drawn off and
barrelled. This ‘ brai-gras’’ is of an intermediate confift-
ence between tar and rofin. Aikin’s Di&.

Tar is properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, and
has been much ufed as a medicine both internally and ex-
ternally.

Tar in fubftance, mixed with honey, has been found an
excellent medicine for coughs.

The ancients efteemed tar good againft poifons, ulcers,
the bites of venomous creatures; alfo for phthifical, fcro-
fulous, paralytic, and afthmatic perfons. But the method
of rendering it an inoffenfive medicine, and agreeable to the
fiomach, by extraéting its virtues in cold water, was un-
known to them. Siris, feét. 9. 16, 17. 21. 28. See Tar-
water, infra.

Tar is fometimes given in fubftance, mixed with fo much
powdered liquorice, or other fuch powdery matter, as is
fufficient to render it of a fit confiftence to be formed
into pills. An ointment of tar has been direéted in the
pharmacopeias, which has been chiefly employed in cutane-
ous diforders. See Uncuentum é Pice.

Dr. Cullen mentions an empirical praétice, with refpeé&
to tar, which is as follows. A leg of mutton is laid to
roaft, and whilft it is roafting it is bafted with tar. Whiltt
the roafting is continued, a fharp fkewer is frequently thruft into
the fubftance of the mutton, fo that the gravy may run out :
with a mixture of the tar and gravy found in the dripping-
pan, the body is to be anointed for three or four nights fuc-
ceffively, and during the time the fame linen is to be worn.
This is alleged to be a remedy in feveral cafes of lepra ; and
Dr. Cullen knew one inftance of its having been employed
in a lepra iéthyofis with great fuccefs; but he had no op-
portunities of repeating the praétice.

But the chief ufe of tar is for paying the fides of fhips
and boats, and their rigging, in order to preferve them from
the ring of the weather, which would otherwife crack or
rot them.

The tar obtained from the depofition of pyroligneous
acid has been recommended as the beft prefervative for
every kind of wood-fence. For this purpofe, it fhould be

ently heated in an iron pot, and laid on with a brufh. It
Peaks into the wood, and feems to leave no body, as the
artifts exprefs it; but after fome days’ expofure to the fun,
the*furface and texture of the wood will be much altered ;
for it will be found fo impervious and hard, that it will be
very difficult to make any impreffion upon it. If a fecond;
and efpecially if a third coat of this tar be put upon wood,
it will then dear out, as the painters call it, fufficiently well;
and Mr. Parkes is of opinion that it will preferve all outfide
wood-work much more effectually than any other means
that have hitherto been employed for the purpofe. For or-
namental paling, and all outfide work, a firft, and perhaps a
firft and fecond coat of this tar might be ufed with great advan-
tage ; and when thefe are dry, white lead and oil might be ufed
to finifh the work. This fubftance not only hardens the wood,
but effectually preferves it from werms and from all other
infe&ts. It will ftop the progrefs of decay, when wood has
become worm-eaten. It is obferved, however, that this tar
is very different from that which is diftilled from mineral
coal, but which the earl of Dundonald recommended for a
fimilar purpofe. The appearance of the application may
be very confiderably improved by the following prepara-
tions; wiz. 1 gallon of tar, 102. of tallow, 202. of pul-
verized rofin, melted together and put on warm; —or,
1 gallon of the tar and 20z. of pulverized fulphate of iron,
ufed as the other. This tar has alfo been found an ufeful
varnifh for articles made of rolled iron, or of caft-iron. A
beautiful varnifh for thefe purpofes may be formed by in-
timately mixing in a gentle heat one gallon of the wood-tar
with half a pint of reétified {pirits of wine. If this be laid
on hot and properly hardened, it will prove a beautiful and
durable black varnifh. Parkes’s Chem. Effi vol. ii.

Tar may fometimes be found ufeful as an application for
cuts in fheep by clipping, and alfo to the parts affeéted by
the fly ; as well as in thofe of many other forts of animals.
It is Tikewife applied to the axles of wheel-carriages, in otder
to prevent friction, and might probably be {till more bene-
ficially made ufe of in this intention, by having a portion of
black-lead incorporated with it, as it would laft longer, and
be, at the fame time, more powerful in obviating the effects
of friétion.

It is a material which has alfo been recommended for being
applied to the parts of trees from which boughs are taken ;
in which cafes, the faces of the wounded parts and the aa
of the bark are to be made perfeétly fmooth by means of a
proper knife ; and in a few hours afterwards, or as foon as
the parts are become quite dry, they are to be carefully
plaiftered over with the tar, which is fimilar to that employed
for fmearing of fheep ; or they may be laid over with white or
blue lead paint, well mixed with oil, and made rather thicker
than that commonly ufed in painting. The tar is, however,
certainly preferable, being of a more adhering, healing na-
ture ; and, when laid on in a thin ftate, is not fo apt to fall
off in a fcaly manner by the aétion and effeéts of the weather,
as is the cafe with the other fubftances.

As the component parts of vegetable tar have been found
to confit of oil, refinous matter, pyroligneous acid, and water ;
that which is of the fineft brown colour, has the leaft aeri-
dity, and which is the freeft from a dark black appearance,
is probably the beft and moft proper for ufe in applications
as dreffings to animals; though the other kinds may be
equally or more beneficial in iawn other intentions.

Tar, when in intimate mixture and union with butter or
lard, and the different precipitates of mercury or fulphur,

orms

TA R.

forms an excellent application in different difeafes of various
kinds of animals, efpecially thofe of the flin.

Tar, Barbadoes. See Bitumen, and PetroLteum Bar-
badenfe.

Tar, Mineral. See Brrumen.

Tanr-Water. As the cold infufion of tar has been for-
merly much in vogue, and has been recommended by one of
the moft learned and ingenious writers of the age, it may
not be improper to give fome account of its virtues from
the bifhop of Cloyne’s Siris, or chain of reflections con-
eerning the virtues of tar-water.

In fome parts of America, tar-water is made by putting a
quart of cold water to a quart of tar, and ftirring them well
together in a veffel, which is left ftanding till the tar finks
to the bottom. A glafs of clear water being poured off for
a draught, is replaced by the fame quantity of frefh water,
the veflel being fhaken, and left to ftand as before. And
this is repeated for every glafs, fo long as the tar continues
to impregnate the water fufficiently, which will appear by
the fmell and taite.

But as this method produces tar-water of different degrees
of ftrength, the author fays he chufes to make it in the
following manner: Pour a2 gallon of cold water on a quart
of tar, and ftir and mix them thoroughly with a ladle or flat
ftick, for the fpace of three or four minutes ; after which
the veffel muift {land eight-and-forty hours, that the tar may
have time to fubfide ; when the clear water is to be poured
off, and kept for ufe, no more being made from the fame tar,
which may ftill ferve for common purpofes.

This cold infufion of tar hath been ufed in fome of our
colonies as a prefervative or preparative againft the fmall-
pox, which foreign pra¢tice induced the bifhop to try it in
his own neighbourhood, when the {fmall-pox raged with great
violence. He fays the trial fully anfwered his expectation ;
all thofe within his knowledge, who took the tar-water,
having either efcaped that diftemper, or had it very favour-
ably. Several were preferved from taking the fmall-pox by
the ufe of this liquor ; others had it in the mildeft manner ;
and others, that they might be able to take the infection,
were obliged to intermit drinking tar-water. He fays, he
has found it may be drank with great fafety and fuccefs for
any length of time, and this not only before, but alfo during
the aforefaid diftemper.

The general rule for taking it is, about half a pint night
and merning, on an empty ftomach, which quantity may be
varied according to the cafe and age of the patient ; provided
it be always taken on an empty ftomach, and about two hours
before or after a meal.

It has been found, that feveral perfons infected with cuta-
neous eruptions and ulcers were immediately relieved, and
foon after cured, by:the ufe of this medicine. It is faid, that
even in the fouleft diftempers, it proved much more fuccefs-
ful than falivations and wood-drinks had done. It alfo fuc-
ceeded, beyond expectation, in a tedious and painful ulcer-
ation of the bowels, in a confumptive cough, and (as ap-
peared by expectorated pus) an ulcer in the lungs, in a
pleurify and peripneumony. And when’ a perfon who had
been for fome years fubje& to eryfipelatous fevers, perceived
the ufual forerunning fymptoms to come on, the drinking of
tar-water prevented the eryfipelas.

Tar-water cures indigeftion, and gives a good appetite.
It is an excellent medicine in an afthma ; it imparts a kindly
warmth, and quick circulation to the juices, without heat-
ing, and is therefore ufeful, not only as a peétoral and bal-
famic, but alfo as a powerful and a fafe deobftruent in ca-
cheGtic and hyfteric cafes. As it is both healing and diu-
retic, it is very good for the gravel. The bifhop fays he
+ Vou, XXXV.

believes it to be of oe ufe in a dropfy, having known it
cure a very bad anafarca in a perfon whofe thirft, though
very extraordinary, was in a fhort time removed by the
drinking of tar-water. From the fuccefs of this medicine in
five or fix inftances, the bifhop believes it to be the beft and
fafeft, either for preventing the gout, or for fo ftrengthening
nature againft the fit, as to drive it from the vitals.

It may likewife be fafely ufed in inflammatory cafes ; and,
in fa¢t, hath been found an admirable febrifuge, at once the
fafeft cooler and cordial.

The {alts and more a¢tive fpirits of tar are got by infufion
in cold water; but the refinous part is not to be diffolved
thereby. Hence the prejudice which fome, perhaps, may
entertain againft tar-water, the ufe of which might inflame
the blood by its fulphur and refin, as a medicine, appears
not to be well grounded. It is obferved by chemifts, that
all forts of balfamic wood afford an acid fpirit, which is
the volatile oily falt of the vegetable. Herein is chiefly con-
tained their medicinal virtues ; and this author affirms, that
by the trials he has made, it appears that the acid f{pirit in
tar-water pofleffes the virtues, in an eminent degree, of that
of guaiacum, and other medicinal woods.

It is certain tar-water warms, and therefore fome may per-
haps {till think it cannot cool. The more effectually to
remove this prejudice, let it be farther confidered, that, as
on one hand, oppofite caufes do fometimes produce the fame
effe@ ; for inftance, heat by rarefaction, and cold by con-
denfation, do both increafe the air’s elafticity ; fo, on the
other hand, the fame caufe fhall fometimes produce oppofite
effects. Heat, for inftance, in one degree thins, in another
coagulates, the blood. It is not therefore ftrange, that tar-
water fhould warm one habit and cool another; have one
good effeé& on a cold conftitution, and another good effeét
on an inflamed one ; nor, if this be fo, that it fhould cure
oppofite diforders.

A medicine of fo great virtue in fo many different dif-
orders, and efpecially in that grand enemy the fever, muft
needs be a benefit to mankind in general. There are never-
thelefs three forts of people to whom the bifhop fays he
would peculiarly recommend it; fea-faring perfons, ladies,
and men of ftudious and fedentary lives. See Two Letters

_from the Bifhop of Cloyne, &c. publifhed in 1747.

If it be afked, what precife quantity, or degree of ftrength,
is required in tar-water? It is anfwered, that the palate,
the ftomach, the particular cafe and conftitution of the pa-
tient, the very feafon of the year, will difpofe and require
him to drink more or lefs in quantity, ftronger or weaker in
degree. Precifely to meafure its ftrength by a ferupulous
exacinefs, is by no means neceflary.

It is to be obferved, that tar-water fhould not be made in
unglazed earthen veflels, thefe being apt to communicate a
naufeous {weetnefs to the water. :

The fame ingenious author recommends tar-water in the
plague, and for the diftemper among the horned cattle ; with
what fuccefs, muft be left to experience.

Though this medicine, fays Dr. Lewis, 1s undoubtedly
very far inferior to the chara¢ter that hath been given of it,
it is apparently capable of anfwering important purpofes,
as a deobftruent balfamic folution, moderately warm and
ftimulating. It fenfibly raifes the pulfe, and increafes either
perfpiration or the groffer evacuations. He adds, “ I have
been informed of fome late inftances of its good effeéts in
diforders of the leprous kind.’?? Mat. Med.

Dr. Cullen thinks that the acid principle gives the virtue
to tar-water, and on this account the bifhop of Cloyne pro-
perly preferred the Norway tar to that of New England, as
the former contains more acid than the latter. This eminent

Oo phyfician

hae ae 4

hyfician acknowledges that he found this preparation in
everal cafes to be a valuable medicine ; and that it appeared
to ftrengthen the tone of the ftomach, to excite appetite, to
promote digeftion, and to cure all fymptoms of dyfpepfia.
At the fame time, it manifeftly promotes the excretions,

articularly that of urine. From all thefe operations, it will

e obvious, as the doétor thinks, that in many diforders of the
fyftem this medicine may be highly ufeful. Lewis. Wood-
ville.

It has been lately obferved by Dr. Darwin, that the wa-
tering of ground with tar-water is capable of deftroying the
white flug, which is fo highly deftructive to vegetables.

Tar-Kettle, in Rope-Making, is made of copper, and holds
from ten to twenty barrels of tar. It is fet in {trong brick-work,
and over it is faftened, from fide to fide, in the direétion of the
nipper, a bridge, made of three-inch oak-plank, thirteen inches
broad, through the middle of which is a mortife for the ftep
to go through, to keep the yarn down and clear of the bot-
tom, when drawing through the kettle. On the fide of the
kettle next the capftern, is an upright pott, twelve inches
{quare, in which is fixed a nipper to prefs the tar out of the
yarn; and a ftaff, with a weight fufpended at the end, is
fixed on the fide of the nipper to keep it down, that the yarn
may imbibe no more tar than is neceffary.

Tar-Rope, a term ufed to fignify tarred rope, or rope-
yarn, fuch as the thread of old cables, &c. This fort of tar-
rope is ufeful for a great number of different purpofes, fuch
as thofe of tying up the wads or fheaves of beans in the field,
and many other fimilar articles ; the fa{tening of plants and
trees to various kinds of fupports ; and for being applied to
a variety of other little ufes of the more domeitic kind, as
being cheap and readily procured.

Tar, in Commerce, a {mall filver coin on the coaft of
Malabar.

Tan, in Sea Language, a figurative expreffion for a failor
of any kind.

TARA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk, on the Irtifch; 220 miles E.S.E. of
Tobolfk. N. lat. 57°. E. long. 74° 43'—Alfo, a town
of Japan, in the ifland of Xicoco; 28 miles N.N.E. of
Ovutfi.

Tana Hill, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of
Wexford, near the fea-coaft ; 4 miles N. of Newborough.
See Taracu.

Tara, the name of a fimian hero renowned in the
Hindoo epic the Ramayana, for mighty deeds in battle with
the hofts of the tyrant Ravena, for the recovery of Sita, the
ravifhed fpoufe of Rama.

TARAAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia ;
50 miles E. of Samarcand.

TARABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 13
miles E. of Saler Mooler.

TARABE, in Ornithology, the name of a Brafilian parrot,
Jarger than the common green parrot. Its general colour is
green ; but its head, breait, and the origin of its wings, are
red; its beak and legs are of a dufky grey. Marcgrave.
See PsirTacus.

TARACASSA, in Geography, a diftrict of South
America, in the viceroyalty of uenos Ayres, part of the
jurifdiétion of Carangas.

TARAE Lapts, the name given by the writers of the
middle ages to a ftone which ey fay had the power of
flopping all forts of fluxes. They have left us no defcrip-
tion of it, and it feems to have been loft even in their times ;
for they obferve that the phyficians ufed the /anguis draconis,
or dragon’s-blood, in its place.

TARAGH, in Geography, a {mall town or rather village

TAR

of the county of Meath, Ireland, on the noted hill of Taragis?
where the ftates of Ireland are faid to have affembled, and
where fome pretend that there was a magnificent palace
belonging to the kings of Ireland; but as no trace of any
fuch palace is to be found, its having exifted muft be re-
garded. as improbable. _ General Vallancey accounted for
there being no trace of it, by fuppofing it to have been
made of mud and ftraw. A Danifh invader is alfo fuppofed
to have taken up his abode here, and to have built the fine
Danith fort, or rath, on the fouth-eatt fide of the hill, which
is now beautifully planted. It is 5 miles N. by W. from
Dunfhaghlin, and 19 miles from Dublin, on the road to
Cavan. There are two other hills of the fame name, one in
the county of Down, and the other in the county of Wex-
ford, both of them near the fea.

TARAGOT, or TARAGALE, a town of Africa, in the
country of Darah; 130 miles S.E. of Morocco. ~

TARAGUICO Aycurasa, in Zoology, the Brafiian

name for a fpecies of lizard, much approaching to the nature
of the taraguira ; but its tail is covered from its beginning
with fmall triangular feales, and very regularly marked wi
four brown fpots; the back alfo, particularly that part
which is next the head, is variegated with undulated browa
lines. Ray.

TARAGUIRA, the name of an American lizard. Ie
grows to about a foot long ; its body is rounded, and ever
where covered with {mall triangular duiky grey feales; its
back is fmooth, and it has not that falfe gullet under the
throat which the iguana has.

This is the fpecies of lizard of which it is reported, that
it will wake a fleeping perfon, if it fee him in danger of
being bitten by a ferpent. It is very common about Fonhee
and gardens in South America, and runs very fwiftly,
but with a waddling motion ; and when it fees any thing
at a diftance, has an odd way of nodding its head very
{wiftly. Ray.

TARAGUPALA, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan,
jn Tellingana; 25 miles N.W. of Warangole.

TARAKLI, a town of European Turkey, in Befla-
rabia; 24 miles S.S.W. of Bender. :

TARALEA, in Botany, a barbarous name of Aublet’s.
See Divpreryx, fpecies 2d.

TARAMA, in Geography, a jurifdi&tion of Pern, in the
audience of Lima, ‘The air is healthy, and the foit fertile.

TARAMAMON, a name given by Loubere to a rid
of mountains that pafles E. and W. in Siam, not far to t
north of Yuthia.

TARAMANDAHLJU, a river of Brafil, which runs
into the Atlantic, S. lat. 30° 40’.

TARAMEH, At, a town of Ecypt, in ruins; i
N.E. of Tineh. ; expt, in ee

TARAMUNDE, a town of Spain, in ia;
miles W. of Oviedo. rl Ba bid

TARANCON, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 33
miles S.E. of Madrid.

TARANDUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Lucanus ;
which fee.

TARANDUS, in Zoology, aname given by Agrico
fome other authors, ithe an eee Soe cea a
randus.

TARANIOLO, in Ornithology, a name by which the
whimbrel, or {mall curlew, called the arquata minor by
authors, is known in the markets of Italy.

TARANIS, probably from taran, thunder, in Anctent
Mythology, a name given by the Gauls to Jupiter, under
which appellation they facrificed human victims to him.

Varania

TAR

Taranis correfponded to the Jupiter Tonans of the
Romans. See“THor.

TARANNON, in Geography, a river of North Wales,
which runs into the Severn; 4 miles W. of Newtown in
Montgomery hhire.

TARANSA, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland,
about four miles in length, and two in breadth, where
wideft, but in fome places fcarcely half a mile acrofs; 5 miles
N.E. from Toe-Head. N. lat. 57°52'. W. long. 6° 59!.

TARANTA, the name of mountains of Abyffinia, that
ie on the eaft of the kingdom.

TARANTARA, according to Ennius, the military
trumpet’s flourifh of the Romans.

TARANTELLA, a rapid tune played to perfons in
Calabria, fuppofed to be bitten by the tarantula, in order
to excite them to dance, which has been thought, while the
difeafe was believed, to be the only fpecific.

TARANTISMUS, in Medicine, the difeafe or affeGtion
of thofe bit by the tarantula.

The patients under this malady are denominated ta-
fantati.

Dr. Cornelio, in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, repre-
fents this as an imaginary difeafe ; and tells us, that the
tarantati, or thofe that think themfelves feized with it,
{excepting fuch as for particular ends feign themfelves fo, )
are moft of them young wanton girls, fuch as the Italian
writers call Donne di fale, who, falling from fome particular
indifpofition, into melancholy madnefs, perfuade themfelves,
according to vulgar prejudice, that they have been bitten by
2 tarantula.

But the evidence, on the other fide of the queftion, has
ained confiderable credit, as will appear from the article
ARANTULA.

TARANTOLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in

Abruzzo Citra; to miles E.N.E. of Sulmona.

TARANTULA, or Tarentuta, in Natural Hiffory,
a venomous infe&t, whofe bite gives name to a new difeafe,
called taranti/mus.

The tarantula is a kind of fpider, the aranea tarantula of
Linnzus, fo denominated from the city of Tarentum, in
Apulia, near which it is chiefly found. It is alfo called
So Sat Apulium. Valetta, a monk of Apulia, who

ad always refided about the places where this mifchievous
animal is moft frequent, and had many opportunities of
tracing its feveral qualities, publifhed a fucciné, but very
accurate hiftory of it in the year 1706, under this name.

It has its name phalangium, from the three phalanges or
ie of its legs, and this name equally fuiting many other
piders, as well as this, it ceafed to be its appropriated name,
and was applied as a generical term to feveral other f{piders
of the larger kind, among which this fpecies was always dif-
tinguifhed by the epithet Apulian, from the place where it
was fo frequently found.

The tarantula, or Apulian phalangium, is frequent in all
parts of this country, in uncultivated places, but more
efpecially it breeds moft in funny dry hills, and particularly
in fuch parts of them as are expofed to the fouth.

It is faid not to be found any where except in Apulia,
but probably it is an inhabitant of many other places,
though its poifon may not be violent enough any where
elfe to bring on the effeéts it does there: as we find in
vipers and many other poifonous creatures, that the ftrength
of their poifon differs greatly in degree in different places.

M. Geoffroy fays, that it is the opinion of fome that the
tarantula is never venomous but in the coupling feafon ;
god Baglivi fays, that it is never fo but in the heat of

T A

fummer ; particularly in the dog-days, when, becoming en-
raged, it flies on all that pafs by.

As this fpider is very tender, and eafily injured by cold
winds and rain, it always digs itfelf a cave in the fide of
a hill for its habitation ; and ufually chufes for this pur-
pofe the hardeft ground it can find, which is better able
to defend it, and which it eafily works into, with its forceps
and claws. This always is hollowed upward in the hill, and
by that means is fafe from wet, all the water in rainy feafons
running down over its top. Sometimes it burrows itfelf a
cave in a valley or plain, but then it always chufes a dry,
ufually a chalky foil. In this cafe, the entrance into its
cave is fmall, and within, there are feveral winding paffages :
if it happens to be furprifed with wet in this place, a
hard rains, it quits the floor and hangs by its fect againft
the top of the cave. It preys upon a number of fmall
infe&ts, with which the fields of Apulia abound, and feldom
appears in the day-time, but creeps out about the time of
fun-fet, and preys at large upon the animals which are then
betaking themfelves to reft ; without the danger it would be
expofed to from its own enemies by day-light. If at any
time he remains the whole evening in his cave or den, it is
only to praétife another method of hunting his prey. In
this cafe, he comes forward to the mouth of the hole, and
there lies in wait ; his fore-legs are placed at the extremity
of the hole, and his eyes have a clear view all round. The
other infeéts are not aware of this trick, but as they walk
near his hole he burfts out upon them, and feizing them, he
conveys them into his habitation ; where, as foon as he has
eaten them, he retires back into his cell to difpofe of the
wings and other fragments, till he can carry them out at a
more convenient time, and then places himfelf in his former
pofture for another prey.

The peafants of Apulia have a method of getting him.out
of his hole in the day-time, in order to deftroy him. This
they do by making a foft hiffing noife through an oat
ftraw: whether it be that the creature loves this found, or
rather that he takes it for the voice of fome infe& that he is
ufed to prey upon, he always comes out, and falls a facrifice
to his greedinefs.

The creature has eight legs, and walks very well; his

legs have each three joints, and are covered with a fine

* downy hairinefs ; they are of a whitifh colour at the bottom,

and variegated with black lines, and are wholly black in their
upper part, where they are joined to the breaft: thefe all
arife from a kind of oval fhield, which is placed upon the
breaft, and is black, hairy, and very hard: this is called by
fome the /peculum of the tarantula. From the fhoulders there
grow a pair of horns, at leaft they are ufually called fo,
though they feem much better to deferve the name of arms 3
the ufe of thefe is to hold faft the prey, that it may not be
able to efcape while he is killing it with his forceps: thefe
horns or arms have the fame number of joints that the legs
have, but they greatly differ from the legs, in that they are
fhorter, and of a yellowifh colour; they are alfo covered
with a longer and thicker hair, for the more certainly hold-
ing the prey, and are terminated by black claws, and they
are much {maller and more capable of motion every way.
The belly is either white, or of a pale yellow, and is marked
with a tranfverfe black ftreak : this is furrounded with feve-
ral other {mall {pots of the fame colour, and is clothed with
a very fine and fhort down ; the whole body befide is covered
with longer hairs, and is of a whitifh or brownifh colour ;
the apex of the head, the fhield of the breaft, and the ends
of the forceps, are as hard as a crab’s claws ; but the reft
of the body is covered with a tender fupple {kin ; the eyes are

O 2 ~ery

TARANTULA.

very large, and of a fine fhining black ; are continually
in motion, and, when feen in night, or in a dufky place,
they fhine like the eyes of a cat. fn the place where the
mouth is placed in other animals, there arifes in this a black
hard forceps; the upper part of this inftrument is covered
with a yellow hairinefs, and it is terminated by extremely fine
and fharp claws, which the creature can open or clofe up at
pleafure. While the arms hold the prey in a proper pofi-
tion, thefe fharp points make wounds in the peers and the
other parts of the forceps {queeze the body till all its juices
are prefled out, and the creature feeds on them: the mouth
is slaced much below thefe, and ftands exaétly in the proper
place to receive the juices exprefled by this operation. The
targntula fleeps in his cave the whole winter, and a great
part of the autumn and fpring ; and if during this time he
is ploughed up, as is often the cafe, or is any other way
taken out of his hole, he is found quite torpid and numbed,
and is unable to do any mifchief by biting.

The hole or Soak of a tarantula’s cave always gives
fome idea of the fize of the creature within: he makes it
{mall if he enters it while young ; and as he grows larger,
he eats away more and more of the earth to widen it {till
more, fo that the diameter of it is ufually about equal to
the diameter of the body. The fize of a chefnut is about
the {tandard of a full-grown tarantula; but there are fome
old ones found much larger and more hairy. The female is
known from the male by having longer legs and a larger
belly. They copulate in June and July, and at that fea-
fon the females are often met with in the fields carrying the
males upon their backs. In Auguft and September they lay
their eggs, which remain the whole winter; and in the fum-
mer after are hatched.

Pliny tells a ftory of the young ones always eating up
their mother for the firft food, which is countenanced by
the relation of the peafants in thofe parts, who fay that they
all {warm about her and fuck her juices from many places at
once, till they leave her a lifelefs carcafe of the field, and
then go each their feveral ways in fearch of other food. The
bite of the tarantula, as it 1s called, is not properly a bite,
but a wound inflifted in a very peculiar manner. The crea-
ture pierces the {kin with its forceps, and at that inftant in-
jeéts from its mouth a poifon into the wound. The time in
which their wounds are fatal, is that of their copulation ; at
this time they are in their utmoft vigour and power of hurt-
ing. People of fafhion are rarel ine by them, but prin-
cipally the poor labourers, who fleep half naked in the field,
and the women who travel the country with naked feet, ga-
thering medicinal herbs.

The bite occafions a pain, which at firft feems much like
that felt on the flinging of a bee, or an ant: ina few hours
the patient feels a numbnefs, and the part affected becomes
marked with a little livid circle, which foon after rifes into
a very painful tumour ; a little after this he falls into a pro-
found atch, breathes with much difficulty, his pulfe grows
feeble, and his fenfes fail; at length he lofes all fenke and
motion; and dies, unlefs relieved. But thefe fymptoms
come fomewhat differently, according to the nature of the
tarantula, and the difpofition of the patient. An averfion
for black and blue; and, on the contrary, an affection for
white, red, and green; are other of the unaccountable fymp-
toms of this difeafe.

All the affiftance medicine has been able to difcover by
reafoning, confifts in fome chirurgical applications on the
wound, and in cordials and fudorifics; but thefe are of little
efficacy : a thing that avails infinitely more, is, what reafon
sould never have difcovered—mufic.

As foon as the patient has loft his fenfe and motion, a
mufician tries feveral tunes on an inftrument ; and when he
has hit on that, the tones and modulations of which agree
with the patient, he is immediately feen to make a faint mo-
tion: his fingers firft begin to move in cadence, then his
arms, then his legs, by degrees his whole body; at length
he rifes on his feet, and begins to dance; his ftrength and
activity fill increafing. Some will continue the dance for
fix hours without intermiffion. ;

After this he is put to bed, and when he is judged fuffi-
ciently recruited from his firit dance, he is called out of bed,
by the fame tune, for a fecond.

This exercife is continued for feveral days, fix or feven at
leaft ; in which time the patient finds himfelf exceedingly
fatigued, and unable to dance any longer ; which is the cha-
racteriftic of his being cured ; for as long as the poifon aéts
on him, he would dance, if one pleafed, without any dif.
continuance, till he died of the mere lofs of ftrength.

The patient, on this, perceiving himfelf weary, begins
to come to himielf ; and awakes as out of a profound fleep;
without any remembrance of what had pafled in his pa-
roxy{m, not even of his dance.

Sometimes the patient, thus recovering from his firft ac-
cefs, is quite cured; if he be not, he finds a melancholy
ave hanging on him; he fhuns the fight of men, and
eeks water ; and, if he be not carefully looked to, throws
himfelf into fome river. If he do not die, the fit returns
at that time twelvemonth, and he is driven to dancing again.
Some have had returns regularly for twenty or thirty years.

Every tarantula has his particular and fpecific tune; but,
in the general, they are all very brifk, f{prightly ones, that
work cures. .

This account was given inthe Royal Academy of Sciences,
by M. Geoffroy, at his return from Italy, in 1702, and
confirmed by letters from F. Gouye. The like hiftory is
given by Baglivi, in an exprefs differtation on the tarantula,
publifhed in 1696.

Authors are divided about the nature of the poifon of
the tarantula. Cardan fays it is a cold one, and Scaliger
fays it is a hot one; but, be this as it will, Waletta informs
us, that its effect is very fudden ; it is no fooner received
into the flefh, but the veins take it up and carry it to the
heart, where it becomes diffufed through the whole mafs ef
blood, and gives an immediate trembling of the limbs, and
a difficulty of breathing. The next part it feizes is the
brain, where it produces different effe@s in different fub-
jects ; and, according to their ftate of health, and the con-
dition of their juices, brings on various {pecies of phrenfies.
The patient fees a thoufand phantoms, fometimes all. jovial
and merry ones, and fometimes imaginary fcenes of blood
and cruelty. Some are fond of Seeing little ftreams of wa-
ter trickling down into a bafon; others are never ealy un-
lefs they have green leaves before them : this indeed is almoft
an univerfal fymptom. Sdme are delighted with various
colours, and fome are fond of violent motion, fuch as dane=
ing, leaping, and the like ; and fome are in love with flow:
and graceful movements, as walking majeltically, bowing,
and dancing flow dances. Some are military mad, and ¢
out for the noife of drums and trumpets, and the clafhin
of fwords; but all of them, as well the brifk and noify, as
the lethargic and dull, are pleafed with mufic. j

They will get up and dance to any inftrument ; and the
moment 1t ceafes playing, they will fall down to the ground
as if apoplectic, and not ftir again till the mufic is renewed.
Many people have laughed at the whole hiftory of the bite
of a tarantula, from this one accident of its poifon pti

c

TARANTULA.

cured by mufic ; but all who have been upon the fpot atteft
it. Valett. de Phaleng. Apulo.

To fuch extraordinary faés, it is no wonder a few fables
fhould be added; as, for inftance, that the patient is no
longer infected than while the infe& lives ; and that the ta-
rantula itfelf dances, all the while, to the fame air with the
perfon bitten.

Dr. Dominico Cirillo, profeffor of natural hiftory at the
univerfity of Naples, pofitively contradi¢ts the teftimonies
above recited. Having had an opportunity of examining
the effeéts of this animal, in the province of Taranto, where
it is found in great abundance, he affirms that the furprifing
cure of the bite of the tarantula by mufic, has not the leaft
truth in it; and that it is only an invention of the people,
who want to get a little money, by dancing when they fay
the tarantifm begins. He makes no doubt but the heat of
the climate contributes very much to warm their imagina-
tion, and to throw them into a delirium, which may be in
fome meafure cured by mufic: but feveral experiments have
been tried with the tarantula; and neither men nor animals,
after the bite, have had any other complaint, except a very
trifling inflammation on the part, like that produced by the
bite of a fcorpion, which goes off by itfelf without any
danger at all. In Sicily, where the fummer is ftill warmer
than in any part of the kingdom of Naples, the taran-
tula is never dangerous, and mufic is never employed for
the cure of the pretended tarantifm. It is without doubt
very extraordinary, fays this writer, that a man of fenfe,
and a phyfician of great learning, as Baglivi was, fhould
have been fatisfied- with the account of this diforder ; and
that, inftead of examining the facts by experiments, he
fhould rather have tried to explain it: but even philofophers
like very much to meet with wonderful and extraordinary
things, and though they are againft all reafon, {till they want
them to be true, and endeavour to find out the caufe of
them. Every year this furprifing diforder lofes ground ;
and he is perfuaded, that in a very little while it will en-
tirely lofe its credit. The Neapolitan phyficians all look
upon the tarantula in the fame light, particularly after the
ingenious book publifhed on this fubje¢t by the learned Dr.
Serao; who, by various experiments, has proved, that the
bite of the tarantula never produced any bad effeéts, and
that mufic never had any thing to do with it. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ix. art. 22.

The bite of the tarantula, and the method of its cure,
were, however, for many years fubjeéts of elaborate dif-
enffion; and different theories were propofed for explain-
ing them, fome account of which it may not be improper to
preferve.

Theory of the Tarantula’s Bite, by M. Geoffroy. The poi-
fonous juice injected by the tarantula, M. Geoffroy conceives,
may give the nerves a degree of tenfion greater than is na-
tural to them, or than is proportionate to their funétions ;
and hence may arife a privation of knowledge and motion.
But, at the fame time, this tenfion, equal to that of fome
ftrings of an inftrument, puts the nerves in unifon to certain
tones, and obliges them to fhake, after being agitated by the
undulations and vibrations of the air proper to thofe tones.
And hence this wonderful cure by mufic : the nerves, thus
reftored to their motion, call back the fpirits thither, which
before had abandoned them.

It may be added, with fome probability, and on the fame
principles, that the patient’s averfion for fome colours arifes
hence, that the tenfion of his nerves, even out of the parox-
yim, being {till different to what it is in the natural ftate, the
vibrations thofe colours occafion. in the fibres of the brain,

are contrary to their difpofition, and occafion a kind of dif-
fonance, the effeét of which is pain.

Theory of the Effet: of the Taraniula’s Bite, by Dr. Mead.
The malignity of the poifon of the tarantula feems to confit
in its great force and energy, whereby it immediately raifes
an extraordinary fermentation in the whole arterial fluid, by
which its texture and crafis are confiderably altered: the
confequence of this alteration, when the ebullition is over,
mutt neceflarily be a change in the cohefion of its parts, by
which the globules, which did before with equal force prefs
each other, have now a very differing and irregular nifus,
or action ; fo that fome of them do fo firmly cohere together,
as to compofe molecule, or fmall clufters: upon this ac-
count, as there is now a greater number of globules con-
tained in the fame fpace than before, and the impulfe of many
of thefe, when united together, differing according to’ the
conditions of their cohefion, as to magnitude, figure, &c.
the impetus with which this fluid is driven towards the
parts, will not only be feen at fome ftrokes greater than or-
dinary, but the preffure upon the blood-veflels muit be very
unequal and irregular ; and this will be particularly felt in
thofe which are moft eafily diftended, as thofe of the brain,
&e.

Upon this, the nervous fluid muft neceffarily be put into
various undulatory motions, fome of which will be like
thofe, which different objects, a€ting upon the organs or
paflions of the mind, do naturally excite init; upon which
fuch ations muft follow in the body, as are ufually the con-
fequences of the feveral {pecies of fadnefs, joy, defpair, or
the like determinations of thought.

This, in fome degree, is a coagulation of the blood, which
will, the more certainly, when attended with uncommon
heat, as is the cafe in thofe countries where thefe creatures
abound, produce fuch like effets as thefe: becaufe the
fpirits feparated from the blood thus inflamed, and com-
pounded of hard, fixed, and dry particles, muft unavoidably
fhare in this alteration; that is, whereas their fluid confiits
of two parts, one more aétive and volatile, the other more
vifcid and glutinous, which is a kind of vehicle to the
former ; their active part will bear too great a proportion to
the: vifcid; and confequently they muft have more than
ordinary volatility and force; and will, therefore, upon the

leaft occafion imaginable, be irregularly determined to every

part.

Whereupon will follow tremblings, anger, or fear, upon
a light caufe ; extreme pleafure at what is trivial, as_parti-
cular colours, or the like; and, on the other hand, fadnefs
at what is not agreeable to the fight ; nay laughter, obfcene
talk and actions, and fuch other fymptoms as attend perfons
bit ; becaufey in this conftitution of nervous fluid, the moft
flight occafion will make as real a reflux and undulation of it
to the brain, and prefent as lively fpecies there, as the
ftrongeft caufe and impreffion can produce in its natural ftate
and condition: nay, in fuch a confufion the {pirits cannot
but fometimes, without any manifeft caufe at all, be hurried
towards thofe organs, to which, at other times, they have
been moft frequently determined; and every one knows
which thefe are in hot countries.

The effe&t of mufic on perfons touched with this poifon
confirms the doétrine above delivered. For mufcular mo-
tion, we know, is no other than a contra¢tion of the fibres,
from the arterial fluid’s making an efferyefcence with the
nervous juice, which, by the light vibration and tremor of
the nerve, is derived into the mufcle.

Thus there is a twofold effeét and operation of the mufic,
that is, upon the body and the mind: a brifk harmony ex-

9 cites

TAR

cites lively fpecies of joy and gladnefs, which are always
accompanied with a more frequent and ftronger pulfe, or
an increafed impulfe of the liquor of the nerves into the
mufcles; upon which fuitable aétions mutt immediately
follow. '

As for the body, fince it was fufficient to put the mufcles
into aétion, to caufe thofe tremors of the nerves, by which
their fluid is alternately dropped into the moving fibres, it 15
the fame thing whether it be done by the determination of the
will, or the outward impreffions of an elaftic fluid = fuch is the
air; and that founds are the vibrations of it, is beyond difpute :
thefe, therefore, rightly modelled, may fhake the nerves as
really as the imperium voluntatis can do ; and, confequently,
may: produce the like effeéts. ji

The benefit of mufic arifes not only from their dancing
to it, and fo evacuating by fweat a great part of the in-
flammatory fluid ; but, befides this, the repeated percuflions
of the air hereby made, by immediate conta¢t, fhaking the
contraétile fibres of the membranes of the body, efpecially
thofe of the ear, which, being contiguous to the brain, com-
municate their tremblings to its membranes and veflels: by
thefe continued Recina and vibrations, the cohefion of
the parts of the blood is perfeétly broken, and the farther
coagulation prevented ; fo that the heat being removed by
{weating, and the coagulation by the contraétion of the
mufcular fibrillz, the wounded perfon is reftored to his
former condition.

If any one doubts of this force in the air, he may con-
fider, that it is demonftrated in mechanics, that the {malleft
percuflion of the {malleft body may overcome the refiftance
of any the greateft weight, which is at reft ; and that the
languid tremor of the air, which is made by the found of a
drum, may fhake the largeft edifices.

But, befides this, we muft allow a great deal to the de-
terminate force, and particular modulation of the trembling
percuffions ; for contraétile bodies may be a¢ted upon by
one certain degree of motion in the ambient fluid, though a
Hip oe ies of it, differently qualified, may produce no-
thing at all of the like effet. This is not only apparent in
two common-ftringed mufical inftruments, tuned both to the
fame height ; but alfo in the trick which many have of find-
ing the tone or note peculiarly belonging to any wine-glafs,
and, by accommodating their voice exa¢tly to that tone, and
yet making it loud and lafting, make the veffel, though not
touched, firft to tremble, and finally to burft ; which it will
not do, if the voice be either too low, or too high.

This makes it no difficult matter to conceive, why dif-
ferent perfons, infeéted with this fort of venom, do require
a different fort of mufic, in order to their cure ; inafmuch
as the nerves and diftraétile membranes. have different ten-
fions, and confequently are not all alike to be aéted upon by
the fame vibrations.

TARANTULA, in Zoology, is alfo the name given by the
Italians to a peculiar fpecies of lizard, called by Aldrovand,
and fome others, /acertus facetanus.

It is of a colour; its fkin is extremely rough ; and
it is thicker and rounder bodied than the other lizards. It
is found, like our common eft, under old walls, and among
the ruins of buildings, particularly in the neighbourhood of
Rome, in great plenty ; its colour looks dead and ghaitly,
and it is as odious to ee fight among the Italians, as the toad
is with us, being neyer feen sala a fort of natural
horror. It is efteemed alfo a poifonous creature, as the toad
is with us; though it is not eafy to find well-attefted ftories
of any body’s ever having been hurt either by the one or the
ether of thefe creatures. Ray.

TAR
TARAPACA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the

bifhopric of Arequipa, on a river which foon after runs into
the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 20° 1o!.

TARAPILLY, 2 town of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore 5
20 miles N.E. of Damicotta. ;

TARARE, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire; 18 miles W.N.W. of Lyons.

TARAS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall river of Italy,
which paffed to Tarentum, and probably gave it its name,—
Alfo, a river of Italy, in Japygia——Allo, a river of Epirus.
—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor.—Alfo, a river of Scythia.

Taras, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg; 2 miles N.W. of Hasfurt.

ARASCO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, on the left of the Rhone, and weft of Are-
late.

TARASCON, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New
Calftile ; 22 miles S.W. of Huete—ALfo, a town of France,
and principal place of a diftriét, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhéne, on the Rhéne, with a caftle, fortified
in the ancient manner. It is fituated oppofite Beaucaire,
with which it communicates by means of a bridge of boats.
The number of inhabitants is about 7000; 3 pofts E. of

Nifmes. N. lat. 43° 48’. E. long. 4° 44'W—Alf, a city of ©

France, and capital of the department of the Arriege, on the
river Arriege. In it are feveral manufactures of iron ;
miles S. of Touloufe. N. lat. 42° so!. E. long. 1° a1!

TARASOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of

Irkutfk, on the Lena; 12 miles S. of Tutura.
TARATATO, a town on the eaft coaft of Fortaven-
tura, one of the Canary iflands.

TARAUMARA, a large province of North America,

in the north-eaft part of New Bifcay, bounded on the weft
by Sonora, on the eaft by New Mexico, its limit being the
Rio Bravo. On the fouth-weft it borders on Cinaloa.
Alcedo computes the extent at roo Spanifh gu from
eaft to weft, and as much from north to fouth. his pros
vince was difcovered in 1614, and derives its name from a
favage nation found there, of pacific difpofitions. This
province contains 48 pueblos, or villages, or ftations of
Francifcan miffionaries, exclufive of the capital of St. Fe-
lippe de Chiguaga. It is chiefly rich in mines, the minerals
being frnelted at the Real, or royal ftation of St. Eulalia, or
probably the Real Nueva in the maps, in N. lat. 29° 36!.
TARAXACUM, or Taraxacon, in Botany, a name
ufed by the Arabians, fuppofed by Ambrofini to have been
derived from the Greek rewtimos, eatable, becaufe the plant
to which it was applied, (our Dandelion, or fomething
nearly akin,) was ufed for food. De Theis derives it, wit
more appearance of probability, from ragacow, to move, OF

trouble, becaufe of the laxative and diuretic quality of the -

plant in queftion, commemorated in its vulgar Englifh, as
well as French, appellation. See Lronropon; at the end
of which botanical article, we muft obferve, genus of Leons
todon is printed by miftake for gender.

TARAXIPPUS, formed of rxgaccw, J frighten, and immer,
horfe, a kind of evil genius, the ftatue of which was ereéted
in the Grecian hippodromes, in order to alarm and frighten
the horfes in their courfe. The fhape and form of this
{trange deity are not defcribed ; but he certainly anfwered
the end for which he was defigned : it frequently happening,
that the horfes were fo {cared at his appearance, as to turn
away with the utmoft violence, and expofe the lives of their
riders or drivers to the moft imminent danger. Many con-
jeftures have been formed concerning this { range deity, and
the means he ufed to frighten the horfes: but the moft pros

bable

=e iii . _ = —

fT ak

hable conclufion will be, perhaps, to fuppofe that fome
tricks and artifices were practifed under the difguife of this
figure, either with a defign to render the victory more ho-
nourable in proportion to the difficulty of gaining it, or elfe
that this horfe-frightening deity was placed in the courfe as
a touch-ftone, to prove the refolution and temper of the
horfes ; and to oblige the candidates to bring none into the
field but fuch as by exercife and difcipline were fo affured
and fteady, as not to let their obedience be fhaken upon the
moft trying occafions.” Berenger’s Hift. and Art of Horfe-
manfhip, vol. i. p. 54. See Srapium.

TARAXIS, from TaeATTw, tO difturb, in Surgery, a
flight ophthalmy, or inflammation of the eye. See Opu-
THALMY.

TARAZ, in Geography, a river of Independent Tar-
tary, which runs into the Sirr or Jaxartes at Otrur. Some
fuppofe this to be the fame with the river Tulas ; but others
reprefent it as a much more inconfiderable ftream.

Taraz, or Turkefian, a city of Afia, and capital of the
country of Turkeftan, fituated on a {mall river which runs
into the Sirr, 250 miles N. of Samarcand. N. lat. 44° 45/.
E. long. 69° 42’.

*TARAZONA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 15
miles S. of Alarcon.—Alfo, a city of Spain, in Aragon,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Saragoffa.© This town is
ancient, and was deftroyed by the Moors in the year 724,
and by the fame people rebuilt in the beginning of the 12th
century ; 43 miles N.W. of Saragoffa. N. lat. 42°. W.
jong. 1° 43/.

‘TARBA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated on the
“fouthern coaft of the ifle of Crete.

TARBASON, a word ufed by fome chemical writers as
a name of antimony.

TARBASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Pifidia.

TARBAT, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Cromarty. This parifh originally belonged to
the county of Rofs, but was feparated Pen it and annexed
to Cromarty, in 16933; 6 miles E. of Tam.

Tarpat Nefs, a cape of Scotland, on the eaft coaft of
the county of Rofs, between the friths of Dornoch and
Murray. N. lat. 37° 50’. W. long. 3° 4o0!.

TARBE, acity of France, and capital of the depart-
ment of the Upper Pyrenées, built on the ruins of the an-
cient Bigorre: before the revolution it was the fee of a
bifhop, and refidence of a governor. It confifts principally
of one ftreet along the Adour, and is defended by a cattle ;
7% polts S. of Auch. N. lat. 43° 14'. E. long. 0° 8’.

TARBELLI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
in Aquitania, whofe territory extended along the Aquitanic

ulf.
a TARBERT, in Geography, a poft-town of the county
of Kerry, Ireland, on the river Shannon, where there is a
ae ae It is 124 miles S.W. from Dublin. There
is alfo a {mall ifland of this name off the coaft of Galway.

TARBIDO, or Marazzo, a river of Naples, which
runs into the Mediterranean, 13 miles S.W..of Cofenza.

TARBOU, a town of Hungary, on the river Theyfe ;
14 miles N.N.E. of Kifwarda.

TARBURGH, or TarzorouGn, a town of North
Carolina, on the Tar; 45 miles N.N.W. of Newbern.
N. lat. 35°52’. W. long. 77° 44!. ’

TARBUT, a city of Perfia, in Khoraffan, eight furfungs
diftant from Turfhifh ; with a population of about Sooo
perfons, défended by a ftrong wall, and flanked with towers.
Provifions are here plentiful and cheap ; it has 220 dependent

TAR
villages, and is poffeffed by Ifa Khan, a powerful chief, whe

can bring into the field an army of 10,000 men.

TARCHI, in Biography, a Neapolitan compofer, who
arrived in England in 1786, at the fame time as Rubinelli.
He was young at that time, but though he remained here
only one feafon, he difcovered confiderable abilities, and
feemed advancing rapidly into fame. He had fire, tafte,
and invention. If he {till lives, we make no doubt but that
he ranks high among the dramatic compofers of his country.

. TARCHONANTHUS, in Botany, {o called from tar-
con, or taracon, the Arabic name of Artemifia Dracunculus,
our Taragon, and a19o-, a flower, becaufe its flowers re-
femble thofe of that plant. Vaillant contrived this name in
the Mem. de:l’Acad. des Sciences, for 1719, but it is not
one of his happieft——Linn. Gen. 416. Schreb. 547.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1792. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 4. 515. Juff. 185. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 671.
Gertn. t. 166.—Clafs and order, Syngencfia Polygamia-equa-
lis. Nat. Ord. Compofite Nucamentacee, Linn. Corymbi-
frre, Juii.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx turbinate, of one leaf, cut half
way down into (for the moft part) feven rather acute feg-
ments, coloured internally, fhorter than the corolla, perma-
nent. Cor. compound, uniform, of about twenty florets,
all perfect, equal, each of one petal, funnel-fhaped, with
five teeth. Stam. in each floret, Filaments five, capillary,
very fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube, as long as
their own partial corolla, with a filamentous appendage at the
bafe. iff. in each floret, Germen inferior, oblong ; ftyle
twice the length of the- floret ; {tigmas two, divaricated.
Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds folitary,
ovate-oblong, comprefled. Down woolly, invefting every
part of the feed. Recept. minute, clothed with woolly hairs,
the length of the calyx.

Obi. The /eed-down is very remarkable, as not crowning
but entirely invefting the feed. Linneus.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle villous. Seeds invefted with hairs,
Common calyx of one leaf, turbinate, cut half way down
into feveral fegments. Anthers {purred at the bafe.

1. T. camphoratus. Shrubby Ajrican Fleabane, or Aro-
matic Taragon-blofiom. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1179. Suppl. 361.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n.1. (Elichryfo affinis africana arbo-
refcens, floribus purpuro-violaceis, foliis Salvie, odore Rof-
marini ; Herm. Lugd.-Bat. 228. t. 229. Pluk. Phyt. t. 174.
f. 1.) —Leaves elliptic-oblong, nearly entire ; denfely downy
beneath. Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
it was brought very early into the gardens of Europe. This
is a greenhoufe evergreen /brub, or {mall tree, flowering from
June to OGober. The éranchzs are angular, tuberculated,
denfely downy and hoary. Leaves {cattered, ftalked, two
or three inches long, more or lefs acute, fomewhat wavy,
entire or minutely toothed ; their upper fide of a dark dull
green, quite {mooth, reticulated with fine veins ; the under
white and cottony, witha prominent rib and veins. When
bruifed they {mell like rofemary, but lefs agreeably. Pani-
cles terminal, many-flowered, with numerous lanceolate
braéeas, all together hoary, like the branches. Segments
of the calyx from five to feven, or more. /orets dark dull
purple, with whitifh anthers. ~Seeds enveloped in copious
white wool, like thofe of an ErtocerHatus; fee that
article.

2. T. ellipticus. Oval-leaved Taragon-bloffom. Thunb.
Prodr. 145. Willd.n. 2.—* Leaves elliptical, finely toothed ;
denfely woolly beneath.”’—Gathered by Thunberg at the
Cape. We have feen no authentic fpecimen from him, but
there are fome in the Linnean herbarium which anfwer es

the

TAR
the fj

pecific charaéter, though they are obvioufly a mere va-
riety of the foregoing.

3- T. racemofus. Clufter-flowered Taragon-bloffom.
Thunb. Prodr. 145.—‘ Leaves elliptical, pointed, finely
toothed ; denfely woolly beneath.””—From the fame country.
This is perhaps but another variety. The leaves of T. cam-

‘atus vary in acutenefs, Willdenow feems accidentally to
ave omitted this in tranfcribing. It fhould have been his
n. 3.

y T. lanceolatus. Lanceolate Taragon-bloffom. Thunb.
Prodr. 145. Willd. n. 4.—“ Leaves elliptical, entire,
fmooth.””—Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg. His fpe-
cific name is exceptionable, when compared with the cha-
raters of this and the reft of the fpecies. We mutt rely
on him for the fynonyms of the following, it being his own
difcovery ; or we fhould have prefumed, without feeing
f{pecimens, that the plant before us might be T. glaber of

innzus.

5- T. dentatus. Toothed Taragon-blofflom. Thunb.
Prodr. 145. Willd. n. 5. (T. glaber; Linn.’Suppl. 360,
according to Thunberg.)—“ Leaves oblong, entire or
toothed ; flightly downy beneath.’”,—Gathered by Thun-
berg at the Cape. We have feen no fpecimen. Linnzus
defcribes his plant as extremely like 7. camphoratus, but
quite fmooth, and without any fmell. It varies with nar-
rower or broader leaves, ‘Leael entire, fometimes
toothed.

6. T. ericoides. Heath-like Taragon-bloffom. Linn.
Suppl. 360. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves oblong, fmooth, im-
bricated in four rows. Calyx in four deep fegments.—
Native of the Cape of Good Hope. A rigid /brub, with
copious, round, irregular branches, whofe points fometimes
taper into a f{pinous point. Leaves like thofe of many
Erica, minute, f{carcely a line in length, elliptic-oblong, ob-
tufe, entire, concave, fmooth on both fides, dotted, aro-
matic when rubbed, imbricated in four rows on the very
fhort, oppofite, lateral fhoots. Foqwers folitary at the end
of thofe fhoots, each on a fhort filky ftalk. They are er-
roneoufly termed “ conferti’””? in the rh ese being no
otherwife crowded than becaufe the little branches which
bear them are fo. Calyx in four very deep, elliptical,
fmooth, reddifh divifions, very aromatic. Florets few, mi-
nute, concealed in the copious woolly hair, which is twice
the length of the calyx.

Linnxus juitly or of this laft {pecies, that its ge-
nus is rather doubtful. We conceive it might as readily be
fuppofed an LEriocephalus, and if the leaves could by any
means be called filiform, we might guefs it to be Z. glaber,
Thunb. Prodr. 168, afpecies not afopted in our account of
that genus ; (where Lamarck Illuftr. t. 717, ought to have
been quoted after Juff. 785.) The above -conjeéture is
Rrengthened by Thunberg’s having mentioned no Tarcho-
nanthus ericoides, nor, as far as we can difcover, has he de-
{cribed the fhrub in queftion under any other name. We
beg leave to remark that the fpecies of this whole genus,
except the original one, are sacha in much uncertainty,
nor are the materials with which we are furnifhed fufficient
to enable any botanift to form an opinion about them.

TAarcnonantuus, in Gardening, contains a plant of the
fhrubby evergreen exotic kind, of which the fpecies that is
moft commonly cultivated is the fhrubby African fleabane,
(T. camphoratus,) which has a {trong woody ftem, that
rifes to the height of twelve or fourteen feet, fending out
many woody branches at the top, which may be trained to
a regular head.

ethod of Culture,—This is a plant that may be increafed

TAR

by cuttings, which fhould be planted out in the fpring or
early fummer feafons, in pots filled with light mould, giving
them fhade and water occafionally. They foon ftrike root,
and in three or four months may be potted off into feparate
pots, affording them fhade and water as before, and placing
them under thelter. They alfo ftrike root in the fummer
feafon, when planted in a common border, and covered with
hand-glaffes, and may in thefe cafes be potted off in the
autumn.

Afterwards they require the management of other hard:
greenhoufe plants. The plants do not produce ripe fee
in this climate. ;

They afford variety in thefe different fituations.

TARDA Avls, in Ornithology, a name given by many
to the buftard, more commonly known among authors by
the name ofis.

TARDETS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Pyrenees; 6 miles S. of Mau-
leon.

TARDIGRADUS, or Storu, in Zoology.
DYPUS.

TARDO, in the /talian Mufic, is ufed to denote a flow
moyement, being much the fame as /argo.

TA RDOIRE, or TARDOUERE, in Geography, a river of
France, which runs into the Charente, near Rouchefou-
cault.

TARDOU, Et, a town of Spain, in the province of
Cordova; 28 miles W. of Cordova.

TARDSONG, a town of Thibet; 250 miles E. of
Laffa. N. lat. 29° 54!. E. long. 95° 34!. :

TARE, in Botany. See Vetcu- ;

Tare, in Agriculture, a well-known plant of the vetch
kind, of which there are two'forts; the common purple-
flowered {pring or fummer tare, and the purple fgmeaned
wild or winter tare ; the latter of which fort is by much the
hardielt.

Numerous experiments in the culture of thefe different
kinds of tares, were made by the Rev. Mr. Laurents, in
order to afcertain their differences in hardinefs, for which we
refer to the Correéted Agricultural Survey of the County of
Suffolk.

It is evident from the tall, clofe, hardy growth and fuceu-
lent quality of the winter tare, that it muft be a plant of
much value to the farmer, as affording an abundant produce
of ee food for animals ; and by hai alternated with
thofe of the grain kind, in ameliorating or preventing the
exhaultion of the land that muft otherwife take place. It
has been fuggefted by the writer of the Agricultural Survey
of the County of Middlefex, that it may be the means of
enabling the arable farmer to fupport as much live-ftock as
the grazier, as while crops of this fort remain upon the
gevund, they afford larger fupplies of the beft kind of
ood on the acre than the moft rich and fertile grafs lands ;
and they may be taken from the ground at fo early a Beit
in the fummer feafon, as on the friable loamy foils to admit of
a clean crop of turnips, &c. being obtained from the fame
land in the fame year ; and of thofe of the more heavy kinds
being Be ee and fown with wheat. And while they are
capable of being raifed with fuccefs on moft forts of foils and
fituations, they fupport and fatten cattle and fheep of dif-
ferent fizes and breeds in an expeditious manner. And
further, they afford a good preparation for other forts of
eon crops, and in that way keep up the fucceffion of fuch
orts of food for the fattening of additional nambers of
animals, and in that manner afford abundance of st |
fituations where it could not otherwife be procured, On

, the

See Bra-

TARE.

the whole, he fuppofes, that by a judicious combination of
this plant with thofe of turnips, clover, and fainfoin, the
poor downs, fheep-walks, and other wafte lands may be
rendered from ten to thirty times more valuable than they
are in their prefent ftate.

The tare in all its varieties is a plant which, in refpeét to
foil, according to the author of the Prefent State of Huf-
_ bandry, admits of confiderable latitude, growing without

difficulty or trouble on all the varieties, from that of the thin
gravelly, to thofe of the deep and {tiff clayey kinds, but
flourifing in the moft vigorous and perfe&t manner on thofe
of the gravelly, loamy defcriptions, that are not too moift or
wet at particular feafons.

2 With regard to the preparation of the land for this
fort of crop, there is lefs care neceflary than for many
other kinds of grafly forts of crops, as it will fucceed
well where the foil has not been fo much broken down,
or reduced into fine mould; but it always grows in the
moft perfect and vigorous manner where a good degree
of pulverization and finenefs has been produced in the land
by proper tillage. But in common, two or three plough-
ings, with occafional good harrowings in the intermediate
times, may be fully fufficient for the purpofe, at whatever
feafon the crop is to be put into the ground.

As to the fowing of the feed of this crop, it has been
obferved, that as the feed of the {pring tare does not fuc-
ceed well when fown for the winter crop, nor that of the
winter kind when put in for the fummer produdt, care
fhould be taken to keep the feeds of the two forts as per-
feGly diftiné& as poffible. And that as they are, from their
_being both of nearly the fame colour and fize, as well! as
their agreeing in other particulars, extremely liable to be
mixed in the feed-fhops, it may be the beft praétice for the
cultivator to preferve his own feed, as by that means he may
not only be certain of having the feed good in its quality,
but of the right forts, and, ar courfe, may depend more fully
on his crops. And it has been fuggefted by the writer of
the Middlefex Report on Agriculture, that fteeping the
feed in dry feafons may be of utility in promoting the
quick vegetation of the crop in many fituations of land
and a taities of feafon. With regard to the quan-
tity of feed that fhould be employed, it fhould, of courfe,
vary according to the nature of the foil, and the time as well
as manner of fowing. But from two buthels to two and a
half are the proportions moft commonly recommended in the
broad-caft method of fowing. But on poor forts of land,
where the feed is fown late, and the climate is backward,
three bufhels may not be too much. and it has been alfo
obferved by a late writer, that where the crops are either
to be cut for foiling, or to be fed down by live-ftock, the
proportion of feed fhould be confiderably increafed, as
not only a greater produce is thereby provided, but the
growth of the crops rendered more quick and full. In the
drill method of fowing, when at the diftance of fix inches,
two buthels of feed will be quite fufficient ; and where the
diftances are larger, ftill fmaller proportions of feed will
anfwer the eae

In regard to the periods and manner of fowing thefe forts
of crops, it is evident that the former muft vary with the in-
tentions of the cultivator ; but the winter fowings fhould be

ormed fome time between Auguft and Odtober ; and in
expofed fituations and poor foils, more early than in thofe of
the contrary defcription. As for the {pring fowings of
thefe crops, they may be executed from the beginning of
March to the end of April, or even earlier, with fuccefs. In
fome places, as on the down lands in Suffex, they find great
advantage from fowing {pring tares in June with a light mix-

VoL. XXXV.

ture of rape or cole feed, as about a quart to the acre, on
the fame land, as furnifhing a good and nutritious feed for
weaned lambs in the autumnal feafon.

With regard to the mode of fowing crops of this nature, it
is moftly that of the broad-caft, which fhould be performed
as evenly as poflible over the furface of the well-prepared
land ; the feeds being afterwards well covered in by proper
harrowing, in order to prevent their being picked up by
birds, and to enfure their perfe& vegetation and growth.
It has been fuggefted, however, that in rich clean foil, it is
probable the row method would fucceed well with this fort
of crop, as is the practice in fome of the fouthern diftriGs
of the ifland, according to a late practical writer. And
with fome it has been the cuftom to fow a little rye with
their winter tare crops, and a {mall quantity of barley with
thofe of the {pring, on which, however, it has been well ob-
ferved, that as plants of different forts never fucceed well
together, it is probable that little advantage can be derived
from the praétice, efpecially as the tare is not a plant that
ftands much in need of proteétion in the early ftages of its
growth, and may be injured by too much fhade and clofe-
nefs. The former of thefe forts of feed, and fome others,
may, however, be occafionally blended with it, and fown as
a good green feed for fome forts of young animals, as
already noticed.

It has been fuggefted in the firft volume of the Farmer’s
Magazine, that the moft productive method of fowing this
crop, when intended for feed, is to mix them amongft beans
when drilled, at the rate of one firlot of tares to one boll of
beans.

It is further ftated, however, as obvious, that when tares
are intended for green food, there is no neceffity for mixing
them with beans. But that when fuch is the purpofe, they
require to be fown tolerably thick, fo as the furface may be
early covered ; and if the ground is good, and recently
dunged, an acre of them will afford as much keep for horfes
and cows, as can be gained from a full clover crop; at leaft
the writer has found them fully as beneficial.

It has been found that crops of this fort are capable of
being grown well after wheat or barley, but that they may
be grown after almoft any fort of crop where the land is in
good heart, and properly prepared for the purpofe.

In regard to the after-management of thefe forts of crops,
from their covering the land in a very complete manner,
when they are fufficiently full, they do not require any great
attention during their growth.

And in the procefs of making tare-crops into hay, more
attention is found neceffary than in thofe of moft of the arti-
ficial graffes, as wet is more injurious to them, and they re-
quire more fun and air; but in other refpeéts they demand
the fame cautious management, in order to prevent the
foliage from being loft.

The moft proper time for cutting for this purpofe is, ac-
cording to the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, when
the bloffoms have declined, and the crops begin to fall flat on
the ground. When well made, the hay is of the beft and
moft nutritious quality or properties, being extremely ufeful
in many intentions.

The writer of the Report of the State of Agriculture in
Middlefex, ftates the produce as the refult of experience, in
having frequently weighed green tares, to be ten or twelve
tons per acre, which is a large crop. And when made into
hay, at about three tons the acre, which fhews the vaft difad-
vantage of making thefe crops into hay. The value of the
produce, eftimating it as if the whole were made into hay,
being in that diftri& from twelve to fifteen guineas the acre ;
and in fituations where other forts of hay fell at fifty shil-

P lings

TARE.

lings or three pounds, at from about {even pounds ten
fhillings to nine pounds the acre. And it is found that the
{pring tare-crops are lighter, and moft liable to be injured by
a dry feafon.

The produce in feed is likewife found to be confiderable,
being by fome ftated at from three to fix facks ; but in other
inftances forty bufhels or more have been obtained from the
acre. It has been fuggefted, that this fort of feed is
greedily devoured by pigeons, and that it may probably be
ufed for poultry with at fe and profit, as being a very
ftimulant fort of food in the produétion of eggs.

In refpeét to the application of tare-crops, it has been well
remarked by a late writer, that there can be little hefitation
in pronouncing that of foiling them with horfes or other
forts of live-ftock on the farm, as the moft advantageous and
beneficial method of any which can be adopted for them.

It has, however, been advifed by the author of the Agri-

cultural Survey of the above diftn& of Middlefex, that the
farmer’s ftock fhould be wholly fupported on them, from
the time they begin to blow till the bloffoms begin to fall
off, and the formation of pods to take place. And, on ac-
count of the risk from wet, he advifes that all the {tock of
a farm fhould be foiled on them green, as it will have the
good effect of taking the ftock off the grafs land long
enough to allow of its being mown for hay ; and by this
means the meadow-hay be much increafed in quantity, and
there will not be fo much occafion for pafture, the tares
abundantly fupplying its place. And that befides, at the
time the cattle return from green tares, the grafs land in the
mean time having been mown, may be ready to receive them.
The fame able writer remarks, in addition, that as it would
be wafteful in the extreme to turn live-ftock into a field of
tares, as their treading and lying down would do great mif-
chief to the crop, even by feeding it in {mall patches hurdled
off ; the moft advifeable method would be to mow the tares
of the firft half acre, and to carry the produce into the
ftables, cow-houfes, and fold-yards, or on poor land, to
be confumed by ftock ; then to hurdle the growing tares
from fuch cleared ground, into which put the ftock, and feed
them all with the tares, given to them in racks, removing
the hurdles and the racks forward daily to the edge of the
owing tares; which will manure the land uniformly, and
depofit all the urine in the foil. But the writer of the Cor-
reéted Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, has {tated another
method of proceeding, where fheep are the fort of ftock
employed, which feems by no means ineligible, viz. to
feed them through rack hurdles, which are made the fame
as the common Rre-railed ones, only leaving the middle rail
out, and nailing upright pieces setales at proper diftances, to
admit the fheep to put their heads through. A {wathe of
vetches being mown in the direction you wifh to plough the
land, a fufficient number of thefe hurdles, allowing one to
five fheep, are fet up clofe to it: at noon, the fhepherd
mows the fwathe and throws it to the hurdles, and the fame
at night: next morning, a {wathe being fir} mown, the
hurdles are again fet, thus movin them once in the twenty-
four hours. By this trifling additional trouble, the vetches
are, it is faid, eaten clean off, and the land equally benefited.
The writer of the Hertfordthire Corrected Agricultural
Report remarks, that in the heavy land diftricts, he has
found tares very generally cultivated for foiling the teams ;
a hufbandry, he thinks, that cannot be too much commended.
And he contends farther, that it appears by the writings of
Ellis, that this branch of agriculture was common in this
county above fixty years ago, before it was at all practifed
in many other counties, and he was glad to find it holds its
place fteadily in the management of the prefent period. It

4

is noticed, that Mr. Leach, of the fame diitrit, manures fer
tares, and that they are mown early, and then three earths
are given to the land, when he gets good turnips after them.
oy that they are univerfal about Rickmanfworth and
Watford, many being fed off by fheep.

And the fame writer fays, in his Agricultural Survey of
Norfolk, that the culture of this plant has increafed very
confiderably in that diftri&: within his memory they are
multiplied at leaft tenfold. And that Mr. Overman there
begins fowing winter tares about Michaelmas, once more
before Chriftmas, and fometimes twice or thrice more, witlt
{pring tares for a fucceffion. That after mowing, he does
not plough the land, but runs fheep over it till the wheat-
fowing. But that the cultivator who has made by far the

eateit exertions in this hufbandry that he ever met with, is

r. Purdis, of Eggmore, who has 300 acres every year,
feeding no more than is neceffary to fupply himfelf: they
are i by his fheep ; ufed in foiling his numerous horfes ;
and immenfe quantities made into hay.

It is fuggefted, as the remark of Mr. Blithe, that the
fowing tares for fummer-feeding fheep, is an abfolutely new
improvement in the hufbandry of Welt Norfolk, and that he
thinks it a very great and important one.

And in both the counties of Gloucefter and Worcefter, it
is the practice to fow thefe crops as pafturage or feed for
horfes, and eat 6r get them off early enough to allow of
turnips being fown the fame feafon, But, as in the wet
feafons, when the tare-crops are large, the ftems are apt to
become rotten upon the ground, and in this condition fuch
food often proves prejudicial to the horfes ; in all fuch cafes,
it will be imprudent to cut or eat them any longer for the
purpofe of foiling in thefe ways.

It is noticed in the eepsntydecoha volume of the Annals of
Agriculture, that in the county of Suffex, thefe forts of
crops are of fuch ufe and importance, that. not one-tenth of
the ftock could be maintained without them ; horfes, cows,
fheep, and hogs, all feed upon them, the hogs are foiled upon
them without any other food. This plant maintains more
ftock than any other plant whatfoever. Upon one acre,
Mr. Davis, of this diftri€, can maintain four horfes in
much better condition than upon five acres of grafs. Upon
eight acres he has kept twelve horfes and five cows for three
months without any other food. No artificial food what-
ever is equal to this excellent plant in his opinion.

They here find this crop to be a hearty and moft nourifh-
ing food for all forts of cattle. Cows give more butter
when fed with this plant than with any other food what-
foever. And Ly having one crop of vetches fucceeding
another, Mr. Halftead, in the fame county, infures a crop
the whole fummer of the beft food that can be given to cat-
tle ; after this, he fows turnips, and then wheat.

In many of the fouthern counties, as Cornwall, Devon,
Kent, and fome others, the culture of this fort of cro
might be greatly extended with vaft advantage, efpecially if
it were grown with the view of foiling different kinds of live-
ftock, to which purpofe it is by far the beft fuited. Alfo,
in many cafes, as a highly valuable early fort of n {pring
feed for many kinds af young animals; the climates an
foils being mild, and particularly favourable for their very
early production and abundant growth, when fown at the
moft proper feafon. ‘

It is remarked alfo, that they have on the South Downs
an admirable practice in their courfe of crops, which cannot
be too much commended, that of fubftituting a double crop
of tares, inftead of a fallow for wheat. Let the improving
cultivator give his attention to this praétice, for it is worth,
in the opinion of the writer, a journey of five hundred miles.

They

ra R

They fow forward winter tares, which are fed off late in the
{pring with ewes and lambs: they then plough and fow
fummer tares and rape, two bufhels and a half of tares, and
half a gallon of rape ; and this they feed off with their lambs
in time to plough once for wheat. A variation is for mow-
ing, that of eae tares only in fucceffion, even fo late as the
end of June for foiling. See Sorzinc.

Tare and Tret, in Commerce, any defect, wafte, or di-
minution in the weight, the quantity, or the quality of

oods.

The feller is ufually to account to the buyer for the tare
and fret.

Tare is more particularly ufed for an abatement, or de-
duétion in the price of a commodity, on account of the
weight of chefts, cafks, bags, &c. in which goods are put
up, and whofe weight may be known feparately from that of
the goods: and which being fubtra¢ted from the grofs
weight, or that of the cafk, &c. and goods together, gives
the weight of the goods alone, or the nett or neat weight.
But if the tare is not known feparately, and an allowance
made for it at fo much fer hundred weight, or hundred
yards, &c. then the deduction of the tare is by the rule of
three.

Before the tare is taken off, the allowance called the
draft or draught is fubtra¢ted from the original or grofs
i of goods.

are is diftinguifhed by a variety of denominations ;
thus: Real tare, or open tare, is the a€tual weight of the
“package ; cuffomary tare is an eftablifhed allowance for the
weight of the mike ges computed tare is an eftimated allow-
ance agreed upon at the time ; average tare is when a few
packages only among feveral are weighed, their mean or
average taken, and the reft tared accordingly ; /ufer tare is
an additional allowance or fecond tare, when the commodity
or package exceeds a certain weight.

When tare is dedu&ted, the remainder is called the nett
weight; but if tret be allowed, it is called the /uttle
weight.

Pret is a deduction of 4 lbs. fram every 104 lbs. of the /uttle
weight.

here was another allowance that was formerly made for
daft or fand, or for the wafte or wear of the commodity on
foreign articles paid by the pound avoirdupois ; but this is now
nearly difcontinued by merchants, or rather allowed in the
price. Itis wholly abolifhed at the Eaft Indian warehoufes
in London, and neither tret nor draft is allowed at the
“‘cuftom-houfe.

The allowance called ¢re¢ is calculated in the fame way
with tare. Z£x. 1.—At 7 lbs. tare, or tret, to 112lbs. grofs,
what is the tare, and alfo the nett weight, when 746 lbs. grofs
was received ? fay, as 112 lbs. to 7 lbs. fo is 746 Ibs. to the

‘tare fought, which fubtraéted from 746 lbs. the remainder is
the nett weight.

Ex. 2.—At 5 lbs. tret to 112 lbs. grofs, what grofs weight
muft be received, when 84 lbs. nett was paid for: and how
much is allowed ?, fubtra€&t 5 from 112, then fay, as 107, the
remainder to 112, fo is 84 to the grofs weight fought ; the
difference of which and 84 is the allowance. Or thus: as
107 to 5, fo is 84 to the allowance fought, which, added to
84, gives the grofs weight fought. ‘hus from the grofs
weight, nett weight, and allowance, or any two of thefe in
one cafe given, with any one of them in another cafe, we
find the other two in that other caie.

There are fometimes two allowances deducted out of
the fame quantity ; firft tare, and then tret ; after the tare
js dedudted, the remainder is called particulafly /ubtle or

AR

futile weight, eut of which the tret is deduéted, and the laft
remainder is called nett weight.

Ex. 3.—Tare being allowed at 4 to 112, and tret at 5 to
112, what is the nett weight in 87 lbs. grofs? fay, as 112 to
108 fe nave es BY fo is 87 lbs. to the fubtle ; then as 112 to
107 (= 112 — 5), fois the fubtle to the nett. Andif you
multiply 108, 107, and 87 continually, and alfo 112 by
112, and divide that produ& by this, the quotient is the
nett weight fought. Malcolm’s Ar, p. 564.

The tare is very different in different merchandizes: in
fome there is none at all allowed. It is a thing much more
regarded in Holland than in England, or elfewhere: a
modern author, M. Ricard, treating of the commerce of
Amfterdam, obferves, that the tares are one of the moft con-
fiderable articles with which a merchant is to be acquainted,
if he would trade with fecurity.

Sometimes the tare is, as it were, regulated by cuftom ;
but generally, to avoid all difpute, the buyer and feller make
a particular agreement about it.

For a comprehenfive and accurate table of the cuftom-
houfe and commercial allowances for various kinds of goods,
we refer to the firft volume of Dr. Kelly’s « Cambit,” our
limits not allowing the infertion of it, though the liberality
of the author would not objeé& to our thus availing ourfelves
of his labours.

TAREEKAB, in Geography, a town of Candahar, on
the Cameh; 23 miles E.S.E. of Cabul.

TAREF, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
25 miles N.E. of Medina.

TAREIBOIA, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of
ferpent found in America, and called alfo cacaboia; though,
according to fome authors, the tareiboia and cacaboia are
two different fpecies. ’

They are both of the amphibious kind, and live in lakes
and waters, as well as on land; but they are not very poi-
fonous. ‘hey are fmall fnakes, and all over black; when
offended they will bite, but the wound is curable. Authors
have written differently of thofe ferpents, fome making the
latter very different from the former, and of a yellow ieee,
Ray.

TAREINSKA, in Geography, a harbour of Kamt-
ie in Avatcha bay ; 10 miles S. of St. Peter and St.

aul.

TAREIOU, a town of Brafil, in the government of St.
Francifco ; 160 miles S.W. of Fernambuco.

TAREIRA, in Ichthyology, the name of a fith caught
in the American feas, and eaten, but of no fine flavour. It
is of an oblong and thick body, gradually tapering toward
the tail; its head refembles that of a {nake, and is raifed
into two tubercles over the eyes; its eyes are yellow, with
a black pupil; its nofe pointed, and its mouth large and
yellow within ; it has extremely fharp teeth in both its jaws,
and on its tongue ; it has eight fins, the tail being accounted
one, and this is forked; but this, as well as the reft, is of
the confiftence of a poppy-leaf, tender, thin, and foft, and
fuftained by foft rays; its fcales are fo nicely laid on one
another, that it feems fmooth to the touch; its belly is
white, and its back and fides are variegated with longitudinal
green and yellow lines. Marcgrave.

TAREIRI, in Geography, a river of Brafil, which runs
into the Atlantic, S. lat. 6°. W. long. 34° 43!

TAREKA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a fort
of demon flain by Rama, in his warfare defcribed in the
Ramayana.

TAREM, in Geography, a city of Perfia, in the province
of Lariftan, which is a meanly built place, fituated és a

2 pan

TAR

plain on the banks of a falt river. It confifts of a mud fort,
furrounded on all fides by wretched huts, formed of the
branches of a date-tree, which grows in great abundance
on the plain. It is the refidence of many refpeétable mer-
chants, who trade to Mafcat, Gombroon, and Shirauz ; and
contains about 12,000 inhabitants ; 30 miles N.N.E. of Lar,
which is fituated in N. lat. 27° 30/. E. long. 52° 45’.

TAREMDSONG, or TARENGASONG, a town of Thi-
bet ; 160 miles S.S.E. of Laffa, N. lat. 27° 40! E. long.
92° 50!.

TARENT, a river of England, which runs into the
Stour, in the county of Dorfet, 3 miles S.E. of Blandford.

T ARENT, an ifland of the Perfian gulf, clofe to the fhore,
and immediately oppofite to Ketif ; although not fo large, is
a finer ifland than Bahrein. «It is about feven miles long,
and about as much in breadth, well fupplied with good freth
water, and embellifhed with many delightful gardens, which

roduce fruits of various kinds in abundance.

TARENTAISE, County of,.a province of Savoy,
bounded north by the lordfhip of Faucigny, eaft by the
duchy of Aoita, fouth by the county of Maurienne, and
welt by the duchy of Savoy ; erected into a bifhopric about
the fifth century, and an archbifhopric in the eighth. The
kings of Burgundy ere¢ted it into a county ; and towards
the end of the eleventh century, Humbert II., earl of
Maurienne and Savoy, became matter of it, and his de-
{cendants held it afterwards. The foil is barren, and the
afpeét of the country, abounding with mountains and pre-
cipices, un leafant, with little good land. _ The Ifere crofles
it from ealt to weft. In its union with France, it formed
part of the department of Mont Blanc.

TARENTO, a city of Naples, and province of Otranto,
the fee of an archbifhop, fituated on a {mall peninfula, which
projects into a bay of the Mediterranean, to which it gives
name. Tarentum (which fee) was anciently the capital of a
celebrated republic ; but after undergoing many revolutions,
it was deftroyed by the Saracens or Hungarians : foon
afterwards it was rebuilt in a new fituation. fter the total
expulfion of the Greeks, duke Robert, the Norman, created
his fon, Bohemund, prince of Tarento; but his iffue failing,
it was beftowed on Henry, fon of king Roger, and after-
wards on William, a baftard of that family. It was wreited
from him, on account of his illegitimacy, and conferred on
Manfred of Swabia, who long ia the title of prince of
Tarento. Its next transfer was made by Charles II. to
his fon Philip, titular emperor of Conftantinople, by whofe
daughter it was conveyed to the houfe of Baux. Upon the
failure of this family, it was obtained by Raymond Orfini, a
younger fon of the family of Nola. King Ladiflaus, by
marrying the widow of pablo became mafter of Ta-
rento. Queen Joan II. gaye it to her hufband, the earl of
La Marche ; and he fold it to John Anthony Orfino Balzo,
the right owner. When this prince died without iffue, Ta-
rento efcheated to the crown. The inhabitants, neglecting
the culture of the foil, direéted their whole attention to fifhing.
Their number is eftimated at 18,000. Its harbour, which
was once excellent, is now fo fhallow as to admit only fifhin
boats. It is defended by a fort. The bay of Tarento 1s
remarkable for fprings of frefh water at the ate which,
as it is faid, may be taken up ina calm from the furface ;
60 miles W.N.W. of Otranto. N. lat. 40° 45’. E. long.
17° 10.

TARENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Magna Grecia, upon a {mall promontory of the Meflapia.
Tarentum was a very ancient city: fome have aferibed its
origin to the Cretans, before the Tyan war. In the zift

TAR

Olympiad, a powerful body of emigrants arrived under
Phalanthus from Laconia, that it feemed to be refounded.
Here they fettled upon an ariftocratical plan, enlarged the
fortifications of the city, and transformed it into a near re-
femblance of Sparta. Places were called by new names;
and as moft of the nobles had perifhed in a war with the

Japyges, democracy was introduced. The favourable fitua-

tion of this city, when it was firft founded, contributed to
its rapid profperity. Placed in the centre of three feas, it
obtained the whole commerce of the Adriatic fea, of the
Grecian or Ionian fea, and of that portion of the Mediter-
ranean called the Tyrrhenian fea. The adjacent country
was fertile in grain and fruit; the paftures were excellent ;
the flocks afforded a very fine wool. It is no wender, then,
that the city fhould become rich, and that riches fhould be
fucceeded by luxury. _ Philofophy was not negleéted at Ta-
rentum; and that of Pythagoras gained the preference.
The arts were alfo diligently cultivated. Strabo mentions
the gymnafium of this city with high commendation, and
the bronze coloffus of Jupiter, Bran was {carcely inferior
to that of Rhodes. Fabius Maximus found here abundance
of pictures and ftatues, which ferved to adorn his triumph.
With the wealth of Tarentum, its power alfo rofe above
that of all the colonies of Magna Grecia: its land forces
were eftimated at 32,000 foot and 3000 horfe, in conftant
pay ; and thirteen confiderable cities acknowledged its do-
minion. At fea, their fleets rode triumphant and unrivalled.
The moft brilliant epoch of their hiftory was that of the
pamper: of Archytas, whofe profound learning as a phi-
ofopher, and {kill as a mechanic, was no impediment to his
political talents and exertions. His virtues alfo commanded
refpe&t. He frequently led the Tarentines to battle, and

always returned after fuccefs. With Arehytas, however, ©

terminated the profperity of Tarentum. At length this
city partook of the horrors of thofe wars which defolated
the fouthern part of Italy. The inhabitants not only ex-

pofed themfelves to the Roman arms by fome outrages com-.

mitted againft their ambafladors, but in the year

Rome, rae having taken pofleffion of eae
Romans fent againft them a body of troops under Fabius
Maximus, who retook it, and gained poffeffion of its ample
tores et mee In Be vers 664 or 665, it was made mu-
nicipal ; and in_procefs o time, it became a ver

city. Whilft Totila was ravaging Italy in the wo Pee
546, the Greeks took pofleffion of Tarentum, but fuddenly
abandoned it at the approach of a detachment of troops be-
longing to the king of the Goths; which event occurred in

the year 548. In 552 the troops of Narfes retook its but.

it was doomed to pafs under the dominion of Romwald I.
duke of Beneventum, in the year 668. On the decline oe
the Lombard power, the Grecian emperors regained pof-
feffion of this country, and retained it till Robert Guifcard
drove them for ever out of Italy. For its fubfequent hif-
tory, &c. fee TARENTO. 7 :
TAREYEN, in Geography, a town on th
ey of Celebes. N. ets 1 aE lone eae "
AREYRAS, a town of Brafil, in the my
me eee ie E.N.E. of Villa me : ie: =
d : » a river of Hungary, which i
Samos, 20 miles S.W. of Tokay, Ty ne ae
TARE, ariver of Tunis, whic i di
arr miles S. of Maharcis, Ne Tun tae Ae aa
FE, a town of Egypt; 7 miles W. of Cai
TARFOKIRAT, a town of the kingdom of Fez, en
the coaft of the Mediterranean; 22 miles W. of Melilla.
TARFOWA, a town of Africa, in Tunis, fuppofed to
be

ee ae ed

—————

TAR
be the ancient Taphrura or Taparura; 24 miles W. of
‘Thainee.

TARFVALA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Tavaftland ; 70 miles N.N.E. of Jamiio.

TARGA, a fea-port town of Fez, near which is an
oytter fifhery ; 90 miles S.E. of Tangiers.

Tarca. See Trrea.

TARGAR, a name given by fome of the chemical
writers to oil of juniper.

TARGET, a field; thus called from the Latin, tergum,
back, becaufe originally made of leather, wrought out of the
back of an ox’s hide.

Taree is alfo the name of a mark for the artillery to fire
at in their practice.

Tarcet, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Allier; 2 miles S.E. of Montmarault.

TARGIONI, Tozzrrti, Giovanni, in Biography, an
eminent Italian phyfician, was born at Florence in 1712, and
took his degree of M.D. at Pifa, where he had ftudied and
acquired fingular reputation. Upon his return to Florence,
he applied to the ftudy of botany under the celebrated
Micheli, who, at his death, bequeathed to him his library,
herbarium, and MSS., and alfo the fucceflion to his dire€tor-
fhip of the botanical garden. He was likewife nominated
profeffor of botany in the Florentine college by the grand
duke ; and admitted to the two academies of the Apatifti
and Della Crufca. In conjunétion with Cocchi, he engaged
in making a catalogue of the library of Magliabecchi, which
he had bequeathed to the public ; and in recompence of his
labour, the grand duke appointed him librarian. His va-
rious occupations, in conneétion with his pra¢tice, rendered
it neceffary for him to refign the office of direftor of the bo-
tanical garden in 1749. The mind of Targioni, however,
was fo active, that not content with his literary and profef-
fional employments at home, he made feveral {cientific ex-
eurfions, the refult of which he publifhed in his “* Relazioni
@aleuni Viaggi fatti in diverfe parte della Tofcana per of-
feryar le Produzioni naturali, e gli antichi Monumenti
deffe,”” Firenz. t. 1. 1751, 8vo. Asa phyfician, he alfo
publifhed feveral pieces, and among thefe were “ Direétions

‘for the Recovery of drowned Perfons.’? He alfo promoted
inoculation for the {mall-pox; and direéted his attention
to the treatment of epidemics, the draining of marfhes, the
prevention of the inundations of the Arno, and the examina-
tion of vegetables to be fubftituted for bread in a time of
{carcity. Having taken leave of literary labours by a work
on the progrefs of the phyfical fciences in Tufcany, compre-
hended in four volumes, he reftri€ted himfelf to medical
practice from the year 3770 to 1780. At length, in Ja-
nuary 1782, being in his 71ft year, his life terminated by a
gradual decay. Haller. Gen. Biog.

TARGIONIA, in Botany, was fo named by Micheli,
in honour of his friend and fellow-labourer in the natural
hiftory of Italy and other parts of the world, Dr. Cyprian
Targioni, of Florence, whofe valuable mufeum he highly
celebrates. There have been feveral perfons of this name,
diftinguifhed at Florence, in medicine and natural hiftory.
John Targioni, who took the furname of Tozzetti for an
eftate, was profeffor of botany there, and died in 1782, aged
qo. He publifhed Travels in Tufeany, as well as feveral
other works relating to natural fcience, and purchafed the
mufeum and library of Micneri. (See that article. )—
Mich. Noy. Gen. 3. t. 3. Linn. Gen. 565. Schreb. 764.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v..4. Sprengel in Stockholm Tranf. for
1802. 85. t. 4: alfo in Bullet. des Sciences, 27. t. 2. f. 2.
Juff. 8. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 877.—Clafs and order, Cryp-
togamia Hepatice. Wat. Ord. Alge, Linn. Hepatice, Juli.

x a

Gen. Ch. Cal.? Perianth a continued membrane, finely
reticulated, enveloping the piltil, at length burfting. Stam. ?
Anthers numerous, roundifh, feffile, {cattered over the in-
fide of the perianth. Pi/?. Germen oval, nearly feffile, ac-
companied at the bafe by the rudiments of others, with
abortive ftyles; ftyle terminal, awl-fhaped, tubular, deci-
duous ; ftigma concave. Peric. Capfule feffile, nearly glo-
bofe, of two hemifpherical valves, buriting vertically, and
one cell. Seeds very numerous, minute, roundifh, connected

by five threads into a denfe Brau mafs.

Eff. Ch. Capfule globofe, of two concave valves, and
one cell. Seeds numerous, combined by fibres into a
globe.

1. T. Aypophylla. Dotted Targionia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1603. Hudf. 519. Engl. Bot. t. 287. Dickf. Dr. Pl.
zo. (T. minima et vulgaris; Mich. n. 1. Lichen petreus

minimus, fruétu orobi; Dill. Mufc. 532. t. 78. f.9. L.
alter acaulis tro¢uAdcxoeoc ; Column. Ecphr. part 1. 333-
t. 331.)—Very common in heathy rather moift places,
among moffes, on old walls and rocks, in moft parts of
Italy. It is faid alfo to have been found in Devonshire, and
in Scotland. We have had living plants from a bank near
Nayland in Suffolk, where che Targionia was difcovered by
the Rev. Mr. Kirby. The fronds are oblong, inverfely
heart-fhaped, three quarters of an inch in length, growing
nearly horizontally, in denfe imbricated patches, attached
by copious fine fibrous roofs; their upper furface dark
eres marked with a flight longitudinal furrow, and be-
prinkled with pale prominent points; the under fide black,
becoming vifible when, by drought, the margins are curled
in. The parts of the flower we have not feen. The fruit
ftands at the back of the frond, a little below the end, and
looks like the feed of a vetch, being nearly globular, of a
very dark brown, almoft black ; feparating when ripe into
two hemifpherical valves, enclofing a globular mafs of black
powdery /eeds, conneéted by fibres. The habit of the plant
is exaétly like that of a MarcuanTiA, (fee that article, )
but the generic character differs eflentially, by the fruit
alone, from that genus, as well as from JUNGERMANNIA, of
which latter Hedwig fufpeéted it to be a fpecies. We rely
on the obfervations of Sprengel for the ftru€ture of the
flower, though without any folid conviétion that the anthers
are what he defcribes. The female parts of fruétification
refemble thofe of true Muscr, (fee that article,) but the
capfule is totally different. This part is called calyx in the
Englifh Botany, from a fuppofed analogy to Spherocarpus,
which we now believe to have little foundation. Whether
there be any membrane extended from the bafe of the ftyle
over the germen, like the calyptra of mofles, does not appear
from Sprenge]’s defcription, but it is highly probable ;
though as he exprefsly fays the ftyle itfelf is deciduous, that
circumftance would {till afford a material diftinétion.

TARGON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gironde; 6 miles N.E. of Cadillac.

TARGOWISKA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia;
g miles S. of Lucko.

TARGUM, in the Sacred Literature, a name which the
Jews give to their Chaldee gloffes and paraphrafes on the
Scripture. See PARAPHRASE.

Thefe Chaldee paraphrafes, which were tranflations of
the {criptures of the Old Teftament, from the Hebrew text
into the language of the Chaldzans, were called Targums :
for the word targum fignifies in Chaldee an interpretation or
verfion of one language into another, and may properly be
applied to-any fuch verfion or tranflation ; but it is moft
commonly by the Jews appropriated to thefe Chaldee para-

phrafes by way of eminence.
As

TARGUM.

As the Jews, during their long captivity in Babylon, had
forgot their ancient language, the Hebrew; and now under-
food nothing but the language of their mafters, the Chal-
deans; there was a necefity of explaining the prophets in
that language ; and to this neceflity is owing the firft begin-
ning of the Chaldee paraphrafe.

Bo make the fenfe of the text underftood, each doétor
made a paraphrafe of feme part of it in the vulgar tongue ;
and as thefe feveral interpretations, in time, became very
voluminous, certain rabbins undertook to colle& them to-
gether ; and this colleétion they called The Targum.

The Jewith doétors do not agree about the antiquity of
the Targum; for the more modern Jews having blended
their own comments with thofe of the ancients, no certain
age or era can be fixed for the whole work.

It is commonly believed, that R. Jonathan, who lived
‘under the reign of Herod the Great, made the firft Chaldee
verfion of the prophets; and with this verfion mixed the
interpretations borrowed from tradition. Onkelos, it is
certain, tranflated the Pentateuch almoft word for word ;
and without ‘any paraphrafe; and another verfion of the
Pentateuch is afcribed to Jonathan, but that without much
certainty.

Dr. Prideaux thinks, that the verfion or Targum of
Onkelos is the moft ancient of all that are now extant: and
the principal reafon of his adopting this opinion is, that
the Ryle in which it is written approaches nearer to the
ftyle of that part of Daniel and Ezra, which is written in
the Chaldee language, and which may be confidered as a
ftandard of its purity, more than any other. This Tar-
um has been held in higher efteem among the Jews than all
the other Targums, | being fet to the fame mufical notes
with the Hebrew text, it is thereby made capable of be-
ing read in the fame tone in their public affemblies. The
next to this in the purity of its Ryle, is the Targum of
R. Jonathan Ben Uzziel on the prophets; that is, on
Jofhua, Judges, the two books of Samuel, the two books
of Kings, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor
prophets. The Targum of Onkelos is a ftri& verfion,
Miéog the Hebrew word for word; whereas Jonathan
takes the liberty of a paraphraft, by enlargements and addi-
tions to the text. The third Targum, or that on the law,
afcribed to Jonathan, is not his, becaufe the ftyle of it is
wholly different from that of his true Targum on the pro-
phets, and feveral things are mentioned in it, which had no
being, or at leaft no name, till after Jonathan’s time. The
fourth Targum is on the law, written by an unknown au-
thor, and at an unknown period. It is called the Jeru/falem
Targum, probably becaufe it was written in the Jerufalem
diale&, which was fpoken by the Jews after their return
from Babylon, and which contains a mixture of Hebrew
words with the Chaldee. This Jerufalem Targum is not a
continued paraphrafe, as all the reft are, but confined to
felect paffages, as the author feems to have thought the text
moft wanted an explication. In many places it is taken
word for word from the Targum, faid to be Jonathan’s on
the law: and contains feveral things, which are delivered in
the fame words in the New Telfament by Chrift and his
apoftles. Dr. Prideaux accounts for this circumftance, b
fuppofing that thefe were fayings and phrafeologies, which
had obtained among the Jews in the time of our Saviour,
and continued among them long after: and hence Chrift and
his apottles, and afterward the author of this Targum, de-
rived them from the fame fource. The fifth 'Targum, which
is that on the Megilloth, 7. «. Ruth, Efther, Ecclefiaftes,
Solomon’s Song, and Jeremiah’s Lamentations; the fixth,
which is the fecond Targum on Efther; and the feventh,

which is that on Job, the Pfalms, and the Proverbs, are all
written in the moft corrupt Chaldee of the Jerufalem dialect.
Of the two former, no author is named ; but the author of the
third is faid to be Jofeph the one-eyed, but who he was, or
when he lived, we are not told: that on the Megilloth,
which mentions the Mifchna and the Talmud with the exphi-
cation, muft have been written after the Babylonifh Talmud,
or the year of Chrift 500. The eighth and lait of thefe
Targums, is that on the two books of Chronicles; pub-
lihed by Beckius at Augfburg in Germany, that on the
firft book in 1680, and that on the fecond in 1683. On
Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel, there is no targum.

That the Targum of Onkelos on the law, and that of
Jonathan on the prophets, are as ancient as our Saviour’s
time, if not more ancient, is the general opinion of both
Jews and Chriftians. As to all the other Targums befides
thefe two, they are certainly of a much later date ; the ftyle
of every one of them is more barbarous and impure than
that of the Jerufalem Talmud, and they muft, therefore,
have been written after the compofure of that work, i. e.
after the beginning of the fourth century after Chrift; and
if the Talmudic fables, with which they abound, were
taken out of the Babylonifh Talmud, this will bring their
date ftill lower, and prove them to have been written after
that Talmud, or after the beginning of the fixth cent
after Chrift. :

The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan are in fuch great
efteem among the Jews, that they hold them to be of the

‘fame authority with the original facred text, and for the fup-.

port of this opinion, they feign them to be derived from
the fame fountain. The Chaldee paraphrafe of Onkelos,
they fay, was delivered in the fame manner with the real
law, when God gave the written law unto Mofes at Mount
Sinai ; and when by his holy Spirit he diated to the pro-
phets the prophetical books, he delivered feverally to them
ide each book the Targum of Jonathan at the fame time.

hefe were delivered by faithful hands, the firft’ from
Mofes, and the other from the prophets, till they came
down to Onkelos and Jonathan, who only put them. into
writing.

Agreeably to the high opinion that was entertained of
them, they were read every Sabbath-day in their fynagogues,
in the fame manner as the original facred word ‘thal » of
which they were verfions ; and this ufe of them was con-
tinued to late times. Whether the Targums of Onkelos
and Jonathan were received for this ufe fo early as our
Saviour’s time is not certain ; however, it feems that thefe,
or fome others, were ufed for the inftruétion of the people,
and were read among them in private as well as in public.
Agreeably to this purpofe, they had fome of their bibles
written out in Hebrew and Chaldee together; that is, each
verfe firft in Hebrew, and then in Chaldee ; and thus from
verfe to verfe through the whole volume. In thefe bibles,
the Targum of Onkelce was the Chaldee verfion for the
law ; and that of Jonathan for the prophets; and for the
Hagiographa, the other T'argums that were written on
them. One of thefe bibles, thus written, Buxtorf tells us
he had feen at Strafburg : and bifhop Walton acquaints us,
that he had the perufal of two others of the fame fort, one
in the public library of the church of Weftminfter, and the
other in the private ftudy of Mr. Thomas Gataker. The
other Targums are all of a much later date than thofe of
Onkelos and Jonathan, and of far lefs authority : however,
bifhop Walton has introduced moft of them into his Poly-
glot. The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan are of great
ufe for the better underftanding not only of the Old Tefta-
ment, on which they are written, but alfo of the New. Asto

the

TrAsR

the Old Teitament, they ferve to vindicate the genuinenefs of
the prefent Hebrew text, by proving it to be the fame that
was in ufe when thefe Targums were made, contrary to the
opinion of thofe who think the Jews corrupted it after our
Saviour’s time. They help to explain many words and
phrafes in the Hebrew original, and they hand down to us
many of the ancient cuftoms of the Jews. And fome of
thefe, with the phrafeologies, idioms, and peculiar forms of
fpeech, which we find in them, do in many inftances help
as’ much for the better illuftration and better underftanding
of the New Teftament as of the Old: the Jerufalem Chal-
dee diale&t, in which they are written, being the vulgar lan-
guage of the Jews in our Saviour’s time. They alfo very
much ferve the Chriftian caufe againft the Jews by inter-
preting many of the prophecies of the Meffiah in the Old
‘Teftament, in the fame manner as the Chriftians do. Many
inftances are produced to this purpofe by Dr. Prideaux in
his Conneét. of the Hift. of the Old and New Teft. vol. iv.
P- 777, &c. : d

Thefe Targums are publifhed to the beft advantage in the
fecond edition of the great Hebrew bible fet forth at Bafil
by Buxtorf the father, anno 1610, for he has reétified the
Chaldee text, and reformed the vowel pointings in it: the
Targums having at firft been written without vowel points,
which were afterwards added very erroneoufly by fome
Jews.

TARHONA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Tr-
poli; 25 miles S.W. of Lebida.

TARI, or Tory, a river of Africa, which runs through
the kingdom of Popo into the fea.

TARI, in Commerce. See Taro.

TARICHIA, in Ancient Geogrephy, iflands fituated on
the coaft of Africa, in the Mediterranean fea, between
Leptis and Thapfus, mentioned by Strabo.

TARIDEGO, in Geography, atown of Africa, on the
river St. Domingo. N. lat. 12° 10!. W. long. 13° 56/.

TARIENTO, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 8 miles N.
of Udina.

TARIER of Buffon, in Ornithology. See MoTAcILLA
Rubetra.

TARIERA, in Ichthyology, the name of a river-fith
caught in many parts of America.

It is an oblong fifh, with a ftraight back, and abelly |

fomewhat hanging down ; its under jaw is longer than its
upper, and its teeth are extremely fharp: among thefe are
two longer than the reit in the middle of the under jaw, and
four fuch in the upper ; its fcales are large, its back brown,
and its belly and fides whitifh. It is a well-tafted fifth, but
full of bones. Marcgrave. —

TARIF, or Tarirr, Book of Rates; a table or cata-
logue, drawn ufually in alphabetical order, containing the
names of feveral kinds of merchandize, with the duties or
cuftoms to be paid for the fame, as fettled by authority, and
agreed on between the feveral princes and tates, that hold
commerce together. :

‘TARIFFA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain,
in the province of Seville, fituated on a bay to which it

ives name, on the north fide of the Straits of Gibraltar,
Fortified with old walls and tewers, with a caftle, in which
the governor refides. By the Romans it was called “ Julia
TraduG&ia,” and “ Julia Joza.””_ The prefent name is from
the Moors; 27 miles S.S.E. of Medina Sidonia. N. lat.
36° 3’. W. long. 5° qr!.

TARIFILON, in Botany, a name by which Avicenna,
and fome other authors, have called the #rifalium bituminofum,
or itinking trefoil. :

TARIJA, in Geography, a jurifdi€tion of South Ame-

LAE

rica, in Peru, but placed under the viceroyalty of

Ayres. This is reprefented a charming and fereile omen
with a ferene {ky and a fine temperature of air, producing
wheat, maize, and all other things that are effential to the
fupport of man; together with the tree, which produces
the herb of Paraguay, the cocoa, the vine, and flax, which
is cultivated merely for the fake of its feed. In the abun-
dance of paftures are fed a vaft number of cattle and fheep.
The annual tranfports of black cattle alone are computed
at little lefs then 10,000 head, which are valued at from
eight to ten piaftres each. The hides tanned and prepared
form fole-leather for the inhabitants of La Plata, Potofi,
&c. ‘The demands for Spanifh and colonial merchandife an-
nually exceed 60,000 piaftres ; the returns for which are
made in productions of the province. St. Bernardo de
Tarija is the chief town. Chicas and Tarija form one
government.

Tartsa, a river of South America, which runs into the
Vermejo, in the province of T'ucuman.

Tarisa. See Sr. Bernardo de Tarija.

TARIN, in Ornithology, a name given by the French,
and from them by many others, to the citrinella; a bird com-
mon in Italy, and kept in cages for its beauty and fine notes.
See FrinciLia.

TARINGASONG, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;
17 miles S.S.E. of Laffa. N. lat. 28° 6. E. long. 93°.

TARINGTING, in Ornithology, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iflands, to a fpecies of lapwing,
eel is common on the fea-fhores, and runs remarkably

wift.

TARINURAK, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which
runs into the Lena, N. lat. 61°. E. long. 124° 14/.

TARISKERI, a town of the ifland of Metelin, on the
N. coaft ; 12 miles E. of Cape Sigri.

TARITH, one of the many names given by chemitts to
mercury.

TARITO, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; miles
S.E. of Tchontori. i! pis

TARKA, a mountain of Tranfylvania; 28 miles N.N.E.
of Udvarhely. :

TARKI, a town of Hungary; 15 miles N.N.W. of

Topoltzen.
TarkI, or Jarku, a town of Afia, in Dagheftan, capi-
tal of the diftri& of Schamgul, feated in N. lat. 42° 50/,
and fuppofed to contain 10,000 inhabitants, ftands on the
Cafpian fhore, in a narrow glen, through which run many
ftreams of falt-water.

TARKIRA-HOUTCHIN, 2 poft of Chinefe Tartary,
in the country of the Monguls. N. lat. 44° 34!. E. long.
113° 48’.

TARKO, a town of Hungary, 6 miles E.S.E. of
Szeben.

TARKSHA, a name of the fabulous bird Garuda, on
which, in the mythology of the Hindoos, their god Vifhnu
rides. This vehicle, or vahan, in the Sanfecrit tongue, is
reprefented as half man half eagle ; and offers an argument
for the identity of the Hindoo deity, and the Jupiter of the
Greeks. Another name of this bird is Supernas; which
fee. See alfo VAHAN.

TARMA, in Geography, a jurifdiGtion of South America,
in Peru, fituated to the north of Atun Xauxa, about go
miles from Lima, to which diocefe it belongs, and is one of
the moft extenfive in this part of Peru. The climate is
temperate, and the foil fertile, except towards the mountains,
where it is cold, and the land is chiefly applied to feeding
of cattle ; and many mines of filverare found. 'Tarma, the

capital,

TAR
capital, is 85 miles E. of Lima. S. lat. 11°. W. long.

75, 50:

"A RMONBARRY Brince, a village of the county
of Rofcommon, Ireland, at which there is a bridge over the
Shannon. The royal canal, if it fhould ever be completed,
is to join the Shannon near this place. It is 4 miles N.W.
from Longford, and above 60 from Dublin.

TARMON-HILL, a mountain at the fouthern extre-
mity of the peninfula, called The Mullet, being a detached
part of the county of Mayo, Ireland.

TARN, a river of France, which rifes in the mountains
of Lozere, paffes by Florac, Ifpanhac, St. Enimie, Com-
peyre, Milhau, St. Rome, Alby, L’Ifle, Rabaitens, Ville-
mur, Montauban, &c. and joins the Garonne, near Moiffac,
in the department of the Lot.

TARN, a department of France, being one of the nine
departments of the fouthern region, and formerly a portion
of Upper Languedoc, in N. lat. 43° 40’, bounded on the N.
and N.E. by the department of the Aveiron, on the S.E.
by that of Herault, on the S. by that of the Aude, and on
the W. by the departments of the Upper Garonne and
the Lot, and taking its name from the river Tarn, which
traverfes it from E. to W. Its territorial extent is 6080
kiliometres, and its population comprehends 272,163 perfons.
It is divided into 4 circles, 35 cantons, and 356 communes.
The circles are Gaillac, including 59,501 inhabitants; Alby,
63,064; Caftres, 106,918; and Lavaur, 42,680 inhabitants.
Its contributions in the 11th year of the French era,
amounted to 2,693,820 francs; and its expences to
252,749 fr. 18 cents. According to Haffenfratz, its ex-
tent in French leagues is 30 in length, and 20 in breadth ;
it is divided into 5 circles and 48 cantons, and its population
comprehends 289,148 fouls. Its capital is Alby. This
department is diverfified with hills and plains, and abounds
in a variety of produétions, viz. grain, flax, hemp, wine,
fruits, and paftures. It has confiderable forefts, with mines
of iron, copper, lead, coal, quarries of marble, &c.

TARNA, a town of Sweden, in the lapmark of Umea:
as N.W. of Umea.

ARNAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze, on the Vienne; 25 miles N. of Tulle.

TARNAVAY, a town of Hindooftan, in the county
of Calicut ; 20 miles N.E. of Paniany.

TARNISHING, a diminution of the natural luftre of
any thing, efpecially of a metal.

Gold and filver, when tarnifhed, refume their brightnefs,
by fetting them over the fire in certain leys. Rornen
pewter, &c. that are tarnifhed, recover their luftre with
tripoli and potafhes.

ARNOGROD, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Belcz ; 52 miles W.S.W. of Belcz.

TARNOPOL, atown of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia;
72 miles E. of Lemberg. N. lat. 49° 30'. E. long. 25° 40!.

TARNOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ; 52
miles S.W. of Sandomir. N. lat. 49° 56’. E. long. 20° 53’.

TARNOWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Oppeln, near which is a filver mine; 6 miles N. of
Ober Beuthen. N. lat. 50° 25’. E. long. 18° 47/.

TARO, a river which rifes in the fouthern part of the
duchy of Parma, and runs into the Po, g miles E. of
Buffeto. The country through which it paffes is called
Val di Taro.—ANo, a late department of France, formed
by the duchies of Placentia and Parma.

Taro, in Commerce, a money of account and copper coin
of Naples, Sicily, and Malta. For the accounts at Malta,
fee Scupo. The banks at Naples keep their accounts in
ducati, tari, and grani. A ducat contains 5 tari, 10 carlini, or

9

7 aR

40 cinquini: a taro, or tarino, is worth zz earlini, or 20
grani. Among the filver coins are tari, at 2 carlini. By
the coinage of 1804, the piece of 12 carlini fhould contain
350% Englifh grains of fine filver; fo that it is worth
49d. fterling ; and the ducat of 10 carlini is worth 1d.
fterling nearly, or 1/. fterling = 5 ducats 88 grani. ‘The
taro of Sicily is worth about 4d., or more accurately, 1/,
fterling = 1 ounce 28 tari 15 grani. :

TAROATAIHETOOMO, is the name of one of the
two firft or fupreme deities at Otaheite: the other, who is fup-
pofed to have been a rock, is called Tepapa. Thefe produced
a fon called Jane, to whom their prayers are generally ad-
dreffed, and who is fuppofed to intereft himfelf in the affai
of mankind; and a daughter called Tellowmatatayo, the
Year, from whom proceed the months and days. From
the two firft beings they fuppofe alfo to have fprung an
inferior race of deities called Zatuas. Hawkefworth’s Voy.
vol. ii. p. 238.

TARODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ger-
many, near the Danube, and in the vicinity of Arz Flavie.

TAROM, in Geography. See Tarum.

TARON, or Tiroan, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Adirbeitzan ; 120 miles S.E. of Tauris.

TARONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Tauric
Cherfonefus, S.E. of Taphra, and E. of Satarcha.

TAROONCHI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 15 miles S.S.W. of Chinna Balabaram.

TAROUC Yannson, a lake of Thibet, about 53 miles
in circumferencé N. lat. 31° 52’. E. long. 84° 38).

TAROUCA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 9 miles S. of Lamego.

TAROULA, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Tidor. N. lat. 0° 42! E. long. 127° 2o0/.

TAROURS, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 30 miles
N.N.E. of Neermul.

TAROUT, a town of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
jas ; 32 miles S.E. of El Catif. :

TARP, a town of Sweden, in the province of Dalland ;
12 miles N. of Uddevalla. pt

TARPANS, a kind of wild horfes in the Caucafian
defert, E. of the river Yaik. They are of a middling fize,
roundifh, fhort, generally of a blueith-grey colour, with big
heads, and ewe-necked. They are taken with a noofe, and
broken to the faddle by being coupled to a tame horfe.

TARPAULIN, or Tarpaw ina, is a piece of canvas,
well pitched and tarred over, to cover the hatchways of a
fhip at fea, in order to prevent the penetration of the rain
or fea-water, which may occafionally rufh over the decks.

The term is alfo ufed in derifion for a perfon bred at fea,
and educated in the mariner’s art. We alfo, of late, ufe it
to exprefs a painted floor-cloth.

TARPAULIN Cove, in Geography, a bay on the S. of
Maffachufetts, near Falmouth.

TARPEIAN, Tarpetus, in Antiquity, an epithet given
to arock in ancient Rome, of confiderable hei ht; whence,
by the law of the Twelve Tables, thofe guilty of certain
crimes were precipitated. It was on this rock that the
Capitol was built.

The Tarpeian rock might formerly be fteep enough on
one fide to break a man’s neck; but it could never have
been of that furprifing height mentioned by fome writers,
if any judgment can be formed from its appearance at pre-
fent. See Burnet’s Letters, p. 2 38, and Miffon’s N.
Voyage, p. 103.

It took its name from a veftal, called Tarpeia, who be-
trayed the Capitol, of which her father was governor, to
the Sabines ; on condition that they would give her all they

bore

4

i. Soa adi anal “~

TAR

bore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets. But, in-
ftead of bracelets, they threw their bucklers (which were
likewife borne on their left arm) upon her head, and
crufhed her to death.

Others afcribe the delivery of the Capitol to her father,
Spurius Tarpeius; and add, that he was precipitated
down this rock by Romulus’s order, and that this hence-
forward became the punifhment of all criminals of the like
kind.

Tarperan Games, Ludi Tarpeti, were games initituted
by Romulus in honour of Jupiter Feretrius ; and called
alfo Capitolini ludi. See CAPIToLine. :

TARPORLEY, in Geography, a {mall market-town in
the hundred of Edifbury, and county palatine of Chefter,
England, is fituated on the great road from London to
Chetter, at the diftance of 172 miles N.W. from the former,
and 11 miles E.S.E. from the latter. In ancient records,
Tarporley is called a borough, and the houfes burgages :
it had in former times a mayor, as appears by deeds of the
years 1348 and 1396: it is now governed by a conttable.
The market, which was originally on Tuefday, was granted
in 1281 to Hugh de Tarporley, then lord of the manor: it
had been many years difufed, but was reftored in 1705 by fir
John Crew, who alfo procured a grant of three annual fairs,
and built a market-houfe. The parifh of Tarporley, which
includes the townfhips of Eaton, Rufhton, and Utkinton,
contained in the year 1811, according to the population
report, 365 houfes, and 1852 inhabitants. An annual
fox-hunt, of great celebrity, is held at Tarporley, on the
firft week in November, during which week are horfe-races,
at a place called Crab-tree Green, on Delamere foreft.

About two miles fouthward of Tarporley rifes the great
infulated rock of Beefton. It is compofed of fand-{tone,
and is nearly perpendicular on one fide, which gives it a
tremendous appearance, but the other fide gradually flopes
to the level of the country. Its height is 366 feet. On
the creft of this rock are the ftately ruins of the far-famed
Beefton caftle, whofe almoft impregnable ftrength was once
proverbial. This fortrefs was erected in 1220 by Ranulph
de Blundeville, earl of Chefter. It confifted of an outer and
inner area. The outer was defended by a ftrong wall, for-
tified with round towers, which ran acrofs the flope from
one end of the precipice to the other. Some parts of this
wall, and fix of the towers, are ftill extant. ‘The area in-
elofed is nearly five acres. The caftle was defended, on one
fide of the area, by a deep ditch cut out of the folid rock ;
on the other, by the abrupt precipice that overhangs the
vale of Chefhire. The entrance is through a noble gateway,
guarded on each fide by a great round tower, with walls of
prodigious thicknefs. During the civil wars of the 17th
century, this foreft was alternately befieged by the royal
and parliamentary forces; and in 1646 was difmantled by
order of the parliament.—Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. it.
part 2. Chefhire. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii.
Chefhire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. Ae

TARPOU, a lake of Thibet, about 60 miles in cir-
eumference. N. lat. 30° 32! W. long. 81° 54! ate

TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, Tarquin the Ancient, in
Biography, the fifth king of Rome, was the fon of an opulent
merchant of Corinth, who, efeaping from tyranny at home,
fettled at Tarquinii, in Etruria, where he married a female
of rank, by whom he had twofons. One of them died, and
the other, named Lucumo, was urged by his wife Tanaquil,
a lady of rank and of ambition, to remove from Etruria to

Rome; where he changed his prenomen Lucumo into
Lucius, and his family name Damaratus into Tarquinius,
borrowed from his native city. Here he ingratiated him-

Ve. XXXV.

TAR

felf by his manners with Ancus Martius, the king, and
alfo with the people ; and by the liberal application of his
wealth to public purpofes, particularly to the fupport of
the wars in which Rome was engaged, as well as by his
fill and valour in the field, he gained a reputation which
ferved to advance him to the rank of patrician and fenator.
Ancus alfo appointed him to the confidential office of guar-
dian to his two fons. Upon the death of Ancus, B.C.
616, the ambition of Tarquin prompted him to take meafures
for fecuring the fucceffion to himfelf. The crown being
eleCtive, he contrived, by bribes and folicitations, to obtain
the fuffrages of the people, who proclaimed him king ; and
in order to ftrengthen his intereft in the fenate, he intro-
duced from plebeian families 200 new members into this
body. In his wars with the Latins, he took feveral of
their towns, and obliged the Sabines and Etrurians, whofe
confederacy he defeated, to feek an alliance with Rome on
humiliating terms. Tarquin, in honour of his fuccefs, was
granted a triumph ; and the fpoils of war were devoted to
the erection of the Circus Maximus, for the exhibition of
the Roman or great games. The Etrurians, having after-
wards rebelled, obtained peace upon condition of their
recognizing Tarquin as their fovereign. During an inter-
val of peace, after a nine: years’ war, Tarquin employed
himfelf in improving the city, by enclofing it with walls,
and by conftru€ting thofe fewers, which were in fubfequent
times the objeéts of admiration. On occafion of a new
war with the Sabines, Tarquin, whofe army was deficient
in cavalry, augmented the ftrength of each divifion; and
having defeated the Sabines, they fubmitted, and furrendered
all their fortreffes to the Romans. At this time Tarquin
fulfilled his vow of erecting a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva, on the Tarpeian rock ; and by this aét he acquired
the honour of founding the principal feat of the Roman
worfhip. Having attained to his 8oth year, the fons of
Ancus took occafion to make an attempt for defeating his
plan of continuing the crown in his own family by the
marriage of his daughter to Servius Tullius, by confpiring
againit his life. They fo far fucceeded as to procure the
aflaffination of the king. His queen Tanaquil, however,
by keeping the event fecret, adopted meafures for fecuring
the fucceffion of her fon-in-law: and the fons of Ancus,
whofe plot had been dete&ted, went into voluntary banifh-
ment. Thus ended, in the year B. C. 570, the profperous
and {plendid reign of Tarquin the elder, one of the moft
illuftrious of the Roman kings, and equally diftinguifhed by
his condué& in peace and in war. Univ. Hitt.

Tarquinius Supersus, or Targuin the Proud, fuppofed
to have been a grandfon of the elder Tarquin, afcended the
throne in the year B. C. 534, His government was arbi-
trary and tyrannical, and it was fupported by a band of
foreign mercenaries, employed in the defence of himfelf
and his party, who had contributed to advance him to
the throne in contempt of the fuffrages of the people.
Many of the principal feators dreading the fate of thofe
who were made the vitims of his fatto and avarice,
retired into a voluntary exile. The plebeians, at firft
pleafed with the humiliation of the fenate, had fome reafon
to complain of the yoke impofed upon themfelves. The
laws that had been made in their favour were abrogated ;
{pies and informers watched their words and aGtions ; and all
public affemblies for bufinefs or amufement were prohibited,
Tarquin, confcious of the odium of the Roman citizens,
took meafures for ingratiating himfelf with the allies; and
with this view, he ereéted a temple near the ruins of Alba,
confecrated to Jupiter Latialis, at which the diets of the
confederate cantons were annually to affemble ; the Romans,

as

TAR

as chief members of the confederation, prefiding at the facri-
fices and deliberations. This inftitution contributed to the
ftrength of the Roman ftate, and the extenfion of its domi-
nion throughout Italy. Having taken up arms a ainft the
Volfcians and Sabines, he returned, after a fuccefsful war,
to Rome, and twice triumphed ; and he took oceafion to
finith the great circus and the fewers, which his grandfather
had begun. But a war again commenced with fome dif-
contented patricians, who had taken refuge at Gabii, a
Latin city not far from Rome ; and this wer lafted feven
years. At length Gabii was conquered by the treachery
of Sextus, one of Tarquin’s fons; and the inhabitants, whom
he treated with lenity, were incorporated with the Romans.
During the reign of this Tarquin, the Sibylline books were
brought to Rome, as we have related under that article, and
the Capitolian temple finifhed. Ardea, the capital of the
Rutuli, was the next objeét of *Tarquin’s military enter-
prife ; and this circumftance was the remote caufe of the
rape of Lucretia by Sextus ‘Tarquin, which at length occa-
fioned the expulfion of the Tarquinian family from Rome,
as well as the extinétion of the kingly Sib era a Brutus,
availing himfelf of the paffions excited among the multitude
by the tragic fate of Lucretia, and expofing the tyrannical
government under which Rome groaned, obtained a public
decree for the banifhment of Tarquin and his fons, and the
army concurring in this refolution, the king was reduced
to the neceffity, at the age of 76, B.C. 509, to abandon
his capital, and take refuge at Care, in Etruria. Many
attempts were made for his reftoration, but all proved in-
effe€tual. T'arquin retired into Campania, and died. there,
in the goth year of his age, and 14th of his exile. Poffeff-
ing talents fit for command, he was neverthelefs violent,
cruel, and wholly unprincipled. Univ. Hift. Gen. Biog.

TARRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Lydia,—Alfo, a town and mountain of Crete.

TARRABERRY, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
30 miles N. of Dinagepour.

TARRABOGA, a town of Bengal; 45 miles S. of
Doefa.

TARRACE, Tarrass, Terrace, or Terra/s, a coarfe
fort of platter, or mortar, durable in the wet, and chiefly
ufed to line bafins, cifterns, wells, and other refervoirs of
water. See Calcareous CEMENT.

That which is called the Dutch terrafs, is made of .a foft
rock-ftone, found near Collen, upon the lower part of the
Rhine ; it is burnt like lime, and afterwards reduced to pow-
der by meats of milla: from thence it is brought to Hol-
land in great quantities, where it has acquired the name of
Dutch terrafs. It is of a greyifh colour when it is not
mixt, which is very feldom the cafe: becaufe it is very dear,
and the demand for it in aquatic works very great. It
is faid that in fome parts of England there is found a foft
ftone, refembling that of Dutch terrafs, and which might
ferve as well in aquatic works.

An artificial terrafs, refembling the true, may be formed
of two parts of lime, and one of plaifler of Paris, well
beaten together, and ufed immediately. ‘There is another
fort of terrafs, ufed for coarfer ufes, which is fometimes
called Welfh terrafs, formed of one part lime, and two parts
of well-fifted coal-afhes, thoroughly mixt by being well
beaten together. Handm. to the Arts, vol. it. p. 32.

TARRACO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, belonging to the Cofetani. ‘This was an ancient
town in the time of the Romans. Some Spanifh authors
have attributed its foundation to Tubal. “Others, with

reater probability, afcribe it to the Pheenicians, who called it
Tarcon, which the Romans changed into ‘Tarraco. Having
: Jo

TAR

been deftroyed, it was re-eftablifhed by the two Scipios,
At length it became the capital of that region, to which it gave
the name of Hifpania Tarragonenfis. Auguttus vifited this
city on occafion of his war againft the Cantabri; and it was
here that the firft altar was erected to his honour. Galba,
A.D. 68, was prefented by the Tarraconians with a crown
of gold. It was in the year 121 or 122 that Adrian re-
eftablifhed the temple built in this city in honour of Auguf-
tus, under the reign of Tiberius. See TARRAGONA.

TARRAGON, in Botany, a name fometimes given to
Southernwood ; which fee. See alfo ARTEMISIA.

TARRAGONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Catalonia, fituated on a rifing ground on the
coaft’ of the Mediterranean, at the mouth of the river
Francoli, and one of the moft ancient cities in Spain, faid to
have been founded by the Phoenicians. Under the Romans
it was the capital of a province, called 'Tarragonenfis, and
was fortified by Scipio as a defence againit the Carthaginians.
In the year 467 it was taken by the Goths, and levelled
with the ground. In 516, a council was held here, in
which sets are firft mentioned; when it was ordained that
the fabbath fhould commence on Saturday evening. It af-
terwards fell into the hands of the Moors, from whom it was
recovered in the latter part of the 11th century, and re-
built by the archbifhop of Toledo, who was by the pope
abfolved of the oath he had taken of going to the holy war,
on condition that he would lay out the fum defigned for that
expedition in rebuilding Tarragona. In the war of the fuc-
ceflion, the Englifh obtained poffeffion of this city, and in-
tended to keep and fortify it, by bringing the river Francoli
quite round it; and for this purpofe threw up vaift out-
works and redoubts, the ruins of which are yet yifible.
On the poffeffion of Gibraltar, they gave up the defign. The
environs at Campus Tarragonenfis they efteem one of the
moft fertile fpots in Europe. Tarragona has but few re-
mains of its ancient grandeur ; infcriptions almoft deftroyed
by time, fome coins, anda few ruins, give but an patos
idea of what it formerly was. It is now depopulated, and
of little importance. The harbour is dangerous, and not
much frequented; there are a few baftions in bad repair,
which were formerly built for its defence. Tarragona is,
however, the fee of an archbifhop, the metropolis of Cata-
lonia, and difputes with Toledo the primacy of Spain. The
eftablifhment of the fee is faid to have been in the firft ages
of the church: the fucceffion of archbifhops was inter-
rupted by the Moors, and remained fufpended until the

ith century. The cathedral is worthy of attention for
its vaft dimenfions, the elegance of its Gothic architeéture,
and a magnificent chapel, built with rich marble and jafper,
in honour of St. Thecla, tutelar faint of the church ; 98
miles E.S.E. of Saragoffa. N. lat. 41° 8’. E. long.
19.99!

TARRAGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 22 miles S.E.
of Moorfhedabad. ;

TARRAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal ;
17 miles S.W. of Boglipour.—Alfo, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Malwa, on the Nerbuddah; 12 miles S. of
Mundu.

TARRAR, a circar of Hindooftan, in Allahabad,
bounded on the north by Allahabad Proper, on the E. by
Chunar, on the fouth-eaft by Boggileund, and on the weit
by Bundeleund ; about 35 miles long, and 12 broad. ‘

TARRASA, atown of Spain, in Catalonia; 13 miles
N. of Barcelona.

TARRATZ Port, a cape on the north coaft of St.
Vincent. N. lat. 13° 24! W. long. 65° 15/.

TARREGA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the

Cervera 5

TAR

Cervera; 5 miles W. of Cervera.
long. o° ro!.°

ARRIE, in Commerce, a meafure at Algiers for corn
and dry goods, holding fomewhat lefs than 2} pecks Eng-
lith meafure ; 16 tarries make a caffile.

TARROCK, in Ornithology, the name of a fea-fowl of
the larus or gull-kind, and diitinguifhed by authors by the
name of the /arus cinereus Bellonii ; and calied by Linneus
the Larus tridaéylus ; which fee.

It is of the fize of the common pigeon, and is not much
unlike it in fhape, except that the head is larger and thicker.
The bill is black, fhort, thick, and ftrong; the throat,
neck, and under fide are white; near eaeh ear, and under
the throat, isa black fpot ; on the hind part of the neck is a
black crefcent, with the horns pointing to the throat.

Its great diftinGtion, however, from all the other birds
of the gull-kind, is, that it has no hinder toe, but in lieu of
it‘a {mall protuberance. It is very common on the coatts
of Cornwall, and fome other of the Englifh fhores. Ray
and Pennant.

TARRY-TOWN, in Geography, a town of New York,
where major André, of the Britifh army, was apprehended
as afpy ; 24 miles N. of New York.

TARSAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar; 18 miles
E. of Nagpour.

TARSI, in the Materia Medica, aname by which fome
authors have called the root of the cyperus efculentus, or {weet
cyperus of the fhops, and by which it is, in fome places,
ufually called by the druggifts. See AvELLANnpA and
HasnHazzis.

TARSO, in the Glafs Trade, a fort of white ftone found
in many rivers in Italy, and other places ; and ufed inftead
of fand for the fineft cryftal-glafs, being firft burnt, and cal-
cined with the falt of the polverine into frit. Neri’s Art
of Glafs, p. 7.

Neri calls this ftone a kind of white marble ; and addsa
eneral rule, that all ftones that will ftrike fire with fteel, are
t to vitrify ; and thofe that will not {trike fire with fteel,

will never vitrify.

The criteria or determinate chara¢ters of foffils were not
zt all fixed in this author’s time, otherwife he had not called
this ftone a kind of marble; fince his own general rule of
trying ftones by fteel is, though liable to a few exceptions, a
very good one ; and, according to that, this tarfo could be
of no affinity to marble ; for marble will not ftrike fire with
fteel, nor ever'be converted into glafs.

The tarfo, therefore, of this and other authors, could be
nothing of the marble kind; but is truly a cryftalline mat-
ter debafed by an admixture of white earth, and found in
form of {mall pebbles, of a whitifh, yellowifh, or pale
reddifh colour ; and this is common in all the gravel-pits of
England, and in the beds of {ome of our rivers ; and might
be ufed with great advantage by our glafs-makers, if they
knew it was fo eafily to be had.

On comparing thefe ftones of ours, with the cuogoli, or
tarfo of the foreign glafs-makers, there is no difference dif-
tinguifhable to the eye, nor will the niceft experiments by the
“ire, acid menftrua, &c. fhew the leaft diftin@tion between
them. We are not to wonder, however, that the glafs-
makers did not hitherto diftinguifh this to be the true cuo-
goli, or tarfo, fince the characters of foffils have been hi-
therto fo little afcertained, that the beft and lateit author on
thefe fubje&s, Dr. Woodward, fo far miftook the ftru¢ture
of this ftone, as to call it a {parry pebble. It is certain
that fpar could never have any thing to do with glafs-
making ; but this ftone has no {par in its compofition.

N. lat. 41° 36’. E.

TAR

TARSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town and country of
Afia, in Bithynia. Steph. Byz.

Tarsus, in Geography, a fea-port town of A fiatic Turkey,
in the government of Marafch, faidto have been founded by
Sardanapalus. It was at one time the capital of Cilicia, and
traverfed by the river Cydnus. It is mentioned by Dionyfius
Periegetes, Ptolemy, Mela, Pliny, and Strabo, the latter
of whom {ays, that it was very powerful and populous ;
that its inhabitants excelled in the itudy of philofophy, and
of all the fciences cultivated among: the Greeks ; indeed in
this refpeét they furpaffed Athens, Alexandria, and all other
academies in the world. It is now inhabited by Turks,
Greeks, and Armenians, and is the fee of a Jacobite bifhop
and Neitorian archbifhop. It is large, and furrounded with
adouble wall. St. Paul cailed himfelf a native of Tarfus ;
and here the emperor Julian was buried. It has been faid
that in the time of St. Paul, Tarfus was a Roman colony,
and that the apoftle was a citizen of Rome by virtue of his
nativity at Tarfus. (Acts, xxi. 37—39. ch. xxii. 3.) But
Dr. Lardner has particularly examined this point, and al-
leged feveral arguments to prove, that Tarius, though it
was no mean city, as St. Luke fays, was not a municipium,
or town of Roman citizens. (See St. Paur.) Tarfus
was taken by the Saracens in 640; 25 miles W.of Adana.
N. lat. 37° 1’. E. long. 34° 37/.

Tarsus, in Anatomy, that part of the foot (confifting ot
about its pofterior half ) to which the legis articulated. Its
front portion correfponds to the inftep in common language.
Sea ExTRemIrTIrs.

The fame name is applied to the portion of cartilage con-
tained in each eyelid. See Eye.

TARTAGLIA, Nicuoras, in Biography, a celebrated
mathematician, was born at Brefcia about the beginning of
the 16th century. Being left deftitute in his childhood by
the death of his father, he was no lefs unfortunate at the
fiege of Brefcia in 1512, in receiving feveral wounds, and
particularly one which divided his lip, fo that he loft the
power of diftin@ articulation; and from this circumftance
he got the name of Tartaglia. The defects of his early
education were amply compenfated by his genius and dili-
gence. Having refided ten years at Verona, he afterwards,
viz. in 1534, became profeffor of the mathematics at Ve-
nice ; and here, except during an interval of eighteen months
at Brefcia, he remained till the time of his death, in 1557.
His works are numerous. Befides tranflations of Archi-
medes and Euclid, he wrote many original treatifes in ma-
thematics, one of the moft important of which, entitled
“ Quefiti e’ inventione diverfi,”’ was publifhed at Venice in
1546, and dedicated to Henry VIII. of England. It is
comprehended’in nine books, and contains anfwers to feve-
ral queftions that were propofed to him at different timea
concerning mechanics, hydroftatics, &c.; and more particu-
larly worthy of notice is the hiftory of the invention of the
rules for folving cubic equations, which he communicated to
Cardan, under an oath that he would keep the fecret.
(See ArceBraA and Carpan.) Tartaghia’s genius was no
lefs confpicuoufly difplayed in other {ciences than in algebra,
He treats of artillery and gunnery, and alfo of the different
methods of fortifying towns, befides various mechanical and
algebraical queftions. He alfo propofes many queftions with
regard to the motion of bodies, and the method of mea-
furing diftances, in his ‘¢ Nuovia Scienzia”’ and “ De’ Numeri
e Mefure.”? To Tartaglia we owe the firft difcovery of the
beft angle, i. e. 45°, as it was then thought, for elevating a
piece fo as to throw a ball or fhell to the greateft diftance.
He alfo announced a method of raifing veflels that were

Q2z funk,

TAR

funk, and other heavy bodies, from the bottom of the fea,
and the means by which a perfon may be enabled to remain a
confiderable time under water ; and to him we owe a treatife
on the figns which indicate changes in the atmofphere. He
has likewife furnifhed us with a large treatife on arithmetic,
algebra, and geometry, publifhed at Venice, in folio, in
1556. ‘Tirabofchi remarks, that all Tartaglia’s works ma-
nifeft great penetration and acutenefs, and that they would
claim higher commendation, if the author had paid more at-
tention to his ftyle, and if the editions were more correctly
printed. But with all their imperfeétions and faults, and
after all the improvements to which they have led the way,
they were juftly efteemed at the time when they were written,
and they have been ufeful to thofe who have in more modern
times purfued the fame courfe of ftudy and inveftigation.
Tirabofchi. Montucla. Hutton.

Tartaglia is mentioned by Pietro della Valle among great
Roman muficians in 1640, and the compofer of ‘ Clearco,”
the firft opera that was performed at a public theatre in Rome.
For though feveral mutical dramas had been exhibited in the
palaces of ambaffadors and other great perfonages in that
city, no theatre had been previoufly opened there for the
public at large.

TARTAGLINI, 1a Rosa, the daughter of Tibaldi,
an excellent tenor finger in the fervice az the emperor at
Vienna. She was extremely celebrated for her beauty and
agility of voice, and quitted the ftage in 1768.

TARTALA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Calicut ; 21 miles E. of Paniany.

TARTAN, in Sea Language, a {mall coafting veffel
navigated in the Mediterranean fea, and having only one matt
and a bowfprit, the principal fail, which is extremely large,
being extended by a lateen-yard.

hen tartans put up a {quare fail, it is called a fail of
fortune.

TARTAR, Tanranus, or Tartarum, in Chemifiry, an
acid concrete falt which rifes from wines, after complete
fermentation, and fticking to the top and fides of the cafks,
forms a cruft, which hardens to the confiftence of a ftone.
It is in this ftate a hard, brittle, brown-red mafs, inter-
fperfed with imperfeétly cryftallized particles; and called
crude or rough tartar, or argol, by way of diftinétion from
that which 1s purified.

Its acon rather depends on the number of repeated
fermentations, which a fucceffion of new wines in the fame
cafks for feveral years makes, than on the foil or climate
where the wine is produced.

The {weet wines afford always lefs tartar than the fharp
ones, and it is alfo lefs valuable. The tartar of Rhenifh
wine is better than that of any other; and in general thofe
wines which have the moft acid in them, and which are the
moftt coloured and ftrongeft-bodied, afford the greateft quan-
3 ba tartar, and that m the largeft cryitals.

he tafte of tartar is vinous, and flightly acid. It is not
entirely a produ& of fermentation, for it is contained in the
“ muft,’”’ or grape juice, and affifts in the procefs of fer-
mentation, and the production of alcohol. This falt has
alfo been found native, under different combinations, in fome
other vegetable juices.

Befides the ufual way in which tartar is produced, there
is a very remarkable account in the Memoirs of the Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, an. 1737, of its having been
found in a more than ordinary beautiful {tate on a human
fkull: the difcovery was owing to accident, and it was found
that there had been lees of’ wine in the veffel in which the
fkull had been laid ten days in foak.

TAR

The formation of the cryftals of this tartar on the fkull,
while the fides of the veffel had none created on them, fhews
that the fkull had a difpofition for receiving the cryitals more
than any other body ; and their peculiar brightnefs proves,
that it had fome fhare in their formation.

Tartar confifts of a large quantity of extractive matter,
fearcely foluble in water, to which it owes its colour, and
of a falt, quite white when pure, compofed of acid of tartar
united to a {mall portion of potafh, lefs than is required for
the faturation of the acid, but which, in this proportion,
forms a diftinét cryttallizable falt of confiderable importance
in feveral arts and manufactures.

Tartar is either white, or red, according to the colour of
the wine from which it is produced. That brought from
Germany is the beft, as being taken out of thofe monftrous
tuns, fome of which hold a thoufand pipes of wine, fo that
the falt has time to come to its confiftence, which is one of
the chief qualities to be regarded in tartar. That of Mont-
pellier is the next in order ; then that of Lyons, Paris, &c.

White tartar is preferred to red, and is really better, as
containing lefs of the droffy or earthy part; though both
kinds, cl purified, are exaétly the fame. The marks of
good tartar of either kind are, its being thick, brittle, bril-
liant, and but little earthy.

Tartar, in its crude ftate, is much ufed as a flux in the
aflaying of ores. As it contains both alkali and carbonaceous
matter, it aéts both in affifting the fufion of refractory ores,
and in reducing metallic falts and oxyds. When sheated
per fe to cedtnell in clofe veffels, the extraGtive matter and
the tartareous acid both become charred, and the refult is a
black alkaline carbonaceous mafs. In open veflels the char-
coal burns off totally, and at lait nothing remains but pure
white carbonate of potafh. But tartar 1s for'the moft part
refined, in order to obtain the pure falt; which is called
purified tartar, cream of tartar, cryffals of tartar ; or more
accurately, according to the modern nomenclature, acédulous
tartrite of potafb, or fupertartrite of potafb, and fometimes
with lefs precifion, fimply tartar. This falt is purified in
large quantities at Venice, and in France near Montpellier,
by two different procefles, which have been deferibed by
Defmaret (Journ. Phyf. tom. i. p. 67.) and by M. Fizes
(Mem. de l’Acad. for 1725), and which we fhall here ex-
traé& from Aikin’s di€tionary. At Venice the method is as
follows: “ The crude tartar is firft dried in an iron boiler,
with a very gentle heat and frequent ftirring, that the acid
may not be burnt, and is then pounded im iron mortars.
The ground tartar is then diftributed into wooden tubs, and
boiling water poured upon it, which diffolves the falt, and
leaves a fediment, which is thrown away. The clear folu-
tion is left three days at reft, during which time it depofits
brownifh cryftals of tartar. The mother-liquor from this
operation is referved, and is ufed hot in the fubfequent pro-
cefs in the firft lixiviation of the tartar. The brownifh eryf-
tals of tartar are then put into a copper boiler, with the
mother-liquor of former proceffes, and flowly brought to
boil, by which a faturated folution of a deep yellow wine=
colour is produced. This is clarified in the following way :
a workman ftands by the fide of the copper with a bafket
of eggs, and a bucket full of finely fifted wood-afhes. He
begins with breaking one of the eggs, and putting the white
of it only into a bowl; he beats this up with feme of the
boiling hquor, and then pours the whole into the boiler: he
then inftantly throws in a ladleful of the wood-afhes, and
ftirs up the liquor from the bottom. A briflt effervefcence
takes place, and the furface is covered with a red fourm,
which is carefully taken off with a perforated fkimming-difh,

and

TARTAR.

and put afide: a fecond portion of afhes is then added, and
the effervefcence and {cum are renewed and treated as before.
The whole of this operation is repeated fourteen or fifteen
times, after which the liquor becomes quite clear and colour-
lefs. The fire is then withdrawn, and the liquor fuffered to
remain perfectly at reit for three days. On the fourth, a
dirty white faline cruft is removed from the furface, and two-
thirds of the liquor laded out: the cryitals on the fides are
then collected by a ladle, and wafhed in the remaining liquor ;
they are thus obtained perfectly clean, and require no fur-
ther. preparation than drying on a wicker frame. The
cryftals from the bottom are {till fomewhat coloured, and
are either fold as an inferior fort, or are refined again with
frefh portions of the crude tartar. The liquor that remains
in the boiler, after the depofition of the cryftals, is a cold
faturated folution of tartar, and is employed in the firft lixi-
viation of the rough tartar.’’

The method ufed near Montpellier has been found fo
convenient and effectual, that it has continued without any
material alteration for a century. It is as follows: “ The
apparatus required for this purpofe is, rft, a large copper
boiler; 2d, a itone ciftern, larger than the boiler; 3d, a
number of glazed earthen pots (generally twenty-feven),
which, together, hold fomewhat more than the boiler ;
4th, fome ftrainers of coarfe cloth ftretched on wooden
frames; 5th, four fmaller copper boilers, which, together,
hold as much as the larger boiler, and are ufed in the refining
part of the procefs ; and 6th, a mill to grind the tartar.

“ The large copper. is firft filled with two-thirds of
mother-liquor, remaining from the previous operations, and
one-third of fpring-water ; a quantity of rough tartar is then
thrown in, and, when the liquor is faturated and boiling, it
is {trained into the earthen pots. In about half an hour the
liquor in thefe pots, though till very hot, begins to depofit
eryftals on the furface and fides of the pot; during which
time,, more liquor and tartar are thrown into the large cop-
per, as at firft. 3

“¢ The liquor in the pots is then emptied into the. ftone
ciftern, leaving the cryftallized cruft of tartar behind ; and
when the fecond boiling is faturated, the pots are again filled
as before, and the large copper again charged with the clear
liquor from the ciftern, and frefh tartar. By thus five times
alternately preparing a hot faturated folution, and allowing
it partially to depofit its tartar in the pots, the latter become
lined to a confiderable thicknefs with a cruft of reddifh-white
tartar, much purer than at firft, and which obvioufly con-
fifts of an irregular cryftallized faline mafs, and when wathed
with cold water, is fit for the fecond or proper refining pro-
eefs. For this purpofe the four {mall boilers are filled with
water, in which a {mall quantity of clay is diffufed, which
renders it milky, rejecting the itony and larger particles of
earth. The half-purified tartar is then added in fuch pro-
portion, that the water, when boiling, fhall be fufficient to
diffolve all the foluble part, and the ebullition is continued
for a quarter of an hour ; the fire is then withdrawn, and the
liquor allowed to remain at reft till the next day. It is then
found covered on the furface with a white hard faline crutt,
and a fimilar cruft, but more diftin@ly cryftallized, has con-
creted on the fides and bottom of the boiler. They are both
very pure tartar, the cruft on the furface, which is an amor-
phous mafs, is called cream of tartar; and the other, cry/ffals
of tartar ; but they are indifcriminately mixed.

“ The cruft is then broken down, and falls to the bottom ;
and the liquor, which is a clear pale red, is poured off gently
into the ftone ciftern, till it begins to run white, owing to
the clay at bottom, which latter portion pafles into a fepa-
rate veffel. ~The whole mafs of folid tartar left.in the boiler

is then wafhed with cold water, till all the foulnefs (which
is merely fuperficial). is got out, and the water comes away
quite clear ; after which the purified tartar is taken out, and
dried on itoves or in the fun, and is perfeétly pure and white.
The ordinary rough tartar yields about three-fifths of its
weight of the white pure falt. All the refiduary liquors
are employed in fubfequent operations, in the way already
mentioned.”’

Schaub fays (Annal. de Chim. xlix. 61.), that tartar may
be purified by fimply boiling it with powdered recent char-
coal, and thus very white cryftals are obtained.

Tarrar, Burnt, a preparation ufed by glafs-manufac-
turers, and confifting of large lumps of red tartar, burnt or
calcined in earthen pans in an open fire, till they have done
fmoaking : it is of a blackifh purple colour. Neri’s Art of
Glafs.

Tartar, Cream of, Cremor Tartari. See Cream of
Tartar, TARTAR, Jupra, Super-tartrate of Potafb, under
Sarts, and TAaRTRITESs.

Cream of tartar has a fenfibly acid tafte; it reddens the
blue colours of vegetables; it may be faturated by uniting
with any of thofe fubftances, which are capable of forming
with acids neutral falts ; and it may be afterwards feparated
from thofe fubftances, and recover its former appearance.

In the arts, and in the materia medica, this is a very
valuable falt. It is much ufed m dyeing, more efpecially
in giving the fcarlet and other modifications of the cochineal
colours. It is alfo often combined with alum, as a mordant
in fixing colours. (See DyeraG.) As an article of the
materia medica, cream of tartar, diffolved in water, forms
an agreeable and cheap acidulous drmk ; and as a iweetener
of the blood, fome have taken it in whey or water-gruel, in
the fpring-time, to the quantity of half an ounce every morn-
ing, for three or four weeks. The folution in water, fweet-
ened with fugar, is a pleafant beverage in febrile difeafes,
when its purgative quality is not likely to prove injurious.
See the next article. a

The difficult folubility of cream of tartar being an objece
tion to its medical ufe, {ome experiments were made by Dr.
Peter Jonas Berg, for rendering it more foluble by certain
additions, without altering its medicinal qualities. Borax
was found to anfwer beft for this purpofe. To four parts
of cream of tartar one of borax was added. Thefe were dif-
folved in a fufficient quantity of water, and the liquor
{trained : about a fixteenth part of impurities was left be-
hind. The pure folution evaporated yielded an acid, and
extremely foluble white falt. emery has alfo recommended
borax. It has, however, been obferved, that as borax con-
tains an excefs of alkali, the acid of the tartar would be neu-
tralized, and a-very different falt would be produced, viz. the
tartrite of potafh and foda; which fee. Nova A&. Phyf.
Med. Acad. Czf. Leop. Carol. Nat. Curiof. tom. iy.

Tartar, Cryffals of. See Tarrar, fupra, and Tar-
TRITES.

Thefe cryftals are fmall and irregular, but generally run
together into little maffes of a white colour, femi-tranfparent,
brittle, and eafily reduced into powder. Cryttals of tartar
are in common‘ufe as a laxative and mild cathartic ; they are
alfo efteemed for their cooling and diuretic qualities, and
have therefore been much employed in dropfies, and in
other cafes requiring an antiphlogiftic treatment. Dr.
Cullen fays, that in large dofes they aét like a purgative,
in exciting the a¢tion of the abforbents in every part of the
fyftem, and more powerfully than the operation of any en-
tirely neutral falts. On this property is founded their utility
in the cafe of dropfy. They occafion a confiderable dif-

charge of ferous fluid into the bowels, which is thrown off
in

TARTAR.

in the form of ferous ftools; the difcharge by urine being
alfo augmented. ‘The water in the cavity of the abdomen is
thus rapidly carried off ; and the chances of a return of the
difeafe are fuppofed to be fewer than when other diuretics
are employed. It is remarked, that they do not readily
pafs off by the kidnies, unlefs they are taken with a large
quantity of water; and, therefore, when intended as a diu-
retic, they ought to be given in a liquid form, as Dr.
Holme has diref&ted. It has been fuggefted, that, in cafes
complicated with hepatic obftructions, the effects of this
remedy are very uncertain. It may be epcar oapal united
with {quills ; and, on account of the exhauftion which it
oceafions, the ufe of it fhould be followed by preparations
of iron, and other tonics. As a purgative and hydragogue,
the dofe is from Ziv to 3yj, in the form of eletuary ; and
for the latter purpofe, this dofe muft be repeated until the
kidnies are affected ; diluting freely during its ufe. Thefe
falts enter feveral officinal compofitions : oth as * carbonas
potaffiz puriffimus,’”’ Ed. Ph.; ‘ ferrum tartarizatum,”’
L. D.; “ pulvis jalape compofitus,” E.; ‘ pulvis fcam-
monii compofitus,’’ E.; ‘ pulvis fennz compofitus,”’ E. ;
“ potafle tartras,’”” L.E.D.; “ antimonium tartarizatum,’”
L.E.D.; ‘ foda tartarizata,”’ L.E.D. Woodville. T,
Thomfon.

Tartar, Emetic. See ANTIMONY.

A confiderable diverfity has occurred in the method of pre-
paring this tartar, probably from want of confidering, that the
emetic quality of this preparation proceeds from the metallic
earth being diflolved by the acid of tartar, and forming with
it a kind of foluble tartar, a true neutral falt, no lefs capable
of a very exaét folution than the vegetable falt, the falt of
feignette, and all the other foluble tartars. By confidering
this faturation as a fixed point, there may be produced only
one kind of emetic tartar, always equally ftrong. See a
detail of M. Geoffroy’s experiments on this fabjeét, in
Mem. Acad. Par. for 1734. M. Beaumé direéts it to be
prepared by mixing together equal parts of cream of tartar,
and of a a rifed glafs of antimony, or rather a larger
quantity of the latter ingredient. This mixture is to be
thrown gradually into betting water; and the boiling mu&
be continued gently, till there is no effervefcence, and till the
cream of tartar be entirely faturateds The liquor is to be
filtrated ; and when it is cooled, there will be formed in it
fine cryftals, in the form of pyramids with triangular bafes,
which are a foluble tartar perfe€tly faturated with glafs of
antimony. Thefe are call etat while moift ; but by ex-
pofure to a dry air, they lofe a part of the water of their
cryftallization, and become opaque and white. Emetic
tartar thus prepared, very well produces an emetic effect
when taken from a grain to two and a half, or three, accord-
ing to the conftitution of the patient. The refult of
M. Beaumé’s experiments on the manner and duration. of
boiling this preparation is, that veflels of iron and copper
ought to be avoided, and thofe of filver or glafs ufed,
becaufe in thefe it may be boiled for any length of time,
without being decompofed ; and that as the intention of the
operation is to perfeétly faturate the cream of tartar, the
boiling muft be continued till this faturation be effeéted,
which required a long time, when the glafs of antimony is
grofsly pounded, but a much fhorter time when it is well
perpby yer Macquer, in the Chemical Dsétionary, ob-
erves, that we are not certain that the emetic tartar, pre-
pared by faturating tartar with glafs of antimony, has
always an uniform and conftant emetic power. And there-
fore he recommends the powder of algaroth, or mercury of
life, which, however dangerous in itfelf, may be rendered
fafe, by wafhing it with a little fixed alkali, which will

feparate all that marine acid that communicates to it a cer~
tain degree of cauftic quality. The powder thus wafhed,
he fays, is altogether foluble by cream of tartar, and con-
vertible into a foluble emetic tartar, perfeétly neutral, by
boiling it, and faturating it with cream of tartar, and treat-
ing it in the manner above dire¢ted, for the preparation of
emetic tartar with glafs of antimony. The powder of
algaroth, thus prepared, is a calx of antimony conftantly
oe the fame degree of emetic ftrength. The total eva-
poration of the fluid appears to be the beft way of fecurin
uniformity of ftrength to the medicine ; and the folubility
of the compound affords one of the beft means for eftimat-
ing its ftrength, or the degree of its impregnation with the
antimony.

Dr. Saunders relates, that an ounce of cold water, about
the middle temperature of the air, diffolved, of fome of the
common emetic tartars ‘of the fhop, not thirty-two grains,
or one-fifteenth of its own weight ; whereas of a well fatu-
rated fort, which he had himfelf prepared by long boiling,
the fame quantity of water diffolved fifty-two grains, or near
one-ninth of its own weight. ’

The beft way, probably, of obtaining a faturated and
uniform preparation of this kind, would be to digeft the
common emetic tartar in eight times its weight, or lefs, of
cold water, and evaporate the filtered yellow folution to
drynefs ; or to continue the boiling of the glafs of anti-
mony and tartar for twelve hours, or longer, adding water
occafionally to keep the tartar always diffolved, and at
length to let the water watte fo far, as not to exceed eight
times the quantity of the tartar employed, after which the
liquor is to be fuffered to cool, and then filtered and evapo-
rated. The dofe of this preparation, as an emetic, is from
two or three to fix or eight grains. It may be given alfo
as an alterative, or diaphoretic, in dofes of a quarter of a
grain, or half a grain, or more, and added, in the quantity
of a grain or two, as a ftimulus to the milder vegetable
cathartics. Lewis’s Mat. Med. by Aikin. ;

Tartar, Foliated, is a preparation of tartar with diftilled
vinegar, which reduces it into white leaves. See cetas
Porass®, and TsrraA Foliata. ,

Tarrar of Iron. See Tartrite of Potafs and Iron.

Tanrrar, Oil of, is the falt of tartar expofed to the air
for fome days in an open veflel, in a moift place, till it dif-
folve into-a fluid; though it is improperly called an oil,
being no more than a diflolved falt. i

Oil of tartar per deliquium is held the beft counter-poifon
to corrofive fublimate. .

Tartan, Regenerated. When cream of tartar has been
made foluble by any alkaline fubftance whatever, it may
be revived, or regenerated, into cream of tartar again ; its
acid in this ftate has diffolved the alkaline matter prefented
to it, and that has been itfelf attenuated in fuch a manner as
to render it capable of infinuating itfelf between the mole-
cules or integrant parts of the conftituent matter of the
cream of tartar; on this only depends the folubility of this
preparation ; and to render the whole of its primitive nature
again, there requires no more than the addition of a new
acid, which fhall free the tartar from this alkali; but this
mut neceflarily be ftronger than that naturally in the tartar.
Thus fpirit of nitre, or oil of vitriol, regenerate the foluble
tartar in a moment, as being more powerful acids than that
in the cream of tartar, and therefore taking from it all its
alkali. The acid of diftilled vinegar, hick is not only a
vegetable acid, but the fame with that of tartar, is alfo able
to regenerate the foluble tartars. It might feem wonderful
that this fhould be able to effe& this change without any
{uperiority of force: but it is to be obferved, that in the

cream

Prana =

tied

TARTAR.

cream of tartar the acid has a terreftrial and alkaline bafis,
which is natural to it in that form ; but in the {tate of folu-
ble tartar it takes a new alkaline bafis, which is not natural
to it: and when we view the procefs in this light, it does
not appear wonderful, that an acid of its own kind fhould
be able to take away from it this artificial alkaline bafis,
though it was not able to take from it the natural one.
Mem. Acad. Par. 1733.

This fecond or artificial bafis is different, according to
* the different alkalies which have been employed to render
the tartar foluble, and confequently the fame acid may
attach itfelf more to one than to another of thofe alkalies, or
quit them the more or lefs eafily. There is one kind of
foluble tartar, however, which is not to be regenerated at
all; this is that which is made with borax.

Dr. Huxham fays, he has often experienced the good
effets of regenerated tartar in the cure of obftructions of
the bowels, and for fluggifh humours. See Acetate of Pota/h
under SALTs, and TERRA Foliata.

Tartar, Salt of, is made of tartar wafhed, ground,
purified, or cream of tartar, and calcined either per /e
or with nitre, by a reverberatory fire; or it is made by
pulverizing what remains in the retort after the diftillation
of tartar, and calcining it as above by a reverberatory fire.
On the one or the other of thefe preparations, they pour a
great quantity of hot water, to make a ley of it; this they
filtrate, and evaporate the liquor by a fand-heat, till the
fixed falt be found at the bottom of the veffel. This is the
pure alkali, or fixed falt of tartar. See CarBoNATE of
Potafh under Sants, and Savr of Tartar.

Tarrar, Soluble, (fee Tartrate of Potafh under
Saxts, and TartritE of Pota/h,) may be made by the
following procefs: Take of an alkaline fixed falt, a pound ;
of water, a gallon; and having diffolved the falt in this
water boiling, throw cryftals of tartar in powder as long as
any fermentation is raifed, which ufually ceafes before
thrice the weight of the alkali is thrown in. Then ftrain
the liquor through paper, and after due evaporation fet it
by for the falt to cryftallize, or elfe evaporate the liquor
wholly away, that the falt may be left dry.

This falt, by the aétion of the alkali on the acid of tartar,
being freed from thofe grofs terreftrious parts, with which

the cryitals of tartar, how pure foever, remain ftill charged, .

diffolves readily, and keeps fufpended in cold water.

The feveral alkaline falts, that of tartar itfelf, the common
pot-afhes, borax, &c. all make a very good foluble tartar ;
and not only thefe, but the common terreftrial alkalies, whe-
ther of the mineral kingdom, as chalk or lime; or of the
vegetable, as the afhes of plants after elixiviation ; or of the
animal, as oyfter-fhells calcined or not calcined, and hartf{-
horn : all thefe give a better or worfe foluble tartar ; but of
thefe, none fucceeds fo well as the oylter-fhell, after it has
been calcined; the foluble tartar, prepared with this, cofts
alfo greatly lefs than when prepared with falt of tartar.

In wood-afhes there is always a part, which when mixed
with water {fwims, and is fufpended in it a long time, and
at length fubfides into a kind of foft and impalpable matter ;
and another part, which fubfides readily to the bottom, and
feels rough and harfh. It is the firit of thefe fubftances
alone, which being mixed with cream of tartar, renders it
foluble: the other part will not mix with the cream of
tartar, or produce any fuch effect, unlefs reduced to the
nature of the firft, by repeated and violent calcinations, and
then only a part becomes fo altered, the whole never is fo.
It appears that the firft portion has been wholly divefted of
its acid by the fire, and thence is become fufceptible of the
impreffion of the weakelt acid, fuch as is that of the cream

of tartar, but in the fecond, or coarfer part, the acid it natu-
rally contained remains fixed and concentrated, fo that it is
not fufceptible of any impreffion from the weak acid of the
cream of tartar. Mem. Acad. Par. 1733.

The different kinds of foluble tartar have alfo their dif-
ferent degrees of folubility, or different readinefs to run
into a liquor per deliquium. The moft eafily foluble of all
are thofe made with chalk, with lime, and with wood-afhes ;
and that which is moft difficultly fo, is the kind made with
borax ; it will at length run however, and is truly foluble
tartar. '

For the chemical and medical properties of this falt, fee
Tartrate of Potafh under Saurs, and Tarrrite of Pata/h.

Tarrar, Vitriolated, which fome call nagiftery of tartar,
is a neutral falt, compofed of a vitriolic acid, faturated with
the fixed alkali of tartar, or with any other pure vegetable
fixed alkali.

Vitriolated tartar may be decompofed by nitrous acid in
the following manner, according to M. Baumé. Equal
parts of both are put into a matrafs, and heated: till the falt
be difflolved. From the liquor when cold, true cryttals of
nitre may be obtained.. And according to M. Margraat,
vitriolated tartar may, in the fame method of treatment, be
decompofed by marine acid.

This falt is not of any ufe in the arts, and little ufed in
chemiftry. It is chiefly employed in medicine. Like the
other neutral falts, with bafes of fixed alkali, ut is aperitive
in {mall dofes, as a grofs, or 594 grs., and it is laxative,
when taken from 6 to 12 grofs. See Sulphate of Pota/b under
Sats.

The chemiits have fometimes boaited of great virtues, in
what they call the magiftery of this falt; this is the earth
precipitated in the making of it. It is the opinion of fome
ingenious authors, that all fixed falts are produced by a
blending together of the acid and alkaline falts, which the
plants they are obtained from originally contained, with
fome earth. The making of this preparation of tartar and
vitriol, gives great ftrength to this opinion by means of this
magiftery ; which fhews, that an earth neceffary to the
cementing a mixture of an acid and an alkali into a neutral
falt, may exift even in one of the principles themfelves,
though unfeen by us; and that, as in the prefent inftance,
in fo large a quantity, as not only to be fufficient for the
combining the two volatile fubftances into a fixed one, but
even to leave a remainder of it, that was not neceflary.

While the acid of vitriol is poured upon the diffolved falt
of tartar, or its oi! per deliquinm, for the making of this
falt, during the great effervefcence between the acid and
the alkali, there is a precipitation made of an earth, for the
feparation of all which great care is to be had to the degree
of faturation of the alkali with the acid. This earth after-
wards may be fevered by filtration, This earth is precipi-
tated, not out of the {fpirit of vitriol, but out of the falt
of tartar; and this experiment fhews, that this fixed falt
did originally contain that earth, which, according to the
fyftem of the formation of fixed falts out of volatile ones,
originally refiding in plants, muit nece/farily be mixed with
them, and which, not being able to mix with the acid, is
feparated and thrown off in the confli¢t, in which the acid
mixes itfelf with the reft.

This earth is what is pompoufly called the magiflery
of vitriolated tartar; but it is very wrong to give that name
to an earth which has none of the properties of that or any
other falt; and they greatly deceive themfelves and their
patients, who preferibe it inftead of the falt itfelf. Its
faline tafte, probably, has induced them to think that it
poffefled great virtues ; but this is not innate but adventi-

: tious,

TAR

tious, and the effeé only of the fluid in which it was pre-
cipitated : it cannot but have fome of the falts of that fluid
hanging about it, when firft made; but thefe may, by re-
peated waftings, be carried wholly off, and the magi
will then remain a pure fimple earth, and fhew itfelf to be
no other than that earth, which may be properly called the
earth of all fixed falts ; and which, though neceffary to give
the falt of tartar its form as a finivial fale. yet being not
neceflary to it in its new form of a neutral falt, is depofited
in the making it into that form. It yet remains to be
proved by more numerous experiments, that the fixed falts
of plants owe that form only to a fixing earth, combining
their two original volatile principles into a fixed mafs ; for
if this be truly the cafe, there then needs no more to the
volatilizing them again, but the divefting them of this earth.
Phil. Tranf. N° go. :
TARTAREOUS or Tarraric Acid, was firft fepa-
rated from cream of tartar, and obtained in a folid crytftal-
line form, by a method which was difcovered by Scheele,
and which, with little variation, is as follows: it very
much refembles the mode ufed by the fame rp 2
chemift in obtaining the citric acid: Having analyfed cream
of tartar (fee Swedith Tranfaétions, partiii. for 1770.), he
found that this is not a pure acid, but a compound falt,
containing the fixed vegetable alkali, united with a fuper-
abundance of the tartareous acid, and therefore, that it
differs from foluble tartar only in the proportion of acid
which it contains. For obtaining this acid, he diffolved any
given quantity of the cream of tartar in boiling water, and
whilft boiling, added gradually fome clean powdered chalk.
Upon this a copious effervefcence will arife, and the addition of
chalk muft be continued till this ceafes, when the mixture may
be fet by to cool. It then contains a white denfe fediment,
which confifts of the lime of the chalk, united with the ex-
cefs only of the acid of the cream of tartar; and the fuper-
natant liquor is, therefore, a folution of the cream of tar-
tar deprived of its excefs of acid, or neutral tartrite of
potafh, or foluble tartar, as it is alfo called, and which may
be obtained eryftallized by fubfequent evaporation. Wath
the precipitated tartrite of lime repeatedly with cold water,
then put it into a glafs veffel, and add to it a diluted ful-
phuric acid, compofed of as much concentrated acid, as is
et to the weight of chalk employed in faturating the cream
of tartar, mixed with four or five times its weight of water.
The fulphurie acid having a ftronger affinity for the
lime than the tartareous acid has, totally decompofes the
tartrite of lime, during a digeftion of two or three days (or
in a fhorter time if aflifted by a gentle heat,) and the white
fediment, though it does not alter its appearance, is changed
to fulphate olen, whilft the fupernatant liquor contains
naked acid of tartar. Then pour off the clear liquor, wath
the fulphate of lime to extraét all the adhering acid, and add
the wafhings to the former liquor, and evaporate the whole,
(at firit with a boiling heat, and as it concentrates, with a
much gentler warmth,) till it is of a thick fyrupy confilt-
ence, and then fet it by for fome hours, that all the fele-
nite, which it may hold in folution, may be depofited.
Then again dilute the mixture with cold water fufficient to
rediffolve every thing but the felenite, and flowly evaporate
the folution to a fyrupy confiftence, and after fome hours it
will depofit the pure tartareous dcid in cryftals, which are
generally ey large irregular hexahedrons, Cream of
tartar decompofed in this way by chalk (and therefore onl
partially) will yield about a third of its weight of the ern
tallized acid. This quantity however muft not be taken as
the proportion of the acid in cream of tartar, for much of
the weight of the cryftallized acid is water of cryitalli-

TAR

zation, whereas the cream of tartar contains very little
water. J
In the above detailed method of obtaining tartareous acid,
chalk, or carbonate of lime, is ufed to decompofe the cream
of tartar, which it does merely by engaging the excefs of
acid, and leaving the remainder of the falt in the flate of
tartrite of potafh. But if quick-lime be fubftituted to the
chalk, the whole of.the cream of tartar is decompofed, a
much larger quantity of tartrite of lime, and confequently
of tartareous acid, is obtained, and the fupernatant liquor’
is a folution of cauftic potafh. It has been found however
by Vauquelin, that the potafh retains a {mall quantity of
tartrite of lime in folution, fo that when the alkaline liquor
is evaporated nearly to drynefs it gelatinizes by cooling,
owing to the feparation of this calcareous falt. It may be
decompofed by carbonate of potafh or foda, which pro-
duces carbonate of lime and tartrite of the alkali employed:
or the tartareous acid may be deftroyed by calcination, and
the lime, carbonated in the procefs, will remain. ‘
Calculating from the obferved proportions of acid in the
tartar, and of chalk required in the firft-mentioned procefs,
and of pure lime in chalk,, we may eftimate that all the acid
in 100 parts of cream of tartar (which Thenard reckons
at 57 per cent.) will require full 42 parts of pure lime for
its faturation, and fomewhat more lime fhould perhaps be
added to enfure the complete decompofition of the tartar.
The lime fhould be previoufly flaked and mixed with fufs
ficient water to bring it to the confiftence of pafte.
Lowitz has propofed another method, which is perhaps
preferable in every refpeét, except that it is fomewhat more
expenfive, and that no cauitic alkali is obtained. It con~
fits firft in decompofing the cream of tartar by chalk in the
ufual way, added as long as any effervefcence takes place ;
and then pouring into the filtered fupernatant liquor muriate
of lime, as long as any precipitate falls down. By this
means the tartrite of potafh in liquor is totally decom-
pofed, movriate of potafh remains in folution, and” the
precipitated tartrite of lime is added to that produced by
the chalk ; and both are afterwards decompofed by fulphuric
acid in the ufual way. The fame chemift alfo advifes to
add to the folution of tartareous acid in the laft part of the
procefs a quantity of charcoal powder, (the depurati t
power of which has been mentioned under Chatoed
This, however, is certainly not effential to the obtaining
perfeétly fine colourlefs cryftallized acid, and, we believe,
1s feldom, if ever, ufed. Band
The tartareous acid has a {trong acid tafte, and is foluble
in five or fix parts of water, and in a much lefs quantity of
boiling water. The cryftals are permanent in the air,
When heated per /e in a retort with a receiver, this acid
melts, boils up, and exhales a four pungent vapour, which

-condenfes in the receiver into a red acid empyreumatic

liquor, equal to about a quarter of the weight of the tar-
tareous acid.
This liquor has a pungent, acid, and empyreumatic tafte,
ftrongly reddens litmus, and effervefces with the alkaline
carbonates. It is called the.Pyrotartareous acid, which has
not been much examined. The other produéts from the
diftillation of tartareous acid, are a large quantity of cars
buretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, and a foft {pongy
coal is left in the retort, which, heated in the open air,
burns with fearcely any refidue. 4
The tartareous acid, befides being found native in fome
vegetable juices, and in the depofit from wine during and
after fermentation, is alfo produced by the a¢tion of nitric.
acid on alcohol. A further digeition of tartareous with
nitric acid converts the former into oxalic acid, and a ftill
3 further

BAK
further digeftion changes the whole of the vegetable acid

into vinegar. Thefe curious experiments, which were at
firft noticed by Scheele, have been fully examined by Hermb-
ftaedt, and other chemitts. :

Tartareous acid is compofed, according to Fourcroy and
Vauquelin, of 70.5 of oxygen, 19 of carbon, and 10.5 of
hydrogen, and differs from the oxalic acid in containing
more carbon and lefs oxygen. The order of affinity of this
acid for the feveral bafes is, according to Thenard, lime,
barytes, ftrontian, potafh, foda, ammonia, maguefia, and
alumine. Aikin’s Did.

For the combinations of the tartareous acid with the feveral
bafes, we refer to the article TARTRATES or TARTRITES.

TARTARHAN, a word ufed by fome authors to ex-
prefs {pirit of tartar.

TARTARL, in Geography, a mountain of Dalmatia ;
$ miles N. of Trau.

TARTARIAN Oar, in Agriculture. See Oar.

TARTARIZATUS Cuatyss. See Iron, in the
Materia Medica, and TartriteE of Pota/s and Iron.

TARTARIZING, a term ufed by fome writers for
the aét of refining or purifying, by means of falt of tartar.

TARTARO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which rifes
in the Veronefe, and running eafterly, traverfes the Polefe de
Rovigo, pafles by Adria, and foon after feparates into two
branches, one of which runs into the Adige, and the other
into the Po.

TARTARON, a fort of fine cloth or filk, mentioned in
the ftat. 4 Hen. VIII. c. 6. Blount, Cowel.

TARTARUGA, in Zoology, a name by which the Por-
tuguefe in America call a {pecies of tortoife, known among
authors by its Brazilian name jurucua.

TARTARUM Tarrarisatum, fartarifed tartar, in
Chemiftry, the name of a preparation of tartar ; the manner
of doing which is given by Boerhaave, and is as follows :
Reduce fome of the pureft white tartar to powder, and boil
this powder in ten times its weight of water in a large
copper veffel, till it appears perfectly diffolved : let it after
this continue boiling till the liquor becomes tolerably tranf-

arent, and of an acid tafte; then drop into it from on

igh oil of tartar per deliquium, the liquor being {till kept
boiling : upon the falling in of each drop there arifes a great
ebullition, occafioned by the meeting of the acid and alkali.
Large bubbles appear on this, and in thefe the chemilts have
imagined they found the figures of clufters of grapes.

The operation is to be patiently continued till there is no
more effervefcence made by the falling in of the drops of the
oil. The acidity of the tartar will be then fo perfe@ly
faturated with its own alkali, that it will appear neither acid
nor alkaline, but a third falt ; great caution however muft be
ufed in obferving the true point of faturation, otherwife the
fait will be when finifhed either a little acid, or a little alka-
line, as the one or the other exceeds. The liquor is to be
then ftrained feveral times through a flannel, till perfeétly
clear: it is of a deep brownifh colour, and brackifh faline
tafte, but has no fcent. If this be evaporated to a pellicle,
and fet to cryftallize, it forms a falt which is a tartar, eafily
foluble in water, even when cold ; and very properly to be
called foluble tartar. Boerhaave Chem. part 11. p. 161.

TARTARUS, in Ancient Mythology, is one of the gene-
ral divifions of the fubterraneous world, or the place of tor-
ments. The origin of the fable of Tartarus-is traced in
Hefiod’s account of the war of Jupiter againft his father
Saturn and the. Titans, who, after he had gained a victory
cover them, was driven from Olympus, and condemned to
the bottom of Tartarus, in the extremities of the earth.
Typhon alfo, threatening to deprive Jupiter of his empire,

Vou. XXXV.

EAE

was plunged into the fame abyfs. The abbé Banier has
given the following explication of this fable. The Greeks,
he fays, regarded the places fituated to the eaft of them as
higher than thofe that lay weftward; and hence they took
the former for heaven, and the latter for hell. According
to this notion, they placed their hell either in Spain, the refi-
dence of Pluto, or in Italy, and laftly in Epirus, or rather in
Thefprotia, all which countries were fituated to the weft of
Greece. Now as the Titans, in the feveral confpiracies they
formed, were obliged to enter into Italy and Spain, the poets
fabled that they were precipitated into the gulf of Tartarus;
but as their notion of Tartarus was taken from Tarteflus, a
river of Spain, on the banks of which Pluto refided, it is no
wonder that the Titans, having been defeated near that river,
were fabuloufly faid to be plunged headlong into the Tar-
tarian gulf.

‘The other two divifions of Ades, according to Virgil, are
Erebus and Elyfium. The prince or judge who prefides
over Tartarus, is Rhadamanthus. The miferable inhabitants
of this horrid region are of two forts, viz. the fouls of fuch
as are tormented, and the infernal deities, called the Furies,
who attend there either to infli@ or aggravate their torments.

Virgil diitinguifhed thofe that are tormented in Tartarus,
into two general claffes; the firft, of fuch as have been un-
sane or impious towards the gods; and the fecond, of

uch as have been mifchievous and hurtful among men:
thofe of the latter, more particularly, who hated their bre-
thren, ufed their parents ill, or cheated their dependents ;
who made no ufe of their riches ; who committed inceft, or
difturbed the marriage union of others ; thofe who were re-
bellious fubjeéts, or Enavith fervants ; who were defpifers of
juftice, and betrayers of their country ; and who made and
unmade laws, not for the good of the public, but only to
get money for themfelves. All thefe, and the defpifers of
the gods, of whom the rebel giants occupied the chief clafs,
Virgil places in Tartarus, and in that vaft abyfs, which was
the moft terrible part of this infernal region. The great
road that pafles through Erebus, is reprefented as divided
into two; of which the right-hand road leads to Elyfium,
or the place of the bleft ; and the left-hand road to Tar-
tarus, or the place of the tormented. Virgil /En. vi. v.
540—549. 566—580. 607—624. Spence’s Polymetis,
Pp- 259, &c.

TARTARS, or Tatars, in Geography, a comprehenfive
denomination, including all tribes beyond Perfia and India,
as far as the Eaftern ocean, however differing from each
other in regard to their origin, language, manners, cuftoms,
and religion. It is now known, however, that the Tartars
compofe a diftinét nation, which originally belonged to the
grand Turkifh tock. The name, it is faid, may originate
either from a Turkifh horde, which bore this denomination ;
and accordingly it is alleged, that the Yakutes have among
their deities, a Tatar, who probably enjoys that honour as
the patriarch of the nation ; or from the Chinefe, who call
all their neighbours, without diftin@tion, Tata or Ta-dfe, in
proof of which derivation it is intimated, that the Perfians
and Arabians know nothing of the Tartars under that appel-
lation. It was firft brought into general ufe in Europe after
Baaty’s incurfion into Hungary, under king Frederic II.
Whatever be the origin of the name, it feems to be clear,
that the Tartars are of Turkifh origin, and that their proper
name was Turk or Turkman, and not Tatar. In this
opinion, the learned meu of their own nation coneur: to
which circumftance it may be added, that the Tartarian
language is merelythe old Turkifh ; and the modern Otto-
man Turks fpeak the Tartarian tongue only in another
dialet. And the Tartars pretend to derive their defcent

R from

: TARTARS.

from Turk, the oldeft fon of Japhet : and although from
the time in which Jenghis Khan fubdued all Tartary
and a great part of Afi, and made irruptions even into
Europe, they have been known by the name of Tartars, to
which that of Monguls or Moguls, of whom he was pro-
perly the priice, appeared inferior ; neyerthelefs the Tartars
ek among themfelves the name of Turks. See Mon-
GOLES.

The firft known mother-country of the Turks or Tartars
lies fomewhere in the countries on the eaftern and northern
fides of the Cafpian, where their defcendants are ftill fituated.
In ancient times they were f{pread from the Oxus or Gihon
into the Mongoley and the Orenburg territory ; that is, in
regions whete they had conftantly ambitious and domincer-
ing nations for their neighbours and enemies: on the E.
the Chinefe; on the S.W. the Perfians, Macedonians,
Romans, Partho-Perfians, and Arabians; and towards the
N.E. the Mongoles. Here they ferved from time imme-
morial as a mound againft the incurfions of the nations which
could penetrate from the E. to the W., or contrariwife, till
at length the Mongoles, like a rufhing ftream that has burft
its banks, fwept away all oppofition. :

The Tartars, fays baron de Tott, in his ‘“ Memoirs,”
(vol. i.) have the beft title to the higheft antiquity. To
this purpofe he obferves, that the flat high land of Tartary,
which extends to the north, and the chain of the mountains
of Caucafus and Thibet, continued almoft as far as the penin-
fula of Corea, (if we may judge by the courfe of the water,
which, from the centre of Afia, {fpreads to the S. and to the
N. of that part of the globe,) prefent the higheft portion of
land which feparates the Indian feas from thofe of Kamt-
fchatka. This obfervation, it is alleged, feems to prove,
that the country at prefent occupied by the Tartars, mutt
have been the firft land difcovered in Afia, the firft in-
habited, the firft fource of population, and the origin of
thofé emigrations, which, conftantly repelled by the Chinefe
wall, and the defiles of Thibet and Caucafus, have pafled
from the north of Afia into Europe. (See Huns.) How-
ever, the annals of the Tartars are involved in confiderable
uncertainty before the time of Jenghis Khan, who was elected
grand cham (khan) by the chams of the different tribes, and
was only chofen to be the king of kings, becaufe he was the
mott powerful among them. It is well known, that Jenghis
Khan conceived and executed projects of ufurpation, by
which he formed the mott extenfive empire known in hiftory.

The Tartars began to acquire fome importance in hiftory,
after the time of their fubjugation by the Mongoles ; but
from the moment that their hi ory excites attention, it ceafes
to be the hiftory of a peculiar nation. Diftributed under
the banners and commanders of the Mongoles, thefe enjoy
with pofterity the glory of their conquetts, while the
Tartars are conftrained to lend their name to the devalt-
ations with which both nations every where marked the
bloody progrefs of their armies. (See MonGo.es.) Subju-
gated in their conquered countries, and even forced from a

eat part of their old habitations, fome few of the Tartar
Soles (few in reference to the whole Tartarian tribes,)
have preferved their independence : i. e. thofe who inhabit the
fouth-weftern part of the former Great Tartary, towards the
Perfian, Indian, and Soongarian borders. Here we find the

at Kirghifian horde, the Bukharians, the Khivans or
Khivinfes, the Karakalpahs, Truchmenes, Tafchkantians,
Turkeftans, Arabians, and fome other races, which {till
form diftin& ftates, and retain a kind of national liberty ;
but they exift in fo feeble a ftate, that they are obliged to
feek protection fometimes from one power, and fometimes
from another. ‘Ihe whole remnant of this nation, once fo

at, fubfifts under foreign fovereignty. Many hordes belong,
oer as {ubjets or as enn of the Ruffian =
pire ; others are, in like manner, appanage to the Ottoman
Turks, or fubjeét to the Great Mogul, to China, and to
Perfia.

Mr. Strahlenburg, a Swedifh officer, who refided fome
years in Siberia, he them in fix clafles: the firft, con- -
taining feven different nations, all in the dominions of Ruffia,
viz. the Mordvines, who dwell in the government of Nize~
gorod ; the Tfcheremifles, or Czeremiffes, in the govern-
ment of Kazan; the Permians, in the government of Perm ;
the Votiaks, in the government of Viatka; the Vogouls, who .
dwell on both fides of the mountains, which formed a fepa-
ration between Ruffia and Siberia; the Oftiaks, who dwell
on the coafts of the river Oby ; and the Barabintzi, who
inhabit the country between Tara and Tomfk. The fecond
clafs of people, called Tartars, includes the Budziaks,
which dwell on the coafts of the Black fea; the Crim
Tartars, who inhabit the province of Taurida; the Kuban
Tartars, on the borders of the Kuban river ; andthe Tartars
of Dagheftan; the Nogais, or Tartars of Aftrachan, of
Kazan, and Upha; the Bafchkirs and the Tartars about the
towns of Tiumen, Tara, Tobolik, and Tomfk ; the Ufbeck
Tartars, the Turcomans, the Kurguis, the Karakalpas, the
Sayantzi, who dwell near the head of the Yenifley ; the Kir-

hifes, who occupy the mountains fouth of lake Baikal ; the
ts ; the Arintzi, who alfo inhabit near the fame moun-
tain; and the Yaktai, more to the north, on the fides of. the
Lena. The third clafs includes the Samoiedes, on the coaft
of the Frozen fea, from Archangel to the Lena. The
fourth clafs-includes the Kalmucks and Monguls, who were
formerly but one people. The fifth clafs includes the Mant-
cheux and the Tungufes. The fixth clafs contains the
fayage nations on the north-eaft coaft of Afia, as the ©
Tichutki, &c. with the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka, and the
Kurile iflands. Of thefe, the firft, third, and fixth_ clafs
are fubje& to Ruffia, except that a fmall part of the fecond
is independent. The fourth is partly independent, and
patty fubje& toChina. The fifth clafs is wholly, fubjeé to

ina. '

Abulgafi, in his account of the Turkifh ftems, mentions
among them the Tartarian as one of the moft ancient and
famous, and derives its origin from a khan of the name of
Tatar. This item, which in procefs of time increafed to
70,000 families, was at firft governed by its own commander,
and afterwards divided into various branches, difperfed into
feveral and very diftant regions, by which difperfion their
power was, weakened. The moft confiderable branch fet-
tled on the borders of Kitay (China), and fell under the
fovereignty of that empire, againft which it frequently re-
belled, and thereby gave occafion to ruinous wars. At the
ane of ppete Khan, fome Tartars dwelt on the Oxus or

mur, who were tributary to the emperor of Ki igning
in Kitay. : 5 Bini

The Tartars who belong to the Ruffian empire inhabit
the northern coafts of the Euxine and the Cafpian, the
north fide of the mountains of Caucafus, the extenfive fteppes
from the river Ural to the Soongarey, the fouthern Ural, in
Siberia the fouthern frontier mountains and fteppes from the
Tobol quite over the Yenifley, and the deferts in the middle
region of the Lena; and fome few Tartar colonies aredif if-
perfed among the Ruffian habitations, particularly in the
governments of Upha, Kazan, and Tobolile. Frequent mee
morials are found in various regions of their ancient gran-
deur, magnificence, and culture, fome of which are demon-
{trably of 1000 years’ antiquity. The branches of this na-
tion which belong to Ruffia are the proper 'Tartars, or

8 Scie

PACH

defcendants of thofe two great itates, which the fucceffors
of Jenghis ereéted on the Volga and in-Siberia (fee Kapr-
scHAK, and the fequel of the article) ; the Nogayans, the
Mefchticheryaks, the Bafchkirs, the Kirghifes, the Bucha-
vians, the Yakutes, the Teleutes, and in part.the tribes of
Caucafus. The Kaptfchak Tartars are reduced to a {mall
refidue, intermixed among the Bafchkirs and Kirghifes. The
Kazan Tartars are alfo a feeble remnant of what they for-
merly were, and are difperfed in the governments of Kazan,
Simbirfk, Riefen, Viatka, Perm, and Upha. The Aftra-
chan Tartars are for the moft part Nogayans : they are dif-
tinguifhed into town, village, and tent Tartars. The firft
dwell in Aftrachan, the fecond in fix villages near Aftrachan,
and the third wander about the Cafpian. In 1772, thofe
of the two former clafles were only 1200, and of the tent
Tartars fearcely 2000 kettles, or families. For the ftate of
the Krim Tartars, fee Crimea. The ftems of the Siberian
‘Tartars, who are numerous, are the Turalinzes, one of the firft
colonies that became permanent in Siberia, when the Tartars
fubjugated the country in the 13th century ; the Tobol-
fkian T'artars, who dwell on the river Tobol; the Tomfkian
‘Tartars, who inhabit both fides of the river Tom, above and
below the city of Tomfk ; the Krafnoyarfkian and Kufnetz-
kian Tartars ; the Tartarsof the Oby ; the Tfchulymfkian
‘artars, inhabiting the territory along the river Tfchulym ;
the Barabinzes, between the Oby and Ittifh; the Kat-
{chinzes, on the left fhore of the Yeniffey ; the Kiftim and
Tulibert Tartars, on the left bank of the Tom ; the Biriuffes ;
the Abintzes ; the Sayane Tartars; the Beltirs, the Vercho-
tomfkian Tartars, and fome other infignificant ftems. For
the other branches of the Tartars who inhabit Ruffia, we
refer to the feveral articles, NoGAYANS, &c. &c.

The Tartars who are Mahometans bordering on Ruflia,
but independent of that crown, take every opportunity of
robbing their neighbours: the Kalmucks and Monguls are
‘very different in their behaviour, living quietly on the produce
of their foil, without doing injury to others. The Tartars
of Afiatic Ruffia are likewife reprefented as a quiet, inof-
fenfive people, living chiefly by the chafe and fifhing. See
the following articles. See allo ManpsHurs, Moncotes,
Tuneuses, &c.

TARTARY, or Tatary, a vague name, asit relates to .

Asfiatic Ruffia, which cannot be ufed with precifion as defcrip-
tive of any particular country : inftead of it might therefore be
fubftituted names derived from the feats of the chief nations,
as Tungufiaor Mandfhuria in the eaft, Mongolia in the centre,
and Tataria in the weft. In a general fenfe, however, whilft
the name remains, it may include three diftin€&t countries,
viz. Chinefe Tartary, Independent Tartary, and Ruffian
Tartary.

Tartary, Chinefe, according to the abbé Grofier’s de-
{cription, is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the eaft by
the gulf of Kamtfchatka and the Eaftern fea, on the fouth
by China, and on the weit by the country of the Kalmucks,
who are eftablifhed between the Cafpian fea and Kathgar.
The different tribes which at prefent inhabit it, were formerly
comprehended under the general name of Mongul or Mogul
Tartars, a warlike and formidable nation, who, on the one
hand, conquered Hindooftan, under the famous Jenghis
Khan, and on the other, fubdued China. It was in the
13th century that the Monguls took poffeffion of the latter
empire ; but after having reigned there for 100 years, they
were expelled by the Chinefe, in thé year 1368. The fugi-
tives took different routes ; fome went towards the Eaftern
fea, and eftablifhed themfelves between China and the river
Saghalien ; the reft returned weftward to their former coun-
try, where, intermixing with the Monguls that remained,

TAK

they foon refumed their ancient manner of living ; thofe who
fettled towards the eaft, having found the country almoft a
defert, and without inhabitants, retained the fame cuftoms
which they had brought from China : hence thefe two Mon-
gul nations differ at prefent in language, government, reli-
gion, and cuftoms. Thofe of the eaft retain their ancient
name of Mongul, or Mogul Tartars ; the reft are known by
the name of Mantchew, or Eaftern Tartars. Chinefe Tartary
is therefore divided into two parts, the Eaftern and Weftern.
Eaitern Chinefe Tartary extends, north and fouth, from the
4rft to the 55th degree of north latitude ; and eaft and weft,
from about the 120th degree of longitude, as far as the
Eaftern fea. It is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the
fouth by the gulf of Leao-tong and Corea, on the eaft by the
Eaftern fea, and on the weft by the country of the Monguls.
The Tartars who retired hither, after their expulfion from
China, in the year 1368, immediately began to build cities,
towns, and yillages, and to cultivate the earth, after the
manner of the Chinefe, among whom they had lived : hence
the greater part of them have remained fixed, and are much
more civilized than the reft of the Mongul nation. They
were at firft governed by particular khans, each independent
of the other; but fince that of Ningouta (who was the moft
powerful among them) took poffeffion of China, about the
middle of the 17th century ; the emperor, who is {till one of
his defcendants, has reduced under his dominion all the other
khans of this part of Tartary : this prince governs it imme-
diately by himfelf, and fends thither governors and officers,
as into all the other provinces of the empire. The country
of the Mantchew Tartars is divided into three grand depart-
ate Chen-yang, Kirin, and Tcitcicar ; which fee re{pec-
tively. .

Ningouta, already mentioned, which is confidered as the
cradle of the prefent imperial family, is furrounded by a
wooden wall, confifting of ftakes, touching each other and
twenty feet high, and alfo another palifado without this, a
league in circumference, and having four gates, correfponding
to the four cardinal points. - The Mantchew Tartar, who re-
fides in it as lieutenant-general, extends his jurifdi€tion over the
adjacent country, and all the villages of Yupi-tafe, and fome
other petty nations that inhabit the banks of the rivers Oufourt
and Saghalien, and along the fea-coaft. The Tartars of
Yupi-tafe are peaceful in their difpofition, but ftupid and
clownifh, without letters, and without any religious worfhip.
They fow neither wheat nor rice, nor any thing elfe except
tobacco, which they cultivate in fome of the fields furround-
ing their villages. They are fupplied with fifh from the
river Oufouri, and this is their only food: ngr have they any
clothes befides thofe which they make of their fins, dreffed,
dyed of three*or four colours, and artfully fewn together
with a thread cut from an exceedingly fine fkin. The wo-
men fufpend from the bottoms of their long cloaks pieces of
money and little bells; and the treffes of their hair, which
hang over their fhoulders, are loaded with fmall mirrors,
rings, and other toys. Of one part of their fith, which they
employ the fummer in taking with harpoons and {mall
nets, they make oil for their lamps ; another fupplies them
with food ; and a third part is referved for winter, when the
ice prevents them from fifhine. Beyond the Yupi-tafe Tar-
tars are the Ketcheng-tafe Tartars, who inhabit both banks
of the river Saghalien-oula (which fee), and extend as far
as the Eaftern fea. Thefe Tartars are lefs clownifh than
the preceding, and employ much of their time in hunting
fables.

The Mantchews, difperfed throughout Eaftern Chinefe
Tartary, have neither temples nor idols ; they adore (as they
exprefs it) only the “ emperor of heaven,” to whom rad

Ihre oner

TARTARY.

offer facrifices: but fince they have entered China, fome of
them worfhip the god “ Fo,” and other idols reverenced in
the empire. When they became matters of China, they
pretended to a celeftial extraction, and placed a god at the
head of their race. Since the Tartars have had poffeffion of
the throne of China (fee Cura ), their language has become
familiar at the court of Pe-king. This language they are
very careful in preferving, and it is faid that it may be much
more eafily acquired than that of China. Although the
Tartars have only one kind of charaéters, they write them in
four different ways, which they write with a pencil, or a kind
of pen, formed of the bamboo reed, and which they can read
with equal eafe when reverfed.

Tartary, Weflern Chinefe, is called alfo the country of
the Mongoles, or Moguls ; for an account of which, fee the
article a See alfo Katxas, Katmucks, and Ko-
Konor. We hall here add that the country of the Ortous,
who inhabit N. of the great wall, and W. of the Moguls pro-
perly fo called, is 110 leagues in extent from E. to W.., and
70 Po N. to S. Thefe people are divided into fix ftand-
ards, which comprehend 166 companies, each compofed of
150 heads of families. The Ortous are of a free difpofition,
very lively, and never fubjet to melancholy, and may be
juitly called the ** French of Tartary.’”’

Wild animals of various kinds are innumerable in the
plains and forefts of, Tartary. The country abounds with

ame, and all the animals that are hunted in Europe, with
ie flocks of yellow goats, wild mules, wild camels, and
horfes; an animal refembling the elk, a f{pecies of lynx,
whofe fkin is highly valued, tygers of prodigious fize and
agility, whofe {kins are ufed for ornament ; a fpecies of
leopard, and ftags. Some of their rivers wath down gold
mixed with their fands ; and they are acquainted with the
method of applying it to ufe, and of forming it into vafes
and {mall ftatues, of which they often make offerings to their
idols. It appears that the ufe of gold is very ancient among
them.

The vulgar name of Tartary, or Tatary, fays Mr. Pinker-
ton, was originally extended over the vait regions lying be-
tween Thibet, China, and the Arétic ocean ; and from the
Black fea in the weft to the utmoft bounds of north-eaftern
difcovery in Afia. But as geographical knowledge has im-
proved, the northern part has acquired the name of Siberia,
while the fouthern is diftinguifhed by the appellation of
Weftern and Eaftern Tartary. But in this part, which

might more properly be named Central Afia, the Tartars, ~

roperly fo denominated, are few, the moft numerous tribes
bane Monguls in the weft and Mandfhurs in the eaft. See
Moncotes and Manpsuurs.

The wide and interefting portion of Afia, formerly known
by the appellation of Eaftern and Weftern Tartary, but now
properly {tyled Central Afia, and comprehending the Middle
Mon olia and the Eaftern Mandfhuria, which has repeatedly
fent forth its {warms to deluge the arts and civilization of
Europe, fays the geographer above cited, extends from E.
long. 72° to 145°, a {pace of not lefs than 73° of longitude,
which, at the medial latitude of 45°, will yield about 3100
geographical miles. The breadth from the northern frontier
of Thibet to the Ruffian confines, is about 18°, or 1080

eographical miles. The limit between Ruffia and Chinefe
oriary is partly an ideal line, and partly the river Argoon,
which joined with the Onon, conftitute the great river Amur.
From the treaty publifhed by Du Halde it appears, that the
river Kerbatchi, the neareft to the river Chorna or Ou-
rouon, and which difcharges itfelf into the great river
Saghalien-oula, was the Chinefe definition of the boundary
between the two empires, to which was added the long

chain of mountains above the fource of the river Kerbateht
and the river Argoon. The eaftern boundary is the fea,
while the fouthern extends along the great Chinefe wall,
and the northern limits of Thibet. The weftern boundary
is fupplied by the celebrated mountains of Belur-Tag, or
the Cloudy Mountains, which divide the Chinefe empire
from Balk, and the greater Bucharia; while the range on the
W. of the lake Palkati feparates the Kalmucks, fubjeé to
China, from the Kirgufes of Independent Tartary.

The original population of Central A fia appearsto have been
indigenous. The weft was partly held by the ancient Scy-
the, feemingly a Gothic race, who were fubdued or expelled
by the-Tatars, or Huns, from the eaft, prefled on the other
fide by the Monguls, beyond whom were the Mantchews,
who, in the 17th century, conquered China. Pinkerton’s
Geography, vol. ii. See Moncores and Manpsuurs.

Tarrary, Independent, an extenfive, celebrated, and inte-
refting region, confidered as diftin& from Mongolia and
Mandthuria, or as thefe countries have been lefs properly
called, Chinefe Tartary, and independent of the great neigh-
bouring powers, China, Ruffia, and Perfia: this country
was probably the feat of the moft ancient Perfian per
the poffeffion of the Greek monarchs of Baétriana, and after
many revolutions, diftinguifhed by the wide empire of Jen-
ghis or Zingis, and Timur. Its extent may be meafured from
the Cafpian fea to the mountains of Belur, a fpace of about
870 Britifh miles. From the mountains of Gaur in the S.,
to the Ruffian boundaries in the N. of the defert of Iffim, it
may be near 1500 Britifh miles, of which a great part is defert.
The chief divifions are the wide fteppes, or barren plains in the
N., held by three hordes of Kirgufes or Kirghifes, the Great,
Middle, and Leffer, befides fome {mall Tatarie tribes near
the fea of Aral. This portion was anciently called Turkef-
tan, and its capital was Taraz. (See both thefe articles. )
Southwards of the mountains of Argun, the land begins to
become fertile along the river Sirr or Jaxartes, called alfo
the river of Shuth from the chief territory, and alfo on the
banks of its tributary ftreams. Ilak and Shufh, the moft
northern provinces on the Sihon, are followed by Fergana,
and a diftriét called Ozrufhna, round a town of the fame
name. Divided from thefe provinces by deferts and moun-
tains is the kingdom of Kharifm, or Kharafm, which fee.
South of the range of the Ak Tam is the fertile region of
Sogd, or Sogdiana, with its capital Samarcand. On the S.,
the provinces of Balk, Kilan, Tokareftan, and Gaur, ter-
minate the bounds of Independent Tartary, here fepa-
rated by defarts on the W. from the Perfian province of
Chorafan or Khoraffan. See thefe articles refpeétively.
See alfo Betur-rac, Bucwarta, Imaus, KirGHISEs,
MassaGet@, Seyrura, and Uzsecks.

Tartary, Crim. See Crimea.

Tarrary, Ruffian. See Russta and TaRTARS.

Ta RTARY, Little, a name that has been given by fome
writers to the country containng the peninfula of the
Crimea, the Kuban, a part of Circaffia, and all the lands
which feparate the empire of Ruflia from the Black fea.
This circuit, continued from Moldavia almoft to Ta anrog,
between the 44th and 46th degrees of latitude, is from 30
to 40 leagues wide, and nearly 200 long. From E. to We
it includes Yetitchehoolai, Deamhovianl Yedefan, and
Beffarabia. The latter province, at prefent called Boodjak,
is inhabited by Tartars, who, as well as thofe of the penin-
fula, have fixed habitations in their villages; but the inha-
bitants of the three other provinces have only felt-tents,
which they carry wherever they pleafe. 'Thofe people,
called Noguais, and fuppofed to be Nomades, are fettled,
however, in the vallies that traverfe their plains from N. to S.,

9 and

ro

~

a
_

i i OOO A LEI LYLE OA

Fo

ZAR

and their tents, ranged in a fingle line, form thus a kind of
villages of 30 and 35 leagues in length, which diftinguifh
the different hordes. 'Tott’s Memoirs, vol. i. See Crimea
and Russia.

TARTAS, a town of France, in the department of the
Landes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Saint-
Séver, divided into two parts, the firft containing 1556, and
its canton 6154 inhabitants, and 8 communes; and the
fecond part containing 1656, and its canton 7952 inha-
bitants, and 12 communes : its whole territorial extent being
540 kiliometres; 15 miles W.S.W. of Mont-de-Marfan.
N. lat. 43° 50’. W. long. 0° 44/.—Alfo, a river of Ruffia,
which runs into the Om, near Tartaflcoi.

TARTASKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolfk, at the union of the Om and the Tartas; 40 miles
W.S.W. of Kainfk.

TARTESSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
in the part called Beetica, fituated between the two arms
by which the river Beetis difcharged itfelf into the fea.
One of thefe arms has difappeared, and the other {till fub-
fifts and paffes into the fea at San Lucan de Barrameda.
Some geographers have fuggeited that Gades was the ancient
Tarteflus. Strabo intimates that anciently the river Beetis
was called Tarteffus, and that the town of this name was
afterwards called Cartheia. M. d’Anville gives the name
of Tarteffus to the ifland formed by the two branches of the
Beetis at its mouth.—Alfo, a mountain of Spain, in Beetica.

Tarressus, J/le of, was fituated near Gades, and is
fuppofed to have been the Tarfhifh of the Phcenicians, to
whom it was known about 1000 years B. C.

TARTI Lapis, a ftone mentioned by Ludovicus Dulcis,
and fome other authors, and faid to be very beautiful, having
all the colours of the tail of a peacock, and to have many
medicinal virtues. It was probably fome fpecies of agate ;
but the fhort account given of it will not enable us to guefs
what particular kind.

TARTINI, Gruseprr, of Padua, in Biography, the
greateft performer on the violin and compofer for that in-
itrument of the laft century. We fhall here only confider
him as a practical mufician, though he_has diftinguifhed
himfelf as a theoriit in a way fuperior to all other contem-
porary profeflors. See System, and STILLINGFLEET.

This admirable mufician and worthy man was born at
Pirano, in Iftria, in 1692. His father, having been a great
benefaétor to the cathedral church at Parenzo, had been
ennobled in reward for his piety. Giufeppe was intended
for the law, but mixing mufic with his other ftudies during
the courfe of his education, it foon grew.too powerful for
the reit, and tyrannized over the whole circle of fifter
{ciences. This is not fo furprifing as another ftrong pro-
penfity, which during his youth oecupied his attention very
much, which was fencing, an art that was not likely to become
neceflary to the fafety or honour of a man of fo pious and
pacific a difpofition, in a civil employment ; and yet he is
faid to have equalled in this art even the mafter from whom
he received inftruétions. In 1710 he was fent to the uni-
verfity of Padua to purfue his ftudies as a civilian; but
before he was twenty, having married without the confent
of his parents, they wholly abandoned him, and obliged
him to wander about in fearch of an afylum ; which, after
many hardfhips, he found in a convent at Affifi, where he
was received by a monk his relation, who, commiferating
his misfortunes, let him remain there till fomething better
could be done for him. Here he practifed the violin, to
keep off melancholy reflections; but being difcovered on
a great feftival in the orcheftra of the church of the convent
_ by the accident of a remarkable high wind, which forcing

FAR

open the doors of the church, blew afide the curtain of the
orcheftra, and expofed all the performers to the fight of the
congregation ; when, being recognized by a Paduan ac-
quaintance, differences were accommodated, and he fettled
with his wife at Venice for fome time. This lady, indeed
was of the Xantippe kind, and being himfelf very Socrine
in wifdom, virtue, and patience, her reign was unmolefted
by any domeftic war, or oppofition to her fupremacy.

: While he was at Venice, the celebrated Veracini arrived
in that city, whofe performance awakened an extraordinary
emulation in Tartini, who, though he had been thought to
have a powerful hand, had never heard a great player before,
or conceived it poffible for the bow to have fuch varied
powers of energy and expreffion. He, therefore, quitted
Venice the next day, and went to Ancona, in order to ftudy
the ufe of the bow in more tranquillity, and with more con-
venience than at Venice, as he had a place affigned him in
the opera orcheftra of that city.

This happened in the year 1714, the year in which he
difcovered the phenomenon of the third found. It was at
Ancona, and in the carnival of the fame year, that he heard
and perceived the extraordinary effects of a piece of fimple
recitative, which he mentions in his “ Trattato di Mufica.””
(See Recitative.) It was likewife during his refidence
at Ancona, that, by diligent ftudy and praétice, he acquired
fufficient abilities and reputation to be invited, in 1721, to
the place of firft violin, and mafter of the band in the cele-
brated church of St. Anthony of Padua.

By this time his fame was fo extended, that he had re-
peated invitations from Paris and London to vifit thofe
capitals; but by a fingular devotion and attachment to his
patron faint, to whom he confecrated himfelf and his inftru-
ment, he declined entering into any other fervice.

Before the year 1728, he had made many excellent fcholars,
and formed a fchool, or method of praétice, for the ftudents
on the violin, that was celebrated all over Europe, and
which increafed in fame to the end of his life.

The author of the compendium of his life informs us that
his firft book of folos was engraved at Amfterdam, 1734.3
the fecond at Rome, 1745; and that he produced above
two hundred of thefe compofitions, which were handed about
in manufcript by the curious; but does not feem to know
that nine or ten books of Tartini’s folos were printed at
Paris, of which we are in poffeffion of opera third, fixth,
feventh, and ninth, befides the two books printed in Eng-
land, amounting to upwards of fifty folos, exclufive of
manuf{cripts.

Of his concertos, which likewife amount to two hundred,
this author gives a very unfatisfactory account ; he fays, that
a furreptitious copy of two fets having firft appeared in
Holland, he would never own them. The firft fix feem to
have been compofed in his firft manner before he changed
his ityle. But Walther tells us, in 1732, that eighteen of
his concertos for five inftruments, principal violin, two ri-
pieno violins, tenor, and violoncello, were publifhed at Am-
fterdam. But Le Cene, the publifher, confeffed, that he
collected them from different people who had obtained
copies from the author, and there feems not the leaft doubt
of their being genuine.

Though Tartini’s compofitions always afforded us great
pleafure, and were never obliterated from our memory ; yet
as they are now as much laid afide as thofe of Baffani or
Locatelli, we thought it right to give them a revifion before
we ventured our fentiments concerning their merit.

Tartini, on a recent examination of his works, feems, to
our conception and feelings, to haye had a larger portion of
genius and knowledge of compofition as a mere inftrumental

compofer,

TAR

compofer, than any ‘other author who flonrifhed during the
firft fifty or fixty years of the laft century. Though he
made Corelli his model in the purity of his harmony, and
fimplicity of his modulation, he a furpaffed that com-
pofer in the fertility and originality of his invention ; not
only in the fubjeéts of his melodies, but in the truly canta-
bile manner of treating them. Many of his adagios want
nothing but words to be excellent pathetic opera fongs.
His sdla gece are fometimes difficult ; but the paflages fairly
belong to the inftrument for which they were compofeu,
and were fuggefted by his confummate ops tm a of the
finger-board, and powers of the bow. He certainly repeats
his’ paffages, and adheres to his original motivo, or theme,
too much, for the favourite defultory ftyle of the prefent
times ; but it muft be allowed that by his delicate felection
and arrangement of notes, his paflages are always good ;
play them quick, or play them flow, they never feem un-
meaning or fortuitous.

Indeed, as aharmonift, he was perhaps more truly fcientific
than any other compofer of his time, in the clearnefs, character,
and precifion of his bafes ; which were never cafual, or the
effet of habit or auricular prejudice and expeétation, but
learned, judicious, and certain. Yet, with all our partiality
for his ftyle, talents, and abilities, as well as veneration for
his principles and charaéter, we mutt, in jultice to others,
own, that though the adagio and folo playing in general
of his fcholars were exquifitely polifhed and expreffive, yet
it feems as if that energy, fire, and freedom of bow, which
modern fymphonifts and orcheftra-playing require, were
wanting. Perhaps the refinement of a Nardini and force of
a Viotti are incompatible.

Since the time of Tartini, the productions of Boccherini,
Haydn, Vanhal, Mozart, Pleyel, and others, have occa-
fioned fuch a revolution in violin-mufic and playing, by the
fertility and boldnefs of their invention, that compofitions
which were then generally thought full of fpirit and fire,
appear now totally tame‘and infipid.

This admirable mufician and worthy man died the 26th
of February, 1770, to the great regret of the inhabitants
of the city of Padua, where he had refided nearly fifty years,
and where he was not only regarded as its chief and mott
attra€tive ornament, but hilbopher, faint, and fage. He
had no children.

M. de Lalande fays, he had from his own mouth the fol-
lowing fingular anecdote, which fhews to what degree his
imagination was inflamed by the genius of compofition.
* He dreamed one night, in 1713, that he had made a
compaét with the devil, who promifed to be at his fervice
on all occafions; and during this vifion every thing fuc-
ceeded according to his mind; his wifhes were prevented,
and his defires always furpaffed by the affiftance of his new
fervant. In fhort, he imagined he gave the devil his violin,
in order to difcover what kind of a mufician he was; when,
to his great aftonifhment, he heard him play a folo fo fingu-
larly beautiful, and executed with fuch fuperior tafte and
precifion, that it furpaffed all he had ever heard or conceived
in his life. So great was his furprife, and fo exquifite his
delight upon this occafion, that it deprived him of the

ower of breathing. He awoke with the violence of this
Pastors, and inftantly feized his fiddle, in hopes of ex-
prefling what he had juft heard, but in vain; he, however,
then compofed a piece, which is perhaps the bett of all his
works, (he called it the Devil’s Sonata,) but it was fo in-
ferior to what his fleep had produced, that he declared he
fhould have broken his inftrument and abandoned mufic for
ever, if he could have fubfifted by any other means.”

He was one of the few campioless of his time, who con-

TAR

ftantly drew from his own fource ; his melody was full of
fire and fancy, and his harmony, though learned, yet fimple
and pure; and as a performer, his flow movements evince
his tafte and expreffion, and his lively ones his great hand.
He was the firft who knew and taught the power of the
bow; and his knowledge of the finger-board is proved by
a thoufand beautiful paffages, to which that alone could

ive birth. His fcholar, Nardini, who played to us many
of his beft folos, as we thought, very well, with refpe& to
correétnefs and expreffion, affured us that his dear and
honoured mafter, as he conftantly called him, was as much
fuperior to himfelf in the performance of the fame folos,
both in the pathetic and brilliant parts, as he was to any
one of his {cholars.

Of his theoretical writings, we have had occafion to fpeak -
frequently and freely in former articles, particularly in our
analyfis of his Sysrem, and Stillingfleet’s Commentary. See
STILLINGFLEET. ‘ i

His practical works or compofitions, always for his own
inftrument, the violin, confift of twelve folos on Corelli’s
model, fix with double ftops and fugues, with fix of a lighter
kind, in fingle ftops, op. 1%, fix plas op. 2*, publifhed by
Walh, about the year 1746, in a more free and original =
The firft of this fet, in EX, which was Brown’s ** Cheval de
Battaille,’’ appeared more than ten years at every concert at
which he performed a folo in London. Two fets of concertos, in
a very florid and difficult ftyle, colle€ted in MS. by travellers,
and publifhed in Holland by Le Cene and Witvogel with-
out the author’s permiflion, he called in, and cancelled the
plates. However, we procured a copy from Holland, that
was printed after the plates were icratched. We feored
feveral of them, and found more beautiful paflages, more
difficulties and knowledge of the finger-board, than in any
other violin folo concertos which we had ever feen. M4
fets of beautiful folos were printed at Paris of his compofi-
tion, which are wholly unknown in England. More than
200 of his violin concertos and folos were difperfed over the
continent in MS. ; many of his unedited folos we procured
from his favourite difciple Nardini, at Florence, after his de®
ceafe. If the concertos which he compofed for his own per-
formance in the church of St. Antonio de Padua could be pro-
cured, they would probably be in a grave and ecclefiaftical
{tyle, peculiarly fuitable to the place and piety of the author.

TARTON Rarrg, in Botany, a name ufed. by fome
authors for the heath-fpurge, or that {pecies of the thymelza
which is called /annamunda in the catalogues of the Materia
Medica. ,

TARTOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cicacole ; 9 miles S. of Vifianagram.

TARTRATES, or Tarrrires, in C, emifiry, {alts
formed by the combination of any bafe with the tartareous
acid. Thefe falts are numerous; as with fome the acid
forms two falts, differing in the proportions of the acid and
bafe, and alfo as it is liable to form triple falts in which two
bafes are united with their refpedtive portion of acid into one
uniform compound. All the foluble alkaline and earthy tar-
trites, the latter being lefs foluble than the former, are de-
compofed by the falts of lead, and the acid of all is dettroyed
by calcination, leaving the bafe in the ftate of carbonate.

TartTRate, Super, of Potafh, is a combination of potahh
and tartareous acid in excefs (whence its name), and to which
it is owing that it has an acid tafte, and that it reddens blue
vegetable colours. This is the cream of tartar; or tartarum
acidulum, the nature and manufaéture of ‘which have been
defcribed under the article TarTar. (See alfo Super-tar-
trate of potafh under Sars.) This falt is not foluble with+
out great difficulty, requiring about 30 parts of boiling

water,

RAR

water, and at leaft 120, or as others fay 60 parts of cold
water ; and hence a hot faturated folution begins to depofit
cryftals almoft immediately after it begins to cool. So great
is the affinity between the tartareous acid and that propor-
tion of potafh which conftitutes the fuper-tartrate, that the
acid of tartar will, partially or wholly, decompofe all the
neutral falts of potafh, even the fulphate. Neverthelefs, the
affinity between the fuper-tartrate and the additional quan-
tity of potafh neceffary for the complete faturation of this
acid is much weaker than that of moft other acids for pot-
afh; and hence arifes a great number of decompofitions,
when tartareous acid, potafh, and any other acid are mixed
in different ways, The property, which the tartareous acid
poffeffes, of decompofing the neutral falts with the bafis of
potafh, is very ufeful in analyfis, as it ferves to diftinguifh
them at once from the correfponding falts of foda and am-
monia, which are not decompofable in the fame manner.
By faturating the excefs of acid in cream of tartar with the
feveral bafes (potafh excepted) various triple falts are pro-
duced. Although fome inconvenience attends the ufe of
borax in adding the folution of Cream of Tartar in water
(fee that article); yet fimple boracic acid has the power of
rendering foluble four times its weight of cream of tartar in
only five or fix parts of hot water, and, as it is fuggetted,
without oe the tartar, fince the affinity of the
boracie acid for the feveral bafes is remarkably weak.

If a folution of cream of tartar in water is expofed to
the air for a length of time, it gradually becomes turbid, a
number of mucous flocculi are depofited, and in the courfe
of fome months it ceafes to be acidulous, after which it be-
comes fenfibly alkaline to the tafte and to chemical tefts,
and it is finally converted into a weak folution of carbonate
of petath, the tartareous acid totally difappearing, and car-
bonic acid taking its place. Fire operates a more rapid
defiruGtion of the tartareous acid, for if cream of tartar is
calcined in an open fire with a red heat, it firft foftens,
blackens, becomes of a pafty confiftence, the acid burns off
with flame and fmoke, and finally a white carbonate of pot-
afh is left. The alkali procured in this way is very pure,
and is often obtained for the laboratory by moiftening crude
tartar or cream of tartar to the confiftence of ftiff pafte,
wrapping up fimall parcels of it in brown paper, and arrang-
ing them in a grate or furnace of any kind with charcoal,
and kindling it. After the charcoal has burnt out, the
tartar is converted into lumps of carbonate of potafh, which
ftill cohere, and may be readily picked out of the afhes of
the charcoal. A very pure carbonate of potafh may alfo
be made by deflagrating in a red-hot crucible equal parts of
nitre and cream of tartar.

This falt is compofed, according to Thenard, of 57 fer
cent. of tartareous acid, and 33 of potafh, the remaining 10
parts being chiefly water of cryftallization. Of thefe 57
parts of acid, 20 are in excefs, fo that the compofition of
the falt may be ftated, in a different manner, to be 70 per
cent. of tartrite of potafh, and 20 of tartareous acid.

Cream of tartar is decompofed by lime and barytes, and
probably by ftrontian, and cauftic potafh is left in the folu-
tion.

TartritE of Potafs. See Soluble Tarran, and Tartrate
of Potafo under Sarts. This falt, ee of tartareous
acid and potafh in mutual faturation, is moft conveniently
prepared by adding cream of tartar to a hot folution of car-
bonate of potafh. During the effervefcence, the addition of
cream of tartar fhould be continued ; when this céafes, the
folution fhould be boiled down till a pellicle appears on the
furface, and then left to cryftallize by cooling. The tar-
trite of potafh then feparates, generally in the form of pa-

RA EF

rallelopipeds, with dihedral fummits. When the falt is pre-
pared im a large way for medicinal purpofes, the evaporation
is continued nearly to drynefs, with frequent ftirring, by
which the falt is obtained in a fhapelefs granular mafs. This
falt is partially decompofed by the ftronger acids. Tar-
tareous acid dropped into a moderately {trong folution of
tartrite of potafh caufes an immediate depofit of cream of
tartar. For other particulars, fee the articles above cited.

TARTRITE of Potafh and Soda, a triple cryftallizable falt,
prepared by throwing into boiling water about a fifth of its
weight of cream of tartar, and adding gradually a quantity
of carbonate of foda, whilft any effervefcence is excited ;
then evaporating the whole to the confiftence of fyrup. As
it cools, the triple falt will be obtained in large beautiful
tran{parent cryflals, generally of the form of eight-fided
prifms, and often divided longitudinally through the axis.
This falt, which is perfe@tly neutral, diffolves in about five
parts of water, and fomewhat efflorefces by being expofed
to the air. Barytes and lime totally decompofe it, and the
fupernatant liquor contains a mixture of potafh and foda.
According to Vauquelin, it is compofed of about 54 per
cent, of tartrite of potafh and 46 of tartrite of foda. It is
decompofed by the ftronger acids, and yields cream of tar-
tar. See Rupexiensis Sa/, and Sopa.

Tartrive of Pota/h and Ammonia, a triple falt prepared,
in the’ fame general manner as the preceding, by {faturat-
ing cream of tartar with carbonate of ammonia, evaporating
and cooling. Expofed to the air it efflorefces, lofes its am-
monia, and returns to the ftate of fimple cream of tartar.

TartritE of Pota/h and Lime, Barytes, &c. Between
tartrite of potafh and lime there exifts a certain affinity,
which tends tothe formation of a triple falt, though lime
will completely decompofe any alkaline tartrite. Thus though
fimple tartrite of lime is infoluble in cold water, no precipi-
tate is produced by the affufion of a {mall quantity of lime-
water into a cold {olution of tartrite of potafh, which muft
therefore be owing to the tartrite of lime, then formed,
being rendered foluble by the remaining tartrite or rather
fubtartrite of potafh. Even when cream of tartar is as
completely as poffible decompofed by lime in fubftance, in
the procefs of obtaining the acid, the cauftic alkaline liquor,
fupernatant over the precipitated tartrite of lime, {till holds
a {mall quantity of the latter in folution, as has been re-
marked by Vauquelin, which may be confidered as a triple
{alt of tartareous acid, lime, and potafh, the latter being in
very large excefs.

The iame applies to barytes and ftrontian, the folutions
of which do not immediately give a precipitate with tartrite
of potafh ; and even if tartrite of barytes or of {trontian
recently formed and itill wet be put into a folution of tar-
trite of potafh, it is foon diflolved ; though the mere quan-
tity of liquid prefent'would be entirely unable to effe@ a fo-
lution. ‘There is therefore fuch a ftrong affinity between
tartrite of potafh and thefe earthy tartrites, as may perhaps
entitle us to confider thefe compound folutions as triple falts,
though they have not been obtained in a cryftallized form
like the triple tartrite of potafh and foda.

Alumine unites with ftill greater eafe with tartrite of pot-
afh: for when this earth, recently precipitated from alum
by a cauttic or carbonated alkali, and ftill wet, is transferred
to a folution of tartrite of potafh, it readily diffolves therein,
and forms an uncryftallizable compound, which is not ren-
dered turbid by any addition of potafh or its carbonate. The
Rochelle falt has the fame habitude with alumine as the
fimple tartrite of potafh, which therefore forms a quadruple
compound of tartareous acid, potafh, foda and alumine.
See ALUMINE.

Tar-

TAR
TARTRITE of Soda, a falt produced in {mall needled cryf-

tals from a due evaporation of tartareous acid faturated with
foda. This falt, formerly confounded with the Rochelle
falt, or fal Rupellenfis, is not very foluble in water ; however,
when tartrite of potafh is added to this falt, each in faturated
folution, large cryftals of the triple tartrite, or Rochelle
falt, are immediately depofited.

A fuper-tartrite of foda is formed by partially faturating

tartareous acid with foda, and alfo by adding a ftrong acid
to the faturated tartrite, which, being lefs foluble than the
faturated compound, precipitates. It is obferved, however,
that tartareous acid will not form (vifibly) an acidulous tar-
trite, when added to the fulphate and other falts of foda, as
it will do with the falts of potafh.

Tarrrite of Ammonia, a falt formed by faturating the
tartareous acid with ammonia or its carbonate. This falt
cryftallizes readily, and is decompofed by the fixed alkalies
and alkaline earths.

A fuper-tartrite of ammonia is formed in a fimilar manner
to the fuper-tartrite of foda, and with the fame exception
of the acid not vifibly decompofing the other ammoniacal
falts. See AMmonta, and Tartrate of Ammonia under SALTS.

Tarrnrires, Earthy. See Earthy Sarts. See alfo Tar-
trate of Lime under Lime.

The fartrite of lime is produced in a white precipitate, by
adding tartareous acid to any foluble falt of lime, or lime
to a foluble tartareous falt. Although this falt is infoluble
in mere water in acommon temperature, it diffolves readily
in an excefs of its own, or of any other acid that does not
decompofe it, fuch as the acetous or muriatic. It is alfo
rendered foluble in water by the addition of potafh. When
it is heated ftrongly in an open fire the whole acid is con-
fumed, and carbonate of lime remains.

Tartrites of Barytes and Stroutiam, are formed in the
fame manner as tartrite of lime ; but they are not fo infolu-
ble in water as this falt; and the tartrite of ftrontian will
even crytftallize from its hot-faturated folution by cooling.
With magnefia and alumine this acid forms very foluble com-
pounds, which do not cryftallize by evaporation, but dry
up into a gummy mafs. Aikin’s Diét.

TARTSCHIN, in Geo raphy, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 20 miles S.W. of Warfaw.

TARTURA, a town of Paleftine, near the coaft; 10
miles S. of Acre.

tai a diftri&t of Arabia, on the banks of the
Julfa.

TARUD, atown of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas; 10 miles from El Catif.

Tarup Efberif, atown of Egypt, on the left bank of
the Nile; 6 miles S. of Melati.

TARUDA, in Anciert Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania Cefarienfis, near Regen. Prol.

TARUDANT, or Taropant, in Geography, a town
of Africa, and capital of the province, formerly kingdom,
of Sufe, fituated at the extremity of Morocco. The town
is ancient and extenfive, and is faid to contain 25,000 inha-
bitants. It has a noble palace, to which belong gardens
abounding with the moft delicious fruits. Its population
has Jately decreafed ; and it is now famous only ae falt-

etre of a fuperior quality, for the manufacture of leather
and faddles, and for dyeing. The town is watered by the
river Sufe, which rales through it; and it is reported that
fhips formerly took in their cargoes at this place. It has
fuftained feveral fieges, and in the laft, the inhabitants were
reduced to the neceffity of eating rats and burning their
doors for fuel ; 110 miles S.S.W, of Morocco. N. lat. 30°
20’, W. long, 8° 35/.

TAR

TARVES, a village in the diftri& of Ellon, and thire of
Aberdeen, Scotland, is fituated on the banks of the river
Ythan ; 15 miles N. from Aberdeen, and 139 miles N. by E.
from Edinburgh. The parihh is about nine miles in length and
fixin breadth. The general appearance is flat, interfperfed
with fome {mall hills; the foil is in fome parts deep, and in
others fhallow ; but moftly fertile. About a hundred acres
are covered with thriving plantations. A general poft-office
is eftablifhed here ; and two fairs are holden annually. The
public roads are in good repair.
cient and ruinous. Here is a refpe€table parochial {chool,
of which the falary is 300 marks, with {chool-fees and per-
quifites, and a rood of land. In the population return of
the year 1811, Tarves was {tated to contain 454 houfes,
occupied by 1804 perfons.—Carlifle’s Topographical Dic-
tionary of Scotland, vol. ii. Gazetteer of Scotland, 8yvo.

TARVIDUM, Tarvepum, or Orcas, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a promontory on the foathern coaft of the ifle of
Albion, near the mouth of the river Nabaus.

TARVIN, or Tarven, in Geography, a townfhip and
parifh in the hundred of Edifbury, and county palatine of
Cheiter, England, is fituated on the London road, five miles
N. by E. from Chefter. It had for fome time a weekly
market, procured by fir John Savage, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth ; but this has been long difcontinued. An annual
fair was alfo held here till within the laft thirty years, but was
then abolifhed. ‘Tarvin was one of the parliamentary gar-
rifons during the civil wars: in Auguit 1644, it was a fhort
time in the poffeffion of the royalifts; but in the followin
month it was retaken for the parliament, and fortified wit
{trong works. This and Nantwich were the only ifons
in Chefhire not abandoned on the reported approach of the
king, in May 1645; and the parliament retained it till the
end of the war. A grammar-fchool was founded here in
the year 1600. John ‘Thomafen, a celebrated penman, was
matter of this fchool thirty-fix years in the early part of the
laft century. On the outfide of the parifh church is an in-
{cription to his memory, {tating that he “ highly excelled in
all the varieties of writing, and wonderfully i in the Greek
character. Specimens of his ingenuity are treafured up in
the cabinets of the curious and in the public libraries through-
out the kingdom.’ The townfhip of Tarvin was ftated in
the Ae pene return of the year 1811, to contain 180
houfes, occupied by 921 perfons. The parifh is very ex-
tenfive, and includes 11 townfhips, containing in the whole
2877 inhabitants, the number of houfes being 525.—Ly-
fons’ Magna Britannia, vol. ii, part 2, Chefhire. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ii. Chefhire, by J. Britton and
E. W. Brayley.

TARVISIUM, or Tarviso, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Italy, towards the N.W. of Venetia.

TARUM, in Botany, a name given by Pliny to the agal-
lochum fylueftre, a {pecies of aromatic plants.

TARURAW, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia; 14 miles N. of Tugeloo. '

TARUS, or Taro, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Gallia Cifpadana, which ran towards the .E., and E, of
Trebia. :

TARUSA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Kaluga, on the Oka. N, lat. 54° 52',
long. 36° 34.

_ TARUSATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gal-
lia Aquitanica, mentioned by Cafar in the 3d book of his

Commentaries, who were compelled to fubmit by Craffus,

Cefar’s lieutenant.

alla intars Their city was named Vicus Julii and

TARUSCO,

The parifh church is an~

>

;
i
:
|
{

TAs
TARUSCO, a town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, near

lenum.

TARUSCONIENSES, a people of Gallia Narbon-
nenfis, mentioned by Pliny, who occupied part of the ter-
ritory of Tarafcon on the Rhone.

TARWAS, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 28 miles
E. of Nattore.

TASAGORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Cefarienfis, on the route from Culato Rufu-
eurum. Anton. Itin.

TASAPAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eat
Indian fea, near Junkfeilon. N. lat. 8° 20'. E. long.

8° r4!.

TASCA, Luiai, in Biography, an opera finger with a
powerful bafe, or rather baritono voice, who arrived in
England in 1782, was a good mufician, and not only a ufe-
ful performer at the opera, but at the oratorio, and in the
performances at Weitminfter Abbey in commemoration of
Handel. His voice, however, wanted mellownefs and flexi-
bility: for like an oaken plant, though ftrong, it was {tiff.

TASCHENMUL, in Ornithology, a name given by au-
thors to the anas clyperia, a {pecics of duck, remarkable for
the breadth of the end of its beak, and called in Englifh the

Sboveller. See Broad-beaked Duck.

TASCHIEN, ip Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
runs into the Regen, 2 miles W. of Cham.

TASCHOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz ; 5 miles N. of Leitmeritz.

TASCIO, or Tascia, in Coinage, is a term, which
either wholly or in part, appears on many ancient Britifh
coins, and which has puzzled our antiquaries, who have
formed feveral different opinions concerning it. Mr. Cam-
den, Mr. Baxter, Dr. Pettingal, and others, have thought
that this word is derived from 7/2 or Tafcu, fignifying in the
original language of Britain any land-burthen or tribute im-
med by the Tog, or prince, and that all the money which
had Tafcia or any of its abbreviations upon it, had been
coined for no other purpofe but to pay the tribute which
had been impofed on the Britons by Julius Cefar, and the
portaria or duties upon merchandize, which had been exacted
by Augultus and his fucceffors. Againft this opinion,
however, others have urged {trong objections. The deriva-
tion of Tafcio from Tag, a prince, by the intervention of
Tafcu, a burthen or tafk, it has been faid, is far from being
clear. Money coined for the fole purpofe of paying tri-
bute, is a thing, fay the objectors, unknown in the hiitory
of mankind; nor is it probable that Cunobeline, who was a
free and independent prince, the friend but not the fubject
of the Roman emperors, would have admitted a word of
fuch ignomintious import as Tafcio is in this fenfe of it, upon
his coins.

A modern author (fee Wife Differt. in Numm. Bodl.
Catal; p. 227.), diffatisfied with the above interpretation of
the word Tafcio, has propofed another. He fuppofes that
Tafcio is an abbreviation of fome nation or people to whom
this money belonged, and of which Cunobeline was king ; and
finding in Pliny (lib. ili. c. 4.) a people of Gallia Narben-
nenfis, called ‘ 'Tafcodunitari Conorienfes,’”? in the MSS.
“« Tafcoduni Taruconienfes,’’ he conjectures, that Cunobelin
Tafcio may mean Cunobelin Tafcodunorum. But this mean-
ing is far-fetched, and depends upon improbable conjecture,

Another modern writer (fee Pegge’s Eff. on Cunobeline’s
Coins, p. 55.) has conjectured, that Tafcio was the name of
Cancheune’ mint-mafter, who ftruck all thefe coins. Al-
though this opinion is more probable than the former, it is
neverthelefs ftrange, that this word, ifit was a proper name,

Vor. XXXV.

AS

fhould have been fpelled by the perfon to whom it belonged
in fo many different ways, as Tafcio, Tafcia, and Tafcie.

TASCO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Mechoacan ; go miles S.E. of Mechoacan. N.-
lat. 19° 5’. W. long. ror® 36'.

TASCONI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, mentioned by Pliny, who occupied part of
the diocefe of Montauban. Their city bore the fame name,
and was fituated N. of Tolofe..

TASGOM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifia-
pour; 10 miles N. of Merritch.

TASHAM Dageut, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey, be-
tween Amafreh and Samfoun.

TASHKUND, Tascuxunp, or J/ Shafb, a town of
Turkeiflan, on the Sir. This town has been often deftroyed
and rebuilt ; 210 miles N. of Samarcand. N. lat. 42° 40.
E. long. 64° 48!.

TASHKUPRI, a town of Natolia; 14 miles S.E. of
Caftamena.

TASIEVA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Tchiuma, about 20 miles N.W. of Tafievfkoi.

TASIEVSKOLI, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Tobolfk, on the Tafieva; 820 miles E. of Tobolfk.
N. Jat. 57°. .E. long. 94° 14!.

TASIO, ariver of Sweden, which joins the Angermann
at Liden.

TASIS, cassis, in Rhetoric, is ufed for the continuation
of a period longer than the breath can bear. Vofl. Rhet.
lib. iv. p. 66. -

TAS-KUJE, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Lariftan; 84 miles N.E. of Lar.

TASLUI, a town of Moldavia; 20 miles S. of Nie-
mecz.—Alfo, a river of Moldavia, which runs into the
Siret, near Adzud. ~

TASMAN’s Heap, a cape on the coaft of Van
Diemen’s Land. N. lat. 43° 33! E.long. 147° 28).

TASMANIA. See Van Diemew’s Land.

TASOPIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, near Caricardama, affigned by
Ptolemy to the Sabare.

TAS-POULSASON, in Geography, atown of Chinefe
Tartary, in the country of Hami. N. lat. 40° 22. E.
long. 95° 54.

TASPOUR, atown of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 27 miles
E, of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 52! E. long. 85° 51.

TASSA Pernt, acape on the coalt of Guinea.
lat. 8°. W. long. 12° rol.

TASSA-CORTA, or Tassa-Cropa, a town on the
W. coait of Palma, one of the Canary iflands, which is an
inconfiderable, loading-place for veffels. N. lat. 28° 37/.
W. long. 17° 58!.

TASSASUDON, Tassisupon, or Tafey-Seddein,a town
of Afia, and capital of the Bootan country, fituated in a
valley, computed to be about three miles in length, and one
in breadth, lying N. and S., through which runs the river
Tehintchieu. This valley is ina high ftate of cultivation,
bearing various kinds of grain, and diverfified by clufters of
houfes. The caitle, or palace of Taffifudon, ftands near
the centre of the valley, and is a building of ftone, of a
quadrangular form; the walls are upwards of 30 feet high,
floped a little from the foundation to the top; above the
middle fpace is a row of projeéting balconies, to each of
which are curtains made of black hair; which are always
drawn at night ; the walls are pierced below with {mall win-
dows, for the admiffion of air rather than light ; and-there
are two entrances to the palace: the one facing the fouth by

} a flight

N.

TAS

a flight of wooden fteps, edged with plates of iron, and the
other, which is the grand entrance on the eaft front, afcended
by a flight of fione fteps. Even with thefe is a fpacious
gateway, with two maifly doors, fortified with knobs of iron,
and fecured when fhut by a large bar of timber that flides
within the mafonry. Within is the central fquare buildin
which may be denominated the citadel, and which is the re
dence of the fupreme Lama. It contains alfo the chief of
their idols, Mahomoonie, amidft a multitude of others of in-
ferior note. To the right and the left are avenues that lead
+ to fpacious fquares, paved with flat {tones, and to the apart-
ments of the Lama. The citadel is feven ftories high, each
from fifteen to eighteen feet, and covered with a roof of low
pitch, compofed of fir timber; from the centre arifes a
{quare piece of mafonry, fupporting a canopy of copper,
richly gilt, which is fuppofed to be direétly over the great
ol, Mahomoonie. The raja lives upon the fourth floor from
the ground ; above that are two other ftories ; and the fe-
vedthbsddex reaches to the temple of Mahomoonie. The eaft,
weit, and fouth angles of the building correfpond with each
other, and have apartments on the ground floor appropriated
for depofiting all kinds of ftores. A covered gallery runs
all round them, beneath which are fubterraneous places ferv-
ing for kitchens. A range of good rooms, with boarded
floors, on the firft ftory, accommodates all the officers of
ftate attendant on the raja, and thofe towards the fquare
are {kirted by a varande, fupported by a row of handfome
pillars, wissle capitals are ornamented with carved work and
gilding, and their fides painted with vermilion. Over this
ftory is a fort af terrace of cement, with rooms more
roughly finifhed for the inferior officers, called Zeenkerbs.
For further particulars we refer to Turner’s Embafly, in
which is an engraving of the palace, and of the refidence of
Lama Glaffetoo in its vicinity. The road from Bengal to
Taffafudon lies chiefly over the fummits of ftupendous moun-
tains, or along the borders of craggy precipices: and be-
tween this city and Peridroog is a chain of mountains ftill
higher than the other. Thele are vifible from the plains of
Bengal, at the diftance of 150 miles, and are commonly co-
vered with fnow. They are a continuation of the mountains
Emodus and Parbpattiins of the ancients; 206 miles S.W.
of Laffa. N. lat. 27°48/. E. long. 89° 12!

TASSEL, a fort of pendent ornament, at the corners of
a cufhion, or the like thing.—Alfo, a fmall ribband of filk
fewed to a book, to be put between the leaves.

Tasseis, in a Building, thofe pieces of board that lie
under the ends of the mantle-trees. j

Tassex, or Tiercelet, is alfo ufed in Falconry for a male
hawk.

‘TasseExs are alfo a kind of hard burrs ufed by cloth-workers
in dreffing of eloth; they are the heads of the manured
teafel.

TASSES, or Tassets, in Ancient Armoury, appendages
to the corfelet, confifting of fkirts of iron that covered the
thighs, and that were faltened to the cuirafs with hooks.

TASSI, Acosr1no,in Biography, the cognomen of an artift
whofe real name was Buonamici. He was born at Perugia in
1566, and {tudiedat Rome under Paul Brill,and received fome

iftance in the {chool of the Carracci. His loofe and irre-
ord conduét procured a feat for him on the bench of a gal-

y at Leghorn; and there, though under confinement and
difgrace, he occupied his leifure in painting views of the ob-

e&s with which he was furrounded ; and when he obtained
his en’ fuch fubje&ts became the favourite occupation of
his pencil. His fea-ports, calms, and ftorms, were faithful
tranfcripts of nature, and touched with great fpirit and effi-

?

TAS

cacy. His views of architeGtural fubjeéts thrown into per-
fpective, which are in the pontifical palace of Monte Ca~
vallo, and in that of the Lancellotti family, are admirable in
their kind. His greateft honour, however, is having beer
the inftruétor of Claude de Lorraine.
aged 76,

TASSING, in Geography. See TAASINGE.

TASSO, Bernarno, in Biography, an eminent poet, born
at Bergamo of an ancient and noble family in the year 1493,
became an early proficient in the Greek and Latin claffies.
His uncle, the bifhop of Recanati, who was his inftructor
and patron, and fupplied the place of a parent when he loft
his father, having been affaflinated by robbers in 1520, Ber-
nardo was under a neceffity of quitting his native city, and
in 1525 became fecretary to count Guido Rangoni, general
of the papal army. Having been for a fhort time oceupied
in a fimilar fituation under the duchefs of Ferrara, he after-
wards purfued his ftudies at Padua and Venice. Ia 1531 he
publifhed at Venice a volume of poems, which induced Fer-
rante Sanfeverino, prince of Salerno, to invite him to his
court. Having accepted this invitation, he recommended
himfelf to the prince, and obtained annual ftipends, amount-
ing to goo ducats. He accompanied his patron in feveral

expeditions, and accompanying him to Naples, he there -

married Porzia de’ Roffi, a lady of noble family. At Sor-
rento, whither he removed, he for fome time led a tranquil
and ftudious life ; until his patron, in 1547, incurred the dif-
pleafure of the imperial court by concurring in prefenting a
petition again{t the eftablifhment of the inquifttion at Naples.
On this occafion the prince joined the French party, fo that
he was declared a rebel, and his property was confifeated. In-
fluenced by refpe& for his patron, Bernardo accompanied him
to France, where at firft he obtained encouragement, but
being in procefs of time deprived of all fupport, and having
loft his wife, he requefted the prince’s permiffion to leave
him ; and complying with an invitation to the court of Gui-

dubaldo II., duke of Urbino, a diftinguifhed patron of >

literary perfons, he was liberally compenfated for his paft
fufferings, and made a member of the celebrated Venetian
academy. In 1563 he became fecretary at the court of
Mantua, and in the feryice of this court he died in 1569,
being then governor of Oftiglia. The duke of Mantua
caufed his remains to be honourably interred in that city, and
a marble monument to be ereéted over his tomb, bearing the
fimple infcription, “ Ofla Bernardi Taffi.”? Of his poems,
belonging to the clafs of ‘ Romanefque,” there were
two; viz. “ Amadigi,” confiftins of 100 cantos, and “ Il
Floridante,” left unfinifhed, but corre€ted and publifhed by
his fon Torquato, at Bologna, in 1587. His other works
are five books of * Rime,” with various kinds of poems,
fuch as eclogues, elegies, hymns, odes, &c.’ He was alfo
the author of * A Dikourfe concerning Poetry,” and “ Let-
ters,” of which an edition has been given in three volumes.
Tasso, Torquaro, pre-eminent as an Ttalian“poet, was
the fon of Bernardo and Porzia de Roffi, born at Sorrento
March 11, 1544, and fent at the age of five years to the
Jefuits’ fchool at Naples. Here his proficiency was fo rapid,
that in two years he recited, publicly, verfes and orations of
his own compofition. At Bergamo, whither the circum-
{tances of his family eondtratnelt him to remove, he profe-
cuted the ftudy of Latin and Greek with fuch fuccefs, that
at the age of twelve years, he was admitted into the univer-
fity of Padua. Here his proficiency in various branches of
literature was fo fignal, that in his feventeenth year he was
honoured with degrees in the four branches of canon and
civil Jaw, theology, and philofophy. or law he had no

predi-

He died in 1642,"

Raa ae, lem

Se le

eT i

> ae

i

hi, t+ Bom,

TAS

predileGtion ;+but all the powers and AffeGtions of his mind
were devoted to poetry. ‘Thus diitinguifhed, he was invited
by the celebrated Cefi to Bologna, in the fchools and aca-
demies of which city his talents were eminently difplayed.
During his refidence in Bologna, he was charged with having
written fome defamatory verfes, and deprived of his books ;
and though he avowed his innocence, he thought proper to
withdraw from the city to a place called Caftlevetro, where
he was protected by the count Rangoni. Some time after
this event he fettled at Padua, and acquired diftinGtion among
the academicians denominated “ Eterci.”” At the age of
eighteen years he had publifhed at Venice his poem of the
Romanefque clafs, entitled I] Rinaldo,”? which he dedi-
cated to cardinal Luigi d’Efte, in confequence of which he
was inyited, in 1566, to the court of Ferrara, where he was
liberally accommodated, and where, it is faid, he profecuted
the execution of his plan of the «« Gerufalemme Liberata ;”’
fix cantos of which were compofed in the 17th year of his
life. In 1571 he accompanied the cardinal d’Efte into
France, where he was honourably received by Charles IX.
and his court, and alfo by all the learned men of Paris. In
the following year he returned to Italy, and caufed to be re-
prefented his dramatic paftoral of “ Aminta.” Several
cantos of his “ Gerufalemme” were at this time difperfed in
MS. throughout Italy, and in 1579 the fourth canto was
printed in a colle&tion of poems at Genoa. In the following
year, fragments of 16 cantos were publifhed at Venice, and
we may naturally imagine that this mode of introducing to
public notice a work on which he had beftowed much atten-
tion and labour, excited his difpleafure. In 1581 three edi-
tions were printed, and of thefe, the third at Ferrara has been
confidered as that which firft exhibited this celebrated work
in its genuine form. It has occafioned fome degree of fur-
prife, that Taffo himfelf did not guard againit thefe incorreé
publications, by committing his work to the prefs in a more
perfe& ftate. His negligence in this refpeé has been attri-
buted to fome mental malady under which he laboured. Of
the caufe of this malady different accounts have been given.
Tirabofchi has narrated a variety of circumitances, which
operating on a mind like that of Taffo, might have contri-
buted to produce, or at leait to aggravate the mental’ dif-
order under which he laboured. His narration is recited in
the General Biography ; but within our limits we cannot do
it full juftice. His firft provocation feems to have been ex-
cited by acourtier, who divulged the fecret of his amours,
in the prefence-chamber of Alfonfo, duke of Ferrara, and
whom he publicly infulted, fo that he was under a neceflity
of defending himfelf with his fword againft the aggreffor and
his three brothers. The brothers were banifhed, and Taffo
was confined to his apartment. Difturbed in his mind, and
dreading worfe confequences, he made his efcape, wan-
dered to Turin, Rome and Sorrento, and at length obtained
permiffion to return to Ferrara. Sufpeéting fome hottile de-
fign, he withdrew to the court of Urbino, and again re-
turned to Ferrara. Here his diforder was fo manifeft, that
Alfonfo ordered him to be fhut up in a hofpital appropriated
to lunatics. The evidence of his diforder is faid by fome to
have been an indecorous liberty which he took in faluting the
princefs Leonora, the duke’s fifter ; but others have thought
this circumftance_ve probable, and indeed it is hardly ne-
ceflary to make an attempt for juitifying the duke’s conduét
in the confinement of Taffo, atter he had given fo many in-
conteftible proofs of mental derangement. At length, how-
ever, Taflo was reftored'to entire liberty. But his difpofition
to wander ftill continued ; and itis lamentable to refle@t, that,
as one of his biograpers obferves, “ the admired author of
® Jerufalem delivered,’ the favourite of princes and the boatt

ARATS

of Italy, fhould have harboured in his mind fomething which
defeated every plan to render his circumftances profperous.’’
His laft retreat was with cardinal Cinzie Aldobrandini, at
Rome, who obtained for him a penfion from pope Cle-
ment VIII., and had intended, as a compenfation for his
fufferings, to procure for him the honour of a folemn poeti-
cal coronation in the Capitol ; but the ceremony was delayed
on account of the cardinal’s illnefs, and Taflo manifefted
fymptoms of approaching diffolution. As foon as the was
apprized of his danger, he was removed to the convent of
St. Onofrio, where, deriving every poffible confolation from
the kindnefs of the cardinal, and exhibiting every evidence
of fincere piety, he clofed his days in April 1595, at the
age of 51. His remains were honourably interred, and
after fome time a monument was ere¢ted to his memery by
cardinal Bonifacio Bevilacque, in the church of St. Onofrio.
Taffo, “in perfon, was tall, a€tive, and well-proportioned,
naturally of a firm temperament, and fit for all bodily ex-
ercifes. He was {paring of words, fedate and grave in
manner, and in conyerfation difplayed little of the fire that
animates his works. He was kind and affeGtionate in all his
focial relations, and condvéted himfelf with great propriety
in company.””

His works are very numerous. Thofe in profe confift of
a great number of treatifes, dialogues, and letters, on mo-
ral, literary, and familiar topics. In poetry, his “ Geru-
falemme Liberata’’ is pre-eminent. “ Its fubjeét is fingu-
larly happy, its chara&ters well-drawn and fupported, its
fiGions ftrongly imagined, its ftyle dignified, and its verfifi-
cation harmonious.’? His “ Gerufalemme Conquifata,”’ pub-
hifhed in 1593, was a kind of recompofition of the former
work, but lefs fatisfa€tory to its readers. His ‘ Aminta??
has been already mentioned ; his “ Rime” confifted of occa-
fional and’ mifcellaneous pieces ; his “* Sella Giornata,”? or
Works of the Seven Days, pieces on facred topics, bear the
impreffion of the gloomy ftate of his mind. Tirabofchi.
Gen. Biog.

Tasso, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the W. coaft of
Africa, at the mouth of the river Sierra Leona.

Tasso, or Thafo, an ifland of the Grecian Archipelago,
fituated in the gulf of Contefa, towards the W. extremity
of Macedonia, and two leagues from the continent. The
channel which feparates that ifland from the main land is
alfo divided by a fterile inlet called « Little Taffo,”? and in
Greek “ Taflo-poulo,”’ the veftige of an ancient continuity
of lands, at prefent feparated. A {pacious road, where the
ground is good for holding, lies between the two iflands.
‘Taffo is the moft northern of the iflands of the Archipelago,
and its high mountains, covered with forefts, are feen at a
diftance. This ifland was formerly one of the moft famous
for its rich gold mines. Herodotus fpeaks of them, and
they were under the direétion of Thucydides. Thefe mines
led the Greeks to denominate it Chryfe, fignifying gold or
gilt ; its riches had become proverbial, and the expreffion
was a ‘* Thafos of wealth.”’ Its natural treafures alfo were
opals, amethyfts, and other precious ftones; but though
thefe-are loft, Taffo ftill furnifhes the beautiful marble, that
forms the greater part of the mountains, which was anciently
held in fuch eftimation by the Romans; the whitenefs of
which vies with fnow, and the finenefs of its grain with that
of Parian marble. The inhabitants of Paros are faid to
have peopled the ifland of Taffo, and to have there built the
town of Thafos, which was its capital, and the veftiges of
which are itill to be feen. The ifland is near 30 leagues
in circumference; it produces abundance of corn, oil,
wax, &c.; but the fertility, extolled by the ancients, is
turned to no account for want of encouragement and cul-

S 2 ture.

TAS

ture. Its wines, famous even in the time of the Lower em-
pire, as Chryfoftom exclaimed again{t the exceffes to which
they gave rife at Conftantinople, have no longer the excellent
qualities which caufed them to fetch a high price. Its popu-
lation has experienced the fame fate as the productions of its
foil; it is confiderably diminifhed. Taffo, however, has
fill remaining a kind of wealth very important to a maritime
and trading nation ; this is capital wood for fhip-building.
N. lat. 40° 34!. E. long. 24° 46/.

TASSONI, Axessanpro, in Biography, an Italian
poet and man of letters, was born of an ancient and noble
family, at Modena, in the year 1565. Notwithitanding va-
rious difadvantages in early life, fuch as the lofs of his pa-
rents, a feeble difeafed frame, and the perfecution of ene-
mies, he fuccefsfully cultivated Greek and Latin literature,
poetry, and eloquence. At the age of twenty he fought
further improvement in the univerfity of Bologna, and here,
as well as at Ferrara, he direéted his particular attention to
jurifprudence. Being under a neceflity of feeking employ-
ment, he went to Rome, where, being known by his writings,
he was admitted into the fervice of cardinal Colonne, as fecre-
tary, and accompanied him to Spain in the year 1600.
Being afterwards domefticated with cardinal Cefi, he be-
came a member of the academies degli Umorifti and de’
Lincei, and was held in high eftimation among the lite-
rati of Rome. A fpecimen of his “ Penfieri diverfi’”
oped tg on various Subjeéts) was publifhed in 1608, un-

er the title of “ Quefiti,”” and the whole in 1612. His “* Con-
fiderations on Petrarch’’ were firft printed in 1609, and were
intended to reftrain the prevalent idolatry of this author.
In 1613 he entered into the fervice of Charles Emanuel,
duke of Savoy, in which fituation he was regarded as an
enemy to the Spanifh monarchy ; and he was confidered as
the author of ‘ Philippics’’ againft the Spaniards, and of
a book entitled “ Effequie della Monarchia di Spagna.’
In 1623 he quitted the family of Savoy ; and about this
time he finifhed ** A Compendium of the Annals of Baro-
nius.”’ In 1626 he was taken into the fervice of cardinal
Lodovifio, nephew of Gregory XV.; and upon his death,
in 1632, he was invited to the court of Francis I., duke of
Modena, who gave him a penfion and fome honorary titles.
OF this fituation death deprived him in 1635, at the age of
70. One of his biographers fays of him, that “ he had a
prepoflefling countenance, with a cheerful expreflion, was
open in converfation, a good fpeaker, ferious or pleafant,
according to the occafion, of a lively imagination, and found
judgment.”” The work by which the memory of ‘Taffoni is
chiefly preferved is his mock heroic poem “ La Secchia Re-
pita.” Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog.

This penetrating and learned writer, in the tenth book of
his ‘¢ Penfieri diverfi,’’ treats of mufic, ancient and modern,
but not with his ufual acumen or feverity. He only retails the
old {tories of its miraculous powers among the ancients, and
tries to match them by wonders pretended to he performed
by its inferior perfeétions in modern times, without any re-
marks or reflections which difcover a knowledge of the art,
or doubts of the authenticity of thefe relations.

After {peaking of extraordinary dilettante compofers of
mufic in modern times, he fays, ‘“ among thefe we may
enumerate James I., king of Scotland, who not only com-
pofed facred mufic, but invented a new f{pecies of plaintive
melody, different from all others; in which he has been
imitated by the prince of Venofa, who, in our times, has
embellifhed mufic with many admirable inventions.”

This paffage has given birth to two capital miftakes, into
which the readers and writers of mufical hiftory have been
led, particularly in Scotland. In the firft place, it in-

6

TANS

finuates that James I. was the inventor of the national melo-
dies of that country ; and fecondly, that thefe melodies had
been imitated in Italy by the prince of Venofa, a voluminous
and celebrated dilettante compofer of madrigals in the fixteenth
century. ee

Unluckily for the favourers of thefe opinions, the Scots’
national melodies can be proved of much higher antiquity,
not only than David Rizzio, but the time of JamesI. See
Rizzio, James I. of Scotland, and Ossian.

And the prince of Venofa, who was not the great mufi-
cian he was reported to be by learned men who were ignorant
of mufic, has not in all his works, which we have carefully
examined, a fingle paffage of melody which reminds us of
the national tunes of Scotland ; the melodies of which re-
femble thofe of no other country with which we are ac-
quainted, except thofe of China. See Venosa, and CHINESE
Mufic.

otis Aleffandro Taffoni of Modena, born in 1488,
made a compilation of the different annals of that city, pub-
lifhed in Muratori’s Colleétion of Italian hiftorians.

TASSOW, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Iglau; 30 miles S.E. of Iglau.

TASSU, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 60 miles W. of Tauris. ‘ :

TASTATURA, Ital., the whole range or fet of keys,
in an organ, harpfichord, virginal, fpinet, clavichord, or
piano-forte. The term is naturally formed from ‘ah, a
touch, or key. The Italians, we believe, call the finger-
board of the lute, guitar, viols, and all ftringed inftruments
with a neck that is fretted, the sa/fatura.

TASTE, Savour, a fenfation excited in the foul by
means of the organ of tafte, viz. the papille of the tongue,
&e.

Dr. Grew, in a le€ture on the diverfity of taftes, before
the Royal Society, diftinguifhes them into /imple and com-
pound. By fimple taftes he underftands fuch as are fimple
modes of taite, although mingled with others in the fame
thing : thus, the tafte of a pippin is aci-dulcis ; of rhubarb,
amar-allringent, and therefore compounded, in both; but
yet in the pippin the acid is one fimple tafte, and the fweet
another, as diftin€t as the bitter and aftringent are in the
rhubarb.

Two faults, he obferves; have here been committed :
the firft, a defeétive enumeration of fimple taftes ; the fecond,
a reckoning of them indiftin@ly among fuch as are com-
pounded.

Simple taltes, of which we ufually only reckon fix or feven
forts, are at leait fixteen: 1. Bitter, as in wormwood;
whofe contrary is, 2. Sawect, as in fugar. 3. Sour, as in
vinegar ; whofe contrary is, 4. Salt. 5. Hot, as in cloves ;
to which is oppofed, 6. Cold, as in fal prunelle ; for we
may as properly fay a cold tafte as an hot one, fince there
are fome bodies which do manifeftly imprefs the fenfe of cold
upon the tongue, though not to the touch. 7. Aromatic ;
to which is contrary, 8.. Naufeous, or malignant. 9. Soft,
which are either vapid, as in water, ftarch, whites of eggs,
&c. or unctuous, as in oils, fat, &c. 10. Hard, of which
he reckons four kinds. 11. Penetrant, which worketh itfelf
into the tongue without any pungency; as is found in the
root and leaves of the wild eodanc nike 12. Stupefacient, as
in the root of black hellebore, which, being chewed, and
for fome time retained upon the tongue, affeéts that organ
with a numbnefs, or paralytic ftupor. 13. Affringent, as in
galls. And, 14. Pungent, as in fpirit of fal armoniacs
which two laft taftes he makes contrary to the unétuous,
as penetrant and ftupefacient are contrary to the vapid
one. ;

The

TASTE.

The compound tattes are very numerous; but we have
\words to exprefs but fix of them: 1. Auffere, which is
aitringent and bitter, as in the green and foft ftones of
grapes. 2. Acerb, properly fo called, which is aftringent
and acid, as in the juice of unripe grapes: 3. Acrid, which
is pungent and hot. 4. Muriatic, which is falt and pun-
gent, as in common falt. Lxivious, which is faltnefs joined
with fome pungency and heat. 6. Nitrous, which is falt-
nefs joined with pungency and cold.

Tafte conftitutes one of the moft obvious charaéters of
bodies, and much is to be judged from it of the nature of
many things. Dr. Abercromby, in a treatife partly written
on this fubje&, has carried his obfervations fo far, as to lay
down a fet of rules for the judging of any plant, or other
body, without knowing what it is, merely from its tafte, in
regard to its virtues in medicine. ¥

In order to judge of what he exprefsly means by the
names of the feveral taftes, it is proper to add the lift of
them, with fome of the things to which they are applied.

Plants, fruits, &c. are either four as the common forrel,
harfh as the medlar, auftere or rough as the quince, fweet as
the frefi juice of ripe grapes, fat and oily as the fefamum,
bitter as gentian or the wild cucumber, falt as common fea-
falt, tart as garlic, or, laftly, infipid as the gourd, or of
fome mixed taftes, made of two or more of thefe,

The harfh or acerb things are cold, repelling, and bind-
ing, hardly concoéted, and they may all be known upon the
tongue by their contracting or drying it. The auttere or
rough things differ from thefe only in degree, as being fome-
what milder in tafte, and weaker in virtues.

The four or acid things are always cooling; but this
never to excefs, by reafon of their penetrating parts: this
tafte is known by a biting on the tongue, but without any
heat. Sweet things are all nutritive; and taking the word
in its proper fenfe, they only have this quality. Their
fweetnefs aries from their neither being too hot nor too cold
upon the tongue.

Fat things are moderately hot, and, on this account they
all, in fome degree, moiften and relax ; but they alfo ob-
ftru&: they are known from the {weet things by filling,
and, as it were, anointing the tongue, without giving that
fenfe of pleafure that the others do.

Salt things are aftringent and deterfive; the one quality
they have from their earthy part, the other from their
watery.

Bitter things may be very beneficial to the ftomach ; but,
in improper cafes, they may alfo do hurt. The pungent
bitters, fuch as the elaterium, or wild cucumber, are all
hurtful, unlefs rendered fafe by other means.

Tart things are hot, and often bad for the head, but good
in heavy and phlegmatic conftitutions: they are known by
their heat in the mouth.

Laftly : infipid things in general have no peculiar quality,
but are cold and watery ; they are generally hurtful to the
ftomach, unlefs mixed with hotter and fpicy things. Aber-
cromb. Nov. Medic. Clavis.

It is obferved by fir John Floyer, that the tafte is fo good
a judge for us, that all the chemical principles in plants may
be difcovered by it, before their diftillation. All watery
plants thew their phlegm, as well to the tafte as by diftilling ;
and in all dry woods, the tafte difcovers the earth they con-
tain, as well as a chemical analyfis; by the mucilaginous
and gummy tafte, and by the manifeft oilinefs in fome plants,
we diftinguifh their abounding in oil as well as by the retort.
The fmell alfo helps us greatly in an extemporary judging
of plants, and we are able to declare upon the fpot, that a
the aromatic plants, and all the fetid ones, contain a large

quantity of a volatile oi and falt. By the acrimony and
pungency, we are well affured that there is a volatile falt in
plants; and by the burning tafte of others, we find that
there is a corrofiye falt in them. By a crude rough acidity,
we diftinguifh the tartar or effential falt of plants to be in
large quantity ; but if the acidity be of a vinous {mell, we
obferve that it is of a middle ftate of digeftion, and may be
called a vinous tartar, and diftinguifhed from the firft; but
if the tartar have a pungent f{mell, then it is evidently a vola-
tile tartar, or an acid acrid tartar.

The fweet taftes are more numerous in plants, and more
varied among themfelves than any other kind. hefe, in
general, fhew their oil by thin flimy fmoothnefs, and their
tartar is evident in their extracts, as 1s very plain in the com-
mon liquorice-juice.

The grafs-fweets, as the common dogs-grafs, and the like,
have much eflential falt, and a moderate portion of oil ; and
the rufh, reed, horfe-tail, and cats-tail, are all fweet and
rough ; fome of thefe have more oil, and others more acid ;
and the moft crude among them haye more oil than tartar.
The corn-{weets, as barley, rye, wheat, oats, millet, and
rice, have much oil and effential falt, and a little volatile ; fo
bread, prepared of any of thefe, yields, on analyfis, oil and
effential and volatile falt.

It is to be obferved here, that fermentation and fire fe-
verally produce a volatile falt, where it was not before, by
fubtilizing and yolatilizing the effential falt ; and the flimy
mealinefs in corn fupplies the oil. The goats-beard and
{corzonera-kind haye the fame principles as the grafles, much
oil and effential falt. The fub-acrid fweets, as rampions,
campanulas, trachelia, and the like, contain much oil and
effential falt ; but the acrimony in thefe plants fhews that
they have alfo a volatile falt, and that in no {mall quantity ;
though Lemery, and the other chemical writers, have not
obferved this.

The ferns, polypodies, and all that clafs of plants, con-
tain much oil and effential falt ; but the chemifts in general
have omitted to mention an acrid principle in all thefe, which
befpeaks a volatile falt; and fragrancy is obferved in fome
of the harts-tongues, which befpeaks a volatile falt alfo, and
volatile oil, though hitherto unobferved.

All the leguminous flimy fweets have more oil than tar-

*tar; but all of them have a Jarge quantity of both. Beans,

peas, and lentils, have alfo a volatile falt, as has alfo that
ftrange fruit, eaten in Ruffia, and fome other places, and
called Jenticula aquatica by fome; but by the botanical
writers, ¢ribulus aguaticus ; the other name belonging to the
common duck-weed. The aromatic legumens, fuch as me-
lilot, have an exalted oil, and volatile falt. The honey-
fuckle is faié by Lemery, and the other chemifts, only to
have an effential falt and oil; but as there is a highly aro-
matic flavour, and great acrimony, there muit be alfo a
volatile falt.

Thefe are fome few inftances, out of a vaft number re-
cited by the author, for the reft of which we refer to the
paper itfelf in N° 280 of the TranfaGtions. Philof. 'T'ranf.
N° 299, p. 1160. See Tasrine.

Tasre is alfo ufed, in a figurative fenfe, for the judg-
ment and difcernment of the mind.

We talk, and we hear every day of tafte, of good tatte,
and of bad tafte, and yet without well underftanding what
we mean by the word: in effe&t, a good tafte feems to be
little elfe but right reafon, which we otherwife exprefs by
the word judgment.

To have a tafte, is to give things their real value, to be
touched with the good, to be fhocked with the ill; not to

be dazzled with falfe appearances; but, in fpite of = co-
ours,

OO Oe

TASTE.

lours, and of every thing that might deceive or amufe, to

judge foundly.

afte and j t then fhould be the fame thing; and
yet it is eafy to difcern a difference: the judgment forms its
opinions from reflection ; the reafon, on this occafion, takes
a kind of circuit to arrive at its end ; it fuppofes principles,
it draws confequences, and it judges; but not without a
thorough knowledge of the cafe: fo that after it has pro-
nounced, it is ready to render a reafon of its decrees.
Tafte obferves none of thefe formalities ; before it has time
to confult, it has taken its refolution: as foon as ever an
obje& is prefented to it, the impreffion is made, and the
fentiment ed; and we afk no more of it. As the ear is
wounded with an harfh found, as the {mell is foothed with
an agreeable odour, before ever the reafon has meddled with
thofe objeéts, to judge of them; fo the tafte is ftruck at
once, and prevents alt reflection.

RefleGtions may come afterwards to confirm this tafte,
and difcover the fecret reafonings of its condué ; but it was
not in its power to wait for them. Frequently, it happens
not to know them at all; and what pains foever we ufe, we
eannot difcover what it was that determined it to think as
it did.

This conduét is very different from that which the judg-
ment obferves in its decifions ; unlefs we choofe to fay, that
good tafte is, as it were, a firft motion, or a kind of inftin&
of right reafon, which hurries us on with rapidity, and con-
duéts us more fecurely than all the reafonings we could ufe.
It is a firft glance of thought, which difcovers to us the na-
ture and relation of things, as it were, by intuition.

In effet, tafte and judgment are one and the fame thing,
one and the fame difpofition and habitude of the foul, which
we call by different names, according to the different manners
in which it a€ts: when it aéts by Eenfation, by the firft im-
preffion of objects, we call it tafte; and when by reafoning,
after having examined the thing by all the rules of art, &c.
we call it judgment: fo that one may fay, tafte is the judg-
ment of nature, and judgment is the tafte of reafon.

Good tafte, as defined by Madem. Scudery and Madem.
Dacier, in an exprefs treatife “ Of the Corruption of Tafte,”’
is an harmony between the mind and reafon; and a perfon
has more or lefs of this tafte, as that harmony is more or
lefs juit.

One might, perhaps, improve on this hint, and fay, that
good tafte is nothing elfe but a certain ratio or relation be-
tween the mind, and the objeéts prefented to it. Right
reafon cannot but be moved and affeéted with things con-
formably to it, and wounded by thofe contrary: there is,
then, a Kind of fympathy, which unites them as foon as ever
they meet ; and at their union, their good underftandings
difcover each other.—Make a fine difcourfe ; ufe only the
richeft and nobleft expreflions ; if they contain an unhappy
thought, or an incoherent reafoning, that thought, this
reafoning, will immediately be felt by a perfon of tafte: and
the antipathy will fhew itfelf by a movement of averfion, as
fudden, as lively, and as natural, as that which nature in-
{pires us withal for toads or fpiders.

The term ae ufed generally, is equivocal, and is ufed in
at leaft three diftinét acceptations. 1t fometimes means that

uliar mode of fenfation, which refides in the tongue and
palate; fometimes, the power of difcrimination in the fine
arts, or the feeling affociated with it ; fometimes, in a fenfe
derived from the latter, it means liking or opinion in
general.

It has been a fubje& of much controverfy, whether tafte,
in the fecond fenfe, as we ufe the term in this article, be a
diftiné&t faculty, or merely a mode of judgment. The fac

feems to be, fays an anonymous writer, that pleafurable
emotions are excited by certain objects or conceptions, and
that, when we embody our feelings in words, we ufe ex-
preffions of comparifon, and reference to a ftandard, as in
other propofitions. Feeling and judgment therefore concur ;
but to which the word fa/e fhould be peculiarly applied, it is
not eafy to determine. The primary fenfe of the word, and
of its equivalents in modern dang aagets feems to imply the
former, as the word criticifm manifeftly refers to the latter
meaning. ;

Dr. Gerard, in his ingenious and elaborate “ Effay on
Tafte,” obferves, that a fine tafte is neither wholly the gift
of nature, nor wholly the effect of art. It derives its origin
from certain powers natural to the human mind, but thefe
muft be affifted by culture, in order to attain their full per-
fe&tion. Tafte, according to this writer, confifts chiefly in
the improvement of. thofe principles, which are commonly
called the powers of imagination, and are confidered ‘by
modern philofophers as internal or reflex fenfes, fupplyi
us with finer and more delicate perceptions, than any hich
can be properly referred to our external organs. The
fimple. principles of tafte are the fenfes of novelty, of fub-
limity, of beauty, of imitation, of harmony, of ridicule, and
of virtue. Any one of the internal fenfes, exifting in vi

and perfeétion, forms a particular branch of tafte, and
enables aman to judge in fome one fubjeé of art or genius ; —

but all of them muit at once be vigorous, in order to con-
ftitute tafte in its juft extent. Tafte will alfo derive con-
fiderable affiftance from another principle, diftin& from all
the internal fenfes; and this is fuch a fenfibility of heart or
delicacy of paffion, as fits a*man for being eafily moved, and

for readily catching, as by infeétion, any paffion that a work |

is fitted to excite, to which we might add the influence of
cafual affociations on tafte. Moreover, the moft co: lete
union of the internal fenfes is not of itfelf fufficient Pe et
good taite, even though they be attended with the greateft
delicacy of paffion. They muit be aided with judgment,

the faculty which diftinguifhes things different, feparates —

truth from falfehood, and compares together objeéts and
their qualities —Good fenfe is an indifpenfible ingredient in
true tafte, which always implies a quick and accurate
perception of things as they really are; and, as the poet
obferves,

“« Ts, though no f{cience, fairly worth the feven.”?

Tafle, like every other human excellence, is progreffive

and improveable : and goodnefs of tafte lies in its maturity

and perfection ; confiiting, as Dr. Gerard fays, in certain
excellencies of our original powers of judgment and ima-
gination combined. ‘Thefe may be reduced to four, oz.
ienfibility, refinement, correétnefs, and the proportion or
comparative adjuftment of its feparate principles. All thefe
muft be in a confiderable degree united, in order to form
true tafte. And this excellence of tafte fuppofes not only
culture, but culture judicioufly applied. Want of tafte un-
avoidably {prings from negligence ; faife tafte from injudi-
cious cultivation. Senfibility of tafte, we are told,
very much on the original conftruétion of the mind, and is

depends _

lefs improveable by ufe than any other of the qualities of —

good tafte. Refinement or elegance of tafte is chiefly owin

to the acquifition of knowledge, and the improvement 0}

judgment. Refinement of taite exifts only, where to an
original delicacy. of imagination, and natural acutenefs of
judgment, is fuperadded a long and intimate acquaintance
with the beft performances of every kind. And as fenfibility
of tafte difpofes us to be ftrongly affected with whatever
beauties or faults we perceive; and refinement of tafte-

makes

.

TASTE.

makes us capable of difcovering both, even when they are
not obvious; fo correétnefs of tafte prevents our being
impofed upon by falfe appearances, and either approving
fhining faults, or condemning chaite virtues, and enables us
to aflign to every quality its due proportion of merit or
demerit: thus diftinguifhing the various kinds, and meafuring
the different degrees of excellence and faultinefs. The lait
finifhing and complete improvement of tafte, refult from the
due proportion of its feveral principles, and the regular
adjuftment of all its fentiments, according to their genuine
value, fo that none of them may engrofs our minds, and
render us infenfible to the reft. This due proportion of the
principles of tafte pre-fuppofes the correctnefs of each, and
includes, befides, an enlargement and comprehenfion of
mind. Dr. Gerard has alfo confidered, how far tafte de-
pends on the imagination, evinced the conneétion of tafte
with genius, and the influence of tafte on criticifm, illuf-
trated the obje¢ts and the pleafures of tafte, and traced the
effets of tafte on the charater and paffions.

«* Ingenuas didicifle fideliter artes,
Emollit mores, nec finit effe feros.”’

Nothing is fo improving, fays Hume on the fubject of
delicacy of tafte, to the temper, as the ftudy of the beauties
either of poetry, eloquence, mufic, or painting. They give
2 certain elezance of fentiment to which the reft of mankind
are utter itrangers. The emotions which they excite are
Yoft and tender. They draw off the mind from the hurry of
bufinefs and intereft ; cherifh refletion; difpofe to tran-
quillity 5 and produce an agreeable melancholy, which, of all
difpofitions of the mind, is the beft fuited to love and friend-
fhip. Befides, a delicacy of tafte is favourable to love and
friendfhip, by confining cur choice to few people, and
making us indifferent to the company and converfation of
the greater part of mankind.

Tafte, fays Gerard, may be conceived as employing
itfelf about nature, art, and fcience. With regard to nature,
which is the common fubject of the other two, tafte and
reafon are employed in conjunction: as reafon ipveftigates
the Jaws of nature, taite alone difcovers its beauties. In
art, tafte is the ultimate judge, and reafon but its minifter.
Scarcely any art is fo mean, or fo entirely mechanical, as not
to afford fubjeéts of tafte. But the finer arts, which imitate
the excellencies of nature, fupply it with more proper mate-
rials; and thence derive their merit. Mufic, painting,
ftatuary, architeCture, poetry, and eloquence, (to which
may be added gardening, including the art of improving
grounds, and the ftage,) conftitute its peculiar and domeftic
territory, in which its authority is abfolutely fupreme.
In fcience, reafon is fupreme, but may fometimes reap
advantage from ufing tafte as an auxiliary which ferves
ta judge, not only of the manner in which feience is
communicated, but alfo of the fubjeét-matter itfelf.

To this effay of Dr. Gerard are annexed three differta-
tions on the fame fubje€t ; one by Voltaire; another by
M. D’Alembert, read before the French academy in
1757, and intended to fhew the great advantages of philo-
fophy in its application to matters of tafte, and to juftify
it from the accufations that have been brought againit
it by ignorance and envy; and the third is a Eoptivat of
Montefquieu.

We obferve, that the arts above enumerated, are diftin-
ae from thofe that are merely mechanical, as well as

rom the fpeculative {ciences, by this circumftance ; that
their main end is neither utility, in the common fenfe of the
word, nor inftruétion; but to minifter to the pleafures of the
imagination, by means of words, or of fenfible images, or of
i

both of thefe combined. But their moft eminent charac-
teriftic, perhaps, which runs through all of them, is, that
many of their principles, though in one fenfe founded upon
nature, fince their only object is to delight the imagination
of men, are not derived from ordinary nature ; but require
a good deal of attention, and the formation of habits, before
they can be relifhed or underftood. When we fay, that thefe
eight arts are the proper objeéts of tafte, we do not intimate
that their principles are altogether in common; or that he
who is thoroughly acquainted, e.g. with the theory of
painting, will be neceffarily a good judge of poetry or
architecture ; fince all of them have many rules originally
arbitrary, the accurate knowledge of which has become in-
difpenfible to the man of tafte; and which, in many cafes,
fuggeft pleafures to the imagination, not inferior to thofe
which appear more direétly natural. Neverthelefs, a man
who has applied the accuracy of difcrimination, delicacy of
feeling, and habitual reference to an original ftandard, in
which the exercife of tafte confifts, to any one of thofe arts,
can hardly fail, by fufficient attention and experience, to
become a judge of all the reft. This obfervation, however,
is liable to fine exceptions, particularly in reference to
mufic, which no one whofe ear is naturally imperfeét, will
ever be able to underftand. After all it muft be allowed by
thofe who maintain the neceflity of admitting principles and
a ftandard of tafte, that a prodigious difference will be found
to remain in the fentiments of mankind, with regard to
matters of tafte; and this diverfity of fentiment in judging
concerning the produétions of art, may be afcribed to three
caufes; viz. want of feeling, or inability to enjoy, in any
great degree, the pleafures of the imagination, as in the in-
{tance to which we have above alluded ; want of knowledge,
becaufe, as the principles of the fine arts are founded partly
on general nature, and partly on arbitrary rules, no juft
judgment can be formed of their general nature without
much attention and experience ; and the arbitrary rules per-
taining to all the arts are numerous and complicated, and
eafily confounded by unfkilful judges; and further, haftinefs
or precipitance of decifion, by which men are often mifled.
Having already remarked, that the laws of tafte are partly
natural, and partly arbitrary, we here fuggett, that under
the former fall, in poetry and eloquence, whatever fuggefts
affociations generally delightful and intereiting, or awakens
fympathies, which the conftitution of mankind leads them
to feel ; in painting, truth of imitation, and forciblenefs of
expreffion ; in mufic, gratification of the ear and power over
the affections. Under the latter may be reckoned, what
is called, ftyle in writing, and the obfervance of thofe rules
with which critics are converfant, in the other arts.
Befides, independently ‘of principles of approbation and dif-
approbation which exift in the objets of tafte, all men are
more or lefs fluenced by circumftances peculiar to them-
felves ; and to this clafs belongs a variety of accidental
affociations.

A late excellent writer has defined tafte to be the power of
receiving pleafure from the beauties of nature and of art.
Though tafte, fays this writer, be ultimately founded on a
certain natural and inftinétive fenfibility to beauty, yet reafon
affifts tafte in many of its operations, and ferves to enlarge its
power. In this fenfe, it is a faculty common in fome degree
toallmen. Quinétilian, however, ( Inttit. lib. vi. c. 3.) feems
to include tafte under what he calls judicium. The cha-
racters of tafte, when brought to its moft perfeé ftate, are
all reducible to two, delicacy, which principally refpeéts the
perfe&tion of that natural fenfibility on which tafte is
founded ; and correétnefs, which chiefly refpeéts the im-
provement that faculty receives through its connection “

the

TASTE.

the underftanding : the former of thefe qualities is more the
gift of nature ; the latter more the produé of culture and art.
Among the ancient critics, Longinus poffeffed moft deli-
cacy; Ariftotle moft correétnefs. Among the moderns,
Mr. Addifon is a high example of delicate tafte ; and dean
Swift, if he had written on the fubjeé of criticifm, would
perhaps have afforded the example of a correét*one. In
determining the ftandard of tafte, thofe who fay that nature
is this ftandard, lay down a principle very true and juft, as
far as it can be applied: neverthelefs, conformity to nature
is an expreffion very often ufed, without any diftinét or
determinate meaning: in a more clear and precife fenfe,
nothing can be contidered as the ftandard of tafte, but the
tafte, as far as it can be known, of human nature. That
which men concur the moft in admiring, muft be held to be
beautiful. His tafte muft be efteemed juft and true, which
coincides with the general fentiments of men. In this ftand-
ard we muft reft. T'o the fenfe of mankind the ultimate ap-
peal muft ever lie, in all works of tafte. But this fenfe is
founded on thofe principles of reafon and found judgment,
which are applicable to matters of tafie: and yet the ulti-
mate conclufions to which our reafonings lead, refer at latt
to fenfe and perception. Accordingly it is obferved, that
the difference between the authors who found the flandard
of tafte upon the common feelings of human nature, afcer-
tained by general approbation, and thofe who found it upon
eftablifhed principles, which can be afcertained by reafon, is
more an apparent than a real difference. For they who lay
the Pel. ftrefs on fentiment and feeling, make no fcruple
of applying argument and reafon to matters of tafte ; they
appeal to eftablifhed principles, and plainly fhew that the
general approbation to which they ultimately recur, is an
approbation refulting from difcuffion as well as from fenti-
ment. And they, on the other hand, who, in order to vin-
dicate tafte from any fufpicion of being arbitrary, maintain
that it is. afcertainable by the ftandard of Karis admit,
neverthelefs, that what pleafes univerfally, muft on that ac-
count be held to be truly beautiful: and that no rules or
conclufione concerning objects of tafte, can have any jutt
authority, if they be found to contradiét the general fenti-
ments of men.

However, it is not pretended, that there is any ftandard of
tafte, to which, in every particular inftance, we ean refort
for clear and immediate determination. But it is fufficient
to conclude, that tafte is far from being an arbitrary prin-
ciple, which is fubjeét to the fancy of every individual, and
which admits of no criterion for determining whether it be
falfe or true. Its foundation is the fame in all human minds.
It is built upon fentiments and perceptions, which belong to
our nature ; and which, in general, operate with the re
uniformity as our other intelleétual principles. When they
are perverted by ignorance or prejudice, they are capable of
being reétified by reafon. Their found and natural flate is
ultimately determined by comparing them with the general
tafte of mankind.

The ingenious writer to whom we are indebted for the
preceding obfervations, has diftinguifhed between tafte and
genius. See GENIUus.

Mr. Alifon has treated the fubjeét of this article with fo
much ingenuity and elegance, in his “ Effay on the Nature
and Principles of Tafte,”” that it would be almoft fufficient,
without further enlargement, to refer to his exeellent per-
formance. :

According to this much approved writer, the perception of
the qualities that are denominated beautiful and fublime in the
works of nature and art, is attended with an emotion of
pleafure, very diftinguifhable from every other pleafure of

our nature, and to which is appropriated the name of the
«emotion of tafte.”” Accordingly, the diftin€tion of the
objeéts of talte into the /ublime and beautiful, has produced a
fimilar divifion of this emotion into the ‘ emotion of fub-
limity”’ and the “ emotion of beauty.” The qualities that
produce thefe emotions occur amid every variety of external
feenery, and among many diverfities of difpofition and affec-
tion in the mind of man. The moft pleafing arts of human
invention are altogether directed to their purfuit, and even
the neceflary arts are exalted into dignity by the genius that
can unite beauty with ufe.

Our author, in his profecution of this fubje&t, firft invefti-
gates the nature of thofe qualities that produce the emotions
of tafte, and then the nature of the faculty by which thefe
emotions are received. He obferves, that the theories which
have been formed in relation to this fubjeét have uniformly
taken for granted the fimplicity of this emotion, and have re-
ferred it to fome one principle or law of the human mind ;
and have therefore concluded, that the difcovery of that one
principle was the effential key by which all the pleafures of
tafte were to be refolved. Thefe theories are arranged,
in confequence of the affumption of this fundamental prin-
ciple, into two clafles of fuppofition : one, which reduces the
“emotion of tafte’”? direétly into an original law of our
nature, which fuppofes a fenfe, or fenfes, by which the qua-
lities of beauty and fublimity are perceived and felt, as, their
appropriate objects ; and hence concludes, that the genuine
object of the arts of talle is to difcover and to imitate thofe
qualities in every fubjeét, which the prefeription of nature has
thus made effentially either beautiful or fublime. To this
firft clafs of hypothefes belong almoft all the theories of
mufic, architeéture, and fculpture, the theory of Mr.
Hogarth, of the abbé Winkelman, and, perhaps, in its
laft refort, alfo the theory of fir Jofhua Reynolds; and
of all thofe who attend more to the caufes of thefe emo-
tions, than to their nature. The /econd clafs of hypothefes
refifts the idea of any new or peculiar fenfe, diftin& from —
the eommon principles of our nature ; which fuppofes fome
one known and acknowledged principle or affe€tion of mind
to be the foundation of all the emotions we receive from
the objects of tafle; and, therefore, refolves all the va-
rious phenomena into fome more general law of our intel-
leétual or moral conflitution. Of this kind are the hypo-
thefes of M. Diderot, who attributes all our emotions of

this kind to the perception of relation ; of Mr. Hume, who -

refolves them into our fenfe of utility ; of the venerable St.
Autftin, who, with nobler views, one thoufand years ago,
refolved them into the pleafure which belongs to the per-
ception of order and defign, &c. This beypatians has been
adopted “by rational and philofophic minds: by thofe who
have been led by their habits to attend more to the nature of
the emotions ed felt than to the caufes which produced
them. Mr. Alifon, purfuing an analyfis of the effet which
is produced upon the mind, when the emotions of beauty or
fublimity are felt, concludes that it is very different from the
determination of a “ fenfe ;”’ that it is not a fimple but a
complex emotion ; that it involves, in all cafes, the produe-
tion of fome fimple emotion, or the exercife of fome moral
affection, and the confequent excitement of a peculiar
exercife of the imagination; that thefe concomitant effe&s
are diftinguifhable, and very often diftinguifhed in our expe-
rience ; and that the peculiar pleafure of the beautiful and
fublime is only felt when thefe two effeéts are conjoined, and
the complex emotion produced. ich
Our author having inveftigated the caufes which produ
this effed, or, in other words, ‘the fources of the beautiful and
fublime in nature and art, and having fhewn that there is
no

ee

aT) lad

:
- fee AE

+?

re

TASTE.

no fingle emotion into which thefe varied effeéts can be re-
folved ; but, of the contrary, that every fimple emotion, and
therefore every objet capable of producing any fimple
emotion, may be the foundation of the complex emotion of
beauty or fublimity ; and that this complex emotion is never
produced, unlefs, befides the excitement of fome fimple
emotion, the imagination alfo is excited, and the exercife of
the two faculties combined in the general effeét ;—proceeds
to fhew what is that “law of mind,’’ according to which,
in aétual life, this exercife of imagination is excited, and what
are the means by which, in the different fine arts, the artift
is able to awaken this important exercife of imagination, and
to exalt obje&s of fimple and common pleafure into objects
of beauty and fimplicity. In the laft place, he inveftigates
the nature of that faculty by which the emotions defcribed
by him are perceived and felt. This he fhews has no re-
femblance to a fenfe ; wherever it is employed, two diftin&
and independent powers of mind are engaged, fo that it is not
to be confidered as a feparate and peculiar faculty, but to
be finally refolved into {ome general principles of our contti-
tution. Thefe fpeculations further lead to the important
enquiry, whether there is any ftandard by which our fenti-
ments on thefe fubjeG&ts may be determined; to an explan-
ation of the means by which tafte may be corre¢ted or im-
proved ; and to an illuftration of the purpofes which this
peculiar conftitution of our nature ferves ; in the increafe of
human happinefs, and the exaltation of human charaéter,
Our limits will not allow any further abftraG@ or abridg-
ment of this valuable work; and we mutt refer thofe
readers who wifh to purfue difquifitions of this kind to the
work itfelf, in 2 vols. edit. 4, 1815.

We cannot forbear citing fome pertinent remarks, that
are prefented to our notice by a living. writer of diftin-
spied celebrity, profeffor Dugald Stewart. Tafte, fays

is author, is not a fimple and original faculty, but a power
gradually formed by experience and obfervation. It implies,
as its ground-work, a certain degree of natural fenfibility ;
but it implies alfo the exercife of the judgment, and 1s the
flow refult of an attentive examination and comparifon of
the agreeable and difagreeable effeGts produced on the mind
by external objeéts. In tracing the progrefs of tafte from
rudenefs to refinement, we find an analogy to the progrefs

_ of phyfical knowledge from the fuperttitions of a favage tribe

to the inveftigation of the laws of nature, founded on the
fuppofition, that, as in the material world there are general
faéts beyond which philofophy is unable to proceed, fo, in
the conftitution of man, there is an inexplicable adaptation
of the mind to the objeéts with which his faculties are con-
verfant, in confequence of which, thefe objects are fitted to
produce agreeable or difagreeable emotions. In both cafes,
reafoning may be employed with propriety to refer parti-
cular phenomena to general principles ; but in both cafes,
we muft at laft arrive at principles of which no account
can be given, but that fuch is the will of our Maker. In
matters of tafte it fhould be confidered, that the tendency to
cafual affociation is much itronger than it commonly is,
with refpe& to phyfical events; and when fuch affociations
are formed, they are not fo likely to be correéted by mere ex-
perience, unaflifted by ftudy. Hence fome have errone-
oufly fuppofed, that affociation is fufficient to account for
the origin of the notions we form concerning matters of
taite ; and that there is no fuch thing as a ftandard of tafte
founded on the principles of the human conftitution. When-
ever, fays our author, affociation produces a change in our
judgments on matters of tafte, it does fo by co-operating
swith fome natural principle of the mind, and implies the
exiftence of certain original fources of pleafure and uneafi-

Vou. XXXV.

nefs. The circumftances which pleafe, in the objects of
tafte, are of two kinds: rit. Thofe which are fitted to
pleafe by nature, or by affociations, which all mankind are
led to form by their common condition ; and, 2dly. Thofe
which pleafe in confequence of affociations arifing from
local and accidental circumftances. Hence we derive two
kinds of tafte ; the one enabling us to judge of thofe beau-
ties which have a foundation in the human conftitution ; the
other, of fuch objeé&ts as owe their principal recommend-
ation to the influence of fafhion. Thefe two kinds of tafte
are not always, indeed rarely, united in the fame perfon.
The perfe€tion of the one depends upon the degree in which
we are able to free the mind from the influence of cafual
affociations: that of the other, on the contrary, depends on
a facility of affociation, which enables us to fall in, at once,
with all the turns of the fafhion, and (as Shakfpeare ex-
prefles it) ‘‘to catch the tune of the times.’’? For the
author’s application of his principles and remarks to the
fubje&t of language, which affords numberlefs inftances to
exemplify the influence which the affociation of ideas has on
our judgments in matters of tafte, we muit refer to his own
valuable work. See Dr. Blair’s Le€tures on Rhetoric, and
Belles Lettres, vol. i.leét. ii. and iti. See alfo Hume’s Efflay
of the ftandard of tafte, in his Eflays, &c. vol. i. eff. xxiii.
p- 253, edit. 1764. Stewart’s Elements of the Philofophy
of the Human Mind, partii. ch. vy. § 2. Knight’s Analyt.
Eng. into the Principles of Tafte, 8vo. 1805. Alifon on
Tafte, 2 vols. 8vo. 1815. Edin. Rey. N° XIV.

Taste, in Mufic, is often confounded with graces, or
change of paflages; but a movement compofed in good
tafte, 1s often injured by what are called graces, We rather
fuppofe tafte to depend on feeling and expreffion, than in
flourifhes, or, as the Italians call them, rifforamenti; in for-
row, pathos ; in joy, brilliancy and fire. Yet when changes
and embellifhments are neceflary, good tafte is likewife re~
quifite in their choice and application. The compofer dif-
covers his tafte by his melodies, as much as the performer
by expreffing his thoughts.

Tafte, fays Rouffeau, is of all Nature’s gifts the moft
eafily felt, and the moft difficult to explain; it would not
be what it is, if it could be defined: for it judges of ob-
jets beyond the reach of judgment, and ferves, “in a man-
ner, as a magnifying glafs to reafon.

There are fome melodies more agreeable than others,
though equally well phrafed and modulated ; there are com-
binations in harmony of great effeét, and others that excite

no attention, all equally regular as to compofition ; there is’

in the texture of the parts, an exquifite art of arranging
and fetting off one paflage by another, which depends on
fomething more fubtle than the laws of contraft.

Genius creates, but tafte feleéts. Genius is often lavith
and redundant, and in want of a fevere critic to prevent him
from the abufe of his riches. Many great things may be
achieved without tafte ; but it is tafte that renders them in-
terefting. It is tafte which enables a vocal compofer to
feize and exprefs the ideas of the poet; it is tafte which
guides the performer to the true expreflion of the compofer’s
ideas ; it is tafte which furnifhes both with whatever can em~
bellifh and enrich the fubje& ; and it is tafte which enables
the hearer to feel all thefe perfections, T afte is, however,
not mere fenfibility. A cold heart may have much tafte ;
and a man tran{ported with things truly fpirited and im-
paffioned, is little touched by grace and elegance. It feems
as if tafte attached itfelf to minute refinements, and fenfi-
bility to grand and fublime effects.

TASTE in Singing and playing ; Gout du Chant, Fr. Ac-
cording to Rouffeau, there was, in his time, in France; a
ATL: “giles perfon

ae

perfon diftin& from the mufic-mafter, to teach the neceffary
agrémens or graces thought neceffary to cover, in fome de-
, the infipidity of French melody. Moft of the young
Fidents in mufic ufed therefore to have two matters, one
for mufic and one for tafte, called Maitre de Gout-de-chant.

Gout-de-chant \ikewife confifted m imitating or eee
the voice and manner of a particular finger ; which is al-
ways done by exaggeration. The face of a man with a
mole or wart upon it, is of great ufe to a portrait painter
in fixing a likenefs: fo a finger, with a little tendency to
nafality, to coarfenefs, to finging through the throat, or of

uivering upon one note in attempting to fhake, which the
Ppalians have well denominated toffe di capra, a goat’s cough,
are eafily taken off.

TASTINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the Greater Armenia, between Surta and Cozala. Prtol.

TASTING, the fenfe by which we diftinguifh favours ;
or the perception which the foul has of external objects, by
means of the organs of tafte.

Authors differ much as to the organ of tafting. Bauhin,
Bartholin, Veltingius, &c. place it in the laxer flefhy parts
of the tongue ; Dr. Wharton, in the glands at the root-of
the tongue; Laurentius, in the thin tunic covering the
tongue; others in the palate, &c. But the great Malpighi,
and after him all the Jateft writers, place it in the papille
chiefly lying about the tip and fides of the tongue. See
TonGue.

Thefe papille arife from the corpus nervofum, which
covets the mufcular flefh of the tongue; whence, pafling
through the corpus reticulare, they Rand up under the ex-
ternal membrane of the tongue, ere&t, and covered with
vagine, or fheaths of the faid membrane, to defend them
from objects too violent. Thefe vagine are porous, and
{tick out fo far, that when the aliment is fqueezed, they
enter with the fame to receive the objeét, or the matter of
tafte.

Thefe papilla Boerhaave conjeétures to arife from the
ninth pair of nerves; and thefe, he aflerts, are the only
organ of tafte: the others, whether of the tongue, palate,
or jaws, &c. he obferves, contribute nothing to them;
though probably thofe of the cheeks next the dentes mo-
lares may.

The obje@ of tafting, is any thing, either in animals,
vegetables, or minerals, from which falt or oils may be
extracted.

Tafting, then, is performed by the objeéts being attenu-
ated and mixed with faliva, warmed in the mouth, and ap-
plied to the tongue ; where, infinuating into the pores of
the membranous vagine of the nervous papill#, and pene-
trating to the furface of the papilla themfelves, it affeéts
and moves them: by which means a motion is communi-
cated along the capillaments of the nerve to the common
fenfory, and an idea excited in the mind, of falt, acid,
{weet, bitter, hot, aromatic, auftere, or the like ; accord-
ing to the figure of the particles that itrike the papille, or
the difpofition of the papille to receive the impulfe.

The tafte, confidered in a medical view, may be dimi-
nifhed by crufts, filth, mucus, aphthe, pellicles, warts, &c.
covering the tongue: it may be depraved by a fault of the
faliva, which, being difcharged into the mouth, gives the
fame fenfation as if the food which the perfon takes had
really a bad tafte; or it may be entirely deftroyed by in-
juries done to the nerves of the tongue and palate. Few
things prove more hurtful, either to the fenfe of tafting or
{melling, than obftinate colds, efpecially thofe which affect
the head. When the tafte is diminifhed by filth, mucus,
&c. the tongue ought to be feraped, and frequently wafhed

LAF

with a mixture of water, vinegar, and honey, or fome
other detergent. When the faliva is vitiated, which feldom
happens, unlefs in fevers or other difeafes, the curing of the
diforder is the cure of this fymptom. To relieve it, how-
ever, in the mean time, the following things may be of ufe:
if there be a bitter tafte, it may be taken away by vomits,
purges, and other things, which evacuate bile: what is
called a nidorous tafte, arifing from putrid humours, is cor-
reGted “by the juice of citrons, oranges, and other acids :
a falt tate is cured by plentiful dilution with watery liquors:
an acid taite is deftroyed by abforbents, and alkaline falts,
as powder of oyfter-fhells, falt of wormwood, &c. When
the fenfibility of the nerves, which fupply the organs of
tafte, is diminifhed, the chewing of horfe-radifh, or other
{timulating fubftances, will help to recover it.

TASTNESS, in Geography, a cape on the N. of the ifland
of Sanday. N. lat. 59° 10’. W-.long. 2° 20!.

TAS'TO, in Italian Mufic, the touch or part of any inftru-
ment, whereon, or by means of which its notes are made to
found, be it on the neck, as lutes, viols, &c. which are
called fixed and immoyeable ; or the front of organs, f{pinets,
or harpfichords, where the keys are difpofed to raife the jacks,
called moveable touches ; and is properly no more than the .
finger-board of each.

Tasro Solo. Thefe two Italian words, written over or
under a bafe to folos that are figured, generally at a paufe,
or preceding a clofe, imply that the accompanier ona keyed-
inftrument ought to play no chords with the right hand ;
but only to ftrike the bafe note with the left hand, which is
implied by the word ta/fo folo, a fingle key; or at moft to
double that found with the right hand in the o€tave : as it
is hardly poffible to divine or figure the harmony of an ad
libitum or cadence, either written or played extempore, which
the compofer or the performer is allowed to write or play on:
thefe occafions. Solos are now no longer in fafhion ; but
the violin folos of the early part of the laft century, by
Corelli, Geminiani, Somis, and Tartini, have all clofes of
this kind, to which the bafe is confined to a fingle note, or
taflo folo. :

TATA, or Doris, in Geography, a town of Hungary,
built in the midft of water and fwamps, with a caftle; 20
miles W. of Gran.

Tata Youba,in Botany,a name ufed by fome for the tree
which yields what the dyers call the fuftic, or yellow wood
ufed in dyeing.

TATACUL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 11 miles N. of Vencatighery. ,

TATALISGA, a town of Africa, in Galam, on the
Senegal ; 60 miles W. of Galam.

TATAPARY, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of
Tinevelly ; 15 miles N.E. of Palamcotta. '

TATAPATNAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Bara-
maul ; 22 miles $.S.E. of Darempoury.

TATAR Bassarpnscint, a town of European Turkey,
in Romania, on the Mariza; 16 miles N.N.W. of Filip-
popoli.

Tartar Bunar, a town of European Turkey, in Beffa-
rabia; 32 miles S.W. of Akerman.

TATARSKOI, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of
Kolivan, on the E. fide of the Irtifch. N. lat. 53° 44!
E. long. 85° 34.

TATENAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 6 miles S.W. of Devicotta.

; TATENAY, the chief town of the ifland Gilolo ; which
ee. :
TATH, in Old Laws, a privilege which fome lords of
manors enjoyed, of having their tenants’ fheep folded at

9 night

© FT

sight on their demefne lands, for the improvement of the
round.

7 Tatu, in Agriculture, a term applied by ftock-farmers,

in fome fituations, to all fuch graffes as are particularly rank

and luxuriant, and which have a tendency to induce the rot

in fheep.

They commonly diftinguifh two kinds of it; namely, the
water-tath, which arifes and proceeds from an excefs of
moifture ; and the zolt-tath, which is the produce of dung.
The latter, it is faid, is darker coloured than the former ; but
that their foftnefs, luxuriancy, and tendency to produce the
rot in the animals, are nearly the fame. The water-tath is
noticed to be the produce of either lands naturally too moitft,
of wet feafons, of accidental or artificial floodings of them,
or of fome other fuch caufes. Nothing is fo apt, it is fup-
pofed, to produce the rot in thefe animals, as the grafs which
grows in low marfhy grounds, in what is called awald lands,
and that around the heads of fprings, efpecially on the north
fide of hills, infomuch fo, indeed, that fuch paftures were
formerly confidered as naturally rotten, and of courfe re-
jected by all intelligent fheep-farmers.

In fhort, wherever a very foft and tender tath fuddenly
rufhes up in fheep-pafture lands, there is always much danger
of its effe€ts ; and as dung greatly promotes the growth of
very rank tath, the pernicious confequences of fuch nolt-
tath are to be remedied, by not allowing horfes or neat cattle
to pafture among the fheep.

TATHAA, in Geography, a river of Africa, which runs
into the Indian fea, S. lat. 28° 20!.

TATHILBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, which belonged to the Bidamai.
Ptolemy.

TATIAMBETTY, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Myfore ; 5 miles N. of Wombinellore.

TATIAN, in Biography, a native of Affyria, from which
circumitance he is fometimes called “ the A ffyrian,”’ and an
ecclefiaftical writer, who, according to Cave, flourifhed about
the year 172. He was originally a heathen, and by pro-
feffion a fophift, and teacher of rhetoric. His reading ap-
pears to have been extenfive, and he is allowed to have been
well acquainted with Grecian literature and philofophy.
After his converfion to Chriftianity, he became a difciple of
Juftin Martyr, to whom he was attached, and of whom he
{peaks with great refpe&t. He accompanied this father to
Rome, and travelled through different countries with a view
to his improvement. But fome time after Juftin’s death,
which happened about the year 165, he adopted a number of
abfurd opinions. Accordingly he is charged, and probably
not without reafon, with being the founder of the feé of the
Encratites ; he condemned the ufe of wine, and denied the law-
fulnefs of marriage, the reality of Chrift’s fufferings, and the
falvation of Adam. He alfo embraced the Eons of Valen-
tinus, and aflerted with Marcion, that there are two gods.
Eufebius dates his herefy about the twelfth year of the em-
peror Marcus Antoninus, or the year 172. But however
erroneous were his principles in the latter part of his life, his
works afford us fatisfa€toy evidence of the antiquity and high
efteem of the gofpelsin his time. After propagating his doc-
trines for fome time at Rome, he opened a {chool in Mefopo-
tamia, about the year 172: and he is faid to have preached
at Antioch, and in fome other places. The place and time
of his death are not known. He appears to have written a
confiderable number of books, one of which, ftill extant in
Greek, and entitled “ Oratio ad Grzcos,”’ or Oration againit
the Gentiles, was either an apology for Chriftianity, or an
attack on Heathenifm. This was firft printed at Zurich in
4546, with the Latin verfion of Conrad Gefner. It is an-

TAT

nexed to the edition of Juftin Martyr’s works, and thofe
of other “fathers: but the beft edition is that of Worth,
Greek and Latin, Oxon. 1700, 8vo. His defign in this
work, which difplays great learning, was to prove that the
Greeks were not the inventors of any of the fciences, but
that they were indebted for their acquaintance with them to
thofe whom neverthelefs they denominated Barbarians. This
work, according to Brucker, every where breathes the fpirit
of the Oriental philofophy, the leading tenets of which he
details ; and he feems to have adopted feveral of the opinions
of Plato, and of the Alexandrian Platonifts, concerning the
creation of the world by the Logos, and its animation by a
fubordinate fpirit ; concerning the exiftence of demons in
material vehicles, who occupy the aerial regions, and that of
zons, who refide above the ftars. He alfo held with Plato
the imperfe¢tion of matter as the caufe of evil, and thence he
inferred the meritorioufnefs of rifing above corporeal appe-
tites and paffions. Another work of Tatian, cited by
St. Clement, was entitled ‘* Perfe@ion according to the Sa-
viour,”’ in which he argued againft marriage. Evufebius cites
another work compofed by Tatian, which was a “ Book of
difficult queftions, for the explication of feveral obfcure
places of Scripture.”” We have alfo in Latin a work
afcribed to 'Tatian, called “ Harmony”’ or “ Dia-Teffaron”’
of the Four. But fome approved writers have doubted whe-
ther we have one copy of Tatian’s Harmony now extant.
Dr. Lardner has invettigated this fubjeé with his ufual judg-
ment and impartiality : and he inclines to the opinion, that
we are in poffeffion of this work: and he thinks that the
commentaries written upon it by Ephrem, the Syrian, afford
reafon for concluding that it was not fo contemptible or fo
heretical as fome have thought. This Harmony is fhorter
than that attributed to Ammonius, and contains a compen-
dious hiftory of our Lord and Saviour Jefus Chrift, taken
out of the four Gofpels. It confifts of four parts ; the firft
is a kind of introduétion, containing the hiftory of our Lord’s
nativity, and the former part of his life ; the other three parts
are the three years of our Lord’s miniftry. Brucker by
Enfield. Lardner’s Works, vol. ii.

TATIANITES, Tatianira, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, a

fe& of ancient heretics ; thus called from Tatian, a difciple
of Juitin Martyr.
* This Tatian, who has the chara&ter of one of the moft
learned men of all antiquity, was perfeétly orthodox during
the life of his mafter. He was, like him, a Samaritan, by
nation, not by religion, as Epiphanius feems to infinuate.
They both belonged to the Greek colonies which were
f{pread throughout the country of the Samaritans.

Juftin being dead, Tatian is faid by fome to have inclined
to many of the errors of the Valentinians ; but Mofheim fays,
that his doétrine approached nearer to that of the oriental
philofophy concerning the two principles. He adds, that
it appears from the teftimony of credible writers, that Tatian
looked upon matter as the foundation of all evil, and there-
fore recommended, in a particular manner, the mortification
of the body ; that he diftinguifhed the creator of the world
from the Supreme Being: denied the reality of Chrift’s body ;
and corrupted the Chriftian religion with feveral other tenets
of the oriental philofophy. (See the preceding article.) He
had a great number of followers, who were, after him, called
Tatianifts ; but were neverthelefs more frequently diftinguifhed
from other feéts, by names relative to the aufterity of their
manners. For as they rejeéted, with a fort of horror, all the
comforts and conveniencies of life, and abftained from wine with
fuch a rigorous obftinacy, as to ufe nothing but water, even
at the celebration of the Lord’s fupper ; as they macerated
their bodies by continual fatting, and lived a fevere life of

fie: celibacy

TAF

celibacy and abftinence ; fo they were called Encratite, or
temperate ; Hydroparaftate, or drinkers of water; and
Apotaétite, or renouncers. Moth. Eccl. Hitt. vol. i.

. TATIANSKATA, in Geography, a fort of Ruffia, in
the government of Saratov, on the Volga; 12 miles S.E. of
Tzaritzin. ‘

TATIEN, a.town of Chinefe Tartary ; 55 miles N.E.
of Tam-fan.

TATILLUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Cefarienfis, on the route from Carthage to
Czfarea, between Are and Aufa. Anton. Itin.

TATISCHEVA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in
the government of Upha, on the Ural; 28 miles W. of
Orenburg.

TATISM Kon, a mountain of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 12 miles N. of Com.

TATIUS, Acuitves, in Biography, a Greek writer of
Alexandria, is fuppofed to have lived in the latter part of
the third century. He is known to us as the author of a
work on the Sphere, of which there remains a fragment,
being an introduétion to a commentary on the Phenomena
of Aratus. A copy of this from a MS. in the Florentine
library, by Peter Victorius, was printed. It was afterwards
tranflated into Latin by Petau, under the title of “ Ifagoga
in Phenomena Arati.’? We learn from Suidas, that Taties
alfo wrote “ Erotics,’’ in which he includes “ the Loves of
Leucippe and Clitophon.”” ‘This work is preferved, and
affords one of the examples of Greek romance. The Latin
verfion of it was made by Annibal Cruceius, and publifhed at
Bafil in 1554. ‘The lateft edition of this piece is that of
Bodem, Greek and Latin, Lipf. 1776, 8vo. It is ele-

antly written, but of a licentious caft ; and hence it has
a inferred that the author was a heathen, when he com-
pofed it ; but Suidas affirms, that he afterwards became a
Chriftian, and attained to epifcopacy.

TATNALL, in Geography, a county of the ftate of
Georgia.

TATOBIT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bolef-
lau; 5 miles E. of Turnau.

TA-TOU-CHE, a town on the W. coait of the ifland
of Formofa. N: lat. 24° 8’. _ E. long. 119° 58’.

TA-TSIN, ariver of China, which runs into the fea, N.
lat. 37°46’. E. long. 118° 10!.

TATTA, famed to beat or near the ancient Patiala,
a town of Afia, which, before the building of Hydrabad, was
confidered as the chief city of Scind, was founded, according
to the tradition of the natives, in the go6th year of the Hegira,
and ftands on a rifing ground, four miles W. of the Indus.
It has ftill a population of 18,000 fouls, and is about four
miles and a halt in circumference. Its wall, con{ftruéted for
its defence, is now in ruins. The houfes of the higher rank
are built of bricks, but thofe of the lower clafs of wood,
plaftered with mud. The remains of the mofques, and
other handfome edifices of this city, are evidences of its
former profperity ; and although on the decline, it enjoys a
confiderable trade. Its trade is much diminifhed, on account
of the bad government of Scind or Sindy, and the hottile or
rapacious difpofition of the Seiks, the prefent poffeffors of the
countries of Moultan and Lahore. The country in the vicinity
is a fine rich foil, being watered by canals drawn from the
river. Agriculture, however, is much neglected, and the
inhabitants of Tatta indicate extreme poverty and wretched-
nefs. 'To the north of the city is arange of hills, extending
feveral miles in a northerly direétion ; and to the fouth is alfo
a range of Table land, reaching almoft to the baaks of the
Indus. Boats trading to Tatta come no farther than Be-
gemah, a village at the diftance of about five miles. The

TAT

river at this place is about a mile in breadth, and four fae
thoms in depth in the deepeft parts. N. lat. 24° 44! Ey
jong. 68° 17, as ftated in Kinneir’s account of Perfia ;
ut according to major Rennell, N. lat. 24° 50!. E. long~
6 ° re
TPT AH, a town of Africa, on the frontiers of Dralr

and Morocco, in the route from Morocco and Sufe to Tom-
buétoo ; 170 miles S.S.E. from Morocco.
W. long. 6° 15/. _ Tattah and its territory contain 10,000
inhabitants. Jackfon’s Morocco. ;

TATTAHAR, a town of Bengal; 13 miles N. of
Toree. ;

TATTAMUNGALDM™M, atown of Hindooftan, in Ca-
licut ; 5 miles S. of Palicaudery. ,

TATTAR. See Yoot.

TATTARAN, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. ht. 6° 10!. E. long. 121° 58!.

TATTERSHALL, a {mall market-town in the wapen-
take of Gartree, Lindfey divifion of the county of Lincoln,
England, is fituated on the river Bain, near its junétion with
the Witham, 9 miles $.S.W. from Horncaitle, and 130
miles Nefrom London. The manor was granted by William
the Conqueror to Eudo, one of his Norman followers, whofe
defcendants affumed the name of Tatterfhall, from this place.
Robert Fitz-Eudo obtained a grant from king John, for
the inhabitants of the town to hold a weekly market: and
another of the family, in the time of Edward IEI., received
the royal licence to ereét a caftle within his manor of Tatter-
fhall. But the prefent fortrefs was built by fir Ralph, after-
wards lord Cromwell, treafurer of the Exchequer to Henry VI.

The caftle and manor were granted by Henry VII. to

Margaret, countefs of Richmond, and entailed on the duke
of Richmond ; who dying without iffue, they were granted
by Henry VIII. to the duke of Suffolk; and in the
next reign pafied to Edward, lord Clinton, afterwards
earl of Lincoln. By marriage with an heirefs of the Clin-
tons, they are now in the pofleffion of lord Fortefeue. The
caftle ftands on a level moor, and is furrounded by two great
foffes, the outer one formed of earth, and the inner faced
with brick, ten feet deep. It was originally intended as a
place of defence, and was progreflively raifed to great height
andextent. In the civil wars it was, however, dilapidated. Ti

very lately the principal gateway was remaining: the part
at prefent left flanding, is a fquare tower of brick, flanked
by four oftangular embattled turrets, which are crowned
with fpires covered with lead. It was divided into four ftories.
The main walls were carried to the top of the fourth ftory,
where a capacious machicolation furrounded the tower,
on which there is a parapet wall of great thicknefs. This
was to protect the perfons employed at the machicolations.
The tower is conftructed upon ponderous groined arches,
which fupport the ground-floor. Near the outer moat ftands

the parifh church, a beautiful and {pacious edifice, built in’

form of a crofs. Few churches, perhaps, have fuffered more
dilapidations than this. It confifted of a nave, having five
large arches on a fide, and eight clereftory windows, placed in
pairs; on each fide is a tranfept, and a magnificent choir. The
windows of the latter were glazed with ftained glafs, which
was removed, by a late earl of Exeter, to the chapel of Bur-
leigh, on condition that he replaced it with plain glafs, which
could have been done for the fum of forty pounds ; but this
being neglected, the infide has fuffered greatly from the
weather ; although the walls, roof, and pavement remain almoft
entire. ‘The ruined fcreen and ftalls of wood, richly carved,
are almoil rotten: behind it is a flone fereen, in the arches
of which are painted figures. The body of the church and
tranfepts had their windows richly adorned with the legendary

hiftories

N. lat. 28° 25'4

ee eee ee on a

BAT

hiltories of Romifh faints. Before the altar lay two’ rich
brafs figures of Ralph, lord Cromwell, who died in 1455, and
of Margaret his wife, who died in 1453. This nobleman,
in the feventeenth year of Henry VI., obtained a licence to
make the church of Tatterfhall collegiate, for a matter ‘or
warden, fix priefts, fix fecular clerks, and fix chorifters.
He alfo founded, near the church-yard, an hofpital or alms-
houfe, for thirteen poor men and women. At the diffolution,
the collegiate revenues were granted to Charles, duke of
Suffolk. The hofpital {till remains, with a fmall endow-
ment. The population report of the year 1811, ftated that
Tatterfhall contained 506 inhabitants, occupying 105 houfes.
The market is held on Tuefdays, and there are three fairs
annually.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lincoln-
fhire, by J. Britton, F.S.A. Hiftory, &c. of Tatterfhall, with
lates, 8vo. 1801.

TATTICOMBA, atown of Hindootftan, in Myfore ;
4 miles N. of Dindigul.

TATTO, Ital. from Taéus, Lat. in Mufic, implies a
meafure, or bar, the period when the hand or foot is beaten
down in marking the time. See Tacrus, and Barrura.

TAT-TOO, g.d. Tap-to, a beat of a drum, at night, to
advertife the foldiers to retreat, or repair te their quarters in
a garrifon, or to their tents nacamp. See RETREAT.

TATTOOING, in Modern Hiffory, a name given at
Otaheite, and other iflands of the South fea, to the operation
of {taining the body. For this purpofe they prick the fkin,
fo as juft not to fetch blood, with a {mall inftrument, fome-
what in the form of a hoe, or blade of a faw : that part which
anfwers to the blade is made of a bone or fhell fcraped very
thin, and from a quarter of an inch to an inch and a half
wide: the edge is cut into fharp teeth or pomts, from the
number of three to twenty, according to its fize. When this
is to be ufed, they dip the teeth into a mixture of a kind of
lamp-lack, formed of the fmoke that rifes from an oily nut
which they burn inftead of candles, and water, or charcoal-
duft diluted with water ; the teeth, thus prepared, are placed
upon the fkin, and the handle to which they are faltened,
being ftruck by quick fmart blows, with a ftick fitted for
the purpofe, they pierce it, and at the fame time carry into
the puncture the black compofition, which leaves an indelible
ftain. This operation is performed upon the youth of both
fexes, when they are about twelve or fourteen years of age,
in feveral parts of the body, and in various figures, according
to the fancy of the parent, or perhaps the rank of the party.
The women are generally marked with this {tain in the form
of a Z, in every joint of their fingers and toes, and fre-
quently on the outfide of their feet: the men are alfo marked
with the fame figure ; and both men and women have fquares,
circles, crefcents, and ill-defigned reprefentations of men,
birds, or dogs, and various other unintelligible devices, im-
prefled upon their legs and arms. But the part on which
thefe ornaments are lavifhed with the greateit profufion
is the breech; this, in both fexes, is covered with a deep
black ; above which, arches are drawn over one another, as
high as the fhort ribs. Thefe are often a quarter of an inch
broad, and the edges are indented. Thefe arches are exhi-
bited, both by the men and the women, with fingular often-
tation. ‘The face in general is left unmarked. Some old
men had the greateft part of their bodies covered with large
patches of black, deeply indented at the edges, like a rude
imitation of fame. It is only at New Zealand, and in the

Sandwich iflands, that they tattoo the face. There is alfo
this difference between the two lait, that, in the former, it is
done in elegant f{piral volutes, and in the latter, in ftraight
lines, crofling each other at right angles. The hands and
arms of the women are very neatly marked, and they have

YA &

among them a-fingular cuftom, the meaning of which could
not be learned, that of tattooing the tip of the tongues of
the females. This cuftom of tattooing, it is apprehended,
is frequently defigned as a fign of mourning on the death
of a chief, or any other calamitous event. Perfons of the
loweft clafs are often tattooed with a mark, that diftin ruifhes
them as the property of the feveral chiefs to whom they be-
long. Hawkefworth’s Voyages, vol. ii. p. 189. Mar-
chand’s Voyage, vol. i, p. gg: Cook’s Third Voyage,
vol. ti. p. 155.

TATTUBT, anciently Tapur‘t, in Geography, a town
of Algiers, formerly a confiderable city, now almoft, com-
pletely in ruins: fome beautiful granite pillars were dug up
fome years ago, and placed in a mofque at Conftantina ; 25
miles S. of Conftantina.

TATU, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated in the
Nile, in the vicinity of the town of Meroe. Pliny.

Taru, in Zoology, the Brafilian name for the armadillo,
or fhell-hedge-hog, or da/ypus of Linneus. See Dasypus.

Tavu-dpara, the name of a creature of the armadillo
kind, being the three-banded or ¢ricinélus dafypus of Lin-
neus. See Dasypus.

This animal burrows under ground, keeps its hole in the
day, and rambles out at night: when it would fleep, or
when it is afraid of being taken up, it contraés its cruft
into a round figure; and hiding its whole body within, it
might foorer be taken for a fea-fhell than a land-animal. “It
is hunted with little dogs, feeds on potatoes, &c. drinks
much, grows very fat, and is reckoned delicious eating when
young, but when old, has a mufky difagreeable tafte ; breeds
every month, and brings four at atime. Ray and Pennant.

Taru-Mujfeelinus, the Weafel-headed Armadillo, the name
of a {mall animal of the armadillo kind. This is the da/ypus
unicinéus of Linneus, and banded armadillo of Pennant: it
has a very flender head, fmall ere€t ears, the cruft on the
fhoulders and rump confifting of fquare pieces; eighteen
bands on the fides ; five toes on each foot ; length from nofe
to tail about fifteen inches ; the tail five and a half. It in-
habits South America. Ray, Pennant, and Grew’s Muf.
Reg. Soc. p. 19.

Taru-Paba of Brafil, is the fix-banded dafypus of Lin-
neus, having the cruft of the head, fhoulders, and rump,

_ formed of angular pieces, and between the bands, and alfo

on the neck and belly, a few fcattered hairs; the tail thick
at the bafe, tapering to a point, and not fo long as the body,
and five toes on each foot. It inhabits Brafil and Guiana.
Pennant.

Taru-Porcinus, the name of the pig-headed armadillo,
or nine-banded dafypus of Linnzus, with long ears, cruft
on the head, fhoulders, and rump, marked with hexangular
figures; the nine bands on the fides diftinguifhed by tranf-
verfe cuneiform marks ; breaft and belly covered with long
hairs ; four toes on the fore-feet, and five on the hind; the
tail taper, and a little longer than the body ; and length of
the whole animal three Pet. This animal inhabits South
America: and one, that was brought into England a few
years ago from the Mofquito fhore, was fed with raw beef
and milk, but refufed our grains and fruit. Pennant.

TATUETE, the name of a fpecies of tatu, or arma-
dillo, being the nine-banded dafypus of Linnzus, though
Buffon and Pennant afcribe to it only eight bands; it has
upright ears, two inches long ; {mall black eyes; four toes
on the fore-feet, and five on the hinder ones; the length
from nofe to tail about ten inches, the tail nine: it is of an
iron colour on the back, and whitifh at the fides ; its belly
alfo is‘whitifh and naked, except for a few hairs. It inha-
bits Brafil. ~ ;

The

TAV

The flefh of this is accounted more delicious than that of
any other creature of this kind, though they may all be
eaten. Ray and Pennant.

TATULA, in Botany, a name.ufed by Clufius, and
fome other authors, for the ftramonium, or thorn-apple. :

TATZO, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 40 miles
E. of Munkacz.

TAU, in our Ancient Cuftoms, fignifies a crofs.

“ Tradendo dito comiti Thau eboreum.’* So Mr. Selden,
in his notes upon Eadmerus, p. 159. “ Ego Eadgifa pre-
diGti regis ava hoc opus egregium crucis ‘Taumate confoli-
davi.”” See Mon. tom. iii. p. 121.

Tau, in Entomology, a | ee of beetle. See Scars-
B¥US.—Alfo, a fpecies of Phalena bombyx.—Alfo, a fpecies
of Mujfca.

Tau, or Taw, in Heraldry, an ordinary, in figure of a
T, fuppofed to reprefent St. Andrew’s crofs, or a crofs
potence, the top part cut off.

It is thus called from the name of the Greek T, fau.

Tau, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Gadus ; which fee.

TAUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt and
the metropolis of the nome Phthemphthus. tol. and

Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a town of Afia, between Namaris and
Augara. Ptol.—Alfo, a gulf of the ifle of Albion, on
the fouth-eaftern coaft. This eftuary is the firth of Tay.

Tava, in Geography, atown of Egypt; 12 miles S. of
Denutar. »

TAVACCARA, in the Materia Medica, the name by
which many authors call the coccus Maldivie, or Maldive
nut. :

TAUAG, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan ;
39 miles S.E. of Bender-Rigk.

TAVAI, an ifland in the Indian fea, near the coaft of
Siam, about 20 miles long and 3 broad. N. lat. 13°. E.
long. 97° 52!.

AVAI, a town of Afia, in Lower Siam; 148 miles
S. of Martaban. N. lat. 14° 10!. E. long. 98° 12.

Tavar Point, the extreme point of a tract of land on
the coaft of Lower Siam. N. lat. 13° 4o!. E. long. 98°.

Tavat or Tovy Poenammoo, the fouthernmoft of the
two iflands into which New Zealand is divided by Cook’s
ftrait, which is for the moft part mountainous and apparently
barren, and in this refpeét of a lefs favourable afpe& than
the other ifland, or Eaheinomauwe; which fee. The ftraits,
which are about four or five leagues broad, were difcovered
by Capt. Cook at the clofe of the year 1769. The iflands
are fituated between the latitudes af 34° and 48° S., and be-
tween the longitudes of 181° and 194° W. T'avai- Poenam-
moo is faid to be 500 miles long from S.W. to N.E., and
from 55 to 140 broad. See New ZEALAND.

TAVANAGUROY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
13 miles W. of Colar.

TAVARADO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 7 miles W.S.W. of Montemor o Velho.

TAVARES, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 13 miles E. of Vifeu,

TAVASTLAND, a province of Sweden, bounded on
the N. by Eaft Bothnia, on the E. by Savolax or the go-
vernment of Kuopio, and the Ruffian government of Vi.
borg, on the S. by Nyland, and on the Wy. by the govern-
ment of Abo, or Finland Proper ; about 150 miles in
length from N. to S., and from 35 to 100 in breadth from
E. to W, The country is very fertile, and confifts of fine
plains, watered by a great number of rivers and lakes,
which abound in fith. it is diverfified with arable and mea-
dow lands ; fo that with refpeét to thefe natural advantages,
it may not only be looked upon as the beft part of Finland,

TAU

but is indeed fcarcely furpaffed in thofe particulars by any
province in Sweden. It is likewife ftored with cattle, fifh,
and all forts of game. But notwithftanding this country is
fo fertile, it is far from being well cultivated ; and, confe-
quently, the peafants are generally very poor. Sometimes,
indeed, the corn is much damaged by keen and unexpected
frofty nights. The northern part of Tavaftland is more
mountainous and woody than the fouthern. In the moraffes
and uncultivated fandy wilds, a ferruginous earth is dug up,
from which the Eifenfand ertz, or iron fandy ore, as it is
called, is prepared. The inhabitants fubfift by agriculture,
grazing, and breeding of cattle, and fome of them are em-
ployed in the fifheries. They alfo traffic in corn, peas,
beans, flax, hemp, dried fith, cattle, leather, tallow, but-
ter, lime, the bark of trees, &c.

TAVASTHUS, or Knronegore, a town of Sweden,
and principal place in the province of Tavaftland, built in
the year 1650, on a pleafant fpot, by count Pehr Brahe,
and endowed with confiderable privileges. In 1713, this”
town was taken by the Ruffians; and in the laft war between
theni and the Swedes, it was laid in afhes. The caftle,
which, exclufive of the town, is properly called “ Tavaf-
thehus,”’ or “ Tavafteborg,”’ is well fortified, and ferves for
an arfenal and royal magazine; 80 miles N.N.E. of Abo.
N. lat. 61° x’. E. long. 24° 15/.,

TAVAVIS, or THaovaouts, 2 town of Afia, in Grand
Bucharia ; 15 miles N.E. of Bucharia.

TAUBATE,, a town of Brafil; 130 miles W. of Rio
Janeiro.

TAUBE, Freperick WitL1aAM Von, LL.D., in Bio-
graphy, was the fon of Dr. Taube, phyfician to queen Ca-
roline, confort of George II.,; and born in London in the
year 1728. After the queen’s death, the father fettled at’
Zelle, where he died in 1742; and in the following
his fon was entered at the univerfity of Gottingen. Wee
he affiduoufly applied to the ftudy of jurifprudence ; and
before he left the univerfity, being in his 19th year, he
publifhed a differtation “ De Differentiis Juris civilis a jure
Nature,’’ intended to prove that the principles of the Ro-
man, Canon, and German law were contrary to the law of
nature, and inconfiftent with the rights of man. Whem he
quitted the univerfity, in the year 1747, he travelled into fo-
reign countries, and particularly through fome parts of
Africa and America. On his return he practifed the law
at Gottingen, but finding, in confequence of fome dif-
pleafure which he had excited by the freedom with which he
cenfured the tedioufnefs of law-fuits, that he had no profpeé
of advancement, he removed to Vienna in 1756, where he
obtained fome preferment in the army. Soon after an en-
gagement in which he was wounded during the feven years?
war, he abandoned Lutheranifm, and embraced the tenets of
the church of Rome, hoping thus to rife in the Imperial
fervice. Having given proof of his talents and fidelity in
an honourable office, which he occupied, and being ac-
quainted with the Englifh language, he was appointed fecres
tary to the Imperial ambaflador at the court of London,
and repaired hither in Oétober, 1763. Here he married a
niece of the celebrated Dean Tucker, with whom he lived
in habits of intimacy and friendfhip. In 1766 he returned
to Vienna, and was appointed fecretary to the council of
trade, which was an Chee of great fatigue, on account of
the journies which it obliged him to take to diftant places.
When this college was diffolved, in 1776, he retired to Bruf-
fels. Having fulfilled another confidential commiffion with
which he was entrufted, he returned from Belgrade to Vienna
in 1777, and was ennobled by the emperor, and appointed
a member of the government of Lower Auftria. His health

being

FAW

being much impaired, required an attention which it did not
fuit his inclination or occupation to give it: his diforder,
which was an inflammation of the lungs, increafed, and ter-
minated his life in June, 1778, in the soth year of his age.
He was juftly honoured for his integrity, his zeal to ferve
his friends, and his liberality. His literary labours evince
the extent of his learning and refearches. His principal
works are the tract already mentioned ; “« Thoughts on the
prefent State of our Colonies in America, on their Behaviour
to the Mother-Country, and on the true Intereft of the Na-
tion in regard of the Colonies,’ London, 1766; ‘ Hiftori-
cal and Political Sketch of the prefent State of the Englifh
Manufactures, Trade, Navigation, and Colonies, &c.” 1774,
B8vo.; “ Hiftory of the Englifh Trade, &c. from the ear-
lieft Periods till the Year 1776, with an authentic Account
of the true Caufes of the prefent War with North Ame-
rica,’ 1776, 8vo.; “ J. J. Schetzen’s Elements of Geo-
graphy, improved and enlarged,”? 1786, 8vo.; ‘ Hiftorical
and Geographical Defcription of the Kingdom of Sclavonia
and Duchy of Syrmia, &c..in three parts,’ 1777, 17783
** An Account of various New Difcoveries, made in 1776
and 1777; in Sclavonia, &c. &c.’? Leipfic, 1777, 4to. He
contributed alfo, between the years 1773 and 1778, to Buf-
ching’s periodical publications. He alfo communicated to
the Royal Society of London “ A fhort Account of a par-
ticular Kind of Torpedo found in the River Danube, with
feyeral Experiments on that Fifh,’’ publifhed in the Phil.
Tranf. for 1775. Gen. Biog.

TauseE, in Geography, a river of Weftphalia, which runs
into the Aland, near Seehaufen.

TAUBER, a river of Germany, which rifes about eight
miles S. of Rotenburg,.in Franconia, and runs into the
Maine at Wertheim.

_ Tauper See, a lake of Bavaria; 6 miles W. of Berch-
tefgaden.

TAUCAEL, or Tucuer, a town of Pruffian Pome-
relia. This town was taken and burned, in the year 1320,
by the Teutonic knights, and afterwards rebuilt ; 44 miles
$.S.W. of Dantzic.

TAUCHA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfic.
This town was built in the year 1221, by Albert, arch-
bifhop of Magdeburg, afterwards rebuilt, and in the year
1431 deftroyed by the Bohemians and Huffites, when moit
of the inhabitants removed to Leipfic; 6 miles N.E. of
Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 22'. E. long. 12° 30.

TAUCHIRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Libya, belonging to the territory of Barcé, according to
Herodotus, afterwards called Arfinoe. M. D’Anville fup-
pofes that it is the prefent Teukéra. ’

TAVDA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rifes
in Pelim lake, and runs into the Tobol, 40 miles S. of
Tobolik.

TAUDECONDA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda;
25 miles S.W. of Warangole.—Alfo, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Dindigul; 7 miles N. of Dindigul.

TAUDENNY, or Tupenyy, a Moorifh and Negro
town or village, on the borders of the Defart in Africa; at
which place are large ponds or beds of falt, which both the
Moors and Negroes purchafe, as well as dates and fig-trees
of a large fize. The falt-beds are about 5 or 6 feet deep,
and from 20 to 30 yards in circumference. The falt comes
up in red lumps mixed with earth, and part of it is red;
270 miles N.N.W. of Tombuétoo. N. lat. 21° 15'. W.
long. 1° 25’.

TAUDOON, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 34
miles S.S.E. of Nagercote.

TAV

TAVE, ariver of France, which runs into the Rhone,
about 6 miles below Loudon.

Tave, or Taf, a river of Wales, which runs into the
fea, near Llaugharn.—Alfo, a river, which rifes in two
{treams in the fouthern part of Brecknockfhire, and runs
into the Severn below Cardiff.

TAVERA, a town of Corfica, 18 miles N.N.E. of
Ajazzo.

Tavera di Orta, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 14
miles S.S.W. of Afcoli.

TAVERNA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra,
formerly the fee of a bifhop, transferred to Catanzaro; 15
miles N. of Squillace.

TAVERNER, Joun, in Biography, an eminent mu-
fician, who flourifhed in the early part of the 16th century.
He is often mentioned by Morley among our early contra-
puntifts, and by Anthony Wood, as having begun his career
by being organift of Bofton, in Lincolnfhire. At the efta-
blifhment of Cardinal college, now Chrift-church, Oxford,
by cardinal Wolfey, he was appointed organift there ; but
narrowly efcaped martyrdom for herefy, having held fre-
quent converfations with fome Lutherans on the abufes of
religion. They were all imprifoned in a deep cave under
the college, ufed for the keeping of falt-fifh, of which the
ftench occafioned the death of fome of them, and fome were
burnt in Smithfield.

Taverner had not gone fuch lengths as many of the fra-
ternity ; the fufpicions againft him were founded merely on
his having hidden fome heretical books under the boards of
the {chool where he taught, for which reafon, and on account
of his profeffional eminence, the cardinal excufed him, fay-
ing * he was but a mufician,” and fo he efcaped.

A fet of books containing maffes and motets to Latin
words, fome of which were compofed in the time of
Henry VII., and all before the Reformation, is preferved in
the mufic-fchool at Oxford. Thefe volumes contain com-
pofitions by John Taverner, Dr. Fayrfax, Avery Burton,
John Marbec, William Kafar, Hugh Afhton, John Nor-
man, John Sheppard, and Dr. Tye. The pieces by the
three or four laft are entered ina more modern hand, with
different chara€ters, and paler ink. Tie chief parts of the
compofitions are tranfcribed in a large, diftint, and fine
hand and chara€ter; but bars not having been yet intro-
duced, and being all ad /ongam, alla breve, or in tempo di Ca-
pella, the ligatures, prolations, and moods, render thefe
books extremely difficult to read, or tranfcribe in fcore.
However, by dint of meditation and perfeverance, we ar-
ranged the parts under each other, of feveral movements by
all thefe founders of our church mufic, particularly John
Taverner, Dr. Fayrfax, and Dr. Tye; haying fcored an
entire mafs by each of them: as they are the moft ancient
and eminent of thefe old mafters, in whofe compofitions the
ftyle is grave, and harmony, in general, unexceptionable,
if tried by fuch rules as were eftablifhed during their time ;
but with refpect to invention, air, and accent, the two firft
are totally deficient.

The compofitions, however, of thefe early Englifh maf-
ters, have an appearance of national originality, Free from
all imitation of the choral produétions of the continent.
Few of the arts of canon, inverfion, augmentation, or di-
minution, were as yet practifed by them: fhort points of
imitation are fometimes difcaverable, but they feem more
the effeéts of chance than defign: and to charaéterife the
chief of thefe compofers in the order they have been named ;
Taverner and Fayrfax have but little defign and no melody
in their compofitions ; and it feems as if they HOU ae

‘have

Tey

have been ranked, as they are by Morley; with thofe of a
much higher clafs, at a later period.

We can venture to give a charaéter of Taverner, from an
aétual furvey of his principal works which have been pre-
ferved, and which we have taken the pains to {core. This
author is in general very fond of flow notes, fo that all his
pieces which we have feen, are ad longam, or, at quickeft,
alla breve. ong notes in vocal mufic, unlefs they are to
difplay a very fine voice, have little meaning, and are wholly
deftrutive of poetry and accent; but our old compofers
have no f{cruples of that kind; and being as great enemies
to fhort fyllables, as to /hort notes, exesciled the lungs of a
finger as frequently upon one as the other.

As the firft eflays at harmony were made in extemporary
difeant, upon a plain-fong, fo in written counterpoint, it
was long a favourite and ufeful exercife, to build the feveral
parts sat movement upon fome favourite chant, making it
the ground-work of the compofition. And this cuftom an-
fwered feyeral purpofes: it excited mgenuity in the con-
ftruétion of the parts; it regulated and reftrained the mo-
dulation within the eaclefiaitical limits; and as the plain-
fong had been long ufed in the church, by the priefts and
people, it was ftill eafy for the mufical members of the
congregation, to join the chorus in finging this fimple and
Sirah pate. while the chorifters and choirmen by profeffion,
performed the new and more difficult melodies, which had
been fuperadded to it by the compofer. The firft reformers,
or at leaft their followers, who were perhaps no great mu-
ficians, wifhed to banifh every fpecies of art from the
church ; and either retaining fmall portions of ancient
chants, or making melodies, in the fame plain and fimple
ftyle, for their hymns and pfalms, threw afide all figurative
harmony and florid counterpoint ; and fung in notes of equal
duration, and generally in mere unifon, thofe tunes which
are ftill retained by the Calvinifts, and in moft of the re-
formed churches of Chriftendom. At the latter end of the
fifteenth, and during the whole of the fixteenth century, as
fome chant or tune was the foundation upon which the har-
mony of almoft every movement of a ma{s or motet was
built, the additional parts were the fuperior, medius, counter-
tenor, tenor, to which was given the plain-fong in {quare
black notes, of equal lengths to femibreves in alla breve
time, and baffles. ‘The clofe or final movement of one of
thefe maffes is inferted in Burney’s General Hiftory of Mu-
fic, vol, ii. p. 557.

TAVERNES, in’ Geography, a town of France, and
chief place of a canton, in the department of the Var, and
diftriét of Brignolles. The place contains 1536, and the

canton 4529 inhabitants, on a territory of 280 kiliometres,

and 9 communes ; 3 miles N. of Barjols.

TAVERNIER, Joun Baptist, in Biography, a dif-
tinguifhed traveller, was the fon of a native of Antwerp, and
born at Paris in the year 1605. The frequent infpection
of the maps and charts fold by his father, infpired him with
a paflion for travelling ; fo that at the age of twenty-two he
had made tours through Trance, England, the ow
Countries, Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, and
Italy. In his bufinefs as a jeweller he was saoehytts Ailful ;
and he employed 4o years in fix journies in Turkey, Perfia,
and the Eaft Indies, by all the praéticable routes. Having
acquired great wealth, on his return from his fixth journey
in 1668, he determined as a Proteftant to live under a free
government ; and, with this view, purchafed the barony of
Aubdonne, near the lake of Geneva. But having fuffered
very confiderable lofs of property by the ateontiogs of a
nephew, he fold his barony in 1687, and commenced a {e-

TAV

venth journey, which termimated his life at Mofcow in 1689,
at the age of 84. Deftitute of talents for writing, he em-
ployed Sam. Chappuzeau of Geneva to arrange his memoirs,
which is faid to have been no eafy tafk. The fruit of this
labour was given to the public in two volumes, deferibing
his fix journies, in 1679; and another was added in 1681,
by La Chapelle, containing an account of Japan and 'Ton-
quin, with a hiftory of the colony of the Dutch in the Eaft
Indies. Thefe memoirs of Tavernier, notwithftanding re-
fleGtions on his veracity, and charges of plagiarifm, have
been often cited as authority by later writers. Gibbon re-
prefents him as ‘the jeweller who faw fo much and fo well.”
Bayle. Moreri. Gen. Biog. :

Tavernier Key, in Geography, a {mall iffand on the north
coait of Cuba, near Tortuga. :

TAVERNY, atown of France, in the department of
the Seine and Oife ; 6 miles E. of Pontorfe. t

TAVETCH, a community which, with that of Di-
fentis, forms one of the high jurifdi@ions of the Grey
League in Switzerland. Thefe two communities occupy —
the weftern extremity of the valley of Sopra Selva, ftretch-
ing as far as the confines of Uri. 'Tavetch is a pleafant
valley, lying at the foot of the Alps, which feparate the
Grifons from the canton of Uri. The villages are numerous,
confifting of feattered cottages chiefly contlrugied of wood.
This Bs produces pafture, hemp, and flax, and a fmall
quantity of rye and barley. The trees are chiefly‘firs and
pines, and their number gradually diminifhes towards the
extremity of the vale.

TAVETSCHE, a town of the country of the Grifons ;
13 miles from [lantz, the capital—Alfo, a mountain of
the fame country; 5 miles S.W. of Ilantz. p 1

TAUFFERS, a town of the county of Tyrol; 6 miles
5.S.W. of Glurentz.

TAUGHT, or Tav’r, Tight, in the Sea Language, de-
notes the {tate of being extended or ftretched out. Thus
they fay, /et taught the fhrouds, the ftays, or any other
ropes, when they are too flack and loofe.

TAVI, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Noto; 7 miles N.E. of Caftro Giovanni.

'TAVIANO, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto; 11 miles W.N.W. of Alefano. j

TAUJEPOUR, a town of Bengal; 60 miles S.S.W.
of Calcutta. N. lat. 21° 52’. E. long. 87° 45.—-Alfo, a
town of Bengal; 32 miles E. of Purneah. N. lat. 25° 48/,
E. long. 88° 11'.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
15 miles N. of Chuprah. N. lat. 26° 2/. E. long. 84° 50!.

TAVIGNANO, a river of Corfica, which runs into the
fea, 15 miles S. of Cervione. i

TAUILA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
24 miles W. of Tana. ?

TAUILE, a town of Egypt, on the Nile; 2 miles N.
of Manfora. ont '
TAVIRA, or Tavita, a) fea-port town of Portugal,
in the province of Algarve, furrounded with walls, and des
fended by a caftle; the harbour is proteéted by two forts.
It contains two churches, an hofpital, five convents, and
about 5000 inhabitants; 111 miles S.S.E. of Lifbon. Ne
lat..37°7!. W. long. 7° 35h * eee
TAVISTOCK, an ancient borough and market-town,
in a hundred of the fame name, in the county of Devon,
England, is fituated on the banks of the river Tavy, 34
miles W.S.W. from Exeter, and 206 miles in the fame
bearing from London. Its origin and growth feem to have
arifen from the foundation and eftablifhment af 2 magnificent
abbey in the tenth century, by Ordgar, earl of Devon, and

his

TAV

his fon Ordulph. Within thirty years after its foundation,
; this abbey was burnt by the Danes, but was foon afterwards
rebuilt, and bécame more flourifhing than before. By a
charter granted by Henry I., it appears that he beftowed
“ the jurifdi@tion, and the whole hundred of Taviftock,’’
upon the abbey, together with the privilege of a weekly
market, and a three-days’ fair. ‘This charter is recited and
confirmed by one granted 21 Edw. III. The riches of the
abbey progreffively increafed; and Richard Barham, the
thirty-fifth abbot, obtained from Henry VIII. the privilege
of fitting in the houfe of peers, or, in other words, was
mitred. His patent was dated January 23d, 1513; but the
honour continued only till the year 1539, when John Peryn,
the thirty-fixth abbot, furrendered the abbey to the crown,
and had a penfion of tool. per annum. The poffeffions of
the abbey, with the borough and town of Taviftock, were
given by the king to John, lord Ruffel, whofe defcendant,
the prefent duke of Bedford, is now proprietor. Various
fragments of the abbey ftill remain, but are, for the moft
part, incorporated with other buildings. The abbey church
is defcribed by Leland as 126 yards in length; the cloifters
as extenfive ; and the chapter-houfe as a moit magnificent
ftruéture ; but all thefe have long fince been completely de-
molifhed. Several buildings, that feem to have belonged to
the abbey, are now ufed for warehoufes; and adjoining to
the principal inn is a large, handfome, arched gateway, or-
namented with lofty pinnacles, apparently of the time of
Henry VI. The town of Taviftock is large and populous ;
but the ftreets are narrow, and indifferently paved; and
many of the houfes have an appearance of age. The river
is here crofied by two bridges, and after ftorms of rain, by
flowing over various ledges and maffes of rock, prefents a
yery tumultuous {peétacle. The church is a {pacious edi-
fice, confifting of four aifles, a chancel, and a tower at the
weft end, ee on arches. Within the church are pre-
ferved fome human bones of a gigantic fize, which were
found in a ftone coffin, dug out of the ruins of the abbey,
and are faid by tradition to be thofe of Ordulph, whom
William of Malmfbury reprefents of fuch immenfe ftature,
that he could ftride over rivers ten feet wide! Taviftock is
a borough by prefcription, and has fent two members to
parliament from the 23d year of Edward I. The right of
ele€tion is in the freeholders refident in the boreugh. The
town is one of the ftannaries of Devonfhire, but does not
appear to have been incorporated. It is governed by a
portreve, who is eleCted annually at the court of the lord
of the manor. The population of the parifh, according to
the return of the year 1811, amounted to 4723; the number
of houfes to 514. Many of the inhabitants are employed
in the manufaCture of ferges for the Eaft India Company.
Five fairs are held annually, and a weekly market on Satur-
days. An inftitution for the ftudy of Saxon literature ex-
ifted in Taviftock at a very early period, and leCtures were
read in that language in a building purpofely appropriated,
and called the Saxon fchool. Thefe letures were difcon-
tinued about the time of the reformation. Several of the
‘abbots were learned men ; and the encouragement they gave
to literature is evident, by the eftablifhment of a printing-
prefs in the abbey within a few years of the time when the
art was brought into England. Among the books that
iffued from this prefs was Walton’s tranflation of ‘* Boethius
de Confolatione,” ‘‘ emprented in the exempte Monaftery
of Taveftoke in Denfhyre, by me Dan Thomas Rychard,
monke of the faid Monaftery,”’ 1525, 4to. ; and the “¢ Con-
firmation of the T'ynners Charter,”? 26th of Henry VIII.,
16 leaves, gto. Bifhop Gibfon alfo mentions a Saxon
Grammar as having been printed here about the commence»
Vou. XEXV.

TAU

ment of the civil wars; but this affertion is fuppofed by
other antiquaries to be unfounded.

Among the more eminent natives of Taviftock was fir
Francis Draké, one of the moft diftinguifhed feamen that
Britain ever produced, and the firft Englifhman that circum-
navigated the globe.

Morwell-houfe, about three miles from Taviftock, was
the hunting-feat of the abbots of Taviftock ; and from its
fituation near Morvel-down, and the woods on the banks of
the Tamar, was well adapted for this purpofe. Its form is
quadrangular, with a large arched gateway in front, orna-
mented in a fimilar manner to thofe of the abbey. The
vaulted ceiling of this entrance has feveral coats of arms
{culptured in moor-ftone. At a little diftance is Morwell-
rock, which rifes almoft. perpendicularly to an immenfe
height from the bed of the ‘Tamar.

’ About four miles north of Taviftock is Bren-Tor, a vail
mais of craggy rock, which fhoots up from the road between
Taviftock and Lydford, and becomes a very confpicuous
fea-mark to mariners in the Britifh Channel, though more
than 20 miles diftant. The fummit is frequently enveloped
in clouds, but in fair weather commands an extenfive prof-
pect, and the fhips in Plymouth harbour may be diftinély
feen from its fummit. Near the top is the parifh church of
the little village of Brent, which, like moft of the churches
in fimilar fituations, is dedicated to St. Michael. On Dart-
moor, about three miles eaft of Taviftock, are feveral mafles
of rock, and alfo the remains of Druidical circles and
avenues.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. Devon-
fhire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

TAVIUM, or Tava, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Galatia, and capital of the Trocmi, according to
Ptolemy, Strabo, and Pliny.

TAULACUM, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by
the people of the Eaft Indies to a {pecies of orpiment, which
is very common with them.

It is of a dirty yellow colour, and is compofed partly of
an irregular mafs, partly of fine flakes, like fcales of fifhes.
Thefe are of the beft colour. The whole mafs, on being
expofed to the fire, burns, and emits copious fumes ; but it
does not melt readily. After it has been feveral times cal-
cined, the Indians give it internally in intermittent fevers,
with fafety and fuccefs. Woodw. Catal. Foff. vol. i.

Pp. 24.

TAULE), in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Finifterre; 3 miles N.W. of Morlaix.

TAvLe, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 47 miles E.
of Seringapatam.

TAULIGNAN, a town of France, in the department
of the Drédme; 12 miles S.E. of Montelimart.

TAUMACO, a town of Greece, in the province of
Theffaly ; 18 miles N.W. of Zeiton.

TAUMAGO, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, difcovered
by Quiros, in 1606; about 24 or 25 miles in circumference,
The ifland abounded with bananas, cocoa-trees, and palms :
it produces alfo fugar-canes, and many kinds of nutritiods
roots. The fleet here obtained, without difficulty, refresh-
ments, water, and wood, of which it ftood in great need.
The Spaniards lived on good terms with the natives, who
were eager to procure them all the affiftance that their ifland
afforded ; nor was peace infringed till the very moment of
their departure. Thinking that it would be of fervice in
the remainder of their voyage, to have fome Indians on
board, who might a& as guides or interpreters, the
Spaniards feized four whom they carried on board by force.
Their chief was foon informed of it, and came to demand
them in the moit earneft manner; but they were oe

U an

TAU

. and war was inftantly declared. A fleet of canoes came out
to attack the Spanifh fhips, which their fire-arms quickly
difperfed, and would totally have deftroyed, had not thefe
brave iflanders, with all their courage, been fenfible of their
inferiority. S. lat. 10%. E. long. 169° 25!.

TAUME, a river of England, which rifes in the county
of York, and runs into the Merfey, in Lancafhire, oppofite
Stockport.

TAUNA, atown of Egypt, on the Bahir Jofeph, or
Canal of Jofeph, which forms a communication between the
Nile and the Birket el Kerum; 5 miles S.W. of Ath-
munein.

TAUNDA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 50 miles
S.E. of Fyzabad. N. lat. 26° 32!. E. long. 82° 53!.

TAUNNA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 30 miles
W. of Lucknow.

TAUNT, a fea-term, fignifying high or tall. When
the mafts of a fhip are too tall for her, the failors fay, fhe is
taunt-mafted.

TAUNTON, in Geography, a confiderable market-town
and borough, in the hundred of Taunton-Dean, county of
Somerfet, England, is fituated on the high road between
Bath and Exeter, 52 miles S.W. from the former city,
32 miles N.E. from the latter, and 144 W. by S. from
London. It was anciently called Thonodunum, or the
Town of the Tone, by which river it is watered. Taunton
is unqueftionably a place of remote antiquity : from the dif-
covery of coins and other relics, there is reafon to fuppofe
it was not unknown to the Romans ; but it is certain it was
of great note in the time of the Saxons. For Ina, a Wett-
Saxon monarch, built a caftle here for his refidence in the
year 700, which was deftroyed in 722 by his queen Ethel-
burga, who prevailed on him to refign the crown, and retire
to a monaftery. A new caftle, on the {cite of the former,
was ereéted by William Giffard, bifhop of Winchefter in the
time of Henry I. By various documents of the bifhops of
that fee, dated Taunton caftle, it feems to have been a place
of their frequent refidence. In 1495 the whole building
was repaired, and an embattled gateway built by bifhop
Thomas Langton, Though the building has been much
modernized, this gateway {till remains. Confiderable im-
provements were made in 1577, by bifhop Robert Horn,
who likewife built the great hall as it now ftands, in which
the aflizes, county feffions, and bifhop’s courts are held: it
is 119 feet in length, 30 in width, and 20 in height. The
other apartments are applied to various public ufes. The
whole caftle occupied a front of 195 feet, with a circular
tower at each end, of which only one is now remaining.
Taunton had a diftinguifhed fhare in the various civil com-
motions of this kingdom: in the contefts of the Saxon
kings; in the civil wars between the houfes of York and
Laneafter; and in the infurreétion in favour of Perkin
Warbeck, in Henry VII.’s reign. In the civil wars of
Charles I., it became an objeét of vigorous ftruggle between
the royal and parliamentary forces which fhould poffefs its
aibetes it being confidered as the key to the weit of Eng-
land. It was alfo deeply involved in the rebellion of the
duke of Monmouth, who here affumed the title of king,
and was hese! proclaimed.

The town of Taunton, in point of fize, buildings, and
refpe€tability of inhabitants, may vie with moft cities. It
contains two parifhes, extends nearly a mile from eaft to
weft, and confifts of four principal ftreets, which are well
built, and of commodious width. ‘Though ancient and
populous, it was not incorporated till the reign of Charles I.,
1627. It did not long enjoy this privilege ; for Charles II.,
on his reftoration, out of refentment for the town’s adherence

I

TAU

to the parliameng againft his father, deprived it of its charter}
It continued disfranchifed 17 years, when the king granted
it a new charter. The corporation confiits Of a mayor, re-
corder, a juitice of the peace, two aldermen, ten capital,
and ten inferior burgeffes. The juftice is always the laft
mayor, who, with the two aldermen, are annually eleéted
out of the capital burgeffes; and the vacancies occafioned
by this eleétion are filled up from the inferior members of
the corporation. The officers are a town-clerk, two fer-
jeants at mace, a bell-man, and a beadle. There are acting
under the mayor, and fworn ia by him, two conftables and
fix tything-men or petty conftables, who, with two port-
reves and two bailiffs, are annually chofen by a jury, and
are, properly fpeaking, the officers of the bifhop of Win-
chefter, in whofe court they are eleéted. The mayor’s
officers cannot arreft within the borough ; and there bein
no prifon, except a kind of town-bridewell called the Nook,
debtors are fent to the county gaol at Ilchefter. Though
the town has for ages been flounfhing, and of great import-
ance in the county, yet the corporation has neither land,
houfes, nor joint ftock in money ; their charter excluding
them from fuch poffeflions.

Taunton is an ancient borough by prefcription, and has
returned two members to parliament from the year 1294,
23 Edward I. The right of eleétion is vetted in a deferip-
tion of people called pot-wablers, or pot-wabloners. Thefe
are all fuch inhabitants as refide within the borough, and
boil their own pots, provided they are not paupers, and
have not received relief from the fund of any charity within
a year. The number of voters is eftimated at about 500.
The bounds of the borough, to which the right of eleGtion
is limited, are {mall in proportion to the town, compre-
hending only a part of the parifh of St. Mary Magdalen,
The principal article of trade in ‘Taunton is the woollen
manufacture, which has flourifhed to a great extent almoft
ever fince its introduction into England by the famous John
Kempe, the firft manufactory being eftablifhed fo early as
the year 1336. Upwards of one thoufand looms are faid to
have been employed at one time; but the trade is now
greatly reduced, and the population decreafed: houfes in
the fuburbs have fallen to ruin, and have been deftreyed. A
large filk manufaétory was eftablifhed in the year 1780:
Two large markets are held on Wednefday and Saturday,
and here are two annual fairs. By the population report of
the year 1811, Taunton was itated to contain 1371 honufes,
and 6997 inhabitants.

The edifices for 1eligious worfhip in this town are two
parifh churches, and five diffenting meeting-houfes. ‘The
church of St. Mary Magdalen is a fpacious beautiful ftrue-
ture, with a lofty and {trong tower of excellent workman-
thip, of the florid ftyle, having four ftately pinnacles thirty-
two feet high, making the whole height 153 feet. This tower
has thirteen handfome windows, with a variety of curious
prominent ornaments, that giye the whole an air of magnifi-
cence, united to a delicate elegance, not to be equalled in
the county, nor perhaps in the kingdom. It was probably
ereéted by Henry VII., who, when he came to the crown,
rebuilt many of the churches in Somerfetfhire, as a reward of
the attachment of the county to the Lancaftrian party. The
infide of the church is anfwerable to the exterior, and makes
a grand appearance. Its curious roof is fupported by twenty-
four pillars, in four rows, dividing it into five aifles and z
chancel. There are forty-four windows, fome of whiclt
have painted sm The other church, St. James’s, though
every way inferior to the former, isa ftrong, plain, ancient
itructure, fuppofed to have been built in the 13th cen-
tury. The meeting-houfes are St. Paul’s, and the new meet-

ing,

T PAD

ing, for Proteftant diffenters; one for Baptifts, one for
Quakers, and one for Wefleyan Methodifts. The buildings
for charitable purpofes are, a free grammar-fchool, founded
by Richard Fox, bifhop of Wincheiter, about the year
1500; two large and well endowed alms-houfes, founded
in the 17th century, by Mr. Robert Graye and Mr. Richard
Huifh ; two other alms-houfes, on a {maller feale; two
work-houfes ; and an hofpital, the moft capital of its kind
in the county : it is a {quare ftruture, go feet on a fide ; *con-
trived to admit through every part a free circulation of frefh
air ; and forming on the whole a commodious receptacle for
the difeafed. The firft corner-{tone was laid by lord North
in 1772, and the building was completed in 1774. In the
centre of the town is a f{pacious building, ereéted in 1772,
uuder the fanétion of an at of parliament; the lower
part is the market-houfe, over which is the town-hall, where
the borough feffions are held.

On the eaft part of the town was a priory for Black
canons, founded in 1127, by bifhop Giffard: at the diffo-
lution, it was granted to Matthew Colehurft. A leper-
houfe was alfo founded about the year 1280, by Thomas
Lambritz ; and a houfe of White or Carmelite friars, in
1322, by Walter de Meryet. Both thefe houfes are fup-
pofedto have been private property previous to the diffolution.
—Collinfon’s Hiftory of Somerfetfhire, vol. iii. Ttoulmin’s
Hiftory of the Town of Taunton; 4to. 1791. Maton’s
Obfervations on the Weftern Counties of England, vol. ii.
8vo. 1797-

TAUNTON, a river of Maffachufetts, which runs into the
fea at Rhode ifland, N. lat. 41° 24!.. W. long. 71° 10!.—
Alfo, a town of Maffachufetts; 29 miles S. of Bofton.
N. lat. 41° 48’. W.long. 71° 2—Alfo, a river of Ame-
rica, inthe province of Maine, which runs into the fea near
New Briftol.

TAUNTON-DEAN, a valley of England, extending
about thirty miles in length, in the county of Somerfet, of
fertility and produce equal to almoft any in the kingdom. It
takes its name from 'Faunton, the principal town.

TAVOLADOTO, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of
Sardinia. N. lat. 40° 54’. E. long. 9° 5’.

TAVOLARA, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of Sar-
dinia. N. lat. 40° 52!.. E. long. 10° 5/.

TAVORA, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Duero, 5 miles N.E. of Lamego.—Alfo, a town of Por-
tugal, inthe province of Beira; 6 miles E. of Lamego.

TAVOYVOVEL, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of
Lewis. N. lat. 58° 6’. W. long. 6° 29', -

TAURAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 24
miles W.N.W. of Nogarcot.

TAURASI, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra ;
12 miles S.E. of Benevento.

TAURASIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Gallia Tranfpadana.

TAURAT, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
38 miles N.N.E. of St. Jago.

TAUREA, among the Romans, a punifhment inflicted
by whipping with {courges made of bulls’ hides.

TAUREAU, in Geography, an ifland on the French
coaft, witha fort to defend the harbour of Morlaix.

TAUREE, a town of Bengal; 35 miles S.S.E. of
Ghidore.

TAURESIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Eu-
ropean Dardania, on the other fide of the territory of Du-
ras; the birth-place of Juftinian, who founded here a magni-
‘ficent town, called after his own name.

TAURI Uiberi libertas.—In fome ancient charters, taurus
liber fignifies a common bull kept for all tenants within fuch

Fa VY

a manor, or hberty.—‘* Cum libertate faldiz, liberi tauri
et liberiapri, &c.’’ See Free Burt. j
Tauri, in Ancient Geography, a people of Sarmatia, in
the vicinity of Scythia. According to Herodotus, thefe peo-
ple had a cuftom of facrificing to Iphigenia, the daughter
of Agamemnon, the {trangers whom chance threw on their
coaits, and-alfe the Greeks who fell into their hands.

TAURIA, Taupsia, in Antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Neptune. Pot. Archzol. tom. i. p. 432.

Tauria, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Medi-
terranean fea, between New Carthage and Cefarea of Man-
ritania. Anton. Itin.

TAURIANA, a town of Italy, in Brutium.

TAURICA Cuersonesus. See Cuersonesus Taurica
and Crimea.

. TAURIDA, TauricuesKatra, or province pos iwaley
in Geography, a province of Ruffia, being part of the go-
vernment of Catherinenflaf or Ecaterrinenflaf or Ekateri-
noflavy, bounded on the N. by the rivers Dnieper and the
Konfkija, on the W. and S. by the Black fea, and on the
E. by the fea of Azoph. This fertile peninfula, which is
the great mart of commerce in the Black fea, was colonized
for the purpofes of trade by the Greeks, Romans, Genoefe,
occupied by the Turks under Mahomet II., and governed
by the khan of the Tartars, a vaffal to the Porte. On the
peace of Kninardi, in 1774, it was declared an independent
fovereignty, taken poffeffion of by Catharine II. on the ab-
dication of the khan Sahin Gerai, in 1783, and confirmed
to Ruffia by the Porte in the fame year by the treaty of
Conitantinople. The emprefs revived feveral of the ancient
Greek names. M. Pallas has exhibited an animated and de-
lightful picture of this province in his account of a journey
made in 1794, for which we refer to Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. i.
For a farther account of it, fee Crrmpa. See alfo Russra.

Tauripa, Mountains of, are extended and lofty, forming
the fouthern fide of the province, and the fhore of the
Euxine fea. The range extends from Theodofiain a ftraight
line weftwards, quite up to Balbeck. At Karafobafar two
towering pinnacles fhoot up, and at Akmelchat a very ele-
vated one, called Aktau. The {maller mountains ftand diftin&
and feattered. It is very probable that this range is partly
a-continuation of the Caucafian, and partly of the Carpa-
thian. mountains ; and that thefe two principal chains are
conneéted by it: which alfo feems apparent from the nature
and qualities of the mountains oppofite to thofe of Taurida,
which extend beyond the Danube, through Bulgaria, and
are called Pulkanian. , The greater part of thefe mountains
of Taurida confifts of chalk-maffes with petrifaCtions, and
many beds of -fand and marle, and chalk-hills with flints.
Hence it is prefumed that they are not to be claffed with
the original, but only with the alluvial or depofited moun-
tains. A part of them is thought to owe its origin even to
the fubterranean fires. Whether this be the cafe or not, it
is faid that lead, copper, and iren ores are found in them, as
well as jafper, agate, and mountain cryftal. They are very
rich in lime-ftone, marble, flate, fand-ftone, coals, naphtha,
and common falt, The ifle of Taman confifts merely of
beds of fand and marle, without lime-ftone. The height ef
the Taurida mountains is moderate ; and they are in a great
degree deftitute of forefts. The trees that grow upon them
are thofe of the richeft foliage; fuch asoak, beech, chefnut,
&c. But what they want in wood is made up very amply
by the rich and beautiful herbs of the-vallies. The rivers
that take their rife from thefe mountains are the Alma,
Katfha, Kabarda, Salgyr, Karuffu, and many lefler ftreams,
that form pleafing natural cafcades.

U 2 TAURI-

TAU

TTAURILIA, among the Romans, games in honour of
the infernal gods. They were otherwife called /ud: taurii.

TAURINIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Eu-
ropeap Sarmatia, in the peninfula called “ Curfus Achillis.”’
Steph. Byz.

TAURIS, in Geography. See TABREEz.

TAURISCI, in Ancient Geography, a Celtic people, who
were eftablifhed along the Danube. They were feparated
from the Scordifci by a mountain called by Pliny Mons
Claudius.

TAURO, a town of European Sarmatia, in the penin-
fula of “ Curfus Achillis.”” Suidas.

TAUROBOLIUM, or TaurozoLion, among the
Ancients, facrifices of bulls, which were offered to Cybele,
the mother of the gods, to render thanks to the goddefs of
the earth, for her teaching men the art to tame thofe ani-
mals, and fit them for labour.

The Taurobolium was a kind of facrifice of expiation and
purification ; of which no trace occurs before the reign of
‘Antonine, and which feems to have terminated under Hono-
rius and Theodofius the younger. It was principally em-
ployed in the confecration of the priefts of Cybele.

TAVRO-CASTRO, in Gogg; a town of Greece,
in Livadia; 20 miles N.N.E: of Athens.

TAUROCINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, in Magna Grecia; and the people who lived upon its
banks in the vicinity of the town of Rhegium, were called
Taurocini.

TAUROCOLLA, Bull-Glue, 2 fort of glue much ufed
among the ancients in works that required firength, being
accounted far ftronger than any other kind. It was made
by boiling down the ears and genital parts of a bull in water.

TAUROENTUM, in Ancient Goagipnys a colony
founded by the ancient Marfeilloife on the fea-fhore, to the
right of the entrance into the bay of Ciotat.

TAUROGEN, in Geography, a town of Samogitia; 30
miles S.W. of Rofienne.

TAUROMENIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Sicily. See TAorMINA.

TAUROPOLIA, in Antiquity, feafts celebrated in
hosour of Diana and Apollo, in the Icarian ifles, viz. thofe
of the Archipelago and of the A®gean fea.

TAUROPOLIAN, in Ancient Geography, the name of
a temple fituated in the ifle of Samos ; dedicated to Axtemis,
or Diana.—Alfo, a temple dedicated to Diana, in the ifle
of Icaria. Strabo.

TAUROPOLIS, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria.

TAURUS, in Affronomy, the Bull, one of the twelve
figns of the zodiac, and the fecond in order.

The ftars in the conftellation Taurus, in Ptolemy’s cata-
Jogue are 44; in Tycho’s catalogue, 43 ; in Hevelius’s cata-
logue, 51; inthe Britannic catalogue, 141. See Consret-
LATION.

Taurus, in Ancient Geography, a name given by the an-
cients to a chain of mountains, which commenced in Afia
Minor, occupied the northern part of Cilicia, and proceeded
to join, towards the north of Syria, mount Amanus; but
afterwards the name has comprehended the mountains which
reach from the Taurus of the ancients to the fouth of the
Cafpian fea.—Alfo, the name of a promontory on the eaftern
deat of Sicily. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a mountain of Scythia.
It is abranch of mount ‘Taurus that extends to the environs
of the Palus Mzotides and the Cafpian fea. Jornandes.—
Alfo, a mountain of Germany, and a mountain of /Ethiopia.
—Alfo, a place of Paleftine, at the entrance of the town of Je-
richo.—Alfo, a river of Greece, in the’Peloponnefus.—A Ifo,
ariver of Afia, in the vicinity of Pamphylia.—Alfo, the

TAD

name of one of the three canals by which the town of
Alexandria, in Egypt, communicates with the fea.—Alfo, a
place of Sicily, 60 ftadia from the town of Syracufe,—
Alfo, a marfh of Gallia Narbonnenfis.

Taurus, in Geography, was a general name given b
the ancients to any thing of a gigantic nature, and hence it
has been applied to a ieltieated range of mountains, which
is faid to extend from the Grecian Archipelago to the extre-
mities of Afia. By Strabo it is thought to originate in
Caria and Pamphylia ; and by fome modern geographers, on
the coaft of Cilicia, not far from Scanderoon. However
this be, it interfeéts Afia Minor from E. to W., and ad-
vancing ina N.E. direétion, intercepts the courfe of the
Euphrates, and {preads itfelf over the kingdom of Arme-
nia, where it unites with mount Caucafus. It then detaches
a variety of branches into Perfia, of which the moft con-
fpicuous is that named Mont Zagros by the ancients. This
long and lofty range formerly divided Media from A ffyria,
and now forms the boundary of the Perfian and Tarkifh em-
pires. It runs parallel with the river Tigris and Perfian
gulf, and almoft difappearing in the vicinity of Gombroon,
eems once more to rifein the northern diftn€ts of Kerman,
and following an eafterly courfe through the centre of
ae and Balouchiftan, is entirely loft in the deferts of

inde.

Taurus, in fome Anciént Cuffoms, fignifies a hufband.

Leg. H. I. cap. 7. “ Videtur autem matris ejus, cujuf-
cunque taurus a!luferit.”’

Taurus, in Entomology, a {pecies of Scarabeus—AMo, a
fpecies of Cicada, found in Coromandel.—Alfo, a fpecies of
Cimex.

Taurus, in Ornithology, a name given by the ancients to
the bittern or butter-bump, from its imitating the roaring of
a bullin its noife.

Taurus, in Zoology. See Bos and Buxu.

Taurus thiopicus, the /Ethiopian Bull, an animal de-
fcribed in a very remarkable manner by Pliny ; but fo con-
trary to the courfe of nature, that we may very juftly rank
it among the other extraordinary animals, fuch as the man-
tichora and the vermis ceruleus, of fixty or feventy feet
in length.

TAUSA, in Geography, a town of Saxony, inthe circle
of Neuftadt ; 2 miles N. of Ziegenbruck.

TAUSCHELIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan ; ro miles W.N.W. of Schlan.

TAUSCHIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 7 miles S.E. of Kofteletz.

TAUSEN, Joun, in Biography, called the “ Danith
Luther,” becaufe he was one of the firft promoters of the
reformation in Denmark, was born of parents who were
peafants in the ifle of Fyen, in the year 1499. Having finifh-
edhis courfe of education, he became a monk in the convent of
the order of St. John of Jerufalem, at Antoorfkow, and here
he ingratiated himfelf fo much with the prior, that he ob-
tained a penfion for travelling into foreign countries, on
condition that he fhould avord Wittenberg, which was at
that time the focus of herefy. In his progrefs he vifited
Louvain and Cologne, where he had an opportunity of pe-
rufing fome of the works of Luther, with which he was fo
captivated, that he could not refift the inclination of pro-
ceeding to Wittenberg, notwithftanding the prior’s inter-
di&. In this place he purfued his ftudies under the inftruc-
tion of Melanéthon with fuch fuccefs, that he was ap-
pointed to give public le€tures on theology in the univerfity
of Copenhagen. In his convent, to which he was foon re-
called, he frequently preached ; and at length, viz. in 1524,
publicly avowed himfelf a difciple of Luther, ‘The confe-

quence

nt

TAU

quence was his expulfion fromthe convent at Antoorfkow,
and his retirement to another at Wiborg. As he here pro-

agated his doétrine, he was imprifoned by the prior; but
by this a@ of feverity he was emboldened to proceed, and
preached to the populace from a window. Being liberated
in 1526, he was in the fame year appointed chaplain to the
king, and permitted to preach openly at Wiborg. He foon
acquired a number of followers, who went to church armed,
in order to proteét him from the violence of the Papifts. In
1529 he was inyited to officiate in the church of St. Nicho-
las, at Copenhagen ; and in the following year he attended,
as direCtor, at a conference which took place in that city be-
tween the Lutherans and the Roman Catholics. On the
death of Frederic I. he was banifhed fromZealand, but being
after a few days invited to return, he was appointed clergy-
man and le@turer in theology at Rofchkild. In 1542 he was
advanced to the epifcopal chair of Ribe, and died in the

ear 1561. Taufen, befides an improved Danifh tranflation
of the Pfalms, printed in 1544, and at Copenhagenin 1557,
was the author of feveral works, confifting of Danifh
hymns, and treatifes on the do€trine of Luther. A full
account of his meritorious fervices may be found in Profeffor
Munter’s Hiftory of the Reformation in Denmark, &c.
Gen. Biog. :

TAUSS, or Domazuirz, in Geography, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Pilfen; 26 miles S.S.W. of Pilfen.
N. lat. 49° 25’. E. long. 12° 52!.

TAUSTE, a town BS Spain,in Aragon; 25 miles N.W.
of Saragoffa.

TAUTENBURG, a town and citadel of Saxony, in
Thuringia ; 3 miles S. of Camburg.

TAUTICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Media.

TAUTOLOGICAL Ecuosgs, are fuch echoes as re-
peat the fame found or fyllable many times. See Ecuo.

TAUTOLOGY, in Grammar, a needlefs repetition of
the fame fenfe in different words; or, a reprefentation of
any thing as the caufe, condition, or confequence of itfelf.

Of the firft kind is that of Virgil :

“ce

Si fata virnm fervant, fi vefcitur aura
fEtherea, neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris.”?

Such alfo is this of Addifon:

“« ‘The dawn is overcait :—the morning lours ;
And heavily in clouds brings on the day.” Cato.

Here the fame thought is repeated thrice in different
words.

It is alfo confidered as of the nature of tautology, to
lengthen a fentence by coupling words altogether or nearly
fynonimous, whether they be fubftantives or adjeétives,
verbs or adverbs. ‘This is 2 very common fault, and to be
found even in our beft writers. It fhould ever be remem-
bered, as an invariable maxim, that words which add nothing
to the fenfe or to the clearnefs, muft dimimifh the force of the
expreffion. There are two occafions, however, on which
fynonimous words may be properly ufed. One is, when an
obfcurer term, which we cannot avoid employing, on ac-
count of fome conneétion with what either precedes or fol-
lows, needs to be explained by one that is clearer : the other
is, when the language of the paffions is exhibited. Paffion
dwells on its object; the impaffioned fpeaker always at-
tempts to rife in expreffion ; but when that is impracticable,
he recurs to repetition and fynonymy, and thus produces in
a degree the fame effe&. An adjeétive and its fubitantive
will fometimes include a tautolory. Moreover, in fome
fingle words, there is fo much the appearance of tauto-

TAW

logy, that they ought, in profe at leaft, to be avoided; fuch
are worfer for worfe, leffer for lefs, chiefeft for chief, ex-
tremeft for extreme ; Moft Higheft, as in the liturgy, for
Moft High. Campbell’s Philofophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii,

TAUVES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Puy de Déme; 15 miles W. of Beffe.

TAUVO, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 64° 5o/. E. long. 24° 31.

TAVY, a river of England, which rifes in Devonshire,
pafles by Taviftock, &c. and joins the Tamar, two miles
below Saltath.

TAUZIM. See Trusine.

TAW, a river of England, which rifes about three miles
S.E. from Oakhampton, and runs into the Briftol channel
below Appledore, forming a large bay at its mouth, called
Barnftaple bay.

Taw, a town of Proffia; 23 miles W.S.W. of Tilfit.

TAWALLY, one of the Molucca iflands, 25 miles
long from north to fouth, and from 5 to g broad. S. lat.
of 2i!. E. long. 127° 14!.

TAWANDEE Cnrerk, a river of Pennfylvania, which
runs into the E. branch of the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 41° 45).
W. long. 76° 30!.

TAWARRAN, a town on the N.W. coaft of the
Uland of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 9!. E. long. 116° i5!.

TAWAS, Indians in the Ohio, on the river Miami of
the Lake.

TAWEE-TAWEE, an ifland in the Sooloo Archipe-
lago, 30 miles long, and from 3 to 10 broad. N. lat.

°15'. KE. long. 120°.

TAWING, Sxiynine, the art or manner of preparing
or drefling fkins in white,» to fit them for ufe in divers
manufactures, particularly for gloves, &c.

All kinds of tkins may be tawed ; but it is chiefly thofe
of fheep, lambs, kids, and goats, that are ufed to be dreffed
this way, as being thofe fitteft for gloves.

Method of tawing or dreffing Skins in White-—The wool
or hair being well got off the {kins by means of lime, &c.
(as defcribed under the article Saammy,) they are hid in
a large vat of wood or ftone, fet in the ground, full of
water, in which quick-lime has been flaked; in this they
continue a month or fix weeks, as the weather is more or

. Jefs hot, or as the fkins are required to be more or lefs foft

and pliant.

While in the vat, the water and lime are changed twice,
and they are taken out and put in again every day. When
taken out for the laft time, they are laid all night to foak
in a running water, to get out the greateit part of the lime;
and in the morning they are laid fix together on the wooden
leg, to get off the flefh by fcraping them ftoutly, one after
another, on the flefh-fide with a cutting two-handed in-
itrument, called a knife; and while this is in hand, they
cut off the legs, and other fuperfluous parts about the
extremes. ;

This done, they are laid in a vat or pit with a little water ;
where, being well fulled with wooden peftles for a quarter
of an hour, the vat is filled up with water, and the fkins
are rinfed in it. ‘They are next thrown on a clean pavement _
to drain; which done, they are caft into a frefh pit of
water, where being well rinfed they are taken out, and laid
on the wooden leg fix at once, with the hair-fide outermoft,
over which they rub a kind of whetftone very brifkly, to
foften and fit them to receive four or five more preparations
given them on the leg, both on the flefh-fide and the hair-
fide, with the knife, after the manner above-mentioned.

They are then put into a pit with water and wheat-bran,
and ftirred about in it with wooden poles, till the bran is ~

perceived

TAW

perceived to ftick to them, and then are left. After this,
as they rife of themfelves to the top of the water by a kind
of fermentation, they are plunged down again to the bot-
tom, and, at the fame time, fire is fet to the liquor, which
takes as eafily as if it were brandy, but goes out the mo-
ment the fkins are all covered.

This operation is repeated as often as the fkins rife above
water; and when they rife no more, they are taken out,
laid on the wooden leg, the fleth-fide outermoft, and the
knife is paffed over it to fcrape off the bran. The bran
thus cleared, the fkins are laidin a large bafket, where they
are loaded with huge ftones to promote their draining ; and
when fufficiently drained their feeding is given them, which
is performed after the following manner: For 100 large
fheep-fkins, and for {maller in proportion, they take eight
pounds of alum and three of fea-falt, melt the whole with
water in a veffel over the fire, pouring the folution out,
while yet lukewarm, into a kind of trough, in which are
20 pounds of the fipeft wheat-flour, with eight dozen
yolks of eggs; of all this together is formed a kind of
pafte, a little thicker than childents pap, which, when
done, is put into another veffel, to be ufed in manner
following.

A quantity of hot water being poured into the trough in
which the pafte was prepared, two fpoonfuls of the pate are
mixed with it ; in order to which they ufe a wooden {poon,
which contains juft what is required for a dozen fkins ; and
when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of the {kins are
plunged into it, care being taken by the way, that the water
be not too hot, which would fpoil both the pafte and hurt the
fkins. Having ftaid fome time in the trough, they are taken
out one after another with the hand, and {tretched out ; this
is repeated twice ; when they have all had their pafte, they are
put into tubs, where they are fulled afrefh with wooden
pettles.

Then they are put into a vat, where they remain five or
fix days or more, and are at laft taken out in fair weather,
and hung out to dry on cords or racks ; the quicker they
dry the better, for if they be too long in drying, the falt
and alum within them are apt to make them rife in a grain,
which is an effential fault.in this kind of dreffing.

When the fkins are dry, they are put up into bundles,
and juft dipt in fair water ; from which being taken out and
drained, they are thrown into an empty tub, and, after
fome time, are taken out, and well trampled under foot.

They are then drawn over a flat iron inftrument, the top
of which is round, like a battledore, and the bottom fixed
into a wooden block, to ftretch and open them: when
opened, they are hung in the air upon cords to dry ; and
when dry they are opened a fecond time, repafling them
over the fame inftrument.

Laftly, they are laid on a table, pulled out and laid
fmooth, and are thus in a condition for fale and ufe.

After the fame manner are dreffed horfes’, cows’, calves’
fkins, &c. for the fadlers, harnefs-makers, &c., as alfo dogs’,
wolves’, bears’ fkins, &c. excepting that in thefe the ufe of
pafte is omitted, falt and alum-water being fufficient. See
TANNING.

By ftat. g Ann. c. 11. and 10 Ann. c. 26. the follow-
ing duties are impofed on hides or fkins tawed or dreffed in
Great Britain. For horfe-hides dreffed in alum and falt, or
‘ meal, or otherwife tawed, 15. 6d. a hide; hides of fteers,
cows, and all other (except horfe-hides) dreffed in alum and
falt or meal, or otherwife tawed, 3s. a hide; calve-fkins and
kips, dreffed in alum and falt or meal, or otherwife tawed,
14d. a pound; fkins fo dreffed or tawed with the hair on,
3s. a dozen, and without hair, 1y..a dozen; dog-fkins fo

TAX

dreffed or tawed, 1s. a dozen; buck and doe-fkins (except
what paid the duty on importation) dreffed in alum and falt
or meal, or otherwife tawed, 6d. a pound; kid-fkins fo
dreffed or tawed, except as before, 1s. a dozen; eps
fo dreffed or tawed, 2s. a dozen; beaver-fkins fo tawed,
2s. a dozen ; fheep-fkins and lamb-fkins fo dreffed or tawed,
14d. a pound ; and all other tawed fkins, not before charged,
30/. for every 100/. value. All thefe duties are to be paid
by the tawers or makers.

For hides and fkins dreffed in oil, 6d. a pound; deer,
goat, and beaver-fkins drefled in oil, 6d. a pound; calve-
{kins dreffed in oil, 8d. a pound; fheep and lamb-fkins
dreffed in oil, 3d. a pound; all fins dreffed in oil, not be-
fore charged, 15/. in the 1oo/. according to the real value 3
all which are to be paid by the oil leather-dreffers.

For other regulations, fee LEATHER and TANNER.

TAWIXIWI, in Geography, a town of America, ‘on
the Miami. N. lat. 40° 35’. W. long. 84° 4.

TAWNY, in Heraldry. See TENNE.

TAWY, in Geography, a river of South Wales, which
rifes in Brecknockfhire, and runs into the fea at Swanfea.

TAX, formed from +z£:-, order, denotes a certain aid,
fubfidy, or fupply, granted by the commons of Great Bri-
tain in parliament aflembled, conftituting the king’s extra-
ordinary revenue; and paid yearly towards the expences
of the government. See Money-Bills, PARLIAMENT, and
Supply.

Anciently, the tax feems to have been impofed by the
king at his pleafure; but Edward I. bound himfelf, and
his (ae from that time forward, not to levy it, but
by confent of the realm. §

To this purpofe the celebrated Mr. Locke, in his “¢ Effay
on Government,” (ch. xi. § 140.) lays down the following
propofition as fundamental. ‘ ’Tis true, government can-
not be fupported without great charge ; and ’tis fit every
one who enjoys his fhare of proteétion, fhould pay out of
his eftate his proportion for the maintenance of it. But
{till it muft be with his own confent, i. e. the confent of
the majority, giving it either by themfelves, or their repre-
fentatives chofen by them: for if any one fhall claim a
power to lay and levy taxes on the people by his own au-
thority, and without fuch confent of the people, he therehy
invades the fundamental law of property, and fubverts the
end of government. For what property have I in that,
which another may by right take when he pleafes to
himfelf ?””

Dr. Adam Smith, the ingenious author of “ An En,
quiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of Na-
tions,’’ to whofe work we have had occafion to refer, lays
down (vol. il. p. 2.) the four following maxims with regard
to taxes in general. ‘ 1. The fubjects of every ftate ought
to contribute towards the fupport of the government, as
nearly as poffible, in proportion to their refpeétive abilities,
that is, in proportion to the revenue which they refpedtivel
enjoy under the proteétion of the flate. 2. The tax, whic
each individual is bound to pay, ought to be certain, and
not arbitrary. The time of payment, the manner of pay-
ment, the quantity to be paid, ought all to be clear and
plain to the contributor, and to every other perfon. When
it is otherwife, every perfon fubject to the tax is put more
or lefs in the power of the tax-gatherer, who can either
aggravate the tax upon any obnoxious contributor, or exy
tort, by the licence of fuch aggravation, fome prefent or
perquifite to himfelf. 3, Every tax ought to be leyied at
the time, or in the manner, in which it is moft likely to be
convenient for the contributor to pay it. 4. Every tax ought
to be fo contrived, as both to take out and to keep out of the
pockets

BAX:

pockets of the people as little as poffible, over and above
what it brings into the public treafury of the ftate.”? This
maxim may be counteracted by requiring for the levying of
the tax a great number of officers, whole falaries may con-
‘fume the greater part of the produce of the tax, and whofe
perquifites may impofe another tax upon the people ;—by
obftruéting their induftry, and difcouraging them from ap-
plying to certain branches of bufinefs, which might give
maintenance and employment to great multitudes ;—by the
forfeitures and other penalties which thofe unfortunate indivi-
duals incur, who attempt unfuccefsfully to evade the tax,
which may ruin them, and thus put an end to the benefit the
community might have received from the employment of their
capitals; the penalties of {muggling being fo ordered as to
rife in proportion to the temptation ; and by fubjeéting the
people to the frequent vifits and the odious examination of
the tax-gatherers, which occafion much trouble, vexation,
and oppreffion.

As the private revenue of individuals arifes ultimately
from the three different fources of rent, profit, and wages,
eyery tax mutt finally be paid from one or other of thefe three
different forts of revenue, or from all of them indifferently.
The firft kind of taxes comprehends thofe upon the rent of
Jand. (See Lanp-rax.) ‘Taxes upon the produce of the
land are in reality taxes upon the rent. (See Tirues.)
Taxes upon the rent of houfes include that which may be
ealled the Building rent, and that which is commonly called
the Ground rent ; and fo far as thefe fall upon the inhabit-
ants, they muft be drawn from the fame fouree as the rent
itfelf, and mutt be paid from their revenue, whether derived
from the wages of labour, the profits of flock, or the rent
of land; and it is in every re{pect of the fame nature as a
tax upon any other fort of confumable commodities. Houfes
not inhabited ought to pay no tax ; houfes inhabited by the
proprietor ought to be rated, not according to the expence
which they might have coft in building, but according to
the rent which an equitable arbitration might judge them
likely to bring, if leafed to a tenant. Ground rents are
ftill a more proper fubjeét of taxation than the rent of
houfes, or even the rent of land. The principal objeétion to
all taxes upon houfes and windows is their inequality, and
therefore they are direétly contrary to the firft of Dr.
Smith’s maxims above ftated. Their natural tendency is to
lower rents.

Taxes upon profit, or upon the revenue arifing from ftock,
comprehend the tax upon ftock, fuch as is impofed by the
land-tax in England, by which it was intended that the ftock
fhould be taxed in the fame proportion as the land, and taxes
upon the profit of particular employments. Taxes upon
the wages of labour muft finally fall upon the confumer.
Befides the taxes already enumerated, there are others, fuch
as capitation taxes, and taxes upon confumable com-
modities, which muft be paid indifferently from whatever
revenue the contributors may poflefs ; from the rent of their
land, from the profits of their ftock, or from the wages of
their labour. ‘The impoffibility of taxing the people, in pro-
portion to their revenue, by any capitation, feems to have
given occafion to the invention of taxes upon confumable
commodities ; and thefe are either neceffaries or luxuries.
A tax upon the neceffaries of life operates exaétly in the
fame manner as a direét tax upon the wages of labour, and
will fall, if the labourer be employed by a manufacturer, on
the confumer ; or if he be employed by a farmer, it will fall
upon the rent of the landlord. But it is otherwife with
refpe&t to taxes upon luxuries. The rife in the price of
the taxed commodities, will not neceffarily occafion any
rife in the wages of labour. Any rife in the average

price of neceffaries, unlefs it is compenfated by a pro-
portionable rife in the wages of labour, muft neceflarily
diminifh more or lefs the ability of the poor to bring u
numerous families, and confequently to fupply the demand
for ufeful Jabour ; whatever may be the ftate of that demand,
whether increafing, ftationary, or declining ; or fuch as re-
quires an increafing, ftationary, or declining population.

Taxes upon luxuries have no tendency to raife the price
of any other commodities except that of the commodities
taxed. ‘Taxes upon neceflaries, by raifing the wages of
labour, neceflarily tend to raife the price of all manufac-
tures, and confequently to diminifh the extent of their fale
and confumption. ‘Taxes upon luxuries are finally paid by
the confumers of the commodities taxed, without any retri-
bution. They fall indifferently upon every fpecies of
revenue, the wages of labour, the profits of ftock, and the
rent of land. Taxes upon neceffaries, fo far as they affe&
the labouring poor, are finally paid, partly by landlords in
the diminifhed rent of their lands, and partly by rich con-
fumers, whether landlords or others, in the advanced price
of manufactured goods; and always with a confiderable
over-charge.

In Great Britain, the principal taxes upon the neceffaries
of life are thofe upon falt, leather, foap, and candles. Heavy
taxes upon thefe commodities muft fomewhat increafe the
expence of the fober and induftrious poor, and mutt, confe-
quently, more or lefs raife the wages of their labour. Such
taxes, notwithftanding their immediate effeét, afford a con-
fiderable revenue to government, and accordingly they are
continued and multiplied.

Confumable commodities, whether neceflaries or luxuries,
may be taxed in two different ways. The confumer may
either pay an annual fum on account of his ufing or con-
fuming goods of a certain kind ; or the goods may be taxed
while they remain in the hands of the dealer, and before they
are delivered to the confumer. The confumable goods
which laft a confiderable time before they are confumed al-
together, are moft properly taxed in the one way. Thofe
of which the confumption is either immediate or more
{peedy, in the other.

Of the latter kind is the greater part of the duties of
excife and cuftoms. Thofe of excife are impofed chiefly
upon goods of home produce deftined for home confump-
tion; and they are impofed only upon a few forts of goods
of the moft general ufe. The duties of cuftoms are much
more ancient than thofe of excife. (See Customs and
Excise.) It is obferved that high taxes, fometimes by di-
minifhing the conf{umption of the taxed commodities, and
fometimes by encouraging fmuggling, frequently afford a
fmaller revenue to government than what might be drawn
from more moderate taxes.

When the diminution of revenue is the effe€t of the dimi-
nution of confumption, there can be but one remedy, and
that is the lowering of the tax.

When the diminution of the revenue is the effe& of the
encouragement given to {muggling, it may perhaps be reme-
died in two ways; either by diminifhing the temptation to
fmuggle, or by increafing the difficulty of {muggling. ‘The
temptation to {muggle can be diminifhed only by the lower-
ing of the tax ; and the difficulty of fmuggling can be in-
creafed only by eftablifhing that fyftem of adminiftration
which is moft proper for preventing it.

The duties upon foreign luxuries imported for home con-
fumption, though they fometimes fall upon the poor, fall
principally upon people of middling or more than middling
fortune. Such are, for example, the duties upon foreign
wines, upon coffee, chocolate, tea, fugar, &c. Th

2

TAX.

The duties. upon the cheaper luxuries of home produce
deftined for home confumption, fall pretty equally upon
people of all ranks in proportion to their re{pe€tive expence.
The poor pay the duties upon malt, hops, beer, and ale,
upor their own confumption: the rich, upon both their own
confumption and that of their fervants.

The whole confumption of the inferior ranks of people, or
of thofe below the middling rank, it muift be obferved, is in
every country much greater, not only in quantity, but in
value, than that of the middling and of thofe above the mid-
dling rank. ‘The whole expence of the inferior is much
greater than that of the fuperior ranks. Although the ex-
pence of people of inferior ranks, taking them individually,
is very {mall, yet the whole mafs of it, taking them collec-
tively, amounts always to by much the largeft portion of the
ot expence of the fociety ; what remains, of the annual
produce of the land and labour of the country for the con-
fumption of the fuperior ranks, being always much lefs, not
only in quantity but in value. The taxes upon expence,
therefore, which fall chiefly upon that of the fuperior ranks
of people, upon the fmaller portion of the annual produce,
are likely to be much lefs produétive than either thofe which
fall indifferently upon the expence of all ranks, or even thofe
which fall chiefly upon that of the inferior ranks; than
either thofe which fall indifferently upon the whole annual
cores or thofe which fall chiefly upon the larger portion
of it.

The beft taxes, fays Mr. Hume, (vol. i. Eff. 8.) are fuch
as are levied upon confumptions, efpecially thofe of luxury ;
becaufe fuch taxes are leaft felt by the people. They feem,
in fome meafure, voluntary: fince'a man may chufe how
far he will ufe the commodity which is taxed. They are
paid gradually and infenfibly ; they naturally produce fo-
briety and frugality, if judicioufly impofed ; and being com-
a oe with the natural price of the commodity, they are

arcely perceived by the confumers. Their only difad-
vantage is, that they are expenfive in levying. ‘Taxes upon
poffetfions are levied without expence ; but they have every
other difadvantage. Moft ftates, however, are obliged to
have recourfe to them, in order to fupply the deficiencies of
the other. When a tax is laid upon commodities which are
confumed by the common people, the neceflary confequence
may feem to be, either that the poor muft retrench fome-
thing from their way of living, or raife their wages, fo as to
make the burden of the tax fall upon the rich ; but there is
a third confequence, which often follows upon taxes, namely,
that the poor increafe their induftry, perform more wink,
and live as well as before, without demanding more for their
labour. Where taxes are moderate, are laid on gradually,
and do not affect the neceffaries of life, this confequence
naturally follows; and it is certain, that fuch difficulties
often ferve to excite the induftry of a people, and render
them more opulent and laborious than others, who enjoy the
Rage advantages. The moft pernicious of all taxes are

arbitrary : they are commonly converted, by their ma-

nagement, into punifhments on induftry ; and, alfo, by their

unavoidable inequality, are more grievous than the real

burden which they impofe. Poll-taxes are commonly arbi-

trary. A duty upon commodities checks itfelf; and a

rince will find, that an increafe of the impoft is no increafe of
is revenue,

After all the proper fubjeéts of taxation have been ex-
haufted, if the exigencies of the {tate {till continue to require
new taxes, they muft be impofed upon improper ones. It
has been well obferved, “that oppreffive taxation is a
monfter, which, after devouring every other thing, devours
itfelf at laft.””

The taxes which are raifed on the Britifh fubject are either
annual or perpetual.. The ufual annual taxes are thofe upon
land and malt.

The firft of thefe is the land-tax, for an account of which
fee Lanp-fax.

See alfo Hipace, Scuracsr, TAgLiacr, Trnru, Fir-
TEENTH, and SuBsIpDY.

The other annual tax is the malt-tax, which is a fum
raifed every year by parliament ever fince 1697. See
Matt.

The perpetual taxes are the cuftoms, which are a tax im-
mediately paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the
confumer (fee Customs) ; the excife-duty, which is an in-
land impofition, paid fometimes upon the confumption of the
commodity, or frequently upon the retail fale, which is the
laft ftage before the confumption (fee Excise); the duty
upon /alt: that for the carriage of letters or poff; the flamp-
ets ; the duty upon houfes and windows; the duty
arifing from licences to hackney-coaches and chairs in
London, and the parts adjacent ; and the duty upon offices
and penfions. See Lann-tax, &c. &c.

The affeffed taxes comprehend thofe on windows, houfes,
fervants, carriages, horfes and mules, dogs, horfe-dealers,
hair-powder, armorial bearings, and game licences, For
thofe on windows, fee the following {chedule.

Schedule (A.) 48 G. III. c. 55.

Number of windows according to which the duties fhall

be charged, ‘Duties.
Not more than 6 windows or lights (exceptin £5. d.
fuch houfes which fhall be worth the rent
of 5/. by the year, and fhall be charged to ~
the duty mentioned in Schedule (BS, ac-
cording to the rent thereof) - - 0 6 6

Not more than 6 windows or lights, if of the
value before-mentioned, and charged to the

{aid duty accordingly - - “ alte enigma
7 windows or lights = - ~ a ad agp
STR. - a : - a ORE Tgtto
» Niele oi - do. : - - 3) Pigg
IgGs - do. - - - oT’ 2°96 te
= - . do. - - - st Borg 6
1 - do. ~ E : eg Wigit6
19) = - do. - = - - blogs TENG
BA rsins. (ute dos - ~ ylang PONG gas
iy ok - do. = = = me Je) ur)
16 - wevido: - = = - “7 197%
Epes Andes » do: SR
1 - - do. - = 8 =e 9h ONG
oe dhe - do. = 2 ~ - 10 7 6
2000" & - do. = = g Ss retigts
Brae - do. = = 3 irs %
22\~°svay" rido, ~ ) =| (on ee
93 fue hile stedg, - « » 0 Sa
24) =) Se odo. - = olag Sas
BS one ott waa. Se
26 - = do. Se
azloce ess silo. - + (hol seieggnnaras
28 «CO - do. - a ~ - 1749 0
ag titetey Story. ~ = oe ot aia
gars th 26)>.*dos - in =
31 - - do. - . 7 - 20 9 6
ger Sarin) » dd. aco Ses (ooo 2 Sui ana
Sap eeits ar odo a +) cielo sa ae
7 I Res ref oh 9 ih - ys oo Sir
Boers edo: ee
I ee

TAX.

Not more than : £ 5. d. Schedule (C.) N°2. Duties payable annually for male
37 windows or lights : = 2 =))25 10 6 fervants retained or employed in the feveral capacities
ae = do: ~ fs = = 200 Fin herein mentioned.

a a % ni % fv i 7 a 4 6 For every gardener or perfon employed to work £ 5. d.
- 4 ? 44 St ? % 5 ee aaa 6 in any garden under any perfon chargeable to

Be Pa htt. 3e 13 Othe duties mentioned in Schedule (C.), N°: ;
2) Z 54 ae 4 5 5 = ae "6 5 and for every gardener employed in any

22 i 2 ee i f Xe : 37 eG garden wherein the conftant labour of one

Bene. - a ce i i a i He > 6 perfon fhall not be neceflary, the fum of - 0 6 o

70 ..- - 74. do. - - - - 44 5 © To be paid by each perfon in whofe garden fuch

ee So 19 do. - - - - 46 10 0 perfon fhall be employed.

80 - 84. do. - . - - 48 15 oO

85 - - 89 do. - - - - 51 © © Exemptions from the Duties as fet forth in Schedule (C.)

90 - 94 do. - - - = 5a 4, 6 N° 1. and 2. ‘
a) F foo a ; : R . “2 2 . Any perfon employed by the day or week to work as a
ee 22119 . do. < i « i ; L 6 day labourer, at the ufual rate of wages for day labourers
ee a, e c a Sine in agriculture, in any garden belonging to a dwelling-houfe,

DG z pr east bei farm-houfe, and exempted as fuch from the duti
130 - 139 do. - : * BAGO) eaten ae ? pt duties
ee rn i! : : - 46 16 o Mentioned in Schedule (B.), or in any garden belonging to
a i 2 Bs, ‘ 5 Z ‘ 81 6 2 dwelling-houfe not chargeable to the duties mentioned
a s 19 ee 5 5 4 ary & 6 in the faid fchedule, fuch garden not requiring the conftant
17Oo = a do. - “ E - el : __ abour of one fuch labourer.
~ 180 and upwards do. - - 6

: 2 PH 935 2 Schedule (C.) N° 3. Duties payable annually for ever
And for every fuch dwelling-houfe which thal male marten or “alone gies or endpkoyed in ae
contain more than 180 windows or lights, feveral capacities herein mentioned.
for every window or light exceeding the 4
number of 180 - - - - - © 3 © For every male perfon employed by any mer- £ 5. d
See Winpows. chant or trader as a traveller or rider, the

duties following ; viz.
Schedule (B.) 48 Geo. III. c. 55. Duties on inhabited

Where one fuch traveller or rider and no more

dwelling -houfes. fhall be fo employed, the fum of +10 tein yard Silfo
For every fuch inhabited houfe with the houfe- And where more than one fuch traveller or rider
hold and other offices, yards, and gardens, fhall be fo employed, for each the fum of - 3 10 ©
therewith occupied and erat as are or fhall For every male perfon employed by any perfon
be worth the rent herein-after mentioned by Value in the in trade, or exercifing any profeffion whatever,

the year, there fhall be charged the yearly Pond: * ag a clerk or book- eeper, or office-keeper,

fums following ; viz. £ os. d. except apprentices, where no premium, or a .
sl. and under 20/. rent, by the year - sms xeqling premium lefs in value than the fum of 20/. has
20). and under 4ol. rent, by the year - Lil gitig 02g been paid or contracted for with fuch appren-
4o/. rent by the year, and upwards - - © 210 _ te, the duties following 5 viz.

Where one fuch clerk, book-keeper, or office-

The duties payable by 48 Geo. III. c. 55. annually for keeper, and no more {hall be fo. employed,

male fervants are as below.

the fum of — = - - ~ipOntiy Auk
Schedule (C.) N°1. And where more than one fuch clerk, book-
Berane of keeper, or office-keeper fhall be fo employed,

Number of Servants. Duty for for each the fum of - - - Se us: tare)

each Servant. For every male perfon employed by any perfon

£os. d. in trade as a fhopman, for the purpofe of ex-
For 1 fuch fervant - - - = ein aay cheat pofing to fale or felling goods, wares, or mer-
214 =,» do. = = = > See Bessy chandife, in fuch fhop or warehoufe, whether
Baa. nda - - - - Cae gate) py eg by wholefale or retail ; and every male perfon
4 -- do. SVEN = - erie yt AO) employed as a warehoufeman, porter, or cellar-
Bagman y raOs - - - - = a 9 (0 man, in fuch fhop or warehoufe, except ap-

6 - do. = - = + - 414 0 prentices as aforefaid, the fum of 5 sreraiy 4° 0
Dix Zones Scat tire pew Dri The faid duties to be paid by the employer
8 - do. 3 = 7 a 7 REET or employers of fuch perfons, and to ex-
9 fie nde! = a - = = Ae. tend to eyery body politic or corporate,
2 a o i . ri o ue Late” whether aggregate or fole, and to every
rr - -do.-and upwards © - Sp a Bigs FS fociety, fraternity, or partnerfhip, al-
For every fuch fervant retained or employed by though not corporate; and to every
any male perfons, never having been married, manufaéture or concern (except huf-
over and above the before-mentioned duties, bandry) whereby the employer fhall

the furtherfum of - - -— - foil Ki uA LO feek a profit.

Vor. XXXKV. x For

TAX.
Schedule (D.) N°1. Duties payable on all carriages of

any of the defcriptions mentioned herein.

For every male fervant employed as a waiter £ 5. d.

(except occafional waiters, over and above

oe

the ordinary number ufually kept) in any : Amount of
taverns, coffee-houfes, inns, ale-houfes, or other Number of Carriages. 2 uty for
licenfed houfes, or in eating or victualling . : th f heel each Comes
houfes, or in hotels or lodging-houfes, being Roe oF ee ror ; pies we ai f £ os de
eating or viétualling houfes, the fumof + 2 5 o For 1 fue oo eta ALT: > 2 ae
For every male fervant retained by any ftable- tS do, Z i di i 7. 32
keeper to take care of any horfe, mare, or 3 5 ae F ; 7 i ~ 3
elding, of any other perfon or perfons, kept 4 a is 3 3 ri 14) ae
For the avai of racing or running for any 2 See ‘ 2 Z " . es
plate, prize, fum of money, or other thing, J de. ‘ iy a [ = _ a
or any horfe, mare, or gelding, in training for i y Aes a 5h 2 = a = ie
any of the faid purpofes, whereby fuch ftable- ae a and upwards - - a a Pe 2
ra Ee teal eal : Heeaboee oF ape ae aig And for every additional body fucceffively ufed
For every male.fervant bond fide retained for the oe e oe nee OF (RRmDEn sian
i Be of hufbandry, manufaéture, or trade, ag ee pe Lael) i 7 i > ae
by which the mafter or miftrefs fhall gain a Schedule (D.) N° 2.
Aiyeliboad on profit, amd cat acty time employed For carriages with lefs than four wheels :
in ‘any domettic employment in any of the F fuck : 4
capacities in Schedule (C.), N° 1, and not ya ih crmage (aero on vee con-
chargeable to the duties in the faid fchedule, ructed, kept, and ufed, under the regulations
thedian tof 5 t ‘ ‘ Ec ot Te ean of this ae) drawn by one horfe, mare, omgeld- .
; ¥ 4 Ing, and no more - - - - - 18
For every male fervant bond fide retained for the an cee every fuch carriage, drawn. by two or 5 Ls
purpofes of hufbandry, or any manufacture mere hoviee "Adincres 8
or trade, by which the mafter or miftrefs fhall Aada 4 "iditic “L 8 é : Es fer a as
3 OS NR i es A a nd for every additiona body of the defcription
oh ig eee oy aap ale gyen * Aspe 7 herein-after mentioned, fucceflively ufed on
employed in the capacity of a groom, ftable- he hak ere db Wines ms lecokhis :
boy, or helper in the ftables, where the mafter f ez Ags te oF E> ee
or miftrefs fhall be chargeable for one horfe, MEO EE q je 7 * Fy ngs 16 °
and no more, to the duty on horfes kept for Schedule (D.) N° 3.
the purpofes of riding, or drawing a taxed For carriages hired for any period of time lefs
cart, or to the duty on fuch taxed cart, and than one year, or kept to be let to hire, or to
not on any other carriage chargeable with Se a ke pe Pp ’
duty by this aét, the fum of — - erg sche 9 & © For ee fuck carriage kept for the purpofe of
The faid laft-mentioned duties to be paid being let to hire, with horfes to be ufed
by the employer, or mafter or miftrefs therewith, for any period of time not exceed-
of fuch perfons or fervants. ing twenty-eight days, fo that the ftamp-
office duty, payable law
Schedule (C.) N° 4. Duties payable on fervants let to to hire Teall be uly eld ead eel vi
hire. every fuch letting by any poft-mafter, inn-
For every coachman, groom, poftilion, orhelper, £ s. d. keeper, or other perfon duly licenfed to let
kept ee the purpofe of being let to hire for poft-horfes, by the commiffioners for manag- *
any period of time lefs than one year, and in ing the duties on ftamped vellum, parchment,
fuch manner that the ftamp-office duty pay- and paper, and whereon the name or names
able by law on horfes let to hire fhall not be and place of abode of the perfon or perfons
payable on every fuch letting by any poft- fo licenfed fhall be marked or painted, accord-
mafter, inn-keeper, or other perfon, duly ing to the directions of the act in that cafe .
licenfed to let poft-horfes by the commiffioners made and provided; if fuch carriage fhall have
for managing the duties on ftamped vellum, four wheels, the fum of - = - siete) fh G58
parchment, and paper, or by any coach- And if fuch carriage fhall have lefs than
maker or maker of fuch carriages, or other four wheels, the refpective fums men-
perfon, the annual fumof - . a mi fr Seiten tioned in Schedule (D.) N° 2, accord-
The faid-dutpvto be paid hy. the pecfowi ot up t? ts number of horfes ufed there-
perfons letting the fame to hire. And St tae on pees wr
Thefe feveral duties are fubjeét to certain exemptions. chaife with fe wheels as ae or ola
The provifions of 43 Geo. III. c. 161. relating to the carriage with four wheels or Res by what- ,
affeffments of fervants, are as follow. Perfons Siable to ever name the fame fhall be called of se
thefe duties are to return lifts of their fervants, and are which fhall be kept and employed as a public
chargeable accordingly from the year commencing from the ftage-coach or carriage for the purpofe of con- 3
days ftated in theirreturns ; and they are fubjeé&t to the powers veying paffengers for hire to and from dif-
of furcharge. Perfons beginning or ceafing to keep fer- ferent places, and which fhall be duly entered 4
oe a ae pers = writing to the afleffor of the as fuch with the faid commiffioners of ftamp
in which they refide. duties, the ike fum of “ e = no Qe

TAX.

All which laft-mentioned duties fhall ree £ 5. d.
{pectively be paid by the perfon or per-
fons keeping the fame, for the purpofes
aforefaid.

For every carriage kept for the purpofe of
being let to hire for any period of time lefs
than one year, and in fuch manner that the
faid flamp-office duty fhall not by law be
payable on ‘fuch letting by any perfon fo
licenfed as aforefaid, or by any coach-maker
oc maker of fuch carriages, or other perfon,
if fuch carriage fhall have four wheels, the
annual fum of - - - - ie!

The faid laft-mentioned duty to be paid
by the perfon or perfons keeping the
fame for the purpofes aforefaid.

Provided, if a due return thereof fhall not be made by
the hirer or hirers according to the direGtions of the aéts
herein mentioned, the progreffive duty, as fet forth in
Schedule (D.) N° 1, thall be chargeable in refpect of
every fuch carriage on the perfon or perfons hiring the
fame, and making fuch default as aforefaid, fubject to the
provilions contained in the faid ats concerning the fame.

And if fuch carriage fhall have lefs than four wheels, the
refpective fums mentioned in Schedule (D.) N° 2, accord-
ing to the number of horfes to be ufed therewith, to be
paid by the perfon or perfons keeping the fame for the
purpofe aforefaid, fubje& to the provifions herein-after
contained concerning the fame. See Coacu and Taxed
Cart,

By 50 Geo. III. c. 104. certain new duties are impofed,

suid

A. Schedule of the Duties payable on Carriages called
Taxed Carts.
N° I.

* For every carriage called a taxed cart, built and £ 5. d,
con{truéted according to the regulations of
the faid act, in every refpeé& the original price
of which fhall not have exceeded, or the
value whereof fhall not at any time exceed
the fum of 15/. iterling, and which fhall
not at any time be ufed with a covered or
ftuffed feat, or with a covered foot-board or
apron thereto fixed or not fixed, there fhall

be charged the annual fum of - = wi) EHH KG

N°Il.

For every fuch carriage called a taxed cart,
built and conftruéted with a {pring or {prings
of any materials whatever, (except of iron,
fteel, or any other metallic fubftance, or any
compofition of iron, iteel, or other metallic
fubftance, either wholly or in part,) the ori-
ginal price of which carriage fhall not have
exceeded, or the value whereof {hall not at an
time exceed the fum of 2o/. fterling, or which
fhall be ufed with a ftuffed feat or cufhion,
or with a covered foot-board or apron thereto
fixed or not fixed, there fhall be charged the

annual fum of £ = - a

A Schedule of the Duties payable on Carriages with lefs than
Four Wheels.
N° IIT.
For every carriage with lefs than four wheels
chargeable by the faid act of the forty-eighth

210,090

of his prefent majefty’s reign with the dutyof £ s. d.
5/. 18s. if drawn by one horfe, mare, or geld-
ing, and no more, there {hall be charged the
like amount of duty for every fuch carriage
drawn by one horfe, mare, gelding or mais
and no more, viz. the annual fum of - =
For every fuch carriage chargeable by the faid
aét with the duty of 8/. 5s. if drawn by two
or more horfes, mares, or geldings, there {hall
be charged the like amount of duty for every
fuch carriage drawn by more than one horfe,
mare, gelding or mule, viz. the annualfum of 8
Asad for any additional body fucceffivelyufed on
the fame carriage or number of wheels charge-
able by the faid a& with the further duty of
21. 16s. there fhall be charged the like amount
of further duty, for every additigpal body fuc-
ceffively ufed on the fame carriage or number
of wheels, if drawn in the manner. herein
mentioned, viz. the further annual fum of -

5 oO

2 noo

Schedule (E.) N°1. Duties payable for all horfes, mares
and geldings, kept and ufed for the purpofe of riding, or
of drawing any carriage chargeable with duty by
Schedule (D.)

Amount of Duty

Number thereof. for each Hore,

Mare, or Gelding.

Lo os d.

For 1 fuch horfe, mare, or gelding 5 =1n2) onal 6
2 fuch horfes, mares, or geldings —- = 94,03,9146
3 - do. - - = 4. Lona
4 - do. - - pill Mehl Si 2)
5 - do. - - pfs ith oN)
6 - do. - - =e NG: Ca ek O
7 - do. - - =2'5 .1Osn0
8 - do. - - SPT OREO)
9 - do. . - = aly wile eG,
10 - do. - - Ske hs, 0
It - do. - - = § «7 6
12 - do. - - =, Sila t7 4a
13 - do. - - = is tS20
14 - do. - - =a istiin Tome O
15 - do. - - - 5 18 oO
16 - do. - - = Lyte no
17 - do. - - =9o5) stShin6
18 - do, - - <wiStiseiOny ©
19 - do, - - = HOLiIOp0
20 and upwards” - - - - eS unk, 70

Rules.—The faid duties’ to be payable annually for
every horfe, mate, or gelding, ufed on any occafion for
the purpofe of riding, or of drawing any carriage for
which any duty is payable by this aét, or hired by the
year, or any longer period, and to be paid by the.
perfon or perfons ufing the fame. Thefe duties are fub-
ject to certain exemptions in favour of hufbandry, under
certain circumftances.

Schedule (E.) N°z. Duties payable on horfes let to
hire.

For every horfe, mare, or gelding, let tohirefor £ 5, d.
the purpofe of riding, or of drawing any fuch
carriage as aforefaid, for any period of time
lefs than one year, in any manner fo that the
ftamp-office duty payable by law on horfes

let to hire fhall not be payable, the fumof - 213 6
Xz

To be charged annually on the perfon or
perfons letting the fame ; provided, if a
due return thereof hall not be made by
the hirer or hirers, according to this act,”

* the progreffive duty, as fet forth in
Schedule(E.) N° 1, fhall be chargeable
in refpeét of every fuch horfe, mare, or
gelding, on the perfon or perfons hiring
the famey and making fuch default as
aforefaid, fubject to the provifions of this
act.

Schedule (E.) N° 3. Duties payable on horfes kept for
the purpofe of racing or running for any plate, prize, or
fum of money, or other thing, or kept in training for any
of the faid purpofes.

For every horfe, mare, or gelding, bond fide kept int.
for the purpofe of racing or running for any
plate, prize, or fum of money, or other thing,
or kept in training for any of the faid pur-
pofes, whether in the ftables of the proprietor

or ee or of any other perfon or

pertons, the fum of - - - - -
The faid duty to be charged annually on
the perfon or perfons having the cuftody,
charge, or management o fuch horfes,
mares, or geldings.

Schedule (F.) N° 1. Duties payable for all horfes,
mares, -and geldings, not charged with any duty accord-
ing to the Schedule (E.) N° 1, 2, 3, and alfo on mules.

£ s. d.

ae 6

For every horfe, &c. not chargeable with any
duty according to the Schedule (E.) N° 1, 2,
and 3, as aforefaid, and for every mule, ex-
ceptin the cafes herein-after mentioned, where-
in other duties are made payable, the fum of

Schedule (F.) N° 2. Duties payable on hufbandry-horfes,

in the cafes herein-after mentioned.

om Oo

Any perfon occupying a farm at rack-rent, the £ s. d.
rent of which fhall be lefs than 20/. a-year,
and’ making a livelihood folely thereby, or
occupying any eftate on any other tenure than
as tenant at rack-rent folely, or fuch other
eftate, together with the farm at-rack-rent, the
value of which in the whole fhall be lefs than
equivalent to a farm at the rack-rent of 20/.
a-year (reckoning the value of every eftate
occupied by the owner thereof, or on any
tenure other than as tenant at rack-rent, as
equivalent to double the amount of the like
farm at rack-rent), and making a livelihood
folely by fuch his own ettate, i fuch eftate
and farm jointly, or principally thereby, and
likewife a profit by any trade or employment,
and keeping not more than two horfes, mares,
geldings, or mules, bond fide for the purpofe
of fuch occupation, fhall be charged for each
of fuch two horfes, mares, geldings, or mules,
the fum of - - - - - = oP 220

Any perfon occupying a farm at rack-rent in
Wales or Scotland, the tent of which fhall be
lefs than 10/. fterling a-year, and making a
livelihood principally thereby, or occupying
any eftate on ty other tenure than as tenant

‘at rack-rent, or fach other eftate, together

‘TAX:

with a farm at rack-rent, the value of which
in the whole fhall be lefs than equivalent to a
farm at the rack-rent of ro/. fterling a-year
(reckoning the value of every eftate occupied
by the owner thereof, or on any tenure other
than as tenant at rack-rent, as equivalent to
double the amount of the like farm, at rack- AN
rent), and ‘making a livelihood principally
thereby, and likewife a profit by any trade
or employment, and keeping not more than *
two horfes, mares, geldings, or mules, bond fide
for the purpofes of fuch occupation, and of
fuch trade or employment jomtly, or either of
them feparately, fhall be charged for each of
fuch two horfes, mares, geldings, or mules,
the fum of — - - - s = _

aed de

o 210

Rules for charging the duties, as fet forth re Schedule (Py
N° 1 and 2.

Fhe faid duties to be charged annually, and paid by the
perfon or perfons keeping or ufing fuch horfes, mares,
geldings, or mules, and to is payable for every horfe, mare
or gelding, and mule, which fhall not be chargeable nor
have been charged with any duty payable in that year, ac-
cording to the preceding fchedule marked (E.) by virtue
of the rules or exemptions therein contained, except as
herein-after is mentioned.

Exsmptions from the duties in Schedule (E.) N°1 and 2. ‘

Any perfon whatever, for any horfe, mare, or gelding,
not being by due admeafurement of the height of thirteen
hands, of four inches to each hand, or which fhall not at any
time whatever have been ufed for any purpofe of labour or
otherwife. See Horse and Horse-Dealer. ~

Schedule (G.) N° x.

For every greyhound, hound, pointer, fetting-
dog, {paniel, lurcher, or terrier, the annual
fum of - - - - - - -

For every dog, of whatever defcription or deno-
mination the fame may be, where any perfon
fhall keep two or more dogs, either. for his
or her own ufe, or the ufe of any other perfon
or perfons, the annual fum of — - < =

For every dog not being a greyhound, hound,
pointer, fetting-dog, Pater lurcher, or ter-
rier, kept by any perfon having one fuch dog,
and no more, whether the fame be kept for his
or her own ufe, or the ufe of any other perfon
or perfons, the annual fum of — - = =

The faid duties to be paid by the perfons
re{pectively keeping fuch dogs.

Duties payable on dogs.
£ os. d.

or °.6

Exemptions from the duties in Schedule (G.)

Cafe 1.—Any dog belonging to his maj
the c fartilgs eS one mays ee i

Cafe 2.—Any perfon who, on account of poverty, fhall
be difcharged foe the affeffment made in refj Pa ° yas or
her dwelling-houfe, in purfuance of the aaa et any
of the aéts herein-mentioned, and having one dog, and no
more, the fame not being a greyhound, hound, pointer, fet--
ting-dog, fpaniel, lurcher, or terrier.

ol 3.—Any perfon, in refpeét of a dog or whelp,
which at the time of returning the lifts of dogs as by this
ad is required, fhall not a€tually be of the age of fix calendar

months.
Cafe 4.

PAK:

Cafe 4.—Any perfon in refpect of the. whole number
of hounds by him or her kept in Great Britain, who fhall
compound for the fame, in any year within thirty days after
the 5th day of April in fuch year, in purfuance of notice
given to the collector or colle¢tors of the faid duty for any
parifh or place, where fuch perfon fhall be liable to be
affeffed, of his or her intention fo to do, and on payment of
the full fum of 34/. tterling to fuch colleétor or collectors,
for which a receipt fhall be given within the period before-
mentioned.

Schedule (H.) Duties payable by horfe-dealers.

Every perfon who. fhall ufe or exercife the trade -£ ss. d.
and bufinefs of a horfe-dealer within the cities
of London and Weitmintter, and the liberties
of the fame refpectively, the parifhes of St.
Mary-le-Bone and St. Pancras, in the county
of Middlefex, the weekly bills of mortality,
or the borough of Southwark, in the county
of Surrey, the annual duty of = - - - 122/10 ‘0
Every perfon who fhall ufe or exercife the trade
and bufinefs of a horfe-dealer in any other part
of Great Britain, the annual duty of - = I pS

Schedule (I.) Duties payable by perfons in refpeé& of
hair-powder ufed or worn by them.

By every perfon who fhall have ufedor worn any £ s. d.
hair-powder within the period limited by any
of the a&ts herein mentioned, the annual fum
of - - - - - - NY lle ost eo)

Schedule (K.) Duties payable by perfons in refpec of
any armorial bearing or enfign, ufed or worn by them,
by whatever name the fame fhall be called; viz.

By every fuch perfon chargeable with any duty £ s. d.
made payable by this a&, for any coach or
other carriage, the annual fum of - J odelli? ibides Yoain(o}

By every fuch perfon not chargeable for any
fuch coach or other carriage, but who fhall be
chargeable to any of the duties on inhabited
houfes, or to the duties on houfes, windows,
or lights, made payable by this aét, the annual
fum of - - = - - - -

By every fuch perfon not chargeable for any
fuch coach or other carriage, nor being
chargeable to the faid duties on imbabited
houfes, or to the duty on houfes, windows, or .
lights, the annual fum of - - - =P) 2 O

Schedule (L.) Duties payable in refpe& of killing game.

Upon every perfon who fhall ufe any dog,gun, £ s. d.
net, or other engine, for the purpole of taking
or killing any game whatever, or any wood-
cock, fnipe, quail or landrail, or any conies,
in any part of Great Britain :

If fuch perfon fhall be a fervant to any perfon
duly charged in re{pe& of fuch fervant to the
duties granted on fervants by this at, and
fhall ufe any dog, gun, net, or other engine,
for any of the purpofes before-mentioned,
upon any manor or royalty in England,
Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, or upon
any lands in Scotland, by virtue of any depu-
tation or appointment, duly regiftered or
entered as game-keeper thereto, there fhall

be charged the annual fumof - - - 1 4F 0

‘ie Biawaco)

And if fuch perfon as laft aforefaid fhall not be £ 5. d

a fervant, for whom the faid duties on fervants

fhall be charged, there fhall be charged the

annual fum of = = < > =r) ogsingh to
Upon every other perfon who fhall ufe any dog,

gun, net, or other engine for any of the pur- .

pofes before-mentioned, there fhall be charged

the annual fum of = - = - - “pe Sie tO

By’ the 46 Geo. III. ce. 84. every perfon having more
than two children born in lawful wedlock, and bond Jide
maintained at the expence of fuch perfon, fhall for every
fuch child above two be allowed at the rate of 4 per cent.
on the amount of all the affeffments on fuch perfon by
virtue of the 43 Geo. ITI. c. 161. .45 Geo. III. c. 13.
46 Geo. III. c. 78. in cafe the total amount of all the
affeffments fhall be under 4o/. in any one year, which
allowance fhall be made annually out of the duties fo
charged, at any time in the year of affeffment, on deli-
very of a declaration in writing, containing the whole
number of fuch children, and their refpetive names and
places of refidence, and which of them are of the family, or
refide elfewhere.

By {. 2. this provifion fhall extend to children by a
former marriage, either of the hufband or wife.

The ftatute 43 Geo. III. c. 99. reciting that it is expe+
dient that certain of the provifions contamed in any atts
relating to the duties on windows or lights, on inhabited
houfes, fervants, carriages, horfes, mules, and dogs, and
other duties lately transferred to the commiflioners for the
affairs of taxes, fhould be confolidated and amended : enatts
that all the faid duties under the management of fuch com-
miffioners (except the land-tax) fhall, from and after
Apni 5, 1804, be affeffed, raifed, levied, and paid under the
regulations thereof.

And as new duties may hereafter be placed under their
management, to be affeffed in like manner, it is declared
that this aét fhall, with refpeét to fuch duties, take effe&
after the time fixed by the aét or aéts granting them for
the commencement of the fame. See the provifions of this
at detailed in Burn’s Juttice, ubi fupra.

The property-tax being now extinét, we are happily re-
heved from giving any account of it.

For the qualifications and powers of commiffioners, the
appointment of affeffors and collectors, the mode of making
affeffments, furcharges, appeals, &c. &c. we refer to Burn’s
Juftice, art. Taxes. j

For the duty on poft-horfes, &c. fee Post-Hor/e.

The revenue arifing from the, feveral taxes, which is an-
nually paid to-the creditors of the public, or carried to the
finking fund, is firft depofited in the royal exchequer, and
thence iilued out to the refpeétive offices of payment: for
the manner in which it is applied, fee Funp and NaTIonaL
Debt. See alfo Revenue.

The people of France were ftrangers to tailles or taxes till
the time of St. Louis, when they were firft impofed in form
of fubfidies neceffary for the fupport of the war in the Holy
Land. See Croisape.

They were then extraordinary levies, and were raifed by
capitation ; but they were afterwards made perpetual under
Charles VII. and Philip the Fair, who, to raife money
without difturbing the people, called the people, as a third
eftate, into the general councils of the realm. f

Tax alfo denotes the tribute which tenants were occa-
fionally to pay their lord. ‘

Mott lords had a right of taxing on four occafions: viz.
when the lord was taken prifoner in a juft war; when oe

made

TA X&

made his eldeft fon a knight; when he married his eldeft
daughter to a gentleman; and when he made the voyage of
the Hoke Land. :

Naude fhews the extravagant rife of this kind of taxes :
thofe, he obferves, which Bie he Charles VI. only amounted to
the fum of 40,000 livres, were increafed under Charles VII.
to the fum of 1,800,000; under Louis XI. to 4,740,000 ;
under Charles VIII. to 6,000,000; and under Louis XII.
to 7,640,000 livres. :

Taxes were diftinguifhed into free, which were thofe due,
in the four cafes, by freemen, or thofe who held free lands ;
and fervile and ba/eé, which were thofe due from perfons of
bafe condition.

They were alfo diftinguifhed into real and perfonal. The
perfonal were impofed on the head of the feryant or man in
mainmort, and fo followed him wherever he went.

TAXA, in Geography, one of the {mall Weftern iflands,
near the fouth-eaft coaft of Ilay. N. lat. 55° 43'. W. long.

ot
PAXAMALCA, a town of Mexico; 60 miles S. of
Mexico. ;

TAXAMARCA, atown of Mexico, in the province
of Mechoacan ; 40 miles E. of Mechoacan.

TAXANTHEMA, in Botany, fo named by Necker,
from rakic, a row, and a9nux, inflorescence, becaufe fome
of the plants on which this fuppofed genus is founded differ
from other {pecies of Statice, in having their flowers difpofed
in a regular feries, or row, and not in a round head; wit-
nefs §. Limonium and its allies. Thefe {pecies indeed con-
ftitute Tournefort’s genus of Limonium, but he affociates
with them others with difperfed flowers. (See Srartice
and Limonium.) Mr. Brown, Prodr. Novy. Holl., y. 1.
426, adopts Necker’s genus and name, citing Tournefort’s
Limonium as afynonym, ‘The latter name was probably
judged too near Limonia to be retained, We prefume to
think the genus of Statice is in itfelf fo natural, and fo well
diftingaifhed from every other, that if a pra¢tical example
were defired, to warn us again{t founding generic diftin&tiens
upon inflorefcence alone, no better edule be feleted, See
Cymer and Genus. {

TAXERS, two officers yearly chofen in Cambridge, to
fee the true gauge of all weights and meafures obferved.

The name took beginning from taxing and rating the rents
of houfes, which was anciently the duty of their office.

TAX-GUTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Rhetia, towards the fource of the Rhine, near Brigantium.
Ptol.

TAXIANA, an ifland fituated in the Perfian gulf, on
the coaft of Sufiana, weft of the ifle of Tabiana. Prtol.

TAXILA, a large town of India, on this fide of the
Ganges. Prtol. and Strabo.

TAXIMIRA, atown of Phenicia. Strabo.

TAXIPA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Guafteca; 30 miles N.N.W. of Panuco.

TAXIS, zz&s, in the Ancient Architefure, fignifies the
fame with ordonnance in the new, and is defcribed by Vitru-
vius to be that which givés every part of a building its juft
dimenffons with regard to its ufe.

Taxis, from ragcu, to put in order, in Surgery, the opera-
tion of reducing a hernia with the hand. See a particular
account of it in the article Herta.

TAXITLAN, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Gualteca; 38 miles S. of St. Yago de los
Valles. .

TAXUS, in Botany, the ancient Latin name of the
Yew-tree, ufed by Pliny. The word is fuppofed by fome
to be derived from rofo,, a bow, arrow, or dart, becaufe

I

TAX

miffile weapons were poifoned with its berries. We are con-
fident that this precife explanation is erroneous, becaufe,
whatever may be the noxious qualities of any other part of
the plant, the berries are fimply mucilaginous and faccha-
rine, eatable with impunity, as we have often experiencede ~
The ancient ufe of this wood fort bows, perhaps alfo for
arrows or darts, might more truly account for the above
etymology, did not Diofcorides expre(sly tell us rz&os was
Latin. — Linn. Gen. 532. Schreb. 706. Willd. Sp. Pl.

v. 4. 856. Mart. Mill. Dié&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1086,
Prodr. Fl: Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 265.- Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 5. 415. Purth 647. Juff. 412. Lamarck Illuftr.

t. 829. Gaertn. t. 91.—Clafs and order, Dioecta Mona-
delphia. Nat. Ord. Conifere, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. none, except the feales of the
bud, refembling a perianth of four leaves. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments numerous, united below into a column,
longer than the bud; anthers depreffed, blunt, with eight
notches, at the edge, fplitting all round at the bafe, and
after fhedding their pollen becoming flat and. peltate, re-_
markable for their eight marginal fegments. i ;

Female, Cal. inferior, of one leaf, clofe, undivided, en-
tire. Cor. none. Pi/f, Germen fuperior, ovate, acute ;
{tyle none; ftigma obtufe. Perie. none, except a f{pu-
rious incomplete berry, formed of the ealyx elongated
into a globofe juicy coloured fheath, open at the top, at
length fhrivelling and drying away. Seed one, ovate-
oblong, projecting with its fummit beyond the berry.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Corolla none. Stamens
numerous. . Anthers peltate, with eight fegments. “ os

Female, Calyx cup-fhaped, entire. Style mone. Seed
one, partly enveloped in the pulpy calyx. *

Obf. Linnzus properly mentions that the berry of this
genus cannot, ftriétly fpeaking, be denominated a pericarp.
“It is a remarkable fpecies of berry, like which nothing
elfe is to be feen, except perhaps in Gaultheria.”? If the
analogy here cited be juit, the part in queltion is a real calyx,
not more extraordinary in its change than that of Blitum, or
of Morus, and we have always ventured to term it fuch,
trufting to the analogies of Juniperus and Ephedra for our
fupport.

1. T. baccata. Common Yew. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1472
Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n.1. Engl. Bot. t. 746. (Taxus;
Ger, Em. 1370. Matth. Valgr. v. z. 444. Camer. Epit.
840.)—Leaves linear, two-ranked, crowded, nearly flat.
Male flowers globofe.—Native of mountainous woods, par-
ticularly in the clefts of high calcareous rocks, in yarious
parts of Europe, from Norway to Greece, flowering in
March or April. Diofcorides indeed, who calls this tree
cusrat, {peaks of it as an exotic, the rxfos of the Romans
but Mr. Hawkins noticed it wild on the rocks of mount
Cyllenein Laconia. Thunberg fays it is common in Japan.
The trunk is ftraight, of flow growth, with a fmooth deci-
duous bark, and very hard, tough, clofe-grained wood.
Branches {preading horizontally in two direétions. Ties
numerous, fcattered, crowded, {preading in two rows, near!
feflile, linear, entire, flightly revolute, obtufe with a fall.
point, fmooth, of a dark {hining green, permanent, about
an inch long. Flowers axillary, folitary, nearly feffile, en-
veloped with imbricated dradeas ; the male ones numerous,
fometimes two or three together, cream-coloured, half the
fize of a pea, globofe, Sates with pollen; females
drooping, their green entire calyx juft vifible beyond the
brafeas. ‘This afterwards affumes the appearance of a bright
fcarlet berry, the fize of a currant, open at the top, where
the feed appears, The deaves are very poifonous, and if ace
cidentally eaten by domeftic cattle, prove fatal, The

ancients

4

TAXUS.

ancients report that it is dangerous to fleep under this tree.
it was formerly much planted in church-yards; and many
Yews, perhaps ‘the tenants of a thoufand years,’’ {till re-
main in the northern’ and Welfh village cemeteries. This
was the favourite tree for clipping inte any fantattic fhape,
on which art our old ‘gardeners fo much valued themfelves ;
but the art and the material are now nearly alike difcarded ;
and the garden is freed from one of the greateft afylums for
vermin, the trim yew hedge.

2. T. canadenfis. North American Yew. Willd. n. 2.
Purfh n. 1. (T. baccata 8, minor; Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. vy. 2. 245.)—Leaves linear, two-ranked, crowded,
revolute. Male flowers globofe, always folitary.—In fhady
rocky places in North America, flowering in March and
April. In Canada. Michaux. Covering a great part of
the rocky banks of the Antietum, in Maryland. Under
the fhade of other trees, it does not rife above two or three
feet. Purfh. Michaux defcribes this fpecies as of humbler
growth than the former, fpreading, and with {maller flowers
and fruit. Willdenow fays it is fmaller and narrower in all
its parts, nor does it alter by culture, and yet a fpecific dif-
tinétion is hardly to be deteéted. The Jeaves, however, are

narrower, {maller, and revolute at the margin. Male flowers
always folitary in the bofoms of the leaves.
3. T. elongata. Long-leaved African Yew. Ait. ed. 1.

Vv. 3. 415. ed. 2. n. 3. Willd. n.3. Thunb. Prodr. 117.
—Leeaves feattered, linear-lanceolate. Branches fomewhat
whorled. Male flowers cylindrical, with fpirally imbricated,
very numerous, anthers. —Native of the Cape of Good
Hope. Sent to Kew in 1774, and kept in feveral curious
greenhoufes in England as well as on the continent, flower-
ing in July. Wild fpecimens, anfwering to Thunberg’s
charaGter of the whorled branches, but without a name, are
preferved in the Linnzan herbarivm. In thefe the /eaves are
feattered, on fhort broad ftalks, flat, coriaceous, fomewhat
glaucous, occafionally falcate, from one to two inches long.
Male flowers axillary, folitary, cylindrical, obtufe, about
half an inch in length, their feale-like anthers imbricaied, ex-
a@tly like thofe of a Fir. The garden plant has /eaves half
as long again, not glaucous, fometimes oppofite on the
young branches, *

4. T. montana. Mountain Peruvian Yew. Willd. n. a.
—‘“ Leaves two-ranked, linear, with a callous point ; their
upper edge rounded at the bafe; lower contra¢ted.’’—Ga-
thered by Humboldt and Bonpland on the mountains of
Peru. Akin to TJ. deccata, but differing in the above cha-
ratter of the foliage. The fame travellers noticed, in Mexico,

' what Willdenow judged to be a mere variety of this fpecies,
with /eaves half as long again.

5- T. nucifera. Acorn-bearing Yew. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1472. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 3. “Thunb. Jap. 275.
Kempf. Am. Exot. 814. t. 815.— Leaves two-ranked,
diftant, lanceolate, pointed, but half the length of the fruit.
—Frequent, according to Kempfer, in the northern pro-
vinces of Japan, flowering in fpring, and ripening fruit late
im autumn. Thunberg obferved it here and there near Na-
gafaki, and in the ifland of Nipon. Mr. Aiton fays it was
cultivated in the greenhoufe of Capt. Thomas Cornwall, in
1764. We have never examined this fpecies. ‘Kampfer
defcrtbes it as a lofty ¢ree, with many oppofite fealy branches ;
the wood light. Leaves hardly an inch long, one-third of
an inch afunder, nearly feffile, tipped with a fhort point ;
dark fhining green above; glaucous beneath. Female
flowers axillary, folitary, difperfed, fomewhat quadrangular,
their thick flefhy {eales becoming a fort of pefmanent cup at
the bafe of the feed, or nut, which is coated, oval, pointed,
above an inch long. The oil of the kernel is efteemed for

culinary purpofes. The kernel itfelf is too altringent to be
eaten in general.

6. 'T. macrophylla. Long-leaved Japan Yew. Thunb.
Jap. 276. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 4. Banks Ic. Kempf.
t. 24. (Sin, vulgo Maki, feu Fon Maki, id eft Maki legi-
tima; Kempf. Am. Exot. 780. )—Leaves feattered, lanceo-
late, pointlefs, {preading every way. Fruit ftalked.—Com-
mon in Japan, flowering in June. Thunberg. Mr. William
Kerr brought it from China to Kew in 1804. A green-
houfe plant, flowering in July and Augutft. Aiton. Kampfer
defcribes this as a large and ftout tree, whofe wood is valued
for cabinet work, being not liable to the attacks. of infeéts,
or other caufes of decay. The /eaves are a finger’s length,
{preading equally in all direétions; paler beneath. Male
flowers cylindrical. Fruit axillary, ftalked, with a pair of
awl-thaped revolute feales at the top of the ftalk. The eed
is oval, the fize of a pea, and feems by Kempfer’s figure to
be elevated on a partial ftalk above the flethy calyx. Thun-
berg, however, {peaks of the “ ovate fmooth green berry,
turning black in drying, filled by an ovate white /eed.”
Perhaps this may be a coated ‘nut, as in 7. nucifera.

7. T. fpinulofa. Spinous-leaved Yew. — Leaves partly
oppofite or whorled, lanceolate, fpinous-pointed, {preading
every way. Fruit ftalked.—For a fpecimen of this, faid to
have been brought by governor Philip from Port Jackfon,
New South Wales, we are indebted to A. B. Lambert,
ef{q. It very much refembles Kempfer’s plate of the lait,
in general habit, but the /eaves are hardly an inch and
quarter long, and haye each a fpinous point. The ftalks
of the fruit are axillary, each crowned with a pair of lanceo-
late, revolute, permanent feales. Fruit oval, elevated on a
ftalk, which is equal in length to the calyx, compofed of
feveral flefhy fcales, that envelopes it. The fize and whole
appearance of this fruit and its accompaniments are fo pre-
cifely like Kempfer’s figure of the laft, which indeed they
help us to underitand, that thefe two plants muft be of the
{ame genus, and are more truly perhaps akin to 7. nucifera,
than to 7. baccata. On this fubje& we may expeé informa-
tion hereafter from Mr. Brown ; if at leaft our prefent plant
be really a native of New South Wales.

8. T. Jatifolia. Broad-leaved Cape Yew. Thunb.
Prodr. 117. Willd. n. 7.—* Leaves folitary, lanceolate,
pointed, {mooth.”’—Found by Thunberg at the Cape of
Good Hope.

9g. T. falcata. Sickle-leaved Cape Yew. Thunb.
Predr. 117. Willd. n. 8.—* Leaves folitary, lanceolate,
falcate, fmooth.”’—From the fame country. One of our
wild fpecimens of T. elongata an{wers to this definition.

10. 'T. tomentgfa. Downy Cape Yew. "Thunb. Prodr.
117. Willd. n. 9.—** Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, downy
beneath.”’—-Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg, whofe
{pecific charaéters of thefe fpecies, except of the laft, are
not fuffieient to diftinguifh them from the reft. We have

feen no fpecimens.

11. T. verticillata. Whorled Japan Yew. Thunb. Jap.
276. Willd. n. 10. (Ken fin, item Sen baku, vulgo Inu
Maki, id ef Maki {puria; Kempf. Am. Exot. 780.)—
Leaves whorled, linear, falcate.—Native of Japan. A tree
with denfe branches, gradually fhorter upward, fo as to
affume a conical figure, like a Cyprefs, three fathoms high.
Fruit oblong, in two divifions; the lower part refembling
moufe-dung ; the upper a grain of pepper, in which 1s
loofely enclofed a flefhy, foft, fweetifh kernel. Such is
Kempfer’s defcription, by which it is eafy to perceive the
clofe refemblance of this fruit to our 7. macrophylla and /pi-
nulofa. A fpecimen from Thunberg, without fruétification,

in the Linnzan herbarium, anfwers well to his own defcrip-
tion,

Tie
tion, having round, fmooth, greyith branches. Whorls

from one to two inches afunder, each of about eight feffile,
linear, falcate, entire, {mooth, fingle-ribbed /eaves, a finger’s
length, or more ; two lines broad ; obtufe, or flightly emar-
ginate, at the end; of a dark fhining green above ; paler
beneath. .

Taxus, in Gardening, furnifhes a plant of the hardy ever-
green kind, of which the fpecies moftly cultivated is the
common yew-tree (T. baccata.) This is a tree which has
feveral varieties, as thofe with very fhort leaves, with broad
fhining leaves, and with ftriped or variegated leaves.

Method of Culture.—In this tree, the increafe may be
effected in feveral ways, as by feeds, and fometimes by
layers and cuttings. In the firft mode, after having procured
a quantity of the yew berries, and divefted them of the pulp
or mucilage, they fhould be fown in beds of light earth,
either in fhallow drills, or {cattered over the furface in the
autumn or {pring feafon; but the former is the beft method,
as the plants rife in the following fpring; and be covered
near an inch deep with light mould, out of the alleys, &c.
They require no further care, only to keep the beds clean
from weeds before and after the plants come up, and to

ive occafional waterings in dry weather, in {pring and

ummer, to forward and ftrengthen the plants in their
rowth. They fhould have two years’ growth in the feed-
bed; thenin the autumn or {pring be planted out upon four-
feet-wide beds, in nurfery rows, a foot afunder, to remain
two, three, or four years, when fome may be planted out
finally for hedges, where required ; others in the nurfery
quarters, in rows, two or three feet afunder, to be trained
in a fuitable manner for the purpofes they are intended.

And after growing in the nurfery till they obtain from
half a yard to four or five feet ftature, they may be finally
planted out in autumn or f{pring, for their intended pur-

fes ; when they will rife | et the ground with a large

pread of roots. They fhould be planted in their places as
foon after removal as poffible, giving each plant a good
watering at the time. ;

In the future culture, thofe trained in hedges, &c. muft
be clipped or cut in annually, once or twice in the fummer ;
and thofe in the fhrubberies and rural plantations have the
lower branches pruned up occafionally to a fingle ftem ; but
the head fhould generally be permitted to fpread agreeably
to its natural mode of growth, except jul reducing any
confiderable rambling branch, &c.

But the ftriped or variegated yews, and other varieties,
fhould be increafed by layers, flips or cuttings, as they are
rarely permanent by feeds. The layers fhould be made
from the young fhoots of not more than a year or two old,
being laid down in fpring, fummer, or early in autumn,
when many of them will take root, and in one or two years
be fit for planting off into nurfery rows.

And the flips and cuttings fhould be made by cutting or
flipping off a quantity of the one-year’s fhoots, diaetting
them of the lower leaves, and planting them in a fhady
border thick together, in {mall trenches, in the early {pring
or autumn, giving water at planting, and afterwards occa-
fionally in dry hot weather. They will be well rooted in
two years, and be fit for being planted out into wide nurfery
rows, or in any other fimilar manner.

All thefe plants may be employed as ornamental ever-
greens, and as foreft-trees; and they were formerly much
ufed in hedges and trained figures : they have a good effec
in fhrubberics among others of the evergreen tribe, bein
permitted to affume their natural growth, in common with
other trees and fhrubs; and alfo when planted as detached
ftandards, in extenfive diitant opens of grafs-ground, in

10

TAY

parks, and the fides of hills, &c. ; likewife when introduced as
foreft-trees in timber plantations of the evergreen kind. See
PLANTATION.

The different forts of hedges and figure-works which

were formerly, in fo high repute in gardens end pleafure-

rounds, are now almoft wholly in difufe; thefe being at pre-
feat laid out in a more open and rural manner, fo as to eo
a greater imitation of nature, and amore full difplay of their
feveral quarters and parts, as the lawn, walks, and other
places, together with the various plants belonging to
them.

Single yews are now even hardly ever admitted in modern
defigns by way of ornament, but thefe trees, in their natural
growths, are defirable for introducing into large plantations
of the durative kind, for the fake of increafing the variety;
and though fome perfons rejeét them in confequence of their
poifonous nature, and gloomy mournful afped, others admire
them for fuch folemn appearances, and think they afford a
remarkably fine contraft with the other more lively ever-
greens. . There can be no doubt that the leaves, efpecially
when withered, or dried a little, are of a poifonous quality ;
befides, the tree has had the title of the deadly yew given to
it by fome, and been looked upon as an emblem of mortality,
and on that account planted in church-yards, to remind
people of their latter end. That accidents have frequently —
arifen to cattle, of both the horfe and cow kind, from eating
the green leaves and tender fhoots, but more particularly
when in the above ftates, is certain. Therefore, as the
cuttings or clippings of thie fort are often liable to be eaten
with greedinefs by fome cattle, particularly cows, even
when they have lain in the fun for a day or two, and are
become half dried, it is proper and neceffary that they fhould
be cither carefully deftroyed by fire, or put quite out of the
way of all forts of animals, and not, as is too frequently the
practice, be carelefsly thrown over the walls or hedges, into
the roads, lanes, or on the rubbifh heaps, where’ cattle
frequent. : 7 :

The beft fizes of yew plants are probably from two or three,
to five or fix feet in height; but thofe of feven or eight may
be removed with balls of earth about their roots, and be
ufed for particular purpofes and occafions. Watering at
the time of planting them is conftantly requifite.

Taxus, in Zoology, the Ursus Males, or common Badger ;
which fee.— Alfo, a name given by Kempfer to the hyena
of the ancients. See Canis Hyena, and Hy ana. ‘

TAY, in Geography, is a river in Perthfhire, Scotland,
confidered as the greate{t of the Scottifh rivers, has its fou
in the weftern extremity of the county, in the diftri@
Breadalbane, on the frontiers of Lorn, in Argylefhire; bu!
has not the appellation of Tay till it iffues from the lake o
that na:ne. At its fource it bears the name of Fillan; and
defcending in a circuitous courfe of eight or nine miles
through a valley, to which it gives the name of Strathfillan,

it falls into Loch Dochart. This lake, about three miles in —
length, has an ancient caftle upon an ifland, overh by a
promontory ; the whole embowered with wood, fo as

huge
to cae a moft romantic appearance. Iffuing from Loch
Dochart, the river retains that name, and gives the appella-
tion of Glen-Dochart to the vale throu F which it runs.
At the eaftern extremity of this valley, the water is aga
detained in its courfe; and being augmented by the river
Lochay, the united ftreams form one of the moft beautiful
of the Scottith lakes, called Loch Tay. Iffuing hence, the
river affumes the name of the lake, which name it i
til it mingles with the waters of the ocean. The
through which it pafles may be confidered as the '
of the Highlands. On Loch Tay, and the river for
fome

PAY

fome miles below it, the banks are richly cultivated, or
covered with beautiful plantations, the whole overlooked
and fheltered by mountains towering to the clouds; among
which rifes the lofty Benlawers, the third mountain in point
of height in.the ifland. Here, near the village of Kenmore,
is the magnificent feat of the earl of Breadalbane, called
Taymouth ; and in this valley, although the parifhes are
twenty, thirty, or forty miles in extent, feveral parifh-
churches are fituated in a tract of a few miles; a circum-
ftance which demonftrates the difcernment of the clergy in
ancient times in feleGting their place of refidence. After
leaving the lake about two miles, the Tay acquires a great
increafe from the waters of the Lyon; at Logierat it re-
ceives the united ftreams of the Garry and. the Tummel,
and becomes a river of uncommon fize and beauty. Near
Dunkeld it is increafed by the waters of the Bran, and re-
ceiving in its courfe the Ifla, with its tributary ftreams from
the eaft, and the Almond from the weit, proceeds by Perth
between the hills of Kinnoul and Moncrieff, till it meets the
Earn, after which it proceeds eaftward, forming the eftuary
or Frith of Tay; which expands to the breadth of three
miles, but contra¢ts to two miles as it approaches Dundee,
about eight miles below which, it pours its waters into the
German ocean. The hills of Kinnoul and Moncrieff afford
extenfive profpects; that from the latter is denominated by
Pennant the ‘ Glory of Scotland.”? The Tay is navi-

able as far as Newburgh, in Fife, for veffels of 500 tons;
and veffels of confiderable fize can go up as far as Perth.
The Frith of Tay is not fo commodious as that of the
Forth; but from the Buttonnefs or Barray fands to Perth
(an extent of nearly forty miles), the whole may be con-
fidered as a harbour; having the county of Fife on one
fide, and thofe of Angus and Perth on the other. There
are fewer great falls of water on the Tay than in moft other
rivers which rife in a highland diftri&t ; but it poffeffes
feveral cafcades of confiderable height, particularly at the
Linn of Campfie, near its jun€tion with the Ifla, where the
water is precipitated over a huge bafaltic dike into a pool of
great depth.— Beauties of Scotland, vol.iv. Perthfhire,
1806. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806.

Tay, Loch, a lakein Perthfhire, Scotland, extends about
fifteen miles in length from the village of Killin, its
weftern extremity, to its eaftern termination at the village
of Kenmore ; its breadth is only from one to two miles. Its
depth varies in different parts, from fifteen to a hundred
fathoms. The banks on both fides are fertile, and finely
diverfified by the windings of the coafts and the varied ap-
pearances of the mountains. On a {mall promontory near
the eaftern extremity, are the church and village of Ken-
more, near which, on a {mall ifland covered with trees,
ftand the ruins of a priory, which was dependent on the
religious eftablifhment of Scone. It was founded, in 1122,
by fing Alexander I., who depofited there the remains of his
queen Sybilla, the natural daughter of Henry I. of England.
On the death of Alexander the priory was more liberally
endowed, that the monks might perform maffes for the
repofe of his foul, as well as for that of his queen. The
loch abounds with falmon, pike, perch, eels, charr and
trout. The falmon are peculiarly excellent; the fifhery
for which commences in December, and ends on the 26th
of Auguft. The earl of Breadalbane has the exclufive
right of fifhing there at all feafons. This privilege was
originally granted for the purpofe of fupplying fifh for the
monks of the priory, and at the diffolution was, with the
ifland, claimed by this noble family. The waters of this
lake have at times fuffered violent and unatcountable agita-
tion. An ample account of one of thefe phenomena, which

Vou. XXXV.

ARO AV

occurred on Sundays September 12, 1780, is publifhed in
the firft volume of the Tranfa&tions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh. Jt was written by Mr. Fleming, late
minifter of Kenmore. He ftates, that “ about nine o’clock
in the morning the water was obferved to retire about five
yards within the ordinary boundary, and in four or five
minutes to flow out again. In this manner it ebbed and
flowed fucceflively three or four times within the {pace of a
quarter of an hour, when all at once the water rufhed from
the eaft and weft in oppofite currents, and rofe in the form
of a great wave to the height of five feet above the ordinary
level, leaving the bottom of the bay dry to the diftance of
between ninety and an hundred yards from its natural
boundary. When the oppofite currents met, they made a
clafhing noife and foamed; and the ftronger impulfe being
from the eaft, the wave, after rifing to its greateft height,
rolled weftward, but flowly diminifhing as it went, for the
{pace of five minutes, when it wholly difappeared. As the
wave fubfided, the water flew back with fome force, and
exceeded its original boundary four or five yards; then it
ebbed again about ten yards, and again returned, and con-
tinued to ebb and flow in this manner for the {pace of two
hours, the ebbings fucceeding each other at the diftance of
about feven minutes, and gradually leffening, till the water
fettled into its ordinary level. During the whole time that
this phenomenon was obferved, the weather was calm. It
could {carcely be perceived that the dire€tion of the clouds
was from north-eaft.”” On the 13th of July, 1794, the
loch experienced agitations fimilar to thofe defcribed by
Mr. Fleming, but they were neither fo violent nor fo lone
continued.— Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv. Perththire. %

Tay, ariver of Ireland, in the county of Waterford,
se runs into the fea, 7 miles W.N.W. from Dungarvan

ay.

TAYA, a river of Auftria, which rifes near Schweigers,
pafles by Drofendorf, and enters Moravia, paffes by Znaym,
Laab, &c. and joins the Marfch, 4 miles N.N.E. of
Hockenau.— Alfo, a imall ifland in the Indian fea, near
the weft coait of Siam. N. lat. 7°38’. E. long. 98° 301.

TAYABO, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Celebes, in Gunong-Tellu bay. S. lat. 1°10’. E. long.
121° 30).

TAYASAN, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Negros. N. lat. 10° 18’. E. long. 123° 3/.

TAYBA, a ruined town in the deferts of Syria, which
fhews in its prefent ftate, evident marks of its former mag-
nificence. ;

TAYECUA, a town of South America, in the province
of Darien ; 30 miles W. of St. Marie de Darien.

TAYGETA, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Laconia.

TAYGETUS, a mountain of Laconia, S.W. of Bryfées,
being a portion of a {mall chain of mountains on the pro-
montory of Tenarus, on the frontiers of Arcadia. It was
famous for the abundance of its game. On this mountain
was a place confecrated to the fun, called by Paufanias
“ Talet.”” Here they facrificed, among other vidims,
horfes. ‘ ;

TAYKYATT, along and ftraggling town of the Birman
empire, on the W. fide of the Irawaddy ; 5 miles W.N.W.
of Yeoungbenzah.

TAYL, in Heraldry. See Tai.

TAYLOR, Broox, LL.D. and F.R.S., in Biography,
an eminent mathematician, was born of a good: family, at
Edmonton, near London, in the year 1685. In early life he
devoted himfelf to mufic, drawing, and painting, in which
he was reckoned to excel. At the fame time he purfued

his

TAYLOR.

his claffical ftudies and mathematics under a private tutor ;
and in 1701, at the age of 15, he was entered a fellow-
commoner at St. John’s college, in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. Such was his affiduity in the profecution of
mathematics, that in 1708 he compofed his treatife “ On
the Centre of Ofcillation,” which was publifhed in the
Phil. Tranf. In the next year he took his degree of
bachelor of laws, and in 1712 he was eleéted fellow of the
Royal Society. Bya letter addreffed to Mr. Machin, dated
in this year, it appears that he had then given a folution of
Kepler’s famous problem, ae out its importance and
ufe. He alfo at the fame period prefented to the Society
three papers, viz. “ On the Afcent of Water between two
Glafs Planes ;’”’ “On the Centre of Ofcillation ;”’ and * On
the Motion of a ftretched String.”’ In confideration of his
fervices to the Society, and diftinguifhed qualifications for
the office, he was eleéted their fecretary in 1714, taking in
the fame year his degree of doétor of laws at Cambridge.
In 1715, he publifhed his ‘‘ Methodus Incrementorun ;””
a curious eflay, preferved in the Phil. Tranf. entitled, “* An
Account of an Experiment for the Difcovery of the Laws
of Magnetic Attraétion ;”’ and alfo a treatife, of high value
and reputation, “ On the Principles of Linear Periaecs
tive.’? His correfpondence this year with count de Mont-
mort on the tenets of Malebranche was ably conducted, and
gained for him an eulogy from the French academy ; and in
1716, on his vifit to Pri; he was treated with great per-
fonal refpe&. Upon his return to London, in 1717, he
compofed three treatifes, publifhed in the 30th volume of
the Phil. Tranf.; the titles of which are, “ An Attempt
towards an Improvement of the Method of approximating
in the Extraétion of Roots of Equations in Numbers ;”’
« A Solution of Demoivre’s 15th Problem, with the
Affiftance of Combinations and infinite Series ;’’ and “ A
Solution of the Problem of G. G. Leibnitz propofed to the
Englifh.” His health being impaired by intenfe appli-
cation, he was obliged to feek relief at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Upon his return, in 1719, he directed his attention to ftudies
very different from thofe to which he had been accuftomed ;
and the fruits of thefe ftudies have been found among his
ee by his grandfon fir William Young, in detached
ragments of a treatife on the Jewifh facrifices, and a differ-
tation on the lawfulnefs of eating blood. His leifure hours
were ftill deyoted to the application of mathematics in the
improvement of the arts ; and with this view he revifed his
treatife on Linear Perfpeétive, which appeared in a new and
enlarged form. Drawing was alfo a favourite amufement.
His treatife on Linear Perfpeétive, which has been held
among mathematicians in the higheft eftimation, pro-
Sind: at this time a controverfy, which terminated in a very
ferious mifunderftanding, between him and J. Bernoulli.
This treatife, abftrufe to thofe who confult it for mere
practical purpofes, was rendered more plain and perf{picuous
by Mr. Kirby, in an edition, entitled “ Brook Taylor’s
Perfpeétive made eafy.’? Our author’s anfwer to Bernouilli
is preferved in the 30th volume of the Phil. Tranf. Soon
after his return to England in 1721, he publifhed the laft
paper that appears with his name in the Phil. Tranf. en-
titled « An Experiment made to afcertain the Proportion
of Expanfion of Lifter in the Thermometer, with regard
to the Degree of Heat.”

Dr. Taylor was twice married: his fecond wife was a
daughter of John Sawbridge, efq. of Olantigh in Kent.
On the death of his father, in 1729, he fucceeded to the
family eftate of Bifrons in Kent, and in the following year
his wife died in child-bed. About this time he’ probably
wrote the effay, entitled Contemplatio Philofophica,”

publifhed by fir W. Young ia 1793. But though hie

mind might have thus obtained temporary relief, he furvived

his wife little more than a year, and died of a decline in the
46th year of his age, December 1731. ‘ I am fpared,’?

phical fketch with a prolix detail of his charaéter; in the

{ays his defcendant, ‘¢ the neceffity of clofing this ca ae
ft

acceptation of duties, relative to each fituation of life in
which he was engaged; his own writings, and the writings of
thofe who beft knew him, prove him to have been the finifhed
Chriftian, gentleman, and fcholar.””_ Life by his grandfon,
fir William Young, prefixed to his Pofthumous Works.
Taytor, JEREMY, an eminent divine and prelate of the
eftablithed church in Ireland, was the fon of a barber at
Cambridge, where he was born in the early part of the, 17th
century. At the age of 13 he was admitted at Gonville
and Caius college in the univerfity of that place, where he
remained till he took the degree of M.A. Having taken
orders, he occafionally preached in London, and obtained by
the intereft of archbifhop Laud, in 1636, a fellowhip of
All Souls’ college, Oxford. Here he refitted attempts
that were made to profelyte him to popery, and became
more eftablifhed in Proteftant principles. Laud appointed
him one of his chaplains, and procured for him the re€tory
of Uppington, in which he fettled about the year 1640, at
which time he furrendered his fellowfhip and married. In
1642 he was chaplain in ordinary to Charles I., and fe
his caufe by writing in defence of the church of England.
When the parliament became victorious, his living was
fequeftered, and he retired into Wales, where he wad indy
received by the earl of Carbery, of Golden Grove, near
Llandilo, in Carmarthenfhire ; under whofe prote@ion he
exercifed his miniftry, and kept a fchool for the fupport of
his family. In this ftate of retirement, he compofed thofe
difcourfes, which caufed him to be held in high eftimation,
as one of the firft writers in the Englifh language, “ with
refpect to fertility of conception, eloquence of expreffion,
and comprehenfivenefs of thought.’? At this period the
death of three hopeful fons difturbed his tranquillity, and
rendered it neceflary for him to change the feene and to
remove to London, where he expofed himfelf-to confiderable
danger by officiating in a private congregation of Joyalifts.
Invited by Edward lord Conway to his feat at Portmore in
the county of Antrim, he remained in Ireland until the
Reftoration. On that event he came over to England, and in
January 1660-1, his fervices were recompenfed by the pro-
motion to the fees of Down and Connor., He was alfo
made privy-counfellor of Ireland, and appointed to the ad-

miniitration of the bifhopric of Dromore, and honoured with’

the office of vice-chancellor to the univerfity of Dublin. In
thefe nee and refponfible ftations he paid fedulous atten-
tion to his official duties, exhibited an example of piety,
humility, and charity ; and employed fo great a part of his
income in doing good, both privately and publicly, that
when he died at Lifburne in 1667, he left only moderate
portions to his three daughters. His perfon was comely,
his manners were polite, his voice was melodious, and: his
converfation was agreeable. Of his works, which were
numerous, confilting chiefly of fermons and devotional pieces,
and printed in four, and alfo in fix volumes, folio, the
moft remarkable is entitled, “« Theologia Ecleética, or @
Difcourfe on the Liberty of Prophefying ; fhewing the un-
reafonablenefs of preferibing to other men’s faith, and the
iniquity of perfecuting different opinions,” gto. firft pub-
lifhed in 1647. The author, when this book was written,
belonged to a vanquifhed and perfecuted party; and he
ftrongly and boldly pleads for liberty of confcience, and the
rights of individuals to judge for themfelves in matters of

8 religion»

—s —_— —_
aa i Dl i a i tl ee

i

-

TAYLOR.

religion. This work, confidering the time in which it was
‘«ritten, and the conne¢tions of the author, indicates a very
enlightened mind with regard to the fubjeéts of difcuflion ;
and it is perufed with no imall degree of intereft in the pre-
fent period of greater knowledge and liberality. With
vefpect to toleration, however, we obferve, that he limits it to
fuch doétrines as are not inconfiftent with fociety or the public
good ;—a limitation which is capable of being much mif-
eonftrued and mifapplied. Having afferted, as a firft prin-
ciple, that ‘ the duty of faith is completed in believing the
articles of the Apoitles’ creed,” he could not confiitently
approve the impofition of itritter creeds. Of the
Athanafian creed he thus fpeaks: ‘ If I fhould be quef-
tioned concerning the fymbol of Athanafius, I confeffe I
eannot {fee that moderate fentence and gentlenefle of
charity in his preface and conclufion, as there was in the
Nicene creed. Nothing there but damnation and perifhing
everlaftingly, unleffe the article of the Trinity be believed, as
it is there with curiofity and minute particularities ex-
plained. Befides, if it were confidered concerning Athana-
fius’s creed, how many people underitand it not, how con-
trary to natural reafon it feems, how little the fcripture fayes
of thofe curiofities of explication, and how tradition was not
clear on his fide for the article itfelfe, much leffe for thofe
forms and minutes,—and after all this, that the Nicene creed
itfelfe went not fo farre, neither in article, nor anathema, nor
explication, it had not been amifle if the final judgment had
been left to Jefus Chriit.’”

This celebrated work did not efcape invidious criticifm
and fevere animadverfion. Among others we may mention
Anthony Wood, who, with cenfurable illiberality, fuggefted,
that Taylor in this book, and Hales in his traét on Schifm,
employed their arguments as a ftratagem by way of raifing
faétions among the Prefbyterians, and diflolving their union.
The moft popular of Taylor’s other writings, have been his
<¢ Golden Grove, or Manual of daily Prayers;’’ his treatife
on “* Holy Living and Dying ;” and his “ Duétor Dubi-
tantium, or Rule of Confcience.’”’? Dr. Dodwell long fince
obferved, and not unjuftly, that “ Dr. Taylor, in his volu-
minous writings, faid many lively things, which will not
bear a ftri€t examination.”” Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

Taytor, Joun, D.D. a learned and highly refpectable
divine among Proteftant Diffenters, was born in the year
1694, at or near Lancafter. After having received his edu-
cation at Whitehaven under Dr. Dixon and others, he was
nominated by one of the Difney family to the chapel of
Kirkttead, in Lincolnfhire, exempt from ecclefiattical jurif-
diction, and which had been occupied from the latter end of
the preceding century by diffenting minifters. Here he
lived, on a {mall falary aided by a fchool, for 18 years; and
laid a foundation for the theological celebrity, which he
afterwards acquired by a diligent ftudy of the fcriptures in
their original languages. In this obfcure and retired fituation
he did not efcape notice; and in the year 1733, he complied
with an invitation from the Prefbyterian ope le at Nor-
wich. To his-congregation, which had been before his fettle-
ment ferved by Calviniftic minifters, he recommended the
perufal of Dr. Clarke’s Scripture-DoGirine of the Trinity.
His firft publication was “ A Prefatory Difcourfe to
Mr. Jofeph Rawfon’s Cafe,”? who, in 1736, had been ex-
cluded from communion with the congregational church
at Nottingham, for refufing his affent to a declaration re-
quired of him concerning the Trinity ; in which he ably
defended the right of Chriftians to deduce their faith from
the fcriptures, without the intervention of creeds and fub-
feriptions. His firft avowed attack upon Calviniftic theo-
ogy, was the publication of his * Scripture-Doétrine of

Original Sin,” which firft appeared in 1740, This excited
alarm and animadverfion. (For an account of this contro-
verfy, fee the article Original Stn.) Dr. Taylor’s fupple-
ment was publifhed in 1741. This was fucceeded, in
1745, by “ A Paraphrafe on the Epiftle to the Romans,
with a Key to the Apoftolic Writings.’’? This “ Key”
was well received, and has been highly commended. . The
late learned Dr. Watfon, bifhop of Llendaf, has given it a
place in his ‘* Theological 'Traéts ;?’ and archdeacon Paley
recommends a careful perufal of the Paraphrafe on the
Romans to candidates for priefts’ orders. "The labours of
his fubfequent years produced feveral {mall tras, and par-
ticularly his “ Scripture-Dotrine of Atonement ;’’ but
his opus majus, as we may juftly denominate it, was his
“© Hebrew Concordance,” in folio, the firft volume of
which appeared in 1754, and the fecond in 1757. This
work, which does immortal honour to the critical fkill and
indefatigable afliduity of the author, was encouraged by a
great number of fubfcribers, among whom we may enumerate
twenty-two Englifh, and fifteen Irifh bifhops. Soon after
the publication of this performance, the author was pre-
fented by the univerfity of Glafgow with the degree of
D.D. In 1754 he publifhed a pamphlet, entitled “ The
Lord’s Supper explained upon Scripture Principles,” and
in 1757 appeared a defence of infant baptifm, entitled
«© The Covenant of Grace.” Dr. Taylor was happily
fituated at Norwich, and received every teftimony of refpect
to which his learning and charat¢ter entitled him; but a
{cene of more public and general ufefulnefs was opened to
him in the year 1757, when he was invited to fupply the
place of divinjty-tutor at the newly-founded academy of
Warrington, in Lancafhire. But here his fituation was
rendered unpleafant to him; and fome events occurred
which affected his health and fpirits. Although he per-
formed his official duties for fome time amidit the difquiets
which he experienced, he was at length carried off, by an un-
perceived death, during the night of March 5, 1761, at the
age of 66 years. At Warrington he publifhed two pamph-
lets, wz. ‘* An Examination of the Scheme of Morality ad-
vanced by Dr. Hutchefon, late Profeffor of Morality in the
Univerfity of Glafgow,”? and “ A Sketch of Moral Philo-
fophy,”’ for the ufe of his clafs. He alfo prepared for the
prefs “¢ The Scripture Account of Prayer, in an Addrefs
to the Diffenters in Lancafhire,”’ in confequence of the in-
troduétion of a liturgy at Liverpool, an innovation in the
accuftomed mode of worfhip among Diffenters which he
difapproved. His pofthumous work, entitled “* A Scheme
of Scripture Divinity,” was publifhed by Mr. Richard
Taylor of Norwich, his eldeit furviving fon; and it was
held in fuch eftimation by the late bifhop of Llandaff, as
to form a part of his Colleton of Traéts. As a preacher,
Dr. Taylor was plain and fimple in his language, but digs
nified and impreffive ; and he excelled in a critical explana-
tion of difficult paflages of feripture. He had the merit of
introducing into the congregation at Norwich a fpirit of
liberal enquiry, which, we are informed, ftill continues. Me-
moir on the Life of Dr. John Taylor of Norwich.

Taytor, Joun, LL.D., the fon of a barber at Shrewf-
bury, was born about the year 1703, and diftinguifhed him-
felf as a fcholar and critic. After a courfe of preparatory
education in his native town, he was entered at St. John’s
college in Cambridge, and became a fellow of it in the year
1730, in which year he publifhed two Latin academical
orations. In 1732 appeared propofals for an edjtion of
Lyfias. He was firft librarian and afterwards regiftrar of
the univerfity. His “ Lyfias,” Gr. and Lat., with the
conjeétures of Markland, was publifhed from the prefs of

Y2 Bowyer

TAYLOK.

Bowyer, in 1739; and a new edition, with Taylor’s verfion
and notes, was printed at Cambridge in the following year.
Upon taking his degreeof LL.D. he delivered and publifhed
a differtation under the title of “‘ Commentarius ad le
decemyiralem de inope debitore in partes diffecando.”? In
1743, he publifhed “ Orationes due; una Demofthenis
contra Meidiam; altera Lycurgi contra Leocratem,” Gr.
and Lat. with notes and emendations ; and in the following
year, “* Marmor Sandvicenfe, cum Commentario et Notis,”
being a differtation on an Athenian marble brought to
England by lord Sandwich, bearing the oldeft infcription of
known date.

In 1741, Dr. Taylor had been admitted an advocate in
Doétors’ Commons, and in 1744 he was made chancellor of
Lincoln. He afterwards took orders, and printed a fermon
preached at Bifhop-Stortford in 1749. He was, prefented
to the archdeaconry of Buckingham, to the re€tory of
Lawford, Effex; and in 1757 to a refidentiaryfhip of
St. Paul’s. In 1755, ftill profecuting his legal ftudies, he
publithed ‘ Elements of the Civil Law,’”’ gto. reprinted in
1769. An abridgment of this learned work, entitled
«A Summary of the Roman Law,” was publithed in

1773-

ee Taylor held alfo the offices of commiffary of Lincoln
and of Stowe: he was a member of the Royal and Anti-
quarian Societies ; and of the latter heswas one of the vice-
prefidents. At the time of his death, his long-promifed
edition of Demolthenes was juft finifhed, in two vols. 8vo.
at the univerfity prefs, Cambridge ; and the notes were
afterwards added, together with part of an appendix to
Suidas. The charaéter of Dr. Taylor was that of an
amiable and difinterefted man; and the world was deprived
of his learned labours in April 1766. To the works
already mentioned, we may add fome remarks inferted in
Fofter’s “‘ Effay on Accent and Quantity,” and various
pieces of poetry, printed in the Gentleman’s Magazine, and
in Nichols’s “ Sele&t Colle&tion of Poems.”? Anecd. of
Bowyer. Month. Rev. Gen. Biog.

Taytor, Henry, A.M. a very refpeCtable clergyman
of the eftablifhed church, was the fon of William Taylor,
merchant of London, and born at Southweald, in Effex, in
May 1711. The rudiments of his education he received at
Mr. Newcome’s {chool, in the parifh of Hackney, and there
he formed an early friendfhip with Mr. John Hoadly, fon of
Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, bifhop of Winchefter. From Hack-
ney he removed to Queen’s college, in the univerfity of
Cambridge, and having completed his education with a view
to the church, he Pee orders, and commenced the exercife
of his minifterial duties as a preacher with fingular accept-
ance. His talents and acquirements, as well as his voice
and manner of delivery, which were peculiarly pleafing,
recommended him to public notice, and he ranked high in
the eftimation of thofe friends with whom he intimately affo-
ciated. His firft preferment was the reCtory of Whitfield,
in Oxfordfhire, which he held for a minor. In 1755 he
was prefented by bifhop Hoadly to the reétory of Crawley,
in Hampshire, which he afterwards held in conneétion with
the vicarage of Portfmouth, in exchange for a living in
Hamphhire, which he had held with Whitfield. He mar-
ried Mifs Chriftian Fox, daughter of the Rev. Francis

. Fox, reG&or of St. Mary’s, Rotherhithe, who died in the
year 1769; and by her he had four fons and two daugh-
ters. His courfe of literary and clerical labour terminated
in April, 1785, and he was interred at Crawley.

Having recited the few particulars which we could colle&
concerning the private life of Mr. Taylor, we fhall now fub-
join. a lift of his publications, fome having his name and others

being anonymous. In 1760 he publifhed “* An Effay on the
Beauty of the Divine Economy ; being the Subftance of a Ser-
mon (with many and large Additions) preached at the Vifi

ation of the Lord Bifhop of Winchetter, held by the Worfhip-~ >

fal and Reverend Dr. John Hoadly, Chancellor of the Dio-
cefe, on Tuefday September 18, 1759, at the cathedral Church.
of Winchetter, and publifhed at the Defire of Mr. Chancellor’
and the Clergy.”’— A full Anfwer to a late View of the
internal Evidence of the Chriftian Religion, in a Difcourfe
between a rational Chriftian and his Friend,” 1771.—* A.
Traét againft Warburton,” 1772.— Confufion worfe con-
founded, Rout on Rout; or the Bifhop of G——ter’s
Commentary upon Rice or Arife Evans’s Echo from Hea-
yen, examined and expofed by Jndignatio,” London, 1772.
Anonymous. ‘ Two Letters; viz. 1. A Letter to the.
Earl of Abingdon, in which His Grace of York’s Notions
of Civil Liberty are examined by Literalis, publifhed in the
London Evening Poft, November 6,1777. 2. Vera Icon;
ora Vindication of His Grace of York’s Sermon, preached
on February 21ft, 17773 proving it to contain a fevere
Satire againft the Miniftry, and a Defence of civil and
religious Liberty, upon the well-known Principles of
Whiggifm ; in anfwer toa Letter from Liberalis to the
Earl of Abingdon, by Ayflagogus Candidus.’? —‘* The
Apology of Benjamin Ben Mordecai to his Friends, for
embracing Chriftianity ; in feven Letters to Elifha Levi,
Merchant of Amiterdam ; with Notes and Illuftrations, |
the Author and the Editor.” Lond. 1771. 1773, 1774,
gto. ‘The firft of thefe letters contains an account and ex-
amination of the various opinions among Chriftians, concern-
ing the nature and perfon of Chrift. In the fecond, third,
and fourth letters, it is propofed to fhew from {cripture, that
the Logos was the angel of the covenant, and to prove the
fame from the moft approved commentators on {cripture,
both ancient and modern, both Jewifh and Chriftian; and to
demonftrate that Jefus was the Meffiah. The fifth, fixth,
and feventh letters contam preparatory principles to the
Chriftian fcheme of redemption; giving the {cheme of
Chriftianity itfelf, and fhewing it to be one, plain, regular, and
confiftent fyftem of divine economy, from the beginning of
the world to the end; and containing proofs, illuftrations,
anfwers to objections, and an examination of Mr. Hume’s
notion of miracles. —‘“‘ Thoughts on the Nature of the Grand
Apoftacy, with RefleGtions and Obfervations on the Fif-
teenth Chapter of Mr. Gibbon’s Hiftory of the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire; to which are added three
differtations: 1. On the Paroufia of Chrift; 2. On the Mi
lennium ; 3. On the late Rev. Mr. Richard Wood, on -
phecy,”’ 1781.—‘ Farther Thoughts on the Nature of the
Grand Apoftacy of the Chriftian Churches, foretold by the
Apoftles ; with Obfervations on the Laws againft Herefy,
the Subfcription to Articles of Human Compofition, and
other Subjects of the utmoit Importance to the Religion of Pro-
teftants,.and to Chriftianity in general,” 1783.—* Confider-
ations on Ancient and Modern Creeds compared; the Supre-
macy of the Father ; the perfonal Exiftence of the Holy Spi-
rit ; the Pre-exiftenceof Chrift and his Divinity, &c.’’ publithed
after the author’s death by his fon, the Rev. Henry Taylor,
reétor of Spridlington, Lincolnfhire, 1788.

Mr. Taylor, who was of a {prightly, cheerful difpofition,
occafionally amufed himfelf in writing verfes; fome of
which, particularly his “ Paradife Regained,” are publifhed
in Dodfley’s ColleGtion.

On Mr. Taylor’s principles and charaéter it is needlefs to
enlarge. His conduét in private and focial life correfponded
to his clerical profeffion : to the fentiments of bifhop Hoadley,
in church and ftate, he was invariably attached ; he joined the

petitioning

wi CH

‘petitioning clergy in their application for an enlargement of
the terms of conformity ; and he avowed himfelf on all oc-
cafions, without difguife, the friend and advocate of civil
and religious liberty. In his theological opinions, he confi-
dered himfelf as coincidmg more nearly with Apollinaris,
‘than with any other.

TAY-MING, in Geography, a city of China, of the firit
rank, in Pe-tche-li; 232 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
36° 20’. E. long. 114° 49’.
~ TAYNG, a town.of Corea; 25 miles S.E. of Haimen.

. TAYWAN, or Tat-ovan, the capital of Formo/a;
aehich fee. 3

_ TAZ, a river of Ruffia, which rifes from two lakes, Ku
and Din, and runsinto the Tazovfkaia gulf, N. lat. 67° 35'.
E. long 80° 14’.

TAZABUCO, a.town of Peru; 46 miles E.N.E. of
La Plata.

TAZATA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the
Cafpian fea, near the coaft of Hyrcania. Pliny. It is called
Talca by Ptolemy, and Talga by Mela.

TAZEE, in Geography, a town of Candahar ; 70 miles
E. of Candahar.

TAZEWELL, a poft-town of Tenneffee; 517 miles
W.S.W. of Wathington.

TAZINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Media.

TAZLA, or SatatTo, in Geography, a lake of Afiatic
Turkey, 36 miles long, and 2 broad; 30 miles N. of
Cogni.

Tazza, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania; 28
miles N. of Cogni.

TAZOVSKATA, a gulf or bay in the Obfkaia gulf,
formed by the waters of feveral rivers of Siberia, and jomed
to the Obfkaia gulf, about 140 miles in length, and 3 in
breadth. N. lat. 67° 40! to 69°. E. long. 76° to 80°.

TAZREE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Lariftan;
15 miles N.E. of Tarem.

TAZUS, Tacuety, in Ancient Geography, a town in
the interior of the Tauric Cherfonefus, E. of Portacra, men-
tioned by Ptolemy.—AlIfo, a town of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon
the northern coait of the Euxine fea.

TAZZETTA, in Botany, the fpecific name chofen by
Linneus, who fpells it incorreCtly, for the Polyanthus Nar-
eifflus. (See Narcissus.) The word is Italian for a {mall
cup,.and De Theis fuppofes it was firft applied in Italy to
this flower, which is much cultivated there, and ufually im-
ported from thence, in its higheft perfeétion, by our florifts.
Still we do not fee how Linnzus came to.adopt this name,
nor, indeed, how it fell in his way.

TCHA. See Tra.

Towa, or Cangua, in Geography,. See CANGA.

TCHABA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 18
miles E. of Boli.

TCHABAR, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which runs
north into the Songarie.

TCHABISCHI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutfk, on the Amur ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Stretenfk.

TCHACAHAMAR, a town of Thibet ; 10 miles W.
of Orto.

TCHACAOSO, a town of Thibet; 25 miles S. of
Chatcheou.

TCHACA-TCHOUTCHI, a town of Thibet; 30
miles N.W. of Tchontori.

TCHACA-TOHOI, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
<ountry of Hami; 15 miles N.W. of Quatcheou.

TCHADOBSKO, a town of Ruffia, in the government
eof Tobolfk, on the Tungufka; 212 miles E. of Enifeifk.

ACH

TCHAGANSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruffi :
16 miles S. of Uralfk. j MEE ide aid

TCHAGODO, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Novgorod, on the lake Voz ; 240 miles N.E. of Nov-
gorod. N. lat. 60° 30’. E. long. 38° 44'.—Alfo, a river
of Ruffia, which rifes near Suchotzkoi, in the government
of Neygorod, and runs into the Mologa, 16 miles N. of
Uftiuzna.

TCHAHAN Horun, a town of Chinefe Tartary ;

260 ‘miles N. of Peking. N. lat. 43° 58’. E. long.
117° 29).

TcHAHAN Hamer, a town of Chinefe Tartary: 28 miles
S.W. of Coucou. aon

TcHaHAN Soubarkan Hotun, a town of Chinefe Tartary ;
163 miles N.N.E. of Peking. N, lat. 41° 38’. E. long.
118° 44! :

TCHAHASOU Horun, a town of Chinefe Tartary ;
683 miles N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 49° 34. E. long.
D274!

TCHAHI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Cho-
rafan, or Khoraffan ; 258 miles N. of Herat.

TCHATA, a nver of Ruffia, which runs into the Lena,
near T'chamfka, in the government of Irkutfk. N. lat.

8° 5’. E. long. 109° 34!.

TCHAICAN, a town of Corea; 28 miles W. of
Outchuen.

TCHAI-YAM, a river of China, which joins the Lo,
15 miles W.S.W. of Pao-king. :

TCHAKAN-TOTOHO Kiamen, a poft of Chinefe
Tartary, in the country of the Monguls; 18 miles S.E..of
Kara-Hotun. :

TCHAKET, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Aladulia ;
15 miles N. of Adana. we

TCHAKTELA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania; 27 miles N. of Akfhehr.

TCHAL, a town of Kurdiftan, or Curdiftan; 28 miles
E. of Amadieh.

TCHALBISCHEVO, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Tobolfk ; 20 miles S. of Enifeifk.

TCHALMOZA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Olonetz, on the north-eaft coaft of lake Onezfkoe ; 32
miles S.E. of Povenetz.

TCHAM, a town of Corea; 420 miles E. of Peking.

TCHAMDSOU-TIGAG, a lake of Thibet, about 36
miles in circumference. N. lat. 31° 30/. E. long. 81° 26/.

TCHAMNAGOM-DOU, a lake of Thibet, about
36 miles in circumference. N. lat. 30° 50’. E. long.
93° 54".

TCHAMSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk; 64 miles E.N.E. of Kirenfk.

TCHAM-TCHIM Horwn, a town of Corea; 415
miles E. of Peking. N. lat. 40° 9’. E, long. 124° 46'.

TCHAM-TIEN, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 43 miles
N.W. of Siao-ku-leou. :

TCHAMTOU, a town of Thibet; 54 miles S.W. of
Contchoudfong.

TCHANG, a lake of China, about 20 miles in.cixcum-
ference ; 40 miles N.E. of Tcin-tcheou.

TCHANG-CHAN, or CuHan-san, a {mall ifland in the
Chinefe fea, and moft foutherly of thofe called Mi-a-tou ;
18 miles N.W. of Teng-tcheou.

TCHANG-FONG, a town of Corea; 63 miles E.S.E.
4f King-ki-tao. >

TCHANG-HOA, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the ifle of Hainan ; 42 miles S.W. of Tchen-tcheou.

TCHANG-ING, a town of Corea; 40 miles S. of

Kang.
TCHANG-

TCH

TCHANG-KIA-KEOU, a gate on the great wall,
which feparates China from Tartary, in the northern part of
Petche-b, the principal pafflage by which the Tartars enter
China ; go miles N.N.W. of Peking.

TCHANG-PING, a town of Corea; 15 miles E. of
Koang-tcheou. — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond
rank, in Pe-tche-li; 20 miles N.N.W. of Peking. N. lat.
40° 14!. E. long. 115° 37'-

TCHANG-SING, a town of Corea; 35 miles S. of
Koang-tcheou.

TCHANG-SONG, a town of Corea; 33 miles N.W.
of Kang-tcheou.

TCHANG-TCHA, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Hou-quang, on the Heng river. The inhabitants of
this city have given occafion to a great feftival, which is
celebrated in the fifth month diromphatit the empire. The
mandarin who governed this city, and was much efteemed
and beloved by the people for his probity and virtue, hap-
pening to be drowned in the river, they inftituted a feftival
to his honour, which is celebrated by fports, and feafts, and
fights upon the waters, as if they intended to fearch for the
mandarin, the objeét of their love and grief. This feftival,
which was at firft peculiar to this city, came afterwards to
be obferved throughout the empire ; 742 miles S. of Peking.
N. lat. 28° r1!. E. long. 112° 25). :

TCHANG-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firlt
rank, in Fo-kien; 950 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 24° 32’.
E. long. 117° 34!.—Alfo, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Kiang-nan; 525 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat.

1°50’. E. long. 119° 20).

TCHANG-TE, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Hou-quang ; 717 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 29° 2!.
E. long. 111° 2!.

TCHANG-YUEN, atown of Corea; 60 miles W.S.W.
of Ho-ang-tcheou.—Alfo, a town of Corea; 30 miles S.E.
of Kang-tcheou.

TCHANI, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of Koli-
van, upwards of 200 miles in circumference; 100 miles
W.N.W. of Kolivan.

TCHANKOUR, atown of Thibet ; 105 miles S.E. of
Sourman.

TCHAN-TE, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Ho-nan. This is one of the moft northern cities of the pro-
vince. ‘Two things are here remarkable: the firft is a fifh
refembling a crocodile, the fat of which is of fuch a fingular
nature, that when once kindled it cannot be extin diihed «
the fecond_is a mountain in the neighbourhood, fo tteep and
inacceffible, that in time of war, it affords a place of refuge
to the inhabitants, and a fafe afylum from the infults and
violence of the foldiery, Tchan-te contains in its diftricé
one city of the fecond clafs, and fix of the third ; 255 miles
S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 36°6'. E. long. 114°.

TCHAO-KING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in

uang-tong, on the river Si; 1062 miles S.S.W. of Peking,

. lat. 23° 3!. E. long. 111° 44!.

TCHAO-NAIMAN-SOUMI-HOTUN, a town of
Chinefe Tartary; 198 miles N. of Peking. N. lat. 42° 28!.
E. long. 115° 44'.

TCHAO-TCHEOJU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Quang-tong, on the Pe-kiang 3 1007 miles S. of Peking.
N. lat. 23° 37’. E. long. 116° 21!.

TCHAOUTCHE-AGHISI, a town of Afiatic Tur-

key, in Natolia, on the Black fea; 12 miles N.W. of

Erekli,

TCHAPIE-DSAKE-TOMPSOJU, a lake of Thibet,
about 54 miles in circumference. N, lat. 32°12'. Evlong.
4° 34!.

© eH

TCHARKAZ. See Zancuas.

TCHARONDA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Novgorod, on the Sula; 188 miles E.N.E. of Noy-
gorod. N. lat. 59°40’. E. long. 37° 34!.

TCHASIRCONG, a town of Thibet, near the Ganges ;
24 miles E. of Latac.

TCHASTIJA, an ifland of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk, on the Lena; 112 miles N.E. of Kirenfk.

TCHAT, a mountain of Thibet, on the frontiers of
Yarkan. N. lat. 33° 1o!. Es done 78° 44!.

TCHATELT, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the country
of Hami; 38 miles N.W. of Hami-Hotun. ‘

TCHAUNSKATA, a gulf on the northern coaft of
Ruffia, in the Frozen fea. N. lat. 71° to 72°. E. long.
166° to 169°.

TCHAUSI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Mogilev, on the Soz; 40 miles S.E. of Mogiley. N. lat.
53° 36. E. long. 31° 14.

TCHAZMIUNSKOI, a cape on the eaft coaft of
Kamtfchatka; 52 miles S. of Verchnei Kamtf{chatfkoi, N.
lat. 55° 48'. E. long. 160° 15’. — ’

TCHEBAKSAR, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Kazan, on the Volga; 64 miles W.N.W. of
Kazan. N. lat. 56°24'. E. long. 46° 3o!.

TCHEBARKULSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the
government of Upha; 132 miles E. of Upha. d

TCHECHUI, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Lena, nearly oppofite Ilinfka.

TCHECO, a town of Thibet; 93 miles E,S.E. of
Laffa.

TCHEFTKAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ala-
dalia; 45 miles N.N.W. of Adana.

TCHEGEN, an ifland in the Cafpian fea; 144 miles S.
of Aitrachan.

TCHEGOTCHINA, a river of Ruffia, which runs
into the Kolima, N. lat. 68°. E. long. 150° 14/.

TCHEGUEDE Horvn, a town of Chinefe Tartary,
on the eaft bank of the Amur, oppofite Teldom; 673 miles
N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 49°26’. E.long. 127° 37).

TCHEHARSHEBEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia; 30 miles S.E. of Alah Shehr.

TCHEKENAGUR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania; 21 miles S. of Kirfhehr.

TCHE-KIANG, a province of China, bounded on the
north and north-weft by Kiang-nan, on the eaft by the fea,
on the fouth by Fo-kien, and on the fouth-weft by Kiang-fi ;
about 200 miles in length from north to fouth, and from
120 to 180 broad. This province, which was formerly the
refidence of fome of the emperors, is one of the moft con-
fiderable in the empire, on account of its maritime fituation,
extent, riches, and the number of its inhabitants. The air
is pure and healthful; the plains are watered by a number
of rivers and canals, kept in good order ; and the {prings and
lakes, with which it abounds, contribute greatly to its fer-
tility. The natives are mild and lively, and very polite to
{trangers; but they are faid to be extremely fuperttitious.
A prodigious quantity of filk-worms is bred in this pro-
vince ; whole plains may be feen covered with dwarf mulberry~
trees, which are purpofely checked in their growth: they
are planted and pruned almoft in the fame manner as vines.
Tong age has taught the Chinefe, that the leaves of
the fmalleft trees procure the beft filks. The principal
branch, therefore, of the trade of this province, confifts in
filk-ftuffs ; thofe in which gold and filver are intermixed are
the moft beautiful, and moll efteemed in the empire. With
regard to their common pieces, an immenfe quantity is fent
to every part of China, to Japan, the Philippines, and to

Europe ;

TCH

Europe ; and, notwithftanding this exportation, fo much is
feft, that a complete fuit of filk may be bought here as
cheap as one of the coarfeft woollen-cloth in France. Ex-
cellent hams are brought from this proyince, and thofe {mall
gold fifh with which ponds are commonly ftocked. The
tallow-tree grows here, and a {pecies of mufhrooms, which
are tranfported to every province of the empire. In Tche-
kiang there are reckoned to be 11 cities of the firft clafs,
72 of the third, and 18 fortreffes, which in Europe would
be accounted large cities. (Grofier’s China, vol.i, p. 64.)
According to fir George Staunton, the number of in-
habitants amounts to 21 millions, and the province includes
39,150 {quare miles, or 25,056,000 acres. See CHINA.

TCHELAO, a town of Perfia, in the province of Cho-
rafan, or Khoraffan: nearit is a narrow defile in a mountain,
called, by the orientalifts, Hell, from the difficulty of the

aflage.

TCHELBOSCH, a river of Rufiia, which joins the
Bifuga, and runs with it into the fea of Azof; 40 miles
S.W. of Eifkoi.

TCHELEH-DAGHI, a mountain of Natolia, N.E.
of Boli.

TCHELGA, a town of Abyflinia; 20 miles N.W. of
Gondar. N. lat. 12° 44'.. E. long. 37° 18/.

TCHELIABINSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Upha; 188 miles E. of Upha. N. lat. 54° sol.
E. long. 62° 4!. ‘

TCHELMINAR, or Tcuttminar. See CHItMINAR.

TCHEMURTAESKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of
Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk; 60 miles S.W. of
Selenginfk.

TCHEN, a town of Corea; 13 miles N.N.E. of
Ping-hai.—Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Ho-nan ; 416 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 34° 46’.
E. long. 110° 36'.—Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond
rank, in the ifland of Hai-nan; 57 miles S.W. of Kiong-
tcheou. N. lat. 19° 32! E. long. 108° 49’.

TCHEN-AN, a town of Corea; 35 miles S.S.E. of
Hetiin.

TCHENBAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Penza; 80 miles W.S.W. of Penza. N. lat 52°52'. E.
long. 43° 30!.

TCHENDEI, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Yana, near its mouth.

TCHENE, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile ; 18 miles N. of Enfeneh.

TCHENG-TCHANG, a town of Corea; 30 miles
$.S.E. of Haimen.

TCHENG-TE, an ifland in the Eaftern fea, near the
fouth coaft of Corea; about ro miles long, and 6 broad.
N. lat. 34° 20!. E. long. 128° 37/.

TCHEN-HALJ, a town of Corea; 30 miles S. of Tfin-
tcheou.

TCHENJEE. See Hz#mvus.

TCHEOU-CHAN, or Cuu-san, an ifland in the
Chinefe fea, near the weft coaft of China, belonging to the
province of Tche-kiang, about 24 miles long, and from 4
to 10 broad.

TCHEPAGIRSKOI, atown of Ruffia, on the Pod-
kamonfkaia Tunguika. N. lat. 61°20’. E. long. 96° 44!.

TCHEPET KINA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Kolima, 88 miles N. of Verchnei Kovimfkoi. N. lat.
67° 35’. E. long. 148° 14!.

TCHER, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Don,
near Tcherkovikaia, in the country of the Coflacks.

TCHERDAKLI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Ekaterinoflav ; 32 miles N. of Mariupol.

LGB

TCHEREDOVA, a town of Rufiia, in the government
of Tobolfk, on the Irtifch ; 16 miles N. of Tara.

TCHEREMISSES and Tcueuwasses, tribes of peo-
ple occupying the vicinity of the Volga, in the government
of Regen. Thefe people ufe the horfe in their facrifices,
and chiefly white ones, efpecially in their great annual folem-
nities in autumn, of which none can partake, unlefs he has
firft bathed and put on a clean fhirt.

TCHEREMSCHAN, a river of Ruffia, which runs
peal the Volga, near Singiliev, in the government of Sim-
birfk.

TCHEREPOVETZ, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Novgorod, on the Sula; 188 miles E.N.E. of
Novgorod. N. lat. 59° go! E. long. 37° 34/.

TCHERGONA, Valley of, a fequettered beautiful
valley of the Crimea, inhabited by the richeft 'Tartars, who,
from their vicinity to Aktiar, find a ready market for the
produce of their lands; carrying thither honey, wax, fruit,
and corn. This valley is defcribed as the retreat of health
and joy ; the pipe and tabor founding merrily among moun-
tains, thick fet with groves, which clofe them on every fide.
The performers confiit of parties of Tzigankies, or gipfies,
who, as mendicant artificers, muficians, and altrologers, are
very common all over the fouth of Ruffia. They have alfo
a wind-inftrument refembling a haut-boy, made of the wood
of cherry-tree, and they carry with them the large Tartar
drum, charaéteriftic of the Cimbri in the time of Strabo.
Thefe gipfies are much encouraged by the Tartars, who
allow them to encamp among their villages and to’exercife
their various occupations. Many of them are rich, poflefliing
fine horfes and plenty of other cattle ; but rich or poor,
their mode of life is the fame.

TCHERIKOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of

Mogilev, on the Soz; 80 miles S. of Mogiley. N. lat.
52° 36'.. E. long. 30° sal.
TCHERKASK, a town of Ruffia, in the country of
the Coflacks, on the Don. The appearance of the town,
viewed from the river, affords a moft novel fpeétacle. Al-
though not fo grand as Venice, it fomewhat.refembles that
city. The entrance to it is by broad canals, interfecting it
in all parts. On each fide, wooden houfes, built on piles,
appear to float upon the water : to thefe the inhabitants pa{s
in boats, or by narrow bridges only two planks wide, with
poits and rails, forming a caufeway to every quarter of the
town.

The town of Tcherkafk is divided into eleven ftanitzas,
and contains 15,000 inhabitants, occupying about 3000
houfes, and allowing, upon an average, five perfons to each
houfe. Here are feven churches, four built of ftone and
three of wood.. One of thefe churches is appropriated to
the Mahometan worfhip of the Tartars. The firft ere@ted
in this place was founded by Peter the Great, and in this
they keep what they call their regalia, applying the term to
republican, rather than to regal, enfigns of diftinétion. An-
other church is built in the Grecian tafte, with fourteen
Corinthian columns, covered entirely with burnifhed gold.
Almott all the other public edifices are conftruéted of wood.
Here are fix prifons, four for males and two for females ;
and the prifoners are allowed to go about begging in their
chains. ‘The fhops are very numerous, kept chiefly by
Greeks, and containing the produce of Turkey, as pearls,
cloth, fhawls, tobacco, fruit, &c. Here are two public
baths, and each ftanitza has its refpe€tive tavern. The. in-
habitants, according to Dr. Clarke in his Travels (vol. i.),
are cleanly in their appearance, polifhed in their manners,
well inftruéted, hofpitable, generous, and difinterefted, hu-
mane to the poor, good hufbands, good brothers, good

wives,

Te

wives, good mothers, virtuous daughters, valiant and duti-
ful fons. “ A Coffack,’” he fays, “* placed by the fide of a
Ruffian, what a contraft !”’ 32 miles E.N.E. of Azof.
TCHERKASSES, or TscuerKassians, a tribe of
people, who inhabit that part of Caucafus which is called
the Great and Little Kabardia, the iflands of the lower
Kuban, and the fouthern bank of that river. (See Cir-
cassta.) Thefe people are famous for their horfes, which
are about the fize of the Kalmuck horfe, ill-made, without
elegance or proportion, and for the moft part ewe-necked,
but of fuch ftrong and hardy natures, as to be able to run
five or fix tnidreet Englifh miles in three days.
TCHERKESH, a town. of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia; 45 miles W.S.W. of ‘Caftamena.
TCHERKIN, a town of Abyflinia; 36 miles N. of
Gondar. N. lat. 13°15’. E. long. 37° 40’.
TCHERMAEVSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Tobolfk ; 32 miles E.N.E. of Turinfk.
TCHERNAITA, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the
Anadir, 100 miles below Anadirfkoi.
TCHERNAIAGRIADA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on
the Volga; 32 miles N.N.W. of Aftrachan.
TCHERNIGOV, a town of Ruffia, and capital of a
government, on the Defna; 344 miles S.S.W. of Mofcow.
N. lat. 51° 24’. E. long. 31° 14.
TCHERNIGOVSKOE, a government of Ruffia,
bounded on the N. by Mogilevfkoe, on the N.W. by Nov-
gorod Sieverfkoe, on the E. by Charkovikoe, on the S. by
Kievfkoe, and on the W. by Poland: about 180 miles long
and 40 broad. N. lat. 49° so! to 51° 5’. E. long. 31

CSA Ese

TCHERNIKEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Sivas, at the union of the Tofanlu and Jekil-
Ermak ; anciently a city of Pontus, and called Eupatoria,
from Mithridates, furnamed Eupator ; 24 miles N. of Ama-
fia. N. lat. 40°26!. E. long. 36° 38.

TCHERNITZ. See Czervyirz.

TCHERNOIYAR, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Saratov, defended by a ditch and chevaux-defrieze,
with fome cannon; 200 miles N.W. of Aftrachan. N. lat.
47° 54. E. long. 46° 4!.

TCHERNOLUTZKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolfk ; 20 miles W. of Omfk.

TCHERNOMORSKI], or Coffacks of the Black Sea, a
tribe of Coffacks, whofe territory is feparated by the river
Ae or Yea, from that of the Grecian or Malo-Ruffian in-
habitants, whofe number does not exceed 700 perfons, and
the boundary of whofe diftri€ is formed by the river Ac
towards the S. and by the fea of Azof to the N. The
'Tchernomorfki are a brave but rude and warlike people, and
hofpitable to ftrangers. Their original appellation was Za-
porogztzfi or Zaporagians, denoting their former fituation
* beyond the cataraéts’? of the Dnieper. From the banks
of this river they were removed by the late emprefs Catha-
rine to thofe of the Kuban, in order to repel the incurfions
of the Circaffians and Tartars from the Turkifh frontier.
In confequence of the fervice they rendered to Ruffia in
Catharine’s laft war with Turkey, the emprefs, by an ukafe
of the 2d of June, 1792, ceded to them the peninfula of
‘Taman, and all the countries between the Kuban and the
fea of Azof, as far as the rivers Ae and Laba; an extent
of territory comprehending upwards of 1000 {quare miles.
They had alfo a conftitution allotted to them in all refpects
fimilar to that of the Don Coffacks, and received the appel-
lation of “ Coffacks of the Black fea.’? They were alio al-
Jowed the privilege of rete an Ataman ; but their num-
bers have been confiderably diminifhed. They could once

TCH

Bring into the field an army of 40,000 effective cavalry ; but
at prefent, their number of troops does not exceed 15,000.-
They now occupy the whole country from the Ae to the
Kuban, and from the Black fea to the frontier of the Don
Coffacks. (See Cossacks.) The T’chernomorfki do not
refemble the Coffacks of the Don in habits, difpofition, or
any other charatteriftic quality. The latter wear the true
uniform ; the former wear any habit according to their ca-
price. The Don Coffack is mild, affable, and polite; the
Black-fea Coffack is blunt and even rude, from the boldnefs
and martial hardihood of his manners. If he is poor, he
appears clad like a primeval fhepherd, or the wildeft moun-
taineer ; at the fame time having his head bald, except one
long braided lock from the crown, placed behind the right
ear. This lock diftinguifhes the Tchernomorfki Coffack
from the Coffack of the Don, as well as from every other
tribe of Coffacks in the Ruffian empire. Tf the Euxine
Coffack is rich, he is very lavifh in the coftlinefs of his drefs,
which confifts of embroidered velvet, and the richeft filks
and cloths of every variety of colour. The Tchernomorfki
are more cheerful and noify than the Don Coflacks; turbu-
lent in their mirth; vehement in converfation ; fomewhat
querulous ; and if not engaged in difpute, they are generally
ee or finging. Both thefe Coffacks hold one another
in low eftimation.

Coffacks is ** Ekaterinedara,’’ or ‘* Catherine’s Gift.”

of oaks, in which a number of ftraggling cottages, widely
feparated, are concealed, not only from general obfervation,
but from the view of each other. The country is-covered
with tumuli, which are very ancient, and appear by their re-
mains to have been fepulchres. ‘The government is wholl
exercifed by the Ataman and his officers, who wear theatri-
eal and fplendid habits. Their breafts are covered with
chains of gold and gold-lace; their fabre is Turkifh; their
boots of red or yellow-coloured leather ; their cap of black
velvet, ornamented with lace and filver chains, or fine black
Tartarian wool, taken from lambs in an embryo ftate. They
bind their waift with filken fafhes, fuftaining piftols of the
moft coftly workmanfhip. A fmall whip, with a fhort lea-
thern thong, is attached to their little finger. The lower
extremity of their lance is f{upported by the right foot; and
from the powder-flafk, pendent in front, are fufpended filver
coins, and other trinkets. The Circaflians and Tcherno-
morfki carry on trade by a peculiar kind of barter. The
exchange of corn, honey, mats, wood, and arms, for the
falt of the Coffacks, is tranfaéted without contrat; the
wares of the Circaffians being placed on the ground where
they find the falt ready ftationed for barter. ‘Che Tcherno-
morfki who are employed in guarding their cattle in the
fteppes, amounting to many thoufands, from the depreda-
tions of the Circaflians, pafs the night upon the bare ground ;
and m order to protect themfelves from the ee
which are both numerous and troublefome, creep into a kind
of fack, fufficient only for the covering of a fingle perfon ;
beneath this they lie upon the thiftles and other wild plants
of the fteppes. In order to avoid the exceffive irritation
and painful {welling occafioned by the ftings of thefe fe-
rocious infects, they light a number of fires to drive them
from the cattle during the night ; but their thirft of blood
is fo infatiate, that {warms will attack a perfon attemptin
to fhelter himfelf even in the midit of fiutlte. See Clarke’s
Travels, vol. ii. 8vo.

TCHERNORIEGENSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia,

in the government of Upha, on the Ural; 12 miles W. of

Orenburg.—Alfo, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government
of Simbirfk, on the river Sak ; 80 miles S.E. of Simbirfk.
7 TCHER-

The metropolis of the Tchernomorfki
te.
has no refemblance to a town ; but is rather a grove, or foreft —

Ms

Tei

TCHERPLINSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Upha, on the Ural; 124 miles E. of Oren-
burg.

TCHERTCHI, a town of Thibet; 20 miles S.W. of
Harachar.

TCHERTOVSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk; 32 miles S.W. of Kirenfk.

TCHERVLENA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Caucafus, on the Malka; 64 miles E. of Ekate-
rinograd.

TCHESKATA, a gulf or bay in the Frozen ocean, on
the N- coaft of Ruffia. N. lat. 66° 50! to 77° go’. E.
Tong. 45° to 47°.

TCHESUCHINSKOT, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on the bor-
ders of China; 104 miles S.W. of Nertchinfk.

TCHE-TAN, a river of China, which runs into the
Tom, 12 miles W. of Yeou.

TCHE-TCHEOU Horvn, atown of Chinefe Tartary,
in the country of Hami; 983 miles E. of Peking. N. lat.
40° 29’. E. long. g4° 21’.

TCHETIRDAGH, a mountain of the Crimea, the
Trapezius of Strabo, the height of which Pallas ftates to
be about 1200 feet, and Dr. Clarke fays, that it does not
exceed 1300 feet; though the rapidity of its rife from the
coaft about Aluita makes its elevation appear to be much
greater. Almoft the whole of the Crimea may be feen from
its fummit in clear weather. The higher parts of this
mountain exhibit a mafs of lime-ftone, very compaé and of
a grey colour. Its ancient name, Trapezius, was probably
derived from the table-form of its fummit. The lower
aad is covered by groves impenetrable to the rays of the
un.

TCHEUISKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolfk, on the Oby ; 48 miles N.N.E. of Kolivan.

TCHEVTZA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Viatka, near Slobodfkoi, in the government of Viatka.

TCHIATAM, a town of Thibet; 510 miles E. of
Laffa. N. lat. 28° 3’. E. long. 99° 201.

TCHICOU, a town of Corea; 18 miles S.S.E. of
Long Kouang.

TCHICSE, a town of Thibet ; 12 miles E. of Latac.

TCHICTAMA, a town of Thibet; 15 miles N.E. of
Pi-tchan.

- TCHIEIN, a town of Ruffia, near the {traits which fe-
parate the continent of Afia from America. N. lat. 65° 40’.
E. long. 188° 24!.

TCHIGLING, a river of North America, which runs
into the Frozen fea, oppofite to the ifland of Chichitf.

-TCHIKIRI, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which runs
into the Amur, 15 miles N. of Saghalien Oula Hotun.

TCHILINSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutik, on the Ingoda; 60 miles E. of Doroninfk.

TCHILLDIR Moonrarns, a name which is given toa
very high ridge, formed by fome branches of mount Cauca-
fus, which taking an oppofite direction of thofe known by
the name of the ‘“‘ Mountains of Ceraunii,’’ pafs towards
the 5S. and S.W., crofs Ahgaz and Mingrelia, and encircle
the Euxine to the E.andS.E. Thefe unite in ‘the above-
named high ridge on the northern frontier of Immeretia,
and again open into the Turkifh province of Akifha.
Here they affume the appellation of Tchilldir, and would
appear to feparate into three branches, the moft northern
of which follows in a S.E. line the banks of the Cyrus, and
ultimately produces an immenfe range, which running pa-
rallel with the Cafpian, feparates Irak from Ghilan and, Ma-
zanderan, and to the N. of. Mefhed is loft in the deferts of

VoL. XXXV.

£. CH

Khoraffan. In the neighbourhood of Sultanea and Caz-
ween this range receives the name of Khai Caucafan, and in
the vicinity of Tehraun it is called Elbourz. The middle
ridge of the Tchilldir mountains, under the denomination
of the Moflian hills, traverfes the province of Georgia, and
bounds on the N. the delightful plain of Erivan. It then
enters the Ruffian diftriGs of the Karabaug and Karadaug,
and gradually finks into the plains of Mogan. The laft and
moit fouthern branch of the Tchilldir mountains, bendmg
to the S. and E., paffes the town of Kars, and forms a
junction with mount Taurus. Kinneir’s Mem. of the Per-
fian Empire.

TCHINDAT Turuxuevsko1, a fort of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk; 72 miles S. of Nertchinfk.

Tcninpat Turukuevfka, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Irkutfk; 80 miles S.W. of Nertchinfk.

TCHINEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia;
15 miles W.N.W. of Moglah.

TCHING, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Ho-
nan; 382 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 33° 49!._ E. long.
114° 38!.—Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Ho-nan ; 340 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 34° 50!
E. long. 113° z9/.

TCHI-NGAM, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Se-tchuen ; 780 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 28° 32!.
E. long. 107° 4!.

TCHING-CANG, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Yun-nan ; 1302 miles S.W of Peking. N. lat. 24° 12!,
E. long. 99° 16!.

TCHING-CHAN, a town of Corea; 30 miles S.S.E.
of Ou-tchuen.

TCHING-HE, a town of Corea; 30 miles N.N.E. of
Kang-tcheou.

TCHING-HIANG, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Se-tchuen ; gro miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 27° 18".
E. long. 104° 26.

TCHING-KIANG, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Kiang-nan, on the fouth fide of the river Yang-tfe. This
is not one of the largeft cities of the province, for it is not
above a league in circumference, and has authority over only
three cities of the third clafs, but it is one of the moft con-
fiderable for its fituation and commerce; it is the key of the
empire towards the fea, and is alfo a-fortrefs, where there
1s alfo a ftrong garrifon; the walls are above 30 feet in height
in feyeral places. The ftreets of the city and fuburbs are
paved with marble ; 470 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat.
32° 14'. E. long. 118° 55!.—Alfo, a city of China, of the
firft rank, in Yun-nan; 1082 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N.
lat. 24° 44/. E. long. 102° 4o!.

'TCHING-NING, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Koei-tcheou; 1017 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
26° 3'. E. long. 105° 23.

TCHING-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firtt
rank, in Hou-quang. This city is fituated on an angle
made by two rivers ; the country is watered by a great num-
ber of brooks, which make the vallies exceedin PrtFul ; it
is very full of mountains, which yield plenty ati quick-filver,
lapis lazuli, and green-ftones for painting. There are alfo
mines of filver and gold. The people who inhabit the moun-
tains are not fo polite as the reit of the Chinefe; on the
contrary, their rude and favage manners make them to be
looked upon as barbarians. The diftriێt of this city con-
tains one of the fecond order, and nine of the third; 765
miles §.S.W. of Peking. N. lat: 28° 23/. E. long.
109° 40'—Alfo, a city of the province of Kiang-nan,
fituated near the canal through which all barks going from

Z Sou-

reouw

Sou-tcheou to Kiang muft pafs. ‘It is celebrated on ac-
count of its trade, and water which gives tea a pleafant
tafte : dependent on it are five cities of the third clafs, in
which a particular kind of earthen-ware is manufactured,
highly valued by the Chinefe, and preferred to the moft ele-
gant porcelain,

TCHING-TEOU, atown of Corea; 30 miles S.S.W.
of Kang-icheou. ;

TCHING-TING, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Pe-tche-li. Tching-ting is a large city, about four miles
in circumference. Its jurifdiétion is very extenfive, and
comprehends 32 towns; five of which are of the fecond,
and 27 of the third clafs. Northward from it lie feveral
mountains, where the Chinefe fay many fimples and curious
plants are to be found; on thefe mountains there are alfo
{everal monuments or temples, erected in honour of deceafed
heroes ; among which is one confecrated to the memory of
the firft emperor of the dynafty of Han; 137 miles 5.S.W.
of Peking. N. lat. 39° 9!. E. long. 114° 20!.

TCHING-TOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Se-tchuen. This was formerly the refidence of the em-
perors, and one of the largeft and moft beautiful cities in
China; but in 1646, it was almoft entirely deftroyed, dur-
ing the civil wars which preceded the laft invafion by the
Tartars. Its temples, bridges, and the ruins of ancient
palaces, are objeéts of admiration to ftrangers ; neither its
commerce, nor the manners of its inhabitants, have any thing
to diftinguifh it from other cities, nor its fituation, which is,
however, exceedingly pleafant. It has under its jurifdi¢tion
fix cities of the fecond clafs and 25 of the third; 810 miles
S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 30° go’. E. long. 103° 44!.

TCHIN-HOA, a town of Corea; 50 miles E.N.E. of
King-ki-tao.

TCHINKITANY Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of North
America, called by the Spaniards Baya de Guadaloupe.

TCHIN-NAN, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Yun-nan; 1187 miles S.W..of Peking. N. lat. 25° 16’.
E. long. 101° 4.

TCHIN-NGAN, acity of China, of the firft rank, in
Quang-fi; 1150 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23° 21".
E. long. 106°.

TCHIN-YUEN, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Quang-fi; 1145 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23°
14’. E. long. 106° 49’.

TCHIRAKI, atown of Chinefe Tartary, in the coun-
try of the Kalkas. N. lat. 48°36’. E. long. 115° 16’.

TCHIRINKOUTAN, one of the {mall Kurile iflands.
N. lat. 49° 20!. E. long. 153° 4!.

TCHIRNOOI, one of the fmall Kurile iflands. N.
lat. 47° 8’. E. long. 151° 50!.

TCHIRON. See Summon.

TCHISEGI Daaut, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Sivas, near Divriki.

TCHISTAY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bo-
leflau; 4 miles N.W. of Jung Buntzel.

TCHISTIAKOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Perm; 36 miles N. of Perm.

TCHISTOKOLSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Kazan; 36 miles S.E. of Kazan. N. lat. 50° 16’.
E. long. 49° 54'.

TCHI-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Kiang-nan; 570 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 30° 45’.
E. long. 117°.

TCHI-TCHOUAN, a town of Thibet; 20 miles N.
ef Chao-ma-ing Hotun. ;

oc.

TCHIUNA, a river of Ruffia, which rifes fix miles
from Bratfkoi, in the government of Kolivan, lat. 56° long.
101°, and runs into the Tungufka, 56 miles S.E. of Enifeifk.
N. lat. 57° 54!. E. long. 93° 34’.

TCHIURAG, a river of Natolia, which runs into the
Meinder near Tcheharfhebeh.

TCHI-YUEN, a town of Corea; 15 miles S.E. of
Tfin-tcheou.—Alfo, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Koei-tcheou ; 1000 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
297° 3!. EK. long, 107° 51!.

TCHO, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-fi,
on the river Fuen; 298 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 36°
36’. E. long. 111° 23!

TCHOCOU, a town of Thibet; 18 miles E. of Hara-
char Hotun. :

TCHOHA Kiamen, a poft of Chinefe Tartary; 45
miles S.W. of Kara.

TCHOI. See Patcari Nor. ;

TCHOKA. See SAGHALIEN. :

TCHOL, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which rifes in lat.
48° 20!, long. 120° 34', and runs into the Noupi, N. lat.
46° 28'. E. long. 123° 31’.

Tcnor Hotun, a town of Chinefe Tartary, on a river of
the fame name; 500 miles N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 46°

/., Elong<123° 35!. a

TCHOL-ABADI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ca-
ramania; 32 miles S.W. of Afkthehr.

TCHOM-COU-CHO, a town of Chinefe Tartary ;
25 miles S.W. of Ning-yuen.

TCHOM-YUEN, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 15-miles
N. of Geho.

TCHONG, a town of Corea; 68 miles from Kin-nai-
tchan.—Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-fi; 1175 miles W. of Peking. N. lat 22°26. E.

long. 107° 4!

4!.
TCHONG-HOTOC, a town of Thibet; go miles —

S.S.W. of Horatoubé. : :
TCHONG-KIANG-CHE, a town on the W. coatt of
Formofa. N. lat. 24° 40!. E. long. 138° 2!. E
TCHONG-KING, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Se-tchuen. * This is one of the moft commercial cities of
the province. It is in a great meafure indebted for its trade
to its fituation at the confluence of two remarkable rivers ;
one of which, called Hin-cha-kiang, or Golden-fand, res
ceives in its courfe all the ftreams from the mountains,
which rife on the hei hbouring confines of ‘Tartary. The
other is Ta-kiang, ack has its fource beyond the bound-
aries of China, and is commonly called Yang-tfe-biang.
Tchong-king is built upon a mountain, and rifes in the form
of an amphitheatre : the air round it is wholefome and tem-
perate.
kind of trunks, made with canes, interwoven in the manner
of bafket-work. It has in its diitrict three cities of the
fecond clafs, and eleven of the third; 750 miles S.W. of
Peking. N. lat. 29°42’. E. long. 106° 19!.
TCHONG-KOUE, or the Middle Kingdom, the name
which the Chinefe give to this empire ; the weftern Moguls
call it Catay ; the Mantchew Tartars, Nican-courou; the
Japanefe, Thau: and the people of Cochinchina and Siam,
Cin, from which laft appellation that of China is probably
derived.
TCHONTORI, a town of Thibet ; 175 miles S.E.
of Hami. N. lat. 40° 24!. E. long. 96° 34.

TCHORRO-TOHON-KIAMEN, a Dott of Chinefe-

Tartary ; 23 miles N. of Odoli.
9 TCHORS,

This city is celebrated for its fifh, and a particular.

Pew

TCHORS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan, inhabited by Curds, fubje& to Perfia; 78 miles
W.N.W. of Tauris.

TCHOSCHO, a {mall river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Tchefkaia galf, 40 miles N.N.E. of Mezen. ;

TCHOUCDOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 20 miles
N.N.W. of Petouné-Hotun.

TCHOUCHAN, a town of Corea; 38 miles S. of
King-ki-tao.

CHOUCHLOMA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Koftrom; 76 miles N.E. of Koftrom. N. lat.
58° 35’. E. long. 42° 4o!.

TCHOUCTEY-KIAMEN, a poft of Chinefe Tar-
tary ; 10 miles N.E. of Tchol.

TCHOUDSONG, a town of Thibet, on the borders of
China; 340 miles S.E. of Laffa. N. lat. 27°22!. E. long.

6° 50!.
2 TCHOUKIA-POURAN, a town of Thibet ; 69 miles
S.S.E. of Laffa.

TCHOU-KIONG, or Yunc, a city of China, of the
firft rank, in Yun-nan 3 1187 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
25° 6'. E. long. 101° 20!

TCHOULGUE-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary; 745 miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 44° 1!.
E. long. 131° 47!.—Alfo, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 840
miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 44° 48/. E. long.
133° 49'. ; :

TCHOUMOU, a town of Thibet ; 63 miles E.S.E. of
Laffa.

TCHOUMOURTI, a town of Thibet, near the
Ganges ; 225 miles E.S.E. of Latac.

TCHOURHATAI, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
N. lat. 43° 4/. E. long. 119° 45.

TCHOUSOR, a town of Thibet; 36 miles S.W. of
Laffa.

TCHOU-TAN, a river of China, which runs into the
Yuen, near Hong-kiang-fe.

TCHOU-TCHAN-TCHE, a town of the ifland of
Formofa. N. lat. 24° 48’. E. long. 120° 21'.

TCHUDSKOI, a lake of Ruffia, between the govern-
ments of Peterfburg and Riga; about 64 miles in length,
and from 8 to’24 in breadth. N. lat. 58°to 59° 10’. E.
long. 27°to 27° 28’. See PErpus.

TCHUGUEYV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Charkov; 12 miles E. of Charkov. N. lat. 49° 58/.
E. long. 36° 14!.

TCHUKOTCH, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Icy fea, N. lat. 71° 30!. E. long. 155° 14!.

TCHUKOTSKIJA, the moft eaftern province of
Roffia, in the government of Irkutfk, extending from N.W.
to S.E., about 740 miles in length, and nearly 520 from N.
toS. N. lat.63° to 73° 20’. E. long. 157° to 159°.

TCHUKOTSKOI, a cape of the N.E. extremity of
Siberia, at the entrance of the ftraits which divide the Pacific
ocean from the Frozen fea, and the continent of America
from Afia. N. lat. 66°15’. E. long. 199° 14/.

TCHULIM, a river of Ruffia, formed by the union of
feveral rivers, which runs into the Oby, near Moltchanovka.

TCHUMARA-STANITZ, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk, on the Lena. N, lat. 61° 12/.
E. long. 125° 14/.

TCHUMISCH, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Oby, 6 miles S.S.E. of Kolivan.

TCHURKINO, a lake of Ruffia, 320 miles N.N. W. of
Zafhiverfk. N. lat. 72° 30!. E. long. 134° 4!.

TCHUSOVAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Perm; 28 miles N. of Perm.—Alfo, a town of Ruffia,

Ds ra

in the government of Perm, at the union of the Tchufovaia
and the Kama; 16 miles N. of Perm.—Alfo, a river of
Ruffia, which joins the Silva, and runs into the Kama, about
12 miles above Perm.

TCHUSOVOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Perm ; 40 miles N.E. of Perm.

TCHU-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Tche-kiang; 730 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat.
28° 36!. E. long. 139° 33!.

TCI-NAN, or T'si-NAN, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in the province of Chan-tong, fituated fouth of the river
Tfing-ho, or Tfi: this city is large and populous, and is
much refpeéted by the Chinefe, on account of its having
been formerly the refidence of a long feries of kings, whofe
tombs, rifing on the neighbouring mountains, afford a beauti-
ful profpeét. Tci-nan has under its jurifdi@ion four cities
of the fecond clafs, and 26 of the third; 235 miles S. of
Peking. N. lat. 36° 46’. E. long. 116° 46’.

TCIN-CHOUIL, a lake of China, about 37 miles in cir-
cumference ; 25 miles N.N.E. of Tfin-tcheou.

TCING, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Pe-tche-li; 130 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 38° 8.
E. long. 114° 6/.

TCI-NGIN, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Chang-tong ; 275 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 35° 34'.
E. long. 116° 24!. }

TCIN-TCHEOU, or Tstn-TcHEou, a city of China, of
the firft rank, in Chang-tong. The principal branch of its
commerce is fifh, which are caught in fuch abundance, that,
we are affured, the profit arifing from their fkins only is very
confiderable. It has. in its diftri€t one city of the fecond
clafs, and 13 of the third; 230 miles S.S.E. of Peking.
N. lat. 36° 46’. E. long. 118° 20!.

TCITCICAR-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
This is the ufual refidence of a Tartarian general, and capital
of a diftri. This city was built to guard the frontiers of
the Chinefe empire from the Ruffians. The city is fortified
by clofe palifades, and a wall conftruéted of earth. The
{pace inclofed by the former contains the tribunals and the
houfe of the Tartar general ; that which is between the pali-
fades and the earthen wall is occupied by the foldiers of the
Tartar garrifon, merchants, and tradefmen, moft of whom are
Chinefe invited hither by hopes of gain, or condemned to
exile, and whofe houfes are only of earth, forming pretty
large ftreets. The jurifdi€tion of the general who com-
mands here extends over the new cities of Merguen and
Saghalien-oula (city of the Black river): the latter being,
on account of its fituation, the moft populous, the riche
and the moft important. It is fituated on the fouthern bank
of the river Saghalien, commands a plain in which feyeral
villages have been built, and fecures to the Mantchew Tartars
the poffeffion of extenfive deferts covered with woods, in
which a great number of fables are found.

The diftri& to which this city belongs is the moft northerly
of the three departments of Eaftern Chinefe Tartary. It is
occupied by different Tartar tribes, the principal of which
are the Mantchews, Solons, and the Tagouris, the ancient
inhabitants of the country. The two latter tribes fubmitted
to the Mantchews, and implored their affiftance againit the
Ruffians or Mufcovites, who, with armed barks, pafling from
the Saghalien-oula into the Songari-oula, infefted all the
rivers which flow into them, and made themfelves formidable
to the Tartar nations who inhabited their banks. The
Ruffians would foon have become matters of the valuable
forefts in which the fables are found, if the fort of Yafca,
which they built on the river Saghalien, had been fuffered to
remain; but, by the treaty of peace concluded in 1689,

2 between

TEA.

between the Ruffians and Chinefe, it was agreed that it
fhould be demolithed, that no caufe of umbrage or complaint
might be left to the Tartar hunters.

he Tagouris, who appear to be the oldeft inhabitants of
the country, are tall, ftrong of body, and accuftomed to
labour ; they build themfelves houfes, fow corn, and culti-
vate their lands, although they have always been furrounded
by Tartars who live under tents, and are entirely ignorant of
agriculture.

The Solon Tartars are ftill more robuft, braver, and of
greater ingenuity ; they are almoft all hunters; their women
mount on horfebaek, handle the bow and the javelin, and
follow in the chace ftags and other wild animals. It is gene-
rally about the beginning of Oétober that thefe Tartars
depart to hunt fables, clad in a fhort clofe garment of wolf’s
fkin: they cover their heads with a cap made of the fame,
and carry their bows fufpended at their backs.

They take along with them feveral horfes loaded with
facks of millet, and their long cloaks made of foxes’ or
tygers’ fkins, which they wrap round them to defend them-
felves from the cold, efpecially during the night. Their
dogs are trained to this kind of hunting ; they are accuf-
tomed to climb the fleepeft rocks, and know all the ftrata-

ems of the fables.

The fables’ {kins of this country are highly vatued. Some
of the rivers that run into the Saghalien-oula furnifh pearls ;
335 miles N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 47° 25’. E. long.
123° 30!,

Te a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-tong,
on the grand canal ; 150 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 35".
E. long. 115° 50!.

TEA-Tree, in Botany. ‘See Tue.

TEA, in common language, denotes the leaves of the tea-
tree, as they are imported into this country, and the infufion
of them in eit water. The term is more extenfively ap-
plied to any other infufion of ordinary roots or herbs.

Dr. Lettfom, in his botanical defcription of the tea-plant,
thinks it moft probable, that there is only one {pecies, and
that the difference between the green and bohea teas depends
on the nature of the foil, culture, age, and the manner of
drying the leaves. He adds, that it has even been obferved,
that a green tea-tree, planted in the bohea teacountry, will pro-
duce bohea, and on the contrary ; and that on his examining
feveral hundred flowers, brought both from the bohea and
green tea countries, their botanical characters have always
appeared uniform. We are principally indebted to Kempfer,
Le Compte, and Du Halde, for an authentic hiftory of the
culture of this exotic fhrub, and the manner of prepzring or
curing its leaves.

The particulars of greateft importance that have been
recited, have lately been judicioufly colleéted, and the fub-
je& further illuftrated by additional obfervations by Dr.
Lettfom.

The tea-tree loves to grow in vallies, at the foot of moun-
tains, and upon the banks of rivers, where it enjoys a fouthern
expofure to the fun; though it endures confiderable vari-
ations of heat and cold, as it flourifhes in the northern clime
of Peking, as well as about Canton ; and it is obferved that
the degree of cold at Peking is as fevere in winter as in fome
of the northern parts of Europe. However, the beft tea
rows in a mild temperate climate, the country about Nan-
ae producing better tea than either Peking or Centon,
betwixt which places it is fituated.

The root ralembles that of the peach-tree ; the leaves are
reen, longifh at the point, and pretty narrow, an inch and
jalf long,.and jagged all round. The flower is much like

that of the wild rofe, but {maller. ‘The fruit is of different
6

juicy leaves crack when “2
t

forms, fometimes round, fometimes long, fometumes trangut-
lar, and of the ordinary fize of a bean, containing two or
three feeds, of a moufe-colour, including each a Kkernel-
Thefe are the feeds by which the plant is propagated: a
number from fix to twelve or fifteen being promifcuoufly
put into one hole, four or five inches deep, at certain dit.
tances from each other. The feeds vegetate without any
other care, though the more induftrious annually remove the
weeds, and mahure the land. “The leaves which fucceed are
not fit to be plucked before the third year’s growth, at
which period they are plentiful, and in their prime. a
In about feven years the fhrub rifes to a man’s height,
and as it then bears few leaves, and grows flowly, it is cut
down to the ftem, which occafions an exuberance of frefh,
fhoots and leaves the fucceeding fummer; fome, indeed,
defer cutting them till they are of ten years’ growth. In
Japan, the tea-tree is cultivated round the borders of the
fields, without regard to the foil; but as the Chinefe export
confiderable quantities of tea, they plant whole fields with
it. The leaves are not collected from the cultivated plant
till it is three years old; and after growing feven or ten
years, it is cut down, in order that the numerous young
fhoots may afford a greater fupply of leaves. ;
The belt time to gather the leaves of tea is while they are
yet fmall, young, and juicy; and the different periods in
which they are gathered are particularly defcribed by
Kempfer. The firft gathering of the tea-leaves, according
to this author, commences about the latter end of February,
when the leaves are young and unexpanded. The fecond
collection is made about the beginning of April, and the
third in June. The firft colleGtion, which confifts only of
the fine tender leaves, is moft efteemed, and is called Im-
perial tea. The fecond is called Tootsjaa, or Chinefe tea,
becaufe it is infufed and drunk after the Chinefe manner.
The laft, which is the coarfeft and cheapeft, is chiefly con-
fumed by the lower clafs of people. Befides the three kinds:
of tea here noticed, it may be obferved, that by garbling or.
forting thefe, the varieties of tea become ftill further mul-
tiplied. The leaves are plucked carefully one by one, and
notwithflanding the feeming tedioufnefs of this operation,
the labourers are able to gather from four to ten or fifteen
pounds each in one day. ‘The tea-trees that yield often the
fineft leaves, grow on the fteep declivities of hills, where it
is dangerous, and in fome cafes impracticable to colleét them.
The Chinefe are faid to vanquifh this difficulty by a fingular
contrivance. The large monkies which inhabit thefe cliffs
are irritated, and in revenge they break off the branches,
and throw them down, fo that the leaves are thus obtained.
The leaves fhould be dried as foon as poffible after they are
gathered.
The buildings, or drying-houfes, that are ereéted for
curing of tea, contain from five to tenor twenty {mall furnaces,
about three feet high, each having at the top a large flat
iron pan. There is alfo a long low table covered with mats,
on which the leaves are laid, and rolled by workmen, who
fit round it; the iron pan being heated to a certain degree by
a little fire made in the furnace underneath, a few pounds
the frefh-gathered leaves are put upon the pan ; the fref and
touch the pan, and iti
bufinefs of the operator to fhitt them as ae a8 sofible with
his bare hands, till they become too hot to be eafily endured.
At this inftant he takes off the leaves with a kind of fhovel -
refembling a fan, and pours them on the mats before the
rollers, who, taking fmall quantitics at a time, roll them in
the palm of their a in one direGtion, while others are
fanning them, that they may cool the more fpeedily, and re-
tain their curl the longer. This procefs is repeated two or

three

THA.

three times, or oftener, before the tea is put into the flores,
in order that all the moifture of the leaves may be thoroughly
diffipated, and their curl more completely preferved. On
every repetition the pan is lefs heated, and the operation
performed more {lowly and cautioufly. The tea is then fe-
parated into the different kinds, and depofited in the ftore for
domeftic ule or exportation.

The Chinefe know nothing of imperial tea, flower of tea,
and many other names, which in Europe ferve to diftinguifh
the goodnefs and the price of this fafhionable commodity ;
but, befide the common tea, they diftinguith two other kinds,
viz. the vout and foumlo, which are referved for people of the
firft quality, and thofe who are fick. We have two princi-
pal kinds of teain Europe ; viz.

Tea, Green, which is the common tea of the Chinefe,
&c. IF. le Compte calls it ding tea, and fays it is gathered
from the plant in April. It is held very digeftive, and a
little aftringent ; it givesa palifh-green tinéture to water, and
its leaves are much twifted.

Tea, Bohea, whichis the vouitea, or bou tcha of the Chi-
nefe. F.le Compte makes this only differ from the green
tea, by its being gathered a month before it, viz. in March,
while in the bud; and hence the {mallnefs of the leaves, as
well as the depth of the tin¢ture it gives to water. Others
take it for the tea of fome particular province; the foil being
found to make an alteration in the properties of the tea, as
much as the feafon of gathering it. It is all bought at Nan-
kin, and thence brought into Europe, where it is now much in
vogue.

As to the differeaces in colour and flavour peculiar to
thefe two kinds, and to their varieties, Dr. Lettfom thinks
that there is reafon to fufpect that they are, in fome meafure,
adventitious, or produced by art. He has been informed by
intelligent perfons, who have refided fome time at Canton, that
the tea about that city affords very little {mell while growing.
The fame is obferved of the tea-plants now in England,
and alfo of the dried {pecimens from China. We are not,
howeyer, as he obferves, to conclude from hence, that art
alone conveys to tea, when cured, the {mell peculiar to each
kind ; for our vegetable graffes, for inftance, have little or no
fmell till they are dried and made into hay.

As to the opinion, that the green tea owes its verdure to
an efflorefcence acquired from the plates of copper on which
it is fuppofed to be cured or dried, he fhews that there is no
foundation for thisfufpicion. The infufions of the fineft im-
perial and bloom teas undergo no change on the affufion
of a volatile alkali, which would dete& the minuteft por-
tion of copper contaiaed in them, by turning the liquors
blue. a

The fine green colour of thefe teas, with as little reafon, hath
been attributed to green copperas ; as this metallic falt would,
on its being diffolyed in water, immediately act on the aftrin-
gent matter of the leaves, and convert the infufion into ink,
as happens when a chalybeate water has been employed in the
making of tea.

On the whole, Dr. Lettfom thinks it not improbable, that
fome green dye prepared from vegetable fubitances, is em-

ployed in the colouring of the leaves of the’ green teas.
And Neumann fufpects, that the brown colour and the fla-
your of the bohea forts are introduced by art. Both the
grean and bohea teas have an agreeable fmell, and a lightly
bitterifh fubaftringent tafte: with folution of chalybeate
vitriol, they ftrike an inky blacknefs. They give out their
{mell and tafte both to watery and fpirituous menftrua; to
water, the green forts communicate their own green tine-
ture, and the bohea, their brown; but to rectified fpirit,
they both impart a fiue deep green. The extracts, obtained

by gently drawing off the menitrua from the filtered tin@ures,
are very confiderably aftringent, and not a little ungrateful ;
but the fpirituous moft fo.

Savary alfo {peaks of a fort of red tea, or Tartar tea,
called Honan tcha, whichtinges the water of a pale red, and
which is faid to ‘be extremely digeftive: by means of it
the Tartars are faid to be able to feed on raw flefh. Its
tafte 1s earthy, and much the leaft agreeable of them all :
but this is fearcely known in England.

Tea is to be chofen of the brifkeft fmell, and as whole as
poffible: and the greateft care is to be taken that it have not
been expofed to the air to pall and evaporate.

The drink, tea, is made in China, and throughout the
greateft part of the Eait, after the fame manner as in Eu-
rope; wiz. by infuling the leaves in boilmg water, and
drinking the infufion hot. Indeed, among us, it is ufual to
temper its bitternefs with fugar, but the Orientals ufe it
without the addition of fugar or milk.

However, the Japanefe are faid to prepare their liquor in
a fomewhat different way, viz. by pulve rizing the leaves,
{tirring the powder in hot water, and drinking it as we do
coffee.

From the account given by Du Halde, this method is not
peculiar to the Japanefe, but is alfo ufed in fome provinces
of China.

The common people, who have a coarfer tea, boil it for
fome time in water, and make ufe of the liquor for common
drink. Early in the morning, the kettle, filled with water,
is regularly hung over the fire for this purpofe, and the tea
is either put into the kettle enclofed in a bag, or by means
of a bafket of proper fize prefled to the bottom of the
veflel, that there may be no hindrance in drawing off the
water.

The Bantsjaa tea only is ufed in this manner, whofe vir-
tues, being more fixed, would net be fo fully extracted by
infufion.

The Chinefe are always taking tea, efpecially at meals :
it is the chief treat with which they regale their friends. The
moft moderate take it at leaft thrice a day ; others ten times,
or more; and yet it is computed, the confumption of tea
among the Englifh and Dutch is as great, in proportion, as
among the Orientals.

With regard to the commercial hiftory of tea, we may
obferve that it was firft introduced into Europe by the Dutch
Eaft India Company, very early in the 17th century, and

that a quantity of it was brought over from Holland by .

lord Arlington and lord Offory, about the year 1666, at
which time it was fold for 60s. a pound. But it appears,
that before this time, drinking of tea, even in public coffee-
houfes ia this country, was not uncommon; for in 1660, a
duty of 8d. per gallon was laid on the liquor made and fold
in all coffee-houfes.

The prefent confumption of it is immenfe, both among the
rich and poor. Dr. Lettfom tells us, that he has been in-
formed, that at leaft three millions of pounds are allowed
for the annual home confumption, not including the incre-
dible quantity fmuggled into the kingdom; and that the
Eaft India Company have generally in their warehoufes a
fupply for three years.

In the appendix to fir George Staunton’s Account of
Lord Macartney’s Embafly to China, we have feveral ftate-
ments relating to the tea-trade with China. The average of
teas exported from China to Europe in foreign fhips, for nine
years, viz. from March 1772 to 1780, the average of the
number of fhips being twelve, was 13,198,201 lbs. ; in
Englifh fhips, at the average of nine, 5,639,939 lbs.: the
total average of hips is twenty-one, and of exported tea

18,838,140. lbs

TEA.

18,838,r40lbs. The annual confumption of tea by foreigners
in Europe is eftimated at 5,500,000 lbs.; and the confump-
tion of Great Britain and her dependencies is at leaft
13,338,140 lbs., which, at 700,000 lbs. fer fhip, would em-

loy thirty-eight large fhips conftantly in the China trade,
inftead of eighteen fhips, as above, moft of which were {mall,
one fleet going out when another is coming home.

The above ts exclufive of private trade teas, brought legally
and illegally into Europe. Itis faid, upon the authority of
confidential information, that the Englifh fhips have often
fmuggled from 1000 to 3000 chefts of teaeach; and alfo
that the foreign captains bring a large quantity of tea, which
they either {muggle at fea, or throw into the fea, the punifh-
ment being fevere. The lofs to the public on rooo cheits
of hyfon tea f{muggled, is above 20,000/.

The average quantities for one year of each fort of tea
fold by the Eaft India Company in ten years, from March
fale 1773 to September fale 1782 inclufive, exclufive of
private trade, which was trifling, are as follow :

Bohea - - - 3,075,307 lbs.
Congou - - 523,272
Souchong and Pekoe 925572
Singlo - - - 1,832,474
Hyfon - - 218,839
597420464

See Commutation 44.

As to the properties of tea, they are ftrangely contro-
verted: the Eaftern nations are at leaft as much poffeffed
with an idea of their extraordinary virtues as the Europeans ;
but it is, perhaps, becaufe imagination bears as great a {way
there as here. The reafon why the gout and ene are un-
known in China, is afcribed to the ufe of this plant.

Tea is extolled as the greatett of all medicines : moderately
and properly taken, it aéts as a gentle aftringent and corro-
borative : it ftrengthens the ftomach and bowels, and is
good againft naufeas, indigeftions, and diarrhceas. It a&ts
alfo as a diuretic and diaphoretic. The immoderate ufe of it,
however, has been very prejudicial to many, who have been
thereby thrown into the diabetes.

And alfo in Europe, infufions of tea-leaves have been ex-
travagantly condemned by fome, and commended by others.
From the contradiftory opinions, even of medical writers,
on this fubje&, the natural inference feems to be, that they
poffefs neither noxious nor beneficial powers, in any very
confiderable degree. They feem, when moderately ufed,
to be for the moft part innocent ; in fome cafes they feem to
be falutary ; in fome they are apparently prejudicial. They
dilute thick juices, and quench thirft more apparently, and
pafs off by the natural emunétories more freely, than more
watery fluids: they refrefh the fpirits in heavinefs and
ae and feem to counteraé the operation of inebriating

iquors.

From their manifeft aftringency, they have been fuppofed
to ftrengthen and brace up fhe folids, but this effe& expe-
rience does not countenance 3 as it is in diforders, and in
conftitutions in which corroborants are more ferviceable,
that the immoderate ufe of tea is peculiarly hurtful ; in cold
indolent habits, cachexies, chlorofis, dropfies, and debilities
of the nervous fyftem. Lewis’s Mat. Med.

Dr. Lettfom has particularly inquired into the medical
qualities and effets of tea; a having obferved that infu-
fions of bohea and green tea contribute to preferve fweet
fome {mall pieces of beef immerfed in them, he infers that
they poffefs an antifeptic power, when applied to the dead

animal fibre, and from their ftriking a purple colour with
falt of iron, he deduces their aftringent quality. :

From other experiments he concludes, that the aétivity of
tea chiefly refides in its fragrant and volatile parts; and that
if the ufe of it be beneficial or injurious to any particular
conttitution, it becomes fo principally by means of this
odorous fragrant principle. He apprehends that it is the
fafeft courfe to ufe the infufion of the more ordinary kinds
of this plant, which abound lefs with this fragrant principle.
Or the tea may be boiled a few minutes, in order to diffi-
pate this volatile part, which ftands charged as the caufe of
thofe nervous affections that are faid to be produced, or ag-

ravated, by the ufe of this liquor. By this procefs may
Fhewife be extra&ted more copioufly the more fixed, bitter,
and ftomachic parts of this vegetable.

Dr. Lettfom, who feems to be thoroughly perfuaded of
the occafionally noxious effeéts of this volatile principle, in
the finer teas efpecially, recommends this laft mentioned
mode of making tea, or the fubftitution of the extra& in-
ftead of the leaves; by the ufe of which the nervous relax-
ing effets, which follow the drinking of tea in the ufual
manner, would be in great meafure avoided. This extra&
has been imported hither from China, in the form of {mall
cakes, not exceeding a quarter of an ounce each in weight,
ten grains of which might fuffice one perfon for breakfatt ;
but it might eafily be made here by fimple decoétion and
evaporation, by thofe who experience the noxious qualities
of the volatile principles of this plant.

It may be farther obferved, that the effe&t of drinking
large quantities of any warm aqueous liquor would be to
enter fpeedily into the courfe of circulation, and pafs off as
{peedily by urine or perfpiration, or the increafe of fome of
the fecretions.

Its effe&ts on the folid parts of the conftitution would be
relaxing, and thereby enfeebling.

If this warm aqueous fluid were taken in confiderable
quantities, its effects would be proportionable, and ftill

reater if it were fubftituted inftead of nutriment. The in-
Fafion of tea, however, has thefe two peculiarities. It is
not only pofleffed of a fedative quality, but alfo of a confi-
derable aftringency ; by which the relaxing power, afcribed
to a mere aqueous fluid, isin fome meafure correéted on this
account. Itis, perhaps, lefsinjurious than many other infu-
fions of herbs, which, befides a very flight aromatic flavour,
have very little, if any, ftypticity, to prevent their relaxing
debilitating effeéts.

So far, therefore, tea, if not too fine, if not drank too
hot, nor in too great quantities, is perhaps preferable to any
other known vegetable infufion. And if we take into con-
fideration, likewife, its known enlivening energy, our at-
tachment to it will appear to be owing to its fuperiori
in tafte and effe&ts to moft other vegetables. See Hiei ake:
fom’s Natural Hiftory of the Tea-tree, with Obfervations
on the Medical Qualities of Tea, and Effe&ts of Tea-
drinking, 4to. 1772.

Tea may be confidered as a very powerful aphrodifiac ;
and accordingly, a phyfician of confiderable eminence in his
profeflion, imputes the amazing population of am
other caufes, to the Genin ufe of it. Percival’s Eff.
p- 63. i

We fhall clofe this part of the article with a tranfcript of
its medicinal powers, as they are ftated by Dr. Cullen (Mat.
Med. vol. ii.) ‘* With refpe& to its qualities as a medicine,
that is, its power of changing the ftate of the human body,
we might fuppofe it afcertained by the experience of its
daily ufe ; but from the univerfality of this ufe in very different
conditions of the plant, and in every poffible condition df

the

TEA.

the perfons employing it, the conclufions drawn from its
effeéts muft be very precarious and ambiguous, and we mutt
attempt by other means to afcertain its qualities with more
certainty.

* To this purpofe it appears, from the accurate Dr.
Smith’s experiments ‘ De Aétione Mufculari,’? No. 36,
that an infufion of green tea has the effect of deftroying the
fenfibility of the nerves, and the irritability of the mufcles ;
and from the experiments of Dr. Lettfom, it appears that
green tea gives out in diftillation an odorous water, which is
powerfully narcotic.

That the recent plant contains fuch an odorous narcotic
power, we might prefume from the neceflity which the Chi-
nefe find of drying it with much heat before it can be
brought into ufe; and that, even after fuch preparation,
they muft abftain from the ufe of it for a year or more, that
is, till its volatile parts are {till farther diflipated : and it is
faid, that unlefs they ufe this precaution, the tea in a more
recent itate manifeftly fhews {trong narcotic powers. Even
in this country, the more odorous teas often fhew their fe-
dative powers in weakening the nerves of the ftomach, and
indeed of the whole fyftem.

“ From thefe confiderations we conclude very firmly, that
tea is to be confidered as a narcotic and fedative fub{tance ;
and that it is efpecially fuch in its moft odorous ftate, and
therefore lefs in the bohea than in the green tea, and the
mott fo in the more odorous, or what are called the finer kinds
of the latter.

“Its effeéts, however, feem to be very different in dif-
ferent perfons; and hence the different, and even contra-
diétory accounts that are reported of thefe effects. But
if we confider the difference of conftitution, which occa-
fions fome difference of the operation of the fame medicine

‘in different perfons, and of which we have a remarkable
proof in the operation of opium, we fhall not be furprifed
at the different operations of tea.
“< Tf to this we add the fallacy arifing from the condition
of the tea employed, which is often fo inert as to have no
effets at all ; and if we {till add to this the power of habit,
which can deftroy the powers of the moft powerful fub-
ftances, we fhall not allow the various and even contradictory
reports of is effeéts to alter our judgment, with refpeé to its
ordinary and more general qualities in affe€ting the human
body.
** From the experiments above-mentioned, and from
the obfervations which I have made in the courfe of fifty
years, in all forts of perfons, I am convinced that the qua-
lities of tea are narcotic and fedative.
“Tt has been often alleged, that fome of the bad effects im-
putedtotea aretruly owing to the large quantity of warm water
_ which commonly accompanies it, and it is peffible that fome

bad effeéts may arife from this caufe : but from attentive ob-
fervation I can affert, that wherever any confiderable effects
appear, they are in nine of every ten perfons entirely from
the qualities of the tea; and that any like effects of warm
water do not appear in one of a hundred who take in this
very largely.

“ But while we thus endeavour to eftablifh the poifonous
nature of tea, we do not at the fame time deny that it may
fometimes fhew ufeful qualities. It is very poffible, that in
certain perfons, taken in moderate quantity, it may, like
other narcotics in a moderate dofe, prove exiularating, or,
like thefe, have fome effe& in taking off irritability, or in
quieting fome irregularities of the nervous fy{tem.

“ As its bad effets have been often imputed to the warm
water that accompanies it, fo we have no doubt that fome
of its good effects may alfo be afcribed to the fame caufe,

set particularly its being fo often grateful after a ful]
meal.”?

By 9 Geo. II. c. 35, if a veflel, coming from foreign
parts, and having 6 lbs. or more of tea on board, fhall be
found at anchor, or within two leagues of the fhore, Sc.
all fuch tea, with cheft and package, fhall be forfeited. The
importer of any coffee, tea, or cocoa-nuts, fhall within thirty
days enter the faid tea, &c. and warehoufe it. (10 Geo.
c. 10. 5 Geo. III. c. 43.) That whichis landed without
entry and warehoufing fhall be forfeited. But this fhall not
extend to any coffee or tea imported by the Eaft India Com-
pany. he coffee and tea intended for home confump-
tion fhall be entered and the duty paid. (10 G.c. 10.)
A permit fhall be given for the removal of tea from any
warehoufe, whether it be bohea, congou, fouchong, or
pekoe tea ; and fuch tea fhall in the permit be fpecified under
the denomination of d/ack tea; and if the tea be neither
bohea, congou, fouchong, nor pekoe tea, then fuch tea fhall
be {pecified under the denomination of green tea. «43 Geo. III.
c. 129.

By 13 Geo. III. c. 44. no licence fhall be granted to the
Eaft India Company to export tea, unlefs there remain in the
warehoufes a quantity not lefs than ten millions of pounds
weight.

No tea is allowed to be imported, except from the place
of its growth, on pain of forfeiture. (11 Geo. c. 30.) And
by 24 Geo. III. c. 38. all the duties upon tea imported,
fold, or ufed in this kingdom, fhall ceafe from September 15,
1784 ; at which period the Eaft India Company is difcharged
from the payment of duties on tea in their warehoufes ; and
afterwards there fhall be paid a duty of 12/. 10s. per cent.
computed upon the grofs prices for all tea delivered by the
Company to the purchafers, which duty fhall be drawn back
on exportation to any place where the drawback is already
allowed. The Company is required to make four fales in the
year, and to fell fuch quantity as fhall be fufficient to fupply
the demand, provided an advance of 1d. per lb. be bid upon
the prices at which the teas fhall be put up; and at the
four firft fales after paffing the a€t, thefe prices fhall not ex-
ceed the following rates ; viz. for bohea tea, 1s. 7d. per lb.;
congou tea, 25. 5d. pér lb.; for fouchong tea, 3s. 3d per lb.;
for finglo tea, 3s. 4d. per lb.; and for hyfon tea, 4s. 11d.
per \b.: and afterwards the whole price at which the teas
are put up, fhall not exceed the prime coft, with the
freight and charges of importation, lawful intereft from
the time of the arrival of fuch tea in Great Britain,
and the common premium of infurance. In lieu of the
duties on tea, this act fubftitutes an additional duty on win
dows. See ComMuTATION 4@. .

By this fame aét, the inland duty upon cocoa-nuts and
coffee fhall ceafe from September 15, 1784, and the follow-
ing additional duties be paid ; viz. for every pound of cocoa-
nuts, the produce of Britifh America, 6d. and the produce
of any other place, ts. 6d.; and for every pound of coffee,
the praduce of Britifh America, 6d. and the produce of any
other place, 2s. 6d.; and thefe duties are fubject to an addi-
tional impoft of 5 per cent. and 5 per cent thereon impofed by
19 Geo III. c. 25. and 22 Geo. Ill. c. 66.

If coffee or tea are intended to be taken out for export-
ation, they fhall be delivered out on fecurity that they fhall
be exported, and not relanded. °13 Geo. c. 10.

No drawback fhall be allowed on tea exported, except to
Ireland, &c. where the whole duty on exportation hall
be allowed. 18 Geo. II. c. 26. 17 Geo. III. c. 27.
43 Geo. ITI. c. 69. . -

Every perfon having in his cuftody more than fix pounds
weight of tea, is a dealer; and felling without a licence, 3

e

TEA.

18,838,140lbs. The annual confumption of tea by foreigners
in Europe is eftimated at 5,500,000 lbs.; and the confump-
tion of Great Britain and her dependencies is at leatt
13,338,140 lbs., which, at 700,000 Ibs. fer fhip, would em-
ploy thirty-eight large fhips conftantly in the China trade,
inftead of eighteen fhips, as above, moft of which were fmall,
one fleet going out when another is coming home.

The above is exclufive of private trade teas, brought legally
and illegally into Europe. Itis faid, upon the authority of
confidential information, that the Englifh fhips have often
fmuggled from 1000 to 3000 chefts of teaeach; and alfo
that the foreign captains bring a large quantity of tea, which
they either {muggle at fea, or throw into the fea, the punifh-
ment being fevere. The lofs to the public on rooo cheits
of hyfon tea fmuggled, is above 20,000/.

The average quantities for one year of each fort of tea
fold by the Eaft India Company in ten years, from March
fale 1773 to September fale 1782 inclufive, exclufive of
private trade, which was trifling, are as follow :

Bohea - - - 3,075,307 lbs.
Congou - - 523,272
Souchong and Pekoe 925572
Singlo - - - 1,832,474
Hytfon - - 218,839
59742464

See Commutation 4d.

As to the properties of tea, they are ftrangely contro-
verted: the Eaftern nations are at leaft as much poffeffed
with an idea of their extraordinary virtues as the Europeans ;
but it is, perhaps, becaufe imagination bears as great a fway
there as here. ‘The reafon why the gout and fone are un-
known in China, is afcribed to the ufe of this plant.

Tea is extolled as the greateft of all medicines : moderately
and properly taken, it aéts as a gentle aftringent and corro-
borative : it ftrengthens the ftomach and bowels, and is
good againft naufeas, indigeftions, and diarrhceas. It a&ts
alfo as a diuretic and diaphoretic. The immoderate ufe of it,
however, has been very prejudicial to many, who have been
thereby thrown into the diabetes.

And alfo in Europe, infufions of tea-leaves have been ex-
travagantly condemned by fome, and commended by others.
From the contradi€tory opinions, even of medical writers,
on this fubje&, the natural inference feems to be, that they
poffefs neither noxious nor beneficial powers, in any very
confiderable degree. They feem, when moderately ufed,
to be for the moft part innocent ; in fome cafes they feem to
be falutary ; in fome they are apparently prejudicial. hey
dilute thick juices, and quench thirft more apparently, and
pafs off by the natural emunétories more freely, than more
watery fluids: they refrefh the fpirits in heavinefs and
fleepinefs, and feem to counteraét the operation of inebriating
liquors.

From their manifeft aftringency, they have been fuppofed
to ftrengthen and brace up the folids, but this effe& expe-
rience does not countenance; as it is in diforders, and in
conftitutions in which corroborants are more ferviceable,
that the immoderate ufe of tea is peculiarly hurtful ; in cold
indolent habits, cachexies, chlorofis, dropfies, and debilities
of the nervous fyftem. Lewis’s Mat. Med.

Dr. Lettfom has particularly inquired into the medical
qualities and effeéts of tea; iuif having obferved that infu-
fions of bohea and green tea contribute to preferve fweet
fome fmall pieces of beef immerfed in them, he infers that
they poffefs an antifeptic power, when applied to the dead

animal fibre, and from their ftriking a purple colour with
falt of iron, he deduces their aftringent quality. :

From other experiments he concludes, that the activity of
tea chiefly refides in its fragrant and volatile parts; and that
if the ufe of it be beneficial or injurious to any particular
conftitution, it becomes fo principally by means of this
odorous fragrant principle. He apprehends that it is the
fafeft courfe to ufe the infufion of the more ordinary kinds
of this plant, which abound lefs with this fragrant principle.
Or the tea may be boiled a few minutes, in order to diffi-
pate this volatile part, which ftands charged as the caufe of
thofe nervous affections that are faid to be produced, or ag-

ravated, by the ufe of this liquor. By this procefs may
Frewife be extraGted more copioufly the more fixed, bitter,
and ftomachic parts of this vegetable.

Dr. Lettfom, who feems to be thoroughly perfuaded of
the occafionally noxious effeéts of this volatile principle, in
the finer teas efpecially, recommends this laft mentioned
mode of making tea, or the fubftitution of the extra& in-
ftead of the leaves ; by the ufe of which the nervous relax-
ing effeéts, which follow the drinking of tea in the ufual
manner, would be in great meafure avoided. This extraé&
has been imported hither from China, in the form of {mall
cakes, not exceeding a quarter of an ounce each in weight,
ten grains of which might fuffice one perfon for breakfatt ;
but it might eafily be made here by fimple decoétion and
evaporation, by thofe who experience the noxious qualities
of the volatile principles of this plant.

It may be farther obferved, that the effect of drinking
large quantities of any warm aqueous liquor would be to
enter {peedily into the courfe of circulation, and pafs off as
{peedily by urine or perfpiration, or the increafe of fome of
the fecretions.

Its effeéts on the folid parts of the conftitution would be
relaxing, and thereby enfeebling.

If this warm aqueous fluid were taken in confiderable
quantities, its effe€ts would be proportionable, and {till

reater if it were fub{tituted inftead of nutriment. The in-
Fufion of tea, however, has thefe two peculiarities. It is
not only pofleffed of a fedative quality, but alfo of a confi-
derable aftringency ; by which the relaxing power, afcribed
to a mere aqueous fluid, isin fome meafure correéted on this
account. Itis, perhaps, lefs injurious than many other infu-
fions of herbs, which, befides a very flight aromatic flavour,
have very little, if any, ftypticity, to prevent their relaxing
debilitating effects.

So far, therefore, tea, if not too fine, if not drank too
hot, nor in too great quantities, is perhaps preferable to any
other known vegetable infufion. And if we take into con-
fideration, likewife, its known enlivening energy our at-
tachment to it will appear to be owing to its fuperiority
in tafte and effeéts to moft other vegetables. See Dr. Lett-
fom’s Natural Hiftory of the Tea-tree, with Obfervations
on the Medical Qualities of Tea, and Effe&ts of Tea-
drinking, 4to. 1772.

Tea may be confidered as a very powerful aphrodifiac ;
and accordingly, a phyfician of confiderable eminence in his
profeflion, imputes the amazing population of China, amongft
other caufes, to the gesieral ufe of it. Percival’s Eff.
p- 63.

We fhall clofe this part of the article with a tranfcript of
its medicinal powers, as they are {tated by Dr. Cullen (Mat.
Med. vol. ii.) ‘* With refpe& to its qualities as a medicine,
that is, its power of changing the ftate of the human body,
we might fuppofe it afcertained by the experience of its
daily ufe ; but from the univerfality of this ufe in very different
conditions of the plant, and in every poflible condition df

the

TEA.

the perfons employing it, the conclufions drawn from its
effects muft be very precarious and ambiguous, and we muit
attempt by other means to afcertain its qualities with more
certainty.

“ To this purpofe it appears, from the accurate Dr.
Smith’s experiments ‘ De Adtione Mufculari,’ No. 36,
that an infufion of green tea has the effect of deftroying the
fenfibility of the nerves, and the irritability of the mufcles ;
and from the experiments of Dr. Lettfom, it appears that
green tea gives out in diftillation an odorous water, which is
powerfully narcotic.

That the recent plant contains fuch an odorous narcotic
power, we might prefume from the neceffity which the Chi-
nefe find of drying it with much heat before it can be
brought into ufe; and that, even after fuch preparation,
they muft abftain from the ufe of it for a year or more, that
is, till its volatile parts are {till farther diflipated : and it is
faid, that uniefs they ufe this precaution, the tea in a more
recent {tate manifeftly fhews ftrong narcotic powers. Even
in this country, the more odorous teas often fhew their fe-
dative powers in weakening the nerves of the ftomach, and
indeed of the whole fyftem.

“ From thefe confiderations we conclude very firmly, that
tea is to be confidered as a narcotic and fedative fub{tance ;
and that it is efpecially fuch in its moft odorous ftate, and
therefore lefs in the bohea than in the green tea, and the
moftt fo in the more odorous, or what are called the finer kinds
of the latter.

“ Its effects, however, feem to be very different in dif-
ferent perfons; and hence the different, and even contra-
di€tory accounts that are reported of thefe effeéts. But
if we confider the difference of conftitution, which occa-
fions fome difference of the operation of the fame medicine

‘in different perfons, and of which we have a remarkable

proof in the operation of opium, we fhall not be furprifed
at the different operations of tea.

“< Tf to this we add the fallacy arifing from the condition
of the tea employed, which is often fo inert as to have no
effects at all ; and if we {till add to this the power of habit,
which can deftroy the powers of the moft powerful fub-
ftances, we fhall not allow the various and even contradictory
reports of is effeéts to alter our judgment, with refpeé to its
ordinary and more general qualities in affe@ting the human
body.

a the experiments above-mentioned, and from
the obfervations which I have made in the courfe of fifty
years, in all forts of perfons, I am convinced that the qua-
lities of tea are narcotic and fedative.

“Tt has been often alleged, that fome of the bad effects im-
putedtotea aretruly owing tothe large quantity of warm water

_ which commonly accompanies it, and it is peffible that fome

bad effeéts may arife from this caufe: but from attentive ob-
fervation I can affert, that wherever any confiderable effects
appear, they are in nine of every ten perfons entirely from
the qualities of the tea; and that any like effects of warm
water do not appear in one of a hundred who take in this
very largely.

« But while we thus endeavour to eftablifh the poifonous
nature of tea, we do not at the fame time deny that it may
fometimes fhew ufeful qualities. It is very poflible, that in
certain perfons, taken in moderate quantity, it may, like
other narcotics in a moderate dofe, prove exhilarating, or,
like thefe, have fome effe& in taking off irritability, or in
quieting fome irregularities of the nervous fy{tem.

“ As its bad effets have been often imputed to the warm
water that accompanies it, fo we have no doubt that fome

of its good effeéts may alfo be afcribed to the fame caufe,

one particularly its being fo often grateful after a ful]
meal.”

By 9 Geo. Il. c. 35, if a veflel, coming from foreign
parts, and having 6 lbs. or more of tea on board, fhall be
found at anchor, or within two leagues of the fhore, Sc.
all fuch tea, with cheft and package, fhall be forfeited. The
importer of any coffee, tea, or cocoa-nuts, fhall within thirty
days enter the faid tea, &c. and warehoufe it. (10 Geo.
c- 10. 5 Geo. III. c. 43.) That whichis landed without
entry and warehoufing fhall be forfeited. But this fhall not
extend to any coffee or tea imported by the Eaft India Com-
pany. he coffee and tea intended for home confump-
tion fhall be entered and the duty paid. (10 G.c. 10.)
A permit fhall be given for the removal of tea from any
warehoufe, whether it be bohea, congou, fouchong, or
pekoe tea ; and fuch tea fhall in the permit be fpecified under
the denomination of d/ack tea; and if the tea be neither
bohea, congou, fouchong, nor pekoe tea, then fuch tea fhall
be {pecified under the denomination of green tea. +43 Geo. III.
GiEzO2

By 13 Geo. III. c. 44. no licence hall be granted to the
Eaft India Company to export tea, unlefs there remain in the
warehoufes a quantity not lefs than ten millions of pounds
weight.

No tea is allowed to be imported, except from the place
of its growth, on pain of forfeiture. (11 Geo. c. 30.) And
by 24 Geo. II]. c. 38. all the duties upon tea imported,
fold, or ufed in this kingdom, fhall ceafe from September 15,
1784 ; at which period the Eaft India Company is difcharged
from the payment of duties on tea in their warehoufes ; and
afterwards there fhall be paid a duty of 12/. 10s. per cent.
computed upon the grofs prices for all tea delivered by the
Company to the purchafers, which duty fhall be drawn back
on exportation to any place where the drawback is already
allowed. The Company is required to make four fales in the
year, and to fell fuch quantity as fhall be fufficient to fupply
the demand, provided an advance of 1d. per lb. be bid upon
the prices at which the teas fhall be put up; and at the
four firft fales after pafling the at, thefe prices fhall not ex-
ceed the following rates ; viz. for bohea tea, 1s. 7d. per lb.;
congou tea, 2s. 5d. per lb.; for fouchong tea, 35. 3d per lb.;
for finglo tea, 3s. 4d. per lb.; and for hyfon tea, 4s. 11d.
per lb.: and afterwards the whole price at which the teas
are put up, fhall not exceed the prime coft, with the
freight and charges of importation, lawful intereft from
the time of the arrival of fuch tea in Great Britain,
and the common premium of infurance. In lieu of the
duties on tea, this act fubftitutes an additional duty on win
dows. See ComMuTATION 4@.

By this fame aét, the inland duty upon cocoa-nuts and
coffee fhall ceafe from September 15, 1784, and the follow-
ing additional duties be paid ; viz. for every pound of cocoa-
nuts, the produce of Britifh America, 6d. and the produce
of any other place, ts. 6d.; and for every pound of coffee,
the praduce of Britifh America, 6d. and the produce of any
other place, 2s. 6d.; and thefe duties are fubje€t to an addi-
tional impoft of 5 per cent. and 5 per cent thereon impofed by
19 Geo III. c. 2§. and 22 Geo. IIl.c. 66.

If coffee or tea are intended to he taken out for export-
ation, they fhall be delivered out on fecurity that they fhall
be exported, and not relanded. °13 Geo. c. 10.

No drawback fhall be allowed on tea exported, except to
Ireland, &c. where the whole duty on exportation fhall
be allowed. 18 Geo. Il. c. 26. 17 Geo. III. c. 27.
43 Geo. III. c. 69. ;

Every perfon having in his cuftody more than fix pounds
weight of tea, is a dealer ; and felling without a licence, re

e

TEA
be had for 12d., fhall forfeit 5/.a month. (11 Geo. c. 30.)

If any perfon offer any tea to fale without a permit, or a
pedlar with one, the perfon to whom it is offered may feize
the fame, &c. g Geo. Il. c. 35. See Corree.

Every perfon dealing in tea, &c. fhall caufe to be painted
or written over the door of his fhop, the words dealer in coffee,
tea, cocoa-nuts, or chocclate, on pain of 200/. (19 Geo. III.
Ci 69-) And any dealer buying of any perfon who has not
this infcription, incurs forfeiture of 1oo/., and any other per-
fon 10/. By 20 Geo. III. c. 35. no perfon fhall trade in
coffee, tea, or chocolate, without a licence, at the price (by
43 Geo. III. c. 69.) of oe 6d., under penalty of 2o/.
The adulteration of tea is fubje¢t to a penalty of zoo/. be-
fides the forfeiture of the fame, and for every pound of
dyed leaves of tea, 5/. 11 Geo. c. 30. 17 Geo. III. c. 29.

At the Eaft India Company’s fale of teas, an account
fhall be taken of the buyers and prices, and the beft bidder
fhall within three days depofit with the Company, or their
clerks, 40s. for every tub or cheft of tea, on pain of fix
times the value, and fuch fale fhall be void, and the fame

* fhall in 14 days after be put up again. (18 Geo. II. c. 26.)
And by 13 Geo. III. c. 44. the depofit for every tub and
cheft of bohea tea fhall be q/. By 13 Geo. III. c. 44.
tea may be exported. No tea fhall be received, with or
without a permit, within the limits of the bills of mortality ;
and no tea, exceeding zolbs. weight, fhall at one time be re-
ceived, with or without a permit, out of the faid limits, on
pain of forfeiture. (21 Geo. III. c. 55. 22 Geo. III. c. 68.
23 Geo. III. c. 70.) All tea feized and condemned (hall
be fold to the beft bidder. (24 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 47.)
Tea carried in the night, with or without a permit, except in
certain circumftances, fhall be forfeited, and may be feized
by any officer for the inland duties as tea. 21 Geo. III.

Cringe

Tea, Buckthorn. See Ruamnus.

Tea, German. See SPEEDWELL.

Tea, Mexico, Chenopodium ambrofioides of Linneus, is a
{pecies of chenopodium, which, as well as the Jerufalem
oak, or chenopodium botrys, are natives of the fouthern
parts of Europe, and fown annually with us in gardens.
Infufions of the leaves and flowery heads of both thefe
plants, which are not unpalatable, drank as tea, are faid to
be of fervice in humoral afthmas and coughs, and other dif-
orders of the breaft ; they are fuppofed to be antifpafmodic
and antihyfteric. Lewis’s Mat. Med.

Tra, New Jerfey. See Ceanoruus.

Tea, New Zealand. See PuiLaveLPHus.

Tea, Ofwego. See Monanpa.

Tea, Paraguay, or South Sea.

Tua, Weft Indian. See Siva.

Tea Soup, in Rural Economy, that which is prepared
from the tea, liquid, or infufion of fome fort of vegetable
fubftance or other, fuch as hay, cut ftraw, or haulm, &c.
by thickening it a little with fome fort of mealy material, or
mafhed potatoes, or other fuch roots, after being boiled or
fleamed.

Tea, in Geography, a river of England, in the county
of Buckingham, which runs into the Oufe near Stony
Stratford.

TEAHOWRAY. See Portianp Jfland.

TEAK, or Terk, a fpecies of timber that occurs fre-
quently in various parts of the Eaft Indies, and which is
applied to a variety of domeftic and nautical purpofes. Ex-
tenfiye forefts of thefe trees border on the banks of the
Godavery within the mountains, and fupply abundance of
fhip-timber for the adjacent ports. The teak forefts, from
which the marine yard at Bombay is furnifhed with that ex-

See PARAGUAY.

TEA

cellent fpecies of fhip-timber, lie along the weftern fide of
the Gaut mountains, and other contiguous ridges of hills,
as the N. and N.E. of Baffeen; the numerous rivulets that
defcend from them affording water-carriage for the timber.
Major Rennell reproaches the unpardonable negligence with
which Europeans are chargeable for delaying to build fhips
of war for the fervice of the Indian feas. ‘They might be
freighted home, without the ceremony of regular equipment,
as to matts, fails, and furniture ; which might be calculated to
anfwer the purpofe of the home-paflage at the beft feafon ;
and crews could be provided in India. Teak fhips of 40
years old and upwards are not uncommon in the Indian feas,
while an European fhip is ruined there in five years. The
teak is called the-Indian oak. See Trecrona.

TEAKL, in Geography, an ifland in the Mediterranean ;
twenty miles long, and four broad. ‘I’his ifland was an-
ciently called «* Ithaca,”? and is memorable in Grecian
hiftory for being the kingdom of Ulyfles ; fome Europeans
call it “ Val de Compare.”? N. lat. 38° 47!. E. long.
21° 40.

TEAL, Queraueputa, in Ornithology, the Anas crecca
of Linnzus, the {malleft of all the duck kind. Its beak is
black, and its head, and upper part of its neck, of a reddifh-
brown ; but there runs on each fide of the head a green
ftreak from behind the eyes quite to the back part, and be-
tween thefe is a black fpot under the eyes; there is a white
line which feparates the reddifh colour frem the green. The
lower part of the neck, the fhoulders, and pp fides, are
very beautifully variegated with black and white itreaks ;
the breaft and belly are of a dufky greyifh-white ; the firit
beautifully fpotted with black; the vent black; the tail
fharp-pointed and dufky ; the coverts of the wings brown ;
the greater quill-feathers dufky ; the exterior webs of the
leffer marked with a gloffy green fpot, above which is an-
other of black, and the tips white; the irides whitifh, and
the legs dufky. The female is of a brownifh afh colour,
fated with black, and has a green {pot on the wing, like
the male. Ray and Pennant. See Duck.

Tear, Crefled, Querquedula criflata, a name given by Bel-
lonius and fome others to a {pecies of duck, remarkable for
a tuft of feathers an inch and half long, hanging down
from the back part of the head, and thence called de tufted
duck ; but more known among authors by the name of capo
negro. See Duck.

TEAL, Summer, Anas circia of Linneus, is apprehended
by Mr. Pennant to be no other than the female of our teal,
though Linnus has defcribed it as a diftin& fpecies. See
Duck. ;

Summer teal is alio a name given in fome places‘to the
garganey. fi

TEAM, Team, or Thame, in our Ancient Cufloms,
fignifies a royalty granted by the king’s charter to a lord of

a manor, for the having, reitraining, and judging bondmen, —

neifs, and villeins, with their children, goods, and chattels,
in his court. ‘

Tram, in Agriculture, the number of horfes, oxen, or
other animals which are drawing together at once in the
fame plough, cart, waggon, or other carriage. There is
a great variety of different forts of teams employed in field,
road, and other forts of labour, which is carried on by
means of domettic animals ; and it is of very great import-
ance to afcertain which of them is of the greateit advantage,
and the cheapeft in the different ufes and intentions.

In all forts of farming work, in the field as well as on the
road, the heavier kinds of {trong horfes, and thofe of the clofe,
fhort, compact, punch breeds, have hitherto, for the moft
part, been employed for the purpofe of team labour ; ”

or

.

-

ee

-

ne ne a a re

aiid

ie

TEAM.

for the dray, and.every fort of fimilar heavy work, where a
flow, fteady, ftrong draught is required, they are alfo un-
queftionably the moft proper and fuitable, as long experi-
ence has fully proved. But a confiderable alteration has
lately taken place in the kinds which are made ufe of as
teams for carrying on the lighter forts of road-work, whether
by means of carriages or other vehicles.

It has been found that the ftouter fort of horfes, pof-
{effing a little blood, are by much the beft adapted to this
kind of labour of any, being much more aétive and expe-
ditious, as well as more durable, and lefs liable to fatigue
and to become tired out on the road. On this account they
form the teams for moft forts of coach and other carriage
labour, and in many inftances for various heavier defcrip-
tions of it; and it is not improbable but that, in fome cafes,
they might be fubjtituted as teams for farming work with
great ‘propriety and advantage, in confequence of their
quicker pace, and having what is commonly called more
bottom. .

Among farmers it has long been a difputed point, whether
horfes or oxen form the abe economical and advantageous
team for the purpofe of the cultivator in performing his
work, and it remains ftill undecided, though many intelli-
gent agriculturalifts now incline to the fide of horfe-teams,
except in particular circumitances and fituations. Anda
late writer has remarked, that the circumftances in which
the latter have been chiefly fuppofed to be more advantage-
ous than the former, are in their being kept at lefs expence,
and their not declining in value. But that thefe, when ex-
amined, are perhaps not fo decifive of their fuperiority, as
they may at firft fight appear; for where the work of the
farm is done by the younger fort of horfes, which is per-
haps the beft method, the decline in value cannot be of any
material confequence, while the fuperiority in point of the
difpatch of work is very great. And in regard to the
keep, as oxen cannot perform their labour well in con-
tinuance without oats, or fome other fuftenance of a fimilar
kind, it would feem not improbable but that young horfes
may pay nearly as well as oxen, and be kept with little dif-
ference in the expence. Indeed the common opinion, that
oxen are fuperior to horfes in the tillage of heavy lands,
does not at all appear to be well founded, efpecially when
drawn in yokes and bows, as the poaching mutt be greater
than by horfes working at length. But when in harnefs,
they may, from their greater iteadinefs, be preferable; of
courfe, under different management, they are capable of be-
ing employed in both ways. But in all fuch cafes, as where
quick motion is of more importance than the fteady drawing
of heavy weights, the horfe is much fuperior to the ox, as
well as in carting, where great {peed is required in the un-
loaded ftate, and wherever the roads or lands are rough,
fharp, and ftony, as oxen cannot be fhod fo well as horfes
to ftand fuch roads. And in harrowing with light harrows,
where a jumping irregular motion is neceflary, it has been
fhewn in the Annals of Agriculture, that horfes are the
moft proper, and to be conftantly preferred. In fhort, that
teams of the ox-kind may be made ufe of with benefit in
many cafes in bufineffes about the farm, but they are incom-
patible with all forts of diftant work, and efpecially on the
road, and in ftony fituations.

It has been remarked, in a late Calendar of hufbandry,
that there are two cafes in which oxen are certainly more
beneficial than horfes: firft, when a farmer lives in a diftri&t
where there is a breed of cattle well adapted to work ; and,
fecondly, when his farm is fo large, that he can buy in a
lot of cattle annually, at a {mall expence per head, and feel
no inconvenience in turning out fuch beafts from the teams

VoL. XXXV.

to fatten as do not work well. In both thefe eafes, the
writer has little doubt of the fuperiority of oxen to horfes.
But in countries that do not poffefs a breed of cattle well
adapted for work in the itate of oxen; and on {mall farms,
whence fairs muft be attended at the diftance of a hundred
miles to purchafe a few, and confequently at a great ex-
pence per head, and poflibly without land for fattening any,
the benefit will be very quettionable. Z

It has been fuggefted by the writers of the Agricultural
Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, that from the
circumftances of ox-teams being almoft univerfally given up
in thofe places where they were formerly in repute, a fuf-
picion arifes, that working them is not attended with profit.

In regard to the national advantages to be derived from a
change from horfes to oxen, there does not appear to be
any great benefit, as it has been fhewn by Mr. Pitt in an ex-
cellent paper in the fifth volume of Communications to the
Board of Agriculture, that as thofe ufed in agriculture are
in a great meafure a nurfery for thofe wanted for other pur-
pofes ; the extent of fuch change can take place no farther
than about the work of 100,000 horfes.

To afcertain what general effe€&t fuch a change might pro-
duce in increafing food for mankind, as what he calls the
higher kept farm-horfes are generally, or at’ leaft a part of
them in preparation for fale, for the road, or harnefs; he
muft fuppofe the deduction made, from what he has called
moderately kept farm-horfes ; now fupported at four acres
and a half per head ; then the deduétion of

Acres.

100,000 of thofe would fave the landed pro-

duce of - - - - 450,208
And the deduétion of young ftock, in the

fame proportion, one-ninth of the whole,

would fave one-ninth of 250,000 acres, to 3089

preferve even numbers, fuppofe -
In all faved B.Horad agit aoe 45 Anak 480,000

The ‘idea in all the midland counties is, it is obferved,
that two oxen will be required to do the work of each horfe;
200,000 working oxen will therefore be wanted inftead of
the horfes thus dedu€ted. To give the oxen a fair chance
in this calculation, he will fuppofe them fit to work at three
years old, and the workers to be of the ages of three, four,
five, and fix refpeCtively, 50,000 of each; the fame number
coming one, two, and three years old, will be wanted for
faceefhon ftock ; and 50,000 annually fatted off; the land
neceflary for their fupport may be nearly as follows :

. Acres.
Keep of 50,000 fteers, of the ages of coming
one, two, and three years old refpettively,

150,000 acres in all, at one acre each per W509
head per annum - - -
200,000 working oxen, of full three, four,
five, and fix years old, 50,000 of each,
at two and z half sees per head per Bi tee
annum = - - =
Lefs land cannot, it is believed, be poffibly
allowed to keep them in working condi-
tion; they muft have hay and fometimes 150,000
corn when clofely worked, 50,000 fatting,
at three acres per head - -
Land neceflary for the oxen - - - 800,000
Dedué for the horfes - - - - 480,000
Difference - 3 ~ = 2 g 320,000
Aa Thefe

TEAM.

“Thefe 320,000 acres of land will produce 50,000 fat oxen,
or 32 acres will produce five fat oxen; fuppofe them 270lbs.

r quarter each, or 5400]bs. of beef from 32 acres; this
is 1682 Ibs. of beef per acre per annum: but a dairy will,
it is faid, produce more, and a flock of fheep well managed
quite as much human food per acre. Little advantage,
therefore, would, it is faid, be derived from this change of
fubftituting oxen for horfes in agriculture, unlefs the ufe of
horfes on the road, and for purpofes of pleafure, luxury,
pomp, amufement, trade, pam manufaétures, commerce,
and war, could be abolifhed or leffened.

Accordingly, Mr. Malthus thinks the advantages of
luxury, when it falls fhort of aétual vice, are certainly

eat: it cannot be denied, but it contributes to the com-

orts, enjoyments, and confequent happinefs of a nation ;
but if carried too far, it will completely defeat its own pur-
pofe ; the fureft way is to ftop fhort of the mark.

In the clear, full, and excellent account of the ftate of
agriculture in the county of Middlefex, the very able and
experienced author has brought together into one point of
view a great number and variety of the different obje€tions
and reafons, which either operate againft or wholly prevent
the ufe of oxen for the purpofe of performing team-labour ;
and which the inquirer, who wifhes for more full information
on fo important a fubjeét, may do well to confult, as they
place the queftion with much clearnefs and decifion greatly
in favour, and on the fide, of the horfe.

In fa&t, the writer thinks it very clear, that thofe perfons
who prefer horfes to oxen, for the purpofe of labour, dif-

lay P cade knowledge in agriculture. This opinion, he
es is fanétioned by the eather of nine-tenths of the bet
hufbandmen in the nation. In proportion as Britons become
enlightened, they lay afide ox-teams; and experience has
now fo completely eftablifhed the fuperiority of horfes, as to
render their employment almoft univerfal. And under this
fyftem, the fcience and praétice of agriculture have improved
more rapidly than at any former period of time. ‘ The
number of horfes ufed in hufbandry are nearly,’’ fays the
writer, ‘£ 1,200,000. If half this number were to be fuper-
feded by oxen, in the proportion of two oxen to one horfe, it
would require 1,200,000 fuch cattle to do the fame quantity
of labour as is now done by 600,000 horfes. The difference
of thefe two numbers would be an increafe to that extent of
our labouring cattle. The other 600,000, in the place of
fo many horfes, as well as the increafed number, feed in the
fame manner as cows, and ona fimilar herbage ; confequently
the whole 1,200,000 would deprive us of the means of fup-
porting fo many cows. So unwife a meafure would reduce
the number of our cows to one-fourth of their prefent num-
ber. The veal, milk, butter, and cheefe, would be dimi-
nifhed in that proportion; and in confequence of this fcanty
produce of the dairy, the price would be fo exorbitant, that
none but the moit wealthy could afford to eat of thefe
things. :

« After what has been faid, need I add, that every ox
ufed in hufbandry at this time deprives the nation of a cow,
and of all the comforts which that animal is calculated to
beftow. The introduétion of oxen, to do one half the la-
bour now done by horfes, would deprive the labourers of
the greater part of their diet: a dearth would be the inevit-
able confequence, until the numbers of our people were
reduced to equal the fcantinefs of their food, or until the
oxen'could be fattened and flaughtered, to make way for
the return of the more valuable cow. Hereafter I hall
expect the farmers in theory only, who are advocates for
ox-teams, to change their notes, and write in favour of a
team to be drawn by cows.’ :

Upon the whole, the wniter is of opinion, that the very
few advantages which oxen poflefs are not by any means of
fuch confideration, as to compenfate for the damage which
their being ufed would do upon fome kinds of land; nor are
they fo proper for the general purpofes of a farm as horfes,
and the general fubftitution of labouring oxen in lieu of
horfes would be vaftly injurious to the nation. .

It is allowed that thofe who have argued: in favour of the
fuperior advantage of oxen may be correét in all their rea-
fonings, fo far as they are deduced from their own ex-
perience ; ‘but that the experience of others may furnith
arguments as ftrong on the other fide. Circumftances vary
in every diftriét, and render the good or the bad of 4
practice altogether relative. In the county of Chefter, fe
inftance, the farmer has not only to fallow his corn land,
and lead manure to his meadows, but he has often to fend
his team to diftances of ten or fifteen miles, to take his corn
to market, to fetch lime or coal, and for various other pur-
pofes, on hard turnpike roads; and the time in which fuch
fervices are performed is to him of effential confequence.
Would oxen be as well able to accomplifh fuch journies as
horfes? Are oxen ufed in any county where circumftances
are precifely fimilar? Do not oxen require more reft than
harleo? Will they ftand hard work as well? Are they as
ready for every different kind of work on a farm as horfes ?
Unlefs thefe queftions can be anfwered in the affirmatiye, we
have to place in oppofition to the faving of expence in keep-
ing them, convenience and time, which are as valuable as
corn and money. It is alfo further argued, that the dimi-
nution in the ufe of corn, from employing oxen, is an object
of great national importance ; all that the horfe confumes
being fo much lofs as the food of man; and the lofs of
animal food, occafioned by the preference given to horfes, is
likewife urged. But if, in the fame portion of time, horfes
will do more work than oxen, the earth will be enabled to
yield a greater produce, and the additional portion of food
gained may more than counterbalance what is loft. The
confumption of food, however, is not an argument which
fhould be brought forward againft the farmer, who, by
every proper artificial means, fhould be induced to raife the
greateit quantity poffible from his ground. On what prin-
ciple is it that the legiflature, by bounties, endeavour to en-
courage exportation, when the prices of corn fink below a
certain fum? Is it not that more may be produced, in the
ordinary courfe of feafons, than the nation can confume, in
order to fecure a fufficiency when the harvefts are below
their average? The more horfes are kept, the greater the
confumption of corn, and the greater the demand; and is it
not better to have it increafed by fuch means, than by ex-
portation? The horfes, in the year of fcarcity, may be fed
entirely on hay or grafs; and, at all times, their exiftence is
fo much real national wealth. May it not be doubted too,
whether, if farmers could difpenfe with the ufe of horfes, a
fufficient number would, as hinted at aboye, be reared for
the mere purpofes of pleafure or luxury, to anfwer the de-
mand of government, in cafes of emergency ? Numbers of
them, of all defcriptions, whether for the increafe of cavalry,
or the draught of artillery, are furely defirable in every
country that mutt truft its defence exclufively to its own
exertions. Even now the breeding of them is attended
with fo much hazard, that very many are fearful of encoun-
tering the rifk : what then would be the confequence, if the
demand was confiderably leffened ?

In refpect to the feeding of teams, whether of horfes
or oxen, if is a point that requires much thought, c
and attention; as where a want of economy preyails, it
may leflen the profits of the farmer in a very high de-

gree,

ey A

gree, as is Obvious from the vaft confumption of expenfive
food that muit take place. The yearly expence of keep-
ing a labouring horfe and an ox, previous to the late
rife in the different articles that are made ufe of as food,
has been ftated, in the fixteenth volume of the Annals of
Agriculture, to be in the general amount as follows: wiz.
that ‘of a working horfe, 17/. tos. 6d. ; and that of a working
ox, 13/. 1s. 1od.: fo that the difference of expence in favour
of the ox is 4/. 8s. 8d.

” The difference in the expences of food, fince the above
period, may have probably demanded the addition of rather
more than one-third to thefe accounts; though they are at
prefent much lowered.

The training or breaking in the oxen’ for team-labour is
commonly performed by firit confining them by means of a
halter or rope, while the yoke or harnefs is put on, and
then placing them between a pair of old fteady oxen both
before and behind, fo that they can neither pufh forward nor
backward in an improper manner; and another, perhaps
better, way is to yoke them fingly with an old team-ox,
which is ‘not a free worker, as they are lefs liable to be hurt
in hot weather in this way. They may alfo be firft broken
in, by being employed in other forts of labour before they
are put to the plough.

Oxen are more apt to tread, poach, and injure the land,
efpecially where it is of a heavy, clayey, moift nature, when
worked in yokes, than when in harnefs; yet fome diftri€ts
prefer the fyitem of yokes and bows, either fingle or double,
to the harnefs method, which is a later practice. And
there is a wide difference of opinion among pra¢tical farmers
about the fuperiority of the one or the other method. Some
very fenfible men, who have tried both ways, contend that
three in harnefs are equal to as much work as four in the
other mode, and that they are more quick in their motions,
and work with more eafe: while others, equally well ex-
perienced, are decidedly of opinion that the old eftablifhed
method is fuperior to the new, and that any number in
yokes are equal to the fame number in collars. The queftion
1s, of courfe, not yet well decided: however, it is agreed,
that it is unfayourable to’ work them too hard in any
method. __ ; :

‘The neceflary proportion of horfes to the extent of the
farm; is alfo a circumftance that is of much intereft to the
farmer ; but which mutt of neceffity vary greatly, according
to the nature, fituation, and ftate of the land, as well as the
mode of hufbandry under which it is conducted.

In deciding the neceflary proportion of team, the farmer
muft likewife well confider the extent which the fward or
grafs-land bears to that which is in the ftate of tillage; as
where the proportion of the former is confiderable, there
will be much lefs team-work to be executed, of courfe a
much lefs ftrength may be fufficient. Where the farm is
under the hay fyftem, as there is feldom much team-work,
except mm conveying the produce and carting manure, a
fmaller extent of team is moftly fufficient, in proportion to
the quantity of land, than in other cafes. And in the dairy
management, the fame is the cafe ; but as in this cafe it be-
comes neceffary to raife green crops as cattle food, a fome-
ya ftronger team may be required than in the former
cafe.

In perfeGly tillage farms, whether conduéted under the
naked fallow fyftem, or the more improved management
under the convertible hufbandry, a much greater force of
team will be required, in proportion to the extent of land
that is to be cultivated. Some reduétion of team-labour
may, however, be effected in both cafes, by having recourfe

rh A
to green {mothering crops inthe place of the fallowings
which fhould always be done as much as poffible. 79

There can be no doubt but that there are fome other forts
of animals, befides thofe of the horfe-and ox kind, that may
be occafionally employed in team-labour. The mule is an
animal well calculated for this purpofe, from its being more
hardy, and enduring work a greater length of time, or to a
more advanced age, than the horfe. In fome cafes, the
{maller forts of mules. have been recommended, as more
hardy and ufeful; but in Worcetterfhire, large mules have
been found more beneficial for team» purpofes,

The afs.may likewife be employed for team-labour with
advantage, in {mall concerns, from its hardy nature, and
being capable of living on more fcanty fare than the horfe ;
au it is very ufeful S numerous purpofes about the farm-

oufe.

Whatever fort of teams may be made ufe of upon farms,
they fhould always be well attended to, and no negleé& of
any kind fuffered in regard to them; and when attacked by
difeafe, recourfe be -had as quickly as poffible to proper
remedies.

TEAN, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Dove, 2 miles N.E. of Uttoxeter.

TEANO, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 14. miles N.W.
of Capua.

TEANUM, Traxno, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, in Campania, towards the fouth-eaft. “It was a Ro-
man colony, and a confiderable town.—Alfo, a town of
iy. f{urnamed Apulum by Strabo, and Apulorum by

iny.

TEAP, in Rural Economy, provincially a tup or ram.
See Ram.

TEARNE, in Geography, a river of England, whith _

runs into the Severn, near Shrew({bury.

TEARPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the-circar of
Sumbul; 13 miles N.N.E. of Sumbul.

TEARS, in Phyfilogy, the peculiar limpid fluid fecreted
by the lacrymal gland. ‘This fluid is deftined to preferve the
tranfparency of the cornea, by keeping it moift, and remov-
ing fromit foreign fubftances. In man a preternatural flow
of tears is excited by different paffions of the mind, efpe-
cially grief; but it is doubtful if this takes place in any
inferior animal. See Eyz, Man, and Passton.

The fluid of tears has been examined chemically by Four-
croy and Vauquelin, but their account of its properties is
not fo complete as could be wifhed. It is colourlefs and
tranfparent, without any {mell, but of a perceptibly faline
taite» Its fpecific gravity is fomewhat greater than that of
water. It tinges vegetable blues green. It unites with
water, both cold and hot, in every proportion. The
mineral acids produce no change upon it. When evaporated
to drynefs, a number of cubic cryftals of muriate of foda
are obtained; and there are alfo diftin@ traces of a free
alkali, which is foda. One hundred parts, when evaporated,
leave only four of folid matter, of which about one is faline
matter, and the reft a peculiar animal fubftance, which
thefe chemiits confidered as a {pecies of mucus, and which is
feparated likewife from tears in their fluid ftate, in the form
of flakes, when alcohol is poured upon them. This peculiar
animal matter, on expofure to the air, is ftated to poffefs the
property of gradually abforbing oxygen, which renders it
thick and vifcid, and of a yellow colour. In this ftate it is
infoluble in water, and remains long fufpended in it without
alteration. Hence, fays Berzelius, if thefe obfervations are
to be depended upon, this fubftance bears a confiderable
affinity to the mucus of the nofe, which probably, like that

Aaz of

TEC

Jake Taffe ; their channels are deep, and they are conneéted
by ftreams from the lake Taffe. ‘The Teche is much larger
and longer than the other, being upwards of 200 miles in
length. The Taffe is a beautiful lake of clear water, about
10 miles in-circumference. The principal fettlements of the
Attakapas are on each fide of the Teche, moftly weftern, and
on the Vermillion. Befides the culture of cotton, maize,
&c. they have the advantage of extenfive natural meadows to
fupport their herds, which, on account of the natural mild-
nefs of the climate, are kept without much trouble. The
inhabitants of the Attakapas are generally wealthy, and live
as luxuriantly as the planters of the Miffifippi. Upon the
whole, this part of Louifiana feems deftined to become one
of its richeit diftricts.

TECHIA, a town of the Arabian Irac ; 160 miles N.
of Bagdad.

TECHNICAL, Tecunicus, formed of rexvxo:, artificial,
of z<ym, art, fomething that relates to art.

In this fenfe we fay, technical words, technical verfes, &c.
And in this fenfe Dr. Harris entitles his diGtionary of arts
and f{ciences, Lexicon Technicum.

TrcuNIcaL is more particularly applied to a kind of
verfes, in which are contained the rules or precepts of any art,
thus digefted to help the memory to retain them. See Arti-
ficial Memory.

Technical verfes are ufed in chronology, &c. Such, ¢. gr.
are thofe exprefling the order and meafure of the calends,
nones, &c. thofe expreffing the feafons, and thofe expreffing
the order, &c. of the figns.

F. Labbé has compofed a fet of technical Latin verfes, in-
cluding all the epochas in chronology ; and F. Buffier, after
his example, has put both chronology and hiftory into French
verfe, and even geography alfo.

Technical verfes are commonly compofed in Latin ; they
are generally wretched ones, and often barbarous ; but utility
is all that is aimed at in them: to give fome idea of which
we will here add a few inftances. he cafuifts include all
the circumftances which make us partakers with another in
a theft, or other crime, in thefe two technical verfes.

« Juffio, confilium, confenfus, palpo, recurfus,
Participans, mutus, non ob{tans, non manifeftans.”’

The firft of F. Buffier’s technical verfes of the hiftory of
France, are thefe :

Ses lois en quatre cents Pharamond introduit,
Clodion Chevelu, qu’ Aetius vanquit.
Merovée ; avec lui combatit Attila ;
Childeric fut chaffé, mais on le repella.””

Tecunicat Words, are what we otherwife call terms
of art.

TECHUKS, in Geography, the moft remote people of
Afiatic Ruffia, who fearcely exceed 1000 families, are ge-
nerally found in {mall camps, pitched by the fides of rivers.
Their rude tents are fquare, confifting of four poles, fupport-
ing fkins of rein-deer, which alfo form the covering : before
every tent are {pears, and arrows, fixed in the fnow againft
any fudden attacks of the Koriaks, who, though of the fame
face, are a more malicious and enterprifing people. In the
midft is a ftove, and the bed confifts of {mall branches of
trees fpread on the fnow, and covered with deer-fkins.
Their habitations and food are dirty and difgufting ; and the
drefs of the women confifts only of a fingle deer-fkin faitened
on the neck, fo that on loofening one knot the body remains
naked. The features are coarfe, but they have not the flat
nofes, nor little hollow eyes of the Kamtchadales } and
Lefleps pronounces their countenances to have nothing of

TEC

the Afiatic form, in which affertion he had been preceded
by Pallas and Tooke. The Koriaks are fuppofed not to
exceed 2000 families.

TECKLENBURG, a town of Weftphalia, and capital
of a county to which it givesname ; 7 miles 5.W. of Ofna-
bruck. N. lat. 52° 15'. E. long. 7° 35’.—Alfo, a county
and principality, bounded on the north “and eaft by the
bifhopric of Ofnabruck, and on the fouth and weft by the
bifhopric of Muniter ; about 20 miles in length, and 10 in
breadth: This county was formerly more extenfive, includ-
ing the county of Lingen, and part.of the bifhopric of Mun-
fter. The foil is fertile, and yields good corn, and paf-
tures for cattle: the river abounds in fifh, and in feveral
places are quarries of itone : the chief manufactures are linen
cloth. It is now annexed to Weitphalia. :

“TECLITIUM, or Tecririum, in Ancient Geography, a ~
town of Lower Mcefia, upon the route from Vininatium to
Nicomedia, along the Danube. Anton. Itin. ’

TECOANTAPEQUE, in Geography, a fea-port town
of Mexico, in the province of Guaxaca, fituated at the foot
of a volcanic mountain, near the Pacific ocean; 160 miles
S.E. of Acapulco. N. lat. 16° 2’. W. long. 99° 10!.

TECOLATA, or Tsrotara, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, upon the Valerian way, between
Ad Turrem and Aquez Sextie. Anton. Itin. ”

TECOLITHOS, in Natural Hiflory, the name of agem,
otherwife called Syriacus lapis, and Judaicus lapis, good for
diffolving the human calculus. See Syriacus and Ju-
DAICUS. wr

It has this name from rrxw, J diffolve, and ribos, a. ;
becaufe it diffolves ftones. oF : Sib

TECOMA, in Botany, fo called by Juffieu, from the
Mexican appellation Tecomaxochitl, under which one of the
{pecies appears in Hernandez.—Juff. 139. Brown Prodr..
Noy. Holl. v. 1. 471. (Tecomaxochitl alia; Hernand.
Mex. 409.)— Clais and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia.
Hi Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Bignonie, Juffl. Bignoniacea,

rown.

This genus is feparated from Bignonia by Juffieu, folely
becaufe the partition of the capfule or pod is contrary, not
parallel, to the valves; and he enumerates as fpecies the
B. flans, radicans, and pentaphylla of Linneus, befides the
above plant of Hernandez from Mexico. Mr. Brown adds
to thefe the B. pandorana, Andr. Repof. t. 86; which is
B. Pandore, Curt. Mag. t. 865; B. pandorea, Venten,
Malmaif. t. 43; though the laft-mentioned author fays he _
found the partition of the capfule parallel to the valves, and
therefore this fpecies is a Bignonia according to Juffieu.. So
indeed it remains in Mr. Aiton’s Hort. Kew. v. 45 Wi
the fpecific name of au/ffralis, by the fubftitution of which’
Mr. Brown has happily got rid of the above pandorean ‘con-
fufion ; and there we fhall readily leave it, only remarking:
that it is, according to Mr. Brown, a native of Port Jackfon,
and of the re part of New Holland, not of Norfolk.
iland. The flem is twining. Leaves pinnate, with an odd
leaflet, fmooth. Flowers panicled, white, with a purple
throat. For the other fpecies above named, fee BigNonta,
n. 11,914 and 15. We doubt whether the tribe in queftion
is fufficiently well known at prefent for botanifts to under=
take its generic reformation. Nor can we permit the above
name of our diftinguifhed friend Juffieu to pafs without ani-.
madverfion, as nothing can be more contrary to found prin=
ciples of nomenclature, nor to his own declaration againft
barbarous names in his preface. The prefent is peculiarly”
ill applied, as the original Tecomaxochit! of Hernandez ap=
pears to be Solandra grandiflora, or very like it, having

fimple leaves. ;
TECONA,

T.EC

TECONA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Dow-
latabad ; 21 miles W. of Poonah. -

TECONIC Fatts, a cataraét in the river Kennebeck,
about 65 miles from its mouth.

TECORIPA, atown of New Mexico, in the province of
Sonora ; 70 miles E. of Pitquin.

TECRIT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
ef Moful, fituated on a rock near the weit fide of the Tigris,
on the borders of the Arabian Irak. Tecrit is thought to be
the Birtha or Vitra of the ancients, defcribed as a very ftrong
fortrefs, and faid to have been conftruéted by Alexander
the Great. It was chofen in the feventh century for the
abode of a Jacobite primate, and increafed to a confiderable
town. In 1393, it was taken by Timur Bec, who put all
the foldiers that defended it to death. The ruins are exten-
five, and the number of houfes amount to about five or fix
hundred, with a caravanfera and two coffee-houfes ; 120
miles S. of Moful. N. lat. 34° 37! E. long. 42° 37!.

TECTONA, in Botany, a name altered by Linnzus from
the Eaft Indian name of this valuable timber-tree, Tes, Tek ha,
Theka, or Teak, and made claflical, according to a method
which he fometimes ufed, from texiu, a carpenter, or z:xionc,
a piece-work in timber, or iron, both derived from TEU to
build ; alluding to the ufe of the wood in building houfes as
well as fhips.—Linn. Suppl. 20. Schreb. 141. Willd. Sp.
Pi. vy. t. 1088. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Thunb. Nov. Gen.
diff. 4. 71. Ait. Hort. Kew. v..2. 11. Gaertn. t. 57.
(Theka 5 Juffl. 108. Lamarck IIluitr..t. 136.)—Clafs and
order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn.
Vitices, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
its margin in five, occafionally fix, ovate blunt fegments, per-
manent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube fhorter than
the calyx ; limb in five, occafionally fix, deep, obovate, crenate
fegments, incurved at the point, twice as long as the tube.
Neétary a glandular ring, at the bafe of the germen. Stam.
Filaments as many as the fegments of the corolla, inferted,
alternately therewith, into the tube, decurrent, thread-fhaped,
erect, rather longer than the limb; anthers heart-fhaped ;
two-lobed, erect. Piff. Germen fuperior, nearly globular,
downy ; ftyle thread-thaped, downy, flightly curved, the
length of the corolla ; ftigmas two, revolute, obtufe. Peric.
Drupa nearly globofe, depreffed, dry, fpongy, hairy, con-
cealed in the enlarged, inflated, membranous calyx. Seed.
Nut bony, the fhape of the drupa, with a terminal knob, of
four cells, with folitary kernels.

Eff. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Stigma divided. Drupa
dry, fpongy, within the inflated calyx. Nut of four cells.

Obf. The termina! flowers are often fix-cleft.

1. T. grandis. Teak-wood, or Indian Oak. Linn.
Suppl. 151. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Roxb. Coromand.
v. 1. 10. t.6. (Theka; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 4. 57.
t.27. Jatus; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 34. t. 18.)—Native
of the mountainous parts of the Malabar and Coromandel
coafts, as well as of Java, Ceylon, and other countries of the
Eaft Indies, flowering during the hot feafon ; but not till
the tree is arrived at a confiderable age and magnitude, fo
that there is little chance of feeing it bloffom in our ftoves,
where young plants are fometimes introduced. The ¢runk
in its native country grows ereét, to a va{t height, with co-
pious {preading oppofite branches, crofling each other,
quadrangular when young. Leaves {preading, oppolite,
ftalked, elliptic-oblong, acute, entire, flightly waved, with
one rib and many tranfverfe veins, whole fubdivifions are
finely reticulated: their upper fide rough like a file; lower
finely downy : their length is generally about a {pan, but

TED

the leaves on young branches fometimes meafure eighteen
inches or two feet, and are nearly half as much in breadth.
Panicles terminal, hoary, very large and {preading, repeatedly
fubdivided in an oppofite manner, with lanceolate braGeas.
Flowers very numerous, comparatively {mall, being fcarcely
half an inch long; externally hoary ; internally yellow,
dotted with red. Anthers yellow. Fruit the fize of a {mall
cherry, rough, brown, in a large membranous, brown, blad-
dery calyx, refembling the Phyfalis Alkegengi in general fhape,
but hardly fo large.

The wood of this tree is, as Dr. Roxburgh remarks, by
far the moft ufeful timber in A fia ; it is light, eafily worked,
and though porous, both ftrong and durable. For fhip-
building it is peculiarly excellent for its lightnefs, and its
durability either in or out of the water. *Pegu affords the
largeit quantity of this timber, which is eafily brought down
the rivers of that country, and fold cheap. The fame author
mentions that the banks of the Godavery, in Hindooitan,
afford a teak which is beautifully veined, much clofer in the
grain, and heavier, than ufual. This fort is peculiarly fitted
for furniture, and gun-carriages.— T eak-wood, according to
Thunberg, fetches a confiderable price at the Cape of Good
Hope, on account of its great utility, in a country where
large timber-trees are rare.

TECTOSAGES, or Vole Teétofages, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a people included amongft thofe who inhabited the
fouthern part of Gaul, belonging more particularly to
Languedoc.

TECTRICES, in Ornithology, are the lefler coverts of
the wings of birds, or the feathers which lie on the bones of
the wings.

TECUCZI, or Tecurscu, in Geography, a town of Euro-
pean Turkey, in Moldavia, on the Birlat ; 70 miles W.N.W.
of Galatz.

TECULET, a town of Africa, in the empire of Mo-
rocco, fituated near the coait of the Atlantic, on the edge of
a mountain. In the year 1514, this town was facked by the
Portuguefe, and a great number of inhabitants carried away
for flaves. It has been fince re-peopled; 15 miles E. of
Mogodor.

TECUM Ducrs. See Duces. -

TED, in Agriculture, a term made ufe of to fignify the
{preading abroad new-mown grafs, which is the firft thing
done in order to its being dried, and made into hay. Much
in the procefs of hay-making depends upon good and com-
pie tedding of the grafly hay in the beginning of the
work.

TEDANIUM, Tepontus, or Tidanus, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a river of Illyria, which ferved as a boundary be-
tween this provifice and Japygia. Pliny.

TEDBURY, in Geography. See Trerpury.

TEDDER, Teppor, or Tether, in Agriculture, a rope
or chain by which an animal is tied, and confined in the
fields, that it may not pafture on too wide a range. Thisis
very feldom a good praétice, or one that fhould be much
followed.

TEDELER, or Teptis, in Geography. See DELLys.

TEDESCHI, or Tupescu1, Niccoro, in Biography,
an eminent canonift, fometimes called “ the abbot,” and
fometimes ‘ Panormitanus,”’ from the city of Palermo, the
city in which, as fome fay, he was born, in 1386, though
others make Catania his native place. At the age of fourteen
he took the habit of St. Benedi& in Catania, and after-
wards purfued his ftudies at Bologna. We fhall not follow
him through all the ftages of his advancement from one de-
gree of reputation, and from one {tation of honour and truft
s 10 to

TEC

Jake Traffe ; their channels are deep, and they are connected
by ftreams from the lake Taffe. The Teche is much larger
and longer than the other, bein upwards of 200 miles in
length. The Taffe is a beautiful lake of clear water, about
10 miles in-circumference. The principal fettlements of the
Attakapas are on each fide of the Teche, moftly weitern, and
on the Vermillion. Befides the culture of cotton, maize,
&c. they have the advantage of extenfive natural meadows to
fupport their herds, which, on account of the natural mild-
nefs of the climate, are kept without much trouble. The
inhabitants of the Attakapas are generally wealthy, and live
as luxuriantly as the planters of the Miffifippi. Upon the
whole, this part of Louifiana feems deftined to become one
of its richeit diftricts.

TECHIA, 2 town of the Arabian Irac ; 160 miles N.
of Bagdad.

TECHNICAL, Tecryicus, formed of rzxux0s, artificial,
of <x, art, fomething that relates to art.

In this fenfe we fay, technical words, technical verfes, &c.
And in this fenfe Dr. Harris entitles his di€tionary of arts
and fciences, Lexicon Technicum.

TECHNICAL is more particularly applied to a kind of
verfes, in which are contained the rules or precepts of any art,
thus digefted to help the memory to retain them. See 4rti-
ficial Memory. *

Technical verfes are ufed in chronology, &c. Such, e. gr.
are thofe expreffing the order and meature of the calends,
nones, &c. thofe expreffing the feafons, and thofe expreffing
the order, &c. of the figns.

F. Labbé has compofed a fet of teshnical Latin verfes, in-
cluding all the epochas in chronology ; and F. Buffier, after
his example, has put both chronology and hiftory into French
verfe, and even geography alfo.

Technical verfes are commonly compofed in Latin ; they
are generally wretched ones, and often barbarous ; but utility
is all that is aimed at in them: to give fome idea of which
we will here add a few inftances. he cafuifts include all
the circumftances which make us partakers with another in
a theft, or other crime, in thefe two technical verfes.

« Juffio, confilium, confenfus, palpo, recurfus,
Participans, mutus, non ob{tans, non manifeftans.’”

The firft of F. Buffier’s technical verfes of the hiftory of

France, are thefe :

“ Ses lois en quatre cents Pharamond introduit,
Clodion Chevelu, qu’ Aetius vanquit.
Merovée ; avec lui combatit ess ;
Childeric fut chaffé, mais on le repella.”’

TecunicaL Words, are what we otherwife call terms
of art.

TECHUKS, in Geography, the moft remote people of
Afiatic Ruffia, who fearcely exceed 1000 families, are ge-
nefally found in fmall camps, pitched by the fides of rivers.
Their rude tents are fquare, confifting of four poles, fupport-
ing fins of rein-deer, which alfo form the covering : before
every tent are fpears, and arrows, fixed in the fnow againft
any fudden attacks of the Koriaks, who, though of the fame
face, are a more malicious and enterprifing people. In the
midft is a ftove, and the bed confifts of {mall branches of
trees fpread on the fnow, and covered with deer-fkins.
Their habitations and food are dirty and difgufting ; and the
drefs of the women confifts only of a fingle deer-fkin faftened
on the neck, fo that on loofening one knot the body remains
naked. The features are coarfe, but they have not the flat
nofes, nor little hollow eyes of the Kamtchadales ; and
Leffeps pronounces their countenances to have nothing of

TEC

the Afiatic form, in which aflertion he had been preceded
by Pallas and Tooke. The Koriaks are fuppofed not to
exceed 2000 families.

TECKLENBURG, 2 town of Weitphalia, and capital
of a county to which it givesname ; 7 miles S.W. of Ofna-
bruck. N. lat. 52° 15/.. E. long. 7° 35’.—Alfo, a county
and principality, bounded on the north and eaft by the
bifhopric of Ofnabruck, and on the fouth and weft by the
bifhopric of Muniter ; about 20 miles in length, and 1o in
breadth: This county was formerly more extenfive,.includ-
ing the county of Lingen, and part of the bifhopric of Mun-
fter. The foil is fertile, and yields good corn, and paf-
tures for cattle: the river abounds in fifh, and in feveral
places are quarries of ftone : the chief manufaétures are linen
cloth. It is now annexed to Weitphalia. ,

“TECLITIUM, or TeGrirrum, in Ancient Geography, a

town of Lower Meefia, upon the route from Vininatium to
Nicomedia, along the Danube. Anton. Itin. ;

TECOANTAPEQUE, in Geography, a fea-port town
of Mexico, in the province of Guaxaca, fituated at the foot
of a volcanic mountain, near the Pacific ocean; 160 miles
S.E. of Acapulco. N. lat. 16° 24. W. long. 99° 10!.

TECOLATA, or TxroLata, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, upon the Valerian way, between
Ad Turrem and Aqua Sextie. Anton. Itin. -

TECOLITHOS, in Natural Hiflory, the name of agem,

otherwife called Syriacus lapis, and Judaicus lapis, good for
diffolving the human calculus. See SyRriacus and Ju-
DAICUS. ott ot
It has this name from rrxw, L diffolve, and aidos, a flone ;
becaufe it diffolves ftones. ;
TECOMA, in Botany, fo called by Juffieu, from’ the
Mexican appellation Tecomaxochitl, under which one of the
{pecies appears in Hernandez.—Juff. 139. Brown Prodr..
Noy. Holl. vy. 1. 471. (Tecomaxochitl alia; Hernand.
Mex. 409.)— Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia.
se Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Bignonia, Jufl. Bignontacee,
rown.
This genus is feparated from Bignonia by Juffieu, folely
becaufe the partition of the capfule or pod 1s contrary, not
parallel, to the valves; and he enumerates as fpecies the
B. flans, radicans, and pentaphylla of Linneus, befides the
above plant of Hernandez from Mexico. Mr. Brown adds
to thefe the B. pandorana, Andr. Repof. t. 86; which is’
B. Pandora, Curt. Mag. t. 865; B. pandorea, Venten,

Malmaif. t. 43; though the laft-mentioned author fays he —

found the partition of the capfule parallel to the valves, and

therefore this {pecies is a Bignonia according to Juffieu.: So”
indeed it remains in Mr. Aiton’s Hort. Kew. v. 4. 34, Wi

the fpecific name of au/fralis, by the fubftitution of which
Mr. Brown has happily got rid of the above pandorean con-
fufion ; and there we fhall readily leave it, only remarking
that it is, according to Mr. Brown, a native of Port Jackfon,
and of the eanibal part of New Holland, not of Norfolk
ifland. The flem is twining. Leaves pinnate, with an odd
leaflet, fmooth. Flowers panicled, white, with a purple
throat. For the other {pecies above named, fee Bignonta,
n. 11,914 and 15. We doubt whether the tribe in queftion
is fufficiently well known at prefent for botanifts to under=
take its generic reformation. Nor can we permit the above
name of our diftinguifhed friend Juffieu to pafs without ani-
madverfion, as nothing can be more contrary to found prin-
ciples of nomenclature, nor to his own declaration againft
barbarous names in his preface. The prefent is peculatia
ill applied, as the original Tecomaxochitl of Hernandez ap=
pears to be Solandra grandiflora, or very like it, having”

fimple leaves. ;
TECONA,

DC

TECONA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Dow-
Ratabad ; 21 miles W. of Poonah. -

TECONIC Facts, a cataraét in the river Kennebeck,
about 65 miles from its mouth.

TECORIPA, atown of New Mexico, in the province of
Sonora ; 70 miles E. of Pitquin.

TECRIT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
of Moful, fituated on a rock near the wett fide of the Tigris,
on the borders of the Arabian Irak. Tecrit is thought to be
the Birtha or Vitra of the ancients, defcribed as a very {trong
fortrefs, and faid to have been conftruéted by Alexander
the Great. It was chofen in the feventh century for the
abode of a Jacobite primate, and increafed to a confiderable
town. In 1393, it was taken by Timur Bec, who put all
the foldiers that defended it to death. The ruins are exten-
five, and the number of houfes amount to about five or fix
hundred, with a caravanfera and two coffee-houfes ; 120
miles S. of Moful. N. lat. 34° 37!.. E. long. 42° 37!.

TECTONA, in Botany, a name altered by Linnzus from
the Eaft Indian name of this valuable timber-tree, Tes, Tekha,
Theka, or Teak, and made claffical, according to a method
which he fometimes ufed, from texIux, a carpenter, or rsxjoviey
a piece-work in timber, or iron, both derived from sux», to
build ; alluding to the ufe of the wood in building houfes as
well as fhips.—Linn. Suppl. 20. Schreb. 141. Willd. Sp.
Pl. vy. 1. 1088. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Thunb. Nov. Gen.
diffie4. yrs ‘Aity Hort. Kew-w.2. 11.> Gaertn. te57.
(Theka; Juff. 108. Lamarck IIluttr..t. 136.)—Clafs and
order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Lina.
Vitices, Jaf.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
its margin in five, occafionally fix, ovate blunt fegments, per-
manent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube fhorter than
the calyx ; limb in five, occafionally fix, deep, obovate, crenate
fegments, incurved at the point, twice as long as the tube.
Neétary a glandular ring, at the bafe of the germen. Stam.
Filaments as many as the fegments of the corolla, inferted,
alternately therewith, into the tube, decurrent, thread-fhaped,
erect, rather longer than the limb; anthers heart-fhaped ;
two-lobed, ereé&t. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, nearly globular,
downy ; ftyle thread-thaped, downy, flightly curved, the
length of the corolla ; ftigmas two, revolute, obtufe. Peric.
Drupa nearly globofe, depreffed, dry, fpongy, hairy, con-
cealed in the enlarged, inflated, membranous calyx. Seed.
Nut bony, the fhape of the drupa, with a terminal knob, of
four cells, with folitary kernels.

Eff. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Stigma divided. Drupa
dry, fpongy, within the inflated calyx. Nut of four cells.

Obi. The termina! flowers are often fix-cleft.

1. T. grandis. Teak-wood, or Indian Oak. Linn.
Suppl. 151. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Roxb. Coromand.
v. 1.10. t.6. (Theka; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 4. 57.
t.27. Jatus; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 34. t. 18.)—Native
of the mountainous parts of the Malabar and Coromandel
coafts, as well as of Java, Ceylon, and other countries of the
Eaft Indies, flowering during the hot feafon ; but not till
the tree is arrived at a confiderable age and magnitude, fo
that there is little chance of feeing it bloffom in our itoves,
where young plants are fometimes introduced. The trunk
in its native country grows ereét, to a vat height, with co-
pious {preading oppofite branches, crofling each other,
quadrangular when young. Leaves {preading, oppolite,
ftalked, elliptic-oblong, acute, entire, flightly waved, with
one rib and many tranfverfe veins, whofe fubdivifions are
finely reticulated ; their upper fide rough like a file; lower
finely downy : their length is generally about a {pan, but

TED

the leaves on yeung branches fometimes meafure eighteen
inches or two feet, and are nearly half as much in breadth.
Panicles terminal, hoary, very large and fpreading, repeatedly
fubdivided in an oppofite manner, with lanceolate braGeas.
Flowers very numerous, comparatively {mall, being fearcely
half an inch long ; externally hoary ; internally yellow,
dotted with red. Anthers yellow. Fruit the fize of a {mall
cherry, rough, brown, in a large membranous, brown, blad-
dery calyx, refembling the Phyjfalis Alkegengi in general fhape,
but hardly fo large.

The wood of this tree is, as Dr. Roxburgh remarks, by
far the moft ufeful timber in Afia ; it is light, eafily worked,
and though porous, both ftrong and durable. For fhip-
building it is peculiarly excellent for its lightnefs, and its
durability either in or out of the water. *Pegu affords the
largeft quantity of this timber, which is eafily brought down
the rivers of that country, and fold cheap. The fame author
mentions that the banks of the Godavery, in Hindoojtan,
afford a teak which is beautifully veined, much clofer in the
grain, and heavier, than ufual. This fort is peculiarly fitted
for furniture, and gun-carriages.— T eak-wood, according to
Thunberg, fetches a confiderable price at the Cape of Good
Hope, on account of its great utility, in a country where
large timber-trees are rare.

TECTOSAGES, or Vole Teéofages, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a people included amongft thole who inhabited the
fouthern part of Gaul, belonging more particularly to
Languedoc.

TECTRICES, in Ornithology, are the lefler coverts of
the wings of birds, or the feathers which lie on the bones of
the wings.

TECUCZI, or Trecurscu, in Geography, a town of Euro-
pean Turkey, in Moldavia, on the Birlat ; 70 miles W.N.W.
of Galatz.

TECULET, a town of Africa, in the empire of Mo-
rocco, fituated near the coaft of the Atlantic, on the edge of
a mountain. In the year 1514, this town was facked by the
Portuguefe, and a great number of inhabitants carried away
for flaves. It has been fince re-peopled ; 15 miles E. of
Mogodor.

TECUM Ducrs. See Duces. -

TED, in Agriculture, a term made ufe of to fignify the
{preading abroad new-mown grafs, which is the firft thing
done in order to its being dried, and made into hay. Much
in the procefs of hay-making depends upon good and com-
plete tedding of the graffy hay in the beginning of the
work,

TEDANIUM, Tenpontus, or Tidanus, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a river of Illyria, which ferved as a boundary be-
tween this province and Japygia. Pliny.

TEDBURY, in Geography. See TretTpury.

TEDDER, Teppor, or Tether, in Agriculture, a rope
or chain by which an animal is tied, and confined in the
fields, that it may not pafture on too wide arange. This is
very feldom a good praétice, or one that fhould be-much
followed.

TEDELER, or Tepzis, in Geography. See DELtys.

TEDESCHI, or Tupescu1, Niccoto, in Biography,
an eminent canonift, fometimes called “ the abbot,’” and
fometimes “ Panormitanus,”’ from the city of Palermo, the
city in which, as fome fay, he was born, in 1386, though
others make Catania his native place. At the age of fourteen
he took the habit of St. Benedi& in Catania, and after-
wards purfued his ftudies at Bologna. We fhall not follow
him through all the ftages of his advancement from one de-
gree of reputation, and from one ftation of honour and truft
‘ 10 to

TED

to another; but obferve, that he accepted a cardinal’s hat
from pope Felix V., favoured by Alphonfo, king of Sicily,
and openly embraced his party during the chats about the
papal throne. In 1442 he was pope’s ni ae to Frederic,
king of the Romans ; but when Alphonto took part with
ope Eugenius, Tedefchi retired to his church at Palermo,
of which he was archbifhop. He would not divelt himfelf
of the purple, though received from an anti-pope, but died
poffeffed of it in 1445. Of the erudition of this ecclefiaf-
tic, however fluétuating and temporifing he was in his poli-
tics, we have ample evidence in his works, an edition of
which was publifhed at Venice, in 9 vols. fol., in 1617.

TEDESCHINI, Curistiani, a buffo tenor finger
in the comic opera, who came hither from Berlin at the
fame time as the Paganini, 1760. He appeared firft in
an under charaéter in ** Il Mondo nella Luna,’”? com-
pofed by Galuppi. Nor was his figure (which was gobbo)
or voice fit for amore important part. He was, we be-
lieve, by birth a German, whence he had his name ; but he
had been in Italy, and his language on the ftage, and manner
of finging, were perfectly Italian.

He fung on our opera ftage but one year, and afterwards
devoted his time totally to fcholars, and became a very
fafhionable and ufeful finging-mafter. Among his numerous
pupils he made many good fingers, the Mifs Fitzpatricks,
Mifs Sloper, &c. &c.; and was of ufe to many of our ftage-
fingers. After accumulating a confiderable fum of money
by diligence and hard labour, he returned to the continent to
end his days.

TE DEUM, a kind of hymn, or fong of thankfgiving,
ufed in the church, beginning with the words Te Deum lau-
damus, We praife thee, O God.—It is ufually fuppofed to be
the compofition of St. Auguftine and St. Ambrofe.

It is cuftomarily fung in the Romifh church with extra-
ordinary pomp and folemnity upon the gaining of a battle,
or other happy event: and fometimes even to conceal a
defeat.

This hymn was likewife fung in Proteftant churches on
days of ehisnkefginints for a victory, peace, or other national
event. Purcell compofed his Te Deum for the opening of the
cathedral of St. Paul’s, but did’not live till that flruture
was finifhed.

In Boyer’s Annals of Queen Anne, vol. iv., 1704, it is
faid that the hymn Te Deum, with other anthems, were
admirably performed at St. Paul’s, when her majefty went
thither in great flate on the day of thankfgiving fer the vic-
tory at Blenheim. We are not informed by whom the mufic
was compofed ; it is only faid that it was performed with
great folemnity by the three choirs of her majefty’s chapel,
Weftminfter Abbey, and St. Paul’s. There was no inftru-
mental band on this occafion, or any other accompaniment
to the voices than the organ, which feems to have been the
cafe in all former times, when any of our fovereigns went in
ftate to St. Paul’s.

But in 1706 we are told in the fame Annals, vol. v.
P+ 333) that at a public thankfgiving for the battle of Ra-
millies, her majefty went in great ceremony to St. Paul’s, ac-
companied by both houfes of parliament, and all the great
officers of ftate; when Te Deum was performed “ with
vocal and oie mufic, after the compofition of the fa-
mous Mr. Henry Purcell.” And this tains the firft time
that an inflrumental band was allowed to accompany the
voices in our metropolitan church of St.Paul.

In 1708, Te Deum was ae to excellent mufic at St.
Paul’s, compofed by Dr. Crofts for the victory at Aude-
narde, whither her majefty went in great folemnity.

TED

We were extremely curious to learn when and where Han-
del’s grand Te Deum for the peace of Utrecht was firlt per-
formed. It wasnatural to imagine that it was firft heard at
St. Paul’s, and that queen Anne went thither in {tate on the
occafion, which fir John Hawkins pofitively afferts, telling us
that, “in 1713, the treaty of peace at Utrecht being
finifhed, a public thank{giving was ordered for the occafion,
and Mr. Handel received from the queen a command to
compofe a Te Deum and J ubilate, which were performed at
St. Paul’s cathedral, her majefty herfelf attending the fer-
vice.” Hift. Muf. vol. v. p. 269.

But though in a paragraph of the Poft Boy, July 2,
1713, it is announced that “ her niajefty goes the 7th to
St. Paul’s, being the day appointed for the thank{giving,
accompanied by the houfes of the lords and commons,’
yet in the fame newfpaper, from Saturday July 4, to
Tuefday July 7, 1713, the public was informed that “ her
majefty does not go to. St. Paul’s July 7, as the defigned,
but comes to St, James’s ee Windior) to return thanks
to God for the bleflings of peace.”

If Handel’s elaborate compofition had been executed at
St. Paul’s, a ftyle of mufic fo new, forcible, and matterly,
muft have hada great effect on an Englith congregation, who
had never heard ecclefiaftical mufic fo accompanied. Pur-
cell’s voice parts, always pleafing, well accented, and ex-
preffive, had little afliftance from an inftrumental band. In-
{trumental mufic, except organ playing, was but little culti-
vated in our country during histime. But Handel, befides
his experiencein Germany, had heard operas and maffes per-
formed by great bands in Italy, with fuch precifion and
effeéts, as were unknown in our country till he came hither to
teach us. : 2

Handel’s Te Deum for the battle of Dettingen, 17435
and Graun’s for the king of Pruffia’s vi€tory at Colin, in
1757, are the moft celebrated compofitions to that facred
hymn of the laft century, and the moft likely to furvive
the prefent.

TEDIASTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by _

Ptolemy in the interior of Liburnia, near Arucie.
TEDJEN, or Tepyen, in Geography. See TEDZEN.
TEDIF, a town of Syria, in the pachalie of Aleppo.

Here is a Jewith fynagogue ; and the inhabitants have a tra-

dition that one of the minor prophets refided here. Ona

hill near this town are fome fepulchres and aqueduéts cut in
the rock ; 21 miles E. of Aleppo. |

TEDINGHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Bre-
men ; 9 miles S. of Otterfberg.

TEDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia De-
ferta, near Mefopotamia. Ptol.

TEDLA, or Tepixa, in Geography, a province of the
empire of Morocco, in the kingdom of Fez, which ex-
tends along the eaftern fide of Mount Atlas, and has to the
wefl the province of Shavoya, and to the S. Morocco. This
is a rich province, abounding in fheep, whofe wool is fo fine,
that no filk is fofter: it is ufed in the manufaéture of caps
worn by the opulent, and is fold at Fez at a very high price:

its exportation being prohibited, it is confumed by the in- —

habitants. The province contains 450,000 inhabitants.
TEDNEST, or Teporsr, a town of Africa, in_ the
empire of Morocco, ‘This town was deftroyed by the Por-

tuguefe in the year 1514, and in part rebuilt by the Jews;
40 miles N.E. of Mogador.

TEDONG. See Tirvn.
TEDSI, a town of Africa, in the country of Sus,
fituated to the eaft of Tarudant ; 90 miles S.W. of Mo-

rocco,
TEDZEN,

TED

TEDZEN, a town of Perfia, in Khoraffan, on a river
ef the fame name; 32 miles E. of Mefghid.—Alfo, a river
of Perfia, in the province of Khoraflan, fuppofed to be the
ancient Ochus, and next in fize to the Oxus. It has its
fource near Saraks ; and after receiving many ftreams, and
in the number Mefhed river, falls into the Cafpian fea, in
N. lat. 38° 41’.

TEE, in the Afanege. See Breast-Plate.

TeE-Square. See SQUARE.

_ TEEBAKAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the N- coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 7°52'.
_E. long. 117° 39-

TEECHA, a town of Bengal; 45 miles E. of Cal-
cutta.

TEEDIA, in Botany, fo named by Perfoon, we know
not with what meaning.—‘ Perf. Syn. v. 2. 166.””. Brown
ja Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 47. See Caprartia, fp. 3,
Jusida, on which alone this genus is founded, being diftin-
guifhed by having a berry inttead of a cap/ule, as is remarked
in the place indicated. We have not had an opportunity of
examining whether this be really the cafe, or whether it be
a capfule with or without a pulpy coat; nor do we know
how far Willdenow’s fuggettion, that all the Cape fpecies
poffibly have a fimilar feed-veffel, is well founded.

TEEFEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kaffon ;
30 miles N.W. of Kooniakary.

TEEHEENGAN, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, N. of Botneo. N. lat. 7° 4g’. E. long. 117° 30.

TEEKOOL, a fmall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. & 6!. E. long. 120° 25!.

TEELNA, a town of Bengal; 10 miles W. of Con-
chong.

TEEMBIE, a town of Africa, in the country of
Foota. N. lat. 10° 28’. W. long. 10° 48.

TEEMBOO, a town of Africa, in the country of
Foota. N. lat. 9° s9!. W. long. 10° 18’.

TEEN-TALLOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Guze-
rat; 20 miles S.E. ef Brodera.

TTEERAH, a province of Candahar, W. of Paifhawar,

TEERANDAZEE, a town of Candahar; 8 miles E.
of Suffa. _

TEERRAWHITTE, the fouth-weft point of the
northernmott ifland of New Zealand, in the South Pacific
ocean, and the N. fide of Cook’s Straits.

TEERWISCH, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Ortelfburg.

TEES, a river of England, which ries on the borders
of Cumberland, and runs into the German ocean, about
ten miles below, Stockton, N. lat. 54° 42’. The whole
courfe forms a boundary between the counties of York and
Durham.

TEESDALIA, in Botany, received that name from
Mr. R. Brown, in memory of the late Mr. Robert Teef-
dale, F.L.S., who died on Chriftmas-day, 1804. This
accurate Englifh botanift was, for many years, a feed{man
in the Strand, but retired from bufinefs fome time before his
death, refiding firft at Ranelagh, near Chelfea, and after-
wards at Turnham-Green. He was the author of * Plante
Eboracenfes ; or a Catalogue of the more rare Plants, which

‘ow wild in the neighbourhood of Caftle Howard, in the
North Riding of Yorkshire, difpofed according to the Lin-
nzan Syftem ;” publifhed in the Tranfactions of the Lin-
nean Society, y. 2. 103. The author compofed this cata-
Jogue whilft he was gardener to the earl of Carlifle.—Brown
in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.83. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 11.
283. Compend. Fl. Brit. ed. 2. 98.—Clafs and order, Te-

Vou. XXXV.

TED
beadentania Siliculofa. Nat. Ord. Siliquofe, Lian. Crucifere,
uff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four elliptical, con-
cave, {mall, {preading, equal, deciduous leaves. Cor. Pe-
tals four, cbovate-oblong, obtufe, fpreading, with fhort
broad claws. Stam. Filaments fix, {lightly club-fhaped,
afcending, each with a dilated ovate fcale attached to its inner
fide, a little above the bafe, the two lateral ones fhorteft and
moft diftant, in one fpecies wanting ; anthers vertical, of
two round lobes, diftant at their bafe. Piff. Germen
fuperior, feffile, roundith, emarginate, tumid at one fide, flat
at the other; ftyle fearcely any ; ftigma capitate. Peric.
Pouch erect, inverfely heart-fhaped, tumid, with a longi-
tudinal furrow in front; cencave, with an elevated ridge, at
the back, two-celled; partition lanceolate; valves boat-
fhaped, oblique, keeled. Seeds two in each cell, ovate.

Eff. Ch. Pouch emarginate, inverfely heart-fhaped. Seeds
two in each cell. Filaments with a feale on their inner fide,
near the bafe.

1. T. nudicaulis. Naked-ftalked Teefdalia. Ait. n. 4.
Sm. Tr. of L. Soc. v. 11. 286. (Iberis nudicaulis ; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 907. It. Oeland. 139. Sm. Fl. Brit. 692. Engl.
Bot. t. 327. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 42. Fl. Dan. t. 3232
Burfa paftoria minima; Ger. Em. 276. Shepherd’s Crefs ;
Petiv. Herb. Brit.’ t. 50. f. 2.)—Petals unequal.— Native
of dry gravelly fituations in the northern parts of Europe,
flowering in April or May. It occurs about London, Nor-
wich, and Bury, but is not a general Englifh plant. The
reot is {mall, tapering, annual. Herb varying much in luxu-
riance and number of ftalks. Leaves feveral, almoft en-
tirely radical, pinnatifid in a lyrate manner, ftalked, rough-
ifh principally at the edges. Sta/és unbranched; the cen-
tral one always ereét and naked ; the reft afcending, fpread-
ing or decumbent, often bearing a leaf or two. Flowers
white, very {mall, corymbofe. Calyx fmooth, often pur-
plifh. T'wo inner or upper fetals as long as the calyx ;
outer ones full twice as long; all entire. The remarkable
{cales on the flamens were firit particularly noticed in Englifh
Botany. On thefe Mr.-Brown founds his principal generic
character, omitting the irregularity of the petals, in which
this plant agrees with Izeris, though very little in its habit,
which is rather that of a Lepipium. (See thofe articles. )
The writer of the prefent article has, in the Tranfa¢tions of
the Linnzan Society above quoted, critically inveftigated
the hiftory of this fpecies and the following, and has firft
brought them together under one genus.

2. T. regularis. Regular-flowered Teefdalia. .Sm. as
above, 286. (Lepidium nudicaule; Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1.
643. ed. 2. 898. Loefl. It. Hifp. 155. Nafturtium mini-
mum vernum, foliis tantim circa radicem ; Magnol. Bot.
Monfp. 187. t. 186. N. foliis pinnatifidis, caule nudo flori-
bus _tetrandris ; Gerard Gallopr. 347, excluding the JBeris
of Linnzus, )—Petals equal. Stamens but four.—Native of
dry elevated gravelly places in the fouth of France, and
above the convent of St. Bernard at Madrid, flowering in
the early {pring. The root is annual. Whole herb fo pre-
cifely refembling the foregoing, except in being ufually ra-
ther lefs luxuriant, that it is fearcely poffible to diftinguifh
them, except by the flowers. The petals of the prefent are
all of equal fize, fpreading, longer than the calyx. Sta-
mens only four, two at each broad fide of the germen, each
bearing a white expanded fcale, as in the 7. nudicaulis ; the
two fhorter, or more {preading /famens entirely wanting. It
is much to be wifhed that feeds of this {pecies could be pro-
cured from Montpellier, that we might compare both in
a living ftate. cee was always perfuaded of their
being diftiné.
Bb TEESEE,

TEE

TEESEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kajaaga.
N. lat. 24° 50’. W. long. 9° 27!.

TEESHOO LOOMBOO, or Luprone, a town and
large monaftery of Thibet, confifting of three or four hun-
dred habitations of the Gylongs, befides temples, maufolea,
and the palace of the fovereign pontiffs, all built of ftone ;
2 miles S.W. of Sgigatchee.

TEESTA, or Yo SAwpvoo, a river of Afia, which rifes
in Thibet, and runs into the Ganges by two ftreams, one 25
miles N., the other 80 E.S.E. of Moorfhedabad.

TEETBADDY, a town of Bengal; 27 miles N.E. of
Dacca.

TEETH, Difeafes of the. The difeafes which affe& the
teeth and the parts connected with them, are ufually divided
into two kinds; namely, into fuch as are termed common,
becaufe they are alfo met with in other parts; and into
thofe which are called proper, being obferved only in the
teeth. Hence, as the celebrated Plenck has remarked, the
fubje&t may be conveniently treated of under the following
heads. Doétrina de Morb. Dentium, &c. Lovanii, 1796.

Of Natural Dentition—The procefs by which the teeth
make their way through the gums, is named dentition, (fee
Denritron,) which may be divided into the fir and
Second.

1. Of the Firft Dentition—In the fixth orfeventh month
after birth, the firff or milk teeth make their appearance
through the gums. The two middle incifores of the lower
jaw are thofe which moft frequently firft come out, and, in
the courfe of a few weeks, they are generally followed by
the two middle incifor teeth of the upper jaw. At
leneth, after fome months more, the lateral incifors and the
canine teeth fhew themfelves. The anterior molares, or
front grinders, do not commonly pafs through the gums until
the child is a twelvemonth old.

The third and fourth grinders are cut about the tenth or
twelfth year, and the dentes fapientie at the age of twenty,
or even at a more advanced period of life.

The firf dentition, therefore, lafts from the fixth month to
the fecond or third year. ‘The /econd from the ninth to the
thirteenth year.

But it is to be obferved, that the interval betwixt: the
periods when the teeth are aétually cut, is fubjeét to ver
Wis variety, both with refpeé to different teeth and aif-

erent children. Sometimes a month, fometimes half a year,
and, on other occafions, a whole twelvemonth will elapfe
between the firft appearance of one tooth and that of
another.

The cutting of each tooth has two diftin& ftages ; the firft
of which has been called the periodus ingreffus ; the fecond, the
periodus egreffus. ;

The firft ftage is ufually obferved) in the fourth month,
or about fix weeks before the tooth paffes through the gums.
It happens when the tooth, in confequence of its augmented
lize, begins to prefs againft the bony laminz of the focket,
fo as to make them recede. At this period the child feels a
degree of itching in the gums, and hence it is that he now
frequently puts into his mouth his fingers, or other hard
bodies, and compreffes them by ftrongly biting them between
the gums. The fecretion of the faliva is increafed. The
gums become red, and fwell in the fituation of the tooth
which is about to be cut. When the child fucks, he irritates
and bites the nipple; he is alfo commonly troubled with a
purging and a cough; he is watchful, cries frequently,
and becomes feverifh.

Sometimes, however, dentition takes place fo eafily, that
none of the preceding fymptoms are remarked.

After a few days, the above complaints generally ceafe,

il

TEE

but not unfrequently come on again in about a fortnight or
a month, that is to fay, about the commencement of the

fecond ftage, or that in which the tooth makes its egrefs. .

Then the gum grows white, or exhibits whitifh points in the
fituation of the tooth which is about to be cut. Thefe are
caufed by the tooth itfelf, and difappear as foon as it has
pafled through the gum.

2. Of the Second Dentition.—In the feventh or eighth year,
the milk-teeth, amounting in number to twenty, become
loofe, and gradually fall out, generally in the fame order in
which they were cut. Soon afterwards, the fecond or perma-
nent teeth rife out of the gums. It hardly ever happens,
that the fecond dentition produces any dangerous fymptoms,
the paffage through the alveolary procefs and gum being
now fufficiently capacious.

After the milk-teeth have fpontaneoufly fallen out, or

been extraéted, they are almoft always found to be deftitute
of fangs. This is a circumitance which has puzzled many
eminent writers, and has even given birth to the erroneous
doétrine, that the milk-teeth are never furnifhed with fangs.
Suffice it here to fay, that in the opinion of the beft informed

modern fyrgeons, the difappearance of the fangs is the effect ~

of abforption.

Sometimes children, but more frequently adults, cut their
teeth a third time. It is faid that dentition has been ob-
ferved to happen thrice in an infant five years of age; and
Plenck was acquainted with a man, who was born with two
of the grinding teeth, which were afterwards changed twice.
(Doétrina de Morbis Dentium, p. 10.) Even a fourth
dentition has been noticed by fome very experienced men.
Halleri, tom. viii. 1. 30. p. 22.

Of Difficult Dentition—The advance of the teeth out of the

fockets or gums may be attended with the moft alarming
fymptoms. But experience proves, that in numerous children,

the whole femicircle of each jaw becomes furnifhed with teeth, -

without the flighteft mark of indifpofition either before, or
during the progrefs of the teeth through the gums. In other
inftances the worft fymptoms prevail, both while the teeth are
making their way out of the fockets, and through the gums;
fuch as an inflammatory {welling of the gums, tonfils, and
parotid glands ; rednefs of the eyes and cheeks; vomiting,
griping pains, tenefmus, profufe diarrhoea with green evacu-
ations, and fometimes obitinate coftivenefs and retention of
urine. Fever, accompanied with cough and other catarrhal
affe€tions, hiccough, univerfal or partial tetanus, convulfions,
&c. are the fymptoms by which, according to the eftimate of
feveral writers, nearly a third of children are deftroyed in
difficult dentition. ‘
Thefe are the common fymptoms of difficult dentition ;
but occafionally peculiar ones arife, which not unfrequently
fubfide as foon as the tooth is cut; as, for inftance, gutta
rofacea (Lorry, Tra& de Morb. Cutaneis, 1777, p» 411-)$

deafnefs ; amaurotic blindnefs ; pore of the sey

paralyfis ; and lamenefs of one or both legs. (Pafch,

Woe aus der. Wundarzney von. den Zahnen, S. 25.
36.) phthz of the mouth ; an inflamed tubercle over the
tooth which is about to be cut; fuppuration, ulceration, and
even floughing of the gums.
its origin fometimes from difficult dentition. bs

Thefe effects are particularly met with in very plethoric
and irritable children ; or in infants whofe bowels are over-
charged with irritating excrementitious matter. Too much
laxity, or too great hardnefs of the gums, is hardly ever the
fole caufe of ftich fymptoms.

With regard to the prognofis, it may be remarked, that
favourable dentition is a fign of future health. Rieketty
children almoft invariably cut their teeth with ee

e

Rachitis is alfo alleged to have |

lien

.
en Aa A a co

as

a eee ae

a

TEETH.

The more numerous the teeth are which are making their
way out together, the more fevere are generally the fymp-
toms, and the greater is the danger.

Bloated, dbltive, heavy children are extremely liable to be
carried off by dentition.

The incifors and grinders ufually come out with more eafe
than the canineteeth. Thinchildren, who are affeGted with
acute fever, and whofe bowels are open, are in lefs danger
from dentition. Infants who have a cough during this pro-
cefs, are often a long while in cutting their teeth. The fore-

oing prognofis accords with what was pronounced upon
ie fabjedt by Hippocrates, whofe accuracy remains unim-
peached.

As the fymptoms of dentition are partly inflammatory,
being accompanied with a ftrong determination of blood
towards the head and brain ; and partly /pa/modic, in confe-
quence of the fympathy of the teeth with other parts, the
treatment requires that antiphlogiftic and antifpafmodic
means be employed. It is neceflary, therefore,

1. That the bowels be kept open with emollient clytters.

2. That leeches be applied behind the ears.

3. That the fyrup of poppies, with nitre and one or two
drops of laudanum be internally adminiftered.

4. That the red part of the gum over the tooth which is
about to be cut, be rubbed with a mixture of lemon-juice
and honey; or cream. ‘

5. That in the event of there being a tendency to convul-
fions, in addition to the other fymptoms, a divifion of the gum
be made over'the tooth. By the majority of practitioners,
indeed, the laft is confidered as by far the moft ufeful and
efficient means of relief.

This incifion is to be made through the gum with the
common inftrument, well known by the name of the gum-
lancet, which is far better for the purpofe than an ordinary
lancet, which is apt to cut the tongue and lips, efpecially
when the child moves about much. The grinding teeth re-
quire a crucial incifion: all the others a fimple tranfverfe
cut completely throughthe gum. The wound is then to be
examined with the finger, in order to afcertain that no tenfe
fibre over the tooth continues undivided. In this country,
practitioners feldom apply any thing to the incifion; but
abroad, it is not uncommon to put to it a mixture of lemon-
juice and honey.

Internally, antifpafmodics may be exhibited, particularly
the fyrup of poppies, with the fpiritus ammoniz fuc-
cinatus.

In order to promote dentition, and render its effects on the
conftitution as mild as poflible, the celebrated Plenck re-
commends, that as foon as the infant is five months old, its
gums be rubbed feveral times a day with a mixture of lemon-
Juice and honey, firft over the middle incifors of the lower
jaw, and when thefe have come out, over thofe of the upper

aw.

. Emollient remedies are faid to relax the gums too much,
the confequence of which is, that the loofe gum is flowly
and difficultly perforated by the tooth, as initead of ulcer-
ating, it is only raifed and rendered tenfe.

The ufe of hard applications, as biting the root of marfh-
mallows, {mooth corals, boars’ tufks, &c. render the gums
callous ; but more good might, perhaps, be derived, if fub-
ftances with rough furfaces were employed. ;

A premature incifion of the gum foon clofes again, and
therefore does little fervice ; but we do not believe that the
cicatrix, thus produced, can be any impediment afterwards
to dentition, as many have imagined ; for it is an eftablifhed
fa&, that cicatrices in general are more difpofed to ulce-
rate and be abforbed, than the original parts of the body,

We would never fuffer, any idle apprehenfions of the above
fort to deter us from dividing the gum, were there any chance
of benefit from the proceeding. At the fame time, we do
not recommend this as a prophylactic meafure, but as being
proper only when illnefs, fufpeéted to arife from dentition,
actually exifts.

Premature Dentition —This is ftated to happen, when the
milk-teeth come out before the infant is fix months old.
Sometimes children are even born with their teeth already
cut. Rzafeynky, Rhodius, I’Eclufe, and Stoerck, mention
a boy, who had the molares at the time of birth. Alfo in an
abortion of fix months, and another of feven, teeth have been
obferved. (Halleri Elementa Phyfiol. t. vi. p. 1g.) Van
Swieten met with two incifors in an abortion of five months.
(Comm. t. iv. p. 742.) In a very weak male child, born at
eight months, Arnold faw two perfeét teeth rife out of the
lower jaw on the feventh day after birth, and grow with ex-
traordinary quicknefs ; but they fell out in the eighth week
from their firft appearance. Obf. Phyfico-Med. p. 70.

In general it is to be concluded, that early dentition indi-
cates great conftitutional vigour and ftrength.

Of Backward Dentition— Backward dentition is when the
milk-teeth are not cut, though the child is a twelvemonth old,
or even older. The proximate caufe of this delay is gene-
rally referred by medical writers to languor and weak-
nefs of the conftitution. But late dentition is of feveral
kinds.

1. Backward dentition from an unknown caufe fome-
times happens, the teeth not making their appearance for a
year after birth, notwithftanding the children have not any
appearance of debility. Van Swieten met with a moft
healthy female child, who was nineteen months old when fhe
cut the firft tooth. Comm. t. iv. p. 742.

2. Backward dentition from the rickets. It is univer-
fally known, that in ricketty children the cutting of the
teeth is a long while delayed. In thefe fubjeéts the gums
are always much relaxed, and we have already ftated, that
this circumflance is by no means fayourable to dentition.
It is probable, alfo, that in ricketty infants the teeth them-
felves are a long while before they are perfectly formed, it
being well afcertained, that in fuch conftitutions the depofi-
tion of the phofphate of lime takes place with extraordinary
flownefs and difficulty. .

3. Backward dentition of the dentes fapientie. The wife
teeth are feldom cut before the twentieth year, and fome-
times they firft come out in perfons confiderably advanced in
years. Halleri Element. Phyfiol. t. vi. p. 28.

4. Late dentition in adults. Sometimes this takes place
a third time, chiefly with refpeé to the incifores; and in-
{tances are a€tually recorded, in which thefe teeth were cut
in adults, or even in old perfons. Haller quotes examples,
in which they were cut at the ages of 90, 95, 100, 118, 120,
and later. Hialleri, 1. c. t. viii. 1. 30.

Wrong Situation of the Tceth.—T his happens when the teeth
make their appearance in the palate, or in any place not
comprifed in the alveolary arches. ‘The proximate caufe of
this unpleafant occurrence is the preternatural formation of
the young tooth in an erroneous fituation.

The cafes may be of different kinds, in regard to the place
which the tooth occupies. .

1. When a tooth grows out of the palate, it obftrués
mattication, and by rubbing againft the tongue, often makes
it ulcerate. ‘The inconvenience can only be remedied by
extracting the difplaced tooth.

2. The tooth may come out under the tongue. This cafe
produces the fame grievances as’the preceding, and requires
the fame mode of relief.

Bbz 3. The

TEETH.

3. The next curious cireumftance which we have to
notice, is the growth of teeth in the ovaries. It is now be-
lieved, that the teeth fometimes found in thefe organs, are
not always the relics of a previous embryo, but may be
formed there as a lufus nature. An inftance, in which a
tooth was formed in an encyfted {welling in the orbit, has
been lately recorded by Mr. Barnes of Exeter. See Medico-
Chir. Tranf.

4. Albinus records an example, in which a tooth grew out
of the maxillary procefs below the orbit. It was concealed
until it made its way out in this extraordinary fituation.
Annot. Acad. t. i. p. 54.

5. The teeth have fometimes been obferved inverted,
their bodies being fituated towards the jaw. Pollich,
Increm. Offium, p. 25. Albin. c.9. Palfin, c. g.

Extraordinary Diftance of the Teeth from each other.—Some-
times the teeth are placed too diftant apart, fo that between
their crowns large interfpaces are left.

1. In children three years of age, the crowns of the milk-
teeth are fo clofe to each other, that they are laterally as it
were in contaét; but in children feven years old, there are
wide interfpaces between them. The reafon of this is
owing to the jaw increafing in fize, while the dimenfions of
the teeth undergo no alteration. The fecond or permanent
teeth, on the other hand, (at leaft the firft twenty of them, )
have larger bodies than the milk-fet.

2. Frequently the tartar infinuates itfelf between the
crowns of the teeth, and occafions a confiderable feparation
of them. We need fcarcely obferve, that the cure requires
that the tartar fhould be taken off, and the teeth reduced
into their natural pofition.

» The deformity of which we are now treating, is occa-
fionally afcribable in adult fubje€&ts to the preternatural
breadth of the jaw, in which circumitance it is abfolutely
incurable.

Extraordinary Clofenefs of the Teeth.—The teeth may be
too crowded ‘together, fo that their crowns are laterally. in
conta&. This defect may extend to fome or all the teeth.
The frequent confequence is, that the lateral margins of
thefe parts become carious.

There are two fpecies of the diforder.

1. The firft arifes from the great width of the crowns of the
teeth, and it may be afcertained by ocular examination.
In fome inftances, all the bodies of the teeth are preter-
naturally wide ; in others, only a certain number of them.

The mode of cure confifts in filing offa little of the lateral
edges of the teeth affeéted.

2. The fecond fpecies is caufed by the uncommon fhort-
nefs of the jaw. It may be known by obferving that the
crowns of the teeth are not too large, and that the alveolary
arches are {trikingly diminutive.

aig the mode of relief is the fame as in the foregoing
cafe.

Extraordinary Number of Teeth,—Sometimes the number
of the teeth exceeds what is the ufual fhare of the human
{pecies in general ; and this ues occurs whenever the
number amounts to more than thirty-two. Columbus has
feen thirty-three (p. 34.) ; Fauchart, thirty-three and thirty-
four (edit. 2. tom. i. p. 3.) ; Bourdet, thirty-fix (p. 25.) ;
and Ingraffias, thirty-fix, including twenty-four grinders.
Text 2.

1. With refpeé& to the redundant number of each clafs, it
18 when there are fix incifores, or four canine teeth, or more
than ten molares in one jaw. The cafe is incurable.

2. In fome inftances, the exceflive number is owing to
there being a double row of teeth, This malformation may
happen to both jaws, or be confined to one. It has been

noticed in both jaws by Munick, p. 144; Plinius; ec: xis
p- 623; C. Bartholinus, p. 464, &c.

Arnold met with a boy, fourteen years old, who had al»
together feventy-two teeth in his mouth. There was a
double fet of the incifores, canine teeth, and three pofterior
grinders; but the anterior grinders were triple: confe-
quently there were counted in each jaw eight incifores, two
canine on each fide, and twelve molares. The incifores were
not arranged in an even double row, but each row feemed
irregular, and its order as it were promifcuous. The ar-
rangement of the canine and grinding teeth was more regular,
None of thefe teeth were affeéted with caries. Obf. Phyf,
Med. p. 69. .

3. There may be a larger number of teeth than common,
in confequence of the prefence of one of the milk-teeth ; for
when the latter does not fall out at the ufual period, the cor-
re{ponding permanent teeth come out in the vicinity of it. .

Here the cure confifts in drawing the fuperfluous milk. .

tooth. ‘

Deficient Number of Teeth.—Sometimes the number of the
teeth falls fhort of what is ufual; and this happens whenever
they are fewer in the adult fubjeé than thirty-two. (

1. The defeGtive number may be owing to a preternatural
fhortnefs of the jaw. Sometimes one or more teeth remain
concealed during life. Thus, the dentes fapientie are never
cut in perfons who have the upper or lower alveolary arch
not fufficiently long.

2. The fex alfo makes a difference; women, generally
{peaking, having fewer teeth, than belong to men. Riolan,
p- 38, and 39.

3. The deficiency in the number may proceed from a
tooth having been drawn, or dropped out. This is evi-
dently a cafe which can only be remedied by the infertion of
an artificial tooth.

4. Laftly, the limitation of the number may be owing to
infancy ; for, in children under feven years of age, the na-
tural number of the teeth does not exceed twenty.

Obliquity of the Teeth.—The pofition of fome or all the
teeth may be oblique; an inconvenience which may. be
caufed by the milk-teeth not being fhed, by tartar infinu-
ating itfelf into the interfpaces of the teeth, by loofenefs of
the alveoli, and, laftly, by a forcible luxation of the teeth
affected. The milk-teeth feldom grow obliquely ; the per-
manent ones do fo much more frequently. The molares
hardly ever rife in a wrong direction ; and, in general, they
are only the incifores and canine teeth which deviate from
the right pofition.

With regard to the effects of fuch obliquity, we have to
obferve, that the teeth affeéted impede vaatticae interfere
with the articulation of words, ferioufly disfigure the coun-
tenance, and, unlefs drawn, or replaced in their natural po-
fition, may occafion incurable ulcers on the tongue, lips, or
cheeks,

The differences of the obliquity make thefe cafes divifible
into feveral kinds. .

1. The obliquity forward is when the tooth projeéts an
teriorly, fo as to hurt the cheek or lips. Such a tooth may
caufe ulceration of thefe parts, as already mentioned. ‘The
parotid duét has been known to be perforated, and a fali-
vary fiftula brought on, by an oblique tooth in the upper
jaw. Pafch, |. c. p. 71.

2. The obliquity backward is when the pofition of the
tooth inclines towards the centre or pofterior part of the
mouth, fo'as to be capable of hurting the tongue. Teeth,
fo circumftanced, have fometimes been the caufe of ulcers on
the tongue, which in point of obftinacy and malignancy have
truly vied with cancer. Plenck informs us, that by draw-

mg

on er aT

TN ey Se Tt OMe Bi AS oA

—e

TEETH.

ing the left eye-tooth, he once cured an ulcer, which had
exited half a year on the left edge of the tongue. P. 20.

3.- The converg:ng obliquity is when the crowns of the
teeth converge in their fituation, or even crofs each other.

4. The diverging obliquity is when they diverge.

5- The lateral obliquity is when the fide of the body of
the tooth is turned more or lefs forwards or backwards.

6. Obliquity of the fang. Sometimes the fangs of the
teeth are curved fo obliquely backwards or forwards, that
the bottom of the fockets either projects like a {mall ex-
oftofis, or is completely perforated.

Of the Redu@ion of an oblique Tooth.—With refpe& to one
of the permanent teeth, which is rendered oblique by the
prefence of one of the firft fet, the treatment confifts in im-
mediately extracting the latter.

The milk-tooth may be known by its pearl colour, its
more polifhed furface, and its fmaller fize. "The permanent
tooth is longer, whiter, ftronger, and of greater breadth.
The crowns only of the fecond fet of grinders are fhorter
than thofe of the milk-fet. Albini, Annot. Acad. 1. ii.

ba1Q:
: But an oblique permanent tooth may be replaced in its
right pofition, by the following means.

1. When the child is very young, and the tooth quite
recent, it may be reduced into its proper fituation, by fre-
quently prefling upon it with the finger in the courfe of the
day.

o Or the reduétion may be effeted with a double filk-
thread, fmeared with wax and maftich. A noofe is to be
made at each end of the thread, and faftened to the adjacent
teeth. The thread, being then divided into two, is te be
made to crofs two or three times firmly over the oblique
tooth.

3. By a metallic plate. The length of the plate fhould
exceed the meafure of the two neighbouring teeth, together
with the oblique one. Its width fhould be lefs than the
height of the teeth. It is to be applied to the infide of
fuck teeth as incline inwards, and to the outfides of thofe
which incline outwards. At the ends of the plate are two
holes, through which the filk-threads, fmeared with wax,
are to be pafled, and, after erofling each other, are to be
tied over the oblique tooth.

4. By Bruner’s machine. When the tooth does not ad-
mit of reduétion by the preceding means, Bruner’s machine
may be tried. See A Bruneri Emleitung zur Wiflenfchaft
eines Zahnarztes, p. 83.

When feveral of the teeth are oblique, the cure is to be
attempted by the fame operations ; but when the fide of a
tooth inclines forward, it is neceflary to ufe the forceps to
bring the part into its right pofition.

Loofenefs of the Teeth.—Sometimes the teeth become loofe
asd-movyeable in their fockets. The proximate caufe of this
affeGtion may depend upon the lofs of the elafticity of the

alveoli and gums, upon the too great or too {mall fize of |

the fockets, or upon the abforption or wafting of the fangs.
Loofe teeth are very inconvenient in maftication, and eafily
drop out. ©

Of this complaint there are feveral {pecies, the differences
of which are referrible to the caufes.

1. Loofenefs of the teeth from fecond dentition. After
the feventh year, the twenty milk-teeth begin to grow
leofe, and fall out, nearly in the fame order in which they
were cut.

2. Loofenefs of the teeth from age. In old perfons the
fockets become contracted, and the canal in the fangs being
obliterated, thefe parts alfo diminifh. Hence we fee the
reafon why the teeth frequently become loofe in fubjects ad-
vanced in life.

3. Loofenefs of the teeth from violent coneuffions. A
forcible concuffion, fuch as happens in falls againft the teeth,
diminifhes the elafticity of the gums and fockets, and of
eourfe may be a caufe of the prefent diforder.

The cure requires corroborant wafhes : the tin@ura laccz,
aftringent decoétions, red wine, {pirit of wine, or the terra
catechu or fanguis draconis, diffolved in camphorated fpirit.

4. Loofenefs of the teeth from relaxation of the gums.
There are people whofe gums are pale and relaxed, at the
fame time that there is no appearance of feurvy.

Here the cure is to be accomplifhed by the means recom-
mended for the preceding cafe.

5- Loofenefs of the teeth either from caries of the focket
or fang. This cafe may be known by the emiffion of pus
from the focket of the loofe tooth. Sometimes a cure may
be effected by gargles; but, in general, if the tooth is alfo
painful, it ought to be extraéted.

6. Loofeneis of the teeth from fearvy of the gums. In
fubjeéts with feurvy, the gums become loofe and fungous,
and the fockets filled with a fetid purulent matter: hence
the teeth are loofened.

The cure requires the internal exhibition of antifcorbutie
medicines, and the ufe of antifcorbutic wafhes.

7- Loofenefs of the teeth from mercury. Mercury aéts
{pecifically upon the gums, deftroying their tone, and pro-
moting the fecretion of faliva. Hence, perfons ufing mer-
cury, either outwardly or inwardly, are liable to have their
teeth rendered loofe. f

The cure demands purgative medicines, the expulfion of
the,mercury from the fyftem, and the ufe of tonic gargles.

Defe® of Teeth—When the teeth are entirely wanting,
feveral very unpleafant effects are neceflarily the aan
quence. ‘I'he proper mattication of the food being thea
abfolutely impoffible, cardialgia, and other complaints con-
nected with difficult digeftion, are produced. The de-
ficiency of the grinding teeth occafions a collapfe of the
cheeks, and of courfe an uniightly emaciation of the coun-
tenance ; while the want of the incifores {poils the voice.

1. It is natural for all young infants to be without teeth,
until they are feven or eight months old; but when the
teeth do not begin to come through the gums after a child
is a twelvemonth old, then the backwardnefs of dentition
may be confidered as morbid. -

2. In old perfons, the teeth naturally fall out, and the
alveoli contraét into a kind of {harp edge, covered with the
callous membrane of the gums, by which the fofter fpecies
of food may yet be chewed.

3. Want of teeth from rickets. When the rudiments of
the permanent teeth are deftroyed with the milk-teeth, then
of courfe no fécondary teeth ever make their appearance.

4. Lofs of teeth from violent caufes. Under this head
we comprehend the defect of one or feveral teeth, drawn,
or beaten out.

5- Lofs of teeth from necrofis. Every form of this dif-
order makes the teeth fall out in little pieces.

6. Lofs of teeth from fcurvy. In fituations where the
fcurvy is prevalent, it is common to meet with numerous
perfons who have loft their teeth in the very prime of life.

Every kind of deficiency of teeth, except that which be-
longs to infancy, cannot be remedied in any other way but
by the infertion either of artificial or natural teeth.

Of the Infertion of Tecth.—There are various fpecies of
this operation, but all of which may be included under the
following heads.

1. The infertion of a healthy proper tooth. When a
tooth that has been extraéted, or beaten out, appears to be
entirely found, it is to be immediately replaced in the focket,
and tied with thread to the adjacent teeth. Somes it

pon-

TEETH.

{pontaneoufly becomes fixed again, if care be taken to
ufe an altringent gargle with a view of making the gum
contract.

2. The infertion of a proper tooth that has a carious
fang. When the tooth, which has been removed from the
alveoli, is merely carious in the fang, it may be replaced
again, after the carious part has been filed away.

3. The infertion of a proper tooth, which has a caries
of its body or crown. When a very {mall portion of the
crown is carious, it may be removed with a file, and the
tooth can then be put into its focket again. But if the
whole body be difeafed, it may be cut off tranfverfely from
the root ; a fmall hole may be drilled acrofs the latter part,
and, with the help of a golden wire, an artificial crown or
body, having alfo a Geariitest hole for the paffage of the
wire, may be faftened to the root. In this ftate, the tooth
may be replaced.

4. The infertion of a tooth taken from the mouth of
another living fubjeét, or from a dead fubje@. The perfon,
to whom the tooth is to be transferred, fhould not be above
the age of forty ; but the fubjeét, from whom it is to be
taken, ought not to be more than four-and-twenty. The
tranfplanted tooth fhould belong to the fame jaw and fide of
the face, and be of the fame fhape and fize, as the tooth
that is extraéted.

The canal of the tooth, which is to be inferted, muft be
clofed with gold; and the tooth muft be every where ren-
dered free Eoin inequalities, fo that it may be the more
likely to adhere.

5. The infertion of an artificial tooth. The form and
fize which fhould be given to the artificial tooth muft be
determined by a model of foft red wax, which has been
preffed into the gap made by the loft tooth. In order that
the white colour of the artificial tooth may correfpond to
the light yellowifh colour of the reft of the teeth, the new
tooth fhould be macerated in {trong coffee, or in the lees of
red wine.

Artificial teeth ought to be made of ivory, or of the tooth
of the hippopotamus. Each of them fhould be grooved on
both fides, and perforated tranfverfely, fo as to admit of
being tied to the neighbouring teeth. The noofes of two
threads are to be faftened on the neighbouring teeth, and
the ends having been drawn erativestiy through the hole
of the artificial tooth, and there made to decuflate, they are
to be tied in a furgeon’s knot. The tooth having been
placed in the focket, the threads betwixt the artificial and
old teeth muft be tightened and made faft. Liaftly, an
aftringent gargle muft be ufed for a few days.

6. The infertion of feveral artificial teeth. When two,
three, or a larger number of contiguous teeth are wanting,
an equal number muft be formed of one piece of ivory, or
other fubftance, and faftened at once to the neighbouring
teeth. .

7. The infertion of a whole fet of artificial teeth. When
all the teeth of the upper and lower jaws are loft, a com-
plete fet may be fixed on the margins of the alveolary
arches. Should any of the natural teeth remain, they may
often be of great affiftance, in rendering the lodgment of
the artificial ones more firm and fecure. When the whole,
or the greater part, of the teeth of either jaw is loft, an
artificial fet may alfo be inferted.

The cuftom of wearing ivory teeth, and of binding them
in with a gold wire, is very ancient: Lucian and Martial
fpeak of it as practifed among the Romans. But ligatures
of wire have been found to hurt the natural teeth, with
which the artificial are conneéted; whereas filken twit
cannot affect them to any confiderable degree for feveral
years.

Guilleman gives us the compofition of a patte for making
artificial teeth, which will never grow yellow: the com-
pofition is white wax granulated, and melted with a little
gum elemi, adding powder of white maftich, coral, and

earl.
: Thus whole fets may be made for one or both jaws, fo
well fitted to admit of the neceflary motions, and fo con
veniently retained in their proper fituation, by means of
fprings, that they will anfwer every purpofe of natural
teeth, and may be taken out, cleaned, and replaced by the
patient himfelf with great eafe.

Wearing out of the Enamel.—(See Cranium.) The
bodies of the grinding teeth being wide, exceflively hard,
and expofed to perpetual friction, they become worn much
fooner than the reft of the teeth, and flat in confequence of
the deftruétion of their points. Hialleri Element. Phyfiol.
t. vl. p. 29.

With weivedt to the effeéts of the lofs of the enamel, it is
to be obferved, that the teeth which are deprived of it be-
come fo fenfible, that painful fenfations are produced in them
by heat and cold, and by folid as well as liquid aliment. In
the end, alfo, they readily become carious.

The fpecies of this affeGtion depend upon'the caufes.

1. Lofs of the enamel from age. After the age of thirty,
almoft all the teeth in the human fubjeé& have been fomewhat
worn by long maftication. Some writers affert, that in
youth, the wafte of the enamel may be repaired by nature ;
but if the teeth be deftitute of vafcularity, the evil muft
be always irreparable. See CRANIUM.

2. Lofs of the enamel from gnafhing of the teeth. Per-
fons who in the night are in the habit ef nafhing their teeth
deftroy the enamel. For the purpofe a preventing the ill
confequences of this practice, it has even been recommended
to cover the teeth in the night-time with a thin gold
plate. ;

3- Deftruétion of the enamel by the ufe of tobacco-
pipes. Plenck informs us, that in the incifor teeth of men,
who had for many years been accuftomed to fmoke pipes,
he has feen the diftin@ impreffion of a black femicirele. ©”

4. Lofs of the enamel from long and violent brufhing
of the teeth. They who daily rub and brufh their
teeth forcibly with a rough hard tooth-powder, or too
{tiff a brufh, inevitably a in the courfe of a few
years, all the enamel on the front furface of the teeth.
pai the cure obvioufly depends upon the avoidance of the
caufe.

5. Lofs of the enamel from applying the file to the
teeth. Whenever this operation is carried to too confider-
able a depth, the enamel is removed by mechanical violence.

6. Lofs of the enamel from biting a very hard body.
This fort of violence fometimes fplits the enamel, which im-
mediately falls off in pieces, at the very time of making
the bite. :

7- Lofs of the enamel from its being preternaturally
brittle.
in chewing and biting fubftances without the exertion of any
particular degree of force. :

8. Lofs a the enamel from thé proje€tion of an oppofite
tooth. A tooth which juts out confiderably, fo wears fhe
correfponding tooth in the oppofite jaw, as to make a deep
impreflion in it. The treatment confifts in fhortening the
tooth, which is injurious on account of its length, witha file.

Conecretion of feveral of the Teeth into one Mafs.—A true
anchylofis of the teeth cannot happen from any procefs like
offification, becaufe they poffefs no vafcularity ; and fome
of the cafes, referred to by writers, were probably origintl
malformation.

There are feveral varjeties {pecified.

1. The

When the enamel is thus affected, it is apt to break ’

a a ye ht IEE =

—_—

a ape te

sade

a errs

Megoh

TEETH.

1. The true concretion of the teeth, which happens when
the teeth are connected together by a fubftance refembling
bone.

2. The {purious concretion, or that arifing from the
exceflive clofenefs of the teeth to each other, in which {tate
they feem as if they had a@ually grown together.

. The'concretion from tartar. Sometimes the interf{paces
of the teeth are fo filled up with tartar, that the teeth co-
here in fuch a degree, as to caufe an appearance refembling
what may be fuppofed to proceed from an a¢tual bony con-
cretion of thofe bodies. ‘The mode of treating this cafe
will be confidered in fpeaking of the tartar of the teeth.

4. The clofe conta& of the fang of the tooth with the
focket. In this circumftance, the tooth either cannot be ex-
tracted, or,.in the event of great force being ufed, the tooth
is broken away from the jaw.

Elongation of the Teeth.—Sometimes one or more of the
teeth appear to become longer.

1. Elongation of a tooth from the deficiency of the oppo-
fite one. Thus, when one of the molares of the upper jaw
is drawn out, the correfponding tooth of the lower jaw
feems lengthened; becaufe after a time the neighbouring
teeth are worn down by the fri€tion which they continually
exercife againft each other.

2. Elongation from preternatural foftnefs of the tooth.
Plenck informs us, that he has feen in a female child eight
years old, the right canine tooth of the lower jaw elongated,
and which, after being extraéted, was found {fo foft, that the
crown and fang could be comprefled with the finger. 3

3. Elongation of a tooth from exceflive growth is men-
tioned by writers; but this cafe cannot be poffible, as the
teeth are known not to be vafcular.

4. Imaginary elongation. Perfons whofe teeth are
affeGted with ftupor, are apt to fancy that their teeth are
_ longer than natural ; but without real caufe. Thé cure con-
fifts in removing the ftupor.

Foulnefs of the Teeth.—The teeth are often feen covered
with a fordid, fetid, yellowifh, or dark-brown mucus.

The proximate caufe is the adhefion of the mucus of the
mouth and fauces to the furface of the teeth.

1. Morning foulnefs. In almoft all men, the teeth become
coated in the night during fleep with a dirty mucus, and
appear foul inthe morning. The reafon is, becaufe during
fleep the faliva is more flowly fecreted in the mouth ; and,
_ on account of the motionlefs ftate of the tongue and jaws,
it is not wafhed off the teeth.

This fpecies of foulnefs is eafily removed by wafhing the
mouth every day with cold water, and the teeth with a bit of
rag, the finger, or a wet {ponge.

2. Foulnefs of the teeth from negle& to clean them.
They who are not in the daily habit of wathing their mouths
and teeth with cold water, by degrees have the interftices and
fangs of their teeth incrufted with mucus in the morning,
and with the remaining particles of the food.

With refpeé to the treatment, merely wafhing the mouth
in this inftance is not enough ; it is alfo requifite to clean
the teeth occafionally with tooth-powder.

3. Foulnefs of the teeth from fever. ‘This is remarkably
feen in cafes of putrid fever, in which, owing to the ftate of
the faliva, the teeth become covered with a yellow or dark-
brown coat.

Here the teeth fhould be frequently wafhed and cleaned
with vinegar.

4. Foulnefs from ptyalifm, efpecially that produced by
mercury. In the beginning of a falivation, the teeth become
coated with mucus. The beft treatment is to wafh and
elean them frequently with a honey gargle.

5- Scorbutic foulnefs. In perfons labouring under feurvy,
the teeth are invariably covered with a purulent kind of
mucus, iffuing fom the fockets of the loofened fangs.

The cure demands the internal and external employment
of anti-fcorbutie remedies.

6. Foulnefs of the teeth from tartar. In the early ftate of
the formation of tartar, the furface of the teeth becomes
covered with a mixture of earth and gluten.

The treatment confifts in removing the tartar with a thick
tooth-powder.

Of cleaning the Teeth.—In perfons whofe teeth are perfeétly
found, it is only neceflary to wafh their mouths every morn-
ing with water that has had the chill taken off it, and that con-
tains a few drops of the fpirit of lavender ; the mucus being
wiped from the teeth with a bit of rag, or fponge. The
fame fhould alfo be done after meals, and the fragments of
meat lodged between the teeth muft be removed with a tooth-,
pick, which inftrument fome recommend to be made of ju-
niper wood.

But in perfons in whom a depofition of tartar readily
takes place, the tartar ought to be removed with a tooth-
fcraper, and the teeth well cleaned every week with tooth-
powder.

Charcoal, or carbon, is ufed for cleaning the teeth, and
the beft is made from the fhell of the cocoa-nut. We are
informed by hiftorians that the ladies among the ancient
Britons ufed the charcoal made with the wood of the com-
mon hazel-nut for this purpofe. See Denrirrice.

The abforbent earths are ufed for dentifrices ; they me-
chanically cleanfe the teeth from the thick mucus and tartar,
and at the fame time preferve the tone of the gums. There-
fore,

1. The bafis of dentifrice powders may be prepared
fhells, red corals, mother-of-pearl, powdered crabs’ claws,
bone of the cuttle-fifh, lapis hematites, &c.

2. For communicating an agreeable colour to the pow-
der, carmine or cochineal may be added.

3. For giving an agreeable odour, ambergris, cinnamon,
or cloves may be ufed.

4. For ftrengthening the gums, armenian bole, fanguis
draconis, or terra catechu, is the beft ingredient.

Rough tooth-powders, like that containing pumice-ftone,
gradually wear away the enamel, efpecially when they are
employed every day.

Acid applications, particularly the mineral ones, do in-
deed whiten the teeth ; but when long ufed, render them
brittle.

Hence crude and burnt alum ought to be rejeGted from
every kind of dentifrice. he nitric, muriatic, and fulphu-
ric acids in tinétures are ftill more hurtful.

Of the Tartar of the Teeth—This fubftance is an earthy
crult, which adheres to theteeth. As it fills up the inter-
fpaces of feveral of the teeth, and occupies their external
furfaces, it is feldom obferved upon their infides. By the
Greeks it was called odontolithos, from odovc, a tooth, and aiSoc,
a ftone. By others it has been termed tophus, vel calculus
dentium.

With regard to the effe&ts of the tartar, it difplaces the
teeth, and renders them loofe and painful; it alfo feparates
the gums from the fangs, producing caries in the latter, and
a bad fmell in the breath.

In refpeét to colour, the tartar of the teeth is of three
kinds, namely, dark-brown, yellow, and black.

Since many perfons who never clean their teeth at all are
not disfigured with thefe depofitions of tartar, it appears that
a peculiar difpofing caufe is neceffary for the occurrence of
the complaint. The {pecies are :

1. Tartar

TEETH.

1. Tartar from negle& to wafh the mouth. It originates
from the gluten of the faliva, which, in uncleanly feorbutic
fubje@ts, and great wine-drinkers, adheres to the teeth, be-
comes putrid with the heat, and in putrefying depofits a fort
of earthy matter upon the teeth.. People who drink chiefly
water are feldom troubled with earthy incruftations on their
teeth.

The cure requires the removal of the tartar. Small por-
tions of tartar may be taken off by means of a brufh and a
thickifh tooth-powder. :

But when the tartar is abundant, thick, and wn, as it
were, to the teeth, it muft be cut with a fuitable initrument

-placed obliquely, beginning from the neck, and carrying the
inftrument towards the upper part of the tooth. The tartar
having: been cut, is then to be removed piecemeal.
“Any remaining particles of tartar may afterwards be gra-
dually got rid of by the ufe of a bruth and tooth-powder.

2. Spontaneous tartar. There are certain perfons, whofe
teeth are conftantly incrufted with tartar, notwithftanding
they are in the continual habit of wathing their teeth and
mouths.

This peculiar diathefis feems to confift in an extraordinary
quantity of earthy matter in the faliva.

Berdmore relates a furprifing example of this fort of
tartar. A man, thirty-two years of age, had the teeth of
each jaw coated with folid tartar, half an inch in thicknefs,
both on the outfide and infide of the teeth, and on the fur-
face of the gums, fo that the interftices of the teeth were alto-

-gether invifible. The gums were every where puthed off the
teeth, and painful. The incruftations upon the incifor teeth
were fo thick, that the lower lip was rendered more promi-
nent. During a fortnight, Berdmore removed every day fome
of the tartar from the teeth with an inftrument, and at
Jength employed a dentifrice and brafh. The retracted

ums were f{carified, and thus made to adhere to the necks of
the tecth. The patient was obliged to brufh his gums and
teeth three times a day, partly with a view of preventing the
new formation of tartar, and partly in order that the regene-
ration of the gums might be {till more promoted. But
although the patient ftriétly followed this plan, his teeth and
gums, in the courfe of half a year, became again covered
with an extremely thick coat of tartar. Berdmore was there-
fore under the neceflity of recommending the ufe of a ftiffer
brufh, and a dentifrice made of hells, for the purpofe of re-
moving the tartar. P. 56.

With refpe& to the treatment of tartareous incruftations
of the teeth in general, it is effential to remove the tartar and
clean the teeth well every day.

The internal and external remedies alfo, which are ufually
advifed for diffolving ftones in the bladder, may be employed,
as lime-water, pure potaffa, &c.

Sometimes peppermint-water, with a few drops of nitrous
acid, is ufed with advantage.

3. Tartar from the porofity of the furface of the teeth.
Perfons who are in the habit of ufing acrid tinétures or pow-
ders which diflolye the enamel, and make it porous, are fre-
quently troubled with tartareous incruftations.

The caufe being avoided, the mode of treatment is the
fame as in the preceding cafes.

_ Of Blackn-ft or Necrofis of the Tecth.—This is a very pe-
culiar affe&tion of all the teeth, making them appear black,
ough, and eroded.

Sometimes only the upper part of the crown exhibits a
-dark-coloured crofion ; while, in other inftances, the whole
fubftance of the tooth is eroded.

The proximate caufe of this difeafe is imputed by Plenck

to injury of the nutrient veflels of the pulp by Gifeat, before
’ 6

the growth of the tooth is thoroughly completed; and,
therefore, it is a totally different diforder from necrofis of
the bones, which is attended with phenomena, conneéted
with the vafcularity of the parts themfelves.

Hence it is only in infants that feveral of the teeth are
ufually thus diftempered.

Necrofis of the milk-teeth is indeed much more frequent
than of the permanent fet.

The following varieties of the complaint, depending on the
difference of the caufe, have been diftinguifhed.

1. Blacknefs of the teeth from rachitis. In ricketty in-
fants, the milk-teeth come out of the jaw more tardily, and
they foon afterwards turn black and friable, and out
piecemeal. The fecondary teeth alfo, when rachitis is not
cured between the firft and fecond dentition, are affe&ted
with the fame deftructive change, fo that fubjeés of this de-
{cription are either deftitute of teeth during the whole of
their lives, or only have in their mouths teeth which have a
black eroded appearance. :

As for the cure of rachitis, we do not intend to confider
it in the prefent place, and fhall merely ftate that the pure
milk of a healthy nurfe, falubrious air, a great deal of exer-
cife, good food, abforbent medicines, white alkaline falts,
bark, fteel, fea-bathing, &c. are the remedies principally
recommended. : S

2. Scorbutic blacknefs of the teeth. When the feurvy
attacks children before the offification of the teeth is com-
pleted, the milk-teeth, as foon as cut, either appear to be
already eroded, or in a fhort time afterwards become fo, and
put on a black colour. :

The cure demands the immediate exhibition of anti-fcor-
butic medicines, with the affiftance of which the fecond
teeth are fometimes perfeétly healthy. ~ '

3- Blacknefs of the teeth from the fmall-pox. In chil-
dren who are feized with malignant {mall-pox during the
firft or fecond dentition, a black erofion of the teeth is fre-
quently obferved.

The cure requires the repeated adminiftration of purga-
tives, and seat ei oid % 3

4. Blacknefs of the teeth from meafles. The fame black
erofion of the teeth has been remarked after fevere cafes of
meatles, =

The cure is the fame as in the foregoing inftance.

All the preceding f{pecies of necrofis, when they affeé& the
milk-teeth, are to be ftopped by their proper fpecific reme-
dies, in order that the fecond fet of teeth may not be af-
eas but when thefe are difordered, the cafe is irreme-

iable. -

5. Blacknefs of the teeth from tartar. The tartar it-
felf fometimes turns black, and even after its removal, the
teeth often remain of a blackifh colour, which cannot be
effaced. ri

6. Blacknefs of the teeth from the application of mineral
acids. Nitrous acid diluted with water, in a fhort time,
whitens the teeth ; but foon afterwards renders them black
and friable. Plenck has feen the lateral edges of the teeth
turned black and corroded by the employment of mercurial
cofmetics. t

7. Blacknefs of the teeth trom cancer. Plenek has twice
noticed in men, who were affi€ted with ulcerated cancers of
the lower lip, the teeth disfigured with a deep black colour.
But it is to be remarked, that the affeGtion was confined to
the enamel, and did not extend to the bony fubftance of the
fangs. i]

Preternatural Colour of the Tecth.—This is a change. of
the natural colour of the teeth to a yellow or afh-eolour.

1. Difcolouration from negleé to clean the teeth. The

fordes,

Re om ar

aa ined

eae T)

=p EN RP La teal 5 Nec Cac er neha ae

TEETH.

fordes, which colle& upon the teeth, diminifh their glofs
and whitenefs, and render them yellow or afh-coloured.
The cure confifts in removing the fordes.

2. Difcolouration from age. The whitenefs and polifh

of the teeth, peculiar to youth, change in the advanced
period of life into a dull yellow, which is totally irre-
mediable.

3. Difcolouration from the ufe of mercury. The teeth
are difcoloured not only by the internal, but alfo by the ex-
ternal ufe of mercury. Hence gilders, and other artizans
who make ufe of mercury, have their teeth ftained of a
leaden colour. Plenck has feen the fame fort of disfigure-
ment occafioned by cofmetics containing quickfilver.

The cure requires that the mercury be got out of the
fyftem as expeditioufly as poffible.

4. Difcolouration from feurvy, &c. Scorbutic perfons
are efpecially noticed as having the colour of the teeth
f{poiled. Venereal and ricketty fubjeéts are alfo frequently
affeGted in the fame way.

To this head muft likewife be referred the difcolouration
of the teeth obfervable in mariners.

5- Difcolouration of the teeth from ereaeecy In preg-
nant and fuckling women, the luftre of the teeth is often
remarked to leffen, and thefe parts to be difcoloured. Lorry,
Traét. de Morb. Cutaneis, p. 61.

It is fuppofed that this change of the teeth is frequently
conne&ted with the bad ftate of the milk, the evacuation and
corre€tion of which are the means of cure advifed by feveral
authors.

6. Difcolouration from taking hot food. Perfons who
make a practice of drinking very hot liquids, or of chew-
ing fubftances which are too warm, have the luftre and
whitenefs of their teeth deftroyed. It is queftionable, whe-
ther the beautiful white colour of the teeth of animals in
general may not be owing to their abftaining from hot
aliments ?

7. Difcolouration from dentifrice powders and tinétures
containing mineral acids. Thus, burnt alum and fpirit of
nitre for a fhort time whiten the teeth; but a little while
afterwards, the enamel turns pale and falls off in bits.

8. Difcolouration from the fmoke of tobacco. The oil
of this plant is well known to have the effe& of turning the
colour of the teeth to a dark brown or black.

g. Difcolouration from thinnefs of the enamel. When
the vitreous fubftance is in a certain degree worn away, the
bony fubftance, which is yellow, can be feen through it.
The defe& is incurable.

10. Difcolouration from an internal caries of the tooth.
Such a tooth lofes its luftre and whitenefs, and becomes
pale, afh-coloured, dark-brown, and at length black.

Here the only mode of cure is to extraét the difeafed
teoth.

11. Difcolouration from the ufe of madder. It is re-
marked, that only the bony part of the tooth is itained red
by this root, but not the enamel. The rednefs alfo does not
extend itfelf to the portion of the tooth already formed ; but
only to the part formed while the animal is fed with madder.
This colour likewife never difappears: circumftances much
againit the do€trine of the teeth being vafcular.

12. Golden difcolouration of the tecth. This fpecies is
brought on by art.

Fragility of the Teeth—In this affe€tion, the cohefion of
the fubftance of the teeth is fo flight, that a very inconfi-
derable force makes it break.

The proximate caufe of this fragility of the teeth is pro-
bably conneéted, in many examples, with fome imperfections
in their original growth.

The varieties defcribed by writers are as follow:

Vou. XXXV,.

1. The f{corbutic fragility. In people afli&ed with the
{curvy, the bodies of the teeth by degrees become fo fragile
that they drop out piecemeal.

2. Fragility from rickets. In children thus affe&ted, the
milk-teeth, foon after they have been cut, become dark-
coloured, are eafily broken, and ufually fall out in pieces.

3- Fragility from old age. In old age the teeth are apt
to a broken in biting with force, and to fall out piece-
meal.

4. Fragility from the application of mineral acids or
burning oils. The abufe of fuch medicines, too long con-
tinued, brings on a {pecies of fragility, which admits of no
mode of cure.

5. Fragility from caries. ‘Teeth, which are excavated
by caries, and rendered thin, are readily broken in mattica-
tion, and drop out in pieces.

All the different fpecies of fragility are incurable.

Mallities, or Preternatural Softne/s of the Teeth.—This dif-
eafe is fo remarkable a foftnefs of the fubftance of the teeth,
that it can almoft be compreffed together by the fingers.

The proximate caufe is faid to be either too great a
quantity of the gluten, which conneéts the earthy particles
together, or elfe a deficiency of the earth.

he fpecies are:

1. Softnefs of a milk-tooth. Plenck extraéted from a

girl feven years of age, a canine milk-tooth of the lower

jaw, which was livid and foft, like eae and was com-

preffible by the fingers, efpecially at the fang. De Morb.
Dentium, p. 39.

2. Softnefs of the teeth from farcoftofis of the fang.
Sometimes the fang of a tooth is abforbed, and a fungous
fubftance fills up its place. This cafe has been abfurdly in-
ftanced as a fpecimen of mollities of the teeth.

3- Softnefs of the teeth from fcurvy. It is afferted, that
in the fcurvy, the teeth have been fometimes foftened and
enlarged. (Grainger Hift. Febris Anom. p. 6.) But fuch
accounts muft be incorre&, fince they imply a vafeular or-
ganization of the teeth. It merits attention alfo, that in
certain dead fubjeéts, whofe bones are all affeéted with mol-
lities, the teeth are found perfetly hard.

Preternatural Angles, or par el of the Teeth.—Some-
times the form of a tooth is fo acute, that it hurts the
neighbouring parts by pricking them.

The effects of fuch a tooth are irritation of the tongue,
or of the inner furface of the lips, or cheek. Hence {n-
flammation of thefe parts, or an ill-conditioned ulcer oppofite
the fharp portion of the tooth, curable by no means what-
foever, except the removal of the angle or fharpnefs.

The fpecies are afcribable to the particularity of the
caufe.

1. Irritating angles, or fharpnefs from malformation of a
tooth. In this cafe the tooth has a found appearance, and
the crown is felt to be too pointed or fharp. /

2. Irritating angles, or fharpnefs from an oblique frac-
ture of a tooth; as fometimes happens from biting hard
nuts and other fubftances.. The cafe can be deteéted on
ocular examination.

3. Irritating angles, or fharpnefs from the tooth being
worn obliquely. This is the moft common cafe.

The cure requires that the pointed or fharp part of the
tooth be removed either with a file or a pair of cutting
forceps; but if this cannet be accomplifhed, the tooth
fhould be pulled out.

Fradures of the Teeth,—A fra€tare of a tooth is a folu-
tion of it into two or more fragments.

The folution of continuity may be tranfverfe, oblique, or
comminuted. The moft common kind of fracture is the fe-
paration of a particle of the enamel from the reft.

Ce The

TEETH.

The effects are, confiderable pain in the tooth, and fome-
times convulfions ; an unpleafant fenfation in the tongue
upon its touching the fraéture. An oblique fra¢ture hurts
the tongue, lips, or cheek, by its pointed form. The
broken furface of a tooth not unfrequently becomes carious.

The f{pecies are :

1. Fraéture from violence ; as occurs in a fall upon the
teeth, a blow on them, or in biting the hard {tones of fruits,
or in an impertect extra¢tion of a tooth.

2. Fraéture from previous caries, or fragility of a tooth.
When either of thefe caufes is prefent, a very inconfiderable
force will break the tooth, and fplit it into feveral pieces.
The furface of the fractured part ought to be kept covered
for feveral days with maftich.

The fraéture of a tooth is an incurable accident.

Fiffures of the Teeth.—A fiffure of a tooth means a folu-
tion of continuity, like a mere line, or a crack in the
enamel.

For the moft part, the caufe originates from biting the
ftones of fruit, or other hard fubftances.

The effects are pain and tendernefs of the tooth, and, in
confequence of the entrance of fordes into the fiffure, caries
is frequently produced.

The treatment confifts in filling up the fiffure, while
recent, with gum mattich. ~

Luxations of the Teeth—The luxation of a tooth means
the difplacement of it from its natural pofition in the focket,
occafioned by violence. bs

The caufes are biting hard or refifting bodies with ex-
treme force; falls or blows upon the teeth; but, mott
commonly, the accident is brought on by an imperfe& and
unfuccefsful attempt to draw a tooth.

The disfigurement, arifing from the wrong pofture of the
tooth, is the chief effe@&.: The tooth may be put into its
right pofition again with the aid of a pair of forceps.

Stupor of the Teeth.—This is a very fingular fenfation in
the teeth, which cannot be defcribed by words. It was
called by the Greeks hamodia, from aipwdidw, obffupefco:
the French term it /’agacement des denis.

The proximate anale is a peculiar affection of the nerves
of the teeth.

With regard to the effects, this annoying fenfation pre-
vents maflication, and excites a preternatural fecretion of the
faliva ; while it is exafperated by the entrance of air into the
cavity of the mouth. “For the moft part, the complaint is
oaly of a tranfient nature.

The fpecies are:

1. Stupor of the teeth from eating unripe fruit. Hence
we find, the affeétion is often caufed by eating four cherries,
currants, goofeberries, &c.

This cafe may be relieved by chewing fweet almonds, or
applying fomentations to the teeth.

2. Stupor of the teeth'from vomiting dark bilious matter
from the ftomach. The fecretions thrown up from the
{tomach are fometimes of an auftere acid kind, and therefore
may give rife to this affeGtion of the teeth. Plenck has
many times noticed the occurrence in hypochondriacal fub-
jects. Doétrina de Morb. Dentium, p. 42.

The cure demands emetics and abforbents, or mild alka-
line remedies,

3. Stupor of the teeth in ricketty fubjeéts. The teeth of
perfons who labour under rachitis, are, on account of their
greater fenfibility, particularly expofed to the attack of this
complaint.

Befides the radical cure of rachitis, which is to, be at-
tempted by tonic and abforbent medicines, external palliative
means are not to be omitted

4. Stupor of the teeth from harfh noifes. Thus the pain-

7

ful fenfation is brought on by the acute rough found made
by filing various fubftances, fcraping flate, fawing ftone, &c.
In a fright, the gnathing of the teeth has been obferved to
have a fimilar effect. ) Sis

Odontalgia, or Tooth-ache—This fignifies pain in one or
more of the teeth the etymology being cdovc, dens, and
aay:w, doleo. <i ,

The proximate caufe is an irritation of the nerves which
are diftributed to the teeth and gums.

As for the effeéis, the pain in the teeth fometimes rifes
to fuch a degree, that reitleffnefs, fever, delirium, fpafms,
conyulfions, faintings, &¢. are produced, efpecially in per-
fons of irr table conftitutions.

The cheek of the painful fide very often fwells upon a
little abatement of the complaint taking place; the patient
drivels confiderably ; and maftication cannot be performed
without an increafe of fuffering.

The different {pecies of the complaint are as follows:

1. Odontalgia rheumatica, or the tooth-ache occafioned
by the rheumatifm affeting the gums and teeth. ‘

The fymptoms of this cafe are, pain in the teeth, without
any thing ailing the gums, as far as can be deteéted by ocu-
lar examination. ;

The cure demands purgative medicines, and afterwards
fudorifics. Pi

Externally, wine and water; or vinegar, in which the .

radix pyrethri has been boiled; the f{moking of tobacco ;
finapifms to the cheek ; or blifters upon the temples, or
nape of the neck; are efteemed amongft the moft eligible
means of relief. ;

2. Odontalgia catarrhalis. This cafe is moftly brought
on by a cold damp atmofphere and the fuppreffion of per-
{piration, or from fudden expofure to cold while the body
is very much heated. ‘

This {pecies may be known by the prefence of the ufual
fymptoms of catarrh, the difcharge of mucus from the
noftrils, cough, &c. —

It admits of relief by the fame means which are proper
for a catarrh, or the rheumatic fpecies of tooth-ache, ~

3- Odontalgia inflammatoria. The complaint is brought
on by inflammation of the gums. Such inflammation often-
times affects, at the fame time, all the neighbouring parts, as
the cheeks, ears, eyes, and indeed fometimes the whole
head. ,

Frequently the cafe brings on, in a flow manner, the form-
ation of ab{celles between the gums and cheek, which ab-
{ceffes, after a great deal of violent pain, burft.

This tooth-ache is exafperated by every kind of warm
medicine, whether given inwardly, or ufed as an external ap-
plication.

The cure of the complaint in its early ftage demands
venefection, purgatives, nitre, and other antiphlogiftic re-
medies.

Externally, there is no better application than the aqua
plumbi fuperacetatis. j

4- Odontalgia arthritica, or odontagra, arifes on the
abatement of a gouty affection of the joints, but fubfides
again as foon as the latter difeafe recommences.

5. Odontalgia venerea. Both the venereal difeafe itfelf,
and the mercury which is adminiftered for its cure, not
unfrequently give rife to fevere tooth-ache. In each of
thefe cafes, purgatives are indicated, and afterwards an
emulfion of gum arabic, the warm bath, and the compound
decoétion of farfaparilla. ;

Here drawing the teeth is faid to be extremely dangerous,
as it is apt to bring on inflammation of the throat, and even
fatal confequences. :

6. Odontalgia feorbutica. This cafe may be known by

the

TEETH.

the exiftence of the ufual fymptoms of the feurvy. In ad-
dition to an intolerable itching in the gums, very acute pain
is alfo often experienced.

With refpe& to the cure, topical remedies muft be em-
ployed, together with fuch external and internal medicines
as are generally requifite for the {curvy.

7. Odontalgia gaftrica is an acute pain in the teeth and
gums, arifing from a wrong ftate of the prime vie.

It may be cured by emetics, purgatives, and other me-
dicines calculated to put the bowels and ftomach into order
again,

pibdinstaljcia gaftrico-verminofa. People who have worms
are frequently tormented with the tooth-ache. Authors at-
tempt to explain the fa¢t as follows: they ftate that worms
in the inteftines irritate the great intercoftal nerve, which
has bi ftrong fympathetic conneétion with the nerves of the
teeth.

The cure demands purgatives and anthelmintic remedies.

8. Odontalgia a ventriculi debilitate, feu irritabilitate.
It fometimes happens that men and hyfterical women, whofe
ftomachs are weak and irritable, are affliGed with excru-
ciating tooth-aches, which yield to no remedies but antifpaf-
modics, ftomachics, and tonics.

g- Odontalgia gravidarum. In the tooth-ache originating
from pregnancy, the pain often fhifts from one tooth to
another, and comes on very repeatedly, although the teeth
are frequently perfe€tly found. Sometimes the pain is
merely fympathetic ; but, in moft inftances, it is conneéted
with that plethoric ftate of the female conftitution known
to prevail during pregnancy. Venefe¢tion is, ’ therefore,
the chief means of relief, and then topical applications
may be ufed.

It is a queftion, whether the operation of drawing a tooth
fhould ever be performed on pregnant women. ‘There are
fome women who have fuch a dread of the inftruments for
this purpofe, that the very fight of them brings on the
danger of convulfions and a mifcarriage. But, on the
other hand, the pain may be fo violent as to create a chance
of the fame evils. Here much addrefs is requifite to per-
fuade the patient to undergo the operation, and at the
fame time great prudence not to advife it, unlefs rendered
abfolutely indifpenfable by the feverity and obftinacy of the
pain.

to. Odontalgia nutricum. Women who fuckle are alfo
particularly fubje&t to be affli€ted with excruciating tooth-
ache, whether the teeth be found or carious. When the
pain refifts the ufual means, efpecially opium and venefec-
tion, the tooth muit be extra&ted. This cafe has been fup-
pofed to depend upon a certain fympathy between the
mammz and the teeth.

11. Odontalgia from cutting the dens fapjentiz. Some-
times great and long-continued pain, delirium, and other
alarming fymptoms take place, until the tooth has made its
Way out, or the gums have been divided.

12. Odontalgia hytiterica. This fpecies of tooth-ache
often affe&ts hyfterical women a long while, notwithftanding
the teeth may be perfe&tly healthy’; nor does it always yield
to opium, nor even to the operation of extracting feveral of
the painful teeth.

The treatment requires the warm bath, emollient fomen-
tations to the cheeks, and gargles of the fame quality to
the mouth. °

13. Odontalgia from the teeth being worn away. The
bony fubftance of the teeth is fo fenfible, when deprived of
the enamel, that on coming into conta¢t with air, or food,
at all too warm, or cold, the moft intolerable pain is
excited.

14. Odontalgia from tartar on the teeth. The tartar
feparates the gums from the neck and fang of the tooth, fo
as to expofe the latter parts to the cold air, and the ftimu-
lating quality of the food. Hence, it is obvious, pain
muft be the confequence.

The radical cure can only be accomplifhed by removing
the tartar. The complaint may be palliated by the common
applications for the relief of tooth-ache.

15. Odontalgia from a fraéture of the body of the tooth.
In this cafe the nerves of the remaining portion of the tooth
are expofed to the air, and fometimes become affected with
extreme pain.

Writers recommend for the purpofe of relieving this
complaint, either applying the cautery to the furface of the
fractured tooth, or elfe covering it with wax, or gum
mattich.

16, Odontalgia verminofa. Whether the tooth-ache. can
ever really arife from the prefence of worms in a carious
tooth, is doubtful. Plenck conceives the occurrence pof-
fible, and he propofes as a means of cure the employ-
ment of a gargle containing the muriates of ammonia and
foda.

17. Odontalgia periodica fignifies that form of the tooth-
ache, which comes on every other day, and refembles in its
periods of attack an intermittent fever.

In the treatment, authors recommend the ufe of purgatives,
emetics, and the Peruvian bark.

18. Odontalgia cariofa. It is not every fort of caries
of the teeth which is accompanied with pain ; but only the
internal or external humid kind of caries. In the dry caries,
and alfo in the humid, when all the nervous filaments of the
bone of the tooth have been deftroyed by it, the carious.
tooth remains free from pain.

In the tooth-ache from caries, the following modes of relief
are recommended :

1. Preffure upon the nerve which comes out of the infra-
orbitary canal of the fuperior maxillary bone.

2. Preffure upon the nerve which pafles out of the canalis
mentalis of the lower jaw-bone.

3. Sulphuric acid applied to the carious part of the
tooth by means of a probe. Plenck has fometimes found
this plan ufeful.

4. Vinum pyrethri, vel rute, or ftrong vinegar.

5. Sinapifms to the cheek.

6. Blifters to the nape of the neck, and behind the
ears.
7. The application of a magnet to the painful tooth.

8. Oil of cloves introduced into the carious tooth.

. Camphorated milk retained for a time in the mouth.

10. Burning the nerve with a heated probe.

1i. Opium applied to the carious tooth, or adminiftered
internally.

12. Tierra the painful tooth is another mode of relief
which has betm propofed. With the aid of a fuitable in-
ftrument the tooth is to be turned a little round in its
focket, and then turned back again into its natural pofition.
Thus, the fmall nerve, which enters the hole in the fang,
is either broken or rendered paralytic.

Caries of the Teeth.—This fignifies an erofion of the fub-
ftance of the teeth.

The dentes molares are more frequently than the reft of
the teeth affeéted with caries, and the dentes fapientiz
oftener than any of the other grinders. d

Caries of the teeth varies in refpect to its fituation,
figure, nature, and caufe. ‘

In regard to fituation, the caries may take place in one,
in feveral, or in all the teeth. It may occur upon the ex-

Cic2 ternal

TEETH.

ternal or internal furface of a tooth; upon the body or the
fang of a tooth; or it may affeét every part of it.

cn to caufes, the caries may proceed from fuch as are
properly called external, as a fiffure; a wearing away of
the enamel ; fordes adhering to the teeth ; tartar; a detach-
ment of the gums; a vibe effort to bite, by which the
apex of the fang, or the bottom of the focket, is contufed ;
the ufe of mercury; cofmetics; the application of acids,
efpecially thofe which are termed mineral ; dentifrice powders
containing alum; cold damp air ; fmoking, or chewing
tobacco, &c.

Sugar has been imagined to be hurtful to the teeth; but
probably without real foundation. General de Beaufort
ate every day for forty years a pound of fugar, and lived
to the age of feventy. After death, his vifcera were found
free from difeafe, and his teeth found. (Anecdotes de
Médécine, tom. ii. p. 35-) Plenck put a healthy tooth
into fome fyrup diluted with water, and kept it there two
months, at the end of which time it was taken out, and
found to have undergone no change. Doétrina de Morb.
Dentium, p. 52.

The internal caufes are fcurvy, rachitis, fcrofula, &e.

In relation to the particular nature of caries of the teeth,
there are two fpecies; one termed humid, which quickly
deftroys the tooth affected with it ; the other is the dry ca-
ries, which advances flowly, lafts a long while, is altogether
indolent, and cannot be palliated by any known remedy.

The effeéts of caries are fetor of the breath; repeated
attacks of tooth-ache ; infeétion of the neighbouring teeth ;
and not unfrequently the correfponding tooth on the eppo-
fite fide of the mouth becomes alfo affeGted with caries, as
feveral authors whimfically fuppofe, from nervous fympathy.
In the fituation of the difeafed tooth, efpecially, over the
carious fang, the gum is moft sarap? attacked with a
parulis, or epulis. Sometimes chronic ophthalmy originates
from the irritation of the difeafed fang (Journ. de Méd.
tom. xxxvi.) ; or elfe a fiftula of the gums or cheek, or an
ozena of the antrum Highmorianum. Even a locked-jaw
has been known to arife from carious teeth. Truka Com.
de Tetano, p. 151.

In refpe& to figure or form, the following fpecies of
caries may be eftablifhed.

1. Caries foraminofa, or a carious canal, which runs from
the external furface of the crown, and penetrates the fub-
ftance of the tooth.

In the treatment, it is proper to clean out the carious
canal with a needle, and by injeéting a fluid into it. Then
it is to be burnt with a heated needle; and, laftly, elofed
with wax, maftich, gold, or lead.

2. Caries of the whole crown or body of atooth. When
the middle of the crown of a tooth is eroded in fuch a man-
ner, that the caries is wider fuperficially than it is more
deeply, then the gold, or lead, or whatever is ufed for filling
it up, cannot be retained in its place.

In this circumftance it becomes neceflary to burn the
carious furface with a fuitable inftrument ; or to deftroy it
with cauftie applications ; or to apply antifeptics.

But when, notwithftanding all thefe means, the caries yet
fpreads, the tooth ought to be extraéted, in order to re-
move the pain, prevent the occurrence of other difeafes,
and not incur the rifk of the tooth breaking in pieces in
the attempt to take it out at alater period, when it may be
excavated and rendered too thin.

3. Caries maculofa. If the fuperficial fpot only appear
upon the external furface of the tooth, it may be removed
with a file.

4. Caries ftriata. When the caries occurs in the form

of a longitudinal black ftreak, it is either in the middle of
the crown, or on the lateral margins of the tooth. This
cafe may be occafioned by the teeth being placed too clofely
together, and alfo by the ufe of cofmetics. It admits of
being taken off with a file.

5. Caries of the fang of a tooth. The body of fuch a
tooth is fometimes found. ‘The tooth, however, is fre-
quently painful, the cheek of the affeéted fide, and the
gum near the painful tooth f{well, and an abfcefs is formed,
which is lefs common in the other {pecies of caries.

The cure requires that the tooth fhould be drawn out as
foon as the inflammation has fubfided, It is reckoned dan-
gerous to perform the operation while the parts are much
inflamed.

6. Internal caries of a tooth. In thts complaint the
tooth is painful, and exhibits a leaden colour, and if it be
fhaken with an inftrument the pain is confiderably ex-
afperated. ‘Thus the difeafed tooth may be dete¢ted amongit
many which are healthy, even when feveral of them are
thought by the patient to be unfound.

The cure requires the tooth to be extracted.

4. Caries of all the teeth. This affliction is fometimes
induced by the fcurvy, and rachitis. ‘The radical cure is
of courfe impoffible ; but the progrefs of the caries can be
checked by the internal ufe of antifcorbutic medicines, the
remedies again{t rachitis, and by giving afla-foetida.

Externally, antifeptic wafhes may be ufeful.

Plumbatio dentis is the filling of the carious cavity with
thin fheet-lead, tin, or gold. Gold is preferable to lead,
which is apt to be aéted upon and diffolved by acid food,
and may therefore produce the faturnine colic; but, on the
other hand, lead is more eatily introduced into the tooth,
and it can be more firmly fixed there. Some dentifts give
the preference to tin. F :

The operation is proper, if the carious tooth has a narrow
entrance. It can only be performed on the incifors, canine
teeth, and firft grinders, which are furnifhed with but one

fang.

Phe operation is contraindicated, when the orifice of the
caries is wider than its bottom, as the lead cannot then be
retained. Alfo, when pain and inflammation are prefent,
the introduction of the lead muft be deferred until thefe
fymptoms have fubfided.

The inftruments for this operation are,

1. The introduétor.

2. The perforator.

3. The planatonum.

4. The file.

5- The plates or leaves of gold, about three or four times
as thick as thofe commonly met with.

As for the operation itfelf,

1. A'thin plate of lead, tin, or gold, is to be put into
the hollow of the tooth, by means of the inftrument called
the introduétor.

2. The lead or gold is to be dually compreffed more
and more clofely, fo that it may fil up well the fides of the
cavity. This is to be done with the planatorium. ‘Then
fome holes are to be drilled in the metal with the perforator,
and thefe are to be filled with lead. Laftly, the place is to
be rendered even and {mooth with the file.

_ The lead, for fome days after the operation, proves rather
difagreeable to the tongue ; but, in a fhort time, the patient
is habituated to it, and he experiences no longer any fuch in-
convenience.

Sometimes pain and inflammation follow ; in which cafe,
the lead muft be taken out for a few days with a pointed
inftrument.

8 There

TEETH.

‘here have been perfons who have had lead in their
teeth feventy years, and upwards, without any annoyance
from it.

Of drawing or extraGing a Tooth.—We shall conclude this
article with a few obfervations upon the furgical operation of
extracting a tooth from its focket.

The following cafes make the performance of it necef-
fary.
ve A carious tooth, producing a fevere degree of pain,
which can be abated by no remedies.

2. A fharp tooth, which irritates and hurts the tongue,
and does not admit of being amended with the file.

3. An ulcer, or abfcefs of the maxillary finus.

4. A tooth which renders the focket carious, or caufes
ab{ceffes, or excrefcences of the gums, fiftule of the jaw, or
fome other troublefome complaints.

5- A milk-tooth not being fhed at the ufual period, and
its prefence forcing one of the permanent fet to grow in a
wrong direétion. .

6. A tooth growing out of the palate, or in any other
unnatural place.

On the other hand, the operation is contraindicated, when
the gums are highly inflamed ; or when a tooth-ache, excited
by mercury, or the fcurvy, is prefent. Drawing a tooth,
in thefe circumftances, might give rife to extenfive inflam-
mation and angina in a dangerous degree.

The common inftruments are,

1. The odontagra.

2. The pelicanus.

3. The clavis, or key.

Thefe three inftruments are objeGtionable in one refpe& :
namely, they pull the tooth out of its focket obliquely ;
and hence they often break the alveolary procefs, or the tooth
itfelf.

4. But the tooth-inftrument which Aitken has defcribed,
draws the tooth out of the focket perpendicularly ; and, on
this account, has an advantage. See Effays on feveral im-
portant Subjects in Surgery, London, 1771, p. 196.

5. The tooth forceps.

6. The pes caprinus, or punch.

The molares, when they can be firmly taken hold of, may
be extracted with either of the firft four inftruments.

The incifores, canini, and firft molares, may be drawn
out with the forceps.

Stumps and fangs cannot be taken hold of with thefe in-
ftruments ; they muft, therefore, be pufhed out of the al-
veolary procefs with the pes caprinus, or punch, and then
be removed with a pair of forceps.

The patient and furgeon are to place themfelves as
follows.

1. If the tooth be in the upper jaw, and it is to be taken
out with the odontagra, pelicanus, or punch; or if the
tooth, which is to be drawn, is in the lower jaw, the patient
mutt be feated in a low chair, or on the ground, the furgeon
ftanding behind him.

2. But if the tooth is to be taken out with the key, or
from the upper jaw with the forceps, the patient is to fit
in a common chair, and the furgeon is to ftand in front of

im.

The following are the different methods of performing the
©peration.

1. Of extraéting a tooth with the odontagra.

- The inner gum of the tooth about to be drawn, is to be
depreffed with the claw of the inftrument nearly down to the
alveolary procefs. The other part of the inftrument is to
be applied to the crown of the tooth.

While the thumb is employed in making firm preffure

upon the claw, the handle is to be held with the fingers,
and, under the direétion of the palm, the tooth is to be
raifed perpendicularly from its’ focket.

By means of the fcrew, which admits of bein
the inftrument may readily be adapted to
teeth.

2. Of drawing a tooth with the key.

The key is applied to the tooth nearly in the fame way as
the odontagra, except that the thumb of the other hand is
placed upon the claw. At the commencement, the key is to
be turned very gradually ; and the tooth, when it yields, is
to be cautioufly and flowly raifed, left it flip away, and re-
main adherent to the gum.

3. Of drawing a tooth with the pelicanus.

The claw of this inftrument is to be applied to the infide
of the neck of the tooth, while the rotula is to be put upon
the two neighbouring teeth. The thumb of the hand not
holding the inftrument is to be applied to the infide of them,
fo as to counterat the refiftance of the rotula.

4. Of the extraction of a tooth with the forceps.

The neck of the tooth being firmly grafped with the
forceps, is to be gradually moved, until it is fufficiently
loofened to admit of being taken out perpendicularly.

5. Of taking out a tooth with the pes caprimus, or
punch.

The two points of the inftrument are to be firmly applied,
under the gum, to the lower part of the neck of the re-
maining portion of the tooth. The thumb of the hand not
thus employed is to be covered with fome linen, and ap-
plied internally. The fang is then to be pufhed out of the
focket, and removed with a pair of forceps.

With regard to the fymptoms arifing after the operation :
a flight hemorrhage, and a {welling of the gums and cheek,
are the ufual confequences. Thefe, however, are free from
danger, and, when the mouth is wafhed with a gargle of
tepid vinegar, they are {oon relieved.

The more ferious confequences, which fometimes occur
after the extraction of a tooth, are,

1. A violent and dangerous degree of hemorrhage.

2. Alarming inflammation of the gums and cheek

3. Abfceffes of the gums; very apt to take place, when
the gums have been confiderably bruifed by the inftrument,
or when fplinters of bone are left behind.

4. A fraGture of the alveolary procefs, or of the palate.
This accident is moft liable to happen, when the fangs of
the teeth diverge, or when the fang and focket have grown
together by the procefs of offification. The exiftence of the
late cafe may be known by the neck of the tooth being
curved. Here the tooth fhould always be drawn out to-
wards its concave fide.

5- Diflocation of the jaw. This may occur, if the mouth
be too much open, or the lower jaw be brought too much
forward, in the operation. ‘The luxation ought to be im-
mediately reduced. See Luxarion.

6. Fra€ture of the jaw. See Fracture.

7. Caries of the focket.

8. Laftly, fraéture and luxation of the tooth may be the
confequences of an unfuccefsful attempt to perform the
operation.

In the preceding remarks, we have been chiefly affifted
by Plenck’s excellent compendium, entitled * Doétrina de
Morbis Dentium,” &c. Lovanii, 1796.

Some interefting obfervations on the difeafes of the teeth,
particularly with a view to the queftion whether thefe parts
are vafcular, will be found in the article Cranium.

For a defcription of the difeafes of the gums, we refer to

Gums, Difea/es of.
pe A Danith

turned,
e larger

TEETH.

A Danifh phyfician, named Hagerup, maintains in cer-
tain thefes that one may hear with the teeth.

As to animals, there are fome fithes which have teeth on
their tongues, as trouts ; others have them at the.bottom of
the gullet, as the cod-fifh ; fome, as the great fea-dog or
fhark, called canis carcharias, have three, four, or five rows
of teeth on the fame jaw ; the crocodile three, and thofe all
incifors ; vipers have two large crooked eanine teeth, which
are moveable, and ordinarily lie flat, only being raifed when
they would bite; and the rana pifcatrix, fea-frog, or fea-
devil, has whole rows of the like moveable teeth. The toad
and cuttle-fifh have no teeth, and yet they can bite. See
Anatomy of F isu.

Teetu, Chemical Analyfis of. The teeth clofely re-
femble bone in their compofition. The bodies confift of a
cartilaginous bafis, united with phofphate of lime, and {mall
proportions of other earthy falts. ‘The enamel differs fo far
only from the bodies, that it contains no cartilaginous matter,
bat confifts entirely of earthy fubftances. The teeth have
been often examined, and with various refults, according to
the ftate of chemical knowledge at the period of examina-
tion. We do not think it neceffary to give an account of
all that has been faid on the fubjeét, but fhall confine our
attention principally to the lateft and moft perfeé analyfes.
We fhall begin with the analyfis of Mr. Pepys: he found
the enamel of teeth compofed of

Phofphate of lime - - - 78
Carbonate of lime - - = 6
Lofs and water - ~ - 16
100
The bodies of the teeth, according to the ‘ene chemitt,
confilt of the following proportions.

Roots of the | Teeih of Firtt Teeth

Teeth. Adulis. of Children.
Phofphate of lime - 58 64 62
Carbonate of lime - 4 6 6
Cartilage ei ice 28 20 20
Lols .« = - 10 10 12
100 100 100

A much more complete analyfis, however, of the enamel
of teeth has lately been made by Berzelius. He gives the
following table of | his refults, compared with the compofition
of the bones of the fame animals.

Dried | Enamel of Enamel
Human | Human re se of Ox
Bones. Teeth. é Teeth.
Cartilage - - 2.1 —
Blood-veffels - Tint — t 33-39 t 335°
Fluate of lime -{| 2.00] 3.2 2.50] 4.00
Phofphate of lime - | 51.04 | 85.3 55-854 81.00
Carbonate of lime - | 11.30 | 8.0 3°85) 7510
Phofphate of mag-
ha 3 ‘t 1.16 1.5 2.05 3-00
Soda, muriate of
foda, water, &c. or ae hie 1-34

100 160 100 100

Thus confirming a difcovery made many years before by
Morichini, an Ttahan chemift, namely, that the enamel of
teeth contains fluoric acid; a circumftance which had been
called in queftion by later inquirers. ;

Foffile ivory and bone have been found by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin to retain proportions of animal matter, varying
from 45 to 15 per cent.; a curious fact, and highly illuftra-
tive of the powers of intimate mixture, or rather perhaps
chemical union, in preventing the deftru€tion of organic
fubftances.

Teern, Artificial, are thofe fet in lieu of natural ones,
which are wanting. See Teeru, Difeafes of.

Tertu, Mark of, in the Maneze. See Marx and Eye
of a Bean. See alfo TrEEru, infra.

Teetu of Fifh. See Anatomy of Fisu. :

Teetu, in Rural Economy, little bones fixed in the jaws,
which ferye not only to reduce the food and nourifhment,
but fhew the age in fome animals. The horfe has fort
teeth, including the tufhes, which are thus diftinguifhed.
Twenty-four are called grinders, being placed at the bottom
of the mouth, beyond the bars, twelve on each fide of the
channel, viz. fix above, and fix on each fide. Thefe teeth
continue, and do not give place to new teeth in their
room, fo that they are of no ufe in diftinguifhing a
horfe’s age ; and they are fubje& to wolves tee In re-
gard to the other fixteen, twelve of them are called in their
infancy milk or foal teeth, and the remaining four go by the
name of es The twelve foal teeth are fhort, {mall, and
white, aid are feated on the fore-part of the mouth, fix
above, and fix below: and thefe change and caft, to give
place to others; which, in procefs of time, become long,
large, and yellowifh.

Thefe new teeth are diftinguifhed by different names given
them, according to their putting forth ; and it is the manner
of their coming forth that gives the knowledge of the firft
years of a horfe’s age. ae

Of thefe twelve, four are called nippers, four middling
teeth, and four go by the name of corner teeth. The four
nippers are feated on the fore-part of the mouth, two aboye,
and two below. When a horfe has put forth thefe, he is
concluded to be from two and a half to three years old, ~

The middling teeth are placed near the nippers or ga-~
therers, one above, and one below, on each fide of the jaws.
They come out and appear between three and a half and
four years. :

The corner teeth are placed {till more forward in the
mouth, one above, and one below, on each fide of the jaws.

They begin to fhoot between the fourth, and the fifth
year, and are got above the gum at five years ; and when
furmounting the gum at that age, they become hollow, and
mark commonly till feven or eight years. By marking is
meant, that in the hollow or cavity of the corner teeth a
little black fpeck is formed, which, from its refemblance,
is called the bud or eye of a bean, or the mark. But when
the horfe paffes fix, the cavity begins to fill, and the black
mark difappears by degrees; yet this diminution of the
cavity and the mark continues from fix to feven and a half,
However, at eight years, the cayity is filled up, and the
black mark gone ; and the tooth is then full, and even as if
it had been fhaved. It is then faid, that the horfe has raized,
which happens a little before the eighth year ; and after that,
the horfe does not mark; fo that the fureft knowledge of
his age is then formed from his tuthes. . ek

The tuthes are placed beyond the corner teeth, upon the
bars, two on each fide below, without being preceded by
any foal teeth. The two under tufhes cut fometimes at
three years, fometimes at three and’a half, fometimes at

four ;

oe

SE pt TO

ee ar

i

TEE

four; but the fwo upper tufhes fometimes at four, fome-
times at four and a half; fometimes before and fometimes
after the corner teeth, without any certain rule; and till the
age of fix they are chamfered within. And at about ten
years of age’ the two under tufhes appear much worn, which
ferves for that age. After that they grow out in length,
and become bare of flefh, becaufe the gum fhrinks and re-
tires ; and at laft, about the fifteenth or fixteenth year, the
horfe /bells.

It is fometimes faid, that a horfe is not capable of any
great fatigue till his tufhes have cut the fkin. See Acer, in
HHorfeman/bip.

The teeth in fheep are divided into two kinds, the incifores
and the molares, or the cutting and dividing, and the rub-
bing and grinding teeth. Such fheep as are full-mouthed
have eight of the firft fort of teeth ; throwing up two every
year, confequently lofe their fucking teeth. ‘The incifores
are found to wear down in proportion to the aétion which
they have; but the molares, having more ftrength, and a
different form, do not fuffer fo much in this way.

It has been fuggefted by an experienced fheep-farmer,
that thefe forts of young animals moitly renew their firit
two teeth at from about fourteen to fixteen months of age;
and after that, every year nearly at the fame time, until
they are turned three years old, or, in the technical language
of the fheep-mafter, three fhear, when they become full-
mouthed ; for although they have eight teeth before in the
under jaw, it is commonly believed that they only caft and
renew the fix infide ones. Shepherds, however, differ much
on this point, fome contending that they only fhed the fix
fore-teeth, while others maintain that they caft the whole
eight fore-teeth. The matter is, therefore, not yet well
afcertained. Some properly remark, that fheep are very
uncertain in their throwing up their teeth ; much depending
upon their being early or late lambed, well or ill fed, and
other fimilar circumftances. Tups have been known to have
four broad or renewed teeth, when by the age, as fhewn in
the above manner, they ought to have had only two. Some
fheep are remarked to be more backward than others, by
feveral months, in proportion to their ftrength of conftitu-
tion, and other matters.

In Romney Marth the teeth of fheep are found to decay
much fafter, it is believed, than in any other part of the
country. Clofe feeding wears the teeth exceedingly ; of
courfe, the teeth of the fheep of thofe who ftock the hardeft
commonly decay the fooneft. ‘The fheep graziers in this
diftri& are very particular in mouthing their fheep, which
are kept or rejeéted according as their mouths are found to
be good or bad; as, where the latter is the cafe, they have
oe difficulty in maintaining themfelyes during the winter

eafon.

It is noticed that fheep, &bout the time of renewing their
teeth, are very tender in their mouths, and do not thrive fo
well as they do at-other feafons. At one feafon a teg, it is
fuppofed, may ftarve any fheep by clofe feeding; but on
the renewal of its broad teeth, any fheep may ftarve it.

In the above diftri€, the barrens or old breeding ewes are
generally caft off when they have had their third lamb ;
though fometimes, if their mouths be good, and they are
often better than thofe that have had only one lamb, they
are kept for the fourth lamb: nor is this fuppofed a bad
practice, fince by it fome valuable ewes may be’referved.

Sheep are feldom kept here to any great age: fome fa-
vourites are, however, kept till ten years old, without a
tooth in their heads. Some have heard of their living twenty
years. Inthe county of Hereford they are faid to live to a
great age: they live on long grafs in the fummer feafon, and

TEF

peafe-ftraw and other fimilar matters in the winter, which
do not wear their teeth fo much as when they labour hard
on aclofe fhort-fet turf. See SHrrp.

The teeth of the various other forts of domettic animals
have hitherto been but little noticed or attended to by ftore
or ftock matters, though they are probably, in many cafes,
as much changed, and ferve to mark the ages and growths of
the animals as much and as certainly, as in the inftances and
cafes which have been given above.

Teeru, Mammoth’s. See Mammorn’s Teeth.

Teetu, Wolfs. See Wotves’ Teeth.

Teetu of a Wheel, in Mechanics. See WHEEL.

TEETHING. See Dentitioy, and Difeafes of Trern,

Supra.

TEETMOW, in Geography, a town of Bengal: 40
miles S.S.E. of Curruckpour.

TEFEE, a town of Brafil, in the government of Para,
on the river of the Amazons; 220 miles W. of Fort Rio
Negro.

TEFELSDORF, a town of Tranfylvania; 7 miles N.
of Schefburg.

TEFEN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 28
miles S.W. of Amafieh.

TEFESSAD, or Tressap, a town of Algiers, whofe
ruins extend along the coaft of the Mediterranean near a
league, fuppofed to have been the ancient Tipafa; 32
miles S.S.W. of Algiers. N. lat. 36° 32! E. long.
2° 54.

TEFETHNE, or Terrane, a town of Morocco, on
the coaft; 60 miles W. of Morocco.—Alfo, a river of
Morocco, which runs into the fea near Mogodor.

TEFFEREG, a town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg ;
1 mile S. of Windifch Matray.

TEFLIS, atownof Afia, capital of the principality of
Georgia, and fee of a bifhop, founded, according to an old
infcription in the citadel, by a certain prince Sarang, A.D.
1063, is fituated on the N. W. fide of the great plain of Kara-
joes, at the foot of a hill, occupying both banks of the
river Kur, over which is a bridge. © This city is furrounded
with itrong walls, except towards the river ; and has a large
fortrefs at the declivity of the mountain, which contains a
garrifon, and is often made ufe of as a place of refuge for
criminals and debtors. All the houfes are of ftone, with
flat roofs, which ferve, according to the cuftom of the Eaft,
as walks for the women. The buildings are neat and clean ;
but the ftreets are exceedingly dirty and narrow. The town
contains one Roman Catholic, thirteen Greek, and feven Ar-
menian churches. Near it are fome warm {prings, and hence
it is called Theleftokar, or Warm town. In the year 1386,
this town was taken by Tamerlane, and the king of Geor-
gia made prifoner. In 1723 it was taken by the Turks;
and in 1734 retaken by Kouli Khan. Before it was taken
by Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1797, it contained 4000 houfes,
and 22,000 inhabitants. ithough moft of the houfes,
which are neatly built, are now ftanding, the population
does not exceed 15,000 fouls. It was for many years the
refidenée of prince Heraclius, and is at prefent that of the
Ruffian governor and commander-in-chief, who has at all
times a large force itationed in the city, to the difguft of the
inhabitants, who fhudder at the thoughts of their wives and
daughters being conftantly expofed to the view and impor-
tunities of ftrangers. ° This circumftance tends to render the
Ruffian name detefted by the Georgians : 100 miles N.N.E.
of Erivan. N. lat. 42° 45!. ‘ E. long. 45° 20!

TEFTERDAR, the name of an officer of dignity in the
Eaftern nations. In Egypt he is lord high treaiurer of the
tribute paid out of the lands to the grand fignior. He is —

or

TEG

for a year by the Porte, but is generally continued in his
office many years.. This office is fometimes given to one of
the poorer beys, to help him to fupport his dignity ; and fre-
quently to a quiet one, who is not likely to enter into in-
trigues. For one party never cares that a ftirring man of
the oppofite party fhould be invefted with an office of this
dignity. See Derrarpar.

TEFUT, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country
of Darah, formerly the capital of the ancient kings of
Darah, now gone to decay.

TEFZA, a town of Morocco, built by the Arabians
on the fide of a mountain: the furrounding walls are com-
pofed of blocks of marble; 70 miles N.E. of Morocco.
N. lat. 31° 40!.

TEFZRA, a town of Algiers; 15 miles S. of Tre-
mecen.

TEG, a term ufed in fome parts of the kingdom by the
farmers, to exprefs alamb of a year old. Among fport{men
it denotes a roe of two years old. When a flock of ewes
and lambs are turned into a turnip-field, the young lambs
of three weeks old will immediately fall to eating the turnips,
and {coop them very prettily ; but thefe tegs will not touch
them for feveral days. They ufually ftay till almoft ftarved
to death before they begin, but when they have begun, they
foon grow fat.

In the Romney Marth fyftem of management, both the
ewe and the wether tegs are kept upon the upland grafs
farms during the winter feafon, by which advantages are

ained in various ways. They are by this means enabled to
a more ewes and fattening fheep on their marfh-lands,
and to have the tegs when the paftures require them. See
SHEEP.

TEGADOO Bay, in Geo raphy, a bay on the eaft coaft
of the moft northern iflands of ew Zealand, difcovered by
captain, then lieutenant Cook, in 1769. S. lat. 38° 101.
W. long. 181° 14/.

TEGEA, Jims, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, mentioned by Hirtius, fituated S.W. of Leptis.

TEGANAN, an ifland of the Mediterranean, in the
vicinity of that of Rhodes.

TEGAPATAM, in Geography. See Forr St. David.

TEGAREE, a town of Bengal; 11 miles N. of
Kifhenagur.

TEGAZA, a town of Africa, capital of a diftrié in
Zenhaga ; near it is a falt-mine, about 300 miles from the
Atlantic, and 400 S. of Cape Non. N,. lat. 22° 20’.

TEGE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
between the two Syrtes. Ptol.

TEGEA, a town in the S.E. part of Arcadia, ata
fmall diftance from the Argolide ; and placed by M. D’An-
ville on the {cite of the modern Moklia. In this place was a
famous temple of Minerva Alea, in which was a ftatue of
the goddefs, which was removed to Rome by Auguttus.
This temple contained a number of other curiofities; and the
priefthood in it was exercifed by a young female under fifteen
years of age. Near this temple was a ftadium, in which
were celebrated games in honour of Minerva, and others in
memory of a victory gained over the Lacedemonians. The
public place was ornamented with ftatues, and particularly
one of Mars Gynecothoene, (yvyxo%,) fculptured upon
acolumn, The epithet ferved to maintain the remembrance
of a viétory obtained by the valour of the females of Tegea.
At a {mall diftance from the public place was a magnificent
theatre, encompafled with bronze ftatues, This city fuffered
much in the wars which raged in Arcadia in the time of the
Achzan league. Paufanias fays that here was a temple of
Yenus Urania, near that which was dedicated to Ceres

TEG

and Proferpine. The Tegeates were a valiant people.
Herodotus (I. i. c. 61.) mentions them with commendation.
The Lacedemonians ravaged the territory of Tegea, and
at length obtained a fuperiority over its inhabitants.

Tecea, atown of the ifle of Crete, faid to have been
inhabited by Agamemnon.—Alfo, a town of Macedonia.

TEGEHET, or Tececixr, in Geography, a town of
Africa; 120 miles $.S.W. of Fez.

TEGEL, Enric, in Biography, a Swedifh hiftorian, and
principal fecretary to Eric XIV. His father, having in-
curred the juft refentment of Eric, as the caufe of the mif-
fortunes that occurred during his reign, was apprehended by

Charles, duke of Sudermania the brother of Eric, and —

put to death at Stockholm in 1568. Charles, however,
took the fon under his prote¢tion, and fent him to Germany
for improvement ; and when he had vifited Spain and Poland,
appointed him his fecretary. In 1614 he was nominated by
Guftavus Adolphus hiftoriographer of the kingdom, and in
1617 a privy-counfellor. e died at Stockholm in 1636,
and left feveral works, of which the following were printed
in Swedifh: viz. “ The Hiftory of Guftavus I. in two
Parts.”? Stockholm, 1622, fol. ‘“* The Hiftory of Eric XIV.
with Stiernman’s Remarks ;’? 16-1721, 4to.
TEGENUM, or TecIanum, in Ancient Geography, a

town of Lucania.

TEGERHY, or Teicarea, in Geography, a town of ~

Africa, in the country of Fezzan ; 80 miles S.W. of Mour-
zouk. It is a {mall town, and colleés from its lands little
produee befides Yates and Indian corn. N. lat. 26° 17/.
E. long. 15° 5!.

TEGERN, a town of Bavaria, on a lake called the
Tegern See, anciently Lacus Tigurinus. Here is a cele-
brated abbey, founded by Albert and Ockar, two Bavarian
princes ; 28 miles $.S.E. of Munich. :

TEGESSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
ifland of Cyprus.

TEGEWSE, in Geography, a town of Africa, near
the lake of Marks, anciently called Tichafa; 38 miles
S.S.W. of Gafsa.

TEGHURI, a large river of Mingrelia, which rifes be-
tween the Alani and Soanni hills, and difembogues into the
Phafis, 10 verits above the Schariftkali.

TEGIANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Campania, according to Cluvier ; though rs affign it
to Lucania, and call it Tegenum '

TEGIUM, a town of Afia Minor, in the i

TEGLA, in Geography. See TuGGALA.

TEGLIO, a town of Italy, in the Valteline, fituated
upon the top of a mountain, is a long ftraggling place, con-
taining about 300 houfes, about 9 miles from Tirano, and
12 from Sondrio. Clofe to the town are the ruins of a
fortrefs, itanding upon an infulated rock, and formerly
efteemed of great ftrength. This elevated {pot com-
mands a rich and extenfive profpec&t from Tirano to the
lower part of the valley, beyond Sondrio, as far as Mor-
begno. The government of Teglio is faid to contain the

r2th part of the Valteline ; it is the moft populous diftriG, _

and contains about 8000 fouls. In a good feafon, it pro-
duces much more corn than is fufficient for the confumption
of the inhabitants, and rivals Sondria and Tirano in the
goodnefs of its wine.

TEGNA, in Ancient Geagraphy, a town of Gaul, on the ©

banks of the Rhone, not far from Valentia, to the north;

the modern Tein,
TEGOMA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the comniay
of Afoudan; 50 miles S, of Agades. N. lat. 19° 10/.

E. long. 12° 20.
TEGO.

SOny.%

ff H

TEGORARIN, a townof Africa, in Biledulgerid ; 70
miles N.N.W. of Gardeiah.
TEGUCO, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Culiacan ; 40 miles N. of Culiacan.
TEGUIXIN, in Zoology, a {pecies of lizard; which
fee.
“TEGULA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Sardinia, on
the route from Sulci to Nora. Anton. Itin.
TEGULET, in Geography, a town of Abyffinia; 180
miles S. of Gondar. N. lat. 9° 54!. E. long. 38° 35/.
TEGUMENT. Sce Inrecument,
TEGYRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
Betica.
TEHAE’, in Geography, a town of Curdiftan ; 30 miles
E. of Amadieh.
TEHAMA, a fandy belt which encampaffes the penin-
fulaof Arabia, beginning at Suez, and terminating at the
mouth of the Euphrates. It is of various breadth ; for the
moft part about two days’ journey from the fea-fhore to the
rife of the hills ; or at leaft this is the breadth of the plain
adjacent to the Red fea. It bears every mark of having
been anciently a part of the bed of the fea. Its bottom foil
is a greyith clay, with a large proportion of fand, and having
marine exuviz interfperfed to a great diftance from the fea-
fhore. It contains large ftrata of falt, which in fome places
rife up to hills. Its regular inclination towards the fea indi-
éates that it has emerged gradually. The {mall eminences
on the confines of this plain are compofed of calcareous
ftones, with a blackifh appearance, as if they had been burnt
by the fun. The adjoining hills contain fchiftus and bafaltes.
The fea, it is thought, {till continues to recede, and. the
Tehama on that fide is' gradually extending its limits. Hif-
tory confirms thefe appearances of the gradual receffion of
the waters ; and mentions, as fea-ports, Feefal places which
are at prefent inland, without noticing the prefent maritime
towns, which muft have been of later origin than the
formatian of the land on which they ftand. ‘Thefe newly-
formed lands, however, are barren and unfruitful.
TEHRAUN, one of the five large diftrits of the pro-

‘vince of Irak, in the Perfian empire: the other four being

ifpahan, Naen, Mullayer, and Kermanfhaw. Tehraun is alfo
the name of the prefent capital of Perfia, which is rendered in-
terefting by the furrounding fcenery. To the S.are the exten-
five ruins of the grand and once proud city of Rae ; to the E.
the mountainsof Elburz (famed in the Perfian traditions as the
abode of demons) ; to the N. the fnow-clad fummit of the
lofty Dumavend ; and to the W. a plain enriched with cul-
tivation and villages, and forming a delightful contraft with
the rugged and ftupendous rocks which fkirt it on the N.
and §. Tehraun is about four miles in circumference, fur-
rounded by a ftrong wall, flanked by innumerable towers,
and a noble dry ditch, with a glacis between it and the wall.
The only building of confequence within the city is the
citadel, which contains the palace of the fovereign and his
officers. It was founded by Kurim Khan, enlarged by the
late king, and beautified by the prefent fovereign. The forti-
fications can be confidered as formidable only in a country
where the military art is unknown. The population is va-

' riable, being in fummer about 10,000, and in winter not

lefs than 60,000 people. The environs of ‘Tehraun are not
unpleafant ; the plain, to the E. and W., sae covered
with villages, and abounding in grain. On the - fide the
king has completed a palace, which, from its fituation, and
the fine gardens that furround it, is a moft delightful refi-
dence. There are many reafons which have probably in-
duced the late king to fix upon Tehraun as the capital of his
dominions. Its centrical fituation, and the eafy defence

VoL, XXXV.

TE’.

which it affords to the Perfian empire ; the fertility and pro-
dudtivenefs of the furrounding country; the number of
wandering tribes that have fettled round it, and that may be
eafily and foon affembled ; and above all, perhaps, its pro-
pinguity to ~Aftrabad, the native city of Aga Mahomed
Khan, and alfo to Mazanderan and Daheftan, countries pol-
feffed by the Kajer tribe, of which he was the chief, and
on whofe power and affe€tion to his perfon his authority was
in a great meafure founded ;—all thefe confiderations might
have induced him. to make this city the capital of the em-
pire. N. lat. 35° go’. E. long. 50° 52!.

TEHROOT, or ZEHEROOT, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman,. furrounded by numerous gardens; 8
miles N.W. by W. from Subziftan, and about 52 miles
from the ruins of Bumm.

TEHUACAN, or. Txcuacay, a pleafant town of New
Spain, between Oaxaca and Orizava. It is fituated in a delight-
ful vale, near a river of the fame name, called alfo Rio Grande,
of a nitrous quality, and fo petrifying a nature, that the
fhores refemble ruinous walls. It has four churches ; and
the ftreets, {quares, and houfes are neat and modern. “he
chief market is that of wheat, which is excellent, and the
pomegranates are highly efteemed. Befides numerous fami-
lies of Spaniards and Mulattoes, here are about 2080 In-
dians. In the vicinity of this town are two wheat-harvetts,
one in May, the other in September.

TEHUELS, a large lake of South America, towards
the S. of Chili.

TEHUKHA, a town of Thibet; 4 miles S. of
Jhanfu Jeung.

TEICHOPQUS, +rauyorows, among the Athenians, an
officer who had the‘care of the city walls ; their number was
the fame with that of the tribes, every tribe having -the
choice of one.

TEIGN, in Geography, a river of England, in the county
of Devon, which runs into the Englifh Channel at Teign-
moath. -

TEIGNMOUTH, a market-town in the hundred of
Exmintter, and county of Devon, England, is fituated, as
its name imports, at the mouth of the river Teign, and is
fheltered on the eaft and north-eaft by a chain of Bills, near
the foot o£ which it ftands. It is diftant from Exeter 12
miles S. by E., and from London 187 W.S.W. <A {mall
rivulet divides the town into two parts or parifhes, called
Welt and Eait Teignmouth. The town is recorded to have
beer burnt in the tenth century by the Danes, who, having
landed here, and defeated the king’s lieutenant, ravaged the
country to a confiderable extent. It was alfo nearly con-
fumed in the reign of queen Anne, when the French landed
and fet fire to it: one of the new ftreets, ere&ted with the
money procured by a brief for the diftreffed inhabitants,
was named French-ftreet, as a memorial of the calamity.
Since that period the town has become of much greater im-
portance, and is now one of the moft fafhionable watering-
places in the weftern part of England. The principal re-
fort of company is Eaft Teignmouth, where the public
rooms and theatre are fituated: the former, a neat building,
contains tea, coffee, aflembly, and billiard-rooms ; the theatre .
has been recently built on a fpot of ground given by lord
Courtenay, and was firft opened in the fummer of 1802. A
walk or promenade leads from the public rooms towards the
fouth, over an extentive flat called the Dan, on which is a
{mall fort ereéted for the defence of the town. The view
hence, up the river, is extremely beautiful; the ground
gradually rifing on each fide into verdant hills, well culti-
vated, and adorned with woods. The cliffs overhanging the
fea have afingular appearance, being, with the exception of

Dd a few

TEI

a few broad patches of verdure, of a deep red colour, and
mount in rude irregular fhapes to the height of feventy or
eighty feet. Near the centre of Weft Teignmouth is the
church, a very ancient ftone fabric, built in the form of a
crofs: the roof is fupported in a fingular manner by the
ramifications of a wooden pillar, that was formed from the
trunk of a fingle tree. LEaft Teignmouth church is a vene-
rable pile near the beach, and, from the appearance of
its architeCture, was probably one of the earlieft ftructures
ereéted after the coming of the Normans. The trade of
Teignmouth confifts chiefly of commercial intercourfe
with Newfoundland ; the exportation of clay, and the
importation of coal; and is carried on principally in craft
built at the place, where are conveniences for launching vef-
fels of a hundred tons. The clay exported is brought from
Bovey, for the moft part by a canal; and dug on the eftate
of James Templar, efq., who, with true patriotifm, is em-
ployed indefatigably in promoting the folid interefts of his
country, by improving agriculture, and encouraging manu-
faGtures. Weft Teignmouth had anciently a chartered mar-
ket, held on Sundays ; but this was difcontinued by order
of the fheriff in the reign of Henry III. The market
is now held on Saturdays. Salmon, trout, whiting, mac-
karel, and various other kinds of fifh, are taken here ; and
by fome excellent local regulations, the inhabitants have the
privilege of fupplying themfelves before any can be fold to
the dealers. The lord of the manor holds a court-baron,
or court-leet, in the town once every year: at which court a
jury is nominated, two conftables deputed and fworn, and a
portreve chofen, who is invefted with confiderable authority.
In the population return of the year 1811, Weft Teign-
mouth was ftated to contain 441 houfes; Eaft Teignmouth,
188; the inhabitants of the former being 2080; of the
latter 813: making an aggregate of 2893 perfons, occupy-
ing 629 houfes.

Nearly oppofite Teignmouth, and almoft under the pro-
montory called the Nefs, isthe hamlet of Shaldon, the pro-
perty of lord Clifford, which has lately become a favourite
fummer refidence for many families who vifit the watering
places on this coaft. The chapel, ereéted about the year
1670, ftands in a beautiful fituation, a little above the
Teign, about three quarters of a mile from the hamlet, and
is approached by a level walk fhaded with luxuriant trees.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. Devonfhire. By
J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1803. Warner’s Walk
through the Weftern Counties, 1800.

TEIJEUT, a town of Morocco; 15 miles S.E. of Mo-
godor.

TEIL, a river of France, which runs into the Atlantic,
N. lat. 47° 39’. W. long. 3° 8'.

git, Le, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardeche, on the Rhone; 12 miles S. of Privas.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ;
15 miles S.E. of Rennes.

TEILLEUL, Le, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Channel; 6 miles S. of Mortain.

TEIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen;
6 miles N.E. of Tachau.

Trin, or Teyn, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin ; 4 miles S. of Bechin.

TEINITZ, a town of Bohemia, inthe circle of Pilfen ;
26 miles S.W. of Pilfen. N. lat. 49° 30’. E. long. 12°

7'.—Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn; 27
miles §.S.E. of Brunn.

Teinitz Jungfern, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan; 8 miles W. of Schlan. ;

TEINTS, and Semi-Teints, in Painting, denote the fe-

I

TEI

veral colours ufed in a picture, confidered as more or lefs
high, or bright, or deep, or thin, or weakened, and dimi-
nifhcd, &c. to give the proper relievo, or foftnefs, or dif-
tance, to the feveral objets. See Corourine.

The word is pure French, where it fignifies the fame.

TEIRCE, or Terns. See Trerce.

TEISBACH, in Caiaranite a town of Bavaria, on the
Ifer; 1 mile W. of Dingeltingen. ;

TEISENDORF, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz-
burg ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Salzburg.

TEISKO, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland; 45 miles
N.N.W. of Tavaithus.

TEISSIER, Anruony, in Biography, a voluminous
French writer, was born at Montpellier in the year 1632.
Having ftudied Greek and philofophy at Orange, and being
deftined for the miniftry among the Calvinifts, he applied
to Hebrew and theology at Nifmes; and after {pending
fome time in the academy at Montauban, he removed to that
of Saumur. From thence he went to Paris, where he cul-
tivated an acquaintance with feveral learned men; but
giving up his defigns for the miniftry, on account of a dif-
order under which he laboured, he turned his thoughts to
jurifprudence, and took the degree of LL.D. at Bruges.
In 1683 he married ; but upon the revocation of the edi& of
Nantes, he was obliged to quit France. He then retired
with his wife to Switzerland, and was recommended by
Turretin and Heidegger to the family of Efcher, a burgo-
mafter of Zurich. Declining to accept advantageous offers
if he returned to France, he engaged with the fenators of
Berne for two years in conducting a French gazette in that
city.
from thence he proceeded to Brandenburgh, where refugees
enjoyed common privileges with thofe of the natives of the
country. At Berlin, the elector appointed him hiftoriogra-
pher, with an annual penfion of 300 crowns, which was fue-
ceflively augmented. He was alfo honoured with the title
of counfellor of legation, and ordered by the elector to tranf-
late into French the life of his father, Frederic William,
written in Latin -by Puffendorf. For this fervice he was
liberally rewarded, though his tranflation was never printed.
He was afterwards employed in compofing many works for
the inftruétion of the prince royal ; and though his confti-
tution was delicate, he enjoyed good health till his death,
which happened in 1715, in the eighty-fourth year of his
age. It would exceed our limits to enumerate all his works ;
an ample account of them may be found in the General
Biography.

TEI-TCHANG, in Geography, a town of Corea; 13
miles N.N.E. of Haimen.

TEITEL, in Ornithology, the name of a Brafilian bird, a
{pecies of tanagra, in the Linnean fyftem, called alfo gui-
ranheemegeta, and guraundi.

It is of the fize of our red-breaft, and beautifully co-
loured.

It fings ae fweetly, and is kept in cages, five or fix to-
gether in the fame cage, Maregrave’s Hitt. of Brafil.

TEITH, in Geography, a river of Scotland, formed by
ftreams from feveral lakes, in the county of Perth, which
runs into the Forth, two miles above Stirling.

TEJUCO, the capital of the Diamond diftri@ in Brafil,
fituated in a ravine at the foot of a mountain. Tejuco is
feparated by the fmall rivulet of St. Francifco from the op-
pofite mountains. The greateft of the diamond works, called
Mandanga, is fituated on the river Izgitanhanha, and employs
about 1000 negroes, fometimes double this number. This
rich river, formed by the junétion of feveral ftreams, is as
wide as the Thames at Windfor, and in general from three

to

In 1691 he quitted Berne and went to Zurich ; and-

“i.

TEL

to nine feet deep. The part now working is a eurve or elbow,
from which the current is diverted into a canal cut acrofs
the tongue of land round which it winds ; the river being
ftopped below the head of the canal by an embankment
formed of feveral thoufand bags of fand. The deeper parts
of the channel of the river are laid dry by large caiffons, or
chain-pumps, worked by a water-wheel. The mud is then
carried off, and the cafcalhao is dug up and removed to a con-
venient place for wafhing by machinery adapted to this pur-
pofe. The contrivance for obtaining the diamonds from the
cafcalhao is particularly defcribed by Mr. Mawe, ubi infra.
‘Tejuco is fituated in a fterile diftri&, which produces no-
thing for the maintenance of its inhabitants, whofe number
is about 6000; and therefore depends for a fupply of provi-
fions, on farms fituated at the diftance of feveral leagues.
Neverthelefs, Tejuco may be called flourifhing, on account
of the circulation of property created by the diamond-works
in its vicinity. ‘The annual fum paid by government for the
hire of negroes, falaries of officers, and various neceflaries,
fuch as nitre and iron, does not amount to lefs than 35,000/.
and this, added to the demands of the inhabitants of the
town and its neighbourhood, occafions a confiderable trade.
The fhops are itocked with Englifh cottons, baizes, and
cloths, and other manufa&tured goods ; alfo hams, cheefe,
butter, porter, and other articles of confumption, which
are brought on mules from Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. Te-
juco, from its fituation on the fide of a hill, is very irregu-
larly built; its ftreets are uneven, but the houfes in general
are well conftruéted, and in good condition, compared
with thofe of other towns in the interior. Its name, fig-
nifying in the Portuguefe language a muddy place, is de-
rived from places of that defcription near it, which are ren-
dered paffable by being covered with large pieces of wood.
‘The diamonds are locked in the treafury under three locks ;
and thofe found in the diftri€t are depofited every month, as
they are received from the works ; they are carefully weighed,
and fome of them feleéted and kept feparate. ‘The average
quantity obtained may be eftimated at from 20,000 to 25,000
earats annually, which are fent under a military efcort to
Rio, and there lodged in the treafury. The diamonds are
tied up in black filk bags, and depofited in elegant inner ca-
binets, all which are locked up in {trong chefts, bound with
iron. Tejuco affords fome good barley, but grafs for cattle
is {carce and dear. Molt parts of the country abound in
oranges, pines, peaches, guavas, and a great variety of in-
digenous fruits: ginger and pepper grow {fpontaneoufly,
and many {pices might probably be cultivated with fuccefs.
Mawe’s Travels in the Interior of Brazil, 1812.

TEJUGUACU, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of
lizard, common in the Brazils, and called alfo semapara.

It much refembles the iguana in its general figure, but
differs from it in that its whole body is black, only variegated
with fome white fpots. It lives principally on the fucking
of eggs, but it is capable of bearing hunger a long time ;
Marcgrave having kept one alive feven months without eat-
ing. This fpecies afforded alfo a certain teftimony to that
author of the reproduétion of the tail when cut off. Ray.

TEIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
fituated on the Euxine fea, on the frontiers of Paphlago-
nia, near the {mall river Billis, 370 ftadia from the town of
Heraclea. It was a Greek Ionian colony, which derived its
name and its origin from Tis, a Milefian prieft, according to
Arrian and Mela. The worfhip of Jupiter named Patarus
was praétifed in this town, according to Demofthenes. On
the E. the territory of this town was bounded by the river
Parthenius. The town was much augmented when the em-
pire of the Perfians was deftroyed.

TEL

TEIUNHANA,, in Zoology, the name of a {mall American
lizard. Itis about the thicknefs of one’s little finger, and has
a fharp nofe. Its tail is very flender, fix fingers breadth long,
and terminates in a point almoft as fharp asa needle. Its
head is covered with fcales ; and its back, fides, and legs,
with a tender fkin, as foft as fatin to the touch ; and its tail
ie covered with extremely minute feales, of a fquare figure.

ay.

TEKAT, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia ;_ ro miles N. of Kiangari.

TEKEBI, a town of Egypt; 22 miles W.S.W. of
Damietta,

TEKEH, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 40 miles S.E.
of Trebifond.

TEKEREE, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeifh ; 14
miles E. of Barrawnay.

TEKIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
100 miles W. of Tocat.

TE-KING, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-tong, near the river Si; 1064 miles S.S.W. of
Peking. N. lat. 23° 12!. E. long. 111°.—Alfo, acity of
China, of the fecond rank, in Quang-tong ; 1065 miles S. of
Peking. N. lat. 23° 12. E. long. 110° 50’.

TEKKIUR DAG, a mountain of European Turkey,
in Romania; 32 miles S.S.E. of Adrianople.

TEKLA, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim ;
6 miles S.W. of Leutmifchl.

TEKMABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan ; 70 miles E.N.E. of Boft.

TEKOA, a village, and anciently a city of Paleftine,
built by Rehoboam, king of Judah, and confiderable ruins
appear of its ancient grandeur. It was the native place of
the prophet Amos; g miles S. of Bethlehem.

TEKOLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 53 miles
S.S.W. of Patna.

TEKUPHA, or Tuexupua, in the Jewi/h Chronology,
are the times in which the fun proceeds from one cardinal
point to the next.

The fame term is alfo applied to the moment in which the
fun enters a cardinal point: thefe four terms, or tekuphz,
into which the Jews divided their folar year, are obferved
among the Jews with a great deal of ceremony ; the reafon,
as we are informed by Muntter, is this :

That people have a notion, that in each tekupha the fun
has a feparate angel appointed to guard and direé it ; and
that in the very point where the fun finifhes one tekupha, and
enters upon another, before the one direétor has taken
place of the other, the devils have a power to exercife all
kinds of tyranny in the water.

And hence, they fancy, that if any body drinks the
{malleft quantity of water at that time, he will infallibly
have a dropfy, or fome other grievous diftemper.

The tekupha of 'Tifri correfponded to the autumnal equi-
nox, that of Tebeth to the winter folftice, that of Nifan
to the vernal equinox, and that of Tamuz to the fummer
folftice

TEKY Sounn, in Geography, a road on the coait of
Georgia, fouth of the Savannah river, where a large fleet
may anchor in ten or fourteen fathoms, and have fafe en-
trance over the bar of the river; the flood tide generally
feven feet.

TEL AresiAs, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on the Eu-
phrates ; 5 miles W.N.W of Diarbekir. °

Tet Gizir, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Diarbekir ; 16 miles W. of Merdin.

Tex Kiaran, a town of Afiatic Turkey ; 30 miles S.S.W.
of Diarbekir.

Ddz Trev

PEL

Tet Mufet, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment of Diarbekir; 33 miles N.W. of Moful.

Tex el Judich, atown of Egypt, where the Jews had for-
merly a temple, deftroyed by Vefpafian ; 17 miles N.E. of
Cairo.

TELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, on the
route from Avturica to Saragofla, between Intercatia and
Pintia. Anton. Itin.

Teva, or Conflantia, a place of Afia, in Mefopotamia,
near the mountains, about N. lat. 37° 25.

Tera Cellulofa, in Anatomy, the CELLULAR Subjtance ;
which fee. It is fometimes alfo called tela mucofa.

TELACH, in Geography, an ifland of Rouflia, in the
Penzinfkoi fea. N. lat. 61°35’. E. long. 159° 14'.

TELAMON, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Italy, in Etruria, at the foot of which was a port, between
the rivers Almina and Alma. (Anton. Itin.) Pliny calls
this port Telamon.

TELAMONE, in Geography, a town of the Stato del
Prefidii, on the coaft; 10 miles N. of Orbitello. N. lat.
42° 38!. E. long. 11° 6!

TELAMONES, a name given by the Romans to what
the Greeks called Atlantes ; viz. the figures of men iup-
porting entablatures, and other projectures. See ATLAS.

The word, according to fome, is derived from the Greek
TED IAWYy from t:Auw, OF TAc%y IT bear.

Among the Greeks they were called atlantes, arAnvtss,
which comes from the fame word, taAcw, or sAxw, by the
figure metathefis. ;

Tevamones is alfo ufed by furgical writers fometimes
for lint, and fometimes for the fillets or bandages which
they apply over their dreffings.

TELANA, in Ancient Geography, a very ancient town
of Afia, in Affyria. Steph. Byz. fays that the king made
it the place. of his refidence before Nineveh was built.

TELANADING Isranps, in Geography, three {mall
iflands lying eaft and weft, near the N.W. coaft of the ifland
of Gilolo. N. lat. 2° 18/. E. long. 127° 30!

TELANDRIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland on the
coaft of Lycia, in Afia Minor. Pliny.

TTELANDRUS, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia.
Pliny.

TELAPSAR, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in the province fs jarbekir; 20 miles W. of
Modful.

TELARUSE, a river of Afia, which forms the north
boundary of the kingdom of Queda, feparating it from
Lower Siam, and runs into the Eaft Indian fea, N, lat.
Rise E. long. 99° 42’.

ELAUGIA, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a genus
of {crupi, of a glittering appearance, ufually containing
bake of -talc, and emulating the ftructure of the granites.
Hill.

Of this genus we have twelve {pecies.
TELCHINES, in Ancient Geography, a people who de-

rived their origin fromthe ifle of Crete. They eftablifhed
themfelves in aesieuas and in Rhodes, where it is faid they in-
vented the ufe of iron and brafs.

TELCOOTE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oriffa ; 20 miles S.E. of Jaypour.

TELDOM Horovn, a town of Chinefe Tartary, on the
weit fide of the river Saghalien ; 745 miles N.E. of Peking.
N. lat. 49° 56'. E. long. 127° 33’.

TELE, 7A», among the Athenians, thofe revenues that
were brought in by lands, mines, woods, and other public
poffeffions, fet apart for the ufe of the commonwealth ; as

TEL

-~
alfo tributes paid by fojourners and freed-fervants, and the
cuftoms laid upon certain trades and goods.

TELEBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albania, be-
tween the mouth of Soana and that of Garrus. Ptol.

TELEBOAS, a river of Afia, in the environs of the
fources of the Tigris ; furrounded, 2s Xenophon fays, by «

reat number of villages.

TELEGRAPH, a machine adapted for communicating -
intelligence at a confiderable diftance, by making various
fignals, which have been previoufly agreed upon between two
parties, to reprefent letters, words, or fdeas. The means of
making fignals that are ufed in naval and military oper-
ations, are not called telegraphs, although they effe& in a
great degree the fame obje&t. See Srenat.

The word telegraph, which is derived from two Greek
words, re, at a diftance, and yex?w, to write, wasbrought into
ufe about 1793 or 1794, when the French directory eftablithed
machines of this kind for communicating intelligence between
Paris and all the principal towns in feces The Britifh
government foon after adopted the fame meafure, and it has
fince become very general. :

No machine for making fignals can with propriety be
called a telegraph, unlefs it is adapted to exprefs a fufficient
number of letters or words to form a complete language,
and which can therefore be made to communicate any inform-
ation which can be expreffed by oral or written language,
Lefs perfe&t fyftems of fignals, which extend only fo far as
to communicate intelligence of events which have been
forefeen, and the appropriate fignals previoufly arranged,
are {till called fignal flags, fignal lanthorns, fignal guns, or
fires, &c.

When people wifh to tranfmit intelligence to others at 2
diftance, in a quicker manner than by letters fent by mef-
fengers or carrier-pigeons, it can be done only by fignals.
Thefe may be employed in three different ways: either by
fingle a which, according to previous agreement, con-
vey whole ideas ; or by feveral fucceffive fignals, which, by
reprefenting letters and words, anfwer the fame purpofe ; or
otherwife, by employing fignals which exprefs numbers, each
perfon being provided with a di@ionary in which every
word has a number affixed to it.

The firft kind of fignals were employed in the earlieft
periods, and fome of them were fuited to the ear as well as to
the eye. For the making of vifible fignals, the ancientsemploy-
ed fire and {moke, torches, flags, &c.; and in modern times,
fky-rockets have been ufed. For the audible fignals, they
employed drums and trumpets; and fince the invention of

unpowder, the nate of cannon has been applied’ to the

ike ufe. But all thefe methods are incapable of expreffin
what could be communicated by f{peech and writing ; an
the means of expreffing all the poffible variations and com-
binations of the letters of the alphabet, form, in a proper
fenfe, the true telegraphic art. Even the fignals commonly
ufed at fea, as they extend only to particular circumftances,
are, when compared to fignals by letters, only a kind of
hieroglyphics. ;

The propofed object of the telegraphic art is, therefore, to
obtain a figurative language, the died of which may be
diftinguifhed at a diftance. On the firft reflection, we find that
the practicable modes of fuch diftant communications muft be
confined to found and vifion; each of whichis in a great
fubjeét to the ftate of the atmofphere : for independent of the
wind’s dire¢tion, it is known that the air is fometimes fo far
deprived of its elafticity, or fome other quality that in-
fluences the conveyance of founds, that the heavieft ordnance
can fcarcely be heard farther than the fhot flies. It is alfo
well known, that in thick hazy weather, the largeft and

moft

a

TELEGRAPH.

moft defined objets become totally obfcured at a fhort
diftance. No initrument, therefore, defigned for the purpofe
ean be perfe&. We can only endeavour. to diminifh thefe
irremediable defe&ts as much as may be.

The moft barbarous nations employed fignals, which
could quickly inform them of the approach oF enemies, as
appears by the teftimony of feveral ancient authors; and
there is reafon to believe that fome fort of telegraphic com-
munication was in ufe among the Greeks. The deftruc-
tion of Troy was certainly known in Greece very foon after
it took place, and before any perfon could have returned
fromit. A Greek play begins with a fcene, in which a
watchman defcends from the top of a tower in Greece, and
gives information that Troy is taken. ‘I have been look-
ing out thefe ten years (fays he) to fee when that. would
happen, and this night it has been done.”

In addition to the Stenterophonic tube which was known
and ufed by Alexander the Great, the Romans had a method,
in their walled cities, either of forming a hollow in the
mafonry, or of applying tubes to the walls, fo as to confine
or augment found, and convey information to any part of
their works. In lofty houfes and warehoufes, it is now a
common cuftom te have a pipe, by way of {peaking trumpet,
to give orders from the upper apartments to the lower. By
this mode of confining its volume, found may be carried to a
very confiderable diftance ; but beyond a certain extent the
found will lofe all articulation, and only convey alarm, with-
out giving direCtions.

Every city of the ancients had its watch-towers ; and the
caftfa ftativa of the Romans had always fome fpot, elevated
either by nature or art, from whence fignals were given to
the troops cantoned or foraging in the neighbourhood : but
Wt appears that they had not arrived to any greater refine-
ments in the telegraphic art, than that on feeing a certain
fignal they were immediately to repair to their appointed
itations. Flagsor enfigns, with their various devices, are of
the earlieft invention, efpecially at fea, where, from the firft
idea, which was moft probably that of a vane, to fhew the
dire€tion of the wind, they have been long adopted as the
diftinguifhing marks of nations, and are now fo perfected into
a fyftem of fignals, that every requifite order and queftion is
received and anfwered by the moft diftant fhips of a fleet.

The mode of fignalling in ufe about half a century ago

was very imperfect. It was a good deal amended and fim-
plified by that lamented officer admiral Kempenfelt ; and
his fyftem, as it was called, continued in ufe till within thefe
twenty-five years. It was fuperfeded in the navy by fir
Home Popham’s, who firft brought into praCtical utility a
plan originally, it is believed, fuggefted by Mr. Richard
Gower,,of the Eait India Company’s fervice, in his ** Prac-
tical Seamanfhip,”’ publifhed in 1794. This was the fubfti-
tution of ten or twelve numbered flags, for a great number
of flags. It is furprifing that this eafy fcheme fhould not
fooner have been difcovered and adopted. Inftead of the
immenfe “colour cheft”’ that we and our naval cotempora-
ries can recolleét, and the difficulty of finding and hoifting
the variety of flags required, it is pleafing to witnefs the
facility with which communications can be now made, by
means almoft as eafy of application as the pen.

The /yffem now in ufe, originating, as we have ftated, with
an officer of the Eaft India Company’s fervice, has recently
been greatly improved by another of thefe officers. It is not
eafy to defcribe the nature of thofe improvements; nor
proper, perhaps, were it otherwife; for the direGtors of the
Eaft India Company have deemed it expedient to keep them
fecret. The author of them is captain Thomas Lynn. © His
work was printed in 1814, at the Company’s expence, in a

confiderable quarto volume, under the title of ‘Lynn’s
Improved Syitem of Telegraphic Communication.” It is
adopted throughout the extentive fervice of the Eaft India
Company ; and we are glad to fee it noticed in the preface
to the volume, that the highly re{pectable court of direftors
moft Kberally patronized the work and its author. We do
not find, notwithftanding the manifeft advantage of the
«Improved Syftem,” that it has yet been introduced into
the royal navy ; mapa? every officer in that as well as the
Eaift India Company’s fervice, who have had opportunities of
trying it, are loud in its praife. It adapts itfelf to every
defcription of telegraphic machinery now in ufe; or, as far
as we can fee, that can be ufed: it requires fewer flags than
were heretofore neceflary ; and its powers are vaftly greater
than the other codes or fyitems. This paragraph, and
perhaps this whole page of our di€tionary, can be thus com-
municated, word for word, or phrafe by phrafe, without dif-
ficulty, and with a rapidity unattainable by any f{cheme
hitherto publifhed. The numbers, and powers, and meaning
of the fignals, may be changed at pleafure: fo that if the
work fall into improper hands, it merely communicates the
principle on which the fyftem is founded.

In applying this or a fimilar mode of communicating in-
tellizence in land fervice, feveral obje€tions prefent them-
felves : the variety of communications neceflary to be made
is fo much greater, that the combination would become too
complicated ; and if the perfon for whom the information is
intended, fhould be in the direétion of the wind, the flag
would then prefent a ftraight line only, and at alittle diftance
would be f{earcely vifible. The Romans were fo well aware
of this inconvenience of flags, that many of their ftandards
were folid, and the name manipulus denotes the rudeit of
their enfigns, which wasa trufs of hay fixed on a pole.

A beacon or bonfire, made of the firft inflammable ma-
terials that offered, being the moft obvious, is perhaps the
moft ancient mode of general alarm. By being previoufly
concerted, the number of points where the fires appeared
may have particular intelligence affixed. The fame ob-
fervations may be referred to the more modern plan of throw-
ing up rockets, whofe number, or the places from whence
they are thrown, may have affixed fignifications. Many
of our hills ftill retain the name of beacon hills, from the
fignals which ufed to be made upon them, by means
of fire and fmoke, which were the chief things employed
during the dark ages, and in the times of the feudal fyitem.
The fire was ufed by night, and the fmoke by day. Within a
few years, fignals made by thefe means were very common
amongft the fmugglers on our coatt.

The machinéof7Eneas, who wrote a treatife on the duties
of a general in'the time of Aniftotle, is defcribed by Polybius
to have confifted of two earthen veffels, made exa€tly fimilar
in all their dimenfions : they were to be filled with water, and
each was to have a cock or fpout, which could be opened or
fhut at pleafure, and would, when open, difcharge an equal
quantity of water from both veffels, fo that each of the veffels
would take precifely the fame period of time to difcharge the
whole, or any given proportion, of its contents. A float of
cork was to be provided for each yeffel to reft upon the fur-
face of the water, and fupport a perpendicular {tem or index,
which could be divided, and have certain fentences written to
correfpond with each divifion. The apertures of the fpouts
of the two veffels were to be previoufly adjufted, and the
veffels filled with water to the fame height, fo that their
floats and indices would correfpond in pointing out the fame
fentences: then, if both cocks were opened at the fame in-
ftant, the water would run out from each veffel, and the floats
of both would fubfide together, fo that when either ose

00

TELEGRAPH.

ftood at a particular fentence, the other index would, at the
fame time, point out the fame fentence. Now this operation
could be equally well performed when the ,two veffels were
moved to any diftance afunder, provided the obfervers were
within fight of each other, to be able to make the requifite
fignals for opening and fhutting the cocks of both veffels at
the fame moment. The author thus defcribes the ufe of this
inftrument : The two veflels being prepared and adjutted, they
muft be carried to the two places where the fignals are to
made and obferved ; water is poured into each, and the floats
and indices are put into the veffels. When any of the events
which are written upon the indices fhall happen, a torch or
light is raifed, which mutt be held aloft till fuch time as ano-
ther is raifed by the party to whom it is directed. (This
firft fignal is only to give notice that both parties are ready
and attentive.) Then the torch or other light muft be
taken away, and the cocks fet open inftantly by both parties.
When the interval or divifion on that part of the index where
the event, of which notice is to be given or written, fhall be
fallen to a level with the veffels, then the man who gives the
fignals lifts up his torch, and on the other fide, the corre-
f{pondent fignal maker immediately fhuts the cock of his veffel,
and looks at what is written on that part of the ftick which
touches the mouth of the veffel; on which occafion, if every
thing has been executed exaétly and equally on both fides,
both parties will read the fame thing.

The proper telegraphic art was not wholly unknown to
the ancients. The Greeks and the Romans made ule of pots
filled with lighted twigs and ftraw for fignals, over which
they poured oil; and thefe being placed in certain rows, ex-
preffed certain letters, according to the order in which each
row was lighted.

Polybius defcribes a new method of communication, which
was invented by Cleoxenus, or by Democlitus, and which
Polybius himfelf very much improved. It poffeffes the prin-
cipal advantage of the modern telegraph, viz. that, by means
of fignals, it communicates the letters of the alphabet, and
can therefore be ufed to exprefs any thing which can be
required. It is only inferior to the telegraph in the
means of making the fignals, which is by the light of
torches, and rather complicated, fo that it would be te-
dious to tranfmit any thing. more than fhort fentences.
Polybius defcribes this method, which he calls Pyrfia, in the
following manner: Take the letters of the Greek alphabet,
and divide them into five parts, each of which will confift of
five letters, except the laft divifion, in which there will be only
four. Let thefe be fixed Gna board, in five columns. The man
who is to give the fignals is then to begin by holding up two
torches, which he is to keep aloft till the other party has alfo
fhewn two : this is only to denote that both fides are ready :
thefe torches are then withdrawn. Both parties are pro-
vided with boards, on which the letters are difpofed as for-
merly defcribed. Then the perfon who gives the fignal is
to hold up torches on the left hand, to point out to the
other party, from what column he fhall take the letters as they
are pointed out to him: thus, if the letter is to be from the
firft column, he holds up one torch ; if from the fecond, two ;
and fo on for the others. He is then to hold torches on the
right hand, to denote the particular letter of the column that
is to be taken. All this muft have been agreed on before-
hand. The man who gives the fignals mutt have an inftru-
ment (irre, per/peGive), confifting of two tubes, and fo
placed, that by looking through one of them he can fee only
the right fide, and looking through the other, he can only fee
the left-hand fide of him who is to anfwer. The board mutt
be fet up near this inftrument ; and the ftations on the right
and left muft each be furrounded with a wall ten feet broad,

and about the height of a man, that the torches raifed above
it may give a clear and ftrong fight, and that when taken
down they may be completely concealed.

The iteganographia trithemiana of a Benediétine monk, ia
the fifteenth century, feems to have been fomethiag of the
fame kind ; but the firft recorded experiment, after the man-
ner of the Greeks, is defcribed by Kircher, in his * Ars
magna Lucis et Umbra,” under the title of Cryptogamia
“catoptrica ; it was however imperfect, and could be em-
ployed only at a certain diftance. Schott, in his ** Technica
curiofa,’”’ propofes, after an anonymous author, to ereé& potts
upon an eminence, fo as to be diftinguifhed through a tele-
{cope, and on which proper fignals could be elevated, as might
be neceflary. ;

The marquis of Worcefter, who is fo juftly celebrated for
having firft difcovered that the force of fteam could be
applied to mechanical purpofes, brought telegraphic com-
munication to a confiderable degree of perfetion, if at
leaft we give him credit for having really effected every
thing which he mentions in his Century of Inventions.
This little tra&t was publifhed in 1663, and contains the
following articles.

“No.6. How at a window, as far as eye can difcover
black from white, a man may hold difcourfe with his corre-
{pondent, without noife made, or notice taken, being accord-
ing to occafion given and means afforded, ex re nata, and no
need of provifion before-hand, though much better if forefeen,
and means prepared for it, and a premeditated courfe taken
by mutual confent of parties.

“No. 7. A way to do it by night, as well as bysday,
though as dark as pitch is black.”

The marquis gives us no idea of the means which he ufed
for exhibiting his fignals, by which we can judge of the prac-
ticability of fis plan for communicating any detailed intel-
ligence. ‘

' Mefsler, in his Concealed Arts, advifes charaéters to be cut
‘out in the bottom of a cafk, fo as to appear luminous when

}a light is placed withinfide, and the charaéters muft be
changed fucceffively to exprefs words and fentences. :

Dr. Hooke’s Telegraph.—The firtt idea of a telegraph upon
a fimilar conftruétion to thofe ufed at prefent, was fuggefted
by Dr. Hooke towards the end of the laft century, the
fiege of Vienna by the Turks having turned his attention to
the bufinefs. He gave the firft complete defeription of fuch
a machine, as appears by the following extra, from a paper
of his, read before the Royal Society on the 21ft of May,
1684. ‘I propofed (fays he) fome years fince, a method
of difcourfing at a diftance, not by found but by fight: I
fay that it is poffible to convey intelligence from any one
high and eminent place, to any other that is in fight of it,
though thirty or forty miles diitant, in as fhort a time almoft
as a man can write what he would have fent, ; and as fuddenly
to receive an anfwer, as he that receives it has a mind to re-
turn it, or can write it down on paper. Nay, by the help of
three, four, or more eminent places vifible to each other, lying
in a {traight line, ’tis poflible to convey intelligence almoft in a
moment, to twice, or thrice, or more times that diftance, with
as great a certainty as by writing.

“* For the performance of this, we muft be beholden to
a late invention, which we do not find any of the ancients
knew ; that is, the eye mutt be affilted with telefcopes, that
whatever characters are expofed at one ftation, may be made
plain and diftinguifhable at the other.

“ Firlt: For the ltations, if they be far diftant, it will be
neceffary that they fhould be high, and lie expofed to the
fky ; that there be no higher hill or part of the earth be-
yond them, that may hinder the diftin@tnefs of the charac-

ters,

TELEGRAPH.

ters, which are to appear dark againft the fky, beyond them
appearing white, by which means alfo the vapours near the
ground will be paffed over and avoided. Next, in choofing
thefe ftations, care muft be taken, as near as may be, that
there be no hill that interpofes between them, that is almoft
high enough to touch the vifible ray, becaufe in fuch cafes
the refraction of the air of that hill will be very apt to dif-
turb the clear appearance of the obje€t. The ftations being
found convenient, the next thing to be confidered is, what
telefcopes will be neceflary for each ftation. One of thefe
telefcopes muit be fixed at each extreme ftation, and two of
them in each intermediate ftation; fo that a man for each
glafs, fitting and looking through them, may plainly dif-
cover what is done in the next adjoining ftation, and with
his pen write down on a paper the chara¢ters there expofed,
in their due order; fo that there ought to, be two perfons at
each extreme ftation, and three at each intermediate one, that
intelligence may be conveyed backwards and forwards at the
fame time. Next there mutt be certain times agreed on,
when the correfpondents are to expect it ; or elfe there mutt
be fet at the top of a pole, in the morning, the hour ap-
Lean by either of the correfpondents for acting that
Ys
** Next there muft be convenient apparatus of characters,
confifting of at leaft as many diftinet charaéters as there are
neceflary letters in the alphabet, (to be made ufe of as is ex-
preffed in Plate Telegraph, fig. 1.) And thefe muft be either
day characters or night chara¢ters. If they are to be made
ufe of in the day-time, they may all be made of deals, and
of a fize convenient for the feveral diftances, any one of
which chara¢ters may fignify any one letter of the alphabet,
and the whole alphabet may be varied 10,000 ways, fo that
none but the two extreme correfpondents fhall be able to dif-
cover the information conveyed. If the characters are for
the night, then they may be made with links, or lights dif-
pofed in a certain order, which may be covered or un-
covered, according to the method agreed on. There will be
alfo requifite feveral other chara@ters, which may for expe-
dition exprefs a whole fentence, fuch as ‘ I am ready to
communicate ;? ‘I am ready to obferve.’ I could inftance
a hundred ways of facilitating the method of performing the
defign with the more dexterity and quicknefs, and with little
change, but that I think will be needlefs at prefent, fince,
whenfoever fuch a way of correfpondence fhall be put in
practice, thofe and many more than I can think of at pre-
fent will of themfelves occur, fo that I do not in the leaft
doubt but that with a little practice all things may be made
fo convenient, that the fame charafter may be feen at Paris,
within a minute after it hath been expofed in London; and
that the characters may be expofed fo quick after one ano-
ther, that a compofer fhall not much exceed the expofer in
fwiftnefs, and this not only at the diftance of one ftation,
but of an hundred ; for fuppofing all things ready at all of
thofe feveral ftations for obferving and expofing as faft as the
fecond obferver doth read the chara¢ters of the firft expofer,
the fecond expofer will difplay them to the obferver of the
third ftation, whofe expofer will likewife difplay them for
. the fourth obferver, as faft as his obferver doth name them
to him or write them down. There may be many objections
brought againft this way of communication, becaufe it has
not yet been put in prattice, but hardly any that may not be
eafily anfwered and obviated.”
Dr. Hooke illuftrates his invention thus: Let A BC
( fs. 2.) reprefent three very long maits or poles ereéted, E
the top piece that joins them together, Da fereen, behind
which all the deal-board charaéters hang upon certain rods
or lines, and may, by the help of {mall lines conneéted with

each of them, be expofed at F, or drawn back at D, as
occafion may require.

This propofal of our ingenious countryman is very com-
plete and well ftudied ; it would be lefs convenient and expe-
ditious than the modern telegraphs, but would certainly have
anfwered very ufeful otepoten with the advantage of being
very free from the uncertainties and errors of more complete
machines, which, at the fame time that they admit of mak-
ing a greater variety of figns than the letters of the alphabet,
are for the fame reafon more liable to miftakes in exhibiting
as well as in reading or tranflating them. The only obvious
improvement on Dr. Hooke’s telegraph is, that, inftead of
concealing the charaéters behind the fereen D, they fhould
be kept down below in the houfe on which the machine
is to be erected, and be hoifted up into the frame when they
are to be exhibited.

M. Amontons, an ingenious French academician who ftu-
died mechanics, was born at Paris in 1663, and died in 1705,
at the age of forty-two. He propofed the following method :
Let there be people placed in feveral ftations, and at fuch
a diftance from each other, that by the help of a telefeope, a
man at one ftation may fee 2 fignal made in the next before
him: he muft immediately repeat the fame fignal, that it
may be feen by perfons in the ftation next after him, who
are to communicate it to thofe in the following ftation, and
fo on. Thefe fignals may be as letters of the alphabet, or
as a cipher, underftood only by the two perfons who are in
the diftant places, and not by thofe who make the fignals.
The perfon in the fecond ftation making the fignal to the
perfon in the third the very moment he {ees it in the firft,
the news may be carried to the greateft diftance in as little
time as is neceflary to make the fignals in the firft ftation.
The diftance of the feveral ftations, which muft be as few
as poffible, is meafured by the reach of a telefcope.” M.
Amontons is faid to have tried this method on a {mall traét
of land, before feveral perfons of the higheft rank at the
court of France ; but we are not acquainted with the kind of
apparatus he employed ; all that we know of his method is
precifely the fame as Dr. Hooke’s.

Guyat, a long time after Dr. Hooke, propofed tables,
with letters cut out in them: and Paulian, in his Di€tionnaire
de Phyfique, defcribes a tranfparent figure, confifting of
one perpendicular and three horizontal ftripes, forming ten
compartments, each of which can be rendered vifible or in«
vifible at pleafure,-by blinds or fhutters moveable from
behind.

Mr. Richard Lovell Edgeworth, in a memoir which he
prefented to the Royal Society of Ireland (fee their Tranf-
ations, vol. vi. p. 125.), adduces proof, that in 1767 he tried
an experiment of the practicability of communicating intel-
ligence by a fwift and unfufpeéted mode ; and for this, pur-
pofe he employed a-common windmill, and arranged a fyf-
tem of fignals, which could be made by the different pofitions
of the armis of its fails, the canvas being removed from one
or more arms, as was required. Thefe fignals were made to
denote numbers, and both parties were provided with voca-
bularies, in which all the words were numbered.

French Telegraph.— Although the telegraph was thus
fully explained in 1684, it does not appear that this valuable
invention was at all praétifed or applied to any ufeful pur-
pofe until 1793 or 1794, when the events of the French re-
volution had direéted all the energies of that ingenious people
to the improvement of the art of war. A report made by
Barrere to the fitting of the French Convention in Augult
1794, attributes the invention of the telegraph which they
uled to citizen Chappe. ;

“ The new invented telegraphic language of fignals safe

artfu

TELEGRAPH. :

artful contrivance, to tranfmit theughts in a peculiar lan-

age from one diftance to another, by means of machines,
which ‘are placed at different diftances of from twelve
to fifteen miles afunder, fo that the expreffion reaches a very
diftant place in the fpace of a few minutes. This is now
brought to fuch a ftate of perfection, that a corre{pondence
may be conduéted with Lifle, upon every fubjeé and every
thing: even proper names can be expreffed ; an anfwer may
be received; and the correfpondence thus be renewed feveral
times a day. The only thing which can interrupt their
effe& is the weather, when the air is fo very bad and turbid
that the objects and fignals cannot be diftinguifhed. By this
invention, remotenefs and diftance almoft difappear, and all
the’communications of correfpondence are effected with the
rapidity of the twinkling of aneye. By its aid the opera-
tions of government can be very much facilitated, and the
unity of the republic confolidated much more by the fpeedy
communications with all its parts.

“ The greateft advantage can be derived from this mode of
correfpondence, becaufe, if thought proper, its objects need
only be made known to certain individuals, or to one indi-
vidual alone, or to the extremities of any diitance; fo that
the Committee of Public Welfare may at prefent carry ona
correfpondence with the reprefentative of the people at Lifle,
without any other perfons being acquainted with their ob-
jects. If Lifle was even befieged, we fhould know every
thing at Paris that might happen in that place, and could
fend thither the decrees of the Convention without the
enemy being apprifed of it, or able to prevent it.”

M. Chappe’s or the French telegraph is reprefented infig. 4,
which is made from fome fetches taken from the telegraph
on the palace of the Lourre, at the time of its firft eftablifh-
ment, and publifhed in the Monthly Magazine, and other
publications.

AB is a beam or ftrong malt of wood, erected perpen-
dicularly from the centre of a cabin or {mall houfe fituated
on arifing ground: it muft be about 15 or 16 feet high
above the top of the houfe. C D is a balance-beam, jointed
to the top of the maft, fo as to be moveable on its centre,
like a fcale-beam. This balance-beam, which is called the
long indicator, may be placed vertically or horizontally, or
any how inclined, by means of {trong cords, which are at-
tached to the central wheel or pulley D, which has two grooves
in the edge to receive the cords. The long indicator is about
11 or 12 feet long, and g inches in breadth ; and at eaeh
extremity it carries fecondary indicators F, G, which like-
wife turn upon centres or joints, by means of four cords,
which are conduéted through a hollow in the centre pin or
axis of motion of the long indicator, otherwife the motion of
the long indicator to put it into different pofitions, would
derange the cords, and alter the direction of the fecondary
indicators, which are capable of being placed in any pofition
with refpeét to the long indicator, by thofe cords being con-
dyéted by pullies down into the cabin, and there attached to
ro mechanifm, by means of which the whole machine is
moved, and can be made to affume any of the pofitions re-
prefented by the {mall figures in the plate, in which pofi-
tions it forms a variety of different characters, to denote the
letters of the alphabet or numerals.

That the indicators may be very light, and at the fame
time oppofe the leaft refiftance to the wind, they are formed
by frames, the interior parts of which are filled up by {mall
oblique and feparate boards, which however, being feen in
front, appear contiguous. ‘The ends of the {mall indicators
are carried beyond the centres, and carry counter-weights to
balance the weight of the indicators; but thefe ends and
palances are made fo as to be inyifible at a diflance. —

It is eafy to find the number of fignals poffible to be
made with this telegraph: for if we confider the great indi-
cator as being fixed, we fhall find that each of the {maller
ones may diftinétly take five different pofitions: two where
it makes a right angle with the great indicator ; two where
it makes an angle of 45°; and one where it falls back upon
the great one, in which cafe it will difappear. ‘Three other
diftin& pofitions might alfo be created ; one where the {mall
indicator would be horizontal with the great one, and two
where it would make an angle of 135° with it.

The leffer indicators then, confidered as fingle movers,
will furnifh five times five, or twenty-five rae As the
great indicator is alfo a mover, there are twenty-five times as
many fignals as this indicator has diftin& pofitions ; and as
it has but four diftin&t pofitions, one horizontal, one ver-
tical, and two inclined, there are in all four times twenty-five,
or one hundred fignals.

The manner of ufing the telegraph was as follows: At the
firft ftation, which was on the roof of the principal pavilion
of the Louvre at Paris, M. Chappe, the inventor, received
in writing, from the Committee of Public Welfare, the words
to be fent to Lifle, near which the French army was at that
time ftationed. Each of the telegraphs in the line employed
three perfons to work it: one to move the machine, which
was done by a fingle motion of a winch, and could there-
fore be effeéted in a moment. A fecond perfon was em-
ployed with a telefcope to obferve the telegraphs of the two
adjacent ftations, to receive the communications, and to know
by their fignals, if they had underftood the communication
made to them, and alfo to receive the anfwers. The third
perfon was employed to write down the obfervations made
by the fecond perfon, and to give orders to the firft. The
{tations were about three or Four leagues diftant, and an
obfervatory was fituated near the Committee of Public

Safety at Belleville, to obferve the laft telegraph. ‘

The peamaian will eafily conceive that fixteen figns may
amply fupply all the letters of the alphabet; fince fome
letters may be omitted, not only without detriment, but with
advantage. Thefe figns, as they were arbitrary, could be
changed every week : fo that the fign for B one day, might be
the fign for M the next; and it was only neceffary that the
perfons at the extremities fhould know the key. The inter-
mediate operators were only inftruéted generally in imitatin
and repeating thefe fixteen fignals, which were fo diftin&, an
fo marked, as different the one from the other, that they
were eafily remembered. ‘The conftruction of the machinery
within the houfe was fuch, that each fignal was uniformly
given in precifely the fame manner at all times. It did not
depend on the operators’ manual fkill, becaufe the pofition
of the arms could never for any one fignal be a degree higher
or a degree lower than was intended, their movements being
regulated mechanically. M. Chappe, having received at the
Louvre the fentence to be conveyed, gave iy eer fignal to
the fecond ftation, which was Montmartre, to prepare: at
each ftation the obfervers with telefcopes were on watch, and
each telegraph immediately gave the fignal of preparation
which he had received ; and this being communicated fuccef-
fively through all the line, all the machines were brought
into a ftate of readinefs. The perfons at Montmartre then
received, letter by letter, the fentence from the Louvre,
which they repeated with their own machine, and this was
again repeated from the next height, with inconceivable ra=
pidity, to the final ftation at Lille, where the obfervations
were written down, and tranflated according to the key
which had been before arranged to be ufed, either by pre-
yious concert, or by fome particular fignal made with the
telegraph, to denote that key which was ufed. The time

taken

a sb a 0 a OD I

I gy OR CER Stone Spe ete

—s

TELEGRAPH.

taken up for each movement was about twenty feconds ; of
which the motion alone took up four feconds ; and during the
other fixteen, the telegraph was kept ftationary, that it might
be diftin@ly obferved and written down by the people at
the next ftation. The figns were fometimes made for words,
and fometimes for letters > when in words, a {mall flag was
hoifted ; and as the alphabet could be changed at pleafure, it
was only the correfponding perfons at each end of the line
who knew the meaning of the figns. In general, news was
given every day about eleven or twelve o’clock; but the
“obfervers were conftantly on the watch, and as foon as a cer-
tain fignal was given and an{wered, they begun from one
end to the other to move their machines, All the moveable
parts were painted of a dark-brown colour, to be more dif-
tinétly vifible when viewed againft the bright fky.

Another line of telegraphs, from Paris to Landau, was
completed in‘ 1796: the firft of them was ereéted’on a
pavilion of the palace of the Tuilleries, The conftruétion
was more complicated than the firft. A fixed black bar,
fifty feet long, was fupported horizontally by four uprights.
This bar carried five indicators, fimilar to the fmaller indi-
cators of the machines before defcribed. ‘Two of the up-
right pofts which fupported the horizontal bar, carried each
a fimilar indicator : in this way the centres of the indicators
were all ftationary, inftead of having the long indicator with
fmalier ones at the extremities. Thefe feven indicators were
moved by pullies, in the ufual way ; and there was none of the
difficulty of conveying the communicating cords through the
hollow axis of the central pulley. Each of the indicators
could take feven diftin@ pofitions; viz. for thofe which
were fupported by the horizontal bar, two vertical, four
inclined, and one horizontal ; and for thofe indicators which
were fupported by the upright pofts, one vertical pofition,
four inclined, and two horizontal ones. The number of
combinations which fuch a conftru€tion can make, is
7*7X%7%*7%X 7X 7X 7, which gives the aftonifhing
number of 823,543 fignals. This number, which is eight
thoufand times larger than that of the fignals of the firft
telegraph, is doubtlefs more than fufficient: it, however,
allowed them to abridge confiderably the telegraphic kan-
guage, and to tranfmit whole phrafes at a time. )

_ The EnglifhTelegraph.—M. Chappe’s machine was known in
England not long after it was fet up, and two working models
were made at Frankfort, and fent to England, by which the
plan and alphabet became known ; and its advantages were fo
obvious, that the Britifh government tried various experiments
on telegraphic communication, and at length lines were efta-
blifhed from the Admiralty-office to Deal, Portfmouth, and
other points of the fea-coaft. Thefe machines are upon the
conftruction reprefented in fg. 3, not being made with indi-
cators, like the French, to move upon centres into different
pofitions, but with fix o€tagon boards, each poifed upon an
horizontal axis, and fupported in a frame in fuch a manner,
that each can be placed vertically, and will then appear of
the full fize ; or if they are placed edgeways,,as fhewn at d,
the narrow edge alone will be prefented, and this at a fmall
diftance will be invifible. The boards are turned by means
of cranks, r, upon the-end of the axles, and from thefe, ines
defcend into the cabin below, where each hasa handle, which
is confpicuoufly marked with the letter or® character which
will be indicated when the handle is drawn down. ;

By the changes in the pofition of thefe fix boards, thirty-
fix changes may be eafily exhibited, and the fignal to repre-
fent any letter may be made. By certain pofitions, a variety
of other things may be fignified, according to the will of
the two perfons employed at the two extreme pofts in
making the fignals. Thus, one board being in a horizontal

Vor. XXXV.

pofition, and the others fhut, or in a perpendicular fituation,
may denote the letter a2; two boards only being in a hori-
zontal pofition may give the letter 6; three in the fame
manner, the letter c, and fo on. As there may be made as
many changes with thefe boards as with the fame number
of bells, the letters of the alphabet may be made with eafe,
and a fufficient number of fignals may be formed for extra-
dinary purpofes.

This number of changes is fufficient ; for as this telegraph
is intended to convey information by reprefenting the fuc-
ceffive letters of each word, a greater number of changes
than would exprefs all the effential letters of the alphabet,
the numerals, and three or four moré fignals, to fignify at-
tention, repeat, period, error, &c. would be only em-
barraffing, and liable toerror. It isa good fyftem to fpell
every word, rather than attempt to communicate entire words
or fentences, as by keeping always to one fyftem, mif-
takes are avoided. The communication is in itfelf fo rapid,
that it is more important to attain certainty in the operation,
than to make any facrifice for the fake of difpatch.

This telegraph was judicioufly contrived to have a fuffi-
cient number of combinations, without having more than
neceflary. Five boards would have been infufficient, and
feven more than were neceffary. But there are feveral
ferious obje€tions to it: the form renders it too bulky
to admit of being raifed to any great height above a build-
ing ; and after all, the boards are lefs evident to the eye
at a diftance than the indicators\of the French machine.
The {tations muft, therefore, be nearer together, to ren-
der the bars of the frame vifible as well as the boards.
Neither can this telegraph be made to change its direétion,
but it can only be feen from one particular point. It was
found neceffary to have two telegraphs at the Admiralty,
one for each line, and alfo at any point of the line where it
branched off.

To enable the telegraph to be ufed-at night, the firft
French telegraph which was fet up was furnifhed with
Argand lamps, but the Englifh was never ufed in that man-
ner. It would have required a great number of lamps ;
becaufe it would have been neceflary to have fixed lamps to
indicate the points of the frame in which the boards work,
as well as the boards themfelves.

Thefe two forms of telegraph, the French and the Eng-
lifh, continued in ufe for in years. ‘The French made
frequent changes in the details of their fyftem, though for
a long time they preferved M. Chappe’s machine ; and when
Buonaparte aflumed the fupreme command in France, the
original machines were taken down. A number of machines
were fet up on yarious parts of the French coaft, and were ufed
in fome of their campaigns: they were of a very temporary
nature, and compofed of the fimpleft materials, of maits
and yards, .with large balls at the end; the yards were in-
clined by cords, fo as to effe& the fignals on the fame prin-
ciple as M. Chappe’s original machine. About 1806 a new
fet of telegraphs was citablithed on the whole extent of
the coaft of the French empire, of which the following de-
{cription is given by captain C. W. Pafley, in the’ Philo-
fophical Magazine. See figs. 5 and 6.

Modern French Telegraph.—Every telegraph confifts of
an upright poft, R, to which are attached three arms,
A, B, and C, exaétly fimilar to each other, and each mov-
ing upon its own diftin& fpindle or axis. The axis of one
of thele arms, A, is near the head of the po% R ; and the dif-
tance between the centres of motion of either of the two
uppermoft arms, and the centre of the one immediately’ be-
low it, is rather lefs than double the length of one’arm.
The higheft of the three arms, A, can exhibit {even dif-

Ee ting

TELEGRAPH.

tinét pofitions, as is fhewn by the dotted lines Ar, Az,
A3, &c.; but the other two arms, B and C, can only ex-
hibit fix pofitions each, becaufe they are hidden by the poft
when in a vertical pofition. The total number of combina-
tions, or of diftinét fignals, which can be made by this tele-
graph, will conftantly be three hundred and ninety-one ;_ but
as the arm A, when in the vertical pofition A 4, may appear
to be part of the poft, R, it is not fafe to employ that
pofition, and this will reduce the number of fignals to three
hundred and forty-two. Asonly three bodies are employed
in this telegraph, it appears very fuperior to the Ad-
miralty telegraphs ufed in England, which, by the combina-
tion of double that number of bodies, can only make fixty-
three diftin& fignals. Captain Pafley obferves, that the
mechanifm of the French telegraphs juft defcribed, muft
be either imperfe&, or the men employed in working them
muft have been very unfkilful, for the fignals were made and
repeated in an awkward manner, with what feemed to him
much unneceflary lofs of time. But thefe defeéts, it will
be evident, detraé&t nothing from its merit as an invention.
In regard to the mechanical conftruétion, he could only ob-
ferve that the arms, which were painted black, and appeared
folid at a diftance, were made in the fafhion of a Venetian
blind, in order, it may be prefumed, to diminifh the action
of the wind in bad weather. Each arm had a counterpoife
of thin materials painted white, which, unlefs the obferver
be very near the telegraph, becomes invifible.

Fig. 5. fhews the telegraph in a ftate of reit, the dotted
lines marking the feveral pofitions in which the arms can
be cigincad. Fig. 6. is.a f{pecimen of the telegraph
at work. Fig. 7. fhews the conitruétion of one of the arms
on a larger f{cale, DE being the part which is fafhioned
like a Venetian blind, and E F the counterpoife.

Sir Home Popham’s Telegraph at the Admiralty. — The
original telegraphs at the Admiralty, with the fix boards,
have been lately taken down, and a new kind fubftituted.
It is on the fame principle with the French, being an upright
maft with two indicators, which move upon centres one
above the other, in the manner of the laft defcribed. The
matt is made to turn round on its vertical axis; fo as to pre-
fent its arms fucceffively to all quarters, when required.
The mechanifm, which is the invention of fir Home Pop-
ham, is the beft which has ever been contrived, the move-
ments being very fimple, and effeéted by iron fpindles and

endlefs f{crews, fo that the indices below are certain to ac-.

company the indicators exaétly in their movements, and
place them precifely in their required pofitions, which cannot
be done by the old machinery with cords, becaufe they are
liable to expand and contraét by wet or dry weather. The
machinery for this fet of telegraphs was conftructed in the
moft fub{tantial manner by Mr. Maudflay in 1816. (See
Jigs: 8,9, and 10.) L Mis atall maft of an hexagonal form,
framed up from fix fir planks put together at the angles,
and bound by iron hoops at different places, fo as to be
hollow within. The lower end, L, terminates in a pivot,
and the matt is retained in a vertical pofition by a circular
collar at O, which embraces it, and is fupported in the roof
of the building. The two arms, P M and QR, are move-
able upon centres, one at the top of the maft and the other
half way down. When the arms are placed in a vertical
pofition, they fhut up within the hollow of the maft, fo as
to be entirely concealed ; and for this ag 3% two of the
fix fides are cut away at.the upper part, fo as to leave an
opening through the matt of fufficient width to admit the
two: arms to work in it. To communicate motion to the
arms, a {mall toothed wheel is fixed upon each arm at the
centre of motion, and clofe to the fide of the arm. The
io ¢

teeth of thefe wheels are a€tuated by endlefs {crews or
worms, formed on the upper ends of the long {pindles de and
fg, which defcend down to the bottom of the hollow matt,
and have {mall bevelled wheels upon them, which are aétuated
by wheels of fimilar fize, fixed on the ends of fhort horizontal
fpindles, which have handles, f, g, applied at the extremities.
(See fg. 11.) By turning thefe handles, motion is given
to the vertical fpindles d and f; and by means of the endlefs
{crews upon the upper ends of them, the wheels at M and R,
on the centres of the arms, are turned round, and the arms
are put into any required pofition. But in order that the
people below may at all times know exaétly what pofitions -
the arms ftand in, two dials, m and r, are formed on the
lower part of the maft, the upper one, m, being for the upper
arm M, and the other, v, for the lower arm R ; and each dial
has an index or hand, which turns round with a motion ex- ~
aétly correfponding to the motion of the arms. For pro-
ducing this motion, the axle of each hand or index has a {mall
toothed wheel, s or ¢, ( fg. 11.) fixed upon it in the middle; and
an endlefs ferew is formed upon the upright {pindle to work
in the teeth of the wheel. The wheels upon the centre of
the arms, and thofe upon the axes of the indices, have the
fame number of teeth; and as every turn of the fpindles and
{crews will move the wheels round one tooth, the an
motion of the arms, P M and Q R, and the hands, m and r,
will in all cafes be the fame.

The dials are each divided into eight, correfponding with
the eight pofitions in which the arms are to be erhifstit
viz. pointing vertically ; 1{t, upwards; and 2d, downwards =
pointing horizontally ; 3d, to the right; and 4th, to the
left: pointing upwards at an inclination of 45 degrees; -
sth, to the right ; and 6th, to the left: pointing downwards
at an inclination of 45 degrees; 7th, to the right; and
8th, tothe left. But of thefe eight pofitions, only the four
laft are made ufe of to reprefent characters ; becaufe, in the
two vertical pofitions, the pointers enter within the matt,
and cannot therefore be feen whether they are pointing up-
wards or downwards: the horizontal pofitions of the.arms
are referved for the neceflary fignals of preparation, &c-
Each arm, then, has four pofitions, in which it will exprefs
different fignals ; and thefe pofitions are all made with the
ae at an inclination of 45 degrees from the horizontal

ne.

Thefe fignals either exprefs the letters of the alphabet,
or the numeral characters, according to previous arrange-
ment, which muft be made known by exhibiting a prepara-
tory fignal, before the communication is begun. The fignal
to prepare for receiving letters is the lower arm extended
horizontally to the right; and for the numerals, both arms
are extended horizontally to the left.

The upper pointer, P M, ufed by itfelf, at an elevation of
45 degrees, denotes,

A, or 1, when pointing upwards to the left.

B, or 2, when pointing downwards to the left.
C, or 3, when pointing upwards to the right.
D, or 4, when pointing downwards to the right.

The lower pointer, Q R, ufed by itfelf, at an elevation of
45 degrees, denotes,

or 5,
or 6,

or 7;
or 8,

when pointing upwards to the left.
when pointing downwards to the left.
when pointing upwards to the right.
when pointing downwards to the right,

It is eafy to conceive, that, by repeating all thefe pofi-
tions with both arms exhibited together, inftead of one
fingly, various combinations may be made, which are fuf-

K ficient

TELEGRAPH.

ficient to exprefs all the remaining letters, and fome other
neceflary fignals.

The dial for each arm is double; that is, a dial is fixed
at each fide of the maft, and the axles of the indices or
hands proceed quite through the mait, fo as to have a hand
at each end. Thefe dials are not numbered exaétly fimilar
to each other, but are reverfed ; and the two indices on the
oppofite ends of the fame axle, though they point in one
direction, do not indicate the fame numbers on the two dials ;
hecaufe each dial is adapted to indicate the meaning which
the different pofitions of the arms will have, when the tele-
graph is viewed on that fide to which the dial faces.

For when a fignal is made, that arm which projeéts from
the right-hand fide, if the telegraph is examined on one fide,
will proje& on the left hand, when the telegraph is viewed
on the other fide. :

It was before ftated, that the telegraph can be turned
round, fo as to prefent its arms to’ any direftion. This is
done by the pivot, L, at the lower hand; but to hold it fait
in the defired direction, a circular iron plate is placed on the
floor, with holes in it; and a bolt, W, is fitted into two
eyes, which are fixed to the axle of the maft. The point of
this bolt drops into any of the holes in the plate, and thus
holds the matt firm ; but if the bolt is lifted up, to draw its
point out of the holes, it can be turned round. The arms
are made with boards, like Venetian blinds; and each has a
piece of cait-iron at the oppofite end, to counterpoife the
weight, and make the arm move freely into all pofitions.

Since the telegraph has been brought into a€tual ufe, its

t utility has been obvious ; and many ingenious perfons
have ftudied the means of fimplifying the methods of repre-
fenting the fignals, with a view to obtain the greater facility
and rapidity of communication. This would enable us to
avoid the danger of miftakes, by being able to repeat the
whole communication feveral times,. which at prefent is
tedious. Many of thefe contrivances difplay great in-
genuity ; but it appears to us, that the defeét or difficulty
of communicating detailed intelligence by means of tele-

phs, arifes from the complicated conftruétion of all the
Teeucges at prefent in ufe, rather than from any defects
in the machines, which have been propofed to exhibit the
fymbols ; and that to perfeé telegraphic communication, it
would be neceffary to invent a new and more perfeé& lan-

age, which would be a moft valuable acquifition, to faci-
hitate all other modes of communicating ideas.

All languages originated in a very rude ftate of fociety,
and were at firft limited to the expreffion of very fimple
ideas. - As men advanced in civilization, they found the ne-
ceffity of increafing the number of their words; and to
enable them to exprefs more complex ideas, compound
words were occafionally introduced; but, in all cafes,
knowledge muft have made a confiderable advance, before
any arrangement or claffification of words was imagined :
becaufe the neceflity of any grammar would not be dif-
covered, until the number of words were fo multiplied, as
to render the ufe of them troublefome, and liable to con-
fufion. Before a fyitem of grammar was eftablifhed, no
improvements could be made in a language, except by the
addition of new words; and every fuch addition muft have
introduced new difficulties in the ufe of the language.
Even when a fyftem of grammar is completely eftablifhed,
as is now the cafe in all the languages of civilized nations,
the nuniber of words which were invented, or introduced
without any fyftem, is fo confiderable, as to prevent that
perfeGtion of expreffion which might be obtained, if the
language had been wholly conftruéted in an advanced flage
of fociety. There is no doubt but a new language might

be contrived, which, with a very fmall number of words,
compared with any of the known languages, might exprefs
all ideas in a much more expeditious and definite manner
than they do. In“oral communication, this defective con-
ftru€tion of language, and the want of precifion, is little
experienced, dalets by thofe who begin to learn a foreign
language; becaufe the extreme rapidity of expreffion en-
ables us to amplify and enlarge upon’ any fubjet, fe as to
elucidate any words or phrafes which are not direétly ap-
plicable to the expreffion of an idea to be communicated, or
which are at all indefinite. In writing or reading, the de-
ficiency of language is more obfervable, from the greater
difficulty of expreffion and communication.. But when we
attempt to converfe by fignals, we experience in its full
force the great complexity of language, and find that it
becomes a tedious operation to reprefent a fentence clearly
by fignals, which is fpoken or written in a moment; and
this muft continue to be the cafe, even if the mechanical
operation of exhibiting the fignals is reduced to the utmoft
poflible fimplicity. As no fuch {cientific language as that
which we hint at has been perfe€ted, we muft content our-
felves to find the beft means of communicating our ideas by
fignals, which fhall indicate the letters and words of our
prefent languages: and this may be done in two ways;
firft, by chara¢ters or fignals, which fhall either exprefs the
letters of the alphabet, or words, or, in fome cafes, com-
plete fentences. The other method is to exhibit fignals,
which fhall indicate numbers; and thefe numbers can be
tranflated into words, by means of a di€tionary in which
every word is numbered. The telegraphs which we have
defcribed are of the former clafs, and we have explained the
manner of ufing them; but the latter kind requires a greater
variety of fignals, becaufe they muft be capable of making
as many fignals as there are words in the language in which
the communication is intended to be made. There is fome
difficulty in making a telegraph fo univerfal as this requires,
otherwife the numeral method has decided advantages, in
the convenience with which it can be carried on by means
of a common di€tionary, alphabetically arranged, and in
which every word is regularly numbered from one end to
the other. In this any word can be inftantly found, by its
place in the alphabet ; and the number correfponding to it
being exhibited by the telegraph, and obferved by the op-
pofite party, he can as quickly find out the fame word in
the diGtionary by means of its number.

The numeral method is perhaps the eafieft of all others,
and. may be exhibited by fire and fmoke in the fimpleft
manner, without any telegraph or complicated apparatus
being made for the purpofe.

The meaning of a fignal is afcertained by the continuarce
or difappearance of fire and fmoke at a different place. In
the day-time, the fmoke on a particular hill may give notice
to an obferver on the next hill, that a communication is to
be made: he of courfe will anfwer it by fmoke, to fhew
that he is upon his watch. The fmoke will then difappear
on both hills, by a cover being placed over the fire; which,
being taken off and put on again repeatedly, will fhew a
fucceffion of clouds of fmoke rifing at proper intervals in
the air. The obferver notes the number of times that the
f{moke rifes without a confiderable interval, fuppofe three
times; and he then writes down the number 3. After a
more confiderable interval, determined on by the parties,
the fmoke rifes again, we will fuppofe four times ; he writes
down the number 4. He has now the number 34 to com-
municate by fignals to the next poft. At night this is done
by a fucceflive appearance and difappearance of fire.

As the number denoted by the fucceflive appearance of

Bez {moke

TELEGRAPH.

Jmoke or fire, or firing of guns, may, if it isa large number,
be liable to miftake, py Aa profeffor in Germany propofed
to fhorten the numbers employed, by’ufing a quaternar

inftead of the decenary arithmetic. Thus, according to his
fyftem, the units were to be placed as in common arithmetic ;
a figure in the next place, to the left hand, inftead of denot-
ing the number of tens, was a multiple of 4, denoted by the
figure, that is, it denoted the number of fours to be expreffed ;
in the third place, the figure denoted the number of fixteens
inftead of hundreds ; and the fourth place of figures would
be fixty-fours inftead of thoufands; and foon. £. gr. To
write down 95, he placed his figures thus: 1133; the 3
in the place of units denoted 3, the next 3 denoted
3X 4, or 12; the third figure, 1, denoted 4 x 4, or 16; the
next figure, 1, denoted 4 x 4 x 4, or 64; confequently 1133,
in the quaternary arithmetic, was equivalent to 64 + 16 +
12+ 3 =95 in the common decimal numeration. The
advantage propoied by thus changing the figures was, that
in making the fignals 95, there muft be fourteen firings, or
appearances of {moke, which, in the other mode, is done by
eight firings. In this arithmetic, a greater number than four
never appears; and there is lefs danger in mifcounting fo
{malla number. Some of the numbers in the dictionary mutt

be devoted to the fingle letters of the alphabet, as it is by

means of them alone that proper names can be made out.

Mr. Edgeworth, who, we believe, firft introduced the nu-
meral fyftem of.communication, gives the following account
of its advantages, in point of fecrecy, over the alphabetical
method, which is a great object in telegraphic communication.
Although the alphabet may be varied at pleafure, and any
arbitrary figns employed, yet thefe are poffible to be-deei-
phered by rules which depend upon the ufual arrangements
of letters: thus, for inftance, a fingle charafter being exhi-
bited as aword, muit, in the Englifh language, be either A
or I. The proportion which exifts between the number of
words of one, two, three, or any ter number of letters,
can be claffed in catalogues, and ae thefe the monofylla-
bles of any cipher are eafily obtained ; and from the letters
of thefe monofyllables, the letters of longer words are dif-
covered. By fimilar rules, fome of which are very ingenious,
and depend upon the philofophy of language, any alphabetical
cipher may be eafily unfolded. (See CipHer.) But thefe
rules, excepting a few of them, are ufelefs, when ciphers
are employed to denote entire words ; and the moft obvious
mode of difcovery may be avoided, by omitting thofe common
words which occur : frequently in every language, as the,
and, that, to, &c. ; and even fuppofing that, from its frequent
recurrence, any word fhould be difcovered, no progrefs can
be made from fuch data, for the cipher of any word is an
ifolated fa& which leads to nothing farther.

Suppofe the knowledge of any particular vocabulary fhould
fall into hands for which it was not intended, a flight change
in the numeration, without any atual change of the figures,
would prevent difcovery : for inftance, fuppofe it is fettled
between the parties, that 6, or any other number, is to be
added or fubtraéted from the numbers which are exhibited
before referring them to the vocabulary. ‘The advocates of
the numeral fvilem {tate, that a letter can be communicated
much guicker by fignals which exprefs words, than by fig-
nals which exprefs aly letters. “Words may be forwarded
as faft as they can be looked out in a di€tionary, and even
fafter, whillt only an equal number of letters could have been
communicated by the alphabetical mode. Another alleged

advantage refulting from the ufe of words in the telegraphic ,

correfpondence is, that the words of the fame meaning in
different languages having the fame number attached to each,
4 correfpondence could be carried on from one language into

9

another, which, though not grammatically correét, yet woulé
be fufficiently intel ible. Proper names muft be {pel:,
which may eafily be done, every letter having a correfpond-
ing number.

Mr. Richard Lovel Edgeworth, in the TranfaCtions of the
Royal Society of Ireland, vol. vi. p. 125, has defcribed his
telegraph, which is fimple, and admits of very numerous com-
binations : it is intended to reprefent numbers to which words
may be referred.

The machinery confifts of four indices or pointers, each

capable of revolving on a centre or axis, fo as to affume dif-
ferent pofitions. ‘The fhape of each pointer is that of an
ifofceles triangle, of which the bafe is rather lefs than half the
perpendicular. The four pointers are placed in a row, as
fhewn by fig. 12, and, as in common numeration, the right
hand reprefents units ; the fecond from the right, tens; the

third, hundreds ; and the fourth, thoufands. It is eafy to -

diftinguifh whether a hand ape | vertically, points perpen-
dicularly downwards or upwards, horizontally to the right or
left, or to any of the four intermediate fituations: this pro-
duces eight pofitions, which can be made, by each pointer 5
but of thefe eight pofitions, feven only are employed to de-
note figures; the upright pofition of the hand or pointer
being referved to reprefent 0, or zero. ‘The figures thus in-
dicated refer to a vocabulary, in which all the words are
numbered. Telegraphs of this kind, which are to be fixed
at permanent ftations, which may be feen clearly with tolerable
glaffes at twenty miles diftance, are to be mounted on ftone
or wooden pillars, fixteen or twenty feet high ; four of which
muft be folidly erected in a row ; and on the top of each a
moveable circle or platform turns horizontally upon a centre,
in the manner of a moveable windmill head. Accrofs the plat-
form an axis lies horizontally, and carries the arm or pointer,
fixed vertically at one extremity of the axis, whilft, at the
other end, are eight handles to turn the pointer .round by.
The handles are fixed in their different pofitions by a catch or
alidad. By means of the platform, the pointer may be turned
to any part of the compafs; and as one fide of it is painted
black, and the other white, either fide may be employed, ‘as
the colour of the clouds, or the fituation of the place, may
require. t

In managing a correfpondence by thefe machines, it is

necefiary to have certain fignals eftablifhed; nor are thefe
fignals merely arbitrary ; it is abfolutély neceffary that they.
fhould be made by the two external pointers of the row, viz.
units and thoufands; or by the two internal pointers, viz.
tens and hundreds; elfe they could not be repeated the
intecmediate flations without confufion ; becaufe, in the middle
ftations, that pointer which reprefents thoufands, when con-
veying a meflage eaftwards for inftance, muft, when an anfwer
is returned to an oppofite direction, reprefent units. The fame

change will take place between the pointer that denotes ©

hundreds and tens. ;

When any communication is to be commenced, the
pointers that denote thoufands and units are to be whirled
round till the fame is done at the correfponding ftation.
When this Sgnal has been anfwered, the perfon who gave it
proceeds to fend his intelligence. As foon as he begins, the
pointer of hundreds at the oppofite ftation is turned to 2,
and kept in that pofition till the word is made out from the
vocabulary ; the pointer isthen turned’round to 0, or zero.

The perfon who is fpeaking, when he perceives by this”

fignal that he is underftood, turns all the machines to 03
which is always to be done at the end of every word.

When all his machines are in this pofition, his corref
again turns his pointer belonging to the place of hundreds
to 2, to fhew that he is ready to receive the intelligence, and
xt

et

i | le EE ee he

+

,

TELEGRAPH.

jt is to remain there till he receives another word, and fo on,
till all that is meant to be faid is finifhed: the pointers of
thoufands and units ave then to be vibrated backwards and
forwards, with the points downwards, like pendulums, till’
the fame is done at the oppofite ftation.

If any interruption takes place on either fide from a cloud,
or fhower, or any accident, it is to be indicated by vibrating
thoufands and units, with their points upwards ; which fignal
muit be repeated from the oppofite {tation ; and whoever has
made the fignal of interruption, muft make the fignal of
recommencement, when he 1s ready to proceed. This fignal
is by vibrating Aundreds and fens, with their points upwards,
and when this is anfwered, (but not before,) the bufineds
may proceed. It fhould be obferved in general, that every
fignal fhould be acknowledged by the party to whom it is
addreffed.

The vocabulary correfponding with the numbers denoted
by this machinery is compofed of a large book, jig. 13,
with mahogany covers, framed, to prevent them from warp-
ing. © Its fize, when opened, is 47 inches by 213 it confitts
of 49 double pages, that is to fay, each fheet 1s folded in
the middle, and when it is opened forms one page.

The book is divided into feven parts by thin flips of
mahogany, which ferve to open it eafily at each of thefe
divifions, every one of which contains feven pages, and
each page forty-nine words, No more than forty-nine
words are contained in each page, becaufe the numbers
8 and 9, and zero, are not admitted. This omiffion arifes
from the ftruCture of the machinery, which points only to
feven numbers, referving»o for a point of reft, at which
point the hands indicate nothing. In every hundred, there-
fore, only forty-nine numbers are ufed; and in every
thoufand, only feven hundreds are counted. Each divifion of
the book, feparated by the mahogany rulers, contains all
the efficient numbers in feven hundred. Each of thefe
rulers proje&ts beyond the fides of the pages, and is num-
bered in fucceffion from 1 to 73 and they are fo placed

below one another, as to permit the numbers on all fides of
them to be feen at once, as in the figure.

When any number of thoufands is pointed out, it can,
by means of thefe rulers, be immediately fele€ted : the feries
of feven pages, which one of thefe rulers opens, is cut, like
the alphabet of a ledger, at the edge in feven divifions. By
thefe means, the page containing the hundred which is
wanted is inftantly found. In the page thus obtained, the
tens, from 10 to 40 inclufive, are’ divided from each
other, fo as to be inftantly diftinguifhable, and the units
under each divifion are in like manner eafily fele@ed.

The following is a fpecimen of feyen lines of the firft
page, and though it is but one-tenth of the real fize, it is
fufficiently diftin@. Its contents are divided into eight claffes,
the words in each clafs being numbered downwards, from
i to 77, omitting all cyphers, or zero, and all eights and
nines. When once the clafs required is afcertained, any
number in the page can be found immediately. As for
inftance, the reader will eafily fele& Clafs VII. N° 11,
Clafs IV. N° 15, and fo of the reft. Nothing remains to
be explained but the manner in which the clafs in each page
is pointed out by the machinery. For this purpofe, before
the pointers are turned to any fet of figures, the pointer that
reprefents thoufands is turned to the clafs that is wanted, and
as foon as the correfpondent anfwers this fignal, thoufands is
returned to o. Then all the pointers are moved to the
places which denote the figures required for any word or
fentence. When the clafs is thus afcertained, an index,
which flides on the mahogany cover of the book, is fet to
the column belonging to this clafs. When an obfervation is
made, the number of thoufands can be opened by the ruler.
As foon as it is read off by the telefeope, the number of
hundreds is opened by the pages, where they are cut away,
and the number of tens and unitsis feen on the page. As the
pointers are moved in fucceffiom from thoufands to units,
the different divifions of the book can be opened as fat 2s
the pointers are moved.

Specimen of the Vocabulary belonging to Mr. Edgeworth’s Telegraph.

ace aie co Perfons. Officers. Places. NY eee Phrafes and Sentences.
Clafs 1. Chass 11, af AE Pe Saat y Sia Ve Clafs Vi. Chale VS.

11. Abafe. 11. Aback. 11. Abbot. }11. Academy of Infeript.{11. Abbeville. —|11. Atlas, 11. Attend to day - atA.M.
- 12. Abate. 12. Abacus. 12. Ackland.}12. Acad. of B. L. Paris.{12. Aberdeen, 12, Ajax. 12, — - atP.M,
. |13. Abbey. 13. Abaft. 13, AGton. {13. Academy. 13. Aberpavenny.|13. Albion. 13. to-morrow = =
. |14. Abbefs, 14. Abatis. 14. Achefon.}14. Account-Office. 14. Abington, 14. Africa. 14. —— .
. 15. Abbot. 15. Abdomen. }15. Adams. }15. Admiralty. 15. Abydos. ‘15. Audacious, {15. to night -

16. Abdicate. 16. AbduMor. | 16. Adamfon.J16, Agent to the, 16. Abyffinia. 16. Agamemnon. |16. to-morrow night

17. Abed, Abet.| 17. Abeal. 17. Adsir. ~ |17. Admiral. 17. Acadia. 17. America. 1s on Monday = -

The principal objection to Mr. Edgeworth’s machine is,
that it would be of a valt fize, and each pointer would require
2 man to work it. He defcribes, at the end of his paper,
a portable machine, which is made of fpars and poles jointed
together, and braced by cords. We think the fecond kind
of French telegraph, which was fet up between Landau
and Paris, would anfwer the purpofe very welt: it has five
indicators, and the movements are made by machinery in the
houfe below.

Major C. Le Hardy, in the TranfaGtions of the Society
of Arts for 1808, vol. xxvi. has deferibed a telegraph which
is‘ well adapted for exhibiting fignals which fhall indicate
numbers. It has four indices or pointers, each confifting of

a long arm, carrying a {quare index-board or pointer at the
extremity. One of thefe pointers reprefents units; the
fecond, tens; the third, hundreds; and the fourth, thou-
fands. All the four indices move on a common centre by
the machinery ; and to diftinguifh them cne from another,

-each board is placed at a different diflance from the centre

of motion, fo that in their motion they deferibe four circles
of different radii.. The pofition of the arm, with refpe& to
the horizon, is made to indicate the number which is to be
exprefied by each index refpeétively, and there are ten dif-
ferent pofitions for each, anfwering to the numeral charaters.
To identify thefe ten pofitions, a large frame is fixed clofe
behind the pointers, parallel to the plane of their motion ;
and

-

‘TELEGRAPH.

and this frame fupports ten radial bars, which diverge from
the common centre of motion. The radii are again inter-
fe&ted by other bars, forming four concentric arcs of
circles, each correfponding in radius with the length of one
of the four pointers or fignal-boards. By means of the
radii, the pofitions of the pointers, and their correfponding
numbers, are read off, whilft the arcs ferve to diftinguifh
the different pointers of units, tens, hundreds, and thoufands,
becaufe they always fhew the length of the arms from the
centre. By this machinery, 10,000 can be exhibited ; and
for higher numbers, there are two fquare fignal-boards,
which can’be turned fo as to be invifible or vifible at pleafure ;
one reprefents 10,000, and the other 20,000, and both toge-
ther 30,000, either of which numbers is to be added to the
number fhewn by the arms, according as thefe fignal-boards
are exhibited. By this addition, this telegraph can exhibit
as high as 40,000.

The frame with radial bars is a good method of reading
off the exa& pofition of the arms ; and it is fo much more
certain than trufting to the eye alone, that by its. aid the
arms may be fhewn in a much greater number of pofitions ;
{till, if each arm is diftin@ly capable of exhibiting ten fignals,
it will be fufficient for the numeral method. Mr. Edge-
worth’s pointers, as we have feen, were only capable of
eight pofitions for each ; and this obliged him to mutilate
the a of numbers, by taking away all the eights, nines,
and zero.

The dial-plate of a clock has been propofed as a model,
and would make a moft excellent telegraph, as it might
exhibit 144 figns, fo as to be vifible at a pees diftance.
The dial fhould only be divided into fix divifions inftead of
twelve ; and this being raifed twenty or thirty feet above
a building, and the indices and the dial being painted with
very diftiné colours, would be clearly vifible. The dial,
if {upported on one poft, might be always turned to the
dire&tion in which the information was to be conveyed.

In the Supplement to the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1794,
a telegraph is defcribed, which confifts of a femi-circle

laced in a vertical pofition on a ftrong ftand. ‘The circum-
tece is divided into twenty-four divifions, which are ren-
dered vifible by circular holes cut through the femi-circle.
In the centre is an index, which can fucceflively be brought
to point out any divifion, very much in the manner of the
dial of a clock. In the night-time each divifion is to be
furnifhed with a lamp, and the index is made fufficiently
broad to eclipfe or hide any of the lamps at pleafure to
which it is turned, and by this means the letters of the
alphabet are to be defignated.

Mr. Garnet’s Telegraph.—Of all the propofals for making
a variety of fignals by the different pofitions of an index or
pointer which moves on a centre, the following is the moft
certain as to the identity of the pofitions, and hence it admits
of the greateft number of fignals from each pointer. It has
alfo eile: advantage, that there is no neceffity for any
frame or dials, like the three laft deferibed machines, which,
as their divifions are intended to be obferved at a diftance,
muft be exceedingly large. The pointer or indicator of
Mr. Garnet’s machine is the fame as the foregoing, and its
different pofitions reprefent different characters or letters :
its length fhould be two and a half or three feet from the
centre, for every mile of diftance. The diftant obferver
can find out, and exaétly read off thefe pofitions by a wire
fixed acrofs the eye-piece of the telefcope with which he ob-
feryes, which eye-piece turns round on the end of the tube of
the telefcope, fo as to bring the wire to be parallel to, or cor-
refpond with the diftant po

This is as eafy to do as
to look through the telefcope.

The index or pointer has a {mall circle fixed on its axis
of motion, and turning round with it. This circle is divided
into twenty-four divifions, or even more, and each divifion is
lettered with a letter of the alphabet. A fixed index is alfo
provided, to which any letter on the divided circle can be
brought by turning the pointer round, and this determines
the pofition of the pointer. Or, inftead of an index, the
divided rim of the circle may be concealed in a box, with a
hole at one fide juft fufficient to fee one letter or divifion at
a time, and then there can be no miftake in fetting the
pointer. The eye-piece of the telefcope is to be made to
turn round upon the end of the tube, and is to have a circle
fixed upon it fimilarly divided and lettered. A fine wire
is alfo to be ftretched acrofs the centre of the eye-piece in the
focus of its lenfes ; and there muft be likewife an index or
mark on the telefcope, to read the divifions of the circle on
the eye-piece. If this circle be likewife enclofed in a box,
having a hole to fee only one letter at a time, there will be
lefs danger of miftake. :

The inftrument being correétly adjufted, it is obvious
that (the eye-piece of the telefcope being turned round till
its wire covers or becomes parallel to the diftant pointer)
the index on the telefcope will point out the fame letter on
the divided circle of the eye-piece, as is indicated by the
index and circle of the diftant pointer : hence the two parties
have the fame letter or character prefented to them by their
re{pective inftruments.

The idea of reading the fignals by means of wires on the
eye-piece of the telelcope is’ very valuable, and *promifes
many advantages. In intermediate ftations, there is always
danger of confufion in making fignals to parties in both di-
reCtions ; becaufe an arm which inclines towards the right
when the telegraph is viewed in one direction, in an op-
pofite direGtion will appear to incline to the left, and
indicate a different thing: hence it is always neceffary for
the parties to be informed, by a previous fignal, in what
direétion the communication is to be made, that the ob-
fervers, when they fee a fignal made, may know whether it
is intended for them, or for the next ftation beyond. Now
when the telefcope is ufed, if the circle of each telefcope be
figured to corref{pond with the circle of the pointer which is
to be obferved with it, all fignals will become intelligible to
any party who obferves them. ,

The Rev. John Gamble fuggefted a form of telegraph,
which confifted of four arms, each ten feet long, yg oe
nifhed with a circular board at the end. All the four moved
upon a common centre of motion, and independently of each
other, fo that one, two, three, or four, could be exhibited
at different degrees of elevation with refpe& to the
horizon, or with refpeét to each other, fo as to afford a
great number of fignals. One of thefe was ereéted in 1803
upon one of the towers of Weftminfter Abbey, but has lon
been removed. About the time when telegraphs were fi
ufed, this gentleman publifhed a {mall pamphlet, entitled
“ Obfervations and Telegraphic Experiments,” which
contains fome good ideas.

Nodurnal Telegraphs.—1n 1801, Mr. John Boaz of Glaf-
gow obtained a patent for a telegraph, which effeéted the
fignal by means of twenty-five Argand lamps. Thefe were
arranged in five rows, with five in each row, fo as to form a
f{quare. Each lamp being provided with a blind, with which
its light could be obfcured, the lamps could be made to
exhibit letters and figures, the fame as Dr. Hooke’s charac-
ters, by leaving fuch lamps only vifible as were neceflary to
form the character. The machine is defcribed in the
Repertory of Arts, Firft Series, vol. xvi. p.223 ; and in the
Philofophical Magazine, vol xii. p. 84.

In

TEL

In the Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxix. Capt. Pafley
has defcribed a telegraph, which is nearly the fame as
Mr. Boaz’s, but with fix lights only; alfo what is called a
Polygramic telegraph.

The Chevalier Edelcrantz has defcribed a machine in the
Tranfaétions of the Society of Arts, which is for working the
vanes of a telegraph with boards, like fig. 4, fo that by merely
prefling keys, like an organ, and then turning a handle, the
required fignals fhall be made. The telegraph was propofed
with nine boards inftead of fix ; but as we confider this form
of telegraph decidedly inferior to thofe with arms moving
e centres, we fhall not enter into any further defcription
of it.

To conclude, we clafs the telegraphic art amongft thofe
which are not carried to fuch a ftate of perfection as to be
incapable of farther improvement: it is much to be wifhed
that it could be fo fyitematized, that the communication of
intelligence could be effeéted with the fame eafe and cer-
tainty as by writing. We are confident of the poffibility of
this, from having obferved the abbé Sicard converfing with
his deaf and dumb pupils by making figns of the fimpleft
nature with the hands, in which manner he could communi-
cate his ideas on any’ fubjeét with more rapidity than by
writing.

TELEM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
the tribe of Judah, towards the extremity of this tribe, along
the frontiers of Edom.

TELEMANN, Gio. Puixi, in Biography, one of the

eateft and moft voluminous mufical compofers during the
firft fifty or fixty years of the laft century, in Germany.
He was born at Magdeburg in 1681, and preceded Keifer as
opera compofer at Hamburgh, for which city he produced
thirty-five operas. His compofitions for the church and
chamber are fuppofed to be more numerous than thofe of
Aleflandro Scarlatti. In the year 1740, his overtures on
Lulli’s model amounted to fix hundred.

This compofer, like Raphael and fome other great
painters, had a firft and fecond manner, which were ex-
tremely different from each other ; in the firft he was hard,
tiff, dry, and inelegant ; in the fecond, pleafing, graceful,
and refined. Telemann, who lived to a great age, drew

_ up a well-written narrative of his own life, in the early, part
of which he was an intimate acquaintance and fellow-
ftudent with Handel.

The lift of Telemann’s printed works, inferted in Wal-
ther’s Mufical Lexicon in 1732, amounted to twenty-nine ;
and in Gerber’s Continuation of Walther, fifteen or fixteen
more are fpecified. But ftill double the number of thofe
printed were long circulated in manufcript from the mufic-
fhops at Leipfic and Hamburgh.

The beft account of Telemann’s profeffional merit as a
compofer, was publifhed at Hamburgh immediately after his
deceafe at 85, in 1767, by profeflor Ebeling, an excellent
mufical critic, a friend of Emanuel Bach, a man of a refined
tafte, found judgment, and a perfeét acquaintance with. the
merits and various ftyles of the great muficians of his
country.

TELEMBO, in Geography, a river of South America,
which joins the Patia, 8 miles N.W. of Baracoas.

TELENGUTES. See TELeures. :

TELENTO, a town of Perfia, in the province of La-
riftan, on the fea-coaft ; 10 miles S.W. of Congo.

TELEOLOGY, formed of z:t0;, end, and Acyos, di/-
eourfe, the {cience of the final caufes of things. This is an
ample and curious field of inquiry, though pretty much
negleGted by philofophers.

TELEPHANES, in Biography, a celebrated performer

TEL

on the flute in the time of Philip of Macedon. According
to Paufanias he was a native of Samos, and had a tomb
erected to him by Cleopatra, the fifter of Philip, in the
road between Megara and Corinth, which was fubfifting in
his time. The epitaph upon this mufician, which is pre-
ferved in the Anthologia, equals his talents to thofe of the
greateft names in antiquity.

“Orpheus, whom gods and men admire,
Surpafs’d all mortals on the lyre:
Neitor with eloquence could charm,
And pride, and infolence difarm :
Great Homer, with his heav’nly ftrain,
Could foften rocks, and quiet pain :—
Here lies Telephanes, whofe flute
Had equal pow’r o’er man and brute.’’

Telephanes was clofely united in friendfhip with Demof-
thenes, who has made honourable mention of him in his
harangue againft Midias, from whom he received a blow
in public, during the celebration of the feaft of Bacchus.
As this was a kind of mufical quarrel, we fhall relate the
caufe of it.

Demofthenes had been appointed by his tribe to furnifh a
chorus, to difpute the prize at this feftival ; and as this cho-
rus was to be inftruéted by a mafter, Midias, in order to
difgrace Demofthenes, bribed the mufic-mafter to negleé his
funétion, that the chorus might be unable to perform their
feveral parts properly before the public, for want of the ne-
ceffary teaching and rehearfals. But Telephanes, who had
difcovered the defign of Midias, not only chaftifed and dif-
miffed the mufic-matter, but undertook to inftruét the chorus
himfelf. ,

TELEPHIASTRUM, in Botany, Dill. Elth. 375, fo
called by Vaillant, from its refemblance to Telephium. See
TALINUM.

TELEPHIOIDES, Tourn. Cor. 50. t. 485. Dill.
Elth. 377. t. 282. See ANDRACHNE.

TELEPHIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Greater Armenia, fituated in the vicinity of the river Phafis.

TELEPHIUM, in Botany, a name adopted from Diof-
corides, whofe z:A7@iov the plant we are about to defcribe
was fuppofed, by Imperato, Clufius, and moft authors, to
be. Dr. Sibthorp however fatisfied himfelr that the plant
of Diofeorides was Cerinthe minor, and poffibly alfo the
afpera of Willdenow. To this conclufion he was led, firft,
by the authority of the famous old manufcript with draw-
ings, at Vienna; and next, by obferving that C. minor is
particularly common in Greece among vines in the fpring,
as well as in other cultivated ground, as Diofcorides relates
of his 7:An¢ioy. “The yellow colour of the flowers alfo an-
{wers to his defcription, which our Telephium, in that point,
does not, nor did Dr. Sibthorp obferve the latter m any
part of Greece.—Linn. Gen. 149. Schreb. 201. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1506. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 2. 173. Juif. 313. Tourn. t. 128. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 213. Gertn. t. 129.—Clafs and order, Pentan-
dria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn. Portulacee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five oblong, obtufe,
concave, keeled leaves, the length of the corolla, permanent.
Cor. Petals five, oblong, obtufe, erect, tapering downwards,
inferted into the receptacle. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
fhaped, fhorter than the corolla; anthers incumbent. Pi/?.
Germen fuperior, triangular, acute; ftyle none; ftigmas
three, acute, fpreading. Peric. Capfule fhort, triangular,
of one cell with three valves, and a central unconnected re-
ceptacle, half as long as the capfule. Seeds numerous,
roundifh-kidneyfhaped. F sail

‘

TEL

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, inferted into
the receptacle. Capfule with one cell, three valves, and many
feeds,

1. T. Lmperati. Green Orpine. Linn. Sp. Pl. 388.
Willd. n. 1. Ait.n. 1. (T. legitimum; Cluf: Hitt. v. 2.
67. Ger. Em. 520. ‘Telephio di Diofcoride ; Imperat.
Hift. Nat. 662.)—Leaves alternate.—Native of Switzer-
land, Italy, and the fouth of France. A hardy perennial,
kept in our botanic gardens, flowering in fummer. Nu-
merous decumbent, round, herbaceous, leafy /fems, a fpan
long, but flightly branched, {pring from the crown of the
root, {preading in all dire&tions. The /eaves are fcattered,
nearly feffile, obovate, entire, fmooth, glaucous, rather fuc-
culent, an inch long, more or lefs. Cymes terminal, foli-
tary, convex, of numerous {mooth flowers, with white, or
pale flefh-coloured, petals.

2. T. oppofitifolium. Barbary Orpine. Linn, Sp. Pl.
388. Willd. n. 2. (‘T. myofotidis foliis, amplioribus, con-
jugatis; Shaw Afric. n. 572. f. 572.)—Leaves oppofite.—
Found by Shaw in Barbary. Nothing is known of this
{pecies but from his rude figure, and fhort defcription. The
leaves are elliptic-oblong, oe an inch in length; the lower
ones ftalked. Tops of the flowering branches recurved, as
in the Heliotropium. Petals {mall. Cap/ules of three valves,
with many feeds; fo that there feems no doubt of the
genus.

, Teteruium, in Gardening, furnifhes a plant of the {mall
hardy perennial kind, of which the {pecies ufually cultivated
for garden ufe is the true orpine (T’. imperati).

Method of Culture.—This plant is increafed by fowing the
feeds in the autumn or fpring, in dry light mould, either
where the plants are to remain, or in beds to be afterwards
planted out. They appear in the fpring, when they fhould
be kept clear from weeds, and they will flower the follow-
ing year.

It is alfo capable of being increafed fometimes by offsets,
flips, or cuttings, planted out in the {pring feafon.

It likes a dry light foil, in which it grows beft and lafts
Jongeft. The plants afford variety in the common. borders
aud clumps when placed in the fronts of thofe parts.

TeLeruiuM, a malignant dangerous ulcer. The term
is derived from Telephus, who was wounded by Achilles,
and whofe wound, it is faid, became before he died a difeafe
of the above kind. |

TELEPHORUS, in Entomology, the Necypauis Ce-
rulefcens ; which fee.

‘TELESCOPE, from zn:, at a diflance, and cxoria,
Jes 18 an optical inftrument that enlarges the vifual angle
-fubtended by a diftant objeét, and thereby is faid to magnify
it, fo as to render it vifible to the eye of an obferver. This

property of making diftant objeéts appear clofe to the eye,
never fails to excite the furprife of every one who looks
through a telefcope for the firft time ; but few, compara-
tively fpeaking, have their curiofity fully gratified, as it re-
gards the means by which this wonderful phenomenon is
effected. They are told, that the tube through which they
look, contains magnifying glaffes, or paies pecula, which,
bya peculiar arrangement, produce the furprifing effect they
witnefs, and there the explanation ufually ends; but it is
our province to give our readers a better account of this
aftonifhing inftrument, which we propofe to do in a fyf-
tematic manner, firft by giving a fhort Aiflory of its inven-
tion and improvements ; Ramin by giving a popular ex-
planation of the theory of the dioptric conftru€tion, includ-
ing the doétrine of aberrations; thirdly, by explaining the
theory of the cata-dioptric conftruétion ; fourthly, by de-
{cribing the moft approved inftruments, with i Hang ta

RE

the drawings that reprefent their figures on their refpeGive
ftands ; fifthly, by fhewing how their magnifying powers may
be meafured. by dynameters, and varied by different “arran: ;
ments ; and laftly, by exemplifying their a/es in a
ing {mall angles and their pomelpondiok terreftrial diftances.
But before we proceed further with this fubje&t, we muft
requeft our readers to perufe the articles ABERRATION,
Carortrics, Dioprrics, Lens, Mirror, Rerrecrion,
Rerraction, and SpecuLuM, in the preceding volumes
of our work, in order that we may not have occafion to
repeat what would otherwife have been neceflary to be in-
troduced in this place, to render our account fyfficiently
full, particularly in that part of it which relates to th

theory of fingle lenfes. ' ;

1. The Hiflory.—The invention of the telefcope, which was
one of the nobleft that modern ages can boaft of, has ena-
bled man to raife his eyes far above the furface of the globe
he inhabits, in fearch of worlds that were invifible to the
unaffiited eye ; and the more perfe& his inftrument is made,
the more celeftial bodies he difcovers {eattered through the
infinitude of endlefs fpace. Whether this invention was
cafual, or the offspring of ratiocination, cannot perhaps be
pofitively affirmed from any exifting document; but the pro-
bability is, that it was in a certain degree cafual: lenfes of
both the concave and convex formation were ufed feparately
to affift the human eye, antecedently to the conftruétion of
any telefcope; and the general belief is, that fome accidental.
placing of two lenfes, one convex and the other concave, of
different focal lengths, at fuch diftance from each other,
that the rays tranfmitted through them formed a piéture on
the retina of the eye, led to the difcovery that they poffeffed
the wonderful property of rendering a diftant body appa-
rently more large, and confequently more near, than it will
appear to the unaflifted eye, or to an eye ufing any fingle
lens whatever; this difcovery, once made, would obviou
lead to the conftruGtion of an inftrument, in which this Supe
combination of two lenfes would be the bafis.

The honour of having conftru€ted the firft telefcope,
which was no doubt of the dioptric or refra€ting fort, (from
Sioxreor, a perfpedtive inflrument,) has been attributed to va-
rious inventors, feveral of whom may have been equally en-
titled to the claim of originality, though only one can.be
confidered as the firf inventor. We profefs not to be in
poffeffion of better information on this fubjeét than our pre-
deceflors were, and therefore fhall fatisfy ourfelyes with the
enumeration of thofe perfons who appear to us worthy of.
being put on the lift of competitors for the honour of this
noble invention. Mr. W. Molyneux has afferted, in-his
“ Dioptrica Nova,” that our countryman Friar Bacon well
underitood the nature of all forts of optical glaffes, and
how to combine them fo as to form fome fuch ieunew as
the telefcope ; and Samuel Molyneux, the fon, has affirmed,
that not only the invention but conftruétion of a telefcope is
fairly attributable to Bacon, as may be colleéted from various
Latin phrafes in his Opus Majus; and Dr. Jebb, who edited.
this work, adduces a paflage from Bacon’s manufcript, to
prove that he aétually applied telefcopes to aftronomical .
purpofes fo long ago as in the 13th century; the friar hav-
ing died in the year 1294. ,

The Pee to which Mr. Molyneux refers, in fupport.
of Bacon’s claims, occur in his Opus Majus, p. 348, and
Pp: 357+ Jebb’s ed. 1733. The firft is as follows: “ Si
vero non fint corpora plana, per que vifus videt, fed fphe-
rica, tunc eft magna diverfitas : nam yel concavitas corporis
eft verfus oculum vel convexitas:’? whence it is inferred,
that he knew what a concave and convex glafs was. The
fecond is comprifed in a whole chapter, where he fays, * De

vifione

ti ee

TELESCOPE.

vifione frata majora funt ; nam de facili patet per canones
fupra-dictos, quod maxima poffunt apparere minima, et e
contra, et longe diftantia videbuntur propinquiffime, et e con-
verfo. Nam poflumus fic figurare perfpicua, et taliter ea
ordinare refpeétu noftri vifis et rerum, quod frangentur ra-
dii, et fletentur quorfumcunque yoluerimus, ut fub quo-
cunque angulo yoluerimus, videbimus rem prope vel longe,
&c. Sic etiam faceremus folem et lunam et ftellas defcen-
dere fecundum apparentiam hic inferius, &c.;”? i.e. greater
things than thefe may be performed by refraéted vifion ; for
it is eafy to underftand by the canons above-mentioned, that
the greateit things may appear exceeding fmall, and on the
contrary : alfo that the moft remote objects may appear juft
at hand, and on the contrary : for we can give fuch figures to
tranf{parent bodies, and difpofe them in fuch order with re-
fpe& to the eye and the objects, that the rays fhall be re-
fraGted and bent towards any place we pleafe; fo that we
fhall fee the object near at hand or at a diftance, under any
angle we -pleafe, &c. So that thus the fun, moon, and
ftars, may be made to defcend hither in appearance &c. Mr.
Molyneux has alfo cited another pafiage out of Bacon’s
Epittle ad Parifienfem, of the Secrets'of Art and Nature,
cap. 5. to this purpofe: ‘ Poffunt etiam fic figurari perfpi-
cua, ut longiflime pofita appareant propinqua, et e contra-
rio: ita quod ex incredibili diftantia legeremus literas minu-
tiflimas, et numeraremus res quantumque parvas, et ftellas
faceremus apparere quo vellemus:” i. e. glafles or diapha-
nous bodies may be formed, that the ae remote objects
may appear juft ‘at hand, and contrarily ; fo that we may
read the {malleft letter at an incredible diftance, and may
number things though never fo fmall, and may make the
ftars appear as near as we pleafe.

Dr. Smith, however, who muft be confidered as_ having
been’ a competent judge of this fubje€t, was unwilling to
allow the inference, that Bacon a€tually made a telefcope,
and conje@tures that he only conceived in his mind how fuch
an inftrument might be conftruéted ; which, by the bye,
is ftill allowing the invention, though not the conftruétion,
to have been his. But be this as it may, we find: no
further notice taken of any fuch inftrument as a telefcope
until about the year 1560, when John Baptifta Porta, a
Neapolitan, is faid by Wolfius to have made a telefcope’;
but the defcription he gave of his invention in his Magia
Naturalis is fo defeGtive, that Kepler declared it unintel-
ligible ; neither does it appear that this telefeope was ufed
in any celeftial obfervation. Soon after this time, viz. in
the year 1579, according to the account of Thomas Digges,
in his Stratifticos, his father, Leonard Digges, had learned
from a manufeript book.of the learned Bacon, how to dif-
cover objects at a diftance, by perfpective glaffes fet at due
angles; when the fun fhone upon them; but it is not evi-
dent whether the conftruétion refembled that of a telefeope
or of a camera ob{cura, nor whether it was of the dioptric
or catoptric kind.

According to Defcartes, James Metius, while amufing
himfelf with making mirrors and burning-glafles, happened
to look through two lenfes, one concave and the other con-
vex, placed by accident at a proper diftance from each other,
and thus difcovered the property that fuch a combination
of glaffes -poffeffes of fhewing obje€ts at a diitance ; this
difcovery is faid to have been near the end of the 16th’cen-
tury. The fame difcovery has been alfo attributed to John
Lipperfheim, a maker of {peétacles at Middleburgh ; but Bo-
rellus, in his book entitled «« De vero Télefcopii Inventore,”’
makes Janfen, or Hanfen, (Zacharias Joannides, ) another
maker of fpeétacles at the fame place, the real inventor of
the telefcope in the year 1590; and there feems to remain

Vou. XXXV.

little doubt but that Janfen was entitled to the houdur.
The account is, that after having arranged the glaffes in a
tube, this ingenious mechanic haftened to prefent it to prince
Maurice, under a perfuafion that it would benefit him in his
wars ; but the fecret foon became public, and Lipperfheim
immediately copied the invention. ‘This firft tele{cope mag-
nified about fifteen or fixteen times, and its inventor viewed
with it the {pots of the moon, the body of Jupiter, and
even faw fome {mall ftars above and below his dife, which
appeared to move round him, and which therefore muft have
been his fatellites. From this fource, it is fuppofed that
Metius gained his information, as well as Cornelius Drebell,
of Alemaer in Holland, who afterwards made fimilar inftru-
ments. We may alfo mention Francis Fontana, an Italian,
as one who claimed the honour of this invention in the year
1608 ; but from what we have already faid, of Janfen par-
ticularly, he cannot be confidered as the firft inventor,
though it is poffible that the report of fuch an invention
having taken place might incite him to devife the means of
effecting a fimilar contrivance. This, it is generally under- .
ftood, was the cafe with the famous Galileo, who, when
profeflor of mathematics at Padua, heard it reported at
Venice, in the year 1609, that a Dutchman had prefented
count Maurice of Naffau with an optical inftrument, which
had the property of making diftant -objeéts appear as
though they were near; but notwithitanding about twenty
years had elapfed’ fince the invention, the means ufed for
producing the wonderful effe& were not known ; and Galileo,
on his return to Padua, in a very few days not only contrived
but conitru€ted a telefcope, which he prefented to the doge
Leonardo Donati, and to the fenate of Venice, together with
an account of the conftruétion and ufes which the inftru-
ment might be applied to, both by fea and land ; for which
fervice it is well known that his ftipend as profeffor was
thenceforth tripled. Among other difcoveries that were
made with Galileo’s telefcope in the heavenly regions, the
four fatellites of Jupiter were found by him to revolve round
this planet in their refpeCtive periods, and were called the
Mediccan ftars, in honour of the houfe of Medici. This dif.
coyery took place early in the year 1610, and Galileo, pur-
fuing his fayourite ftudy till March, publifhed at Venice his
“« Nuncius Sidereus,’’ containing an account of all his difco-
veries, and dedicated it to Cofmo, the grand duke of Tuf-
cany, who, in a letter written by himfelf, invited the aftro-
nomer to quit Padua for an increafed ftipend, without the
labour of a leéturefhip. The firft-tele{cope which Galileo
conftruéted had only a power of three times; his fecond was,
fix times more powerful; and his third magnified thirty-
three times, which, at fo early a date, was no contemptible
inftrument. *

Hence Galileo, though evidently not the firft maker of
a telefcope, has been confidered as entitled to all the merit
that is due to fuch a noble invention, feeing he had no-model
before him, nor initruétions how to proceed in the accom-
plithment of his ingenious work. But though Galileo was
fuccefsfal in the conftruétion and ufes of his telefcope, which
was of the refraéting fort, with a concave eye-glafs, as we
fhall fhew prefently, yet it remained for that fagacious ma-
thematician Kepler to explain, on philofophical principles,
the rationale of that conftru@tion. It was he who firft ex-
plained the nature and effeéts of both the converging and
diverging rays of light, after pafling through the refpective
lenfes, and who demonitrated the principles by which new
arrangements might be made in the glafles, that would pro-
duce a fuperior inftrument. He fhewed that in fmall obli-
quities of incidence, the angle of incidence exceeds the angle
of refraétion about three times.

Ff He

TELESCOPE.

He alfo firft proved, that in a plano-convex lens, parallel
ays are made to converge to a point which is diftant from
the lens juft the diameter of the {phere of convexity ; and
that, if both fides of the lens are equally convex, this point
will be at the centre of the circle of convexity. It remained
however for Cayallieri to difcover and to prove, in cafes
where the radii of curvature of the two fides of a double-
convex lens are unequal, that as the fum of both the diame-
ters is to one of them, fo is the other to the diftance of the
focus: and it may be proper to notice here, that the fame
rules are applicable to concave lenfes, except that the focus
is at the contrary fide of the glafs.

It is remarkable, however, that Defcartes, the pupil of
Kepler, makes no mention of his tutor’s improvements, in the
art of conftruéting a telefcope, having been carried into exe-
cution for feveral years after Galileo’s was brought into ufe.
It was not till the year 1630, that Scheiner defcribes, in his
“ Rofa Urfina,”’ the plan of fubftituting a convex inftead of
a concave eye-glafs, as fuggefted by Kepler, to be ufed for
aftronomical purpofes, where the inverfion of the object is a
matter of po importance, but where the increafed field of
view is of material confequence. The fame mechanician
foon after adds a fecond convex glafs to his eye-tube, by
means of which the objeéts become ereét, which addition was
no improvement to the vifion, but rather a detriment ; and
after him, Rkeita gave an ere¢t pofition to objects, by ufing
three fimilar lenfes in the eye-tube inftead of two, which
greatly improved the vifion, without other detriment than
the lofs of a little light: and becaufe Rheita’s telefcope
was adapted for viewing objects on the earth, as well as in
the heavens, it was diftinguifhed by the name of the ¢er-
réftrial telefcope, by way of diftinétion from Scheiner’s
Cre one. In both thefe telefcopes, as well as in

alileo’s with a concave eye-glafs, the power is eftimated
from the focus of the objeét-glafs divided by the focus of
the eye-glafs, as will be feen hereafter.

The fludy of dioptrics now became general, and feveral
improvements were offered by different individuals in the
conftruétion of the refraéting telefcope ; but among the real
improyers mutt be placed the very ingenious Huygens, who,
being well acquainted with the aberration of the rays of
light arifing from the fpherical figure of the glaffes, con-
trived a better arrangement of the eye-glaffes than had before
been devifed. It was however very foon found, that the
power of a telefcope of any of the preceding conftrudtions,
could not be increafed by fhortening the focus of the eye-
glafs alone, beyond certain limits, without introducing great
indiftinétnefs, arifing from the fpherical aberrations; and
that the beft mode of gaining power, without diminution of
light and diftinétnefs, is an increafe of the focal length, with-
out much increafe of aperture of the object-glafs; and a
little experience fhewed, that it is neceffary to increafe this
length in the duplicate ratio of the propofed increafe of
power: f. ¢ in order to magnify ¢qwice as much, the focus
of the objeét-glafs muft be made four times as long as that of
another telefcope that has the fame light and diftin&tnefs ;
and for any other power in a fimilar proportion. The con-
fequence of this difcovery was, that different makers began
to vie with each other, with refpeét fimply to the length of
their telefcopes: among thefe may be mentioned Euttachio
Divini at Rome; Campani at Dalat fir Paul Neille,
Mr. Reive, and Mr. Cox, in England; and in France,
Borelli and Auzout. The laft-mentioned mechanician fuc-
ceeded in grinding an objeét-glafs of the aftonifhing length of
600 feet ; and it is faid, that Hartfocker made them even
longer than this. ;

It will here occur to the reader, that tubes of this enor-

10

mous length, if pratticable, could not be joe by an
obferver ; and hence we find, that thefe very long object-
glaffes were fixed on the top of long poles, or to growing”
trees, and fo contrived as to be capable of adjuftment for the
axis of vifion when turned to different altitudes, agreeably to
the required pofition of the remote eye-glafs. .

But while the length of the telefcope was thus inconve~
niently increafed, and the trouble of making good obferv-
ations therewith proportionably augmented, it became-a
queftion to determine in what proportion the aperture might
be enlarged with the increafe of focal length of the objeét-
glafs. Auzout wrote a paper, and delivered it to the Royal
Society in the year 1665, in which he affirmed, that the
diameter of the objeét-glafs ought always to be in a fub-
duplicate ratio of its focal length, or nearly fo ; and aceord~
ingly drew up a table of apertures fuitable for all focal lengths,
from 4 inches to 400 feet: upon which Dr. Hooke very
properly remarked, that the fame glafs may have its aper~
ture adyantageoufly enlarged or diminifhed, according to the
quantity of light proceeding from the objeé&t viewed.

While powerful telefcopes were thus obliged to be un-
manageably long, and obtained the name of aerial telefcopes,
from the circumitance of their having no tubes to be inclofed
in, the immortal Newton had his penetrating mind occupied
with meditated improvements on the figure and arrangement
of lenfes, and proceeding, as he atways did, on rational prin-
ciples, difcovered, from the pee and coloured {pec-
trum formed by rays of light pafling through a triangular
prifm, and from experiments calciilated to inveftigate the
caufe of fuch an oblong form and coloured appearance, that
light is not homogeneous, and that different rays are’ dif-
ferently refrangible, when tranfmitted through the fame
medium. This grand difcovery prefented difficulties
{tanding in the way of the improvement of the refraéting or
dioptric telefcope, apparently much greater than thofe which
had previoufly been difcovered, as arifing only out of the

{pherical figure of the glaffes; and all hope of fuccefs in

making hort telefcopes of great power, and yet with fuf-
ficient light and diftinétnefs, but without an admixture of
coloured rays, was given up.

Yet to a mind like Newton’s, it naturally occurred, that
what could not be praétically effeéted by refraction, might
probably be accomplifhed by reflection of the rays of light
into a focus, where, as there would be no feparation of the
colorific rays by a refraéting medium, there would be no
colour nor elongation of the focal point, pier from any
other aberration, than what might be caufed by the figure of
the reflecting furface ; he therefore abandoned his propofed
plan of grinding lenfes after the figure of fome of the conic

feétions, (for which fir Chriftopher Wren contrived a-

machine,) to avoid the effeéts of f{pherical aberration in
dioptric telefcopes, and turned his mind to the improvement
of catoptric or rather cata-dioptric telefeopes, which had
been previoufly propofed to Defcartes by Merfenne, and
a€tually conftruéted by James Gregory of Aberdeen.
The compofition for the beft metal for refleétion, and the
mode of grinding and polifhing, as propofed and praétifed
by Newton, we have already detailed under our article
Sprcutum; but as reflecting telefcopes have been con-
{truéted differently, we will here introduce a fhort account
of the refpective differences, before we refume the remaining
narrative of the improvements in dioptric telefcopes. The
firft conftruétion of the reflecting telefcope was the Grego-
rian, and moft of the portable reflectors continue to be of
this conftruétion at the prefent day: its large fpeculum is
concave, perforated at the centre, and placed at the interior
end of the large tube ; and the {mall reflector is alfo concave,

placed

=

TELESCOPE.

placed oppoftte the central hole of the large one, in fuch an
adjuftable manner, that the rays, after a fecond reflection,
crofs one another, and come to the eye-glafs in fuch a way,
that an ereé picture of the objeét, or rather of the image of
the obje¢t, is formed on the retina of the eye. In this con-
ftruction, it has been fuppofed that the figure of the large
concave fpeculum ought to be truly parabolic, becaufe this
is the figure recommended by Newton for his conftruction ;
but this conclufion is erroneous ; for it is the joint effet of
both the fpecula that muft be adverted to in their refpeétive
figures, fo that the rays may come without aberration to the
eye-glafs after both refle@ions ; and in order to produce this
joint effect, the curve of the large fpeculum muft be fome-
what more than parabolic, viz. approaching to hyperbolic,
becaufe the {mall fpeeulum is alfo concave, and has its fepa-
rate aberration.

In the Newtonian conftru€tion, the large fpeculum is, or
ought to be, truly parabolic, and the {mall one plane, fet
diagonally at an angle of 45°; fo that the rays, after the
fecond reflection, come to the eye-tube on the fide of the
large tube, and near its aperture: the rays do not crofs
here, but come to a focus at the eye-glafs, where the object
is reprefented inverted and well defined, as well as bright ;
for when the rays fall obliquely on the {mall refleGtor, they
are almoit all refleted without difperfion, which is an ad-
vantage that this conftruétion has over the Gregorian.
When the Newtonian telefcope was propofed to Huygens,

he had the candour to acknowledge, which proved to be the

fa&t, that there would not be that limit to the aperture of a
refleGtor, that is prefcribed by natural neceflity to that of a
refraGtor, and that the power as well as light may be made
far to exceed thofe of the latter.

The next conftruction of a refleéting telefcope was that
of Caffegrain, defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfactions
of the year 1672. ‘This differs from the Gregorian only in
this particular, that the {mall {peculum is convex, and the
Focus of the large or concave one may be longer than is re-
quired in the other, for the fame length of tube; the rays
do not crafs after the fecond refleGtion, and confequently the
object is feen inverted, as in the Newtonian: but here the
curve of the large {peculum is lefs than parabolic, in order
that the joint effect of both the refleGions may be an ex-
emption from aberration. This adjuftment of the figures of
the metallic furfaces is beft underftood and accomplifhed by
the firft-rate opticians, and is but little known to mere
theorifts.

Of the Herfchelian telefeope we fhall only fay, in this
place, that it differs from the Newtonian in no other refpe&,
except in its fize and powers, and that the fecond reflector
is difpenfed with, the length of the tube being equal to the
focal diftance of the large fpeculum, and the head of the ob-
ferver being confequently placed at the upper end or aper-
ture of the tube ; fo that, in this conftruction, as little light
as poffible is loft from the fingle reflection, the principal fofs
being that which is intercepted, on its entrance into the tube,
by the head of the obferver. The parabolic curve for the
face of the {fpeculum is equally preper for the Herfchelian as
for the. Newtonian telefcope.

From thefe fhort hiftorical notices it will be feen, that
Merfenne firft fuggefted the hint for conftruéting a reflecting
telefcope, which muft have been before the year 1651, when
his Catoptrics were printed; or, aecording to Defcartes’
third and twenty-ninth letters, written in 1639, though not
publifhed till 1666, before thefe letters were written. Gre-
gory, who might or might not have feen Merfenne’s fug-
geftion, publifhed an account of his conftruction in his
“ Optica Promota,’’ in the year 1663; but as he was not

a fkilful mechanic himfelf, it is underftood that his telefcope
was but an indifferent one, and that the theory of his con-
{truétion was not completely realized to his with. At this
juncture, fir Ifaac Newton, who was a good mechanician,
as well as mathematician and experimental philofopher, took
the fubje& into his confideration, and, by his fuccefsful
labonrs, prevented the invention from falling into oblivion.
His proceedings met with interruption from the occurrence
of the plague ; but about the end of the year 1668, he be-
gan his experiments on fpeculum metal, and, in the year
1672, produced two {mall reflecting telefcopes. In thefe,
the large fpecula were ground into a fpherical concave fur-
face, as being the eafieft to execute ; but he was aware that
the parabolic curve, recommended by Gregory, would be
preferable, when it could be accomplifhed by mechanical
contrivances, which he judged to be within the reach of
human ingenuity. The refult of thefé labours was communi-
cated to the Royal Society of London; and, through the
medium of their fecretary, Mr. Oldenburgh, to the in-
fees Huygens, who teftified his approyal of this con-
itruction in an account which was publiihed in the Journa
des Scavans for the year 1672: and in this way, nearly the
whole of Europe became acquainted with the Newtonian con-
ftruction. In the mean time, Caffegrain, a Frenchman, who
had varied Gregory’s conftru¢tion, by fubftituting a convex
inftead of a concave {mall fpeculum, as we have already
ftated, in the fame journal (des Scavans, 1672), contelted
the honour of having been the firft improver of the original
Gregorian telefcope ; which claim drew from Newton fe-
veral objeétions to Caffegrain’s conftrution, that will indeed
apply equally to the Gregorian. We have, however, re-
cently witneffed in captain Kater an advocate for Caffe-

rain’s telefcope, in preference to that of Gregory, (fee

hil. Tranf. of London, 1813 and 1814,) principally with
refpect to the brightnefs and diftinG@tnefs of objects refpec-
tively feen by them ; and his conclufion is, that much of the
light is diffipated by the crofing of the rays in the focal point,
which is a doétrine waiting for confirmation. In Cafle-
grain’s telefcope, the picture of the object itfelf is viewed
by the eye; but in Gregory’s, the picture of the mare
reprefenting the objeét at the point of crofling is only
viewed ; which circumftance conftitutes the effential dif-
ference in the two conftructions: and it is very probable
that the light proceeding from the image of an object may
not be fo vivid as that proceeding from the objet itfelf, of
which the image may be confidered as a lefs enlightened
reprefentation.

It is remarkable that no improvement was made on New-
ton’s {mall telefcopes till about the year 1723, when Hadley
prefented to the Royal Society a reflecting telefcope of
Newton’s conftruétion, in which the focus of the fpeculum
was 10 feet 54 inches. Though Newton’s were only
fix inches long each, they were compared to the fix-feet
refractors, fuch as were made at that time ; but what muit
have been the public feeling, when Hadley produced his
enlarged inftrument ! » This was found at leaft equal in power
to the famous Huygenian refractor of 123 feet ; at leait, its
power and diftin€tnefs were equal, though the light was not
quite fo bright.

Since Hadley’s time, the refleGting telefcope has ex-
perienced confiderable improvements Eom the labours of
Mr. Short, Mr. Mudge, the Rey. John Edwards, Dr,
Herfchel (now fir William Herfchel), and others who are
our own contemporaries.

But while reflecting telefcopes were undergoing their
various improvements, and were fuperfeding the ufe of the
long refractors, the idea of correéting both the {pherical and

Ff prifmatic

TELESCOPE.

prifmatic aberrations was not abandoned. We have already
aflerted, under our article Crreir, that Chefter More
Hall, efq. of More Hall in Effex, fo long ago as in the
year 1729, conftruéted telefcopes of different glaffes ; fome
of which have been preferved, and found, on examination, to
be of the achromatic kind, though not known by this de-
ffgnation. But as we are not in poffeffion of any record
re{pecting the invention and mode of conftruéting fuch
telefcope, we do not prefume to fay that this was the arche-
type of the modern achromatic inftrument ; and, therefore,
we do not confider it as detraéting from the merit of the
philofophic optician, who afterwards deduced the principles
of the invention from accurate and ingenious experiments,
and made known his fuccefsful application of them at a time
when his claim to originality might have been difputed, if
the prior invention had been then divulged.

It was not till about the year 1747 that Euler, not
knowing what had been done by Hall, and profiting by a
hint that had been fuggefted by fir Ifaac Newton, conceived
the plan of conftruéting an objeét-glafs of two fuch ma-
terials, of different refractive powers, as might countera¢t,
by repeated refraétions, the difperfion of the differently re-
frangible rays, and thus bring all the rays into one focal
point, fo as to admit of a highly magnifying eye-piece.
Accordingly two objec-glaffes were fo inclofed in a box, as
to include clear water between them, to be ufed inftead of a
fingle lens; and though the experiment failed of fuccefs,
the memoir, written 3 Euler on the occafion, attrated
the attention of the late Mr. J. Dollond, mathematical-
inftrument maker of London, who foon after fet about
making experiments, as Newton had done, to afcertain if the
rebiadlive and difperfive powers of various tranfparent fab-
ftances are in a conftant ratio, with the view of compound-
ing, which he at length effeCted, an objeét-glafs that would
bring the rays of light tranfmitted through it to a focal
point, without the prifmatic aberration.

Tn the memoir which Euler had written, and which was
publifhed in the Berlin Memoirs of 1747, he affumed that
the indices of refraction might be exprefled by the powers of
a certain invariable root, and that the exponents of thofe
powers are proportional for the different rays of light paffing
through different media. This paper coming to the hands
of the ingenious Dollond, excited his attention ; and in the
year 1753 he addrefled a letter to James Short, “* concerning
a miftake in M. Euler’s theorem for corre&ting the aber-
rations in the objeét-glaffes of refracting telefcopes ;”’ which
letter was publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa&tions of the
fame year ; the objeét of which was to prove that Euler had
affumed an hypothefis, as the bafis of his.calculations, which
was contrary to both reafon and experiment, or, as Short
obferves in his accompanying letter, ‘ contrary to the efta-
blifhed principles of optics.”” To this Euler replied, and
maintained that his optical principle was a true law of na-
ture; but the practical teft of its truth was wanting, the u/e
that it was intended to be put to.

In 1754, the Swedifh geometer Klingenftierna took up
the fubjeét, which now attra¢ted the attention of various
mathematicians, and attempted to prove that the Newtonian
principle, oppofed to Euler’s, is in fome extreme cafes irre-
concileable with natural phenomena, and therefore ought not
to be received as a law of nature. Dollond, therefore, thus
oppofed, had recourfe to aétual experiment, agreeably to

ewton’s plan of philofophizing’; and, rejecting the pro-
pofal of putting water between two menifei, with a view of
correéting the prifmatic aberrations by a number of refrac-
tions, proceeded to inftitute a regular feries 6f experiments,
ini order to determine what aul be done by the oppofite

refractions of different diaphanous media; and as thefe éx
periments were the foundation of all the improvements that
have followed in the conftruGtion of colourlefs, or what Dr.
Bevis denominated achromatic, objeét-glaffes of a refracting
telefcope, we fhall here introduce a fummary account of
them.

In the firft place, Dollond contrived to form a hollow in-
verted pyramid with two oppofite fides of glafs, as in fig. 1,
Plate XXIV. Aftronomical Inftruments, and placed in an in-
verted pofition, within a triangular and equilateral prifm of
glafs, to reft as reprefented in the figure. The veffel was
then filled with clear water, and a ray of light made to pafs
through both the water and glafs prifm: the angle at the
junGion of the glafs plates, clofing the veffel, was capable
of enlargement or diminution ; and the glafs fides were madé
to recede or approach, until an objeé& feen through the water
and glafs prifm was in its true place, i.e. until the refrac-
tion of the water balanced the oppofite refraétion of the
glafs. The refult of this experiment proved contrary to
what had been expeéted from Newton’s experiments, viz.
an external objet feen through this compound prifm was
fringed with colours. But to be quite fure that there’ was
no aecebtion in the appearance, a glafs prifm, formed to an
acute angle of only 9 degrees, was fubftituted, which was
alfo more convenient for the experiment, and then the
veffel was clofed, as in fig. 2, until the oppofite refra€tions
balanced each other as before; but ftill the obje&t viewed
through the compound prifm was tinged with the prifmatic
colours. The mean rays in thefe trials proceeded in a
itraight line, after quitting the fecond wedge of water ; but
the extreme rays were defle€ted, or turned refpectively out
from exaét parallelifm.

After having thus afcertained that equal and oppofite re-
fractions of glafs and water will not deftroy the colours, the
author varied the experiment, by altering the wedges of
water, till he found that the refra€tion occafioned by fe
water muft be to that occafioned by the glafs as 5 : 4, be-
fore the colours will difappear. The next ftep was to purfue
the proportions thus afcertained, in the conftruétion of an
object-glafs containing water; but after uniting a deep and
double convex lens of pure water with a concave one of
glafs, the objec feen, through the telefcope with this com-
pound objeét-glafs was indeed free from colour, but by no
means fo diftinét as was defired, and confequently the
{pherical aberration yet remained. This telefeope was made
in 1757, and ferved to’ prove that the feparation of the ex-
treme rays, or what has fince been called the di/perfive
power, in the cafe of an union of glafs with water, is nof
proportioned to the mean refraéion ; as fir Ifaac Newton had
afferted it to be, in the fame experiment (fee Newton’s
Optics, p. 112, 3d edit.) : confequently the idea muft now
have occurred of trying other diaphanous fubftances with
different refrative powers, to fee what the difperfion would
be inthem. After an interval of fome time, during which
different kinds of glafs were procured, the ingenious and
perfevering artift found, for the firft time in the year 1757
that the peg tae power of the cryftal or white flint- fs
was greater than that of the Englifh croqwn-glafs, and alfo
that the power of the latter was very fimilar to that of the
Venice ftraw-coloured glafs. He determined, therefore, to
try a wedge of flint-glafs, and another of cro afs,
formed to different angles, as in fig. 3, until, when reverfed,
their oppofite refraftions were equal; which equality took °
place, when their angles were refpetively 25 degrees and’
29 eget in which cafe, the fines of half the angles, or
the indices of their refra&tions, were 216 : 20, or nearly as
19: 22. But though the direGtion of the pencil of light

was
4

TELESCOPE.

was now unchanged, as was expected, the compound rays
had not all the fame divergence. The fhape of the wedges
was then modified, fo that the colours difappeared by a due
oppofition of their refpeétive difperfions ; and when this was
effe@ed, the refractive powers of the two wedges were
found nearly 2 : 3; and, confequently, the fines of half
their angles, 19 : 333; which ratio is nearly 4: 7. In this
‘fituation of the wedges, the rays which enter parallel emerge
alfo parallel, while they are equally defle&ed from the points
ofemergence. Thefe refults may be obtained very ftrikingly
by an union of four wedges, or pair of compound wedges,
as reprefented in fig. 4, where the crown receives the rays
firit, and where the rays, at equal diftances from the central
line of union, meet always at the fame point. ‘This, there-
fore, pointed out the conftrution of a double object-glafs,
fuch 4s is reprefented in fig. 5, in which the convex curve
of the crown-glafs is to the concave curye of the flint of
given qualities nearly as 7 : 4, or nearly in the ratio of their
refpeCtive difperfive powers. But to avoid the too great
effe& of fpherical aberration, arifing from the quick curves,
the fingle convex lens of Ete REE was made into a double
convex, with double the radius of convexity ; and alfo the
fingle concave might be made double, with a fimilar increafe
in its radius of concavity, to anfwer the fame purpofe as the
combination laft defcribed. But, in this cafe, the con-
vexity of one glafs would not fit the concavity of the other,
fo as to come nearly in conta&t throughout : it appeared ne-
_ ceffary, therefore, that while the internal faces fitted each
other, the external concavity of the flint-glafs fhould be
eight times lefs, ‘or of longer radius than before propofed,
in order to maintain the balance of oppofite difperfions ; or
otherwife, as in’ fig. 6, if the double concave faces of flint-
glafs remain as above ftated, the front convexity of the
crown-glafs muft be five-fevenths of the due curvature, as
propoied above ; while the inner furface remains in perfect
conta with the concavity of the other. In thefe com-
binations, the fuperior refra¢tion of the convex lens, being
diminifhéd one-third ‘part by the oppofing refraétive power
of the concave lens, required this convex to be ground and

lifhed to a focus three times fhorter than would be required
an the fame lens ufed fingly ; and the option, that is af-
forded the artiit, of varying the curves at pleafure, provided
the combined effet of the compound lens fhall produée a
proper effec in banifhing the colours, admits of a modifica-
tion that will correé the f{pherical aberration alfo, in a great
meafure. Telefcopes on this achromatic principle were firft
conftru@ted in the year 1758, and when their merit was
once acknowledged, the great number that the inyentor and
his fucceffors have had occafion to make, both for. fale
among their cuftomers, and for exportation, have afforded
them the eafy means of trying a variety of concaye and con-
vex glafles together in fucceffion, before they were finally
paired ; fo that their fuccefs not only originated in, but has
been continued by, the aid of experiments, which no one
but the Dollonds has had the power of executing to fo great
an extent. See DoLionp. ?

Nor was J. Dollond’s fuccefs confined to the manipula-
tion of objeét-glaffes alone ; he had previoufly contrived and
conftruéted the improved fyftem of eye-glafies, in which
object he was followed by his fon-in-law, Ramiden.

This improvement confifted in extending the ufual number
of eye-glaffes to five, fo fyftematically arranged, that by
dividing the errors of {pherical aberration, they reduced
their amount to an inconfiderable quantity.

The value of this arrangement will be beft_underftood
from his own words, pice we will extract from his
letter, publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa¢tions of the

year 1753. “If any one,” fays he, “ would have the
vifual angle of a telefcope to contain 20 degrees, the ex-
treme pencils of the field muft be bent or refraéted in an
angle of 10 degrees; which, if it be performed by one eye-
glafs, will caufe an aberration from the figure in propor-
tion to the cube of that angle; but if two glaffes are fo
proportioned and fituated, as that the refraction may be
equally divided between them, they will each of them pro-
duce a refraétion equal to half “hs required angle; and,
therefore, the aberration being in proportion to the cube
of half the angle taken twice over, will be but a fourth
part of that, which is in proportion to the cube of the
whole angle; becaufe twice the cube of one, is but one-fourth
the cube of two ; fo the aberration from the figure, where
two eye-glafles are rightly proportioned, is but a fourth of
what muit unavoidably be, where the whole is performed
by a fingle eye-glafs. By the fame way of reafoning, when
the refraétion is divided between three glaffes, the aberration
will be found to be but the ninth part of what would)
produced from a fingle glafs ; becaufe three times the cube
of one, is but one-ninth the cube of three. Whence it
appears, that by increafing the’ number of eye-glaffes, the
indiftin€tnefs which is obferved near the borders of the field
of a telefcope, may be very much diminifhed, though not
entirely taken away.”

We have given this quotation at full length to thew, that
in his adoption of feveral glaffes in an eye-piece, the inge-
nious mechanic was not entirely indebted to his experiments,
unafiifted by reafoning and mathematical inferences, and
accordingly the Royal Society rewarded his fkilful labours
with Copley’s medal. John Dollond was fucceeded in his
bufinefs by his no lefs ingenious and induftrious fon, Peter
Dollond, who improved the achromatic obje&-glafs- ftill
further, by placing a double concave flint-glafs between two
convex ones of crown-glafs, as in fig. 7.. and by enlarging
the aperture to 3 inches in a 45-inch telefcope; of thefe,
a great number has been manufaétured, and feveral of five-
feet focal length. His calculations of the radii of conyexit
and of concavity were never publicly made known; an
perhaps conftituted a fecret, on which the continuance of
his celebrity depended, when the time of his father’s patent
had expired. The bufinefs is now fuccefsfully condu@ed
by G. Dollond, the nephew, to whom we are indebted for
much liberal information ; but at no period had any of the
Dollonds an agent in Paris, as is faid in the new Supple-
ment to the Encyc. Britannica. For feyeral years from the
time of the eldeit Dollond’s death, the foreign TranfaGtions
wete crowded with diflertations and memoirs on: the combi-
nations of achromatic lenfes mathematically determined, and
the fubjeét afforded ample fcope for the geometrical and
analytical refearches of an Euler, a Clairaut, and a D? Alem-
bert, as well as for Bofcovich, Klingenftierna, Keftner,
and Hennert: but in this, as in fome other {peculative in-
veltigations, the labours of the profound mathematician
have not much benefited the practical advancement of the
art to which thefe labours have been direfted; nay, they
have tended to keep at a diftance from each other the mathe-
matician and the mechanic.

Bofcovich’s eye-piece, however, may be confidered as
conftituting an exception to the preceding remark, and de-
ferves here to be particularly noticed. According to one
of his theorems, an eye-piece free from colours may be
compofed of two fimilar lenfes of the fame glafs, provided
they be placed from each other juft one-half of the fum of
their focal diftances ; which is yery fimilar to the eye-glafs

-now commonly adopted, in preference to a fingle Jens, jin

the common aftronomical refraéting telefcope, the only dif-
ference

TELESCOPE.

ference being, that in Bofcovich’s the lenfes are of equal
convexity ; whereas, in the common improved aftronomical
eye-piece, the inner lens has a longer focus than the outer
one, inthe ratio of 3 : 1, and being both plano-convex, they
both have their curved faces turned towards the object-
lafs.

e From the preceding experiments of the Dollonds, have
refulted all the advantages that the achromatic refra&ting
telefcopes poffefs over the long telefcopes with fimple
objeét-glaffes, and which have put them in competition with
the belt reflectors in the effential qualities of power, light,
and diftinétnefs of vifion. There is, however, an imper-
feétion, notwithftanding Dollond’s great fkill and perfever-
ance, which remains yet to be overcome, if it is not in-
vincible, which is, that while the colours occafioned by the
extreme rays are correéted with fufficient accuracy by the
compound objeét-glafs, yet the intermediate rays are not
perfeétly corrected; and if any media can be fo modified as
to correét all the rays that fall on every point of the furface
of the object-glafs, fo as to make them unite at the fame
point in the line of the axis; then, and not till then, will
the object-glafs be quite perfeét. Peter, the fon of John
Dollond, who, we have faid, fueceeded to his father’s bufi-
nefs, purfued this fubje€t after his father’s death ; and in
the year 1765, communicated to the Royal Society by letter
the refult of his experiments. He remarks, that when
his father had made objeét-glafles of one convex lens of
crown-giafs, and of one concave of flint-glafs, to be ufed
with convex eye-glaffes, it was found that the excefs of
aberration was in the convex portion of the compound
objeé&-glafs, and that the equality of the counteracting
aberrations could not be carried to any great diftance from
the centre of the glaffes ; he therefore attempted, about the
year 1758, to make fhort objedt-glafles of the fame fort,
to be ufed with concave eye-glaffes ; but it was found, that,
as the field of view, in ufing a concave eye-glafs, depended
on the aperture of the objeét-glafs, the limits of the aper-
ture were too confined with a double objeét-glafs. This
trial led the fenior Dollond to a conclufion, which the
fon took up, and profited by ; namely, that the excefs of
{pherical aberration, occafioned by one double convex lens
of crown-glafs, might be diminifhed by fubftituting two
plano-convex lenfes of fimilar glafs and curves, placed one
at each fide of the double concave of flint-glafs. The
fenior Dollond had fucceeded with this conftruétion when
a concave eye-glafs was ufed, and when the compound focus
was fhort; but it remained for the fon to complete a long
object-glafs. of this conftruétion, to be ufed with conyex
eye-glaffes ; which he fucceeded in doing, firft with a tele-
{cope of 5-feet focus, and 3% inches aperture, and afterwards
with a 34-feet one of the fame aperture, which he invited
the Royal Society to fee, and which was the prototype of
the numerous achromatic telefcopes of the fame dimenfions,
which have been fince conftructed and difperfed by fale
through all the regions of the globe.

Among the frit achromatic telefcopes made by P. Dol-
lond, was one purchafed by the duc de Chaulnes, who ex-
amined very minutely the radii of the refpedtive glaffes, and
publifhed an account of them in French meafures, which,
converted into Englith inches, will ftand thus; 32.4 and

0.8 for the outer convex of crown-glafs ; 22.2 and 30.6
or the double concave of flint; and 30.6 with 35.5
for the inner convex of crown-glafs ; but as the qualities
of the refpeétive glaffes are not fpecified, no ufeful in-
ference can be drawn for the conftruétion of another tele-
Scope, in which the glafs of each lens may be of another
quality. This telefcope, we learn from the prefent’ Mr.

G. Dollond, had a focal length of 46 inches: and the five-
feet telefcopes fubfequently made, have each an aperture of
four inches: but the largeft and belt telefcope of the achro-
matic kind ever made by P. Dollond, is that of ten-feet
focus, and five inches aperture, lately converted into a
fuperb tranfit inftrument by Mr. Troughton, and placed in
Greenwich Obfervatory. See Transit Jn/frument.

Soon after Peter Dollond’s telefcopes began to be in re-
pute, namely, in the year 1759, Benjamin Martin, at the
fame time a mathematician and a mechanic, who had long
turned his attention to the conftru€tion of telefcopes, and
defcribed various conftruétions, publifhed his “ New Ele-
ments of Optics,’? a book now, like Edwards’s Treatife,
extremely fcarce, in which he has entered more minutely into
the dotrine of both kinds of aberrations, as they relate to
practice, than any other author has done, either before or fince.
He not only followed the fteps of J. Dollond in determin-
ing by glafs wedges or prifms the relative refra¢tive and dif-
perfive powers of different fpecimens of glafs, but ground
fingle objeét-glaffes of feveral kinds of glafs, with tools of
the fame radius, and then compared the geometrical foci of
each with the refraéted or real foci, by nice meafurements :
by this means he afcertained the difference between the focus
determined theoretically from the known radius, and the
real or prattical focus of the refraéted rays in each glafs by
meafurement, confidering at the fame time the diftance of the
radiant point: and thus he gained, as we fhall have occafion
to fhew more particularly hereafter, the ratio between the
fine of the angle of incidence and of the angle of refraGtion
in each feparate {pecimen, which ratio, in a ray pafling from
air into glafs, had been affumed in all former optical theo-
rems as 3: 2 in all kinds of glafs, and confequently the
focus for parallel rays had been put equal to radius in dou-
ble convex lenfes, and alfo equal to the diameter in fingle
conyex, without regard to the quality of the glafs, with re-
{pe to its refractive power. The reéfification of the old
theorem, founded on the conftant ratio 3 : 2, formed the
bafis of the ‘“‘ New Elements of Optics,”’ in which one half of
the difference between the old theoretic and the refraéted, or

practical foci was called a, and then = = F with parallel

rays became the bafis of the reétified theorems, which we pro-
pofe to give prefently in their proper place. According to
thefe new elements, and from a meafurement of the angles of
difperfion, or of the coloured fpeétra contained between the
extreme rays, as given by a prifm of flint, and another of
crown-glafs resecinely! the ratio of which he determined
to be as 5 : 3, he calculated that “the radii of the lenfes
mult have the fame proportion as the differences of the fines
of incidence and refraétion in red and violet rays, in prifms of
equal refracting angles of white and crown glafs ;’’ and that,
therefore, ‘ the radii [or foci] of the Tonks muft have the
fame proportion as the angles of diffipation in refra€tions by
fuch prifms ; and, of courfe, the fame proportion as the lengths
of the coloured fpeétra produced thereby.”? From thefe
confiderations the author concludes, that * in all cafes of a
compound lens for producing vifion without colours, the
ratiogf the radii, r and R, of the concave and convex lenfes
(when two only are ufed) muft be that of 5 : 3; and that
then the ratio of their focal diftances for parallel rays will be
that of 3:2 nearly. The ratio of the foci of two lenfes
being thus determined that fhall make the coleurs vanifh, the
longitudinal aberration arifing from the refpeétive curves
was next confidered; and in doing this, care was taken that
the comparative foci of the two lenfes was not to be altered
by an alteration in the curves new to be rectified. By Huy-

gens’s

TELESCOPE.

gens’s general theorem, the aberration arifing from the curves
of any lens may be determined and compared ; and it being
known from this theorem, that the longitudinal aberration is
equal to ¢ds of the thicknefs of a double convex lens of
equal radii, a double concave was determined from an equa-
tion of this aberration fuch, that its contrary aberration
might counteract the aberration of the affumed convex lens
of equal radii ; and the numbers thus produced for the radii
of the double convex of crown-glafs, and of the double
concave of flint refpectively, were 8.36, 8.36, 10, and 23
inches, in which the focal diftances of the two lenfes are faid
to be nearly as 2: 3. In this combination, the compound
focus is ftated to be 23.3 inches, and the radius r = 23
is contiguous to the convex glafs. Other calculations were
alfo made where the radii of the convex lens were unequal,
as well as thofe of the concave, but we do not learn that
a good achromatic object-glafs, put together agreeably to
Martin’s calculations, was ever yet conftruéted. In the in-
ftance before us, it is evident that the curve 8.36, coming in
contact with the concave 23, muft touch it in the middle,
and therefore the proportions are impracticable.

While thefe various improvements in the conftruétian of a
telefcope were going on, we muft not omit to mention that
different kinds of micrometers were applied to it fucceflively,
by different ingenious men, for the purpofe of meafuring
fmall angles ; by which addition, the fcience of aftronomy
has been greatly promoted. Among thofe promoters of this
noble fcience, may be enumerated A uzout, Gafcoigne, Hooke,
Le Fevre, Kirchius, Caffini, Fouchy, Hollman, B. Martin,
Savery, J. Dollond, Dr. Mafkelyne, Ramfden, Dr. Her-
{chel, Smeaton, Rochon, Keftner, Cavallo, Troughton,
and Arago, the prefent aftronomer royal of France.

But it remained for the ingenious optician of Iflmgton,
C. Tulley, to whom we are indebted for much valuable in-
formation on the fubje& of our prefent inquiries, to calcu-
Tate and manufacture, from any two given fpecimens of
crown and flint glafs, a double objeét-glafs that fhall, gene-
rally fpeaking, be found both achromatic, and alfo as free
from the effeéts of f{pherical aberration as art can make it.

After this artift had made himfelf mafter of Martin’s
propofed plan of compounding an achromatic objeét-glafs,
he found that the curves calculated for this purpofe would
not produce their defired effe€t with any {pecimens of glafs
that could be procured ; but ftill he thought.that a careful
repetition of Martin’s experiments might lead to refults fa-
vourable to his views, when fome modification was made in
their application. He therefore, in the year 1800, obtained
fix forts of glaf%, differing in fpecific gravity, and ground
them all to the fame radius by a tool of fpeculum metal, that
did not much alter its figure by attrition in grinding, and in
giving a partial polifh : thefe lenfes were fitted fucceflively
toone cell, that was received by a tube having an eye-piece
at the oppofite end, in order that the folar focus of the re-
frated rays might be the more accurately meafured with
each glafs ufed as an objeét-glafs of a telefcope ; and though
the polifh was imperfeét in thefe lenfes, ground and partially
polifhed by the fame tool, yet the image of the fun was
clearly defined by them. Thefe focal diftances, limited by
the folar image, were in the next place meafured carefully by
a nicely divided fcale, and were found to differ from one an-
other confiderably, as we fhall hereafter have occafion to
ftate more particularly : the radius of curvature of the tool
was alfo afcertained with equal ‘care, and found to exceed in
length the longeft of the focal lengths of the refracted rays.
The radius of the tool was then divided by each of the re-
fracted focal lengths, and the quotients were called fo many
divifors or multipliers, accordingly as the geometrical was

to be determined from the refracted focus, or the contrary.
Thefe quotients, therefore, bore the fame proportion to
unity, that the geometrical focus bore to the refraéted focus
of each lens, and turned out to be very nearly the fame quan-
tities that Martin had determined with glaffes of fimilar
qualities, and that he denoted by the expreffion 2 a in his
rectified theorems. In fact, they were the numbers from
which the ratio of the fines of the angles of incidence to the
fines of the angles of refra€tion were accurately determined,
as will be explained hereafter. The fpecifie gravities of the
different lenfes were then taken with a good hydroftatic
balance, and were found to increafe with their corref{pondé
ing divifors, but not ina regular proportion. From thefe
experiments a fet of tables was conftructed, containing in
parallel columns, both for crown and flint glafs, the {pecific
gravities, varying from 3.466 to 2.428, together with the
correfponding ratios of the fines of the angles of incidence
and of refraétion; and alfo the ratios of the two curyes,
that fhall produce an affigned longitudinal {pherical aber-
ration in any lens ; all which calculations are extended from
the ratios I: 1, 1: 1.01, I: 1.02, &c. in fucceffion, up
to 1: 6, where the aberration is a minimum, as was long
ago determined by Huygens: and what is worthy of re-
mark, the French plate-glafs, which had the fpecific gra-
vity loweft, and its divifor only 1.004, and which, confe-
quently, had its refracted focus nearly equal to its geometri-
cal focus, was, in all probability, fimilar to the glafs manu-
fatured at the time when the experiments of fir [aac New-
ton were made, from which the original optical theorems
were framed. From thefe tables, our fkilful optician takes his
curves by infpeétion fuitable for glafs of any given fpecific
gravity, fuch as will fuit his tools for telefcopes of different
lengths ; and haying as it were the command of the whole
range of varying ratios, he can immediately fix on fuitable
curves for any glafs, and for any compound focal length, or
even affign a tt ow that fhall match any practicable Jens, con-
vex or concave, that has been previoufly polifhed. Such is
the facility which this ingenious and perfevering optician has
attained in the higheft branch of his art, whilit, at the fame
time, his fkillin grinding, polifhing, and centering his glafles,
is not exceeded by any other artift. The principal deviation
from Martin’s rules, that Tulley found it neceffary to adopt
in his practice, is the application of a corre@ing number to the
calculated or tabulated aberration arifing from the figure of
the flint-glafs, on account of its difference of refra€tive power,
as compared with that of the crown-glafs: in order to gain
which correéting number in all different cafes, he firft reduces
the geometrical foel of the two feparate lenfes into the re-
fra¢ted foci by his divifor = Martin’s 2 a, and extraéts the
{quare root of the cubes of thofe refra¢ted foci refpeCtively ;
then dividing the root of the flint-glafs by the root of the
crown-glafs, he gains the correding divifor, by which the
calculated aberration of the flint-glafs is divided, to pro-
duce the correéed aberration for the coneaye lens ; which lens
muft now have its radii determined agreeably to this cor-
rected aberration from the general theorem, or may be
taken from the tables to be fubftituted for the radii that
would have been requifite, if the proportional aberration had
remained uncorre¢ted. And laftly, that the foci of the fepa-
rate lenfes may be fo proportioned to each other, and to the
compound focus of both the lenfes, which is ufually given
when a telefcope is to be made, the ratio between the focus
of the crown-glafs and of the compound glafs, having been
calculated by an appropriate theorem, as will be explained,
is tabulated to fuit different forts of glafs agreeably to
their fpecific gravities; fo that Martin’s conftant ratio
of 5:3 is varied according to the variation of the {pe-

cific

TELESCOBE.

cific gravity, which is affumed as bearing a due propor-
tidn to the difperfive power. Thus, when a piece of crown
and a piece of flint glafs are produced for an achromatic
obje&-glafs, the fpecific gravity is firft taken, and then
the tabulated numbers, correfponding to thefe gravities, are
taken from the columns of the tables, and the work is put
in hand as foon as fuitable tools are feleéted for producing
the curves: or rather, when the relative foci are determined,
the curves are fixed on in the tables that will fuit the aber-
rations in queftign, and that can alfo be produced by fuch
tools as are in ufe ; for the formation of a new grinding tool
is a ferious undertaking, that the optician will with to avoid.
But after all, the chief srattical difficulty remains ; the fame
curves cannot always be worked to be exaétly fimilar, even
in the fame glafs, with the fame tools, and by the beft work-
men ; which circumftance leaves the nice calculator, in fome
meafure, under the controul of his materials, and renders final
adjuftments indifpenfable. Thefe obfervations are corrobor-
ated both by the candid acknowledgment of Tulley, and by
the fubjoined extra&ts, which we beg leave to tranfcribe from
the letters of our eftimable correfpondent Mr. G. Dollond.

« The perfeCtion of our objeét-glaffes,” fays Mr. Dollond,
‘ is in a great degree promoted by the great pains we take
in feleGting thofe glaffes that fuit each other the beft; and
alfo in adjufting them very carefully : yet that is not every
thing that is necefflary to produce good objet eae they
muit be correétly worked, and the glaffes be of perfect and
proper quality.

«“ With refpe& to the furfaces ufed in our various objeét-
glaffes, it would be almoft endlefs to enumerate them, as they
depend upon, and vary with almoft every piece of glafs that
is ufed in their formation ; and there are fome nice points in
the method of working them, which I fhould not wifh at
prefent to difclofe. Our ufual mode of proceeding is, in the
firft place, to calculate the proportions that are requifite for
the kinds of glafs that are to be ufed, and then to feleét from
our great number of tools thofe that come the neareft to the
furfacés determined upon; and it frequently happens that
we have not any that will anfwer, particularly for the fphe-
rical aberration. We do not enter into thofe very nice cal-
culations that would be fatisfactory to a theorift ; we only
aim at fomething near to what is required ; for to practical
men, it is always more eafy to produce what they with by
practical methods. Mr. Short, the celebrated maker of
refleGting telefcopes, ufed to proceed by firft making his
Jarge metal as nearly correét or parabolical as he could,
and then, from a number of {mall metals, to feleét, by trial,
that which correéted the large one in thebeft manner.

“ In all matters relating to the practice of optics there is
much uncertainty, and it frequently happens that, with the
very beft endeavours, we cannot produce by the fame means
the fame effeét, where extreme correétnefs is required ; fo
that you may very readily conceive, that very exaét calcula-
tions, however requifite, will not always anfwer. In arough
way of taking the focal Jengths and furfaces of an achromatic
objeét-glafs, compofed of crown and flint glafs of the ufual
denfities, we fhould fay crown 1: 3 and flint 2: 3 ; the outer
furface of the crown fhorter than that which is next to the
flint, and the fhorteft radius of the flint next to the crown ;
and the nearer it can be brought without touching in the
middle, the more perfeét will be the performance ; though
this will in a great degree depend on the aberrating powers
of the glaffes ufed ; for fometimes we find it neceflary to
make the crown nearly of equal radii. The French opti-
cians make the radii of the convex lens very unequal, and
place the fhorteft radius next to the flint; and inftead of
crown they ufe Bohemian plate, which is nearly of the fame

refracting power, but of a different colour, their flint-glafs
being of a much lefs fpecific gravity than the Englith. a

«The great barrier to further improvement, particularly in,
the extenfion of the aperture, is the want of good glafs, which
circumftance has ever been lamented ; and from the excef-

fively increafed duties, which aét againft the improvement

of every manufaGture, a prohibition is now likely to take
place altogether.”
In this hiftorical account of the invention and fucceffive
improvements of the telefcope, we have faid nothing about
the ingenious experiments of Dr. R. Blair, profeffor of aftro-
nomy in the univerfity of Edinburgh, which were made,
with a view to afcertain the difperfive powers of different
liquids, about the year 1787, and for this reafon, that we
confider any telefcope of which a liquid forms a conftituent.
part, to be a temporary rather than a permanent inftrument.
Neither haye we given Dr. Herfchel’s labours fo prominent a_
place in our narrative as they deferve, becaufe we fhall haye
occafion to defcribe his refleGting telefcope, with reference
to its appropriate plate, in a Weiequese fection of our
article. ; .
Befides the preceding improvers of the telefeope, feveral
perfons, chiefly amateurs, have taken out patents, either for
alterations in the appendages of this inftrument, or for pe-
culiar modes of vfing them for particular purpofes, witl ha
fhort notice of which we fhall conclude this feGtion of our
article. On the 4th of April, 1791, Mr. Robert Blair, a
furgeon in the navy, took out a patent for fecuring to him-
felf the advantages to be derived from ufing a fluid medium,
in conjunétion with glafs, to correét the prifmatic aberration
in an objet-glafs of a refraéting telefcope, agreeably to the.
experiments previoufly made on this fubjeét Bue Robert
Blair, as we have jut itated. On the 26th of January, inthe
year 1799, Mr. Cater Rand, of Lewes in Suffex, took out a.
patent for “* an improved military and naval telefcope, for
afcertaining diftances, and the fize and extenfion of objects, at
fight, by means of a new micrometrical adjuftment.”” This
micrometrical telefcope, however, was nothing more than the
parallel wire micrometer, applied to acommon pocket achro-
matic telefcope, in which a vernier fcale projeéted from the
eye-piece, and indicated the quantity of the meafured angle .
to the profeffed accuracy of 6"; but how the inftrument
was kept fteady enough without a ftand for the ufe of fuch ,
a micrometer, is not explained. Mr. Dudley Adams, of.
Fleet-{treet, optician, took out a patent, on May 30, 1800,
for rendering telefcopes more portable ; the objet of which.
was to fecure the advantage to be derived from ufing tubes,
with flits made in fuch a way as to make them move {mooth-
ly, and yet without fhake, within one anather. Mr. G. H.
Brown, fecretary to the Weftminfter fire-office, in Bedford-
ftreet, Covent-Garden, has defcribed, in the 11th volume of _
the Repertory of Arts and Manufaétures, a reflecting tele-
fcope, that always lies in a horizontal pofition; and, receiv-
ing the rays of light on an inclined plain mirror, having a_
central perforation, and placed near the infertion of the eye-
tube, refleéts them to the large concave fpeculum, which, yy
a fecond refletion, forms the image in the eye-tube. Benja-
min Martin conftruéted a reflecting telefcope in this way,
which he ufed in a vertical pofition for. terreftrial objects 5.
and the only difference in the two conftruétions feems to be,
that in Martin’s, the main tube was reclined when viewing _
elevated objects, fuch as the. heavenly bodies, whereas
Brown’s plain mirror has a vertical motion independently _
of the main tube. ‘They have neither of them come into.
common ufe. ; ‘ ut
Mr. Manton, gun-{mith, of Davis-ftreet, Berkley-fquare,.
London, took out a patent on the 23d of January, 1810,
for

7

a

TELESCOPE.

for fecuring the ufe of an exhaufted tube, on a fuppofition
that there would be more light when the rays were refra¢ted
to a focus in vacuo. Mr. Cornelius Varley, artift, now of
Newman-ftreet, London, took out a patent for a graphic
telefcope, for the purpofe of delineating drawings from
natare, on the principle of Dr. Wollafton’s camera lucida,
the date of which is April 5, 1811. And on the arft of
May of the fame year, Dr. Brewiter of Edinburgh, and
Mr. Harris, optician, of Holborn, London, jointly took
eut a patent for a micrometrical, double-image, and coming-
up glafs, &c. which has its feale of meafurement running
longitudinally zlong the tube. ‘This telefcope, being on
a new conftrudtion, will be particularly defcribed here-
after.

2. Theory of dioptric Telefcopes.—Before we can properly
defcribe the various conftruGtions of either the refra€ting or
refleCting telefcope, it will be neceflary to explain the prin-
ciples on which thofe conitruCtions are founded ; and for the
fake of order, we will confine ourfelves, in the firft place,
to the confideration of the elementary principles of dioptrics,
fo far as they are conneéted with the theory of the refracting
telefcope. Among the various writers who have confidered
this fubje&t, in both a fcientific and praétical manner, Ben-
jamin Martin itands firftin our eftimation ; and as his “ New
Elements of Optics,” publifhed in 1759, are but little
known, by reafon of the fearcenefs of this work, notwith-
ftanding it contains the refult of all his theoretical and prac-
tical inveitigations, we fhall make no fcruple in availing
ourfelves of his labours, as often as they contribute to the
purpofe of either illuftration or praétical application: our
aim being, in this article, as in fome former ones connected
with it, to bring the mathematician and the mechanic into a
itate of mutual underftanding.

We propofe, therefore, to avoid as much as poflible all
abftrufe calculations, that have no tendency to produce
practical advantages, but to introduce, in as familiar a man-
ner as poflible, thofe mathematical inveftigations only, which
are effentially explanatory. The firft and fundamental prin-
ciple in dioptrics is this, that in all uniform media, fuch as
aus, water, glafs, &c. ‘ the fines of incidence are in a con-
ftant ratio to the fines of refraction”? of any homogeneal ray
of light, incident on the furface of fuch refraéting medium ;
which principle was firft difcovered by Snell, when Huygens
had gone no further than to affert, that in {mall obliquities
of incidence, the angle of refra€tion was about one-third of
the angle of incidence. In the glafs which fir Ifaac Newton
ufed, the ratio of. the fine of incidence to the fine of refrac-
tion was found to be 30 : 21, or nearly 3 ; 2, in pafling out
of air into glafs: and had all kinds of glafs been found equal
with refpect to their refractive powers, the radius of convexity
would, in all cafes, have been equal to the focus of a double
convex lens of equal radii ; which equality may be confidered
as the bafis of all the geometrical theorems in optics, that take
no account of the difference of the refradive powers. But
fince the difference of the refra€tive powers of various {peci-
mens of glafs has become an objeé of indifpenfible examina-
tion to the optician of modern times, it has become neceflary
to introduce into each theorem the ratio between the fine
of incidence and fine of refraGtion, whatever it may be found
to be by experiment, before the refraéed focus of any indi-
vidual lens, depending on the quality of the glafs, in fome
meafure, can be determined from the geometrical focus de-
pending on the radius of convexity or concavity. As we
have demonftrated, under our article ReFRactTion, the con-
ftancy of the ratio between the fines of the angles of incidence
and of refra€tion of a mean refracted ray ; and have alfo ex-
plained how the geometrical foeus of any lens may be deter-

VoL. XXXV.

mined with converging, parallel, and diverging rays, under
the term Lens; we will proceed to apply the doétrine
arifing out of thefe demonftrations and explanations to our
prefent purpofe. “ Let DC (Plate XXIV. Affronomical
Inflruments, fig. 1.) be a ray of light incident out of any
medium X, upon the furface, H O, of another medium Y,
which we will fuppofe to be more denfe than X ; and from
the point of incidence C, let it be refraéted to F, out of its
firft dire&tion DCM. This refraétion may be confidered as
arifing out of the attraCting power at the furface of the
medium Y, and as a€ting upon the ray in a perpendicular
direction, by which, on mechanical principles, it will ac-
qnire fome additional force and velocity of motion through
the medium Y. Now upon the centre C defcribe the circle
A OPH, cutting the incident rayin D; and drawing the
diameter A C P perpendicular to HO, let DL fall per-
pendicular thereto, and it will be pie of incidence. Let
DC or CE reprefent the fpace defcribed in a given time
in the medium X ; and from E draw EF parallel to A B,
to denote the acquired force in C: then the motions in the
direGtions CE and EF, in the fame time, being com-
pounded, will produce a motion in the dire@tion found by
joing CF; for CF will be the fpace defcribed in the
medium Y, in the fame time that DC (= C E) was paffed
over in the medium X, and confequently will be the refracted
ray; and GI, perpendicular to A B, will be the fine of
refraction.

“ Through F draw N M parallel to H O, and draw KE
perpendicular to AB; then will BF = KE =DL be
the fine of incidence; and in the fimilar triangles CIG,
CBF, wehave CG: CF :: GI: BE. Hence it ap-
pears that we have the fines of the angles of incidence and
of refraction BF or DL, and GI, as the velocities C F
and CD (= CG) in the different media inverfely, and on
this fuppolition they are in a con/ffant ratio; becaufe the velo-
cities are invariable, being produced by the uniform opera-
tion of nature. And on the contrary, if the ray FC be
confidered as pafling out of a denfe medium Y, into a rare
medium X, it will be defle&ed by the fuperior force of the
medium Y, into the direction CD; making DL: IG::
CF : CD, as before.

« Let us now conceive A MD, in fig. 2, to be the curved
furface of a refracting medium Y, and B a radiant point in
a more rare medium X, from which two rays proceed, and
fall upon the curve in the points M and N indefinitely near
to each other: thefe rays will be fo refraéted as to cro{s each
other in a certain point F; to determine which from the
given equation of the curve, the diftance of the radiant, and
the refra€tions of the media, is that problem in dioptrics, on
which the various calculations and inferences depend. That
we may render the folution of this problem intelligible to
our readers, let us make the lines © M and CN the radii of
curvature, and confequently perpendicular to the curve at
the points M and N; upon M F and N F let fall the per-
pendiculars C G and Cg, cutting F M in S: alfo upon the
incident rays BM, BN, continued, let fall the perpendi-
culars CE, Ce; and on the centres B and IF, defcribe the
fmall arcs RM, MO; and put BM=d, ME=a,
MG = J; the aac MR =z, and the aac MO = #3 and
laftly, the fine of incidence C E to that of refra¢tion CG,
as m to n, the radius of curvature being CM =r. Then
the triangles MEC, MRN; MGC, MON; MBR,
Q Be, are fimilar, as is thus eyident: if from the right
angles RME, CMN, you fubtraét the ae EMN,
there remains. the angle RMN = EMC; and if from the
right angles FMO, CMN, you take the angle F M N,
there will remain the angle OMN = GMC. Thefe tri-

Gg

,
anges

as,

TELESCOPE.

angles are, therefore, eguiangular, and confequently /imilar.
Hence we derive the following analogies for determining the

refraded ray MF; viz. ME : MC :: MR: MN;
that i, airs: = MN.
“‘ Again, from the triangles MGC and MON, we have

rt

MG :MC::MO:MN; thatis, bi ris ti =
bee ¥

— ..5b = at; and foa:b::5:t, or — = MO.

a a

And in the triangles BMR, BQe, we have BM : Be

7S

(= BE) MR.3.Q¢; that is, ds: d-+ a i: s :
a TAF = Qe But Ce: Cg (1: CE: CG) «:
min Ce—CE : Cg—CG Ole. ioe
dstas nas+nds s
Had saa

« Laftly, the fimilar triangles EMO, FS g, give MO:
Digs MF : SF or GF; therefore. MO-— Sg :

MO:: MF—GF (or MG): MF; that is, is fymbols
bmds —aans—ands | bs mdbb

’ mdb —aan—nda

amd mig
= MF, the focal diftance required. ;

“ As the right angles at E and G are both fubtended by
the fame hypothenufe, or right line MC, it is evident that
this line is the diameter of a femicircle, M EGC, paffing
through them, as in fig. 3; and if the curve AMD be a
circle, then C will be its centre; and when the point M is
extremely near to the vertex A, there will be ME = MG
= MC, ora=h=r. Inthis cafe, the theorem becomes

rmd
md—nd—nr
of refraéted rays, is then in the axis B C produced.”

From this original theorem for finding the fimple refra&tion
of a pencil of diverging rays out of a rare into a denfe medium,
may be derived other theorems for finding the fimple re-
fraGtion out of a denfe into a rare medium, and for the
refraétion of lenfes of any of the common fhapes, either at
the firft or fecond furface. We will fubjoin a {mall table
of fuch of thofe theorems as apply to glaffes of the ordinary

conftruction.

= AF = f; and the point F, or focus

Theorems for one fimple Refraétion.

Out of Air into Glafs

Rays. Convex. Concave.

‘ ’ mdr —mdr
Diverging mid Sad nF =p peer arene
Parallel a =i

: mdr —mdr
Converging aS (a gk ma — 1d ine eee
Out of Glafs into Air.

. 3 —ndr | ndr
eee | md — nd+mr rie md—nd—mr I
Parallel

Converging

Hitherto we have confidered the refraGtion of a ray at
only one furface of a lens; but as every lens has two fur-
faces, or radii, r and R, it is neceflary to carry our invetti-

ation farther, and fee what theorems can be obtained for
eine the foci of glafles of the different fhapes, when double
refraction takes place, which is the cafe in all inftances of
complete tranfmiffion. By way of diftin€tion, we will con-
fider r as the radius of the firft furface, or that which re-
ceives the rays from the radiant ; and R as the fecond fur-
face, or that which is fuppofed to be turned from the
radiant, in all our fubfequent theorems. We muft now

confider a ray, as MN, in fg. 4, coming out of a denfe
medium Y, after proceeding in a direétion towards F, into
the rare medium X ; but meeting with a {pherical furface
ND, on quitting the denfe medium, is refraéted into the
direétion N f, to interfe& the axis D f, in the focal point /.
When two ipherical refraéting furfaces are near to each
other, as AM, ND, in fg. 5, they conftitute a lens
AMND, of which the radius of the curve AM is r, —
when the radiant is on that fide, but that of N.D is denomi- |
nated R; and the line BAD F, pafling at right angles
through the middle of the Jens, is called the axis. Now to
find

TELESCOPE.

find the point f, or focal diftance Df, of the ray BM,
coming from the radiant B, after being twice refracted,
viz. at M and N, the points of ingrefs and egrefs, is the
general ‘came of dioptrics.

In folving this problem, our original theorem for fimple
refra€tion gives us mdf —mdr=nrf+ndf, (making
M F= @,) irom which equation we deduce this expreflion ; viz.
m rid fa] Bie A
S45 X= = X
a) 6—7 77 fea I ER NA 3}
verfal canon : wiz, ‘the ratio of the fine of incidence to the fine
of refraction, is compounded of the ratio of the diftances of
the conjugate foci Band F from the centre C, and of the
ratio of their diftances from the vertex A.’? This rule be-
ing general, finds the focus f, after the fecond refraction
at N: forlet D f= f, the radius G D = R, and the thick-
nefs of the lens A D = ¢; then we have for the refraction

FG

: n
out of a denfe medium inta a more rare one, == 7G

= = tee x par ; from whence we get
ag?R—ntR

i mo—mtimR—ngo+nt

required. If we omit the thicknefs of the lens ¢, as be-

ing ineonfiderable, we may reduce the equation into a more

» which gives this uni-

x

= DF, the focal diftance

n®
; a) SE
fimple form ; St maaeat f3 an
mfR mdr

this will give 9 = aR faa Sie ayant

which equation reduced gives
ndrR om ates
mrd—nrd+mdR—ndR—arR ~"
But to reduce the number of fymbols, let us put
2s a, and confequently m — = a, when za is unity,
n
: ‘ drR se
and then this equation becomes PAPEL ORG f

and this may with propriety be called the univerfal dioptric
theorem, by which the refratied focus of a ray may be deter-
mined after pafling through any lens of a given denfity, or
refracting power. F
.The theorems in the fubjoined Table I. are all derived
from the univerfal theorem thus determined, and will be
of great ufe to the optician to determine the refraéfed focus
of any lens, and for any diftance of the radiant, which re-
frafted focus, with parallel rays, will be always equal to

the true, or nicely meafured folar focus, where d is infinite ;
whereas the focus determined from the old theorems in
Table If. where the value of a is omitted, is always the
geometrical focus, determined on a fuppofition that the fine
of incidence is to the fine of refration in all glaffés as 3: 2,

m—n . —2
aes

in which cafe

= 3 invariably, and Zr,

in a double convex lens of equal radii, of whatever refrac-
tive power, = f. In order, therefore, to diftinguifh the
focus determined from the theorems in Table I., from thofe
arifing from the theorems m Table II., we will always call
the firft the refraded focus ; which is that from which the
powers of a telefcope or of a microfcope are derived ; and
the fecond we will denominate the geometrical focus, which
is that arifing from the fimple confideration of the radii of
curvature, without reference to the refractive power of
the glafs, otherwife than as we have ftated; but is not-
withftanding ufeful to opticians in the formation of the
curved faces of their grinding and polifhing tools ; for when
the curves of a lens of a given refraétive power are to be
formed, to produce a given refraéted focus, as is frequently
required in the nicer optical inftruments, the refraéted
focus muft firft be converted, by means of the value a of
its refractive power, into the geometrical focus, and then the
radii of curvature belonging to this calculated geometrical
focus, will be proper for the tools of the lens of a given re-
fractive focus. Hence we confider it as a matter of great
practical importance, to give, in the fame place, two tables,
one for finding the refraded, and the other for finding the
geometrical foci of fuch lenfes as are ufually applied in either
a telefcope or microfeope of the refracting conftru@tion.
In all cafes where the glafs has two radii, the firft, as we
have faid, will be denominated by r, and the fecond by R.
But before we proceed to tabulate our theorems for both
refrated and geometrical foci of fingle lenfes, we wih it to be
clearly underitood by our readers, that the practical appli-
cation of thofe theorems, and of others to be derived from
them, to the purpofe of a&tual conftru€tion of achromatic
object-glafles, and of achromatic eye-pieces, is intended to be
the leading feature of our article ; for while volumes have
been filled with abftrufe calculations, derived from formule
of the moft celebrated mathematicians, the refults of thofe
calculations have never produced proper data for the ufe of
opticians ; more particularly with refpe& to achromatic
object-glafles, which cannot be conftruéted from any calcu-
lations but what are grounded upon experimental examin-
ation of the identical fpecimens of glafs that are intended to
be ufed. And.we flatter ourfelves, that the information we
have to lay before our readers on this interefting fubje&,
will be the firf that has yet been gublifhed in fuch a pradical
form as will facilitate the labours of the working optician.

TABLE

Q
oo
v

TELESCOPE.

TABLE fr aeeate for finding the refraéed Foci of Lenfes.

ee ea ee
| Lenfes with unequal Radii.
Rays Convex. y ye.

Diverging

Parallel

Converging

adr sae PR |

dRr lees
eae oe on"
Pah aie |
—drR

a

—drR
adr PadR =r Fits

Lenfes with equal Radii. re
ees wee ys = = b
“ ; dr ; nf
Diverging oe ee | er eae
Parallel — = f. | — = f.
2 a
; —dy dr
Converging ae ae =p aa can =)
Lenfes with one Radius (R) infinite.
Plano-convex. Plano-coneave,
‘ ” dr —dr ;
Diverging ma reer
Z =F
Parallel —=f. 5 SUR
a a =:
Converging a =J- = = =:

Lenfes with one Radius (R) negative, or Menifci.

Diverging

Parallel

Converg ging

|
}

|
|

padr—adR + eran ta

Unequal.

= dr R

% drR a,
a0R dares

Lenfes with both Radi (r and R) negative, or double concave.

Diverging

Parallel

Converging

drR
rye Raw R
rR
—ar—aR

—drR
fist adh eee

= f, always negative.

= f, always negative.

TELESCOPE.

Taste I1.—Theorems for finding the geometrical Foci of Lenfes.

Lenfes with unequal Radii.

Rays. | Convex. | Concave.

2dRr “ | z2dRr ud Hy
pac gaa, pee SeR ws =F7R=7gPz IRE

Se eee

Parallel as 3 | Be:

Diverging

ree shor A

én tik 2dRr vane zdRr ov:
ae es Gig dr f ality of diy-dR —dadsiabornt:

Lenfes with equal Radii.

Diverging ae ie ae =F
dr a dr f
Parallel | ai ae =}: =
: ar x —dr
Converging iP = iP Se ie
a

Diverging

d—2r d+2r
d sade
Parallel = : i Taal
adr 2dr
Conyerging a Sram fie Deed i

Lenies with one Radius (R) negative.

Unequal. | Equal.
natee 2a Rr ys pal Sear vs
eee Bee dr em ee eee ee
—2R | —2R
Parallel RW =f ; Bite,
} 2dRr 2drR
Converging PRT aR Tae Pee a. ae

Re |
Lenfes with both Radii (x and R) negative, or double concave.

2dRr

Diverging =Siaar ake a a gevie
COE Fe Rs 7 ee
Parallel _— - 5 =p aa =f.
. —2dRr A —dR
ate dR + dr—aRe t oR

TELESCOPE.

As we explained how Table I. is derived from an uni-
verfal dioptric theorem, we fhall explain how the theorems
in Table II. are deduced from one fundamental equation,
on a fuppofition that the fines of incidence and refraction in
glafs are always as 3:2. Let LN, in fig. 6, reprefent
a convex lens, Of its axis, O a radiant point therein, OA
a ray proceeding from thence to A, a point in the furface
LBN;; then if C is the centre of convexity of that furface,
CG, drawn through the point A, will be perpendicular to
that furface in the point A; CAorC B is the radius, Af
the refraéted ray, and f the point where it meets the axis
after the firft refra@tion. Let DB = d,CA = R,EB
= #, the thicknefs of the lens ; and let the fine of the angle
of incidence OA G be called m, and the fine of the angle
of refraétion CA f or GAH be called 2. Now, fince
the point A is fuppofed to be very near to the vertex B,
OA may be confidered equal to OB = D, and in the
triangle CA O, we fhall have AO to AC as the angle C
to the angle O; that is, d: R:: C:O. AlfoOB + BC
= D + R will be as the oppofite angle CAO or OAG,
the fines of both being the fame. Then as m: 7 :: ajrs
a which will be as the angle CA/; this, taken

from the angle ACO = d, leaves the angle AfO
ee peak Laftly, as the angle f: O :: AO

m
or OB: Afor Bf; thatis, as De RoR 35
RDm

‘ Hewes Coes Bf, the diftance of the point f
in the axis, after the firft refraGtion. But fince there is a
fecond furface LEN of the lens, there muft neceffarily be a
fecond refraétion of the ray AO to fome other point in the
axis, as F, in fig. 7- In this cafe, the refraction being out
of a denfe into a rare medium, the fine of incidence will
be to that of refraction the reverfe of what it was before,
viz. as n to m; that is, the fine of Iaf is to the fine of
IaF as nto m, which, in the cafe of fingle refraétion, was
asmton. Here let Ka be called r, and Ef = d; then
there will be d: r:: K: f, nd Ef + EK=d+r,
which will be as the angle fa K, or its complement Ia/;

dm + rm

thereforen:mizd +r: , which will exprefs

dim ele te dn

= aKF. Now, as F: K:: Ka or

n
dm + rm —dn_

KB:aForEF; that is, as - CSE Ia
n
ndr A DRm
iat re But Bs— BE= Dm—Rn—Dn

—t=d=Ff; therefore, putting m — 2 = 6, we fhall

have d = DR oD Re Dis est
eS Sep: Bee = Hike
Ril ue DRmnar — Dhbtnar + rénnar

Db— Rn
Db + rm; if, therefore,

Again, dm + rm — dn

we multiply the equation by 5, and add thereto rm, we fhal?

havedm + rm — dn
DRmé — Déth + Rath + Dbrm — Ramr

7 Ds— Ra 7
dar

dm +rm—dr

DRmnar — Dbtnr + Rétnar
= DRmb— Dbid + Rath + Dorm — Rumr

This laft equation may be abridged, by fubftituting p for

Then

ms 1D

= that is, for = _, then we fhall have
b m— a
pDRmr — pDbtr + Riarp
DRm — Dt + Rat + Dra—pRomr
Laftly, if we take 2 amide in pD dtr; andm — 2 = bin
D4t; this equation will be finally reduced to this funda-
mental equation, viz. ‘
pDRrm — Dtra + Rétrpa —EF=
m—Dim+Dtat+ Rin+Drm—pRrm_ =F

The ratio of m to being taken in glafs as 3 : 2, we fhall

=r.

have

== 2 = p for a glafs lens, and the

m—n 3-2
equation will then ftandthus ; viz.

6DRr— 2Dir+4tRr

3DR—3Dr—D:i+2Re—6Rr

and when #, the thicknefs, is difregarded, we have from this
fundamental theorem all the various theorems contained in
Table II. for finding the geometrical focus under all. the
various circumftances that are likely to occur in the pofition
of a fingle lens, where the refractive power is not adverted to.
To illuftrate the refpeGtive ufes of the theorems con-
tained in the two preceding tables, we muft fuppofe
ratio between the fines of the angle of incidence and of re-
fraétion known by fome of the ufual modes of determining it
experimentally ; and then, when the ratio of m : 2 is fo

= hes

m—

” = a, the fymbol intro-

determined, there will be

duced in the theorems of the firft table ; when d is equal to
the diftance of the radiant, r the radius, and f the proper
focus determined by real refraction through the glafs sted,
dr—rf

2df
For inftance, Martin ground a piece of white flint-glafs —
with a tool of 21.5 inches radius, into a double convex lens,
and when a lamp was placed at the diftance of 417.25 inches,
the refraéted focus was meafured accurately, and found to
be only 18.75 inches; whence, according to the theorem,

the theorem for finding the yalue of @ is

417-25 X 21.5 + 21.5 x 18.79

ie 2 X' 417.25 x 18.75 — ae
m—n .

== 3 and if we put n = 1, then m will be 1.599, for

1.599 — 1

7599 — = 0.599 When the fun is the radiant, then

d becomes infinite, and the theorem becomes, as in the firft

r SP eras aus ee 21.
table, = which gives, in this cafe,

7
1.199 17-94 for the —
refracted -

TELESCOPE.

refracted jolar focus ; whereas, by Table II., the geome-
: ed

trical focus is < = r= 21.5. If the refractive power

of the glafs, and confequently the value of a, had been given,

and it had been required to determine the radius of the tool

that will grind the given glafs into fuch equal radii as will

give the refraGed folar focus exa@ly 17.82 inches, then

r :
the theorem aS Jf becomes, by tranfpofition, 2af = »r,
: a

and 1.298 x 17.94 = 21.5, as before. In a fpecimen of
crown-glafs ground to the fame radius, where d was 414.75
; drirf
inches, oor
as 1.5318 : 1, with which lens the true folar focus was
21.5
1.0636

gave a = 0.5318, and confequently m : 2

== 20.214; and if the lens had been a fingle convex,

the true folar focus would have been “- = 219. = 40.428,
a

or double the length of the former, while the geometrical
focus for parallel rays, by Table II., would have been

ae = 2r = 43.0; fo that for many practical purpofes,

where m — n is known in the particular glafs ufed, the
adyantage of the theorems in Table I., over thofe in
. Table I1., muft be evident

Again, let us fuppofe that the ratio of m : x is afcertained
by a prifm of any {pecimen of glafs, or by Dr. Wollafton’s
or Dr. Brewtter’s inftruments for this purpofe, and that it
is known to be 1.599: 13; then we know that .599 = a,
as before ; and let it be required to find the refracted focus
with diverging rays, when the radiant is as before at the
diftance of 417.25 inches, and the radius of curvature
of each furface 21.5: in this cafe the theorem is

died iw, : ‘ AL 7-25) Xol2 15) bs
ie == fror, in numbers, cages aot et

= 18.75, as before; and in this way the terms given may

be varied at pleafure, and the theorem made applicable to

the cafe in queftion. If the rays had been converging in
— OT

—2ad—r

the laft calculation, the theorem would have been

= f; or, changing all the figns, (which are here negative,
becaufe the diftance is more than infinite, that is, the rays

aoe

= 17.204, which is lefs

more than parallel,) the fame may be taken ws
AI7-25 X 21-5

2 X 0599 XK 417-25 + 21-5
than the folar focus by 0.74 ofaninch. In this cafe the rays
muft have pafled through fome other glafs, in order that
they may proceed in a ftate of convergence before they enter
the lens in queftion, and the focus of that other glafs is here
confidered as the radiant point from which the rays proceedin a
fate of convergence ; and this confideration leads us naturally
to inquire into the nature of a focus when two glafles are
employed jointly to produce it, under the different cireum-
ftances of figure and diftance.

Suppofe the parallel rays A N and B M, in fig. 8, to fall on
a plano-convex lens MN, with the curved face turned to the
radiant, and to be refracted to its focus at F ; then if another
plano-convex lens be placed in the line of its axis, at any dif-
tance lefs than C F, fo as to intercept the converging rays, they
will be refraéted ftill more, and will now converge into the

7

Shorter focus f, which is therefore called the compound focus of
both the lenfes. The angle fubtended at f, where the eye is
fuppofed to be placed, and which is called the optic ae is
now larger than that formed at F by the firft lens, and is
equal to what would be formed by the imaginary double
convex lens EE, the focal diftance of which would be
Qf Now let CF be put = F for the focal diftance of
the lens NM; OP = y for the focal diftance of lens G H ;
and Qf = x for the focal diftance of the imaginary double
convex lens EE: alfo let Of, the compound focal diftance,
be = f; and CO, the diftance between the lenfes NM and
GH, be = D. As the rays, which tend to the point F,
after leaving the lens N M, fall on the lens G H converging,
let us call OF = d, and then, by common optics, we shall

have d = 25 F = F—D;; from which equation we get
F+y—D:F—D::y:f; and from this analogy the
compound focal diftance Of is eafily obtained. In like
manner, the parallel rays LG and S'H are refracted by the.
lens GH, now fuppofed to be the firft lens, to the lens
NM, as they proceed towards the point 7; but are refra&ted
to the nearer point ¢, whicn is the compound focus on the
other fide; and now we have Cy = vr, = ,—D;
whence F + y — D: y— D:: F : ¢ = C4, which is
therefore known again, becaufe of the fimilar triangles F NC,
FGO, and fEQ,fGO; and becaufe EQ = NC, we
have CF: OF :: NC (= EQ): GO: OF: OF; that

is, F: F — D:: x: f; and, therefore, — =x. But

we had above roo =f; which being fubftituted
Fy

for f, will give a eo = x; from which theorem our
problem for finding the compound focus of two lenfes, or
rather the focus of one lens, that fhall have the fame focal
diftance and vifual angle as two given ones placed at a
given diftance fhall have together, may be thus found: vi.
divide the produ@ of the two focal lengths of the given
lenfes by their /um, leflened by their diffance, and the
quotient will be the focal length of the fingle lens, as re-
quired.””? By way of exemplification, let the focus of NM
be put = 6 inches, and that of GH = 4; and then, fup-
pofing the curved furfaces turned to the radiant, which
is called the beft pofition, as will be feen hereafter,
and the diftance = 2, we fhall have, by the theorem for
F OT ee :

this purpofe, Ses eae ACPO 3 for the focus in quef.
tion; but if the diftance had been = 3, then the refult
would have been crate = hs or 3.42 nearly. But if

Bans What

the diftance had been made 4, equal to the focal diftance
of the lens GH, the compound focus would have been 4
alfo ; and if 6, equal to the focal diftance of the lens NM,
the compound focus would {till have been 6, without any
gain of magnifying power in either cafe, over what would
have accrued from the refpeétive fingle lens; alfo if the
lenfes are brought into contaét, that is, if D = o, then we
fhall have the compound focus the fhortell poflible, viz.

bei 6 «A mga i 2.4. But diflinGrefs is an object
6+4-0 10 _

of

TELESCOPE.

of as much importance as magnifying power ; and it will
be feen hereafter, that there is a certain diftance between
the lenfes that promotes this quality the moft poffible,
whatever be the radii of the two lenfes. ‘This condition 1s
fulfilled when x is = 4 F, that is, when the focus of the
imaginary lens E E is juft one half of that of the outer lens
NM: in which cafe the compound focus will be in the
middle of the line OF, and the lens G H placed at half the
focal diftance of the imaginary lens. But it is not necef-
fary that the object, or image of an object uv, fhould be
fituated in the exterior compound focus g: this focus
may be fuppofed negative, that is, the image may be
between the two lenfes MN and GH, as BA in fg. 11.
which will always be the cafe when D is greater than y;
or, in other words, when the diftance between the two lenfes
exceeds the focal diftance of the inner lens GH; for let

brx'2 F3
6+2-—4
Neither is it neceffary that

F = 6, D =4, and y = 2, and we fhall have

pee 3, a8 in the firft inftance.
4 ;

both the lenfes be convex or plano-convex, nor yet with the
fame face outwards; for fuppofe NM concave, when its
focus will be negative, or virtually on the oppofite fide of it, and
muft be exprefled by — F ; in this cafe the theorem becomes

—Fy
y—F-D

that fhall have its focus equal to the compound focus, which
will always be fofitive while F + D is greater than y, but
when lefs, then negative; and when y = F + D, the rays
proceed parallel, and the focus is faid to be infinite. The

—Fx-—Dx
= gee

and mutt be affirmative when x is fo ; but when D = o, then

=x. As an example, let the concave N M have a nega-
tive focal diftance — F = 3, and let y = 2, while D= 1;
then the focal diftance of the imaginary or equal lens will be

= x, for the focus of the imaginary lens EE

compound focal diftance in this cafe is

ae °, or ne = 3= x, and the compound focal diftance
whee se A

=4= f. Whence, in
i= a a anf ;
this cafe, fo is equal to 2F O, whereas when N M was con-
vex, we had the reverfe, FO =2f0. When — F =y,
and D = 0, i.e. when a concave lens and convex one are
placed in contaé, with their feparate focal diftances equal,
then « becomes infinite, or, in other words, the rays emerge,
and proceed in a parallel direction ; but if the focal lengths
are unequal, there will be a pofitive focus and magnifying
power, when the convex has the fhorter radius; for fup-
pole — F =3, y=2, and D=o, then by the theorem
aa we fhall have 25
f= 6 likewife. From thefe inftances it will be feen, on
examination, that the compound pe diftlance O f, of the com-
bined lenfes, is nothing more than the focal diftance /, found

= 6 = x, and in this cafe x =

dr

gay aS

adapted to the conftant lens GH, where OF = +r, and
OP=f, when the rays are diverging ; or Of= —f

by the common geometrical theorem of optics,

aones dr
a
See Table II.

Our general theorem may be rendered more extenfive in
its application, by varying it according to the data; thus,

when the rays fall diverging on the faid lens.

if F, x, and D be given to find y, it will be ae =¥;
: Wart 4
; ; fA” xD—xy
to find F with the others given, it will be ————~ = F;
x—y

and to find D, there will be F + y — LY =D.) From
x

thefe analogies we may further obferve, that we have
alfo the ratio of the two compound focal diftances to each
other, O f and Cf, thus; asf: 9:: F—Dxy:y—Dx F;
and, therefore, when f= 9, then F = y; or the faid focal
diftances can never be equal, but when the lenfes are equal.
Laftly, we may obferve, that fince the parallel rays L G,
SH, refraéted through both the combined lenfes, interfeét the
axis in the fame point, ¢, as it would do if it were refra&ted
by the fingle lens E E, as is evident by continuing it to R;
therefore, fince GO = RQ, it will follow that the diameter
I K, of the principal pencil of rays K ¢ I, diverging from the
focus ¢, will be the fame as it would have been, if it had
proceeded direétly to the fingle lens E E ; and, confequent-
ly, this combination of lenfes makes no alteration in that
re{pect. :
Having now explained how the focal point of any lens, or
pair of lenfes, differently circumftanced, may be afcertained
by one or other of the dioptric theorems, derived from the
refra€tive power of glafs agreeably to certain laws of nature,
it will be proper to explain the different fenfes in which the
word focus is applied by optical writers under different cir-
cumftances, that our readers may not be at a lofs to know
in what fenfe it is to be taken, whenever it occurs in our
fubfequent details. The principal or folar focus of a lens, is
that which is produced by parallel rays coming from aa
infinite diftance, which that of the fun may be confidered,
and when the epithet refraéed is added, it has reference to
the particular glafs by which the rays are refraéted; but
when geometrical is expreffed or underftood, then glafs in
general is meant: the virtual, refra€ted, or geometrical
focus, is that which, in a concave glafs, would be formed by
the diverging rays continued to a point backwards through
the glafs till they meet, and is imaginary rather than real,
and generally called negative: the focus arifing from con-
verging rays pafling through a convex lens is fhorter, or
nearer the lens, than the folar focus, and the radiant is fup-
pofed to be at a greater than an infinite diftance, if fuch an
expreffion is allowable ; but as no fuch diftance is in nature,
par hs rays can only be produced by their paflage
through a firft lens before they fall on a fecond, which is
often the cafe in the conitruétion of optical inftruments ; but
the focus from diverging rays is always more remote than
the folar focus from the lens that produces it ; and, in con-
fequence of the reference it has to the fituation of the radi~
ant or illuminated object, is denominated the proper and fome-
times the relative focus; for as the radiant approaches the
lens, the proper focus recedes in the fame line, and vice ver/a,
as we have more fully explained under the article Lens. Be-
caufe the radiant and correfponding focus may change places
at any time, the two points where they are placed, at oppo-
fite fides of the lens, are called the conjugate foci, from their
being fo clofely allied, that one cannot move without the
other. When the radiant is placed therefore in the princi-
6

pal

TELESCOPE.

pal or folar tocus of a lens, the rays will emerge and con-
tinue parallel, on account of the other conjugate focus being
at an infinite diftance ; and for the fame tee when an ob-
je&t, viewed by a fingle lens, is placed in its principal focus,
the rays will enter the eye in a parallel ftate, and will be
converged to a point on the retina by the humours of the eye,
and a number of thefe rays crofling will form a picture be-
hind the eye of the objet viewed: for, what is one of the
moft remarkable properties of refra€ted rays coming from
a luminous objeét, they bring with them not only the figure,
but the colours of the obje& viewed, and form a piéture or
image of it, in the place where the different pencils of rays
crofs one another ; and, what is equally remarkable, this
picture is not vifible until all extraneous light is excluded.
We will not pretend to explain this wonderful property
of a lens, that direéts the tranfmitted rays fo as to form
a picture of a diftant objec in its focus, but merely mention
here, that, without it, no telefcope, microfcope, camera
obfcura, or magic lantern, could be conftruéted on dioptric
principles.

After having fhewn, by our foregoing theorems, how any
focus, folar, proper, conjugate, or virtual, may be determined
of a fingle lens, or of a combination of two lenfes with the
intermediate diftance given, the fame might be done for any
number of lenfes, by confidering the compound focus of the
firit two lenfes, as the focal diitance of a fingle lens, to be
combined with the third lens, and fo on till all the lenfes are
included. Dr. Smith has given, in his Optics, chap. v.
the application of Cotes’s theorem “ for determining the ap-
parent diftance, magnitude, fituation, degree of diftinGinefs
and brightnefs, the greateft angle of vifion and vifible area of
an object feen by rays fucceffively refleted from any number
of plane or fpherical furfaces; or fucceffively refracted
through any number of lenfes of any fort, or through any
number of different media, the furfaces of which are plane or
{pherical, with an application to telefcopes and microfcopes ;”’
which account our readers may confult with advantage :
but as the illuftrations and demonftrations demand more
plates than can be given to this article, in addition to the
eight we have had occafion to introduce, we have been
obliged merely to refer to them in this place.

We propofe, however, to fubftitute fome pradical theo-
rems, derived from our tables, whieh we have been favoured
with by Mr. Tulley, that will be found extremely ufe-
ful to the working optician, who muft be fuppofed, gene-
rally fpeaking, unable to transform the theorems which we
have given in our tables, for the purpofe of finding the focal
diftance of a lens, or of a combination of lenfes already con-
ftruéted ; and which tabulated theorems are principally ufeful
for determining the powers, and for explaining the conftruc-
tion of an inftrument to which they are applicable.

Praéical Theorems.

1. When r, the radius of one face of a lens, is given, and
¥, its principal geometrical focus, to find R, the radius of

= R for a double

Sate je
the other face, the theorem is
2r—F

convex : thus, let r= 9, and F = 10.3 inches, and the cal-

culation will be —2~ 103 92-7 12 nearly, the
9X 2— 103 77

truth of which may be proved by our theorem for parallel

gays with a double convex lens, in Table II. viz. a, :
; r

Vou. XXXV.

or

12 36 2 80216
rer oe igqme 9 1&3, as before very nearly, for the
required focus ; and when the refractive power or ratio be-
tween the fines of incidence and of refration is given, this
geometrical may be converted into the refraéted focus by
the quantity 2a, ufed as a divifor ; or, on the contrary, the
refracted focus may be turned into the geometrical focus by
ufing 2 4@ as a multiplier.

2. With a menifcus lens, where r, the convex fide, is given,

5 : rF
together with F, the theorem is F
"—2F

for finding R, the

concave fide.
3: But when the concave fide of a menifcus is given
with the focus, to find the convex, the theorem beeomes
rE

4. When the focus of a double convex lens, and the ratio
between its two radii, are given, to find the aétual radii r and

2rR
R +r
will give the focus, on a fuppofition that one fide is unity,
and the other any given quantity that forms the other term
Wipe Ai

R refpeCtively, firft our theorem in Table IT. ols

of the ratio; fuppofe as 1: 4; thus

= 1.6, the

rational focus; then fuppofe the focus given = 12, and
there will be this analogy, as 1.6: 1::12:7.5 =r; and

alfo as 1.6:4::12:30=R, or otherwife = 7.5, and
re

7-5 X 4 = 30 will be the refpeGtive radii r and R, as
before. .

5. When the compound focus of two convex lenfes, and
the feparate focus of one of them, are given, to find the fepa-
rate focus of the other, that fhall be fuitable to form the
combination ; if we put f = the focus of the lens given, F =
the combined focus, and « = the focus of the lens required,

the theorem for this ufeful purpofe is - = enor
36x 1

example, let f= 36, and F = 15, Sree es

ple, let f= 3 ans pe = 25.7
nearly, for the focus of the lens required, which is a pofitive
focus, becaufe both lenfes are double convex, and might be
plano-convex, or one double convex and the other plano-
convex, or even*menifcus, as the ratio of the radii r and R
may be ees when the focus only is the objeét of con-
fideration. But whatever be the forms of the curves rela-
tively, F, the compound focus of two tenfes, or more, will,
in praétice, be the refra¢ted focus; and, therefore, in this
theorem, f and x will alfo be the refraGed foci of the fepa-
rate lenfes, and, confequently, when the geometrical focus
of f is given} it muft be converted into the refraGted focns
by the divifor 2a, before the calculation is entered upon 5
it being neceffary that all the terms be of the fame deno-
mination.

6. If F, the compound focus, be longer than f, the
focus of the given convex lens, as is the cafe in the conftrue-
tion of a double achromatic obje&t-glafs, then the lens re-
quired will be concave, of which the focus x is fought, and

shies

the theorem becomes Fof7 SP Let us, in this example,
H

h reverfe

TELESCOPE. "

reverfe the numbers of f and F, as taken above, by making
jf = 15, and F = 36; and then, as before, there will be
15 x 36
36 — 15
lens required, which may alfo have any ratio of its curves,
or be a plano-concave, provided its focus be that which has
been here determined. ;

Likewife it muft be recolleéted, that when a pofitive
focus is required from an union of two lenfes, one convex
and the other concave, the focus of the convex muft be
fhorter than that of the concave ; or, in other words, the re-
fraGtive power, depending on the thicknefs of the lens, when
the fame glafs is ufed for both lenfes, muft predominate in the
convex ; for it is the difference of the oppofite refractions
that brings the rays finally to a focus: confequently, if the
foci are tke, the rays, being refraéted alike in oppolite di-
rections, will become parallel or have what is called an
infinite focus : and alfo, if the focus of the concave be made
the fhorter of the two, the rays, after oppofite refractions,
will abfolutely diverge by the difference of thefe refraCtions,
and. have an imaginary focus, called a virtual or negative
focus, at the other fide of the compound lens.

7. If the lens given be concave, and a convex one be re-
quired to produce a given compound focus, which is another
cafe in the formation of an achromatic obje@-glafs, the

— 2529 — the negative focus of the concave

i= x, where f is the focus of the
concave, and might be put — f, to denote its being a nega-
tive focus, and x the focus of the convex lens. Let us
put f = 25.7, and F = 36, as above, and then there will

25-7 X 36. 925.2
be ————_ = =

36 + 2567 9 61-7
of the convex required ; which, as we have faid, muft be the
refracted focus, and alfo f of a like denomination, in order
to make the refraéted compound focus fuitable for a tube of
thirty-fix inches.

8: If the compound focus fhould be required to be nega-
tive, or to have the refraction of the concave lens to predo-
minate, when the convex lens is given with the compound

fF

F+f
= x, as in the laft; but then ~ here is the focus of the con-
cave lens, which therefore will be 15 when that of the con-
vex is 25.7, and the negative focus, as before, 36.

9. But if the given ‘bene be concave, and the compound
focus be required negative, the focus of the convex fib

will be had by this theorem res 2 7 =
theorem; the focus x is here, however, that of the con-
vex, which in the other was that of the concave ; fo that
when f = 15, and F = 36, x will be again = 25.7, but
negative.

3 all thefe cafes, the two lenfes are fuppofed to be in con-
ta&t with each other ; but if D, the diftance between them,
which is a variable quantity, were given, fimilar theorems

! fF
might be formed from our general theorem FLE—D

theorem will be

= 15, very nearly, for the focus x

focus, the concaye may be found by this theorem

x, as in the fixth

above explained, where, in any pofition of two convex glaffes,

is the focus of one lens, F the focus of the other, and D
the diftance between them, with a pofitive compound focus ;
but if one of the two lenfes be convex, and the other concave,

FE Bs fF =
= Psapp fa =a
accordingly as F, put for the concave, or f, put for the con-
vex, is the larger: the former theorem being the “ produé
divided by the fum of the foci, leffened by the diffance,” and
the latter the “* produdé divided by the difference of the foci,
leflened by the diflance.’’ Hence, by a tranfpofition of one
or other of the forms of this general theorem, the data and
poftulata may be varied as occafion may require. The
form is applicable in cafes where fliding eye-pieces, or a
fliding fecondary objeét-glafs, are ufedin a telefcope, which
plans have been recommended and adopted by Dr. Brewfter,
as we fhall fee hereafter. Rt ae

In confidering the theory of a telefcope, (of either the
refraéting or reflecting fort,) our attention mutt be direé@ted
to two effential particulars, the image of an external object
formed at the focus of the objeét-glafs, or of the large fpe-
culum, as the cafe may be; and the means by which this
image is rendered vifible to the eye of an obferver : and ac-
cordingly as the dimenfions, fhape, quality, arrangement,
and number of the lenfes and {pecula vary se other,
may the conitruétions be faid to differ, though the effeé
to be produced be intended to be the fame. That telefcope,
of whatever conftruétion, muft be confidered the moft per
fe&t, which exhibits to the eye an image of diftant objects
the moft diftin@ly, as to light, colour, fhape, and pro: r=
tion ; and which, at the fame time, amplifies this image ,
ficiently to afford a minute examination of it, ina field of view
that is proportionably large to contain it. That quality,
which apparently amplifies the object, or rather the image. o
the object, by enlarging the angle fubtended at the pupil of
the eye, therefore called the vifual angle, is deno ated
the power of the telefcope ; and in all telefcopes, w jatever
their other qualities may be, the light is diminifhed as the power
increafes, fo that in every telefcope there is a limit to its ufe-
ful power, which depends on the quantity of light emitted
or reflected by the objeé& to be viewed ; and it would anfwer
no good purpofe to increafe the power fo much, that a cor-
refponding deficiency of light may render the object invifible.
Hence different powers may be applied, with advantage, to
objects differently illuminated ; and hence different eye-pieces
are ufually appropriated to the fame telefcope, particularly
when it is deftined for celeftial, as well as for terreftrial ob-
fervations. But we propofed to explain firlt the theory of
thofe telefcopes which are ufually called refraéing or dioptric,
and afterwards of cata-dioptric, or thofe that magnify by the
aid of refledion. wilhaks

Under our article Lens we have faid (in feétion 5.) that ‘
“the images of objeéts, oppofed in any manner to a conyex
lens, are exhibited invertedly in its focus,” and that
will be gh pe diftin@ly, and in their natural colours,’?
on a paper held at the oppofite fide of the glafs, at nearly
the diftance of its proper focus, efpecially if the room be
darkened ; and in feétion 7. we have faid, that * the diame-
ter of the image of an object delineated beyond a convex
lens, is to the obje& itfelt, in the ratio of the diftance ¢
the anagee to that of the objeé ;’? fo that the more ao
an object is from the lens, the fmaller is the image of that
objeé ; and alfo the fhorter is the focus of the Tens, until
the diftance is fuch, that the rays fall on its furface parallel,
or neatly fo. Likewife (in feétion 8.) we have fhewn, that
s if the eye be placed in the focus of a convex lens, an ob-
ject viewed erat it appears erect and enlarged in the ratio
of the diftance of the obje& from the eye, to that of the
eye from the lens, if it be near ; but infinitely, if remote :?
and what is faid of an objeét itfelf, when viewed through a
convex

the general theorem becomes

TELESCOPE.

convex glafs, is equally true of the image of an object fo
viewed. It is eafy, therefore, to conceive, how two lenfes
of different focal lengths may be fo arranged as to make a
teleicope that will at the fame time invert and amplify, as to
fenfe, a diftant obje& : for, firft, a lens of a long focal dif-
tance will form a large image of tlie object oppofed to it,
which image, by the crofling of the rays at the focal point,
will be inverted alittle beyond the folar focus : and fecondly,
an eye applied to a lens of fhort focal diftance, which is
held fo that its focal point may coincide with that of the
larger lens, will receive parallel rays, and will thew the faid
image in an amplified or magnified ftate, and in the fame
inverted pojition in which it is exhibited; which image, by
being enclofed in a darkening tube, appears with all its natu-
ral colours. The power of fuch a telefcope, which is the
fimpleit that can be made, is afcertained by finding how often
the focal length of the {mall or eye-lens is contained in
the focal length of the larger or object-lens ; the quotient of
fuch divifion will reprefent the power. But if the eye-lens
be made concave, and placed within the focal point of the
objeci-lens, as much as is equal to the virtual focus of the
concave lens, then the converging rays will become parallel,
and afterwards, on entering the eye, which may be confi-
dered as a lens of fhort focus, will converge, and form a di-
rect image on the retina ; and though the total length of the
telefcope will be fhortened by this latter arrangement, by
twice the focal length of the eye-lens; yet if the virtua!
focus of the concave eye-glafs be the fame as the focal dif-
tance of the convex lens, the power will be the fame, and
may be afcertained by the fame procefs. With a convex
eye-glafs, the inftrument arifing out of the firft arrangement
is the original affronomical geleteahes and that arifing out of
the fecond is the Galilean. ‘The field of view in the former
conftruction is direGtly as the effective breadth of the eye-

lafs, and inyerfely as the interval between the lenfes ; but in
the latter, the field is dire&tly as the diameter of the pupil of
the eye, and inverfely as its diftance from the lens.

In both thefe conftructions, the {malleft power, or, which
is the fame thing, the fhorteft focus of the object-glafs is
with parallel rays ; and as the diftance of the obje&, or ra-
diant point, decreafes according to the principles of optics
laid down under Lens, the focal diftance of the objeét-glafs
increafes: and thus the power increafes as the rays become
more and more diverging, from a eae decreafe of dif-
tance ; fo that, in fact, the fame telefcope magnifies a near
object confiderably more than it does a diftant one ; for
while the focus of the objet-glafs increafes after a certain
law, inverfely as the diftance decreafes, the focus of the
eye-glafs remains unaltered ; and, confequently, the power
varies inverfely as the diftance, or dire¢tly as the variable
focus of the objeét-glafs.

To remedy the inconvenience of inverfion of the object in
the aftronomical telefcope, and alfo of the contracted field of
view of the Galilean, two more glafles were added to the
eye-tube, as we before ftated, to render the image of the
‘objeét ere, or rather to form a fecond image in a contrary
pofition, The primary intention of thefe two additional
eye-glaffes was not to alter the power, but merely to give
an ereét pofition to the apparent objet; the original lens
therefore remained as before, and was called the fe/d-glafs, as
being neareft to the field of view of the old arrangement of
two glaffes, while the next glafs was called the fecond eye-
glafs, and was placed at double its focal diftance from the
field-glafs, fo that the rays might be parallel, and that it
might form another image in its focus: this being the image
of an image, was denominated the fecondary image, and
became ereét by a fecond crofling of the rays, and was then

viewed through the outermoft or firft eye-glafs, in the fame
manner as the firft or inverted image was viewed through
the original eye-glafs. This telefcope was denominated the
terreftrial telefcope ; and while the foci of all the three eye-
glafles were fimilar, its power and field of view remained
the fame as in the aftronomical telefcope.

The theory of thefe three conftru@tions will be more
clearly underftood by a reference to Plate XXV. of Afiro-
nomical Inftruments, in which fig. 1. fhews the arrange-
ment of the glafles in the aftronomical telefcope ; fig. 2.
that of the glaffes in the Galilean, and alfo in the com-
mon opera-glafs, except that im it the objeét-glafs is
ufually achromatic ; and fig. 3. exhibits the fyitem of
glafles that compofe the original terreftrial telefcope, or
perfpective glafs, before the fubfequent improvements took
place. In all thefe figures the fame letters denote the fame
parts, as far as they extend; and the magnifying power of
each may thus be demonftrated to be as we have before
{tated it. Let AB reprefent the object-glafs, and C D the
eye-glafs of fig. 1; and let H FI andG FM be confidered
as two pencils of light, proceeding in ftraight lines from the
oppofite ends of a diftant arrow, and arbi each other at
the centre F of the faid object-clafs ; alfo let the dotted
line be a pencil coming from the middle of the arrow, and
falling perpendicularly on the fame central point, fo as to
pafs along the axis of the glafles F LE. Under thefe cir-
cumftances, the angle G F H = I EM, the oppofite angle,
is that under which the arrow appears to the natural eye at
F; but the angle [EM —=CKD, is that under which
the image I M of the diftant arrow is viewed, when magni-
fied by the eye-glafs CD. But the angle I E M is to the
angle [F M, as L Fto LE, oras the focal diftance of the
object-glafs to the focal diftance of the eye-glafs ; therefore
13s)
es
NO, and T U, in fig. 3. have equal foci, the fecondary direé
image PQ is equal to the primary inverted one I M, and
appears under the fame angle.

Now if all the rays of light had-been, as they were fup-
pofed to be before fir Ifaac Newton’s experiments, homo-
geneal ; and if a double convex lens, of equal curvature on
both fides, had been found to refrac all thefe homogeneal
rays into one focal point, without any aberration, either
lateral or longitudinal ; then the telefcopes, we have juft
noticed, would have been fufficiently perfect for all the pur-
pofes of exhibiting a well-defined pi€ture of the object
viewed in a magnified ftate; and the power might have
been increafed to almoft any extent, by varying the ratio
between F L ard EL; that is, by increafing the focal
diftance of the object-glafs, or by leflening the focal diftance
of the eye-glafs, or by both; but it was foon found that
the rays which enter a lens at or near the edges, are re-
fraéted to a point nearer to its furface than the rays that are
tran{mitted near the centre ; and alfo that the rays of dif-
ferent colours are differently refrated, even from the fame
point of the lens, fo as to meet in the line of the axis at dif-
ferent diftances from the neareft furface of the lens. The
former of thefe deviations, being occafioned by the {pherical
figure of the lens, is called the /pherical aberration ; and the
latter, arifing out of the nature of folar light itfelf, is called the
prifmatic, chromatic, or Newtonian aberration. The indiftiné-
nefs in the formation of the image, occafioned by thefe aberra-
tions of the rays of light, became an objeét of fir Ifaac New-
ton’s attention, and he foon difcovered that, whatever mechani-
cal means might effe@l in the fhape of the curve that might
rectify the {pherical aberration, the prifmatic aberration would

Hhz remain

= the power, as before ftated; and as the lenfesC D,

TELESCOPE.

remain fo long as one fubftance only remained to be the me-
dmm of refraétion. ‘The ingenious Huygens, however,
fuppofing that the diminution of the fpherical aberration
would contribute greatly to the improvement of the tele-
fcope, imtituted fome experiments and calculations, which
greatly promoted the f{cience of Dioptrics. He found, that
the lengthening of the radius of convexity of an objeét-glafs
fhortened the verfed fine of the curvature, or leflened the
thicknefs of the glafs, on which, with equal apertures, the
{pherical aberration feemed to depend ; and alfo that, in a
fimple eye-glafs, the aberration from the figure was greateft
in a double convex lens, when the curves of the two faces
were from the fame radius; and alfo that it increafed as the
radius fhortened. The ratio 1 : 1 being found to have the
greateft aberration, and 1: 2 to have lefs, an inveftigation
was inftituted, from which it was at length proved, that the
aberration in a double convex lens is the {malleft poffible,
when the radii of convexity are to each other as 1:6; the
face 1 being turned to the radiant or objeét to be viewed.
From thefe experiments originated the famous Huygenian
telefcope of 123 feet focal diftance, and a table of apertures
correfponding to the refpeétive focal lengths of the objec
and eye glafles, that would exhibit an ie equally well
defined : which calculations were the bafis of all the long or
aerial telefcopes that were in repute for a whole century ; but
which are now fuperfeded by the fhort achromatic refractors.

The fame ingenious author of dioptrics difcoyered, that the
aberration arifing from the curved figure of a lens might be
ftill further diminifhed, by fubftituting two lenfes in the eye-
piece of a telefcope inftead of one ; which difcovery was the
foundation of all the improved eye-pieces that have been
fince adopted, under different arrangements of intermediate
diftance, and with different degrees of curvature. But
before we can explain how the indiftin€tnefs arifing from
both the fpherical and prifmatic aberrations of mixed rays,
may be in a great meafure counteracted, (on which im-
portant confideration, the excellence of modern improved
telefcopes depends,) it is neceflary to examine this fubjeét
further, and to fhew how the circle of aberration of mixed
rays arifing from their unequal refrangibility, and alfo the
lateral and longitudinal aberrations arifing from the {pherical
figure of refracting and reflecting furfaces, may be mathe-
matically determined. In doing this, we fhall avail ourfelves
of Dr. Smith’s propofitions, which are at the fame time per-
{picuous and conelufive.

Prop. I.

Aberrations. —“ Let the common fine of incidence be to
the fine of refraction of the /ea/? refrangible rays, as I
to R, and to the fine of refraction of the moff refrangible
rays, as I to S; and the diameter of the leaft circular {pace,
into which heterogeneal parallel rays can be colle&ed by a
fpherical furface, or by a plano-convex lens, will be to the
diameter of its aperture in the conftant ratio of S — R to
$+ R—2I.”

For let an heterogeneal ray PA ( Plate XXVI. fig. 1.)
fall upon a fpherical furface A C B, and let it be feparated
by refraétion into the rays A I’, A f, cutting the axis EC,
drawn parallel to PA, in F and f. ‘Take the are CB
equal to C A, and let another heterogeneal ray P B, coming
parallel to P A, be refracted into the lines BY, Bf, cutting
the two former rays in R and S. Join RS, and produce it
till it meets the incident rays produced in I and K, and the
perpendiculars E A, E B, to the refracting furface at the
points A, B, in H and L. And when A B, the breadth of the
aperture or of the pencil, is but moderate, and confequently
the refractions at A B but fmall, the angles of incidence and

10

refraction HAI, HAR, HAS, or the ares that meade
fure them, or their perpendicular fubtenfes HI, HR, HS,
will be to each other very nearly in the fame given ratios as
thofe of the fines I, R, S, of thofe angles. And disjointly,
the differences of thofe fubtenfes will be proportionable to
the differences of thofe fines ; that is, the line RS : RI::
S—R =: R —I, and doubling the confequents, RS :
2RIorITK—RS: S—R: 2R- 21; and cone
jointly, RS : IK, or AB:: S—R:S4+R-—21.
From this given ratio of R S to A B, in which they increafe
or decreafe together, it appears that all the intermediate
rays which fall upon A B, will pafs through RS. And
when parallel rays fall perpendicularly upon the plane fide of
a plano-convex lens, they are refra¢ted only at their emer
gence from its convex furface ; and fo the aberrations are
the fame in both cafes. Q.E.D.

Corol. 1.—Hence the diameter R S, of the circle of prif-
matic aberrations that contains all the incident rays, is a
55th part of the diameter A B of the aperture of a plano-
convex glafs, whatever be its focal diftance. For fuppofing
with Newton the prifmatic {pectrum divided into feven
colours, and AR and AS to be the outermoft red and
violet rays, their fines of incidence and refractions I, R, S,
are to each other as 50, 77, 78. Whence S — R is to
S+ R— 2I,as1 to 55.

Corol. 2.—The diameter of the leaft circle that can receive
the rays of any fingle colour, or of feveral contiguous colours,
is alfo determinable from the proportions of their fines.
Thus all the orange and yellow is contained in a circle,
whofe breadth is the 26oth part of the breadth.of the aper-
ture of the plano-convex glafs; the fines of the outermoft
orange A R, and yellow A S, being to the common fine of
incidence, as 774 and 77+ to 50.

Corol. 3.—In different furfaces, or plano-convex glaffes,
the angles of prifmatic aberration R A S are as the breadths
of the apertures A, B, dire€tly, and as the focal diftances
C, F, inverfely ; becaufe any angle, as R A S, isasits fubtenfe
R S dire€tly, and as its radius A R or C F inverfely.

Lemma.—The verfed fines AB, AC, of very fmall
arcs BD, CD, (figs. 2. and 3.) of unequal circles BD G,
CDH, that have the fame right fine A D, are reciprocally
proportionable to their diameters B G, C H, very nearly ;
that is AB: AC :: CH: BG.

For fince the rectangles under BAG and CAH are
each equal to the {quare of A D, and confequently to each
other, their fides are reciprocally proportionable ; that is,
ABis to AC as AHto AG, oras CHto BG v
nearly, when the verfed fines are incomparably lefs than the
diameters themfelves. Q. E. D. ;

Prop. II.

“When homogeneal parallel rays NA, EC a
fall upon a Gpharicil fielack A C, whofe ard )
the longitudinal aberration F T, of any refraéted ray AT
from F, the focus of the pencil, is to the verfed fine of the
are A C, intercepted between the point of incidence and
the axis EC F, in the given ratio of the fquare of the fine of
refraction, to the reGtangle under the fine of incidence, and
the difference of the fines very nearly ; and the aberration is
the fame when the rays fall perpendicularly upon the plane
fide of a plano-conyex lens.” j

For when the refraétion is made in the paflage of a ray
NA from a denfer to a rarer medium, then the mterfe@ion
T, of the refra&ted ray A T, with the axis E C F, lies be-
tween the refracting furface and its focus F. With the
centre T and femi-diameter T A, having defcribed the are
A.D, cutting the axis in D, draw the fine A P of the ares

AC,

TELESCOPE.

AC, AD, and alfo E N and EM, the fines of incidence
and refraétion, for which put n and m3; then becaufe the
triangles ETM, A TP, are fimilar, it will be as ET:
TAorTD::(EM:APorEN::) EF: FC; and
disjointly, TF : EF :: (FC —YDor) TF—CD:
FC; and alternately, TF: TF —CD:: EF: FC; and
disjointly, TF : CD :: (EF: EC::) m:m—n. Again,
fince (PD: PC:: CE: DT or FC and conjointly) CD
>CP:: (EF: FC::) m:a; by compounding this aad
the foregoing proportion, it will be as TF :CP:: mm:
wn; (OPN ID: :

Corol. 1.—The fegment AC BPA may be confidered
as a plano-convex lens ; and when rays fall parallel upon its
plane fide, the longitudinal aberration of the extreme ray
falling upon A is equal to ¢ of its thicknefs P C, as appears
by putting 3 and 2 for m and 7 refpectively.

; : mm A FP
Corol. 2.—ANfo this aberration F T = ———— x —_—
m—nyn 2NC
mm A FP: A P*
a x EF For PC = TEC VY nearly, and
Epa GED

Corol. 3.—Let the refracted ray A 'T G produced, cut
the line F G, perpendicular to the axis, in G, and the lateral

mm A P3 mm A P3

aberration FG = — x sE@ = Fasy x oC For
FPG?:TF =: AP: TP, oC F or—"— « CE.
m—in

Coral. 4.——When the femi-diameter of the convexity or
the focal diftance is given, the longitudinal aberrations arif-
ing from the figure are as the {quares, and the lateral aber-
rations as the cubes, of the linear apertures of a plano-
convex lens.

Prop. IIT.
« When parallelraysQ A, E C (fig. 5.) are reflected from

a {pherical concave A C B, whofe centre is E, and whofe
aperture, A C B, is but f{mall, the longitudinal aberration
T F, of the extreme ray AT, from the geometrical focus F,
is equal to half the verfed fine C P of the femi-aperture
AC very nearly.”

In fg. 4. imagine E M, the fine of refraction, to be di-
minifhed to nothing, and then to become negative and equal
to EN, the fine af incidence, and the refraction of the ray
to be changed to refleétion, as in fig. 5; and by the former
propofition it will be, as TF: C P:: mm:— m—ana,n
Oh — 2nhis. 1s — Ze

But the particular proof is this: By the laft lemma, the
verfed fine C P nearly equals half the verfed fine P D of the
arc AD, whofe centre is T, and femi-diameter TA or
TE, or half the femi-diameter of the arc A C very nearly.
ie 2 1 ki — 2 — 2) — FC = iC Dex-
actly, or C P nearly. Therefore T F = 3 C P nearly.

Coral. 1.—We had 2'T F = CD exaétly, which is the
excefs of the fecant ED of the are AC above its radius
EA. For joining A D, the angle D A E in the femi-circle
DAE isa right one. me

Corel. 2.—The longitudinal aberration T F = 4CE’

A.B
Hor .Pi= 2CE nearly.

4
Corol. 3.—The lateral aberration F G = ee
2 2

ONES LO OS ae PN DA Gye etal Cal D nearly,

Corel. 4.—When the diameter of the concave or its focal
diftance is given, the longitudinal aberrations are as the
{quares, and the lateral ones as the cubes of the diameters
of the apertures.

For

Prop. IV.

“‘ When parallel rays of any one fort are refraéted by a
plano-convex objeét-glafs, or whenirays of all forts are re-
flected by a {pherical concave, the diameter of each circle
of aberration caufed by the fphericalnefs of the figures, is
equal to half the lateral aberration of the extreme ray in
each, and therefore is given by the former propofitions.?

Let a Y x be any refracted or reflected ray, cutting the axis
EC T in x (fgs. 6 and 7.), and the extreme ray A TG,
that comes from the contrary fide of the axis, in Y. Draw
Y X perpendicular to the axis; and fuppofing the line
A TG immoveable, as the point of incidence 2 moves from
the vertex C, the perpendicular X Y will firft incréafe, be-
caufe the angle Cra continually increafes, and afterwards
will decreafe, becaufe the line T’+ continually decreafes; and
when X Y is the greateit, it is evident that all the rays, in-
cident upon the fame fide of the axis as itfelf, will pafs
through it. ‘To find its greateft quantity, let the incident
ray ga cut the chord A P B in 9, and fuppofing the variable
aperture P £ = y, the variable T X = x, and the given lines
PA=a, PT =f, TF =45; by Cor. 4. Props. Tl. and
III. the aberration Fz is to the aberration F T (4) as wa?
or P@ (vv) to PA? (aa).

Wherefore Fr = —— 6, and thence T F — Fr = TT;
aa

5. —— ‘
= ae ae 2 Agan, PT (f): PA (a) :: TX

(Gia Fi alfo za (wv) : aires Xd Lys (7B) Was eX
a) Xr Hence again, Tr, or X77 + X T=
v
ze as apap x aa— vv found before ; or -— x atv
v aa v
b =

— b
=— xa+vx a—v. Whence x =— v x a—v,
aa aa

and therefore x or T X is the greateft poffible when the

reGtangle v x a — v, or PB x B B is greateft, that is, when
its fides Pf, 6 B, are equal, or whenv=Ja. Subititute
this value for v in the laft equation, and it gives the greatetft
value of x = 44, or the greatett TX=iTF; and there-
fore the greateft K Y=4F G, becaunle TX: XY:: TF
: EG; and this X Y, turned about the axis P X, defcribes
the circle of aberrations through which all the rays falling
upon A B will juft pafs. Q.E.D.

Prop. V.

“‘ The circle of aberrations caufed by the f{phericalnefs of
the figure of the object-glafs of a telefcope, compared with
the circle of aberrations caufed by the unequal refrangibility
of rays, is altogether inconfiderable.”’

For if the objeét-glafs be plano-conyex, and the plane fide
be turned towards the object, and the diameter of a {phere,
whereof this glafs is a fegment, be called D, and the femi-
diameter of the aperture of the glafs be called S, and fhe

ine

TELESCOPE.

fine of incidence out of glafs into air be to the fine of re-
fraction as nto m; the rays which come parallel to the axis
of the glafs fhall, in the place where the image of the object
is moft diftin@ly made, be feattered all over a little circle,

very nearly, if they were all

DD
equally refrangible. As for inftance, if the fine of in-
cidence n be to the fine of refraétion m as 20 to 31, and
if D, the diameter of the {phere to which the convex fide
of the glafs is ground, be 100 feet, or 1200 inches, and
confequently the telefcope about 100 feet long, and S, the
femi-diameter of the aperture, be two inches ; the diameter
3

DD

; _ mm
whofe diameter is —— xX
nn

: . mm ,
of this circle of aberrations, that is —— » will be

x
nn
31x38 x8
20 X 20 X 1200 X 1200
But the diameter of the little circle through which thefe

Or zrve'dews Parts of an inch.

rays are fcattered by unequal refrangibility, will be about

the 55th part of the breadth of the aperture of the obje@-
glafs, which is here four inches. And therefore the aber-
ration arifing from the {pherical figure of the glafs, is to
the aberration arifing from the different Saran as
sro'selvon tO <5 that is as 1 to 5449; and therefore, being
in comparifon fo very little, deferyes not to be confidered in
the theory of telefcopes. If we fuppofe the little circle of
aberrations arifing from unequal refrangibility, to be 250
times narrower than the circular aperture of the object-glafs,
it would contain all the orange and yellow, and would per-
mit the other fainter and darker colours to pafs by it, which
perhaps may fcarcely affeét the fenfe ; yet even inthiscafe, the
aberration caufed by the fpherical figure, would be to the
aberration caufed by the unequal refrangibility, in a 100-feet
telefcope, but as yae%'surs tO Fo» OF only as 1 to 1200,
which fufficiently proves the propofition. Q. E. D.

Corol. 1.—I£ the focal diftances and apertures of a refiect-
ing concave and a plano-conyex glafs be both the fame, the
diameter of the circle of aberrations, caufed by their figures,
will be above 30 times lefs in the refleCtor than in the re-

3
fraGtor. For thefe diameters are AP fas pete — x
16CF* m—n
3
at ;3 which are as } to or 3 ie

4CF

Hence, if the length of each telefcope be 100 feet, the
lateral aberrations in the refle€tor wonld be 30 x 5449, or
163470 times lefs than the lateral aberrations caufed by un-
equal refrangibility in the refractor.

Corol. 2.—The number of pencils, fome of whofe rays
are mixed together in every point of a confufed piéture, is
as the area Ad the circle of aberrations of the rays in any one

encil; and confequently the mixture of the rays of dif-
erent pencils, cities by the fphericalnefs of the figure of
an object-glafs, if they were all alike refrangible, would be
to their mixture caufed by their unequal refrangibility, as
1 to'5449 X 5449, or 29691601 in the prefent inftance. For
conceiving any point in the confufed picture to be a centre of
a circle cfaNenstitt it is manifeft that all other equal circles
of aberration, whofe centres fall upon the firft-mentioned
circle, will cover its centre, that is, fome rays of as many
pencils will be mixed in this centre as there are points in the
circle itfelf; or, which is the fame thing, the number of
pencils mixed in this centre is as the area of the circle of
aberrations.””

m—a vi Seep ih

Double achromatic Obje@-glaffes.—From thefe five propofr-
tions, and the corollaries deduced from them, in all of which
the ratio of the fines of the angles of incidence and of re-
fraGtion out of air into glafs is taken as 3 : 2, (which
anfwers nearly to the French plate-glafs,) our readers will
fee, that when any fingle lens is ufed as the objeét-glafs of 2
refraGting telefcope, there will be not only fringes of colour,
but indiltinétnefs in the image formed at its focal point,
anifing refpectively out of the two kinds of aberration, the
prifmatic and the fpherical. But Dollond has fhewn, that
thefe aberrations are not the fame in all forts of glafs: the
former depends on the difperfive power of the glafs ufed,
and the latter on the ratio of the radii of curvature of the
two furfaces of the lens. The difperfive power of a prifm
of any {pecimen of glafs will be to that of another i
of a different fpecimen, as the lengths of the prifmatic
fpeétra, formed by them, are refpettively to each other:
and if the foci of two lenfes of different difperfive powers,
one convex, of crown-glafs for inftance, and the other
concave, of flint, be made direétly as their difperfive
powers, and be placed contiguous, fo that the convex lens
may receive the rays firft, and be of the fhorter focus, or
thicker, its difperfive power will be fo counteraéted by
the oppofite difperfive power of the other thin lens of
longer focus, that the extreme or prevailing colours of
the primary fpeGtrum, being reverfed, will both difappear ;
and a fecondary fpeétrum, compofed of the remaining in-
termediate colours, will be very inconfiderable in a good
achromatic objeét-glafs thus compofed. If the refraéted
focal diftances of the two lenfes remain unaltered, when
duly proportioned, as 2 : 3, or nearly fo, the proportion
of the radii of the furfaces may be altered at pleafure, fo as
to produce their due proportions of {pherical aberration.
To effect the defirable purpofe of banifhing the fpherical
aberration as much as poflible, the optician is obliged to
calculate the aberrations belonging to convex lenfes of dif-
ferent unequal radii, in order to make the contrary aberra-
tions of the concave as equal thereto as may be; and for
this purpofe the general theorem of Huygens is peculiarly
adapted, which we fhall, therefore, introduce and ex-
emplify here, before we proceed to the conftruétion of an
achromatic object-glafs. According to this theorem, if we
put rv for the radius of the firft furface of any lens, or that
which firft receives the incident rays; R for the fecoud fur-
face ; and T for the thicknefs of the lens: then the aderra-
tion arifing from the figure of any lens, concave or convex,

2p Or Rt PR? Saye
6xr+R?
Martin’s New Elements of Optics, part vi. chap. iii. and
Dr. Smith’s Optics, book 2. chap. xi When the
centres of the curves are on oppofite fides of the lenfes, the
figns are as here put down; but if thefe centres are on the
fame fide as ina menifcus, then the fign of 7, or of R, muft
be negative, as the cafe may require. For inftance, let us
firft put r and R equal, and each = 1; then, as unity is
not altered by multiplication or divifion, we fhall have the

will be =

§ a ae —Sa —_— 40

fimpleft cafe, viz. Ge ae tre
T, for the longitudinal aberration, and it will make no dif-
ference which face of the lens is turned to the radiant.
Secondly, let us take r = 1, and R = 2, in which cafe

we Mibave ole?
x9

But if we reverfe the fides in pofition, by making r = 2,

and

= £3, or 4 of T, very nearly.

5, or 1.66 of |

*

TELESCOPE.

and R=1, then the refult will be different, wiz.
S00ih 3E fe PEAT 127, or nearly #8 of T. The aberration
6x9 i
here is more than in the former pofition, in the ratio of
127 : 673 and this is, therefore, called the qor/? pofition ;
that being always called the def, where the firft furface has
a fhorter radius than the fecond. If we fuppofe lenfes of
unequal radii to have their focal diftances, their breadth,
and confequently their thicknefs the fame, it will be found,
by a fimilar procefs, that their aberrations will dimnifh, as
R continues to exceed r, until ry is to R as 1 : 63 in which
conitruétion of a lens, placed in its beft pofition, the aber-
ration will be a minimum, viz. +5 of T; but in its reverfed
or worft pofition, the aberration will be +4° of the fame.
A fingle convex lens, in its beft potition, has its aberration
only Z of T; but with the plane fide turned to the radiant,
in which r may be faid to be infinite, the aberration will
be $ of T. Alfo a double convex, when its radii r and R
are to each other as 2 : 5, has the fame aberration asa fingle
convex in its beft pofition, and has lefs {pherical aberration
than any menifcus whatever ; but there is no proportion of
the radii of any one lens that will do away the fpherical
aberration altogether. If the refractive power of any glafs
be fuch, that the fines of incidence and of refraction are not
exaétly in the ratio 3 : 2, the calculated longitudinal aber-
ration will differ a little from the true one, {fo as to require
a correction. And with refpe& to the lateral aberration,
if m be the fine of incidence, and x the fine of refraction = 1,
where two lenfes have equal apertures and radii, then the
errors arifing from obliquity of incidence will ref{pectively
be as m? in one, to 'm? in the other. :
Likewife, we derive from the foregoing demonitrations of
Dr. Smith the following general and important conclu-
fions: firft, that in lenfes of equal apertures, the /ongitu-
dinal aberrations, arifine from figure, are inverfély as the
focal diftances (fee Cor. 2. of Prop. II. above quoted) ;
and fecondly, that under like circumftances, the Jateral
aberrations are inverfely as the {quares of the faid focal

diftances (fee Cor. 3. of the fame Prop.) ; and, on the con-
trary, that when the focal diftances are the fame, and the
apertures differ, then the /ongitudinal aberrations are as the
f{quares (fee Cor. 4.), and the /ateral as the cubes of thofe
apertures. The utility of thefe proportions will more fully
appear in the fequel.

We proceed now to the moft important part of our
article, viz. to fhew what means have been not onl devifed,
but practically applied, for remedying the defeéts arifing out
of thefe two different kinds of aberrations, and-for rend ering
the apparent object, as viewed through a refracting telefco pe,
at the fame time diftinét and colourlefs. Trelefcopes of
what are called the achromatic, (from , priv., and Xe ware,
colour,) or colourlefs kind, are compofed, like other tele-
{copes, of two parts requiring feparate confideration ; viz.
the objeét-glafs and the eye-tube: the former being that
which produces an image free’ from colours and miftinefs ;
and the latter that which either renders this image vifible, or
produces a fecondary one to be viewed, without the repro-
duction of colours. But our prefent confideration is that of
the object-glafs.

Before the working optician can proceed to prepare his
tools for making an achromatic objet-glafs, he muit know
the refractive and difperfive powers of his glafs. Various
methods have been propofed for determining thefe qualities
with accuracy ; but it will be fufficient for our purpofe to
explain thofe which have been found moft praéticable. As
the ratio between the fine of incidence and the fine of refrac-
tion is conftant in the fame glafs, though not the fame ratio
in different forts of glafs, the moft certain method of deter-
mining this ratio in different {pecimens of glafs is, to grind
a piece of each of thofe fpecimens by the fame tool, as
Martin and Tulley have done, and then to compare their
refracted folar foci with the radius of curvature ; and thofe
which have the fhorteit refraGted foci, will have the greateit
refractive power ; and the contrary. We have already ex-
plained, in the firft feGion of our article, how this operation
was conducted by Tulley in particular ; and we will now ftate
the refults of his experiments in the fubjoined little table.

Refults of practical Experiments on the refractive Powers of different Specimens of Glafs, by C. Tulley.

R F R
Radius of | Focus of re- F
Tool. frafted Rays. a Divifor.

= 2a

Kinds of Glafs.

Flint 1. Fi 28.13 1.198

—

Flint 2. - . 29.38 1.147

_ Ratcliffe crown 31-91 1.056

Ratio of the
Sines of
T and R.

1.59921 3-466
Osis
1.528:1 | 2.527

Specific Ratio of difperfive
Gravity. Powers.

Kinds of Glafs
ufed together.

Hey fy ee ufed with crown.

3-192 1.524:1

ufed with crown.

ufed with flint 1.
ufed with flint 2.

Mee 57
121.524

Dutch ; 32.12 | 1.049

Plate 1. 33-7 33-43 1.008

Plate 2. 33°7 33-56 1.004. 1.502: 1 2.428 1.195

If we explain how the numbers in the horizontal column
of flint 1. -were obtained, the reft of the table will require no
further explanation. The tool on which the fix fpecimens
of glafs were ground at the fame time, was of {peculum
metal, and did not vary its fhape much during the operation

4

1.524: 1 "2.519

1.50431 2.450

not known.
1: 1.65 ufed with flint 1.
I: 1.623 ufed with flint 2.
ufed with flint 1.
1.167 ufed with flint 2.

of grinding and partial polifhing, which was all that the
glafles required for viewing the fun, and for adjuftment to
the folar focus. The firft flint-glafs, after being thus formed
to a curvature on both fides of 33.7 inches radius, equal to
that of the tool, was put into a tube and made into a tem-

porary

TELESCOPE.

porary telefcope, when the principal or folar focus, from
aétual refraétion of the rays, was found to be 28.13 inches,
which is therefore called the refraéed folar focus, the geo-
metrical focus derived from the radius of curvature being
33-7- This is the fpecimen of glafs of the greateft denfity
as well as of the greateft refractive and difperfive powers,
its {pecific gravity having been repeatedly afcertained to be
3.466 with different hydroftatic balances of the moft deli-
cate conftruétion. Now if the radiant had been at a near
diftance, inftead of the fun being ufed, Martin has fhewn

that the value of a = ——— may be had from this theorem,
n

Viz. Sa piel ae a (where d, r, and f, are as in our Table I.

2df
of Theorems), which is demonftrated in his Philofophia Bri-
tannica; and from this theorem he determined the focal dif-
tances and quantity a of his fpecimens of glafs; but when
the fun is ufed as the radiant, the diftance becomes infinite ;
and then, neglecting rf as infinitely {mall, the left-hand term

becomes aa and the theorem, by ejeGting d from the

- * 3 r
numerator and denominator, is reduced into the form ey =i;
a

as in our Table I. for parallel rays with a double convex of
equal radii. Tilley, therefore, very properly preferred tak-
ing the folar focus at once, inftead of taking a meafured
diflance for the place of the radiant, and of calculating
from a long theorem, and from data that might not be per-
feétly corre ; his refults, therefore, muft be confidered as
being more fatisfaGtory than Martin’s. The reduced theorem

= = f, by tranfpofition becomes = = 2a, and alfo f x
2a=r; hence 2a may be either a divifor or multiplier,
accordingly as r or f is given to find the other. Tulley has
called this quantity a divifor, becaufe, having the radius or
geometrical focus of a glafs always, from the known radius
of his grinding tool, he can get the refraéed focus by the
proper divifor and a fimple célodlatiom at any time; which
mode, as we shall fee prefently, is very ufeful in the calcu-
lation of the compound focus of an achromatic objeét-glafs.
Now to get the aétual quantity of 2a in figures, there will

be ae taken from the third and fourth vertical columns,

R r :

Fo mt 2a= 1.108 for the faid
divifor, one half of which is .599 = a. Put now m, as
before, for the fine of incidence, and n for the fine of re-

Let

which may be called

n
=—4.

. m—
fraétion, and we have feen above that

— I

m
n= 1, and then m = 1.599; for =2.". m= +2

1.599 — I
1.599, and 309!
of incidence is to the fine of refra¢tion in this firft fpecimen,
in the ratio of 1.599 : 1; and in like manner the horizon-
tal columns for all the other fpecimens are filled up with very

= .599 = a; therefore the fine

F
the tabular or experimental numbers.— With refpe& to the

little trouble, when — is afcertained by fimple divifion of

vertical column of difperfive powers, thefe powers are beft
afcertained by making fix equal prifms of the fame fpeci-
mens of glafs, and by meafuring the coloured folar fpeétra
of each feparately, under exaétly the fame circumftances of
diftance, inclination, pofition, &c.; and as the angle of dif-
perfion is meafured by the coloured fpeétrum as its fubtenfe,
the angles of difperfion of the different fpecimens will vary
with the refpeétive lengths of their fpe€tra; and if the re-
fracting angle of one of the {pecimens, the firft flint for in-
ftance, be diminifhed by grinding and frefh polifhing, until
its {peCtrum is of precifely the fame length as that of any
other, fay the crown, then the ratio of their refracting
angles will be inverfely the ratio of their difperfive powers ;
and a pair of analogous lenfes, one convex and the other con-
cave, ({uch as thofe feen in Plate XXVIII. figs. 5. and 6.)
will have their difperfive powers fo counteracted, that a
pencil of rays incident on the thick crown-glafs will emerge
from the thin flint colourle/s, and will proceed without colour,
notwithftanding the greater refra&tive power of the convex
lens, till, by being refracted, they finally crofs the axis in
which the focus is formed ; and the focal point will be more
or lefs diftant with a pair of lenfes fo combined, accordingly
as the difference of the two refrating powers is greater or
{maller. To explain this analogy between a pair of prifms
and a lens, either convex or concave, we will fhew how a
pencil of folar rays paffing through a prifm of glafs is dif-
perfed at the fecond furface, fo as to form the folar fpec-
trum compofed of the prifmatic colours: Let aéc, im
fig: 9, be a triangular piece of glafs, called a prifm, andda
pencil of folar light, entering the prifm at ¢, in the line de B,
parallel to the bafe ac: on entering the glafs it will be re-
fraéted towards this bafe, and emerge at the point f, a little
nearer toc thane is toa. At this point of emergence, f, the
pencil will begin to di/perfe into rays of different colours,
but whether into feven or any other number, is not our
prefent object to enquire. Let AB be a {creen, receiving
the difperled pencil in a darkened room, and fg will be the
ray of mean refraction, f/ will be the red ray, or ray of
leaft refraction, and fi will be the violet ray, or ray of
greateit refraction, 4: being the length of the coloured {pec-
trum. Let this prifm be of crown-glafs; then fubftitute
another of flint-glafs, exa@ly in the fame fituation, and the
extreme rays, 4 and i, will now be difperfed to H and I, and
the diftance between thofe new points will be the length of
the {peétrum with flint-glafs. Now the angle gf B with
both prifms is called the angle of deviation, or By mean re-
fraction ; the angle ih is called the angle of di/perfion vith
the crown, and I fH the fame with the flint prifm; but
thefe angles of difperfion are fubtended by the as ih and
1H refpetively, which are the lengths of their refpective
{peétra, which therefore are the mea/ures of the angles of
difperfion of the two different prifms. Martin found thefe
exactly as 3 : 5, and therefore recommended the geometrical
foci of the crown and flint glaffes to be always in this
proportion ; but Tulley has found that this ratio will not be
accurate with all fpecimens of flint-glafs, and therefore
takes a different ratio, for each fpecimen of glafs that differs
in this quality, from Martin’s. In the fame fpecimen of
glafs, the angle of deviation always bears the fame propor-
tion to the angle of difperfion, or diffipation as it is fome-
times called; and it was the opinion of fir Ifaac Newton
that this is the cafe in all /pecimens ; but it remained for
the fenior Dollond to difcover, which is the bafis of all
achromatic conftruétions of an objeét-glafs, that the angles
of deviation may be the fame, when the angles of difperfion
are not the fame, and vice verfa; and we have a ftriking in-
ftance in crown and flmt glafs, in which, when the difperfive

powers

TELESCOPE.

powers are made to balance each other in oppofite directions,
there yet remains a balance of refraCtive power in favour of
the crown, arifing from its greater thicknefs, which difpofes
colourlefs rays {till to deviate or be refracted, but to a more
diftant focus than would have been if the crown had been
ufed alone. This effect may be feen in fie. 10, where a pair
of prifms, a and 4, are infcribed in the double convex lens of
crown-glafs, and the pair c and ¢ within the double concave
of flint: the incident rays de and de, at each fide of the
axis go, enter the convex at the points e and e, and are re-
fraéted towards the axis, till they meet with the inverted
prifms c and ¢ of flint, when they are refracted in a contrary
direCtion, fo as to prevent their meeting at the point o of
the akis to which they tended, and emerge at the points f
and f colourlefs, in confequence of the oppofite difperfions
which take place in the prifms; but after emerfion they
tend to a new and more diftant point O in the axis, and
there come to an achromatic focus.

To render this explanation ftill more intelligible with
refpect to the oppofition of two counteracting difperfions, let
there be two feparate prifms, placed, as in fg. 11, at a
diftance from each other, and inverted with refpe& to each
other ; let adc be the prifm of crown-glafs, and A BC
a fimilar one of flint-glafs ; and let two pencils of white
light enter thefe lenfes in oppofite directions, one d, and the
other D; theng and G will be the rays of mean refraction,
4 and H thofe of leaft, or red; and z and I thofe of moft, er
violet. Now as the refractive power of the flint prifm
A B C is greater than that of the crown ac, the mean
ray G in the firft will be nearer its prifm, than g, the mean
ray of the fecond, to its prifm ; but the angle of difperfion
fubtended by H I, will be greater than that fubtended by
4 i, while the prifms have the fame refracting angles C and
a. Now as the refraction and difperfion in the fame prifm are
proportionate to the refracting angle, thefe may be both
reduced to any affignable quantity by a reduction of the re-
fraGting angle ; then let the fide of the prifm of flint C A
be ground down till it becomes C K, thereby making the
angle B C A, the original refracting angle, equal BC K, the
new refracting angle ; and let this fecond angle be to the firft as
the refraGtive power of the crownis to the refractive power of
the flint ; or, in other words, let the refraéting angles C and
¢ be inverfely as the refractive powers of the two fpecimens
of glafs formed into prifms; viz. as that of g fF: GF f;
and then the mean ray G will be extended to c, and Fc will
be parallel to fC ; that is, the mean refraction of the two
jenfes will be alike, the angle GF f= 2 g fF, by being
alternate. In this fituation of the refracting angles of the
oppofite prifms, the rays would both enter and emerge
parallel as to refradion ; but as to difperfian, that of the flint
would {till predominate a little, or the angle H F I would in
fome meafure exceed the angle 4 f7: but thefe are the angles
we want to have equal; therefore, to make the refraéting
angles C and c of the two prifms proportional to the LG
perfive powers, or to the fpeétra bt and HI in fg. 9, let the
fide B € alfo of the flint prifm be ground down a little to /,
fo that the refracting angle / C & of this flint, thall be to the

‘refraéting angle acd of the crown in this ratio of the
fpeétra; and then not.only will the difperfive powers of the
two prifms become equal, but, what is equally planet: G
will now fail beyond c; that is, the refra¢tive power o the
flint by this fecond diminution of its refraéting angle, will
become lefs than the refraétive power of the crown, and the
difference of thefe powers will refraét the tranfmitted rays, as
in fig. 10, finally to the diftant point O, as has been ex+
plained, while at the fame time the rays that arrive there
will be without colours, If now we conceive that the re-

You, XXXV.

fracting angle of each of the flint prifms ¢ and ¢, in fig. 10,
infcribed within the concave lens ¢ c, is fo proportioned to
the refracting angle of the prifms @ and 4, infcribed in the
convex lens of crown a 4, as the refracting angle 7 C é of the
flint prifm in fg. 11. is to the refraGting angle ac b of the
crown prifm, then the double objeét-glafs in fig. 10. will
be achrematic ; its lenfes being analogous to the correct-
ing prifms. Thus the theory of a double achromatic
object-glafs is within the comprehenfion of our ordinary
readers ; and as the triple object-glafs has two thin con-
vex lenfes of crown, inftead of one thick, to combine with
the flint concave one, a farther explanation is unnecef-
fary, particularly if the thick double convex be fuppofed
to be divided longitudinally into two plano-convexes, and
to be placed one on each fide of the concave: for when
thefe plano-convexes are formed into two curves, giving
the fame focal diftance each as one of the plano-convexes,
i the union of the three lenfes will be that reprefented in
fs J0

We may now proceed to exemplify this theory, arifing out
of Dollond’s grand difcovery ; and to make the conftruction
as familiar as poffible, we will avoid all fluxional calculations,
and explain fuch algebraical ones only, as are indifpenfable, in
the firit example at full length, as they occur, fo that the
abridgments in the fubfequent examples may be clearly in-
telligible. Our aim differs from that of our predeceffors in
this refpe@t. The illuftrious mathematicians Euler, d’Alem-
bert, Clairaut, Bofcovich, Klugel, and Robifon, have given
formul for the calculation of achromatic obje¢t-glaffes, that
are above the comprehenfion of ordinary opticians ; and Dr.
Brewiter has calculated tables, according to thefe formule,
of the different curves that fuit a certain /pecimen only of flint-
glafs, and that fuch as is not to be found, at leaft in Eng-
land; viz. that which has its fines of the Z of incidence
and of the 4 of refraction as 1.604: 1. Befides, the cal-
culations tabulated are not in a pra¢tical form in Table IT.,
the radius of the convex being fhorter than that of its
contiguous concave. On the contrary, we propofe to
take glafs that falls in our way, and to calculate in a
familiar manner the radii of curvature that fhall fuit fpe-
cimens already within our reach. In fhort, our predeceffors
fhew how achromatic objeét-glaffes may be made, if proper
glafs could be obtained; and we will explain how achromatic
object-glaffes are made, and in the éeff manner, with glafs
of our own manufaéture.

Lxample 1.—Let it be required to form a double obje&=
glafs of thirty inches focal length, from the fecond flint-glafs
and crown-glafs given in Tulley’s table of expebitiental re=
fults? In the crown-glafs, the ratio of the fines of the
angles of incidence and of refraction (m : 1) is 1.528 : 1 ;
and in the flint-glafs it is 1.5735 : 13; while the ratio
of their difperfive powers are’.500 : .762, or ¥ 3 1.524.
The firft ftep is to determine the ratio of the geometri-
cal focus of the firft or crown-glafs, to the compound
focus of the propofed pair of glafles, in order that the
radii of this lens may be known, before its proper com-
panion, the flint lens, have its focus determined. It will be
convenient to call the radius of the convex 1, and as it is pro~
poted to have it a double convex, the geometrical focus wilt
alfa be 1; but as the compound focus of both lenfes is
the refracted focus always, the geometrical focus & muft be
turned into the refraéted focus alfo, in order to have both of
the fame denomination: but to do this we want the divifor,
which may be taken from the table, or derived from
14528 — 1,000

1,000
Vi

m—a

——— xX 2; thus 528 x 2 ce 1.056, the
4

divifoy

TELESCOPE.

5.6735 — T.00O0 ee =
SP sest seats Te TRIER ee

1.147, the divifor of the flint. In the next place we have

divifor of the crown; an

ode .94697 for the refra€ted focus of the crown lens ;

1.056
and becaufe the foci of the crown and flint lenfes mutt be in
the fame ratio as their difperfive powers, which we have
1.524.

147

ftated to be 1 : 1.524, we thall have a = 1.3827 for the

rerratted-focus of the concave or flint-glafs. Now, having
-94697 : 1.3827 as the ratio of the two feparate re-
fated focal diftances that thall banifh all colours by their
equal and oppofite difperfive powers ; we next find what will
be the compound focus correfponding to thefe two when
put in contaé. Let F be the focus of the convex, and
'F that of the concave; and by our praffical theorem 5. there
é Ress cE
will be FoF =

the compound focus, which in plain
+94697 X 1.3827
1.3827 — -94697
proportional compound focus required. Now if the prifma-
tic aberration were the only one neceflary to be countera¢ted,

we have already obtained numbers that would enable us to con-
ftru& an achromatic or colourlefs compound objec-glafs ; for

numbers will ftand thus ; = 3-295 the

if we multiply F,/F, and / alike by ae or 9.12, the
seointtical focus of the convex lens, we fhould have the
abfolute refraéted focus of F = .94697 x 9-12|= 8.636;
that of 'F = 1.3827 x 9.121= 12.61; and the compound
focus = "3.29 X 9.12\= 30 very nearly ; and it would be
immaterial what the curves were, provided the refraéted
focal diftances of F and'F were as above ftated: but as
the tools for forming the curves refpedtively for the fides of
thefe lenfes, muft have regard to the radii of curvature, it
would be now neceflary to ufe the divifors as multipliers, to
convert the refraéted into the geometrical foci, and then the
bufinefs might be put in hand. On this fuppofition, of there
being only one kind of aberration, the conftru€tion of a
compound achromatic object-glafs would be no difficult
affair ; for while the focal diftances only are required to be
to each other in a given ratio, the radii of curvature might
be varied almoft at pleafure, without affeéting the focal
diflance. But there yet remains the fpherical aberra-
tions of the two feparate lenfes to oppofe to each other in

fuch proportion, that their tendency to produce indiflin@nefs +

may be completely obviated. Before the time of fir Tfaac
Newton, this was the only kind of aberration that opticians
thought they had to contend with ; and though it is fmall
im quantity, compared to the prifmatic aberration, yet it is
more difficult to conquer. It is, however, contrary to the
opinion of that great philofopher and mathematician, in the
power of the modern optician to cure this defe& of {pheri-
cal glaffes, by means equally fimple, when determined, as
thofe by which the prifmatic colours are made very nearly to
vanifh. As in the annihilation of the prifmatic colours, the
ratio of the focal diftances, made direétly as the ratio of the
difperfive powers, 18 a cure for the firft imperfection ; fo the
ratio of the radii, r: R, of the two lenfes, fo calculated as to
counteraét each other’s {pherical aberrations, is the cure for
the fecond imperfeétion ; and this cure we have yet to apply,
10

without interfering with the remedy which we have jult pre-
feribed for the other. In order to mark the diftin&tion that
mutt be made in the fymbols, as applied refpectively to the
convex and concave lenfes, let it be underftood, that the fub-
joined notation will be attended to in our inveftigation of the
curves proper for our prefent purpofe ; viz.

Convex. Concave.

r 'y means the radius of the firft furface.

R ‘R — means the radius of the fecond furface. —

F 'F means the focus from folar rays, or geome-
trical, if fo expreffed.

Ad 'T the thicknefs of the tens.

A 'A the fpherical aberration.

m 'm the fine of incidence.

n '2 the fine of refraGtion.

© the compound focus.

It may be alfo neceflary to premife, that whatever ratio
of the radii r and R be fixed upon for the convex lens, the
ratio 'r: 'R of the concave may always be found by proper
inveftization fuch, that its aberration will countera& that
of r ae stiue the reverfe is not true; the aberration of
'y:'R may be too great for the aberration of any ratio
r:R to equal; therefore the ratio r: R is firft aflumed,
as is moft convenient for the optician’s tools already
formed ; and 'r : ‘R mutt be fo calculated, that its aberration
fhall be in due proportion for correéting the aberration of
the aflumed convex lens. Wenow have to do with the geo-
metrical foci of both lenfes, when their radit become the

fubjet of inveftigation; and we have feen that g-12 e =)

is the geometrical focus of the convex lens, therefore
1.524 X 9.12 = 13.9 is the geometrical focus of the con-
eave, their ratio being {till as their difperfive powers,
very nearly. Let us now affume r = 7.5, or any other
quantity at option, and fee by the proper theorem what R
will be, to have a focus of 9.12 inches: to do this we have, by

No. 1. of our pradical theorems, before given, = 7 Re,
ie: Mi ip Eo 11.63 5
2X 7.5 — 9.12 ;

r:R::7.5: 11-63, oras 1: 1.55. Inthe next place, we
muft determine what is the longitudinal aberration arifing
from the figure of a lens, where the ratior: R is 1: 1.555
which is moft conveniently done by the general theorem of
Huygens, which we have before exemplified, and which

hence

or, in figures,

ftands thus ; hese x T= A= L36it

x r+ RV
VIZ pS; Malet Fo a me |
46rR= 93 [7+ Rh =r rgg = 6.5025
+ 7 R?= 16.8175 } multiplied by 6
value of nu-2 _ alle of deno- i
merator ay 53-1175 minator - pepe

Then 22-7275 —
39.015

Having now found 1.361 x T = A of the convex lens,
the value of T, which is the fum of the verfed fines of the
two interfeéting curves of its furfaces, may be calculated by
the fquare root, or by plane trigonometry, and will be.
found = .252, when the femi-diameter of the lens is 1.55
confequently 1.361 x .252 = .3429, is the abfolute quantity
of the fpherical aberration of the convex lens; but !'T' of the
concave

1.3614°x T= A.

G8

ee

>

TELESCOPE.

concave is by calculation .1653, and Ter = 2.074 is its
105

proportional aberration. But as the thicknefs, breadth, and
geometrical focal length of every lens, of whatever form,
muit, from the properties of the circle, be in proportion to
each other (fee Martin’s New Sytem, art. 705.), 'F may
be taken at once, inftead of ufing T and 'T with their cal-
culated values (which require fome operations), and then
the work will be greatly facilitated; thus'1.361 x T x
1.524. = 2.074 x '[ ='A. Now, as this quantity 2.074
bears the fame proportion to 1.361, as the focus of the con-
cave does to the focus of the convex, it might be concluded
that this would be the proper aberration to correé the aberra-
tion 1.361 of the convex lens; but this is not the cafe, for,
firft, the longitudinal aberrations arifing from the figure are
not in the /iple proportion to the foci of the lenfes refpect-
ively, neither is the quantity the fame with the flint as with
the crown glafs. Martin afferts that the {pherical longi-
tudinal aberrations are to each other, in like lenfes of dif-
ferent focal lengths, inver/ely as the /quares of the foci refpect-
ively ; confequently, in our example, thefe aberrations would

be inverfely as F?:'F*; or as 13.9 x 13.9): 9.12 x 9.12)3

A Se
1.361 : 0.5859” but
when. Tulley took 0.585 ='A, this aberration was found
much too little ; for when he had ground the lenfes with
curves to produce this aberration, he found that the eye-tube
required to be drawn outwards more than inwards by the
fcrew, from the true focal point, before the image difap-
peared, which is a proof that the concave had lefs than its
fhare of aberration; it being confidered as a teft of good
correétion, when the image difappears at points of the tube
equally diftant from the point of diftin@ vifion, accordingly
as the tube is pufhed in or drawn out from its focal point.
And here was probably the difficulty that Martin experi-
enced between his theory and practice. Neither was
the aberration thus obtained in due proportion, when cor-
reéted by the fimple ratio of the two divifors 2a: 2'a, or
1.056 : 1.147, for the difference of the refraCtive powers ;
for as 1.147: 1.056 :: 1.161 : 1.253; but 1.253 x 'T ='’A
was ftill too little for due correétion. Though the telefcope
was achromatic by virtue of the ratio of the foci of the
crown and flint lenfes, yet there was a want of perfe& di/-
tin&inef/s, owing to the deficiency of aberration attaching to
the concave lens. After a multiplicity of inveftigations,
calculations, and pra¢tical trials, Tulley at length difcovered
a method of balancing the oppofite aberrations, which he
has continued to pra¢tife with fuccefs for years, and which
is therefore no new projé&. The method is this: the value
of ‘A (2.074 x 'T) being firft determined from A, in the
ratio of F:'F, as above explained, the correGing number is
thus obtained ; if we call the fquare root of the cube of the
refraéted focus of the convex = x, the geometrical focus
being taken = 1; and put alfo y for the {quare root of the
cube of the refraéted focus of the concave, when its geo-

metricalefocus is = 1; then J —sisthe correcting number,

x

that is, aS 193-21 : 83.174, or as }

by which the proportional aberration, before determined,
muit be divided, to gain the proper or correéed aberration,

!
now expreffed by the fymbols = In the inftance before
us, the calculation will be .9473 = -8492781, and its fquare
moot’ == 2914 — x3 and ,/).8729= 42575 °=. 3 then

< - *-. - 1A
2x8 = .883 = x, the corvecting divifor, and alfo ee
-2914 | %
<a = 2.348 =/A correéted.

2903

Having now afcertained the aberration 2.348 « 'T of the
concave lens, that will balance the aberration 1.361 x T of
the convex, we mutt proceed to determine the ratio 'r:'R
of the concave, that fhall have exaéily this aberration ; to
be able to do this without a table of aberration, requires an
acquaintance with quadratic equations ; for the proportion
of the radii 'r and'/R mutt be inveftigated from the corrected
aberration which we have now afcertained.

yr7 + 6rR Re

shee ee A < gly As ‘(iby
6xr+ Rl :

the general theorem) = 2.348 x 'T, as before found; but

we make no diftinction between r, R, T, A, and !r,'R,
'T, 'A, that we may fimplify the fymbols: this equation,

1it. We have

by evolution of + + RI* in the denominator, becomes

2777+ 6rR+7R? Sy ay
TEST eee EEN
r7 P2rR SF R2

: : 2
ting R = 1, there will be es ee 2-348

x T'; or, dividing both fides by = 6 X 2.348 = 14.088,

QF ph Omit 7, pe
eo 3 and multiplying both by the

denominator, 14.1 r* + 28.2r 4+ 14.1 = 2777 4 67 4 7:
then fubtra€ting equal quantities from both, there remains
22.27 + 7.1 = 12.9r°; and by tranfpofition, 12.9 r?— 22.2
r = 7.1 for the quadratic. Now to find the root, we have firft
22.2r : JE

or 1451 —

re aa aaa and adding the fquare of half the
a )
co-efficient, r? — sae + eee 35 a 5 there-
12.9 12.9 12.9 . 12:9
foretitherroothg Se 4/ th: bee a and r =
12.9 we I2-0 > 2-9?

J TE aa 11.1

12.9 ° 12.9 i. 12.9
Laftly ; to colle& the aggregate of the values of r, we

7-1 uaiou)
have a5 ahs rari i 74, and / .55 + .74)=

stele Heme UT
AW 1.29 = 1.135; likewife =S = .860; therefore 1.135

+ .860 = 1.995 =r, which was defired; ‘and the ratio

vr: Ry which we now put again ’r:'R = 1.995: 1; and

which in Tulley’s Table ftands 2:1. After having thus

determined the ratio of the radii 'r and 'R to be 2: 1 very

nearly, we muft now find the rational geometrical focal dii-

tance of this concave by the fourth of our pradical theorems
2rR

ig RP we firft have

above exemplified; viz. from

Zi Xp 2a Xe ! :
2 = 1.333; and as the geometrical focus is known

ae oe
13-9
1-333

Li@2 x 2

to be 13.9, we have alfo = 10.428 = 'R, and10.428

TELESCOPE.

x 2=!7; fo that the four radii of the faces and the cor-
ref{ponding foci will ftand thus; viz.

r = 7.50 J and F = 9.12, the geometrical focus of the
ieee convex lens.
'R = 10.428] and 'F = 13.9, the geometrical focus of the
'r = 20.856 concave lens.
© = 30.04 the compound refracted focus of the tele-

fcope, according to the proper theorem.

We have now brought the calculations of our firft ex-
ample to a conclufion, accompanied by fuch explanations
as may render it unneceffary to dwell fo minutely on the
following examples; and when we have gained thefe radii
for a colette of 30 inches focus, we have the means of
making a telefcope equally achromatic and diftinét of any
other length; for the ratios y : R and 'r :'R, being once de-
termined for crown and flint glafs of given refractive and
difperfive powers, require only to be increafed in equal
quantities to fuit the foci of the propofed telefcopes, as in
the fubjoined table ; and it may be proper to notice, that
though the fpecific gravity has not been taken into the ac-
count in the calculations of this example, yet it is ufeful as
an index to point out the ratio of the fines of incidence and
of refraétion, and of the difperfive powers to be ufed,
when the fpecimens of glafs are felected by their fpecific
gravities only, without an experimental trial by grinding.

The fubjoined table is fuitable for achromatic double
objeét-glaffes of various lengths ; where m:n in the crown-
glafs is as 1.528: 1, and in the flint as 1.5735: 13 their
difperfive powers being 1 : 1.524.

Taste I.—Radii of double Objeé-glaffes in Inches.

R fp
“ gbaee 4.171
| 8.342
6.256 |° 12.513
een 16.684.
10.428 | 20.856 |
pe 12.512 "25.027 |
es98 i)’ 25.268
16,684 | 33-369,
18.770 | 37-540
"20.856. 41.712
‘5.025 | 50.054
29.196 | 58.396.
33-368 | 66.738,
37+540 75.080.
4652 [4r7sa | 83.424 |

In this table, R and ’'R are the faces of the two lenfes
which come in contaét, and y and 'r the external faces; and
it will be feen that R, being a little longer than 'R, the
convex face, will approach the concave one very clofely,
but will not touch it, which is a neceflary praétical con-
dition. When the aberration exceeds 1.666, which is
that of r: R when they are each = 1, or alike; then r
exceeds R, and the lens muft be reverfed, or put in its
worlt pofition ; which is the cafe in all our tables for double
objeét-glaffes with the flint-glafs; otherwife the concave
would not have had fufficient aberration for the convex.

In our next example it will not be neceffary to do the
work at full length, but only to give fuch an abridgment as
will be intelligible to the reader oe underftands the procefs
minutely explained in the preceding example. The denfity of
different forts of crown-glafs féldom varies ; but two fpeci-
mens of flint can feldom be found to be alike. The greater
the denfity of flint-glafs, the more fuitable it is for the pur-
pofe of making a concave lens of an achromatic objeét-glafs,
becaufe the radii of both the lenfes may be longer for the
fame compound refracted focus; and, confequently, the
{pherical aberration will be lefs than in glafs that requires
fhorter radii to produce the fame compound focus. If the
formof the concave had been given, the convex would have
been determined by a reverfed operation, where the mul-.
tiplier 1.524 would have been a divifor, and z a multi-
plier, &c. ; ;

Example 2.—Let it be required to form a double objeé-
glafs of 30 inches focal length, as before, with the fame
crown-glafs for the convex, but with the denfeft flint, in
which the ratio m:n is as 1.599: 1, and their difperfive
powers 1: 1.757?

In this example we have 1.056 = 2a, or the divifor for

the crown, asbefore, and 1.599 — 1 x 2 = 1.198 = 24, or

divifor for the flint ; then : = a= -94697 = F refraGted,and
16757, eves , Exe.
ae = 1.466 = 'F, alfo refracted; and alfo FoF

2.67, the ratio of the compound focal length, or what we
called the rational compound focus ; confequently, the
ratio between F geometrical and the compound focus is
in this example 1: 2.67; and the ratio between the re-
fraéted foci of the feparate lenfes, to correét the colorifie

: F 'F : Z
aye, is Pree: : “set . With refpe& to the fpheri-
cal aberrations, which are next to be contidered, we may
in the firft place determine the quantities x and y, and x
the correéling divifor,.which is derived from them, thus;

B ; and as —
{ J/ 946973 = .2914 = a ; 1.198
gives the refracted focus of the flint or concave lens, (F geo-
metrical being = 1 in this cafe,) ,/ .8343 = .2408 = y, and
y 2408 _

= 7.8245 Gc.

Pe ae
this refractive power of the flint-glafs. In the next place,

3°

2.67
19.73 = 'F (geometrical alfo).

z = .826, the correéfing divifor required for

= 11.23 = F (geometrical), and 11.23 x 1.957 =
Let us here affume r = 9

inches, and then by the theorem

rE
a R, we get

R = 14.92, and confequently the ratio r: R will be
9 : 14-92, or 1; 1,66 in its loweft terms. A double convex.
lens

TELESCOPE.

Tens ground with its radii in this ratio, will have its {pheri-
eal aberration = 1.325 x T; to countera@ which, the con-
cave mutt have its proper aberration determined ; and then the
ratio of its radu muit be inveftigated, that fhall make a lens
with this determined quantity pbaherccont We have feen
already that A = 1.325 x T, therefore 1.325 x 1.757=2.328
x 'T = 'A, the proportional aberration for 'F, Tnfideed

"as having the fame refra€tive power as F ; but the corre@-

2.328 _

826

is the correéted aberration, for which the radii ‘r and 'R are

now to be inveitigated. By putting '‘R = 1, as before, and

by working out the root of the quadratic arifing from

aye Gk 7 Re?
6x r+ Ri

ratio/R = 'r = 1: 3.075.

!
iag divifor muft now be applied, and = = 2.818

x T = 2.818, we fhall have the

And, laitly, for the a€tual radii

of the concave, we get, by our pra¢tical theorem <5 =
;

2x 207 5 Asi

=f, Benner 3307 5k 1.51 = 'F rational, and 19°73

I + 3.075 I.51

= 13.06 ='R; asalfo 13.06 x 3.075 = 40.15 = 'r, the
fecond fide of the concave. Whence we now have j

R i et and F = 11.23 geometrical.

in? =

E i gate and '!F = 19.73 geometrical.

® = 29.81 according to the proper theorem.

It may be fatisfa&tory to prove, that the geometrical
quantities F and 'F, which we have here determined, will
make ©, the compound focus of the telefcope, = 30 inches.
But it will be requifite firft to turn the geometrical foci
F and 'F into the refracted foci, by their refpective divifors,

11.23

denominated 2 a and 2!'a, viz. 1.056 and 1.198: thus,
2 sie 1.056

= 10.634 = F refra&ed, and ae

coe = 16.479 '— B! re-
Dee
'F—F
10.634 x 16.479 __ 175.237686
16.479 — 10.634 5-845
the decimal had been carried farther in the geometrical foci,
the compound focus would have been quite 30, as required.
It may be for the benefit of practical men to fubjoin a
table fimilar to our preceding one, derived from the radii of
curvature defermined in this fecond example. And let it be
underitood by our readers, that in all our ‘tables for the radii
of curvature, the length of the telefcope in inches is de-
noted by the figures in the firft vertical column; and that
the numbers in the fame horizontal column with any given
length, fhew the proper geometrical radii of curvature for
convex and concave lenfes to conftru& fuch telefcope.

The following table is fuitable for double achromatic ob-
jeét-glaffes of various focal lengths, where m : n in the crown-
glafs is as 1.528 : 1, and in the flint as 1.599: 13 and their
difperfive powers as 1 : 1.757.

fraéted; then by our theorem = , we have

= 29.81 = ©; and if

Tasie II.—Radii of double Objeét-glaffes in Inches.

lo | oe a) R -
6 | 1.80 | 2.98 2.61 8.03
pea | 3.60 | 5-97 5-22 | 16.06
18 | 5-40 | 8.95 7-83 | 24.09
24 | 7.20 | 11.93 | 10.44 | 32.12

| 30 | 9.00 14.92 13.06 | 40.15
36 10.80 | 17-91 15.67 | 48.18

| 42 | 12.60 20.89 | 18 28 | 56.21
a5 | asa9 | 7

Example 3.—We fhall now take the fame crown-glafs,
with a flint-glafs between the two extremes, which we have
ufed, viz. in which m:n is as 1.584 : 1, and their difper-
five powers as I : 1.59; and let it be required to calculate
a double achromatic object-glafs of 30 inches focal length,
as before ?

Having already the divifor (2a) of the crown equal
1.056, we begin with getting that of the flint thus,

1.584 — © x 2 = 1.168 = 2!a, or proper divifor; then

ae = .94697 = F refracted, as before; and «2.
F FE oe fh
= 1.3613 =F refraGted. Alfo aes 3-111, the

rational compound focus ; and I : 3.111 is the ratio between
F geometrical and &. We have x = .2914 from our former

examples, and to get y, we have : “z SS SE
fraéted, when '/F geometrical is = 13; therefore ,/ .856°
= ic f apes ; +2512 a vate ol :
==) 2h ea sue ape age ee = .862 = z,

Again,

the correcting divifor.

aa = 9.643 = F geo-
metrical, and 9.64 X 1.59 = 15.327 = ‘F in the fame

denomination. In this example we will take’ + = 8 inches ;
eld

then, by the proper theorem ang ae R, we have

ee = 12.12 =F, and a = 1.515 5; con-

Alfo,

fequently the geometrical ratior : R = 1 : 1.515.
from

TELESCOPE.

from the general theorem of Huygens, we find A = 1.374
xT, and 1.374 x 1-59 = 2.184 x 'T ='A rational, which
2.184. 'A
-862
reéted aberration. By getting the root of the quadratic arif-
ing from this aberration agreeably to the general theorem, as
before, the ratio of the radii ‘R : 'r comes out 1 : 2.375.

is yet to be correéted ; then

Laftly, by the theorem a Ss we get aS Se
= 1.407 = 'F rational, and ET = 10.89 ='R, and
alfo 10.89 x 2.375 = 25-864 ='r. We have, therefore,
R o ihe: and F = 9.643.
A = sour and 4B = 15.327.

Hence the next table is fuitable for double.achromatic
objeét-glaffes. of various focal lengths, where m:n in the
crown-glafs is as 1.528: 1, and in the flint as 1.584: 1;
and their refpective difperfive powers as I : 1-590.

Taste III.—Radii of double Obje-glaffes in Inches.

33-93

25.60 38.77 34.85

108

28.80

39-20 | 93-10 |

43-63

32.00 | 48.48 43-56 | 103-44 |

Example 4.—Let us next take an example, in which
plate-glafs is fubftituted for crown, and let the fines of the
angles of incidence and of refraétion in it be as 1.504 : 1,
while m : 1 in the flint is as 1.573 : 1, and their difperfive
powers 1 : 1.623; and let the length of the telefcope be

required to be 30 inches, as before? Then eens

Bx 2

1.008, is the divifor for the plate-glafs; and

>= 2535. the cor- =

me x 2 = 2a = 1.147, or a divifor for the flint ; allo

ee, a5 1.623 oes
aT ele = F refraéted ; and 1.415 Li
'

refraéted. Again, a = = = 3.318 = ® rational ; alfo
3 = = coy ower ) ; 3

VW +992 x +3124, and eS = .872')s a/meome

pa SS Ds 2575... gia al

= y = .2575; whence se rere 824 = z. Likes

wife i = 9.03 = F, and 9.03, x 1.623.= 14-05)! Ba

rF R
Se aa Ri = 01345 and ~~
= 1.51, or r: R:: 1: 1-51; hence A, by the general
theorem of Huygens, = 1.376 x T, and'A =1.376 x 1.623
= 2.233 x "I = the aberration of the concave correéted
for the difference of refraétive power. The root arifing from
a quadratic equation of this aberration is '- = 2.78, when

a

Bat e775 5 then

1, confequently 2a = 1.471 = /F rational, and

as = 9.96 = 'F geometrical; alfo 9.96 x 2.78 =
27.68 = 'F geometrical. Thus,

R_ age F = 9.03 geometrical.

i

aa = oe 'F = 14.65 geometrical.

Taste 1V.—Radii of double Object-glaffes, with Lenfes
of Plate and Flint, in Inches.

Lxample

TELESCOPE.
Taste V1I.—Radii of double Obje&-glaffes in Inches.

Example 5.—Let the ratio of the radii of the convex lens
be 1 : 6, in which the fpherical aberration is a minimum, and
let the crown and flint glafs be as in the firft example for a
telefcope of 30 inches ?

Then, by the fame procefs, there will come out

R a: see t F = 9.12, as before.
'R = 12.60)"
ie Peat "i ="13.0, as before:

This table is proper for glafs of the {fame refra@tive and
difperfive powers as in Table I., but with the fpherical
aberrations the leaft poffible.

Taste V.—Radii of double Obje@-glaffes in Inches, where
the Convex has a Minimum of Aberration.

_————_—|—_—_ | ——__—__—.

127.68 | 50.40

In the preceding example, where the ratio of the two
radii of the convex lens were given, r comes out = 5.32 in
a thirty-inch telefcope ; and in like manner, when the aber-
ration only is given, the ratio of the radii may firft be de-
termined by a quadratic equation, and then the other curves
may be determined as they have been here, without any af-
fumption of r in the convex lens. But in all cafes the re-
lative refra€tive and difperfive powers muft be known pre-
vioufly to the calculations fuch as we have exemplified.

Example 6.—In this example let us take the fame crown
and flint glafs as we did in the fecond example, and put
y = 7-5, as in our firft example; and then the radii will be
as in the following table.

° |

R

'R

a r
6 15 OG “447 zon.) Gin
12 3:00 8.94. ae haw
| 18 450 | 13.41 eer "18.35
24 hietes “17.88 Tr, “2447 |
co gage Be Aay. 4 eo 30.58 |
36 9:00 a6 Rial pape 36.70
42 1050. | 31.28 "20.380 42.82
68h: 12.00 35-75. 23.29 48.94).
54| 13-50 | 0.242 | 26.20 55.05
Ge) tee 1 4g.6P ml oe tee
72 | 18.00 | 53.62 | 34.94 73.40
be Pos 62.56 ogee 85.64
96 | 24.00 | 7150 | 46.58 "97:88
108 a 80.44 52.41. “q1o.32
[120 30.00 | 89.37 58.23 122.32 |

_ Example 7.— Let us take in this example the crown and
flint glafs as in the firft example, and put r = 9, as in our
fecond example, and then the radii will come out as in the
fubjoined table.

Tasre VII.—Radii of double Object-gtaffes in Inches.

TELESCOPE.

In this and the fix preceding tables, the radii are calcu-
lated for an aperture of three inches for a focal diftance of
thirty inches ; and the optician who may ufe any of them,
with fimilar glafs, may increafe or diminifh his aperture
accordingly as the focal length is greater or lefs than thirty
inches.

If we examine and compare the refpective radii r and R,
and alfo 'r and 'R of the convex and concave lenfes in the
preceding tables, which are all calculated by the fame pro-
cefs that is ufed by Tulley, and feveral of which have been
ufed in praétice, we fhall perceive that a difference in the
quality of the glafs, as to difperfive and refradive powers,
makes the curves of the lenfes widely different; and that a
{mall alteration in the affumed value of r, the firft face of
the convex lens, alfo produces a great alteration in the
curves of the three other faces of the compound object-
glafs. For inftance, if we compare the radii in Table I.
with thofe in Table VI., where r is aflumed equal, viz. 7-5,
in both, and where the fame crown-glafs is ufed, and the
Siint-glafs alone taken different, the former being No. 2.
and the latter No. 1; the radii in the former are r = 7.5,
R = 11.63, 'R = 10.43, and 'r = 20.86, in a telefcope of
thirty inches focal length; whereas in Table VI. there is 7 =
7.5, as before, but R = 22.34, 'R = 14.56, and'r = 30.58;
which curves are very widely different. And if we compare
Table II. with Table VII., in both which r is again
affumed equal, as well as the crown, while the two flints are
reverfed, viz. the former having No.1. and the latter
No. 2, the comparifon will ftand thus in telefcopes of
thirty inches focal length: in Table II. there is r = 9.00,
R = 14.92, 'R = 13.06, and 'r = 4o.15; but in Table VII.
r = 9.00, as before, while R is = 9.24, 'R = 9.13, and
'y = 29.30. Hence it is manifeft, that it is not only u/éle/s
but detrimental to copy the radii of a double objeét-glafs of
even the beft telefcope that ever was made by any artift,
unlefs the refrafive and difperfive powers of both forts
of glafs be precifely the fame, in the given and propofed
elttnopes intended to be equally good ; but when different
{pecimens of glafs are neceffarily ufed by different artifts, it
is hardly to be expected that both the requifite qualities of
each piece of glafs will be found alike, or even fufficiently
near a perfect fimilarity, to authorife the copying of the
radii of a ftandard telefcope, even if thofe radii could be
meafured by mechanical means with fufficient accuracy ;
but the meafurement from the /olar focus of a lens, as is
ufual, does not afford data for obtaining the geometrical
focus, and from it the radii of curvature, unlefs the quantity
2a be previoufly known; though the converfe operation,
we have before feen, is not difficult to a praétical optician.
We have no hefitation, therefore, in condemning the practice
of analyfing a telefcope for the purpofe of copying it; for
it is the certain guide to irrational con{tru@tions; and
feldom will an inftrument fo made be free from either
colours or indiftinétnefs.

Neither is it fafe to copy fables, fuch as thofe publifhed
by Dr. Brewtter, in his edition of Fergufon’s Leétures, of
which the forms are alfo given under the article Acnro-
mats Telefcopes, (in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, ) until
the fpecimens of glafs to be ufed are afcertained to have
the fame refraédive and difperfive powers, as thofe from
which the taples are calculated, On comparing thefe tables
with the refults of profeffor Robifon’s calculations, given
in the Encyclopedia Britannica under the article TrLr-
scorr, we find not only that the bafis of thefe tables is
derived from this fource, but that the calculations them-
felyes are adopted, without further modification than- what
is neceflary for adapting them to given focal lengths of the

compound objeé-glafs. As profeffor Robifon’s article or
our prefent fubjeét has hitherto been confidered to be the
only article in our language that has difclofed the fteps by
which an achromatic objed-glafs may be conftruéted direétly
from mathematical calculations; it will be fatisfactory to
our readers that we fhould try what curves will refult from
Tulley’s praétical mode of proceeding, when the fame data
are taken that Robifon has ufed in one of his examples.
In an example worked according to Bofcovich’s formula,
the ratio of m : n in the crown-glafs is‘taken as 1.526: 1,
and in the flint, fo high as 1.604 : 1; while the ratio of the
difperfive powers, when converted into the proper terms, are
only in the ratio 1

rf
2165,00r, 0 = oc let us fee what

will be the curves of a thirty-inch telefcope, when r is
affumed = 9.7, and R = 9.54, according to Dr. Brewfter’s
Table VI., derived from Robifon’s numbers 0.32325 x
30 = 9.6975, and 0.31798 x 30 = 9.5304.

s ris greater than R in this affumption, the convex
lens is in its worft pofition, and the {pherical aberration, A,
determined by the general theorem of Huygens, will be
1.682 x T: and as the geometrical foci of the two tenfes
muft be direétly as their difperfive powers, and as T and
'T are inverfely as thofe foci, we fhall have 1.682 x 1.65
= 2.775 for the proportional aberration ‘A uncorreéted ;
then as the correGting number, for flint of 1.599 : 1, which
is the moft denfe that Tulley has met with, is .826, we may
take this without apparent error for that of 1.604: 1; and

(ey

then an Be 3.26 = 'A is the correéed aberration of the

concave ; and according to this aberration, the root of the
a 2
quadratic will give '/R :'ras 1 : 5.40; and by theorem o%

r+R
2 340% 5 = eee
5-40 x I

having r = 9.7, and R = 9.54, by the fame theorem
we have F of the convex = 9.618, and F x 1.65 =
15-8697 ='F, or focus of the concave. Alfo we have

8 i
a = g.401 ='R, or fhorter radius of the concave ;

the rational focus will be

and 9.401 x 5.4 = 50.76 = 'r, or longer radius of the con-
cave. Laftly, to obtain the compound focus ©, we muft
reduce the geometrical focus of each lens into its refraéted
focus, by the proper divifors 1.052 for the crown, and 1.208

for the flint; then we fhall have OPrs = 9.14 for the re-
1.052
frated focus of the convex, and s5E% = 13.04 for the

208
Pocth
refracted focus of the concaye ; and by the theorem POP
eB oi pn :

thefe numbers will give = 3053 = ®%
§ 13.04 — 9.14 en
We have now obtained numbers that will enable us to
form the defired comparifon ; thus, according ta Robifon,
r= 9.7, R = 9.54,'R = 9.54, 'r = 47-473
but according to Tulley,
r= 9-7, R = 9.54,'R = 9.40, 'r = 50.75
Alfo, according to Robifon we have F = 9,618 and
'F = 13.25 geometrical, and the compound focus® = 29.1,
But according to Tulley, F = 9,618 and 'F = 15,8697
geometrical, while the compound focus ® = 30.53.
2 Now

wal ihe ae 2

A

TELESCOPE.

Nowas F :!F :: 1: 1.65 ithe ref{pective difperfive powers),
let us fee if either of thefe refults will make an achroma-
; f Ser. Ss Fr "F

dic telefaope: thus, a8 41 - 1.65 :: i618 + 15.8697

which fhews that Tulley’s foci are exa&ly as the difperfive
powers, and therefore would be achromatic, if the di/perfive
power had been truly proportioned to the refraéive power ;
but from long experience he knows, that the difperfive
power of flint-glafs of the greateft denfity, compared with
that of crown, which feldom varies, is not lefs than 1.759 : I.
Hence Robifon’s difperfive power is i: the firft place taken
too low ; and in the next, allowing it to be truly taken, he
has not preferved the two feparate focal diftances in fuch
ratio, agreeably to that of the difperfive powers, as will
meke an achromatic telefcope. And this is further proved by
the circumftance, that the compound focus. does not. come
out exa¢tly 30, which it will always do by Tulley’s procefs,
if the proportions are all rational. If we fubftitute the
ratio 1.759 : I, inftead of 1.65: 1, for the difperfive power,
which Tulley’s table of difperfive powers gives, to corre-
{pond with the refractive powers, when m: 7 as 1.599: 13
and if we take the convex lens of Robifon in the worft po-
fition, as before, withr = 9.7, and R = 9.54, the radii of
the concave, by Tulley’s mode of caleulatings will be
'R = 9.65, and/r = 68.04, and the compound focus ® =
25-6; with which curves and. focal length the telefcope
would be achromatic, and truly correfed tor {pherical aber-
ration; but as R comes out a deeper curve than /R, thefe
furfaces would come in contaé at the centre, and therefore
are not in a practicable form. Hence we infer that the con-
ftru@tion of an achromatic telefcope with Robifon’s convex
lens in its wor/? pofition is impracticable, though a concave
might be determined to fuit it in its beft pofition; viz.
when its faces are reverfed. There is, indeed, no form of
a double convex lens, but a concave may be calculated to fuit
it, provided the curves come out in a pratticable form ; but,
on the contrary, a concave may be fixed on that, in its worft
pofition, (which is always its pofition in a double object-
glafs,) can have no convex that will match it. Martin has

fhewn, that if the aberration of a gtven concave be = Boule,

then 5 x'T x = — * = 6.42857 will be a minimum ;

whence a: 6 :: 6.43 : 4:: 16: 10nearly. Therefore, when
+" is /efs than 6.43, the problem will be impoffible. For

inftance, ina plano-concave lens, the aberration is 7 of T,
and Z x 4 = 4.66 only, which fhould not be lefs than 6.43 ;
and therefore this lens cannot be ufed fingly with a convex
of any defcription; much lefs can a concave m its beft
form, where 7: R:: 1:6, be ufed; for its aberration

Zig gives = 4.284 only. But either of thefe may
Tas &
be ufed in their worft pofition, becaufe then either of them
will have aberration enough for any convex. And this pre-
vious confideration will enable the fkilful optician to fx on a
proper ratio of '-:'R, before he proceeds to his calculation.
Should it be afked, why we prefer Tulley’s difperfive
powers to profeffor Robifon’s? our anfwer is this; that
Fulley’s were not gained fimply by prifmatic meafurement
of the fpeétrum, like Robifon’s, where fome errors are ob-
vioufly unavoidable ; but have been correéted by repeated
comparifon of the focal lengths of the convex and concave
lenfes in the very beft achromatic telefcopes feleéted for the
VoL. XXXV.

purpofe, where, when a high magnifying power was ufed,
the leaft difcolouration would have been obfervable ; and
as thefe foci are always in the fame ratio as the difperfive
powers, no other method of determining thefe powers can
have fimilar pretenfions to accuracy.

When the convex and concave lenfes are both ground and
polifhed (fee Grass and Grixpinc), they require fome care
in putting them -properly into the tube, fo that they may
have their common axis coinciding with the axis of the eye-
glaffes, in order that every part of the field of view may
be equally diftin&t and free from colour: and aé there will
always be fome errors of workmanfhip, and as both lenfes,
but particularly the flint, may not be perfe@ly homogeneal,
one of the lenfes muft be turned round in the common
cell, till the faults of one lens are obferved to correé&
thofe of the other as much as poffible ; which will be known
when the vifion is moft diftin@, or the objet beft defined.
Should any colour remain about the edges of the cbjeG,
the prifmatic aberration is not correfted ; and i indif-
tinéinefs does not take place foon, and at equal dutances
from the point of diftin&t vifion, when the eye-tube is moved
in and out, the correétion for {pherical aberration is not per-
fe&. A double object-glafs is much more eafily adjufted for
a good central pofition, and for the counteraction of oppo-
fite errors of workmanfhip and imperfetion of glafs, than a
triple one, and has moreover more light, in confequence of
having but four refleGting furfaces ; but as it does not admit
of any change of the faces in the final adjuftment, the lenfes
require to be both truly calculated and nicely worked, in
order to make the practice correfpond with the theory ;
which is probably the reafon why triple obje@t-glaffes, that
admit of changes in their pofitions, are moft frequently made,

* particularly for fhort telefcopes : befides, half a dozen of

thefe lenfes may be ground and polifhed at the fame time ;
whereas, for a double objeét-glafs, each lens requires to be
ground and polifhed feparately, and with the greateft
care.

Triple achromatic Objeé-glaffes—After having explained
the theory, and exemplified the conftru€tion of a double
achromatic objeét-glafs with great minutenefs, we come now
to treat of triple obje@-glaties, that fhall have the achro-
matic property ; but it will not be neceffary to give fo many
examples, nor fuch minute explanation, as feemed requifite
in our preceding part of this fubje@, feeing that the cal-
eulations for a triple objeét-glafs are grounded on thofe that
we have given for a double one, and do not materially differ
from them. It will, however, be proper to fhew how the
compound focus of three lenfes is determined, before we
proceed to find the achromatic proportions of the refpetive
radii. ‘

Firft, we muft have recourfe to our fundamental theorem,
(of Table I. of theorems for the refractive foci of lenfes, )

psp) alt aig Rb,
we I = GR + dr—pRr

the refraéting power of the medium employed, or of

» where p is the reciproeal of

m—n : -
» the meafure of that power, r and R the radii, as

2 .
before, and d the radiant diftance. To apply this theorem
to a fyftem of glaffes, as B, C, D, &c. which we propofe
doing, it is convenient to fubftitute, for the general expref-

fion = the letters a, 4, and c, as peculiar to each medium

refpectively. Suppofing now our three lenfes arranged in
the order B, C, D, with B next the radiant obje& (as in
Kk SFE:

TELESCOPE.

fig. 12. Plate XXVIII.), we firft determine the focus of B,
which becomes in this cafe, if we fubftitute - for p5

drR

drR Mi
Rr ~ adR+adr—Rr

F = fe od

“ dR + dr——
Now f, the focal diftance of B, thus found, is manifeftly
the radiant diftance of the fecond or middle lens C ; and as
the general theorem above referred to involves the radiant
diftance d, we have only now to apply that theorem again

to the fecond lens C, fubftituting, as before, 4 for - and

for d, the quantity laft found as the focus of B. This gives
the compound focal diftance of thefe two lenfes B and C,
which we will call @; and this again becomes the radiant
diftance of the lens D: therefore, faitly, the general theorem

is again applied to this lens, fubftituting c for . and the

laft found focus ($) for d; by which procefs, we arrive at the
compound focus K?). of all the three lenfes. In the appli-
cation of thefe fucceffive fteps, it will be proper to attend to
the figns of the quantities, where one of them, which in our
cafe is the middle one, has its focus negative with con-
verging rays. To exemplify this procefs in a triple ore
glafs for parallel rays, let B reprefent the outermoft lens,

i — 2

which we will confider as a double convex lens with

= a= 0.53, andr and R each = 10; let C be the double ,

m—n

concave of fimilar radii 'r and 'R, and with = 5b

= 0.6; and let D be a plano-convex, and confequently R

m—-nh

infinite, but x = 10, as before, and ih —Os5 3's

then for the focus of B, putting 3 a, we have ne

nis el Be 3 eee lll Rs Beh capper
dR + dr—*" adR+4adr—Rr adR—rR
(adr being negleéted, when R is infinite) = - ‘ o_; and

fince d is alfo infinite with parallel rays, the expreffion be-
comes — = F, as in our firft table of theorems for the

refragted foci of lenfes, for the firft lens B. This expreffion
is new put for d, when we come to confider the theorem as

applied to C: here we have . — = 4, and the expreffion

drR ee Te :
rR’ bdr+bdR—rR’

I
becomes —- xX ————— >
dr+dR——,

4

dr

aia) Sty
2bd—r F

then, as ris taken equal to R, it will be
of the lens C. Now, if in this expreflion we fubftitute a,
a

dr r
we have for —— :

the focus of B, for d, pape

=
ee r ¥
2b6r—r= ie ae — = ar for ?, the compound
a
focus of B and C, or rather, as the rays fall converging
on C, and 24 is more than a, = —; . Again,
—2b—a

this quantity will become d for the lens D, and putting
the fame fubftitution as before, in the general theorem

for D, where = ‘is put for p, we fhall have “- x

an® or ee or, when R
T Re cdr +cdR —rR’ r,s w r= >
dc ak —-—
€
oa hence we obtai = a
2ed—r’ i CO eee r =
acx r
2b—
ne r
<= — = —————— _ = &, or com-

pound focus of all the three lenfes, B, C, and D. Let
us take, by way of example, three lenfes as follow; viz.
B, a double convex lens of crown-glafs, with its refractive
power by experiment = 0.53 = a, and with equal radii,
where r and R are each = 10; let the fecond lens C bea
double concave of flint-glafs, with the fame radii, and of a
refraGtive power = 0.6; and let the third lens D be a plano-
convex of crown-glafs, of a refraftive power of 0.53 alfo,
with R = 10 likewife; then, according to our laft expref-

r 10 be)

Sn erate A as 7 ee
10 10 7

= T5912 = 039 = 25.6 =) In this way

the compound focus of any number of lenfes may be deter-
mined, and the courfe of the rays might be traced in a geo-
metrical figure out of one glafs into another, until they come
to their ultimate focus.

For inftance, let us confider S and s, in fig. 12, to be
two parallel folar rays incident on the firft lens B, at the
points 6 and 4: thefe rays, on entering, are bent towards
the axis ¢f, and then from the points of emerfion tend to
their principal focus f; but being intercepted by the double
conyex lens C, they diverge, after entering at c and ¢, in a
dire&tion which points Se ae to the virtual focus ¢; but
in their progrefs, they again become incident on the planu-
conyex at the points d and d, and are again refra&ed to-
wards the axis, and meet in a diftant point ©, which is,
therefore, the compound focus of all the three lenfes. And
if we conceive the parallel rays, S and s, to be pencils of -
folar rays, that di/perfe on entering the convex lens B, they
will difperfe in a contrary direétion on entering the con-
cave C, and will again, on entering the plano-convex lens D,
have the excefs of difperfion of C counteracted by a fecond
oppofing difperfion of D, and, inftead of coming to unite
at the diftant points P and Q, to which they tended on
entering D, they will meet, by virtue of the prevailing re-
fra€tion of the two lenfes B and D taken jointly, over the
refraction of C taken feparately, at the compound focus %,
where the image of the fun will be formed ; and if both the
focal diftances and radii of curvature of all the lenfes were
achromatically adjufted, as we fhall prefently direét, the
image would be free from colours, and well defined.

he fame determination of the foci f, $, and ®, in any
combination, may, however, be obtained more conveniently
in

TELESCOPE.

in practice, when r and R are unequal, from our former
practical theorems, thus: let us determine the compound

focus of B and D by the theorem Bx z as they have
F+F

each a pofitive focus, and call this focus = ¢ geometrical,

and then =. will be 9 refraéed ; and fecondly, let 'F geo-
a

'
metrical be turned into = for the refraéted focus of the

Fy
concave C; and then, by the theorem FoF
fhall have © for the compound refraéted focus of the triple
object-glafs, or length of the telefcope: for example, taking

= 0, we

10 X 20 _ 200

the fame data as before, we fhall firft have =
Io + 20 30

= 6.66 = 9, and = or = 6.28 = @ refrated ;
1.06 2a

10 a) ib a tear : ,
oe (= = 8.33 = 'F refraGted: alfo, by the

aD

SOLE :
theorem i, becaufe 'F has a negative focus, we get
=%

6.28 x 8.33 52.33
3.33 — 6.28 —_2.05

We fhall ufe this method of finding the compound focus ¢
of two lenfes, and alfo ©, the focus arifing from ali the
three lenfes, where it is to be underftood that a, the fymbol
for the refraCtive power of both the crown lenfes B and D,
is taken the fame ; and that we exprefs the refractive power
of C, the concave, by the fymbol 4, as a fubftitute for 'a.

We muft further premife, that when T, the thicknefs of
each lens B and D, is not confidered, we fhal! thew pre-
fently that the {pherical aberration, arifing from any fingle
lens that receives the rays of light, may be diminifhed as
4: 1, by the combination of two lenfes, to be fubftituted
for that one. Bearing thefe premifes in mind, we now pro-
ceed to the confideration of a triple obje&t-glafs, that fhall
have the due cerre¢tions for both the prifmatic and {pherical
aberrations. It will greatly facilitate both our explanation
and exemplification, if we fuppofe the two convex lenfes
B and D, having a compound focus = 9, to be reprefented
by a fingle lens E, with the fame focus 9, but with a dimi-
nifbed aberration ; for then we may proceed nearly as in our
feven preceding examples; but reverfing the procefs, when
the concave has its radii given, to find the convex lens. Y

Example 8.—Let it be required to conftrucét a triple
achromatic obje&-glafs of 30 inches focal length, with the
fame refraGtive and difperfive powers as in the firft example ;
viz. with m:n inthe crown as 1.528: 1, and in the flint
aS 1.5735 : 1; and with the difperfive powers as 1 : 1.5243
and let the two radii of the concaye be each 13.9, fo as to
have 'F, as in the firft example.

In the firft place we have 'r :'R :: 1 : 1,and, as we have
feen above,'A = 1.666 x 'T, by the general theorem of Huy-
gens ; in thenext place, becaufe the concave C is given to find the
convex E, the correéting number ~, found as before, becomes
a multiplier, in a reverfed operation, and we have 1.666 ('A
x 'T x .883 (z) = 1.4715 x T ='A correced: we mu
alfo ufe the Dee multiplier 1.524 (the difperfive power,
gr proportional focus) as a divifor, and then we get

= 25.53 = ®, as was required.

1.4715
1.524.
a focus = @; but there is no fuch {mall quantity of aberra-
tion in any one lens. Let us however fee what the abfolute
aberration 'A will be, unconneGted with the fator 'T, which
factor we have determined, from the verfed fines to the radii
13-9 and 13.9, to be = .1653; therefore 1.4715 x .1653
= -2432 =A abfolutely. Now we have feen, in the firit
example, that .252 is = T of the proper convex ; let us

+252
2

= .9655 x T =A of the fubftituted lens E, with

now confider that = .126is = T in one of the lenfes

B and D, which we propofe to make in every refpeé fimi-
lar, in order to haye as few different curves, and confequently
as few different tools, as poflible ; then, becaufe +2432 is
the ab/olute aberration of C, the concave, we have ae
= 1.93 x T = A of either of the convex lenfes; but T
is .126; therefore 1.93 x .126 = .2432 is the abfolute
aberration of each convex lens, exattly equal to the abfo-
lute aberration of the concave. But we have aflerted, and
fhall demonftrate hereafter, that when the thicknefs of the
lenfes is negle€ted, a proper combination of two lenfes,
placed at a certain diftance from each other, will diminifh the
aberration belonging to one four times, and even when the
diftance = 0, this will be nearly the cafe: now we have
-9655 x T = A in the lens E of equal focus, let us leave
out A, and multiply by 4, and we have 4 x .9655 = 3.862
very nearly, the {um of the aberrations (without T) of the
two conyex lenfes B and D, taken together ; viz. 2 x 1.93
= 3-86; but yet the abfolute aberration of each feparate
convex lens (T being confidered) is exaétly equal to the
abfolute aberration ('T confidered) of the double concave.
This relation of the refpeétive aberrations being once efta-
blifhed and confirmed by praétice, which Tulley affirms to
be the cafe, fimplifies the complex bufinefs of calculating a
triple obje&t-glafs: for the /um of the abfolute aberrations of
the two convex lenfes of like glafs, muft be always equal to
double the abfolute correfed aberration of the concave
alone, in order to have a_due corre¢tion for {pherical aber-
ration, and confequent indiftin@tnefs. Hence, when the fo-
cal diftance, $, of the two convex lenfes B and D is in the
fame proportion to 'F, the focal diftance of the cancave,
that their feparate difperfive powers are relatively to that of
the concave B, the relative radii of either B or D, or of
both, may be waried at pleafure, provided that the fum of
their ab/olute aberrations remain equal to double the abfolute
aberration of the concave C, and provided that 9, their
compound focus, be not altered. But we haye not yet ad-
jufted the two focal diftances fo as to make the object-glafs
achromatic, and ©, or the compound focus of the three, to
be equal 30 inches. From an equation of the aberration
1.93 x Ty, or from ,2432 abfolutely, we find the ratio of
r: R in each lens to be as 1.34 : 1, which is alfo agreeable
to Tulley’s tables, from which this ratio may be had by in-
{peétion ; alfo the rational geometrical focus for thefe num-
bers is 1.145. Now according to our firft example, we have
feen that when 'F = 13.9 in a telefcope of 30 inches focal
length, F will be 9.12, when there is only one double con-
vex lens; but here we have two lenfes to produce 9.12 = ,
and therefore, as both lenfes are to be alike, we have 9-12
x 2 = 18.24 = F for each feparate focus; therefore

18.24

aks = 315-93 = Rof cach, and 15.93 x 1.34 = 21.35

Kkz — St

TELESCOPE.

=r; and the refult of ovr calculation will ftaad thus ;
VIZ.

Firft convex B fr = eae . S pec deni ip 193

'r = 13.9 Y'F = 13-9) and ‘A =
Concave C 1k 23.8 14715 x." = .2432-
1

Second convex D ie at F = 18.24, aid A= 1.93

= 21
= 115.93 x) Diss 2432,
Fx FE
Alfo e u FaF = 6 = 9.12
'F x @ wt
And - - - i =D 30-0

It is hardly neceffary to obferve, that the quantities T and
'T’ are here given in numbers, for the fake of illuftration ;
but when the quadratic equation is worked, thofe fymbols
may be exterminated, and their values involved in the
procefs.

A table of radii for triple objeét-glaffes, in which the
two convex lenfes of crown-glafs, and the one of flint, have
refpeétively the fame refraCtive and difperfive powers as in
Table I. and '’r ='R.

Tasre VIII.—Radii of triple achromatic Objeét-glaffes.

B Cc D

Convex. Concave. Convex.
R 'R
3-19 | 2.80 2Bo | 4:27
9-56 | 8.40 | 8.4o |12.81
15-93 5| 33997) 13:05. 20035 15.93

i | |

28.67

33.43

—— ee ee ee

25-09 | 25.09

31.86 | 27.80 27.8 {42.70

51.24 | 38.22 | 33-40 | 33-40

Ne ee ee

59:78 | 44.60 | 39.00 | 39.00

68.32 | 50.96 |.44.60 | 44.60

ee ee oe

76.86 | 57-34 | 50.10 | 50.10

J | i

85-40 | 63.72 | 55.60 | 55.60

Example 9.— Let it be required to conftruét another
triple ge of 30 inches focal length, with crown and
flint-glafs cxaétly fimilar to what was ufed im the laft ex-

ample; but let the radii of the concave be unequal; viz.
'y : "Ro: 413 1.23, and in the beft pofition?
In this example we propofe to abridge the work thus ;

Ul

firft, A = 1.507 x 'T and z = .883, and As aE
= 1.33 x 'T ='A eorreéted; then 7:33 é ~) =
Cag 4 1.524 \'F rate
.873 x T for the proportional aberration of the fubftituted
lens E, as before; which is an impoffible quantity, The
focus of this fubftituted lens, asin the laft example, is 9.12,
and confequently 9.12 x 2 = 18.24 is again the focus of one
of the two convex lenfes to be ufed, that of the concave
en is = 9.12) 5 whence fy
and ‘R will be 12.6 and 15.5 refpectively. T, as before, is
= .126, and'/T = .1653 (by calculation) ; hence!T x 1.33
= .2198 is the abfolute aberration of the concave lens, as
well as that of each of the two convexes of 18.24 focus;
-2198
+126
and the root of the quadratic arifing out of this equation of
A, gives the ratio of the radii, where R is unity, thus; as

iri: 1.13 and the rational focus, by the proper theo-

being, as before, 13.9 (for

therefore

= 1.745 x T = A of one of thofe lenfes,

8. -
rem, is 1.048; confequently a = 17.40is = R ofeach

convex lens, and 17.40 X 1.1 = 19.14is =r; fo that
we have now the fubjoined refults ; viz.

Convex B 4 19.14] F = 18.24, and A = 1.747

= 17.40 x T = .2198.
'y = 12.60] 'F = 13.9, and ‘A = 1.33
Concsye 1 —lge5O xa = .2198. .
r- = 19.14) F = 18.24, and A = 1.747

Genrer sD 1 = 17.40 xT. =-.25g8e

? = 9.12 for the compound
aa ; ; : { focus of B and D.
And # 3 t ® = 30.0 for the compound

focus of B, C, and D.

The following is a table of radii for triple one
where the refractive and difperfive powess are as in the laft
example, but where the radii of the concave are unequal, vix.
es"Roes 1s 1.

TABLE

Th, OT Nae

TELESCOPE.

Yasie 1X.—Radii of triple achromatic Objeét-glaffes.

B &
Convex Concave
® r R "y R r
uh Peg
6) | $3183 |-3.48°] “2.5 3.1 | 3.83 | 3.48
12 7.66 | 6.96 | 5.0 6.2 | 7.66 | 6.96

II.49 | 10.44

15.32 | 13-92

19-14 | 17-4

22.07 20.88

26.80 |

30.63

34-46
38.28

45-94

53-60

In like manner, any number of tables might be com-
puted for the focal lengths of a triple objeét-glafs, where
the lenfes have given refractive and difperfive powers, and
where the radii aflumed for one of the lenfes are taken at
pleafure; but it will be always defireable to fix on a
concave lens firit in a triple object-glafs, notwith{ftanding we
have fhewn that it is better to aflume a convex one firit,
where a double objeét-glafs is calculated: for by attending
to this direftion, the optician will find that counteracting
aberrations will be within his reach; and though he may
fix on radii in the affumed lens that will not be the beft in
practice, yet, by changing the ratio of the aflumed radi, he
will find praticable lenfes that will anfwer his purpofe.
In our tables of triple object-glaffes, the numbers come out
very convenient for pra¢tice ; for in each, both fides of the
conyex lenfes have longer radii than either face of the
concave has got, fo that there will be no point of contact,
in the middle of any of the curves, when they are placed
contiguous to one another; and in Table IX. there is juft
difference enough, between the radii of each of the convex
glafles, to allow one of them to be reverfed, if it is found
that the errors of workmanfhip, or imperfeétion of the
glafs, fhould require {uch correction, when the objeét-glafs
- comes to be finally adjufted. Indeed all the furfaces: might
be calculated to be a little different from one another, and
then there would be the option of eight changes in the final
adjuftment: but if the glafs is homogeneal, and the work
well performed, it will always be found beft to adhere to the
pofitions for which the lenfes have had their radii calculated.

5

Neither is it defireable, in a good achromatic object-glafs, to
ule varnifh of any defcription, as has been recommended.
As we have fhewn that profeflor Robifon’s data, and the
calculations founded on them, do not produce curves proper
for an achromatic double object-elafs, we will conclude this
part of our fubjeét by examining if his calculations fora
triple obje&t-glafs are any better adapted for practice. In
Dr. Brewiter’s Table V. (Appendix to his edition of
Fergufon’s Leétures, vol. ii. p.418.) a thirty-inch triple
object-glafs is calculated, according to profeflor Robifon’s
report of the radii ufed by the London artifts, to have
r = 18.84, (printed by miftake 18.34,) R = 22.47, 'r and
'R each 17.37, and the fecond convex the fame as the firft ;
where, as before, the ratio m=: in the crown is taken as
1.526 : 1, and im the flint as 1.604 : 1, and the ratio of the
difperfive powers as 1: 1.65. If thefe numbers will make
an achromatic obje€t-glafs, we fhall have 1 : 1.65 :: F :'F
exatly ; i.e. the ratio of the difperfive power will alfo
be the ratio of the geometrical focal diftances, agree-
ably both to theory and practice ; but we have, by the theo-

2rR 2.x 18.84 x 22-47 846.6696 _
mepiR’ wehes-SACESE2-0G1 stu) 4¥e43 ohinene ts
0-495

2
for the focus of one convex lens, and therefore ——2 =
2

rem

10.247 for the compound focus of the two; alfo we have
the focus of the concave = 17.37 in the table, the radii
being equal; hence we have as 1 : 1.65 :: 10.247 : 16.90,
inftead of 17.373; therefore the objeét-glafs is not duly cor-
refted for the prifmatic aberration. This conclufion, which
is intelligible by every common reader, corroborates oar
former inference re{pecting the want of achromatifm in the
double objeét-glafles made from Robifon’s calculations ;
but let us a ae the enquiry a little farther, and fee what
focal diftance will accord with thefe numbers: the refrac-

; 2 10.2
tive power of the convex being .604. = a, we have 286d,
2

= 9.74 for the refraéed focus thereof; and the refractive

power of the concave being .526 = 4, we have “L8t =
. Uy
14.38 for its refraéted focus, and by our theorem —

14.38 X 9.74 _ 140.0612
14-38 — 9-74 4.64

the focal length of the objeét-glafs ; which is much nearer
to the propofed Jength than the focus of the double object-
glafs was which we before examined. If we calculate this
triple objeét-glafs according to our method, as praétifed by
Tulley, we muft begin with 16.9 as the proper focus for the
concave, of which we difregard the negative fign, as of no
importance in our mode of calculating ; we fhall then have as
1.65 : 1:: 16.9 : 10.247, and this ratio muft not be com-
promifed, on any confideration, as being the achromatic ratio,
on a fuppofition that the refractive and difperfive powers, as
above ftated, are in natural proportion ;_ then as the radii 'r
and 'R are affumed egual, the aberration of the concave will be

1.666 x T, and z

= %, we have = 30.18, &c. for

1.666
- .826; therefore 826

= .834 = A of the fubftituted fingle

== 3.370.2— 1A

376
-65
lens E, which, as before, is an impoffible quantity to be in
one lens; but this being doubled, will be 1.668 x T for the
proper quantity of each lens ; or multiplied by 4, will be a
proper

16
corrected ; and -
I

TELESCOPE.

proper quantity for the fum of both the convex lenfes ; then
'T being found = .136, and T = .112 1n each convex, we
fhall have A = 1.668 x 2 x .112 =.1871 for each con-
vex, and/A = 1.376 x .136 = .1871 alfo, for the concave,
and confequently the ratio of r: Ras 1.01: 1; then by
ufing the proper theorems, as before directed, thefe radu
will come out r = 20.57, and R = 20.37 in each convex,
while the concave will have each of its radii = 16.9, as
originally affumed ;-and if the difperfive was great enough
for the refra€tive power, as above {pecified, not only would
the objeét-glafs be achromatic, but its focal length would be

= 30. But we find the geometrical F = 10,24, and re-
10.24 iF, _ 16.9 _ ag
frated F = BAe 9-696, and os 14.107
xa BED » 14-107 X 9-696 _
'F refra&ted, and a ie ®, gives Te Crear ESE =
136.782 = 31 very nearly ; and hence we infer, that the
4-451

difperfive and refra¢tive powers are irrational in this
calculation, and the excefs in the focal length is double
the quantity with thefe two convex lenfes, B and D,
to what we found it with one, in a double objet-glafs,
in our former examination. We are not however dif-
pofed to depreciate the mathematical labours of a man,
whofe memory will always be dear to every lover of
{cience, and whofe article TeLescore in particular has
obtained the encomium of an eminent contemporary mathe-
matician; but we have felt it our duty to point out the
fource of inaccuracy, which, by entering into the data, has
affeéted the refult of long and tedious calculations, and may
have given much trouble to many, as we know it has done to
fome opticians, who have attempted to copy thofe refults in
practice. The learned profeffor has indeed ftated, as he
proceeds, that the value of certain appreciable quantities has
been neglected, to fimplify the procefs; and if thofe
quantities had affeéted the focal diftance more, and the ratio
of the radii x : R, and alfo that of F : 'F lefs, the refulting
prifmatic and fpherical corrections might have been more
perfeét, even with a defect of difperfive power, than we now
find them. We have not room, however, to enter farther
into particulars.

From Dr. Brewiter’s experiments, made in his “ Trea-
tife on New Philofophical Inftruments,” it appears that
the green ray is not always in the middle of the folar fpectrum,
and that with rock-cryftal it is at the oppofite fide of the
middle from what it is in glafs ; hence Tulley infers, that if
alafs could be found of the fame difperfive power as rock-
eryftal has, the intermediate colours might be corre¢ted
as well as the extreme colours; and that the fecondary
{pe&trum would difappear, To effe&t this improvement,
the convex lens of rock-cryftal muft be at one fide of the
concave of flint, and the convex of crown or other glafs,
with equal difperfive power to that of the cryftal, muft be
at the other fide. This objec is worthy of the optician’s
future confideration and purfuit,

Celeftial achromatic Eye-pieces.—We have already explained,
in the former part of this feétion, how the focus of two
gaffes, placed at a given diffance from each other, may be
afcertained, and alfo what is the focus of a fingle ey
lens that fhall be equal to them both in power: we propofe
therefore prefently to return to the fame figure, (fg. 8.
Plate XX1V.) in order to thew what the advantage will be
in point of diflindne/s, which is as effential a qu Pf in an
eye-piece as power. But, in the firft place, let us uppofe
jn fig. 10. the points 1, 2, and 3, he many points of an ob-

je&, of which the image is formed at F, after pafling
through any lens A B; then as the point 1 has rays iffuin;

from it, that fall on every part of the lens, and as thete
rays are differently refraéted at different diftances from the
axis, both towards A and towards B, there will be feveral
images of this point at the focus F, lying contiguous to each
other ; but the rays that come to a focus, afeee paffing in
and near the central part of the glafs, will form their i S
very clofely together, fo as very nearly to coincide. The
fame will be true of the points 2 and 3 bie confidered,
under the fame circumftances, fo that while the fingle lens
A B continues to produce both prifmatic and fpherical
aberrations, there will be a confufion or indiflinne/s in the
image, arifing from a promifcuous mixture of a number of
contiguous and nearly coincident images arifing out of the
{pherical figure of the lens, as well as fringes of colour
arifing out of the difperfion of the ditteceatly refrangible
rays. This indiftinétnefs is more confiderable in a lens ufed
as an objett-glafs, than as an eye-piece ; becaufe the image
formed by it becomes an objeét to be viewed by means of
the eye-piece, and therefore any diftortion, confufion, or
colouration that exifts in the image, will be magnified by the
eye-piece ; and the greater the magnifying power, the greater
will be the evil produced thereby. To obviate this confe-
quence, which will exift partially, even when the beft com-
pound objeét-glafs is ufed that art can accomplifh, the a
eye-glafs has been laid afide, and a fyftem glaffes fubfti-
tuted, that will admit of a high power in the eye-piece, with-
out a proportionate increafe of indiftinGtnefe or of colour
in viewing the image. The firft arrangement of two glaffes,
as a fubftitute for one, to be ufed as a celeftial eye-piece,
where inverfion of the objet is not material, was calculated
and applied by the ingenious Huygens, who, not aware that
the prifmatic aberration could be cured by an oppofition of
dipesfive powers, according to Dollond’s noble difcovery,
devifed the method of reducing the quantity of fpherical
aberration by divi fion ¢ and the refult of his inveftigations
was, that two plano-convex lenfes, (which have each but
little aberration in their beft pofitions, ) when placed at fuch
a diftance from each other that their focal points, for pa-
rallel rays, might coincide, would have fuch a compound
focus, as would not only greatly increafe the power, but ftill
more diminifh the fpherical aberration. An arrangement of
this fort was put into the hands of W. Molyneux by Mr.
Flamftead in the year 1686, of which Molyneux determined
the compound focus, depending on the radii of curvature of
the two glaffes and the diftance between them, in the man-
ner we have above explained. But the firft mathematician
who gave the rationale of the advantage to be derived from
a combination of lenfes, as they have reference to the fphe-
rical aberration, was fir Ifaac Newton, whofe method of
explaining it Martin has given in his New Elements of Op-
tics, parti. p. 27, thus: “ Let NBM (fg. 9.) be the
{pherical furface of a plano-convex lens NGMB; C the
centre; CB the radius or femi-diameter taken in the axis;
AN an incident ray ; and N K the fame refraGted, cutting
the axis produced in the point K. Alfo let F be the focus
of parallel rays which pafs through the glafs infinitely near
to the axis: let F D be a eee He to the axis in the
point F, then will K F be the curve or difference of the
focal diftance of parallel rays which are incident near the
axis, and at the diftance GN, the femi-aperture of the
lens. This is called the aberration of the extreme ray in
longitude. Again, let any ray (az) be incident on the other
fide the lens, at the diftance 6G, the refra&ted part of this
ray, nd, will interfeé& the other refraéted ray N D in the point
Q, at the perpendicular diftance Q O ftom the axis, This

W

TELESCOPE.

is Called the Jateral error, or the aberration in latitude. It is
evident from the figure, that as the ray (an) approaches the
extreme ray A M, the point of interfeGtion Q will approach
the axis; and when @z coincides with A M, the point Q
will coincide with the point K in the axis; and it is as ob-
vious that the point Q will coincide with F, when the ray (a),
approaching the axis 2B, at laft becomes coincident with
it: therefore there is one pofition of the ray (am), in which
it will cut the ray ND in a point Q, which will make QO
a maximum, or the greateft of all. If we take the arc
Bm = Bn, and BM = BN, the rays incident on m and M
will mterfe& in the point P on the other fide, and fo make
PQ =2Q0; and it is alfo plain, that all the rays which
fall on the lens between N and M are refra&ted through the
fpace PQ. Now PQ is the diameter of the deaf circular
fpace poflible, in which all the rays can be congregated, be-
eaufe there will be fome ray (a7) that will meet the extreme
ray ND, at the diftance QO =4Q P from the axis.
Hence it follows, that the circular fpace is the focus, or
place of the image of an obje@, belonging to parallel rays
incident on the lens NM. Further, by reafon of fimilar
triangles KOQ, K F D, and NG K, we have QO: KO
=: DF:KF::NG: GK. But it is demonftrable, (fee
Philof. Britannica, 3 edit. p. 58. art. 14.) that when Q O is
greateft, then KO = 3 K F, and alfo that K F is always $
ef GB, the thicknefs of the lens; fo then KO= 32GB,
and confequently GK: GN :: ¢G B: QO, whence

os = OQ; whence PQ, the diameter of the

circle of aberration, is known for any given lens.

« Tt has been demonftrated, that the error P Q will always
3

NGS
DG
‘the error will be as the cube of the aperture diretly : and
when the aperture is given, the faid error will be as the
fquare of the radius inverfely. It has alfo been demon-
ftrated, that when the convex fide of the lens N BM is
turned towards parallel rays, the error K F will be but 7
of the thicknefs of the lens G B, and therefore near four
times lefs than in the other cafe; for; GB:2GB:: 54
: 14, which is almoft as 4 to 1.

“Tt has been further demonitrated, that the aberration PQ
is as the fquare of the fine of refraction (the fine of inci-
dence being unity) in all media of different refra&tive
powers: thus if a Jens of the fame focal diftance and aper-
ture were made of glafs and water, and fuppofe thofe fines
in glafs to be as m: n, and in water as'm :!n; then will PO
in the glafs lens be to the fame in the water lens as m’ :'m’,
er the area of the circles of aberration, and of courfe the
indiftin€tnefs of the obje& will be as the refra€tions m and 'm
of the media.

“ Whatever has been obferved with regard to convex and
plane-convex lenfes, will hold good in concave and plano-
concave ones. And in both forts, it is fuppofed that all of
them have the fame focal diftances, apertures, and thick-
neffes, while we are comparing their ref{peétive aberrations.

“« Hence it is very evident, that if rays proceed from any
point, as (a) at an infinite diftance to a lens N M, { fig. 10.)
the image of that point will not be a point, but the area of
a circle, whofe diameter is PQ; and, therefore, that point
cannot be diftinétly reprefented, but will be rendered in-
diftin& and confufed in proportion to the area of the faid
circle of aberration in the lens, as it is the image of this
circle (or dilated point) that is imprefled on the retina, and
excites the idea of the point in the mind,

“ Fence it appears alfo, that the points in the furfaces or

be proportioned to fo that when the radius is given,

fubftances of bodies cannot be perfectly and dittinétly feen,
as each of them will be dilated into a fenfible area; and
fuch as are contiguous, as I, 2, 3, will have their confufed
images all blended together nearly in the fame fpace, viz. in
the circle of aberration, the diameter of which is PQ.

a Therefore the ftars, which as to fenfe are only lucid
points, will appear to have fome magnitude ne not as
oped in the focus of the beft fort of telefcopes, even
fuppoting there were no other caufe of confufion or in-
diftin& vifion, befides what refulted from the fpherical
figure of the lens.

“« Now, if the error from a {pherical furface, or, which is
the fame thing, the indiftinGne/s of vilion, depending on, and
commenfurate with, the fpherical aberration of a lens, is as
the fquare of radius inverfely 5 the diffin@nefs of vifion, on
the contrary, will be as the /guare of the radius direéily ;
and, therefore, if, by means of two glaffes, we can get the
view of an objet, where the radii of the glafles bear a greater
proportion to their refpective apertures, than the radius of
a fingle glafs of equal magnifying power does to its aper-
ture; it is evident the diftinétnefs of that view will be
promoted in proportion to the fquare of that ratio.

‘ For example, fuppofe ( fg. 8.) F — D = 9, or OF, to
be the focal diftance of the lens G H, fo that the focus of
each of the lenfes NM and GH falls on the fame point
F; then, by the proper theorem, we have x = ZF, or
Qf=4CF: alfo, fince in this cafe we have F: y::%:f,
therefore f= 4, or Of =iOF. Now, fince we have the
fame optic angle GFO by both the glaffes, as by the
fingle one EE, the ratio of the radius O F to the aperture
GO, or of the radius C F to the aperture N C, is double the
ratio of Of to OG, or of the radius Q f to the aperture
E Q, and therefore the di/lin@ne/s of vifion by doth the lenfes
is four times greater than that by the fingl lens E E.

“«« The fame thing may be demonftrated from the eonfider-
ation, that the aberration P Q is, in the fame glafs, always
proportioned to the cube of the femi-aperture E Q, or fine
of half the optic angle Ef Q ; and that in {mall angles (as in
the glaffes of telefcopes, &c.) the fine E Q is nearly as the
angle EfQ. The aberration, therefore, being as the cube
of that angle, it is plain, if we make the fame angle by two
refractions inftead of one, the quantity of the aberration will
be greatly leffened, fince the fum of the cubes of the parts
will be much lefs than the cube of the whole ; and when the
parts are equal, the /um of the cubes of each will be but a
fourth part of the cube of the whole. Thus, if the whole
angle E fQ beas 1, the cube thereof is 1; but the half is
3, the cube of which is 3, and twice that, 2 = 24, which is
as the aberration arifing from the two halves, and is there-
fore but a fourth part of the whole.

“ This 1s evidently the cafe when the optic angle GfO
(= E/Q) is made by two refraétions, by the two lenfes
NM and GH, fo pofited, that the focus of each may fall
on the fame point F ; for then the angle GfO=LGF
which is compofed of the two angles LG F=TNF=
GF O, (by reafon of the parallel lines T N, LG, and F C,)
which is the part made by the lens NM. Alfo the angle
F G fis the refraétion of the ray N G, or fecond refration
of the ray A N ; and fince, in the prefent cafe, Of = fF,
and Of in fmall angles is equal to Gfnearly ; therefore
the angle G F O is equal to the angle F Gf very nearly,
thofe angles being in the fame ratio with the equal lines Gf
and fF, when they are not large; and the optic angle
GfO = GFO+ FGF; confequently the aberration PQ
is but a fourth part fo great by the two lenfes NM and GH
together, as it 1s by lens E E alone.

‘ But to render this theory general for any pofition or fbn,

0.

TELESCOPE. . =

of the lenfes NM and GH, it is evident, fince the aberra-
tion is leffened by dividing the optic angle, that the diflinéinefs
of vifion will be thereby promoted.; and becaufe each of the
aagles contribute thereto in proportion to its magnitude,
the joint effeét of both parts, or angles GF f and fGF,
will be asthe produét or reGtangle under both, or as the
reétangle of the lines Ofand fF; but, according to our
former notation, Ff= F —D—f; and Of =f; confe-
quently F f — Df —ff will be every where as the diftinét-
nefs of vifion by the two lenfes, above that of a fingle lens
of the fame magnifying power. ‘

“ Let the degree of diftinétnefs thus obtained be reprefented
by G=Ff— Df—ff; when this is 2 maximum, or the
greateft poffible, the fluxions thereof will be nothing ; viz.
rf— Df—2ff=o, whence F — D= 2f; or FO=
20 f; that is, Of = fF, or the angle G Ff/=fGF, in
the def? pofition of the lenfes, as before demonftrated.

« Confequently, fince in that pofition we have fhewn the
diftin@tnefs of vifion to be four times as great as by a fingle
lens, this will be the whole effeé of a combination of two
gaffes, and it may be fhewn that three glaffes will produce
nine times the diftinétnefs, and fo on in proportion to the
Square of the number of glaffes ; but then if we confider the evil
to be remedied is but {mall, and the damage we fuftain in lofs
of light and irregularity of refraétion through fo many lenfes,
we may foon make the remedy worfe than the difeafe ; and
every thing confidered, it appears probable that two lenfes
are better than a greater number, particularly for a celettial
eye-piece.””

By fimilar reafoning we may explain the advantage of any
other: eye-piece, as Bofcovich’s, when we know the radii, the
pofition, and the diftance of the lenfes that compofe it. The
Huygenian eye-piece, which we have faid has the foci of the
two plano-convex lenfes, as 3: I, at the diftance of 2, with 1
next the eye, and the curves exterior to the eye, is peculiarly
adapted for a refleéting telefcope that has only the {pherical
aberration ; but for a refra¢ting telefcope, though achro-
matic, a little deviation from this form was found neceflary
to corre& the remaining prifmatic aberration alfo. On en-
quiring of the beft opticians, we learn that the final adjutt-
ment of diftance between two lenfes, in a celeftial achromatic
eye-piece, is made from trials:in the tabe of the telefcope it
is intended for; becaufe this diftance, and indeed the ratio
of the radii of the two lenfes, will greatly depend on the flate
of convergence of the rays, when they are incident on the
firft furface of the interior glafs ; and this ftate will depend
onthe focal length of the telefcope, conjointly with the
aperture, and sc heohaetsfie of the objeét-glafs : fo that it
would not anfwer any good purpofe to give a table of dimen-
fions, which might miflead rather than affift the young opti-
tian in his practice. ‘The form of an achromatic Gleftial
eye-piece, compofed of two plano-convex lenfes, is repre-
fented in Plate XXVIII. fig. 13, where the diftance exceeds
the focal length of the lens 1 next the eye, and in which con-
fequently the image is between the lenfes ; which is the ufual
conftruétion when the heavenly bodies are viewed without
any reference to the meafurement of angles; but ae the place
of the image will vary in fome degree with a change of dif-
tance, in taking terreftrial meafures, there is another form,
commonly called Ramfden’s, which is more fuitable for
micrometrical meafurements ; becaufe the image, being be-
yond both lenfes, (counting from the eye,) keeps its place,
as it regards any feale, wire, or fpider’s line, that may be ufed
in amicrometer : this form is given in fg. 14. of. the fame
plate, and has the pofition of the interior face reverfed, fo
that the plane face may be parallel to the contiguous image
to be viewed; thefe two lenfes are fometimes alike, and

always nearly fo, in focal length ; and the diftance between
them is lefs than the focal length of either by fuch a quan>
tity, that the compound focus falls juft beyond the flat face
of the interior lens 2, where the image and feale, wire, or
line coincide in due adjuftment for vifion. This form has
likewife the advantage of reduced aberration, and is fome-
times called the pofitive eye-piece, in oppofition to the other
form, which is therefore by fome aftronomers called the nega-
tive eye-piece, ‘This pofitive eye-piece is alfo beft adjuited
to the inftrument of which it is deftined to form a part ;.and
either lens may exceed the other in focal diftance in a fmall ~
degree, as circumftances may require.

When this eye-piece is ufed with a tranfit inftrument, ze-
nith fe€tor, equatorial, or circular inftrument for taking alti-
tudes, it is convenient to puta diagonal reflector between the
lenfes, and to have the eye-lens in the fide of the tube, for the
purpofe of taking obfervations in high altitudes, or even
in the zenith, This form is feen in fg. 15. of the fame
plate, and is called a prifmatic eye-piece.

The terreftrial eye-tube is that which gives an ere@ pofition
to the object, as viewed in a telefcope of the refraGting fort, ;
to which only it is applied, though it might be applied to the
Caffegrainian refletor with equal advantage. It has been
feen that, originally, this eye-piece was compofed of three
fimilar lenfes, placed from each other refpeétively at the
fum of their focal diftances, as in fig. 3. Plate XXV. In
this arrangement the magnifying power is not increafed,
unlefs the lens, T U, neareft to the eye has its focal dif-
tance diminifhed more than the reft: but the aberration that -
would arife from the figure of the field-lens C D, 1s dimi-
nifhed about nine times, if we difregard their thicknefs, viz.
as the fquare of the number of lattes employed between
the image I M, and the eye at K ; confequently, the ad- 4
vantages derived from this eye-piece of Rheita are two-fold 5
for, firft, it gives an ere&t pofition to the objeét ; and, fecondly,
it greatly diminifhes the quantity of fpherical aberration,
and confequently produces a correfponding diftinGtnefs ;
but the power of this eye-piece is /imply that of one of the
three lenfes. To effe& an increale of power at the fame
time that the two preceding advantages are preferved, various
arrangements of three, four, and even of five lenfes, have
been made for the purpofe of conftruéting a good terreftrial
achromatic eye-tube; and the ingenuity of a Dollond and
of a Ramfden has been exercifed fucceffively to accomplifh
the defired obje&t. Thefe arrangements, fo far as the dimi-
nution of fpherical, and even of prifmatic aberration was
concerned, have been underftood and explained ; i
total power arifing out of a number of lenfes different
fhaped, and placed at different diffances relatively to pe |
other, has not been fo clearly explained; and it fhould
feem, from the manner in which fuch arrangement has been
defcribed by different authors, that the refult has generally
been afcertained praétically rather than theoretically ; which
indeed muft in fome degree be the cafe whenever er, OF,
which is the fame thing in effet, whenever aCtual focal dif-
tance, fimple or compound, is to be accurately determined.
We will not proceed upon the intricate plan of tracing the
paflage of a refracted pencil of rays through various lenfes
of different refraétive qualities, and placed at various inter-
vals, until they arrive at their laft focus, or place of the
image of a diflant radiant body ; neither do we propofe to
follow the more familiar but lefs inftruGive method of fimply
giving in figures the radii and relative diftances of three,
four, or five lenfes, that fhall compofe an achromati¢ eye-
tube; but, avoiding each extreme, we fhall defcribe the ~
moft improved eye-tube for ere&t pofition, upon the pinta :
ples of a compound microfcope, whith inftrument this tube
really

ae

me pee

- <

me pat,

4

TELESCOPE.

really is of itfelf, and that of the beft conftru@ion. We
have referved an account of the theory of the compound mi-
crofeope until we arrived at this article, on purpofe to fhew
the intimate conneétion that it has with the refraCting tele-
{cope, which, it will be feen prefently, is alfo the cafe with
a compound reffedfing microfcope, that compofes a portion
of both the Gregorian and Caffegrainian telefcopes. Firft,
let ab (Plate XXV. fiz. 8.) be confidered as an obje& to
be magnified for examination kf a compound microfcope of
the fimpleft conftruction ; let df be the {mall obje@-glafs,

* of which i is the folar focus; then as the radiant object ab

is at a {mall diftance from the lens df, beyond its folar or
principal focus, the incident rays coming from it will con-
verge flowly after paffing through this lens, and confequently
the conjugate focus at the other fide of the lens will be re-
mote, as at A B, where’ an inverted image, A B, of the
obje&t a 4 will be formed; and if the obje& is brought
nearer to the folar focus i, the image A B will recede with
a linear amplification, for it always fubtends the fame angle
at ¢, the centre of the objet-lens, that the obje& fubtends
at the fame point ; it is therefore obvious, that the linear
amplification of the image, compared with the length of the
objec, will be as their refpective diftances from the objeét-

: Cre f
lens, viz. as ——; and, confequently, the farther the image
a ce

recedes, that is, the nearer the objet is brought towards
the folar focus i, the more it will enlarge, which prin-
ciple is the bafis of both the magic lantern, and folar as well
as lucernal microfcope. Let us call the-ratio of the objec
to its image I : 5, as in our figure ; thenif D F be a double
conyex eye-glafs, placed fo that this image, A B, may be
in its principal focus, the rays of light coming from it, now
confidered as a radiant, will, by pafling through this lens,
become parallel, in which ftate they will enter the eye at I,
and after converging to a new focus on the retina, will there
make a picture of the image of the objet, but in a reverfed
pofition. The principal pencil of rays coming from d and
f of the objeét-lens, will meet at .C, the centre of the
image, and diverge till they come to the eye-lens D F,
where they are made parallel, and where they define the
fize of the eye-hole in the cap of the eye-piece; while
the angle of vifion will be GEH=BEA. In this
fituation, the image A B is magnified by the eye-glafs in-
verfely as its focal diftance, that is, as many times as F C
is contained in eC; for the vifual angle BE A, fub-
tended by B A, excecds the angle Be A, fubtended by the
fame line B A; and, confequently, its oppofite angle be a,
fubtended by the obje&, is in the ratio of Ce: CE; and
alfo, when CE = ce, in the ratio of Ce: ce; and the
whole amplification will confequently be by compounding
SEE tutte nese “hie” confirackion the Held
Cx fee
of view is {mall, though the power is great; and the colo-
rific effeét of the prifmatic aberrations, as well as the indif-
tinéinefs and diftorfion of the figure of the object, are fully
experienced. To do away thefe impediments to a pleafing
view of the object, a fecond lens was introduced into the
eye-piece, -as MN, in fig. 11. Plate XXIV., the original
intention of which was, principally, to enlarge the wifible
area, OF circle of vifion, which it did effectually, while, at
the fame time, it diminifhed the power, and in fome meafure
the fpherical aberration, though the latter advantage does
not feem to have been contemplated ; and in this ftate the
ompound microfcope remains. in the prefent ordinary con-
ftruétion, one of the three lenfes, df, being the objed-
jens ; the fecond being the amplifier M N ; and the third the

Vou. XXXV.

the ratios =

eye-glafs G H. Now if we compare the compound celef-
tial eye-piece in fig. 8, before defcribed, as having the fame
power with the fingle imaginary lens E E in the fame figure,
we fhall fee that the only difference in the two arrangements
is, that the image in fig. 11. is between the lenfes, but in
Jig. 8. beyond them both. We have demonftrated the advan-
tages of the combination in fig. 8, and have fhewn that thofe
advantages will continue, if the image be formed between the
lenfes ; and alfo that making the diftance between the glafles
to exceed the focal diftance of the eye-glafs, will bring the
image into this intermediate fituation, as is actually the cafe
in the beft achromatic telefeopes, with both the celeitial and
terreftrial eye-pieces ; particularly when the wire, or cob-
web micrometer, is not ufed. If then we confider the ob-
je& a b in fig. 11. to be the {mall or primary image of a dif-
tant objeét, formed in the focus of the achromatic object-
glafs, the image A B will become the image of an image,
or fecondary image, in a contrary pofition; and this is the
one aétually viewed: in the terreftrial tube of a telefcope.
Let us in the next place conceive the terreftrial tube to have
only the three glafles that compofe the arrangement of the
compound microfcope, and it is obvious that the image a 4
will be rendered as diftin@, and as much enlarged in it, as
the objet a4, of fimilar dimenfions, would be in the like
compound microfeope. Thus have we a terreftrial eye-
piece with an arrangement of three glaffes, which magnifies
greatly, and, fo far as the pair of eye-glaffes are concerned,
is achromatic ; but with refpeé to the obje@-lens df, (which
might indeed have been made achromatic by a balance of con-
trary di/perfive powers, on Dollond’s plan of an object-glafs
for a telefcope), there remained room for improvement ; and
this has been effe€ted by the fame principle of divifion of
the aberrations, that contributed to the improvement of the

celeftial eye-pieces with two lenfes. ;
Plate XXVILL. fig. 15. fhews a combination of two
plano-convex lenfes, that perform the office of one double
convex lens in a compound microf{cope, or terreftrial eye-
tube, in which the lens A is placed next the object in a
microf{cope, or image in atelefcope, with its plane face out-
wards, and the lens B is placed at a diftance from A, that
exceeds the focal length of either of the two lenfes, and
that is alfo greater than the diftance between the two eye-
glafles ; but the proportions vary with circumitances. In
the patent micrometrical telefcope of Harris, in which the
eye-tube is 74 inches long, the focus of the eye-glafs is 13,
that of the field-glafs, or amplifier, 12, and the diftance 25 5
while the lenfes of the eye-end are both menifci; the outer-
moft lens having a focus of 13, and the inner lens one of 1.2
or 17, at adiitance of 23. This novel form of .a terreftrial
eye-tube is found very good for a fhort telefcope, and anfwers
equally well for any variable length of focal diftance of the
patent objeét-glaffes ; and when the telefcope has its focal
length invariable, the difference between each feparate pair
of lenfes may be varied at pleafure, and then the fower of
the whole combination will vary with the variations of this
diftance. In all other telefcopes of the refraGting kind, the
two eye-glaffes, as well as the pair of lenfes at the remote
end of the terreftrial tube, near the primary image, are all
plano-convex, as we have fhewn; and» that combination
which fuits a fhort telefcope, will generally fuit a long one;
but frequently that which is made purpofely for a long one,
will not fuit a fhort-one. A very good 12-inch terreftrial
eye-tube, -for a day and night telefcope of two feet length,
that we lately examined, has the proportions in the eye-
tube fomewhat different from telefcopes with larger power ;
the eye-lens has-a focus of 2 inches ; the amplifier 3s at
a diftance of 3/inches; and the third and fourth lentes are
L refpecttyely

———————

TELESCOPE.

refpe&tively 33 and 3, at a-diftance of 4+; the fourth lens
being that next the primary image. The convex portion of
all the four lenfes is turned to the centre of the tube in
all the terreftrial eye-pieces, except when Ramfden’s, or the
pofitive eye-pivce, is fubftituted for the common or negative
one. Another good day eye-tube, of 9+ inches length, has the
firft, or eye-lens, 14; the fecond, or amplifier, 2, at a diftance
of 21; the third 3, reverfed as yfual ; and the fourth 23, at a
diftance of 33. When a great power is wanted, the celeftial
eye-piece does very well for the eye-end of the terrettrial
tube ; and it would be an advantage to every good telefcope,
if they were fitted for this purpofe by an adapter, fuch as
we fhall have occafion to defcribe in our fifth fe€tion ; for
then each telefcope would have a great variety of powers ;
and if the celeftial eye-pieces were {crewed into a feparate
tube, inftead of a fimple adapter, the power might be
varied at pleafure, in any proportion, by altering the dif-
tance between the two feparate pairs of lenfes, as we fhall
hereafter fhew has been done by the writer hereof, in his
micrometrical meafurement of diftances in the laft feétion
of this article.

But to refume the confideration of our compound mi-
crofcope (Plate XXIV. fig. 11.), we now fee that the
lenfes C D and df combine in fuch a way, that the object
ab, inftead of being a little out of the ous of the fingle
lens df, is a little way out of the compound focus of the
two ; and a circular piece of metal, perforated in the centre,
called a diaphragm, is fixed in the tube, at the feparate
focus of the lens df, to exclude the coloured rays arifing
from the prifmatic difperfion of this lens ; and then the rays
of leaft difperfion, that pafs through this hole, enter the
lens CD near its centre, and, therefore, have afterwards
but little fpherical aberration ; on which account it is ob-
vious, that the image in the microfcope, or fecondary image
in the telefcope, will be diffin& and colourle/s; and it is
very extraordinary, that while improvements are daily medi-
tated in every mechanic art, the addition of a fecond lens,
to diminifh the aberrations, is not yet made to the ebject-
end of the compound microfcope, though the fame thing
has been done in the terreftrial eye-tube of an achromatic
telefcope, which not only anfwers precifely the fame pur-
pofe, but is in fact itfelf an achromatic compound microfcope.

After having gone through our explanation of the prac-
tieal forms of both the double and triple achromatic objeét-
glaffes, and alfo of the various achromatic eye-tubes, which
we have endeavoured to render intelligible to young opti-
cians, we fhall finifh this long fection by giving a fhort ac-
count of the different arrangements of the paces of an achro-
matic telefcope depending on thefe various forms, as we
have already done with refect to the old telefcopes, repre-
fented by figs. 1, 2, and 3. Plate XXV. Fig. 4. fhews the
arrangement of a double objeé-glafs in conjunétion with a
negative eye-piece of two lenfes, with the image between
them, the power of which is fimply the compound focal
length of the obje&t-plafs A, divided by the compound focal
length of the eye-lenfes Band C. This arrangement is
that of the beft achromatic telefcope with a celeftial eye-
piece, and, being fhorter than the terreftrial telefcope, is
more conveniently managed. When the eye-piece has a flip
of graduated mother-of-pearl, contrived by Cavallo, and
divided by Mr. Barton, at its diaphragm, it makes an ufeful
micrometer for meafuring fmall angles: and when this eye-
pete is taken out, the wire or cobweb micrometer may be
crewed in, inftead thereof; and then, if the telefcope 1s of
a good fize, an angle within its reach may be meafured
with great accuracy. . With this celeftial telefcope the- ob-
jet is inverted, and the light will be direétly as the area

of the aperture, and inverfely as the magnifying power.
Fig. 5. gives the arrangement of the lenfes in a terreftrial
achromatic telefcope with a triple objeét-glafs; in which A
is the object-glafs, B the eye-lens, and € the amplifier, or
field-lens of the eye-piece BC; D is the third lens, that
diminifhes the aberration of the fourth lens E, which, in a
compound microfcope, is called the objeét-lens. This is
confidered the beft conitruétion of a terreftrial telefcope.
The power is equal to the compound focus of the objeét-
glafs, divided by the compound focus of the eye-piece BC,
when the quotient is multiplied by the firft part of the mi-
crofcopic power of the lenfes E, D, which part will vary
with the diftance between the two pairs of lenfes. The
arrangement in fig. 6. differs from that in fig. 4. only in the
eye-piece, which has here the image beyond it. Alfo the
arrangement in fig. 7. differs in fike manner from that in
figs 5; and what we faid refpecting power and light of thofe
lenfes, is equally true of thefe. The eye-pieces of the tele-
{copes in figs. 6..and 7. are thofe of the wire and cobweb
micrometers. ;

3. Theory of cata-dioptric Telefcopes.—When the image of
a diftant objet is formed in any telefcope entirely by re-
JfleGed rays meeting at a focus, this image is properly
catoptric (from the Greek word xazorreor, fpeculum); but
when it is formed partly by refleGtion and partly by re--
fraétion of the rays, in coming to a focus, it is then cata-
dioptric, that is, both catoptric and dioptric; and as the
image cannot be viewed without an eye-glafs, all refle&ting
telefcopes are promifcuoufly called cata-dioptric.

Before we deferibe any of the different conftructions of
a telefcope where reflection is concerned, we will explain
the principles on which the catoptric theorems are founded,
and give'a {mall table of thofe theorems that determine the
focus under different circumftances, as we have already
done with refpeét to the dioptric theorems; at the fame
time referring our readers for farther information on this
fubje&t to the articles Caroprrics, Mirror, and Spr-
cuLtum. In Plate XXVI. fig. 8. Affronomical Inftruments,
let the curve GE be confidered as a portion of a convex
f{peculum, formed from the centre C, and CA or CE its
radius ; then fuppofe DA to be a ray of light proceedin
from D, the radiant point, in the axis of the fpeculum, a
falling on the point A, from whence it is reflected in the di-
rection of the line A ¢, tending in a contrary direction to a
point F, its virtual focus, in the axis of the fpeculum be-
hind the vertex E: then ppt DE =d; CA or CE =r;
CE =2; ad FE= f+ 27 = (CHa Nowetne
fuppofe the point A to be very near te E, a point in the
axis, the angles at D and C -will become very fmall, and
will, confequently, have the fame proportion to each other
as their oppofite fides AC and AD have; but AC = AE,
and DA may be taken = DE without any fenfible error ;
hence there will be this analogy, ADC: ACD :: CE :
DE ::r: d. Produce now CA to I, and 1A will be
perpendicular to the face of the fpeculum in A, the point
of reflection ; and, therefore, the angles DAI and [A@
will be equal. But DAI = JAC, and [AQ = CAB,
as being refpeétively oppofite, therefore 3AC is equal
CAF: afosAC= ADC + ACD =r + d, and
confequently the angle CAF = r+d. Again, in the
triangle C F A, when the point A is near the axis at E, the
angles at A and C will be very fmall, and will have the
fame proportion to each other as their oppofite fides F C
and FA, and the angle FAC : FCA :: FC: FA;
but in this cafe F A may be efteemed = FE, and therefore
we have FAC : FCA :: FC: FE: «:f. But we
have feen that the angle at C is as DA or DE, that is, as

d, and

pay

TELESCOPE.

d, and alfo the angle FAC as r + d; therefore we have as
fi zud:d+ r; and by compofition of ratios, f + x :
fu2d+tr:d;butfte=reer: fz 2dtr:d;
then by multiplying the extremes and means together, we
have the equation dr = 2df + fr, and dividing by 2d + r,

dr ;

there refults the theorem ares f= EF. This may
be confidered as the fundamental theorem in catoptrics, from
which the focus may be determined in any fpeculum, con-
cave, convex, or even plain, whether the rays fall on it
diverging, parallel, or converging ; and froma due variation
of the fymbols and figns, as the cafe may require, we have
all the variety of theorems for finding the focus contained
in the fubjoined table.

Taste for finding the Focus of Rays reflected by any
Speculum.

Convex: | faa
seen | [are

pte ears ed
Ft ae | = a el |

To illuftrate the utility of this little table, let it be rea
quired to determine the refpetive foci of two fpecula,
both ground and polifhed, on tools of 30 inches radius, when
the radiant object is placed at 300 feet diftance, one fpe-
culum being convex, and the other concave? In the firft
place, as the diftance is lefs than infinite, the rays will come
diverging from a luminous point; and, therefore, with
refpect to the convex fpeculum, we muf ufe the theorem

dr ze : 300 X 2.5
== = f, which in figures will ftand thus, ees
oS = 1.245 feet, or 14.94 inches for the required
Be
- —dr
focus; but for the concave fpeculum, the theorem — st

= f (or — f, becaufe the focus and centre of the curve are
on the fame fide of the fpeculum) will give us thefe numbers,

300 X 2.5 75°

ore ES 1.255 ):feet, or 15.06

"2X .300— 2.5 597-5
inches for its focal diftance ; and in like manner may the
proper focus be determined for any other radius and diftance,
however the rays may be circumftanced when they fall on
the fpeculum: whenever they come converging or diverging
from a firft to a fecond {peculum, the focal point, real or
virtual, muft be confidered as the radiant, and its diftance
reckoned accordingly. i

Thefe theorems, however, imply that the fpeculum is
already made, whereas in many pra¢tical cafes, the focus is
firft affumed, and the proper radius of convexity or con-
cavity is required, or, which is the fame in effect, the radius
of the tool is required that fhall be proper for forming the
requifite curve. For inftance, let it be required to form a
tool of fuch a radius, that an image of any very remote
objet may be formed, by a {peculum ground and polifhed

to its dimenfions, at the diftance from its refleting farface
of juft m8 inches? In this cafe, the rays muft be confidered
as parallel, becaufe the obje& is remote; and, indeed, it is
always for a remote object that the curve of a large fpe-

. r é
culum is formed ; confequently the theorems — = f, and
A

ae
in both which 2f = r; therefore 18 x 2 = 36 will be
the proper radius of either the convexity or concavity of
the tools to be ufed. If the ray had been diverging, and
the focus affirmative, or behind the fpeculum, for a convex
{peculum the theorem arifing from transformation would
d
a ry; and fora FAREAIP g =
in the cafe of a negative focus, or foeus before the fpeculum,
the former would have been — aif = r, and the latter

d+f

——. = r. In like manner, the diftance may be deter-

, or — f, will be fuitable for the required purpofe,

have been

=r; but

mined from the radius and proper focus being given ; for,
fuppofing the focus affirmative, with a convex {peculum, the

Shh Aly
fi ,

transformed theorem for diverging rays will be —
Peas
. fir :
and with a concave —~—— = d: but when the focus is
2ftr
—- ihe r
2f

= d. Hence, when any two of the terms f, r, and

negative, the former will be = d, and the latter
r

fr
2f—r
d are given, the third may be readily determined.

Thus, in the cafe of a convex {peculum with diverging

rays, if we put d = r, we {hall have mo ff; when
3

d = yr, then 5 = f3; when d = tr, then fe aia

and when d = tr, then = = f: from which refults we

fee, that the points D and F both approach the fpeculum
in a regular manner, till at laft they will coincide at its
vertex ; and the fame will be the cafe with a concave fpe-
culum, when the rays are converging, except that the focus
is negative, or on the fame fide with the centre of convexity.
Alfo, when a convex {peculum is ufed with converging rays,
or a concave with diverging, when 2 d= +, f will be in-
finite ; or, which is the fame thing, the rays will be refle@ted
parallel, as is the cafe in refleGting lamps; and, generally
{peaking, the focus of any concave or convex eno may
be made to fall in a given point, accordingly as the radiant
objet is made to approach to or recede Bact its principal
focus with parallel rays ; and wherever the focus is made to
fall, there an image is formed of the obje& by refleGtion, in
the fame wonderful manner as we have had occafion to men-
tion before, when fpeaking of its formation by refra@tion.
Likewife the conneétion between D, the radiant point, and
F, the focus, is fo intimate, that they may at any time
change places without error ; that is, when D is the radiant,
F will be the focus; but if F is taken as the radiant, then

D will be the proper focus in all cafes.
In order to thew what proportion the length of an image,
formed in the focus of refleéted rays, will bear te the length
Llz of

TELESCOPE.

of the obje& whiclr it reprefents, let DE (fg. 9.) be a
portion of a convex f{peculum, C its centre, V the vertex,
OB an obje&, and I its image ; and let it be required to
find the proportion that the objeé, or line BO, bears to
» the image, or line IM, From the centre C, let the per-
pendicular CA fall on the objeét or radiant ; and from its
extreme points O, B, draw OC and BC, to meet the fpe-
culum in the points D and E; and do the fame in fig. 10,
where the curve D E reprefents a concave fpeculum: then
the line A V will be the axis, in fome part of which the
rays proceeding from the points O and B will meet, and the
points of interfe¢tion will be the foci refpectively. From O,
let a rzy O V pafs to the vertex of the fpeculum, fo as to
make the 7 FVA = 2 OVA, then will V F be the re-
flected ray, which tending to the point I, in the axis CO,
fhall there form the image of the point O of the radrant.
In like manner, the ray BV will be refleéted in the direc-
tion V G, and interfecting the axis C B in M, will there
depié the point B of the faid radiant ; and thus all the in-
termediate points lying between O and B will be reprefented
between I and M, and a complete image of OB will be
formed at IM. If we fuppofe the objeét at a great dif-
tance, and confequently fmall, the arc ED of the fpe-
culum will be very minute, and not fenfibly different from a
right line, and confequently will ‘be parallel to the radiant
BO, becaufe C A is perpendicular to both BO and ED.
Alfo, fince the diftances OD, AV, and BE, are very
nearly equal, from their contiguity, it is plain that the focal
diftances DI, Va, and EM, will alfo be nearly equal;
and, therefore, the image IM will be very nearly a right
line, and parallel to the radiant O B, as well as perpendi-
culartoC A. °

Now from the nature of refletion, we have 2 BVA =
ZAVG= ZaVM; therefore, 2ZOVA + BVA
= Z2aV1+ aVM; namely, 2OVB = 1VM; fo
that the radiant, or objet BO, and its image I M, are feen
under the fame angle ce the vertex of the fpeculum. But
the triangles A V O and aV I are fimilar, forthe 2 OVA
= aV I, and the angles at A and a are both right angles ;
therefore, VA: Va:: AO:alI. For the fame reafon,
VA: Va:: AB: aMi andVA:Va::OA+AB:
Ila +aM:: OB: IM; or, in words, “ the diftance of
the object is to the diftance of its image, from its vertex V;
as the length of the objeé is to the length of the image.”

Trom the analogy here deduced, it is eafy to form theo-
rems, that fhall determine either d, /, or the proportion
O : I, when O is the length of the objeé& and I of the

image, when the two others are given. For we have given

O:1::d:f, and confequently 0

= f; but our funda-

dr Id
mental theorem was are = f, confequently o =
cas RELY FEE IETF REC UEE FR ok oe
2d+r

I>; confequently for a convex fpeculum, the theorem will

= d; and for a concave, where r is negative,
.

Ir,.— Or

‘twill be
it will be rai

= d. Butif the focus be required

—Or-Ir
21

= d; and in a concave, where r and / are both negative, it

to be negative in a conyex, the theorem will be

will be

ae = d. If r be required in a convex

fpeculum, when d and O : I are given, the theorem will be

2zId . 2:3 ?
fie and in a concave Te but if the
focus is required to be negative, the firft will be pate Y |
O+1
21d
= r3 and the fecond Oa = Ts ;

Laftly, when d and r are piven, to find O: I, we thall
have this analogy for a convex fpeculum O:1::2d44:7;
and for a concave, O:1::r—2d:,r. But if the focus
be negative, for a convex, it will be O: I :: —2d—rirs
and for a concave, O: 1::2d—r:r; fothat, as we have
faid, when any two of the three terms are given, the other
may be determined by calculation. By way of exemplifica-
tion, let it be required to’ find the radius of a concave fpe-
culum, that fhall make the image of an obje&, placed at
100 feet, as 1 : 60, in front of the fpeculum. Now being
in this cafe negative, we have the theorem, as before fpe-

ified Is 0) or; in Seures 2 eee

a OL a ? > g > Sot, Ore

= 3.28 = r, nearly ; or if r be given, and d required, the

theorem Oats = d will give 60 x 3-28 + 1 x 3.28
21 2) MED NOs

2 ae = 100.04 = d; and if 3.28 had been the

exa@ radius, the diftance would have come out exatly 100.
If the image and objeét had been given equal, they would
both have fallen exaétly at the centre of concavity of the
mirror ; which coincidence affords a ready method of deter-
mining the radius of concavity of any fpeculum, by means
of a luminous point ufed as an obje&t, and brought fo that
its image will exaétly coincide with it. It is hardly necef-
fary to add here, that a concave {fpeculum forms an inverted
and magnified image ; and that a convex one makes it ereét,
and at the fame time diminifhes it. re
We have before fhewn how the aberration of the rays of
light may be calculated, when refieted to a focus by a fpe- —
culum of a fpherical figure, when the rays are parallel be-
fore the pfialioe refleCtion ; and it has been demonftrated, that
for fuch rays a parabolic curve is the beft fuited for corre&t-
ing fuch aberration, particularly when the image is formed
by only one reflecting furface ; but when there is a fecond
or {mall {peculum, either concave or convex, employed in
forming a fecondary image, or in aflifting to form the pri- ©
mary one, a aie curve will not be the beft for correé-
ing the aberration of the rays; becaufe each fpeculum will
have its own aberration ; and the pra¢tical optici¢a can em-
ploy his fkill in producing fuitable fpecula for counteracting
each other’s errors, with refpeé to the united effect of their —
feparate aberrations, better than the calculating theorift can
pretend to direét ; for the moment he {crews his eye-tube
alternately out and in, beyond and fhort of diftin@ vifion,
he knows the nature of the curves of his fpecula, and whe-
ther the indiftinétnefs arifing from aberration is the confe-
quence of too much or too little curvature at the vertex of the
large {peculum, and can make the final alteration accordingly.
This practical dexterity, arifing out of experience, fuper-
fedes the neceffity of tedious mathematical calculations,
where fome part of the data muft neceffarily be affumed ;
and it is much to be wifhed, that praétical men, who have
: excelled

>

TELESCOPE.

excelled in this particular, and in other prattical niceties,
would initiate their fucceflors in the fecrets that promoted
their excellence, that pofterity may benefit from their fuc-
cefsful labours; which could not have been Mr. Short’s
with, when he deliberately provided for the deftrution of
his beft tools, after he no longer wanted them.

The circumftances that led to the conftruétion of a re-
flecting telefcope did not arife out of chance, as is fuppofed
to have been the caie with the dioptric, but out of the diffi-
culty of avoiding the indiftin@ne/s produced by aberrations
of both kinds; and the firft arrangement that would pro-
bably occur, would be that of a fpeculum oppofed to the
eye of the obferver, whofe head in that cafe would intercept
the incident rays, and prevent their falling on the fpeculum,
unlefs it were made of an unmanageable diameter. To avoid
this inconvenience, Gregory, who was the firft to undertake
the arduous tafk of a new conftru@tion, devifed the ex-
pedient of opening a hole in the centre of the large fpecu-
lum, fufficiently large to admit of the rays that came re-
fle@ed a fecond time from a fmaller fpeculum without a
central perforation: it would naturally occur to him, that
if this fecond fpeculum was not larger in diameter than the
central hole of the large {peculum, no incident light would
be intercepted by it, when the rays came-parallel, but what
would have paffed through the central hole of the fpeculum.
This confideration brought the eye to the fame end of the
tube in which the large fpeculum was placed, and thus freed
the aperture from all obitacles to the free admiffion of light ;
but whether the {mall fpeculam at firit tried was a plain one,
or concave, is not of importance to afcertain ; it is fufficient
for our purpofe to know, that a concave one was ultimately
adopted,. and probably from the property which it poffeffes
of varying the magnifying power to a confiderable extent.

We have already faid that Gregory’s conftruction of the
refleGing telefcope is the moit ancient, and indeed continues
to be the moft common, even at this time, on account of
the convenience attending its ufe, and therefore we will be-
gin with an explanation of its theory. Plate XXVII. fig. 1.
Aftronomical Inflruments, reprefents a {etion of this initru-
ment as it was originally made, and fg. 2. is a reprefentation
agreeably to its improved modern conitruCtion ; in both which
we fhall ufe the fame letters of reference to the correfponding
parts. ABCD, in each figure, denote the tube of wood
or brafs in which two concave {pecula are contained; the
large one, B D, is perforated at the centre, and placed con-
tiguous to the interior end of the tube, but in fuch a way
as to have a little play when prefled by a circular {pring be-
hind it; E F is the {mall {peculum, which is of fhorter radius
than the fpeculum B D, and has its centre placed exaétly in
the centre of the tube oppofite the central aperture in the
large fpeculum, and is fo adjufted by the fcrews behind it,
that the image of the large fpeculum forms a concentric
circle on its reflecting furface, when viewed by an eye fitu-
ated in the central hole of the lenge fpeculum. In this in-
itrument, as in the refraCting telefcope, it will be mott con-
venient to defcribe firft the formation of the primary image
of a diftant object in the body of the tube, and then the
microfcopic means applied for rendering this image vifible in
an apparently magnified ftate ; for in truth there 1s actually
a compound reflecting microfcope made ufe of as a confti-
tuent part of this inftrument, in like manner as the terref-
trial tube of a refraéting telefcope of the beft achromatic
‘conftru@tion, is in itfelf a compound refraéing microfcope.
In the firft place, agreeably to the laws of catoptrics, which
we have explained, if we confider a} and cd two rays of
light coming from the centre of a diftant arrow in a ftate of
divergence approaching to parallelifm, and impinging on the

large fpeculum at the points 4 and d near the remote edges
of the fpeculum, and at equal diftances from its axis, they
will be reflected inwardly fo as to meet at the point ¢, in the
common axis of both the fpecula, and will form the image ’
of the central point of the arrow ; and in like manner, any
number of rays proceeding from the oppofite ends of the
faid arrow may be conceived to fall on the {peculum, and to
be refleGed to the points 4 and i, and to all the intermediate
points, fo as to form a perfeét image 4ei in an inverted po-
fition, becaufe the rays which enter the tube from the right-
hand end of the arrow, will after refle@tion crofs the axis,
and form the left-hand end of the image, and vice ver {a.
When an image is thus formed, if it could be viewed, under
fufficiently favourable circumftances, by an eye placed in
the vertex or central aperture of the large {peculum, it
would fubtend the fame angle as the objeé itfelf feen from
the fame fituation, as we have already demonttrated ; and
therefore the length of the image will bear the fame propor-
tion to the length of the objeét which it reprefents, as its
diftance from the eye, or vertex, is to that of the obje& ;
fo that the longer the radius of the fpeculum which forms
the image, the more diftani, and confequently the longer
will this image be, as compared with the obje&; and tor
the fame reafon, the nearer the obje@t, the longer will its
image be, until the fituation is at the centre of concavity of

_ the {peculum, where the object and image will coincide, and

appear of like magnitude, but in contrary pofitions.

This formation of the primary image being underitood,
we mutt in the next place confider it as a real microfcopic
objeét, placed fomewhere between the face of the large
{peculum, and its centre of concavity, which fituation will
always depend on the diftance of the real objeét itfelf, or,
which is the fame thing, on the degree of divergence of the
incident rays coming ae the obje&t. Now if the fmall
{peculum were fo placed as to have this primary image, or
microfcopic objeét, in its folar focal point, the rays coming
from it would be refleéted towards the large {peculum in a
parallel {tate; and paffing through the central opening of the
large fpeculum, would never converge fo as to form a
fecondary image, in which cafe the conjugate focus would
be faid to be infinite: and if the faid primary image were
nearer to the {mall fpeculum than its folar focus, the re-
flected rays would diverge fo as not to reach the central
hole of the large {peculum at all; but if the diftance of the
primary, image 4 ei exceeds the folar focus of the {mall
{peculum E F, which is at the point f, then the reflected
rays coming from the primary image will converge to a
conjugate focus fomewhere in the axis, and form a Jfecondary
image, the magnitude of which will increafe with its diftance
from the primary image, which we now confider as a real
microfcopic object. ‘The place where this fecondary image
will fall, will depend on the diftance of the primary image
from the folar focus of the {mall fpeculum; and a {mail
change of this diitance will caufe a great correfponding
change in the place of the fecondary image, or conjugate
focus ; fo that an adjuitment for a {mall forward and back-
ward motion of the fmall fpeculum, by means of a ferew
at the end of a long rod placed parallel to the tube, and
reaching to the eye-end, will fuffice for regulating the place
where the fecondary image fhall moft conveniently fall to
be viewed by an eye-glafs. The fecondary image has its
pofition reverfed, as it regards the primary one, and is there-
fore in the fame pofition as the obje@ itfelf, or what is
ulually called ereé, in oppofition to inverted. This fecondar
image was originally made to fall within the tube, as at ra
in the focus of the eye-glafs G H, through which it may
be viewed by-a {mall hole at I, where the iar

TELESCOPE.

G1IH_ is now confiderably enlarged. In order to explain
the theory of this refleGing compound microfcope, com-
pofed of the {mall fpeculum E F, and eye-glafs G H, more
particularly, which we purpofely omitted to do under the
term Microscorr, let us fuppofe a ray of light proceeding
from the end / of the microfcopic obje&t, or primary image
hei, and falling on the central part of the {mall fpeculum
at g, it will return refle@ted from this point, fo that the angle
of refle&tion on the other fide of the axis or line ge, will be
equal to the angle of incidence on this fide, and will there-
fore return in the line ge/, to the place of the conjugate
focus, where the point 4 will be depifted at /: alfo a ray
coming from the point i of the fame primary image, and
falling on the point g, will be refleéted in a fimilar manner
along the line ¢4 4, and will form the point i, at /, in the
fecondary image, which we have reprefented by a dotted
line. Now as the primary and fecondary images are fub-
tended by the famé angle 4 gi, or £g/, at the vertex g of the
{mall fpeculum, agreeably to the laws of catoptrics, it is
evident that the linear magnitudes of thefe two images will
be direétly as their refpeétive diftances from g, the vertex of
the {mall fpeculum ; therefore, as often as the diftance gh
is contained in the diftance gk, er the diftance gi in the
diftance g/; fo often will the length of the fecondary image
41, exceed the length of the primary one 47. But this
fecondary image £/is viewed tlirough the eye-glafs G H,
under the vifual angle G I H, and is faid to be again
magnified thereby : let us next fee what is the amount of
this amplification ; we have already faid that an eye at the
vertex g of the {mall fpeculum, would view both the primary
and fecondary images under the fame vifual angle 4 gi or
kgl; but by an eye at I, the vifual angle is GIH =
£K/, becaufe / K is parallel to HI, and £ K to G1; and
kis the common fubtenfe of both angles ; confequently, as
the diftance L K, or focus of the eye-glafs G H, is to the
diftance of Lg, or diftance of the {mall fpeculum from the
fecondary image; fo is the apparent magnitude of the
fecondary image, or vifual angle to the eye at g, to the fame
with the eye at L; and if the diftance g L be that at which
an objet may be beft feen by the naked eye, the whole

power of magnifying of fuch microfcope will be = a x

ae provided that 4i be confidered as a real object under
microfcopic obfervation. But in a telefcope, the fize of 4i
has a reference to the diftance of the objeét which it repre-
fents, and this circumftance muft be taken into confideration
in eftimating the power of the Gregorian telefcope. When
the eye is placed at 0, the vertex of the large fpeculum, we
have faid, that the obje& and its primary image are feen
under the fame vifual angle ; therefore, wherever the primary
image may fall in the line of the axis, the angle 407 will be
to the angle GIH, or £K J, as the object feen by the
naked eye is to its fecondary image, as fen erie the
eye-glafs, and confequently the latter, divided by the former,
will give the power. But the vifual angles boi and £ K L

are to each other in the compound ratio of ee ee.
eg LK

which formula, expreffed in meafured diftances, will be more
convenient for afcertaining the whole power of a Gregorian
telefcope, than the ratio of the vifual angles, which would
require previous calculation. For inftance, let o e, the dif-
tance of the primary image from the great {peculum, be
iven = 24 inches; and eg, the diftance of the fame from the
Fall fpeculum, be = 3.3; alfo let Lg, the diftance of the

9

fecondary image from the {mall fpeculum, be = 25.5, and
L K, the focus of the eye-glafs, be = 2.3; then we hall

have, agreeably to our formula, = x

24 Xx 25.5 _ 612
SSE 23! GEES
fuch a telefcope, when direéted to an obje& at fuch a dif-
tance as {hall make the primary image fall as we have taken
it. For objets very near, the focus of the large fpeculum
will be long, and confequently the primary ine will
approach the {mall fpeculum as the diftance decreafes 3 for
which reafon, the magnifying power will increafe with
the diminution of diftance, and vice verfa; fo that
the power with parallel rays, or when the telefcope is ufed
for celeftial purpofes, will be the fmalleft poffible, and yet
this is what is ufually called the power of the telefcope,
which circumftance fhews the impropriety of taking the
power of a large telefcope from a meafure of a near terref-
trial diftance, which mode has been praétifed by eminent
aftronomers, and recommended by men of {cience. If, how-
ever, a correction is applied for the want of parallelifm in the
incident rays, as we fhall have occafion to do prefently, then
the power may be as accurately obtained ata fhort as at along
diftance. In the old conitruétion, which our fg. I. ‘repre-
fents, the piece of bent brafs at c, which fupports the {mall
fpeculum, is ated on by the long rod /C, that has a milled
nut at /, and a fcrew cut on the end C, that draws the pro-
jeCting part N, of the piece c, along a flit made in the tube,
while a contrivance in the cock M prevents the rod MN
from advancing or receding as the rod revolves. Hence the
eye-glafs-G H remains fixed, and the adjuftment for diftin&
vifion is made by. the rod M N moving the {mall fpeculum to
its proper diftance from the primary image 4i5 and in this
way thefecondary image may be made to reft in any given
fituation beyond or fhort of the point L, fo that various eye-
glaffes may be ufed with the fame fpecula in fucceffion ; or
different {mall fpecula may be ufed with the fame large one,
from which changes a variety of powers may be had: with
fixed eye-glaffes; but if the eye-glafles be inferted into a
fmaller fliding tube, there will be a third method of varying

fame thing, = 80.6 for the power of

the power, by bringing the fecondary image into the fliding

tube out of the body of the large tube, fo as to increafe the
diftance L g, which is one of the faStors of the dividend in
our formula. Thus, whatever may be the arrangement of
the {pecula, eye-glafs, and diftance of the primary image, when
anv three out of the four terms of the formula are given,
together with the whole power, the fourth may always be
had by a fimple calculation, which is a matter Bi abit
venience to the maker. If, for example, we take the power
80.6 = P, and the radius of curvature of the large fpeculum
= 48 inches, in which cafe the primary image with parallel

incident rays will fall at £ = 24; and let Lg and eg be

re{peétively 25.5 and 3.3, to find the focus of the eye-glafs
24 X 25.5
3.3 x 80.6
= 2.3 for the focus of the eye-glafs; or for the diftance
eg of the primary image from the {mall fpeculum, when the
24 X 25.5
2.3 x 80.6

fore. But it was foon found, that a fingle eye-glafs not
only produces fringes of colour near its edges, arifing from
the prifmatic aberration of the rays coming from the fecond-

ary

that fhall produce fuch power ; we fhall have

_ 3439 as bee

eye-glafs is given, we fhould have

B5A5 or, which is the
2:3

—

“os *

;

,
A
a

;

TELESCOPE.

ary image, now confidered as a real object, but that the field
of view is thereby circumferibed into a fmall area. For
thefe reafons, the Huygenian eye-piece, already explained, was
fubflituted for the fingle eye-glafs, which fubftitution left
little more to be done, in the way of the improvement of the
Gregorian telefcope, except what related to the conitru€tion
of the fpecula, which have now been brought nearly to a
ftate of perfeGtion, as we have explained, at fome length,
under our article Sprcutum. We have introduced fig. 2.
for the purpofe of explaining more clearly, than we could by
a mere verbal defcription, the plan of the Gregorian tele-
{cope in its moft improved ftate, in which, we repeat, the
fame letters indicate the fame parts as in fig. 1. In this
figure we have made the pencils of rays a 4 and cd to confit
each of three lines, for the purpofe of fhewing how the image
is formed at the points of convergence after refleétion, and
alfo how the inverfion of the image is produced by the croff-
ing of the pencils before they converge to a point at each
end of the image. It may alfo be feen how the rays pafs
through the interior eye-glafs, before they form the fecondary
image between the two glaffes, as in the achromatic aftrono-
mical telefcope, thereby conftituting this image acata-dioptric
one, which before was a catoptric one, according to our defi-
nition. The Huygenian eye-piece is peculiarly adapted for the
Gregorian telefcope; and when the {pecula have their curves
fo adapted as to counteraét each other’s aberrations, as we
before recommended, and are alfo well polifhed, as well as of
fuitable metal, a very high power may be applied, and the
light by reflection will be to that by refraétion alone nearly
as 5 : 8, where the apertures are equal ; but as a refle¢tor is
capable of having a much greater aperture than any refractor
that can be conftruGted, it will have a proportional advan-
tage in the effential quality of illumination combined with
power, on which union its excellence depends. It will not
be neeeffary to repeat here what we have faid above refpe@-
ing the manner of determining a fingle eye-glafs, equal in
power to the combined eye-glafles in the Huygenian eye-
tube ; but it may be proper to mention here, that fuch a
glafs, when determined, muft be fubftituted for the com-
* pound eye-piece, in computing the power of the telefcope
according to our preceding directions. The diaphragm
that precludes the ftraggling and extraneous rays from
coming to the eye is put where the fecondary image is
formed, and the aperture at the eye is obliged to be {mall in
this conftruétion of a telefcope, to prevent any other light
being admitted into the eye than what is reflected from the
{mall fpeculum, and is necefflary for the formation of the
fecondary image. When the diameter of the {mall {peculum,
and alfo the exaét fituation of the primary image, are known,
the aperture at the eye, that fhall admit the principal pencil,
may be exatily determined by the fubjoined analogy ; viz.
as the diftance of the {mall mirror from the fecondary image,
is to the focal length of the neareft one ; fo is the dia-
meter of the {mall {peculum, to the neceflary aperture at the
eye. And to find the proper diameter of the {mall fpecu-
lum, or central aperture of the large one, the proportion
will be, as the diftance of the primary image from the large
fpeculum, is to its diftance from the {mall one, with incident
parallel rays ; fo is the diameter of the large fpeculum, to the
diameter of the {mall one, or of its own central aperture ;
and when this proportion is preferved, all the refleéted light
will enter the {mall tube that contains the eye-glaffes, and
alfo the extraneous light not falling on the large fpeculum,
if any, will be excluded. Liaftly, fhould the field of view be
required to be equal to a given vifual angle, fuch as that
fubtended by the diameter of the fun, this will depend on
the power of the inftrument, which for this purpofe muift be

limited, as in the following example: let a refle¢ting Gre-
gorian telefcope of four inches diameter of the large fpeculum,
and 17.5 inches focus, with a hole in the centre 1,1 diameter,
(which is confidered in prattice a good proportion,) be
required to have a field of view juft 32’, when the focus of
the eye-glafs is two inches? The thing required is, that the
enlarged fecondary image of the fun fhould juft fill the aper-
ture in the centre of the darge fpeculum. The fize of the
primary image of the fun depends on the focal length of the
large mirror, and mutt firft be found ; it has been afcertained
that, in the focus of a fpeculum (or lens) of fix inches focal
length, the image of the fun is .o5586 diameter, when he
meafures 32'; therefore, as it will be proportionably more in
a longer focus, fay as 6: .05586:: 17.5: .1629; alfo, as
often as this image .1629 is contained in 1.1, the diameter
of the hole in the large fpeculum, which quotient is = 6.75;
fo much does the Frnal fpeculum magnify the primary
image, in converting it into afecondary one of 1.1 diameter.
Again, if we divide the focus of the great fpeculum 17.5,
by 6.75 — 1, we have 3.04, the diftance of the primary
image from the {mall fpeculum, which is fomewhat more
than its folar focus ; and alfo if we divide 4, the diameter of
the large fpeculum, by the fame (6.75 — 1), we fhall have
-695 = the diameter of the fun’s image on the face of the
{mall metal, while the fecondary image will juft cover the
hole of the large fpeculum, as required. Now, laftly, to
find what is the power of the telefcope under thofe limit-
ations, we have 17.5 x 6.75 = 118 for the firft part of the

118 :
power ; then FSS the whole power, when 2 is the

focus of the fingle eye-glafs. If the length of the focus of
the principal fpeculum were increafed to 30 inches, or even
to 30 feet, while the aperture remains ‘as before, no advan-
tage would be gained in this conftruétion from fuch length ;
for in the cafe of 30 inches focus, the primary image would
be .2793, and the power of the fmall fpeculum only 3.93
( le a: while the diftance of the primary image from the
-2793/ :
{mall fpeculum would be 10.24 ; the diameter of the image
on the face of the fmall fpeculum 1.36 ; and the magnifying

Shee)

2
this difadvantage, that, as the {mall fpeculum has an increafed
radius here, its diameter will neceflarily be fo much aug-
mented, as to intercept feveral of the beft rays of light,
which are thofe that fall near the centre. The opinion, con-
fequently, that a Gregorian telefcope will be improved by
having a long focus of the great {peculum, with the fame
aperture, is erroneous. When two reflecting telefcopes per-
form alike, as to light and diftin@nefs, the {quare {quare roots
of the diameters of the fpecula muft be as the cubes of their
foci re{peétively. There can always be more power got by
the {mall fpeculum and eye-glafs, in even a fhort tube, than
the aperture will bear.

The theory of Caflegrain’s telefcope is very fimilar to that
of the Gregorian, the principal difference being that, in
Caflegrain’s, the {mall fpeculum is convex inftead of con-
cave. When the radii of the two fpecula and the eye-piece
are refpectively the fame in each conftruétion, the powers
will be the fame, though the apparent pofition of the lait
image, which we have fhewn to be ereét in the Gregorian,
is inverted in the Caflegrainian conftruétion; for on exa-
mining fig. 3, which explains the courfe of the rays in
Caffegrain’s telefcope, it will be feen that the incident ‘rays
ad and cd, after being refleéted from the large {peculum,

are

= 59, asbefere. There would, indeed, be

power

TELESCOPE.

are prevented from coming to a point at the virtual image
hi, behind the fmall fpeculum, in confequence of its inter-
pofition, but are again refle¢ted towards the eye in a ftate of
lefs rapid convergence, till, falling on the lens G H, they are
refracted to a focus at L, and form the real image KJ,
which may be confidered as the primary image, and is,
therefore, not in the fame pofition as the fecondary image,
which is formed in the Gregorian telefcope after the rays
have croffed each other. When the rays fall on the large
{peculum, they are refle&ted in a ftate of convergence to-
wards the fmall fpeeulum, becaufe coming from a diftant
objeé&t ; and they enter the tube either parallel or diverging,
accordingly as the objeét is more or lefs diftant ; but they
fall on the {mall {peculum converging: fo as not to become
quite parallel after the fecond reflection, but flowly con-
verging; and the quantity of convergence will depend on
the diflance of the virtual, or what may be called imaginary
focus, or image 4i, from the {mall fpeculum E F, which is
here between f, the folar focus, and the convex fpeculum ;
whereas in the Gregorian inftrument, the folar focus f is
between the concave fpeculum and image 47. In both

is the meafure of the power;

Lg
BK

py o€
conftruétions, — x
es

sve : igs? ;
and it is evident that the part L K is the fame in both;

but it is not equally clear that = is the fame, or in the
fame ratio in both. The diftance og between the two fpe-
cula is lefs in Caffegrain’s inftrument than in the Gregorian,
by twice the folar fescue of the {mall fpeculum, and by fo
much may the principal tube be fhorter; therefore, it re-
mains to be proved that ge is to go in one telefcope as ge
is to go in the other, though differently pofited.. . In order
to prove this analogy, let HD (Plate XXVI. fig. 11.)
be a concave fpeculum, and EC a convex one, both de-
{cribed with the fame radius C D, and on the common axis
BCD;; and let the point N interfe€& the radius, fo as to
become the folar focus of each fpeculum, one really, and
the other virtually. Let F be a radiant point, from which
the ray F H is incident on the concave mirror at the point
H, or to which the ray KE incident on the convex fpe-
culum is tending: then both thefe rays will be refleéted
from their refpeétive fpecula to the fame point B in the
axis, and will pafs in the fame line EB: Again, let CF
be an obje&, and the image thereof ad, formed by the con-
cave, will be equal to the image A B made by the convex.
This may be proved from our preceding theorems for con-

aie

dr _
2zd4+-r

vex and concave fpecula refpettively, viz.

—dr Pe, dr
2d—r r—2a

For as d= FC, CB =f in the convex ; fo in the concave,
let FD =3, and DB=@; and then-we have in the
former d: f::2d+r:r, and in the latter 3:92: r—
238:r. Bat} =d+r, therefore 23 = 2d + 2r, whence
r—23=2d+4r; confequently d: f::3:9, that is,
CF:CB:: DF: DB; alfo the objeét and image are to
each other in the fame ratio with each {fpeculum ;. and, there-
fore, fince the objec is the fame in both, the image will be
the fame alfo, or AB =ad, which was to be proved:
After having given this demonftration, it will be unneceffary
to fhew how the powers may be varied at pleafure, agree-
ably to the variation of the radii of the fpecula and lenfes
that compofe the eye-piece, all which we have juit explained
4

and

» when all the figns are changed.

with regard to the Gregorian arrangement. As the inftru- .
ment which is the fubje€t of our prefent confideration in-
verts the objects to which it is direéted, it is feldom ufed
but in aftronomical obfervations, for which it is peculiarly
adapted, feeing that it is capable of having greater power,
with the fame Teueh of tube, than any other telefcope that
has been yet invented ; though with a terreftrial eye-piece, it
might be ufed for the examination of terreftrial obje&s.
While we are writing our prefent article, we have before us
a Caffegrainian telefcope by Tulley, of 36 inches of tube,.
and 64 aperture, that will fhew Saturn or Jupiter, with
their moons very well defined, with a power of 440; and
that will diftinétly define the words of a page in this Cyclo-=
pedia, at the diftance of 210 yards with.a power of 295.
The maker of this inflrument has conitruéted two pairs
of telefcopes, one of each pair a Gregorian, and the other
a Caflegrainian, fo as to match each other exa@ly in dimen-
ions, powers, and quality of the metals and glafs, in order
to afcertain if one conftruétion has any advantage over the
other in quantity of light, under exaétly the fame cireum-
ftances ; and though feveral fcientific gentlemen, befides the
author of this article, have examined and compared different
objects as feen fucceffively by each of the two telefcopes
of both pairs, yet not the leaft difference can be’ difcerned
by any obferver. When the laft glimmering of day light
remained, the vanifhing object ceafed to be vifible with
each like telefcope at the fame time, as nearly as could be
afcertained, and that with both pairs, though they are
conftruéted with dimenfions greatly different the one pair
from the other, and vary confequently in their powers and
quantity of light. This experiment originated out of captain
Kater’s paper on this fubje€t, which was publifhed in the
Philofophical TranfaGtions of London, in the year 1813;
and we have no hefitation in faying that the quantity of illu-
mination is the fame in both conftruétions, when the dimen-
fions and qualities of the conftituent parts are perfeCtly fimilar.
Whatever may be the difperfion of light at the point of
crofling of the rays, in the Gregorian conitruétion, when
the difperfed rays are returned from the fecond fpeculum,
they are collected again, it fhould feem, without lofs, cer-
tainly without apparent diminution of light. This con-
viction we put on record, not out of a {pirit of controverfy,
but from a love of truth. p ~
The firft account that was publifhed of the French re-
flecting telefcope was in the fifth volume of the Philofophical
Tranfactions of London, in the month of May, in the year
1672, almoft immediately after the account of fir Ifaac
Newton’s conftruétion, which was given in the fame volume ;
and a claim was fet up by Caffegrain as to the priority of.
his contrivance, which, however, was not fubftantiated ;
nor was the matter of importance to determine, as the con-
ftructions are diffimilar, and as Dr. Gregory’s inftrument pre-
ceded both. The fuppofed advantages of Caffegrain’s tele= _
{cope over Newton’s were ftated to be thefe: wiz. 1ft. That
the aperture was not limited to a confined number of.
incident on the large concave fpeculum; 2dly. That. the
refle€tion of the rays will be natural, fince it is made upon
the axis itfelf, and will therefore be more vivid; 3dly.. Tha
the vifion will be more pleafing, when the face is fereent
from too much light by the broad end of the tube; and,
4thly. That there will be lefs difficulty in difeovering ob-
jets with the eye facing them, than when turned from them.
If thefe are advantages, they are, however, equally belong-
ing to the Gregorian telefcope ; and we fhall prefentl have.
occafion to ftate what was Newton’s opinion on each of thele
points. In this, as in the Gregori conitru@tion, the power
can always be increafed farther than the aperture will bear 5
and,

-_

TELESCOPE.

and, therefore, an increafe of focal diftance of the large {pe-
culum, without a proportional increafe of aperture, will
anfwer no good purpole, but will render the tube unmanage-
able. When the aperture of a Caflegrainian or of a Gre-
gorian telefcope is to that of a Newtonian as 7.5 to 6, it has
been proved that they have equal light with the fame powers ;
the Newtonian having the advantage, in confequence of the
obliquity of the angle of .refle€tion of the fmall plain fpe-
culum. ;

Sir Ifaac Newton’s conftruGtion of the reflecting telefcope
differs from both the Scotch and French in this refpeét, that
the large concave {peculum is entire, and that the {mall one
is quite plain, and placed at an angle of 45°, a little fhort
of the focus ; fo that the converging rays come to a focus
between the {mall fpeculum and the fide of the tube near its
fuperior end, as feen in fig. 4. of our laft plate. Sir Ifaac
had difcovered, in his experiments on refle&ted light, that
more rays are reflected in an oblique than in a perpendicular
direétion ; and that, confequently, there would be more
light returned to the eye by a {mall fpeculum fet at 45°,
than would be if the angle of refleCtion were greater. In
this inftrument, the theory is much more fimple than in either
of the preceding inftruments, on account of there being but
one image, 4, formed by the ineident rays ab and cd,
after two refleftions, one of which takes place at the large
metal B.D, and the other when the rays are in a ftate of
convergence, at the {mall plain {fpeculum E F ; fo that the
whole iength of the focal diftance of the large metal B D, is
BF + Fe, or DE + Ee; and this diftance, divided by
the focal diftance of the {mall eye-glafs G H, reaching to e,
gives the whole power. This calculation is as fimple as in
the aftronomical refraéting telefcope above explained, and is
analogous thereto. In the inftrument firft completed by fir
Ifaac, the eye-glafs was a plano-convex, with the plain face
turned to the eye, and 2th of an inch focus, while the focal
diftance of the large fpeculum was 64 inches, and its

aperture’ 14; hence its magnifying power was =e or
i
65

= = 38. This was at the time confidered a good propor-
= *

tion between the power and aperture, and a table was con-
ftruéted for different focal diftances upon this radical pro-
portion ; but it would anfwer no purpofe to copy this table
at a time when the refleCting telefcope, in every conftru€tion,
is brought to nearly a ftate of perfection by the fucceflive
improvements of different artifts. In this way of pro-
ducing the image, the pofition is inverted; and the only
mode of increafing the power with the fame eye-glafs, is by
lengthening the tube and focus of the large {peculum ; or
with the fame large metal, by fhortening the focus of the eye-
glafs. In this telefcope, any of the eye-pieces, fimple or
compound, may be applied at pleafure: and if the large
fpeculum be made of the beft metal, of a proper parabolic

gure, and with a good polifh, the image will be fharp and
well defined ; and as there are no colorific rays in a feparated
late, the charge, or power of the eye-piece may be great in
proportion to the focal length of the large metal, which is
the diftinguifhing charaéter of this conftruétion, particu-
larly when the {mall fpeculum is perfeétly flat and well po-
lifhed. The principal objeGtion to this, as a portable inftru-
ment, is its unmanageable length, which was firft given rt
by Hadley, who out of a pigmy made it a giant, and afto-
nifhed the philofophic world. ‘The length of the tube was
made fix feet, in which was included a metal of fix inches
aperture, and 62% focus; and Newton’s power of 38 was

Vou. XXXV.

increafed to 230. See Phil. Tranf. vol. xxxii. p. 303, or
Abr. vi. p. 165. 4

In fir Ifaac Newton’s reply to Caffegrain’s claim of fupe-
rior advantages, he ftates, firft, that there will be more light
loft by refle€tion from a fmall convex fpeculum, than from
a plain fpeculum of an oval fhape, and placed in an oblique
pofition ; fecondly, that the convex {peculum ‘will not re-
flect the rays fo truly as the plain one, unlefs it be of an
hyperbolic figure, which is difficult to form, and even then
will refle& only thofe rays truly which refpect the axis;
thirdly, that the errors of the convex furface will be aug-
mented by the diftance through which they pafs before they
reach the eye ; fourthly, that the errors of the convex furface
will be increafed by the deflection or bending of the figure
from the points where the incident rays ought to fall :
fifthly, that on this account the figure is required to be more
perfect than art can make it; fixthly, that the errors of the
large metal, which is confidered to be fpherical, will be fo
augmented by reflection from the {mall convex metal, that in-
diftinétnefs will enfue, fuch as will not allow either a great
aperture, or a high charge ; and laftly, thatas the {mall metal
contributes to increafe the power, an over-charge of power,
compared with the aperture and focal length of the large
fpeculum, will be unavoidable, fo as to produce very ob-
{cure and confufed vifion; for if the {mall metal be made
with a larger radius, in order to diminifh the power, too
many of the incident rays will be intercepted; and if the
charge of the eye-glafs is diminifhed, the area of the field of
view will be fo far diminifhed, as to render a {mall objeé
only vifible, and that difficult to find. Thefe might be ob-
jeCtions a century and a half ago; but moft of them have
yielded to fubfequent improvements in the nice art of cafling,
grinding, and polifhing of {pecula, which we explained under
the word SpecuLuM, and in the formation and arrangement
of the Huygenian eye-piece, which we have faid is pecu-
liarly fuited to refleGting telefcopes ; though fingle lenfes
will do very well when the {peétator confines the axis of his
eye to coincide with the axis of the lens, fo as not to pro-
duce diftorfion in the figure of the image viewed. It may
be proper to mention further here, that the fmall telefcope
called the finder, attached to telefcopes of confiderable
power, was firft propofed by fir [aac Newton, to remedy
the difficulty of finding the objeét with his refleGting tele-
f{cope; and Defcartes hath defcribed it in his ** Dioptrics”’ as.
anf{wering the fame purpofe when appliedto his beft telefcopes.
Indeed sbjections well founded and rationally ftated have led
to various improvements in the mechanical arts, and are never
to be difregarded, unlefs they are obvioufly futile. Had fir
Ifaac Newton lived to have a peep at the inftrument which
next claims our attention, he would no doubt have been
highly gratified at the progrefs which the art of conftru@tin
telefcopes has made fince his fix-inch refleGor, with its ball
and focket, was mounted over a candle-ftick, or a fmall
pillar greatly refembling this domeftic utenfil! And yet, to
do juftice to his inventive genius, if we may apply figurative
language to fuch a fubjeét, the feeds of all the fruit that has
fince been matured were contained in his primitive little ker-
nel; and we are proud to claim the Newtomian as the Eng-
lifh produgtion.

“ Though laft not leaft,”? the Herfchelian telefcope now
offers itfelf to our confideration, which we might with fome
propriety call the German telefcope, inafmuch as the cele-
brated contriver of its ftupendous mechanifm is a native
of Hanover: it was however conftruéted in England, and
by Englifh workmen, except fo far as the ingenious
knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic order lent his

m powerful

TELESCOPE.

powerful affiftance, partly in the execution, but chiefly in
the contrivance of the mechanical appendages. _The work
was immenfe, but royal means furnifhed the power that
overcame every obftacle. In magnitude, as in power, the
forty-feet reflector at Slough exceeds every inftrument that
human induftry has yet put together, and ftands as a proof
of great mechanical {kill directed by an enterprifing mind.
We truft that we cannot be underftood to derogate from the
merit of Dr. (now fir William) Herfchel, when we ftate that
the idea of giving a fmall degree of obliquity to the large
fpeculum of a reflecting telefcope, fo as to bring the image
formed in the focal point out of the body of the tube,
at its aperture, originated with Le Maire (fee Ma-
chines Approuvées, par l’Acad. vi. Pp. 61.) about the year
1728; for as we know not that this fuggeftion ever met the
eye of this illuftrious aftronomer and mechanic, previoufly to
his undertaking the Herculean labour of conftructing a tele-
fcope with a {peculum of forty feet focal diftance, and four
feet diameter, it would be unfair not to allow him the credit
of the inyention as well as of the conftru€tion. We men-
tion the name of Maire in compliance with our fyftem of
tracing, or attempting to trace, from hiftorical evidence, the
origin of each mechanical invention that has contributed,
immediately or remotely, to the promotion of the mechanic
arts. ‘The theory of this con{truétion is eafily explicable,
by a reference to fig. 5. of our plate of the Theory of Refled-
ing Telejeopes, in which, as before, A BC D is the tube,
and BD the large fpeculum of the immenfe weight of
2118 lbs.; the incident rays a 5 andc d, which would have
come back to a focus at the point c, in the centre of the
aperture, if the axis of the fpeculum had coincided with
the axis of the tube; in confequence of a fmall inclination
of the {peculum, given by fcrews behind, come to a focus
near A, at the edge of the tube, where the image of
the objeé is formed by. only one el which is the
leading feature of the conftruétion. This fimplicity of prin-
‘ciple is very convenient when a large aperture is wanted,
becaufe the head of the obferver may be placed entirely
at one edge of the tube, fo as not to intercept any of the
rays at the time of making an obfervation; but as the eye
looks down the tube in every ftate of elevation, not only
mult the back be turned to the object viewed, but the ob-
ferver muft be mounted nearly as high as the fuperior end of
the tube, in order to make his obfervations: hence various
pullies, ladders, feaffolds, &c. became neceffary to enable the
obferver to adjuft both the inftrument, and at the fame time
his own pofition, all which will be beft underftood from the
drawing, when we come to explain the particulars of the
confirudion hereafter. The power of the Herfchelian, as
that of the Newtonian telefcope, is obtained from the ratio
between the focus of the fpeculum and the focus of the eye-
glafs, which in this inftrument is not very fhort, though
the image is formed by fimple reflection. The mode of va-
rying the power is the fame,-therefore, as in the Newtonian
refleGtor, and requires no further explanation.

4. The Conftruétion of Tele fakery we have now ae both
the hifory and theory of telefcqpes at confiderable length, we
fhall not be under the neceflity of dwelling long on each of
the feveral con{trutions ; particularly as a reference to the
drawings which we have given, and which are mottly original,
will exhibit to the eye more precife information on this part
of our article, than any the minuteft detail would do, unac-
companied by fuch vifible reprefentations. Now that the
long aerial telefcopes are no longer in ufe, we fhall not fill
our pages by defcribing the different kinds of mechanifm
that were applied for rendering them ufeful in obfervations,

6

by Huygens, Perrault, Sebaftian, Mairan, and others; mofk
of which are defcribed in vols. i. vy. and vi. of the * Ma-
chines Approuvées par l?Academie, &c.’? to which we
beg leave to refer the curious reader who wifhes to knew the
particulars. All the fupports for long telefcopes had necef»
farily one property, which is defirable alfo in ftands that are
made for modern telefcopes, but which is frequently ne-
leéted ; and that is, that the objeét-end of the telefcope was
fleadily {upported by fome point of reft near the remote ex-
tremity, where the rays were incident. Indeed various
{tands or mountings, as they are fometimes called, have been
contrived for the convenient fupport of a telefeope, when it
is too heavy for the pocket, and incapable of fliding by con-
centric tubes into a portable form; but in every ufeful
ftand the following properties ought to combine: firft, the
initrument held by it fhould be kept firmly in its place, if of
the refracting fort, fo that the image may have no vibratery
motion unfavourable to diftin&t vifion, occafioned by an
unfteady pofition of the objeét-glafs ; but if it be of the re-
fle&ting kind, then it fhould be fo fufpended, that tremulous
motions arifing from compactnefs of the materials, fuch as
eafily tranfmit vibratory impulfes, may be avoided: fecond-
ly, a motion in azimuth, and another in altitude, are indif-
penfable ; and if the inftrument be bulky, or have great
power, in each of thefe refpects there fhould be both a
quick and a flow motion, the former to fave time, and the
latter for the fake of accuracy: thirdly, when the inftru-
ment is pointed to the required object, it fhould not be
liable to be eafily moved by any accidental touch of the ob-~
ferver’s hand or body ; unlefs it is managed in a ftate of fuf-
penfion, as is the cafe with the larger reflectors: fourthly,
the parts of the ftand fhould be ftrong enough to bear the
fuperincumbent weight, and not liable to get out of repair ;
and fifthly, its pofition fhould be in a fituation not eafily
fhaken, or moved by the obferver’s weight, or that of a by-
ftander. When thefe properties are attended to, the exact
fhape and external appearance become matters of fecondary
confideration, and each artift may purfue his own {chemes in
the conftrution ; but in this, as in feveral other depart-
ments of the mechanical arts, that work is beft and quickeft
performed, which is done from approved patterns.

Refrading.—We will firft defcribe the refraéting tele-
{copes reprefented in Plate XXIX., and hall then proceed
to the reflecting inftruments contained in Plates XXX. and
XXXI. of dfronomical Infiruments, omitting thofe portable
inftruments that are in the hands of every reader, fuch as
opera-glaffes, &c. and that belong more properly to the
head of Oprics.

One of the beft ftands for a thirty-inch refra&tor, by which
we always mean an achromatic refra€tor, is that exhibited in
Plate XXIX. fig. 1.; in which A B ie a tube of brafs,
mounted on the tripod ftand of the fame metal C D, and
fixed by means of the ferews Q and R. In the common
conftruétion, the horizontal motion is at'C, at the top of the
ftem or cylinder, and the fy{tem of tubes F, E, P, is not ap-
plied, fo that there is neither the flow adjuftable motions,
nor is the inftrument fteady in any given pofition ; but here
the horizontal motion is at D, at the lower extremity of the
cylinder, where there is a long bearing for the pivot, with a
tightening {crew underneath the junction of the feet, and a
clamp S to fix the inftrument in any given dire@tion. Alfo
the handle in fig. 5, with a Hooke’s joint, taking the {quared
axis of the {crew at D, gives the flow motion in azimuth,
while the fliding and adjuitable tubes F, E, P, keep the angle
of elevation unaltered. Thefe tubes turn ona joint at P ; and
when a due elevation is given by the quick motion, ocea-

fioned

TELESCOPE.

fioned by the freedom of fliding, one within another, a
clamping {crew at E fixes them, and the flow motion pro-
duced by the fcrew F, finifhes the obfervation in altitude, as
the handle in fig. 5. does’ in azimuth; and both flow mo-
tions can be managed, one with each hand, at the fame time.
In the prefent reprefentation, the celeftial eye-piece H is
{crewed into its {mall tube, which bears a concealed rack,
that is aéted on by a pinion on the axis of the thumb-piece
G, which may be made more or lefs tight by a {crew in the
middle of its plane, and which adjuits the eye-pieces for dif-
tinct vifion. ‘There may be any number of yarious celeftial
eye-pieces, but two or three are as many as are ufually de-
livered with an inftrument of this fize. The objett-glafs
{crews into the mouth-of the tube at B, and is fo fixed by
trial, that the moft diftin view of an object is had when the
{crew is carried home, in which fituation the receiving focket
is fixed by the maker; fo that unfcrewing the object-glafs
at any time does not injure the initrument. The centre of
motion in altitude is at a joint above C, and the fteadinefs of
the tube A B will depend on the diftance of this joint from
the fyftem of concentric tubes F, E, P, which may be more
conveniently placed towards the eye-end than towards the
objeét-end of the main tube, and with equal effet. When
the cylindrical piece beyond the joint of the loweft tube at P,
is withdrawn from its hole in a cock, attached to the vertical
cylinder, the tubes will pack into one another, and the cylin-
drical end-piece will enter the hole of the cock T, under the
main tube, and remain out of the way of injury, parallel to
this tube. The tube IK, in fig. 2, fcrews at the end I,
into the fame place that the celeftial eye-piece H now occu-
pies, and is called the terreftrial tube, or terrettrial eye-
piece, becaufe objects are feen in their dire& pofition through
it, which through the celeftial eye-piece are feen inverted.
Near the end I, a pair of glaffes, called the feld-glaffes, are
{crewed, and the end K contains the pair of glafles which is
denominated the eye-piece. We have already fhewn that
thefe two pairs of glaffes con{titute an achromatic eye-piece, at
the fame time that they ereét the inverted image formed by
the objeét-glafs in the {mall tube between H and A; and
when this image is confidered as a real objeé, then the ter-
reftrial tube is a compound microfcope of the beft conftruc-
tion. This mode of defcribing the arrangement of glaffes, it
is prefumed, will be more eafily underftood by thafe readers
who underftand the conftruction of a compound microfcope,
than any other explanation that can be given. The tube L,
in fig. 3, is an open tube, which is fometimes made, by par-
ticular defire, to receive at its end L the eye-piece, now
{crewed into the tube I Kat K; and then, as the empty tube L
flides in the tube I K, the diftance between the pair of field-
glafles and pair of eye-glaffes may be varied at pleafure ; and
as the magnifying power of the compound microfcope varies
directly with this diftance, it is evident that the power of
the telefcope thus conftruéted will vary in like manner.
But we have fhewn above, that the power of the telefcope
may be varied alfo by varying either the pair of field-
glaffes, or the pair of eye-glaffes ; hence, when a great variety
of powers is defired for the fame inftrument, different pairs
of field and of eye-glaffes may be adapted to the {ame ter-
teftrial tube with very little additional expence ; and in fig. 4.
we have given three different pieces of fhort tube, containing
male or female fcrews, or both, which are called adapters,
by means of which the celeftial eye-pieces may be adapted
as eye-pieces to the terreftrial tube, fo as to gain a great
increafe of power for particular purpofes. When the
adapter M, in fiz. 4, which has both a male and female fcrew,
is {crewed into the end K, of the terreftrial tube in fig. 2, the
celettial piece H, fig. 1, may be fubftituted for the pair of

eye-glafles belonging to this long tube, whenever occafion
may require; or the pair of terreftrial eye-glaffes may be
made a’celeftial pair, on occafions when a low power and
erflarged field are wanted. The adapter O, in Jig- 4, has
two diffimilar fémale f{crews, the fmaller one of which
ferews upon the long tube at the end I, while the larger end
receives the outer end of the celeftial eye-piece H, in fig. I,
and converts it into a pair of field-glaffes, for which it may
be fubftituted, to get the greateft poffible power, witha high
magnifier alfo at the end K, or rather at L, with the fliding
eye-tube ; and in this way the power may be increafed fo
much, that all light will difappear, and the inftrument, con

fequently, will then become ufelefs: but it is better to have
additional pairs of proper field-glaffes, than to fubftitute
eye-glaffes tor this purpofe, becaufe the arrangement of the
focal diftances of the field-claffes is different from that of the
eye-glafles, when they are arranged in the beft manner, as we
have explained under our laft feGtion. The adapter N has
two male fcrews and a female {crew, one of which male {crews
will fit the tube at H, fig. 1, a¥id the other the tube at K, fig. 2,
or L, fig. 3, and the female fcrew will receive Troughton’s
micrometer in either place, or any eye-piece having a mother-
of-pearl micrometer, even though it may belong to another
telefcope. Thus the-adapters, which are fimple in their con-
ftruction, of little expence, and very portable, afford a
variety in the ufe of a telefcope, that is at the fame time
both ufeful and entertaining ; and we have been the more
minute in our defcription aE them, becaufe they have never
before been brought into public notice. The powers of this
telefcope ufually vary from 25 to 100 without the adapters,
as they are made by opticians; and opticians are no advo-
cates for adapters that increafe the powers too much; but
for certain purpofes the power may be augmented to about
120 with diftin€tnefs and tolerable light; but then it muft
be recolleGted, that the field of view will admit of only a
fmall object, as well as little light, when the power is aug-
mented out of due proportion.

Fig. 6. is a reprefentation of a five-feet achromatic refrac-
tor, mounted in the moft ufeful and convenient manner for
making either celeftial or terreftrial obfervations, and has all
the appendages which we have juft defcribed as belonging
to the thirty-inch refra€tor, when made in the beft manner.
AB, as before, denote the main tube, which has a dia-
meter of 44 inches ; and inftead of one fet of fliding con-
centric tubes, here are two, inferted into the cocks P.and P,
of a three-legged ftand of mahogany, of which two legs
only are feen in the figure, and thefe fhortened, fo as to fall
within the room allotted them in the plate. The conftruc-
tion of this ftand has been defcribed under the article
EaquaroriaL Stand, with a reference to fig. 5. Plate XIII.
of our prefent feries of plates; therefore we fhall fatisfy
ourfelves with fuch a fhort defcription of the conftituent
parts here, as will fimply enable the reader to underftand
their ufes. The milled nuts Q and R, attach the main
tube A B to the wooden ftand; and the tubes A P and A P
keep it fteady from vibratory motion: the femi-circle of
brafs between Q and R, moveable about its centre, is racked
at the concave part of its circumference, fo as to fit the
{crew on the axis of the handle U, which we have made
fhort, to avoid’confufion in the figure ; therefore, when the
{crew is preffed clofe into the notches of the rack-work, a
revolution of the handle U, in either direétion, will produce
a correfpondimg motion, in eleyation or depreffion, in the
telefcope borne by this femi-circle, while the yernier and
divifions on the face of the femi-circle indicate the quantity
of elevation, when zero is properly adjufted. The manner
in which this mechanifm aéts, and alfo the method of

Mm z producing

TELESCOPE.

oducing horizontal motion, will be beit underftood
se an examination of fig. 7, in which the parts are en-
larged, and in which the fame letters denote the fame
things. The thumb-fcrew V, concealed in fg. 6, when
turned round, prefles on the fixed metal under it, and
draws up the frame Y, of which one fidé is feen, that holds
the axis of the ferew U, and that turns on two pivots at its
remote end X ; and in this manner the fcrew is brought into
conta with the notches of the racked femi-circle, or is de-
tached from it by a contrary motion. In the former cafe
there is a flow motion in altitude, and in the latter 2 quick
one. Again, the axis S, of another horizontal and parallel
fcrew, receives the handle, like Sig: 5, for giving the motion
in azimuth. This {crew is alfo preffed into contaét with a
horizontal racked wheel, that lies fixed between S and W,
and gives the flow motion. The fcrew of preffure is feen
above S, and when the axis of thé handle has its ferew de-
tached from theracked circle, the telefcopeis at liberty to have
a quick motionin azimuth. The chamfered plate, on which
the racked circle refts, is graduated, and the vernier at W
reads the hours and minutes of time: but in order that this
circle may be parallel to the equator in the heavens, fo as to
indicate time truly, it is neceffary to turn the upper half, C,
of the block half round, and to turn the whole ftand fo
that the plane of the graduated circle may be parallel to
the plane of the equator, which it will be when the upper
point of the axis of motion is direéted exa@tly to the north
pole, in which fituation the hour-circles will coincide with
the horary circles of the heavens, or muft be made fo by
an adjuftment, which the graduated circle is capable of re-
ceiving, by means of an elongated hole, into which the ferew
enters that fixes it to the block. This block, we have faid
before, is called Smeaton’s block, and anfwers the purpofe
of giving an equatorial motion to the Sere a when fol-
lowing a heavenly body by night, and is ufeful for finding
one by day, from a knowledge of its right afcenfion and
declination ; for what was altitude in the horizontal pofi-
tion, becomes declination in the equatorial elevation. ‘This
telefcope is one of the four of which we propofe to ex-
emplify the ufes in conjunétion with Troughton’s micro-
meter ; and therefore we have had the micrometer put into
its place at K, when the terreftrial tube I K is ufed; but
it might have been at H in place of the celeftial eye-piece,
where the value of the revolutions of the micrometer fcrew
would -have been as we have tabulated it in-our laft fe€tion.
The two terreftrial eye-pieces in fg. 8, and one not given
there, are made to fcrew into the terreftrial tube at K,
in addition to all the four celeftial eye-pieces, which have
an adapter to fit them to the fame place Riccetiively ; which
variety affords the choice of feyen terreftrial powers with
one pair of field-glaffes ; and as there are three pairs of field-
aioe the variety becomes 3 x 7 = 21 different powers
with a fixed eye-tube ; but as the eye-tube alfo flides, the
powers may be varied in {mall quantities at pleafure between
the two extremes. In this inftrument, the end I of the ter-
reftrial tube does not {crew into the celeftial tube that bears
the rack, but into an intermediate fliding-tube, which is
here marked H, the’ ufe of which is to allow an adjuit-
ment for vifion at very fhort diftances, which adjuftment re-
quires a great length of tube to be drawn out. For the
conftruétion of ‘Trou hton’s and other micrometers, we
mutt refer to our article MickomeTer.

‘The {crew G of adjuftment for diftin& vifion, is concealed
in our drawing by the finder or {mall telefcope attached, over
A, to the main tube, the ufe of which is to bring the ob-
je&t readily into the field of view of the large taleScorie 3
which is not an eafy matter, when the power is great ; for

as the field of view increafes with a diminution of the power
of the telefcope, and vice verfa, the {mall telefcope faves much
time in fearching for any object that is vifible init. But
the micrometer would be of little ufe in the night for mea-
furing fmall angles, except when the moon is the objeé,
unlefs fome mode of illuminating the wires, or fpider’s
lines, ufed in making the meafurement could be adopted.
Formerly this object was effected by a piece of brafs, faced
with card paper, attached to the object-end of the telefcope,
as in fig- 15, and turning ona pivot, A, to any angle of in-
clination or reclination that the pofition of a lamp, or
candle, might require, of which the light was to be re-
flected into the tube; and an oval hole, in the middle of
the refleting plate, admitted the incident rays coming from
the objeé&t to be viewed: this plan, however, is attended b

the inconvenience, that either the lamp muft be fufpended
by the objeét-end of the telefcope, fo as to rife and fall
with it, or otherwife the angle of inclination or reclination
of the reflecting piece muft be altered in every new pofition.
The firft perfon who, we believe, laid afide this apparatus,
and introduced a diagonal reflector into the body of the
tube, was the Rev. Dr. Usher of Dublin, who brought
the light within the axis of motion of his tranfit telefcope,
as is now commonly done ; which method has the advantage
of giving light in the fame manner at all elevations, while the
ples where the lamp is placed, never varies. (See the

ranfactions of the Royal Irifh Academy, 1788, vol. ii.
p- 13.) This method, however, was not confidered as appli-
cable to an ordinary telefcope, where the axis of motion is
below the tube ; but Mr. Troughton has very lately applied
this principle with fuccefs in the telefcope before us, and in
others of the fame conftru€tion. At Z, over the centre of
motion, a hole is made in the tube, of about one half the
diameter of the tube, into which a covering cap of brafs
fcrews, when.extraneous light is not wanted ; then an ellip-
tical plate of brafs, rough gilt, with an elliptical hole in
the middle, is reclined in an angle of 45°, within the main
tube, in fuch a way as to receive the lateral light of a lamp
or candle, which it reflects along the tube to the eye-piece
of the micrometer ; and the light thus refleéted is not only
mild and pleafant to the eye, but may be modified, as to
quantity, by the pofition of the lamp, and will remain the
fame in all altitudes, if the lamp be in the fame horizontal
line with the reflector, and ftand at a proper angle with the
plane of the refleGtor. In ufing the telefcope before us,
we found that fome of the rays falling on the extreme parts
ofthe obje&-glafs were loft in the tube, and that confe-
quently either the diaphragm was too fmall, or that the
oval aperture of the inclined refleftor was not fufficiently
large ; but the diftinGnefs of the image is no doubt pro-
moted by fuch exclufion: and, indeed, it is the practice of
fome opticians, when«they find the longitudinal aberration
arifing from the fpherical figure of the convex glafs not
well compenfated by the concave one, to fhut out the’ex-
treme rays on purpofe, by the tile of a fmall diaphragm,
for which affertion we have Mr. Dollond’s authority. “In
the inftance before us, we have afcertained by a dynameter,
that the reduétion of the aperture is in the ratio 30: 25.6,
namely, from 4.5 to 3.84 inches: but our intention is to
have the original aperture reftored. ;

When a refracting telefcope exceeds five or fix feet in
length, it requires to be fupported at both ends, and then
the nearer fupport muft have adjuftments for both altitude
and azimuth, while the remote one may be a point of reft.
Fig. 8. Plate XXX. thews a fupport for the eye-end of a
long telefcope, which we believe was contrived by Smeaton,
and which anfwers its purpofe fufficiently; A BC Disa

mahogany

Sg ME y

TELESCOPE.

mahogany light frame, four feet fix inches high ; the crofs-
piece, A B, is fifteen inches long, and the piece C D feven-
teen, at the diftance of eighteen from the other ; another
frame, E F GH, with parallel fides, nine inches apart, and
more flender than the other frame, paffes through the erofs-
bars of the former, in fuch way, as to have an eafy motion ;
a cylinder or rod of brafs is ferewed by its head-piece to the
crofs-bar E F, and defcends from M to N, through a wooden
{crew L O, which is hollow within, and cut into a ferew
round its circumference: this wooden ferew terminates
above with a brafs focket and thumb-fcrew, which a¢ts as a
{crew of preffure againft the interior’ brafs rod: the thick
wooden piece L has a female fcrew, ating with the male
{crew of the hollow wooden tylinder L O, but is fo made
faft to the crofs-bar A B, by a circular plate of brafs
above, that though it will turn round, it will neither afcend
nor defcend ; confequently will produce an afcending or de-
{cending motion in the wooden cylindrical piece LO, and
alfo in the brafs rod M N, held by the ferew K, attached to
it. The concave piece of brafs I has two motions in its
item, one horizontal, and the other vertical, like thofe in
the ftem of a {mall telefcope, and receives the eye-end of a
long telefcope, to which it is ferewed, while the remote end
is fupported by the branch of a tree, the block of a pulley,
an opening in the roof of a houfe, or other elevated part of
a building. The adjuitments are thus managed ; when the
elevated end of the telefcope is made to reft on its bearer,
the eye-end adapts itfelf to the inclination by the joint in its
ftem under I ; then the whole frame is turned to face the ob-
jeét, when the circular motion of the fame {mall ftem yields,
and allows the long tube to remain quiet ; and if the tube is
not exa€tly pointed in azimuth to the object, the brafs piece
P, into which the ftem I is made faft, flides along a groove
made in the front face of the crofs-bar E F, until the adjuft-
ment for azimuth is complete. This fliding motion, being
manual, may be either quick or flow, as the obferver de-
fires; therefore, when.a body in motion is once in the field of
view, it may be followed without difficulty, by pufhing the
fliding-piece P in a proper direétion. ‘The quick and flow
motions for adjuftment in altitude are feparate, and are thus
produced; firft the thumb-fcrew K is turned back, fo as to let
the rod M N afcend freely, till the altitude is nearly right, when
it is fixed, and then the piece L is turned, backward or for-
ward, as the cafe may require, with the right hand, while the
Jeft flowly flides the piece P, until the objeét is in the middle of
the field; and when diftin& vifion has been properly obtamed
by the fmall tube at the eye-piece of the telefcope, the pieces
L and P, held refpetively in each hand, will always afford
the means of keeping the obje&t in the proper part of the
field; and though the fupport has but two legs, yet its con-
neGtion with the fupport at the object-end, through the
heavy tube of the telefcope, will always keep it in its place
when the adjuftments are fettled. It will not be neceffary to
defcribe any more ftands, of whicha great variety might be
produced, that have been devifed for refrating belitab pt:
becaufe we prefume that our readers will be able, after
what we have faid on this fubje€, to felect fuch as may beft
fuit their refpeGtive purpofes. ~
We come now to defcribe the portable patent achromatic
telefeope, without a ftand, that was invented by Dr. Brew-
fter, and is fold under the patent by Mr. Harris, optician,
in Holborn, London. The conftruétion of this telefcope, of
which we have already explained the theory, is two-fold,
and may be explained by jigs. 4. and 5. PlateXXX. In
Jig. 4. the tubes are fuppofed to be tranfparent, or otherwife
fo divided, that the interior parts may be feen in their re-
fpeétive fituations ; A B C D is the outermoft tube, of ma-

hogany, with brafs ends, containing an achromatic object-
glafs, AB, at its exteriorend; E F G His the next tube
of brafs, fliding {moothly into the mahogany one, without
lateral fhake, and may be called the fecond tube: into this
tube the third tube I K fcrews ; and in its turn receives the
fourth, or terreftrial eye-tube LO, containing the pair of
field-glaffes L M, and pair of eye-glafles NO; all which
tubes flide into the fpace of twelve inches, (including the
cap,) to fit the pocket. The principal object-glafs, A B, is
an inch and feven-eighths in diameter, and has a folar focus
of 18.5 inches ; and if there were no other glaffes but the
four contained in the terreftrial, or fourth tube, this would
be nothing more than an ordinary portable or pocket achro-
matic telefeope: but at I, in the fecond tube, is {crewed a
fecond objet-glafs of the achromatic fort, the diameter of
which is one inch and three-eighths, and its folar focus
14 inches. When the fecond tube, E F G H, is puthed into
the wooden tube A B C D, the fecond objeét-glafs, I, ap-
proaches the principal objeét-glafs A B; and when the third
tube, IK, is alfo pufhed in, the two objeét-glafles come
nearly in contaét at the end A B of the telefcope : in this
fituation, the compound focus of the two object-glaffes, by
the theorem Bes, is about eight inches, which is the
Pay
fhorteft poffible ; and in this {tate of the tubes, when the eye-
glaffes are adjufted for diftin& vifion, the power is the
{malleft poffible ; but when all the tubes are drawn out, the
diftance between the obje€t-glafles, and confequently the
power, will be the greateit poflible, becaufe the converging
rays coming from the principal objeét-glafs A B, will have
paffed through one half of the tubes before they fall on the
fecond object-glafs, and undergo a fecond refraction, fo as
to come to a fhortened focus. In every intermediate pofi-
tion of the object-glafs I, the power of the telefcope, that
is, the compound focus of the two objeét-glaffes, will be de-
termined according to their intermediate diftance, by the
Le Seah

1 Paes
fecond object-glafs I, the telefcope will have a new power,
and thefe powers might be marked by a feale running length-
wife along the fecond and third tubes which feparate the two
objeét-glaffes ; but the inventor has made another ufe of this
property, by converting it into an ofitcal micrometer: he has
fixed two parallel wires in the focus of the eye-piece, and alfo
two points of metal, to include a larger angle, in a direction at
right angles to the former ; fo that when one pair includes a
horizontal angle, the other will include a vertical one; an
experiment is then made by actual meafurement, of a diyided
feale, placed at a meafured diftance, to afcertain what is the
angle meafured by the points in the eye-piece, when the ob-
ject is feen between the parallel wires in each of the extreme
pofitions of the fecond objeét-glafs I, and ftrokes are
marked accordingly, as the boundaries of the intended feale,
the end of the next contiguous tube being the index ; thus in
the inftrument before us, the extreme points or itrokes of the
feale a b, in fig. 5, meafure 110! and 218! refpeétively, at
an interval of 154 inches; and as it has been determined,
both from theory and practice, (fee Dr. Brewtter’s Trea-
tife on New Philofophical Inftruments,) that the feale of
meafures is a feale of equal parts, thefe 154 inches are di-
vided into 108 (218.— 110) minute f{paces, while each
minute fpace is bifeéted into {paces of 30", which might
again be bifeéted by the eye, if the adjuftment for vifon
could be made fo nicely as to admit of fuch eftimation.
Hence it is eafy to conceive how this telefcope will meafure
any angle fubtended bya diftant obje&t of unknown om

ions,

theorem Thus in every new pofition of the

TELESCOPE.

fiens, between 110! and 218', within the accuracy of 30":
it is alfo eafy to conceive, that, the angle increafing as we
approach an objet, the fame obje&t may be made to fill the
field between the meafuring points in a new ftation, provided
the diftance between the two objeét-glafles be fo altered, by
trial and adjuftments, that the exa@t power is found fuch as
will command this condition, and the new angle at the fecond
ftation will be indicated, as the old one was at the firft;
and when the diftanee between the flations is meafured
in aright line leading directly to or from the object, the dif-
ference of the angles will afford data for determining the
diftance of the objeét from either ftation. For example,
{uppofing the tangents of {mall angles to be equal to the
angles 2 sai es which they are very nearly, let us call
the greater angle m, the {maller angle », and the diftance be-
tween the ftations a; then, as the diftances of the object
from each ftation will always be inverfely as the meafured
angles, we have n : m (of the angles) for the ratio of the dif-
tances, and the real difference of the fame diftances by mea-
{urement of the interval ; therefore, by one of the fimpleit

theorems in algebra, we have = the greater diitance,

an

and

= the fmaller diftance: thus, if we fuppofe the
m—n

firft, or fmaller angle = 46’, and the fecond, or nearer = 68’,
120 x 68! _

68! —

with the interval 120 feet, we fhall have AG ie

8106 120 x 46! _ 5520
22 68! — 48! G22
= 250.9 for the fmaller, and the difference, as before, 120.
But it will be feen ina fubfequent feGtion of our article, that
to determine diftances from {mall angles with great accuracy,
the value of a fingle fecond ought not to, be negleéted ; and
that a correétion for want of parallelifm, at fhort diftances, is
neceffary for obtaining the frue angle, whenever that is wanted.
The author, however, has fhewn, that the correétion in quef-
tion will vary nearly with the varying length of the tele-
{cope, and will not affect the ratio of the angles meafured,
on which the refpeétive diftances depend ; but this coinci-
dence of the correétion with the length or power of the
telefcope, does not obviate our objeétions where real mea-
fures of angles are required, and where extreme accuracy is
neceflary for the fuccefs of the operation. But we have faid
the conftruétion is twofold: it isextremely difficult, if at all
poflible, to hold the telefcope fo fteady without a ftand, that
the angle, contained between the two fixed points in the
focus of the piece, can be meafured with precifion ; and this
difficulty probably led to the fubftitution of the divided
objeét-glais, feen in (J 6, and edgewife in fig. 7, for the
fecond objeét-glafs 1, which we have defcribed. If this
divided objeét-glafs, {crewed into the fecond tube at I, had
precifely the focal diftance as the entire one, and had the
centres of the femi-lenfes brought exaétly into contaét, the
fame fcale and the fame mode of taking the meafure of an
angle, would apply with it as with the one we before deno-
minated I; likewife the points in the eye-piece would be
neceffary. But to do away the ufe of fuch points, and to
render the inftrument equally ufeful without as with a ftand,
the fecond obje&-glafs that we have now to defcribe, as con-
ftituting the fecshd conftruction of the telefcope, was divided
in the centre diametrically, and had its centres removed from
each other, fo that each femi-lens forms a feparate image of
the objeé&t viewed. In this conftruction, two points may be
fixed on in any object, and when the tubes are fo drawn out,
that point a in one image coincides with point Jin the other,

= 370.9 for the greater diftance,

as in Dollond’s obje@t-glafs micrometer, then the angle fub-
tended by a line conneéting the points a and 4 will be indi«
cated on the fecond feale, or fealecd, in fig.5. This fcale
in our inftrument begins with 11', and ends with 75/; fo
that the length of 154 inches, being divided into 64 (75 —
11) {paces, admits of thefe minute {paces being fubdivided
into three of 20" each; and if the adjuftment for diftiné&
vifion would allow thefe to be bifeGted by eftimation, the
{malleft quantity to be meafured would be ro! on this feale,
which is indeed as {mall a quantity as the power of the tele
{cope-is capable of diftinguifhing ; and therefore a longer
{cale would have been of no greater ufe. The peculiar ad-
vantage of this conftruétion is, that, as in Hadley’s fextant,
a motion in the inftrument does not injure the accuracy of the
obfervation, or impede the operation of taking it, but
affords the opportunity of re-examining the exaétnefs of
the apparent conta. Hence the ufe of this inftrument
affords a pleafing exercife, and the neceflity of a {tand is en-
tirely obviated. We have the authority of Tulley, the only
maker, to fay, that his grace the duke of Wellington had
one of thefe telefcopes, with filver tubes, prefented to him by
a friend, and there is reafon to infer, that his ufing it as a
coming-up glafs gave him the advantage of afcertaining, better
than any of his ftaff, in what direction the enemy was
moving on certain critical occafions. For when it is afcer-
tained by obfervation, whether the angle fubtended by a
man in motion is increafing or diminifhing, it is eafy to
infer whether the man is approaching or receding, though
the exact meafure of the angle be difregarded. nd at fea
it is equally eafy to afcertain whether a fhip is gaining or
lofing ground in achafe, when two points in a maft can be
diftinguifhed. When this patent telefcope has the divided
objeét-glafs as the fliding one, the two images appear exactly
fimilar to thofe in Dollond’s divided objeét-glafs micrometer,
but the range of feale is much greater: if Dollond’s has
any advantage over this, it is, that the power of his telefcope
is ufually greater, and that the meafures taken at different
{tations do not depend on two adjuftments of the tubes longi-
tudinally, though it is neceffary always to have diftinét
vifion, when the edges of the images are brought into con-
taét. We confider that neither of the conitru€tions of the
patent telefcope, on its prefent fcale, is competent to the
meafurement of diftances from one ftation with fufficient
accuracy ; neither has it a range of {eale fufficient to make
it generally ufeful for all angles. The writer of this article
has had the divided objeét-glafs made to have their centres
adjuftable to different diftances from each other, fo as to be
capable of meafuring all {mall angles from 1! up to 75/, and
to be eftimated by the fame fcale in the different pofitions,
the value of the firft and laft pofitions of the tubes being
determined experimentally for each pofition of the femi
lenfes, and the marks for the pofitions being fo made, that
when the fcale runs out in the firft pofition of the femi-lenfes,
the fame value fhall begin the feale at their next pofition 5
and thus a fucceffion of minutes is continued from unity to
the extreme end of the {cale at the lait pofition of the glafles 5
confequently one fuch inftrument is capable of doing as much
as feveral inftraments with different pairs of {emi-lenfes.
can do, when put ina fixed pofition according to the pa-
tent. But after all, the initial and final values of a feale of
a given length mufl depend on the difference of the focal
lengths of the principal and fliding object-glaffes ; and, there-
fore, to obferve the nice variations in the pe oe of the fun
or moon, it would be defirable, that the whole fcale fhould
meafure only about 5/, viz. from 28/ to 33'; and then, if
the telefcope had power enough, the fabdiiGoms of the
fcale might afcend by fingle feconds. Indeed it is bein
defi.

TELESCOPE.

defideratum in aftronomical inftruments to obtain an unobjec-
tionable, and at the fame time an eafy method of meafuring,
by a micrometricai telefcope, the diftance between two very
{mall ftars, fo near to each other as te be éalled double ttars; for
when fo much extraneous /ight is admitted into the telefcope
as to fhew the {pider’s lines, or feales of a mechanical micro-
meter, the minute ftars. vanifh ; and, when optical micro-
meters with double images are ufed, the light is fo divided
between the images, that the ftar alfo vanifhes, in this cafe,
from evant of light. Dr. Mafkelyne’s prifmatic micrometer
is, perhaps, lefe liable to this objection than any other, but
is not yet brought into common ufe.

Before we difmifs this part of our article, we beg leave
to ftate, that about a hundred years ago, De la Hire con-
trived a method of giving different values to a pair of wires
fixed in the focus of the principal objeét-glafs of a telefcope,
by means of another moveable objeét-glafs ; and alfo that
about the year 1771, Mr. James Watt, celebrated for his im-
provements on the {leam-engine, not only contrived the fame
thing, but actually made the meafurement by a longitudinal
feale marked on his tube, nearly as done by Dr. Brewtter.
Mr. Watt’s claim to originality, we believe, is undifputed,
and may.be proved both by his letter on the fubje¢t to Mr.
Smeaton, written near that time, which letter is {till in exift-
ence ; and alfo from the circumftance of his having about
the fame time defcribed his new inftrument to the late Mr,
Ramfden. With thefe prior inventions, however, we are well

afflured Dr. Brewfter was not acquainted at the time of his
taking out a patent, in conjunction with Mr. Harris, the pre-
fent vender of the patent telefcope ; and therefore he-alfo is
entitled to the merit of originality ; and moreover appears to
have the fole right to the idea of converting it into a gene-
ral micrometer, of applying it to the divided objeét-glafs,
and of converting a Gregorian or Caffegrainian Puc cape
into a micrometer, without any additional lens or mirror.
Mr. Watt néver made much ufe of ¢his micrometrical tele-
{cope, the impreflion on his mind being, that the fcale ought
not rigidly to be a feale of equal parts, which Dr. Brewiter
has fince demonftrated to be the cafe, and his line of bufinefs
not leading him to finifh all the adjuftments for real ufe.

This ingenious gentleman had previoufly, viz. in the year
1770, conftruéted amicrometer, witha pair oi parallel horizon-
tal wires, crofled by a fingle wire at right angles, in the prin-
cipal focus of an ordinary telefcope, which acted as a micro-
meter for determining diftances at one ftation thus ; a twelve-
feet rod had a circular dife of wood, eight inches in dia-
meter, painted white, that was croffled by a red horizontal
line of an inch in width, which dife was made to flide along
the rod, while another fimilar dife was fixed falt about a
foot above the ground, when the rod ftood in a vertical
pofition ; then, at any unknown diftance, the fliding difc
was lowered till one wire of the telefcope covered its red
line, while the other wire covered the red line of the fixed
dife ; and then a feale upon the rod, graduated by experi-
mental meafures, indicated the di/lance by infpection to
within ;1, part of the whole. This inftrument was ufed
with a telefcope of only twelve inches focal length, and an
eye-glafs of an inch and a half focus, fo that the magnify-
ing power was only eight times with this inftrument.
The furvey of the intended canals of Crinan, Gilp, and
Tarbert, was made by Mr. Watt in 1772, as well as the
furvey of the canal running from Invernetfs to Fort William,
called the Caledonian canal, in 1773. This contrivance
was fhewn to feveral friends, and amongft them to Mr.
Smeaton, though an account of it has never before been
publifhed. In the year 1778, a Mr. Green applied to the
Society of Arts in the Adelphi for a premium for a fimilar

invention ; on which oceafion, Mr. Smeaton advifed Mr. Watt
to attend at the Society’s rooms, to {tate the priority of his
claim, which was accordingly done; but as Green’s telefcope
had more magnifying power than Mr. Watt’s, viz. 40, and
was fuppofed on that account to be more accurate in de-
termining diftances, the claim of priority was ceded in Green’s
favour, and Mr. Watt’s invention was fuffered to go un-
noticed by the Society.

A double-image micrometer was alfo invented by Mr.
Watt in the year 1771, which, as it has never been defcribed,
we fhall make no apology for introducing here, in company
with his other ingenious inventions. This inftrument con-
fifted of acircular difc of glafs, whofe plane fides were not
ftriétly parallel, but formed with each other an angle of one
or two degrees, fay a wedge or prifm of one
or two degrees. This dife or prifm was cut
by a diamond, at right angles to the flope of A
the prifm, into two unequal fegments thus;

The leffer piece, A, was fixed, while the larger piece, B,
was moveable upon the diamond-cut line, as NeNOG?

upon an axis or hinge, as feen in this plan, in R= :
which the dotted cee fhew one of ne pofi- SS

tions into which B may be moved. When the
two fegments remain in the fame plane, they refra& all the
rays, which pafsthrongh themequally ; but A remaining fixed,
and B moving upona centre, as drawn in dotted lines, the rays
which pafs through B, will be more refrated than thofe
which pafs through A, and this will vary with the angle
which B makes with A. This divided prifm being fixed in
the focus of (or before) the objeét-glafs of a telefcope, two
images are formed of every obje&t by which its diameter may
be meafured. An index and divided feétor of a circle ferve to
meafure the comparative refractions. This inftrument, how-
ever, has the fault, that the divifions are not equal parts for
equal angles, and moreover the prifms would require to be
achromatic, where high magnifying powers are required.

It was not till the year 1777, that the abbé Bofcovich
publifhed an account of the prifmatic micrometer of the abbé
Rochon made of rock-cryftal, with double refraGtion, and
alfo of his own improvement, or fubititution of glafs prifms,
where one of them revolved round an axis of motion like
Mr. Watt’s; nor was it till the fame year that Dr. Maf-
kelyne publifhed his account of a prifmatic micrometer, that
meafures a {mall angle by the refraGting angle and the dif-
tance of the prifms from the focus of the objeét-glafs con-
jointly ; where the length of the telefcope was the feale of
meafurement. See Phil. Tranf. 1777. ‘

Refleding.—We proceed in the next place to defcribe the
conftruction of reflecting telefcopes. Fig. 1. Plate XXX.
fhews the figure of a refleéting telefcope of either the
Gregorian or Caffegrainian kind, for their external appear-
ance and mode of ufing are the fame, though we have
fhewn that their {mall {pecula are differently formed. After
the minute defeription that we have given of the ftands for
achromatic reflecting telefcopes, we may avoid prolixity, by
giving a lefs minute account of thofe that have been appro-
priated to reflectors, where the ufes of the fame parts are
the fame: A B is the main tube of a reflecting telefcope of
moderate fize, which may be either with or without a finder,
as the power may require, mounted on the tripod G F; at
A. is the open aperture, and a little fhort of it, within, is the
{mall {peculum, drawn in or out by the ferew C, which is
conneéted with a longitudinal bar of metal, into which the
heel-piece of the ftem of the fmall fpeculum flides, fo as to
be taken away or put in at pleafure ; within the interior end
B of the large tube is the, perforated large fpeculum,
always concave, and of a proper figure to {uit the face of

the

TELESCOPE.

the fmall fpeculum. This large fpeculum is put in with
fome liberty, as is alfo the {mall one in a box containing a
{piral {pring aeing againft it to prevent tremors; B is the
eye-piece of the Huygenian kind, of which there are ufually
two or three, according to the fize of the inftrument. The
femi-circle D is racked, and the handle H turns the ferew
that gives elevation, while the handle*I gives the horizontal
motion, by its {crew driving the racked horizontal plate E;
both which are clearly feen in the figure. The vertical
motion takes place at the centre of gravity of the tube at
the top of the frame between E and D, and the horizontal
motion is from an axis in the centre of the racked plate E,
which axis has a long bearing down a tube to G, under the
junction of the three legs. ‘The three-barred bracing piece
F has a joint at each leg, and alfo at the circular brafs plate
in the centre, fo that a little force applied under this plate
will raife it, and allow the legs to come together into conta,
as well as the three arms that keep the legs open when the
fland is ufeds ‘This mounting is very portable and fteady,
particularly when the tube is fhort, and is every way con-
venient for ufe, except that both the vertical and horizontal
motions are flow motions, the former of which is tedious
when a great change of altitude is wanted in a given time,
but the latter is in ee meafure remedied by the portability
of the ftand, which may be eafily turned altogether, to face
any particular object.

When the length of the tube is three feet and upwards,
and proportionably wide, fig. 2. reprefents a ftand that is

eatly to be preferred to that reprefented by fg.1. We
fhall put the fame letters of reference to’ the fame parts,
though there is a diflerence in the conftruétions that may
require explanation. This ftand was contrived and firft
made by Tulley, who, we underftand, claims alfo the inven-
tion of the three-armed brace F, in fs: 1, above defcribed.
The contriver has evidently contemplated all the requifites
for a good conftruétion, and has fucceeded in the execution
of his plan: A B, as before, is the main tube, B one of the
eye-pieces, C the adjufting fcrew for diftin& vifion, hid in
our drawing behind the tube ; but in place of it is feen the
finder, attached above the eye-end of the main tube. At D
is a fliding-piece of metal with a cylindrical hole, through
which the round rod H D paffes, and to which it may be
fixed, by the preffing {crew D, in any given elevation ; to
this fliding-piece D, two rods D K, D K, are attached by
two joints, and two other joints attach them below to the
frame E K, fo that thefe rods K, K, are at liberty to rife
and fall as the tube is elevated or depreffed, but not until
the fliding-piece at D has moved along the rod HD. When
the piece D is fixed to the rod by the {crew of preflure, it
forms a poe of bearing for the tube at a diftance from the
centre of motion, which is at the centre of the tube’s gravity
above the frame of brafs work, feen in the figure ; thus the
telefcope is kept fleady by two points of bearing in every
degree of elevation, though thefe points will recede from
each other gradually as the telefcope is deprefled towards an
horizontal pofition. When the {crew at D is turned back,
the motion is fufficiently quick; but when ft is faft, the
flow motion is produced by the handle at H; for while this
handle turns the rod, a fcrew cut on its interior end works
in a fixed cock, near H, that has a female {crew within it,
and draws the fliding-piece and rod together towards the
eye, and thus clevates the tube, while the joints of the rods
K, allow a correfponding elevation in them; fo that, with-
out undoing the ferew at D, a flow motion up or down is
produced by merely turning the handle H, which motion,
being free from jerks, is very pleafant. Between the brafs
frame bearing the telefcope and the large wooden frame E F,

are three circular plates, the uppermoft of which is attached
to the brafs frame, or may be faid to form the bafis of it,
and has an axis of fteel faft in its centre; the fecond circular
plate is racked at the concave edge all round, and has a
circular hole in the centre, juft large enough to receive the
fteel axis we have mentioned ; the third circular plate forms
the top of the wooden tripod, and has alfo a hole in its
centre, juft fufficient to admit the fteel axis above defcribed ;
but its diameter is fomewhat lefs than the, diameter of the
racked plate next above it, fo that a rim, made faft to the
racked plate, furrounds it, in the manner of a box-lid; but
there is no other faftening of thefe three plates together,
than the preffure occafioned by the fuperincumbént weight
of the telefcope, and of its {ubjacent frame E K K: the
axis, or fcrew, of the handle I is made faft to the upper-
moft plate of the faid frame, and takes hold of the notches
in the racked plate below it, fo that when the telefcope is
turned round ia azimuth, by a quick motion, it takes the
frame under it, and alfo the racked circle, round along with
it, while the ftand or wooden four-footed frame E F ftands
quiefcent ; but when the quick motion is finifhed, the handle
I is till in its place at the eye-end of the tube, and turning
it round, will give the requifite flow motion ; for turning the
handle, in conneétion with the racked plate, turns the fuper-
incumbent frame and telefcope, without any motion being
iven to the racked plate itfelf, which is now kept down to
its place by fimple preffure of its load above. The ftand, or
large wooden frame, is braced in all direétions, as may be feen _
in the drawing, and might be advantageoufly made of caft-iron,
as it is not contrived for the convenience of portability. »
The beft ftand for the Newtonian telefcope is that which
is reprefented by fg. 3, in which A is the elevated mouth
of a feven-feet tube, and B the place of the large fpeculum,
that refleéts the rays of light back to the {mall diagonal
plane metal near C, which, by a fecond reflection, brin
them to a focus at the eye-piece below C, as feen in t
drawing. Above C is the finder, the upper end of which
has a fall achromatic obje¢t-glafs, and the lower end the
eye-glafs. The upper end of the tube refts on a fupport D,
that 1s capable of being raifed or lowered flowly by a pinion
on the axis of the handle under D, while the lower end
refts on the horizontal bar of the frame EF, that is
fufpended by a pulley over F ; the four pivots a, 4, c,
and d, of the faid frame, fliding in the open grooves,
{een near thofe letters, in the main frame, keep the {mall
frame in any given fituation, and allow a free motion,
firft down the vertical, and then down the inelined pieces,
that compofe the main frame, as low as to G and H;
and when the lower end of the tube has been depreffed into
this fituation, the tube may have an elevation approaching
towards the zenith: for not only is the upper end eleva-
ted by the’ handles at J for the quick, and at D for
the flow motions; but the lower one is depreffed by
the handle at I, round which the cord is coiled, that goes
round a fixed roller at K, and two others at L and M,
before it embraces the pulley N, and is hooked to a pin
at O, above the frame. The reft of the main frame is fo
clearly exhibited in the drawing, that no farther defcription
of it is neceflary. In fome of the inftruments of this con-
ftruétion, when the handle Jis omitted, and a quicker motion
in altitude is required, and alfo a greater elevation than can be
given fimply by the handle at D, the fecond f{quare ftem that
carries the pinion of the handle is raifed by hand, and kept to
its elevation by means of a fecond rack, which is fet at
liberty by preffing a button at P, conneéted with the
{pring-catch of the rack, when this {quared item is lowered
again, all which motiens will be readily comprehended by

ca |

a ee

aes

TELESCOPE.

gny perion tolerably acquainted with the mechanifm of
rack-work. The quick motion in azimuth is given by
fliding the lower end of the tube, gently along the bar on

- which it refts, or by moving the whole frame, which

moyes on caftors; but the flow motion is produced by the
ferew at D. It is fcarcely neceflary to add, that the eye of
the obferver is applied to the fide of the tube near its

- mouth, when the finder has pointed the tube properly to its

obje&. This ftand was contrived by fir William Herfchel,
whofe experience in the ufe of various ftands direfted him
to prefer one that is not liable to propagate vibratory
motion to the large fpeculum, and that has a point of fup-
port near the upper extremity of the tube. We have, how-
ever, feen a fix-feet refle€tor very fteadily fupported on a
frame fimilar to that exhibited in fig. 2; and the com-
pofer of the prefent article has a Caflegrainian telefcope,
with a three-feet tube, fixed between the cheeks of one of the
doors of his obfervatory, which turns round with the
moveable dome in azimuth, and which elevates in altitude
on two pivots refting in the notches of a pair of brafs plates
let into the faid cheeks ; which mode of mounting is not
only convenient for celeftial obfervations, but is remarkably
dree from tremors, which advantage may be owing partly
to fteadinefs of pofition, and partly to the mouth of the
tube being nearly two feet advanced into the open air. If the
dome had not a remarkably eafy motion on three loofe ebony
balls, placed at equal diftances, this mode of mounting a
large telefcope would not afford a flow adjuftment for
motion in azimuth, which it now does with facility.

It is always interefting to a man of fcience to know by
what progreflive fteps a great undertaking is accomplifhed,
as well as to learn under what impreffion the original
idea was entertained of forming the plan of operations.
When fir William Herfchel, who was brought up a
mufician, refided as organift at Bath, the natural bent
of his mind led him to cultivate the pleafing fcience of
optics, and to ftudy the theory of mechanics fo far as
to enable him to amufe himfelf with attempts to con-
firu& a refleGting telefcope: his fuccefs, in an undertaking
of confiderable difficulty, increafed with his endeavours to
attain fome degree of excellence; and though at firft he
was fatisfied to pick a tolerable fpeculum out of fome dozens
at which he had laboured ; yet, feeling that his experience
began to give him facilities both in the contrivance and
execution of his manipulations, he proceeded by degrees to
conftru& fpecula of feven, ten, and even twenty feet focus
of the Newtonian form, to the number of more than 400,
befides feveral of the Gregorian kind: but as.yet he was un-
acquainted with any certain pra¢tical eth of giving
a parabolic curve to the face of his metal; on which
account he feleéted, by trial, fuch fpecula for ufe as he
found moft perfeét in figure, and repolifhed the remainder.
In all thefe operations there was much room for experi-
mental obfervation, and the time was not expended in
vain. To a mind like Herfchel’s, even a failure roufed
a feeling for a new enterprife; and it was no {mall ftep
towards advancement, to have perceived the caufe of un-
fuccefsful meafures : the objet being attainable, the means
were to be found by fkilful perfeverance. Nor were the
labours of our optician to be confined to the formation of
a fpeculum ; his mechanical {kill was direéted to the con-
trivance and execution of various ftands for telefcopes of
an unufual length; and in the year 1778, he produced that
which is now ufually applied to the Newtonian telefcope,
and which we have juft defcribed as reprefented by
Plate XXX. fig. 3. By the year 1781, Herfchel (beit
known by this title at that period) felt fuch confidence in

VoL. XXXV.

his improved methods of proceeding, that he ereéted a ftand
for a thirty-feet refleAing metal of 36 inches aperture, and
fucceeded in cafting it; but to his mortification the metal
cracked in the cooling. The difappointment attending this
accident muft have been fevere, but did not damp the ardour
of the mechanical adventurer, in which light, no doubt, the
enterprifing contriver was now viewed. A fecond melting
of the fame metal was immediately determined upon, and
a furnace was conftru€ted for the purpofe, which unfor-
tunately gave way, and the liquid metal blew up the pave-
ment. The mortification confequent on this fecond acci-
dent only plunged our adventurer the deeper, that he might
rife the higher in his next attempt. During an interval of
fome refpite from optical and mechanical labours, the
aitronomer, however, was not afleep ; and while obfervations
were making on the rotations of the planets, with tele-
{copes of the Newtonian form, of 7, 10, and zo feet focal
length, the little planet, at firft fuppofed to be a comet,
from its having a vifible magnified difc, was difedvered.
This lucky event rekindled the optician’s ardour, and at
the fame time introduced him to the notice of his majelty ;.
who, by his liberal patronagé, promoted the views of this
amateur inftrument-maker, and afforded facility to his future
operations.

In the year 1782, a good twenty-feet reflector was
finifhed with a large aperture, and mounted on the Her-
{chelian ftand for admitting of front obfervations, for which
it is found very ufeful. The forty-feet telefcope, or
mafter-piece of mechanifm, which is more immediately the
obje& of our examination, was begun at Clay-Hall at the
latter end of the year 1785, when, through the mediation
of the prefident of the Royal Society, the fupport of regal
munificence had been gracioufly promifed; and, when the
various portions of the bulky ftro@ture, which employed
forty workmen of different denominations, had been re-
moved to Slough, near Windfor, the foundation was begun,
which was to be the fcite for the largeft telefcope that had
ever been pointed to the heavenly regions. We will not
detain our reader by defcribing the details of mafonry, car-
pentry, and {mith’s work, which have occupied eighteen
large plates, in the fecond part of vol. Ixxxv. of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaétions, for their explanation, but defcribe _
fo much of the inftrument, and of its appendages, as are’
ufeful in making aCtual obfervations. :

The beft view for general reprefentation of the Herfche-
lian telefcope, is that which has been given in plate 24.
of the volume juft named, which therefore we have copied
into our Plate XXXI. of Affronomical Infiruments, with
fome flight alterations arifing out of fubfequent improve-
ments or curtdilments of unneceflary appendages. This
view, taken from a ftation to the fouth-weft of the ereétion,
reprefents the telefcope elevated in the meridian line, and
affords the means of feeing the front parts of the inftru-
ment, and of its numerous appendages ; but does not allow
the mechanifm that fupports the inferior end of the tube,
and that gives motion in fome of the adjuftments, to be ex-
plained by a reference to their parts, and therefore muft be
comprehended from a verbal defcription. The foundation on -
which the frame-work of the forty-feet telefcope is ereéted,
confifts of two-concentric circles of brick-work, one 42.
and the other 21 feet in diameter, both funk 24 fect
under ground, and tapering from the breadth of 2 ft. 3 in-
below, to 1 ft..2 in. above, where they are capped with
paving-ftones of 42} inches wide, and 3 thick. In the
centre of thefe circles, is fixed faft into the ground by
brick-work, and oppofite braces of wood, a vertical beam,
as a centre of motion, round which the whole ftructure

Na may

TELESCOPE.

may have a circular motion in azimuth, the plane of the
outer circle being made perfeély level. ‘The platform that
connects the different parts of the frame-work below, has
three principal horizontal beams lying parallel to each other,
and three others lying parallel, crofling the firft at right an-
gles, befides various bracing-beams, that tie the whole com-
paétly together, by iron bolts paffing through the places of
crofling. In our drawing, the outer circle of brick-work
and mafonry is denoted by the letters A B, and the circum-
ference of the platform of wood by C D: under each op-
pofite end of the fix main beams is fixed a roller, of fix
inches in diameter, and eight long, having each a ftrong iron
frame bolted into the end of its refpeétive beam; fo that
the outer circle has twelve rollers: but thefe were not fufhi-
cient to bear the whole at 21 feet from the centre of motion ;
therefore cight more rollers, nearly equidiftant, were fixed
to ftrong parts of the platform, fo as to be borne by the
inner circle of 21 feet diameter; and thus the whole platform,
with its fuperftru€ture, is capable of making a revolution,
when fufficient force is applied round the central vertical
beam, that enters a hole at the junétion of the two central
main beams, and that afcends but a little way out of the ground.
Six out of the twelve rollers of the outer circle are fen be-
tween A B, the brick-work, and C D, the circular edge of
the platform, and the reft may be imagined, not only on the
remainder of this circle, but alfo on the inner circle, which
is concealed. In thefe rollers, it is of great importance that
the axes of motion all point towards the central beam round
which they carry the platform, and alfo that their diameters
and frames be precifely of like dimenfions, otherwife they
will not bear alike on the bafis of mafonry. At twelve feet
diftance from, and all round this moveable platform, are
fixed faft into the ground eight equidiftant pofts, to an oppo-
fite pair of which the ends of a long pliable rope are hooked,
that give the motion in azimuth; which rope, being conducted
over two feparate pullies, fixed upon the platform, at oppofite
fides of the centre, has its ends turned in the direction of
tenga that point in oppofite direétions to their re{pettive
pofts. The middle part of the rope is made to pafs round
ona of the {pokes of a large wheel, carried by the platform,
before it winds round the axle, fo as to coil up both ends of
the rope equally ; which rope therefore pulls by both
tangental ends alike, fo as to apply an equal force at each
oppofite pulley, while the refiftance of the pofts produces the
requifite motion, without a ftrain on the centre. This
mechanifm gives the operator a great mechanical advan-
tage. That part of the platform C, which conneéts the
extreme ends of the three longitudinal beams, over the
rollers at A, is made ftrong, and is the fupport for a pair of
double ladders, that are feen afcending to the fummit of the
whole frame-work, one on each fide of the large tube E ;
and at D is another fimilar fupport for two other double
ladders, which, afcending in like manner, meet the former
ones, and crofs into them in fuch a way, as to admit of
being bolted together at the points of crofling. Thefe
Jadders are propped by other fhorter ladders, as feen in the
figure, and fome upright mafts, of which one is feen erected
over the roller at B, afcend in like manner, and afford the
means of obtaining horizontal braces at different heights, all
round theframe, except where the elevated end E of the tele-
{cope requires an opening to be left between the front ladders
for its different degrees of elevation. The tranfverfe beam
F G, which lies horizontally over the croflings of the double
ladders, and is bolted to them, receives the hooks of the dif-
ferent pullies, which we fhall fhortly haye oecafion to de-
{cribe, at the fame time that it conneéts and braces together
all the ladders at their upper extremities. Thefe ladders are

each 49 feet 2 inches long, fo that the height of the tranf.

verfe beam FG muft be “49 x 49 — 20 X 20 = 45
nearly, and will therefore admit of the long tube, of 4o feet
in length, to be raifed into a vertical pofition under it. Be-
low the mouth of the large tube, a gallery H I, with its at-
tached brackets K and L, refts upon the flopes of the in-
terior halves of the double ladders, at K and L refpeCtively,
and may be made to flide up or down, into any ftate of eleva-
tion, by two fyftems*of pullies, and ropes going round the
blocks hooked at the junétion of each pair ae ladders, to the
tranfverfe beam F G, as may be feen in the figure ; and when
this gallery is lowered to the landing of the pair of fteps M,
a party may be admitted into it to gratify their curiofity, the
floor being 13 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 14 inch, and palifaded
on the front, as well as partly at both ends. The bafes, or
fliding parts of the brackets, are prevented from flipping
afide by lateral rollers of brafs, aéting againit the ftraight
fides of the middle pole of each double ladder, while other
rollers of the fame metal, acting under them, diminifh their
fri@ion, when drawn up or let down by the pullies. In the
framing of thefe brackets, it was neceflary to introduce con-
trivances for allowing fome deviation of the gallery from an
exact level, in cafe oné of the brackets was eleyated by its
pulley fafter than the other; which contrivances are not
eafily defcribed without a reference to the drawings of the
feparate parts in the original account, or without infpeCtion
of the parts themfelves. :
The tube of the telefcope, which is 39 feet 4 inches in
length, and 4 feet 10 inches in diameter, 1s made entirely of
iron; it having been afcertained that a wooden tube would
have exceeded an iron one in weight by at leaft 3000 lbs.
The fheets were firft put together by a kind of feaming, that
requires no rivets; and when the fides of the iron platform
were cut ftraight, it was lifted by proper tackle into a
hollow gutter, and then brought gradually, by various
tools, into a cylindrical form. Various hoops are fixed
within the tube, and longitudinal bars of iron, connecting
fome of them, were attached to the two ends of the
tube, by way of ‘bracing the fheets, and keeping the fhape
perfe& when the pullies are applied to give the neceffary
elevation at the upper end, and that the fpeculum might be
kept fecure in its bed at the lower end. The hoop by which
the upper end of the tube is fufpended is eight inches broad,
and thicker than the reft ; and the fyftem of three pullies,
feen at N, with each a double block, hasa correfponding fet
at O, hooked to the tranfverfe pole. G F; and the bars to
which the blocks arg hooked are fo bent, that the moving
ropes will not come in conta& ; nor will the elevated
tube have its vertical motion difturbed by the tackle, either
in afcending or defcending, which was an important precau-
tion. The lower end of the tube is firmly fupported on
rollers, that are capable of being moved forwards or back-
wards by a double rack, moved by wheels ‘and pinions
at R, which we {hall not attempt to defcribe minutely ;
but the ufe of which every mechanic will comprehend with-
out particular explanation. Originally there were feveral
appendages near the mouth of the tube fliding by pullies, or
fixed to the tube, for the purpofe of regulating the /qweeps
taken by this inftrument; but as the twenty-feet refle&or is
now ufed for this purpofe, they are taken off, and have bean
omitted in our drawing. By an adjuftment at the lower
extremity of the tube, the {peculum is turned to a {mall
inclination, fo that the line of collimation is not coinci-
dent with the longitudinal axis of the tube, but croffes the
tube diagonally, and meets the eye in the air, at about two
inches from the edge of the.Aube. Hence no part of
the head intercepts the incident rays, and the obferva-
tion

TELESCOPE.

tion is taken with the face looking at the fpeculum, or by
what the author has called, by way of diftinétion, the front
view, the back being always turned to the obje& to be
viewed. Befides the pullies of elevation, and of azimuthal
motion, there are others for the purpofe of communication,
as well as fpeaking-pipes, repeating-bells, and fignals by
elock-work, which cannot be clearly comprehended without
infpetion, or numerous drawings to be referred to; but the
dexterity of the obferver has rendered fome of thefe fuper-
fluous. The large fpeculum is enclofed in a ftrong iron
ring, braced acrofs with bars of iron, and an enclofure of
iron and tin fheets makes a cafe for it; it is lifted by three
handles of iron attached to the fides of the ring, and is put
into and taken out of its proper place by the help of a move-
able crane, running on a carriage, which operation of courfe
requires great care. Three {mall vanes attached to the edge
of the tube at the mouth, affift to put the line of collimation
right, when they are feen refle€ted from the {peculum to the
eye-piece. We vifited Slough lately, with a view of ex-
amining all the minutiz of the ftupendous apparatus that is
rendered neceffary for the management of this huge telefcope,
and that can only be well defcribed on the fpot, and found
the fubftance of a letter written by the late Mr. Smeaton on
this fubje&, immediately after a vifit for the exprefs purpofe
of infpeGting"the apparatus then in exiftence, fo accurate, that
we avail ourfelves of this fource of information; and as the
letter which is before us is a copy taken from the writer’s
own manufcript, we have no doubt of its authenticity. It
relates however principally to the twenty-feet inftrument.

Gray’s Inn, Nov. 4th, 1785.
¢ My dear friend,

“ Since my laft, I have been to pay my vifit to Mr. Her-
{chel, and according to my promife, proceed to give you
¥Yome account of what I have feen; and indeed he has fo
much originality about him, as well as natural ingenuity,
accompanied with great readinefs and dexterity, that to
enter into the detail would be far to exceed the bounds of a
letter ; I will therefore enter into the great outlines, and fill
up as ITcan. You muft know that, till this vifit, I have
held the do€trine about telefcopes that I believe is the com-
mon one ; that, having fixed upon a proportion that you by
experience find to do well in any one fpecies of telefcope,
what you are to expect from any other fize of the fame
fpecies, is in proportion to the fquare root of the length ;
fo that increafing the length four times, your telefcope will
allow you to take an image of double the diameter ; every
point of it being illuminated with the fame quantity of light,
and painted with an equal degree of diftinétnefs and pre-
cifion. This idea and expectation I carried with me to
Thornhill, and carried the fame to Clay-Hall; but I did not
bring it back with me. Mr. Herfchel’s doétrine will illuf-
trate his purfuits better than minute defcriptions. What-
ever his doétrine originally was, experience has taught him
that large furfaces of fpeculums are not to be ground and
~polifhed fo as to preferve fo accurate a figure as thofe of a
fmall or moderate fize ; he therefore divides the maximum
that telefcopes may be expected to bring out, into three
diftin&t claffes ; firft, the greateft poffible degree of magni-
fying power, where there is a fufficiency of light ; fecondly,
the greateft degree of diftinétnefs, where there is alfo a fuf-
ficiency of light, but where the natural fize of the object
does not require the greateft degree of magnifying power ;
thirdly, the greateft fee of ‘light, where the objects are
naturally ob{cure, which will afford difcoveries that cannot
be brought out cither by great degrees of magnifying power,

or a capacity of diftinétnefs, where, on thefe aecounts; 2
fufficiency of light is wanting. In conformity with this doc-
trine, his principal difcoveries have been made upon, the
ftars, where the greateft degree of magnifying powers have
been required, and ufed with his original telefcope of fever
feet focal length, which he has pufhed to between fix and
feven thoufand times. The greateit difcoveries have alfo been
made with thefe, where the greateft diftinéinefs has been
required, and a moderate degree of magnifying power; the
diameter of the fpeculum of this telefeope being no more
than 6 inches: and alfo, for the fame purpofe, he finds his
ten-feet telefcopes applicable, the diameter being 9 inches ;
but for objects naturally obfcure, he ean diftinétly fee an obje&
with his twenty-feet telefcope the diameter 19 inches, (which
is feldom charged with a magnifying power of more than
200 times, ) which the others will not reach. With this te-
lefcope he is now and has been for fome time paft at work,
as he calls it, /weeping the heavens. The whole apparatus
can upon occafion be turned to any azimuth, but is chiefly
ufed with the telefcope turning in the plane of the meri-
dian. The inferior or fpeculum end of the tube is fup-
ported immediately upon the ground ; the other end of the
tube is raifed and lowered by a tackle, fupported at top upon
a double equilateral triangle (or thereabouts) ; the obferver
1s alfo hoifted up in a chair, that works on rollers, upon the
inclined legs of the triangle next the eye-glafs; and the
eye-glafs is brought to anfwer to this ftraight line by fliding
the butt of the telefeope near the centre of the whole ma-
chine ; and by the fame means it can be put into a vertical
pofition. The raifing the chair and the fliding of the butt
are done by feparate tackles refpectively, touched only oc-
cafionally ; but the main tackle that raifes-the telefcope,
when brought to its intended elevation, that is, polar dif-
tance, is worked by a diftin& motion, that caufes it to rife
and fall alternately through a fpace of two degrees of the
meridian, which being done with fome degree of brifknefs,
a plot in the heavens is examined at once of two degrees
broad, the motion of the heavens in AR bringing on the
objeéts in fucceffion. By way of regifter, large fheets of
paper are prepared, marked and numbered, being ruled into
parallel long and crofs lines at a quarter of an inch diftance ;
a {mall {quare of this kind reprefenting a quarter of a de-
gree in AR and declination: all thofe that are examined
being marked with a crofs, and thofe that have been feen,
but not fully examined, with a ftroke one way; and when af-
terwards feen to fatisfa€tion, the crofs is completed. The
place and fpecies of the obje& are alfo marked upon the
paper. In this operation, three perfons are concerned ; a
labourer works, continually the handle backwards and for--
wards for performing the deitined range; and in this he is
prevented from ranging too little or too much, by a fmall
piece of machinery, that ftrikes a bell at each end of the
range ; he alfo ftops on notice; and if any thing comes re-
quiring this notice, and the objeét to be purfued, the tele-
{cope can by an apparatus, which occafionally heaves it from
its meridian bearing, purfue it in right afcenfion for near a
quarter of an hour; and that there may be no necd for the
obferver’s eye to be taken from the eye-glafs, an affiftant
Mon Herfchel’s fifter) fits in an adjacent room with the
quared fheet before her, who notes down and in a book

writes what is di€tated. The time fhe has by the clock
facing her, and the polar diftance by a piece of machinery,
which continually fhews the degree and minute, and is
worked by a fring a€tuated by the telefcope in rifing and fall-
ing, which comes into the room, and winding Stine a barrel,
performs the requifite motions. The telefcope is fet to its
Nnz altitude

TELESCOPE.

altitude by a {mall quadrant fixed over it, and the corre-
fpondent index is regulated anfwerable to the ftretching of
the cord of communication, by obferving the firft known
ftar that pafles of Flamftead’s catalogue. By this means,
what has been done and what is to do is diftin&ly feen
by the fheets. In this way, many hundred nebulz have been
difcovered, not only unknown before, but which no ordinary
telefcopes will reach. The fpeculum of the great telefcope
of 4ofeet is caft, but was not got home ; it is four feet diame-
ter, and about roso Ibs. weight. Mr. Herfchel tells me
there is a warehoule in Thames-ftreet, where they keep for
fale metal ready made into ingots, of which they have two
forts, what they call white metal and bell-metal; I fuppofe
fuch as the bells of clocks are made of, but he did not know
exaétly their compofition : for his fpeculum, they put two
ingots of bell-metal to one of white metal. He thinks it a
lower metal than what he ufed for his former fpecula of 19
inches, viz. 72 ounces of tin, to 20ounces of copper. I am not
fure, however, whether I remember right, but you probably
will guefs. He does not propofe it to magnify more than
the prefent one of 19 inches, but to take the whole advan-
tage in light, he makes all -his fpecula flat upon the back
fide. The thicknefs of this laft great one atthe-edge was to
have been two inches, but by fome fhrinking in the mould,
and particularly in the middle, I underftand it is not there
above 14 inch, and alfo lefs at the edge than it was to have
been, fo that it is hollow in the back as well as face ; but as
it came pretty well upon the face, he promifes to make
ufe of it; and when he has got thus furnifhed, he promifes
to caft another, having duplicates of all he makes, fo that
while one is in ufe, another can go to the polifher. They are
made to be enclofed in brafs boxes, and their weight lays
fimply upon feveral thickneffes of cloth, and are polifhed in
thefe boxes, and are made to go in and take out fo con-
veniently, that they are very frequently put into their tubes
and tried with an objeét while under the operation of polifh-
ing ; and to thefe frequent trials he afcribes the principal

caufe of his fuccefs in thefe operations.
* . * * * *
I remain, dear fir,
ever your’s,
J. Smeaton.

We have only to add farther, on this fubject, what we
learnt in a converfation with fir William Herichel, that he
prefers fingle lenfes, before what are called aehromatic eye-
pieces, from an idea that more /ight is thus had for both
his 20 and 4o feet refleCtors, and that greater power may
thus be obtained for his fmallerinftruments. We have, how-
ever, to regret, that his mode of giving the parabolic curve
to the great fpeculum, by mechanical means, mutt for the
prefent remain a /ecret, for the difclofure of which we feel
that we have no right to afk, while there is an exiftng
manufaétory that might be injured thereby. The peculiar
advantage of the Herfchelian conftruction is, that there is
no light loft by a /econd refleéion, and that the large quan-
tity of polifhed furface refle&s more rays than can be col-
lected by any other means. The weight of the metal,

which is very brittle when of the beit mixture, made it

neceflary to have a prevailing portion of copper in the large
f{peculum, which" is, therefore, liable to be the fooner
tarnifhed, and to require more frequent polifhing than
would have been requifite, if the beft proportion for bright-
nefs could haye been preferved in the ingredients of the
_ compound metal: but what is defeétive in quality, is com-
penfated by the quantity of polifhed furface. Itis hardly
neceffary to inform the practical aftronomer, that when the
4

greateft powers are ufed, both the light and the-field of
view, and confequent time of apparent paflage through the
field, are proportionably diminifhed. We underftood the
ingenious and dextrous obferver to fay, that inftruCtion
and practice are neceffary to enable any other perfon to
follow a ftar or planet with the forty-feet refleCtor ; for that
a heavenly body feen with one of the higheft powers does
not continue in the field more than a few feconds of
time, unlefs the motion of the tube is regulated fo as to
keep pace with the apparent motion of the body ; and this
is probably the reafon why few perfons have been in a
fituation to form an eftimate of the merits of this tranfcendant
inftrument. For the detail of all the parts, fee vol. lxxxy.
of the Philof. Tranf. of London, part ii. 1795.

5. On the Powers, &c.—After having defcribed the moft
convenient conftructions of a telefcope, of both the dioptric
and cata-dioptric kinds, we propofed to fhew how their
powers may be praétically varied and eftimated. We have
already feen, in our fe&tion on the theory of telefcopes, how
the powers may be calculated, when the focal diftances of
the glaffes are known. In telefcopes with one obje€t-glafs,
or concave fpeculum, and one eye-glafs, the folar foci of

which may be called F and f refpectively, the power P may
be always expreffed by . ; but F varies inverfely with the

diflance of an obje& viewed, while f remains the fame, there+
fore the power P will vary alfo inverfely with the diftance,
So long ago as in the year 1740, Benjamin Martin, to whofe
ingenuity the prattical opticians of the prefent day are
much indebted, propofed to determine diftances at one fta-
tion by this variation of power in a long telefcope ; but as the
diftance increafed, the proportional elongated portion of
the fliding tube containing the eye-glaffes became fo {mall,
that the aie was too limited to be of any real ufe. We
mention this circumftance, merely to fhew that the fame 'tele-
{cope with the fame glaffes has its powers naturally varying
with the diftance, but in an inverfe ratio, until the incident
rays become parallel in confequence of the great diftance of
the radiant obje@; hence we may account for the reafon
why the famous Short attributed to his telefcopes powers
which they did not poflefs, when direfted to very diftant
objects. But, generally {peaking, when we fay that a tele-
{cope magnifies fifty times, we are underftood to mean, that
it enlarges the diameter of the fun, or of fome diffant obje&,
fo many times ; becaufe in this cafe F and f remain both
unaltered. (See Lens, 5.) But when the objec viewed
is at no great diftance, calling the elongated portion of the
folar focus e, and the diftance d, Martin has fhewn that
e, Bi: F +e: d, or that ~F£% * _ g, and he pro-
pofed to determine the quantity of ¢ in all fituations by me-
chanical meafurement. Now fuppofing the power to be
confidered'as always determined from the folar focus of an
object-glafs or fpeculum, in telefcopes of the fimpleft con-
ftruétion, this power, where the objeét-glafs or fpeculum re-
mains the fame, can be increafed only by fhortening the focus
of the eye-glafs or eye-piece, when it is pa of two
aside but there is a limit in the power of dioptric tele-
copes conftruéted with fingle obje¢t-glaffes, which depends
on the prifmatic and f{pherical aberrations, beyond which
limit indif/tin@ne/s takes place ; and even in good achromatic
and refle&ting telefcopes, the eye-piece may be fhortened
until a deficiency of Jight renders the increafed power of
little ufe, and thus fixes a limit to ufeful power. :
After a power is fixed on, in the ufe of a fimple tele-

{copes

ee ee Se as

oe eet pS Cee err

Re yO lt a

TELESCOPE.

feope, fuch as admits of {ufficient light, and allows a field of
view large enough to contain the images of the object to be
examined, the magnitude of this power may be afcertained

by different means, befides 7? which expreflion is better cal-

culated to explain the theory than to define the pra¢tical re-
fult ; for it is not an eafy matter to meafure precifely the
exa& compound folar focus of an eye-piece compofed of two
glaffes, nor yet that of a fingle lens, when its focus is fhort,
and confequently its fubftance confiderable in thicknefs.
Neither is it eafy to obtain the exa& power of a terreftrial
eye-tube conftructed on the principles of a compound micro-
{cope. The firft practical method of meafuring the total
power of a telefcope, that we thall defcribe, is extremely
fimple, and is applicable to telefcopes of all conftruétions,
however complex the calculation by. theory may be, and
gives the refult with yery little trouble. Whatever be the
diameter of the object-glafs or {peculum of a telefcope, in
inches and parts, the diameter of its image, or luminous difc,
formed in the anterior focus of the eye-piece, by the con-
denfed rays, will bear the fame proportion to that diameter,
as the focal length of the eye-glafs or glaffes jointly, bears
to the focal length of the object-glafs or fpeculum ; thefe
diameters, aaa ek may be fubftituted for the two foci of the
re{pective glafles, or fpeculum and its eye-glafs, in deter-
mining the power. Different methods of meafuring the
luminous dife have been propofed ; a nicely divided flip of
mother-of-pearl, fixed in a {mall piece of tube bearing a mag-
nifier at the oppofite end, forms a fimple inftrument, which
has been called the pearl dynameter, (from dwyapswc, of power,
and perpoy, a@ meafure,) and which an{wers the purpofe very
conveniently, when fliding within another fhort tube for the
fake of adjuftment, as is feen in jig. 9. Plate XXIX.
Suppofe that the difc of a telefcope, with an objeét-glafs
of 3.25 inches diameter, meafures 4%, = ,°, of an inch by

S225)

the pearl dynameter, then = = 543 is the power required
to be meafured: and if the fame difc had been meafured
with a refleGting telefcope of 7.5 inches diameter of the
large fpeculum, whatever its conftruCtion in other refpeéts,

the power would have been re = 125. The correétnefs of

this fimple method will depend on the accuracy with which
the refpective diameters of the difc and object-glafs, or {pe-
culum, are taken, and the diftance to which the telefcope is
adjufted for diftin&t vifion. The powers of the four achro-

_ matic telefcopes, for which we have adapted our Tables I.
and II. in the next fection, were taken in this way, when
Troughton’s micrometer was applied as a celeftial eye-
piece, and were determined to be as follow: wiz.

n
30.15 focus { ie

= 30.5 = power.

066
45.75 ditto BOS 2 Fass 45-3 = ditto.
: ee ih
63.5 ditto ania 7 63.5 = ditto.

118.8 ditto {3.600 = 120.0 = ditto.
052
Thefe powers, if the data had been taken with perfe& ac-
curacy, would have been refpectively to each other as the
focal lengths of the objeé-glaffes dire&ly, which they are
nearly, orinverfely as the valet of the micrometrical {crew,
which values have been tabulated, as will be feen in our

fubfequent feétion ; therefore, when the power of one of the
telefcopes is obtained accurately by the pearl dynameter,
the powers of all the others may be had from the micro-
metrical values, by reciprocal proportion, Before, how-
ever, the dynameter is ufed, it will be neceflary to adjuft the
eye-piece to diftin& vifion when viewing a remote obje&,
otherwife the dife will be too fmall, and the power larger
than when celeftial obfervations are taken. Alfo, to avoid
miftaking the anterior glafs of the eye-piece for the dife or
diminifhed image of the objeét-glafs, a flip of paper may be
ftuck on the centre of the exterior face of the objeét-glafs,
the image of which will appear on the centre of the difc, and
affift the adjuftment of the dynameter to its true place of
diftin& vifion, which is effential at the moment of taking the
exact meafure of the dife. If one of the celeftial eye-pieces
has got a divided flip of pearl, as recommended by Cavallo,
to be ufed as a micrometer, the interior lens may be taken
out, and then the eye-piece will become a dynameter for
meafuring the powers of all the other eye-pieces, whether
celeftial or terreftrial, in the way we have here defcribed ;
but it will be more convenient to ufe one with a fliding
tube of adjuftment for diftance, as made by T. Jones, of
Charing-Crofs.

As this dynameter has lately been conftru€ted in an im-
proved manner, by the maker we have juft named, and as it
has never been defcribed, we will here give our readers a
fhort account of its improved conftruétion. Fig. 9. of
Plate X XIX. reprefents this neat little inftrument of nearly
its full fize, where a, 4, and c, are fo many fmall tubes
within one another: the fhorteft tube, a, contains the two
plano-convex lenfes fand g, which conftitute what we have
called the pofitive, or Ramfden’s eye-piece, with the two
curved faces oppofed to each other ; and as this eye-piece
{crews into the tube 4, near the end g, it may be confidered
as a part of this tube, when {crewed into its place: the tube
& has a flip of the mother-of-pearl, dd, very delicately
made, and fcrewed faft acrofs a diaphragm near its remote
end, at fuch a diftance from the lens ¢, that the {crew of the
eye-piece a will adjuft the pearl for diftin@ vifion, as an
object in the compound focus of the eye-piece, for any eye
that may have occafion to ufe it. The flip of pearl is di-
vided into fuch minute parts, that 500 of them are equal to
an inch, and yet the eye-piece has power enough to give a
clear view of them, and to enable the eye to count the di-
viding ftrokes, of which every fifth is of double, and every
tenth of four times the length of the {fubdividing ftrokes.
When the feale is rendered clearly vifible and legible, by the
{crew of adjuftment, the tube é is inferted into the outermoft
tube c, which kas a diaphragm and covered hole at e, and
when this hole is uncovered, tube ¢ is brought into contact
with the eye-piece of the telefcope, centre to centre, fo as to
receive the pencil of condenfed rays, that ufually enters the
eye of a fpectator ; then, if the image of the object-glafs of
the telefcope formed at the place of the eye, is not well
defined on the flip of pearl, tube 4 muft be pufhed into
tube c, till this will be the cafe, and then the number of divi-
fions and fub-divifions of the pearl fcale, that the little lumi-
nous circle exa€tly covers, will give the meafure required ;
and if the number read be doubled, becaufe they are sooth
parts of an inch, they will then be fo many parts out of
1000, and will therefore be decimal parts of an inch; the
denominator being confidered = 1000.

Another method of afcertaining the powers of a tele-
{cope, when a dynameter is not at hand, is by what is’called
falfe vifion, which requires a little praétice before it can be
applied with fuccefs. By this method, one eye views the
magnified image of a diftant object in the telefcope ; ang

the

TELESCOPE.

the other eye, being alfo ufed, but out of the telefcope,
projeéts that image upon a horizontal line, bounded by fome
obfervable diftiné: marks, that can be known again: then
as often as the angle fubtended at the place of obfervation
by the objeét, of which the image was obferved, is contained
in the angle fubtended by the horizontal line into which
it was projected, fo much does the ra i apparently exceed
the objeét; i. e. fo much does the telelcope magnify. For
inftance, fuppofe that forty bricks in the wall of a diftant
building appeared juft to occupy the whole field of view of
any telefcope, and that the angle fubtended by thofe bricks
meafured so!, by any other inftrument, which would be
the cafe at the eighth of a mile very nearly; then fuppofe
that the horizontal line covered by the forty magnified bricks,
or by the luminous circle of the field of view, was bounded
by two trees, and fubtended an angle of 41° 40!; on thefe

be 4°49"

fuppofitions, the power would =] and in

= Wer
this way, but not fo well as by the pearl dynameter, a tele-
{cope compofed of any number of glaffes, or fpecula and
glaffes, may have its power determined, without any regard
to the radii of the glaffes or {pecula, or to their refpective
pofitions. Should the refults of the two methods accord,
it may be taken for granted, that the determination arifing
from the average is fufficiently accurate. The powers of
the four telefcopes with the fame eye-piece, which we have
before mentioned, were taken again by this fecond method,
and found to be as in the fubjoined ftatement ; viz.

To. 681!
30.15 focus - he =| 39:9

ditt {oe = °

45-75 ditto pits wie
: 681!

63.5 ditto - hae 64.8
!

118.8 ditto - { = 121.6
5'.6

In taking thefe meafures, it was found convenient to
make ufe of the fpace included between the two fpider’s
ines of Troughton’s micrometer, inftead of the whole field
of view ; which fubftitution not only prevented diftorfion,
by confining the objeéts to the middle of the field of view,
but diminifhed the angle to be projected within the dimen-
fions of the pupil of the eye, fo that the head did not re-
quire to be turned from its firft pofition in making the pro-
jection. Two painted ftaves were ftuck into the ground
at about “oo feet from the eye, at fuch a diftance from each
other, that they could both be feen within about one-half of
the field of view ; the {pider’s lines were then opened till they
coincided with the two ftaves, when projected upon them by
falfe vifion, aud the value of the revolutions was then
found to be as above ftated. This was done with the tele-
{cope of 30.15 inches focus ; but the fame projeétion would
have taken place at the fame opening of the lines, with any
of the other three telefcopes at the fame diftance from the
ttaves ; therefore it was not neceflary to repeat this opera-
tion with the other telefcopes, becaufe the refpective values
of the fame opening, or number of revolutions, are given in
our T'ables I. and I1., as will be feen prefently, for all the
telefcopes, as fo many divifors for the common dividend.
Thus Troughton’s micrometer may be ufed with great ad-
vantage in determining the power of any telefcope to which
it is adapted 5 and even Cavallo’s may be fubftituted for
the fame purpofe, when that eye-piece is ufed to which it
js appropriated. But the moft convenient, as well as moft ac.

curate dynameter that we have feen, is that which has an eye-
glafs divided, fo as to form two images of the luminous dife,.
when the centres of the femi-lenfes are feparated by a ferew
with a divided head. This double-image dynameter was in-
vented by Ramfden, probably foon after Dollond’s objeét-
glafs micrometer was invented, and is now made by G. Dol-
lond, and alfo, with fome variation, by Thomas Jones, of
Charing-Crofs, who was a pupil of Ramfden’s fchapl. As
this elegant and ufeful little inftrument has not been de-
fcribed, we fhall introduce a fhort account of it in this
place. Fig. 12. Plate XXX. of Aftronomical Infiruments,
reprefents the exterior appearance of Mr, Dollond’s con-
ftruétion, and fig. 14. its plan, when the covering plate is
taken off; in both which figures the fame letters refer to
the fame parts. The frame that contains the fcrew ‘is
denoted by a, and 4 is the interior or fliding-tube of
brafs, made faft to the faid frame, having the divided lens at
the eye-end, near the letter of reference a in fig. 12; and ¢ is
the outer tube, which is placed in contaé& with the outer-
moft eye-glafs of the telefcope, when the luminous dife is
to be meafured, and admits of adjuftment of the tube &
to diftin@ vifion of the dife: d is a milled head of a con-
cealed ferew, which feparates the two femi-lenfes until the
luminous difc is feen double, with the oppofite edge of each

difce nearly in contaGt, as in fig. 13: eis the divided head ©

of the ferew, or micrometrical head, with 100 divifions pro-
perly numbered ; and f is the feale for indicating the num-
ber of revolutions of the f{crew, as the divided head e does
the parts of a revolution. The axis of this {crew is made
faft to the frame, fo as not to move from its fituation
while it revolves, and is of bell-metal; it is made hol-
low within, and is tapped to a thread of the fame fine~
nefs as that of the exterior {crew ; then a fmaller ferew of
{teel enters the tapped tube, as feen in fig. 14, and has its
other end pinned fait to the piece of brafs g 4, at the point g,
which piece carries one half of the divided lens, while the
other half is carried by a fimilar piece, 54, to which the
{cale f is alfo {crewed fait. The foot-piece of 44 is tapped,
fo as to receive the thick ferew of the axis; and a bent
{pring of metal, i4, bears againit both pieces, g and 54, fo
as to keep the fcrews conneéted with them free from thake.
During this defcription of the concealed parts of the frame,
the mechanical reader will have anticipated, that when the mi-
crometer head, and nut d, made faft to the axis of the thick
{crew, turn together in the direétion that makes the figures
inereafe, the thick ferew will draw the piece 44, and with
it the feale f, and one femi-lens, towards the nut: but as
the {mall {crew of fteel is a left-handed ferew, i.e. has its
thread winding in a contrary direction, and is fait to the
piece gd, it will recede from the nut, and take the other
femi-lens in a contrary direCtion, fo that the centres of the
femi-lens will feparate with a velocity equal to the fum of
the contrary motions of the two femi-lenfes ; and as thefe
centres recede, the original difc will become a double difc,
as in fig. 13, and may by feparation be made two difes,
when the femi-lenfes are removed to their greateft diftance,
Hence, when the value of one revolution is known, the
amount of any given number of revolutions and parts is
had, as being multiples of that revolution. In the dyna-
meter before us, there is a dife of thin horn or ivory, juft
~isth of an inch in diameter, in the fliding-piece that clofes
the aperture of the exterior end of tube ¢; and five revolu-
tions of the {crew juft divides this dife into two contiguous
ones, fo that each fubdivifion of the micrometer e is juft
sesoth of an inch, and when doubled, may be put down in
decimal numbers. But there is another ufe of the horn
difc, befides that of giving a value to the micrometer ; it

fo

ee

ee

"TELESCOPE.

fo much reiembles the luminous dife formed by the image
of the cbject-glafs which is to be meafured, that the mode
of dividing this dife by the {crew may be illuftrative of the
mode of application to the meafurement of the a¢tual dife
formed with diftin& vifion, by the refracted rays that have
paffed through the eye-tube of a telefcope.

This inftrument forms, befides, a pleafing microfcope not
only for viewing, but for meafuring too, the real dimenfions of
any microfcopic objeét ; and when applied to a nicely divided
fcale, it may be afcertained whether or not the horn dife
is exatly ;,th of an inch in diameter ; viz. whether or not
five revolutions of the fcrew will bring the flrokes that in-
clude ~th of an inch into exa@t apparent coincidence; for
if not, a correction depending on the excefs or deficiency
mutt be applied to all meafures of a luminous dife, that are
to determine the total power of any telefcope ; or otherwife
the two lenfes of the eye-piece muft have their difance
between them fo adjufted, that: five revolutions will exa@ly
meafure ;!th of an inch; for as the two femi-lenfes, when
brought to have their centres coincident, conftitute one of the
two lenfes of a pofitive eye-piece, as in the pearl dynameter,
and as in Troughton’s micrometer, we have fhewn that
altering the diftance between thefe lenfes, will alter their
compound focus, and confequently their magnifying power,
on which the apparent magnitude of the luminous difc
depends. In ufing this initrument, the eye is applied above
the centre of the tube 4, over a in fig. 12, and the tube c is
ufed, as in the pearl dynameter, for adjuftment for diftin&
vifion of the difcs.

When Ramfden firft made the double-image dynameter,
as now conitruéted by Mr. Dollond, and as we have here
defcribed it, he found that there was fome play in the
ferews after they had been in ufe for fome time, fo that they
would not immediately obey the direét and retrograde
motions of the nut d; and that the lofs thus arifing affected
the meafure by the femi-lenfes, which did not move con-
temporaneoufly ; but in the inftrument under our examination
there is no fault of this kind.

The dynameter which Ramfden confidered as on an’ im-
proved conftruGtion, as it regards the imperfection juft
noticed, is now made by his pupil Thomas Jones, who, we
have faid, has alfo improved the pearl dynameter already
defcribed. Figs. 10. and-11. reprefent the interior parts of
Thomas Jones’s dynameter, which we have alfo before us;
there is no frame a here, but the tube 4 contains the lenfes
of the eye-piece, of which that next the eye is divided, as in
Dollond’s inftrument ; and the tube ¢ is the fame, except
that it carries a lens 4, with which the divifions on the fcale
f are read, when the dynameter has its pofition reverfed,
after the meafurement is finifhed. The nut d, and divided
head e, are alfo the fame as we have defcribed ; but the femi-
lenfes are not fixed in fliding-pieces of metal, fuch as we
have defcribed; neither is the fcrew fimilar to what we
have above noticed. Within the tube 4 is an interior
tube of much {maller diameter, and nearly of equal length,
which is divided longitudinally into two fimilar halves, which
turn on feparate pivots in a gimbal, or moveable ring, within
the remote end of the tube 4, and each femi-lens is fixed in
the nearer end of its own femi-tube. Thefe femi-tubes are
marked m and n refpetively in fiz. 10, and one of the
pivots in the ring is at 0; the other being at the oppofite
end of the diameter of the ring: the extreme ends of the
pivots turn in the tube 6. The fe€tion of the femi-tubes,
holding the femi-lenfes, is feen in fig. 11, woe with the
micrometer head and nut. The axis of the {crew is of bell-
ametal, and folid: the end neareft to the micrometer head has
threads of double finenefs to the end within the tube, and

5

the action is fo ingenioufly contrived, that the femi-lenfes ave
moved in contrary directions by the fame fcrew, notwith-
ftanding the threads all incline one way. The cylindrical nut
§ is tapped for the finer thread; and as this nut is ferewed
fait to the tube 4, as feen in fig. 11. more plainly, the for-
ward motion of this axis has its velocity guided by this fine
part of the ferew; and the end that enters the tube, prefles
againit a ftud 4, made fait to the femi-tube of the femi-lens
1; and a longitudinal counteraéting {pring concealed in tube
4, and made faft to it at the lower end, allows the femi-tube
to recede, but preffes it clofe to the end of the ferew ; then
another ftud /, made fait to the femi-tube of the femi-lens 25
is tapped for receiving the coarfer thread on the axis of the
fame fcrew, which thus gives a double retrograde velocity
to this femi-tube, compared with what it receives from the
puth of the finer {crew ; and as there are two threads in the
fine ferew for one in the ccarfe one, and as both are cut on
the fame axis, the apparent motion of the femi-lens 2, is
actually the difference of two contrary, but contemporaneous
motions; and thefe motions are fo flow, that five revolutions
are equal to 5!,th of an inch, and confequently the reading Is
in decimal numbers already. Otherwife, this dynameter is
applied exaétly as we have above explained.

Betides thefe dynameters, we have examineda doubleimage
one by Dollond, in which the micrometer head was divided
into forty parts, and in which the ivory dife was only ,!,th of
an inch, fo that 2.50 revolutions meafured the difc, and a
double meafure might be obtained by making the conta& of
the two difcs firft to the left and then to the right, in order
to make the error of zero vanifh, in which cafe half the fum
of the two meafures was the true meafure corre&ted for the
oppoiite errors of zero, and the graduated circle or head of
the micrometer turned ftiff on the axis of the ferew for ad-=
juftment to zero. This inftrument profeffed to have 5 x 40
= 200 divifions in 5th of an inch, and confequently only
2000 in an inch; but on examining the value of a revolution
with a fine feale, we found that 198 divifions meafured ,},th
of an inch: we will therefore exemplify the ufe of this
inftrument, by fhewing how the correétion for the imper-
fection of the fcale may be applied in aétual practice. In
the firft place, the {crew is turned in a retrograde direCtion
until conta& of the two difcs takes place to the left of the
original fingle difc ; in this fituation the 40 on the diyided
head muft be put to zero, or the lozenge marked as a
pointer to the micrometer head, and the ftroke indicated on
the {mall feale f, by another lozenge or index, mutt be noted ;
then turn the f{crew, firft till the two difcs unite in one, where
a fingle meafure might be taken, and then till they are again
in contaé to the right; in which fituation, the whole diameter
of one dife will-have croffed the whole diameter of the other,
and therefore the {crew and its parts will give a doud/e meafure
of the real diameter. In an aétual aia of a telefcope, this
double meafure was found to be two reyoltitions of the
fcrew, and 37 parts of the head, or 33 of another revolution ;
and on an average of feveral trials, ,!,th of an inch was found
not exaétly equal to 200, but to 198 of the divifions of the
head, as we have {tated above ; then 42 of ,\th of an inch
was the double meafure of the dife ; or »335 = .0295 of an
inch was the fingle meafure ; and the diameter of the object-
glafs being 3.24 inches, we have the power = =. —
110.1 with great correétnefs, the telefcope having been per-
vioufly adjulted for viewing the folar {pots. This was the
determination of the power of our tclefcope of 63.5 inches
focal diftance, when No. 4. of the celeftial eye-pieces was on ;
and in the fame way all the other powers, celeftial or eee

trial,

TELESCOPE.

trial, may as readily be obtained. TT. Jones’s conftruétion
is however more convenient for ufe, and is more accurate,
though it meafures only one difc, unlefs'the power be great,
and confequently the dife {mall. The divided head is fixed
faft to the axis of the ferew, and is divided into 100 parts,
500 of which meafure exa@ly ={,th of an inch, fo that the
inch is fub-divided into 10,000 of thefe parts, and the
decimal numbers are read off at once without calculation :
thus, when the dife is adjufted to appear fingle and well
defined, the index, which is the edge of the fcale f, ftands
at 100, or zero of the micrometer head, and the edge of the
circular rim of the head is coincident with the firft ftroke of
the feale; but when one revolution of the ferew has taken
place, the faid edge is found coincident with the fecond
ftroke of the fcale, and fo on, as the divided head revolves ;
whn the two difcs were brought into contaét, the quantity
indicated, as feen through a lens 4, was 2.95, viz. two re-
volutions, and 25, on the head of the fcrew; but in this
inftrument, five revolutions, we have faid, are equal to ,‘,th
of an inch, and therefore one revolution = ,4,, confequently
+2250, or 0295 of an inch, isthe meafure, as before; fo that
all that is requifite to do, in regiftering the meafures taken
with this inftrument, is to prefix a cipher to the figures
read off by infpeétion, and then the decimal quantity, or
divifor, is had, without further calculation, for atelefcope of
any aperture, either dioptric or cata-dioptric, and of any
conftruction.

In both Dollond’s and T.Jones’s dynameters the dife is
feen without diftorfion and without prifmatic colours, and
the inftrument forms a fingle microfcope of the moft ufeful
kind ; for, by the latter in particular, {mall objects may have
their dimenfions taken to the accuracy of +,35,th part of
an inch, and at the fame time the figures may be had by
infpeétion, from the fcale and its parts, to form places in
decimals when a cipher is prefixed, as we have above ex-
plained. The powers of our four telefcopes, with the eye-
piece of Troughton’s micrometer, were found by T’. Jones’s
double-image dynameter agreeably to the fubjoiued ftate-
ment 3 viz.

Tn. 1.50
0.15 focus - fise = 30.6 = power.
30-15 “049 3 P
45-75 ditto - = = 46.0 = ditto.
63.5 ditto - Fe =" Gdur ==) ditto
118.8 ditto - face =119.0 = ditto.
0252

In all the three determinations of powers, the adjuftment
for vifion was to a diftant ferreffrial object, and Hr aie
thefe are fomewhat too great. From the experience we have
had of thefe different modes of afcertaining the powers of a
telefcope, we have no hefitation in giving the preference to
the double-image dynameter, in which the two images may
be brought into very nice contaét: whereas in the pearl
dynameter, which is alfo very good, fomething is always left
to eftimation in taking the fraétional part of a divifion ; and
when falfe vifion is ufed, the adjuftment of the eyes to differ-
ent diftances, one within the telefcope and the other with-
out, at the fame time, leaves confiderable uncertainty in the
fize of the projeéted field of view, which will vary according
tu the ftate and pofition of the eye in every trial. We
mention this laft circum{tance as worthy of confideration,
becaufe feveral micrometrical determinations of the diftance
between double ftars have been made, particularly by fir W.

Herfchel, where the power of the telefcope determined by
falfe vifion is made in effect the feale of the meafure ; confe-
quently if the power fs not accurately affigned, the meafure
of the angular diftance depending on it will be proportion-
ably erroneous. Aftronomers, we repeat, are yet in
want of an unobjectionable mode of meafuring the angu-
lar diftances of very /mail double ftars, which cannot be feen
when extraneous light is admitted into the telefcope, and
which therefore have hitherto been projected on two lumi-
nous points, placed at meafured diftances from each other,
for the purpofe of afcertaining the apparent celeftial interval
in its magnified ftate, from a comparifon with a known ter-
reftrial interval in its unmagnified ftate, which method is
liable to confiderable uncertainty, and can only be admif-
fible upon the principle of its admitting of am average
taken from a fucceffion of meafures under different circum-
ftances.

We have already explained, in our preceding feGtion, how
the powers of any telefcope that has a terreftrial eye-tube, may
be varied by the application of the celeitial eye-pieces to the
eye-end of this, by the help of adapters, and therefore we
fhall only fay further on this part of our fubje€t, that how-
ever the power is varied by changes of pofition of the eye-
pieces, or by additional field-glafies, any of the dynameters
will give the total power, under any of the difpofitions, by
the fimple meafurement of the difc, which we have explained ;
but fhould there be any doubt about the exc/ufion of the rays
incident on the extreme circular edge of the objeét-glafs by
the diaphragm, or by Troughton’s new illuminator, a mea-
fured circle, or long flip of paper, ftuck to the face of the
object-glafs, muft neceflarily be fubftituted for the glafs itfelf,
which we were obliged to do with three out of the four of
our telefcopes, and then its image at the eye muft be fubfti-
tuted for the di/c, that we have hitherto detcribed true
image of the glafs itfelf, which it will be only when all the
rays are tran{mitted and refra¢ted to a focus at the place of
the faid dife or image.

In all refraGting telefcopes, that are not achromatic, of
which indeed very few are now made, the indiflin@ne/s of an
object is direétly as the area of the aperture, and inverfely
as the fquare of the focal diftanee of the eye-glafs, when this
is fingle, becaufe the aberrations are proportional to thefe
data ; but in a refle&ting telefcope, the indiftin&nefs will be,
with {pherical curves, as the fixth power of the diameter of
the large fpeculum direétly, and as the fourth power of its
focal diftance inverfely, and alfo as the fquare of the focal
diftance of the eye-glafs inverfely.

The /ight in any telefcope, refra&ting or refleGting, if we
difregard what is loft by reflection, is dire@tly as the fquares
of the linear apertures, and inverfely as the fquare of their
linear amplifications.

In refracting telefcopes of various lengths, not achromatic,
a given obje& will appear equally bright and diftin&, when
their linear apertures, and the focal diftances of their fingle
eye-glaffes, are feverally in a fubduplicate ratio of their
lengths, or focal diftances of their objeét-glaffes : and then
alfo their linear amplifications will be ina fubduplicate ratio
of their focal lengths. But in reflecting telefcopes, and in
the beft achromatic refra&tors, of various lengths, a given
obje& will appear equally bright and equally diftin&, when
their linear apertures, and alfo their linear amplifications, are
as the fquare-fquare roots of the cubes of their lengths ; and
confequently when the focal diftances of their eye-glaffes
are allo as the fquare-fquare roots of their lengths. See
Smith’s Optics, p. 140, et feq. «

6. Meafures taken by Micrometrical his Meer the
primary ufe of a telefcope is to render a diftant objeét

vifible,

TELESCOPE.

vifible, by amplifying the vifual angle, yet its application
to the meafurement of {mall angles was an obje& that en-

aged the aftronomer’s attention at no great diitance of time
aie its invention. When the apparent diameters of the pla-
netary bodies had once been increafed, fo.as to fubtend an
appreciable angle at the eye of the obferver, it foon became
a matter of intereft to meafure thofe angles in their enlarged
ftate. We have already given the deicription of the ane!
ent MicroMeTeErs that have been fucceflively applied to a
telefcope for the purpofe of meafuring minute angles, and
terreftrial diftances correfponding thereto ; but we have re-
ferved our account of the means proper to be ufed in thefe
operations, as conitituting a portion of our prefent article.
We propofe to illuftrate the ufe of a few of the moft accu-
rate and ufeful micrometers by fuch examples, as will fuf-
fice to render the application of any other micrometer in-
telligible.

When an object to be viewed is remote, the rays of light
which proceed from it may be confidered as coming from it
in parallel lines, and in this cafe the focus of the object-glafs,
or fpeculum, is the fhorteft poffible ; confequently, the
power of the inftrument depending on this focal diftance, is
the {malleft poffible with the fame eye-piece ; but the rays
which proceed from a near objeét, come to the objeét-glafs
or {peculum diverging, and confequently do not come to a
focus fo foon as in the former cafe; fo that the power is
greater than when a diftant pee is viewed. This variation
of power depending on the diftance of the obje& viewed, is
accompanied by a new adjuftment of the eye-piece for diftin@
vifion in every telefcope of confiderable magnitude ; and the
longer the focus of the object-glafs is, the greater is the va-
riation of power with the fame variation of diftance. Hence
the angle that is meafured by any of the micrometers at-
tached to a telefcope, is the true angle only when the objeé&
fubtending that angle is remote ; and a corre¢tion, depend-
iag both on the diftance and focal length of the telefcope,
becomes neceffary for converting the apparent meafured
angle into the ¢rue one. To a want of attention to this cir-
cumftance in the pra@ical application of micrometrical tele-
{copes to the meafurement of terreftrial diftances, is princi-
pally to be attributed the failure of their fuccefs; and
celeftial objects have confequently engroffed their utility
almoft exclufively. We conceive, therefore, that we fhall
render our readers an acceptable fervice by fhewing, not
only how {mall celeftial angles may be meafured by a tele-
{cope fitted up with an accurate micrometer, but alfo how
terreftrial angles, fubtended by objeéts at various diftances,
may be afcertained, and their correfponding diftances be ob-
tained with great accuracy; and that by fimple vifion at
one ftation, when the diftance is not very confiderable. The
compofer of the prefent article has made experiments with
different micrometers adapted to telefcopes of various
lengths, and can therefore illuftrate the theory by a@ual
examples in fufficient variety. s

Celeftial Meafures.—When a micrometer of any defcrip-
tion, mechanical or optical, is propofed to be ufed with a
telefcope, it is neceflary that the value of one of its divifions
be afcertained with that identical telefcope when viewing a
remote obje¢t, fuch as a heavenly body ; or otherwife, that a
correCtion for diftance be applied previoufly to the deter-
mination of fuch value. We will firft fuppofe the objec at
a fufficient diftance to require no correction for want of
parallelifm of the rays of light, and will fhew how to ap-
preciate the micrometrical fcale for fuch remote diftance
without correGtion. The diameter of the fun has been fo
well afcertained by a¢tual meafurement of the beft inftru-
ments, from month to month, and from year to year, that it

Vor. XXXV.

may be taken from the Nautical Almanac, or Connoiffance
des Tems, on any given day, as a ftandard, from which the
value of a correfponding number of divifions on the feale of
the micrometer may be affigned with great accuracy, after
allowance is made for apparent variation in the fun’s dia-
meter by altitude; and when the number 6f minutes and
feconds correfponding to a certain number of divifions on
the feale is afcertained, the value of one divifion is readily
obtained by dividing the whole number of minutes and
feconds by the whole number of divifions that meafure the
faid quantity.: and then whatever may have been the error
of the obfervation, as affeGting the whole feale, the quan-
tity of it belonging to one divifion will be only 54, 3!55 or <y
of the whole, accordingly as there were 30, 40, or 50 divi-
fions in the feale that corref{ponded to the corre& diameter
of the fun. For inftance, on the 7th of Auguit 1815, the
fun’s diameter was meafured at noon by a Troughton’s
micrometer, attached to a five-feet refracting achromatic
telefcope made by Tulley, and was found to be equal to
60.65 turns of the fcrew, when taken in a vertical dire@ion,
while the fun paffed horizontally between the two parallel
{pider’s lines in the focus of the eye-piece. In this fituation
the altitude of the fun was fo great, that the difference
between the refraGtions of the upper and lower limbs was
infenfible, and therefore may be negleted in the calculation
of the value of the fcale of notches that indicate the revolu-
tions of the fcrew. On this day, the femi-diameter of the
fun, as given in the Nautical Almanac, was 15! 48.3, and
the notches correfponding to the fun’s diameter were 60.65,

or 60 entire notches, and $5 taken from the divided head

U "
of the fcrew; then ou G83 Se
60.65
one notch, or revolution of the fcrew, according to this ob-
fervation. Again, on the rsth of Otober, of the fame
year, the fun’s diameter, at nine o’clock A. M., was found
equal to 61.50 revolutions of the fame ferew, ufed with the
fame telefcope, when the fun’s femi-diameter is given 16! 4".8,
or the diameter 32! 9".6; but at the low altitude at which this
meafure was taken, the difference of the two refraGtions of
the upper and lower limbs amounted, by the table of refrac-
tions, to 2!.6, to be fubtraéted from the real to produce the
apparent diameter, becaufe the vertical diameter was eon-
traéted by this quantity, the lower limb being more elevated
by refra€tion than the upper one ; therefore, according to
32! 7!
: 61.5
each revolution; heme the average of the two mea-
fures, taken at different times, and at different altitudes, is

= 31".24 is the value of

this obfervation, the value comes out = 31.23 for
31-33

” "
sue] + 30-33 = 31.3, which determination accords with
meafures taken at other periods, and alfo with terreftrial
meafures fubfequently taken, as will appear hereafter.

When this value of the micrometer’s revolutions was af-
certained, the folar focus of the obje@t-glafs was exaély
meafured, and found to be 63.5 inches. Three other achro-
matic telefcopes were then procured, and had the fame mi-
crometer adapted to them refpectively, by as many rings of
brafs, which had each a male and a female {crew : the former
to {crew into the tube of its telefcope, and the latter to re-
ceive the coarfe thread of the micrometer; which rings we,
have called adapters. The focal lengths of the refpective
objeé-glafles were found by accurate meafurement to be

30.15, 45-75, and 418.3 inches; and the correfponding
Oo values

TELESCOPE.

values of the micrometer’s revolution, found as above de-
{eribed, were 66!.0, 431.5, and 16".8; viz. exactly in the
inverfe proportion of their focal lengths, as the theory re-
quires. ‘Hence, when the value of the micrometer is known
with a telefcope of a known focal length, its value may be
had, when’ applied to any other telefcope of a determined
focal length, by reciprocal proportion ; for as 30.15 in. =
63.5 in. :: 31.3 : 66.03 and converfely, when the values
gre known, and the focal length of one of the telefcopes, the
focal lengths of all the others may be determined ; which is

equally the cafe with the powers, depending folely on the
focal lengths when the fame ‘eye-piege is ufed with each.
When the values of the micrometer fcrew had been deter-
mined, both by meafurement of the fun, and by mutual. com-
parifon of the focal lengths of the four achromatic tele-
{copes, the two following tables were conftructed to facili-
tate the ufe of the micrometer with any or all of the faid
telefcopes, which we fubjoin as a fpecimen by which other
tables may be conftruéted by the fimple arrangement of the
multiples of the value of unity.

Tasre I.—Values of entire Revolutians of the Micrometer’s Screw, with four different Telefcopes.

Revol. |

|——

| | ual ee A} , on Pee a

; % ..6 O 43-5 O 313 o 16.8
2 Zz) a2 I 27.0 y (2.6 oO 33-6
5 | ihe a 2 10.5 1 33-9 O 50.4
45 A zy 2 54.0 215s I 2

1 54 5 39 | 3 375 | 2 36:5 | 1 24.0

| 6 6 36 4 21.0 3}.0758 1 40.8
7 7 42 5 45 | 3 391 | 1 57-6
8 8 48 5 48.0 4 10.4 2 14-4,

1 9} 9 54 | 6 3m5 -) 4 41-7 | 2 31-2

} 10 Dio Fie Leao 5 . 13:0 z 48.0
rl 12 6 7 58.5 5 44-3 3 4.8
12 13 12 8 42.0 6 15.6 3 21.6
13 14.18 Q 25.5 6 46.9 3 38-4
14 15 24 Io 9.0 4 18.2 3 55-2
15 16 30 IO 52.5 7 49-5 4 12.0
r6 |). 17 36 It 36.0 8 20.8 4 28.8
‘17 18 42 I2 19.5 8 52.1 4 45.6
1] 19 48 | 13° 3-0 | 9 23-4 | 5 2-4
19 | 20 54 | 13 405 9 547 | 5 19-2
2018.22, 0 14 30.0 | 10 26.0 5 36.0
21 23 6 15 13.5 TO 57.3 B25
22 7 NE © 15 57:0 11 28.6 6 9.6
23 Mo Zbi 2S 16 40.5 Il 59-9 6 26.4
24). 26. 245) 909 24.0; | 12 3X2 6 43-2
25} 27 30 18 7.54] 13.255 | 7 0.0
26 | 28 36 |, 38 51.0 | 13+ 33.3 7 16.8
27, |. 29 42x15 19 34:5 | 14 5-t 7 33-6
28 | 30 48 20 18.0 | 14 36:4 7 50.4.
29 |] 3% 54 P23 les Vie 57 8 7.2
39 | 33:0 2¥ 45.0 | 15) 39.0 8 24.0

TABLE

‘

TELESCOPE.

Taste 11.—Value of the Parts of the Micrometer’s Screw, with four different Telefcopes.

“ a \

+O1 0.7 0.3 0.2 935 s\023-Eo bons.2 10.9 5-9 :

+02 1.3 0-6 | 0.3 -36 | 23-8 | 15.6 | 11.3 6.0 ;

+03 2.0 0.9 O5 37 |} 24-4 | 16.1 | 11.6 6.2 -

04 2.6 1.2 0-7 238 | 25-1 |. 16.5 | 11.9 6.3 j

+05 3-3 . 1.6 | 08 +39 | 25-8 | 17.0 | 12.2 | 6.5 -

-06 4.0 . 1.9 1.0 40 | 26.4 | 17.4 | 1265 6.7 4

07 4-6 é ee 1.2 AY "27.0 | 17.82) 0258 6.9 ;

08 | 5-3 3.5 2.5 1.3 -42 | 27-8 | 18.3. | 13.1 7:0 .f

+09 5-9 3-9 2.8 1.5 43, | 28.4 | 18.7 | 13.5) | y2 :

+10 6.6 4:3 Bek ite) -44 | 29.1 | 19.1 | 13.8 704. ;

+I 7-3 4.8 3.4 1.8 “45 | 29-7 |_19.5) | 14st 735. :

+12 8.0 5-2 3.8 2.0 -46 | 30.4 | 20.0 | 14.4 | 25.0

+13 8.6 BeOp4|) 14.5 2.2 47 | 31-0 | 20.4 | 14.7 7-9 25-3

+14 9-2 6.1 4-4 2.3 48 |-31.7 |.20.9 | 15.0 8.0 25.7

“15 9:9 6.5 4-7 Fis AQ | 32-4 | 21.2 | 25.3 8.2 -83 } 54.8 | 36.1 |- 26.0 } 14:0
FG. |)t0:6° ||| 17-0: | 15.0 2.7 5° | 33-0 | 21.7 | 15.6 | 8.4 684 | 5575 | 36.5 | 26.3] 14.1
«17 >} 11.2 7:4 5-3 2.8 5I | 33-7 | 22-1 °| 16.0 8.5 85 | 56.2 | 37.0 | 26.6] 14.3
18 | Ir.9 7.8 5:6 3-0 -52 | 34-4 | 22.6 | 16.3 8.7 86 | 56.8 | 37.4 | 26.9 | 14.4
19 | 12.5 8.3 5-9 3.2 53 | 35-0 | 23.0 | 16.6 | 8.9 [ .87 | 57-5 | 37.8 | 27.2 | 14.6
+20 | 13.2 8.7 6.3 3.3 54 | 35-7 | 23-4 | 169 | go | -88 } 58.1 | 38.3 | 2705 | 14.8
say HAE S.6 9.1 6.6 3.5 BS 20.8" |! 23-owany~2 9:2 89 | 58.8 | 38.7 | 247.9 | 14.9
22 | 14-5 | 9-6 | 6.9 | 3-7 | -56 | 37-0 | 24-3 117-5 | 94 | -90 | 59-4 | 39.3 | 28.2 | 15.0
+23 | 15.1 y 7-2 | 3-9 57 137-7 | 24-7 127-8 955 gt | 60.1 | 39.6 | 28.5 | 15.2
24 | 15.8 7.5 4.0 58 | 38.3 | 25.2 | 18.1 7 :

25 | 16.5 7.8 4-2 59 | 38-9 | 25.6 | 18 9:9

-26 | 17.2 8.1 4:3 39-6 | 26.1 | 18.8 :

-27 | 17.8 8.4 4.5 6r | 40.3 | 26.5 | 19.1 :

28 | 18.5 8.8 4:7 62 | 41-0 | 26.9 | 19.4

+29 | 19.2 g-1 4-9 63 | 41:7 | 27-4 | 19-7

+30 | 19.8 9.4. 5-0 64 | 42.2 | 27.8 | 20.0

231 | 20.5 9-7 5.2 65 | 42-9 | 28.3 4 20.3

32 | 23.2 10.0 5-3 66 | 43.6 | 28.7 | 20.7

-33 | 21.8 10.3 Goh; 67 | 44.3 | 29.1 {| 21.0

034°} 22.5 10.6 Cea) 68 | 44.9 | 29.6 | 21.3

The ufe of thefe tables will be beft underftood from a
few real examples.

a. The fun’s diameter was taken by Troughton’s micro-
meter, applied to the telefcope of 45.75 inches focal length,
on the 27th of May 1815, when his altitude was fo high
as to require no correétion for the difference of the two re-
fraétions of the lower and upper limbs, and was found equal
to 43.62 turns of the ferew: then by Table I. 43 =
gr! ro".5, and by Table II. .62 = 26".9, the fum of
which is 31! 37".4, the diameter given in the Nautical
Almanac being 31! 37’. In this obfervation the thicknefs
of the f{pider’s line was allowed for.

2. On the 7th of Auguft 1815, the fun’s diameter at
noon meafured 60.60 turns, when the micrometer was ufed
with the telefcope of 63.5 inches focal length ; whence we
have 60 in Table I. = 31! 18", and .60 in Table (1. =
18.8, making together 31! 36.8, the diameter in the
Nautical Almanac for that day being 15! 48.3 x 2 =
31! 36.6. When thefe meafures were taken, the telefcope
was on an equatorial itand, and the parallel lines were fo
placed, that the fun’s body paifed along the fpaee con-
tained between them, without any apparent variation of

30.15 45-75 | 63-5 | 118.3 Parts. | 30.15 145-75 | 63.5

118.3] Parts. | 30.15 | 45-75

~
=

altitude, which pofition is neceflary in every obfervation
taken with Troughton’s micrometer, when the objet has
an apparent motion.

3- On the .14th of Auguft 1815, the moon’s diameter
was meafured about g P.M. not far from the meridian,
when her altitude was about 18°, with Troughton’s micro-
meter, attached to the telefcope of 45.75 inches focus, and
was found equal to 41.52 turns of the fcrew ; the horizon-
tal femi-diameter, according to the Nautical Almanac, be-
ing at noon 15! 4", and at midnight 15! o!, confequently as
the time 15/1’. To the horizontal diameter 30! 2!', add the
augmentation at 18° altitude, (from Table IV. of the re-
quifite tables,) viz. 5", and the diameter in altitude will be
30' 7. Now from Table I. take the value of 41 turns
= 29! 43".5, and from Table II. take the value of .52 =
22".6; the fum of which two values will be 30! 6!.1,
which mutt be increafed by 5!’, the difference -of refraGtion
at 18°, and 18° 30! of altitude; fo that the diameter, when
the reduétions are all made; is too great by 4" nearly,
which error may be in the lunar tables, or in the obferva-
tion, which was made when the moon’s age was only eleven
days, and therefore under an ynfavourable circumftance ;

Oo2z for

TELESCOPE.

for in this fituation the illuminated portion of the moon is
always apparently larger than the dark portion, —

4. The fun’s diameter was again taken at nine o’clock
A.M. on the 15th of Ofober, with the tclefcope of 63.5
inches, and was found equal to 61.56 turns, when the alti-
tude was fuch as to require an addition of 2'.6 for the va-
riation of the refra€tion in half a degree of altitude ; and
here we have from Table 1. 60 + 1 = 31! 18" + 31.3 =
31! 49".3, and from Table II. .56 = 17".5, making, to-

ether with + 2!.6 the correétion, the fum 32! 9'.4, the
Sine given in the Nautical Almanac being 16! 4!.8 x 2
= 32! o!'.6. !

i all thefe examples, as well as in the data from which
the preceding tables were computed, Troughton’s microme-
ter was ufed as a celeftial eye-piece, where the obje& was
confequently inverted, which is the manner in which this
micrometer was intended to be ufed; but according to the
conftruétion of the modern terreftrial eye-tube, this micro-
meter may be fubftituted, by help of an adapter, for the
two glaffes at the eye-end of this tube, in which fituation
the magnifying power is very confiderably increafed, and
confequently the {cale rendered capable of meafuring {maller
portions of a fecond, than in the ufual way, particularly
when there is light enough in the field of view, 7. e. when
the objeét-glafs has a large diameter. When the microme-
ter in quettion is applied to the eye-end of the terreftrial
tube of the telefcope of 45.75 inches, one turn is equal
to only 16.03, which fhews the power to be fomewhat
greater than when the 118.8 inches telefcope was ufed as a
celeftial telefcope with the fame micrometer ; and with the
telefcope of 63.5 inches, which has three pair of feparate
field-glaffes, the terreftrial powers with the faid micrometer
gives the ref{pective values of one turn of the fcrew 9!.97,
7.98, and 5".15 ; fo that this telefcope has four various va-
lues of the micrometrical f{cale, which may be ufed in fuc-
ceffion for meafuring the fame angle, according to circum-
ftances, and each variety may have a feparate table computed
for its particular ufe. This application of Troughton’s
micrometer to the terreftrial tube, and the additional pairs
of field-glaffes, were contrived by the author of this article,
and led to another addition, which in itfelf admits of ftill
greater varieties. On obferving that the modern terreftrial
eye-tube is in faét a compound microfcope, it occurred to him,
that there are three modes of increafing the power of this
inftrument ; firft, by fhortening the compound focus of the
eye-glafles ; fecondly, by fhortening the compound focus of
the pair of field-glafles ; and thirdly, by lengthening the dif-
tance between ‘the compound eye-glafs and compound field-
glafs (or objeét-glafs of the microfcope). The two former
modes had now been tried, and afforded the varieties in the
meafures which we have f{pecified: the laft one was therefore
reforted to thus ; a tube was made to flide within the terref-
trial tube, after its own eye-piece was withdrawn, and the
micrometer was made to {crew into this moveable tube, fo
as to vary the diftance of the micrometer glaffes from the
field-glaffes of the telefcope at pleafure. The refult proved
as was expected ; every new pofition for diftance gave a new
value to the feale of the micrometer, and the two extremes
of thefe values, with the 63.5 inch telefcope, were 10! and
5! refpectively per revolution of the fcrew ; at leaft the
points were found by experiment on the fliding tube, where
thefe values, and alfo the intermediate ones 9", 8", 7!, and
6!' per revolution, were marked with a graver. The dif-
tances of thefe points depended on the field-glaffes ufed
with the fliding tube; and three fets of points were inferted,
to correfpond to the three pairs of field-glaffes, any one of
which admitted the {cale to be fubdivided into tenths of a

10

fecond. This mode of applying a fliding micrometer in the
terreftrial tube is as ufeful as novel; for when the pofition is
made for an exact number of feconds per turn of the ferew,
the tables are difpenfed with; the ri i operation being to
multiply the number of turns by the number of feconds be-
longing to the pofition of the fliding tube, and then to re-
duce them to minutes by 60 as a divifor. A few exam i.
will render thefe new methods of ufing the micrometer Oe
fe€tly intelligible, and will at the fame time fhew that they
contribute greatly to accuracy, by a fpecies of repetition of
the meafure, of which they are capable. We will firft ex-
emplify the method without the fliding tube.

1. The meafures of Jupiter’s diameter, taken by the 63.5
inch telefcope on the r9th of April 1816, were as follow :
By Troughton’s micrometer ufed Mt "

as a eet eye-piece - at3 X33
By N° 1. of the field-glaffes with

the terreftrial tube t 3:25 * OO) ae

By N° 2. of ditto - - 5+53 X 7-908 = 44.

By N° 3. of ditto - - 8.32 x fag = its}
4) 173-98

Average of the four meafures =. are = 43-495

The values of the three field-glaffes had been taken by
terreftrial meafurement at 700 feet, on the 31ft of March
1816, and may require farther corre¢tion.

2. On the 30th of April 1816, Jupiter being very nearly
in oppofition, his diameter was meafured with the 45.75 inch
telefcope, which has only two varieties, a celeftial and a ter-
reltrial application of the micrometer, and the refult was -
thus: viz.

By the celeftial meafure, taken to the bd
right of zero : - aes ie

By the fame, taken to the left of zero - 1.05 ditto. _

2)2.09
; a a ;
By the terreftrial meafure 2.72 x 16!.03 aoe
2)87.02

The average of the celeftial and terreftrial meafures = 43-5 I

3- On the 25th of OGober 1815, the following meafures
were taken of the diameter of Mars with Troughton’s mi-
crometer attached to the fliding tube of the telefcope 63.5
inches; viz.

Firft pofition at the dot of 7! aplaicn “ “

with third field-glafs 3-43 5 7 ave
Second pofition with ditto - 2906x 8 = 23.68
Third pofition with ditto - 2.68 X (9) = 2ner
Fourth pofition with ditto - .2-40X 10 = 24,00
With N° 1. field-glafs and its

dot 4! x z Z 6.0 X 4 '= 24.00
With N° 2. field-glafs and its

dot 8! Y 4 c t 30 X 8 = 24.00

With the micrometer ufed as a
i 0-77 X 31.3 = 24.10

celeftial eye-piece » .

7)167-91

23.987
Thefe

TELESCOPE.

‘Thefe obfervations of Mars were made near the meridian,
when he was a little paft oppofition, and confequently when his
diameter was near a maximum, which circumitance we mention,
becaufe aftronomers have given very difcordant accounts of
the apparent diameter of this planet ; and perhaps no deter-
mmation has been more accurate than we have here given.

The fun’s diameter was meafured at noon on the 24th
MIS ptember 1816, by Troughton’s micrometer adapted
to the 30.15 inch telefcope, in the following manner; viz.

ul / “
29-21 X 65.7 = 31 59.1

By the celeftial power -
By the terreftrial, with the eye-

fie Wet agen go" i 63.92 K 30 = 31 57.6
By the terreitrial, at dot 28" 68.50 x 28. = 31 58.0
By the terreftrial, at dot 25" TO. AS a2 ai ee Ga

4)127 53.2 «

= 31 58.3

Average meafure =
= 31 58.2

By the Nautical Almahac 15! so".1 x 2

On the fliding tube of this telefcope, the dots on the fcale
run from 31" to 19", at which dots the powers are to each
other inverfely as thefe numbers ; but the whole diameter of
the fun cannot be taken on the {cale of the micrometer when
a greater power is ufed, than when the pofition is at
dot 25", or middle dot of the fliding tube, where the power
is about 82.

In thefe four examples, the diameters meafured were the
vertical diameters, for taking which Troughton’s microme-
ter is peculiarly adapted ; but the horizontal diameter of a
body in motion cannot be taken with the fame accuracy with
this inftrument, on account of the difficulty of keeping the
extreme edges of the object in contact with the {pider’s
lines, while the final adjuftment of the meafure is making.
For this purpofe, Dollond’s divided obje@-glafs micrometer
is more conyenient, and may have its {cale appreciated, and
the values thereof tabulated in the way we have already ex-
plained. For inftance, we obtained a divided obje&t-glafs,
with the requifite adjuftments both for circular motion and
for the feparation of the centre of the femi-lenfes, of three
inches and a half diameter, and fitted it over the objeét-end
of the 45.75 inch achromatic of Tulley, while the original
objeét-glafs, of the fame dimenfions, remained in its place.
The focus of this divided obje¢t-glafs was fo long, that it
fhortened the original focus only to 40.3 inches. he fcale
of the obje€t-glafs is divided into inches and twentieth parts
_ of an inch, one of which parts or fubdivifions is again re-
duced by a vernier into twenty-five fubordinate parts, fo
that 5!, of -',, or {th of an inch, is the {malleft quantity
appreciable by the vernier. On the oth of Auguit 1816,
when the fun’s diameter was 31! 37", or 1897", the oppofite
limbs of the two apparent images of the fun coincided
when the fcale indicated three inches, one-twentieth part,
and eleven towards 25 on the vernier, after an allowanee
was made for the index error by a croffed obfervation of a
very fmall angle. Now thefe numbers reduced into the
loweft denomination, give 1536 parts of the vernier, and

1897!"
1536
a terreftrial meafurement, to be explained hereafter, the
value taken at 700 feet diftance, with a corre€tion for want
of parallelifm of the rays at this diftance, the value came

= 1".235 is the value of one of thofe parts; but by

"
out = 1'.245; the average of which two determina-

tions, unconnected with each other, is 1.24 for each unit
read on the vernier, and this determination was afterwards
confirmed by an obfervation of the fun taken on the 25th

"W
September 1816, viz. eet
1549

= v.24 very nearly. After
having given a value to Dollond’s micrometer thus fitted up,
on the 21it of Auguit 1816, the diameter of Saturn’s ring
was meafured when its longer diameter was very nearly hori-
zontal, both to the right and left of zero, and was found
equal to one fubdivifion and 7.7 on the vernier, or 25 + 7.7
= 32.7'parts of the vernier ; then 32.7 x 1".24 = 4o!.548
is the meafure of the greateft length of Saturn’s ring taken
near the meridian, when the paflage was at‘nearly 28 minutes
paft eleven P.M. ; and, confequently, when the planet was at
no greater diftance than eight days from oppofition. On
the 4th of Auguft 1815, the greateft diameter of Saturn’s
ring however, meafured with Troughton’s micrometer at-
tached to the 63.5 inch telefcope, had been found by
careful meafurement = 1.50 x 31".3 = 46!.95, the planet
being then only three days from oppofition. By the
fame apparatus the ring had been made 48".2 on the roth
of September 1815, and on the 25th of the fame month
only 43". Thefe difcrepancies fhew that no dependence can
be placed in horizontal meafures made with Troughton’s
micrometer when the obje&t is in apparent motion, but for all
other meafures of {mall angles, it is no doubt the beit that
has been yet invented.

Dr. Brewfter’s micrometer has the fame advantage 2s
Dollond’s, when the divided lens is ufed as the fliding lens
within the tube; but the power of the patent telefcopes
hitherto conftruGted is fo fmall, that an angle can feldom be
meafured with it nearer than to 10", and frequently not fo
near. The principle, however, is applicable to telefcopes
of larger dimenfions.

When Dollond’s and Troughton’s micrometers are both
applied to the telefcope of 45.75 inches, the value of the
{cale of Troughton’s becomes altered from 43!'.5 to 49!'.4,
namely, in the inverfe ratio of the diminifhed focus; and
they may both be ufed with great convenience at the fame
time, in which cafe, one may meafure the angular length
and the other'the angular breadth of the fame body; or,
if the body be celeftial, one may give the horizontal and
the other the vertical dimenfions at the fame inftant. This
mode of applying two micrometers, one optical and the
other mechanical, at the fame time, affords a mutual check
on the meafures of each, when the body is round, like one
of the heavenly bodies, and gives a very fatisfactory refult,
when it can be adopted. When Troughton’s micrometer
is ufed as a celeftial eye-piece, along with Dollond’s micro-
meter attached to the telefcope 45.75, fhortened to 40.3,
the double images are formed beyond both eye-glaffes,
reckoning from the eye, and gives there 1/.24 as the value
of one ftroke on the vernier; whereas when a common
celeftial eye-piece is ufed with Dollond’s, the fecond glafs
of the compound piece fhortens the focus of the obje@-
glafs a little, and the images are feen between the two
glafles of the eye-piece; confequently the value of Dol-
lond’s micrometer varies a trifle with every different eye-
piece, which is not the cafe with Troughtori’s, where the
Image is always in the unaltered focus of the objeét-glafs.
On the 26th of September 1816, a careful feries of ob-
fervations was made of the fun’s diameter with both Trough-
ton’s and Dollond’s micrometers ufed at the fame time,
when the former gave 38.85 x 49'.4 = 31! 59".2, and the
other 15.47 (3 in. 1 div. 22 on vern.) x 1.21 = 31!
58".28, the diameter of the fun by the Nautical Almanac
being

TELESCOPE.

being 31! 59!.2 horizontally, and 31! 57!'.9 vertically, at the
altitude of 38°.

Terrefrial Meafures.—In the examples which we have
given of celeftial angular meafures taken, by a microme-
trical telefcope, no correétion of the meafured angle was
neceflary, becaufe the rays of light coming from thefe objects
may be confidered as parallel on entering the obje¢t-glafs,
and.as always conyerging to the fame focal point, where the
image is formed ; hence the magnifying power of the celef-
tial telefcope does not vary. But when terreftrial iy a
are viewed at different. diftances, there is a deviation from
parallelifm in the courfe of the rays, which increafes in the
inverfe ratio of the diftance, and which lengthens the focus
of the objeét-glafs, and confequently increafes the power
of the inftrument, even with the fame glaffes. ‘This altera-
tion in the effective length of a telefcope is prattically dif-
covered by the adjuftment of the eye-piece for diftin& vifion,
which is neceffarily different at different diftances from the
objet viewed. But we have fhewn, that the fcales of
Troughton’s and of Dollond’s micrometers will vary with
the variable powers of even the fame telefcope, and there-
fore will require a corre¢tion for each variety of power, or,
in other words, for each variety of terreftrial diftance.
The determination of thefe varying corre¢tions, therefore,
is effential to the accuracy of the meafures taken by a mi-
erometer in all cafes, where the incident rays of light come
diverging from objets placed at moderate diftances. If we
put 7 for the folar or principal focus of the objeét-glafs of
any telefeope, and d for the diftance of an obje& from the
faid object-glafs when ufed, the addition to the length
of the folar focus, which we will call e, according to the

f>

d—f

that is, the fquare of the folar focus, divided by the dif-
tance in the fame meafure, when diminifhed by one focal
diftance, will be the elongation, or excefs of the lengthened
focus over the folar focus; then as the powers are to each
other refpectively as the focal lengths, with the fame eye-
piece, we fhall have f: f + ¢ :: true angle : meafured or
apparent angle ; and conyerfely, as f + ¢: f:: apparent

=>

Jaws of dioptrics, may be found by this theorem,

¢

angle : true aggle. For inftance, let it be required to
afcertain what is the neveflary correétion for an angle, mea-
fured by a telefcope of 63.5 inches focus, that is fubtended
by one oe at a hundred s diftance from the objeét-
ee y a fimple cafe in plain trigonometry, the true angle
ubtended by a yard, at a hundred yards diftance, is 34? ~
59-4, er 34.99; and 63.5 inches are 1.764, when reduced —
into the denomination of yards and decimal parts; then

1.764 X 1.764 © 3.111696 _ Z ;
100 — 1.764 98.236 0.03167 = e, the pie:

'

lencth of the focus; and 1:194.4..0:0396]; Xi 94099 =
1.704
35'.618, or 35! 37".08 will be the meafured angle, therefore
35! 37.08 — 34! 59.4 = 37".68 is the correétion to be
added to the true angle, in order to obtain the apparent
angle, that would have been the true angle alfo, if the focus
of the objeét-glafs had remained unaltered at the diftance of
100 yards. But it is the correction anfwering to the’ appa-
rent or meafured angle that we want, and the dierilgtion
of this requires a tranfpofition which is operofe, and there-
fore obje€tionable in praétice ; on which account we recom-
mend cach furveyor, military taCtician, and leveller, who is
difpofed to avail himfelf of the ufe of a micrometrical tele:
{cope, for fhortening his labours, to ufe tables adapted té
the focal length of his own telefcope, which may give by in-
fpeétion the correction proper in all cafes for T dott the
apparent angle into the true one, and vice verfa. Tables IIT.
and IV. which are fubjoined, were computed for this pur-
pofe, from the theorem juft exemplified, and are adapted for
a telefcope of 63.5 inches focal length, to which wé have
added Table V., as a general table for finding the diftance,
in yards and decimal, parts, correfponding to any angle,
from 1! to 30! 59" inclufively ; even to the scchiapra a
fingle fecond, when that angle is fubtended by an exaét yard.
The labour of conftruGing thefe tables has been confiderable,
but the facility and accuracy with which they give the de-
fired refults, has-amply repaid the computer, and, it is pre~
fumed, will be a recommendation to the notice of. our
{cientific readers, to whom their application may i many
cafes be found ufefulk

TABLE

TELESCOPE.

Taste I1].—For converting the true into the Tasie [V.—For converting the apparent iuto the
apparent Angle. true Angle.

WO MOIAMBW NH

Aan

Or NP OAOWn~I KAI

8.47
SB ih| SEES
10.63] 10.82}
11.79] 11.99
13.04] 13.26}
14.32] 14.53]
15-63] 15.86]
17-05 | 17-29
18.49| 18.74
20.03 | 20.29
21.60] 21.87
23.24] 23.52
° 24.95 | 25-24
26.71 | 27.017
28.52] 28.83
0.41} 30.73
PEL S68
34-33 | 34-67]
36.38 | 36.73
38.51 | 38.87
36 | 39-23 |. 39-59) 39-95 | 40.31 | 40.67 | 41.03
37 | 41.40] 41.77] 42.14] 42.51 | 42.88] 43.25
38 | 43.62! 44.00) 44.38) 44.76| 45.15 | 45.54
39 } 45-93 | 46.32] 46.71 | 47-10} 47.49} 47.89
40 | 48.29) 48.70] 49.11| 49-52} 49.93 | 50-34
4I | 50.75] 51.16) 51.57] 51-98] 52.39] 52.81
42 | 53.23| 53.65) 54.08) 54.51| 54.94] 55-37
43 | 55-80] 56.23} 56.66) 57.09] 57.52] 57-95}
44 | 58.38] 58.82] 59.26| 59.71| 60.16) 60.61} °
45 | 61.06] 61.51] 61.96| 62.41| 62.86] 63.31}
46 | 63.77| 64.22] 64.67| 65.12] 65.58 | 66.04}
47 | 66.50| 66.96) 67.42 | 67.88] 68.34} 68.81]
48 | 69.28] 69.75|' 70.22 |'70.70]' 71.18 | 71.66]
49 |°72.14] 72.63| 73.12] 73-61] 74.11 | 74.61]
50 | 75.11] 75.61]. 76411 | 76:61 | 77.12 | 77-63
51 178.14] 78.66] 79.18] 79.70] 80.22 | 80.74}
52 | 81.26] 81.78) 82.36] 82.83 | 83.36 | 83.99}
53 | 84.42| 84.95] 85.48| 86.01] 86.54] 87.08]
54 | 87.62] 88.15] 88.69 | 89.23 |'89.77 | 90-32}
55 | 90.85| 91.39] 91-93| 92-43] 93.03 | 93-58
56 | 94.13] 94-68) 95.23] 95-79|'96-33 | 96.85]
57 | 97-43| 97-98) 98-53} 99-09) 99.65 |100.21
58 |100.77 [101.33 |101.89 |102-46 |103.03 |103.€0]
59 |¥04.17 |104.75 |105.33 |105-9% [106.50 [107.09 |

60 |107.68 |} 108.27 |108.86 |109.45 |1 10.04 {110.64 |

32

© OST Nn Bo oo

S PIAA YY NP pn C
OD PI ANP Hw YD B
MVIN NHWOOW HOO

Sr DO ORT HH OU
ODWHOORKN

3°5
4.1
4.5
5:7
6.5
7*4
8.3
9-4
0.4.
1.6

8

Rt
Fh OGD SSA abe ING NO)
O”’ODARW O ©

82-2
85.2
88-2

D%:3

94-3

? ‘ 97-5

9921" |* 99: 100-7,
101.8 | 102-4.

TELESCOPE.

Taste V.—For finding the Diftance in Yards from the True Angle fubtended by one Yard.

ol I Ui au 4! 5 " gi 9!
3437-7 | 3381-34 3274- | 3222.8 | 3173-26 3033.25

1676.93 | 1663.4 | 1650.1 1611.4

| ee |

1127.11 | 1120.98 | 1114.92 1097.15

es a | re

848.81 | 845.33 | 841-88 831.7

—q|\——q— | woe emi u—| |.

680.73 | 678.45 | 676.27 669.63

1718.85 | 1704.64

1145-9 | 1139.56
859-43 | 855-83
687.54. | 685.25

568.21 | 566.65 | 565-10 560.49

572-95 | 571-36

48%62 | 486.46 | 485.32 481.92

491-1 | 489.93
427.03 | 426.16 | 425.28 422.66

381.96 | 381-25 379-85 | 379-15 | 378-46 376-39

343-77 | 343-19 342-05 | 341-49 | 340-93

——— SS Se aman Waaanannnameiemae

312.52 | 312.02 311.09 | 310.63 | 310.17 308.77

eg | a A | A

286.47 | 286.07 285.28 | 284.89 | 284.49 283.32

—_— | | | | |

263.42 | 263.09 | 262.76

429.71 | 428.81

339-23

261.75

244.67 | 244.38 | 244.09 243.23

228.41 | 228.16 | 227.91 227.16

214.85 | 214.62 214.17 | 213.95 | 213.72 213.08

201.62 | 201.42 | 201.22 200.64

264.44 | 264.10
245-55 | 245-26
229.18 {| 228.92

202.22 | 202.02
189.57
180.45 | 180.29 | 180.13 179-67

es | cee | | | a | ee | |

20 171.88 | 171.73 171.44 | 171.31 | 171.17 170.74

a | a | | | | | |

21 | 163.70 | 163.57 163.31 | 163.18 | 163.05 162.66 | 162.53.

22 156.26 | 156.13 155-64 155-38 | 155-19

| | ee | | | | |

23 | 149-46.| 149-35 148.93 148.60 | 148.49 |
142.75 142-44 | 142-34 |
137.05 136.78
26 132.22 | 132.13 | 131.80

27 127-32 | 127.24 126.93 126.69
122.19

118.07 | 118.00 | 117-93

190.98 | 190.80 190.35 | 190.27 | 190.09

180.93 | 180.77

24 | 143-23 | 143-13

f NE ee!

25 137-51 | 137-41

122.41

28 122.78 | 122.70

118.19

29 118.54 | 118.47

30 114-59 | 114.52 114-27 | 114.20 | 114414 | 114.08 | 114.01 t

TELESCOPE.

Tasre V.—continued.

10! 11!

I ay 14!! I igi 16" I apt I gl | I 9"

2825.5 {2787.25 | 2750.16 | 2713.97 | 2678.73 2644-38 | 2610.91

—_—_—_—_—_—_—_ OS | | SS

1550.84 | 1539-27 | 1527-86 | 1516.62 | 1505.56 | 1494.65

| |

2946.6 | 2905-1

1586.63 | 1574.52

1483.9

——.

3 | 1085.6 | 1079-9 | 1054.27 | 1068.71 | 1063.25 | 1057.75 | 1052.35 | 1047.01 | 1041.74 1036.49

a | | | EE

4 825.05 | 821.76 | 818.5 815.22 | 812.05 | 808.86 | 805.7 802.57 799-46 | 796.37
2

—$ —__ | ———

665.36 | 663.22 | 661.09 | 658.98 654.8 648.62 | 646.58

6 | 557-46] 555-96 | 554-47 | 552-98

ee | | |)

545-66 | 544.23

470-92 | 469.84

7 | 479-68 | 478-59 | 477-66 | 476.36

8 420.94 | 420.08 | 419.23 | 418.38 414.18 | 413535

9 | 375-02 | 374-34. | 373-66 | 372.98 371-64 | 370-97 | 370-31 | 369.65 | 368.98

10 | 338-13 | 337-57 | 337-62 | 336.47 335-38 | 334-82 | 334-29 | 333-76 | 333.22

11 | 307-85 | 307-39 | 306.93-| 306.47 305-57 | 305-12 304.22 | 303.77
12 282.55 | 282.16 | 281.77 | 281.39

13 261.09 | 260.76 | 260.13 | 260.11

14 242.66 | 242.37 | 242.09 | 241.80

—=| | ———— I | | | ee __, | |) ss

240.40 | 240.12
15 | 226.66 | 226.41 | 226.6 225.91 225.42 | 225.18 224.69 | 224.44
16 | 212.64 yer 212.20 211.98 eres 211.33 210.90 | 210.68
17 200.25 | 200.05 | 199.86 | 199.66 199-28 | 199.09 198.71 | 198.52
18 189.23 | 189.05 188.88 "188.70. 188.36 | 188.19 187.85 | 187.68
19 | 179-35 | 179-19 | 179-04 178.88 “178.57 178.42 178.11 | 177.96
20 | 170.46 | 170.32 | 170.8 170.04 | 166760) 169.62 169.34 | 169.20

21 162.41 | 162.28 | 162.16 | 162.03 | 161-91

| | | | | S| eS

22 155-08 | 154.96 | 154.85 | 154-73 | 154-62

23 148.38 | 148.27 | 148.17 | 148.06] 147.96

24 142.24 | 142.14 | 142.05 | 141.95 | 141.85 | 141.75 | 141.66
25 136.59 | 136.50 | 136.41 136.32 | 136.23 | 136.14 136.05 |

————$$ | ——_—<—_—_———_ ——— SSS

135-79

26 131-38 | 131-29 131-21 | 131-12 131.04. | 130.95 130.71 | 130.62

N w
a] 9
oO wo
~ ~I

27 126.54 | 126.45 | 126,38 126.30 | 126,23 | 126.14 |) Sagsog 125.92 | 125.84

28 122.04 | 121.97 121.90 | 121,83 121.76 | 121.69 121.62 | 121.54 121.47 | 121.40

29 117.86 | 117-79 117573 | 117-66 | 31959 117.52 |

117-46 | 117-39 | 117.32 | 117.26

30 113.95 | 113.89 113,83 | 113.76 | 113.70 113-64 | 113-58 | 113:5% | 113.45 } 113.39

Vou, XXXV. Pp

: TELESCOPE.

TasBLe V.—continued.

20! ax! 22"! 23 25! | 26" 27! i 28" 29!

——. —_ _}--

2370.82 | 2343-87 | 2317-55

u | 2578.27 | 2546.44 |2515.4 | 2485-1 2426.6. | 2398.4

Z, 1473-3 1462.86 1442.38 1422.49

——

1412-75 | 1403-14 | 1393-62 1384-31 §

1016.07 1006.16 | 1001.27

996-43 | 991-64 | 986.9 |

3 | 1031.31 | 1026.17

778-34 | 775-42

634.65 | 632.70

| 793-32 | 790-24

772-51 | 769.64 | 766.78

630-77 | 628.85 | 626.94

4
5 644.56 | 642.56
6 | 542-8 | 541-37

365-05 |. 364-42 | 363-78} 363-14 | 362-49

— eee

10, +> 332-68 | 332-14 330.02 | 329-49 | 328.96 | 328.44

303-32 | 302-87 301-55 | 301-1 | 300.67 | 300.23 | 299.80

277-23 | 276.86 | 276.49] 276.12 |- 275.75

12 278.73 | 278.35

257-82 | 257-49

14 239-84 | 239-56
15 224-20 | 223.95

256-53 | 256.20 | 255.90 | 255-58 | 255.27

238-73 | 238.45 | 238.18 | 237.90 | 237.63
223.46 223-22 | 222.98

222.94. | 222.50 | 222.26

16 21047 |. 210.25 209-82 | zo09.61 209-40 | 209.19 | 208.97 | 208.76

ee | es | | | | LL | | SN

17 198.33 | 198.13 197-56 | 197-37 | 197-18 | 197-09 | 196.81

18 187-51 | 187.34 187.00 | 186.83 | 186.66 | 186.49 | 186.32 | 186.15

ee a | nf | |

177-35 | 179-20 |, 177-04 - 176.89)| 176.74] 176.59
168.64 168.51 | 168.37 | 168.24 | 168.10] 169.97

—_——_—- |) | | J

2 161.14} 161.01 | 160.89 | 160.76 | 160.64 | 160.51 | 160.39 | 160.26] 160.14

19 17.81 | 197-65
20 169.06 | 168.92

CD eS eS eee EEE EE

22 |, 153-92 | 153-80] 153.69 | 153.57 | 153-46} 153-34 | 153-23 | 153-12 | 153.01-
AAR ames ie. ps, ps |

147.22.| 147.12 | 147-01

SS SSS

23 147-33 146.91 | 146.80} 146.70 | 146.59 | 146.49

24 141.27 cman 141.08 | 140.98 | 140.88 | 140.78 | 140.69 | 14059] 140.50.] 140.40
135-61 | 135652 | 135-43 | 135-34 | 135-25 | 135-16 | 135-07 |. 134.98 | 134-89

25 135-70

26 130-54 | 130-46 | 130.38 | 130.29 | 130.21 | 130.13 | 130.05 | 129.97 | 129.89] 129.80

ig eee — eae .
27 125.77 | 125.69 | 125.62 | 125-54 | 125.47 | 125.38 | 125.31 | 125.23 | 125.16 | 125.08

28 121.33

29 | 117.19
| 123.33

12125}, T2118) L201, 121.04 | 120.97 120.90 | 120.83 | 120.76] 120.69

—| —————_—_ | —_———. —_

119.12 | 117.05 | 116.98 } 116.92 | 116.85 | 116.78 | 116.71 | 116.65 116.58 |

| ee | ! -

ho 113-26 | 113.20 | 113.14 } 113,08 183.01 | 112.95 11a89 | 112.83 | 212.77

TELESCOPE.

TasLeE V.—continued-

SS ee ee ee ee

SS ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

| 1375-08 1365.97 | 1356.93.| 1348-1 | 1339-36 | 1330.72 | 1322.19 | 1313-77 | 1305-45 | 1297.23

982.2 | 977-54 | “972-93 | 968361 963-84) 959:46'| o54-91) OSOST O4G-TS 541,83

763-93 | 76:.r1 | 758.3: | 755-54 | 752-78 | 750.04 | 747-33 | 744-62] 741.95

625.03.| 623.15 | 621.23 | 619.40] 617.55 | 615.71 613.87 612.05 | 610.24
boos

| 528.88 527-53 | 526.18 | 524.84 | 523.50 | 522.18 | 520.87 | 519.55 |. 518.24

452-33 | 451-34 | 450.36

403.64 | 402.85 |- 40206] 4or.29 | 400.51 | 399-73 | 398-95 | 398-19

404-43
| 361.86 | 361.22 | 360.59 | 350.961 359.35 | 358-71 | 358:09 | 357-47 | 356.85
i anh CLE te Gia rl Sea per et ae

ie 327-40 | 326.88 | 326.361 ° 325.84 | 325.33 324.82 | 324.32 323-81 323-29

296.77

298-93 | 298-49 | 298.06 | 297.65.| 297.20

274-65 | 274.29 | 273.92 | 273:56

296.35 | 295-92 | 295-50

272-47 | 272.11

254.02 | 253-71 | 253-39

er ery ev

236.54

221.31

252-46 | 252.15

254-33

236.81 236.27 | 236.00 235-19 | 234.92

_—

221.07 | 220.83

220.12

223.54

206.88

208.13

TELESCOPE.
Taste V.—continued.

Angle. | 40% 4" | 42" 43" | 44" 45" 47" 48" | 49!"

i! | 2062.62 | 2042.2 | 2022.1 | 2002.54 | 1983.28 | 1964.4 | 1945.85 | 1927-68 | 1909.82

—_—_ |

1892.3

2 | 1289.13 | 1281.13 | 1273.22 | 1265.41 |1257.7 | 1250.06 | 1242.55 | 1235-10 | 1227-75 | 1220.47
3 937-55 | 933-27 | 929-15 | 924.94 | 920.81 | 916.72 | 912.66 | 908.64 904-65 | goo.72
aaa es SP ENEL SIRE] a eS poe a

736.65 | 734503 | 731-43 | 728.83 | 726.27 | 723-72 | 721-19 718.69 | 716.18 | 713-73

4
5 606.65 | 604.87 | 603.1 601.35 599-6 597-86 | 596.12 | 594.41 | 592-71 591.01 |
6 515-65 | 514-36 | 513.00] 511-81 | 510.55 | 509.29 | 508.04} 506.78 | 505.52 | 504.30

7 | 448-40] 447-42 | 446.45 | 445-49 | 444.53 | 443-57 442.62 | 441-67 | 449-73 | 439-79

8 | 396-66 | 395.88 | 395.12 | 394-37 | 393-63 | 392-88 | 392.13 | 391-38 | 390-64 | 389.90

|

9 | 355-62 | 355-02 | 354-40 | 353-79 | 353-18 | 352-56 357-05") 35me35 350-78 | 350.18

10 322.28 | 321.78 320.78 320.28 | 319-79 319-29 | 318.79 | 318.30 (317-81 |

Il 294.66 | 294.24

293-40 | 292.98 | 292.56 | 292.15 | 291.73 291.32 | 290.92

12 271.40 | 271.04 270.32 | 269.97 | 269.62 | 269.28 | 268.93 268.59 | 268.23

13 251.54 | 251.24

14, | 234.38 | 234.11 233-57 | 233-31 | 233-05 | 232-79 |. 232.53 | 232.27 | 232.01

15 219-43 | 219-19 218.26 | 218.03 | 217.80 217-57 | 217.34

218.72 | 218.49

16 206.26 | 206.05

205.64 | 205.44 | 205.23 | 205.03 | 204.82 204.62 | 204.41

17 | 19458 | 194-40 194-03 | 193.85

250.62 | 250.32 | 250.02 | 249.71 | 249.41 | 249-11 | 248.81
193-67 | 193-49 | 193-31 | 193-13 | 192.95

18 184.16 | 183.99 183.67 | 183.51 | 183.34 | 183.18 | 183.01 | 182.85 | 182.69

19 | 17479 | 174-64

165.67 | 165.54 | 165.41 | 165.28 | 165.14

—_—_——— | | |

158.05 | 157.93 | 157-81 | 157-69 | 157-57

———_—_— | | | | | EE ETT

174-34 = 174-05 | 173-91 | 173-76 | 173-62 | 173-47

151-32 | 151.21 | 151.10 | 150.99 | 150.88 | 150.77 | 150.66

oe 144-84 | 144.74 | 144-64 | 14-54 | 144-44 | 144.34

24 139-36 | 139.26 139-09 | 138.99 | 138.89 | 138.80 138.70 | 138.61 | 138.52
Laeaey 133-93) %33-94- 133-67 | 133-59 at ss Sapeel $3.3°385 | 133-25 | 133-16
26 | 128.91 | 128.82 . 128.66 | 128.58 | 128.49 | 328.41 | 128.33 | 128.25 | 128.18
27 124.25 | 124.17 124.02 Tas.ge 124,88 123-80 | 123.72 | 123.65 124558 |
28 119.92 | 119.85 119-71 119-64 119-57 | ‘119.50 | 119.43 | 119.36 119-29

29 115-87 | 115.80 | 115.74 | 115.67 | 315.64 | 115-54 | 115.48 | 115.42 | 115.36 | 115.29

| 30. | 112.10 | 112.04 | I11.98 | T1191 | 111.85 | 111-79 | 111-73 | 111-67 | 111.61] 111.55

TELESCOPE.
TABLE V.—continued.

ga! 56! hp 5s

| 1841.62 1747-95

———————

1778.12

1733-29

_—____

1825.32 | 1809.3 | 1793-6 | 1762-92

<2)
30

290.51

267.87
248.51
23°75

217.12

204.21

192-77

182.53

LTC} 6)5)

165.01 |

T57-45

150.55
144.24
138.43

133-07

128.10

123.51

119.22

115.23

708.8 |
587.64 |
501.85 |
437-92

388.44

848.99

316.83
290.07
267-52

248.21

231-49
216.89

204.00

192.59
182.37

173-18

164.88

—

157-33

150.44

144.14

138.33

132.98
128.03 |

123-43

119.16

115.17

“113.49

111.43

1199.2

889.06

706.37

585-96

500.63

436.98

387-71

348.41

316.35

289.68
267.18

(247-91

231-23

nr

216.66

203.80

192.41

182.21

173.04

164.75

132.90

127.95

123-36

119.09

115.11

111.37

1192.24

885.24

703-96
584.30

499-42

436.07
386.98

347-82
315.85

289.28 | 288.88

266.83

247-61

230.97

216.43
203.60

192.23

182.05

172.89

164.61

157-09

150.22

143-94

11g.02

115.04

111.31

1185.42
881.46
NS |
582.65
498.22
tise ete)
386.25

1178.64

877.72

699-18

581.02

497-02

434.24
385.54

—| ——_____

347-25
315.38

266.49

247.31

230.72

216.21

203.40

192.05

181.89

172-75

164.48

156.97

150.11

143.84

138.06

132-73

127-79

123.21

118.95

114.98

111.25

346.66

314.90

288.47

266.15

247-02

230.47

215-98

203.21

191.87

181.73

172.60

164-35
156.85

150.01

143-74

137-96

132.64

127.71

123-13 |

118.88

114.91

1171.93
873-97

696.81

579-38
495-82

433-32

384.81

346.08

314-42
288.07

265.81

246.72

230.22

25-15

aot
Pale

181.57

172.46

164.22

1165.3
870.30
694-49
577-76

494-63

—

432-42

384.10

156.73 |
249-99
143-64
137-87
132.56
127.63
123.06
118.81

111.19

114.85
II1.13

149-79
T3254;
137.78
132.47
127-56.
874

111.07

1158.77
866.65

Cee
515285)
493-45

Bchel
353-39
344-92
33-47
287.27
265.12
246113

229.70

215-30
202.61

191-33

181.25

172.17

163.96

156.49

149.68

143-44

137-69

132-39

127.48

122.91

118.67

114.72

111.01

1152.30

215.08

202-41

IQIeI5

181.09

172.03

163.83

156.37
149-57

143-34

137.60

132.31
127.41

TELESCOPE.

ConfiruBion and Ufe of the Tables.—We have already ex-
plained the conftru€tion and ufe of Tables I. and L., which

are required to be adapted to the particular telefcope with

which any given micrometer is ufed ; and we have alfo ex-
plained how the value of a fingle divifion, or turn of a ferew,
1s afcertained by means of the fun’s diameter: but this me-
thod gives a derivative rather than an original independent
value to the micrometrical feale; for if the fun’s diameter
be not truly given in the Nautical Almanac (and the late Dr.
Mafkelyne had reafon to alter it in the lateft years of his
life), the error of this meafure will be introduced into the {cale
derived from it ; Table III. is therefore inferted, as affording
the ready means of obtaining an independent {cale from
aftual terreftrial meafurement. We have already fhewn how
the table of correétions is conftructed in this table ; and the
reader will have no difficulty in taking ‘out the proper
numbers, as correétions to be added to the true angle, in
order to convert it into the apparent or meafured angle, if he
be careful to take the minutes of the given angle from the
left-hand vertical column, and the feconds from the hori-
zontal line at the top; for in every initance, the meeting of
the two columns will contain the additive quantity that 1s to
be applied to the true angle, in order to obtain what the tele-
fcope will give when the value of its feale is once duly
affigned. For inftance, fuppofe the true angle 14! 20",
where 14/ is taken at the fide, and 20" at the top, the junc-
tion of the two columns gives + 6'.28, which fhews that
this quantity mutt be added to 14! 20", the true angle, to
make 14! 26".28, the apparent angle, as meafured by a tele-
{cope of 63.5 inches focal length. If now this angle, reduced
into feconds, be divided by the turns of the f{crew, or divifions
on any {caleufed as a micrometrical fcale, the quotient will be

the value in feconds of one turn, or divifion, as the cafe -

may be, provided the angle in queftion be that which a true
yard aétually fubtends at a known diftance. For example,
when a yard of 36 exact inches was erected at the diftance of
190.98 yards, the micrometer of Troughton, attached to
ulley’s 63.5 inch telefcope, meafured it by 34.78 revolu-
tions of its ferew; and by Table V. the true angle, read as in
Table III. at the fide and top, correfponding to this dif-
tance, is 18! o!; the additive quantity belonging to this
angle, as taken from Table III., is + 9/89 ; and therefore
the apparent angle, if meafured by the faid telefeope, would be
18! 9!.89
34-78
one revolution of the {crew, which is very nearly the fame
as was determined from the fun, and before tabulated. -This
coincidence of the celeftial and terreftrial meafures affords a
convincing proof that the feale has been duly appreciated.
We have faid, that this table of correétions, and alfo the
following one, which we fhall explain prefently, are com-
puted exclufively for a telefcope of 63.5 inches focus, being
thati which is reprefented, with a Troughton’s micrometer
attached, in fig. 6. of Plate XXIX.; and that each different
telefcope ought to have its own tables of corrections cor-
refponding: to its focal length, which limitation is required
by the theorem on which we have grounded our calculations.
But as the diflance, which is the varying term, is the fame
for all telefcopes, we find that in praétice the correCtions
of any other telefcope will be fo hearly proportionate to their
refpeétive focal lengths, that they may be taken exatly as
fuch, without any fenfible error ; that is, the error arifing from
the table of correftions will be always as {mall as the error
of obfervation in ordinary telefcopes, unlefs the diftance be
sery fmall, and its corre&tion confequently great. On this
account, Table III., and alfo T'able I'V., which, it will be

18! 9.89; therefore v.22 is the value of
9°-°9 5 31-33

feen, is derived from it, like Table V.,.may be confidered as
generaltables, admitting of proportional parts of their whole
corrections to be taken as {uitable correétions for telefcopes
of other dimenfions. This confideration is of great im-
portance, with refpeét to the general utility of our tables
of correétion ; and therefore the reader fhall not depend
folely on the authority of our bare affertion. We have
already computed the corre&tion for a telefcope of 63.5
inches focal length, to be added when the true angle is
34! sg!'.4, or diftance 100 yards, and found it 37.68; let
us fee what it will be with the fame data, when the telefcope
has. juft one half of the faid focal length: here we have

— = .882 of 2 yard for the focal length; ‘then

882 x B82 .77924 -
5). She, i cael 00785 = ¢, the clengatiqn of

‘
882 x — x 34':99 _ 35!3, or 35! 18"

for the apparent angle, from which, if we fubtra& 34! 59.4,
the true angle, the difference 18".6 ‘will be the correfpond-
ing correCtion, which differs only a quae of a fecond

37.68
2

the focus, and

from , or half the correction of the telefcope of ;

double dimenfions. Beyond roo yards diftance, the error,
{mall as it is, will continue to diminifh as the diftance in-
creafes, and a{maller diftance will feldom require to be mea-
fured in this way. The accuracy of this conclufion has
been ftill farther corroborated by a¢tual experiment: a gra-
duated ftaff was placed ere& at a diftance, by meafurement
of a Troughton’s chain of five-feet linke, of 261-9 yards,
and the two telefcopes of 63.5 and 45.75 inches foeal length,
were tried againft each other thus; a yard by the firft was
found, with Troughton’s micrometer, to be equal to 25.33
turns ; and by the fecond, with the fame initrument, to
be 18.19; the true angle belonging to this diftance by
Table V. is 13! 7.543; and the correction for the larger
45:75.
Wide co
or .72 of 5!.25 = 3.8 for the correGtion of the fmaller
telefeope, we have the following values of the refpective

13! "54 + 525
25-33
= 43'.504, which yalues accord very

telefcope by Table III. + 5/.25; therefore, taking

feales ;, viz. = 31.2984, _ &e. and
13! 7.54 + 3/8
18.19
nearly with thofe that had been previoufly determined by
a feries of folar meafures, andthe latter of them exaétly, as
far as to the third place in the decimal figures. 5 of
Table IV. is the table to be ufed with Table V. for finding,
firft the true angle from the apparent one, and then the true
diftance at once from this true angle: its correGtions
arranged fomewhat differently from thofe in Table IIL., and
have an oppofite fign, but are borrowed from Ta I, in
fuch way, that by means of a little tranfpofition, the terms
of one may be converted into thofe of the other ; as, for-
example, at the apparent angle 18! go", in Table IV., the
correction is — 10".4, and the true angle, confequently
18! 29!.6; and at 18! 30", the neareft numbers for the
true angle in Table II]., the corre&tion is + 10!.44, which
makes its correfponding apparent angle 18! 40".44. In the
former of thefe two tables, the correétion is calculated to
the hundredth part of a fecond ; it being that from- which
the feale has its value appreciated; but in the latter, it was
deemed convenient to leave out the hundredth parts, 2s
being

TELESCOPE.

being beyond the powers of the telefcope, or rather of: the
human eye, when a fingle obfervation is taken.

Before Table V. was conftructed, it was faund by plane
trigonometry, that one yard will fubtend an angle of one mi-
nute at 3437-7 yards diftance ; and, as the diftance decreafes
in the fame ratio in which the angle increafes, the table was
made by a continual redu€tion of this number into halves,
thirds, fourths, &c. as far as to 30', and all the intermediate
feconds from 1! to 30!, were inferted with their corref{pond-
ing diftances. For inftance, at the true angle of 18! 30",
the true diftance is 185.82 yards; it being always under-
ftood, that the meafured angle is fubtended by anexa& yard
placed at right angles to the line of fight, in either a vertical
or horizontal pofition, and that the correétion taken from
Table iV. has been applied to the meafured or apparent
angle. Iftwo yards fhould be ufed as the oppofed obje&
at a great diftance, then Aa/f the angle only muit.be taken ;
but if half a yard only be ufed at {mall diftances, then double
the angle will be proper ; and fhould the diftance be within
410.95 yards, the i{malleit diftance contained in the table ;
in which cafe the angle will exceed 30! : the diftance belong-

ing to Aaif the angle will always'be doudle the diftdnce: 're~
quired. Suppote the angle 33; then half of this is 16! 30",
and the double sumber 208.34; confequently 104.17 yards
will be the correfponding diftance ; and thus the table will
extend to any fhort diftance, by taking a given portion of
the meafured angle, when reduced to the true one, and by,
ufing the fame portion of the correfponding diftance, pro-
vided the angle do not exceed 60!, which is the limit of
Table IV., and which is as much as a telefcope magnifying
only 30 times will ufually take into the field of view.

In order to exemplify the ufe of thefe new tables, and at
the fame time to prove their accuracy, we obtained from
Mr. Troughton a couple of ftaves, having each a fliding
yard of brads, cut into notches for decimal divifions of 2
yard, which are capable of being feen at a diftance, with
an apparatus for placing them perpendicular in any given
fituation : on the 8th of OGtober 1816, one of thefe ftaves
was fixed in a perpendicular pofition at an unknown diftance
on level ground, and the following meafures were taken of
the angle fubtended by a yard, by Troughton’s micrometer
{ucceffively adapted to each of the four telefcopes, thus :

With telefcope 30.15 in. 24.59 revol. = 24 2.9 (by Tables I. and If.) — 10.4 (by Table IV.) = 26 5265 r
te 45-75 in. 37-53 revol. = 27 10.5 - - “ — 15.6 - - = 26 54.9
_— 63.5 Im. 52.25 revol. = 27 15.43 - - - = 21.85 - - = /26 5 3t58
» 118.8 in. 98.52 revol. = 27 35.1 -\ol - 0% — 41.0 - - =)26 54.1
7 ea
4)215.08
? Average = 26 53.97

By Table V. the diftance correfponding to this angle is
127.81 yards, and by meafurement of a good chain, it was
afterwards found to be 5.808 x 22 = 127.776 yards, the
difference or error being only .034 of a yard, or fomething
lefs than an inch and a half. During the obfervations, the
fun was obfcured by clouds, and the obje& viewed had no
vibratory motion, which is a circumftance effential to be
attended fo.

With Dollond’s divided object-glafs applied to the tele-
feope of 45.75, the meafure was 2 in. 1% div. 19 ver., or
1294 of the vernier, which, multiplied by 1’.24, the folar

With telefcope 45-75 in. 27.59 revol. =
63-5 in. 38.48 revol. =

,

e ,
to which angle the correfponding diftance by Table V. is
173.0 yards; and the fubfequent meafure by the chain
accurately repeated was 172.92 yards, in which determi-
pation the error was .08 of a yard, or z 88 inches only.
From thefe operations we are perfuaded that a good
telefeope, with a Troughton’s micrometer, will determine
diftances, by fimple infpe&tion, when within the eighth part
of a mile, with more accuracy than is ufually done by a
furveyor’s chain or meafuring-wheel; and, confequently,
if both a backward and forward view be taken from one
ftation, fituated near the middle of a line joining two gra-
duated ftaves, a quarter of a mile may be fo determined at
one ftation in the {pace of two or three minutes after the
Ration is taken. But it may be faid, why not take a
quarter of a mile at one fight, fince the power of a good
telefeope will command a {mall objeé&t at this diftance?
To which we anfwer, that the error arifing from diflauce

9

value of unity, gave the meafured angle only 26! 44/56 5
but on examining the ratio in which the focus elongates at
different diftances, we found that the divergence of the rays
was leffened fo much, in pafling through the divided objeét-
glafs, before they entered the achromatic objeét-glafs, that
the table of correétions would be of no ufe for this arrange-
ment of two feparate object-glaffes.

On the 16th of the fame month the graduated {taf was
ereted at a greater unknown diftance, and the following
meafures were taken by T'roughton’s micrometer, as beforé,
Viz.

a“

j " (onl
200.1 — 8.6 (correftion) = 19 51.5
20 4-4 — 12 -. > = 39 52.4
2)103.9
» Average =

BO 95

may be confidered rather as a geometrical than an optical
error: our experiments have convinced us that a {mall
angle may be meafured by Troughton’s micrometer, when
the thicknefs of the fpider’s line is allowed for, (viz. ;$,th
of a turn of the ferew in our micrometer, ) fo accurately,
that the error of obfervation in favourable weather will
feldom exceed one fecond; but the error in diftance, cor-
refponding to an error of one fecond in the meafured angle,
increafes in the duplicate ratio of the diftance, and confe-
‘quently becomes too confiderable to be admiffible beyond
a limited diftance ; for inftance, at the diftance of 220 yards,
or the eighth of a mile, an error of 1" in the angle fubtended
by a yard produces only an error of 0.23 of a yard in
diftance ; but at 440 yards, or a quarter of a mile, the
error in diftance correfponding to the fame error in the
angle is 0.923 that is, at twice the diftance the geometri-
cal error is four times augmented ; which a

mits

TEL

limits the diftance at which micrometrical meafurements
in longimetry can be ufefully employed at one ftation.
What may be called the optical error, or that which arifes
from want of parallelifm in the rays of light on entering the
objeét-glafs, and is allowed for in our fourth table, on the
contrary, decreafes with an increafe of diftance, and very
nearly in a fub-duplicate ratio ; fo that the correétion arifing
out of this optical error becomes infenfible at no very great
diftance in telefcopes of ordinary dimen‘ions: for inftance,
at 220 yards, or its angle a5! sBi, the correétion is — 7.4
by our Table IV.; but at 440, or its angle 7! 49", the
correction diminifhes to 1.9, or nearly a fourth of the
former at double the diftance. Hence there is a peculiar
diftance at which every feparate telefcope will have its
optical error dr correétion reduced to 1”, or quantity of
probable error of obfervation, beyond which diftance the
tabulated corre¢tions may be difregarded in ordinary opera-
tions. With the telefcope of 63.5 inches focus, the cor-
reétion will be lefs than 1! at 590 yards diftance ; with
that of 45.75 inches, at 537; and with that of 30.15 inches,
at 430, the diftance continuing to diminifh with the dimi-
nifhing length of the focus of each objeét-glafs, but not in
the fame ratio; confequently, when the telefcope is very
fhort, and its power f{mall, the optical error may be alto-
gether difregarded, wherever fuch telefcope can be of any
real ufe; becaufe, in all probability, this error will be lefs
than the error of obfervation arifing from want of power.

Texescope Shell, in Conchology, the name of a {pecies of
turbo, with plane, ftriated, and numerous fpires.

TELESCOPICAL Srars, fuch as are not vifible to
the naked eye, but difcoverable only by the help of a tele-
{cope. See STar.

All ftars lefs than that of the fixth magnitude are tele-
{copic to a middling eye.

TELESE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavora,
the fee of a bifhop, who refides at Cerreto ; 18 miles E.N.E.
of Capua. N. lat. 41° 12'. E. long. 14° 32'.

TELESIA, or Tevessta, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Italy, in Samnium.

Tevesta, in Mineralogy. See ConunpUM.

TELESIO, Bernanprino, in Biography, a modern phi-
Jofopher, the defcendant of an illuftrious family at Cofenza,
in Naples, was born in the year 1508 or 1509. eke re-
ceived the early part of his education under an uncle at
Milan, he accompanied him to Rome in 1525, and fhared
in the calamities which attended the fack and pillage of that
city. At Padua, whither he afterwards removed, he ap-
plied himfelf with diligence to the ftudy of mathematics and
philofophy. Returning again to Rome, he formed an inti-
mate acquaintance with feveral perfons of diftinguifhed cha-
ra@ter, and fo much ingratiated himfelf with pope Pius IV.
that he was offered the archbifhopric of Cofenza, which he
declined for himfelf and obtained for his brother, From
Rome he retired to his native country, where he married in
advanced age, aud for a fhort time became profeffor of phi-
lofophy in the univerfity of Naples. However, the place
of his more conftant refidence was Cofenza, and here he
eltablifhed an academy called Cofentina. He paffed the re-
mainder of his life under the patronage of feveral perfons of
diftinétion, particularly Ferdinand, duke of Nocera; but af-
flied by the affaffination of one of his fons, and by the ca-
lumnies circulated again{t his fchool of philofophy, he ter-
minated his life in the year 1588. Telefio diftinguithed him-
felf by his oppofition to the phyfics of Aniftotle, and em-
ployed mathematical principles in explaining the laws of
nature, Thefe were firft divulged in a work printed at

Rome in 1565, entitled * De Rerum Natura juxta propria
2

TEL

principia, Lib. II.’? and enlarged to nine books in an edition
printed at Naples in 1586. The fame fyftem was main-
tained in other treatifes, under the titles of “ De his que in
Aere fiunt, et de Terre Motibus ;”? “De Mari;’”’ “ De
Colorum Genere,’’ &c.. His fyftem was in its effence the
doétrine of Parmenides, who taught, that the firft principles
in nature, by means of which all natural phenomena are pro-
duced, are cold and heat. (See Parmentprs and ELearic.}
Telefio’s theory is thus developed: ‘* Matter, which is in
itfelf incapable of a€tion, and admits neither of increafe nor
diminution, is aéted upon by two contrary incorporeal prin-
ciples, heat and cold. From the perpetual oppofition of
thefe, arife the feveral forms of nature: the prevalence of
cold in the lower regions producing the earth and terreftrial

bodies, and that of heat in the fuperior regions, the heavens

and celeftial bodies. All the changes of natural bodies are
owing to this confli€t ; and according to the degree in which
each principle prevails, are the different degrees of denfity,
refiftance, capacity, moifture, drynefs, &c. which are found
in different {ubftances.’? This fyftem is founded on the
fanciful conyerfion of mere attributes and properties into
fubftantial principles. For lord Bacon obferves, that Te-
lefio, no lefs than Plato and Ariftotle, places abftra& notions
at the bafis of his fyftem, and produces his world of real
beings from non-entities. This eminent philofopher, how-
ever, charaéterifes him as a lover of truth and a benefaétor
to f{cience ; and one who prepared the way for fubfequent
improvements. After his death, his writings, as containin

“innovations,” were put into the Index Expurgatorius of
the Inquifition. His philofophy, neverthelefs, ad many
advocates, among whom was Campanella; and his works
were republifhed at Venice, in 1590, by Antonio Perfio,
who wrote a compendium of his philofophy in the vernacu-
lar tongue. Telefio’s ftyle was more polifhed than that of
other philofophers of his time; and he intermixed fome
ue verfes of confiderable eloquence. Brucker by En-

eld.

TELESPHORUS, in Mythology, a deity invoked by
the Greeks for health, together with Efculapius and Hygeia.
The figures of thefe three divinities occur on feveral me-
dals; and on fome we have Telefphorus with Efculapius
alone, and on others with Hygeia.

The figure of Telefphorus is invariably the fame, viz.
that of an infant clothed with a fort of cloak without
fleeves, which enfolds its arms, defcends below the knees,
and has a kind of hood or cow! covering its head,

Montfaucon has given a particular defcription of this
deity, the worfhip of which is fuppofed to have paffed from
Epidaurus to Rome, with that of Efculapius. :

TELET£, among the Ancients, were folemn rites per-
formed in honour of Ifis.

TELETZKOI-Ozzno, in Geography. See ALTIN.

TevetzKo1 Mountain, deriving its name from the lake
Teletzkoi-ozero, one of the greateft eminences of the Altay
mountains ee Aurtat), and from which the river Oby
iffues. It forms, with its lofty f{ummits, the boun be-
tween Siberia and the Soongarey, {trikes its powerful ndges
down between the lake and the Katunia; and after having
turned round the eaft fide and the lake, unites with the Ku-
netzkoi mountains, This divifion is one of the greateft, but
at the fame time the coldeft and moft inacceffible, of all the
Altaian ore-mountains ; hence it is, that its quality and
contents are little known. This, however, is certain, that
very powerful granite and porphyry mountains are’ in its
range, and that the earth near and upon it yields jafper, flint
breccia, hornfchiftus, white (probably faline) chalk-ftone,
coloured marble, black fchiftus, marle, fand-{tone, and in

thefe

TEL

thefe there are iron, argentaceous copper, and lead ores,
naphtha, afphaltus, &c. The mountains to the right of the
Katunia feem to be particularly rich in ores.

TELEUTES, or TeLencures, a tribe of Tartars, who
are fuppofed to have derived their name from the lake Te-
legul in the Altay mountains. They are alfo denominated
by the Ruffians the white Kalmucks, becaufe they formerly
lived among the Soongarians. Abulgafi reckons them among
the Mongolian races; but as their {peech is manifeftly a
corrupt Tartarian, their origin may more confiftently be de-
rived from that nation. Inthe year 1609 they did homage
for the firft time to the Ruffian empire ; but it was not till
towards the middle of the 17th century, when fome ftems of
them removed higher up the Tom, that they became pro-
perly fubje&ts of Ruffia: the greater part of them, however,
remained with the Kalmucks. The former dwelt partly in
the Tomfkoi diftri@ of the Tobolfkian, partly in the Kuf-
netfkian circle of the government of Kolhyvan; and their
number is fo fmall, that they only reckon about 500 males.

TELFS, a town of the county of Tyrol, near the Inn ;
¥5 miles W.S.W. of Infpruck.

TELGEN, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland, on
the lake Meler; 15 miles S.W. of Stockholm.

TELGET, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of
Muniter ; 5 miles E.S.E. of Muntfter.

TELGHIOURAN, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Diarbekir; 30 miles S. of Diarbekir.

TELHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 7 miles
$.5.W. of Schweinfurt.

TELHEIRO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 6 miles S.W. of Pinhel.

TELICA, avolcano of Mexico, near Tecoantepeque.

TELICARDIOS, in Natural Hiffory, the name given
by fome authors to a ftone found in the fhape of a heart.
It owes this figure to its having been found in the fhell of
fome large bivalve of the cockle kind; and is more ufually
known among authors under the name of bucardites.

TELIGUL, or Tetecut, in Geography, a lake of
Roffia, in the Altay mountains, about 120 miles in circum-
ferenee. N. lat. 43° 12'. E. long. 64° 14!.

TELIPHANO, in Botany, a name ufed by fome au-
thors for the doronicum, or leopard’s bane.

TELL, Witram, in Biography, a celebrated Swils, was
an inhabitant of middle rank of Burgeln, in the canton of
Uri, and fon-in-law of Walter Furft. In 1307 he engaged
in the confpiracy againft the Auftrian tyranny. Gefler, the
German bailiff, fufpecting a plot, artfully contrived 2 {cheme
for afcertaining the extent of fubmiffion to the Auftrian

oke. Accordingly he fet up a hat upon a pole, and com-
Bhinded that obeyfance fhould be paid to it. Tell refifted
the command ; and, as tradition reports, the arbitrary bai-
liff ordered him to fhoot with an arrow at an apple placed
on the head of his fon. He cleft the apple without hurting
the child; and being obferved to have another arrow, he
was interrogated what he intended to do with it. He un-
hefitatingly replied, that if he had wounded his fon, the
other fhaft fhould have been direéted to the bailiff’s heart.
This bold declaration caufed him to be imprifoned. Of
this fa& there is no doubt; though the incident of the ar-
row and apple may be fabulous, as it is applied by Saxo
Grammaticus to a Dane at an earlier period. The bailiff
took Tell with him acrofs the lake of Lucern, defigning to
convey him to another canton. In the paflage, a ftorm
arofe ; and the veffel being in danger, the fetters of Tell
who was known to be a {kilful boatman, were taken off,
and the helm was committed to his hands. Availing himfelf
of this circumftance, he fteered to a rock and mate his
efeape. Gefler on landing met with his fate from an arrow

Vou. XXXV,

PEL

of Tell, who afterwards retired to Séauffacher in the canton
of Schweitz ; and on the following new-year’s day, all the
Auftrian governors were feized and difmiffed from the coun-
try ; and this circumftance is faid to be the commencement
of Swifs freedom. Tell’s death is fuppofed to have been
occafioned by an inundation at Burgeln in the year 1354.
His grateful countrymen ereéted a rude chapel to his honour
on the {pot where he refided, and another upon the rock on
which he landed.. His pofterity, however, funk intg ob-
livion, without any permanent diftinGtion ; the laft who bore
his name died in 1684, and the lait of the female line in
1720. Coxe. Muller. Gen. Biog. :

TELLA Pasunum, in Natural Hiffory, a name given
by the people of the Eaft Indies to a kind of white aribite:
or rat’s-bane, found native among them.

It is well known to be a fatal poifon, and ufed to deftroy
vermin. It lies in the cliffs of rivers among ftrata of ftone
in large white irregular lumps; when held to the fire, it
emits copious fumes, fmelling ftrongly of garlic and fulphur,
but it does not readily melt or run.

TexLa Sagrum, aname g'ven by the natives of the Eaft
Indies to a kind of earth which they ufe externally to dry
up ulcers, and internally in cafes of coughs and colds. It
is of the nature of the finer clays, and is found at the bot-
tom of fome of their rivers. 2

TELLEGROD, in Geography, a morafs on the borders
of Norway and Lapland, which cannot be croffed without
much apprehenfion of danger. During winter it is frozen
to the depth of feveral yards, and does not thaw till the
fummer is far advanced. The furface may appear dry and
folid, but as the heat ftill penetrates downwards, the icy
floor which fupports it, foftening and melting, bends and
trembles under the fhock of preffure, and at laft gives way,
fo that horfes, carriages, and paffengers—all fink into the
abyfs. Near the mouth of the Fiord, or firth, a bed of
clay-marle is feen diftinly mixed with fmall fhells. Ap-
pearances of a like kind occur along the fouthern fhores of
Norway, and the fa& is the more remarkable, fince no foffile
fhells have been ever found in the interior of the country.
This marle, however, is only a local formation, and refts on
the fundamental gneifs.

TELLER, an officer in the exchequer, of whom there
are;four : whofe bufinefs is to receive all monies due to the
crown, and thereupon to throw down a bill through a pipe
into the tally-court, where it is received by the auditor’s
clerks, who attend there to write the words of the faid bill
upon a tally, and then deliver it to be entered by the clerk
of the pells, or his clerk.

The tally is thén fplit or cloven by the two deputy cham-
berlains, who have their feals ; and while the fenior deput
reads the one part, the junior examines the other part with
the other two clerks.

The tellers’ places are in the king’s gift, and they have
befides their chief clerk or deputy, and other clerks for the
difpatch of bufinefs.

Tetrer, Marcus, in Biography, a prieft and mufical
compofer in the church of St. Gervais, in Maeftricht, pub-
lifhed in 1726, his firft work at Augfburg, under the title
of “ Mufica facra ftylo plane Italico et Chromatico pro
Compoiitionis amatoribus, complectens IX Motetta brevia
de Tempore, et II Miffas folemnes, &c.’? His fecond
work was poithumous, and publifhed likewife under the
folemn title of “ Mufica facra,’? confifting of four maffes
and four motets, for four voices, two violins, tenor, bafloon,
and a baffo continuo, or figured bafe.

TELLER, FLogiaN, an eminent dramatic compoler of
the mufic of grand opera ballets. In 1763 he compofed
mufic for the ballet of Orpheus and Euridice, for the

Q q duke

TEL

duke of Wurtemburg’s theatre at Stuttgard; and the year
after, for his highnefs’s birth-day, that of Noverre’s ers
ballet called “ The Triumph of Neptune.””? The ballet
mufic of this compofer fuperfeded that of Lulli and Ra-
meau at Paris; and in our opera, the mufic of the ballets
hiftoriques, and chaconnes danced by Mad. Heinel and
Veftris, was chiefly the produétion of Teller.

TELLES, in Geography, a fea-port of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fez, on the coatt of the Mediterranean ; the
harbour is {mall but fafe, and the bottom good ; 120 miles
E.S.E, of Tangiers.

TELLICHERY, a city of Hindooftan, on the coaift
of Malabar, belonging to the Englifh, and defended by
lines. It was long befieged by the forces of Hyder Ali;
but in the year 1782 the troops were defeated, the camp
taken, and the general wounded’ and made prifoner by the
Britifh, under the command of major Abingdon. The fitua-
tion of the town is beautiful and healthy: pepper is the
great article of trade, and cardamoms; 48 miles N.N.W.
of Calicut. N. lat. 11°15’. E. leng. 75° 201. ;

TELLICO, a town of the ftate of Tenneflee, with
block-houfe ; 50 miles S.W. of Knoxville. N. lat. 35° 37!
E. long. 84° 18.

TELLIER, Micuaet, in Biography, a diitinguifhed
Jefuit, was born in 1643, near Pire, in Lower Normandy.
He ftudied at the Jefuits’ college at Caen, and entered into
the fociety at eighteen years of age. Having for {ome time
taught the {chools, he was dire¢ted by his fuperiors to pre-
pare an edition of Quintus Curtius, ‘ in ufum Delphini,”’
which was printed in 1678. He was afterwards felected,
with other eminent brethren, to eftablifh at the Jefuits’ col-
lege at Paris a fociety of learned men, who might retrieve
the honour of the body; but his views were direéted to
other objects, and he became a zealous controverfialift
in the fubjeéts of difpute between the Jefuits and other
orders. Accordingly, in 1687, he publifhed ‘ Defenfe des
Nouveaux Chretiens et des Miffionaires de la Chine, du Ja-
pon, et des Indes,’’ which was attacked by Arnauld in his
** Morale Pratique,”” and was announced to the holy office :
and fentence of condemnation was averted by a promife that
Tellier fhould come to Rome, and make alterations in his
work. ‘This prepared the way for numerous publications ;
in confequence of which Tellier gained increafing reputa-
tion, and was advanced to the offices of revifor, re€tor, and
provincial. Upon the death of F. la Chaife in 1709, he
was chofen, in competition with another candidate, and in
confequence of an affumed air of modefty, to fucceed him
as confeflor to the king. But whatever modefty he might
affume to ferve a bic purpofe, he had little true hu-
mility. Ardent, unfympathizing, and defpotic, he was
hated by his brethren over whom he tyrannized, in the moft
unwarrantable manner. Fontenelle, who well knew his dif-
pofition and chara¢ter, hearing of his appointment, faid,
“ The Janfenifts have finned.”’ His firft aét was the demo-
lition of the famous houfe of Port Royal, which he razed
to its foundation; he then forced upon the nation and the
magiftrates the bull Unigenitus ; and he proceeded with
fuch violence, that the Jefuits themfelves faid, ‘* Father le
Tellier drives us at fuch a rate that he will overturn us.’’
Tellier’s condu& brought difgrace on the fociety, and was
ultimately the chief occafion of its abolition. On the death
of Louis XIV. he was -exiled, firft to Amiens, and after-
wards to La Fléche, where he died in 1719, at the age
of feventy-fix. The morals of Tellier were regular ; and
though fome perfons fufpected him of hypoerify, others have
with greater probability believed, that he was actuated by
real zeal for the Seiehaled which he had adopted. He was a
man of literature, wrote many works,’ and was a member of

TEL

the Academy of Belles Lettres. Nouv. Di&. D’Alen~
bert’s Hitt. of the Jefuits.

TELLIGT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
bifhopric of Munfter, with a rich abbey, on the Ems;
miles from Munfter.

TELLIGUO Mountains, or Jron Mountains.
Iron Mountains.

'TELLINA, in the Linnzan fyftem of Conchology, a
diftin&t genus of the clafs of Vermes, and order of Teftacea-
For the characters of this genus, fee Concuotocy. Gmelin
eriumerates ninety-one f{pecies.

TELLINGANA, in Geography, a province of Hin-
dooftan, now called Golconda. —

TELLINGSTEDE, a town of the duchy of Hol-
ftein; 11 miles S.E. of Lunden.

TELLIPOLI, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Ceylon; 9 miles N. of Jaffnapatam.

TELLO, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of Ce-
lebes, and capital of a {mall kingdom, once united to Ma-
caffar. S. lat. 5°. E. long. 120° 2!.—Alfo, a town on the
W. coaft of the ifland of Lombock. S. lat. 8° 24! E-
long. 115° 45'. t

Tetto Langue, a town on the W. coait of Sumatra.
N. lat. o° 51’. E. long. 98° 21’. ‘

TELLo Point, a cape on the W. coaft of Sumatra. S-
lat. 1° 50!. Es long. 100° 31!. .

TELLONIUM. See 'TuHetonrum.

TELLONUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Gaul,
in Aquitania, near the fea-coaft, S.E. of Burdigala.

TELLOW, in Geography, a town of Brandenburg, in’
the Middle Mark, famous for its turnips; 10 miles g of
Berlin. N. lat. 52° 23/. - E. long. 13° 15).

TELLUDOPIN, a town of the ifland of Celebes, in
Buggefs bay. S. lat. 2° 35/.

TELLURE, in Agriculture. See Titer.

TELLURIUM, in Mineralogy, a metal difcoyered by
Klaproth, combined with gold and filver, in the ores from
the bannat of Temefwar, and in the Farzebay mountains in
Tranfylvania. The ores of this metal are denominated na-
tive tellurium, graphic tellurium, yellow tellurium, and black
tellurium ore.

Native Tellurium; Gedigen Sylvan, Werner.—The colour
is intermediate between tin and filver white, and fometimes
inclines to fteel-grey. This ore is found maffive and difle-
minated ; it is faid fometimes to occur eryttallized in four-
fided prifms; it occurs alfo in fmall granular concretions.
It yields to the knife, and is rather brittle. The fpecifie
gravity, according to Klaproth, is 6.15. Before the blow-
pipe, native tellurium melts eafily before ignition ; it burns
with a greenifh flame, and is entirely volatilized in ade
white vapour, which has the acrid odour of horfe-radifh.
When expofed to a low heat, it is converted into a yellowifh
or blackifh oxyd: by an increafe of temperature it forms a
dark brown or black glafs, in which gold grains are int
fperfed ; at a ftill higher heat the oxyd is entirely volatilized.
The conftituent parts are, according to Klaproth,

See

(ter

Tellurium = - - =

ss
Iron - - - - - 7.20
Gold - - - - - +25 t oy

The proportion of gold is however variable. In one vae
riety of native tellurium, Klaproth found g parts in the 100.
of gold. Native tellurium occurs in veins with quartz, and
lithomarge. It is known, in the older works on mineralogy
by the name of aurum problematicum, aurum paradoxicum, and
white gold ore. ; ake ;

Graphic Tellurium; Tellure natif graphique, Haiti .—This
is worked as an ore of gold at Offenbanya, in Tranfylyania,

' 8 where

TELLURIUM.

where it has hitherto only been found. It is fo called, from
the particular appearance formed by the aggregation of the
eryitals ; it occurs in veins in porphyry. The colour of gra-
phic tellurium is fteel-grey, which is fometimes varioufly
tarnifhed by expofure to the air: it is alfo found white,
yellow, or lead-grey. It has a fhining metallic luftre. It
occurs maffive, difleminated in leaves, and cryftallized in
{mall compreffed hexahedral prifms, either with or without
tetrahedral f{ummits, and generally arranged in rows on the
furface of quartz. There are frequently other prifms at-
tached to the extremities of the former, at right angles with
them, giving the whole row an appearance of Pestepoltan
charatters. The planes of the cryftals are fmooth. “ The
maflive variety, which is very rare, occurs in granular diftin@
concretions.” (Jamefon’s Min.) It is foft, brittle, and
frangible, and yields a lead-grey ftreak. The fpecific gra-
vity is 5.723. Before the blow-pipe it burns with a green
flame, and is volatilized. The conitituent parts, accerding
to Klaproth, are

Tellurium - - f 3 + 60
Gold - - - = - = 30
Silver - = = 10

Yellow Tellurium Ore—The colour of this ore is filver-
white, pafling into yellowith or brafs-white and grey. It oc-
eurs in grains, and in minute compreffed four-fided prifms,
with a lamellar ftructure and bright metallic luftre : it alfo oc-
curs maflive and reticulated : it is foft and fomewhat feGtile :
the pe, is 10.878. The conftituent parts, ac-

cording to Klaproth, are
Tellurium a = : = 44-75
Gold = - - = - 26.75
Lead = - = > = 19.5
Silver - - = = - 8.5

Sulphur - = = = = 5

This ore, which is worked for the gold and filver it con-
tains, has hitherto been found only at Nagyag, in Tranfyl-
yania. It occurs in fmall irregular veins in porphyry. The
moft frequent vein-ftones are brown {par and quartz: it is
fometimes affociated with red manganefe ore, iulphuret of
manganefe, native arfenic, plumofe antimony, and native gold.

Black Tellurium Ore; Nagyagerz, Werner.—The colour
of this ore is between iron-black and dark lead-grey. It
occurs maffive and in leaves, and alfo cryftallized, in the fol-
lowing forms ; oblique four-fided tables, rectangular four-
fided tables, fix and eight-fided tables, and in acute o€tohe-
drons acuminated at the fummit. It has a fplendent me-
tallic luftre, a more or lefs curved lamellar ftru€ture, with
joints on cleavage in one direction. It yields eafily to the
knife, and is feétile: the thin lamine are flexible: it ftains
flightly when rubbed in the fingers. The {pecific gravity
is 8.919. This ore melts very eafily before the blow-pipe ;
the fulphur and teilurium are volatilized ; a blackifh round-
coloured globule remains, which, on being melted with
borax, yields a globule which confifts of gold alloyed with
filyer ; the flag which remains tinges borax violet-blue. _ Its
conftituent parts, according to Klaproth, are

Tellurium - - - - - 32-2
Lead = - - - - 54-0
_ Gold - - - - - 9.0
Silver - - - - - O45
Copper - = ~ - = 1.3
Sulphur -— - = 3-0

This ore is found aflociated with the preceding ore of
tellurium. An ore of tellurium has lately been difcovered
in Norway by Efmark, An account of the mines where
tellurium is obtained, was publifhed by M. Stutz in the mew
Memoirs of the Society of Naturalifts at Berlin, vol. ii,

1799, and by Efmark, entitled “ An Account of a Mine-
ralogical Journey through Hungary, Tranfylvania, and the
Bannat,”? in the Neuen Bergmannifichen Journal, vols. i.
andii. Dr. Clarke, in the qth vol. of his Travels, has alfo
recently given a defeription of the tellurium mines, from
which we fhall briefly extra€t the moft interefting particulars
at the clofe of the prefent article.

Analy/fis of the Ores of Tellurium.—Thefe ores are worked
for the gold and filver they contain ; and the tellurium with
which they are combined being extremely volatile at a low
degree of heat, this metal was loft in the procefs of extra€tion,
and was for a long time {uppofed to be antimony. Muller firft
fufpected that it was a new metal. Bergmann made feveral
experiments upon it, but left the queftion undecided.

Klaproth, in 1798, read an account of the difcovery of
this new metal in the public fitting of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Berlin.

The procefs of extraGting the metal from native tellurium
is as follows. Six parts of muriatic acid are poured on the
crude ore, which has been previoufly feparated as much as
poflible from its matrix, and mechanically divided. Heat is
applied, and three parts of nitric acid are added by degrees.
A violent effervefcence takes place. By this proces the
metallic portion of the ore is diffolved, leaving the matrix,
which is principally quartz, behind. In the next place, the
filtered folution is-carefully diluted with as much water as
it will bear without being rendered turbid. Cauftic potafh
or foda is added, until the precipitate which is firft produced
difappears, and only a dark-brown flimy refidue remains.

Decant the folution, fetting the refiduum apart for fub-
fequent examination: it confifts of iron and gold. To the
alkaline folution add muriatic acid, until it be faturated,
moit accurately obferving the point of faturation. A copi-
ous white precipitate Sis, which in a raifed temperature
falls to the bottom of the veflel in the form of a heavy
powder. It is then colle€ted, and wafhed with equal parts
of water and fpirits of wine, and dried in a gentle warmth.
This is the oxyd of tellurium. To reduce it to a metallie
form, it fhould be heated in a fmall glafs retort along with
one-twelfth of its weight of charcoal, or it may be previ-
oufly moiitened with oil. Adapt a receiver to the retort,
and let heat be applied till the powder be brought to a ftate
of ignition. Small metallic drops will be feen lining the
upper part of the retort, which fall down feparately, and
are fucceeded by others. On refrigeration, the reduced
metal (excepting fome few metallic drops on the fhoulder
of the retort) is peer fufed, with a clean fplendent furface,
which is moft frequently cryttalline. At themoment the redue-
tion takes place, a quantity of carbonic.acid gas is fuddenly
generated, carrying along with it {ome particles of the mixture,
which it depofits in the receiver. The other ores of tellurium
being worked as gold ore ; for their analyfis, fee Goxp.

Tellurium in the pure reguline ftate was firft obtained by
Klaproth, who has given the following defcription of it ;
it is of a tin-white colour, verging to lead-grey ; it has avery
high metallic fplendour, and a foliated ftru€ture ; the furfaces
off the fragments are very brilliant. When cooling flowly
after fufion, it aflumes a cryftalline furface, It is very
brittle, and eafily reduced to powder. Among all the known
fufible metals, except the metalline alkalies or earths, tellu-
rium poffeffes the lealt fpecific gravity, being only 6.185.

Tellurium melts fooner than antimony, when expofed to
the fame degree of heat, but Jater than lead. It inflames
upon charcoal before the blowpipe with a violence refem-
bling detonation, and with a vivid light-blue flame, which on
the edges has a greenifh tinge. By the continued action of
the blowpipe, it is entirely diffipated in a greyifh-white
yapour, and emits a fmell like that of {crapedradith, _

Qqz Tellurium

TEL

Tellurium amalgamates very imperfectly with mercury,
even when heat is applied. It combines with fulphur in
equal proportions when fufed in a gentle heat, and forms
a lead-coloured firiated fubftance. With nitric acid, tel-
lurium yields a limpid colourlefs folution, which is not ren-
dered turbid by water. In the concentrated folution, very
light, lender, needle-fhaped cryftals are formed, which com-
monly affume a dendritical arrangement. Muriatic acid, on
the addition of a little nitric acid, affords a fimilar clear folu-
tion of this metal. This faturated folution is decompofed
by the mere addition of water, which throws down a white
powder, but this is again diffolved on adding more water.

The powder thrown down is not a pure oxyd of tellurium,
as it is combined with a fmall quantity of muriatic acid.
If tellurium be expofed to one hundred times its weight of
concentrated fulpkuric acid, the acid gradually acquires a
tinge of a fine deep amethyftine red. This colour is de-
ftroyed by the addition of water, and by heat. fi

Carbonated and pure alkalies precipitate tellurium in
the form of a white oxyd, combined with water or an
hydrate. This is rediffolved by an excefs of alkali. Al-
kaline fulphurets throw down a dark-brown or blackifh pre-
cipitate. Tinéture of galls produces a flocculent yellow
precipitate. The folutions of this metal in acids are not
decompofed by pruffiate of potafh, a property which tel-
lurium poffeffes in. common with gold, platina, iridium,
ofmium, rhodium, and antimony. Zine and iron precipi-
tate tellurium from its folution in acids, in the metallic ftate,
in the fhape of blackith flocculi, which acquire a metallic
luftre by trituration. Phofphorus is gradually coated with
metallic laminz in a muriatic folution of tellurium.

Oxyd of tellurium on charcoal is reduced with brifl: effer-
vefcence, aud afterwards volatilized; but if heated in a
fmall glafs retort it fufes, and on refrigeration exhibits a
ftraw-yellow colour and a ftriated texture. Some of thefe
properties of pure metallic tellurium are common to native
tellurium. Since the firft difcovery of this metal by Kla-
proth, it has been further afcertained, that it combines
with chlorine in the proportion of roo parts of tellurium
with 90.5 of chlorine. Tellurium forms two diftingét com-
pounds with hydrogen, the one of which is folid, and the
other gafeous. The firft is formed by making tellurium
the negative furface in water in the Galvanic circuit; by this
a brown powder is produced, which is a folid hydruret of
tellurium. ‘The fecond is formed by ating with dilute
fulphuric acid upon thie alloy of tellurium and potaffium, by
which a peculiar gas is produced, having a {mell refembling
that of fulphuretted hydrogen. It is abforbed by water, and
a claret-coloured folution refults, which by expofure to the
air becomes brown, and depofits tellurium. After being
wafhed with a {mall quantity of water, this gas does not
affe& vegetable blue colours. It burns with a blueifh flame,
depofiting oxyd of tellurium, and unites with alkalies. It pre-
cipitates mott metallic folutions, and is itfelf inftantly de-
compofed by chlorine gas. It may be called telluretted
hydrogen gas.

Tellurium is one of thofe metals whofe oxyds poffefs the
charaéters of acids, and form difting& claffes of falts. . The
falts formed by a combination of a bafe with the oxyd of
tellurium, are called by Berzelius fe//urets.

Tellurium, according to Klaproth, combines with oxygen
in the proportion of 100 parts of the metal with 20.5 of
oxygen; but Berzelins determines the proportions to be
100 tellurium and 27.83 oxygen.

This metal has not Richerto been applied to any ufeful
purpofe in the arts, which may ee be attributed to its
fearcity, and the comparative recentnefs of its difcovery.

Tellurium Mines.— Themine of Nagyag is diftant about

5

TEL

15 miles from Deva, in the bannat of Temefwar : it is fitu-
ated in the heights of the mountains, lying on the north
fide of the river Moros. After croffing the river, we began
to climb thefe heights. The roads were not bad, but almoft
the whole journey to Nagyag was up a fteep afcent. We
were five hours, although drawn by four horfes in a light
car, before we reached the fmall town where the mine oe
been opened.

“ As Tranfylvania is the only country in the whole world
where tellurium has been difcovered, our curiofity was
ey excited to view the Nagyag mine. At laft the pro-

pect opened upon us with great boldnefs of fcenery quite

among the fummits of this mountainous region, and in-a
manner highly pi€turefque and ftriking. The fituation of
the mine was diftinguifhed by an immenfe heap of difearded
minerals thrown out in working it.

“ The whole village of Nagyag has been undermined: the
works are not only carried on upon a grand and extenfive
fcale, but they are conduéted with a degree of neatnefg,
for which the Germans have long been famous in minin
Some fpecimens of tellurium are fo exceedingly rich in
gold, that in the fale of them for the crown, it is neceflary
to weigh them, and to eftimate the price according to
the quantity of gold they contain. ‘This kind of ore is
always kept locked up in private warehoufes. The com-
mon ore lies expofed in heaps, at which the workmen are
bufily employed in preparing the ore for ftamping.

‘¢ When the mine was firft difcovered, the mountains around
it were covered with foreits, which have fince been cut
down to fupply the mines with timber. The difeovery of
the mine is thus related on the refpe¢table authority of baron
Boon, in his letter to profeffor Feber. - ‘ A Wallachian,
whofe name was Armenian John, came to my father, ther
pofleffed of a rich filver mine at Cuertes, telling him, that
as he conftantly obferved flames iffuing from and playing
upon a fiffure in the Nagyag foreft, he was of opinion that
rich ore might be hid under ground. My father was fortu-.
nate enough to liften to the poor man’s tale ; and accord-
ingly he drove a gallery in the ground which the Walla-

chian had pointed out. ‘The works went on fome years

‘without fuccefs, and my father had refolved to give them

up. However, he made a laft drift towards the fiffure,
and there he difcovered the black and lamellated gold ores,
which were at firft looked upon as iron glimmer, but proved,
when affayed, to be, what they really are, rich gold ores.’”
Travels through the Bannat, Lond. 1799.

‘« Other veins were afterwards difcovered running parallel
to each other from north to fouth, and dipping from weit
to eaft. When Boon vifited Nagyag, the mine had onl
been worked to the depth of 60 fathoms. Its depth is —
now 150 fathoms. The mountains are éntirely compofed
of porphyry, covered with red clay or red flute and fand-
{tone. ‘The veins break off as foon as they reach the red flate.
Thefe veins contain with the ore, felfpar and fat quartz. There
is alfo found here a very rich kind of ore, which is finely
woven into the texture of a reddifh felfpar. Among the
rich ores, native filver occurs mixed with gold. Another
variety is called by the miners cotton ore ; it confifts of little
native filvery gold grains in tellurium, adhering to an argil-
laceous matrix. All the femi-metals at Nagyag are found,
when carefully analyfed, to contain gold. According to
Boon, the tellurium mines in the aucte of 20 years yielded
above 4,000,000 florins in gold and filver.
our arrival it had
productive.”

TELLUS, Terra, ©, in dfronomy. See EARTH.

TELMARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia

Minor, in Caria.
TELMEEN,

At the time of
been worked 60 years, and was equally

rEM

TELMEEN, in Geography,atown of A frica,in thecountry
of Sahara, anciently called Almena; 50 miles W. of Gabs.

TELMES, a town of Morocco; 15 miles from Safi.

TELMISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a name given to
three towns in Afia Minor, one at the diftance of 60 ftadia
from Halicarnaffus, in Lycia; fituated at the S.E. part of
the gulf of Glaucus, 2} leagues N.E. of the promontory
Telmeffus, and nearly S.W. of the mouth of the river
Glaucus. Its inhabitants were famous for their flcill in
augury : this town had a very fine theatre :—the fecond
was in Caria, and the third in Pifidiax—Alfo, a mountain
ef Afia Minor, in Lycia.

TELO Martius, a port of Gallia Narbonnenfis.
Touton.

TELOBIS, a town of Spain, in the Tarragonefe, be-
longing to the Jaceatani. Ptol.

TELOBO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the welt coaft of Gilolo. S. lat. 1° 6.
E. long. 127° 15!.

TELON, a name given by the chemitts to fire.

TELON &, +:rwxi, among the Athenians, farmers of
the public revenues: for the feverity with which they were
handled, in cafe they failed, fee Potter, Archzol. Grec.
lib. i. c. 14. tom. i. p. 81.

TELONIUM. See THeELonium.

TELONIUS, Satro, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, inthe country of the Sabines. It {prang towards the
S. of Carfeoli, and ran N. to difcharge itfelf into the Velinus.

TELOPEA, in Botany, from trwxc:, confpicuous at a
diflance, a name very fuitable to this magnificent fhrub, with
its fine fearlet flowers.— Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. to.
197. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 388. Ait. Hort. Kew.
vy. 1. 212.—Our Embothrium fpectofiffimum, with £. trun-
catum of Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 32. t. 44, conftitute this
genus. See Emporurium, from which we are unwilling to
feparate them, for the reafons given under OREOCALLIS.
The extremely clofe natural affinity, and great refemblance,
of thefe plants to each other, makes us miftruft even the
technical charaéter of the lateral /ligma (omitted indeed in
Hort. Kew.), fuppofing that organ to be really terminal in
Embothrium, which on a careful infpeGtion we find reafon to
doubt. The efficient part of the ftigma in EZ. coccineum is
certainly oblique. We wifh to learn, rather than to dictate,
but we cannot confide implicitly in the moft able guide.

TELOS, Piscopia, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
the Archipelago, fituated S.E. of the ifle of Cos, and
N.W.. of that of Rhodes. Pliny fays that it was cele-
brated for its perfumes.

TELPAH, in Geography, 2 town of Hindooitan, in
Bahar ; 40 miles S.S.W. of Patna.

TELPHUSSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, upon an eminence, at fome dif-
tance from the river Ladon, S.E. of Trophea. A temple
of Ceres was fituated near this town, in which fhe was

- honoured under the name of Lufia.

TELUMNUM, atown of Aquitanic Gaul, on the route
from Aque Tarbellice to Burdigala, between Czquofa and
Salamacum. Anton. Itin. This is the fame with Tellonum.

TELWARAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Agimere ; 25 miles N. of Buddakano. ;

TEMA, atown of Africa, in the kingdom of Ningo,
on the Gold Coatt.

TEMACHIS, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a genus
of foffils, of the clafs of the gypfums; the charaéters of
which are thefe: it is of a fofter fubftance than many: of
the other genera, and of a very bright and gicianig hue.
The name is derived from the Greek repayas, fruflulum, a
finall irregular fragment ; the bodies of this genus being

See

TEM

compofed of an allemblage of multitudes of irregular flaky
fragments, as are all the gypfums; but no genus of them
fo vifibly as thefe. Hill. See Gypsum.

TEMALA, Necrars, in Ancient Geography, a mari-
time town of {ndia, on the weltern coaft beyond the Ganges,
S. of Berabonna, where the coaft turns towards the E.
at the W. mouth of the river Sabaracus.—Alfo, a river of
India, the mouth of which was near Berabonna, and the
promontory of ‘T'emala,

TEMAN, in Commerce, the name of a dry meafure at
Mocha, in Arabia, containing 40 mecmedas or kellas, and
weighing in rice 168 Ibs. avowdupois.

TEMANIK, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman; 25 miles S, of Maftih.

TEMAPARA, in Zoology, the name of a peculiar
fpecies of lizard, called alfo tejuguacu.

It approaches much to the nature of the iguana, but is
black, {potted with white.

TEMBA, in Geography, a province of the kingdom of
Angola.

TEMBARE, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland
of Celebes. §. lat. 1° 27’. KE. long. rr9° 20!

TEMBASA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town
of Greece, in the Peloponnefus. Pliny. -

TEMBEN, in Geography, a town of Abyffinia; 100
miles E.S.E. of Siré.

TEMBLEQUE, a town of Spain, in New Catftile ;
13 miles E.S.E. of Toledo.

TEMBRIUM, or Tymsrium, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in Phrygia.

TEMBROGIUS,. a river of Afia, in Phrygia, which
ran into the Sangarius.

TEMBRUS, a town of the ifland of Cyprus.

TEMBUL, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors
for the plant called betel.

TEMDE, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Severn, 2 miles above Ludlow.

TEMDEGUE Kiamen, a poft of Chinefe Tartary ;
to miles S.E. of Tcitcicar.

TEME, or Team, a river of England, which rifes in
the county of Radnor, and runs into the Severn, 2 miles
below Worcefter.

TEMEH, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; g miles N. of Tahta.

Temen Jfebag, a town of Egypt ; 12 miles N. of Fayoum.

TEMELET, a town of Morocco ; 70 miles W.S.W.
of Morocco. i

TEMELO, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by fome for
the fifh called in Englifh the grayling, and in fome places
the umber.

TEMEN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Nedsjed; 80 miles S.S.E. of Jamama.

TEMENDEFUST, or Merarust, atown of Algiers ;
10 miles E. of Algiers. ; :

TEMENEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
52 miles W.N.W. of Sinob.

TEMENI, a town of the ifland of Candia; 6 miles S.
of Candy. .

Trment Porta, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of
Afia Minor, in Lydia.

TEMENIA, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, on the con-
fines of Lycaonia.

TEMENIUM, a fortrefs of the Peloponnefus, on the
confines of the Argolide. Here were two temples, one
dedicated to Neptune, and another to Venus.

TEMERICUS Acer, a {mall country of Gallia Nar-
bonnenfis, towards the fource of the Rhine. t

TEMES, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which rifes

in

TEM

in the fouth-eaft part of the mountains, and runs into the
Danube, oppofite Belgrade.

TEMESA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Brutium, called Tempfa or Temfa in the time of Strabo.

TEMESCAMANG, in Geography, the principal of
thofe lakes in Lower Canada formed by the Utawas and its
contributory ftreams, which lake has always been a trading
port, and which may be faid to continue, by a fucceffion of
rivers and lakes, upwards of 50 leagues from the Forks,
pafling near the waters of the lake Abbitiby, in N. lat.
48° 30!, which is received by the Moofe river, that dif-
charges itfelf into James bay. Mackenzie’s Travels.

TEMESCHU, a town of New Mexico, in the province
of Mayo; 160 miles E.N.E. of Santa Cruz.

TEMESVAR, or Temeswar, a town of Hungary.
This is an important fortrefs, fituated on the river Beg,
which forms a morafs round it, and is ftrongly fortified.
It is the capital of a bannat, the refidence of a governor,
and the fee of a Greek bifhop. It was taken by prince
Eugene in 1716; and by the peace of Paffarowitz was,
with the whole bannat, confirmed to the houfe of Auftria ;
fince which time it has been almoft wholly rebuilt. It is
large and populous; the ftreets broad and well paved.
The fortrefs is a caftle with walls nine feet thick, and re-
quires a garrifon of 14,000 men. It contains about 443
{quare German miles, with a population of about 450,000
inhabitants ; 52 miles E.N.E. of Belgrade. N. lat. 45° 49’.
E. long. 21°.

TEMIN, in Commerce, a money of account in Algiers,
equivalent to 2 carubes, or 29 afpers. See Coin.

TEMISCHBERG, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruflia,
in the government of Caucafus ; 60 miles W. of Stavropol.

TEMISSAH, or Temmissa, a large town of Africa,
in the province of Fezzan, diftant from Mourzouk, its
capital, in an E.N.E. direétion, about 120 miles. Here
the caravan of pilgrims from Bornou and Nigritia, which
takes its departure from Mourzouk about the end of Oc-
tober, or beginning of November, and travels by the way
of Cairo to Mecca, arrives in the evening of the feventh day,
and ufually provides the: {tores of corn and dates, and dried
meat, that are requifite for its dreary paflage.

TEMISVAR. See Basa.

TEMITZ, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of @hru-
dim; 18 miles N.W. of Chrudim.

TEMLOWKA, a town of Algiers, anciently ealled
*¢ Sigus ;”” 24 miles S.E. of Conftantina.

TEMMA, atown of Africa, on the Gold Coaft. N.
lat. 5° 45’. W. long. 0° 55/.

TEMMELISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Syria, on the route from Celecoma to Larifla, be-
tween Chalcida and Apamea. Anton. Itin.

TEMMES, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Ulea; 20 ales S. of Ulea.

TEMNIKOYV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tambov; 116 miles N.N.E. of Tambov. N, lat. 54° 28/;
E. long. 43° 14/.

TEMNOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
jn Ionia, at the mouth and’ north of the river Hermus. It
did not fubfift in the time of Pliny.

TEMOEL, in Geography, a town on the weft coaft of
the ifland of Celebes. 5S, lat. 0° 5’. E. long. 119° 35’.

TEMORIS, a town of New Mexico, in the province
of Culiacan; 70 miles N.N.E. of Culiacan.

TEMOSOSHI, a town of New Mexico, in the pro-
yince of Hiaquis 130 miles E. of Riochico,

TEMPATLAHOAG, in Ornithology, the name of a
broad-billed bird of the Welt Indies, deleribed by Nierem-

TEM

berg; and by him efteemed a fpecies of duck.
riety of the anas clypeata. See Duck.

It is of the fize of the common duck ; is common on the
lakes of Mexico, and is a good eatable bird. Ray.

TEMPE’, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated valley of
Theflaly, between the mountains Offa and Olympus.
félian, Pliny, and Strabo reprefent it as 40 ftadia in length,
along the middle of which lay the courfe of the river Peneus,
which feparated Theflaly from Macedonia. Tempé, ac-
cording to Livy, was the name given to the wood or foreit,
which, though not dangerous, was difficult for an army to
pafs, becaufe of two defiles five miles in length; and the
river Peneus made a terrifying noife in pafling through this
deep valley. Tempé, it is faid, is derived from the Greek
ssurn; in the plural, fignifying wood. ‘Tempé, at its en-
trance, has a large village, which has been long famous for
the accomplifhments of its inhabitants, and for the great
trade they carry on with Vienna and the interior of Europe.

Tempt, in Commerce. See STAMPE.

TEMPELBURG, ir Geography, a town of Hinder
Pomerania; 19 miles W. of New Stettin. N. lat. 53° 29.
E. long. 16° 12!

TEMPER, in a Phyfical Senfe. See’ Man.

Temper of a Horfe, the difpofition of the animal, which
fhould be carefully attended to while he is young, as well as
in the purchafe.

Trmprr,in a Mufical Senfe. See TEMPERAMENT, in Mufic.

Temper, in a Mechanical Senfe. See TEMPERING.

TEMPERAMENT, TemperaMentuM, Temperature,
in Phyfiology. See Man.

TEMPERAMENT, Jemperamento, in Mujic, generally de-
notes a rectifying or amending of the falfe or imperfeét con-
cords, by fobs secs to them part of the beauty of the
perfec ones.

The degrees of the o¢tave, which may be called its elements,
as being the fmalleft intervals into which'it is refolvable, are two
greater femitones, two lefs tones, and three greater tones.

Now the different fituation of thefe elements, with refpe&
to each other, occafions that intervals or concords of the
fame name, as thirds, fourths, &c. do not confift of the
fame degrees or elements, though there be always the fame
number of them: but one fourth, for inftance, is agreeable
and perfect, and another not.

To mend thefe imperfect concords, the muficians have
bethought themfelves to temper, i. e. give them part of the
agreeablenefs of perfe&t ones. In order to this, they take
a medium between the two, and this they calla mi Phraes 5
which neceffarily produces a new divifion of the o¢tave, or,
which amounts to the fame, new elements.

For inftance, whereas naturally its elements are the greater
femitone, and the greater and lefs tone ; they take a middle
tone formed of the greater and the lefs: and the only ele-
ments now are the greater femitone, and this mean tone,
which renders the five intervals that are tones equal, and.
thofe that are femitones lefs unequal to thefe.

One might alfo divide each of the five tones of the o€tave
into femitones, which, joined to the two it naturally has,
would make twelve: in which cafe, the whole o¢tave would
be divided into twelve equal parts, which would be mean
femitones.

It is eafy to form various other kinds of temperaments :
all the difficulty is to find fuch as are free from two great
inconveniencies, #.e. which do not alter either all the con-
cords too mug¢h, or, at leaft, fome of them.

All fuch divifions of the octave are called tempered or tems
perative fyftem.

The temperament does, indced, according to the definition
aboye given, and confidered in one view, correét fome falfe

concords,

It is a va-

TEMPERAMENT.

eoncords, yet, in other refpects, it fpoils and falfifies both
pees and imperfeét concords, and renders difcords more
arfh than they would otherwife be, if the intervals were
juftly taken. To explain this, we mutt confider that all the
intervals are founded on the primary proportions arifing from
the numbers 2, 3, and 5, that is, if we do not exceed the
compafs of an ottave, 3, 3, and. See INTERVAL.

The nearer we come in practice to the true intervals, the
more perfect the melody and harmony will be ; and it is cer-
tain, that the human voice, and fome inftruments, as violins,
&e. which have no ftops nor frets, will execute mufic to a
great degree of exaftnefs ; but the cafe is not the fame with
fixed or fretted inftruments, as harpfichords, organs, lutes,
viols, &c. Accuracy is here impoffible, unlefs we would
content ourfelves with always playing in the fame key, with-
out any tranfition or tranfpofition whatfoever. In this cafe,
indeed, the harpfichord or organ might vie with the accu-
racy of the voice or violin. For inftance: if we were to
compofe or play in the key of C, then we might make the
feveral intervals of that key to be in the following true pro-
RerekOusse 1,7, <2, 20, ¢, 22, 8) 16 that as, ins whole
CY D) SEE) (G) A. Bi Gini
24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48$ ,
inftrument tuned in this manner, would perform any piece
of mufic in C, juitly compofed, with great beauty and ex-
aGnefs ; taking for granted, that every key, fundamental
note, or found, ought to have its true fifth and fourth, and
that thefe ought alfo to have their true fifths and thirds.

Now this being premifed, it will prefently appear, that in
making any eeasfetition or tranfition from C, we fhall find
fome falfe concord. Thus, for inftance, if we proceed
to G, and confider it as a key, or fundamental found, we
fhall have the following feries of numbers for the o¢tave
estes. 2% CAB, C.D)” Or ep. 7

*— -U36 40. 45 48 54 60 64 725 :

But here the interval between 40 and 5,4 is falfe, being
a comma too much, for the fecond of a key muft make
a true fifth with the fifth of the fame key. In like man-
ner, if we were to proceed from C to A, as a new key,
we fhould find the following feries for the oGtave of A,

ae Se i where the interval
40 45 48 54 60 64 72 80
between A 40 and its fourth D 54 is falfe, being too great
by a comma. If any other tranfition were examined, we
fhall always find fome note falfe; as in F, the fixth would
be redundant by a comma; and in D, the fifth would be
deficient by a comma. All which fhews the impoffibility
of truth and exa¢tnefs of mufic on fixed inftruments. Yet
as thefe inftruments have their ufe and convenience in fome
refpects, it was proper to endeavour to find out a method of
making them tolerable. It has been obferved under the
article InrervaL, that the tone major exceeds the tone
minor by a comma. ‘Their difference is neceflary for the
truth and perfeétion of mufic ; but yet if thefe tones were
rendered equal, the ear would not be offended. And this
has fuggefted the means of tempering fixed inftruments. If
we were to make all tones equal to the tone major, as fome
imagine the ancients did, then we fhould find the ditonus, or
third, exceeding a true third major by one comma, which
would be intolerable. In like manner, if all tones were to be
minor, we fhould have thirds major defective by a comma,
which would alfo be intolerable, not to mention other falfe in-
tervals that muft neceflarily arife from fuch a fuppofition. ;
Suppofing then one tone increafed, and the others dimi-
nifhed by half a comma, we fhould have our thirds major
remain perfect. But {till it would be neceffary to examine
what fifths this fuppofition would give. Now it is evident
that a tone major added to an o€tave, makes juft two fifths,

numbers, and the

thus $x ¢=3=43x 43. But the tone here added is 4
tone major, and the tone we have aflumed is a temperate
tone deficient from the tone major by half a comma; hence
the fum of the two fifths, on this fuppofition, will fall fhort
of the truth by half a comma, and confequently one fifth
will be deficient a quarter of a comma. Which difference,
although it be fenfible, yet experience fhews, that fifths fo
diminithed are tolerable.

This temperament is what is called the common or vulgar
temperament, and confifts, as has been faid, in diminifhin
the fifth by a quarter of a comma, in preferving the third
major perfect, and dividing it into two equal tones. Which
being fuppofed, it follows that the fourth muft exceed the
truth by a quarter of acomma; that the third minor will be
deficient by the fame quantity ; that the fixth minor will be
perfeét, and the fixth major redundant by a quarter of a
comma ; and laftly, that the femitone major will exceed the
truth by a quarter of acomma. If we introduce chromatic
notes, or flats and fharps, the femitone minor will. alfo ex-
ceed the truth by a quarter of a comma, and confequently
the difference between the two femitones, or the diefis en-
harmonica, will be preferved.

» lf then we had a harpfichord or organ, with each feint
or half note divided, we fhould have the following notes or
founds, wiz. CCx, Db, D, Dx, Eb, E, Fx, Gb,
G, Gx, Ab, A, Ax, Bb, B, c, in the compats of an
ottave. Yet this fyftem of notes, numerous as they feem,
would not be fufficient for all tranfitions and tranfpofitions.
For though a piece of mufic tranfpofed to any of the na-
tural keys C, D, E, F; G, A, B, and to the flats, as
Eb and Bb, and fome others, would do well; yet, in
tranfpofing to fharps, as to Cx, we fhould not find a true
third major, unlefs we introduced EX. And even in flats,
as Ab and Eb, we fhould not find a true third major in
defcending, or a fixth minor in afcending, unlefs we mtro-
duced Fb and Cb. And in like manner, tran{pofitions to
G* and Eb would oblige us to introduce B& and Cb.
Nor would even this fuffice, for if neceflity required a tranf-
pofition from the key of C to that of Dx, we fhould not
find a true third major without introducing F %%« and c.
So that at laft we fhall come to a temperate fy{tem, where,
in afcending, the notes C, D, F,-G, A, would each have
its fharp and double fharp, and the notes B and E each a
fingle fharp. In defcending, the notes E, D, B, A, G,
would each have their flat and double flat, and the notes
F and C each a fingle flat. And thus the o¢tave would
be divided into 31 intervals, whofe defignations are
C Dbb CX Db Cxx D Ebb DX Eb Dxx

I 2. hats 4 5Ea6 7 8 srg I
E Fb Ex F Gbb Fx Gb FRx G

It 12 13) 14 15 16 17 18 19
Abb Gx Abb GX A Bbb Ax Bb

200!" 2y 22 238) 22 25 26!) 24
Ax* B C Bx C. Where the letters. C, D, E,

28 29 30 31
F, G, A, B, fignify the common diatonic notes: thofe
marked with a fingle ¥ or b are the chromatic ; and thofe
marked with a double %% or b b are enharmonic notes; fo
called, becaufe the interval between them and the next dia-
tonic note is an enharmonic diefis; for which reafon, the
notes Ex, Fb, and B%, Cb, are alfo enharmonic.

But even in this divifion of the o€tave, all the notes would
not havea third major in afcending and defcending : thus, for
inftance, D2 has no third major ; for this would be Fxxx,
which is not in the feale, nor can any number of additional
notes fuflice in all cafes. But thisinconvenience is eafily reme-
died, and the fy{tem confiderably improved, by making all the
thirty-one intervals equal. We have already obferved, that in

the

°

TEMPERAMENT.

the common temperament, the femitones major and minor ex-
ceed the truth by a quarter of a comma, and that the enharmonic
diefis is preferved true. Hence it follows, that the hype-
roche, or difference between the chromatic and enharmonic
diefis ; for example, the interval between Fb and Ex, or Dbb
and C&, &e. will alfo exceed the truth by a quarter of a comma.
Now the hyperoche, by our table under InTERVAL,is equal to
1.37695, to which adding a quarter of acomma = 0.25000, we
have 1.62695, which differs from the enharmonic diefis 1.90917
galy by 0.28222, or about % of a comma. Negleéting this
{mall difference, let us fuppofe all the thirty-one intervals of
the o€tave equal, it will follow that tranfpofitions to all the
notes of the fyftem, whether diatonic, chromatic, or enhar-
monic, will be equally good, and differ only in pitch or tone, as
they ought, but not in accuracy, which muft next be examined.

The divifion of the o¢tave into thirty-one parts may be con-
veniently done by logarithms. Under the article IntERVAL, I
find the logarithm of the o€tave = 55.79763 commas ; confe-
quently each diefis, or divifion of the oftave, = 1.79992
comma; hence the fifth, being 18 diefes, will be 32.399
commas. Now the true fifths being 32.640, the fifth con-
fequently in this temperament is deficient by 0.241 parts of
acomma, which is lefs than a quarter ofacomma by +$_ part
and therefore this fifth will, ftritly {peaking, be better than
that of the vulgar temperament by z+, of the comma; but
this is infenfible. Next, proceeding to examine the third,
we fhall find it equal to 10 diefes or divifions, that is, 17.999
commas ; and the true third major being 17.963 commas,
the difference is 0.036, that is, about ,', of acomma. Nowas
the ear can beara fifth, altered by a quarter of a comma, it will
much more eafily bear the alteration of 5"; of a comma in a
third major. Again, in this temperament the third minor
is indeed, ftriGly fpeaking, worfe than in the vulgar, which
differs from the truth but a quarter of a comma, whereas
here it differs by about ,!, of a comma more; but then this
difference is infenfible.

Thus we have been led from the confideration of the
vulgar temperament, to the invention of the temperament
which divides the oftave into 31 equal intervals, commonly
called Huygens’s temperament. ‘This great mathematician
was, indeed, the firft who gave a diftinét account of it, and
fhewed its ufe and accuracy. But here, asin many other
inventions, we find the hint of the thing much older than the
true knowledge of it. See Huygenit Opera omnia, vol. i.
p- 748, 749, edit. 1. Lugd. Batav. 1724.

The divifion of the oftave into 31 parts was invented
in Italy about 300 years ago, by Don Nicola Vincentino.
The title of his book is *‘ L? Antica Mufica Riddotta alla
Moderna Prattica, &c.’? Roma, 1555. fol.; and an inftru-
ment, called archicembalo, was made upon this {cheme, as
Salinas informs us, who at the fame time condemns it, as
i ea a in practice. But this could be owing to
nothing but its not being tuned according to the intention of
the inventor. For if all the thirds major of this inftrument
were made perfe&, and the fifths diminifhed by a quarter of a
comma, it is evident that the inftrument would be equally exact
with any tuned according to the vulgar temperament, and
would fuffice for tranfpofitions to. any diatonic or chromatic
notes, though not to all the enharmonic, as DX, &c. be-
caufe we fhould not find its third major. And if the in-
ftrument were tuned according to M. Huygens’s fcheme, of
making all the divifions ea it would then have all the

1 keys equally good, and very near the truth. See
maa | lib. tii, The title of his work is “ Francifci Salina
Burgenfis de Mufica Libri Septem,’’ Salmantice, 1577, fol.
Merlennus’s work is intitled: * Harmonicorum, Libri XII.
authore F. M. Merfenno Minimo, Lutetie Parifiorum,’’

1648, fol. He publifhed another book before this, the title

of which is ‘‘ Harmonie Univerfelle, contenant la Theorie et
laPratique de la Mufique,” Paris, 1636, fol. 2 vols.

Hence it is plain, Salinas and Merfennus had not fuf-
ficiently examined this matter.

The ufe of this temperament of M. Huygens deferves to
be introduced into the praétice of mufic, as it will facilitate
the execution of all the genera of mufic, whether diatonic,
chromatic, or enharmonic ; nor does the multiplicity of its
parts render it impracticable, the author afluying us that he
had a harpfichord made at Paris with fuch divifions, which
was approved of and imitated by fome able mufcians.
Merfennus alfo gives a {cheme for this purpofe ; and Salinas
fays he faw and played upon fuch an inftrument. See alfo
Don Vincentino before cited, lib. v. p. 99, &c. ;

M. Huygens, to facilitate the tuning of inftruments with
fuch divifions, has pee us_a table of the parts of an otave,
according to his fyftem, together with their logarithms.

The table is as follows : %

The divifion of The. divifion of

the ofave into

31 equal parts.
mon temperainent.

w. {r4liv.| v.

t
N. 97106450

4.6989700043 | 50000} Ut* | C* | 50000} 4.6989700043,
4-7086806493 | 51131
47183912943 | 52278)
4-7281019393| 53469) Si] B* | 53499) 4-7283474859.
4°7378125843| 54678) ,
4:7475232293| 55914) Sa| B | 55902! 4.7474250
47572338743 | 57179) * | * | 57243) 47577249674
4-7669445193| 58471

4-7766551643| 59794| La| A | 59814] 4.7768024924:
4-7863658093| 61146) Abe
4-7960764543| 62528) * | * | 62500] 47958800173
4-805 7870993 | 63942 | Sol"| G* | 64000] 4-8061799740)
48154677443 | 65388 | : ;
4-8252083893| 68666| Sbl| G | 66874] 4.8252574989
48349190343] 68378}
4-8446296793 } 69924 |

4-8543403243| 71506) Fa‘| F* | 71554] 4.8546349804
4-8040509693| 74122)

4-8737616143| 74776| Fa | F | 74767} 48737125054
48834722593 | 76467 |

4-8931829043| 78197) |
4-9028935493| 79964| Mi} E | 80000! 4.9030899870
4-9126041943 | 81772!

49223148393 | $3621 | Ma Eb | 83592! 4.9221675119
4-9320254843| 85512, * | * | 85599) 4-9324674685
4-9417361293| 87445

4-9514467743| 89422| Re| D | 89443

4-9011574193| 91444

4-9708680643 | 93512) * | * | 93459
4-9805787093 | 95627 Ut*| C* | 95702| 4.9809224750
49902893543] 97789

9
49999999993 |1Coo00 | Ut | C

100000

50000000000

The fecond column of this table contains the numbers —
exprefling the length of chords making 31 equal divifions, the
longeft, anfwering to C, being fuppofed to be divided into

100,000 parts.

In the third column are the fyllables by which the notes
are ufually named in France ; and the afterife * thews fome
enharmonic notes, of which that near /ol is moit nece M

In the fourth column are the letters commonly uf

denote the found of the oétave.

to
The

TEMPERAMENT.

The numbers of the fecond column were found by means
of thofe in the firft, which are their refpeétive logarithms ;
and thefe were found by dividing 0.30102999566, the loga-
rithm of 2, by 31. The quotient 97106450 is marked N,
and being continually added to the logarithm of 50000, that
is, to 4.6989700043, gives all the logarithms of the firft
column to the greateft 4.9999999993, which being ex-
tremely near to 5.0000000000, the logarithm of 100000,
fhews the operation to have been rightly performed.

The fifth column fhews the lengths of the chords in the
common temperament ; and the fixth column contains their
refpective logarithms. Vide Huygenii Opera, vol. i.
Bea) 753° : "

The learned author of this temperament has not given the
notes anf{werimg to all the divifions of the o€tave ; but that
may eafily be fupplied from what has been faid above when
we derived this temperament from the confideration of the
common.

As Huygens has not given the names of all the intervals
that occur in his temperate feale, we fhall here infert them
in the-o€tave, from C to c, with their re{petive meafures in
the commas, and tenths of a comma

Intervals. Names. Meafures,
Dbb} 1. Diminifhed fecond,extreme
flat fecond, or citer | 1.8
diefis.
Cx | 2. Semitone minor, or chro-) | 6
matic diefis. t | 3-
Db 3. Flat fecond, or femitone ] |
major. t oF
CX | 4. Double femitone minor. i ee
5. Second, or tone. 9-0
Ebb| 6. Diminifhed third, or Oi aes 8
treme flat third. yy 5
D* | 7. Superfluous fecond. | 12.6
Eb 8. Third minor, or flat third. 14.4
DX! 9. Extreme fuperfluousfecond.| 16.2
E to. Third major, or fharp third.| 18.0
Fb {r1. Diminifhed fourth. 19.8
EX = |12. Superfluous third. 21.6
F 13. Fourth. 23.4
=} Gbb \14. Extreme diminifhed fifth. 25.2
O/} FX 15. Falfe fourth, or tritoaus. 27.0
: 3b 116. Falfe fifth, or femidiapente.; 28.8
pe | F%*%* |17. Extreme fuperfluousfourth.| 30.6
G 18, Fifth. | 32.4
Abb |19. Diminithed fixth, or ex- | 2
treme flat fixth. } 34:
G* |20. Superfluous fifth. | 36.0
Ab j21. Flat fixth, or fixth mincr. 37.8
G%% |22. Extreme fuperfluous fifth. 39-6
A 23. Sharp fixth, orfixth major. | 41.4
Bbb |24. Diminifhed feventh, or ex-] | x
treme flat feventh. i |, 43-2
AX |25. Superfluous fixth. 45-0
D 26. Flat feventh, or feventh 6.3
Lana 46.8
minor.
A \27. Extreme fuperfluous fixth. | 48.6
B 28. Sharp feventh, or “anys 50.4
major.
cb —_[29._Diminifhed octave. 52.2
Bx (30. Superfluous feventh. +6
55+

{3 1. Odtave.

The temperate diefis enharmonica of Huygens being 1.8
comma, nearly, which is eafily remembered, the meafure of
any interval in the o¢tave may be found by multiplying it
by the number denoting the place of that interval. Thus
the fixth minor, being the twenty-firft interval, will be =
1.8 x 21 = 37.8. The oétave, being the thirty-firft, will
be = 31 x 1.8 = 55.8, which does not differ from the
truth by more than 0.00237, that is, not by +3» of a comma,
and therefore perfeétly infenfible. See INTERVAL.

All the intervals in the foregoing table, either have re-
ceived names, or at leaft might receive them, froma perfect
analogy to the names in ufe among practical muficians ; but
many of thefe intervals are as yet unheard of among prac-
titioners. Perhaps, if all the gencra of ancient mutic were
reftored, every interval here mentioned might be of ufe,
either in melody or harmony, and thereby greatly add to the
variety of compofition.

We have already mentioned the advantages of M.
Huygens’s fyftem ; but its excellency will better appear by
comparing it with the fchemes of others. We may dift
tinguifh and name the different temperaments by the number
of equal parts into which the o¢tave is fuppofed to be
divided. The temperaments that occur in books are tem-
peraments of 12, 19, 31, 43, 50, 53, and 55 parts, of which
in order.

The temperament of 12 parts is founded on the fuppofi-
tion that the femitones major and minor may be made equal.
Hence the oétave will be divided into 12 equal femitones,
feven of which will make the sth, four the 3d, and three
the 3d minor.

‘The temperament of 19 parts goes upon the fuppofition
that the femitone major is the double of the femitone minor,
Hence the tone will be 3, and the third major 6. The diefis
enharmonica will be 1, and confequently the oétave, being
three thirds major and a diefis, will be 19. The fifth contains
1I parts. ‘The harpfichord, in this fcheme, will have every
feint cut in two, one for the fharp of the lower note, and
the other for the flat of the higher. Between B and C, and
between E and F, will be interpofed keys, which muft ferve
for the fharps of B and E, and the flats of C and F re-
{pectively.

‘The temperament of 31 parts is M. “Huygens’s, already
defcribed: here the femitones are as 3 to 2. The third
major is 10, and the fifth 18.

The temperament of 43 is M. Sauveur’s, and by him
very fully deferibed in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy
of Sciences, A.D. 1701, 1702. He fuppofes the propor-
tion of the femitones to be as 4 to 3. Hence his tone is 7,
the third major 14, the fifth 25, and the oftave 43. What
mufical foundation this learned gentleman went upon in the
invettigation of this temperament, is not known: but it
feems liable to infuperable difficulties ; for here the diefis en-
harmonica is but the half of the difference between it and the
chromatic diefis ; whereas, in truth, this difference, inftead
of being double of, is really lefs than the enharmonic diefis,
as was long ago objected to him by Mr. Henfling, and ap-
pears from the table under INrerRvat. Mifcel. Berolin.
tom. 1.p. 285, 286. :

Befides, his enharmonic diefis falls greatly fhort of the
truth; being but 1.27 of a comma, which is an error of
0.64, or nearly ; of acomma. Whereas, in M. Huygens’s
temperament, the error of the diefis is almoft infenfible, being
but =, of acomma. Nor are the practical advantages of
M. Sauveur’s fyftem any ways comparable to Huygens’s.
His fifth is indeed, ftriftly {peaking, better; but fo little,
that the difference is not fenfible, not being ;', of a comma.
On the other hand, his thirds are fenfibly worfe, the major

Rr being

TEMPERAMENT.

being 3, and the minor 2 of a comma falfe. Whereas
Huygens’s third major does not differ fenfibly from the
truth, and the minor has no fenfible difference from the third
minor deficient by + of a comma of the common temperament,
which ought to be deemed the limit of the diminution of
concords. If we add to this, that the much greater number
of parts in M. Sauveur’s octave, makes it much more intri-
cate than M. Huygens’s, and that thefe parts would be
falfe or ufelefs, even fuppofing the enharmonic genus re-
ftored, no mufician will long hefitate which he ought to
prefer.

The temperament of 50 parts is propofed by Mr. Hen-
fling in the Mifcellan. Berolin. above cited: he takes the
proportion of the femitone as 5 to 3: hence his tone is 8,
the third major 16, the fifth 29, and the oftave 50. The
third major and fifth in this fyftem will be worfe than Huy-
gens’s, though the third minor be a little better. The third
major is here lefs than the true, and the fifth deficient by
more than + of a comma, which is a fault, not to mention the
inconveniency arifing from dividing the o¢tave into 50 parts ;
befides, 5 : 3, the proportion of the femitones here aflumed,
although expreffed in greater numbers, is not fo near the
truth as M. Huygens’s of 3: 2. See Rario.

The temperament of 53 parts is mentioned by Merfennus.

V. Com.

Temperaments.

Of 12 parts 32-549
19 32-304,

31 32-399

43 32-440

50 32.363

53 32-637
32-404

Cope Petap. 32.390
ift Salin. 32.307
2d Salin. 32.354
True Scale. 32.640

. Temperaments formed by the divifion of the o¢tave into

equal parts, may be called geometrical temperaments. The
common, and the two mentioned by Salinas, do not pro-
ceed upon this foundation ; the intention of the firft in-
yentors not having been to make tranfpofitions to every note
of the fyftem equally good; but only to make the moft
ufual tranfitions in the courfe of a piece of mufic tolerable.
Hence the parts of the oétave, in their fuppofition, were
not all equal.

The common temperament, as we have faid, preferves
the third major perfect. The firft of Salinas preferves the
third minor perfe€&t. In the fecond of Salinas, the femi-
tone minor is perfeé&t. The foundation of his firft tempe-
rament is making the temperate tone equal to the tone minor
and +. of a comma, or the tone major lefs 4 of a comma.
Hence his fifth and third major will be deficient by 4 of a
comma ; and the third minor confequently will be true. The
ground of his fecond fcheme is, to add 2 of a commato the
tone minor, or take + from the tone major for his temperate
tone. Hence the fifth will be deficient by + of a comma,
and the thirds major and minor each deficient by + of a
comma. Confequently, the femitone, being their difference,
will be preferved.

As to Mr. Salmon’s feale in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, there is nothing true in it, but the diatonic feale of C.
His feale for A is falfe, the fourth being erroneous by a
comma; moft of his femitones are likewife falfe. In

Here the tones will be unequal, 9 being the tone major, and
8 the minor. Hence the third major will be 17, and the
fifth 31, which laft does not differ from the truth by above
4 part of acomma. The third minor is alfo more perfect
than in M. Huygens’s fyftem. But the multiplicity of
parts in the oétaye of this fy{tem renders it too intricate ;
and the diftinétion of tones major and minor upon fixed in-
ftruments is impraé¢ticable.

The laft temperament we have to mention is that of 55
parts, which M. Sauveur calls the temperament of practical
muficians. Its foundation lies in affuming the proportion of
the femitones as 5 to 4; fo that the tone will be g, the third 18,
and the fifth 32. he fifth in this fyftem, as in that which
makes the femitones equal, is nearer the truth than M. Huy-
gens’s, but this advantage is not 7, of a comma; and on
the other hand, the thirds, both major and minor, are here
greatly miftuned, as will appear by the annexed table, ex-
hibiting the thirds and fifths of thefe feveral temperaments,
as alfo the thirds and fifths of the common temperament,
and two mentioned by Salinas, marked 1ft Salin. 2d Salin,
The letter V- ftands for the fifth ; III. for the third major ;
and 3. for the third minor. The fifths are all deficient, but
the thirds are fometimes lefs than the true ; the firft are
marked +, the others —.

fhort, it can neither be confidered as a true feale, nor as 4
temperament.

Before we clofe this article, it may be proper to add a few
words about the method of invention of the foregoing geo-
metrical temperaments. M. Huygens having had the hint
of a divifion of the o€tave into 31 parts, had nothing far-
ther to-do but to examine it by logarithms. But fuppofing
no fuch hint had been given, he might have inveftigated it
direétly, by the method laid down by himfelf, and alfo
by Dr. Wallis and Mr. Cotes, for approximating to the
value of given ratios in fmaller numbers. We have given
Mr. Cotes’s method under Ratio. The application of that
method to the prefent purpofe is thus: the ratio of the
oétave to the third major is 55.79763 to 17.96282, and the
approximating ratios will be,

1. Greater than the true 28 : 9, 87 : 28, &c.

2. Lefs than the true 3 : 1,31: 10,59: 19, 205 : 66, &e.

The ratios greater than the true muft all be rejected ; be-
caufe they give the third major lefs than true, and confe-
quently the tone (its half) deficient by above + of acomma ;
which gives the fifth deficient above 3. of a comma: but this
ought not to be. The firft of the ratios lefs than true is
3: 1, or 12: 4, which is the temperament of 12 parts be-
fore defcribed, and too inaccurate. The next is 31: 10, or
M. Huygens’s. The reft divide the o€tave into too many
parts.

The fame may be alfo found thus: the ratio of the a@ave

to

TEMPERAMENT.

to the common temperate fifth, deficient by 3 of acomma, is
56.79763 to 32-38952. The approximating ratios to which
are

i: Greater than the true 2: 1,7: 4,19: II, 50: 29, ke.

2. Lefsthan the true 1: 1, 3°: 2, 5 : 3, 12: 7, 31: 18, °

205: 119. Where we have the temperaments of 12, 19,
31, and 50 parts, before examined.

And here all ratios greater than the true ought to be re-
jected, becaufe they give the fifth lefs than true, that is,
in this cafe, deficient by more than + of a comma.

If we inveftigate the approximating ratios to the ratio of
the femitones major and minor, or 5.19529 to 3.28612, we
fhall have the ratios 1:1, 2:1, 2:2, 5:3, which re-
fpectively give the temperaments of 12, 19, 31, and 50
parts, before defcribed.

Again, inveftigating the approximating ratios of the fifth to
the third major, we fhall find 7: 4, 9:5, 11: 6, 29: 16,
which will alfo give the temperaments 12, 19, 31, 50, as
before.

Laftly, the approximated ratios of the o€tave to the true
fifth are 12 : 7 and 53 : 31 greater than the true; the others
being of no ufe, fince the fifth muit neceffarily be diminithed.
Here we find the temperament of 53 parts. As to the
temperaments of 43 and 55, being deititute of any mufical
foundation, it isno wonder they do not appear by this me-
thod of inveftigation.

M. Huygens, in his Cofmotheoros, fays that the tone
or pitch of the voice cannot be preferved, unlefs the confo-
nants be tempered, fo as to deviate a little from the higheft
perfetion. For the proof of this affertion, he brings a
melody confilting of the following founds, C, F, D, G, C;
where, if the intervals were to be fung perfe&t, by taking
the interval from C to F a true fourth afcending, from F
to D a third minor defcending, from D to G a true fourth
afcending, and laftly, from G to C a true fifth defcending,
we fhould fall a comma below the C from whence we began.
Therefore, if we were to repeat this feries of notes nine
times, we fhould at laft fall near a tone major below our firit
found.

M. Huygens’s folution of this difficulty is, that we re-
member the note from whence we fet out, and return to it
by a fecret temperament, thereby finging the intervals a
little imperfe&t ; which, he fays, will be found neceffary in
almott all fongs or melodies.

A like difficulty is mentioned in the Memoirs of the
Royal Academy of Sciences; and is there urged for the ne-
ceflity of atemperament, even for finging in the fame key.
And M. Huygens’s folution of the difficulty is there ap-
proved of. Ann. 1707, p. 264.

But the folution of theie learned gentlemen is, as yet, far
from being decifive. No experiment has yet been brought
to fhew that the human voice fings tempered notes ; not even
when accompanied by tempered inftruments. It feems to us,
onthe contrary, that an exercifed voice, guided by a good
ear, fings true, even though accompanied by a miftuned
inftrument, as harpfichords moft frequently are, efpecially
in tranfpofed keys, And were thefe inftruments always as
svell tuned as art could make them, yet their tones would be
equal; and it feems evident to the ear, that the human voice
finging naturally two tones in fucceffion, asC, D, E, never
a them equal: and cannot, without great difficulty,
and by means of a variation of harmony, be brought to
make them equal.

Another folution, therefore, of M, Huygens’s diffi-
culty, muit be fought for. The truth feemsto be, that the
fecond of the key muit be the true tone major above the key
and therefore the third between the fecond and fourth of the

key muft be fung deficient by acomma. Thus in the key of
C, from C to D will be a tone major = ¢, and from D to
F willbe a deficient third = 32. See INTERVAL.

M. Huygens’s melody, therefore, will ftand as follows:

COPE EDeIG: -C
XXX F=!1
And the voice would fing the interval F, D, jut as if the
st E had been cateapated ; in which cafe the notes would
e
ie 1a ined Sell OM Se ©
SXHXAWKFXFH 1

Thefe notes all come within the diatonic {cale of C ; and
the voice naturally falls upon the note from whence it fet
out. The fame anfwer will hold in the example mentioned
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences ; where the
intervals bB, G, E, C occur. And here the interval from
bB to G fhould be taken = 27 = 15 x 433, as in the
former example ; and for the fame reafon, the key being F.

There feems, therefore, no repugnancy between the prac-
tice and theory of mufic, while the melody is confined to
one key ; but it muft be owned, that in tranfitions from key
to key, efpecially where feveral parts are to make harmony
with each other, there ftill remain difficulties, not mentioned
by M. Huygens, or any other writer we know of, which
might deferve a farther examination.

We mutt not omit mentioning, that the learned Dr. Smith,
in his Harmonics, has not only carried the theory of tem-
peraments far beyond all the authors that preceded him ;
but has fhewn how to tune an inftrument according to any
propofed temperament, by the ear only, which is certainly a
moft ingenious difcovery.

This learned author prefers what he calls the temperament
of equal harmony, which differs infenfibly fron: ihe divifion
of the o€tave into fifty parts, to all others; and infifts, that
it labours under the feweit defeéts, and is of all others the moit
agreeable in pra¢tice. In the fyftem of equal harmony, the
temperaments of the fifth, third major and third minor, are
refpectively +5, and 3, and 3, of a comma lefs than the
truth.

It would be impoffible here to do juftice to the learned
author’s reafonings on this fubje€t; we fhall only add, that he
eftablifhes, contrary to the common opinion, that the lefs
fimple confonances, generally fpeaking, will not bear fo
great temperaments as the fimpler confonances.

Dr. Smith mentions a temperament communicated to him
by the ingenious Mr. Harrifon, which confifts in making
the proportion between the oftave and third major equal to
that of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. In this
temperament the third major is diminifhed by 2 of a comma,
but the third minor is very near the truth, and extremely
beautiful.

late author feems to think the divifion of the o€tave

into thirty-one parts, not to be of modern invention, but
neceflarily implied in the doétrine of the ancients. At firft
fight, it would feem as if the ancients made but twenty-four
diefes. or divifions in the oétave, viz. ten to each fourth,
and four to the tane; which (the o¢tave being equal to
two fourths and a tone) gives twenty-four diefes to the
o€tave. But the author juft quoted contends, that this
divifion is to be underftood only in one tenfion, that is,
either afcending or defcending ; but that, accurately fpeak-
ing, if we confider all the diefes, or divifions of the fourth,
both afcending and defcending, we fhall find thirteen; five
to each tone, and three to the femitone major; and confe-
quently thirty-one divifions in the o@ave. Thefe, indeed,
are not all naturally equal; but if we make them fo, we
Rr 2 foall

TEM

fhall have a temperament known by the moderns under the
name of Huygens’s temperament. Dr. Pepufch, in Phil.
Tranf. N° 48t. p. 273. See the article Drxsts.

Such was the hiftory and theory of temperament about
half a century ago. e
have extended their compafs and powers, and all the ancient
laws of relative modulation are difregarded by modern com-
pofers, moft praétical muficians incline to equal harmony,
in which all the keys participate of the imperfection of the
f{cale when the oétave is confined to twelve femitones, of
which every one occafionally ferves for two or three dif-
ferent purpofes. As the note A natural, for inftance, is
fometimes B double flat, and fometimes G double fharp,
E natural is obliged to officiate for D double fharp, and
fometimes for F flat.

There are, however, theorifts who calctlate, but never
liften, and who think temperament an abomination, a deadly
fin againft “Pythagoras and his triple progreffion. Now as
it is generally agreed that the ancients had no fimultaneous
harmony, or mufic in parts, and allowed of no confonances
put the unifon, oftave, ath, and 5th, they did wifely to
make them as perfeét as poffible; but fince the invention
of counterpoint, and new inftruments of fixt tones by
keys, frets, and additional veatages, which furnifh but
twelve femitones, whereas thirty-one different founds are
wanting to fupply two diftin& founds for fynonimous notes,
fuch as A % and Bb, Cx Db, DX Eb, &c. tempera-
ment, though it a little diminifhes the perfection of certain
notes, the whole inftrument is bettered by it, and rendered
equally fit for all keys. Every concord, except the unifon
and oétave, has a latitude, and allows of dearings without
offending the ear. A perfect 5th makes an intolerable
major 3d below it. And as the 3d, though called an
imperfect concord, is the moft grateful and pleafing of all
the concords when perfect; contrapuntifts do wifely to
allow tuners to rob 4ths and 5sths of a little of that perfee-
tion which they ‘can {pare without injury, for the good of
the whole. If the learned harmonift, the abbé Rouffier, is
living, this relaxation of Pythagorean difcipline, ‘and want
of due refpeét for the triple progreffion, will, we fear, difturb
and render him fomewhat intemperate in cenfuring our
abfurdity. :

We have always regarded mufic as an object for the ear,
and wifh to make it as pleafing to that fenfe as poffible ; and
have been fo long accultomed to tempered feales, as to re-
ceive more pain than pleafure from mufic performed on an
inftrument tuned by perfeét sths throughout, that is, by
the triple progrefion- We fhall, however, preferibe no ex-
clufive method of tempering the feale ; as almoft every
man who tunes his own inftrument has a fyftem of his own:
we fhall only obferve, that the greateft muficians in the
courfe of their lives have often changed their method. In
our cathedrals and parifh-churches in general, where the
natural keys are made as perfect as poffible, at the expence
of Ab, Db, Fx, and Cx, keys that have never been
admitted within the pale of the church, organifts that hear
little other mufic, are extremely offended by equal parti-
cipation of the feales, when the pure harmony of their
favourite keys is deformed by temperament: and thofe ac-
cuftomed to the levelling fyftem of equal harmony, on the
contrary, hold the wolf in as much abhorrence, as they
would the deftruétive wolf in the Gevauden. At prefent,
our tuners mitigate the extremes of equal and unequal
temperament, by fatoumig the natural keys, and making
the extraneous or tranfpofed keys fomewhat lefs perfect ;
but devoting the wolf to total deftruction. ;

It is imagined by many, that the character of keys, par-

But as our keyed and wind inftruments °

TEM

ticularly the minor, depends on the imperfection of the
fcales, occafioned by unequal temperament: as F minor is
plaintive, E b folemn, and E % brilliant. But though the
difference between the pitch of E b and Ex, Dx and Eb,
is but half a note, whatever may be the general pitch of the
inftrument, whether half a note too high, or half a note too
low, thefe keys ftill retain their character, it fhould feem
not from the tuning or elevation of the general fy{tem, but
from fomething for which we are unable to account. See
Music, and Sounp. :

TEMPERATE Zone. See Zone.

TEMPERATURE, in general, denotes the degree of
free caloric which a body appears to poflefs when com-~
pared with other bodies ; or, in other words, the ftate of a
body in relation to its capability of producing in other
bodies the effeéts arifing from the prefence of free caloric.
Sir Humphrey Davy defines temperature to be ‘“ the
power bodies poffefs of communicating or receiving heat,
or the energy of repulfion.”” But this definition appears
to us to be a little ambiguous, for temperature is not a
term indicative of a pofitive faculty in bodies, as this defi-
nition may be underftood to mean; but, as before obferved,
is merely a relative term, expreffive of the degree in which
bodies, in conformity to the grand law of the equal dif-
tribution of free caloric, can affeét, or be affeéted by
other bodies of a lower or higher temperature, that is,
poffeffing more or lefs free caloric than themfelves.

There are two means of meafuring the temperature of
bodies, namely, by our fenfations, or by the different degrees
of expanfion produced in bodies on being fubje&ed to dif-
ferent degrees of free caloric. The firft of thefe, from
various obvious caufes, is fo imperfeé and limited, that no
dependence can be placed upon it as a meafure of tem-
perature. The fecond is much more regular and extenfive,
and is, therefore, always at prefent employed. ‘ When
two bodies produce the fame increafe or diminution of
yolume in a third body, to which they are equally applied,
they are faid to be of the fame temperature ; and any body

is faid to be at a higher or lower temperature, as it produces _

a greater or lefs expanfion in another body with which it is
in contact.” Inftruments founded upon the principle of
the expanfion of bodies by heat, and deftined to meafure
degrees of temperature, are called thermometers, or, when
the temperature is very high, pyrometers; which fee,
Under the fame heads alfo the important quetlion is dif-
cuffed, how far the expanfion of bodies by heat is to be
confidered as an indication of their real temperature. See
alfo Catoric.

TEMPERATURE of the Atmofphere. See ATMOSPHERE.

TremPEeRATtURE of Climate. See CLiMaTE.

TeMPERATURE of the Earth, is that degree of fenfible
heat which exilts on the furface, or in the interior of the
folid part of the globe. The temperature of the atmo-
{phere is frequently defcribed as the fame with the tem-
perature of the earth, from which it is effentially diftin@.
The fenfible heat of the atmofphere varies with the latitude,
the feafon, and the elevation of the place in which the obfer-
vation is made. ‘The fuperficial temperature of the earth varies
alfo with the latitude and the feafon, and in a ftill greater
degree if the land be dry ; but the internal temperature of the

earth appears to be permanent in each place throughout the ~

whole year. At a certain depth under the furface, the
thermometer always indicates the fame degree of heat ; and
the difference between the permanent internal temperature
in different latitudes, is much lefs than that which exifts at
the furface. ‘The depth at which the thermometer remains
ftationary about latitude 52°, is So fect: nearer to the

equator,

feo mii

TEMPERATURE.

equator, or the poles, a greater depth would be neceflary to
obtain the permanent temperature. At {till greater depths,
probably, the temperature under each degree of latitude is
the fame all over the globe, except in the vicinity of vol-
canic fires.

M. Volney, in his travels through North America, {peak-
ing of the temperature of the earth, endeavours to oppoig
the opinion of its permanent internal temperature. Setting
out from lake Superior, he fays, and proceeding weit to
the Stoney mountains, and travelling north as far as latitude
72°, the country now well known to the Canadian traveller,
difplays a climate that for feverity of cold can be compared
only to Siberia. From latitude 46°, the earth is frozen
during the whole year. At feveral trading pofts between
latitude 50° and 56°, it was found impofiible to have wells.
Mr. Shaw had attempted to dig one at the poft of St. Au-
guftin, about forty miles from the mountains ; but though
it was in the month of July, the ground was frozen at the
depth. of three feet from the furface, and as it grew harder
he was obliged to give up the attempt. He relates alfo
an account of Mr. Robfon, an Englith engineer, who at-
tempted to fink a well at Prince of Wales’s fort, lati-
tude 59°, in the month of September. He firlt found
thirty-fix inches of earth thawed by the preceding warm
weather, then a ftratum of eight inches frozen as hard as a
ftone; under this a ftratum of fandy friable earth, frofty
and very dry, in which his borer could find no water. The
celebrated traveller Ledyard, fays Volney, affirms, that at
Vakutik, not fo high as latitude 62°, wells of water
cannot be obtained, becaufe it is found by experiment that
water freezes at the depth of fixty feet. From thefe cir-
cumftances, M. Volney would infer that the internal part of
the earth is in a conftant ftate of congelation. Some of the
above obfervations, we believe, were inaccurately made ;
and it has been too haitily determined, that the earth
is frozen during the whole year in North America, even
in latitude 46°; for this is not the cafe 11° further
north. We have been favoured with the following ftate-
ment from an intelligent medical gentleman, who was fome
years refident in Hudfon’s Bay. ‘“ On digging a well at
York fort, Hudfon’s Bay, latitude 57° 7/, in the beginning
of OGober, the following circumftances were remarked.
About thirty inches from the furface, a bed of frozen earth,
about twelve inches thick, was met with: below was a bed
of toofe fandy clay, about half a yard thick, which was fuc-
ceeded by a bed of the fame clay, rendered perfeétly hard
and folid by froft. Sinking lower, fimilar beds of frozen
and loofe earth were found, alternating with each other ; the
frozen beds, however, conitantly decreafing in thicknefs,
though not regularly, and at a certain depth they feemed to
difappear entirely. Thefe frozen ftrata are confidered by
the inhabitants as indications of the feverity of the preceding
winters, each ftratum being fuppofed, with much proba-
bility, to be formed in different years, and to be travelling
downward until they are thawed by the internal temperature
of the earth. The procefs by which they fink down may
be explained, on the fuppofition that the upper furface is
diminifhing by heat during fummer, and the under furface
increafing by the congelation of moifture in contaét with it.
Another circumftance, which took place in the fame latitude,
may ferve to elucidate the obfervation of Ledyard, that
the water was conftantly frozen at fixty feet under the fur-
face at Yakutfk.”” A well had been funk which yielded a
plentiful fupply of water during the firft fummer ; but the
water, being expofed to the air, froze during the next
winter, and remained frozen ever after, being too far below
the furface to be thawed. Hence it appears that water

exifts unfrozen at a moderate depth under the furface in the
coldeft climates, when it has no communication with the
external air. The effect of the fummer heat in the fame
latitude extends about feventeen inches under the furfaee,
where the ground has been fhaded; but where it has
been expofed to the fun, the furface is thawed to the
depth of three feet. From the {mall depth to which the
folar heat penetrates, we may infer that the water below
is kept in a fluid {tate by the internal heat of the globe.
It has been generally fuppofed, that the permanent tem-
perature of each latitude is the fame nearly as the mean
annual temperature of the atmofphere, and that this is
indicated by the temperature of {prings or deep wells ; but
the temperature of {prings will vary with that of the ftrata
near the furface through which they run. (See Tem-
PERATURE of Springs.) It is to be regretted that more
numerous obfervations have not been made on the tempe-
rature of deep mines. From obfervations recently made in
Cornwall, it appears that the temperature increafes with the
depth, at leaft in fome of the mines, and in the loweft it was
not lefs than 70°. This may, perhaps, be owing to the che-
mical changes which are taking place; for it appears, from the
evidence of the overfeers of the mines, in reply to certain
queries propofed by the Royal Geological Society of Corn-
wall, that the water is found conftantly warmer in the
vicinity of veins of copper-ore, than it is in the vicinity of
tin-ore: the former veins are in general worked to a greater
depth than the latter. It remains to be afcertained whether
this increafe of temperature be owing to chemical caufes, or
is invariable at the fame diftance from the furface. The
decompofition of pyrites in copper veins would feem to point
out a caufe for the increafed temperature in their vicinity ;
it is evident, however, that it is not derived from the folar
rays. It feems reafonable to believe, from what we at pre-
fent know of the internal temperature of the earth, that
there exifts a permanent fource of heat within the globe,
though we are unacquainted with the caufes by which it
is generated. We are equally ignorant of the caufes by
which light is generated on the furface of the fun: one
operation is not more furprifing or inexplicable than the
other ; nor is the difficulty removed, by fuppofing the fun
to be furrounded with a luminous atmoiphere. Some
philofophers have maintained the opinion, that the earth has
been conftantly growing colder fince the period when it was
firft inhabited, and that the organic remains cf elephants and
other animals, (fuppofed to be fimilar to thofe of tropical
climates, ) which are found in Siberia, offer a demonftrative
proof, that the arétic regions once enjoyed the tempe-
rature of the torrid zone. It has fince been afcertained,
by the elaborate refearches of M. Cuvier, that thefe animals
were not of the fame fpecies as the African or Afiatic
elephant. A moft convincing proof of this was afforded
by the entire body of one of thefe elephants, which was
difcovered imbedded in ice near the mouth of a river in the
north of Siberia, by a Tungufian fifherman, in the year
1799. It firft prefented a fhapelefs mafs projecting from
an ice-bank. ‘Two years afterwards he could diftinGly fee
that it was the body of an enormous animal; the entire
flank and one of its tufks had become difengaged from the
ice. In 1803, the ice beginning to melt earlier than ufual,
the whole body was difengaged, and fell from the ice-bank
oni the fandy fhore. In 1806, Mr. Adams went to examine
this animal, which {till remained on the fand, but its body
was much mutilated. The fkin was extremely thick and
heavy, and as much of it remained as required the exertions
of ten men to carry away. More than thirty pounds of
the hair and briftles of the animal were colle@ted. Some of

this

6

TEMPERATURE.

this hair was prefented to the Mufeum of Natural Hiftory
in Paris. It confifts of three diftinét kinds. The one is
ftiff black briftles, a foot or more in length ; another kind
is a coarfe flexible hair, of a reddifh-brown colour; the
third kind is a coarfe wool, which grew among the roots
of the long hair. Thefe afford undeniable proof, that this
animal belonged to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold
region, and was not fitted to-dwell in the torrid zone. This
animal was a male, and had a long mane on its neck. ‘The
bones were all perfect. As the only proof offered for the
refrigeration of the earth was the former exiftence of tro-
ae animals in northern latitudes, and as this can no
longer be maintained, we have reafon to believe that the
general temperature of the globe is ftationary, though the
climate of particular countries may vary at different periods,
from cultivation, the deftru¢tion of large forefts, or other
local caufes.

Though the annual changes in the temperature of the
climate affe& the furface only to a {mall comparative depth,
yet the continued effect of the annual mean temperature,
confidered as a permanent caufe, may be fufficient to keep
the internal temperature of the earth ftationary, in each
latitude, ‘at a ftill greater depth. Hence we find that the
internal temperature of the earth, and the mean temperature
of the atmofphere, are nearly, but not exa¢tly, the fame ;
for in all northern countries, the mean temperature of the
earth is higher than that of the air, and the difference, ac-
cording to the obfervations of Dr. Wahlenberg, fellow of
the Royal Society of Stockholm, appears to increafe as we
advance northward, or as the cold of the winter becomes
more fevere. This would alfo feem to give additional con-
firmation to the opinion, that there is a permanent fource of
heat within the globe itfelf. The following table fhews the
rate at which the temperature varies according to the latitude.

Temp. of the |Mean Temp. 0

Tarimnde Earth, theAtmofphere.
Berlin - - pene 49.28° 46.4°
Carlftrom - - 56.25 47:3 42.03
Upfala - - = 60. 43-70 33.38
Umen - - -| 64. 37-22
Degeforts - -| 64.25 36.68

The obfervations were made on f{prings which threw up
a large quantity of water at a permanent degree of tem-
perature in all feafons. It is to be regretted that we have
not a feries of obfervations made with equal care in fouthern
latitudes. M. Volney ftates, in his ‘‘ Travels in America,’’
that the mean temperature of wells forty-five feet deep was
as under :

Fahr.
Charleftown ve = . e 63°
Virginia - = = 2 3 57
Philadelphia . ~ = é 53
Maflachufetts = 5 3 = 49
Vermont - F = . : 44

This depth is too {mall, to give the true mean temperature
of the earth; and the obfervations can only be regarded as
approximations to the truth, On the fame authority it is
ftated, that the temperature of the earth, to a confiderable
depth under the torrid zone, is 14° Reaumur, or 63°
Fahrenheit.

In the fouthern parts of England, the mean temperature,
taken from permanent {prings, 1s about 48°; at Edinburgh,
45°; in the north of map 48°; and at Paris, 51°.

2

For the temperature of the atmofphere, fee ATMOSPHERE,
where the mean temperature in different latitudes is given.
Mr. Humboldt has lately publifhed a botanical account of
the new genera and fpecies of plants difcovered in the
tropical regions of America, with many interefting obferva~
tions on the temperature, as affeGting the growth of plants.
The plants of the torrid zone extend farther through the
fouthern temperate zone than through the northern, owing
to the greater influence of the ocean in the fouthern hemi-
{phere, in moderating the rigour of winter ; the ocean bear-
ing a much greater proportion to the furface on the fouth,
than on the north fide of the equator. In eftimating the
climate fuited for the growth of particular plants, the mean
temperature will not afford a correét ftandard; for thou
the mean temperature of the year, in the middle latitudes of
North America, be the fame as it is in Europe, 7° farther
north, the temperature of different feafons in thefe fame
latitudes by no means agrees. The winters are colder, and
the fummers hotter, in North America than in Europe. In
Philadelphia the fummer is as hot as at Rome or Mont-
pellier, while the winter correfponds with that at Vienna.
At Quebec the fummer is warmer than at Paris, but the
winter colder than at St. Peterfburgh. In the north of
China there is a {till greater difference between the heat and _
cold, than in North America.

In North America, as far as latitude 48°, the fummers
are four centigrade degrees, or about 7° Fahrenheit, hotter
than in the correfponding latitude in Europe. Between the ~
tropics, the mean senna temperature is the fame as on the
old continent, which may be feen in the following table,
expreffed in degrees of the centigrade thermometer.

Old Continent. New Continent.
Senegambia 26.5° Cumana 27a
Madras 26.9 Antilles - 27.
Batavia 25.2 Vera Cruz 25.
Mantilla 25-6 Havannah 25.6

Twenty-five degrees correfpond with feventy-feven de-
grees of Fahrenheit. ;

Though the plants of the torrid zone extend farther
through the fouthern temperate zone than through the
northern, as we have before {tated ; yet to a certain aaa
from the line, the temperature appears to be lefs on the fouth
than on the north fide. Rio Janeiro and Hayannah are
nearly at the fame diftance from the equator ; but the mean
temperature of the fummer and winter months in each is
as under :

Rio Janeiro. Havannah.
June 20.0° December 221°
July 21.2 January 21.2
January 26.2 July 28.5
February 27.0 Augutt 28.8

On the coaft of Peru, the temperature is diminifhed hy
the perpetual cloudinefs of the fky, and by a {trong fea
current fetting in from Cape Horn. From the tropic to
34° of fouth latitude, the mean temperature of the fouthern
hemifphere fearcely differs from that of the northern. Be-
tween latitude 34° and 57°, there is a greater difference
between the temperatures of fummer than of winter: the
winters in the fouthern hemifphere are not colder, but the
fummers are confiderably more fo than in the northern hemi-
{fphere. In fouth latitude 48°, the fummer temperature is
the fame as the winter temperature of Toulon, Cadiz, and
Rome.

The higher we afcend above the level of the fea, and the
farther we advance from the equator, the greater is the dif- —

ference

TEMPERATURE.

ference between the temperature of different feafons of the
year. The following table exhibits the temperature between
the hotteft and coldeft months, in different latitudes. ~

Lat. Cent. Therm.

Cumana-s- - ~ 10.27° 2.4°
Vera Cruz - - 19.11 2.6

. Havannah - - 23. 8 704.
Natches = - - - 31.28 17.4.
Philadelphia - - 39-56 24.6
Quebec - - - 46.47 33
Nain - - - 57-00 35

In the temperate zone, as we advance northwards, the
eoldnefs of the winter increafes at a much greater rate than
the heat of the fummer diminifhes. ‘Thus at Enonlekis, in
Jatitude 68° 30', the temperature of July is as hot as that
of Edinburgh. Between the tropics, the temperature at no
feafon of the year equals that of the fea-fhore; but in the
temperate zone, the upper currents of air are fometimes
warmer than the lower, during the winter months ; and the
thermometer, on the fummits of hills, is occafiondlly three or
four degrees higher than in the plains. Hence in the tem-

perate zone, we find the fame plants frequently on low and
elevated fituations ; but this is never the cafe between the
tropics.

In the temperate zone on the old continent, when

the mean heat of the month is as under, the following
plants bloffom :

Fabr.

42°, the Amyedalis perfica,
47, the Prunus domettica,
52, the Betula alba.

The reafon why plants vegetate with greater rapidity in
Lapland and Norway than farther fouth, is owing to the
increment of temperature being much greater, and to the
temperature of the earth in winter being feveral degrees
above that of the air.

From obfervations made in different latitudes, it appears
that 1000 fathoms of altitude occafion a diminution of tem-
perature equal to 23° of Fahrenheit; 50 fathoms being
nearly equal to half a degree. Mountains 1000 fathoms in
height, at 46° of latitude, have the mean temperature of
Lapland; and mountains of the fame height between the
tropics enjoy the temperature of Sicily.

The following table by Humboldt exhibits the moft re-
markable circumitances refpe€ting the temperature in the
three zones. ‘The temperature is taken according to the
centigrade thermometer. The fathom 6 French feet, or
6.39453 Englifh feet.

Torrid Zone.

Temperate Zone. Frigid Zone.

Andes, Mountains of
Quito, Mexico,
Lat. 0°. Lat. 20°.

Inferior limit of perpe-

tual fnow 2460 fa.

2350 fa.

Mean annual heat at that 2
height -

Diftance between
and fnow

600 fa. 350 fa.

Upper limit of trees 1800 fa. 2000 fa.
Laft {pecies of trees to-] | Efcalonia Pinus
wards the fnow alftonia. occident.

Befariz.

Upper limit of the Exi- [| |
1600 fa.

cine =f |
800 fa.

the

Diftance between
fnow and corn

| |

Pyrenées,
Lat. 423°.

Alps,
Lat. 45$° to 46°.

Lapland,
Lat. 67° to 70°.

Caucafus,
Lat. 424°.

1650 fa. 1400 fa. 1370 fa.

+ 6°

650 fa. 230 fa. 450 fa. 300 fa.

1000 fa. 1170 fa. 920 fa. 250 fa.
Betula Pinus rubra. Piuus Betula
alba. P. uncin. abies. alba.

Rhodod. | Rhodod. Rhodod.
caucas. - = | ferrug. laponicum.

1380 fa. Ratt fo) ee 480 fa.

630 fa. 700 fa.

In the feventh volume of the Tranfactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Dr. John Murray has publifhed a
paper on the diffufion of heat on the furface of the earth; in
which he attempts to prove, from the nature of caloric, that
the temperature of the earth is conftantly increafing from the
folar rays, and that this temperature is becoming more equal
in different parts of the earth. The atmofphere, he con-
tends, conveys no heat into unlimited fpace ; our planet, in
relation to the difcharge of caloric from it, is bounded as it
were by a wall of iron-conducting matter. He admits,

however, that a {mall portion of heat may be loft by radia-
tion: thus, at the hotter parts of the earth’s furface, there
may be fome emiffion of caloric by radiation; but this, he
fays, cannot be equal to the quantity communicated by the
folar rays: for of the heat derived from the latter fource, a
portion is abforbed by the earth, and conveyed to the in-
terior, as is apparent from the decreafing temperature, as
we recede from the furface to a certain depth; and another
portion is carried off by the afcending current of heated air,
and conveyed to colder regions, where it is abforbed. Thus,

ever

TEMPERATURE.

even from thofe parts of the furface of the earth where the
circumftances are moft favourable to radiation, the quantity
radiated cannot be equal to the quantity received from the folar
rays. Over the whole earth the diffufion muft be ftill
greater; and inftead of the conclufion, that the planet dif-
charges its excefs of heat by radiation, there is every reafon
to draw the oppofite conclufion, that part of the heat which
it receives from the fun is retained. He further infers, that
the temperature of the globe muft rife, from the mode in
which heat is communicated to it by the fun; and at the
fame time, as it advances, muft become more equal over the
whole furface. And this rife has its limits. There cannot
be either unlimited increafe of heat, or unlimited refrigera-
tion ; but the final refult will be a ftate of permanence and
uniformity, the continuance of which is fecured by the ve
circumftance, that if it is deviated from, this deviation nae
correét itfelf by an increafe of radiation from the hotter
parts, or from an increafed abforption of caloric by the
colder parts of the globe. According to this theory, in
procefs of time, the equatorial and polar parts of the globe
will arrive at the fame degree of temperature, which will re-
main ftationary, as there will be no circulation of heated air
or water to the poles. To this reafoning we conceive it may
be objeted, that it affumes, without fufficient grounds, that
caloric cannot pafs from the earth into unlimited fpace, and
that the folar heat does not become latent by chemical union
with terreftrial fubftances. It affumes alfo, that caloric is
a diftin&t {pecific fubftance ; an opinion which is denied by
fome of the moit eminent philofophers. Nor have we, per-
haps, any evidence to prove that the temperature of the
earth has changed fince the earlieft records of hiftory, if we
except the local changes which refult from drainage and
cultivation. It is well known that the climate of Europe
is materially changed fince the periods of ancient hiftory,
when the Danube was annually frozen, and would admit
the paflage of armies over the ice. The climate of the
United States of America has alfo undergone a material
change during the laft century. Both thefe local changes
have been produced by the nae caufe, the deftruétion of
extenfive woods, and the progrefs of agriculture ; but, in-
dependently of local caufes, we have no data to infer that
the temperature of the globe is increafing or diminifhing.

TEMPERATURE of the Sea. The temperature of the fea
near the furface is affeéted by the changes of tempera-
ture of the atmofphere, and by the currents which tra-
verfe it. The currents which flow from the equatorial to
the polar regions, ferve to equalize the heat of different lati-
tudes. This is remarkably the cafe with the current called
the Gulf ftream, which paffes by the fhores of Mexico,
Louifiana,.and Florida, and round the point of the peninfula,
under the fhelter and proteétion of the Bahama iflands, which
break the efforts of the ocean and the current of the trade
wind. This ftream, on entering the ocean, preferves its
water by the velocity of its current, and may be further dif-
tinguifhed by its colour and temperature. The temperature
is from eleven to twenty-two degrees higher than that of the
ocean. From the Floridas to Newfoundland the current
continues increafing in breadth, and diminifhing in velocity.
Some experiments made by Mr. Jonathan Williams, give the
difference of temperature between the Atlantic ocean and the
Gulf {tream as under, December, 1789.

Fahr.

Soundings in fhoal-water, on the coaft, —- - 47°
A little before entering the ftream, - : 60
In the ftream,> - - - - 70
Before reaching Newfoundland, in the ftream, - — 66
At Newfoundland, out of the {tream, - - 54
- 60

Beyond the banks, in the open fea, —-

: Fahr.
On approaching the coaft of England, =
Capt. Billings, in 1791, found the temperature of G
the fea on the coaft of America, - - -
In the water of the Gulf ftream, - = 77

In winter, Mr. Williams found the variation between the
Gulf ftream and the ocean 23°; the. difference, as might be
expected, being lefs in fummer than in winter. Thefe inqui-
ries have afcertained another faét, from whence navigators
may derive fome advantage ; for by examining the tempera-
ture of the fea in different places, it has been found that the
water is colder in proportion to its fhallownefs; and hence
may be derived an indication of the approach to land, or to
a fhoal. Out of the reach of currents, a difference always
exifts between the temperature of the furface and the lower
parts of the fea. In northern latitudes, the furface is fome-
times warmer and fometimes colder than the lower parts ;
but near the equator, the temperature of the furface may be
expeéted to be invariably warmer than at great depths. In
all probability, the temperature of the fea is permanent in
each degree of latitude; at a certain depth. Capt. Ellis let
down a fea-gage in N. lat. 25° 13’. W. long. 25° 12!
He found the fea falter and colder in proportion to the
depth, till the gage had defcended 3900 feet, when the mer-
cury in the thermometer came up at 53°; but the water did
not grow colder, though he let down the gage 1400 feet
lower. At the furface cite fea, the thermometer {tood at

From the experiments of Capt. Douglas, near the ;
of Lapland and Norway, of which an account is given in th
6oth volume of the Philofophical TranfaCtions, the folle
ing differences were obferved between the temperature of th
fea at the furface, and at certain depths.

4

Depth in

Temperature at the Surface. raises

May 12, |
ert t | 36° Fahr. | 78 to 87
May 17,
nearly the ree t 37
May 22, 97

lat. 70° 32,

June 29,

Tat. 70° 54!, t
L
5

July 7,
lat. 70° 45',

7
at the bottom.

July 8, lat. 68° 43!,

12leaguesfrom the | 100
iland of Lofoot, 47 { 260
Norland, - -)} | not at the
| | bottom,
eens
July 9g, lat. 65° 25', ) | |
100

eer
Led

from the coait of
Norway, - -

210

20 or 25 eel
\ at the bottom.

July 10, lat. 64°40’,
about 30 kage oe
from the coait, - witha pectic

TEMPERATURE.

From the above obfervations it appears, that though the
fea at a moderate depth was cooler than at the furface during
the fummer months in northern latitudes, yet at ftill greater
depths the temperature increafed, and at the depth of 260
fathoms was 52° in July, when the furface was only 47°.
Now this depth being below the immediate effeé&ts of the
folar rays, the temperature could only be derived from that
of the globe itfelf, which appears to be fufficient to preferve
the fea many degrees above the freezing point at the depth
of 300 fathoms. Indeed, the temperature of the fea near
the tropics, in lat. 25° 13', at the depth of 650 fathoms,
appears to be the fame as the temperature of the fea in
lat. 68° 43', at little more than one-third of that depth, as
may be feen by comparing the obfervations of Capt. Ellis with
that of Capt. Douglas. We have hence alfo ftrong grounds
for believing, that at a certain depth, the temperature of the
fea is permanent, and is the fame in every degree of latitude
from the equator to the pole, though the depth may vary at
which this permanent temperature would be found.

The mean annual temperature of the ftandard fituation in
every latitude, as deduced by Mr. Kirwan from the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, is given under the article Temperature of
the ArMosPHERE. But fome exceptions to this ftandard,
not there noticed, deferve to be mentioned here.

That part of the Pacific ocean which lies between N. lat.
52° and 66°, is only about 45 miles broad at its northern
éxtremity, and 1300 miles at its fouthern. It is, therefore,
reafonable to conclude with Mr. Kirwan, that its tempera-
ture will be confiderably influenced by the furrounding high
land, as well as by the many bleak iflands fcattered through
it. Mr. K. fuppofes, that from thefe circumftances the
temperature is fully four or five degrees below the ftandard.
Small feas furrounded by land are ufually rendered, from
this circumftance, at leaft in temperate and cold climates,
warmer in fummer and colder in winter than the ftandard
ocean: the gulf of Bothnia, for inftance, is ftated to be
generally frozen in winter, but in fummer to be fometimes
heated to'70°. The German ocean is above three degrees
colder in winter, and five degrees warmer in fummer, than
the Atlantic. The Mediterranean fea is, for the greater part
of ite extent, warmer both in fummer and winter than the
Atlantic, which therefore flows into it. The Black fea is
colder than the Mediterranean, and fiows into it.

Thefe obfervations apply chiefly to the furface of the
ocean: from experiments that have been made it appears,
that at confiderable depths the temperature is much lower
than at the furface, and that the deeper we go, the lower it
becomes ; fo that fome fuppofe that, at very great depths,

._ the water always exifts in a ftate of ice. See MKirwan’s
«¢ Eftimate of the Temperature of different Climates ;”’ alfo
his “¢ Effay on the Variation of the Atmofphere.’ %

TEMPERATURE of Springs. Thofe common {fprings
which throw up a confiderable quantity of water during the
whole year, have generally a permanent temperature, or
nearly fo ; and this is fuppofed to reprefent the mean tem-
perature of the earth in each latitude ; but there are other
iprings which have a much higher permanent temperature,
and fome which throw up their waters at a boiling heat.
The following is the permanent temperature of fome of the
more celebrated warm fprings in Europe.

Fair.
Matlock, - - - - 66°
Buxton, E = 5 bs 82
Briftol, - E “ = = 74
Bath, Sedeibeeten 20 pe
‘Vichy, - - = iz

VoL. XXXV.

Fahr.
Carlfbad, - - - - 165°
Aix, “85 - - . 143
Borfet, - - - - 132
Bareges, - - - - 120

The Geyfers or boiling fountains in Iceland, in the Azores,
and in various parts of the world, have a conftant tempera-
ture of 212°. The fource of heat, in fome of the latter
{prings, is evidently fubterranean fire, as all thofe iffands are
of volcanic origin, and are the feats of ative volcanoes at
the prefent day. It is obferved of other warm {prings, that
they generally rife in the vicinity of volcanic or bafaltic rocks.
This is the cafe with the warm fprings of Matlock and
Buxton. Rocks of bafaltic amygdaloid extend through the
high peak of Derbythire, where thefe fprings are fituated.
Rocks of bafaltic amygdaloid, having a iil more near
refemblance to volcanic lava, extend from Worford bridge,
in Glouceiterfhire, in a dire€tion fouthward, and, in all pro-
bability, are continued under the furface to Bath and Briltol.
According to Humboldt, hot fprings rife from granite and
rocks denominated primary, in various parts of South Ame-
rica; and, from the permanent high temperature of warm
fprings, we may infer that the fource of heat is fituated deep
beneath the furface, and far below thofe caufes which can
change the temperature. It has been contended by fome
perfons, that the high temperature of warm {prings arifes
from the decompofition of pyritous ftrata; but if this were
the cafe, the waters would be ftrongly impregnated with
fulphate of iron and other mineral matters, which is not the
fact; the temperature would alfo decreafe as the pyritic
matter became exhaufted, of which we have an analogous
illuftration in the faline fprings of Cheltenham and Gloucef-
ter. Thefe {prings rife in a deep ftratum of blue clay, called
lias, (fee StRatTA of England,) which abounds in pyrites,
and in animal remains; and it is found by experience, that
the faline impregnation is greateft when the wells are firft
opened, and that the ftrength of the waters gradually declines ;
on which account, the proprietors are under the neceffity of
finking frefh wells to obtain water of the requifite faline
ftrength. This might be expected; for as the water per-
colates through fiflures in the clay, the faline matter in its
vicinity is gradually wafhed away. But if the whole bed
were in a {tate approaching to ignition, from the decompo-
fition of pyrites, the faline impregnation would be con-
ftantly fupplied to the fprings ; for we cannot fuppofe any
quantity of pyritous matter to exift equal to heat a whole
{tratum by decompofition, without, at the fame time, gener-
ating fuch an abundance of faline matter as muft faturate the
waters which percolate through it. Weare hence led to infer
that the fource 6f heat in warm fprings is fubterranean fire,
and as thefe {prings have not been obferved to diminifh in
temperature for a period of nearly two thoufand years, we
may further infer the great depth at which this fource of
heat is fituated, an inference which is warranted by the con-
neGtion which volcanoes in diftant parts of the world appear
to have with each other. (See Vorcano.) It may be
afked, if the fource of heat in warm fprings be fubterranean
fire, why are they not all of the fame degree of temperature ?
To this it may be replied, that, in fome inftances, the warm
f{prings may be intermixed with cold fprings near the fur-
face ; and in other inftances, after rifing to a certain height,
they may run in an horizontal direétion for a confiderable
diftance among the upper’ ftrata, and thus be gradually
cooled. The caufe which can raife up water from vatt
depths, mufesbe fought for in the erpenive power of fteam,
and elaftic vapours generated by heat, which we know by
experience to be fully adequate to the effect.

Sf TEMPERA-

TEM

Temperature for Plants, in Gardening, the {tate of heat
in which it is neceffary to keep particular forts of them, in
order to their ftriking or taking root, their healthy growth,
and their fucceeding in the belt and moft proper manner.
The ftate or degrees of heat, or the temperature, in all fuch
cafes, muft be regulated and direéted by the nature of the
plants, their culture, and the fituations in which they are
grown. For thofe in hot-houfes and ftoves, the tempera-
ture, in thofe of the dry ftove kind, fhould moitly be from
about fifty to feventy degrees, according to the natures,
habits, and manners of growth of the plants; and in thofe
of the moift ftove kind, from about fixty to ninety degrees,
as the nature of the beds and plants may be. Plants in con-
fervatories are kept at various temperatures between thofe
of the firft kind of the above ftoves and that of the common
open air. And in greenhoufes, nearly fimilar temperatures
are eon{tantly to be preferved, in order to the raifing, and
to the growth of fuch plants, in the moft fuitable and beit
manner.

It is always of great utility and importance to keep the
temperatures as fteady as poflible, whatever its ftate may be,
in the growth of all thefe forts of tender plants.

The temperatures, or ftates of heat for particular plants,
are moftly given under their proper heads, in defcribing
their culture.

Temperature of Milk for Cheefe,in Rural Economy, the
degree of heat which is the moft proper in milk for the
purpofe of making cheefe. From fome experiments which
have been lately made upon the fubject, this temperature
would feem to be about the middle point between that of
fummer and blood heat; or, perhaps, fomewhere about
ninety degrees of Fahrenheit’s fcale may give the average
degree of warmth which is moft proper and neceffary in the
bufinefs.

TEMPERING, in the Mechanic Arts, the preparing of
fteel and iron, fo as to render them more compact, hard,
and firm; or even more foft and pliant ; according to their
refpeétive occafions.

Thefe metals are tempered by plunging them, while red-
hot,. into fome liquor prepared for the occafion : fometimes
pire water is ufed for that purpofe: our lock{miths, &c.

carcely ufe any other.

When an inftrument has been properly hardened, it is ne-
ceflary to give it acertain degree of iotetes in order to
adapt it for the purpofe to which it is to be applied. With
this view, it fhould be heated again to a certain point,
ufually determined by its colour, and then inftantly plunged
into cold water. This is called ‘¢ letting it down to the
proper temper.’’ It has been a queftion of difficult folu-
tion, how the water aéts in hardening iron and fteel. It
is well known, fays Mr. Parkes, in his ‘* Chemical Effays,”’
(vol. iy.), that the hotter any piece of iron is made, and the
more quickly it is cooled, the harder it will become in its
texture ; and he fuggefts that this may be owing to the lofs
of its datent heat. n confirmation of this conjeCture he
alleges, that iron and {teel are generally allowed to owe their
malleability to their Jatent heat. ;

A compofition of divers juices, liquors, &c. has fome-
times been ufed ; which is various according to the opinion
and experience of the workman : as vinegar, moufe-ear water,
nettle or Spanifh radifh-water, the water oozing from broken
glaffes, fuet, falt, oil, foot, diftilled wine, fal ammoniac,
urine, &c. But thefe methods are now generally abandoned.
Mr. Stodart, a very ingenious and fcientific cutler in Lon-
don, fays, (as Mr. Nicholfon informs us, Journal, vol. iv.
4to.) that one of his workmen makes up his charcoal -fire
with fhavings of leather, finding that this 1s effeCtual in pre-

10

TEM

venting the tools from cracking in the procefs of hardening ;
and he fays, that he has found no advantage from the ufe of
falt in the water.

To harden and temper Englifh, Flemifh, and Swedith
fteel, you mutt give them a pretty high heat ; then fuddenly
quench them in water to make them hard ; but Spanifh and
Venetian fteel will need only a blood-red heat before they
be quenched.

In confequence of this operation, all the qualities of fteel
are Sacy ee fo that from being very duétile and foft, it
becomes fo hard and ftiff, that it is no longer capable of being
cut by the file, but is itfelf capable of cutting or piercing
very hard bodies, and that it does not yield to the hammer,
but may be fooner broken in pieces than extended. It be-
comes alfo fonorous, brittle, very elaflic, and capable of ac-
quiring the moft beautiful polifh. This hardnefs and duc-
tility of -fteel may be diverfified by varying the temper.
The hotter the fteel is when tempered, and the colder the
water into which it is plunged, the greater hardnefs it ac-
quires, but at the fame time it becomes fo much more brittle.
The coldnefs of the water may be increafed by diffolving
falts in it: obferving that water is always colder while the
falts continue diffolving ; and that the fteel will cool fooner
by being ftirred about or placed in a ftream, fo as to come
in contaét with water not already made warm. On the
contrary, the lefs hot the fteel is when tempered, and the
hotter the water is in which it is tempered, the lefs hard it
becomes, and alfo the greater duétility it retains : and the
proper degree of heat is always relative to the ufe for which
the tools made of the fteel are intended.

If the fteel be too hard or brittle for an edged tool, &c.
let it down by rubbing a piece of grind{tone or whetftone
hard upon the work, to take off the black fcurf; then
brighten, or heat it in the fire: and as it grows hotter, you
will fee the colour change by degrees, in the manner and
by the gradations ftated under the article CUTLERY.

Saw-makers temper their tools by rubbing them over with
fuet or other greafe, and then heating them gradually till
the temperature of each tool is fufficiently raifed to fet fire
to the greafe of itfelf and occafion it to blaze. ‘They are
thought to acquire in this mode of treatment a temper equal
to that which would be obtained by heating them in the
ufual way, till they became of a deep blue. This opera-
tion, which is practifed at Sheffield, is called “ blazing.”
For the method of tempering files, in which the great de-
fideratum is to blend tenacity with hardnefs, fee Fixe.

In the year 1789, Mr. David Hartley took out a patent
for a method of tempering fteel by the aid of a pyrometer
or thermometer applicd near to the furface of the article,
and at the fame time recommended the ufe of heated oil, in
which (he fays) many dozens of razors or other tools might
be tempered at once with the utmoft facility, and the vari-
ous degrees of heat neceffary for different purpdfes might
{peedily be determined by experiment. (See Nicholfon’s
Journal, vol. i. 4to.) An improvement of this principle
has been fince fuggefted by Mr. Parkes (Chem. Eff. vol. An
by providing a bath of oil or of fome kind of fufible met
for the tempering of every {pecies of edged tool, which
contrivance would, in his opinion, give to this ‘operation a
greater degree of certainty, than has ever been experienced
by thofe who have conducted fuch manufaétories. See
TILTIne.

Steel is ufually fold tempered, becaufe in many manu-
fatures, the cuftom is to temper it as foon as it 1s made,
ge that the purchafers of it may be better able to
judge of its quality. When this fteel is to be ufed, it muit
be untempered by heating it more or lefs, and letting i

Clare)

——

TEM

cool flowly, that it may be extended, filed, and receive the
neceflary form: after which every workman tempers it
again in his own way. '

M. Berthoud, in his treatife on marine clocks, recom-
mends hardening the*fteel-balance wheel, by daubing it over
with foot (of wood) moiftened with urine, putting it into
a {mall box of thin iron-plate, and covering it over with the
fame compofition. This box with its contents is te be
heated to a blood-red, and then the wheel taken out fud-
denly and quenched.

Mr. Harrifon and M. Berthoud feem to agree upon the
whole, that the balance-fpring of time-pieces fhould be
hardened and tempered after it has been coiled up in its
proper form; and not tempered firft and coiled up after-
wards, as is the practice in making the main-fpring. Some
curious workmen, in order to equally temper {mall fteel in-
ftruments, employ melted lead as an intermedium. A plate
of iron floats upon the melted lead, and receives from it,
in all its parts, an equal heat: the pieces of iteel laid upon
this plate, acquire all at once the fame degree of heat, and
are at once quenched in water; the blue or other colours,
which they fucceflively affume, affording fure marks of the
proper points of heat at which they are to be. quenched,
according to the different degrees of hardnefs required in
them. Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p. 32.

For the method of tempering fteel bars for artificial mag-
nets, practifed by Mr. Canton, fee Artificial Macwer.

The ancients appear to fome to have had a better method
of tempering than any of the moderns are acquainted with ;
witnefs their works in porphyry; a ftone fo hard, that
fcarcely any of our tools make any impreffion upon it.

Temrerine of Land, in Agriculture, a term fignifying
the preparing it for a crop, efpecially of wheat. It is a
term in much ufe in Norfolk. It implies all the various
operations that may be undertaken in this intention.

TEMPEST, Tempesras, a ftorm or violent commo-
tion of the air, with or without rain, hail, fnow, &c.

Tempest, in Mythology, a deity among the Romans,
concerning whom we merely know, that Marcellus, as an
acknowledgment for having efcaped a ftorm, with which
he was overtaken at fea, between the iflands of Corfica
and Sardinia, built a temple to her without the Porta
Capena.

TEMPESTA, Awnronio, in Biography, was an ingeni-
ous defigner and painter, born at Florence in 1555, and
was initiated in the art by Santi di Titi; afterwards he
ftudied under another artift, whofe name was Stradanus.
Tempefta was gifted with a brilliant and powerful imagina-
tion, not, however, of the moft correct or exalted kind.
His favourite fubje&ts were battles, fieges, cavalcades, hunt-
ings, proceffions, &c.; all of which he arranged and de-
figned in a novel and rich ftyle, and executed with un-
common fpirit and energy. He was employed by Gre-
gory XIII. in the Vatican, which he adorned with gro-
te{que inventions, and fome few hiftorical productions. He
was alfo employed by the marchefe Juftiniani in decorating
his palace; and in feveral of the churches of Rome, Tem-
pefta’s paintings may be found.

He not only exercifed his genius and time with the pen-
cil, but devoted much of both to the etching needle ; having
left behind him nearly 1800 plates of different kinds, and
of very confiderable merit. He died in 1630, aged 75.

TEMPIE, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sar-
dinia; 25 miles E, of Caftello Arragonefe.—Alfo, a town
of Mexico, in the province of Guadalajara; 500 miles
N.W. of Mexico. ;

TEMPLARS, Temeters, or Knights of the Temple, a

TEM

religious military order, firft eftablifhed at Jerufalem, in
favour of pilgrime travelling to the Holy Land.

The original of this order, the firft military one in the
world, is this: in 1118, fome pious and noble perfons de-
voted themfelves to the fervice of God, in the prefence
of the patriarch of Jerufalem ; promifing to live in perpe-
tual chaitity, obedience, and poverty, after the manner of
canons.

The two principal perfons were Hugo de Paganis, and
Geoffry of St. Omers. Baldwin II. then king of Jeru-
falem, gave them an apartment in his palace, near the temple
at Jerufalem, not far from the fepulchre of our Saviour ;
whence their denomination Templars.

Soon afterwards, the canons of the temple gave them a
piece of ground near the faid temple, on which to build
regular houfes ; and the king, the lords, the patriarch, and
the prelates, each gave them fomewhat out of their revenue
for food and cloaths.

Their firft undertaking, and what they had firft in view
at their inftitution, was, to guard the highway again{t rob-
bers, &c. chiefly for the fatety of pilgrims and croifes.

The principal articles of their rule were : that they fhould
hear the holy office throughout every day ; or that, when
their military duties fhould prevent this, they fhould fupply
it by a certain number of pater nofters: that they fhould
abftain from flefh four days in the week, and on Fridays
from eggs and milk-meats: that each knight might have
three horfes, and one efquire: and that they fhould neither
hunt nor fowl.

In the year 1228, this order acquired ftability, by being
confirmed in the council of Troyes, and fubje¢ted to a rule
of difcipline drawn up by St. Bernard.

In every nation they had a particular governor, called
mafter of the temple, or of the militia of the temple. Their
grand-mafter had his refidence at Paris.

The order of Templars flourifhed for fome time, and ac-
quired by the valour of its knights immenfe riches, and an
eminent degree of military renown: but as their profperity
increafed, their vices were multiplied, and their arrogance,
luxury, and cruelty, rofe at laft to fuch a monftrous height,
that their privileges were revoked, and their order fuppreffed
with the moft terrible circumftances of infamy and feverity.
Their accufers were two of their own body, and their chief
profecutor Philip the Fair, of France, who addreffed his
complaints to Clement V. The pope, though at firft un-
willing to proceed againft them, was under the necefflity of
complying with the king’s defire, fo that, in the year 1307,
upon an appointed day, and for fome time afterwards, all
the knights, who were difperfed throughout Europe, were
feized and impfifoned. Such of them as refufed to confefs
the enormities of which they were accufed, were put to
death ; and thofe who, by tortures and promifes, were in-
duced to acknowledge the truth of what was laid to their
charge, obtained their liberty. In-1312, the whole order
was iupprefled by the council of Vienne. A. part of the
rich revenues they poffeffed was beftowed upon other orders,
efpecially on the knights of St. John, now of Malta, and
the reft confifcated to the refpeétive treafuries of the fove-
reign princes in whofe dominions their pofleffions lay. The
knights Templars, in order to juftify the feverity with which
they were treated, were charged with apoftacy to the Sara-
cens, and holding correfpondence with them ; with infulting
the majefty of God; turning into derifion the Gofpel of
Chrift ; and trampling upon the obligation of all laws, human
and divine. Candidates, it is faid, upon admiffion to this
order, were commanded to fpit, in token of contempt, upon
an image of Chrift, and eo to worfhip either a

Siz eat,

TEM

cat, or a wooden head crowned with gold. It is farther
affirmed, that, among them, the odious and unnatural aét
of fodomy was a matter of obligation ; and they are charged
with other crimes too horrible to be mentioned, or even
imagined. However, though there be reafon to believe
that in this order, as well as others of the fame period, there
were fhocking examples of impiety and profligacy ; yet that
the whole es was thus enormoufly corrupt, is fo far from
bemg proved, that the contrary may be concluded even
from the aéts and records, yet extant, of the tribunals be-
fore which they were tried and examined. If to this we
add, that many of the accufations advanced againft them
flatly contradiét each other, and that many members of this
unfortunaté order folemnly avowed their innocence, while
languifhing under the fevereft tortures, and even with their
dying breath ; it would feem probable, that king Philip fet
on foot this bloody tragedy, with a view to gratify his
avarice, and glut his refentment againft the Templars, and
efpecially againft their piandanaltes, who had highly of-
fended him. The principal caufe of this invincible hatred
againft them was, that in his quarrel with Boniface VIII.
the knights efpoufed the caufe of the pope, and furnifhed
him with money to carry on the war. Mosheim’s Eccl.
Hitt. vol. iii. ed. 8vo. Bower’s Hift. of the Popes, vol. vi.

+ 393-
i TEMPLE, Temptum, a public building ereéted in
honour of fome deity, either true or falfe; and in which
the people meet to pay religious worthip to the fame.

The word is formed from the Latin ¢emplum, which fome
derive from the Greek sess, fignifying the fame thing ;
and others from reusw, abfcindo, I cut off, I feparate, becaufe
a temple is a place feparated from common ufes; others, with
more probability, derive it from the old Latin word templare,
to contemplate. It is certain the ancient augurs gave the name
templa to thofe parts of the heavens which were marked out
for the obfervation of the flight of birds. Their formula
was this: Templa tefqua funto.

Temples were originally all open, and hence received their
name, See Phil. Tranf. N° 471. fe&t. 5. where we have
an account of the ancient temple in Ireland of the fame fort
as our famous Stonehenge.

The word ¢emplum, in its primary fenfe among the old
Romans, fignified nothing more than a place fet apart, and
confecrated by the augurs, whether enclofed or open; in the
city, or in the fields.

Clemens Alexandrinus and Eufebius refer the origin of
temples to the fepulchres built for the dead. This notion
has been lately illuftrated and confirmed by a variety of telti-
monies by Mr, Farmer, in his Treatife on the Worfhip of
Human Spirits, p. 373, &c. Herodotus, Lucian, and
Strabo, will have the Egyptians to have been the firft who
built temples to the gods; and from them the cuftom was
propagated to the Affyrians, comprehending under this ap-
pellation Phoenicia, Syria, and other countries. From
Egypt and Pheenicia it paffed to Greece with the colonies,
and from Greece to Rome. The firft ereéted in Greece is
afcribed to Deucalion by Apollonius (Argonaut. lib. iii.)
and the firft in Italy to Janus.

In antiquity we meet with many people who would not
build any temples to their gods, for fear of confining them
to too narrow bounds. ‘They performed their facrifices
in all places indifferently, from a perfuafion, that the whole
world is the temple of God, and that he required no other.
This was the doétrine of the magi, followed by the Per-
fians, the Scythians, the Numidians, and many other nations
mentioned by Herodotus, lib. i. Strabo, lib. xv. and
Cicero, in his fecond oration again{t Verres.

TEM

The Perfians, who worfhipped the fun, believed it would
wrong his power, to enclofe sim in the walls of a temple,
who had the whole world for his habitation; and hence,
when Xerxes ravaged Greece, the magi exhorted him to
deftroy all the temples he met with.

The Sicyonians would build no temples to their goddefs
Coronis ; nor the Athenians, for the like reafon, ereét any
ftatue to Clemency, who, they faid, was to live ig the hearts
of men, not within ftone walls.

The Bithynians had no temples but the mountains te
worfhip on ; nor had the ancient Germans any other but the
woods.

Even fome philofophers have blamed the ufe and building
of temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno, and his followers
the Stoics. But it may be faid, that if God hath no need of
temples, men have need of places to meet in for the public
offices of religion: accordingly, temples may be traced back
even unto the remoteit antiquity. See Hofpinian, de Ori-
gine Templorum.

The Romans had feveral kinds of temples ; of which thofe
built by the kings, &c. confecrated by the augurs, and in
which the petite of religion was regularly performed, were
called, by way of eminence, templa, temples. Thofe that
were not confecrated were called ades. The little temples,
that were covered or roofed, they called zdicule ;. thofe
open, /acella. Some other edifices, confecrated to particular
myfteries of religion, they called fana and delubra.

All thefe kinds of temples, Vitruvius tells us, had other
particular denominations, according to the form and manner
of their conftruGtion ; as will be hereafter fpecified. In-
deed, the Romans out-did all nations with regard to temples :
they not only built temples to their gods, to their virtues,
to their difeafes, &c. but alfo to their emperors, and that
in their life-time ; inftances of which we meet with in medals,
infcriptions, and other monuments. Horace compliments
Auguftus hereupon, and fets him above Hercules, and:all
the heroes of fable; in that thofe were only admitted into
temples after their death, whereas Auguftus had his temples
and altars while living.

“ Prefenti tibi maturos largimur honores ;
Jurandafque tuum per nomen ponimus aras.””

Epift. ad Aug.
Suetonius, on this occafion, gives an inftance of the mo-
defty of that emperor, who would allow of no temples being
ereéted to him in the city ; and even in the provinces, where
he knew it was ufual to raife temples to the very proconfuls,
refufed any but thofe ereted in the name of Rome as well

as his own. Vide Suet. in O&tav. cap. 52. j
Whenever a temple was to be erected, the arufpices were
confulted as to the {cite of it, and the time when the con-
ftruétion of it was to commence. The fpot afligned to it
was carefully purified, and it was encircled with fillets and
garlands. ‘The veftals, accompanied with young boys and
girls, wafhed the ground with water, and the prieft expiated
it by a folemn facrifice. ‘Then he touched the foundation-
ftone, and bound it with a fillet; and the people, animated
with extraordinary zeal, threw it in thither with fome pieces
of money, or metal which had not pafled through the fur-
nace. When the edifice was finifhed, it was confecrated
with a variety of ceremonies, in which the prieft, or, in his
abfence, fome of his college, prefided. Some of thefe temples
were not to be built within the precinéts of cities, but with-
out the walls, as thofe of Mars, Vulcan, and Venus, for
reafons particularly affigned by Vitruvius. The temples
were held in great veneration ; and, in fome cafes, they were
a fantuary for criminals and debtors. Within they vere
very

TEMPLE.

very much adorned; particularly with coftly Ratues of
their gods and great men, and a great variety of votive
offerings. ‘

The moft celebrated of the ancient temples among the
Pagans were the following: viz. the temple of Belus (fee
Berus and Basyion); the temple of Vulcan at Memphis,
the magnificence and extent of which are highly extolled by
Herodotus ; the temple of Jupiter at Thebes or Dioifpolis ;
that of Andera at Hermunthis; that of Proteus at Mem-
phis; that of Minerva at Sais; the temple of Diana at
Ephefus (fee Diana); the temple of Apollo in the city
of, Miletus, which, as well as that of Diana, was of the
Tonic order ; the temple of Eleufis, built in honour of Ceres
and Proferpine, capable of containing. 30,000 perfons ; the
temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, of the Corinthian
order ; and the temple of Apollo at Delphi, fo famous for its
oracles, and for the rich prefents with which it was enriched
(fee Dexeri); the temple of. Jupiter, which contained his
admirable ftatue. The architect of the temple was Libo,
a native of the country: its height from the area to the roof
was.68 feet, its breadth 95, and its length 230. ‘The throne
and ftatue of the god, for we cannot enumerate other
{plendid ornaments, were the matfter-piece of Phidias ; and
antiquity produced nothing fo magnificent nor fo finifhed.
The ftatue, of an immenfe height, was of gold and ivory, fo
artificially blended, that it could not be beheld but with
aftonifhment. The god wore upomhis head a crown, which
refembled the olive-leaf to perfection: in his right hand he
held a victory, likewife of gold and ivory ; and in his left a
{ceptre of exquifite tafte, refulgent with all forts of metals,
and fupporting an eagle. The fhoes and mantle of the god
were of gold; and upon the mantle were all forts of animals
and flowers engraved. The throne was all fparkling with
gold and precious ftones. The ivory and ebony, the animals
there reprefented, and feveral other ornaments, by their af-
femblage, formed a delightful variety. At the four corners
of the throne were as many Vidtories, that feemed to be
joining hands for a dance, befides two others that were at
Jupiter’s feet. The feet of the throne, on the fore-fide,
were adorned with fphinxes, who were plucking the tender
infants from the bofom of the Theban mothers; and under-
neath were to be feen Apollo and Diana, wounding Niobe’s
children to death with their arrows. Four crofs bars that
were at the feet of the throne, and went from one end to the
other, were adorned with a great rumber of figures ex-
tremely beautiful: upon one were reprefented feven con-
querors at the Olympic games; upon another appeared
Hereules, ready to engage with the Amazons, and the num-
ber of combatants on either fide was twenty-nine. Befides
the feet of the throne, there were likewife pillars to fupport
it. In fine, a great balluftrade, painted and adorned with
figures, railed in the whole work. Panznus, an able painter
of that time, had reprefented there, with inimitable art,
Atlas bearing the heavens upon his fhoulders, and Hercules
in an attitude ftooping to eafe him of the load: Thefeus and
Pirithous, the combat of Hercules with the lion of Nemea,
Ajax offering violence to Cafflandra, Hippodamia with her
mother, Prometheus in chains, and a thoufand other fubjeéts
of fabulous hiftory. In the moft elevated place of the
throne, above the head of the god, were the Graces and
Hours, of each three in number. The pedeftal which fup-
ported this pile, was equally adorned with the reft.. There
Phidias had engraved upon gold, on the one fide, the Sun
guiding his chariot ; on the other, Jupiter and Juno, the
Graces, Mercury, and Vefta. There Venus appeared rifing
out of the bofom of the fea, and Cupid receiving her ; while
Pitho, or the goddefs of perfuafion, was prefenting her with

acrown. ‘There alfo appeared Apollo and Diana, Minerva
and Hercules. At the bottom of the pedeftal, you might
have feen Amphitrité and Neptune, and Diana or the moon,
who appeared mounted on horfeback. In fine, a woollen
veil, of a purple dye, and magnificently embroidered, the
prefent of king Antiochus, hung from top to bottom,
The throne and ftatue reached from the pavement, which
was of the fineft marble, to the roof. :
Italy abounded with temples as much as Greece ; feveral of
which were remarkable for their fingularity or magnificence.
Rorse was full of temples: fome of the moft remarkable for
their origin, materials, ftru€ture, or ufe, were the following :
viz. the temple of Apollo, built by Auguftus, in honour
of his favourite deity Apollo, after his victory at AGium,
upon mount Palatine. Its ftruGure was very magnificent ;
it was built of the fineft marble of Claros, and embellifhed,
both within and without, with the richeft ornaments. Its
gates were of ivory, enriched with baffo-relievos, reprefent-
ing the Gauls, when they were thrown headlong from the
top of the Capitol by T. Manlius. In the frontifpiece was
a chariot of the fun, of mafly gold, crowned with rays fo
refplendent that they dazzled the eyes of beholders. Within
the temple was a marble ftatue of Apollo, made by Scopae,
and alfo a coloffal one of brafs, 50 feet high; together with
a candleftick in the form of a tree, whofe branches were
covered. with clufters of lamps refembling fruit. Upon
thefe branches the poets ufed to hang their poems, which
they offered up to Apollo, as Horace informs us, ep. 3. loi.
To this temple, dedicated to the « god of arts,’’ was very
properly annexed a noble library.—T’he temple of Bacchus,
fituated without the walls of Rome, is now the church of
St. Conitantia, fupported on the infide by twenty-four noble
pillars of granite. Its ancient mofaic ceiling, and the old
window by which light was let in from the roof, ftill remain.
Behind the prefent altar ftands an antique urn of por-
phyry, of large dimenfions ; and on each fide of the altar, a
finely wrought antique candleftick of marble.-—Here was
the temple of the goddefs Bona, who was Dryas, the wife
of Faunus, diftinguifhed by her exemplary chaftity. The
Roman ladies facrificed to her in the night, in a little
chapel, into which the men were not allowed to enter, nor
were they permitted to be prefent at her facrifices. It was
for the violation of this rule, that Cicero profecuted the de
bauched Clodius. (See his article. )—The temple of Diana
was feated on mount Aventine. It was built in the reign of
Servius Tullius, at the joiit expence of the Romans and
Latins, for the purpofe of their meeting annually to offer a
facrifice, in commemoration of the league made between the
two’ nations.—The firft temple of Faith is faid to have been
erected by Numa, who taught the Romans to worthip this
goddefs, and thus to be reminded, that the moft facred oath
they could take was to fwear by their faith or veracity.
His intention was to render their promifes, without writings
or witnefles, as firm and certain as contraéts made and {worn
to with the greateft formalities ; and in this he fucceeded to
his wifh. , Polybius bears this honourable teftimony to the
Romans, that they inviolably kept their faith, that is, their
word, without having occafion for witneffes or fecurities ;
whereas nothing could bind the Greeks to their promifes.—
The temple of Honour was built by Mutius, by order of
Marius, and might be reckoned among the nobleft buildings
in ancient Rome, if the materials, which were ftone, had
correfponded to the greatnefs of the defign. It was re-
markable for this circumftance, that the entrance of it was
dedicated to Virtue, and the reft to Honour; and that it
had no pofticum, or back-door, as other temples had ; thus
intimating, that we muft not only pafs through virtue to attain
to

TEMPLE.

to honour, but that honour is alfo obliged to repafs through
virtue, that is, to perfevere init, and acquire more of it.-—The
temple of Janus. The Romans built, at different times, three
temples to Janus ; for an account of which, fee Janus.—T he
temple of Jupiter the Preferver was one of the fixty temples
that ftood upon the Capitoline hill. Jupiter Cuftos was re-
prefented in it, holding his thunder with one hand, and a dart
with the other, and the figure of the emperor was under his
thunder, to fhew that he was under Jupiter’s protection ;
or elfe engraved, lying upon a globe, and holding an image
of victory, with the eagle at his feet, and thefe words,
« Joyi Confervatori Auguftorum noftrorum.’’—The temple
of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, or Jupiter Capitolinus, was
moft commonly called the Capitol ; which fee.—The temple
of Liberty was built upon mount Aventine, on the {pot
where Cicero’s houfe once ftood, enriched with feveral brafs
pillars, and many fine ftatues.—The temple of Mars ftood
on the declivity of the Capitoline hill. In this temple were
kept the eagles and other military enfigns of the Romans,
and alfo the chariot in which Cazfar had triumphed.—The
temple of Peace was begun by the emperor Claudius, and
furifhed by Vefpafian, who embellifhed it with paintings and
{tatues of the greateft mafters, and alfo depofited in it all
the fpoils and riches taken by his fon Titus in the temple of
Jeniland It was burnt in the reign of Commodus.—The
temple of Jupiter the Avenger was the Pantheon ; which fee.
To the temples already enumerated, we might add thofe of
Antoninus and Fauftina, of Auguftus, of Auguftus and
Bacchus, of the Mufes, of Ceres, of Claudius Czfar, of
Concord, of Fame, of the Flavian family, of Faunus, of
Fever, of Trajan and Neptune, of Happinefs, of Faith and
Jupiter the Preferver, of Flora, of Bad Fortune, of the
eldeft or firft-born Fortune, of Public Fortune, of Virile or
Courageous Fortune, of Hercules, of Juno, of Juno Mo-
neta, of Juno Sofpita, the giver or preferver of health, of
queen Juno, of Jupiter Feretrius, of Jupiter Stator, of
Jupiter Tonans or the Thunderer, of Jupiter the Conqueror,
of Liber, an epithet of Bacchus, of the Mother of the
gods, of Mercury, of Minerva, of the goddefs Nenia, of
Ops and Saturn, of the Penates or Houfehold gods, of
Refit, of Quirinus, of Romulus and Remus, of Saturn, of
Serapis, of the Sun, of the Sun and Moon, of the god
Sylvanus, of Tellus or the Earth, of Venus, of Venus and
Cupid, of Venus Erycina, of Venus Erycinz and the Mind,
of Venus Verticordiz, of Vertumnus, of Veita, and many
others, which, great and {mall, amounted to upwards of one
thoufand.

Teme_e, Jewifb, at Jerufalem; was an edifice erected
much after the model of the tabernacle, but in a much more
magnificent and expenfive manner. According to the
opinion of fome, there were three different temples: the
firft built by David and Solomon on mount Moriah, which
was part of mount Sion; the fecond, by Zerubbabel and
Jofhua the high prieft; and the third by Herod. This
laft, however, the Jews will not allow to be a new temple,
but only the fecond repaired or rebuilt. The expence of
building Solomon’s temple was prodigious: the gold and
filver employed for this purpofe amounted to upwards of
eight hundred millions fterling (1 Chron, xxii. 14. xix. 4.
6, 7), which, fays Dr. Prideaux, was fufficient to have
built the whole temple with folid filver. But as the book
of Chronicles was written after the return from the Baby-
lonifh captivity, it is probable that the Jews might compute
by the Babylonifh talent, which was little more than half
the Mofaic talent, or perhaps by the Syriac talent, which
was but one-fifth of the Babylonifh ; and thus the whole
quantity of gold and filver would be reduced to a com-

paratively moderate quantity, and yet fufficient for the
urpofe. -

Jofephus (lib. vii. xiv. ii.) acquaints us, that the two
firft {ums were only one-tenth part of what is expreffed in
the prefent Hebrew; and Dr. Kennicott (State of the
Hebrew Text, vol. ii. p. 355.) thinks it probable, that
a cipher was added to them both in fome very ancient He-
brew copy.

This temple was furrounded, except at the front or eaft
end, with three ftories of chambers, each five cubits fquare,
which reached to half the height of the temple; and the
front was graced with a magnificent portico, which rofe te
the height of a hundred and twenty cubits. It was plun-
dered by Nebuchadnezzar kmg of Babylon, and at len
deftroyed, after it had ftood, according to Jofephus, four
hundred and feventy years, fix months, and ten days, from
its dedication. Others, however, as Calvifius and Scaliger,
reduce the number of years to four hundred and twenty-
feven, or four hundred and twenty-eight ; and Uther, to
four hundred and twenty-four years, three months, and
eight days.

The fecond temple was built by the Jews, after their re-
turn from the Babylonifh captivity, under the direétion and
influence of Zerubbabel their governor, and of Jofhua the
high prieft, with the leave and encouragement of Cyrus the
Perfian emperor, to whom Judza was now become a tri-
butary kingdom. Aceording to the Jews, this temple was
deftitute of five remarkable appendages, which were the chief

glory of the firft temple ; wiz. the ark and mercy-feat, the

Schechinah, the holy fire on the altar, which had been firft
kindled from heaven, the urim and thummim, and the fpirit
of prophecy. This temple. was plundered and pegs by
Antiochus Epiphanes, who alfo caufed the public worfhip
in it to ceafe ; and afterwards purified by Judas Maccabzus,
who reftored the divine worfhip : and after having ftood five
hundred years, rebuilt by Herod, with a magnificence ap-
proaching to that of Gilomaia: Tacitus calla it immenfe
opulentia templum ; ‘and Jofephus fays, it was the moft afto-
nifhing ftru€ture:he had ever feen, as well on account of its

architeCture as its magnitude, and likewife the richnefs and ©

magnificence of its various parts, and the reputation of its
facred appurtenances. This temple, which Herod began to
build about fixteen years before the birth of Chrift, and fo
far completed in nine years and a half, as to be fit for divine
fervice, was at length deftroyed by the Romans on the fame
month and day of the month, on which Solomon’s temple
was deftroyed by the Babylonians.

The Jewith temple itfelf confifted of the portico, the fane-
tuary, and the holy of holies; and it was ornamented with
f{pacious courts, making a f{quare of half a mile in cireum-
ference. The firft court was called the court of the Gen-
tiles, becaufe they were allowed. to come into it, but no
farther. Within this was a lefs court, into which none but
Ifraclites might enter, divided into the court of the women ;
and the inner court, in which the temple and altar ftood, and
into which the priefts and all male Ifraelites might enter.

Tempce, in drchitedure. The ancient temples were dif-
tinguifhed, with regard to their conftruction, into various
kinds: as, i

TEMPLE in ante, YEdes in antis. Thefe, according to |

Vitruvius, were the moft fimple of all temples, having only
angular pilafters, called ante, or paraffate, at the corners,
and two T'ufcan columns, on each fide of the doors.
Tempe, Tetra/lyle, or fimply tetraftyle, was a temple that
had four columns in front, and as many behind. Such was
the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome.
Temece, Proffyle, that which had only columns in its
front,

ee Oa, MP Pe

>

TEMPLE.

front, or fore-fide. As that of Ceres at Eleufis, in
Greece.

Tempe, Amphyproftyle, or double proftyle, that which had
columns both before and behind, and which was alfo
tetraftyle.

Temp ce, Periptere, that which had four rows of infulated_
columns around, and was exhaftyle, 7 e. had fix columns in
front ; as the temple of Honour at Rome. See Periprere.

Tempte, Diptere, that which had two wings, and two
rows of columns around, and was alfo oétoftyle, or had
eight columns in front ; as that of Diana at Ephefus.

Tempe, Pfeudo-diptere. See Pseuno-dipiere.

Teme.e, Hypethros. See Hypmruros.

Temece, Monoptere. See Monorrere.

TEMPLES, among us, denote two inns of court, thus
called, becaufe anciently the dwelling-houfe of the knights
Templars.

At the fuppreffion of that order they were purchafed by
fome profeflors of the common law, and converted into hof-
pitia, or inns of courts.

They are called the /nner and Middle Temple, in relation
to Effex-houfe, which was alfo a part of the houfe of the
Templars, and called the Outer Temple, becaufe fituate with-
out Temple-Bar.

In the Middle Temple, during the time of the Templars,
the king’s treafure was kept: as was alfo that of the kings
of France in the houfe of the Templars at Paris.

The chief officer was the mafter of the Temple, who was
fummoned to parliament in 49 Hen. III. And from him
the chief miniiter of the ‘Temple church is ftill called
Moafter of the Temple.

Temple, Sir WitLiaM, in Biography, a ftatefman and
mifcellaneous writer, was the fon of fir John Temple,
matter of the rolls in Ireland in the reign of Charles I. and
II., and author of a Hiftory of the Irifh Rebellion, and
born in London in the year 1628. Having finifhed his
courfe of claffical education, he was entered, at the age of
feventeen, at Emanuel college, in. the univerfity of Cam-
bridge, under the tuition of the learned Cudworth. Being
defigned for public life, his principal attention at the univer-
fity was engaged by the ftudy of the modern Ae
French and Spanifh ; and at the age of twenty, he was fent
to finifh his education by travelling on the continent.
After fpending fix years in this way, he returned home
in 1654, and married the daughter of fir Peter Ofborn, of
Chickfand, Bedfordfhire, with whom he became acquainted
during his foreign travels. Declining to accept any office

_ under Cromwell, he refided with his father in Ireland, and
devoted his time to the ftudy of hiftory and philofophy.
At the Reftoration he became a member of the Irith Con-
vention ; and in the Irifh parliament of the year 1661, he
was returned as a reprefentative of the county of Carlow,
and in 1662 was nominated one of the commiffioners from
that parliament to the king. At this time he removed with
his family to England; and having faithfully executed a
fecret commiffion to the bifhop: of Munfter, with which he
was entrufted in 1665, he was appointed in the following
year refident at the court of Bruflels, and raifed by patent
to the rank of a baronet. During the reign of Charles II.
he was concerned in a variety of negociations. After the
peace of Breda, (July 10, 1667,) fir William went over to
Holland, and formed an intimate acquaintance and friendfhip
with De Wit, a man frank and open, and of the fame ge-
nerous and enlarged fentiments with himfelf; and in confe-
quence of the negociations of thefe two able ftatefmen, a
defenfive alliance was concluded between Holland and Eng-
land. Sweden acceded to the confederacy: and thus was

formed the triple league, which was generally regarded with
equal furprife and approbation. In the condué& of this bufi-
nefs, Temple acquired great honour ; but to all the compli-
ments that were paid to him on the occafion, he modeltly
replied, that to remove things from their centre, or proper
element, required force and labour ; but that of themfelves
they eafily returned to it. The French monarch and the
court of Spain were equally difpleafed ; but in the treaty at
Aix-la-Chapelle, where Temple appeared as ambaflador
extraordinary and mediator, on behalf of England, his ad-
drefs prevailed ; the Spanifh minifter complied with the con-
ditions propofed; and the peace between the contending
powers was figned in May, 1668. In confequence of this
event, fir Wiliam was nominated ambaflador to the States-
General, and taking up his refidence at the Hague in the
month of Auguft of this year, he maintained his intimacy
with De Wit, and was alfo on familiar terms with William,
prince of Orange, who had then attained the age of eighteen
years. But this triple alliance was of fhort duration. The
corruption and intrigues of the Englifh court produced a
recall of Temple in the year 1669, and when it was propofed
to him to return and make way for a breach with Hol-
land, he declined, much to his honour, engaging in hoftility
again{t a country to which he was attached, and retired from
public bufinefs to his feat at Sheen, near Richmond. Here
he employed bimfelf in the improvement of his manfion, and
in the cultivation of his garden; and alfo in writing his
“* Obfervations on the United Provinces,”’ and a part of his
‘‘ Mifcellanea.”” When the war with the Dutch became
unpopular through the nation, and the court and its minifters
were under a neceffity of bringing it to a termination, fir
William Temple was called out of his retirement to nego-
ciate with the Spanifh minifter in London: and when the
feparate peace with Holland was concluded, he was re-
quefted in the next year, 1674, to undertake the office of
ambaflador to the States-General, for the purpofe of nego-
ciating a general peace. Before his acceptance of this office,
he obtained an audience of the king, with a view of ftating
to his majefty the pernicious politics of the Cabal miniftry,
and the neceffity of popular meafures for regaining the con-
fidence of the nation. The negociations for peace were com-
menced at Nimeguen, whither he removed from the Hague
in 1676: and during their flow progrefs, he availed himfelf
of the opportunity thus afforded him for accomplifhing the
popular meafure of the marriage of the prince of Orange to
the duke of York’s eldeft daughter, which took place in
1677. On another occafion, when the French manifefted
their intention of retaining the Spanifh towns, which were
to be furrendered by treaty, Temple was difpatched to the
Hague to concert effetual meafures with the States for
bringing the French to terms ; and in fix days he concluded
a treaty, July 1678, by which England was bound to de-
elare war againft the French if the towns were not evacu-
ated within the interval of fixteen days; but fo feeble and
fluctuating were the Englith councils, that before the ratifi-
cation of the projected treaty, peace was figned at Nimeguen,
and France was fecured in the poffeffion of a great part of
its conquetts.

In 1679 Temple was recalled from the Hague, in order
to be appointed one of the fecretaries of ftate ; but per-
ceiving the violence of parties, and the prevalende of difcon-
tent, he recommended a council of thirty perfons, which was
to be compofed, together with the minifters of the crown, of
perfons pofleffing influence and credit in both houfes of
parliament. But divifions occurred which prevented the
falutary effects of fuch a meafure. Projets of limitation or
exelufion were the fubjeéts of warm difcuffion in parliament.

To

TEM

To thele meafures Temple was adverfe; and ‘his laft a& in
parliament, as member for the univerfity of Cambridge, was
to carry from the council the king’s final anfwer to the ad-
drefs of the Commons, never to confent to the exclufion of
his brother: other members had previoufly declined this
difagreeable fervice. When the king, in January 1681,
diffolved the parliament without the advice of his privy
council, Temple boldly remonftrated againft the meafure ;
and at length, wearied with the faGtion and mifgovernment
which he had witnefled, he declined the offered return for
the univerfity to the new parliament, and retired to Sheer,
conveying from thence a meflage to the king, “‘that he
would pafs the reft of his life as good a fubjeét as any in his
kingdom, but would never more meddle with public affairs.””
The king replied to the meflage, that he bore him no re-
fentment ; but his name was expunged from the council.
The remainder of his life was {pent in retirement and feclu-
fion from all public bufinefs; and it is faid, that he inter-
fered fo little in political matters, as not to know the defign
of the prince of Orange to engage in the expedition that
terminated in the revolution, and to be the laft perfon who
gave credit to hislanding. After James’s abdication, how-
ever, he waited on the prince at Windfor, and prefented to
him his fon. King William urged upon him the accept-
ance of the office of fecretary of ftate; but he maintained
his purpofe of living in retirement. His fon was appointed
fecretary at war; but in the week in which he aflumed
the office, he was feized with melancholy, and threw himfelf
into the Thames. His refle€tion on this affli€tive event was
that which his Stoic philofophy alone could have diétated :
“a wife man might difpofe of himfelf, and render his life: as
fhort as he pleafed.”” In his ftate of retirement, he admitted
Swift to be his companion, as we have already mentioned
under Swirt’s article. King William occafionally vifited
him, and confidentially confulted hira on feveral important
affairs. In 1694 he loft his wife; and finking gradually
under increafing infirmities, occafioned by repeated fits of
the gout, his life was terminated at Moor park, in
January 1698, in his 7oth year. ‘The greateft part of his
fortune was bequeathed to the daughters of his unfortunate
fon by a French lady, under the exprefs condition that they
fhould not marry Frenchmen.

Sir William Temple ranks high as a ftatefmap, and alfo as
a patriot, who well underftood and zealonfly purfued his
country’s intereft. His foibles, without giving them a
worfe appellation, were impatience with thofe whom he
difliked, warmth in difpute, and a fhare of vanity and con-
ceit ; but he was fubftantially, fays his biographer, a worthy
man in the various relations of life. ‘To outward forms of
religion he paid little regard ; but his letter to the countefs
of Effex is no lefs pious than eloquent: fo that we can
fcarcely admit the charge of atheifm with which he is re-
proached by bifhop Burnet. As a writer, he ranks among
the moft eminent and popular of his time. His “‘ Obfery-
ations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands’? were
printed in 1672, and deferve the attention of the politician
and philofopher: his ‘‘ Mifcellanea’’ are lively and enter-
taining, if not profound. His ‘ Memoirs’? elucidate the
hiftory of the times. His “ Introduétion to the Hittory of
England”? was publifhed in 1695. His “ Letters,’”’ in 3
vols., which relate to public tranfaGtions, were publithed after
his death by Swift. ‘All fir William Temple’s writings,”
fays one of his biographers, ‘“ difplay much acquaintance
both with books and men, and are entirely free from the li-
centioufnefs fo prevalent in that age. Their ftyle is negli-
gent and incorreét, but agreeable, refembling that of eafy
and polite converfation.” Hume’s Hift. vol. vil. 8vo.

4

TEM

Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog. Account of his Life, &c. prefixed
to the folio edition of his Works, in 2 vols. Lond. 1720.

Sir William Temple did not efcape the lath of criticifm,
and fuch was his vanity or irritability, or perhaps a compofition
of both, that his indignation was roufed, and he exprefled him-
felf in the following terms: ‘‘ The criticksare a race of fcholars
I am very little acquainted with; having always efteemed
them but little brokers, who, having no ftock of their owns
fet up and trade with that of other men, buying here and
felling there, and commonly abufing both fides, to make out
a little paltry gain, either of money or credit, for themfelves, -
and care not at whofe coft.’”? In another place he fays,
“there is, I think, no fort of talent fo defpicable, as that of
fuch common criticks, who can at beft pretend to value them-
felves by difcovering the defaults of other men, rather than
any worth or merit of their own :—a fort of levellers, that will
needs equal the beft and richeft of the country, not by improy-
ing their own eftates, but reducing thofe of their neighbours,
and making them appear as mean and wretched as themfelves.””

TEMPLE, in Geography, a town of the province of Maine,
in the county of Kennebeck, containing 482 inhabitants.—
Alfo, a townfhip of New Hamphhire, in the county of Hillf-
borough, containing 941 inhabitants ; 70 miles W. of Portf-
mouth.

Temete, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot and Garonne ; 7 miles W. of Villeneuve d’Agen.

Tempter Bay, a bay on the N.E. coaft of New Holland,
to the S. of Cape Grenville.—Alfo, a bay on the E. coait
of Labrador. N. lat. 52° 25'. W. long. 55° sol.

TEMPLEMORE, (i.¢. the Great Church,) a pott-
town of the county of Tipperary, Ireland, where there was
formerly held a fair for wool, which lafted feveral days. It
is 75 miles S.W. from, Dublin. :

TEMPLE PATRICK, (i.e. Patrick’s Church,) a polt-
town of the county of Antrim, Ireland, on the river Six-
mile-water ; 44 miles E. by S. from Antrim, on the road
to Belfaft.

TEMPLERS. See Temprars.

TEMPLES, in Anatomy. See Tempora.

TEMPLETON, in Geography, a town of America, in’
the ftate of Maffachufetts, and county of Worcetter, con-
taining 1203 inhabitants.

TEMPLETONIA, in Botany, is dedicated by Mr. R.
Brown, to the honour of John Templeton, efq. af Orange
Grove, near Belfaft, a gentleman whofe enquiries have much
enriched our knowledge of Irifh plants, and whofe name
confequently often appears in the pages of the Flora Bri-
tannica and Englifh Botany.—Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew.
vy. 4. 269.—Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat.
Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fimple,
bell-fhaped, with five rather unequal fegments in the limb,
permanent. Cor. papilionaceous, of five petals. Standard
elliptical, afcending, entire. Wings nearly the length of
the ftandard, linear-oblong, obtufe, with a {mall tooth near
the bafe at their upper edge. Keel a little fhorter than the
wings, oblong, flightly curved, of two half-ovate petals,
cohering near the extremity, with fhort claws. Stam, Fila-
ments ten, all combined into one tube for more than half
their length, feparate above, afcending, five alternate ones
rather the fhorteft ; anthers uniform, {mall, oblong, incum-
bent. if. Germen ftalked, linear-awlfhaped ; fiyle awl-
fhaped, afcending ; ftigma capitate. Peric. Legume ftalked,
linear-oblong, comprefled, obliquely pointed, of one cell
and two valves. Seeds eight or ten, oval, polifhed, the fear
of each bordered with a prominent cretft.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fimple, with five rather unequal —_

Kee

TEM

Keel oblong. Stamens all conneGted. Anthers uniform.
Legume ftalked, comprefled. Seeds numerous, crefted.

1. T. retufa. Wedge-leaved Templetonia, Ait. n. 1.
(Rafnia retufa; Venten. Malmaif. t. 53.)—Gathered by
Mr. Brown, on the fouth-weft coaft of New Holland, from
whence feeds werefent to England by Mr. Peter Good, in
1803. ‘This isa greenhoufe fhrub, flowering in {pring and
fummer. S¥em about a yard high, with ftraight, angular,
{mooth, leafy branches. Leaves about an inch and half
long, alternate, on fhort ftalks, fpreading, entire, emar-
ginate, fmooth. Svipulas in pairs, {mall, oval, deciduous.
Flowers \ateral, axillary, folitary, on fimple ftalks, which
are rather fhorter than the leaves. © Calyx deftitute of the
imbricated appendages which make a principal part of the
character of the neighbouring genus Scorria. (See that
article.) Petals near an inch long, of a deep crimfon. Le-
_ gume two inches long, and half an inch broad, flightly
tumid where each feed is lodged. '

TEMPLEUVE en Pefvele, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the North; 7 miles S.S.E.
~of Lille. 3°

TEMPLIN, atown of Germany, in the Ucker Mark
of Brandenburg, fituated between the Bodenfee and Dol-
genfee. In the year 1735, this place was totally confumed
by fire, but has been rebuilt to very great advantage ; its
ftreets being now broad and ftraight, and its houfes uniform,
exclufive of a {pacious market-place in it, which forms a re-
gular quadrangle, infomuch that at prefent it is one of the
moft beautiful towns in all the Mark. It carries on a very
large trade in timber, which is greatly promoted by means
of a canal, newly made. In 1806 it was taken by the
French, under the duke of Berg; and the prince of Hohenloe,
who had retired hither after the battle of Jena, was made
prifoner; 15 miles S.W. of Prenzlow. N. lat. 53° 5/.
E. long. 13° 34!.

TEMPLUM SosTRatTI, the name of a kind of fur-
gical bandage defcribed by Galen. He alfo defcribes
another, under the name of templum parvum Apollonii Tyrii.

TEMPO, Ital., time, or meafure, in Mufic.

Tempo Ordinario, ufual time.

Temeo di Gavotta, gavot time.

Tempo di Afinuetto, minuet time.

A Tempo, or a tempo primo, after a paufe, or rallentando,
or ad libitum, implies a return to the firft time in which a
movement is begun ; and in recitative, where, in general, no
time is kept, @ fempo, in an accompanied recitative, implies
a regular time.

EMPOAL, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guafteca; 50 miles S.E. of St. Yago de los
Valles.

TEMPORA, in Anatomy, the anterior and lateral parts
of the head, where the fkull is covered by the temporal
mufcles: the temples in common language. See Cra-
NIUM.

TEMPORAL, Temporatis, a term frequently ufed
for fecular. In which fenfe it ftands oppofed to eccle-
fraftical.

Pope Boniface wrote to Philip the Fair of France, that
he was fubje& to him, both in fpirituals and temporals.

At prefent, all the doors on this fide the Alps own the
fupremacy of kings in temporals.

TemporaL Aéion. See Action.

TemPoraL dugment. See AUGMENT. j

TEMPORALIS, Temporat, in Anatomy, an epithet
applied to various parts about the temples ; thefe are a fuper-

cial, a middle, and two deep-feated temporal arteries ; a
temporal bone on each fide of the head; a temporal vein ;

Vou. XXXV.

See Gavorra.

TEM
a temporal mufcle ; and temporal nerves. See the refpeétive
articles.

TEMPORALITIES, or TEMPORALTIES, the tempo-
ral revenues of an ecclefiaftic ; particularly fuch lands, te-
nements, or lay-fees, tithes, &c. as have been annexed to
bifhops’ fees by our kings, or other perfons of high rank in
the kingdom. Sec REVENUE,

The temporalities of a bifhop, &c. ftand oppofed to his
{piritualities. See VacaTION.

The canonifts on the other fide of the Alps, anciently
gave the pope a power over the temporalities of kings.
Yet pope Clement V. owned frankly, that his predeceilor
Boniface VIII. had exceeded the juft bounds of his au-
thority, in meddling with the temporalities of the king of
France. Fevret. }

TEMPORALIUM Custos. See Custos and Va-
CATION.

TemeoraLium Reflitutione. See Restitution.

TEMPORARY Forrirication.. See ForTIFICATION.

Temporary Hours. See Hour.

TEMPOREGIATO, in the Jichan Mufic, fometimes
fignifies, that the muficians who accompany the voice, or
the perfon who beats time, fhould prolong fome particular
part thereof, to give the actor or finger room to exprefs the
paffion he is to reprefent, or to introduce fome graces, by
way of ornament to the piece.

TrempPoreciATo is alfo ufed in a different fenfe, for 2
tempo, or a tempo giuflo.

EMPORUM Ossa, in Axatomy, two bones of the
cranium. See Cranium.

TEMPSCHE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Scheld; 10 miles S.W. of Antwerp. .

TEMPTATION, Tentatio, in Theology, an induction
or folicitation to evil, whether arifing from the world, the
flefh, or the devil.

Our Saviour’s temptation, previous to the commencement
of his public miniftry, has been a fubjet of difcuffion and
‘controverfy among learned divines.

The Bisby account of this tranfaétion may be found
in Matt. iv. 1—11.. Mark, i. 12, 13. Luke, iv. 1—12. It
has generally been fuppofed, that the evangelical hiftory of
our Lord’s temptation is to be underftood as a narrative of
outward tranfactions: that the devil tempted Chrift in per-
fon, appeared to him in a vifible form, fpoke to him with an
audible voice, and removed him corporeally from one place
to another; and it muft be allowed that thefe fuppofitions
are warranted by the literal interpretation of the hiftory.
Neverthelefs, this interpretation is liable to a variety of ob-
jections. It is unfuitable to the fagacity and policy of the
evil {pirit. “Why, it has been fuggelted, fhould the: devil
affault our bleffed Lord_at all, and what advantage could he ex-
pect to gain over him ; more efpecially when he came to him in
perfon, and appeared before him in a vifible form, and under
his own proper chara¢ter, propofing and urging temptations
which could proceed only from an evil being? In order to
évade this difficulty, fome writers, as archbifhop Secker and
Dr. Chandler, have conjeGtured that the devil appeared sot
as himfelf, but undet the aflumed refemblance of a good
angel; and others have fuppofed that he appeared to Chrift
in the form of aman. But the hiftory furnifhes no ground
for thefe conjeftures, and they are equally inconfiftent with
the temptations themfelves, confidered in their own nature ;
nor can it be pretended that Chrift was ignorant by whom
the feveral temptations, and particularly the third of them,
was propoled ; for in his reply, he calls him Satan. Befides,
this tranfaction, according to the literal interpretation of its
hiftery, was very ill caleulated to promote either the hongur

t o

TEMPTATION.

ef Chrift, or the inftru@ion and confolation of his difciples.
This obje&tion is ftrengthened, when we confider, that
Chrift muft have yielded voluntarily to the mere motion and
inftigation of the devil, and have been acceffary to his own
difhonour, danger, and temptation. His charaéter muft
have been rather degraded than exalted. ‘The temptations
prefented to Chrift were fuch in their own nature as could
not afford evidence or exercife of his obedience, nor of courfe
Suitable confolation or ufeful inftruétion to his followers,
under real and powerful trials. Moreover, it has been objected
tothe common opinion, that it afcribes to the devil the perform-
ance of the greateft miracles, and of things not only preter-
natural, but abfurd and impoffible, for fuch we mutt regard
his fhewing Chrift all the kingdoms of the world from
an exceedingly high mountain, and alfo whatever con-
ftitutes the glory aid grandeur of its kingdoms. If we are
under a neceffity of deviating from a literal, and of adopt-
ing a figurative interpretation of the tranfaétion recorded in
this hiftory, we are warranted in fo doing by other inftances
of a fimilar kind, that occur in the facred writings. Thefe
writings relate things as a¢tually done, which neverthelefs
were only tranfa&ted in a vifion, Cafes of this kind fre-
quently occur in feripture ; for which we might refer to
Genefis, xxxii. 30. Hofea, i. and iii. Jeremiah, xin. xxv.
xxvii. Ezekiel, iii. iv. vy. St. Paul calls his « being caught
up into the third heaven” and “ into Paradife, a vifion and
revelation of the Lord.’’ (2 Cor. xii. 1—4.) In conformity
to thefe general principles, fome writers of eminene have
proceeded in forming their judgment concerning the tempta-
tions of Chrift ; and conftramed by fuch objeétions as we have
already briefly ftated, they have abandoned the opinion that
thefe temptations are to be underftood as outward tranfac-
tions, inafmuch as the things themfelves were improbable,
and even impraéticable in their own nature ; and inafmuch
as the real performance could anfwer no valuable purpofe.
Calvin allows, in his note on Matt. iv. 5, that feveral cir-
cumftances in this hiftory agreed beft to a vifion ; and the
generality of later writers have admitted, that the devil’s
fhewing to Chrift all the kingdoms of the world, and all
their Sick in a moment of time, was done by fome ficti-
tious Redeye from a perfuafion, that it could not be done
in any other way. Hence it has been argued by others,
that if one of the temptations were prefented to Chrift in
vifion only, why might not the ‘wo others be prefented to
him in the fame manner. Addverting to the hiftory itfelf, it
is alleged, that the text, inftead of pofitively and exprefsly
afferting that the temptation of Chrift was a real outward
tranfaétion, contains clear intimations, and even direct affer-
tions of the contrary. Thus, in the paflage relating to the
exhibition of the kingdoms of the world, and all their glory,
in one view, and in a fingle point of view, the evangelift is
not {peaking of the real fight of all thefe objeéts ; but he
muft defign to be underftood of what was inftantaneoufly
exhibited to the mind. Other plain intimations occur, that
Chrift’s temptation is not to be underftood as an outward
tranfaGtion; and it is alleged by the advocates of this
opinion, that all the evangelifts who have mentioned this
affair, do, in exprefs terms, affirm that it pafled /piritually,
and in vifion, or that it was merely an ideal or mental repre-
fentation.

Some of thofe biblical critics, who confider this hiftory
as a recital of vifionary reprefentations, maintain that thefe
vifions were framed by the devil, and that the temptations
are to be afcribed to his immediate agency : thus denying the
power of Satan over the body of Chrift, and granting him
a nobler empire, a fovereign influence over the mind. Some
have indeed fuppofed that Chrift’s temptation was nothing

more than a bare meditation of our Lord upon {uch trials as
might poflibly be propofed by the great tempter of man-
kind, But it is needlefs to make’ any obfervations on a
view of the fubje&t, which is altogether unfupported by the
hiftory. .

Another opinion has been propofed by a very able
writer, in favour of which he has adduced a variety of argu-
ments, that shave given fatisfaétion to many perfons who
have examined this fubje&t. Mr. Farmer (in his Inquiry
into the Nature and Defign of Chrift’s Temptation in the
Wildernefs) reprefents our Lord’s temptation as befalling
him while he was under a prophetic vifion, of which the
Spirit of God himfelf was the immediate and fole author.
Accordingly he confiders the temptation of Chrift, neither
as an outward tranfaétion, nor diabolical delufion, but as a
divine vifion. At the time when this event occurred, our
Saviour was a€tually m the wildernefs, and therefore when
the evangelift fays, that “ Jefus was led up of the Spirit
into the wildernefs,” or as our author more literally renders
the words, ‘ then was Jefus brought (or carried) into the
wildernefs by the Spirit,”’ he intimates, that into a wildernefs
our Lord feemed to himfelf to be carried, or thither he’ was
tranfported in vifion by a prophetic divine afflatus. The ex-
preflions ufed by the other evangelifts, Mark and Luke, are
faid to confirm the explication thus given of the language of
St. Matthew. Upon the whole, the meaning of the evan-
gelifts will be, “ Chrift was brought into a wildernefs (not
merely under a divine direétion, but) under the full influence
of the prophetic Spirit, making fuitable revelations to his
mind, and giving him a view particularly of his future trials.’
And thefe trials are defcribed as ‘‘ temptations of the devil,’’
onaccount of the particular mode of their being revealed, being
couched under the figure of Satan coming to him, and urg-
ing temptations. Our author, proceeding to examine che
proper intention of this prophetic vifion, obferves, that the
feveral fcenes which it comprehends, though prefented to
Chrift in the form, and capable of anfwering the end, of @
prefent trial, were dire&tly intended as a fymbolical predie-
tion and reprefentation of the future difficulties of his office
and miniftry. The firft fcene in Chrift’s vifion was proba-

-tionary, ferving to difcover the prefent turn and temper of

his mind ; and alfo prophetical, having a reference to his fu-
ture miniftry, through the whole courfe of which he was
preffed with the fame kind of temptations, and refifted them
upon the fame principles. This part of the vifion, therefore,
conveyed this general inftruétion: ‘ that Chrift, though the
fon of God, was to ftruggle with the affli€ting hardfhips of
hunger and thirft, and all the other evils of humanity, like
the loweft of the fons of men; and that he was. never to
exert his divine power for his own perfonal relief, under the
mott prefling difficulties, or for the fupply of his moft urgent
occafions ; but with refignation and faith to wait for the in-
terpofition of God in his favour.”? The fecond fcene of
this vifion was Jerufalem, the metropolis of Judea and the
feat of power; it was the temple of Jerufalem, where the
Jews expected the firft appearance of their Meffiah; it was
the wing of the temple, the eaftern front of it, which com-
manded a view of the worfhippers below. From this emi-
nence Chrift is required to throw himfelf down, in a depend-
ence upon the divine protection, that fo his miraculous pre-
fervation might give evidénce of his divine miffion, and in-
duce the numerous worfhippers, who were eye-witnefles of it,
to acknowledge him immediately as the Meffiah, vifibly de-
{cending from heaven, in a manner agreeable to the expeéta-
tion of the Jews. Such was the propofal, and the temptation
was powerful. The principle upon which he rejected it was,
in its fpirit and meaning, this; ‘ the Scripture forbids us

to

TEM

to prefcribe to God in what iaftances he fhall exert his power ;
and as we are not to rufh upon danger without a call, in ex-
pectation of an extraordinary deliverance; foneither are we
to di€tate to divine wifdom what miracles fhall be wrought
for men’s conviétion.”’ As this trial bore reference to his fu-
ture miniftry, we find that in exemplifying the principle now
manifefted, he never needlefsly and unwarrantably expofed
himfelf to danger, and then relied on a miraculous interpo-
fition of divine power for his refcue ; but he was cautious in
declining hazards; avoiding what might exafperate his ene-
mies; and even enjoining filence with regard to his miracles,
whenthe publication of them was likely to excite envy or popu-
lar commotion, and to inflametheir minds againft him. In dif-
playing the evidences of his divine miffion, he ftill ated upon
the fame maxim, opening his commiffion, not at Jerufalem,
but in Galilee. In order to avoid oftentation and offence, he
kept himfelf as private as the obje&t of his commiffion would
allow ; and inftead of courting the favour of the opulent and
powerful, he converfed freely with all forts of people. In
many other inftances. which an attentive perufal of his hif-
tory will furnifh, his miniftry will correfpond to his pro-
phetic vifion, in which he was tempted to a public and olten-
tatious difplay of his miraculous powers. In the third {cene,
the propofal was inftantaneoufly rejeAed, and not without
a miixture of juft indignation. etides this trial of his tem-
per, the feene before us pre-fignified the temptation to
which he would be expofed in the courfe of his future mi-
niftry, during which he was called upon to proftitute himfelf,
with all his miraculous endowments, to the fervice of Satan,
for the fake of worldly honours, or for gratifying the mif-
taken expeftations of the Jewifh people. For a farther
illuftration of this fubje&t, we mutt refer to the work already
eitted. See alfo archbifhop Secker’s, Dr. Clarke’s, Dr.
Chandler’s, Mr. Mafon’s Sermons, on this fubje@. Ben-
fon’s Hiltory of the Life of Chrift. Macknight’s Truth
of the Gofpel Hiftory. An i

Trempration, Zeniatio, in our Ancient Law-books, is
ufed for a trial, proof, or aflay. ‘‘ Tentatio panis fiat bis
jn anno.”? Chart. Edw. I, See Assay, &c.

TEMROOK, in Geography, a famous ftation in the
Crimea, fituated at the foot of a fmall mourtain, near
the northern embouchure of the Kuban. It is now a fingle
hut,-for the purpofe of fupplying poft-horfes. In Mo-
traye’s time, who travelled this way in December 1711, it
was a place of greater importance. He defcribes it as con-
fiderable for its commerce in hides, caviare, honey, Circaf-
fian flaves, and horfes. He fuppofed that its caftle ftood
where the ancients placed their “ Petreus ;’’ and two emi-
nences, he fays, which are named “ the point of the ifland,””
may have been their ‘ Achilleum Promontorium.’’ This, it
is f{uppofed, was the fituation of Cimmerium. Pallas con-
jeQtures, that Temrook may probably have been the ‘ Cim-
bricus”’ of Strabo.

TEMS, Fr., time, in Mufic; 28 @ contre tems, againtt
time.

TEMSENA, inGeography, a province of Morocco, fituated
onthe coaft of the Atlantic, to the S. of Sallee. This pro-
vince is rich and fertile, and abounds in excellent provifions,
of various kinds. Its name feems intended to fignify its fa-
lubrity, and the purity of the climate. Temfena appears to
be derived from the two Arabic words Tamam Sana, only a
year; as if they fhould fay, that to refide here only a year
would be fufficient to infure the fickly the return of their
health, and fuch, in faG@, is the firm belief of the natives.
Corn is very plentiful in this province ; it is of a very excel-
jent kind, and the ears frequently bear 70 grains, or more.
In the forefts is found a kind of cedar, called Aazar, of a

TEN

refinous {mell ; itis a hard and incorruptible wood, and the
Moors empley it in building their houfes.

This and the neighbouring provinces abound in horfes
and horned cattle ; their flocks are numerous, and the ca-
valry of Temfena is the beft appointed of the empire, ex-
cepting the Black troops of the emperor, called Abeed
Seedy Buharrie. "The population of the diftridts of Tem-
fena and Shawia is eftimated at 1,160,000 perfons. The
males of ‘Temfena and Shawia are a ftrong, robuft race, of
a copper colour; their women poffefs much beauty, and
have highly expreffive features ; and the animation of the
countenance is increafed by the ufe of el kokol filelly, with
which they tinge their eye-lafhes’ and eye-brows. In thefe
provinces they are fond of dyeing their hands and feet
with a preparation of the herb henna, which gives them 2
beautiful orange-colour, and, in hot weather, imparts a
pleafing coolnels and foftnefs to the hands, by preventing, in
a confiderable degree, the quicknefs of perfpiration.

TEMUS, in Botany, a genus which Juffien has conde-
fcended to adopt, by its barbarous name, from the hardly
lefs barbarous information of Molina. Jufl. Gen. 435.—
Clafs and order, Polyandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Eff. Ch. ‘ Calyx three-cleft. Petals eighteen, linear,
very long. Stamens twenty-fix, fhorter than the petals.
Anthers globofe. Germens two. Stylesitwo. Berry two-
lobed. . Seeds tunicated.””—Native of Chili, where it is
called Tema. This it feems is an evergreen tree, with alter-
nate leaves, and italked terminal flowers.

Termus, in Geography, a river of Sardinia, which runs
into the fea, 4 miles E. of Caftello Arragonefe.

TENA, a town of South America, in the province of
Quito; 15 miles S. of Archidona.

TENABLE, formed from the French ¢enir, and that
from the Latin fenere, to hold, in the Military Art, fome-
thing that may be defended, kept, and held, againft
affailants.

Tenable is little ufed, but with a negative: when a plaee
is open on all fides, and its defences are all beaten down, it is
no longer tenable. When the enemy has gained fuch an emi-
nence, this poit is not tenable.

TENACIOUS Bopits.. See Tenacity.

TENACITY, in Natural Philofophy, that quality of
bodies by which they fuftain a confiderable preffure, or force,
without breaking. Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1745, p- 47.

Renacity is the oppofite quality to fragility, or brittle-
nefs.

TENACULUM, in Surgery, an inftrument ufed in am-
putation, for pulling out bleeding veffels that are to be tied
by ligatures. ;

TENAGLIA, in Biography, a Roman compofer, men-
tioned by Pietro della Valle, as having fet the opera of

“© Clearco,” for that city, about 1634. This feems to have

been one of the firft mutical dramas performed at Rome in a
public theatre.

TENAILLE, in Fortification, a kind of outwork, con-
fitting of two parallel fides, with a frant, in which is a re-
entering angle,

In ftrictnefs, that angle, and the faces which compofe it,
are the tenaille, .

The tenaille is of two kinds ;_fimple and double.

TENAILLE, Simple, or Single, is a large outwork, con-
fifting of two faces or fides, including a re-entering angle.
See Plate V. Fortification, fig. 4. it. d.

TenaiLye, Double, or Flanked, is a large outwork,
confifting of two fimple tenailles, or three faliants, and two
re-entering angles. Fig. 21. lit. e.

The great defects of tenailles are, that they take up too

Tt2 much

TEN

much room, and on that account are advantageous tothe
enemy ; that the re-entering angle is undefended ; the height
of the parapet hindering the feeing dewn into it, fo that the
enemy can lodge there under covert ; and the fides are not
fufficiently flanked.

For thefe reafons, tenailles are now excluded out of forti-

fications by the beft engineers, and never made, but where '

there wants time to form a horn-work. ]

TenaiLre of the Place, is the front of the place, com-
prehended between the points of two neighbouring baftions ;
including the curtain, the two flanks raifed on the curtain,
and the two fides of the baftions which face one another.

So that the tenaille, in this fenfe, is the fame with what is
otherwife called the face of a fortre/s. [

TEnaitLe of the Ditch, is a low work raifed before the
curtain, in the middle of the fofs or ditch ; the parapet of
which is only two or three feet higher than the level ground
of the ravelm.

There are three different forts (Plate VII. Fortification,

fie. 6. ‘The firft are thofe which are made in the direétion
of the lines of defence, leaving a paflage of three toifes be-
tween their extremities and the flanks of the baftions, and
likewife another of two toifes in the middle for a bridge of
communication to the ravelin. The fecond (fg. 7.) are
thofe whofe faces’ are in the lines of defence, and fixteen
toifes long, befides the paffage of three toifes between them
and the fanks of the baftions: their flanks are found by
defcribing arcs from one fhoulder of the tenaille as a centre
through the other, on which are fet off ten toifes for the
required flanks. The third fort (jig. 8.) comprehends
thofe whofe faces are fixteen toifes, as in the fecond fort,
and the flanks parallel to thofe of the baftions.
- The ufe of tenailles, in general, is to defend the bottom
of the ditch by a grazing fire, and likewife the level ground
of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch before the redoubt
within the ravelin, which cannot be fo conveniently defended
from any other place. The firft fort do not defend the
ditch fo well as the others, becaufe they are too oblique a
defence ; but as they are not fubject to be enfiladed, M.
Vauban has generally preferred them in the fortifying of
places. ‘Thofe of the fecond fort defend the ditch much
better than the firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the
baftions ; but as thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they
have not been much ufed. This defect, however, might be
remedied, by making them fo as to be covered by the ex-
tremities of the parapets of the oppolite ravelins, or by fome
other work. Thofe of the third fort have the fame advan-
tage with the fecond, and are fubjeét to the fame incon-
veniences ; and, therefore, they may be ufed with the fame
precaution.

Tenailles are efteemed fo neceffary, that there is hardly
any place fortified without them, and it is not without rea-
fon ; for when the ditch is dry, the part behind the tenailles
ferves as a place of arms, from which the troops may fally,
deftroy the works of the enemy in the ditch, oppofe their
defcent, and retire with fafety; and the communication
from the body of the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and
fecure, which is a great advantage ; for by that means the
ravelin may make a much better defence, as it can be fup-
plied with troops and neceffaries at any time. And if the
ditch is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats, which may
carry out armed men to oppofe the paflage over the ditch
whenever they pleafe; and the communication from the
tenailles to the ravelin becomes likewife much eafier than it
would be without them. Muller’s Elem. of Fort. p. 34.
See Forrirication.

The ram’s-horn is a curved tenaille, raifed in the fofs before

TEN

the flanks, and prefenting its convexity to the covered way.
This work feems preferable to either of the other tenailles,
both on account of its fimplicity, and the defence for which
it is conftruted. ‘
TENAILLONS, are works conftruéted on each fide
of the ravelin, much like the lunettes: they differ, as one of
the faces of a tenaillon-is in the direGtion of the ravelin,
whereas that of the lunette is perpendicular to it.
Tenaillons are conftruted by producing the faces of the
ravelin beyond the counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance
MN (Plate VII. Fortification, fig. 9.) of thirty toifes, and
taking on the counterfcarp of the great ditch fifteen toifes
from the re-entering angle p to g, and drawing N gq; then
gNMp will be the tenaillon required ; its ditch is twelve
toifes, or the fame as that of the ravelin. Sometimes there

is made a retired battery, in the front of the tenaillons, as -

at B: this battery is ten toifes from the front, to which it
is parallel, and fifteen toifes long. There are commonly
intrenchments made in the tenaillons, fuch as O ; their pa-
rapets are parallel to the fronts MN, or rather perpendi-
cular to the fide Ng, and bife&t the fide gN; the ditch
before this retrenchment is three toifes, and there is a ban-
quette before the parapet, next to the ditch, of about eight
feet, called berm, Se to prevent the earth of the parapet
(which feldom has any revetement) from falling into the
ditch. The ravelin, before which tenaillons are €onftru&ted,

muft have its faliant angle much greater than the former

conftru€tion makes them; otherwife the faliant angles of
the tenaillons become too acute ; for which reafon the capital
of this ravelin is made forty-five toifes, and the faces ter-
minate within three toifes of the fhoulders. Miuller’s Elem.
Fort. p. 37.

A tenaillon is a work capable of affording great defence
to the befiegers; as at the fiege of Lifle, in 1708, where
the befiegers were twice or thrice drove out of a tenaillon
they had taken and retaken.

TENALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Nyland; 8 miles N.W. of Eknas. .

TENANCY, a habitation, or houfe to live in, or a tene-
ment or poffeffion held of another. ae cub

Tenancy, Entire. See ENTIRE.

. Tenancy in Tail. See Fre-Tail.

TENANT, in Agriculture, a perfon holding apd or
other property of another, either by grant, leafe, or other-
wife. Tenants are of different kinds, according to the na-
ture of the tenures by which they hold their ra but, in
this laft refpe&t, they properly belong to the bufinefs of the
law. ‘Tenants hold their lands or et for very different
lengths of time, in different diftrifs, as from one year to
twenty-one; but in many places they have no leafes at all.
The moft common lengths of time are feven, nines fourteen,
nineteen, and twenty-one. Short leafes are now becoming
general, as thofe of feven, nine, and eleven years. Tenants
now moftly pay all taxes, except that on property.

The proper choice of tenants is a matter of the greateft
importance to the well-doing and continued profperity and
fuccefs of all forts of landed property, of almoft any that
can be adopted; as where they are improperly provided,
there can hardly any thing go on in the manner which it
ought to do; nor can there be the beft fort of management,
that the eafe will admit of, purfued. Many things will ne-
ceflarily run into complete negleét, and ruinous ftates of
them be produced as the confequence, which might have
been eafily and wholly avoided, by more attention in the firft
{election of the tenants.

The writer of the Middlefex Agricultural Report, after
inculcating the neceflity and utility of tenants having r

4 an

~

%

and properly regulated leafes of the lands which they hold,
remarks, that the letting of farms to tenants at will, or from
year to year, is a moit unwife practice, and one which fhould
by all means be avoided by the proprietors of landed eftates ;
as fuch tenants, he contends, from the very nature of their
tenures, are precluded from the poffibility of making any
improvements ; while they have it in their power to ruin the
lands they occupy and hold, Rapacious landlords, unfkilful
ftewards, and yearly tenancy, it is continued, deftroy the
holders’ or tenants’ confidence, {mother their thoughts of
improvements, and, in fhort, make bad tenants, by fetting
them to contrive fome mode of occupying the lands, fo as to
be able to quit them, on receiving half a year’s notice, with
the leaft poffible lofs to themfelves ; and which can only be
done, by keeping the foil continually in a poor ftate, to the
evident great lofles of the proprietors, the no lefs ones of the
tenants, and the {till more difadvantages of the community
in general. See Leasr, Lertinc of Farms, and QUALI-
FICATIONS of Tenants. :

The writer of the work on “‘ Landed Property’? has re-
marked that, on all large eftates, there are certain eftablifhed
cuftoms and ufages to which the proprietors, as well as the
tenants or occupiers, confider themfelves mutually amenable,
although no legal contraéts may fubfift between them; and
that, even where imperfeé leafes, or other legal agreements,
exift, there is ftill, in general, much left tor cuftom-and
ufage to determine. Thefe fixed regulations, though they
may be imperfeét, it is contended, fhould be ftnétly re-
garded by fuperintendents, until better ones are fubftituted
in their place, not only for the fake of moral juftice, but as
fetting an example of integrity and good faith to the tenants.
Nothing of this fort fhould ever be broken through by thofe
in the management of fuch properties ; as tenants on all fuch
are conftantly to be met with ready enough to break their
ftipulated agreements, without fuch examples; and it mutft
be aes to induce the others who are well difpofed
to do the fame. On the contrary, it is but common pru-
dence to fulfil every covenant, agreement, and promife,
which may have been made, with the moft fcrupulous exaé-
nefs, even to the meaneft cottager, in order to infpire proper
confidence, and obviate much mifchief.

And befides fetting examples of thefe kinds before the
tenants, they ought, it is fuppofed, to be liberalized in their
minds, by good offices, and acts of kindnefs, which may be
-beneficial in various ways. A fpirited improving tenant
fhould be refufed few reafonable demands: he fhould have
advantages conferred on him, not merely as rewards for his
labours in benefiting the lands, but as inducing other tenants
to purfue fimilar plans, and to fhew that good managers are
noticed and diftinguifhed. ;

The confequences of an inattention to thefe matters,
which is too common in moft parts of the country, are ve
prejudicial ; as the refufing of requefts which would equally
benefit the eftate and the tenant, the ftupidly thwarting of the
well-meant: intentions of the beft tenants upon it, the igno-
rantly quarrelling with them about mere trifles, and the
making no fort of difference between thofe who are improy-
ing and thofe who are ruining it, or perhaps the encouraging
the latter, and oppofing the former, mut have effects of the
worft kind, there can be no doubt. Such tenants as are
capable of improving, are alfo capable of impoverifhing ; and
when difgufted by improper treatment, will be fure to harafs
the lands they hold, and take the firft chance they have of
removing to farms under more rational management, to the

at inconvenience and difadvantage of thofe which they
held before. :

It is obferyed in the Agricultural Survey of Gloucetter-

TENANT.

fhire, that the leafes of rack-renters there generally com-
mence at Lady-day; and, in this cafe, in the vale, the
going-off tenant holds a part of the grafs-lands to old May-
day, and has likewife the going-off crop of wheat, with the
ufe of the barns for the purpofe of houfing and threfhing it,
till the Midfummer following. In this ufage there is, the
writer thinks, great inconvenience, efpecially where the new
tenant is at variance with the old one, which is not uncom-
monly the cafe. Each has an opportunity of diftreffin
and incommoding the other in various ways. The emcad
fpirit of agriculture has difcovered, both to landlord and
tenant, the abfurdity of this ancient cuftom; and it is gra-
dually falling into difufe. Where an improvement has ake
place, the coming-on tenant enters the preceding Michael-
mas to plough the land for fpring-crops; the tenant going
off at Lady-day ploughs for the wheat-crop, and often fows
it. In the cafe of Mlouighie only, the work is paid for;
and when fowed, the crop is valued at Lady-day, and paid
by the coming-on tenant. The going-off tenant is alfo fre-
quently paid for his feeds left after the laft year’s crop.
Under this praGtice, the new tenant enters on the whole of
the eftate at Lady-day. And it is added, that Michaelmas
takings are not uncommon; though, in one refpeét, they
are particularly inconvenient, as the old tenant has no time
to {pend the crops of the preceding fummer on the premifes,
and the new tenant is either obliged to fell his ftock at a moit
unfavourable time, or purchafe fodder for the fupport of it
at his new farm ; a circumftance he cannot always command,
and, when he can, at great lofs. But there are other takings
which commence at Candlemas, which have fome incon-
veniences, particularly that of enabling the new tenant to
“hain up” his paftures early, which is a matter of confider-
able confequence ; for the old tenant, going off at Lady-
day, always ftocks as far as he can till the laft moment,
thereby leaving the ground as bare as poffible. Nor is the
mifchief of this late Aaining always compenfated by the ma-
nure left from the cattle, efpecially if the feafon has been
wet, and the ground tender. Two years’ care. will fome-
times f{earcely recover the land to a good and even turf, aftér
haying been much trodden or poached.

But with refpe& to agreements between landlord and
tenants, it has been fuggefted by fome, that for {mall farms,
leafes are lefs necefflary ; but a large one cannot well be let
without a leafe. Upon a {mall farm, whofe land is good,
a man’s improvements foon come round ; and if the tenant or
landlord difagree, either of them is eafily accommodated ;
but upon a large farm it is quite otherwife. It would not
be worth a man’s while to fix himfelf upon a large feale for
a year or two; and it would be attended with great expence
and lofs, to moye from any great diftance, with large quan-
tities of ftock, for a fhort time. Befides, the plans of im-
provements upon a large farm are more extenfive ; and it is
longer before the money laid out in them is returned, efpe-
cially upon poor land. But. undoubtedly the tenant, upon
either a {mall or a large farm, ought to have a fecurity for
his property ; and there fhould bt an agreement to allow him
a proportionate recompence for every improvement by which
he has raifed the land in its value, as by giving it more ma-
nure than could be made from the produce of the farm.
When the manure produced upon the farm is the property
of the farmer, and, by the terms of his leafe, he is obliged
to fell it to the coming tenant at a fair valuation, he ae
endeayours to make more manure the laft year than any
other, and by that means benefits the eftate ; but if, on the
contrary, he is not paid any thing for it, he will perhaps do
every thing in his power to preyent any future improvement
upon the ite as, on fome account or another, he may fancy

himfelf

TEN

himfelf ill ufed upon leaving it. For all under-draining
properly done, and for new buildings that were neceflary
for the farm, the tenant ought to be allowed a reward pro-
portionate to the number of years lefs than twenty he may
have had the ufe of them. He fhould likewife receive an
allowance for quick fences, and the planting of orchards, or
of aquatics and other ufeful trees in proper places, on pro-
ducing fair bills, with receipts to them, of the expences ;
provided he leaves the eftate without committing any wilful
wafte. The landlord who enters into fuch a covenant with
his tenant, may reafonably expe to have his farm delivered
back to him upon terms equally fair. If the tenant has
committed any waite, he fhould be obliged to make good
all damages. Now fuch mutual conditions would do away
many abiurd reftrictions that are at prefent laid upon the
tenant; as it would then be his intereft not to injure the
farm, becaufe he muft pay for all damages wantonly done ;
and the landlord would have no reafon to check the farmer’s
experiments and improvements, which would be a great én-
couragement to both ingenuity and induftry: for gentle-
men’s agents are very apt, from too anxious care of the
eftates, to reftriét tenants in fuch a manner, that they are
little better than a mill-horfe, whe can go over only a par-
ticular circle of ground. ‘It has been known that an agree-
ment was made to lay a certain’ quantity of lime on land,
where, if the land bad been the writer’s, he would have
girs more money than the lime coft, that it might not be
aid on.

And fometimes, befides many other injurious modes of
culture, which the ignorance or whim of the fleward obliges
the farmer to follow, he is tied down to plough and (oa
crops of corn only four years in fix, and no ete or clover.
But the reftri@ting aman from ploughing up grafs-land with-
out leave, is certainly, it is thought, proper, till the land-
lord fees what his new tenant makes of the land he does
plough ; but if he is induftrious, and tills well, the writer
would fuffer him to plough every inch he chofé: as, on
good arable land, it will certainly make in future a difference
of from one pound to three pounds am acre in rent to the
landlord. The nature and fituation of the farm are, however,
to be well confidered before this is done.

Alfo where the duration of the term is twenty-one years,
it would, it is fuppofed, be very proper that, three years
before the leafe expires, he fhould be reftri€ted in the rota-
tion of his crops, {fo as to leave the farm in a proper ftate to
be profitable to the coming tenant. ‘This would likewife
rive time for the tenant to fix himfelf elfewhere, if the land-
ord and he-do not agree again, as well as for the landlord
to make proper choice of a uew tenant.

It is very common for tenants to live in a very poor way,
and obtain little profit, from the want of introducing a pro-
per fyftem of hufbandry upon their farms, as it is only this
that can afford a full profit ; therefore, the beft methods of
management his circumftances will afford fhould always be
purfued.

There is a great variety of regulations and reftrictions
in regard to tenants, in re{peét to the times and manner of
entering upon their farms, the extent and methods of break-
ing up and cropping the lands, the various improvements in
draining, manuring, &c. the making of fences, the felling
of hay and tlraw, the difpofing of the live-ilock at the end
of leafes, the occupying of buildings by new tenants, the
felling of timber for repairs, and a vaft number of other
matters, many of which are owing to the particular fitua-
tions and circumftances of the lands that are to be holden
by the tenants. : ;

Tenant, or Tenent, Tenens, in Law, one that holds or

TEN

poffeffes lands and tenements of fome lord or landlord, by
any kind of right, either in fee, for life, years, or at will.

The term tenant is ufed with divers additions. Thus,
tenant in dower, is fhe that poffeffes lands by virtue of her
dower.

Tenant per Statute-Merchant, he that holds lands forfeited
to him by virtue of a ftatute. See Srarure-Merchant.

Tenant in Frank-Marriage, is he that holds lands or tene-
ments by virtue of a gift of them, made to him upon mar-
riage, between him and his wife. See Franx-Marriage.

Tenant by Courtefy holds for his life, by reafon of a child
begotten by him of his wife, being an inheritrix, and born
alive. See Courresy.

Tenant by Elegit holds by virtue of the writ called an clegit,

Tenant in Mortgage holds by means of a mortgage,

Tenant by Verge, in ancient demefne, is he who is ad-~
mitted by the rod in court to lands in ancient demefne. See
VERGE.

Tenant by Copy of Court-Roll, is one admitted tenant of
any lands, &c. within a manor, which, time out of mind,
have been demifed according to the cuftom of the manor.
See CopyHoLp.

Tenant Paravail. See PARAVAIL.

Tenant by Charter is he that holdeth by feoffment in writ-
ing, or other deed. See CHARTER, and FREEMOLD.

Tenant in Capite, or Chief, holdeth of the king in right of
his crown. See Capite.
be Tenant of the King is he that holdeth of the perfon of the
king.

Tenants, Joint, thofe who have equal right in lands or
tenements, by virtue of one title. See Joint Tenants.

Ternants in Common, thofe who have equal right, but
hold by divers titles.

Tenant, Particular, he that holds only for his term.

TENANT, Sole, is he who has no other joined with him.

Tenant by Execution, ts he who holds by virtue of an
execution upon any ftatute, recognizance, &c.

Tenants, Cu/fomary. See CusTOMARY,.

TENANT, Terre. See TERRE-Zenant.

Tenant, Very. See Very.

Anciently, there were alfo tenant by knight-fervice, tenant
in burgage, tenant in focage, tenant in frank-fee, tenant in vil-
lenage. And there are ftill tenant in fee-/imple, tenant in fee-
tail, tenant upon fufferance, &c. esi
Oe br in Tail after Poffbility of Iffue extin@. See

AIL.

Tenant to the Precipe, in Law, is he againft whom the
writ of precipe is to be brought in fuing out a recovery.

Tenant, or Zenan, in Heraldry, is ufed for fomething
that fuftains, or holds up, the fhield, or armoury; and is
generally fynonimous with the word /upporter. ;

The i Sasha which fome authors make between the
two is, that tenants are fingle, and fupporters double, one
aie on each fide of the fhield. But the proper diftin&tion
eems to confift in this, that tenants are human figures, and
fupporters figures of beafls.

There are various forms of tenants, as well as of fup-
porters, viz. angels, maids, religious, favages, Moors, &c.

The firft tenants, F. Meneftricr obferves, were trunks,
or branches of trees; to which the efcutcheons were faftened
by ftraps and buckles. Afterwards the knights were repre-
fented as holding their own efcutcheons, which were either
hung to,their neck, or elfe they leaned on them

The origin of tenants and fupporters is, by many, re-
ferred to the ancient tournaments, in which the cavaliers
had their arms borne by fervants difguifed like favages,
Noors, fabulous deities, bears, lions, &c. See SupPORTER.

TENA.

a

TEN

TENARIUM, in Ancient Geography. See’ mNanium.
TENARUS, or TaNarus, a mountain of the Pelo-
nnefus, in Laconia.

TENASSERIM, in Geography. See Stam.

TENATARYI, in Ancient Geography, a people who in-
habited that part of Germany which correfponds to the
prefent bifhopric of Muniter.

TENBURY, in Geography, a market-town in the upper
divifion of the hundred of Doddington, and county of Wor-
cefter, England, is fituated on the weitern border of the
county, feparated from Shropfhire by the river Teme, at
the diftance of 21 miles N.W. by W. from Worcefter, and
134 miles in the fame bearing trom London. The manor
of Tenbury, at, or foon after the Conqueft, was held by
Robert Fitz-Richard, who was lord of Richard’s caftle ;
his heir affumed the name of Say, in confequence of a
marriage with the heirefs of that family: the property
pait, by: a fucceffion of heireffes, through various families,
to the Cornwalls, whofe defcendants are {till the lords of it.
‘The town is not very extenfive, and ftanding low, is often
fubje& to floods from the rapid river Teme. A remarkable
initance occurred Nov. 17, 1770, when a great part of the
church, with its organ and monuments, were deftroyed.
‘The parifh of Tenbury is three miles and a half in length,
by three and a quarter in breadth; and in the year 1811
contained 308 houfes, and 1562 inhabitants. In the chancel
of the church is a curious monument, reprefenting a child
in armour, laid in a crofs-legged pofition. Gough, in his
Sepulchral Monuments, mentions this figure, and attributes
it to the fon of ‘¢ John Sturmy, the a who followed
his father to the holy wars when under age.”

Over the river, at the north end of the town, is a hand-
fome ftone bridge of fix arches. A market is held here on
‘Tuefdays, and there are three annual fairs. Great quan-
tities of hops and apples are cultivated in the vicinity of the
town, and confequently much cyder is made here. The
Leominiter canal, coming near the town, affords ready
communication for goods, cyder, &c. to diftant places.

About one mile and a half S.E. of Tenbury is Sutton-
park, in the chapel of which are fome old monuments of the
Arundel family. Near this place is Kyre-Wyre, diftin-
guifhed for its “ tall and mighty oaks,”’ and for a neat man-
fion belonging to the Pytts family.—Nafh’s Hiftory, &c.
of Worcetterfhire, 2 vols. folio. Beauties of England and
Wales ; Worcefterfhire.

TENBY, a market and borough town in the hundred of
Narbeth, and county of Pembroke, South Wales, is fituated
on the fhore of Caermarthen bay, 10 miles E. from Pembroke,
and 250 miles W. from London. It occupies a rocky

romontory of confiderable elevation, ftretching over the

ands in a foutherly dire€tion, and at high water is nearly
inclofed by the fea. Here is a {mall but commodious har-
bour, fkirted on the land-fide by a bold amphitheatre of
rocks and houfes. Leland fays, “ Tinbigh town ftondith
on a main rokke, but not veri hi, and the Severn Se fo gulf-
eth in about hit, that at the ful fe.almoft the thirde part of
the town is inclofid with water. The toune is ftrongeli
waullid and welle gatid, everi gate having his portcolis ex
folido ferro. But that gate that ledith to Cairmarden ward
is moft femelieft, as circulid without with an embatelid but
open rofid towr, after the fafcion of the eaft gate of Pem-
broke. Without this gate is a preti fuburbe. In: the
middes of the town is a faire paroche chirch. The toun
itfelf lakkith frefich water, wherfore utuntur importata.”’
And again, “ Ther is a finus and a peere made for fhyppes.
‘The towne is very welthe by marchaundyce ; but yt is not
very bygge, having but one parochechyrehe. One thing is

5

TEN

to be marveled at. There is no welle yn the towne, as yi ie
faide, wherby they be forced to fech theyr water at S. John’s
without the towne.’ The wall, which once furrounded the
town, is yet in fome places nearly entire. The principal
improvement of thefe walls is afcribed to queen Elizabeth,
in whofe time Tenby was a flourifhing place. The ftreets
are now in general good, though, on account of the nature
of the ground, in fome initances inconveniently narrow and
iteep. They contain a large proportion of very refpeCtable
houfes, occupied by fubftantial tradefmen and merchants, or
by perfons of independent fortunes. The want of water
was an inconvenience under which the town long laboured :
but by the recommendation and exertions of fir William
Paxton, the town 1s now furnithed, at a trifling charge, with
an exhauttlefs fupply of this neceflary, article. Tenby is
one of the contributory boroughs joined with Pembroke in
the return of a reprefentative to parliament. The corpora-
tion confiits of a mayor, aldermen, and common-councilmen,
a chamberlain, town-clerk, two fheriffs or bailiffs, two fer-
geants at mace, and twelve conitables. The town is divided
into two diftriés, which are denominated the In-liberties,
and the Out-liberties. The former divifion is fubjeét to the
jurifdition of the magiitrates of the borough; the latter
to that of the county magiftrates. The prefent extent of
the town is not confiderable, the number of houfes being
eftimated, in the year 1811, at 265, and the population at
1176. Itis apparent, however, from the number of ruinated
buildings and foundations to be feen im the outfkirts, that
formerly it muft have {pread over a larger fpace than it now
occupies, and contained a much more numerous population.
Two weekly markets are held on Wednefday and Saturday,
and five fairs annually. Tenby feems to have derived its
earlieft importance from its fifheries. But when the country
fell under the power of the Anglo-Norman invaders, and
this diftri@ became inhabited by the Flemifh fettlers, its
local advantages for commercial objects of greater eonfe-
quence were feen and appreciated. The harbour was im-
proved for the convenience of fhipping, and the population
of the town.and its vicinity was engaged in a woollen manu-
factory on an extenfive fcale. ‘The commercial fpirit thus
awakened, procured for the inhabitants numerous privi-
leges and charters from their lords, and from fucceflive
monarchs. The importance of Tenby, however, has funk
far below its former rank: its manufaCtories have difap-
peared, and its chief trade at prefent is created by the coal
raifed in its neighbourhood, which is here fhipped off for
other parts of the coaft, and for the Englifh markets. The
confequence which the town has loft in this refpe&t feems
likely to be compenfated by its rapidly advancing reputation
as a bathing-place. It poflefles many natural attraétions
for vifitors ; and peculiar advantages in point of convenience
have been recently provided. Among thefe, the foremoft
rank muft be afligned to the baths lately ereéted by fir
William Paxton; in which all accommodations for health
and pleafure are combined. The church of Tenby is
fituated in the middle of the town; it is a {pacious edifice,
comprifing a nave and two fide aifles: at the weft end is a
large fquare tower, furmounted by a lofty fpire:’ The
monattic eftablifhments of Tenby were an hofpital, or free
chapel of St. John the Baptift, a convent of Carmelite
friars, founded in 1399, and called St. Mary’s college, and
an hofpital or lazar-houfe, dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen.
Here was an ancient cafble, of which there are yet confider-
able remains, though moftly in a very dilapidated ftate.
The only portions now ftanding that indicate its former
ftrength are a baftion and fquare tower: the reit of the
buildings exhibit the air of a {plendid manfion rather than

ot

TEN

of a military fortrefs. The fituation of this caftle was
admirably formed for defence: it oceupied the extreme
point of the promontory, and was fecured by inacceflible
rocks on every fide, ‘except that facing the town, which
was ftrengthened by bold fortifications.

On the coaft at Tenby are fome infulated rocks of romantic
appearance, which exhibit curious excavations. Some of
them are acceflible on foot at low water: this is the cafe
with the ifland of St. Catherine, off the Caftle Point, which
in one direétion has been perforated quite through by the
repeated a¢tion of the tides. The principal of thefe iflands
is Caldey, fituated about two miles from the main land, It
is about a mile in length, and half a mile wide, and is eiti-
mated to comprife about fix hundred acres of furface, of
which nearly a third is in cultivation. Here was a priory,
founded, as is fuppofed, by Robert, the fon of Martin de
Turribus. The tower of the priory church, furmounted
by a ftone fpire, is yet ftanding, and many of the conven-
tual buildings have been converted into offices, and attached
to a handfome modern edifice.

Near the coaft, to the eaftward of Ténby, are feveral
refpeCtable gentlemen’s refidences, fome of them of ancient
date. Among thefe are Cilgetty, formerly inhabited by the
Canon family ; Hen-Gatftell, (the old caftle,) the property
of Thomas Stokes, efq.; Merrixton, the feat of Charles
Swan, efq.; Bonville Court, an ancient manfion of the
Bonvilles; and Eare Wear, now called Amroth Caftle,
the refidence of captain Ackland; and on the road from
Narbeth is. Begelty Hall, the feat of James Child, efq.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xviii. Pembrokefhire,
by T. Rees. Hiltorieal Tour through Pembrokethire, 4to.
1810, by R. Fenton, efq. Account of Tenby, illuftrated
with etchings, 4to. 1812, by Charles Norris, efq.

TENCE, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire ;. 12 milés S.E. of Moniftrol.

ENCH,, in Ichthyology, the Englith name of the tinca of
the modern authors, the fullo and gnapheus of the ancients.

It is, according to the Artedian and Linnwan fyftem, a
f{pecies of the cyprinus, and is diftinguifhed by Artedi by
the name of the blackifh, mucous, or flimy cyprinus (which
fee), with the end of the tail even. See Tench FisHinc.

encn’s Jfland, in Geo raphy, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, fo called by Lieut. Ball, commander of the Supply,
returning from Norfolk ifland to England in the year 1790.
The ifland cannot be more than two miles in circumference :
it is low, but entirely covered with trees, many of which are
the cocoa-nut ; there were likewife others of a large fize.
Thefe trees reached to the margin of a very fine fandy beach,
which entirely furrounds the ifland. A great number of
canoes were lying on the beach ; and, it is fuppofed, there
cannot be let than a thoufand inhabitants on the ifland.
The natives who were in the canoes were ftout and healthy-
looking men; their fkin was perfectly fmooth, and free from
any Litehder : they were quite naked, and of a copper colour;
their hair refembled that of the New Hollanders. Some of
their beards reached as low as the navel, and there was an
appearance of much art being ufed in forming them into
jong ringlets: fo that it fhould feem as if the prevailin
fafhion on this ifland was that of keeping the beard well
combed, curled, and oiled. ‘T'wo or three of the men had
fomething like a bead or bone fufpended to a ftring, which was
faftened round the neck. S. lat. 1939’. E. long. 150° 31.

TENCOA, a town of Mexieo, m the province of Hon-
duras; 110 miles W. of Comayagua. —N. lat. 14° 48!.
W. long. 90° 22!.

TENCZA, a town of Aufirian Poland; 13 miles W.
of Cracow.

TEN

TEND, in our Old Writers, feems to fignify as much as
tender, or offer; as to tend or traverfe an averment, &c.

TENDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, or rather
feveral towns clofe together, the capital of a country of the
fame name, on the right bank of the Gambia, fituated to the
fouth-weft of Bondou, and fouth-eaft of Woolly. N. lat.
13°2!. W. long. 11° 55'.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Maritime Alps ; late capital of a county
to which it gave name, annexed to Piedmont, fituated at the
union of the Roia and Brogna. It has only one parifh
church, which is a beautiful ftruGture, a caftle walled round
and flanked with towers, on a rock, which commands the en-
virons of the town. In the i6th century, it came to the duke
of Savoy. The foil is not fertile, being on all fides fur-
rounded by the Alps; it yields, however, good pafturage
and timber ; the rivers alfo furnifh the inhabitants with ex-
cellent trout ; 22 miles N.E. of Nice.

TENDE, Co/ de, the moft remarkable paffage through
the Maritime Alps. See Axps. :

TENDEBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria. 2

TENDEBAR, in Geagraphy, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Kaen. N. lat. 13° 15/. W-.long. 15° 597!

TENDER, in a legal fenfe, fignifies as’ much as to offer,
or endeavour, the pet anes of any thing, in order to fave
the penalty, or forfeiture, incurred by non-performance.

Thus, to tender rent, is to offer it at the time and place
when and where it ought to have been paid; which will

fave the condition of that time, though the landlord refufe ~

to accept it. :

Tenver, in Sea Language, is a veffel attending on fome
other larger and more confiderable one. It is employed in the
king’s fervice on various occafions; as to receive volun-
teers and imprefled men, and to convey them to a diftant
place ; to attend on fhips of war or {quadrons ; and ‘to carry
intelligence or orders from one place to another, &c.

TYenper Plants, in Gardening and Agriculture, all fuch as
are too delicate and tender in their nature and habits to
ftand, or be raifed, grown, or produced in the climate of
this country, without artificial prote€tion or affiftance, until
they have been fufficiently inured to, and hardened, and habi-
tuated againft the effeéts of it. It has indeed been obferved
by fir Jofeph Banks, in a paper containing fome hints con-
cerning the proper mode of inuring plants of this kind to this
climate, inferted in the firft volume of the ‘* TranfaCtions of
the Horticultural Society’’ of London, that, refpeétable and
ufeful as every branch of the horticultural art certainly is, no
one is more interefting to the public, or more likely to prove
advantageous to thofe who may be fo fortunate as to fueceed
in it, than that of inuring plants, natives of warmer climates,
to bear, without covering, the ungenial fprings, the chilly
fummers, and the rigorous winters, by which, efpecially for
fome years paft, we have been perpetually vifited. Many
attempts have, it is faid, been made in this line, and feveral
valuable fhrubs, that ufed to be kept in ftoves, are now
to be feen in the open gardens ; there is, Nortel fome rea-
fon, it is thought, to believe, that every one of thefe was
originally the native of a cold climate, though introduced to
us through the medium of a warm one ; as the gold-tree,
aucuba japonica, the montan, pzonia frutefcens, and feveral
others, have been in our times.

In the cafe of annuals, however, it is thought probable that
much has been done by our anceftors, and fomething b
the prefent generation ; but it muft be remembered, it is
faid, that ‘divine is required in the cafe of an annual, is to
enable it to ripen its fruit in a comparatively cold fummer,
after which, we know that the hardeft froft has no power to

injure

cEN

injure the feed, though expofed in the open air to its fevereft
influence ; but a perennial has to encounter frofts with its
buds and annual fhoots, that have fometimes been fo fevere
with us, as to rend afunder the trunks of our indigenous
foreft-trees, as {tated by Miller.

Tt is fuggefted as probable, that wheat, our principal
food corn at prefent, did not bring its feed to perfeétion
in this climate, until hardened to it by repeated fowings. A
few years ago, fome fpring-wheat from Guzerat was, it is
faid, fown with barley in a {mall cultivated field? it rofe,
eared, and bloflomed, with a healthy appearance, but many
ears were, when ripe, wholly without corn, and few brought
more than three or four grains to perfection.

In the year 1791, fome feeds of zizania aquatica were, it is
faid, procured from Canada, and fown in a pond at Spring-
Grove, near Hounflow ; they grew, and produced ttrong
plants, which ripened their feeds ; and thofe feeds vege-
tated in the fucceeding {pring, but the plants they produced
were weak, flender, not half fo tall as thofe of the firft genera-
tion, and grew in the fhalloweft water only; but the feeds
of thefe plants produced others the next year fenfibly ftronger
than their parents of the fecond year. In this manner the
plants proceeded, f{pringing up every year from the feeds of
the preceding one, every year eae vifibly ftronger and
larger, and rifing from deeper parts of the pond, until the
year 1804, when feveral of the plants were, it is faid, fix
feet in height, and the whole pond was in every part
covered with them, as thick as wheat grows on a well-
managed field.

Here, it is thought, we have an experiment which proves
that an annual plant, fcarcely able to endure the ungenial
fummer of this country, has become, in fourteen genera-
tions, as ftrong and as vigorous as our indigenous plants are,
and as perfect in all its parts as in its native climate and
fituation.

It is fuggefted too in the above paper, that. the fettle-
ment lately made at New Holland gives a large {cope for
experiments of this kind: many plants have been brought
from thence which endure our climate with very little pro-
teétion, and fome of thefe arrive at puberty at an early pe-
riod: we have already three, it is faid, from the fouth
point of Van Diemen’s ifland, where the climate cannot be
wholly without froft ; mimofa verticillata, encalyptus hirfuta
and obliqua.

In contributing fill further to the elucidation and accom-
plifhment of this new, very ufeful, and important object of
the above arts, the account which has been given by Dr.
Maccullock, of fome delicate plants which are cultivated
in the open air in the ifland of Guernfey, with the hints on
the means of naturalizing tender exotics, inferted in the
firft volume of the “ Memoirs of the Caledonian Horti-
cultural Society,” may alfo be found highly ufeful and
jaterefting.

It is certain, it is conceived, that neither the thermometric
flate of a given country, nor any meteorological condition
which we have yet been able to obferve, is competent to
explain the peculiar affeGtion of plants for particular regions
of the earth. The obfervations of M. Ramond, in the
Annales du Mufeum,’? which have been tranflated by
Mr. Salifbury, fhew this, it is faid, in a ftriking point of
view. From thefe we fee the perfevering regularity with
which certain plants affe&t peculiar elevations, apparently
ainconneéted with the nature of the foil, but bearing a rela-
tion alone to particular {tates of the atmofphere, which we
have no means of appreciating. Similar faéts are familiar to
botanifts in our own country, in the very limited zones of
elevation affected by our alpine plants.

' You. XXXV.

TEN

It is ftated farther, that an economical obje& which de-
pends on this property of plants remains yet to be noticed.
This, which is ftill more in our power, is probably of more
confequence than either of thofe mentioned above $s what is
meant is the perfect naturalization of the vine. It is well
known, that from many of the ordinary varieties cultivated
in this country, we can always infure a crop of grapes, but
not always a crop of ripe ones. From two or three of
thefe, the chance of ripening out of doors is confiderable ;
from many others, it is hopelefs, It is not improbable, that
by fucceflive fowings of feeds, other varieties might be pro-
duced, ftill more certain of ripening than thofe which fuc-
ceed beit with us, viz. the miller and the fweetwater. We
fhould thus acquire poffeffion of an article of cultivation of
great importance, by which a ufeful addition would be made
to the agricultural proceeds of Jand in particular fituations,
and by which we fhould be enabled to fabricate wines of a
quality fufficiently good to compete with thofe of foreign
growth.

A {till more important objeé is, it is thought, the per-
fect naturalization of the potatoe, an effect as yet but
very partially obtained, r otwithitanding the length of time
during which this valuable root has been a fubjeét of culti-
vation. It is certain that this imperfeé naturalization has
been the refult of the common practice of propagating by
the tubers, to the almoft total neglect of the feeds. It is
true that feeds have been occafionally fown, and new varie-
ties thus produced ; but the experiment has ftopped in the
firit ftage, having been always undertaken for the mere pur-
pofe of producing thefe varieties, without any regard to that
much more important objeét, the production of a plant fuf-
ficiently hardy to bear at leaft the firft frofts of winter. In
the fouthern parts of our ifland, it is not a defideratum of
much importance, it is faid, as the tubers are in general fully
formed before the plant is killed by the froft; but in
the northern parts it is an obje& of great confequence, the
plant being frequently killed long Cae the roots have at-
tained maturity. In the Highlands of Scotland, in particu-
lar, where a froft will frequently occur early in September,
the crop is often prematurely deftroyed, and the ufes of this
vegetable are in confequence materially limited. It is plain,
that it would be neceffary to fow the feeds of fucceflive
generations many times before the requifite degree of hardi-
nefs could be expeéted, and that the procefs would demand
both patience and time. Yet if it fhould require more of
thefe than we can expeét from the ordinary cultivator, it is
an experiment which we may at leaft recommend to thofe
public bodies, which fo laudably exert themfelves in amelior-
ating the agriculture and horticulture of this country. The
difficulty of procuring feeds from feedling plants, could
doubtlefs, it is thought, be obyiated, in fome meafure, b
depriving the young plant of its tubers, and thus compel-
ling it to direét its energies to the other and more common
mode of propagation, with which nature has provided all
plants.

The writer cannot, however, conclude the fuggeftions
in refpeét to this objeét or {peculation, without noticing a
formidable objection which ftands in the way of our attempts
to naturalize particular plants. In every cafe where the
ufeful varieties have been the refult of cultivation in a warmer
climate from a bafe and ufelefs parent, it is to be feared, it
is faid, that the procefs followed in naturalization, would
again throw the plant back to its original ftate. This ob-
jection applies, it is fuppofed, chiefly to thofe fruits, fuch as
the peach, the apple, and the grape, which, yn their prefent
cultivated ftate, are almoft entirely the produce of art. For
this reafon, it is not improbable, that all attempts to natural-

Uu ize

TEN
ize the grape to a cold climate may fail ; yet the trial de-
ferves, it is faid, to be made. The cafe does not apply
equally to the potatoe. The original plant appears to be
valuable, independent of any artificial character, and would
confequently admit of a change, tending even to fome de-
gree of deterioration, before it was materially injured in its
ropertics.

TENDERING, a name given to the foft tops of deer’s
horns, when they begin to fhoot forth.

TENDING, in Sea Language, denotes the movement by
which a fhip turns or fwings round her anchor in a tide-
way at the beginning of the flood or ebb. Thus, if the
flood fets northerly, it is evident that the fhip, unlefs when
moored head and ftern, will fall into the line of the current,
turning her head to the fouthward, and vice verfd. This
trarfition from one fituation to the other is called tending or
fwinging. Falconer.

TENDINOSUM Centrum. See Centrum.

TENDON, Tenno, in Anatomy, the hard, infenfible
cords, by means of which mufcular fibres are attached to
bones. See Muscre, after the defcription of the mufcular
fyftem of animal life ; and Fisrous Sy/fem.

Trnpvo Achillis, the powerful tendon belonging to the
mufcles of the calf of the leg, placed juft above the heel ; fo
named in allufion to the fable, in which Thetis is faid to
have held her fon, Achilles, by this part, when fhe dipped him
in the Styx. See GAsTROCNEMIUS.

Tenvon of Achilles, Ruptured. When the tendo Achillis
is unfortunately cut, or ruptured, as it may be in con-
fequence of a violent exertion, or fpafm of the mufcles,
of which it is a continuation, the ufe of the leg is imme-
diately loft ; and unlefs the part be afterwards Faacelafully
united, the patient muft remain a cripple for life.

The ancient furgeons feem not to have been well ac-
quainted with the rupture of the tendo Achillis, which they
probably might miftake for a fprain, or fome other com-
plaint. In cafes in which this part had been cut, they re-
commended approximating the feparated portions, and
maintaining them in conta¢t by means of a future.

When'the ruptured tendo Achillis was afterwards better
underftood, the plan which we have juft now mentioned was
{till continued, the integuments being divided for the purpofe
of bringing the tendon into view. But that fuch a painful
mode is altogether ufelefs and wrong, it is {earcely neceflary
for us at the prefent day to obferve.

The fuperficial fituation of the tendo Achillis always

makes the nature of the accident eafy of difcovery, and it is
only when there is a confiderable degree of {welling (which
is very rare), that the cafe can be at all difficult to under-
ftand. When the tendon has been cut through, which is not
an ordinary thing, the divifion of the fkin brings the ends of
the finew into view. When the tendon has been ruptured,
the patient hears a found, like that of the {mack of a whip,
at the moment of the occurrence. In whatfoever way the
eh has been divided, there is a fudden incapacity, or, at
eaft, an extreme difficulty of ftanding and walking. Hence
the patient falls down, and cannot get up again. Befides
thefe fymptoms, there is a very palpable depreffion between
the ends of the tendon, which depreffion is increafed when
the foot is bent, and diminifhed, or even quite removed,
when the foot is extended. The patient can fpontaneoufly
bend his foot, none of the flexor mufcles being interefted.
The power of extending the foot is ftill poflible, as the
peronei mufcles, the tibialis pofticus, and long flexors, re-
main perfeét, and may perform this motion. CEuvres Chi-
rurgicales de Default par Bichat, tom. i. ;

The indications are to bring the ends of the divided part

TEN
together, and to keep them fo, until they have become firmly
united. The firfl objeét is eafily fulfilled by putting the
foot in a ftate of complete extenfion ; the fecond, namely,
that of keeping the ends of the tendon in contaét, is more
difficult.

In order to have a right comprehenfion of the indications,
we fhould confider what keeps the ends of the tendon from
ee in contaét. The flexion of the foot has this effeét on
the lower portion; the contra&tion of the gaftrocnemiue
and foleus on the upper one. The indications then are to
put the foot in an unalterable ftate of extenfion, and to
counteraé the ation of the above mufcles.

The aétion of the mufcles may be oppofed: 1. By keep-
ing thefe powers in a continual ftate of relaxation. For this
purpofe, the leg muft be kept half bent upon the thigh.
2. By applying methodical preffure to the mufcles; me-
thodical, picahe itis to operate on the flefhy portion of the
mufcles, and not on the tendon, the ends of which being de-
prefled by it, would be feparated from each other, and,
inftead of growing together, would unite to the adjacent
parts. The preffure fhould alfo operate fo as to prevent
Se ends of the tendon from inclining either to the right or

eft.

This kind of preffure, which the bandage ought to make,
feems to have efcaped the attention of all authors. Who
cannot fee, however, that the a&tion of the mufcles being by
this means refifted, the upper end of the tendon will not
have fuch a tendency to be drawn upward, and feparated
from the lower one? CEuvres Chirurgicales de Default par
Bichat, tom. i.

The famous Petit feems entitled to the honour of havin
firft devifed the plan of treating the ruptured, or divid
tendo Achillis, by keeping the leg and foot in a particular
pofture, with the aid of an apparatus. Seeing that the ex-
tenfion of the foot brought the ends of the tendon into con-
tat, it occurred to him that fuch extenfion fhould be main-
tained during the whole of the treatment, in order to bring
about a permanent union. ‘This happy idea, the fimplicity
of which fhould have rendered it obvious to all practitioners,
once having originated, became the common bafis, on which
have been Pdoiiea all the numerous methods of cure, which
have been fince recommended. Default par Bichat.

The celebrated Dr. Alexander Monro, profeffor of
anatomy at Edinburgh, happened to rupture his tendo
Achillis. When the accident took place, he heard a loud
crack, as if he had fuddenly broke a nut with his heel, and
he experienced a fenfation, as if the heel of his fhoe had
made a hole in the floor. This fenfation, he fays, has alfo
been obferved by others, though fome have complained of
a {mart ftroke, like what would be produced by a ftone or
cane. Immediately fufpeé&ting what had happened, the
dotor extended his left foot, in which the occurrence had
taken place, as {trongly as he could with his right hand,
while with the left he prefled the mufcles of the calf down-
ward, fo as to bring the ends of the broken tendon as near
together as poflible. In this pofition he fat, until two fur-
geons came to his affiftance. ‘They applied compreffes, and a
bent board to the upper part of the foot, and fore part of
the leg, both which they kept, as nearly as poffible, in a
ftraight line, by a tight bandage, made with a long roller.
But as this mode of drefling foon became very uneafy, it
was changed for the following one. A foot-fock or flipper
was made of double quilted ticking, from the heel of which a
belt or ftrap proje&ted, of fufficient length to come up over
the calf of the ay A {trong piece of the fame materials
was prepared, of fufficient breadth to furround the calf, and
this was faftened with lacings. On the back part of this

9 was

TEN

was a buckle, through which the ftrap of the foot-fock was
paffed, fo that the foot could be extended, and the calf
brought down at pleafure. The leg and foot were wrapt
up in foft flannel, fumigated with benzoin, and the bandage
was kept on day and night, the belt being made tighter
when the doétor was about to go to fleep, and loofened
when he was awake, and on his guard. For a fortnight he
did not move his foot and leg at all, but was conveyed in a
chair on caftors from one part of the room to another.
After this he began to move the ankle-joint, but in fuch a
gentle manner, as not to give any pain. The degree of
motion was gradually increafed, as the tendon became ca-
pable of bearing it, care being taken to ftop, when the mo-
tion began to create uneafinefs. The affected limb was
moved in this way, for half an hour at a time. In a few
days, the hollow between the feparated ends of the tendon
became imperceptible, though the part continued foft much
longer. It became, however, gradually thicker and harder,
until a knot was at laft formed in it, apparently of a carti-
laginous nature. Though this was at firit as large as a mid-
~ dling plum, and gradually became fofter and f{maller, yet it
did not difappear entirely. Having occafion to go out fix
weeks after the accident, the doctor put on a pair of fhoes,
with heels two inches high, and contrived a fteel machine to
keep his foot in the proper pofition. This machine, how-
eyer, he afterwards changed for another, made of the fame
materials asthe former. It was not till five months after the
accident, that he thought proper to lay afide all affiftance,
and to put the ftrength of the tendon to a trial. See
Monro’s Works, p. 661. °

It feems unneceflary to enumerate the various plans de-
vifed fince the time of Petit. Suffice it to ftate, that both
in a wound and rupture of the tendo Achillis, the ancient
method of ufing a future, for keeping the ends of the ten-
don in conta, is at prefent quite exploded, and pofition of
the limb is the grand agent by which the cure is now univer-
fally accomplifhed. The following was Default’s method,
which, though it was exprefsly defigned to fulfil all the
above-mentioned indications, may not after all be a more
valuable pra¢tical plan, than the one adopted by Dr.
Monro. After the ends of the tendon had been brought
into conta¢t, by moderate flexion of the knee, and complete
extenfion of the foot, Default ufedto fill up the hollows on
each fide of the tendon with foft lint and compreffes. The
roller applied to the limb made as much preffure on thefe
compreffes as on the tendon, and hence this part could not
be depreffled too much againft the fubjacent parts. Default
next took a comprefs, about two inches broad, and long
enough to reach from the toes to the middle of the thigh,
and placed it under the foot, over the back of the leg, and
the lower part of the thigh. He then began to apply a few
circles of a roller round the end of the foot, fo as to fix the
lower extremity of the longitudinal comprefs. After cover-
ing the whole foot with the roller, he ufed to make the
bandage defcribe the figure of 8, pafling it under the foot,
and acrofs the place where the tendon was ruptured, and the
method was finifhed by encircling the limb upward with the
roller, as far as the upper end of the longitudinal comprefs.
Default par Bichat.

Certainly this plan feems to anfwer every object, and may
be worthy of being adopted in this country. The con-
tinued preffure on the mufcles of the calf, by which their
ation is materially refifted, is too much difregarded by the
generality of Englith furgeons. Confult Monro’s Works
Encyclopédie Méthodique, article Achille, tendon d’; and
Mémoire fur la Divifion du Tendon d’ Achille, in @uvres Chi-

TEN

rurgicales de Default par Bichat, tom. i. p. 306.
Did. of Praétical Surgery.

Ternpons, Shooting of the, Subfultus tendinum, in Medicine, a
flight and repeated convulfive twitching of the mufcles,
which occurs in the latter ftages of low fevers ; and, as it in-
dicates great debility, and a very morbid condition of the
brain or common fenforium, it is ufually reckoned among the
dangerous fymptoms of fever. See Fever, and Typuus.

Ternpon, in the Manege, a fort of griftle that furrounds
one part of the horfe’s foot, and is feated between the hoof
and the coffin-bone, near the coronet. When a horfe has a
quitter-bone, the matter that gathers between the coffin-bone
and the hoof {poils the tendon, and makes it black ; and the
cure of fucha quitter-bone confifts in cutting and extirpating
the tendon.

TENDREMENT, Fr. in Mujfic, tenderly, equal to con
tenerezza, Ital. See Con Affetto, and ArFErruoso.

TENDRIL, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology. See
Cirrus.

TENDUCCI, Ferpinanpo, in Biography, an opera-
finger in foprano, born at Sienna, whence he at firft aflumed
the name of Senefino, on account of the celebrity of a finger
of that city, in the early part of the laft century; though
neither his voice nor ftyle of finging at all refembled that of
the great finger and aétor, Francifco Bernardo detto Sene-
fino, whofe voice was a rich and full contralto, and in whofe
finging and aéting there were more of grandeur and dignity
than tendernefs and expreffion, which charaGterized Ten-
ducci’s ftyle ; and whofe voice was a high foprano of a clear
filvery tone, which by great pains he had rendered very
flexible ; but he had formed himfelf more on Caffarelli’s
ftyle than on that of Senefino.

He arrived in England, as fecond man, in 1758, when
Potenza was principal. The firft notice he obtained was in
a cantabile air, fet by Caffarelli for himfelf, in a fine ftyle of
grand pathetic, fuch as fix years after, Manzoli’s fine adagio
m Ezio, ‘¢Caro mio bene addio,’? was compofed in by
Pefcetti.

It was in 1759, during the reign of Cocchi’s ‘ Ciro
riconofciuto,” that he became a favourite of the public:
for though a young performer, and only fecond in rank under
Potenza, he had a much better voice and manner of finging
than the performer to whom he gave precedence.

In 1760 he went te Scotland, and we hear no more of
him till 1763, when he returned to London, and performed
the principal man’s part in Dr. Arne’s Artaxerxes, of which
the fuccefs was greatly owing to his talents.

At this period, Bach and Abel eftablifhed a weekly fub-
{cription concert in Hanover-fquare, which was better
patronized and longer fupported than perhaps any one had
ever been in this country, having continued full twenty years
with uninterrupted profperity, at which, during the chief part
of the time, Tenducci was the principal finger.

In 1770 he fucceeded Guadagni as firft man at the great
opera, performing that year with the Graffi in ‘‘ Corroe,”
and the next year in “ Semiramide riconofciuta.””

In 1764 he went to Ireland, where he and Mifs Brent
performed together in Artaxerxes.

In 1765 an Italian opera was performed in Dublin, in
which he and the Cremonini fung principal parts in Mithri-
dates, in the principal cities of that country.

Some time after he returned to London, and was engaged
at the opera, where, in 1785, he revived Gluck’s Orfeo.

Such is the outline of his profeffional career in public.
The events of his private life are ftill more varied.

He had not been long in England before he was thrown

Uu2 into

Cooper’s

TEN

into the king’s bench for debt, where he embellifhed that
refidence by his talents, and amufed its inhabitants. He
was, however, allowed to attend evening concerts elfewhere,
attended by a garde du corps. But on thefe occafions, a
Jewish lady, his patronefs, carried him in her carriage to the
performance, and conduéted him fafe back with his attend-
ant to his limited refidence ; where, during a part of the
time, he had the honour of Dr. Smollet for fis neighbour.

In Scotland he fung at the Edinburgh concerts, and gave
leffons in finging ; by which occupation he improved his own
talents fo much, that he returned to London a much better
finger than when he left it. So true is the obfervation of
Ariftotle, that no art or fcience is well learned but by
teaching, when it is neceflary to give’ reafons for what in
private practice is done mechanically.

In Ireland he married a lady of confiderable fortune, who
was enchanted by his talents.

In Italy, whither he carried this lady, he was unmarried,
the laws of that country forbidding conjugal union to
caftrati. And on his application to the pope for a difpen-
fation, it was refufed; though the petitioner faid that his
reafon for marrying was, the operation in his youth not
having been completely performed: ‘ why then,” fays his
holinefs, “let it be done more effeCtually ;’? and he was
obliged to feparate himfelf from his tender {poufe, and fhe to
sonfole herfelf with a more efficient hufband.

When he quitted the ftage, he employed his whole time in
teaching to fing ; had many fcholars, and a good method of
inftruction ; giving to his pupils, in Englifh, a fet of axioms
or rules of ftudy and practice tranflated from the Italian,
drawn up, as he faid, by himfelf; but which, after his de-
ceafe, were found in the Solfeggi of Aprile.

Notwithftanding the great number of his {cholars, his
income was infufficient to keep him out of debt, or even the
king’s bench, without the ingenious expedient of becoming
a bankrupt, ‘by which he defrauded all his creditors, and
died infolvent, being, as has been reported, buried at the
expence of his countrymen, who made a colleétion for that
purpofe at the Orange coffee-houfe. But from better
authority, we have been informed that he died at Genoa.

Tenducci had much profeffional merit ; but as to probity,
honour, and ideas of right and wrong, they never feem
to have extended further than convenience and perfonal
fafety.

TENDUNCULO, in Geography, a river of Africa,
which runs into the Indian fea, S. lat. 19° 20!.

TENEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Corinth, on
the frontiers of Sicyonia, S. of Epicria. It pretended to
derive its foundation from the Trojans made prifoners in the
ifle of Tenedos, and brought into this country by Aga-
memnon. Apollo was much honoured here.

TENEBR&, Darkness, in the Romifh Church, a
fervice performed on the Wednefday, Thurfday, and Friday
before Eafter, in commemoration of the agony of our
Saviour in the garden ; and the darknefs that over{pread the
earth at the time of his crucifixion.

TENEBRIO, in Entomology, a genus of the Coleop-
tera order of infeéts, the generic charafter of which is,
that the antennz are moniliform, with the laft joint rounded ;
the thorax plano-convex, margined; the head exferted, and
wing-fheaths ftiffiifh.

Inthe infe&s of this genus the body is oblong-oval, and
in moft {pecies fomewhat pointed at the extremity. Several
{pecies are alfo deftitute of wings. This is a numerous
genus, and is divided by Fabricius and others into feveral
diftind genera, under the appellations of Pimelia, Bleps,

TEN

In Gmelin’s edition of Linnzus it compre-
The European fpecies are denoted by

Aturnus, &e.
hends 63 {pecies.

an afterifc.

A. Six filiform Feelers ; anterior Legs formed for digging,
palmate-dentated ; including the Searite of Fabricius and
Pallas.

Species.

CoMPLANATUS.
and fmooth fhells or wing-fheaths ; of a large fize.
at Cayenne.

Marcinatus. Black, with a fubquadrate thorax ; ful-
cated fhells; blue margin. Found at Cayenne.

Gicanteus. Black, with fulcated mandibles, and-fmooth
fhells. Found in Africa; nearly allied to the next fpecies,
but thrice as large. 5

Suprerraneus. Black, with the fore-part of the head
fulcated, and itriated fhells. .

Black, with a fubquadrate thorax,
Foun¢

Cyaneus. Blue, very fmooth; antennz and feet black.
Found in New Holland.

* Fossor. Pitchy. Found in fand-hills, -which it
perforates.

*Cursor. Brown; oblong thorax; five angles denti-
culated. Found as the former.

Black ; ferrated thorax ; antenne and feet tef-
Found in the Eaft. :
Black; thorax margined ; antennz clavated,
Found in Sweden ; and twice as large in

ARABS.
taceous.

MinuTvs.
and feet pitchy.
Saxony.

Corzaris. Black, with fhells puntate-ftriated, and
head brown ; antennz and feet pitchy ; the anterior {pinous.
Found at Berlin.

Bocreruatus. Wholly brown, punttated ; eyes black.
Found in India. = ,

B. With unequal filiform Feelers.
Arratus. Wholly black, fmooth. . Found in Egypt.

C. With four Feelers ; the anterior fubclavate ; the pofterior
filiform ; the Tenebriones of Fabricius, and Mylarides of
Pallas.

Laminatus. Black; thorax fubquadrate, {mooth; thells
fulcated ; anterior legs incurvated at the apex, and ferru-
ginous lamina acute.
genus.

Gieas.
in Surinam.

PUNCTATULUS.
denticulate ; fhells ftriate-punctated.
a large fize.

SERRATUS.

Black ; fhell ftriated ; thorax fmooth. Found

Black ; thorax quadrate ; margin fub-
Found in India; of

Black, fmooth; fhells ftriated ; pofterior
legs ftriated. Found in Sierra Leone.

*Moxrrror. Wholly black ; thighs anterior thicker.:—
an infect often feen in houfes, one of the fmaller kinds, pro-
ceeding from a larva commonly known by the name of meal-
worm, from its being fo frequently found in flour, &e. ;
it is of a yellowifh-white colour, about an inch long, flender-
bodied, and of a highly polifhed furface, and is confidered
as the favourite food of the nightingale, in its captive ftate,
and faid to remain two years i it changes into a

chryfalis.
Luripus. Black, with brown feet. Found in Brafil.
Cuaryzeus. Violet, with feet and antenne pitchy.
Found in Guinea.
MAuRITANICUs.

Black, beneath pitchy ; arene

Found in India; the largeft of the -

oon

TEN

the thorax anterior and pofterior angulated. Found in
Algiers.

Variecatus. Oblong, with varied brown and cinere-
ous. Found in Africa.

ABBREVIATUS. Ovate, black, with fhell ftriated, and
head tuberculated. Found in India.

Capensis.. Ovate, black; fhell ftriated; anterior legs
dentated-{pinous. Found at the Cape of Good Hope.

Cornutus. The margins of the double-horned thorax
crenated, and the angles projecting. Found in Smyrna.

Sancuinipes. Black, with antenne and feet fanguine-
ous. Found in New Holland.

Burprestorpes. Black; oval, thorax margined; the
connate fhells fmooth. Found at the Cape of Good

Hope.

Dermestorprs. Black ; thorax oval, margined ; {hells
ftriated. Found in Saxony.

Cuxinaris. Ferruginous; fhells ftriated ; fhield emar-

ginated. Found in Spain and Sweden.

Barsarvus. Black, very fmooth; thorax orbiculated ;
the fhield of the head on the fore-part, with the margin
elevated. Found in Mauritania.

*Erraticus. Black; the antennz, fuborbiculate thorax,
and fhells ferruginous ; brown at the apex.

Patens. Palely teftaceous ; thorax tranf{verfe.
of a {mall fize at the Cape of Good Hope.

Fersucineus. Ferruginous, with fhells ftriated tefta-
ceous.. Found in Africa.

*Vittosus. Brown, cinereous-villofe, fhells fmooth
and ferruginous,

* CARABOIDES.

Found

Black ; thorax oval, margined; thells

ftriated.

Brunnipes. Black, fmooth; fhells ftriated; antenne
and feet ferruginous. Found at Drefden.

Lezvicatus. Oblong, black, with fmoothifh hells.

Found in Africa, of a lefs fize than the molitor.
Giggosus. Subovate; wholly brafly, fhells gibbous-
convex ; the very fine {trie crenulated. Found in Brafil.
Spinimanus. Thorax margined, fmooth, fhells very
fmooth ; pofterior obtufe ; fore-legs produced with a very
ftrong arched {pine. Found in Southern Ruffia.
Uncinus. Apterous, black; thorax margined, fub-
equal; fhells itriated-punctated and angulate; thighs an-
terior, clavated, very large, biuncinate. Found in Spain.
Piceus. Deprefled, black; beneath pitchy; {hells ftri-
ated. Found in Saxony.
Cyiinpricus. Very black; thorax with elevated points ;
antenne brown; the tarfi beneath yellow-haired. Found
at Berlin.

Monranus. Wholly black; fhells opaque. Found in
Hungary.
Tristis. Black, fub-opaque, varied with excavated

points. Found in Carniola. :
Pomon™. Above pitchy, beneath black; fhells with
five elevated ftrie. Found in Carniola.
Caprkex. Black; points impreffed on the thorax and
fhells teftaceous. Found in Carniola and Switzerland.
Fravus. Yellow, with black eyes. Found in Carniola.

fEstivus. Black; feelers and feet yellow. Found in
Denmark.
Srriatus. Black; the abdomen beneath denfely ftri-

ated. Found in Denmark.
Festinans. Wholly black, fmooth; thorax ferruginous.
Grozosus. Black; thorax globofe; two rough lines
elevated. Found in Siberia. ,
Iveurvatus. Wholly pitchy ; fhells ftriated acrofs the

middle. As the latt.

TEN
Ovatus. Ovate, blackifh-brown; fhells with eight
itriz, fmooth.
Rotunpatus. Black, wholly fmooth: the coleoptra
rotundata.
Susvittosus. Wholly ferruginous, fubvillofe.
Graser. Wholly ferruginous, fmooth. The four lat

found in France.

* Licnarius. Thorax with two cavities ; fhells violet
or red ; antenne and feet ferruginous.

Larnarius. Oblong, yellow-fulvous ; eyes black ;
fhells with punétated ftriz. Found in Belgium.

*Courvires. Ovate, pitchy; fhells punéated-ftriate’;
thighs crenated ; the hinder beneath ciliated.

*Bicotor. QOvate; fhells ftriated; above black ; the
antenne beneath and feet ferruginous.

* Aver. Black; antenne ferruginous.

* Lunatus. Black; depreffed thorax lunated; {hells
{triated ; feet ferruginous.

* Hisripus. Black, rough; {hells ftriated; a fpot at
the bafe on both fides red; the antenne and legs red.

*Gtaper. Ferruginous; head and thorax fmooth, and
fhells black ; thefe ftriated ; mouth ferruginous ; feet livid.

Teverrio Mortifagus, a {pecies of the Pimelia, (which
fee,) in the Gmelinian edition of the Linnean fyftem, thus
deferibed by Dr. Shaw. It is a coal-black infe&, meafur-
ing about an inch in length, of rather flow motion, and dif-
tinguifhed by the remarkably pointed appearance of the
wing-fheaths, which at their extremities project a little
beyond the abdomen ; they are alfo perfectly connate or
undivided, forming a complete covering to the body, and
being carried oyer the fides to fome diitance beneath, and
the infeét is totally deftitute of real or under wings. It
is ufually found in dark negleéted places, beneath boards,
in cellars, &c. and if handled, efpecially if crufhed, dif-
fufes a very unpleafant fmell.

TENEBRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Spain, belonging to the Ibercaones. Ptol. It lay S. of
the mouth of the river Iberus.

TENEDOS, in Geography, an ifland of the Grecian
Archipelago, near the coaft of Afia, and very near the
Troade. This ifland has been fucceffively celebrated by
Homer and Virgil, The latter thus defcrihes it ;

« Eft in confpe&tu Tenedos, notiffima fama
Infula, dives opum, Priami dum regna manebant ;
Nunc tantum finus et ftatio malefida carinis.??

According to Diodorus Siculus, it had anciently been
called Leucophris; but when Tenes or Tennes built a town |
upon it, he called it Tenedos. Bochart, however, derives
its name from the Phoenician word Tin-edum, red clay,
which was found here, and ufed for making earthen-ware.
Paufanias fays, that this ifland, which was fituated within
fight of the city of Troy, became miferable after the cap-
ture of that city, and was obliged to furrender to its neigh-
bours, who had built Alexandria upon the ruins of Troy.
It was one of the firft conquefts of the Perfians, who made
themfelves mafters of it, after having defeated the Ionians
at the ifle of Lada. It took part with the Athenians
again{ft the Lacedemonians, when an admiral of the latter
people ravaged it, and drew from it contributions. The
Romans had poffeffion of it, and Verres pillaged the temple,
and carried away the ftatue of Tennes, the f{uppofed founder
of the tewn. Strabo reprefents it as 24 ftadia in circum-
ference, and places it at the diftance of 11 ftadia from the
continent ; but Pliny ftates this diftance to be 12 miles.
Olivier computes the diftance to be nearly 3000 toifes: and
he fays, that the town is at the diftance of about five leagues

trom

TEN

from the entrance of the Hellefpont. This pofition has
always rendered Tenedos important. Veffels bound to
Conitantinople find fhelter in the ports of this ifland, or
fafe anchorage in the roads, when the winds are contrary
and the weather bad. The emperor Juftinian eftablithed in
this ifland a magazine for receiving cargoes of corn tranf{-
ported from Egypt, 180 feet long, go broad, and propor-
tionally high. During the troubles of the Greek empire,
Tenedos fuftained many viciffitudes. It was for many years
a place of rendezvous for pirates. Scantily peopled and
ill defended, it paffed betimes under the Ottoman domination.
The caliph Othman feized it in the year 1302, and in the
poffeffion of it, he was enabled to fubdue the other iflands
of the Archipelago. During the minority of Mahomet IV.
the Venetians retook it after the complete defeat of the
Turkifh fleet in the ftrait by the admiral Mocenigo, in 1656:
but in the following year, the admiral having been killed ina
fecond engagement, the Venetian fleet retired, and this
ifland fell again under the power of the Turks, who have
preferved it without interruption till the prefent day. The
harbour is fmall, and can only receive merchant veffels : it
is formed by a jetty even with the water’s edge, and a
tongue of land, on which is conftruéted the citadel that de-
fends the entrance, and can at moft fecure it againft being
furprifed by a privateer. The town is built in form of a
femicircle, in a valley, and on the declivity of two hills:
its population is from 5000 to 6000 fouls, judging from its
extent, and from the number of perfons who pay the
karatch. Its inhabitants, who are Turks and Greeks in
equal numbers, are almoft all occupied in the culture of the
lands, few of them being mariners. The ifland is under the ad-
miniftration of a waiwode or governor, an aga commandant
of the citadel, and a cadi or judge. The defenders of the
town are 2000r 300 janizaries. ‘The townis commanded by
a pyramidal mountain of {mall elevation, that feems to have
been formed by the aétion of a volcano, the traces of which
are difcoverable. In the environs is found a granite remark-
able for pieces, of various fizes, of felfpar cryftallized.
On the right of the mountain, in paffing from the town
towards the W., is a fandy plain, far from fertile, and al-
moft entirely covered with vines. The hills, in eneral, are
naked, dry, and little fufceptible of culture. Thofe on the
fouth of the town are calcareous ; and the rock is more or
lefs chalky and loaded with fea-fhells.

Tenedos produces little corn, fruit, or herbage. The
vine is the only article of wealth of this country, and its
culture the principal occupation of the inhabitants. Mufca-
del wine is made in confiderable quantities. From Tenedos
are annually exported upwards of 600,000 okes of wine,
producing to the farmer more than 30,000 piaftres. This
wine awe to Conftantinople, Smyrna, and Ruffia. This
ifland alfo exports a {mall quantity of brandy. The climate
of Tenedos is more temperate than that of the Dardanelles :
it feldom freezes here, and the fummer heats are moderated
by the N.N.E. wind, which blows regularly during the day.
The houfes have terraces of flat roofs. ‘The Greek inha-
bitants are lefs gay than thofe of the other ifland: in the
ftreets they are filent and melancholy, avoiding through fear
the attention of the Turks; but when they can indulge
themfelves in mirth without danger, they furrender them-
felves to a fort of extravagant joy and delirium. The coaft
of Troy is frequently the theatre of their os and the field
of their pleafures: thither they repair on the occafion of a
wedding or of a feltival, and there, under the fhade of a plane-
tree or oak, they pafs the whole day in dancing, finging,
eating and drinking. ‘The females, however, are kept within
the bounds of decorum, and might be compared, from their

TEN

features and their fhape, to the moft beautiful models which
antiquity has tranfmitted to us. N. lat. 39°53’. E. long.
26°. Sonnini. Olivier.

TENELLA, <cevA2a, in Ancient Mufic. As fome cons
querors at the Olympic games were not fo fortunate as to
have poets for their friends, or fo rich as to be able to pur-
chafe odes on their particular victories, which were rated
very high by bards of the firft clafs; in honour of fuch, the
old hymn to Hercules, of Archilochus, was fung by the
friends of the conquerors only, if they could not afford to
engage a band of profeffed muficians. The fcholiaft on
Pindar’s ninth Olympic tells us, that to fupply the want of
a citharedift, Archilochus framed a word in imitation of
the found of a cithara, which word (Tenella, TexAA~), when
there happened to be no mufician prefent, the leader of the
chorus chanted forth, and was anfwered by the reft of the
chorus, in the words of the hymn, 2 KaArwuxe, roepes O
glorious Vidor, hail! at every comma, or paufe of which,
this burden was again repeated.

TENEMBER, in Geography; an ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, 12 miles long and 3 broad. S. lat. 6° 50. E.
long. 132° 45!.

TENEMENT, Tenancy, in Law, a houfe or lands,
depending on a manor, or lordfhip ; or a fee, or farm held
of a fuperior lord, and which he may recall, when the term
or condition is expired. ;

Tenement, Frank, is any lands, houfe, office, or the
like, in which a man has eftate for life, or in fee.

TeneMeENT, Ba/fe, is where a man holds lands, &e. at the
will of the lord.

Yet Kitchin, Briton, &c. make frank tenement and bafe
tenement oppofites; on which footing, frank tenement
fhould be where the tenant is at liberty to quit it when he
pleafes.

TENEMENTARY Lawns, among our anceftors,
were the outlands of manors, ~which the Saxon thanes,
or nobles, let out to tenants under arbitrary rents and
fervices.

TENEMENTIS Lecaris, in Law, a writ which lies
in London, and other places, where the cuftom is to devife
tenements by laft will as well as perfonal goods and chattels,
for the hearing of any caufe relating to them.

TENEN, or Kyry, in Geography, a town of Dalmatia,
fituated on the borders of Bofnia, and the fee of a bifhop;
48 miles S. of Bihacs.

TENENDUM, in Law, is a claufe in a deed, in which
the tenure of the land is created and limited. The office of
a tenendum is to limit and appoint the tenure to the land
which is held, and how, and of whom it is held, The
tenendum feems now to be incorporated with the habendum,
for we fay, to have and to hold, in which claufe the eftate
is limited, &c.

TENENTES Narivi. See Nativi.

TENENTIBUS in Affifa non Onerandis, in Law, a writ ©

which lies for him to whom a difleifor has made over land,
of which he diffeifed another ; requiring that he be not dif-
turbed in affize, for the damages awarded, if the diffeifor
have wherewithal to fatisfy them. ‘
TENEREZZA, tendernefs, feeling, equivalent to the
French term tendrement. ‘
TENERIA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cuba; 45 miles N.W. of Villa del Principe.
TENERIFFE, one of the Canary iflands, the fecond
in dignjty, but the firft probably with regard to wealth and
fertility. It is about 70 miles in length, and its mean
breadth is about 22 miles: its furface contains 1540 {quare
miles, having, at an average, about 45 perfons to the eso
mile,

a

TENERIFFE.

mile. ‘The number of acres is 985,600, which, upon an aver-
age, allots about 10 acres to every individual in it; the num-
ber of inhabitants being calculated to be nearly 100,000. Of
thefe there is annually a confiderable migration to the Spanith
colonies in South America. The poor of Teneriffe are eafily
perfuaded to migrate, as the proprietors of the land do not
give them fufficient employment throughout the year; and
they have not the refource of manufactures, except a trifling
one in filk, chiefly ftockings. The price of labour is under
a fhilling a day; and, befide corn and roots, the principal
food of the common people is confined to cod-fifh, caught
on the neighbouring coaft of Africa, or imported from
North America. his ifland was formerly called Nivaria,
which appellation it derived from the circle of fnow that
furrounded the peak of Tenda, now called the peak of Tene-
riffe ; which name was given to it, as it is faid, by the in-
habitants of Palma ifland, in whofe language tener fignifies
{now, and efeamountain. The figure of this ifland is tri-
angular, as it extends into three capes, the neareft being
about 80 leagues or more from the coaft of Africa. The
hiftorical celebrity of this ifland has been very much owing
to its Peak, elevated to a confiderable height from a bafe
lying a little to the S.W. of its centre. Of its height we
have various ftatements by different writers, who have af-
cended to its fummit. Dr. Heberden, whofe obfervations
in afcending it are publifhed in the Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii.
makes its height above the level of the fea to be 2566 fa-
thoms, or 15,396 Englifh feet ; and he fays that this mea-
fure was confirmed by two fubfequent obfervations by him-
felf, and another made by Mr. Croffe, the conful. Never-
thelefs, chevalier de Borda, who meafured the height of this
mountain in Auguft 1776, makes it to be only 1931 French
toifes, or 12,340 Englifh feet. Mr. Johnftone, a merchant
of Madeira, being on board fhip in the offing of Orotava,
took the angles made by a line from the horizon to the
fummit of the Peak, at two different fpots, and meafuring
the diftance between them by the log, determined the per-
pendicular height of the Peak to be 2023 Englifh fathoms,
being nearly the fame as Chev. de Borda had calculated
from a bafe meafured upon land. From the comparative
obfervations of Monf. de Borda’s barometers, upon the
Peak, and by the fea-fide, the mountain’s height came within
two fathoms of the geometrical meafurement. The Hon.
Grey Bennet, who made a journey to the top of the Peak
in 1810, ftates its height to be about 12,500 feet. M. de
Lemanon and Monges, on the 26th of Auguit 1785, afcended
the Peak, and ftating its elevation above the level of the fea
to be near 1900 toifes, made fome chemical experiments, in
order to compare the phenomena at that height with thofe
which occur in our laboratories. "They obferve, that the
erater of the Peak is a perfect folfatara or laboratory of
fulphur ; its diameter being about 50 toifes by 40, rifing
with a fteep and rapid afcent from W.to E. On the edges
of the crater, and particularly towards the loweft part, are
feveral apertures or vents, exhaling watery and fulphuric acid
vapours, the heat of which raifed the thermometer from 9°
to 34°. The interior of the crater is covered with yellow,
red, and white clay, and fragments of lava partly decom-
pofed. Under thefe were found beautiful cryftals of ful-
phur, forming rhomboidal o€tohedra, fome of which were
an inch thick. The fteam exhaled from the apertures was
pure water, not at all acid. The evaporation of liquids,
and the cold thus produced, were very confiderable. The
ation of the acids on metals, earths, and alkalies was flow,
and the bubbles that efcaped during the effervefcence were
much larger than ufual. The production of vitriols afforded
a fingular phenomenon. ‘That of iron initantly aflumed a

fine violet colour, and that of copper precipitated with a
very vivid hue. ‘The {mell and ftrength of liquors appeared
not to have loft any thing at this elevation, and the volatile
alkali, ether, and alcohol, retained the fame ftrength. Seve-
ral experiments were made with a view of afcertaining the
nature of the vapours exhaled from the crater, and whether
they contained inflammable air, fixed air, or marine acid.
From thefe he concluded that no fixed air exhaled from the
crater, and alfo that the atmofpheric air refting upon it con-
tains very little, and that the inflammable vapours and fuls
phuric acid gas alone are confiderable, and indeed perceivable.
The atmofpheric ele&tricity was confiderable and pofitive.
Many new varieties of volcanic fchorls were difcovered.
See La Peroufe’s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 226, &c.

Dr. Heberden gave fir Jofeph Banks fome falt which he
colle@ted on the top of the mountain, where it is found in
large quantities, and which he fuppofed to be the true na-
trum, or nitrum, of the ancients. Although the vortex ap-
pears fharp, and of the exaét refemblance of a cone, yet it is
flat for the extent of an acre of ground, in the centre of
which is a dreadful voleano, which frequently breaks out
into flames, fo violent as to fhake the whole ifland with an
incredible force. Smoke conftantly iffues from the moun-
tain, near its fummit, but no eruption has occurred fince the
year 1704, when the port of Garrachica was deftroyed, and
the harbour filled by the lava. The ifland of Teneriffe is
divided in the middle by a ridge of mountains, which have
been compared to the roof of a church, the Peak forming
the {pire or fteeple in the centre. An author well acquainted
with the ifland fays, that if you divide it into twelve parts,
ten of thefe confift of rocks, woody and inacceflible moun-
tains and vineyards; and yet, from the {mall remainder of
arable ground, he has feen 250,000 hanackes of wheat, be-
fides immenfe quantities of rye and barley, produced. The
greateft part of the ifland is volcanic, and all its rocks are
lava. Mr. Bennet (Tranf. of the Geological Society, vol.ii. )
conceives, that formerly a very large crater,.12 miles in dia-
meter, exifted, the fides of which, under the name of Las
Foldas, may be ftill traced a great way. The crater at the
top of the Peak is but {fmall, and fomewhat in aétivity. The
lavas vary in their-appearance: fome are compofed of horn-
blende and felfpar, without any foreign body; thefe are
porphyritic : fome are compofed of green-{tone, and contain
olivin, augite, and zeolites: fome are bafaltic; thefe de-
compofe the fooneft, and conftitute the moft fertile foil;
there are alfo pumice in abuilitince, tufa afhes, and a lava re-
fembling obfidian. Every circumitance, it is faid, argued
in favour of a volcanic formation, except the form of the
mountains, whofe irregular ridges, declivities, and afcents,
appeared very different from thofe exhibited by volcanic
mountains. In the plain beyond Laguna, on the Orotava
fide, the foil was not in the leaft volcanic, but compofed of
fine mould, or virgin earth; a mixture of clay, vegetable
earth, and fand. Hollows, 30 feet deep, left dry by rivu-
lets, exhibit no volcanic appearance. Immediately under
the fuperficial foil was a layer of deep loam, next, one of
tough clay, and all below was an irregular mixture of clay
and fand. Elfewhere the hitls confifted of indurated clay,
and clay and iron, without any marks of the aétion of fire.
In the whole ifland, there is no pure flint or fand-ftone. Its
mountains are of two forts; one, evidently volcanic ; ‘the
other, primary and compofed of indurated clay, or of clay
and calx of iron. In the low plains are layers of loofe and
foft argillaceous earth. (See Dr. Gillan’s remarks in the
ut vol. of the Embafly to China, p. 118—120.) Although
the people live on feanty and coarfe fare, they are not much

fubje& to difeafe, and inflances of longevity, even to 100
years,

TEN

years, are faid not to be rare amongit them. The air is dry
and pure. The variations of the thermometer feldom ex-
ceed 14°, from 68° to 82°, in the inhabited part of the ifland.
(See Guancues.) To the eaftward of Santa Cruz, fays
Mr. Anderfon (Cook’s Third Voyage, vol.i. p. 22. &c.)
the ifland appears perfe@tly barren. Ridges of hills run to-
wards the fea, between which ridges are deep vallies, termi-

nating at mountains or hills that run acrofs and are higher _

than the former. Thofe that run towards the fea are marked
by impreffions on their fides, which make thefe appear as
a fucceffion of conic hills, with their tops very rugged.
The higher ones that run acrofs are more uniform in their
appearance. The bafis of the hills is a heavy, compact,
blueifh ftone, mixed with fome fhining particles ; and on the
furface, large maffes of red friable earth, or ftone, are fcat-
tered about. The little-earth, that appeared here and there,
was a blackifh mould. There were likewife fome pieces of
flag, one of which, from its weight, and {mooth furface,
feemed almoft wholly metalline. The mouldering ftate of
thefe hills is, without doubt, owing to the perpetual a€tion
of the fun, which calcines their furface.. ‘* After walking
about three miles,’’ fays Mr. Anderfon, “ I found no alte-
ration in the appearance of the lower hills, which produce
great quantities of the euphorbia Canarienfis. I met with
nothing elfe growing there, but two or three {mall fhrubs,
and a fig-trees near the bottom of the valley. Moft of
the laborious work in this ifland is performed by mules,
horfes being to appearance fcarce, and chiefly referved for
the ufe of the officers: they are of a {mall fize, but well
fhaped and fpirited. Oxen are alfo employed to drag their
cafks along, upon a large clumfy piece of wood. In my
walks and excurfions I faw fome hawks, parrots, which are
natives of the ifland, the fea-fwallow or tern, fea-gulls, par-
tridges, wagtails, {wallows, martins, blackbirds, and Ca-
nary birds in large flocks. There are alfo lizards of the
common, and another fort; fome infeéts, as locufts; and
three or four forts of dragon-flies.”” Mr. Anderfon was in-
formed that a fhrub is common here, agreeing exaétly with
the defcription given by Tournefort and Linnezus of the
tea fhrub, as growing in China and Japan. Another bota-
nical curiofity, mentioned by him, is what they call the im-
pregeated lemon. It is a perfeét and diftin& lemon, in-
clofed within another, differing from the outer one only in
being a little more globular. The leaves of the tree that
produces this fort, are much longer than thofe of the com-
mon one; and it was reprefented to him as being crooked,
and not equal in beauty. Mr. Anderfon learnt alfo, that a
certain fort of grape growing here is reckoned an excellent
remedy in phthifical complaints ; and the air and climate in
general are remarkably healthful, and particularly adapted
to give relief in fuch difeafes. This he endeavoured to ac-
coum for by its being always poflible to procure a different
temperature of the air, by refiding at different heights. in
the ifland: and he exprefled his furprize that the Enelifh
phyficians had never thought of fending their confumptive
patients to Teneriffe, inftead of Nice or Lifbon. ‘They
reckon that 40,000 pipes of wine are annually made, the
greateft part of which is either confumed in the ifland, or
made into brandy, and fent to the Spanifh Welt Indies and
North America. . ; ,

In the Embafly to China (vol. i.) the quantity of wine,
confifting principally of white wine, faid to be exported
from Teneriffe, is about 25,000 pipes annually made in the
ifland. Part is fent to South America: and the Englifh
take off a confiderable quantity in return for manufactures ;
and the North Americans in payment of corn, ftaves, horfes
and tobacco, which laft article is contraband and fmuggled.

Io

TEN

Tobacco or fauff is in univerfal ufe; and thet which is le-
gally imported is fold at fo high a price, that the temptation
to fmuggling is irrefiftible. The royal monopoly extends
even to orchilla orarchil, afubftance ufed in dyeing. Formerly
there was made at Teneriffe a great quantity of Canary fack,
which the French call “ vin de Malvafia,”’ and we, corruptly
after them, name Malmfey (from Malvafia, a town in the
Morea, famous for fuch lufcious wine.) In the 17th cen-
tury, and {till later, much of this was imported into. Eng-
land, and little wine is now made there except that defcribed
by Capt. Cook, and which he compares with Madeira, the
latter being as. much fuperior to the former, as ftrong beer
is to fmall. But the great difference of price is a recom-
mendation of it. Befides wine, which is the chief produce
of the ifland, beef may be had at a moderate price. The
oxen are {mall and bony, and the meat lean. Hogs, fheep,
goats, and poultry, may alfo be bought at a moderate rate :

and fruits, fuch as grapes, figs, pears, mulberries, plan-

tains, and mufk melons, are in great plenty. Their pump-
kins, onions, and potatoes, are alfo very good of their kind.

The Indian corn, which is their produce, and alfo their

fruits and roots, may be had at a very reafonable rate. They
have no plentiful fupply of fith from the adjoining fea; but
a confiderable fifhery is carried on by their veflels upon the
coaft of Barbary ; and the produce of it fells at a reafon-
able price. Capt. Cook fays that he found Teneriffe to be
a more eligible place than Madeira for fhips bound on lon

voyages to touch at. At Teneriffe they make a little filk ;
but unlefs we reckon the filtering-ftones, brought in great
numbers from Grand Canary, the wine is the only confider-
able article of the foreign commerce of Teneriffe. None
of the race of inhabitants found here when the Spaniards
difcovered the Canaries, now remain a diftinét people, hav-
ing intermarried with the Spanifh fettlers; but their de-
{cendants are known from their being remarkably tall, large-
boned, and ftrong. The men are in general of a tawny

colour, and the women have a pale complexion, entirely
deftitute of that ‘bloom which diftinguifhes our northern
The Spanifh cuftom of wearing black clothes .

beauties.
continues amongft them ; but the men feem more indifferent
about this, and in fome meafure drefs like the French.
According to Capt. Cook, the peak of Teneriffe is fituated
in N. lat. 28° 18', and upon this fuppofition its longitude
will be

The time-keepers 17° o/ 30!
By 2 Lunar obfervations 16 30 20 ¢ Weft.
Mr. Varila - 16 46 0

But if its latitude be 28° 12! 54", as in Mafkelyne’s Britifh
Mariner’s Guide, its longitude will be 13! 30! more wefterly.
The variation (Auguft 1776) by a mean of all Capt. Cook’s
compaffes was found to be 14° 41! 20! W. The dip of the
N. end of the needle was 61° 52! 30".

TeNeERIFFE, a town of South America, in the govern-
ment ef the Caraccas, and province of St. Martha; 80
miles §.S.W. of St. Martha. N. lat. 10° 2! W. long.
mae ol.
4S TENESMUS, in Medicine, an ‘inceffant and urgent au
fire to go to ftool, while the evacuations are exceedin ly
feanty, of a mucous or bloody appearance, and are attended
with fearcely any relief of the diftreffing fenfation which
preceded them. It may be brought on by any caufe which
excites exceflive irritation in the rectum, either dire€tly, or
by fympathy with neighbouring organs, fuch as the bladder,
uterus, proitate gland, or sittin: Thus it is frequently a
fymptom of a {tone in the bladder, of inflammation of the
neck of that organ, of fiftula, of gonorrhea virulenta, and
alfo of pregnancy. In its moft acute form, tene{mus more

4 commonly

LT Se SI NEL AN TOC cI oN a TO

ay

ak nd

TEN

eommonly occurs as a confequence of difeafe affeGting the
inteftines themfelves, and more efpecially of dyfentery : it
is alfo frequently excited by afcarides, or hemorrhoidal tu-
mours within theretum. See DysenTErRY.

The treatment of this affection muft of courfe be adapted
to the nature of the irritation which has occafioned it ; and
the removal of the irritating caufe will generally be followed
by the ceffation of the effet. When this, however, cannot
be accomplifhed, the introduction of opium as a fuppofi-
tory into the rectum, or united with a ftarch glyfter, will
often procure effential relief.

TENESSEE, in Geography. See TENNESSEE.

TENESUR, a town of Egypt, on the weft branch of
the Nile ; 3 miles S. of Amrus.

TENET, a particular opinion, dogma, or do€trine, pro-
fefledly held by fome divine, philofopher, &c.

The diftinguifhing tenets of the feveral feéts in religion,
and philofophy, fee under the names of the feéts them-
felves.

TENEZ, or TeneEs, in Geography. See Tennis.

TENEZA, a town of Morocco; 43 miles W.S.W. of
Morocco.

TENGA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the cocoa-nut tree, or palma indica nucifera of
other writers.

TE-NGAN, in Geography, a city of China, of the firft
rank, in Hou-quang; 550 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 31°
p20) long. 113° 17!

TENGAPATAM, a town of Hindooftan, on the fea-
coaft, in the country of Travancore; 20 miles S.W. of
Travancore.

TENGI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schirvan ;
25 miles N. of Scamachie.

JTENGILO, a river of Lapland, which falls into the
Tornea, which, as well as the lake and mountain of Niemi,
has been celebrated by Maupertuis for picturefque beauty.

TENGIS, a lake of Independent Tartary, about 140
miles in length by half that breadth, being the largeft lake in
Afia after the feas of Aral and Baikal. It is alfo called
Balkafh or Palcaté. This lake, with two others that are
very confiderable, belong to the Kalmucks fubje& to
China. :

TENGMO, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 10’. E. long. 21° 52!,

TENG-TCHOUEN, a city of China, of the fecond
rank, in Yun-nan; 1182 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
26° 2'. E.long. 99° 40).

TENGZEGZET. See Trenzeczer.

TENIA. See Tania.

TENIERS, Davin, the elder, in Biography, was born
at Antwerp in 1582. He received his education in painting
in the fchool of Rubens, and under that great artift’s imme-
diate tuition, obtained the mode of preparing his grounds,
and managing his materials. Intending to continue the ftudy
of hiftoric painting, he went to Rome; but there aban-
doned it, and attached himfelf to his countryman, Adam
Elfheimer, under whom he continued for fix years to ftudy
lJandfeape, and from him moft probably acquired the neat-
nefs of pencilling for which his works are efteemed,

On his return to his native country, he blended the ftyles
of both his mafters, and employed the compound in a novel
and ingenious manner, upon fubjeéts original and at the
fame time agreeable ; fuch as merry-makings, both interior
and at the doors of cabarets ; rural fports, cattle, fheep, and
thofe who tended them ; numerous groups and grotefque
combinations ; fuch as the temptation of St, Anthony, &c,
For pictures of thefe kinds, he was fortunate enough to find

Vou. XXXY,

TEN

admirers and purchafers ; and they would ftill have been the
theme of admiration, had not his fon, following the fame
track, have proved how poffible it was to proceed infinitely
farther. He died in 1649, aged fixty-feven.

Tenters, Davin, the younger, fon of the foregoing
artift, was born at Antwerp in 1610, and was initiated in
the art of painting by his father ; but he afterwards became
a difciple of Adrian Brauwer, and is alfo faid to have had the
happinefs and honour of receiving inftruCtions from Rubens.
The fubjeéts and the ftyle he adopted were, as we have faid,
the fame with thofe employed by his father ; but with a
more fertile imagination, he produced compofitions infinitely
more yaried and ingenious, with colouring and effe& more
vivid and engaging, more rich and tranfparent ; and with a
facility of execution perfeétly enchanting. It is true they
feldom exhibit much refearch of character or expreffion ;
what there may be of thofe qualities, was more probably a
fortunate hit, than any refult of meditation or intention.
In this refpe&t Jan Stein, and our own Wilkie, have as much
the fuperiority over Teniers, as he poflefles by the power of
his execution.

At the firft difplay of his powers he was not fo fuccefsful
as he merited, but it was not long that he lay neglefted: the
archduke Leopold being made acquainted with his merits,
immediately diftinguifhed him by his patronage ; appointed
him his principal painter ; honoured him by making him a
gentleman of his bed-chamber ; prefented him with a chain
of gold, to which his portrait was affixed ; and gave him the
fuperintendance of his gallery of pictures, which contained
works of the moft diftinguifhed matters of the Italian and
Flemifh fchools. Of this gallery, Teniers made feveral pic-
tures, in which he imitated the manners of the various maf-
ters fo fuccefsfully, as to obtain the name of the Proteus of
painting. He alfo amufed himfelf by making compofitions
in the ityles of different painters of renown, as Titian, Tin-
toretto, the Baffans, Rubens, &c.; and in their execution
endeavoured to imitate the touch of thofe great men, | Thefe
imitations are generally known under the name of patticcios,
and have frequently been miftaken for originals, and fold as
fuch.

Thefe were the amufements or indulgencies of idle fancy ;
his fame refts for more full and honourable fupport upon his
original produtions in his own proper ftyle. He was a con-
ftant and faithful obferver of nature; and in his favourite
fubjects, village feitivals, fairs, and merry-makings, he has ex-
hibited, with a moft engaging freedom, the manners and cha-
racters of his countrymen. That he might conveniently
mingle with the fcenes he chofe to reprefent, he eftablifhed
himfelf in the village of Perk, between Antwerp and Mech-
lin, and there, with a painter’s eye, he obferved the undif-
guifed impulfe of the natural character of the lower clafs
among the people, and has left many beautiful and pleafing
remembrances of occurrences uninterefting, nay fometimes
difguiting in themfelves, but rendered engaging by his de-
lightful mode of reprefenting them. One peculiar charm
there is to be found in the beit pictures of Teniers, more per-
feétly obtained than in the works of other artifts, and that
is, the complete effet of atmofphere, filvery, pure, and
natural ; Claude de Lorraine himfelf does not furpafs him ;
and this truth, though yielded on fimple materials, in fcenes
flat and infipid in their forms, yet makes amends for their na-
tural want of intere{t by its truth and fimplicity.

In the interior of apartments, of the cottage, the cabaret,
the guard-room, or chemift’s laboratory, he is not lefs ad-
mirable by his clearnefs and precifion than in his exteriors.
He furpaffed Oftade in his knowledge of perfpeétive, and
in his freedom, as much as he is excelled by the latter in ae

X x oO

TEN

of tone and completion of charaéter. His pencil is exceed-
ingly light and dexterous ; and by continual practice upon the
fame fyftem, he had acquired a promptnefs almoft unparal-
leled. This freedom of execution enabled him to paint an
immenfe number of piétures : it was not unufual for him to
finifh a piéture in a day; and he ufed jocofely to obferve,
that to contain all the pictures he had painted, it would be
neceflary to have a gallery two leagues long. He not un-
frequently affifted the landfcape painters of his day, by
putting figures into their pi€tures ; and many works of Ar-
tois, Van Uden, Breughel, and many others, owe an in-
creafed value to this circumftance. His works are numerous
in the colleétions of this country, and ftill bear very high
prices. Teniers lived to the advanced age of eighty-four,
and died at Bruffels in 1694.

He had a younger brother named Abraham, who alfo
painted the fame kind of fubjeéts in the fame ftyle, and from
this circumftance his works are fometimes miftaken for
thofe of David, though they are much inferior in tafte and
execution.

TENINE, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the province of Tucuman; zo miles S.W. of St. Yago del
Eftero.

TENIS, a lake of Ruffian Tartary, 60 miles in-circum-
ference. N. lat. 53° 20/._ E. long. 74° 4!.

TENISON, Tuomas, in Biography, archbifhop of Can-
terbury, was the fon of the Rev. John Tenifon, re€tor of
Mundefley, in Norfolk, and born in the year 1636. He
received his univerfity education at Benet college, Cam-
bridge, of which he became a fellow in 1662. Having
officiated for fome time as a tutor in his college, he was pre-
fented in 1665 to the cure of St. Andrew the Great in Cam-
bridge, and continued his attention to his parochial duty
during the plague. In 1667 he became chaplain to the earl
of stiches and obtained a reGtory at Huntingdonfhire.
His firft publication appeared in 1670, and was entitled
«© The Creed of Mr. Hobbes examined, in a feigned Con-
ference between him and a Student in Divinity.” In 1674
he was chofen principal minifter to the church of St. Peter’s
Mancroft, Norwich ; andin 1678 he publifhed a “ Difcourfe
of Idolatry,” and in 1679 “* Baconiana,”’ or fome pieces of
the great lord Verulam, with a general account of his
writings. As he was one of the royal chaplains in 1680, he
graduated D.D., and was prefented by the king to the vi-
carage of St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London. As an an-
tagonift to popery, the apprehenfion of which was then
very prevalent, he wrote feveral works againit it, and alfo
againit Socinianifm ; and whilft he was guarding the church
againft thofe whom he conceived to be its enemies, he ac-
quired {till greater honour by liberal benefaétions to the
poor, and yilatptic the foundation of an endowed fchool and
public library, which he afterwards completed. He blended
gravity with moderation to fuch a degree, as to’: command

neral efteem ; and accordingly he was feleéted by the un-

ortunate duke of Monmouth to prepare him for his execu-
tion. He alfo conduéted himfelf with fo much prudence at
court, that he is faid to have had a perfonal intereft even
with James II. In the reign of William he avowed himfelf
a friend to the diffenters and toleration ; and after his pro-
motion to the archdeaconry of London, he was appointed
one of the commiffioners for reviewing the Litany, with a
view to the comprehenfion of the Separatifts. He thus re-
commended himfelf to queen Mary, and by her intereft he
‘obtained the fee of Lincoln, in 1691. Within three years
he was unexpectedly advanced to the archiepifcopal fee of
Canterbury, more on account of his moderate and pacific
principles, than for any pre-eminence to which he had at-
8

TEN

tained among men of letters or theologians. He attended
queen Mary on her death-bed; and incurred the fevere
animadverfions of the deprived bifhop Ken, for not having
reminded her majefty of her culpable want of duty to her
father, by confenting to wear a crown which rightfully be-
longed to him. His conduét during the reign of king Wil-
liam was uniformly confiftent with his principles, and both
were fo pleafing to his majefty, that he diftinguithed the
prelate by many tokens of refpect and confidence. In the
reign of queen Anne, he was not, as we may naturally ima-
gine, much regarded ; more efpecially as he retained his juit
ideas of toleration, and refifted, though not without a fhare
of obloquy, fome of the high-church meafures which were
then countenanced.- Neverthelefs he difplayed on various
occafions his attachment to the eftablifhed church, as well as
his habitual bounty to the indigent. His laft public a&
was the coronation of George I.; and afterwards finkin
under the decay of advanced ages he clofed his life at Lam-
beth, December 1715, in the feventy-ninth year of his age.
As he left no iffue, he bequeathed a confiderable part of his
property to charitable purpofes. His charaéter was uni-
formly refpe€table ; and his conduct in difficult times was ir-
reproachable and exemplary. Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

TENMENTALE, or TENMANTALE, in our Ancient
Cufloms, originally fignifies the number of ten men, which
number, in the time of the Englifh Saxons, was called a
decennary ; and ten decennaries made what we call an
hundred.

Thefe ten men were bound for each other to preferve the
public peace; and if any of them was found guilty of a
breach of it, the other nine were either to make fatisfac-
tion, or to bring the criminal before the king.

TENMENTALE was alfo ufed for a duty, or tribute, paid to
the king, confifting of two fhillings for each ploughland ;
probably thus called, becaufe each perfon of the decennary
was bound to fee it paid.

TENNA, in Geography, a river which rifes in the Apen-
nines, and croffing the marquifate of Ancona, runs into the
Adriatic, about 4 miles E.N.E. of Fermo. [

TENNE!, Tenny, or Tawney, in Heraldry, a bright
colour, made of red and yellow mixed; fometimes alfo
called bru/k, and exprefled in engraving by diagonal lines
drawn from the dexter to the finifter fide of the fhield, tra-
verfed by perpendicular lines from the chief ; and marked
with the letter T.

In the coats of all below the degree of nobles, it is called
tenny ; but, in thofe of nobles, it 1s called hyacinth ; and, in

rinces’ coats, the dragon’s head.

TENNEAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 35 miles
N. of Midnapour. .

TENNEBERG, a mountain of Saxony, in the princi-
pality of Gotha; 4 miles S.W. of Gotha.

TENNELIE'RES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aube; 4 miles E. of Troyes.

TENNESSEE, one of the United States of America,
fituated between 35° and 36° 30! N. lat., and 4° 26! and
13° 5' W. long. from Wafhington. It is bounded on the
north by Kentucky and part of Virginia, on the fouth b
Georgia and the Miffifippi territory, on the eaft by North,
Carolina, and on the weit by Miffouri territory. Its extent
from north to fouth is 102 miles, and from eaft to weft
420 miles. Its area is 40,000 {quare miles, or 25,600,000
acres. The Indian claim has been extinguifhed in two por-
tions of this country, the eaftern and the weftern, compre-
hending one-third part of the ftate. The former is bounded
north by Virginia, from the fouth-eaft corner of Kentucky,
to the north-weft of North Carolina; cafterly by North

arolina 5

TENNESSEE.

Carolina; wefterly by Cumberland mountain, Emery’s
river, &c.; and foutherly bya line marked from place to
place, as a continuation of the Cherokee boundary. The
weitern tract, thus purchafed of the Indians, lies on Cum-
berland river, and is bounded north by Kentucky ; eafterly
by a line running from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft ; and
fouth and weft by a line of feveral thoufand angles, run ac-
cording to the Tenneflee Ridge, which feparates the waters
of the Cumberland from thofe of the Tenneffee river. The
general courfe of this ridge-line is firft wefterly, and then
north-wefterly ; which, imagining the zigzag reduced into
two ftraight lines, makes the figure of the tra¢t a trapezium.
The longett fide is that adjoining Kentucky, the length of
which, afcertained by meafurement, is nearly 160 miles.
The length of the eafterly fide is about go miles. The
eaftern is generally called the Holiton fettlement, and the
weftern the Cumberland fettlement, from thofe two prime
rivers, which traverfe the countries refpectively. Between
thefe fettlements lies a {pacious wildernefs, which: the Che-
rokees claim and traverfe in hunting, and which, from one
limit of their claim to the other, as the road goes, is about
70 miles wide. ; ;

This ftate, as it was ereéted and organized in 1796,
is divided into three diftrid@s. The eaftern fettlement
is divided into two diftriés, Wathington the eaftern dif-
tri, and Hamilton the middle diftri@. The weftern
fettlenent is the third or Mero diftri@. The number of
counties, &c. may be feen in the following topographical
table.

Laft Tenneffec.
Counties. No. Inhabitants. Chief Towns.
Anderfon - - - 3959
Bledfoc - - - 8839 Maryfville.
Blount - - - 3259 Maryville.
Campbell - Papas Me 2668
Carter - - - 4190 Elizabethtown.
Claiborne - - 4798 Tazewell.
Cocke - - - 5154 Newport.
Granger - - . 6397 Rutledge.
Greene =F as - 9713 Greenville.
Hawkins -— - - 7643 Rogerfville.
Jefferfon - - - 7309 Dandridge.
Knox - - - 10171 Knoxville.
Rhea - - - 2504 Wathington.
Roano - - - 5581 Kingfton.
Sevier - - - 4595 Sevierville.
Sullivan - - - 6847 Blountfville.
Wafhington - - 7740 Jonefborough,
101367
Weft Tenneffee.
Bedford - - - a Shelbyville.
Davidfon - - - 15608 Nafhville.
Dickfon - - (0.0 4 G36
Franklin - - - 5730 Winchetter.
Giles - - - 4546 Pulafki.
Hickman - - . 2583
Humphrey Porth Ist
Jackfon = - - = 540% Williamfon.
Lincoln’ - - - 6104. Fayetteville.
Montgomery - - 8021 Clarkefville.
Maury - - - 10359 Columbia.
Overton - - - 5643 Monroe,

Carry forward ~- 78264

Brought forward

Robertfon - - 7270 Springfield.
Rutherford - - 10265 Jefferfon.
Summer - - - 13792 Gallatin.

Smith = - - 11649 Dixon’s Springs
Stuart - - - 4262

Wilfon - - - 11952 Lebanon.
Williamfon - =) 23m53 Franklin.

White - - - 4028 Sparta.

Warren - - - 5725 M‘Minville.

The following counties have been laid out fince the lait
cenfus was taken:
Greenville,
Wayne.

The eaftern part of this ftate is mountainous, the
middle part hilly, and the weftern part mottly level. The
climate among the mountains is faid to be delightful ; in the
middle part, temperate and agreeable ; in the weftern part,
hot in fummer, and mild in winter. ‘The difeafes to which
the adult inhabitants have been moft liable are pleurifies,
rheumatifms, and rarely agues and fevers; but, upon the
whole, the inhabitants are generally healthy, and this falu-
brity of the tate has been partly attributed to its having
few ftagnant waters. The principal rivers of this ftate are
the Cumberland, the Holftein or Holfton, the Tenneffee,
the Clinch, the Notachuckey or Nolichucky, the French
Broad, the Hiwaffee, the Duck, the Redfoot, the Obian
or Oby, the Forked Deer, and the Wolf. ‘The chief of
thefe rivers are defcribed under: their appropriate names,
The mountains in this ftate are numerous; fome of them,
particularly the Cumberland (which fee), or Great Laurel
Ridge, are the moft ftupendous piles in the United States.
Stone, Yellow, Iron, Bald, Smoky, and Unaka mountains
adjoin each other, and form, in a direGtion nearly north-
eaft and fouth-weft, the eaftern boundary of the ftate. In
thefe mountains are innumerable caverns and cafcades.
North-weft from thefe, and feparated from each other by
vallies from 5 to 15 miles wide, rife Bay’s mountain, Cop-
per Ridge, Clinch mountain, Powell’s mountain, and Wel-
ling’s Ridge. The four laft terminate north of the Tenneflee
river, and thefe, as well as the others, are branches of Vir-
ginia mountains. hey are all encircled by vallies, which
open channels for rivers and roads for paflage. Although
the foil on the mountains is poor, that of the vallies is fer-
tile ; improving in the middle of the ftate, and in the weftern
part becoming rich. It produces cotton, which is the ftaple
commodity, and the principal article of export, tobacco,
indigo, Indian corn, hemp, flax, rice, wheat, rye, Oats,
barley, and all kinds of vegetables in high perfection. The
trees and plants found in this ftate are poplar, hickory,
black and white walnut, all kinds of oaks, buck-eye, beech,
fycamore, “black and honey locuft, afh, hornbeam, elm,
mulberry, cherry, dogwood, faffafras, papaw, cucumber.
tree, coffee-tree, and the fugar-tree. In the eaftern diftri@
is a fpecies of pitch-pine, ufeful for boards, timber, and tar.
The under-growth, in many places, and efpecially in low
grounds, is cane, fome of which is upwards of 20 feet high,
and fo thick as to prevent any other plant growing: there
are alfo Virginia and Seneca {nake-root, ginfeng, Carolina
pink, angelica, fenna, lobelia, Indian phyfic, {pice-wood,
wild plum, crab-apple, haws, hazel-nuts, fweet anife, red
bud ginger, fpikenard, wild hop and grape vines. The
glades are covered with wild rye, wild oats, clover, buffalor

Xx 2 grafs,

TENNESSEE.

rafs, ftrawberries, and pea vines. On the hills, at the
ae of rivers, and in fome high cliffs of Cumberland, are
found majeftic red cedars ; many of thefe trees are four feet
in diameter, and forty feet clear of limbs. ‘The commerce
of this ftate is much facilitated by the rivers Tenneffee and
Cumberland, and their refpective branches. Both thefe
rivers empty into the Ohio, fhortly after they pafs the north
boundary of the ftate. As the waters of the Cumberland
from Nafhville, and of the Tenneffee from the Mrfcle Shoals
to the Ohio, are navigable to the Ohio and Miffifippi, the
people of courfe, who live in this or the adjacent country,
have the fame advantages of water conveyance for trade, as
thofe who live on the Ohio or Miffiippi, to New Orleans
or elfewhere. Befides, there is another probable avenue
through which trade will be carried on with this and the ad-
jacent country, which is from Mobile, up the waters of the
Mobile river as far as it is navigable ; thence by a land car-
riage, of about 50 miles at moft, to Ocochappo creek,
which empties into the Tenneflee at the lower end of the
Mufcle fhoals. The mouth of this creek is the centre of a
piece of ground, the diameter of which is five miles, ceded
by the fouthern Indians at the treaty of Hopewell, on
Keeowee, to the United States, for the eftablifhment of
trading pofts. The iron works of Tenneffee are large and
numerous. The minerals of this country are iron-ore, lime-
ftone, coal, copperas, alum, nitre, lead, and fome filver.
Mineral fprings, ftrongly impregnated with fulphur, are
found in various parts of the country. On the waters of
French Broad river is a fine, large, clear, medicinal, warm
fpring, the beneficial effects of which have been experienced
by many perfons who have reforted to it from the Carolinas,
Georgia, and northern parts of Virginia. Salt is manufac-
tured in confiderable quantity, particularly on the north
fork of Holfton. Some herds of the bifon are {till found
on the branches of the Cumberland river, though multitudes
of them have been wantonly deftroyed. The ftag is occa-
fionally found among the mountains ; deer are fearce ; bears,
panthers, wild cats, and wolves, ftill remain. Beavers,
mufk-rats, and otters, are plentiful in the upper branches of
Cumberland and Kentucky rivers. Racoons, foxes, opof-
fums, and fquirrels abound ; as do alfo pheafants, partridges,
pigeons, fwans, wild turkies, ducks, and geefe ; as well as
bald eagles, parroquets, loons, cranes, and buzzards. The
rivers are well ftocked with all kinds of frefh-water fifh.

The chief towns of Tenneflee are Knoxville, Na/bville,
and Joneflorough ; which fee re{pectively.

The prevailing denomination of Chriftians in this ftate is
compofed of Prefbyterians, intermixed with Baptifts, Me-
thodifts, and Friends. With a view to mental and moral
improvement, feveral {chools and colleges are eftablifhed in
this ftate. Three colleges are eftablifhed, onein Knox, one
in Wafhington, and one in Greene county.

By the conttitution of this ftate, which was formed and
ratified at Knoxville, February 6, 1796, the legiflative au-
thority is vefted in a general affembly, confifting of a fenate
and houfe of reprefentatives. ‘The number of reprefertatives
is to be fixed once in feven years, by the legiflature, ac-
cording to the number of taxable inhabitants, who are to be
numbered feptennially ; the number of reprefentatives not
to exceed twenty-fix, until the taxable inhabitants fhall be
40,000. The fenators are never to be lefs than one third,
nor more than one half the number of the reprefentatives,
and are to be chofen upon principles fimilar to thofe for the
choice of reprefentatives. The election for members of
both houfes is biennial. The executive power of the ftate
is vefted in a governor, chofen by the electors of the mem-
bers of the legiflature: he is appointed biennially, and is

commander-in-chief of the army and navy, except in the
fervice of the United States. Every freeman of 21 years
of age, pofleffing a freehold in the county, and having been
an inhabitant of the ftate for fix months preceding, may
vote for the members of the legiflature. The houfe of re-
prefentatives has the fole power of impeaching, and the
fenate of trying impeachments. The judicial power is vefted
in courts of law and equity. County officers are fheriffs,
coroners, truftees, and coni{tables. Military officers are to
be elected by perfons fubjeét to military duty. Minifters of
the gofpel are not eligible to a feat in the legiflature. No
perfon who denies the exiftence of God, or a future ftate,
can hold any civil office. The oath of allegiance and of
office is to be taken by perfons holding any office of truft
or profit.

In the charaGter of the inhabitants there is nothing pe-
culiarly difcriminating ; but, in general, a great fimplicity
of manners prevails. Among the curiofities of the country
we may reckon its numerous caves; and on the Enchanted
mountain there are on feveral rocks impreflions refembling
the tracks of turkies, bears, horfes, and human beings, the
latter having uniformly fix toes each. Befides thefe, there
are many other fanciful figures. The Indian tribes within
and in the vicinity of this ftate are the Cherokees and
Chickafaws ; which fee re{peGively.

The country now called Tenneflee was included in the
fecond charter granted by king Charles II. to the pro-
prietors of Carolina; and in afubfequent divifion, it confti-
tuted a part of North Carolina. In 1754, at the commence-
ment of the French war, not more than fifty families had
fettled here, who were either deftroyed, or driven away by
the Indians before the clofe of the following year. It re-
mained uninhabited till 1765, when the fettlement of it com-
menced; and in 1773, (fuch was the rapid acceffion of
emigrants,) the country as far weftward as the long ifland
of Holfton, an extent or more than 120 miles in length from
eaft to weft, was well peopled. In 1789, after fome pre-
paratory meafures, the territory was ceded by the North
Carolina legiflature, on certain conditions, to the United
States. In 1790, February 25, congrefs pafled an aét,
accepting this ceflion ; and, by another aét, pafled May 26,
1790, provided for its government under the title of “ The
Territory of the United States of America fouth of the
River Ohio.”? On the 8th of June following, the prefident
of the United States, by and with the advice and confent of
the fenate, appointed the Hon. William Blount, efq. a
citizen of North Carolina, governor in and over the faid ter-
ritory ; in which office he continued during the territorial
government, and was prefident of the convention that formed
the conftitution under the title of “* The Conftitution of the
State of Tenneffee,””? af which we have given an abftraét.
The peace of the citizens of this territory has been difturbed
many years pat, by Indian wars, or incurfions from the
favages for the purpofes of murder and plunder: they are
now at peace. In the year 1796, this territory was in due
form ereted into an independent ftate, making the fixteenth
in the Union... Morfe. Meith.

Tennesske Ridge, the moft confiderable range of moun-
tains in the {tate of Tenneflee, feparating the ftreams which
run to the Cumberland and Tenneffee rivers. In fome parts
it rifes into abrupt hills, but in others admits of good roads.
See CumBERLAND Mountain.

Tennessrr, called by the French Cherokee, and ab-
furdly by others the Hogohege river, is the largeft branch
of the Ohio: it is 600 yards wide at its mouth. It rifes in
the mountains of Virginia, N. lat. 37°; and purfues a
courfe of about 1000 miles fouth and fouth-weft, nearly to

2 N. lat.

TEN

N. lat. 34°, receiving from both fides a number of large tri-
butary itreams. It then wheels about ‘to the north, in a
circuitous courfe, and mingles with the Ohio, nearly 60 miles
from its mouth. From its entrance into the Ohio to the
Mufcle thoals, 250 miles, the current is very gentle, and
the river deep enough, at all feafons, for the largett row
boats. The Mufcle fhoals are about 20 miles in length.
The bed of the river in this diftance confilts of broken flones,
eafily removed ; and the navigation will admit of much im-
provement. At thefe fhoals the river {preads to the width
of three miles, and forms:a number of iflands, and is of dif-
ficult paflage, except when there is a {well in the riven
From this place to the * Whirl,”’ or “ Suck,’’ where the
river breaks through the Great Ridge, or Cumberland
mountain, is 250 miles, the navigation all the way excellent.
The Whirl, as it is called, is in about N. lat. 35°. It is
reckoned a greater curiofity than the buriting of the Patow-
mack through the Blue Ridge. The river, which a few
miles above is half a mile wide, is here compreffed to the
width of about 70 yards. Juft as it enters the mountain, a
large rock projeéts frem the northern fhore, in an oblique
direé&tion, which renders the bed of the river ftill narrower,
and caufes a fudden bend: the water of the river is of courfe
thrown with great rapidity againft the fouthern fhore,
whence it rebounds around the point of the rock, and pro-
duces the whirl, which is about 80 yards in circumference.
Boats pafs the whirl without danger or difficulty. Such is
the fituation of the fhore, that boats afcending the river may
be towed up. In lefs than a mile below the whi, the river
fpreads into its common width, and except the Mufcle fhoals,
already mentioned, flows beautiful and placid, till it mingles
with the Ohio. Six miles above the whirl are the Chicca-
mogga towns, on the banks of the river, and of a large creek
of the fame name.

TENNIS, a paftime, or well-known game at ball, in-
troduced among our anceftors about the year 1222, the
fixth year of Henry III., by perfons of fuperior rank and
family, who ereéted courts or oblong edifices for the per-
formance of this exercife. Some have afcribed the etymo-
logy of the word tennis to the French langaage, and ac-
cordingly have derived the game from France. But the
word fenez does not afford fufficient evidence of its French
origin. © For the holding or keeping poffeffion of the ball is
no part of the game; for, during the play, the ball is in
continual motion, or pafling from one to another. Others
feek the etymology of the name and the origin of the game
in a place in France called Tennois, (or, by a change of
one letter, Sennois, in the diftrict of Champagne,) where
balls were firft made, and the game, as it is faid, firft in-
troduced.

Tennis, in Geography, the ruins of a town of Egypt, fitu-
ated on an ifland in a lake of the fame name; once a large
city, built by the Romans, on the fcite of a more ancient
Egyptian town; 28 miles S.E. of Damietta. N. lat. 31°2!.
E. long. 32° r4/.

Tennis, a lake of Egypt, 55 miles long, and about
feven wide, which reaches from Damietta to Tineh, fepa-
rated only by a narrow tongue from the Mediterranean.

Tennis, or Tnifs, a fea-port of Algiers, in the province
of Tremecen, at the mouth of a river which runs into the
Mediterranean oppofite a {mall ifland. Some geographers
fuppofe this to be the ancient Jol, or Julia Czfarea. Be-
fore the Turkifh conquelts, it was the metropolis of one of
the petty royalties of this country; though a few miferable
hovels are all that remains of it at prefent. Tennis has been
long famous for the many loads of corn that are fhipped off
from thence to Chriftendom ; but the anchoring ground (for

TEN

a harbour it cannot be called) that lies before it, being toa
much expofed to the north and weft winds, is the occafion
that veffels are frequently caft away, unlefs they meet with
calm weather. The Moors have a tradition, that the Ten-
niffians were formerly in fuch reputation for forcery and
witchcraft, that Pharaoh fent for the wifeft amongft them to
difpute miracles with Mofes. It is certain that they are the
greateft cheats in this country, and are to be as little trufted
to as their road; 24 miles W. of Sherfhell. N. lat. 36° 33',
E. long. 1° 10%.

TENNOLTET, a town of Thibet; 63 miles N.E. of
Harachar Hotun.

TENO, a river of Norway, which runs into the fea,
56 miles W.N.W. of Wardhuys.

TENON, in Building, &c. the fquare end of a piece of
wood, or metal, diminifhed by one-third of its thicknefs,
to be received into a hole in. another piece, called the mortife,
for the jointing or faftening the two together.

Among joiers, &c. the tenon is made in various forms,
fquare, dove-tailed, for double mortifes, &c.

Vitruvius calls the tenons, cardines ; dove-tailed tenons he
calls fubjcudes, or fecuricule. 2

TeEnon-Saw. See Saw.

TENOR, Tenour, the purport or contents, or tran-
{cript, of a writing, or inftrument in law, &c.

Warrants iffued for the confirmation of fentences, exprefs,
that they fhall be executed according to their form and tenor.
—lIt was impoffible to retain fo long a fpeech word for word,
but the fubftance, or the tenor, is this.

Tenor, Jenore, Ital., in Vocal Mujfic, implies the natu-
ral pitch or fenour of a man’s voice in finging. In the vocal
mutic of Italy, France, and Germany, there are three feve-
ral tenor clefs in ufe at prefent : the /oprano on the firft line,
for the higheft part ; the contralto on the third line, for the
counter-tenor part ; and the a/fo tenore on the fourth line, for
the tener part. (See Crier.) In old mufic of the rsth,
16th, and 17th centuries, a tenor clef, called the mezzo
Soprano, on the fecond line, and even on the fifth line, fre-
quently occurs, inftead of the baritono, or F clef, on the
third line.

In inftrumental mufic, the tenor clef on the third line is
ufed for the alto viola, and fimply viola, or tenor part. The
tenor clef on the fourth line frequently occurs in violoncello
parts and harpfichord leffons of the early part of the laft
century ; but at prefent, the high notes in the violoncello part,
and in the bafe of pieces for the piano forte, are more fre-
quently written in the treble clef.

Tenor, or Tenori/ta, is alfo ufed for a perfon who fings
the tenor partin concert ; and alfo for an inftrament proper
to play it. .

TENORE Jndigamenti mittendo,in Law, is awrit by which
the record of an indiétment, and the procefs thereupon, are
called out of another court into the king’s bench.

TENOS, in Ancient Geography, one of the iflands called
Cyclades, S.E. of the ifland of Andros, and very near it,
N.W. of Delos, and N.E. of Syros. All hiftorians agree
in reporting that this ifland abounded with ferpents, whence
it took the name of Ophiuffa, and in Greece that of the
viper, or Tenia. It is faid that the inhabitants muft have
abandoned it on this account, if Neptune had not refcued it
from them. In confequence of this deliverance, they ere&ted
a magnificent temple to his honour, in a wood near the town
of Tenos, and here they celebrated feafts in commemoration
of him. ‘This temple had very extenfive rights of afylum,
which were afterwards regulated by Tiberius. The ifland
was alfo called Hydraffa, on account of its waters. ‘Che
town of the fame name was fituated near the fea, in the

.W.

TEN

S.W. part of the ifland. See Tino.—Alfo, a town of
Greece, in Theffaly.

TENOUR. See Tenor.

TENSA, in Geography, a river of Louifiana, which
forms with.the Wafhita and bayou Long, an ifland of an
oval fhape, about 50 miles in circumference. Immediately
above this ifland, there is another, called Sicilly ifland,
about 30 miles in circumference. At the lower end of Sicilly
ifland, the bayou Tenfa f{preads into a lake of 15 or 20 miles
in length, and nearly parallel with the Miffifippi. The
Tenfa lake receives two confiderable ftreams, the river Aux
Boeufs, and the bayou Mafcon.

TENSE, Time, in Grammar, an inflexion of verbs, by
which they are made to fignify, or diftinguifh, the circum-
ftance of time of the thing they affirm or attribute. '

The affirmations made by verbs are different as to point of
time ; fince we may affirm a thing és, or was, or will be:
hence a neceflity of a fet of inflexions, to denote thofe fe-
veral times ; which inflexions our Englifh grammarians call
by a barbarous word, tenfes ; from the French temps: moft
other languages call them fimply times.

There are but three fimple tenfes ; the prefent, as, I love,
amo; the preter, preterite, or paft, as, I have loved, qmavi;
and the future, as, £ will love, amabo.

But, in regard that in the preter tenfe one may either ex-
prefs the thing as juft done or patt, or indefinitely and barely
that it was done: hence, in moft languages, arife two kinds
of preterite ; the one definitive, marking the thing to be pre-
cifely done ; as, J have written, I have faid: and the other
indefinite, or aorift, denoting a thing done indeterminately ;
as, Z wrote, £ went.

The future tenfe admits alfo of the fame variety.

Befides the three fimple tenfes, others have been invented,
called compound tenfes ; exprefling the relation of the fimple
ones to each other.—The firft expreffes the relation of the
paft to the prefent, and is called the pretcrimperfed tenfe, be-
eaufe it does not mark the thing fimply and properly, as
done, but as imperfe&t, and prefent with refpeét to another
thing paft ; as, £ was at fupper when he entered ; cum intravit,
canabam.

The fecond compound tenfe marks the time paft doubly,
and is therefore called the plu/quamperfed tenfe ; as, I had
Setped 3 cenaveram.

he third compound tenfe denotes the future with refpeé&
to the paft; as, J /hallhave fupped ; canavero.

The feveral tenles, or times, it is to be obferved, are pro-
perly denoted in the Greek and Latin by particular inflexions ;
in the Englifh, French, and other modern tongues, the
auxiliary verbs fo be, and to have, étre and avoir, are called
in. As to the Oriental languages, they have only two fimple
tenfes, the paff and future, without any diftin&tions of imper-
fect, more than perfeét, &c.; but this renders thofe languages
puget to abundance of ambiguities, from which others are

ree.

The ingenious Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, p. 119, &c.
propofes the following theory of tenfes. The tenfes, he
fays, are ufed to mark prefent, pa{t, and future time ; either
indefinitely, without reference to any beginning, middle, or
end; or elfe definitely, in reference to fuch diftinétions. If
indefinitely, then we have three tenfes, an aorift of the pre-
fent, an aorift of the paft, and an aorift of the future. If
definitely, then we have three tenfes to mark the beginnings
of thefe three times ; three to denote their middle ; and three
to denote their ends: in all, nine. The three firft of thefe
tenfes he calls the inceptive prefent, the inceptive paft, and
the inceptive future. The three next, the middle prefent, the
jniddle paft, and the middle future, And the three laft, the

TEN

completive prefent, the completive paft, and the completive
future. Thus the tenfes in their natural number appear to be
twelve ; three to denote time abfolute, and nine to denote it un-
der its refpeCtive diftinGtions. The following examples will
illuftrate the application and ufe of each tenfe. Aorift of the
prefent, ypx$w, /cribo, 1 write; aorift of the pal, pala, feripfi,
I wrote ; aorilt of the future, ypalw, fcribam, J fhall write.
Inceptive prefent, pérrw ypxGew, feripiurus fum, I am going to
write; middle or extended prefent, zvyxzvw ypaur, feribo,
or feribens fum, I am writing; completive prefent, yiypada,
Seripfi, I have written. nceptive paft, iuerrov ypadew, forip-
turus eram, I was beginning to write; middle or extende
patt, tyexQor, or sxulxcvoy ¥paQw7, Scribebam, I was writing
completive patt, tyeyeaQev, feripferam, I had done writing.
Inceptive future, werrrow yeaPay, feripiurus ero, I fhall be be-
ginning to write ; middle or extended future, ?zou21 ypa Pan, [eri-
bens ero, I fhall be writing ; completive future, /cripfero, I fall
have done writing. The author has particularly fhewn what
traces are difcoverable in favour of this fyftem, either in
languages themfelves, or in thofe authors who have written
upon this part of grammar, or in the nature and reafon
of things. Dr. Ward enumerates feven tenfes; viz. the
prefent, paft, and future imperfeé ; the paft indefinite ; the
prefent, paft, and future imperfe&t. See his Four Effays
upon the Englifh Language, p. 84.

TENSIFT, in Geography. See Tanstrr.

TENSION, Tensio, the ftate of a thing bent, or the
effort made to bend it.

Animals only fuftain and move themfelyes by the tenfion
of their mufcles and nerves. A chord or ftring gives an
acuter or deeper found, as itis in a greater or lefs degree of
tenfion.

Tension, Tenfio, Taos, in the Ancient Mufic, was ufed to
fignify any pitch of found, whether produced by intenfion
or remiffion. Vide Ariftoxen. p. 10. 13. edit. Meibom.

Ariftoxenus obferves, there are five things to be confidered
about founds, viz. racs:, tenfion ; ixilxcss, intenfion ; ovea1s,
remiflion ; ofvrxc, acumen ; and Papurn:, gravitas.

TENSITES, in Geography, a mountain of Africa, in
the empire of Morocco, on the borders of Sugulmeffa ; 60
miles E. of Morocco. ‘

TENSOR, in Anatomy, a name given to different
mufcles.

Tensor Palati, a mufcle of the foft palate.
GLUTITION. a

Tensor Tympani, a mufcle of the internal ear. See
Ear. :
Tensor Vagine femoris ; mufculus fafcie lata; is an elon-

ated and flattened mufcle, narrow above, and becoming con-
fiderably broader below, fituated at the upper and outer
part of the thigh, and extending from the anterior fu-
perior {pine of the ilium, to a fhort diftance below the great
trochanter. It is covered by a thin layer of the fafcia ; and
it lies upon the reétus cruris, the vaftus externus, and a {mall
part of the gluteus medius and minimus, feparated from them
by a thin produétion of fafcia, and by copious cellular tiffue.
Its front edge is parallel, above, with the outer margin of the

See Der-

_ fartorius : below, they are parted by an interval, occupied by

the reétus anterior. The potterior edge is conneéted above
to the gluteus medius ; being feparated from it below by cel-
lular tifflue. The upper extremity is attached to the ante-
rior fuperior {pine of the os innominatum, between the far=
torius and the gluteus medius. The mufcle, which is here
narrow, pafles obliquely downwards and outwards, growing
confiderably broader and thinner, and terminates below the

at trochanter, at the angle of {eparation of the two layers
of the fafcia, between which it is fituated: this angle is its

poing

TEN

point’ of infertion. Its upper attachment is by means of a
tendon, from which the fibres run to the fafcia.

It will bend the thigh on the pelvis ; or carry it outwards ;
or rotate it inwards. When the thigh is fixed, it will incline
the pelvis on that limb.

TENSTADT, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia ; 11 miles N.W. of Erfurt.

TENT, Tasernacte, a pavilion, or portable lodge,
under which to fhelter, in the open field, from the injuries
of the weather. See TABERNACLE.

The word is formed from the Latin, tentorium, of tendo, I

Sfiretch 5 in regard tents are ufually made of canvas, ftretched
out, and fuftained by poles, with cords and pegs.

Armies encamp under tents: thefe are made of canvas,
and are of various fizes. A captain’s tent and-marquée is

nerally 10% feet broad, 14 deep, and g high ; thofe of the
ubalterns are a foot lefs ; the major’s and lieutenant-colonel’s
a foot larger; and the colonel’s two feet larger. The fubal-
terns of foot lie two in a tent, and thofe of the horfe one.
The tents of private men are 63 feet fquare, and 5 feet
high, and accommodate five foldiers. The tents for the
horfe are 7 feet broad, and g feet deep; they hold five men,
and their horfe-accoutrements.

Tents, Bell, are fo called from their refemblance to a bell,
and ferve to fhelter the fire-arms from rain.

To pitch the tents, is to fix them up ready for habitation,
by the affiflance of a ridge-pole, two ftandards, and a number
of tent-pins.

Mott of the Tartars and Arabs are wandering people, that
always lodge under tents.

The Hebrews lodged forty years under tents in the de-
farts; which gave occafion to the Scenopegia, or feaft of
tabernacles.

Tent, Dark. See Dark.

Tent, in Surgery, fignifies a roll of lint or linen, for
preventing the healing of openings, from which matter, or
fome other fluid, makes its efcape. Tents are alfo employed
for dilating openings. ‘There are fome tents which aré
made of fponge that has been compreffed into as {mall a
compafs as poffible, while filled with fluid wax, and then
allowed to become cold. Thefe are called /ponge-tents, and,
on becoming warm, after being introduced into parts, they
have the property of {welling in a remarkable degree. We
fhall only fay further upon this fubjeét, that, upon the
whole, tents are not fo much employed in modern as in an-
cient practice ; and there is no doubt, that, unlefs their ufe
be guided by moderation and judgment, they may do con-
fiderable mifchief.

TENTAMOODY, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan,
jn the circar of Rajamundry ; 35 miles S.E. of Rajamundry.

TENTATIVE is fometimes ufed adjeétively : thus we
fay, a tentative method, meaning a kind of unartful or in-
dire& method, which only proceeds by trying.

TenTATIVE is alfo ufed fubftantively, foe an effay or
effort, by which we try our ftrength, or found an affair, &c.
to fee whether or no it will fucceed.

In the French univerfities, tentative is the firft thefis, or
aé&, which a ftudent in the theology-fchool holds, to thew
his capacity: if he anfwers well in this, the degree of
bachelor is conferred on him,

TEN-TCHEOU-FOU, or Ten-cuoo-roo, in Geo-
graphy, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the province
of Chang-tong, having under its jurifdiction one city of the
fecond clafs, and feven of the third. It is fituated on a
rifing ground, and fortified by a ftrong wall round it, and
defended by a numerous garrifon. The fortifications of this
city include a large fpace not occupied by buildings; and

TEN

when it was laid out, it muft either have been expected that
it would increafe in houfes to a greater number than that of
thofe who now occupy it, or the vacant fpace was allotted
for military or other exercifes. The bay, or rather road,
of Ten-choo-foo, is not only open to the eaft and welt, but
partially fheltered towards the north by groups of fmall
iflands, feattered about at different diftances, from five miles
to twice as many leagues, off the main fhore. The Mi-a-tau
iflands are too diftant to break off much of either wind or
{well from that quarter. The anchoring ground confifts in
great part of hard fharp rocks; and at about 14 mile from
the fhore is a dangerous reef, covered at high water, ex-
tending nearly a mile eaft and weft, round which the water
fhoals fo fuddenly as to render any approach to it very
perilous. At Ten-choo-foo is conftruéted a kind of dock,
or bafon, for veffels to load or difcharge their cargoes. The
entrance into it is between two piers, and is from 30 to 40
feet wide. The ground near the coaft of the Yellow fea is
richly cultivated, and rifes in a gentle afcent, which is ter-
minated by high, broken, and barren mountains, apparently
granitical. The paflage between 'Ten-choo-foo and the
Mi-a-tau iflands is called in the chart the ftrait of Mi-a-tau,
in which ftrait the rife and fall of the tide are about feven
feet. Staunton’s Embafly, &c. vol. i.

TENTER, Trier, or Prover, a machine ufed in the
cloth manufactory, to ftretch out the pieces of cloth, ftuff,
&c. or only to make them even, and fet them fquare.

It is ufually about four feet and a half high, and, for
length, exceeds that of the longeft piece of cloth. It con-
fifts of feveral long, {quare pieces of wood, placed like thofe
which form the barriers of a manege ; fo, however, as that
the lower crofs-pieces of wood may be raifed or lowered, as
is found requifite, to be fixed at any height, by means of
pins. Along the crofs-pieces, both the upper and under
one, are hooked nails, called tenter-hooks, driven in from
{pace to fpace.

To put a Piece of Cloth on the Tenter.—While the piece is
yet quite wet, one end is faftened to one of the ends of the
tenter ; then it is pulled by force of arms towards the other
end, to bring it to the length required : that other end being
faftened, the upper lift is hooked on to the upper crofs-piece,
and the loweft lift to the loweft crofs-piece, which is after-
wards lowered by force, till the piece have its defired
breadth. Being thus well ftretched, both as to length and
breadth, they brufh it with a ftiff hair-brufh, and thus let it
dry. Then they take it off; and, till they wet it again, it
will retain the length and breadth the tenter gave it.

TENTERDEN, in Geography, is a fmall market-town
in the hundred of the fame name, in the lathe of Scray,
and county of Kent, England, fituated 18 miles S.S.E.
from Maidftone, and 56 miles S.E. by S. from London.
N. lat. 51° 4! 8". E. long. o° 41! 8. At a remote
period it was incorporated by the name of the “ barons
of the town and hundred of Tenterden ;’’ which ftyle
was changed to that of the “bailiff and commonalty,’?
by letters patent of Henry VI., who at the fame time an-
nexed it as a member to the town and port of Rye, in
Suffex, to which it is yet fubje&. Queen Elizabeth, in_
her forty-fecond year, granted the inhabitants a new charter,
by which, in the place of a bailiff, &c. the future govern-
ment of the town was veiled in a mayor, twelve jurats,
twelve common-council men, a chamberlain, and a town-
clerk. The prefent town-hall, which is occafionally ufed
as an aflembly-room, was built about the year 1792 ; the old
one having been burned by an accidental fire. ‘The market-
houfe is a fmall, mean edifice of timber, now little fre-
quented ; the market itfelf being almoft difufed, though {till

nominally

TEN

nominally held on Fridays. A large fair is annually held
for the hie of cattle, wool, fhop-goods, &c. According
to the returns under the population aé& of the year 1811,
the number of inhabitants in this town was 2786, that of
houfes 459. Many of the latter are refpeétable buildings,
occupied by perfons whofe families have derived affluence
from the grazing bufinefs carried on in the neighbouring
marfhes. The parifh church is a fpacious ftructure, and
confifts of a nave, north aifle, and chancel, with a well-built
and lofty tower at the weft end, on which is fculptured the
arms of St. Auguttine’s monattery, to which foundation this
church was appropriated in 1259. Befides the church, here
are two places of religious worfhip for diffenters of different
denominations. Dr. Harris mentions an ancient free-{chool,
founded here by one of the family of Heyman of Somerfield,
and records fome donations made for its fupport. The
truftees are the mayor and jurats, who, according to Hatted,
are fo inattentive to the charity, that not any children are
now educated on this foundation.

The chapelry of Small Hithe, in Tenterden parifh, was
formerly, according to traditional report, a very confiderable
place, but is now reduced to a few farm-houfes and cot-
tages. The chapel was licenfed by archbifhop Warham, in
1509, ‘on account of the badnefs of the roads, and the
dangers which the inhabitants underwent in their way to the
parifh church, from the waters being out.’’—Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. viii. Kent, by E. W. Brayley.

TENTH, in Englifh Hiftory. See Lanp-Tax.

Tenths are faid to have been firft granted under Henry II.,
who took advantage of the fafhionable zeal for croifades to
introduce this new taxation, in order to defray the expence
of a pious expedition to Paleftine, which he really or feem-
ingly had projected againit Saladine, emperor of the Sara-
cens; whence it was originally denominated the Saladine
tenth. But afterwards fifteenths were more ufually granted
than tenths.

Tentu, Decima. See First-Fruits, and TiTue.

Tentus, Offce of, is kept in the Temple, under the di-
reétion of a receiver and his clerks.

TentTu, in Dife, the o¢tave above the third, and an
o€tave below the feventeenth, or ftop in the organ called the
tierce. The tenth is a very pleafing confonance, but in-
ferior in fuavity to the third; for which reafon the duets at
the opera, fince the principal firft man’s part has been per-
formed by a tenor, have never given the audience that ex-

quifite pleafure which they ufed to do, when fung by two ,

fopranos.

TENTHREDO, in Entomology, a genus of the Hy-
menoptera order of infeéts, the characters of which are, that
the mouth has a horny, arcuated mandible, within dentated ;
a ftraight jaw, obtufe at the apex ; acylindric, trifid lip, with
four unequal filiform feelers; the wings flat, and tumid or
flightly inflated; thé piercers confifting of two ferrated,
fearcely prominent lamine ; and the fcutellum with two
diftant granules.

The larve of this genus refemble thofe of the order
Lepidoptera, or real caterpillars ; but are diftinguifhed from
them by their more numerous feet, which are never fewer
than fixteen, exclufive of the three firft or thoracic pairs.
When difturbed or handled, they ufually roll themfelves into
a flat fpiral. They feed, like the caterpillars of the lepi-
doptera, on the leaves of plants ; and undergo their chryfalis
ftate in a {trong gummy cafe or enveiopement, prepared in
autumn, out of which, in the enfuing fpring, emerges the
complete infeft. The tenthredines form a numerous genus,
and are divided into tribes or feétions, according to the form
of the antenna. Gmelin reckons 143 {pecies.

TEN

N. B. The European fpecies are marked with a ftar ¥,
and the Englifh with a crofs +.

Species.
A. Antenne clavated.

*FrmoratTa. Antenne yellow; black body; hinder
thighs largeft ; the larva green, with a blueifh line on the
back, and yellow at the fides.

*Marcinata. Antenne yellowifh at the ap2x ; black
body ; the hinder fegments of the abdomen white at the
margin.

Lutes. Antenne yellow; fegments of the abdomen
moftly yellow. This fect proceeds from a large green
larva, of a finely granulated furface, with a path and of
black fpecks on each fide, and a dufky dorfal line bounded
on each by yellow. It feeds on various fpecies of willow,
alder, and beech. The parchment-like cafe in which it en-.
velopes itfelf in autumn is of a pale yellowifh-brown colour ;
and the chryfalis, which is of a pale dufky or brownith catt,
exhibits the limbs of the future fly, in fize equal to a com-
mon waf{p, and of a yellow colour, bound with blacks the
antennz rather fhort, and ftrongly clavated. 7

AmeRIN®. Body cinereous; abdomen beneath red;
white lip. This infect is fomewhat fmaller than the pre-
ceding : its caterpillar, like that of the former, is of a 2
colour, and of a finely roughened furface, powdered with
numerous whitifh fpecks. Feeds on the willow.

Tristis. Black, with yellow antennz, and wings brown
at the apex ; green larva, with an azure line on the back,
black and yellow fringed. -

VireLttin®. Abdomen above black ; fides red; hinder
thighs dentated ; larva greenifh.

ucoruw. Antennz black; body villous black. Found
on the beech and alder. ‘

*Fascrata. Black; antenne black; primary wings
with a brown band.

*Sericea. Antenne yellow; thorax black; abdomen
braffy ; larva green, with two yellow lines. °

Osscura. Body fmooth and black. Found in the
groves of Sweden.

Connata. Black; abdomen with yellow bands. Found
on the alder.

*Nivens. Antenne yellow; abdomen green-blueifh,

fhining. Suggefted to be a variety of the fericea.

B. Antenne exarticulate, the outer ones thicker.

Cravicornis. Black; abdomen yellow; apex black.
Found in North America. :

AwnuLata. Black; abdomen yellow; hinder tarfi black,
annulated with white.

*Eynopis. Antenne fmooth; body black-blueifh ; Tarva
green, {potted with black, a rough lateral line yellow,
fharp tail.

Citiaris. Antenne beneath ciliated ; hinder legs white.
Found in Germany.

*Ustutata. Body black; abdomen blueifh; legs
On the canine rofe. Larva green, with two white lines;
head teftaceous ; obfcure band. "

+ Cyanocrocea. Head and thorax bright-blue ; abdo-
men faffron-coloured.

+ArRAtA. Black; back, zone, and three ares, -yel-
low-greenifh. :

Bicotor. Black-blue; abdomen and bafe of the wings
yellow ; wings with a black band. Found in Auftria.

*Mezanocura. Black; abdomen yellow; a {mall us

TENTHREDO.

line on both fides of the anus; legs and foles yellow; wings

with a black fpot.
*Tricotor. Head and thorax black; wings and feet

brown; abdomen yellow.
*Ocuropus. Head, thorax, middle of the breaft, and
apex of the hinder legs, black ; abdomen and feet yellow.

C. Antenne peétinated.

Cepnatorers. Black ; abdomen with four yellow zones
or belts. Found in Germany.

+ Dorsata. Whitifh; head and back of the thorax and
abdomen black.

D. Antenne pennated.

*Prmr. Antenne lanceolate, and thorax fubvillous;
larva blueifh, and yellow at the tail end.

‘Junreerr. Antenne obtufe; thorax fmooth; larva
green, pointed with black.

E. Untenne filiform, with from feven to nine Joints.

Americana. Thorax yellow; abdomen blue; wings
black. Found in Surinam.

Cosratts. Black, with the rib of the wings ferruginous.
Found in Germany.

* Lareraris. Black; middle of the back red; fides white.
Found on the flowers of Sweden.

+ Arcuata. Abdomen black ; five arcs, with a band at
the bafe and fides, yellow-greenith.

*Rustica. Black; abdomen with three yellow belts,
the hinder two interrupted ; larva cinereous, with triangular
hrown fpots on the back. .

*ScropHuLtari®. Antenne yellow; abdomen with five
yellow belts, the firft more diftant.

Axietis. Body black, with four ferruginous fegments
of the abdomen.

Germanica. Body black; thorax before and abdomen
red. Found in the groves of Germany.

Papi. Black, with thighs and legs white.

Cynrvirormis. Green-brafly ; vallows feet ; hinder thighs
braffy.

Pt: Body black ; fcutellum and feet yellow ; larva
gelatinous, black.

Saxicis. Body variegated. Found on the elder and
willows.

Friavicornis. Yellow; head and tail black. Found in
Germany and Italy.

Lureicornis. Black; with antenne, mouth, bafe of

the abdomen, and legs, yellow.

Mesomeras. Abdomen yellowifh; back black; arcs
yellowith.

Puncrum Asem. Body black; abdomen at the fides
white ; hinder thighs red. Found in Germany.

+ Brianna. Black; abdomen in the middle red; hinder
thighs with a white fpot.

QuapRIMACULATA. Black; hinder feet red; two {pots
at the bafe white.

*Ruoripes. Body black; abdomen with two yellow
belts ; feet red.

*Campestris. Body black ; abdomen with an unequal
yellow belt ; antennz and legs yellow.

*Arra. Body black’; feet red.

*Viripis. Body green; abdomen above brown.

*Ovarta. Body black; thorax above red; larva greenifh,
{prinkled with a kind of white powder.

Aunt. Body black ; head and thorax red.

*CxRuLescens. Violet ; abdomen yellow ; wings with
a brown fpot. ,

Voi. XXXV.

*Pavipa. Black; the abdomen with three fegments,
and feet ferruginous ; larva green, fprinkled with ait fa-
rina; head yellow.

*Ros#. Black; abdomen yellow, and ridge of the
primary «wings black ; larva yellow, pointed with black.

*Bicincra. Body black ; belt of the abdomen, anus,
mouth, arid legs yellow.

Crycta. Body black; the abdomen with a white belt ;
perhaps a variety of the former.

*Livipa. Body black ; antenne before the apex
white. ‘
Avsicornis. Black; antennz at the apex white ; legs
teftaceous ; wings at the apex brown. Found in Italy.

Gonocra. Body black ; knees teftaceous. Found in
Germany.

Nicra. Whole body black. Found at Upfal.

* fEruiops. Smooth, black; with the four fore-legs

pale.

Rap#. Body black; belly, feet, and f{eutellum
whitifh.

SEPTENTRIONALIS. Feet pofterior, compreffed and di-
lated ; larva gregarious, green, {potted with black ; yellow
apices.

Opaca. Black; thorax with a fpot on both fides, red
at the apex. Found in the gardens of Sweden.

CarsonariaA. Black, with a white mouth; fore-legs
teftaceous. Found in Germany.

te Nassata. Yellow; fcutellum and point of the wings
white.

*12-PuncraTa. Body blaek, with twelve white points.

Gapre®. Yellow; head, thorax, and abdomen above,
black ; wings with a yellow point.

Morro. Black; with pale feet. Foundin Germany.

Awnnuraris. Black, fhining; antenne white at the
apex ; legs ferruginous. In the gardens of Auttria, per-
haps a variety of the livida.

FERRUGINEA. Antenne black, annulated with white ;
body ferruginous ; thorax, breaft, and vertex black. Found
as the laft.

Crassa. Black ; feet and double points under the feu-
tellum elevated, red. In Auftria and Carniola.

Axsicincta. Black; the belt at the bafe of the
abdomen and legs with a ring milky. In Anuttria and
France.

VespirorMis. Antenne yellow; all the fegments of
the abdomen with yellow margins. In Aultria.

Semicincta. Black; the belt of the abdomen broken
behind, yellowith ; the feet and abdomen beneath yellow. In
Auttria. : /

Viennensis. Black; abdomen with five yellow belts ;
the bafe of the antennz fulvous. In Vienna. _

Rists. Black; legs and apophyfes of hinder thighs
white at the exterior fide. In Auttria.

Fourieinosa. Black, with fuliginous wings. In Auttria.

Dearzata. Black; the abdomen on both fides marked
with a white fpot, hinder thighs clavated, yellowifh. In
Auttria.

Atneti. Yellow; abdomen above black. In Auttria.

Hamaropes. Black, thorax before on both fides red.
In Autftria.

ErytHrocona. Black; the apex of the thighs and
bafe of the legsred. In Auftria and France.

Furviventris. Black; with red and deep yellow ab-

domes. Found in Auftria and Carniola.
Furvivenia. Black ; with the exterior margin of the
wings fulvous, or deep yellow. Found at Vienna.

*Supuurata. Black; antenne fubclavated; four
Yy fore-

TENTHREDO.

fore-feet fulphureous ; the hinder foles with three interme-
diate white joints.

*Fraveona. Antennz fubclavated, black ; bafe, mouth,
fides, and five firft fegments of the abdomen and feet,
yellow.

*AnnuLata. Yellow; antenne’ fubclavated, black ;
apex of the thighs and foles annulated with black.

*RusiciInosA. Black’ antennz fubclavated,"and bafe
with feet yellow; third, fourth, and fifth fegments of the
abdomen ferruginous,

*SupuLcata. Black; antenne fubulate at the apex ;
fecond to the fifth fegments of the abdomen, as far as the
hinder margin, legs and foles, yellow, and thefe annulated
with black.

*MucronaTa. Black, with the feven-knotted antennz
and abdomen yellow ; the laft fegments from the fecond to
the fourth black ; the apex of the wings brown.

* Varta. Black; mouth, fcutellum, and fcutellar fpots,
white ; the hinder fegments of the abdomen and feet fer-
ruginous. ;

* SANGUINOLENTA.
guineous.

*Dearsata. Black; the three laft joints of the an-
tennz and jaws white ; legs and foles yellow.

*Canescens. Grey-downy, brown, with grey wings.

*Brrascrata. Brown, with black thorax ; mouth, feu-
tellum, and four fpots at the fcutel, white; abdomen with
two interrupted yellow bands ; margin of the wings and feet
yellow.

* Braccata. Black, with red thighs; the bafe of the
four hinder legs, and the three penultimate joints of the an-
tenne, white.

*Ruripes. Black; the bafe of the abdomen, witha
fpot on both fides, and jaws, white ; four fore-legs red.

*Mevanoreuca. Black; mouth, thorax with a fmall
line on both fides before the wings; a {pot on the hinder

Black ; with the hinder feet fan-

thighs ; legs, the fides of the abdomen from five to feven,

fegments, and apex, white.

*Metanocura. Black; mouth, four fore-feet, and
bafe-flexure of the hinder thighs, yellow.

* Leucorus. Black; the bafe-flexures of the thighs
white ; four anterior legs without, and middle of the hinder,
white. :

*Vanicornis. Black, with red feet ; fourth and fifth
joints of the antenne and hinder legs at their bafe, white.

* Onscura. . Brown; with the rib of the wings as far as
the {pot and feet teftaceous.

*Limeata. Black ; the hinder margins of the fegments
of the abdomen white ; feet reddifh.

*Exarpipa. Black; with feelers and four legs obfo-
letely white.

* Ferrucinosa. Black; the antenne ferruginous for-
wards; the bafe and anterior margin of the wings, the
firft and fifth fegment of the abdomen, the legs and foles,
white.

* Ancusta. Black; body narrow and grey-downy.

*Lurescens. Black; with the abdomen beneath and
feet yellow-reddifh.

*Axcsrees. Black ; with legs and foles white.

*FrLavivenrris. Black; mouth white; abdomen yel-
low ; back and apex black; feet teftaceous.

*Picea. Pitchy ; anterior legs before, {pot of the hinder
thighs, and bafe, white ; hinder feet red; the knees and foles
black.

*Fusciprs. Black; feet red ; pofterior foles brown.
*Brmacutata. Pale; eyes, abdomen above the bale,
breaft and two fpots, black.

*Larta. Broad, black; the pofterior fegments of the
abdomen white, from the fecond to the fifth interrupted.

* AxNALIcoRNIS. Pale, the antennz {potted with black
at the bafe; vertex of a branchy figure, eyes, and the
eonineats points at the back of the thorax and abdomen,
black.

* Scripta. Pitchy; mouth, and on the middle of the
fore-part of the thorax the mark refembles V ; the {pot
on both’ fides the fcutellum’ white; two fcutellar points»
wine feet, and under margin of the fegments of the belly,
ye Ow.

*Lirerata. Black; fegments of the abdomen from
the fecond to the fifth in the back, ovated {pot on both fides
and margins white; anterior feet, and four hinder legs on
the fore-part, white.

* Meianorna@a.. Black, with yellow abdomen; the
tranfverfe {pots of the back and anus black.

*Genrnata. ~ Black, with geminated antenne, and
joints and legs pale.

* OCHROGUSTES.
and feet yellow.

*RuricapPitLA. Head and thorax red; the pofterior
margin of the latter and eyes black ; the abdomen and feet
yellow. .

* Dusia.

* PALLESCENS.

Pitchy ; with the abdomen beneath

Black ; thorax before red ; joints whitifh.
Black ; mouth and feet pale.

F. Antenne fetaceous ; many Joints.

EryTHROCEPHALA. Body ceruleous; head red.

*Sytvatica. Body black: feet and marks of the tho-
rax yellow.

* NEMORALIS.
white at the fide.

*Cynospati. Body black; feet ferruginous, hinder
annulated with white and black.

Sicnata. Pale; thorax. and three dorfal longitudinal
fpots black. Found in Germany.

Porutt. Black-blueifh ; mouth, feelers, and legs yellow.

Varra. Head black, variegated with white; feet tef-
taceous. Found in Sweden.

Reticutara. Wings varied with pale and brown,
with elevated veins, white and reticulated. Found in
Finland.

Body black ; fegments of the abdomen”

*Berurm. Body red; thorax, anus, and eyes black ;
wings behind brown.
*FLava. Yellow, with the fpot on the wings ferru-

ginous.
H&MORRNOIDALIS.
taceous. In Germany.
+Nemorum. Middle of the abdomen red; feutellum
and point on the wings white.
DepressA. Head and thorax black; marks yellow;
abdomen and feet ferruginous. In Auftria and France.
Livearis. Black; legs, and five bands of the filiform
abdomen, yellow. In Auitria. .
Bireuncrata. Antenne fub-fetaceous ; nine joints black,
and two points of the black {cutellum white.

G. Of doubtful Order.
Black ; with yellow feet and fubclavated

Black ; with the anus and feet tef-

INTERCUS.
antenne. :

Rumicis. Found on the dock.

Umi. Found on the leaves of the wild elder.

Pruni. Found on the plum-tree.

Loyicerx. Brown, tomentofe, fhining, with fubclavated
antennz, and fubferruginous wings.

* PoLYGONA. Black ; antennz fubclayated with eighteen

9 Foote

Saat EnEEEEE EE Eae

—

TEN

knots ; the hinder margin of the fegments of the abdomen
from the third to the fifth yellow-greenifh ; the thighs black ;
the face anterior at the apex and the legs yellow; the hinder
at the apex black ; the foles yellow; the linear abdomen
compreffed.

TENTOLI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Ce-
lebes, near the north extremity, on the weft coaft, which
gives name to aroad. N. lat. 1°.

TENTORES, among the Romans, were perfons ap-
pointed to hold the clothes of the charioteers that contended
in the circus.

TENTUGAL, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Beira; 7 miles W.N.W. of Coimbra.

TENTYRA, or Tentyris, in Ancient Geography, ‘a
town of Egypt, and capital of a nome, which took the
name of Tentyrites, according to Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy,
and Steph. Byz.

TENTZEL, Witttam-Ernest, in Biography, a Ger-
man antiquary and hiftorian, was born, in 1659, at Greuffen,
in Thuringia, and finifhed his education at Wittemberg, di-
re&ting the courfe of his ftudies to philofophy and the Orien-
tal languages, and alfo to hiftory, both facred and profane.
In 1685 he was appointed a teacher in the prueies at
Gotha, and entrufted with the care of the duke’s colle@ion
of antiquities and coins. In order to qualify himfelf for the
more konourable difcharge of his duties as hiftoriographer
to the houfe of Saxony of the Erneftine line, to which
office he was appointed in 1696, he vifited various courts in
Germany, and carried on an epiftolary correfpondence with
many diftinguifhed foreigners. In 1702 he removed to
Drefden, where he was made hiftoriographer to the elector
of Saxony, king of Poland, by whom he was honoured with
the title of counfellor ; but his manners not being adapted
to a court, he obtained leave to retire. What remained of
his life was devoted to literary purfuits ; and he died, very
poor, in November 1707, in his 49th year. His works
were numerous, among which we may reckon the following :
viz. © De Phenice,” Vitemb. 1682, 4to.; “ De Ritu Lec-
tionum Sacrorum,”* Vitzmb. 1685, 4to. a work highly
commended by Bayle ; “ Judicia Eruditorum de Symbolo
Athanafiano ftudiofé colle&a et inter fe collata,’’ Franef.
et Lipf. 1687, 12mo.; “ Animadverfiones in Cafimiri Or-
dine Supplementum de Scriptoribus Ecclefiafticis,” 1688,
12mo.; ‘* Cafparis Sagittarii Hiftorici Saxonici Hiftoria
Gothona plenior, &c.’’ Jena, 1700, 4to.; “ Supplementum
Hiftorie Gothonz,” ibid. 1701, 4to.; “ Supplementum
Hitt. Goth. fecundum,”’ ibid. 1701, 4to.; “ Saxonia Nu-
mifmatica, ParsI.’’ Francf. et Lipf. 1705, 4to.; ‘¢ Pars II.”
1705. Tentzel was alfo a contributor to feveral literary
journals. Gen. Biog.

TENUIROSTRA, in Ornithology, the name of a genus
of fmall birds, which feed on infeéts, and have flender and
fharp beaks ; of this genus are the lark, {wallow, red-breaft,
and a number of others. Ray’s Ornithology.

TENUME, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Nedsjed; 40 miles N. of Aniza.

TENURE, in Agriculture, the manner in which pro-
prietors and tenants hold their lands, &c. of their Jand-
lords, or other perfons.

It may be noticed, that the tenures of lands are extremely
various in almoit every diftri& of the es being, how-
ever, chiefly free freefarmboald, copyhold, long-leafehold,
er life-leafehold, though there are many other local forts of
tenures of land. The freehold is moft probably in the largeft
proportion over the whole country, the copyholds in the
next, and the leafehold tenures in the fmalleft extent. It

TEN

has been remarked in the Shropthire Agricultural Report,
that it appears beautiful in theory, that there fhould be one
rule of defcent in a kingdom only, one tenure of property,
and one feale of olitiest rights ; but that it may be doubted
whether fo much uniformity is fuitable to an imperfeé {tate ;
or at leaft to our prefent degree of improvement. At all
events, irregularities that are not attended with much prac-
tical inconvenience, fhould not be pointed out as obnoxious,
in a fcheme that has produced fo much pofitive happinefs,
and fo much comparative good, as the conftitution of thefe
kingdoms has afforded.

It is ftated too, in the Agricultural Survey of Effex,
that freehold eftates are the moft valuable to the immediate
proprietor, there can be no doubt ; but the purchafer of a
copyhold may remember, that the original purchafe is by fo
much the lower; and whether he lets the occupation to a
tenant, or farms and cultivates it himfelf, he may poflibly
make as good intereft of his capital as if he had bought a
freehold. Perhaps, alfo, its general and final utility to the
public, may be nearly or quite the fame. This, the writer
thinks, is certain, that copyhold eftates, whether in the hands
of the proprietors or tenants, are as well cultivated as the free,
excepting only in the article of timber, and even in that the
difference-is feldom vifible. The like may be faid of leafe-
hold eftates, and even of thofe in mortmain.

In Hertfordfhire, where a large portion of the property
is held by copyhold tenure, with a fine certain or at the will
of the lord, but which fine never exceeds two years’ rent,
the land fells at about fix years’ purchafe under the price of
freehold, according to the Report of the ftate of agricul-
ture for that diftri@. And it is further fuggefted in the
latter of the two former of the above agricultural furveys,
that, with regard to the tenures by which the more tempo-
rary occupiers hold their farms, they are, as already ob-
ferved, extremely various, fome upon leafes of longer or
fhorter duration, fome without any leafe at all, agreeably to
the tafte and pleafure of the landlord ; though by far the
greateft number, efpecially of thofe in the poffeffion of the
imaller proprietors, are let upon leafes of from eight or ten
to twenty-one years. ind it is obferved, from what has
been done in Norfolk and other counties where the tenures
are of more length, as from feven to twenty-one years, that
the improvement of the land is much conneéted with the
practice of fuch tenures. ‘And it is likewife fuggefted in
the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, that it were much
to be wifhed that a general rule could be adopted for the
commencement and end of tenures ; as it would ultimately,
the writer thinks, be highly advantageous to landlords and
tenants, and will probably be one refult of the labours of
agricultural focieties.

Some fuppofe the freehold tenure to poffefs the moft
numerous advantages, with the feweft inconveniences, of any
fort of holding. But many are of opinion that fome other
kinds are equal to it, or nearly fo, The forms of tenure
throughout moft of the fouthern parts of England, are prin-
cipally thofe of the freehold, copyhold, life-leafe, church-
leafe, and college-leafe kinds, both for lives and years. In
Cornwall they are for the moft part freehold, with the ex-
ception of the lands of ecclefiaftical corporations and ancient
duchy land, which is equivalent to copyhold in fee, held
under the duke of Cornwall, fubje& to a fmall annual rent,
This fort of land pafles by furrender in the duchy courts,
nearly in the fame form as other copyhold lands. But the
modern duchy is different from the above ; the occupiers
being leffees under the duke, and, in general, are purchafers
of an intereft in the land during the continuance of the
longeft liver of three lives, the confideration being, in part,

Yy.2 a fine

TEN

a fine paid at the time of the grant, and alfo a referved rent
during the contmuance of the leafe.

There are three different kinds of church-leafe in this dif-
tri@ ; as demifes to tenants for the longeft of three lives ;
the confiderations being money and referved rents; demifes
to manorial tenants for three lives in the ‘fame way ; the
takers having the liberty, during the whole time, to under-
leafe to other tenants in the manner of copyholds for three
lives ; and grants of leafes for twenty-one years abfolute,

iving frefh leafes at the end of every feven, which is a re-
a, the firft. 'Thefe are firft made in confideration of
fines and referved rents, but in the renewals fines only.

In the fame diftri@, it has been much the cuftom, in
refpe& to the tenure of tenants, to grant leafes for lives,
for the term of ninety-nine years, determinable on the
death of the longeft liver of three lives, to be named by the
taker. On the death of one of the lives named in the leafe,
it was ufual for the landlords to confent to the adding a new
life to the two which remained. The confideration in the
primary grant was uniformly a fine in hand of from fourteen
to eighteen years rent of the landed eftate, with a {mall
referved rent, and fuit and fervice to the manor,court ; the
renewal commonly a fine only of three years’ rent for one
life, or feven for two lives, without any alteration of the
other rent.

A large proportion of the lands here are now held by the
tenantry under thefe leafes or tenures, but it mutt be noticed,
that the number of new grants, or the renewal of old ones,
is on the decreafe ; and acne takes place, unlefs under par-
ticular circumftances and motives.

The holders under thefe leafes or tenures, which are called
leafeholds or fine-leafes, are conftantly fubjefed to all
taxes and repairs of every kind, excepting that a {mall pro-
portion of the land-tax in {ome manors is repaid the tenant,
as the land-tax of the referved rent. Under the property-
tax, they were rated both as proprietor and occupier, except
only that the landlord was liable to the property-tax for his
referved rent.

It admits of fome doubt whether this mode of leafing or
holdipg property be more detrimental to the lord, the tenant,
or the public in general ; but it is certainly a very injudicious
and unwife method of proceeding, as it is highly injurious
to the agriculture of the county, though at firft fight the
fecurity and great length of the leafes might be fuppofed to
have the contrary effect. It is found, however, in practice,
that the circumftance of moft of the holders under thefe
leafes having not only exhaufted in their purchafe and re-
newal the whole of their capitals, but often confiderably
more raifed on them with great difadvantage, counteracts
every good that might otherwife have been expected. It
is aflerted that, in common, cultivators of this fort, from the
want of capital and other means, as well as the fpeculative
nature of all fuch tenures, are neceffarily feeble and fpirit-
lefs, and that they live worfe, work harder, and are more
inconvenienced, than any other kind of holders of land. And
that where the landlords do not renew, they are frequently
fufferers from the dilapidated and exhaufted ftate of the
premifes.

It is alfo remarked by Mr. Vancouver, in his Account of
the Acriculture of the County of Devon, in regard to thefe
kinds of life-leafe tenures, that the mifchievous confequences
infeparably conneéted with, and refulting from, the want of
agricultural knowledge in thofe who have the direétion and
management of fuch eftates, and who, to cover the want of
the neceflary qualifications of a land agent, moft commonly
advife the proprietors to grant thofe life-hold tenures fo
frequently heard of in this county and South Wales, are

TEN

more injurious and extenfive than is. generally apprehended.
The fame capital employed in the purchafe of a leafe for
ninety-nine years, determinable on three lives, applied to the
ftocking, cultivating, and improving a more extenfive. occu-
pation held at a fair annual rent, and under an encouraging
term of years, mutt, it is fuppofed, produce, in the contem-
plation of fuch property, very different emotions in the mind
of the owner : to the occupier the refults are infinitely more
advantageous ; and to the public at large, a more abundant
fupply is produced than can poflibly be derived from a capi-
tal employed in the purchafe of a more narrow occupation

- on an eventually undifturbed poffeffion of ninety-nine years.

But notwithftanding, an opinion prevails with fome noblemen.
and others in this county, that it is better to realize at forty:
years’ purchafe, than to fuffer the lifehold tenures to fall in
without renewal. Fortunately for the future improvement
and profperity of the county, the writer fays, this {pecies oF
tenure is become much leffened within the laf twenty years.
In order to accomplifh this prepofterous objeé of the tenant’s
indolence and pride, it is obferved, he will employ his laft fhil-
ling, and incur very heavy obligations among his friends and
neighbours, to pay eighteen years’ purchafe for a leafe only
of that very farm, the fee of which might readily have been
bought for about one-third more. Deititute of capital, and
encumbered with obligations contra¢ted with his family and
friends, the farmer enters his new occupation, dependin
upon cafual and agiftment ftock for the confumption of his
pafture herbage. Having little or no referved rent to pro-
vide for, the efforts of himfelf and family are directed to the
annual cultivation of fo much of his land as will pay the
parochial and other {mall difburfements, and fupply the bare
wants of the moft comfortlefs life it is poffible to conceive,
leaving no brighter profpeéts to his offspring, than what the
lapfe of ninety-nine years may do, by terminating a leafe fo
injudicioufly purchafed. The fame is the cafe with thefe forts
of tenures in many other diftri€ts of the kingdom.

There is a great number of tenures befides the above
forts in the midland and more northern counties, fome of
which are very curious and fingular. ‘Tenures under the
crown are likewife met with in thefe as well as moft other
parts of the kingdom,

In that part of the country ufually denominated Scotland,
the tenures by which lands are principally held may be
claffed and confidered as thofe of fuperiority, property, and
tack ; the firft of which is merely nominal, and goes no far-
ther than that of conferring the right of franchife; the
feeond is a valuable tenure of land, as yielding and implying
the full ufe and command of it to the fubje& for all the
purpofes of human life, excepting merely political power,
which is attached as above, and may or may not be attached
to the property ; and the laft is the tenure for a term of years,
by which profeffional farmers hold land from proprietors for
the purpofes of agriculture. The origin of thefe forts of
tenures, which feem to have been of a military or feudal na-
ture, is more fully explained in Vinlater’s Agricultural
Survey of the County of Peebles, to which the inquirer on
this fubjeét is referred.

Tenure, Zenura, in Law, the manner or condition in
which a tenant holds lands or tenements of his lord ; or the
fervices performed to the lord, in confideration of the ufe and
oceupancy of his lands.

The kinds of fervice, and confequently of tenures, are
almolt infinite. See SERVICE.

Thofe for lands held of the king are either great, or petly
Jergeanty, in capite, knights fervice, Kc.

Thofe held of the lords were very various, ba/e, frank, &e-
by Aomage, facage, &c. See Base, FRANK, &e. os

c

——T

a) a

TEP

‘The common tenures at this day are, fee-fimple, fee-tail,
by courtefy, in dower, for life, or for years, or by copy of
- court-roll.

Tenure, Barons by anciest. See Baron.

Tenure, Difturbance of, is a {pecies of injury which cons
fifts in breaking that conneétion which fubfifts between the
lord and his tenant, and to which the law pays fo high a
regard, that it will not fuffer it to be wantonly diffolved by
the a& of athird perfon. If, therefore, there be a tenant
at will of any lands or tenements, and a ftranger, either by
menaces or threats, or by unlawful diftreffes, or by fraud
and circumvention, or other means, contrives to drive him
away, or inveigle him to leave his tenancy, this the law very
juftly conftrues to be a wrong and injury to the lord; and

ives him a reparation in damages againft the offender by a
Foeuial action on the cafe. Blackft. Com. vol. iii.

TENUTE, Ital. in Mufic, generally written fen, from
the Italian verb fenere, to hold on, fuftain to the laft moment
of a note’s duration. See SosTENUTO.

TENYA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country
of Foota. N. lat. 10° 15’. W. long. 10° 25!.

TEN-YANG, a town of Corea;.-73 miles E.S.E. of
King-ki-tao.

ENZEGZET, a town of Algiers; 16 miles S. of
Tremecen. ‘

TENZYN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cra-
cow ; 20 miles W. of Cracow.

TEOATZINCO, a town of Mexico, in the country of
Tlafeala, where a bloody battle was fought between the
natives and the Spaniards under Cortez; 20 miles E. of
Tiafcala.

TEOLO, a town of Italy, in the Paduan; 7 miles
§.S.W. of Padua.

TEOLY, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gohud ;
15 miles S.E. of Gwalior.

TEOMAHAL, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipe-
lago. N. lat. 6° 15." E. long. 120° 51/.

TEONA, a {mall ifland near the weft coafl of Scotland.
N. lat. 56°47!.. W. long. 5° 50’.

TEOPISCAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Chiapa ; 60 miles S.E. of Chiapa dos Efpagnols.

TEOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in
Tonia, on the fouthern coaft of a peninfula, which became
an ifland when the fea was high or much agitated. It
was fituated over-againft the ifle of Samos, S.W. of Smyrna,
and E. of the promontory of Coryceon. It is celebrated
for having been the birth-place of Anacreon. The inhabit-
ants were renowned for their courage: they preferred aban-
doning their city to living under the tyranny of the Perfians.
Teos was treated with mildnefs by the Roman emperors.
Bacchus had a magnificent temple here, which Vitruvius has
particularly defcribed. Here alfo was held a general coun-
cil sor the management of all the affairs of Ionia, becaufe
this city was in the centre of Ionia—Alfo, the name of a
town of Scythia.

TEOWENISTA Creek, in Geography, a river of
Pennfylyania, which runs into the Alleghany, about 5 miles
Below Hickery.

TEPAPA. See TaroaTaInEeToomo.

TEPEACA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Tlafcala; 15 miles S.S.E. of Puebla de los
Angelos.

TEPEGUANA, a diftri& of New Brafil, fituated on
the Nazas,

TEPELLENE’, a town of Albania, the birth-place
and favourite refidence of Ali, fituated on the banks of a
siwer, which at the diftance of 60 mikes from the fea appears

Tz?

to be as broad as the Thames at Weftminfter bridge. The
{treets of the town, containing about 400 ill-built houfes,
are extremely dirty; but the palace of the vizier is very
magnificent. :

TEPE-MAXTLATON, in Zoology. See Fexis Tigrina.

TEPETISTAC, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Guadalajara; 60 miles N. of Guadalajara.

TEPETOTOTL, in Ornithology, the name of a Bra-
filian bird of the gallinaceous kind, more ufually called
mituporanga. See Crax Aledor.

TEPHLIS, ot Tevpuis, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia, inthe vicinity of Media.

TEPHRIA, in the Natural Hiftory of the Ancients, a
name given to the grey ophites.

TEPHRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the neighbourhood of Cilicia and Armenia.

TEPHROMANTIA, rQpoucslux, in Antiquity, a {pe-
cies.of divination, performed with afhes; for which fee
Potter, Archeol Grec. tom. i. p. 353. ~

TEPHROSIA, in Botany, from :¢go:, afb-coloured, in
allufion probably to the hoary afpe&t of the herbage.—
« Perf. Syn. v. 2. 329.”? Purfh 489. (Erebinthus;
Mitchell in Ephem. Nat. Curiof. v. 8.°210?)—Clafs and
order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacea,
Linn. Leguminofe, Jul.

Gen. Ch. . Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
divided into five ftraight, awl-fhaped teeth; the upper ones
rather the fhorteft ; the loweft rather longer than the rett.
Cor. papilionaceous. Standard recurved, large, roundifh-
obovate. Wings half-obovate, obtufe, ftraight, rather
fhorter than the ftandard. Keel broad, rounded, gibbous,
compreffed, the length of the wings. Stam. Filaments ten,
all firmly united along the middle into a membranous tube ;
the tenth feparate at the bafe, and in its upper half; all
capillary and diftin@& at the extremity, fomewhat unequal
in length; anthers terminal, uniform, ovate-oblong. Pi/?.
Germen feffile, oblong, compreffed, very hairy ; ftyle awl-
fhaped, angular, afcending, hairy along the back ; ftigma
fimple, recurved, flightly hairy. Perc. Legume oblong,
compreffed, hairy, fomewhat falcate or afcending, of two
valves and one cell. Seeds feveral, compreffed, kidney-
fhaped, rather angular, flightly feparated from each other
by thin, imperfe&t, membranous partitions.

Ef! Ch. Calyx with awl-fhaped, nearly equal, teeth.
Stamens all conneéted. Legume compreffed, rather coria-
ceous, of one cell, with many feeds. Stigma acute.

Obf. We have taken our characters from one certain
fpecies, 7. virginiana, comparing it with authentic original
fpecimens of Mitchell’s Zrebinthus, which Linnzus thought
the very fame fpecies, but in this he was certainly miitaken.
It appears to be Mr. Purfh’s third fpecies, T. hi/pidula;
and as far as we can judge, from fpecimens that will not
admit of diffeGtion, and from Mitchell’s defcription, it is
moft probably of the fame genus, for Mitchell might over-
look the partial union of the ftamens, even verona: that
chara¢ter to exift in his plant. If we were certain of this,
his name ought, by every right, to be preferred to the more
modern one of Perfoon. (See EresinTHus.) The genus
moreoyer is improperly placed in the fixth fe€tion of Dia-
delphia, while its effential charaéter indicates that it belongs
to the firft.

1. T. virginiana. Virginian Grey-Vetch. Purfh n. 1.
(Galega virginiana ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1062, excluding Hort.
Cliff. and Mitchell’s fynonyms. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.
1244. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 355. Cicer aftragaloides
pe cael virginianum, hirfutie pubefcens, floribus amplis
ubrubentibus; Pluk. Phyt. t. 23. f. 2.)—Erect, lope

an

TEP

and fhaggy. Leaflets numerous, oval-oblong. Clufter
terminal, many-flowered.—In dry fandy woods, from Ca-
nada to Florida, flowering in June and July. Root peren-
nial. Plant about a foot high. Flowers very handfome,
rofe-coloured and yellowifh-white. Purfh. The ffem is
fimple, leafy, angular, brown, clothed with hoary pu-
befeence. Leaves alternate, nearly feffile, pinnate, of from
1y to 21, not quite oppofite, entire /eaffets, each about an
inch long, hairy on both fides, tipped with a minute point.
Clufter Dhitary, various in length, compofed of numerous
large flowers, not unlike thofe of a Lupine. Calyx denfely
hairy. Legume an inch and a half long, pointed, linear,
hairy, fomewhat undulated, and a little curved upward,
tumid where the feeds are lodged. Miller appears’to have
cultivated this plant in 1765. We have never feen a living
f{pecimen. That we have here defcribed was fent by Kalm
to Linneus. The /egumes came from Jacquin’s herbarium.

2. T. chryfophylla. Golden-leaved Grey-Vetch. Purfh
n. 2. (Galega villofa; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 67?
Purfh.)—Proftrate, downy. Leaflets five, fomewhat wedge-
fhaped, very obtufe. Flower-ftalks oppofite to the leaves.
Legume nearly ftraight. — Gathered in Georgia by Mr.
Enflen, flowering in July and Auguft. Perennial. Leaf-
lets wedgefhaped-obovate ; {mooth above; filky at the back.
Stalks atiested, bearing about three purple flowers. The
fingular circumftance of the nearly feffile eaves gives it the
appearance of a trifoliate plant, the lower pair of leaflets
refembling /fipulas. Michaux’s fynonym is rendered doubt-
ful by his not mentioning the fmall number of /eaflets, one
of the mott ftriking chara@ters. Pur/h.

3. T. hifpidula. Uifpid Grey-Vetch. Purfh n. 3.
ene hifpidula; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 68. G?
picata; Walt. Carol. 188. Erebinthus; Mitch. as above.
Clitoria, n. 3; Linn. Hort. Cliff. 498, excluding the very
erroneous reference to Burmann. )—Slender, diffufe, downy.
Leaflets numerous, oblong-elliptical, abrupt, pointed.
Flower-ftalks oppofite to the leaves. Legume falcate, hif-
pid. — In pine woods and on fate hills, from Virginia to
Georgia. Perennial, flowering from July to September.
Leaflets 13 or 15. Stalks elongated, bearing from three to
five pale-red flowers. Purfh. Every part of this defcrip-
tion anfwers to the original fpecimens of Mitchell’s plant,
but he, as well as Linnzus, {peaks of the tenth /famen as
being really feparate from the reft. We cannot from our
fpecimens determine this point. The /fems are long,
branched, trailing, round, and hairy. Leaflets with ftrong
oblique tranfverfe veins ; fometimes fmooth above ; always
filky beneath ; theirlength about an inch. Braéeas lanceos
late. Calyx very briftly. Perhaps the union of the tenth
famen to the reft, which is not in the ufual mode continued
quite to the bafe, even in 7. virginiana, may exift lefs, or
not at all, in the {pecies before us, and yet the plants may
together conftitute one natural genus.

EPID, in Natural Hiffory, a term ufed by writers on
mineral waters, to exprefs fuch of them as have a lefs fen-
fible cold than common water.

They diftinguifh all the medicinal f{prings into three
kinds ; the hot, the tepid, and the cold: but the middle
term might eafily be mifunderftood to mean a great deal
more than they exprefs by it: all that have what can be
called the leaft fenfible warmth, are called hot; and the
tepid are diftinguifhed from the abfolutely cold, only by
their being lefs cold.

Some of this clafs of mineral waters, and fome few alfo
of the cold ones, have a fharpifh vinous tafte, which is
never obferved in any of the hot ones. This tafte is loft
an giving the waters the flighteft heat, and is therefore very

TEP

difficult to be gueffed at as to its origin. It is not only
found in the aluminous and vitriolate waters, but alfo in
thofe which are manifeftly nitrous, and which abound in
fulphureous falts, quite different in their nature from acids.
It is therefore an additional fomewhat, quite diftin@ from
the faline properties of the fluid, and as eafily conne@ted
with one kind of that as with the others.

The caufe of heat in the mineral waters remains yet
wholly unknown, notwithftanding all that has been written
concerning it. It is hard to believe, that there are con-
tinual fubterranean fires near enough the furface, to give a
heat that preferves itfelf in fo great a degree to the very
place of their eruptions ; and it is equally hard to conceive,
that there can be beds of fermenting mineral matters, fuffi-
cient in quantity and force to have given the fame degree of
heat to waters for fo many ages, as Pine of our hot {prings
are known to have fubfifted. Duclos’s Exam. des Eaux

iner. ,

TEPIDARIUM, among the Romans, a tepid or
blood-warm bath, which was joined*to the cold and hot
baths, and was a medium between the two; fo that if any
perfon wanted to go from the hot to the cold bath, or vice
verfa, he always took the tepid bath in his way.

TEPIQUE, in Geography, a. town of Mexico, in the
province of Xalifco; 5 miles N. of Xalifeo. _

TEPIRU, a town of South America, in the province
of Tucuman; 18 miles N.W. of St. Yago del Eftero.

TEPKAS, a Ruffian fettlement in North America, on
the eaft fide of Beering’s ftrait. N. lat. 66°. E. long.
TY2°rA"

TEPLITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz, celebrated for its warm baths, difcovered in 762 ;
14 miles W.N.W. of Leitmeritz. — Alfo, a town of
Croatia ; 8 miles S. of Varafdin.

TEPLOW, Grecory Nicovarcurrsen, in Biography,
a Ruffian writer, educated in a feminary at Novogorod,
where he diftinguifhed himfelf by a Latin tranflation of
prince Cantemir’s Satires, and a work on the geography of

Ruffia, neither of which was ever printed. In 1740 he.

was employed in the Academy of Sciences, and in formin
a catalogue of objeéts contained in the Cabinet of Natur;
Hiftory. He thus acquired a tafte for that feience, and
particularly for botany ; in confequence of which he was
made an adjunét of the Society in 1741, and in the follow-
ing year delivered leétures on moral philofophy, that were
much approved. The emprefs Elizabeth appointed him
tutor and travelling companion to her favourite, count
Rafumoufky, who, on his return from his travels in 1746,
was made prefident of the Academy of Sciences, Teplow
then became an honorary member, direéted the inftitution
in the name of the prefident, and drew up rules for its
better regulation. At the time of the emprefs’s death he was a
counfellor of {tate; but as he was an enemy to Peter III., he
was arrefted: afterwards he was reltored to favour; never-
thelefs, two months after his being made a member of the
council of ftate, it was difcovered that he had joined in a
confpiracy to dethrone that unfortunate prince. After the
depofition of Peter, he publifhed manifeftations, in order to
render him odious, and, as Bufching fays, was the principal
agent in putting him to death. For this fervice he is faid
to have received a reward of 20,000 rubles. The emprefs
afterwards made him a privy-counfellor and member of the
fenate, and honoured him with the orders of Alexander
Newfky and St. Ann. He died in March 1779 ; and his
works, in the Ruffian language, are, “ A General View of
Philofophy ;’’ ‘ Inftruétions to his Son ;” “ A Colleétion
of Songs, with Melodies for three Voices ;’? ania
or

SS

TER

for the Cultivation of foreign Tobacco, in Leffer Ruffia,’’
diftributed® by order of the emprefs through that province,
in 1763. Gen. Biog. ;

TEPOTI, in Geography, a river of Paraguay, which
Tuns into the Paraguay.

TEPPELWODA. See Toppiiswopa.

TEPTERE, a name originally Tartarian, and fignify-
ing a man who cannot pay his taxes, given by the Ruffians
to a peculiar tribe formed of Finns and artars in the
middle of the 16th century, during the diffolution of the
Khazan-Tartarian empire. They elftablifhed themfelves
at firft in that part of the Ural mountains, which belongs
to the government of Ufa. At prefent they are fo much
intermingled, that their origin is fearcely difcernible. They
are found to increafe in number at every fucceeding cenfus.
In the year 1762, about 34,000 of them paid the impofts.

TEPTON, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 30 miles
N.W. of Sgigatchee. ;

TEPWIA, a town on the W. coatt of the ifland of
Celebes. S. lat. 1° 4! E. long. 119° rol. PS,

TEQUENDAMA, a cataract near Bogota,. the capital
of New Granada (fee Bocora), which, according to Bou-

uer, is one of the higheft in the world, being 200 or 300
Eiicons in height, and its fall vertical. Its real height is
probably about 1320 feet. The river Funza, which is here
very contiderable, paffes along a narrow channel, on a high
table land, and is poured as from the fpout of a vafe,
in one arch of the enormous height above fpecified, the
noife being heard at the diftance of feven leagues. This
fall is received in a vaft cauldron of more than a league
in circumference; and the quantity of water, and violence
of its defeent, form a continual mafs of clouds, which ren-
ders it fearcely vifible in the evenmg; but in the morning it
is more ftriking, being decorated with numerous rainbows
according to the pofition of the fpe&tator. The vaft rocks
which form the cauldron alfo excite admiration, being as
regular and polifhed as if cut with a chiffel: the furround-
ing heights are covered with trees, fhrubs, and flowery
plants, while the fplendid appearance of fome of the birds,
and the mufic of others, render the catara&t of Tequen-
dama alike fublime and beautiful.

TEQUEPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Mechoacan, ona river near the Pacific ocean; 80 miles S.E.
of Zacatula. N. lat. 17° 50’. W. long. 102° 26/.

TEQUERY Bay, a bay on the fouth-eaft coaft of
Cuba, near Cape Cruz.

TEQUIA, a town of New Grenada; 32 miles S.W.
of Pamplona.

TEQUIXQUIACATZANATHL, in Ornitholozy.. See
GracuLa Quifcala.

TER, in Geography, a river of Spain, which rifes in the
county of Cerdagne, and runs into the Mediterranean, about
20 miles E. of Gerona. '

TERA, a fmall river of Spain, which runs into the
Orbega, in the province of Leon.

TERACE, in Rural Economy, a term provincially ap-
plied to a coarfe hair fieve, for feparating the inferior flour
from the bran.

TERAIN, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Oife, near Creil.

TERAKACO, a peninfula on the eaft coaft of New
Zealand, of which Cape Table forms the eaftern point.

TERAMNUS, in Botany, fo called by Browne, appa-
rently in allufion to its delicately-fhaped legume, z:ga207ns
being ufed particularly to exprefs the tendernefs of eatable
pulfe : cikexmyos was a weed hoftile to leguminous plants.—
Browne Jam. 290. Swartz Prodr. 105. Ind. Occ. 1238.

TER

t. 25. Schreb. 489. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3 971. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4.—Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria.
Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. .Perianth inferior, of one leaf, two-
lipped, permanent ; its upper lip rather the largeft, divided ;
lower three-cleft; all the teeth acute, ereé, converging.
Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inverfely heart-fhaped,
{fpreading, fomewhat deflexed. Wings nearly as long,
erect, approximated, rounded at the extremity. Keel very
{mall, concealed in the calyx between the bafes of the
wings, and covering the ftamens, feparable into two petals.
Stam. Filaments ten, all united in their lower part into
one fet; only five of them perfe&, the five intermediate
ones being minute, without anthers, and fhorter; anthers
five, roundifh. Pi/?. Germen cylindrical, flender, downy ;
ftyle none; fligma capitate, roundifh. Peric. Legume
linear, bordered, comprefled, with numerous conftri¢tions.
Seeds feveral, roundifh, comprefled, abrupt at the fummit.

Ef. Ch. Keel minute, concealed in the calyx. Stamens
all .conne&ed; the five alternate ones without anthers.
Stigma feffile, capitate. Calyx two-lipped. Legume li-
near, with many feeds. .

1. T. volubilis. Smailer Teramnus. Swartz Ind. Occ.
1241. t. 25. Willd. n. 1, excluding all the fynonyms.—
Leaflets ovato-lanceolate, downy beneath.—Native of rather
moiit bufhy alpine places, in the fouthern part of Jamaica.
The /fem is herbaceous, or flightly woody at the bafe only,
from two to four feet high, twining, flender, triangular,
downy, fimple or divided, JZeaves alternate, diltant,
ftalked, each of three leaflets, moftly obtufe with a {mall
point, entire, ribbed and veiny, fmooth and bright-green
above ; downy beneath ; fometimes accompanied by a pair
of fmaller ones at the bafe. Their common foot/falk is about
an inch long, channelled, downy, with a pair of minute
linear /fipulas at the bafe. Clufters axillary, flender, fimple,
longer than the leaves, of feveral {mall reddifh-blue flowers,
in diftant couples, on fhort partial ftalks. Legume an inch
long, flender, hairy, its point finally hooked; the valves
{piral after buriting.

2. T. uncinatus. Great Hooked Teramnus. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 1239. Willd. n. 2. (T. n.1; Browne Jam.
290. Dolichos uncinatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1019. Pha-
feolus hirfutus, filiquis reCtis et aduncis; Plum. Ic. 215.
t. 221. Ph. fylveitris minor, flore minimo, filiquis longis
teretibus alba lanugine hirfutis ; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 182.)—
Leaflets oblong,;. filky beneath; hairy aboye.—Native of
dry bufhy places, in various parts of Jamaica. The root
is long and flender. Stem herbaceous, fubdivided, twining,
flender, triangular, its angles hairy and fomewhat bordered ;
the bafe woody. Leaflets one and a half or two inches
long ; their common fa/k an inch, or iach and a half.
Stipulas {mall, downy, deciduous. C/uffers axillary, ftalked,
often a {pan long, twice the length of the leaves, many-
flowered. Flowers in diftant pairs, fmall, reddifh. Le-
gume two inches long, ftraight, narrow, comprefled, hairy,
ending in a bluntifh hooked point.

TERAMO, in Geography, atown of Naples, in Abruzzo
Ultra; the fee of a bifhop, immediately under the pope ;
22 miles N.N.E. of Aquila. N. lat. 42° 37!. E. long.
13° 49/.

TERANE’, a town of Egypt, on the weft branch of
the Nile; 18 miles N.W. of Cairo. N. lat. 30° go’. E.
long. 30° 45!.

TERANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; 3 miles
W. of Bifignano. ‘ . ,

TERASARSUK, a town of Eaft Greenland. N.-Iat.

Pro, W. long. 42% ‘
59°55 §: 43 TERAS-

TER

TERASPURG, a town of Auftria; 2 miles N. of
Egenburg. ?

TERATOSCOPIA, formed of zzpxs, prodigy, and
oxortw, I -confider, a kind of divination by the appearance
and view of monfters, prodigies, {peétres, and phantoms.

TERBEDH, in the Materia Medica, a name given by
Avicenna to the turbith, a purging drug, mentioned by
all the authors of his time ; but, in general, in a very con-
fufed manner.

Garcias tells us, that the Indians ufe it to purge phlegm,
and that they add ginger to it by way of correétive; and
Avicenna fays the fame thing of its ufe in his time.

TERBURGH, Gerarp, in Biography, a painter of
domeftic fcenes of exquifite kill, was born at Zwoll, in
the province of Overyffel, in 1608, the fon of a painter
little known, from whom he received the rudiments of the
art. He began his career as a painter of portraits in fmall,
and had acquired confiderablereputation, when he determined
upon travelling through Germany and Italy. Unengaged by
the fublimer beauties of art which the latter country offered
to his view, he never {changed his ftyle, but went thence to
Paris to pratife it ; and there met with confiderable fuccefs.
From thence he returned to Holland, and was highly ap-
preciated, and fully employed. He attended the congrefs
affembled at Munfter in 1648, for the negociation of the
treaty of peace, and there painted his celebiaeea picture
containing portraits of the plenipotentiaries and principal
perfonages affembled on that occafion, which is regarded as
his mafter-piece ; and of which there is a print by Suyder-
hoef. While engaged upon this work, he was invited by
count Pigorando, the Spanifh ambaflador at the congrefs,
to vifit Spain, and went there in confequence ; where he
was moft favourably received, and much employed. ‘The
king conferred upon him the order of knighthood, and re-
warded him munificently for the piétures he painted. Be-
fides portraits, which conftituted the principal part of his
practice, he frequently painted converfations, mufical parties,
Jadies at their toilettes, and domettic fubjeéts, which he
executed with a-free, but rather a heavy pencil, not equal
to the brilliancy of Metzu and Netfcher, but neverthelefs
exceedingly meritorious and agreeable ; particularly in the
clofe imitations of his draperies. He died in 1681, at
Deventer, where he fettled on his return from Spain.

TERCERA, or Tercerra, in Geography, one of
the Azores iflands, fuppofed to have derived its name
from its ftanding the third in this clufter of iflands
in point of fituation, though the firft in dignity, as ap-
pears from a riumber of circumftances, and particularly
from its communicating its name to the refit. This
ifland is computed at 54 miles in circumference, and
about 25 miles in length, by 15 in medial breadth.
Its figure is almoft circular, the coafts high, and fo fur-
rounded with craggy rocks, that it is deemed impregnable ;
every aceeffible part on the coaft being defended by {trong
forts, heavy cannon, and a numerous and regular garrifon.
The only tolerable port in the whole ifland is the harbour
of Angra. The ifland of Tercera is fertile, pleafant, and
healthy; the very rocks, which elfewhere are dry and
barren, produce here excellent vines, though not equal to
thofe raifed in the Canaries and Madeira. The land yields
large crops of wheat and other grain, pafture for cattle,
and a prodigious variety of lemons, oranges, and all thofe
fruits peculiar to hot and cold climates, whit are obferved
to be propagated to the greateft advantage in temperate
countries, Befides Angra, there are feveral other towns
and large villages in Tercera, with a number of forts and
garrifons, under the direction of the governor, who has the

5

TER

power of filling up all vacancies that happen among the
military officers. N. lat. 38° 45’. W. long. 27° 6!.
Tercera, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft
of Sierra Leone.
TERCERO, a river of South America, which rifes in
Tucuman, and joins the Salado on the borders of Para-

uay. :
: TERCHIZ, or Tersuiz. See Tursutsn.
TER-CHOOUZ, in Ornithology. See Urupa Epops.
TERDINA, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
Paracelfus, and fome other authors, have called the great
arden-valerian. Cer. Emac. Ind. 2.
TERDOPIO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which
runs into the Po, 12 miles E.S.E. of Lumello.
TEREBELLA, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the
Mollufea order of Vermes ; the characters of which are,
the body oblong, creeping, naked, furnifhed with branchie
at the fides, more frequently in the tube; the mouth la-
biated, toothlefs, and projecting a clavated probofcis ; the
tentacula or feelers about the mouth numerous, capillary,
and ciliated. Gmelin enumerates eleven

Species.

Crrrata. Round, body with triple lateral pencils.
Found in the fandy bottom of the Iceland fea.

Larrmparia. With eight cirri at the anterior parts of
the body, about the mouth four. Found in the Mediter-
ranean fea, within the clefts of rocks.

ConcuiLeca. Whitifh, with numerous filiform cirri at
the mouth, the upper longeft; the branchie very red.
Found in the fea wafhing the coa{t of Holland.

CompLanaTa. Deprefled, mouth with four cirri; the
lateral pencil-bearing warts of the body arranged on both
fides in a two-fold feries.

Caruncutata. Deprefled-quadrangular, with a four-
fold feries of ventral pencils, and no cirri. Found in the
American and Indian feas.

Rosrrata. Tetraedrous, with a quadruple feries of
pencils from the body, and palate elongated. Found ¢n the
Indian fea.

Fiava. Depreffed, with thirty-feven branchiz on both
fides, and bifurcated tail. Found in the Indian fea.

Rupra. Red, deprefled; tail terminating with two
cirri; the head with two horny moveable jaws. Found in
the fea furrounding the iflands of Zealand.

Apruropitors. Round, gradually attenuated backwards,
below fomewhat deprefled with an obfolete furrow ; no
branchiz in the eight firlt feements, in the following three
fimple, in the lait fenfibly greater, one being turned, pin-
nated. Found in the Indian fea.

Bicornis. With a fimple terminal two-horned dife of
the probofcis. Found in the America ocean.

SreLLATa. With a perfoliated triple dife of the pro-
bofcis ; the anterior armed with a truncated horn, radiated
with prickles. Found in the American ocean,

TEREBELLA, (dim. of ferebra,) in Surgery, a trepan, or
circular faw, for removing portions of the fkull

TEREBIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the Greater Armenia, E. of the fources of the Tigris.
Ptolemy.

TEREBINTACES, in Botany, the 94th order in
Juffieu’s fyftem, the 12th of his 14th clafs, fo denominated
from the genus for which he choofes to retain the old name
of Terebinthus, but which isthe Piffacia of Linnzus. Many
of the plants of this order abound in an effential oil of the
nature of turpentine, or fomething like it. The charaéters
are as follow.

Calyss

- fe

TER

Calyx of one leaf, inferior, with a definite number of
ents. Petals definite in number, (rarely wanting, )
inferted into the lower part of the calyx, alternately with
its fegments, with which they agree in number. . Stamens
either the fame number, alternate with the petals, or twice
as many, inferted into the fame {pot. Germen fuperior,
either fimple, or more than one, of a determinate number.
When the germen is fingle, the /fy/e is folitary, (rarely defi-
cient,) with a fimple or a divided /figma; when there are
feveral germens, the ftigmas equal them in number. Fruit
either capfular, a berry, or a drupa, of one or more fingle-
feeded cells. Where there are feveral germens, there are as
many ftyles, or fimple ftigmas; and the fame number of
diftin@ fingle-feeded capfules. The feeds are generally
lodged ina bony nut. The corcu/um is without an albumen,
its radicle lateral, and refiexed upon the lobes. Stem arbo-
refcent or fhrubby. Leaves alternate, without /fipulas,
either fimple, or ternate, or pinnate with an odd leaflet.

SeGtion 1. Germen fimple. Fruit of one cell, with a foli-
tary feed. ;

This comprifes Caffrvium of Juffieu and Lamarck, which
is the Linnzan Anacardium; Anacardium of the fame authors,
which is Semecarpus of Linnzus; Mangifera; Connarus ;
Rhus; and Rourea of Aublet, Schreber’s Robergia.

Se&t. 2. Germen fimple. Fruit of many cells, fome of
which are occaftonally abortive.

Cneorum; Rumphia; Comocladia; Canarium; Icica of
Aublet ; Amyris ; Toddalia, which is Crantzia of Schreber,
Scopolia of Sm. Plant. Ic. (fee Scopoxtta); Scinus ;
Spathelia; Terebinthus of Tournefort and Juffieu, the Lin-
nxan Piffacia; Burfera; Toiuifera; Tapiria of Aublet,
which is Schreber’s Jonguetia; Poupartia of Commerfon,
perhaps not different from our Sponpias Mangifea; and
Spondias itfelf, compofe this feGtion.

Sect. 3. Germen feveral. Fruit of many fingle-feeded
capfules.

Here are only three genera; Simaba of Aublet, which is
Schreber’s Zwingera; Aylanthus of Desfontaines; and
Brucea of L’ Heritier.

Sect. 4. Genera akin to Terebintacee, but differing in
being furnifbed with a flefhy albumen, which brings them near to
Ruamnt; fee that article.

Cneflis of Juffteu, Lamarck Mluftr. t. 387; Fagara;
Zanthoxylum; and Pielea.

Se&. 5. Genera akin to Terebintacee, and (like the true
plants of this order ) deftitute of a flefhy albumen.

Dedonza; Averrhoa; and Juglans.

Juffieu announces an intention of dividing this order into
Caffuvia, true Terebintacez, and Zanthoxyla; the firft having
fimple leaves, a fingle-feeded fruit, and an afcending radicle ;
the fecond generally pinnate or ternate foliage, a drupa with
feveral fingle-feeded nuts, and a defcending radicle ; and
the third pinnate or ternate foliage, moftly marked with
pellucid dots ; fruit of many cells or many capfules, each
with folitary feeds; and a flefhy albumen furrounding a
ftraight corculum. A fourth order would arife out of cer-
tain genera now intermixed with the reft, but not properly
coming under any of the three juft defined, being themfelves
perhaps entitled to lay the foundation of future orders, not
as yet difcovered.

TEREBINTHINA, in Medicine, Natural Hiffory, &c.
See TURPENTINE. :

TEREBINTHUS, in Botany, +pus90; of Diofcorides.
See Pisracta and TEREBINTACE®.

TEREBOTIN, a word ufed by Paracelfus for the com-
mon turpentine. f

TEREBRA, from zepew, to bore, a trepan, or trephine.

Vou. XXXV,

TER

Alfo, an inftrument called a perforator, fuch as is contained
in the generality of cafes of trephining inftruments, and is
ufed for making a hole, in which the centre pin of the tre-
phine is to work.

TEREBRATULA, in Natural Hiflory, a mame given
by Mr. Lhuyd and Gualtieri to fome fpecies of the fmooth
conche anomiz, which have near the head of the fhell a {mall
hole, which looks as if bored by art. See Concum Ano-
mie, and SHELLS.

TERECOL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Concan ; 16 miles N.N.W. of Goa.

TEREDO, in Natural Hiftory, a genus of the Teftacea
order of Vermes, the characters of which are, that the ani-
mal is a terebella, with two hemifpheric calcareous valves,
cut off before, and two lanceolated; the fhell is round,
flexuous, and capable of penetrating wood. Gmelin reckons
three

Species.

The fhell very flender, cylindric and fmooth.
Uvrricutus. Shell folid, cylindric and undulated.
Crava. Shell clavated at one end, the other curved,

narrower, obtufe, and perforated in the middle.

The head of the Teredo navalis, called by Linnzus cala-
mitas navium, is well prepared by nature for the hard offices
it is to undergo, being coated with a ftrong armour, and
furnifhed with a mouth like that of the leech ; by which it
plerces wood, as that animal does the fkin: a little above
this it has two horns, which feem a kind of continuation of
the fhell ; the neck is as ftrongly provided for the fervice of
the creature as the head, being furnifhed with feveral ftronge
mufcles ; the reft of the body is only covered by a very
thin and tranfparent fkin, through which the motion of the
inteftines is plainly feen by the naked eye ; and by means of
the microfcope, feveral other very zemarkable particulars be-
come vifible there.

This creature is wonderfully minute when newly excluded
from the egg, and at its utmott bignefs is a foot long ; three
or four inches are however its more frequent length.

When the bottom of a veffel, or any other piece of wood
conftantly under water, is inhabited and injured by ever fo
great a number of thefe worms, there is no fign of the da-
mage to be perceived on the furface, nor are the creatures
vifible till the outer part of the wood is cut or broken
away ; then their fhelly habitations come in fight: thefe lie
fo near the furface, however, as to have an eafy communi-
cation with the water, and there is a multitude of little per-
forations in the very furface through which the inhabitant
infe&ts throw out the extremities of their little fhelly horns ;
thefe are of*a reddifn colour, and may be diftinguifhed
by an accurate obferver in form of fo many red pro-
minent points ; they all are retraéted on the leaft touch, and
are thrown out again 2s foon as all is quiet. From thefe
points, or the {mall apertures which give them a way out,
are the cells of the teredines to be traced. They are com-
pofed of a pearly or fhelly matter, which forms a lon
tube with various windings and turnings, which see
the abode of the creature ; but which cfaatly neither ad-
heres to the body of the animal nor to the wood. Thefe
cafes or tubes are always more or lefs loofe in the wood, and
there is ever a large fpace within them, for the body of the
animal to be furrounded every way with water. They are
very fmooth on the inner furface, and fomewhat rougher
without; and are much harder and firmer in the cells
of the older and larger animals than in thofe of the young
ones.

Thefe fhelly tubes are compofed of feveral rings, or an-

Zz nular

NAVALIs.

rER
nular parts; but thefe differ greatly in their length. There

is an evident care in thefe creatures, never to injure one an-
other’s habitations ; by this means each tubule or cafe is
referved entire, and in fuch pieces of wood as have been
ound eaten by them into a fort of honey-comb, there never
is feen a paflage or communication between any two of
the tubules, though the woody matter between them often
is not thicker than a piece of. writing-paper.

The vaft increafe of thefe animals, and their fhelly tubules,
naturally lead to a confideration of the manner of their
generation ; and when we confider that each of thefe crea-
tures is, from the time when it is produced from the egg,
immediately lodged in a cell, in which it lives without the
leaft poffibility of getting into that of another animal of its
own kind, or receiving one of them into its own, it 1s not
eafy to account for the propagation of the fpecies in the
common way. This, however, is folved by an accurate
anatomical obfervation of the animals themfelves, fince in
every individual the parts of generation in both fexes, and
both the femen and ovula are found. | Each individual there-
fore evidently ferves by itfelf for the propagation of the
fpecies ; and this is probably very often the cafe in earth-
worms, and other of the hermaphrodite animals. All the
yet known kinds of thefe being foft-bodied ; and probably,
though they often meet one another, and copulate in pairs,
yet when they have not opportunity, the parts copulate in
the individual.

Eggs are found in great plenty in the bodies of thefe ani-
mals in June, and are difcharged with the water into the
fea, where the far greater part of them, doubtlefs, become
food for other {mall marine animals; and the few that affix
themfelves to any piece of wood they are wafhed againit,
batch and get into its fubftance in the manner of their
parents.

The kind of wood ia which thefe worms are lodged,
makes a great difference in the appearance of their cells, as
they ae much more fpeedily and fuccefsfully in fome kinds
than in others. The fir and alder are the two kinds they
feem to eat with the greateft eafe, and in which they grow
to the greateft fize. In the oak they feem to make but a
very flow progrefs, and ufually appear very {mall, and
poorly nourifhed. The colour of their fhelly tubules is often
brown in this wood; which feems plainly owing to the
effet of its juices.

Poifonous ointments are alfo found to be of fome ufe in
deftroying them, on rubbing over the wood: fome have
thought that burning the furface was an effectual way of
preferving them, but this has been found to be otherwife.
The fureft method of avoiding them in particular works,
is the ufing of bitter or very folid woods ; the firft kind they
are found never to touch, and in the other they make but
flow progrefs. Mixtures of lime, fulpbur, and colocynth,
with pitch, for covering over the furfaces of boards, &c.
have been found of fome ufe.

It feems very evident, that boards and other pieces. of
wood have been fubject to be eaten by thefe animals, from
all times that we have any knowledge of ; for the ftone called
lapis /yringoides is evidently no other than wood thus eaten,
petrihed by long lying in the earth, together with the tubules
of the worms. The mailes of this with the grain of wood
yet plain in them, are common in many places among fea-
thells, and other marine remains at great depths, and have
evidently been brought thither in very diftant times, and
before thofe changes were made in the furface of the earth
of which we have no accounts in our earlieft hiftories.
Sellii Hitt. Natur. Teredinis.

TEREDON, in dacient Geography, a town of Afia, in

TER

Babylonia, on an ifland which was formed by the Tigris at
itsmouth. (Ptol.) Dionyfius Periegetes places the town of
Teredon at the mouth of the Euphrates.

TEREK, in Geography, a mountain of Afia, between
Great and Little Bucharia.

TerREK, one of the rivers that fall into the Cafpian fea.
It originates in the Caucafian mountains, runs at firft to-
wards the W. and S., but turns afterwards entirely to the E.
and in about N. lat. 44°, and E. long. 65°, difcharges itfelz-
into the Cafpian. It takes up in its courfe the Bakfan, the
Malka, and the Soonfha, among many other mountain-
brooks and rivers. Its fource lies properly in the Snow-
mountains of Caucafus, on the higheft partition-ridges of
the frontiers of Georgia. It is rapid in its courfe ; and, ut
the months of July and Auguft, when the fnow melts,.
{wells to the height of eight or ten feet above its ufual
level in autumn, winter, and {pring ; overflowing its banks,
and inundating the adjacent country, forming for itfelf new
beds, and choaking the old with fand. In its lower courfe,
as far as Kitzliar, it is almoft entirely unaecompanied by
woods ; farther up, to Starogladka, by a few; and thence
upwards, its banks are richly garnifhed with forefts, parti-
cularly of oaks, wild fruit-trees, and a variety of others.
It does not freeze over every year, though in winter it
abounds with driving ice. In this feafon its water is tole-
rably clear, which at other times, above Kitzliar, is turbid,,
with earthy particles; but when taken up, it foon becomes:
clear, and is then bright, well-tafted, and of good quality.
Below Kitzliar, the river has a lefs fall, and feparates into.
feveral arms, in which the parted ftream flows fo gently,
that it- has time to depofit its earthy particles, which alter-
nately fill up thefe arms; fo that one or the other occa-
fionally reprefents the main river. In the lower regions, on
the fhores of the Terek, are feen vineyards, mulberry and
other fruit-trees, to which fucceed falt-lakes, and f{prings of
the fame nature. Its bed is formed moftly of fand and
clay. With regard to fifh, the Terek, ds well as all its.
collateral rivers, is poor. Yet there are caught in it ftur-
geon (acipenfer fturio), beluga (acipenfer hufo), ferruga.
(acipenfer ftellatus, Pall.), plenty of falmon, fat-fith (cy-
prinus chalcoides), carp, barbel (cyprinus barbus), fhad,
pike, fudak (lucio perca), perch (perca fluviatilis), lefchtfe
(cyprinus barba,) otters, beavers, tortoifes, &c.

Terex, in Ornithology. See ScoLopax Cinerea.

TERELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
Molife ; 4 miles N. of Molife.

TERENCE, Pustius Terentius, in Biography, a
Latin writer of comedies, was born, as it is fuppofed, at
Carthage about the year of Rome 560 (B.C. 194.) Being
brought to Rome as a flave, when young, he was in the
fervice of a perfon named Terentius, a fenator, from whom.
he derived his name. The purity and politenefs of his lan-
guage evince his having enjoyed the benefit of a good
Roman education. After his emancipation, he was ho-
noured with the friendfhip of feveral Romans of rank, fuch
as Scipio Africanus the younger, and the younger Lelius-
His comedies were founded upon the Greek model, and
tranflated, either wholly or in part, from the Greek. The
firft comedy which he is faid to have brought upon the ftage,,
was the “ Andrio,’”’ reprefented in the year B.C. 166..
But though this was the firft of his comedies that was aéted,,
it appears that it was not the firft which he had. written.
The fix comedies of Terence that are {till extant were ex-
hibited at Rome from the year B.C. 166 to 160. They
were heard with great applaufe; the “ Eunuchus” was
repeated twice in the fame day, and he is faid to have
received for, it 8coo fefterces (about 64/.) Scipio and

Lelius,,

TER

Lelius, as tradition reports, had a great part in the com-
pofition of Terence’s comedies. Terence himfelf in a
prologue feems tacitly to acknowledge the fa&. But
modern writers and critics, who have reafoned on this fact,
think it very improbable. Generals and ftatefmen were
not perfons likely to poffefs the habit of dramatic com-
pofition, whatever previous hints or fubfequent correétions
they might furnifh; and befides it is obferved, that no
writings more ftrongly indicate by their ftyle and manner
that they are the production of a fingle hand than thofe-of
‘Terence. After he had prefented thefe comedies to the
public he departed for Greece, and never returned to
Rome. Some have accounted for this circumftance, by
fuppofing that he perifhed by thipwreck ; others affirm that
he died in Greece, from the grief he experienced on account
of the lofs of his baggage and fome new comedies, which
he had compofed, by an accident at fea.

The judgment of critics on the performances of Terence
has been very different, though their real merit is faid not
to be of difficult eftimation. It is generally allowed that he
is defeCtive in invention and originality of obfervation. This
fufficiently appears from his having Greek manners and
characters in all his plays. He was likewife a plagiaritt,
with regard to the fentiments, as well as to the plots and
incidents of his pieces; but a very ee eae ob-
ferves, “ that he is juftly entitled to the praife of judicious
feleGtion, happy difpofition, and purity and neatnefs of
language ; and that, as a Latin writer, in a ftyle of elegance
of which there are fo few examples, he was highly prized
in his own times, and is invaluable in ours. Cicero, who
fpeaks of him as a tranflator of Menander, applauds him as
the only one who had expreffed in the Latin language all
the politenefs and amenity of the original ; and Cefar, in
fome well-known lines, calls him ‘ the lover of pure
diGtion ;’ and alfo by the epithet of the halved Menander ;
and his regret that Terence did not poffefs the vis comica, as
well as the other excellencies of his model, points out his
deficiencies.’”? Of the numerous editions of Terence, the
moit efteemed are the following; viz. the “ Variorum,”
Amft. and Lugd. Batav. 1686; “ Bentleii,”’ Cantab. to.
1726; ‘ Wetterhovii,” Hag. C. gto. 1726; “ Zeunii,”
Lipf. 8vo. 1774; ‘ Brunckii,” Bafil, 4to. 1779. Voff.
Poet. Lat. Gen. Biog.

TERENJABIN, in the Materia Medica of the Ancient
Arabians, a word ufed to exprefs a kind of manna called
by fome manna maftichina, from its round globules refembling
the drops of maftich, and by the phyficians of many parts of
the world at prefent, Manna Perficum; which fee. See
farther about this drug in Philof. Tranf. N° 472. vol. xliii.

. 87.
: ‘TERES Licamentum, in Anatomy, one of the liga-
ments of the hip-joint. See Exrremiris.

Terres Ligamentum Uteri. See GENERATION.

Terres Major and Minor, two mufcles of the fhoulder, fo
called, becaufe their figure is fomewhat rounded.

The teres major ({capulo-humerien, le grand rond) is
elongated and flattened, placed at the lower and back part
of the fhoulder, and extending from the inferior angle of
the {eapula to the pofterior edge of the bicipital groove of
the hunerus. The latiflimus dorfi, the fkin, and the long
head of the triceps, cover it behind ; in front, it is covered by
the latiffimus, the axillary veffels and plexus of nerves, the fhort
head of the biceps, and the coraco-brachialis. Its upper
edge correfponds firft to the teres minor, then is feparated
from that mufcle by the long head of the triceps, and laftly
correfponds to the fubfcapularis, from which the circumflex
veffe] and nerve feparate it. The lower edge, covered by

FER

the fkin, forms, with the latiffimus, the border of the axilla.
The inferior or external extremity of the mufcle is fixed to
the external furface of the inferior angle of the f{capula, and
to the neighbouring part of its lower edge : thence it afcends,
pafling obliquely outwards, retaining nearly an uniform
breadth (about three fingers) throughout ; and is attached to
the pofterior margin of the bicipital groove. The latter at-
tachment takes place by means of a flattened tendon, about an
inch broad, which correfponds in front to that of the latiffimus
dorfi. There is a {mall burfa mucofa between its pofterior
furface and the humerus. It lines the bicipital groove by
fome fibres, which meet thofe of the pectoralis major. Mufcu-
lar fibres arife from the outer furface and inferior angle of the
{capula, from the lower portion of the inferior cofta, and from
a feptum between this mufcle and the infrafpinatus ; and they
terminate on the tendon juft deferibed. It carries the arm
backwards; depreffes it when it has been raifed; rotates
the humerus on its axis, fo as to turn the arm inwards or
forwards. In conjunétion with the latiffimus, and pe€toralis
major, it will fix the arm againft the fide. It will pull the
f{capula forwards or upwards to the arm, when that is fixed.

Teres minor (petit rond) is a {mall elongated mufcle,
lying at the pofterior and under part of the fhoulder, extending
from the inferior edge of the fcapula to the external tubercle
of the humerus. Covered behind by the deltoid and kin, it
covers in front the edge of the fcapula, the infrafcapular
artery, the long head of the triceps, and the orbicular ligament
of the fhoulder-joint. Its upper edge is either continuous
with the infrafpinatus, fo that they form but one mufcle, or
is feparated from it by acellular line. Towards the back
part there is an aponeurotic feptum between them. The
lower edge is clofe to the teres major behind, but feparated.
from it anteriorly by the long head of the triceps. The.
lower or pofterior extremity is {mall and pointed, and begins
its attachment to the feapula, juft where that of the teres
major ends, between the latter mufcle and the infrafpinatus :
it paffes obliquely upwards and outwards, fixed to the lower
and outer edge of the fcapula, and is inferted in the lower
or back part of the great tubercle of the humerus. This
infertion is effe€ted by means of a tendon, clofely connected
to that of the infrafpinatus, difperfing fome of its fibres on
the orbicular ligament, and receiving the flefhy fibres in all
direétions from the origin of the mufcle. Its aéion has
exactly the fame effeé&t with that of the infra/pinatus ;
which fee.

Terres Folium, in Botany. See Lear.

TERESA, or Tueresa, in Biography, a faint in the Ro-
man Catholic church, was born, of a noble family, at Avila,
in Old Caftile, in March 1515. Her father, by reading the
lives of faints to his family, infpired her, at anearly age, with
an enthufiaftic fervour, which induced her to elope with one of
her brothers, to feek martyrdoms among the Moors. When
they were brought back, they indulged the fame paffion by
conftruting little hermitages in the garden, whither they
retired to perform their exercifes of devotion at twelve years
of age. ‘Terefa loft her mother, and was boarded in an
Auguitine convent, and this fituation prevented her being
feduced by the pleafures of the world, for which fhe began
to indulge a propenfity in confequence of reading romances ;
but for her farther fecurity fhe took the veil in the Carmelite
monaftery of the Incarnation at Avila, in her twenty-fecond
year. Her perfon was beautiful, and attraéted the admira-
tion and love of all who faw her ; but her religious ideas,
though tender and rapturous, were auftere; and perceiving
that the difcipline of the houfe in which fhe refided was
relaxed, fhe undertook a reform of the Carmelite order.
After much oppofition, fhe fucceeded in eftablifhing the

ve A firft

TER

firft monaftery of the female reform at Avila, in 1562, and
having extended her plan to the religious males of the order,
fhe founded in 1568 the monaftery of Dorvello, which was
the origin of the more rigid, or barefooted, Carmelites. Her
zeal and affiduity enabled her to found thirty religious
houfes of the reform, fourteen for men and fixteen for
women; and after her death it extended through all the
Catholic countries of Chriftendom. Terefa died at Alva in
O&tober 1582, in the 68th year of her age. She was
canonized by Gregory XV. in 1621; and afterwards be-
came the patron faint of Spain. See CARMELITES.

Teresa, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Valencia; 10 miles N.W. of Segorbe.

TERESSA. See Terressa.

TERETES, ia Horfes, one of the three forts of worms
which infeft the bodies of them, and which are very trouble-
fome and injurious. See Ascaripes, Bors, and Worms.

This fort of worm, which is found in horfes, refembles the
common earth-worms in many refpects, being only fharper
at both ends, callous towards the middle, and they do not
contraé or dilate themfelves fo eafily. Some of thefe, which
have been feen to come from horfes, hinder them from thriv-
ing till they are diflodged by proper remedies.

TERETRUM, in Surgery. See TeREBRA.

TERFEZ, in Natural Hiflory, the name given by the
Africans to the truffles found in the defarts of Numidia,
and other places in that part of the world, in great
abundance.

Thefe are much more delicately tafted than the European
truffles, and are white on the outfide. They are called by
fome of the Africans ema, and by the Arabian writers
cantha and camahe.

TERFOWA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis; 120 miles S. of Tunis.

TERFOWY, a town of Nubia; 150 miles S. of Syene.
N. lat. 21°40. E. long. 34° 5!.

TERGA, a town of Morocco, on the Morbeya; 90
miles N. of Morocco.

Terca. See Harr.

TERGARRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bednore; 14.
miles S.E. of Simogu.

TERGAZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
which was one of thofe which Manlius took poffeffion of
in the third Punic war, and which he pillaged.

TERGESTE. See Triste.

TERGESTICUS Sinus, a gulf of Italy, on the coaift
of the Adriatic fea. It took its name from the town
Tergefte, which was fituated there.

TERGIFOETOUS Prants, fuch as bear their feeds on
the backfides of their leaves : fuch are the capillaries. See
CAPILLARY.

TERGIL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Erzerum; 30 miles E. of Palu.

TERGIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Libya, on the confines of Ethiopia.

TERGISONUS, a river of Italy, in Venetia, N. of the
river Padus.

TER-GOUD, or Ten-couw, in Geography. See Goun.

TERGOVITZ, or Tercovisra, a town and capital of
Walachia, where the waiwode has a palace ; 64 miles S.E.
of Hermenftadt. N. lat. 45° 3/. E. long. 25° 20).

TERHALTEN, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Terra
del Fuego. _ S. lat. 55° 20!.

TERHEY, a town of Holland; 10 miles W. of Delft.

TERIDATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, on the banks of the Euphrates. Ptolemy.

TERINA, a town of Italy, upon the weftern coaft of

10

PER

Brutium, and in the northern part of the gulf Hipponium.—
Alfo, a town of Afia, fituated in the mountains W. of
Moxouné.

TERIUM, a town of Macedonia, in Pieria.

TERKAT, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Sivas ; 20 miles N.W. of Tocat.

TERKELA, ariver of Afriea, which joins the Tafilet,
20 miles S. of Togda.

TERKI. See Terex.

Terk. See TurKIN.

TERKIRI, a lake of Thibet, about 80 miles long and
25 broad. N. lat. 32°. Ez. long. 91° 14’.

TERKUL, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Ural,
at Uralfk, in the government of Caucafus.

TERLIZZI, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari ;
7 miles S.E. of Trani.

TERLON, a river of France, which runs into ‘the
Sambre, about 3 miles below Landrecy.

TERM, Terminus, the extreme of any thing, or that
which bounds and limits its extent. See Extreme.

Term, in Geometry, is fometimes ufed for a point, fome-
times for a line, &c. A line is the term of a fuperficies,
and a fuperficies of a folid.

This is what the {chools call terminus quantitatis.

Term, in Law, fignifies a boundary, or limitation of time,
or eftate. E

In this fenfe we fay, a leafe for term of life, for term of
years, &c.

Terms, Termes, Termini, in Architefure, denote a
kind of ftatues, or columns, adorned at top with the figure
of a man’s, woman’s, or fatyr’s head, as a capital ; and the
lower part ending in a kind of fheath, or feabbard. See
HERMEs.

Some write the word thermes, from Hermes, a name the
Greeks gave the god Mercury ; whofe ftatue, made after
this manner, was placed in feveral of the crofs ways in the
city of Athens, &c. Others bring the etymology of the
word from the Roman god Terminus, the proteétor of land-
marks; whofe f{tatue (made without hands or feet, that he
might not change his place) was ufed to be planted at the
bounds of lands, to feparate them.

Terms are fometimes ufed as confoles, and fuftain enta-
blatures ; and fometimes as ftatues, to adorn gardens. Of
thefe termini, the architeéts make great variety; viz. angelic,
ruffic, marine, double, in buft, &c.

Terms, Miliary, termini miliares, among the ancient
Greeks, were the heads of certain divinities, placed on
{quare land-marks of ftone, or on a kind of fheath, to mark
the feveral ftadia, &c. in the roads. ‘Thefe are what Plautus
calls Jares viales.

They were ufually dedicated to Mercury, whom the
Greeks believed to prefide over the highways.

Some of them were reprefented with four heads, fuch as
we {till fee in Rome, at the end of the Fabrician bridge ;
which is hence called ponte di quattro capi. It is known that
Mercury was thus reprefented, and alfo called by the Latins
Mercurius quadrifrons ; as being fuppofed the firft who in-
vented the ufe of letters, mufic, wreitling, and geometry.
See Hermes.

Terms are alfo ufed for the feveral times or feafons of
the year, in which the tribunals, or courts of judicature, are
open to all who think fit to complain of wrong, or to feek
their rights by due courfe of law, or action; and during
which the courts in Weftminfter-hall fit and give judgment.
But the high court of parliament, the chancery, and inferior
courts, do not obferve the terms ; only the courts of king’s
bench, common pleas, and exchequer, which are the higheft

courts

TER

courts at common law. In contradiftinGion to thefe, the
reft of the year is called vacation. .

Of thefe terms there are four in every year, during which
time matters of juftice are difpatched.

Hilary term, which, at London, begins the 23d of Janu-
ary, or if that be Sunday, the next day after ; and ends the
12th of February following.

Eaffer term, which begins the-‘Wednefday fortnight after
Eafter-day, and ends the Monday next after Afcenfion-day.

Trinity term, beginning the Friday next after Trinity-
Sunday, and ending the Wednefday fortnight after.

Michaelmas term, which begins the 6th of November,
and ends the 28th of November following.

Each of thefe terms has alfo their returns ; which fee.

Thefe terms are fuppofed by Mr. Selden to have been in-
ftituted by William the Conqueror ; but fir H. Spelman hath
fhewn, that they were gradually formed from the canonical
conftitutions of the church ;-being no other than thofe leifure
feafons of the year, which were not occupied by the great
feftivals or fafts, or which were not liable to the general
avocations of rural bufinefs. ‘Throughout all Chriftendom,
in very early times, the whole year was one continued term
for hearing and deciding of Bite For the Chriftian magi-
{trates, in order to diftinguifh themfelves from the Heathens,
who were very fuperftitious in the obfervation of their dies
Jafti and nefafti, adminiftered juftice upon all days alike ; till
at length the church interpofed, and exempted certain hely
feafons from being profaned by the tumult of forenfic liti-
gations ; as, particularly, the time of Advent and Chriftmas,
which gave rife to the winter vacation; the time of Lent
and Exile, which created that in the {pring ; the time of
Pentecoft, which produced the third ; and the long vacation,
between Midfummer and Michaelmas, which was allowed
for the hay-time and harveft. All Sundays alfo, and fome
peculiar feftivals, as the days of the Purification, Afcenfion,
&c. were included in the fame prohibition, which was efta-
blifhed by a canon of the church, A.D. 517, and fortified
by an imperial conftitution of the younger Theodofius, com-
prifed in the Theodofian code. Afterwards, when our own
legal conftitution was eftablifhed, the commencement and
duration of our law terms were appointed, with a view to
thefe canonical prohibitions ; and it was ordered by the laws
of king Edward the Confeffor, that from Advent to the
oétave of the Epiphany, from Septuagefima to the oCtave
of Eafter, from the Afcenfion to the oftave of Pentecoft,
and from three in the afternoon of all Saturdays till Monday
morning, the peace of God and holy church fhall be kept
throughout the whole kingdom.

And fo extravagant was: afterwards the regard paid to
thefe holy times, that though the author of the Mirror men-
tions only one vacation of confiderable. length, containing
the months of Auguft and September, yet Britton fays, that
in the reign of king Edward I. no fecular plea could be
held, nor any man {worn on the Evangelifts, in the time of
Advent, Lent, Pentecoft, harvelt, and vintage, the days of
the great litanies, and all folemn feftivals. He adds, that the
bifhops and prelates granted difpenfations for taking aflizes
and juries in fome of thefe holy feafons, upon reafonable
occafions ; and foon after a general difpenfation was efta-
blifhed in parliament by ftat. Weftm. 1. 4 Edw. I. cap. 51,
that affizes of novel diffeifin, mort d’anceftor, and darrein pre-
fentment, fhould be taken in Advent, Septuagefima, and
Lent, as well as inquefts ; at the {pecial requeft of the king
to the bifhops. The portions of time that were not included
within thefe prohibited feafons, fell naturally into a fourfold
divifion ; and from fome feftival, or faint’s day that immc-
diately preceded their commencement, were denominated the

TER

terms of St. Hilary, of Eafter, of the Holy Trinity, and of
St. Michael: which terms have been fince regulated and
abbreviated by feveral a€ts of parliament ; particularly
Trinity term by ftat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2. and Michael-
mas term by ftat. 16 Car. I. c. 6. and azain by fat.
24 Geo. II. c. 38. Blackft. Com. vol. iii.

Terms, Oxford. Hilary or Lent term begins January
14th, and ends the Saturday before Palm-Sunday.
Eafter. term begins the tenth day after Eafter, and ends the
Thurfday before Whitfunday. Trinity term begins the
Wednefday after Trinity-Sunday, and ends after the aét,
or 6th of July, fooner or later, as the vice-chancellor and
convocation pleafe. Michaelmas term begins O&ober roth,
and ends December 17th.

Terms, Cambridge. Lent term begins January 14th, and
ends the Friday before Palm-Sunday. after term begins
the Wednefday after Eafter-week, and ends the week before
Whitfunday. ‘Trinity term begins the Wednefday after
Trinity-Sunday, and ends the Friday after the commence-
ment, or 2dof July. Michaelmas term begins Oétober 10th,
and ends December 16th.

Terms, Scottifo. In Scotland, Candlemas term begins
January 23d, and ends February 12th. Whitfuntide term
begins May 25th, and ends June 15th. J.ammasterm begins
July 2oth, and ends Auguft 8th. Martinmas term begins
November 3d, and ends November 29th.

Terms, /rifb. In Ireland the terms are the fame as at
London, except Michaelmas term, which begins OGober
13th, and adjourns to November 3d, and thence to the 6th.

Term, in Grammar, denotes fome word or expreffion in
a language. See Worp.

The word term, terminus, is borrowed metaphorically, by
the grammarians and philofophers, from the meafurers or
furveyors of lands : as a field is defined and diftinguifhed by
its termini, or limits, fo is a thing or matter fpoken of, by the
word or term by which it is denoted.

Term, in the Arts, or Term of Art, is a word which, be-
fides the literal and popular meaning which it has, or may
have, in common language, bears a farther and peculiar mean-
ing in fome art or feience. See ART.

Or, aterm is a word which has one or more meanings
befide its grammatical one ; or which hasa peculiar force or
import in the language of fome particular fcience or art.

A word then becomes aterm when its idea~is rendered
more complex, confiits of more parts, and includes more
fpecial circumftances, on fome occafions than others.

It is this greater complexnefs, this excefs of conftituent
parts of,the idea, that denominates it a term in the general.
Farther, as the parts of the idea, fignified by any word, are
arbitrary ; and as one may not only add new parts to thofe
contained in the literal meaning, but alfo fuperadd others
to them, alter them, extend them, and otherwife modify
them at pleafure ; hence the fame word becomes a term of
this or that art, or both, as the inventors,or improvers of
thofe arts have thought fit to adopt it for the common bafis
of certain ideas, and to modify and circumftantiate its
meaning to the ufe of their refpective arts. See Dr-
FINITION.

TERMS, abftra@, complex, concrete, equivalent, equivocal, ge-
neral, relative, [ynonimous, univocal. See the adjectives.

Term, in Logic. A propofition is faid to confift of two
terms, i.¢. two principal and eflential words, the /ubjec and
the attribute.

A fyllogifm confifts of three terms, the major, minor, and
conclufion. See SYLLOGISM.

Terms of an Equation, in Algebra. See EQUATION.

Terms of Proportion, in Mathematics, are fuch werd:
etters,

TER

letters, or quantities, as are compared one with another.
See Proportion.

Terms, or courfes, in Medicine, the menfes, or women’s
monthly purgations. F :

TERMALY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 15 miles N.E. of Anantpour.

TERMED, or Tarmap, atown of Grand Bucharia, at
the union of two large rivers, whofe united ftreams form the
Jihon ; the capital of a confiderable diftri&t. In 1221, this
town was befieged by Jenghis Khan, and, after eleven days,
taken by aflault: after which the conqueror put moft of the
inhabitants to the fword, and deftroyed the town. It was
rebuilt in the following century ; 130 miles S. of Samarcand.
N. lat. 37° 30’. E. long. 65° 48!.

TERMEH, or Karmiii, a river of Afiatic Turkey,
which runs into the Black fea, 30 miles N.E. of Samfoun.

TERMERA, or Termerium, in Ancient Geography, a
free town of Afia Minor, in Caria.

TERMES, called Tierme, a town of Hither Spain,
belonging to the Arevaci, S. of Numantium.

Termes, in Entomology, a*genus of the Aptera order
of infeéts. Its charaéters are, that it has fix legs formed for
running ; two eyes; fetaceous antennz, and a mouth with
two jaws. According to Gmelin, the charaéters are, that
the mouth has two horny jaws, with a horny, quadrifid lip,
linear acute fringes, four equal filiform feelers, or palpi,
antennz (moftly ) moniliform, and two eyes. Linnzus enu-
merates three, and Gmelin eight

Species.

Tarare. Above brown ; thorax with three fegments ;
wings pallid, and cofta, or rib, teftaceous. This is the de-
itruétor of Degeer, and T. bellicofum of Smeathman, It is
found in the fhady parts of the equinoétial regions of India
and Africa. See the fequel of this article.

Desrructor. Above teftaceous ; head black ; antenne
yellow. Found in the iflands oppofite to South America,
Africa, and India.

Arps. Black; abdomen with fegments white at the
apex ; legs pallid. Found in the equino¢tial parts of A frica.

Morpax. Black; the fegments of the abdomen white
at the apex ; legs black. Found in the equinoétial parts of
Africa.

Caprense. Yellow, with hyaline wings ; brown at the
margin. Found in India and Southern Africa.

Fatipicum. Abdomen ovate; mouth pallid; brown
eyes; antenne fetaceous. Found in Europe, chiefly the
fouthern part.

Putsarorium. Abdomen oblong; mouth red; eyes
yellow ; antenne fetaceous. Found in Europe and Ame-
rica.

Divixatorium. Abdomen tranfverfely fulcated ; brown
mouth, and black eyes. Chiefly found in books ; very lively,
irritable, and whitifh.

It is obferved, that the European fpecies of termes are
very fmall, compared with thofe of the warmer regions of
Africa and America; and inftead of being gregarious, as
in thofe climates, are ufually found fingle. Of thefe, the
moit known is the T. pulfatorius of Linnwus, a fmall infe&
of a whitifh colour, and diftinguifhed by Derham and fome
other naturalifts, by the appellation ab “ Pediculus pulfa-
torius.””? During the months of fummer it is common in
houfes, particularly in decayed wainf{cots, and is remarkable
for emitting a long-continued found, refembling the ticking
of a watch ; it is commonly met with in colleétions of dried
plants, &c. to which it is very injurious. It cannot bear,
on account of its tender frame, the flighteft preffure, and it

TER

is very quick in its motion. When magnified, the head appears
large, the eyes very confpicuous, of a beautiful golden
colour, and divided into innumerable hexagonal convexities ;
the antennz long and fetaceous; the palpi two in number,
moderately long, and terminating ina large club-fhaped top ;
the thorax rath narrow, and the abdomen obtufely oval ;
the thighs, or firft joints of the legs, thick, the remaining
ones flender, and the feet furnifhed with very fmall claws.
The whole animal is befet with fcattered hairs. This infe@,
according to the obfervations of Derham, when firft hatched
from the egg, is white, oval, and very {mall, exaétly refem-
bling a common mite; furnifhed with eight legs, and befet
with long hairs. After a certain time it cafts its fkin, and
appears in the form already defcribed. Degeer has found
on each fide of the thorax the appearances of rudiments of
wings, refembling a pair of oblong feales; and Dr. Shaw
affirms, from his own obfervations, that fome individuals of
this fpecies become winged at their full growth ; the wings,
four in number, being very large, of a flightly indiftin@&
appearance, and variegated with blackifh and brown clouds
or fpots. In the beginning of July this change takes place,
and feveral infe¢ts may be feen with the wings half-grown ;
in a few days they gain their full fize.

Dr. Derham is of opinion, that the ticking found of thefe
animals is analogous to the call of birds to their mates during
the breeding feafon ; and this opinion is very probable. This
found, fays Dr. Shaw, as well as that produced by the “ Ptinus
fatidicus,’’ or death-watch, feems to prove in a convinein
manner, that infeéts poflefs the faculty of hearing, though
this be denied by fome naturalifts.

Of the exotic termites, the moft remarkable is the
T. bellicofus. The animals of this fpecies have latel
been minutely defcribed by Mr. Smeathman, from whole
account the following particulars are extraéted.

The termites, which have been taken notice of by various
travellers in different parts of the torrid zone, and called by
the name of white ants, refemble the ants in their manner of
living, which is in communities, forming extraordinary neits
in the furface of the ground, and various fubterraneous paf-
fages, and alfo in their provident and diligent labour ; but
in both refpeéts much furpafs them. The termites are re-
prefented by Linneus as the greateft calamity of both
Indies, becaufe of the havoc they make in all kinds of
wooden buildings, utenfils, and furniture, fo that nothing but
metal or ftone can efcape their deftruétive jaws.

Smeathman obferves, that the infeét in its perfe& ftate has
four wings without any fting, and fhould therefore be ranged
under the nevroptera, and not under the aptera of the Lin-
nan fyftem. ‘The communities of termites confift of one
male and one female, generally the parents of all the reit,
and of three orders of infects, apparently of very dif-
ferent, though really of the fame {pecies. Thofe of the firft
order are the working infeé&ts, or labourers; the fecond
comprehends the fighting infects, or foldiers, which do no
labour ; and the third are the winged ones, or perfeét in-
feéts, which are male and female, and capable of propa-
gation, but neither labour nor fight ; the kings and queens
belong to this order, and within a few weeks after they are
elected and elevated to this rank, they migrate, and either
eftablifh new kingdoms, or perifh within a day or two. The
largeft fpecies, called termes bellicofus, is the beft known on
the coait of Africa; it ere€ts immenfe buildings of well-
tempered earth or clay, which are conftruéted with fignal
ingenuity: it does isfinite mifchief in one refpe&, and in
another it is peculiarly important and ufeful, by deftroying
thofe vegetable or animal fubftances which incumber the
earth, and are noxious on account of their putridity. The

_ buildings

TERMES.

buildings (ufually termed hills) which thefe infeéts erect, are
in their general form like fugar-loaves, and about ten or
twelve feet high ; and confift of an exterior part, which is
large and ftrong, intended partly for defence, and partly for
preferving a re ular degree of warmth in order to hatch the
eggs and cherifh the young: and an interior, which is the
habitable part, divided into many apartments for the refi-
dence of the king and queen, the nurfing of their progeny,
the accommodation of the foldiers and labourers, or maga-
zines of provifion. The royal chamber, in the interior
building, or that occupied by the king and queen, is fituated
near the centre, and ufually in the fhape of a femi-oval
within.

In the infant ftate of the colony, it is not more than about
an inch in length, but in time it is enlarged to fix or eight
inches in the clear, being in fize adapted to that of the
queen. It has doors or entrances, at pretty equal dif-
tances from each other, which entrances are of a fize not to
admit any animal larger than the foldiers and labourers : fo
that the king and queen, when once immured, can never go
out. The royal chamber is furrounded by many others of
different fizes, fhapes, and dimenfions ; and they either open
into each other, or communicate by paflages fuitably con-
trived. Thefe apartments are connected with the maga-
zines, formed altogether of clay, and nurferies. The provi-
fions lodged in the former appear by the microfcope to con-
fit principally of the gums or infpiflated juices of plants.
The nurferies are compofed entirely of wooden materials,
joined together apparently with gums. Thefe nurferies are
occupied by the eggs, and young infects, which appear at
firft in the fhape of labourers, but white as fnow. They are
very compact, and divided into fmall chambers, not one of
which is to be found of half an inch in width, ‘They are
placed round and near the royal apartments. As the queen
enlarges, her chamber is alfo enlarged ; and new apartments
are fitted up for her attendants ; and alfo new nurferies at a
remoter diftance. Thus, fays Mr. Smeathman, they con-
tinually enlarge their apartments, pull down, repair, and re-
build, according to their wants, with a degree of fagacity,
regularity, and forefight, not even imitated by any other
kind of animals or infeéts which he has ever heard of. Thefe
nurferies are always found flightly overgrown with or
plentifully fprinkled with {mall white globules, about the
fize of a {mall pin’s head, firft fuppofed to be the eggs, but
found by the microfcope to be {mall mufhrooms. The
royal chamber is fituated at about a level with the furface
of the ground, at an equal diftance from all the fides of the
building, and in every direétion furrounded by the apart-
ments of labourers or foldiers, for the purpofe of attend-
ance. Thefe apartments compofe an intricate labyrinth,
extending a foot or more in diameter, from the royal
chamber on every fide. Here the nurferies and magazines
of provifions commence, and being feparated by {mall empty
chambers or galleries, are continued on all fides to the out-
ward fhell, and reaching up within it two-thirds or three-
fourths of its height. ATI thefe chambers, and paflages
leading to and and from them, being arched, help to fupport
one another; and the exterior building fupports them on
the outfide. Our limits will not allow our defcribing all the
fubterranean galleries or paflages, and the manner in which
they are artfully made to communicate with different parts of
the building, and to fuit the convenience of the labourers
and foldiers, as thoroughfares for pafling and repafling with
their loads of materials and provifions.

There are other nefts or habitations conftruéted by other
{pecies, which are in the form of turrets, or upright cy-
linders, and contain a number of cells; they are of two fizes,

for the accommodation o a larger and {maller {pecies: and
again another kind of nefts, which is the habitation of a dif-
tin&t {pecies; this is generally {pherical or oval, and built
in trees.

Of the three orders above-mentioned, the labourers,
which are about one-fourth of an inch long, and twenty-five
of them weigh about a grain, are the moft numerous sesh os
in the T. bellicofus, there feem to be at leaft one hundred
labourers to one of the fighting infe&ts or foldiers. The
foldiers are about half an inch long, and equal in bulk to-
fifteen of the labourers ; the mouth of the latter is evidently
calculated for gnawing and holding of bodies, whereas that of
the former, or foldiers, has its jaw fhaped like two fharp
awls, a little jagged, and as hard as a crab’s claws, fo that
they are incapable of any thing but piercing or wounding =
in infe&ts of the third order, which have arrived at their per-
fect ftate, the head, thorax, and abdomen, are wholly dif-
ferent from thofe of the other orders, and they are furnifhed
with four large brownifh tranfparent wings ; their length is:
fix or feven-tenths of an inch, and each is equal in bulk to
thirty labourers ; they have now two eyes which are vifible,,
whereas if they had them before they are not diftinguithable..
Thefe infe€ts are gathered and eat by the inhabitants, and
reckoned both delicious and nourifhing food. The King and
queen are lodged in apartments, which are clofed up, fo that
a paflage remains merely for the ingrefs and egrefs of the
labourers and foldiers, but at which (as we have already aol
neither of the royal pair can come out : and in the bufinefs:
of propagation the abdomen of the female extends to an
enormous fize, fo that an old queen’s will be fifteen hundred
or two thoufand times the bulk of the reft of her body, and
twenty or thirty thoufand times the bulk of a labourer, and
by its periftaltic motion, are protruded eges to the amount
of fixty in a minute, or eighty thoufand and more in twenty-
four hours: the eggs are removed by the attendants into the
nurferies, and-after they are hatched, the young are provided
with every thing neceffary till they are able to fhift for
themfelves. It is remarkable of all the different fpecies of
termites, that the working and fighting infeéts never expofe
themfelves to the open air; but either travel under ground,
or within fuch trees or fubftances as they deftroy, or through
pipes made of the fame materials with their nefts. The ter-
mites which build in trees, frequently conftru& their nefts
within the roofs and other parts of houfes, to which they
do confiderable damage, unlefs foon extirpated; and. the
larger fpecies enter under the foundations of houfes, through
the floors, or bore through the pofts of buildings, making”
lateral perforations and cavities, as they proceed. They are
equally deftruétive when they get into a trunk containing
clothes and other things, and into ftores, &c.

Upon opening the hills in which the termites lodge, the
behaviour of the foldiers excites admiration. Whena breach
is made, however quickly it be done, a foldier will run out,
and walk about the breach, as if to fee whether the enemy is
gone, or to examine what is the caufe of the attack. He
will fometimes return again, as if to give the alarm ; but in a
fhort interval he is followed by two or three others, running
as faft as they can, and thefe are followed by a large body,
others alfo fucceeding them, as long as any one continues to
batter their building : nor is it eafy to defcribe the rage and
fury which they manifeft on the oceafion ; aaa every
thing in their way, and making a vibrating noife, like the
ticking of a watch, perceptible at the diftance of three or four
feet. If they get hold of any one who attacks their habit-
ation, they will in an inftant fuck out blood enough to weigh
againft their whole body ; and if they chance to wound the

leg, the ftain-upon the ftocking will be feento extend an inch
12 im

TER

in width. They make their hooked jaws to meet at the firft
ftroke, nor will they quit their hold, but fuffer themfelves to
be pulled away leg by leg, and piece after piece, without the
leaft attempt to efcape. If, however, they are left to them-
felves undifturbed, they will in lefs than half an hour retire
into the neft, as if they conceived their caftle to be fecure.
Before they all get in, the labourers will be feen in motion,
haftening to bring materials for repairing the breach. This
they do without mutual obftruétion, though their number be
immenfe, and the work is foon finifhed. While the labourers
are thus employed, the foldiers take no part with them. On
a renewed attack, the labourers run with celerity into the
numerous pipes and galleaes with which the building is per-
forated ; and the foldiers rufh out as numerous and as vin-
diftive as before. One circumftance more deferves to be
mentioned ; and that is the loyalty and fidelity difplayed by
the labourers and foldiers in their attendance on the royal
chamber. This chamber is a large neft, is capacious enough
to hold many hundreds of the attendants, befides the royal
pair, and it is always found full. Thefe faithful fubjects
never abandon their charge in the laft diftrefs, but rather die
in their defence than defert them. ‘If in an attack upon the
hill, you ftop fhort of the royal chamber, and cut down
about half of the building, and leave open fome thoufands of
galleries and chambers, they will all be fhut up with their
fheets of clay before the next morning. If even the whole
is pulled down, and the different buildings are thrown to-

gether in a heap of confufed ruins, provided the king and
queen are not deftroyed or taken away, every interftice
between the ruins, at which either cold or wet can poflibly
enter, will be fo covered, as to exclude both; and if the in-
feéts are left undifturbed, in about a year they will raife the
building to nearly its priftine fize and grandeur.

There is another fpecies, called the marching termites,
which is much larger, and feems to be lefs frequent than the
other. For an account of thofe, and many other curious
particulars, we muft refer to Philof. Tranf vol. lxxi. part i.
art. 11. p- 139—192.

TERMIGON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Blanc, on the Arc; 12 miles E.N.E.
of St. André.

TERMINALIA, in Antiquity, feafts celebrated by the
Romans, in honour of the god Terminus.

Varro is of opinion, that this feaft took its name from its
being at the term or end of the year; but Feftus is of a
different fentiment, and derives it from the name of the deity
in whofe honour it was held.

In reality, the Terminalia, or feafts of land-marks, were
held in honour of Jupiter, confidered in the capacity of con-
fervator of land-marks or bounds. Dionyfius Halicarnafleus
tells us, that it was Numa Pompilius who firft confecrated
land-marks to Jupiter ; and adds, that the fame prince ap-
pointed an anniverfary day, on which the country-people,
affembling together on the bounds of the lands, fhould offer
facrifices in honour of the tutelary gods thereof.

The Terminalia were held on the feventh, or, as Struvius
will have it, on the tenth of the calends of March. No
animal is to be faerificed herein, it being deemed unlawful to
ftain the land-marks with blood; they only offered facrifices
of the firft fruits of the earth ; and this in the open air, and
on the fpot where the land-marks were.

TesMINALIA, in Botany, from the terminal mode of
growth and foliation in feyeral of the {pecies, the ftem bein
a ftriking example of what Linnzus latterly called deter-
minate rambfus, and the Teaves being crowded at the ends
o! the branches, which are {welled in that part—Linn,
Mant. 21. Schrep, Gen, 728. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 967,

TER

Mart. Mill. Di&. v."4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 441.
Jacq. Coll. v. 1.130. Juff. 76. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 848.
(Pamea; Aubl. Guian. 946. Tanibouca; ibid. 448? Ba-
damia; Gertn. t.g7- Myrobalanus; Gertn. ibid. Lam.
Illuftr. t. 849.)—Clafs and order, Polygamia Monoecia,
Linn. Rather Decandria Monogynia. f

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, internally
coloured, in five ovate, acute, equal fegments. Cor. Petals
none. Neétary pitcher-fhaped, compofed of five {mall hairy
lobes, in the bottom of the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten,
awl-fhaped, flightly fpreading, longer than the calyx, in-
ferted into its lower part; anthers roundifh, ere&t. Pi/?.
Germen inferior, ovate-oblong ; ftyle thread-fhaped, ere¢t,
the length of the ftamens ; fees fimple. Peric. Drupa
oval, fomewhat compreffed, acute. Seed. Nut oval-oblong,
angular, {mooth, with an oblong folitary kernel.

Numerous flowers, above the others, and later, are en-
tirely male.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five fegments, internally coloured,
Petals none. Ne@tary five-cleft, hairy. Drapa inferior.

1. T. Catappa. Broad downy-leaved Terminalia. Linn.
Mant. 128. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Jacq. Coll. v. 1.
130. Ic. Rar. t. 197. (Adamaram; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 4. 5. t- 3, 4.) — Leaves obovate, obtufe, very
flightly toothed, deftitute of glands at the bafe; finely
downy beneath.—Native of the Eaft Indies, in Java and in
woods on the coaft of Malabar, where the foil is fandy.
Meffrs. Lee and Kennedy are faid to have introduced this
tree into the Englifh ftoves in 1778, but it has not yet blof-
fomed, nor, confidering its natural and lofty growth, is that
event to be expeGted. The branches grow in a whorled
manner ; their extremities, clothed with rufty down, bearing
each a clofe tuft of large broad /eaves, a foot long, on fhort
downy ftalks. Each éaf is tipped with a {mall point, and
is abrupt or fomewhat heart-fhaped, though much contra&-
ed, at the bafe. C/uffers numerous, axillary, ftalked, cylin-
drical, denfe, many-flowered. Flowers greenifh-yellow,
half the fize of a currant-bloffom, moft of them nfales.

Fruit oval, compreffed, larger than that of the almond-tree,.

reddifh, with a cylindrical kernel, which taftes like a filberd,
but is more tender and foluble. Its oil is faid never to turn
rancid. The wood is hard and durable, and the tree is much
planted about houfes, for the fake of its fhade.

2. T. moluccana. Molucca Terminalia. Lamarck Dié.
v. 1. 349. Willd. n.2. Ait.n.2. (T. glabrata; Fortt.
Prodr. 74. Pl. Efcul. 52. Spreng. Antiq. Bot. 102. t. 2.
Catappa; Rumph. Amboin. v. 1. 174. t. 68.)—Leaves
obovate, obtufe, entire, deftitute of glands at the bafe ;
{mooth on both fides.—Native of the Molucca and Society
ifles. Introduced into the Englifh ftoves by the earl of
Powis, in 1804. This is faid to be of a more humble fta-
ture than the foregoing, and the /eaves are {maller, fmooth
at the back, though their foot/alks are covered with denfe
rufty down. The fpecific name of glabrata ought to have
been retained in preference to mofuccana. This is confidered
as a facred tree in Otaheite, though ufed in building boats as
well as houfes.

3. 'T. fubcordata. Heart-leaved Terminalia. Willd.
n. 3.— Leaves obovate, obtufe, fomewhat wavy ; {mooth
on both fides, heart-fhaped at the bafe, without glands,””—
Gathered by Humboldt and Bonpland, in South America.
Willdenow, who had examined one of their dried {pecimens,
fays * this {pecies is very like the laft, but the bafe of the
leaves is heart-{haped, and their margin very flightly and un-
equally waved ; the foo/falks fomewhat downy. It differs
from T. Catappa, in having the /eaves fomewhat voy 4

moot

TERMINALIA. ’

fmnooth on béth fides, and heart-fhaped at the bafe.””—This
lait charaGter feems to us to exift in ZT. Catappa.

4. T. latifolia. Broad wedge-leaved Terminalia. Swartz
Ind. Oce. 747. Willd. n. 4. (Arbor maxima, forté pru-
nifera, cortice cannabino, folio longiflimo latiflimoque ;
Sloane Hilt. v. 2. 130.)—Leaves obovate, obtufe, fome-
what ferrated, fmooth on both fides, deftitute of glands at
the bafe: their midrib downy beneath.—Native of moun-
tainous woods in the north part of Jamaica. A tall, ftout,
umbrageous free, rifing to the height of one hundred feet, or
more, with horizontal branches, downy when young.. Leaves!
erowded about the ends of the branches, on fmooth ftalks,
thickifh, fearcely pointed, bluntly ferrated, or nearly entire,
tapering (not dilated or heart-fhaped) at the bafe. Flowers
fmall, whitifh or yellowifh, in long axillary clufters 5 the
upper ones chiefly male. uit pulpy, greenifh-red, {weet,
boat-fhaped, larger than a peach, eaten chiefly by hogs.
Its kernel taftes like an almond. The wood is valuable for
its hardnefs. The inhabitants of Jamaica know this {pecies
by the name of Broad-leaf Tree. Swartz.

. T. Chebula. Oval-leaved Terminalia. Retz. Obf.
fafc. 5. 31. Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 3. Roxb. Coromand.
¥. 2. 52. t. 197. (Myrobalanus Chebula; Gertn. v. 2.91.
t. 97-)—Leaves obovate-oblong, obtufe, entire, oppofite,
fmooth on both fides; filky when young. Footftalks with
two glands near the top. Clufters terminal.—Native of
hills in the Eaft Indies. Retzius, who received his {peci-
mens from Koenig, defcribes this ¢ree as not more than three
or four times the height of a man, with no very widely
{preading top. Our fpecimens, from Dr. Rottler, agree
with every particular of his defcription. The young Jeaves
are beautifully filky. We find none of the marginal glands
reprefented by Roxburgh, nor are our /eaves pointed, as in
his plate. Be erg in both are yellow, in terminal, often
aggregate, cluiters. Dr. Roxburgh mentions the wood of
the tree he defcribes as hard and valuable, and the head as
evergreen, and widely fpreading. . The rind of its fruit is
much ufed by painters of chintz for drawing a permanent
outline, and by dyers to fix their colours. With falt of
fteel it makes an excellent ink.

6. T. elliptica. Rounded-leaved Terminalia. Willd.
n. 6.— Leaves oblong-elliptical, bluntly rounded, entire ;
flightly hairy beneath, with two glands at the bafe.’?—Native
of the Eaft Indies. The ranches are round, brown ; downy
when young. Leaves two or three inches in length ; con-
tracted at the bafe ; very obtufe at the extremity, with a
flight point ; dark green and {mooth above ; pale, and be-
{prinkled with clofe-preffed fcattered hairs, beneath ; furnifhed
at the bafe with two cup-fhaped, fomewhat ftalked, glands.
Spikes terminal, panicled. Willdenow. We have been in-
clined to fufpe& this might not be diftin@ from the follow-
ing, but the inflorefcence does not agree, nor could Willde-
now furely have omitted to notice the great length of the
foostftalks in T. Bellerica.

“7. T. Bellerica. Long-ftalked.Terminalia. Roxb. Co-
rom. v. 2. 54. t. 198. (Myrobalanus Bellerica ; Breyn. Ic.

18. t. 4. Gaertn. v. 2. go. t. 97. Tani; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 4. 23. t. 10.)—Leaves obovate, wavy, {mooth.
Footttalks about half as long as the leaves, with two glands
at the top. Spikes axillary, folitary, hardly longer than
the footftalks.—Native of hills in the Eaft Indies. A
large tree, with a very widely {preading head ; the wood is
white, but foft, and not durable. The daré, when wounded,
exudes a copious infipid gum, like gum arabic, foluble in
water. The /eaves are firm and fmooth, fix or feven inches
Jong when full-grown, but in the flowering feafon they feem
fearcely to exceed their foot/lalts, which then meafure half

WOTier SN Ve

thatlength. Fowers fetid, dirty yellow, in copious axillary
{fpikes, not clufters. Fruit the fize of a nutmeg ; its kernel
eatable, but reported to intoxicate if taken in’ any great
quantity.

8. T. mauritiana. Mauritius Terminalia. Lamarck
Dic. v. 1. 349. Willd. n. 7. (Badamia Commerfoni;
Gertn. y. 2. go. t. 97? Pamea guianenfis ; Aubl. Guian.
Vv. 2. 946. t. 349 ?)—Leaves lanceolate, flightly crenate,
tapering at each end, ‘{mooth on both iides. Spikes
axillary, the length of the leaves.—Native of the ifles of
Mauritius and Bourbon, and probably of Madagafcar. Com-
merfon defcribes it as the largeit and talleft tree of the two
former iflands. He took it for a new genus, and named it
Refinaria, under which name, and that of /e faux benjoin, his
{pecimens are preferved in the Linnzan herbarium. The qwood
is much efteemed for making canoes. The dranches are
{welled at the ends, where they bear ample tufts of Leaves
three or four inches long, on downy ftalks, three-quarters’ of
an inch in length; when full-grown both appear, by La-
marck’s account, to be much larger. Flowers copious, in
fimple axillary fpikes. fruit an inch or inch and half long,
with a dilated comprefled border, not altogether anfwering
to Gertner’s figure, which makes us doubt his fynonym.
He has formed his barbarous generic name, Badamia, out of
the French Badamier, which is fynonimous with Terminalia.
Aublet’s plate of his Pamea greatly refembles our plant, and
our chief doubt arifes from their diftant places of growth.
That they are of the fame genus cannot be difputed.

9. T. anguftifolia. Narrow-leaved Terminalia. Jacq.
Hort. Vind. v. 3. 51. t. 100. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4.
(T. Benzoin; Linn. Suppl. 434. Lamarck Di. v. 1.
349- Croton Benzoe; Linn. Mant. 297. Willd. Sp. Pl.
VY. 4. 533-)—Leaves linear-lanceolate, wavy, downy on
both fides.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Jacquin reports
that feeds of this {pecies were fent him by Lemonnier, under
the French name of Bien-joint, from the ifle of Bourbon.
Hence he ingenioufly and fatisfa€torily conjectures, that this
appellation, which alludes to the mode of growth of the
tree, may have been confounded with Benjoin or Benzoin,
the French word for gum Benjamin, or Benzoe, and thus
the faid gum was fuppofed to come from the plant before
us, (See Stryrax.) TZ. angu/flifolia has long been culti-
vated in our ftoves, but the flowers are unknown. Its man-
ner of branching is like 7. Catappa, mauritiana, &c. nor
does it much differ from the laft named, except that the
leaves are narrower, often quite linear, and clothed, more or
lefs completely, with brown, rather rigid, hairs. Their
veins, rib, and margin are tinged with a blood-colour. The
fruit appears to be fimilar to the laft. Linnzus raifed a
plant from feed in the Upfal ftove, and remarked that the
feed-leaves were of a blood-red. The /eaves of his fpecimen
hardly exceed a line in breadth.

10. T. Vernix. Varnifh Terminalia.
v. I. 350. Willd. n. 9. (Arbor vernicis; Rumph. Am-
boin. vy. 2. 259. t. 86.)—Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire,
{mooth on both fides.—Native of the Molucca ifles. It is
prefumed to belong to this genus from the imperfect defcrip-
tion of Rumphius, and its evident refemblance to the two
lait {pecies. The /eaves however are more difperfed, and of
larger dimenfions, being from nine to eleven inches long, and
the breadth of three or four fingers, fo that they are fearcely
to be termed J/incar-lanceolate. The rib is very prominent
beneath. Flowers yellow or whitith, with red Jframens, in
deeeping clufters or fpikes. Fruit oblique and comprefied,
two inches broad. The nut exudes a large quantity of refin,
foon turning brown, and a milky refinous fluid is lodged
under the bark of the tree, at fark of an acrid quality, but

3A hardening

Lamarck Did.

TER

hardening into a valuable varnifh, deftitute of acrimony, and
much ufed in the Moluccas. A noxious vapour is faid to
proceed frem this tree, fo that the natives of the countries
where it grows avoid fleeping, or even fitting for any length
of time, under its fhade. Whether this be the moft famous
varnifh-tree of the Chinefe, as Rumphius indicates, may
perhaps admit of doubt.

11. T. Yanibouca. Guiana Terminalia. (Tanibouca
guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. 448. t. 178.)—Leaves fcattered,
obovate, pointed, entire, fmooth. Clufters terminal and axil-
lary. Native of marfhy places in Guiana. For an account
of this fpecies, fee Tanisouca. Its genus muft be very
doubtful, unlefs the fruit were known, but the fuggeftion
of our learned friend Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.
351, induces us, for the prefent at leaft, to refer the plant
hither.

TERMINANDO ¢¢ Audiendo. See AupiIENDO.

TERMINANS, Punctum. See Puncrum.

TERMINATION, Terminatio, in Grammar, the
ending of a word, or the laft fyllable of it.

They are the different terminations of one and the fame
words on different occafions, that conftitute the different
cafes, numbers, tenfes, moods, &c.

Termination Jfland, in Geography, an ifland in the
South Pacific ocean, fo named by captain Vancouver, as
being the termination of his refearches on the S.W. coat of
New Holland, near which it lies. S. lat. 34° 32’. E. long.
122-96

TERMINATOR, in Affronomy, a name fometimes
given to the circle of illumination, from its property of ter-
minating the boundaries of light and darknefs.

TERMINE, in Commerce, a weight for gold, filver, and
pearls at Tunis ; 8 termini being equal to an ounce; and
80 ounces of Tunis being equal to 81 ounces Englifh
troy. :

Termine, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Ultra; 10 miles S.E. of Avellino.

TERMINER, in Law. See Over.

TERMINI, in Archite@ure. See Terms.

TeRMINI, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley
of Mazara, fituated on the north coaft, celebrated for the
warm baths near it, from which it received its name ; 18 miles
E. of Palermo. N. lat. 38°5'. E. long. 13° 45’—Alfo,
ariver of Sicily, which runs into the Mediterranean, a little
to the W. of T'ermini.

Termini. See TERMOLI.

TERMINISTS, Terminist#, in Lcclefiaftical Hiftory,
a feé& or party among the Calvinifts, whofe particular tenets
are reducible to five points :

1. That there are feveral perfons, both in and out of the
church, to whom God has fixed a certain term before their
death, after which he no longer wills their falvation, how
long foever they live afterwards. 2. That God has fixed
this fatal term of grace by a fecret decree. 3. That this
term once elapfed, he makes them no farther offer of re-
pentance or falvation, but takes away from his word al! the
power it might have to convert them. 4. That Pharaoh,
Saul, Judas, moft of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles,
were of this number. 5. That God {till bears with feveral
of this fort of people, and even confers benefits on them
after the term is expired ; but that he does not do it with
any intention they fhould be converted.

‘All the other Proteftauts, and particularly the Lutherans,
look on thefe articles with abhorrence, as repugnant to the
goodnefs of God, and deftructive to all Chriftian virtue ;
and as contrary to Scripture, particularly the following
texts, Ezek, xvii. 23. 30, 31, 32. xxxiii, 11. 1 Tim. iv.

5 i ces

1. 16. 2 Pet. iii.9. Ads, xvii. 30, 31. Matt. xi. 28.
Ifa. Ixvi. 2. Heb. iii. 7.13. Rom. ii. 5, &c.

TERMINOS, in Geography, a lake or bay on the coaft
of Tabafco, in the bay of Campeachy. N. lat. 18° r2/.
W. long. 92° 46!.

TERMINTHUS, from repuuboc, a pine-nut, in Surgery,
a large painful tumour, or puftule on the fkin, thought to
refemble a pine-nut.

TERMINOM, ad qui preterit. See Ap Terminum.

Terminum, Infra, quare gecit. See Quane.

TERMINUS, +p, fignifies a bound or limit.

TERMINUS, @ quo, in i.
from whence any motion commences: in contradiftinGtion
from the other extreme, which is called the ferminus ad
quem.

The fchoolmen call privation a terminus a quo, in {peak-
ing of generation, which they’ confider as a fpecies of
motion.

Terminus, in Mythology, the god of fields and land-
marks. M. de Boze, in a learned differtation on this fub-
jet (Mem. de Acad. t.i.), obferves, that the Egyptians
received from the Hebrews the cultom of bounding the fields.
In procefs of time, as the laws eftablifhed for the fecurity of
the land-marks were not a fufficient reftraint on avarice,
Numa perfuaded the people that there was a.god who pro-
teted land-marks and avenged incroachments. He built a
temple to him upon the Tarpeian mount, and regulated the
ceremonies of his worfhip. He caufed this god to be repre-
fented under the form of a {tock or ftone, as-we learn from
Tibullus and Ovid: but afterwards this god was reprefented
with a human body placed upon a pyramidical land-mark.
It is faid that this god acquired: peculiar honour by main-
taining his {tation when the other gods were removed by
Tarquin the Proud, for the purpofe of building the temple
which Tarquin the elder had vowed to ereét to Jupiter.

TERMIOVA, in Geography, a town of Hftria; 18
miles N.E. of Pedena. we

TERMISSUS, or Termissus, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in the fouthern part of Pifidia. ~

TERMITES, in Entomology. See TERMEs.

TERMOLI, or Termini, in Geography, a town of Na-
ples, in the province of Capitanata; the fee of a bifhop,
fuffragan of Benevento ; 57 miles W. of Vielte. N. lat.
A2riats Plone 15> oe

TERMOR, Tenens ex termino, in Laz, he that holds
lands or tenements for a term of years, or life.

TERMUS, in Ancient Geography, a river in the ifle of
Sardinia.

TERN, in Geography, a river of England, which rifes’
in Staffordfhire, 5 miles N.E. of Drayton, and runs into
the Severn, 7 miles below Shrew{bury.

Tern. See Tyran. ,

Tern, in Ornitholozy. See STERNA.

Tern, Brown, or Sterna obfcura of Linneus, is by
fome authors called the drown gull. Mr. Ray deferibes it as
having the whole under fide white, the upper brown; the
wings partly brown, partly afh-colour ; the head blaek ;
and the tail not forked: but Mr. Pennant conjeétures,
that this bird is the young of the greater tern. See
STERNA.

Tern, Great, or Sea-fwallow, Sterna hirundo of Linneus,
has the bill and fect of a fine crimfon, the former tipt with
black, ae flender, and fharp-pointed ; the crown and
hind part of the head black ; the throat and whole under
fide of the body white ; the upper part, and coverts of the
wings, a pale grey ; the tail confilting of twelve feathers, the
outer edges of the three outmoft grey, the reft white, and

the

etaphyfics, denotes the place.

ie Aer en

a

——

TER

the exterior.on each fide two inches longer than the other,
and clofed in flying, fo as to appear one flender feather.

Thefe birds frequent the fea-fhores, banks of lakes, and
rivers ; they feed on fmall fifh and water infects, hovering
over the water, and fuddenly darting into it to catch their
prey. They breed among {mall tufts of rufhes, and lay
three or four eggs of a dull olive-colour, {potted with black.
All the birds of this genus are very clamorous. Pennant.

Tern, Black, or Scare-craw. See SteRNA Filipes.

Tern, Surinam, or Darter. See Prorus Surinamenfis.

TERNA, a word ufed by fome authors to expreis an
impetigo. ;

Terna, Folia, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, are
leaves, whether fimple or compound, {effile or ftalked, which
grow three together in a whorl, on any ftem or branch, as
in Verbena triphylla, Curt. Mag. t. 367. Such a difpofi-
tion of the foliage appears to prevail remarkably among the
plants of Mexico, Chili, and Peru, of which, befides the
example juft named, many others may be found. (See the
genera Fucusta and Hemimeris.) Among Britifh plants,
Erica cinerea has naturally folia terna ; while the generally op-
pofite leaves of Lyfimachta vulgaris and Lythrum Salicaria
occafionally become fo. See Lear.

TERNALLA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore; 45 miles E. of Rettinghery.

TERNARY Measure. See MEASURE.

Ternary Number, in Antiquity, was efteemed a fymbol
of perfeGtion, and held in great veneration among the an-
cient mythologifts. Whence Virgil,

~¢ Numero Deus impare gaudet.”? Ecl. viii. ver. 75.

Servius on this place remarks, that the Pythagoreans
afcribed the ternary number to the Supreme God, as being
the beginning, middle, and the end of all things. All the
heathen gods had a three-fold power attributed to them, as
the tria virginis ora Diane, the three-forked thunderbolt of
Jupiter, the trident of Neptune, the three-headed dog of
Pluto. Again, the Parce were three, the Furies*three,
Hercules was three nights in begetting, the Mufes were an-
ciently three, the Graces three, &c.

This number was likewife ufed in moft religious ceremo-
nies, but efpecially in luftrations; whence Virgil, Ain.
hb. xi. v. 188.

« Ter circum accenfos, cinGti fulgentibus armis,
Decurrere rogos.””

TERNATA, Forta, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfology,
are compound leaves, each of which confifts of three leaf-
lets, as in the Trefoil and Strawberry. Thefe are called in
Erglith Ternate Leaves, and muft not be confounded with
Folia Terna, fee that article, for which laft we have no ap-
propriate term in our language. Some plants bear twice,
or thrice, ternate leaves. See LEAP.

TERNATE, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, and the principal, though not the largeit, among
thofe called Moluccas or Spice Iflands, of a circular form,
and about 21 miles in circumference. In the centre is a
lofty volcanic mountain, whofe bafe extends almoft to the
fea every way. The upper parts are uncultivated, and co-
vered over with fhrubs and low trees; but in the plain are
many gardens, and abundance of fruit-trees. On this moun-
tain are found many hollows or caverns full of fulphur,
which emit a thick fmoke, and flame fometimes appears
from the fummit, with a noife refembling thunder. The
produétions are cocoa-nuts, bananas, yams, oranges, and
other fruits ; but the principal article of commerce is cloves:

TER

many birds of paradife, and other beautiful birds, are found
here, and plenty of game. The chief quadrupeds are goats,
deer, and hogs. The boa ferpent.is fometimes found of the
length of thirty feet. This ifland was firft fettled by the
Spaniards, who were driven away by the Dutch, to whom
the king of the ifland is, in fome degree, fubje&. ‘The
Europeans have two forts, called “ Orange’’ and ‘ Ter-
loehe,”? between which is a lake, called ‘“ Saffe,”? three miles
in circumference, and 60 fathoms deep, feparated from the
fea by a narrow dike, which the Spaniards made a fruitlefs
attempt to cut through, to form a port. Qn this ifland are
three mofques, and a Dutch church, but no place of wor-
fhip for the Portuguefe. The province or government of
Ternate includes the iflands of Ternate, Tidore, Motir,
Machian, and Bachian, which are what are properly the
Moluccas; they are the original places of growth of the
finer {pices ; and larger nutmegs are ftill found in the woods
of Ternate, than any ather produced out of Banda. Some
places, fituated in the eaftern part of the ifland of Celebes,
belong likewife to this government; and the objec of the
Company in fettling there is principally to furnifh provifions
for Ternate, that part of Celebes being very fruitful in riee
and other neceffaries. They alfo yield a confiderable quan-
tity of gold, about 24,000 taels, of a dollar and a half in
weight, yearly, amounting, at 5/. per tael, to 120,000/., and
efculent bird’s-nefts, which are efteemed a great delicacy by
the Orientals, and efpecially by the Chinefe ; in exchange
for which the inhabitants take opium, Hindooftan piece-
goods, chiefly blue cloth, fine Bengal coffacs and hummums,
together with fome cutlery. Ternate does not, in general,
require any fupply of provifions from Java, as the ifles of
Banda do. This ifland fuffered greatly in Auguft 1770, by
earthquakes. More than fixty violent fhocks were felt in
the fpace of twenty-four hours, and the fortifications were
much injured. N. lat.o° 5c’. E. long. 127° 10.

Ternate, in Zoolocy, afpecies of bat. See VAMPYRE,
and VEsPERTILIO Vampyrus.

TERNATEA, in Botany, a genus fo named by Tourne-
fort, from Ternate, the native country of the plant. See
Crirorta.

TERNAVASSO, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Po; 6 miles N.E. of Carmagnola.

TERNAY, Bay of, a bay or harbour on the E. coaft of
Chinefe Tartary, fo called by M. Peroufe in 1787. The
Dutch navigators called it Port Acqueis. N. lat. 45° 13/.
E. long. 137° 29!.

TERNBERG, a mountain of Auftria, near the river
Enns; 6 miles S. of Steyr. :

TERNEUSE, a town and fortrefs of Flanders, fituated
onthe W. branch of the Scheld, called the “* Hondt,’”’ be-
gun by the count of Hohenloe, lieutenant of the prince of
Orange, in the year 1583, afterwards augmented by the
States: the fortifications have been fince deftroyed ; 12 miles
S.E. of Flufhing.

TERNI, atown of the Popedom, in the duchy of Spo-
leto, fituated between two arms of the Nera, and, therefore,
anciently called ‘¢ Interamnium,”’ or “ Interamna.”’ It is
well built, and the fee of a bifhop, immediately fubje& to
the pope. Its greateft trade confitts in oil, befides which it
alfo reaps confiderable advantage from its excellent vine-
yards. This was the birth-place of the emperors Tacitus
and Florianus, and of Tacitus the famous hiftorian. Be-
tween fix and feven Italian miles from Terni, to the N.W.
clofe by the little town of Cefi, is Mount Eolo, remarkable
for its cool breezes, which, efpecially in fummer, iffue from
the chafms and crevices in the rocks of this mountain; 14
miles S.5.W.. of Spoleto. N. lat. 2°34!. E. long. 12° 37’.

3 Az TERNIER,

ce ee

TERNIER, a town of France, in the department of
the Leman; 5 miles S.S.W. of Geneva.

' 'TERNOIS, Le, a river of France, which runs into

the Canche, near Hefdin.

TERNOSKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the country of
the Coffacs, on the Don; 136 miles E.N.E. of Azoph.

TERNOVA, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia. This town was anciently one of the {trongeft in the
country, and the refidence of the princes; at prefent it is
thinly inhabited, and the fortifications are ruined. It is the
refidence of an ecclefiaftic, who is called the archbifhop of
Bulgaria; 95 miles E. of Sophia. N. lat. 43°. E. long.
25° 24'.—Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Theffaly ;
large and commercial; on the Peneus; 5 miles W.N.W. of
Lariffa.

TERNSTROEMIA, in Botany, was fo called by Lin-
nzus at the fuggeftion of Mutis, in memory of one of the
pupils of the former, named Ternitroem, who having under-
taken a voyage to China, in 1745, died at Poulicandor, at
an early age. His illuftrious teacher has not, as in other
inftances, given us any account of the voyage, difcoveries,
or talents of this unfortunate young man, who, though not
one of his favourite pupils, deferves commemoration as a
martyr to {cientific refearch.—Linn. Suppl. 39. Schreb.
347. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1128. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 4.
Swartz Prodr. 81. Juff. 262. (Cleyera; Thunb. Jap. 12.
Nov. Gen. 68. Juff. 433. Taonabo; Aubl. Guian. 569.
Tonabea; Jufl. 262. Tanabea; Lamarck IIluftr. t. 456.)
—Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. akin
to Thea and Camellia. Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, orbicular, concave, rather unequal fegments, with two
{maller ones clofely applied to its bafe, all permanent and
coriaceous. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped, in five deep,
orbicular, concave, emarginate fegments, longer than the
calyx, without any tube. Stam. Filaments numerous, awl-
fhaped, fhorter than the corolla, and inférted into its bafe
in a double row; anthers linear, ereét, the length of the
faments. Pi/t. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle cylin-
drical, as long as the ftamens; ftigma capitate. Peric.
Berry dry, ovate, {mooth, of two cells. Seeds about eight,
convex on one fide, flat on the other.

Eff. Ch. Corolla bell-fhaped, in five deep fegments,
without a tube. Calyx in five deep fegments, with two
fmaller at the bafe. Berry dry, of two cells.

1. 'T. meridionalis. Mexican Ternftroemia. Linn. Suppl.
264. Willd. n. 1.—Leaves. obovate, obtufe, emarginate,
entire. Flower-{talks axillary, compreffed, recurved. ‘Two
outer fegments of the calyx orbicular, fharply keeled.—
Gathered by Mutis in Mexico and New Granada. A tree,
determinately branched; the branches thick, rigid, leafy,
nearly round, with a fmooth grey bark. Leaves alternate,
an inch or rather more in length, on fhort, thick, chan-
nelled, purplith footftalks, obovate, or nearly elliptical, pe-
culiarly rigid and coriaceous, fingle-ribbed, {mooth, with a
thick fomewhat revolute margin; their upper furface often
dotted with either prominent or depreffed points ; the under
purplifh or rufty, efpecially when young. Stipulas none.
Flower-fialks numerous, axillary, folitary, half the length
of the leaves, very thick and rigid, two-edged, brown or
purple, curved downwards, deftitute of pubefcence, but,
in the dried plant at leaft, wrinkled and uneven. Flowers
larger than a hawthorn-bloffom, white. The two fmaller
external feales of the calyx furnifhed with a fharp keel, end-
ing in a minute point ; the reft without any keel, thin and
membranous at the edge; all {mooth, orbicular, coriaceous,
permanent. Corolla occafionally with fix fegments, at firft

B)

TER

globofe, then bell-fhaped. Berry dry, deftitute of valves,
Seeds filky, deep red. Such is the plant of Mutis. We
have no means of afcertaining whether the Weit Indian one,
defcribed by Swartz in his Ob/ervationes, be the fame or
not; but he fays the fower-ffalks are terminal, nor does he
advert to their clumty two-edged figure, fo different from
the reft of the fpecies, that it could fcarcely have, efcaped
his notice. ute

2. T. elliptica. Elliptical Ternftroemia, or Rottenbane.
Swartz Ind. Oce. 929. Willd. n. 2. Wahl Symb. v. 2. 61-
—Leaves obovate, obtufe, entire. Flower-ftalks lateral,
elongated, nearly thread-fhaped. Outer fegments of the
calyx ovate, acute, bluntly keeled.—Native of the Welt
Indies, on the Sulphur mountains of Montferrat and Guade-
loupe, as well as in St. Vincent’s. It is faid to be the pre-
tended Jefuit’s bark, mentioned by Labat. This is a fhrub
with ftout, round, {mooth, difperfed or cluftered branches,
leafy towards their extremities. Leaves like the laft, but
twice as long, and not emarginate ; their footflalks longer
and more flender. Flower-/talks an inch and half or tw6
inches long, but flightly drooping or recurved, nearly round,
not a quarter fo ftout as the lait, flightly {welling upward,
red or purplifh. //owers rather larger than the foregoing,
yellowifh-white, fome of them deftitute of a piftil, The
{cales of the calyx are all pointed, the outer ones narrow and
ovate, of a fmaller proportion than in T. meridionalis, and
fometimes more than two. us

3- T. japonica. Japan Ternftroemia. Thunb. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 2. 335. Willd. n. 4. (Cleyera japonica ;
Thunb. Jap. 224. Mokokf; Kempf. Am. Exot. 873.
t..774.)—Leaves obovato-lanceolate, obtufe, nearly entire.
Flower-ftalks lateral, fomewhat angular. Outer fegments
of the calyx triangular, pointed, flightly keeled. —Gathered
by Thunberg, near Nagafaki in Japan, flowering in autumn.
This is a ¢ree, {mooth in every part. Specimens fent us by
the finder are fo very nearly akin to the two foregoing
fpecies, that it is hard to eftablifh a {pecific difference be-
tween them. The /eaves of the Japan plant however are
rather more lanceolate, and their margin is fometimes, not.
conftantly, crenate towards the point. Their furface is
quite fmooth, not vifibly dotted. The flower-/lalks, about
an inch long, are fcattered on the branches, below the leaves,
but flightly recurved, ufually triangular, not comprefled,
Flowers white, fearcely fo large as in T. meridionalis. Style
fhort and thick. Berry the fize of a currant, red, pointed,
with a white, fweet, fubaftringent pulp, and, according to
Kampfer, only one pellucid feed.

. T. pundata. Dotted-edged Ternitroemia. Swartz
Prodr. 81. Willd. n. 3. (Taonabo punétata ; Aubl-
Guian. 571. t. 228.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, dotted at
the edge. Flower-ftalks axillary, elongated, nearly thread-
fhaped. Segments of the calyx all pointed.—Gathered by
Aublet on the fides of the Serpent ‘mountain in Guiana,
bearing flowers and fruit in Auguft and September. A
large ¢ree, whofe /eaves are bordered with minute glandular
points, rough to the touch; their extremity utah emar-
ginate ; their length about three inches. Flower-/talks flen-
der, about half as long as the leaf with its footftalk. Sta-
mens about fixty. Fruit ovate, pointed, of five or fix cells.
Aublet having feen it in an unripe itate only, took it fora
capfule, but Swartz afferts it to be a derry.

5. T. dentata. Toothed Ternftroemia. Swartz Prodr. 81.
Willd. n. 5. (Taonabo dentata; Aubl. Guian. 569. t. 227.)
—Leaves elliptical, pointed, ftrongly ferrated. Flower-
{talks lateral or axillary, fingle-flowered. —Gathered by
Aublet, in the fame place as the preceding, and at the fame
feafon. A tree, whofe trunk is tvetieglivé feet, or more,

in

TER

im height, and two in diameter, crowned with an ample tuft
of fpreading branches. The /eaves are four inches long,
and an inch and half or two inches broad, thick, fmooth,
tapering at each end, befet with tooth-like ferratures in’ the
margin. Footftalks flender, an inch long. Flewer-ftalks re-
curved, feattéred, hardly an inch in length. Flowers yel-
lowifh, the fize of hawthorn. Fruit lke the laft. The
bark of the tree is ufed for tanning leather. The wood
ferves inftead of tiles for houfes.

6. T? corymbofa. Corymbofe Ternitroemia?—Leaves op-
pofite, elliptical, pointed, entire. Panicle forked, corym-
bofe, many-flowered, terminal.—Native of Guiana. Mr.
Rudge. This appears to be moft akin to the laft in the
fhape and fize of its /eaves, but differs in their entire margin,
and oppoiite infertion. The three-forked panicle is, more-
over, a kind of inflorefcence unexampled in Zernffroemia,
and the calyx wants the two {mall external fegments. All
thefe circumftances induce a fufpicion of the genus, which
we have not materials to clear up.

We cannot take leave of Tern/ffroemia without adverting
to the mifchiefs which arife from the barbarous and unfettled
principles of French nomenclature. Juflieu profeffes to
adopt the uncouth names of Aublet, only till the genera of
that author are better fettled; yet he has tried to foften
down Taonabo into Tonabea, a needlefs change if the name
were not to remain. . Lamarck prefers Tanabea; fo our
memories and our indexes would have become burthened with
three names inftead of one, all intolerable to a claffical or
literary botanift, if the genus had not happily been fuper-
feded.

TEROE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 25 miles E.
of Ramgur.

TEROUANNE. See THEROUANNE.

TEROWA, a town of the ifland of Junkfeilon, near the
eaft coaft ; the ufual refidence of a Siamefe governor or
viceroy. Here is a pagoda, with about twenty priefts.
N. lat. 8° 13/. a

TERPANDER, in Biography, and Mufic of the Ancients,
one of the moft renowned muficians of antiquity. It is re-
corded in the Oxford Marbles, that he was the inventor of
characters to exprefs mufical founds in the feveral genera ;
whieh event is placed about fix hundred and feventy years
before the Chriftian era. Indeed all writers who mention
the progreffive itate of mufic in Greece, are unanimous in
celebrating the talents of Terpander ; but though there is
fuch an entire agreement among them concerning the obli-
gations which the art was under to this mufician in its
infant ftate, yet it is difficult to find any two accounts of
him which accord in adjufting the time and place of his
birth. It does not, however, feem neceflary to lead the
reader over hedge and ditch with chronologers, after a
truth, of which the fcent has fo long been loft. The
Oxford Marbles, which appear to us the beft authority to
follow, tell us, in exprefs terms, that he was the fon of Der-
deneus of Lefbos, and that he flourifhed in the 381ft year of
thefe records ; which nearly anfwers to the 27th olympiad,
and 671{t year B.C. The Marbles inform us likewife, that
“he taught the nomes, or airs, of the lyre and flute, which
he performed himfelf upon this laft inftrument, in concert
with other players on the flute.”” Several writers tell us
that he added three ftrings to the lyre, which before his
time had but four ; and in confirmation of this, Euclid and
Strabo quote two verfes, which they attribute to Terpander
himfelf.

« The tetrachord’s reftraint we now defpife, _
The feven-ftringed lyre a nobler {train fupplies.””

TER

If the hymn to Mercury, which is aferibed to Homer,
and in which the feven-{tringed lyre is mentioned, be
genuine, it robs Terpander of this glory. The learned,
however, have great doubts concerning its authenticity.
But if the lyre had been before his time furnifhed with
feven ftrings in other parts of Greece, it feems as if
Terpander was the firft who played upon them at Lace-
demon. The Marbles tell us that the people were offended
by his innovations. The Spartan difcipline had deprived
them of all their natural feelings; they were rendered
machines ; and whether Terpander difturbed the fprings
by which they ufed to be governed, or tried to work upon
them by new ones, there was an equal chance of giving
offence. The new /lrings, or new melodies, and new rhythms,
upon the old itrings, muft have been as intolerable to a
Lacedemonian audience, at firft hearing, as an organ, and
cheerful mufic would have been, to a Scots congregation
fome years ago, or would be at a Quaker’s meeting now.
“ Tt is not at all furprifing,’’ fays Alcibiades, ‘‘ that the

Lacedemonians feem fearlefs of death in the day of battle,

fince death would free them from thofe laws which make
them fo wretched.’’ ;

Plutarch, in his ‘¢ Lacenic Inftitutions,”’ informs us, that
Terpander was fined by the ephori forhisinnoyations. How-
ever, in his * Dialogue on Mufic,”’ he likewife tells us, that
the fame mufician appeafed a fedition at Sparta, among the
fame people, by the perfuafive ftrains which he fung and
played to them on that occafion. ‘There feems no other
way of reconciling thefe two accounts, than by fuppofing
that he had, by degrees, refined the public tafte, or depraved
his own to the level of his hearers.

Among the many fignal fervices which Terpander is faid
to have done to mufic, none was of more importance than
the notation that is afcribed to him for afcertaining and
preferving melody, which was before traditional, and wholly
dependent on memory. The invention, however, of mufi-
cal characters has been attributed by Alypius and Gauden-
tius, two Greek writers on mufic, and, upon their authority,
by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who flourifhed full two cep-
turies after Terpander. It will be neceffary therefore to
tell the reader upon what grounds this ufeful difcovery has
been beftowed upon him. ‘

Plutarch, from Heraclides of Pontus, affures us that Ter-
pander, the inventor of nomes for the cithara, in hexameter
verfe, ‘‘ fet them to mufic,’” as well as the verfes of Homer,
in order to fing them at the public games. And Clemens
Alexandrinus, in telling us that this mufician wrote the
laws of Lycurgusin verfe, and “ fet them to mufic,”’ makes
ufe of the fame expreffion as Plutarch, which feems clearly
to imply a qritten melody. See Mufical GAMEs.

TERPELING, in Geography, atown of Thibet; Smiles
S.W. of Painom Jeung.

TERPENTARIA, in Botany, a name ufed by, fome
authors for the betonica aquatica, or great water-figwort,
called water-detony.

TERPILLUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, in Mygdonia. Ptolemy.

TERPONUS, a town of Illyria, belonging to the
Japodes, of which Czfar took poffeffion, according to
Appian.

TERPSICHORE, the Jovial, as her name imports,
in Mythology, the name of one of the nine Mu/es, (which
fee.) This mufe is reprefented on medals and other monu-
ments, by the flutes which fhe holds in her hands.

TERRA, in Geography.

Terra, in Chemiffry. i See EARTH.

Terra, in Natural Hiftory.

TERRA

BEE

Teura Alana, a name given to the yellowifh-white
tripoli.

Terra Adamica, a name given to the alkaline red mould.
See Apamic Earth.

Terra Armenia. See Bore.

Terra de Baira, the name given by fome to an earth
of a white colour, found about Baira, near Palermo.

It is efteemed a very great medicine in the cure of ma-
lignant. fevers, and in the {topping of hemorrhages of all
kinds. "The powder of it is commonly fold in Italy under
the name of Claramont-powder; a name it obtained from a
perfon who firft found out its virtues, and communicated
them to the world in a treatife exprefsly written on the fub-
je&t. Boccone, Muf. de Filic.

Terra Cariofa. See Trrro.t. ‘

Terra, Chio, inthe Materia Medica of the Ancients, an
earth of the marle kind, found in the ifland of Chio, and
given internally as an aftringent; but its chief ufe among
them was as a cofmtetic, the ladies efteeming it the fineft of
all things for clearing the fkin, and {moothing wrinkles.
What title it has to thefe qualities the world has not of
late ages inquired into; but the fubftance is {till in being,
and to be had in any quantities from the fame place. And
the defcriptions Diofcorides and Galen have left us of
it are fo accurate, that there is not the leaf room to
doubt but that the earth now found there, was the very
kind they ufed. It is a denfe compacted earth, yet very
foft, and of a texture eafily difunited and broken by
water.

Terra Cilicia. See Crricta.

Terra Cimolia. See Crmoxite.

Terra Cimolia Purpurafcens. See Soar-Larth.

Terra Colonienfis. See Corocne-Earth.

Terra Damnata. See Carut Mortuum.

Terra Foliata Tartari, foliated earth of tartar, is a name
improperly given to a neutral acetous falt, with a bafis of
fixed vegetable alkali; or to a combination of the acid of
vinegar, faturated with the alkali of tartar, or of other
vewetable matter. . This falt has alfo been called regenerated
tartar, becaufe the alkali of tartar is united with an acid,
which is in fome refpeéts fimilar to the acid of tartar, but
is in others very different.

The terra foliata is made by pouring upon a quantity of
alkaline falt of tartar, in a glafs cucurbit, a fufficient quan-
tity of good diftilled vinegar, at different times, to faturate
all the alkali, or even a little more than is neceflary for that
purpole, till the effervefcence entirely ceafes. This faturated
liquor is to be filtrated and evaporated to drynefs, with
a gentle heat. The dry falt thus obtained is to be diffolved
in {pirit of wine, and the folution again evaporated to dry-
nefs ; by which means a falt is obtained more or lefs white,
of a filky appearance, and compofed of {mall fcales or leaves,
whence it has been called foliata. When the falt is dried, and
while it is hot, it muft be fhut up in a well-clefed bottle,
becaufe it quickly becomes moift by expofure to air.

When dittilled vinegar is poured upon falt of tartar, little
or no effervefcence is made at firft, becaufe a part of the
alkaline falt employed is generally cauftic, or deprived of its
gas, which part unites with the acid preferably to the mild
part of the alkali, and abforbs any gas that is extricated
from the latter part ; and, therefore, till all the cauftic part
of the alkali be nearly faturated, little or no effervefcence can
happen. But when more vinegar is added, the effervefcence
becomes fo confiderable, that fome of the liquor will,
without care, flow over the veffel. This effervefcence is oc-
cafioned by a large quantity of air that is difengaged during
the faturation. When the faturation is advanced to a cer-

TER

tain degree, the effervefcence diminifhes; but the combination
of the laft portions of the acid and alkali may be facilitated
by frequently agitating the liquor, which will renew the
effervefcence. The tafte of the foliated earth is fharp, pun-
gent, a little cauftic, and partaking at the fame time of the
tafte of vinegar and that of fixed alkali. It is foluble in
{pirit of wine, and may be decompofed merely by the aétion
of fire, and from it may be obtained by diftillation, a very
penetrating and concentrated radical vinegar. It is little
ufed except in medicine. Macquer’s Chem. Di&.

Preparations of this kind are given in dofes of ten or
twenty grains as mild aperients, and to a drachm or two as
purgatives and diuretics. Lewis.

Terra Golthergenfis. See Gorrpercensis Terra.

Terra Japonica. See Japan Earth, and CaTecnu,

Terra Lemnia. See Lemnran Earth.

Terra Lignicenfis. See Licnicensts Terra.

Terra Livonica. See Livonica Terra.

Terra Melia. See Meria Terra.

Terra Melitenfis. See Mevirensis Terra.

Terra Merita, in the Materia Medica, a name given by
fome authors to the curcuma, or turmeric-root.

It is from a falfe pronunciation of this name, ferri merit,
that the Englith turmeric has its origin. .

Terra Mifcella. See THRAUSTOMICTHES.

Terra Noceriana. See Nocerrana.

TerRRA Samia. See Samia Terra.

Terra Seleneufiaca. See SELENEUSIACA-

Terra Sigillata. See SIGILLATA.

Terra Sigillata Magni Ducis. See Errusca Terra:

Terra Sigillata Fufca, a bole of a beautiful brown colour,
found in Germany, England, and America.

It is of a denfe texture, makes no fermentation with the
ftrongeft acids, and if thrown into water, it foon feparates
into a number of thin flakes. :

The Germans give it in fluxes and malignant fevers, being
an excellent aftringent, and worthy to be introduced into
our fhops.

Terra Silefiaca, Silefian Earth, a fine aftringent bole,

called by fome authors axungia folis.

It is very heavy, of a firm compatt texture, and in colour
of a brownifh-yellow. It breaks eafily between the fingers,
and does not {tain the hands, is naturally of a f{mooth furface,
and is readily diffufible in water, and melts freely into a
butter-like fubitance in the mouth; it leaves no grittinefs
between the teeth, and does not ferment with acid menftrua.
Thefe are the characters by which it is known from all other
earths of a like colour; it is found in the perpendicular
fiffures of rocks near the gold-mines at Strigonium, in Hun-
gary, and is fuppofed to be impregnated with the fulphur
of that metal. It is, however that be, a good aftringent,
and better than molt of the boles in ufe. Aa. ‘

The terra Silefiaca is alfo called terra figillata Strigonienfis.

Terra Sinopica. See Stnopica Terra.

Terxa Solis, a name given by the German naturalifts to
a kind of black {pungy earth, fomewhat approaching to the
nature of that Englifh black earth which we call fellow, but
containing gold. It is not properly an ore of gold, but is
an earth into which fome fmall particles of gold have been
wafhed from fome other place, and there detained. A good
microfcope will difcover thefe particles in the richer pieces
of the earth, and they are bright and pure, though very
{mall : the earth is found in fiffures of the other ftrata, not
in any beds or ftrata of itfelf. It is not to be had in any
great quantity, nor does it contain any large portion of

old.
3 TERRA Strigonienfis. See STRIGONIENSIS Terra.
TERRA

TER

Terra Zurcica. See Turcica Terra.

Terra Virgine Aurea, in Natural Hiffory, the vame of a
medicinal earth, mentioned by Boccone. $

It is found at a place called San&to Paolo, in the ftate of
Modena; and is thence fent to Venice, and many other
places, where it is elteemed a very famous medicine.

Its great ufe is in hemorrhages of all kinds ; but itis alfo
given with fuccefs in malignant fevers. Boccone, Mui. de
Fific.

Terra Virid:s. See Terre Verte.

Terra Umbri. See Umber.

Terra Zoica, a name given to the alkaline red mould,
called alfo Adamic earth.

Terra Petita, in Law. See Summons.

Terra, in our Ancient Law-Books, occurs in the fenfe
of land, or ground, joined with divers additions ; as,

Terra Normannorum, the lands of fuch Norman noble-
men as were forfeited to the crown, by the owners taking
part with the French king againft Henry III. Terra

frufea, fuch land as had not been lately ploughed. Terra
giliflorata, land held by the tenure of paying a gilliflower
yearly. Terra veffita, land fown with corn, and the crop
fill remaining thereon. Terra teffementalis, land held free
from feudal fervices, and devifable by will. Terra culta,
land that is tilled and manured, in contradiftinétion to terra
inculig. Terra affirmata, \and let out to farm. Terra domi-
nica, ot indominica, demefne land of a manor. Terra hydata,
was land fubje&t to the payment of hydage.. Terra lucrabilis,
land that may be gained from the fea, or enclofed out of
a waite or common to particular ufes. Terra wainabilis,
tillage-land. Terra warefa, fallow-land. Terra bofcalis,
wood-land, &<.

Terra Extendenda, is a writ directed to the efcheator,
&c. ordering him to inquire and find out the true yearly
value of any land, &c. by the oath of twelve men, and cer-
tify the extent in chancery.

Terra or Tierra Auftralis del Efpiritu Santo, in Geography,
an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, and the moit wefterly
as well as the largeft of thofe called New Hebrides: dil-
covered by Quiros, and vifited by captain Cook in the
year 1774; 22 leagues long, 60 miles in circuit, and 12 in
breadth. The land of it, efpecially the weft fide, is ex-
eeedingly high and mountainous: and in many places the
hills rife dire€tly from the fea. Except the cliffs and
beaches, every other part is covered with wood, or laid out
in plantations, Befides the bays of St. Philip and St. Jago,
the ifles which lie along the fouth and eaft coaft cannot, in
the opinion of captain Cook, fail of forming fome good
bays or harbours. S. lat. 14° 40! to 15° 40’. E. long.
166 45' to 167° 32!.

Terra Firma is fometimes ufed for a continent, in con-
tradiftinGiion to iflands.

Thus Afia, the Indies, and South America, are ufually
diftinguifhed into terra firmas and iflands.

Terra Firma, in a more reftrifted fenfe, denotes an im-
menfe extent of country under the authority and-government,
dire& or indire&t,.of the crown of Spain, comprehending
feveral extenfive provinces, and three audiences,’ fixed at
Panama, Quito, and Santa Fé de Bogota: the large pro-
vinces are ‘Terra Firma Proper, Popayan, Quito, and New
Granada, all of which are again fubdivided into feveral
f{maller provinces or jurifdiétions.

Terra Firma, or Tierra Firmé, in a {till more confined
fenfe, comprifes three diftri€ts in the viceroyalty. of New
Granada, viz.. Darien, Panama or Tierra Firmé Proper, and
Veragua.

Terra Firma, or Tierra Firmé, Proper. See PANAMA,

TER

Terra del Fuego, a large ifland, feparated from the
fouthern extremity of America by a narrow fea, called
the ‘ Straits of Magellan:’? fo named from the voleanoes
obferved on it. Capt. Cook was the-firft navigator who
had the honour, froma feries of the moft fatisfaftory ob-
fervations, beginning at the W. entrance of the Straits of
Magellan, and carried on with unwearied diligence round
this ifland, through the ftrait of Le Maire, to conftru@ a
chart of the fouthern extremity of America. The fouth-
weit coaft of Terra del Fuego, fays this diftinguifhed navi-
gator (Second Voyage, vol. 1i. p. 199, &c.) ** with refpe&
to inlets, iflands, &c. may be compared to the coait of
Norway ; for I doubt if there be an extent gf three leagues
where there is not an inlet or harbour, ch will receive
and fhelter the largeft fhipping. The worft is, that till
thefe inlets are better known, one has, as it were, to fifh for
anchorage. There are feveral lurking rocks on the coatt ;
but happily none of them lie far from land, the approach
to which may be known by founding, fuppofing the wea-
ther fo obfcure that you cannot fee it. For to judge of
the whole by the parts we have founded, it is more than
probable that there are foundings all along the coaft, and
for feveral leagues out to fea. Upon the whole, it is by no
means the dangerous coait it has been reprefented. The
currents between Cape Defeada and Cape Horn fet from
weft to eaft, that is, in the fame direGtion as the coaft ; but
they are by no means confiderable. To the eaft of the
cape, their ftrength is much increafed, and their direCtion is
north-eait to Staten Land. They are rapid in Strait le
Maire, and along the fouth coaft of Staten Land, and fet
like atorrent round Cape St. John, where they take a north-
weit direction, and continue to run very {trong both within
and without New Year’s Iles. While we lay°at anchor
within this ifland, I obferved that the current was ftrongett
during the flood ; and that on the ebb its ftrength was fo
much impaired, that the fhip would fometimes ride head to
wind, when it was at weft and weft-north-weft. This is
only to be underitood of the place where the fhip lay at
anchor; for at the very time we had a ftrong current fet-
ting to the weftward, Mr. Gilbert found one of equal
ftrength near the coaft of Staten Land fetting to the
eaftward ; though probably this was an eddy current or
tide.”’

Moft writers who have mentioned the ifland of Terra
del Fuego, defcribe it as deftitute of wood, and covered
with fnow. The latter circumftance may occur (fee
Hawkefworth’s Voyages of Cook, &c. vol. ii.) in winter.
And by thofe who faw it at that feafon, it might be con-
ceived to be without wood. Lord Anfon was there in the
beginning of March, anfwermg to our September; but
Capt. Cook’ was there in the beginning of January, cor-
re{ponding to our July ; and thus we may account for their
different ftatements. We fell in with it, fays Cook,
about 21 leagues W. of the ftrait of Le Maire, and trees
were vilible with glaffes; and though upon approaching it
patches of fnow were difcoverable, yet the fides of the hills
and the fea-coaft appeared to be covered with a beautiful ver-
dure.. The hills are lofty, but not mountainous, though
their fummits are'quite naked. The foil in the vallies is rich,
and of aconfiderable depth ; and at the foot of almoft every
hill there is a brook, the water of which has a reddifh hue,
but it is not ill-tafted. The moft remarkable land in Terra
del Fuego is a hill, in the form of a fugar-loaf, which ftands
on the W. fide, not far from the fea; and the three
hills, called the «¢ Three Brothers,’? about nine miles W.
of Cape St. Diego, the low point that forms the en-
trance of the ftrait of Le Maire. (Sec Ze Maire.) In

his

TER

his fecond voyage, Capt. Cook, defirous of coafting the
S. fide of Terra del Fuego, round Cape Horn, to the
ftrait of Le Maire, reached the W. coaft of the ifland
Dec. 17, 1774, and having continued to range it till the
2oth, came to an anchor in a place which he called “ Chrift-
mas Sound.”? Through the whole courfe of his naviga-
tions, he had never feen fo defolate a coaft. It feems to
be entirely compofed of rocky mountains, without the leaft
appearance of vegetation. ‘Thefe mountains terminate in
horrible precipices, the craggy fummits of which fpire up
to a vaft height; fo that fcarcely any thing in nature can
appear with a more barren and favage afpeét than the whole
of the country: But barren and dreary as the land is about
Chriftmas Sound, it was not wholly deftitute of accommo-
dations. Near every harbour our navigator found frefh
water, and wood for fuel. The country abounds likewife
with wild fowl, and particularly with geefe: which, with
their Madeira wine, enabled them to keep a cheerful Chrift-
mas. “The inhabitants of Terra del Fuego were found by
Capt. Cook to be of the fame nation which he had formerly
feen in Succefs Bay, and the fame with thofe denominated
by M. de Bougainville “ Pecharas.’’ ‘They are a little,
ugly, half-ftarved, beardlefs race, and go almoft naked:
but it is their own fault that they are not better clad, as
nature has furnifhed them with ample materials for that
purpofe. By lining their feal-fkin cloaks with the fkins and
feathers of aquatic birds, by making the cloaks themfelves
jarger, and by applying the fame materials to different parts
of clothing, they might render their drefs much more warm
and comfortable. But while they are doomed to exift in
one of the moft inhofpitable climates on the globe, they
have not fagacity enough to avail themfelves of thofe means
of adding to the conveniencies of life, which Providence
has put into their power. The captain, after having wit-
nefled many varieties of the human race, pronounces the
Pecharas to be the moft wretched. Thofe on the S. are
faid to be uncivilized, treacherous, and barbarous ; -while
thofe on the oppofite fide are reprefented as fimple, affable,
and perfe¢tly harmlefs.. The tents which they inhabit
are made of poles, difpofed in a conical form, covered with
fkins, or the bark or leaves of trees. The country, though
barren, abounds with a variety of unknown plants, for ex-
citing the curiofity of the botanift. The extent of Terra
del Fuego, and confequently of the ftraits of Magellan,
was afcertained by Cook to be lefs than had been laid down
by the generality of navigators: nor was the coaft, upon
the whole, found to be fo dangerous as it has been repre-
fented: the winter was alfo remarkably temperate. The
fea-lions and fea-bears, the fhags and penguins on the coatt,
are abundant, and intermix, like domeftic cattle and poul-
try in a farm-yard, without attempting to moleft one an-
other. Eagles and vultures were fed on the hills
among the fhags in perfeét tranquillity. Sir Jofeph Banks,
Dr. Solander, and fome others, landed here in the month of
January 1769, which is the time of fummer in that part of
the globe, notwithftanding which, two of the company fell
a facrifice only by fleeping one night, and Dr. Solander
himfelf hardly efcaped. S. lat. 52° 30! to 55° 35’. W.
Jong. 51° 20! te 58°. ;

Terra Magellanica. See PATAGONIA.

Terra Nieva, a bay in Hudfon’s Bay. N. lat. 62° 4!.
W. long. 67°.

Terra dos Fumos, a tract of country on the S.E. of
Africa, N. of Natal.

Terra Nova, a fea-port town of Sicily, in the valley of
Noto, fituated in a gulf or bay of the Mediterranean,
founded about the middle of the 13th century, by the em-

TER

peror I'rederick II. near the {cite of the ancient Gela. The
number of inhabitants is about 700; 50 miles W. of Syra-
cufe. N. lat. 37°. E. bong. 14° 10'—Alfo, a river of
Sicily, which runs into the fea on the S. coaft. N. lat.
37°.. E. long. 14° 10. F

Terra Nuova, a town of the ifland of Sardinia, fituated
in a bay of the Mediterranean, at the bottom of which is
the harbour, built on the ruins of Ciyita, an ancient epif-
copal town; 57 miles E.N.E. of Saffari. N. lat. 40° 52/.
E. long. 9° 40'.—Alfo, a town of Etruria; 14 miles N.W.
of Arezzo. :

Terra del Palucci, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Mazara, on the fcite of the ancient Pelinus.

Terra Vecchia, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra;
2 miles S. of Cariati Nuovo. * >

Terra 2 Terra. Gallies and other veffels are faid to go.
terra a terra, when they never go far from the coaft.

The phrafe is alfo applied, in the manege, to horfes that
make neither curvets nor balotades, but run {moothly on
the ground in a preffed gallop, only making little leaps
or rifings with the fore-feet. .

The gallop is the foundation of the terra a terra, for in
thefe two motions the principle of the aétion is the fame,
fince the terra 4 terra is only a fhortened gallop with the
croupe in, and the haunches following in a clofe and quick
time. And as the mezair is higher than the aétion of terra
a terra, and lower than that of curvets, it may be con-
cluded that the terra a terra is the foundation of the mezair,
as well as of curvets. t

In the terra a terra the horfe fhould be more together
than in the gallop, that he may mark his time and cadence
more diftin@ly ; although in a true terra a terra there are
no times to be marked, for it is rather a gliding of the
haunches, which comes from the natural {prings in the
limbs of a horfe,

When a horfe works terra a terra, he always ought, as
in the gallop, to lead with the legs that are within the
volte, his two fore-feet being in the air, and the moment
they are coming down, his two hind feet following. The
aétion of the gallop is always one, two, three, and four;
the terra a terra is performed upon two lines and in two
times. : ;

To work a horfe terra a terra upon large circles, take
care to keep the body ftraight, -fteady, and true in the
faddle, without leaning to one fide or the other. Lean
upon the outward ftirrup, and keep the outward leg nearer
the fide of the horfe than the other leg, taking care to do
it fo as not to be perceived. If you go to the right, keep
your bridle-hand a little on the outfide of the horfe’s
neck, turning your little finger up without turning your
nails at the fame time; although, if need be, you muft
turn them in order to make the inner rein work which
paffes over the little finger. Keep your arms and elbows
to your hips; by this means you will affure and confine
your hand, which ought to accompany, and, as it were,
run along the line of the circle with the horfe. Berenger’s
Art of Horfemanhhip, vol. iil. c. 17.

The term is alfo applied by the French to dancers, who
cut no capers, nor fcarcely quit the ground.

And hence, alfo, it is figuratively applied to authors,
whofe ftyle is low and creeping. .

TERRACE, in Gardening, is a fort of raifed bank of
earth, &c. regularly formed in an oblong manner to any
length, broad enough to admit of a {pacious level walk at
top, and elevated confiderably above the level of the gene-
ral furface ; having the fides uniformly floped, and laid with
grafs, and the top formed into a flat or level, fufficiently

broad

TER

broad for a grafs or gravel walk of proportionable width ;
defigned in gardens as a high, airy walk, to command a
better profpe& of the adjacent yplaces around, within and
without the garden occafionally, as well as to enjoy the
frefh air in fummer more freely. In the former ftyle of
laying out gardens, it was confidered as very ornamental,
but is at prefent much in difufe.

It may be remarked, that the height of a terrace-walk
may be mare or lefs, as the fituation admits, as from one foot
to one or two yards, or even-three or four yards or more
in particular fituations ; and where there is plenty of earthy
materials, rubbifh, &c. to form it, allowing breadth in pro-
portion, from five to ten or twenty feet or more, and ex-
tended to any length required. They are fometimes formed
on fome wabatall high rifing ground, to fave as much
tronble as poffible in bringing ftuff from a diftance; and
fometimes raifed wholly of forced materials. But the fitua-
tion for a terrace may be varied as the natural fituation of
the place may require.

In refpe& to form, they fhould always be broader at the
bafe than the top, and extend lengthways to any diftance
required ; having the fides regularly floped, of more or lefs
acclivity, as the width, height, and fituation admit. Some-
times both fides are floped, and fometimes only one fide,
the other perpendicular, and faced with a fubftantial wall,
&c. or formed againft the fide of a hill, or fome naturally:
rifing ground, being finifhed always broad enough at top
to admit of a proper walk. In fome naturally elevated
fituations, terraces are fometimes formed one above another,
in two or more ranges, each having its feparate fide flopes,
and elevated walk; in all of which the flopes are to be
neatly laid with grafs, and the walk at top occafionally of
grafs or gravel.

The entrances leading to terrace-walks were formerly
fometimes formed by an eafy acclivity of a grafs or gravelled
flope, and fometimes by a grand flight of ftone fteps.
Where a rifing ground of confiderable elevation naturally
prefents itfelf in 4 proper fituation, it is an eligible oppor-
tunity for forming a terrace with the leaft expence and
trouble, on account of its not requiring the addition of fo
much earth and rubbifh, as when raifed entirely on a per-
fe& level, wholly of made earth. Where there are any
excavations of ground intended to form ha-has, pieces of
water, &c. the excavated earth may be employed in form-
ing terraces, &c.

In the bufinefs of forming a terrace, the bafe muft be
ftaked out wider than the intended width at top for the walk,
in order to admit of the afcent of flopes being moderate. And
the whole of the made earth and rubbifh muft be well ram-
med and rolled down from time to time as it is applied, in
order to render the whole equally firm, that it may not fettle
irregularly after being finifhed. The flopes may either be
Jaid with turf, or fown with grafs-feeds; but the firit is
much the beit method, where it can be employed. See
Grass Ground.

Terraces are now but little attended to, and, of courfe,
but feldom employed in modern ornamental gardening, as
they are moftly confidered as having a too fit and formal
appearance, and as not conftituting that fort of neatnefs
and tafteful elegance, which is fo much efteemed and ad-
mired at prefent in all forts of works of the garden kind.

TeRRACE, Counter, is a terrace raifed over another to
join two grounds, or raife a parterre.

TERRACE is alfo applied to the roofs of houfes that are
flat, and on which one may walk ; as alfo to balconies that
project.

The terrace is properly the covering of a building which

Vou. XXXV.

FER

is in platform; as that of the periityle of the Louvre, or
that of the obfervatory, paved with flint and mortar. All
the buildings of the Oriental nations are covered-with ter-
races, to take the frefh air on, and evento lieon. See Pave-
MENT of Terrace.

Terrace, or Terras, ufed for mortar. See TARRACE.

TERRACINA, in Geography, a town of the Pope-

dom, in the Campagna di Roma, fituated in a very fruitful
but marfhy country, which makes the air unwholefome.
This town was anciently the capital of the Volfci, and
named Anxur. The Greeks called it Trachyna, corrupted
into Terracina. In the year of Rome 348, it was taken
and plundered by Fabius Ambuftus ; and in 424 was made
a Roman colony. Being built on a rock, in the reign of
Tiberius 20,000 perfons were killed by the fall of a theatre.
It is nowa poor place. It had once a harbour: but that is
choaked up; near Terracina are confiderable fragments of
the Via Appia, made from Rome to Capua by Appius
Claudius Coccus, and begun by him while cenfor, in the
year of Rome 440: this road was paved with hard ftone of
various fizes, but uniformly twelve inches in thicknefs ;
and was wide enough for two carriages; 47 miles S.E. of
Rome. Near this place was a fountain of Neptune, the
water of which was faid to be fatal.
* TERRADEGLIAS, or Terrapetras, Domenico,
in Biography, a native of Barcelona, in Spain; but who
went early into Italy, where he fludied mufic at Naples
under Durante, as an accomplifhment ; but was reduced, by
accidents in his family, to pratife it as a profeffion. :

He began to flourifh about 1739, when he compofed the
opera of “ Aftarto,’”? and part of “ Romolo,”? in con-
jun@tion with Latilla, for the Teatro delle Dame, at Rome.

In the latter end of the year 1746 he came to England,
where he compofed two operas, ‘‘ Mithridates”? and
*« Bellerophon.” But unfortunately for the compofer, none
of the fingers of this time ftood high in the favour of the pub-
lic. Yet his operaof “* Mitridate,’? we well remember, received
much applaufe, as mufic, diftin& from what was given to
the performers. And his compofitions, when executed in
Italy by fingers of the firft clafs, acquired him great re-
putation.

Befides the favourite fongs in the two operas juft men-
tioned, which are printed by Walth, Terradellas himfelf,
while he was in England, publifhed a colleGtion of twelve
Ttalian airs and duets in feore, which he dedicated to lady
Chefterfield. In thefe he feems lefs mafterly and original
than in his other produ€tions that have come to our know-
ledge. In the fongs he compofed for Reginelli, a very
learned finger in ruin, we find boldnefs and force, as well as
pathos. And-fome arie di bravura of his compofition, for
the celebrated tenor finger Babbi, at Rome, abound with
fire and ipirit. If his produCtions are compared with thofe
of his contemporaries, his writings, in general, muft be
allowed to have great merit ; though his paflages now feem
old and common. This compofer having {pent his youth in
Catalonia, was not regularly initiated into the myfteries of
counterpoint in any Neapolitan converfatorio, having been
placed under Durante, for a fhort time, only as a private
{cholar; and we think we can fometimes difcover in his
fcores, through all his genius and elegance of ftyle, a want
of ftudy and harmonic erudition.

Terradellas was remarkable, not only for attending, in
every fituation of the finger, to the fpirit of the drama
which he had to compofe, but for giving good mufic to bad
fingers, and not wnder-writing, as Mr. Bayes calls it; the
inferior parts of his theatrical pieces. Indeed, it has always
appeared to us, that an exquifite finger who can command

3B attention

TER

attention by the mere tone of his voice, and who requires
only a canevas, or outlme, to colour at his pleafure, is in lefs
want of artificial and captivating compofition, than an ordi-
nary finger, who is neither poffefled of voice nor tafte fufli-
cient to intereft the audience. And Terradellas feems to
have written all his fongs for performers of abilities ; for his
airs are never made eafy and trivial in order to {pare the
finger. Jomelli’s pen always flowed with this fpirit ; for
he never rejeéted a paflage that prefented itfelf, becaufe it
would he difficult and troublefome in the execution; but
this freedom of ftyle, twenty years ago, might be more
fafely praGtifed than‘at prefent: for it is well known, that
a company of fingers is now reckoned good, in Italy, if the
two firft performers are excellent ; and an opera is fure to
pleafe if two or three airs and a duet deferve attention ; the
audience neither expeéting nor attending to any thing elfe.
And the managers, who find this cultom very convenient,
take care not to interrupt play or converfation by the ufe-
lefs and impertinent talents of the under-fingers ; fo that
performers of the fecond or third clafs are generally below
mediocrity.

He died at Rome in 1751, of grief and mortification, for
the failure of an opera which he had compofed with more
care atid hopes of fuccefs than ufual.

TERRA Ager, Amittere, Aratrum, Aratura, Denariatut,
Legem, Lex, Librata, Obolata, Quadrantata, Quadrugata,
Trinoda, and Uncia. See the feveral articles.

Terr® Filius, fon of the earth, a ftudent in the univerfity
of Oxford, formerly appointed in public aéts to make jeft-
ing and fatirical fpeeches againft the members of them, and
to tax them with any growing corruption, &c.

Terr Oleum. See Oi of the Earth.

TERRAJEBIN. See TrREwsABin.

TERRAGE, or Trerracium, anciently fignified a fer-
yice, in which a tenant or vafflal was bound to his lord, to
plough and reap the ground for him.

Others will have it to have been money paid for digging
or breaking the ground in fairs and markets.

Quieti fint de thelonio, pavagio, paffagio, laftagio, tal-
lagio, carvagio, prifagio, et terra 10.””

TERRAIGNO , in the Wane a horfe that cleaves
to the ground, that cannot be made light upon the hand,
that cannot be put upon his haunches, that raifes his fore-
quarters with difficulty, that is Baer Fh with fhoulders, and,
in general, one whofe motions are al fhort, and too near the

round.

TERRAIN, is the manege ground, upon which the
horfe makes his pifte, or tread.

TERRANTONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Aragon ; 8 miles S.E. of Ainfa.

TERRANUOVA, atown of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
9 miles N. of Bifignano.

TERRAON, or Torraon, O, a town of Portugal, in
Alentejo; 24 miles N.W. of Beja.

TERRAPOUR, atown of Hindooftan, im Baglana ;
32 miles N. of Baffeen.

TERRAQUEOUS, compounded of terra and aqua,
earth and water, an epithet given to our globe or earth, con-
fidered as confilting of land and water, which together
conftitute one mafa

Some philofophers, particularly Dr. Burnet, charge the
frame and fafhion of the terraqueous globe as rude, unartful,
and diforderly, and conclude it highly abfurd to fuppofe it
came thus out of the hands of the Creator ; and, therefore,
have recourfe to the deluge for making it thus.

But others can perceive much art and conveniency, even

9

TER

in this apparent diforder : Dr. Derham particularly obferves;
that the diftribution of land and water is admirable ; the one
being laid over the other fo fkilfully through all the world,
that there is a juft equipoife or balance of the whole globe.
Thus the Northern ocean balances the Southern, and the
American continent is a counterpoife to the European,
African, and A fiatic.

And what fome may objeét, that the waters occupy too
great a part of the globe, which they imagine would be of
more ufe if it were dry land, he obviates, by fhewing that
this would deprive the world of a due quantity of vapours
and rain; for if the cavities which contain the fea and other
waters were deeper, though the quantity of water were the
fame, and only the furface lefs and narrower, the evapor-
ations would be fo much the lefs, inafmuch as they are made
from the furface, and confequently are in proportion to it.

TERRAR. See Terrier.

TERRAS. See Terrace and PAVEMENT.

Terras, Marble. See MArsrr.

q TERRASSE, La, in Geography, a town of Franec,
in the department of the Ifere; 13 miles N.N.E. of
Grenoble.

TERRASSON, Joun, 4bbé, in Biography, a man of
letters, was born at Lyons in 1670, and fent by his father,
who was a very religious man, to the houfe of the Oratory
in Paris ; but the fon, quitting this congregation, and difap-
pointing his father’s views, incurred. his refentment, fo that
he was left with a very moderate pittance. However, the
abbé Bignon procured him admiflion into the Academy of
Sciences in 1707: he foon became a member ; and in 1721,
profeffor of Greek and Latin in the Royal College. Under
the famous fyftem of Law, he acquired temporary opulence,
but was foon again reduced to penurious circumitances.
He then retired from the world, ftudying and exercifing
that philofophy which raifed him above it. He died at
Paris in 1750, at the age of 80 years. His works are,
*‘ A Critical Differtation on Homer’s Iliad ;’? * Refle&tions
in favour of Law’s Syftem ;’’ ‘ Sethos,’’ a moral romance ;
“© A Tranflation of Diodorus Siculus,’’ 7 vols. 12mo. with
preface, notes, and fragments. It was one of Terraffon’s
fayings, ‘‘ What is the moft credulous of all things? Igno-
rance. What is the moft incredulous ? Ignorance.”

Andrew Terraffon, the elder brother of the former, a
prieft of the Oratory, was a celebrated preacher, and died at
Paris in 1723. His “Sermons,” in 4 vols. 12mo. were
publifhed in 1726, and reprinted in 1736.

Gajpard Terraffon, another brother, and prieft of the Ora-
tory, was more celebrated as a preacher than the former, and
officiated at Paris during five years. Having incurred perfe-
cution, he quitted the pulpit and the congregation of the
Oratory. He died at Paris in 1752. His “¢ Sermons,” in
4 vols. 12mo. appeared in 1749. His anonymous work,
entitled ‘ Lettres fur la Juftice Chretienne,’’ was cenfured
by the Sorbonne.

Another perfon of the fame family, viz. Matthew Terraffon,
was born at Lyons in 16609, [tudied the law, and pleaded caufes
with great reputation. He was for fome time an aflociate in
the “Journal des Sgavans,’’ and alfo cenfor royal. He
died, much efteemed, at Paris, in 1734. A ‘ Colle&tion of
his Pleadings, &c.”’ was publifhed in 4to.

The fon of the preceding, Anthony Terraffon, was born at
Paris in 1705, brought up to the bar, and excelled in jurif-
prudence. By order of chancellor d’Aguefleau, he com-
pofed a ‘ Hiftory of Roman Jurifprudence,” with a collec-
tion of Ancient Contracts, &c. in fol. 1750. In 1760 he
was promoted to the chancellorfhip of Dombes, and died in.
1782. He was the author of ‘* Melanges d’Hiftoire, de

Liter.

ER

Literature, de Jurifprudence, de Critique, &e.’’ 1768; and

of other works. Moreri. Nouv. Dict. Hift. Gen. Biog.

TERRASSON, in Geography, a town of France, and feat of
a tribunal, in the department of the Dordogne; 18 miles
N.E. of Montignac. N. lat. 45° 7!. E. long. 1° 23!.

TERRAUBE, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers; 4 miles S.W. of Le&oure.

TERREBONNE, a town of Canada; 12 miles N.N.W.
of Montreal.

TERREGLES, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Dumfries; 2 miles W. of Dumfries.

TERREL, a town of North Carolina; 30 miles N. of
Greeneville.

TERRELLA, puxgoyn, little earth, is a magnet turned
of a juft fpherical figure, and placed fo as that its poles,
equator, &c. do exaétly eorrefpond with thofe of the world.

It was thus firft called by Gilbert, as being a juft repre-
fentation of the great magnetic globe we inhabit.

Such a terrella, if nicely poifed, and placed in a meridian
like a globe, it was fuppofed, would be turned round like the
earth in twenty-four hours by the magnetic particles per-
vading it; but experience has fhewn this to be a miftake.

TERRE-PLEIN, in Fortification, the top, platform, or
horizontal furface of the rampart, on which the cannon are
placed, and the defenders perform their office.

It is thus called as lying level, having only a little flope
outwardly to bear the recoil of the cannon.

It is terminated by the parapet on that fide towards the
champaign ; and by the inner talus on that fide towards the
place. Its breadth is from 24 to 30 feet.

TERRESCHOW, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Pilfen ; 16 miles N.E. of Pilfen.

TERRESSA, one of the Nicobar iflands, about fifteen
miles long, and from two to five broad, of an oval form.
N. lat. 8° 20’. E. long. 93° 36’.

TERRESTRIAL Birps. See Birps.

TERRESTRIAL Globe. See GLOBE.

' Terrestriay Line. See Lise, Terreffrial.
TerrestRiaAL Paradife. See PARADISE.
TerREsTRIAL Roads. See Roan.
TERRE-TENANT, is he who has the aétual pof-

feffion of the land, otherwife called the occupant. see

TENANT and Occupant.

Thus a lord of a manor having a freeholder, who letteth
out his freehold to another to-be occupied, this occupier
who has the a€tual poffeffion is called the ¢erre-tenant.

TERRE-VERTE, in the Colour-Trade, the name of a

reen earth much ufed by painters, both fingly for a good
faiding green, and in mixture with other colours.

The name is French, and fignifies green earth.

It is an indurated clay, of a deep blueifh-green colour,
and is found in the earth, not in continued ftrata or beds, as
moft of the other earths are, but in large flat maffes of dif-
ferent fizes, imbedded in other ftrata; thefe break irre-
gularly in the cutting, and the earth is generally brought
out be the pit in lumps of different fizes. It is of a fine,
regular, and even ftruéture, and very hard. It is of an even
and glofly furface, very {mooth to the touch, and in fome
degree refembling the morochthus, or French chalk, but
adhering firmly to the tongue. Ie does not {tain the hands
in touching it; but being drawn along a rough furface, it
leaves an even white line, with a greenifh catt.

It does not ferment with acids, and is burnt to a dufky
brown colour.

It is dug in the ifland of Cyprus, and in many parts of
France and Italy. That from the neighbourhood of Ve-
rona has been ufed to be efteemed the beft in the world ; but

LER

of late there has been fome dug in France that equals it.
There is alfo an earth dug on the Mendip hills, in the finking
for coals, which, though Wholly unobferved, is nearly, if not
wholly, of equal value.

When fcraped, and the finer parts feparated, it is ready to
be made up with oil for the ufe of the painters, and makes
the moft true and lafting green of any fimple body they ufe.
Hill and Da Cofta. See Bere-Gruen and VerpITER.

TERRIAGULLY, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
20 miles N.W. of Rajemal. .

TERRIAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Rohilcund ;
7 miles S. of Bereilly.

TERRIER, or Terrar, in our Ancient Cuftoms, a col-
le&tion of acknowledgments of the vaffals or tenants of a
lordfhip, containing the rents, fervices, &c. they owe their
lord, and ferving as a title or claim for demanding and exe-
cuting the payment of them.

At prefent, by terrier we mean no more than a book or
roll, in which the feveral lands, either of a private perfon, or
of a town, college, church, &c. are defcribed. The terrier
fhould contain the numbey of acres, and the fite, boundaries,
tenants’ names, &c, of each piece or parcel. See Domes-

Day.

Terrier alfo denotes the lodge or hole which foxes,
badgers, rabbits, &c. dig themfelves under ground, and
in which they fave. themfelves from the purfuit of the
hunters. Hence,

Terrier, Jerrarius, is alfo ufed for a kind of little hound
to hunt thofe animals, which, like a ferret, creeps into the
ground, and by that means affrights and bites them; either
tearing them with his teeth, or elfe haling them by force out
of their holes. See Doc and Hounp.

TERRIER, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
Senegal ; 25 miles S. of Cayar.

Terrizr Rouge, a town of the ifland of St. Domingo ;
15 miles E.S.E. of Cape Frangais.

TERRIFICATIO, a word ufed by fome chemical
writers to exprefs the coalition of the earthy particles of
fome bodies after fermentation, or during the time of it.

TERRILS or Tyrretis Pafs, n Geography, a pott-
town of the county of Weftmeath, Ireland ; 40 miles W.
from Dublin.

TERRIMUNGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 25 miles N. of Tritchinopoli.

TERRIORE, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 24 miles N. of Tritchinopoli. N. lat. 11° 12/,
E. long..78° 45/.

TERRIS Bonis et Catallis, Rehabendis poft Purgationem, in
Law, awrit for a perfon to recover his lands, goods, or chattels
formerly feized, after having cleared himfelf of a felony,
upon fufpicion of which he was conviéted, and delivered to
his ordinary to be purged.

Terris e¢ Catallis Tentis ultra debitum levatum, a writ
judicial for the reftoring lands or goods to a debtor, who is
diftrained beyond the quantity of the debt. See Distress.

Terris Liberandis, a writ lying for a man convifted by
attaint, to bring the record and procefs before the king, and
take a fine for his imprifonment, and deliver him his lands
and tenements again, and releafe him of the ftrip and
watte.

It is alfo a writ for the delivery of lands to the heir after
homage and relief performed ; or upon fecurity taken that
he thall perform them.

TERRITORY, District, the extent or compafs of land
within the bounds, or belonging to the jurifdiétion of any
ftate, city, or other divifion. See Disrricr.

It isa maxim, that the church has no territory, i. ¢. it has

3B2 no

TERRITORY.

no temporal jurifdi@ion; and therefore an ecclefiaftical
judge cannot arreft any body, not even a prieft. It is much
in this fenfe that Cujas fays, the church has an auditory, but
no territory.

Territory or Diffrif of Columbia, in Geography, a diftrit
ef America, ceded to the United States by thofe of Maryland
and Virginia, and eftablifhed in the year 1800 as the feat of ge-
neral government. It is beautifully fituated on both fides of
the Potowmack river, between 38° 48! and 38°59! N. lat., and
7/E. and 7! W. long. from Wafhington, the capital. The ca-
pital is about 77° o! 22!" W. from London. It is bounded
on the N.E., S.E., and partly N.W., by Maryland ; and on
the S.W.., and partly N.W., by Virginia: in extent it is ten
miles {quare, and contains an area of 6400 fquare miles.
The face of the country is elegantly variegated, and affords
a great number of beautiful profpeéts, of which the Potow-
mack river is the leading feature. This diftri€t affords a
variety of ftreams and fprings for watering the city, and for
other purpofes: its rivers are the Potowmack or Potomac,
the Tiber creek, Reedy cfeek, Rock creek, and Four-mile
Run. The foil is thin and fandy, but fufceptible of im-
provement : and the climate is difcriminated by a variable
{pring, a pretty warm fummer, an agreeable autumn, and a
variable, often very cold, winter.

Topographical Table.

Counties. Population.
Wafhington city - = ~ - - 8208
Georgetown, fituated W.ofthecity - - 4948
Wafhington county, exclufive of the city an ive

Georgetown = : : = = 25
Alexandria, on the W, bank of the river, in the .

lower part of the diftriét - - : t Cle
Alexandria county, exclufive of the town - 1325

Morfe and Melifh. See Corumpia and WASHINGTON.

Territory, Jilincis, a territory of America, and likely
to become foon one of the moft important ftates in the
Union, is fituated between 37° and 41° 45! N. lat., and 10° 15/
and 14° 15! W. long. from Washington city ; and is bounded
on the N, by the North-weit territory, on the S. by Kentucky
and Miffouri territory, on the E. by Indiana territory, and
on the W. by Miffouri territory. Its extent from N. to
S. is 306 miles, and from E. to W. 210 miles : its area con-
tains 50,000 {quare miles, or 32,000,000 acres. The afpect
of the country is level in the fouth, and to the north ele-
vated and hilly, but not mountainous. The foil is generally
fertile, and produces grain, grafs, fruit, flax, and hemp ;
and in the fouthern part, cotton. The climate is temperate
and agreeable.

Topographical Table.

Counties. Population, Chief Town.
* Edward.
* Johnfon.
* Madifon.

Randolph - 7275" Kafkufkia =~ 622

St. Clair - 5007
* Wabath.

12282

* Laid out fince laft cenfus. Melifh. See Iviinots:
Territory, Indiana, an interefting country of America,
lately diftinguifhed by this appellation, and now confidered
as a nineteenth flate, is fituated between 37° 45! and 41° 52!
N. lat., and 7° 40! and 10° 47! W. long. from Wathington
city ; and bounded on the N. by Michigan territory, lake

Michigan, and North-weil territory, on the S. by Kentucky,
on the E. by Ohio, and on the W. by Illinois territory. Its
extent from N. to S. is 240 miles, and from. E. to W. 138
miles. Its area contains 34,000 {quare miles, or 21,760,000
acres. The afpeét of the country is hilly, but not moun-
tainous ; its fcenery rich and variegated; and it abounds
with plains and large prairies. Its rivers are the Ohio, Wa-
bath, White-water, Tippecanoe, Illinois, and St. Jofeph’s :
its minerals are coal, lime-ftone, free-ftone, falt, and filver.
The foil is generally rich and fertile ; and its produce grain,
grafs, and fruit, and in the fouth, cotton. Its climate is tem-
perate, pleafant, and falubrious. Its legiflature confifts of
a houfe of reprefentatives and fenate ; the former eleéted
annually, and the latter every three years: they muit hold
no office of profit when ele&ted. The executive confifts of
a governor and lieutenant-governor ; both eleéted for three
years, and capable of being re-eleéted once : the former
has a compenfation of 1000 dollars per annum, and the
latter two dollars per day, while the legiflature is in feffion.
Its judiciary adminiftration is compofed of a fupreme and
circuit court: the former compofed of three judges, ap-
pointed by the governor and fenate for feven years ; with a
falary not exceeding 800 dollars per annum: the latter con-
fits of a prefiding judge and two affociates, who hold
courts in each county ; the prefiding judge appointed by the
joint ballot of the legiflature for feven years, and the affo-
ciates eleCted by the people for feven years: fheriffs, clerks,
and juftices, are eleGted by the people ; the fheriff for three
years, the clerks and juftices for feven years. The militia
officers are elected by thofe who are fubjeét to military duty ;
and all above colonel, by the commiffioned officers. A
{tate bank is to be eftablifhed at the feat of government,
with one branch for every three counties ; and the branch
banks mutt have 30,000 dollars in fpecie each, before they
begin to a€t. Involuntary flavery is for ever excluded. “The
conftitution may be amended in 12 years: Corydon is to be
the feat of government for nine years. The congrefs, in ereét-
ing the Indiana territory into a {tate, appropriated, in addi~
tion to the {chool fe&tion, an entire townfhip of land for the
fupport of a feminary of learning, and four feétions for
fixing the feat of the itate governor.

Topographical Table.

Counties. Population. Chief Towns.

Clark - - 5760 Jefferfonville 239

Dearborn - 7310 Lawrenceburg 165
* Franklin.
* Gibfon.

Harrifon ~ 3595 Corydon.
* Jefferfon.

Knox - - 7945 Vincennes 670
* Switzerland - - - Vevay.
* Wafhington.
* Wayne.

24520

* Laid off fince laft cenfus. Melifh. Sce Inprana.
Territory, Michigan, a diftri&t in America, which, in
1796, was denominated Wayne county, has lately been.
erected into a territorial government,, and organized with
the ufual offices and powers.. It is fituated between 41° 45"
and 45° 35! N. lat., and 5° 5! and 8° 18! W. long. from
Washington ; and is bounded on the N. by the its of
Michilimackinac, on the S. by Ohio and Indiana, on the
E. by lakes Huron and St. Clair, and Upper Canada, and
On

TERRITORY.

on the W. by lake Michigan. Its extent from N. to S. is
234 miles, and from E. to W. 138 miles. Its area con-
tains 27,000 fquare miles, or 17,280,000 acres. The cen-
trai part of this territory is high, and from this is a defcent
in all direGtions. >

The rivers are St. Mary’s, Huron, Detroit, Black, Ma-
ramee, Grand, Carrion, Raifin, &c. The foil is generally
rich and fertile, and produces wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn,
potatoes, fruit, &c. The climate is temperate and falu-
brious ; winter lafting from the middle of November to the
middle of March.

Topographical Table.
Diftias. Population. Chief Town,
Detroit - - 2227 Detroit ae e770
Birtev = - - 1340
Huron - - 580
Michilimackinac - 615
4762

Morfe and Melifh. See Drrrorr: a‘

Territory, Mi/f/ippi, an improving country of Ame-
rica, which, it‘is a heey will be divided into two ftates,
the Tombigby being the boundary. It is fituated between
30° 15! and 35° N. lat., and 8° and 14° 32! W. long. from
Wathington city ; and bounded on the N. by Tenneflee, on
the S. by Louifiana, Weft Florida, and the gulf of
Mexico, on the E. by Georgia, and on the W. by Loui-
fiana and Miffouri territory. Its extent from N. to S. is
312 miles, and from E. to W. 324 miles; and its area
comprehends 89,000 fquare miles, or 56,960,000 acres. Its
general afpe& is, towards the fouth, level, to the north,
elevated and beautifully diverfified, and on the north-eait
are fome fpurs of the Alleghany mountains. The foil, ge-
nerally good, and in many places excellent, produces cotton,
corn, rice, wheat, rye, oats, fome fugar, and indigo. ‘The
climate is much commended ; the winters being mild, and
the fummers not warmer than feveral degrees to the north-
ward.

Topographical Table.

Counties. Population. Chief Towns.
Adams - 10002 Natches 151
Amite = 4750 Liberty.
Baldwin - 1427
Claiborne = 3102 Gibfonfport.

* Clarke.
Franklin - 2016 Franklin.

* Green.
Jefferfon - 4001 Greenville..
Madifon - 4699

* Marion.

* Monroe.
Warren - VII4 Warren.
Wafhington = - 2920 Fort Stoddart.
Wayne - - 1253
Wilkinfon - 5068 Woodville.

40352

Melifh. See Mississippi.

Territory, Mifourt, an improving country of Ame-
rica, which may probably be fubdivided into difting ftates,
is fituated between 26° and 49° 37! N. lat., and 12° and
49° 30' W. long.;, and bounded on the N. by an unfettled

country, on the S. by Louifiana and the gulf of Mexico,
on the E. by Upper Canada, the North-wett territory,
Illinois territory, Kentucky, Tenneflee, Miffifiippi territory,
and Louifiana, on the W. by the Pacific ocean, and on the
S.W. by the Spanifh internal provinces. Its extent from
N. to S. is about 1380 miles, and from E. to W. about
1680 miles; and its area contains 1,580,000 {quare miles,
Or I,011,200,000 acres. The afpe& of the country, fouth..
ward, is level, in many places overflowed by rivers; to the
north, elevated, {welling out into large hills ; and to the north-
weit and weft, very lofty mountains. _The rivers of the terri-
tory are the Mifliffippi, Miffouri, Kanfes, Grand, Ofage,
Maramee, St. Francis, White, Arkanfaw, Wachitta, Red,
Sabine, Moines, Rio Colorado, Rio Bravos de Dios, Rio
Guadalupe, Rio del Norte, &c. Its minerals are abun-
dant, particularly lead, the mines of which near St. Gene-
vieve are extenfive and valuable, The foil is various in qua-
lity, but much of it is rich and fertile ; and produces grain,
grafs, fruit, cotton, and fome fugar and indigo. The cli-
mate is, in the fouth, warm, in the middle temperate, to the
north and weft cold; on the Pacific ocean temperate.
Topographical Table.
Chief Towns.

Diftris. Population.

Cape Girardeau - 3888 Cape Girardeau.

New Madrid - = 2103 New Madrid.

St. Charles - - 3505 St. Charles - 450
St. Louis = = 5667 St. Louis - 1600
St. Genevieve - 4620: St. Genevieve.

Settlements of Hope 88
Field and St. Francis x

Ditto on Arkanfaw - 874

20845

Melifh. See Missouri.

Territory, North-Weft, an extenfive territory of Ame-
rica, not yet organifed into a regular government, is fituated
between 41° 45! and 49° 37! N. lat., and 7° and 18° so! W.
long. from Wafhington city; and bounded on the N. by
Upper Canada and lake Superior, on the S. by Indiana and
Ilhnois territory, on the E. by Upper Canada and lake Mi-
chigan, on the W. and S.W. by Miffiffippi river, which di-
vides it from the Miffouri territory. Its extent from N. to
S. is about 360 miles, and from E. to W. 456 miles; and
its area contains about 147,000 fquare miles, or 94,080,000
acres. The face of the country is generally undulating, in
fome places hilly, but not mountainous. Its rivers are the
Miffifippi, Ouifconfin, Fox, Monomonie, Chippeway, &ce.
The foil is moftly excellent ; and the climate, towards the
fouth, is pleafant, and to the north, cold. Few fettlements
have yet been made in this extenfive region, and the inha-
bitants were not included in the laft cenfus. Melith.

Territory of Orleans. See Loutstana, ORLEANS, and
Unitep States.

TERROR. The effeé of terror, or of fudden frights,
in difeafes, is often very great.

It is generally obferved, that people who are moft afraid
of the se in time of contagion, catch the infection foon-
eft; and that thofe who are moft terrified and difheartened at
firft in the difeafe, generally die of it. It is indeed uncer-
tain, whether this be attributed to the terror, or whether
the terror itfelf, as a confequence of dejection of fpirits,
be not merely a fymptom of the difeafe. Kerkring, Spi-
cileg. Anat. ‘

Sndden frights, in acute difeafes, have evidently killed

many,

TER

many, by the agitation into which they have thrown the
{pirits, already too much diforderd. We have alfo accounts
of perfons abfolutely killed by terrors, when in perfect health
at the time of receiving the fhock from them : people ordered
to be executed, but with private orders for a reprieve, have
expired at the block without a wound.

The general effeéts of terror are a contraétion of the fmall
veffels, and a repulfion of the blood in the large and internal
ones ; hence proceed the fuppreffion of perfpiration, the ge-
neral oppreffion, trembling, and anguifh of heart and lungs
overcharged with blood, &c. ‘

When a perfon is affe@ted with terror, the principal endea-
vour fhould be to reftore the circulation to its due order, to
promote perfpiration, and to allay the agitation of the patient.
For thefe purpofes he may drink a little warm liquor, as
chamomile tea, &c.; the feet and legs may be put into warm
water, the legs rubbed, and the chamomile tea repeated every
fix or cight minutes; and when the fkin is warm, and there
is a tendency to perfpiration, fleep may be promoted by a
gentle opiate.

TERRYA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 30 miles
S. of Beyhar.

TERSA, a {mall river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Medveditza, in the country of theCoffacs. N. lat. 50° 30’.
E. long. 44° 34".

TERSCHUEREN, a town of Guelderland ; 7 miles E.
of Amersfort.

TERSEKAN, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Ifchim, N.lat. 52° 50!. E. long. 67° 34'.

TERSHIZ. See Tursutsn.

TERSION, Tersto, formed of tero, J wear, the a& of
wiping or rubbing a thing. See ABRASION.

TERTA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated, accord-
ing to Ptolemy, in the interior of Thrace, between Sardica
and Philippolis.

TERTHRON, a word properly fignifying the extreme
part of the fail-yard in fhipping. Hippocrates ufes it ina
metaphorical fenfe, to exprefs the extremity of a difeafe.

TERTIAN, in Medicine, a {pecies of intermitting fever,
of which the fimilar paroxy{ms occur at an interval of about
forty-eight hours. See Fever. r ;

TertiAn is alfo an old meafure, containing eighty-four
gallons, fo called becaufe it is the third part of atun. 1 R.III.
Cole 12 bloVie Gaines

TERTIANARIA, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the {cutellaria, or hooded willow-herb. J. Bauhin,
vol. iii. p. 435-

TERTIARY Canons. See Canons.

TERTIAS, a word ufed very frequently in the writings
of phyficians, with the addition of ad; but it is capable of
a double fignification. Ad tertias is often ufed to exprefs
how far the liquor is to be boiled away in the medical de-
coétions ; yet it may in this cafe fignify either the boiling
to two-thirds, or to one-third part, of the whole. The more
ufual fenfe, however, is to boil away one-third part of the
original liquor ; and in the fame manner to fill a veflel ad tertias,
does not fignify to fill a veffel one-third part full, but two-
thirds, leaving only one empty.

TERTIATE, in Gunnery. To tertiate a great gun, is
to examine the thicknefs of the metal at the muzzle, as
to judge of the ftrength of the piece, and whether it be fut
ficiently fortified or not. ’

This is ufually done with a pair of calliper compaffes.

The term is alfo applied to any piece of ordnance for find-
ing whether it has its due thicknefs at the vent, trunnions,
and neck ; if the trunnions and neck are in their due order,
and the chafe ftraight, &c.

TER
TERTII internodii pollicis extenfor, in Anatomy.’ See

Extensor.

TERTIO adjacente, Propofitio de. See Propostt10n.-

TERTIVERL, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tanata; 7 miles N.W. of Troja.

TERTIUM Sat, a third falt, a term ufed in Chemifiry
to exprefs a falt refulting from the mixture of an acid and an
alkali, which partakes fo of the nature of both, as to be itfelf
neither acid nor alkali, but neutral.

TERTRE, Joun Baptist pu, in Biogr lps a miffion-
ary and writer of hiftory, was born at Calais in 1610:
and having ferved in the army in early life, he joined the
Dominicans at Paris, and made his sat fs in 1635, aflum-~
ing the name of John-Baptift inftead of James. bout five
years afterwards, he was fent as a miflionary to the French
American iflands, where he colleGted materials for the work
which engaged his attention after his return to France in
1658: that was his ‘* Hiftoire Generale des Antilles habitées
par les Francois;’’ 4 vols. gto. 1667—71. After having
filled various pofts in the houfes of his order, he died at Paris
in 1687. Moreri.

TERTUA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 34 miles E. of Bahar. 4

TERTULLIAN, Quintus Seprimius Frorens TEr-
TULLIANUS, in Biography, generally reckoned the moft an-
cient Latin father extant, was born at Carthage, not lon
after the middle of the fecond century. He was the fon =
a proconfular centurion, or military officer under the pro-
conful of Africa, and well acquainted with the Roman laws,
though he does not feem to have praétifed the law as a pro-
feffion. He was alfo intimately converfant with the Greek
and Roman poets, hiftorians, orators, and philofophers, and
other heathen writers of every defcription. His fkill inGreek
was fo confiderable, that he wrote feveral books in that lan-
guage. It has been inferred from his parentage, and from
ome exprefiions in his works, that he was once a Heathen ;
but the time and circumftances of his converfion to Chrilfti-
anity are not known. Caye fuppofes that he embraced Chrifti-
anity about the year 185, and was made a prefbyter of the
church of Carthage about the year 192. According to Du
Pin, he flourifhed chiefly from about the year 194 to 216.
Tillemont is of opinion that he was born in 160, and that he
died about the year 245, when he was between 80 and go
years of age, having lived, as St. Jerom fays, to an extreme,
or decrepit, old age. Cave conje€tures that he died about
the year 220. It is faid that he was married, probably after
his converfion to Chriftianity. Having been a member of
the Catholic church for many years, he feparated from it
and became a Montanift, as Cave fays, about the year 199,
but about 205, according to Tillemont. Different accounts
have been given of this change ; but the moft probable feems
to be, that the fpecious pretences of the Montanifts to greater
mortification in fafts and continence had an influence on his
temper, which was fevere. But whatever might have been
his reafons for adopting the principles of Montaniim, they
feem to have made fo little alteration in him as an author,
that there are feveral of his pieces, concerning which it is not
eafy to determine, whether they were written by Tertullian
a Montanift, or Tertullian ftill aCatholic. Although, in con-
fequence of this change, his reputation funk in the church,
yet it produced no feparation between him and other Chrif-
tians, except in point of difctpline, which, agreeably to his
temper, he wifhed to be harfh and rigorous. His doétrine
remained the fame with that of the Catholics. In procefs of
time, however, he believed the divine infpiration of Mon-
tanus and his two propheteffes, Prifcilla and Maximilla, and
that they were thus enabled to make further difcoveries than

had

' aE R

had before’ been made, for the greater perfeCtion of Chriftians.
He approved of the longer, more ftrict, and more frequent
faits of the Montaniits ; he condemned all fecond marriages ;
and denied that the church was authorifed to receive again
into communion any who were chargeable with fornication,
adultery, or any fuch offences, after baptifm. He often
arrogantly calls his own people fpiritual, and the Catholics,
as contemptuoufly, animal or carnal. We have already ob-
feryed that his knowledge was exteniive ; his fancy alfo was
lively ; and though his temper was fevere, and his mode of
expreffion vehement and pofitive, yet his writings frequently
manifeft unaffected humility and modefty. Thecharaéter given
of his ftyle by La€tantius mutt be univerfally allowed ; that it
is * rugged and unpolifhed, and very obfcure ;’’ and yet, as
Cave ick. ‘¢ it is lofty and mafculine, and carries a kind
of majeftic eloquence along with it, that gives a pleafant relifh
to the judicious and inquifitive reader.”” His books ftill ex-
tant, though many are loft, are numerous, fome of which
were written before and others after he embraced the errors
of Montanifm. Of thefe, the Apology is reckoned his prin-
cipal work ; and has been highly commended both by ancient
and modern writers ; whilft his other performances are writ-
ten with wit and force, and are edifying and inftructive.
The time when his “¢ Apology”’ was written has been differ-
ently itated by various authors: fome refer it to the year
200, others to 203 and 205 ; but Mofheim, after laborious
examination, concludes that it was compofed in the year 198.
All allow that it was written before he joined the Montanifts.
Learned men generally agree, that it was not addreffed to the
fenate of Rome, but to the governors of provinces, or per-
haps to the proconful of Africa, and the chief magiftrates
refiding at Carthage, where it was written, according to
Lardner ; though others are of opinion that it was written at
Rome. From this Apolog’y, it appears that Chriftians un-
derwent a variety of grievous fufferings ; they were, as he
fays, ‘* crucified, hung upon ftakes, burnt alive, thrown to
wild beafts, condemned to the mines, and banifhed into de-
fert iflands.”? That this was the cafe, appears alfo from Ter-
tullian’s book to the proconful Scapula, not written before
the year 211 or 212. The “ Apology”’ is written for the
purpofe of fhewing the injuftice of the perfecutions inflited
upon Chriftians, and the falfehood of the charges brought
againft them ; and likewife to difplay the excellence of the
Chriftian religion, and the folly and abfurdity of that of the
Heathens. His two books “* Ad Nationes”’ are conneéted
with his Apology, and indicate his charateriftic vehemence.
His addrefs to Scapula, already mentioned, was written
under the emperor Caracalla, and contains an avowal of ad-
mirable principles. ‘ It ought,’ he fays, “‘ to be left to the
free choice of men, to embrace that religion which feems to
them moft agreeable to truth. No one is injured or bene-
fited by another man’s religion ; it is not an act of religion
to force religion, which ought to be adopted fpontaneoufly,
not by compulfion.”? He proceeds to vindicate the condu&
of Chriftians, and to fhew that their religious principles in-
duced them to pay entire obedience to the emperors, and that
therefore they did not deferve to incur the penalties of trea-
fon. Another work of Tertullian has been often cited, viz.
“¢ De Prefcriptionibus adverfus Hzreticos.’? In this work
he treats of herefy in general, and then difcuffes particular
herefies in his five Bodie againft Marcion, in others againft
Praxeas, in defence of the Trinity, and againft Hermogenes,
and the Valentinians. In his book ** On the Soul,’’ ie in-
quires into the nature of the foul and its properties. In his
treatife “ On Baptifm,” he abfurdly maintains that the moral
ftain of the foul is effaced by the external wafhing of the
body, and that punifhment is likewife remitted ; a doctrine

TER

which fome late divines have zealoufly fuppotted. Baptifm
by heretics he confiders as no baptifm, and contends that it
ought to berepeated. In cafes of neceffity, he thinks infant-
baptifm to be allowable, but he recommends deferring rather
than haftening the adminiftration of this facrament. His
book “ On Penance’’ refutes the opinion advanced by the
Montanifts, that fins committed after baptifm cannot be ab-
folved by the church. In his treatife “ On Idolatry,’ he
extends this crime to practices that are almoft unavoidable
in fociety ; {uch as bearing arms for the defence of the empire,
adorning houfes in honour of the prince, and ufing cuftomary
expreffions that have any reference to Heathen mythology,
In his work ‘ De Corona Militis,”’ he applauds a Chriftian
foldier who refufed to place a crown or garland on his head.
In another work he confiders “ flight in time of perfecution’?
as prohibited, and alfo giving money to efcape it. In his
treatife‘* De Spectaculis,”’ he diffuades Chriftians from attend-
ing public fhows. In his moral tra&s is an exhortation to
‘ patience,’”? in which, as well as in a difcourfe addreffed to
martyrs or confeffors, he dwells in an eloquent {train on the
motives which fhould bind a Chriftian to the pra¢tice of that
virtue. After his union with the Montanifts, Tertullian
wrote four books in oppofition to the difcipline of the Ca-
tholic church ; viz. On Modefty 5”? * On Monogamy :??
“ An Exhortation to Charity ;’’ and “ A Treatife on Faith.’?

Tertullian, in his various writings, has afforded plain tefti-
monies to all the books of the New Teftament, commonly
received by Chriftians at this time, except the Epiftle of
James, the 2d of Peter, the 2d and 3d of John. The Epiftle
to the Hebrews he aferibes to Barnabas. This ancient father
has been much admired : Cyprian calls him ‘“ my matter.’?
Some perfons, however, have doubted whether he has done
more good or harm in the Chriftian church. His charaéter
is judicioufly appreciated by one of his biographers (Gen.
Biog.) in the following manner. Tertullian “ was certainly
aman of lively parts and large acquirements, of copious
invention, and warm feelings. In his reafonings, however,
he difplayed more fancy and fubtilty than found judgment ;
and the ardour of his temper inclines him to violence and
exaggeration, while a propenfity to {uperftition renders him
weakly credulous and gloomily auftere.”? His works have
been frequently printed both feparately and collectively. Of
his whole works, the editions of Rigaltius, fol. Paris, 1641,
and of Semler, Hal. Magd. 6 vols. 1770—76, are moit
efteemed. Dupin. Lardner. Motheim.

TERVEERE, in Geography. See VEERE.

TERUEL, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ara-
gon, at the conflux of the Guadalavir and the Alhambra ;
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Saragoffa: it is defended
by a citadel. ‘This town was deftroyed by the Moors, and
lay a long time abandoned, but was rebuilt and repeopled
by Alphonfo IJ. in the year 1171. In the year 1365, on
the 25th of April, it was taken and pillaged by Peter, king
of Caftile ; in memorial of which, the inhabitants keep the
day a ftriét faft ; 72 miles S, of Saragofla. N. lat. go° 32’,
W. long. 1°.

TERVIS, a town of Iftria; 8 miles W. of Mit-
terburg.

TERUM, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 35 miles
W.S.W. vf Schibam.

TERUNCIUS, in Antiquity, a very {mall brafs coin in
ufe among the Romans.

The inconvenience of fuch very fmall pieces being foon
found, the teruncius became difufed, but its name is {till
retained in reckoning, and thus it became a money of
account.

The teruncius at firft was a quarter of the as, or libra;

hence,

TES

hence, 2s the as contained twelve ounces, the teruncius con-
tained three, whence the name, which is formed of the Latin
tres uncie.

Teruncius was alfo ufed for the quarter of the denarius,
fo that when the denarius was at ten affes, the teruncius
was worth two and a half; and when the denarius was
rifen to fixteen, the teruncius was worth four. See Dr-
NARIUS. :

TERVOLA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
Lapmark of Kemi; 116 miles N. of Kemi.

TERWALDE, a town of Holland, in the department
of Guelderland; 12 miles S. of Hattem.

TERZA, La, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto; 13 miles S.E. of Matera.

Terza, Ital. the 3d in Mufic. The terza maggiore, or
major 3d, is four femitones, or half notes, above the bafe ;
the terza minore, or minor 3d, is three. See Concorns and
INTERVALS.

- +

TES
TERZETTO, in the Malian Mufic, a little tune or air

in three parts. See Trio.

TERZINI, Ital. implies, in the language of practical ©

muficians, triplets, or three notes in the time of two.

TERZO Svono, Ital. the third found, difcovered by
Tartini to be produced in the medium by two founds that
can be fuftained, and which third found is the true funda-
mental bafe. Upon this harmonic phenomenon Tartini has
founded his fyftem ; and Mr. Stillingfleet, in his “* Principles
and Power of Harmony,’’ defcribes the terzo fuono in the
following manner.

“Two founds being given on any mufical inftrument,
which will admit of being held out for any time, and of
being ftrengthened at pleniiares as in the trumpet, the Ger-
man horn, the violin, hautbois, &c. a third found will be
heard. On the violin, let the notes C E, CXE, BE,
BG, Bb G, be founded with a ftrong bow, the third

founds will ‘be heard in the following manner.

Tartini has added the above, and even given us a 3d found to difcords.

« The fame thing will happen if the fame intervals are
founded by two players on the violin, diftant from one an-
other about twenty-nine or thirty feet; always ufing a
ftrong bow, and holding out the notes. The auditor will
hear the third found much better, if placed in the middle
between them, than if nearer to one than the other. Two
hautbois produce the fame effe& placed at a much greater
diftance, and even when the hearer is not in the middle, and
ftill more if he is.”

Tartini has been unfairly treated by d’ Alembert, M. Serre,
and other French writers, who not only difpute his fyftem
built on the terzo fuono, his own difcovery, but give the dif-
covery itfelf to another.

D’Alembert accufes him of writing in a manner fo ob-
feure, that it is impoflible to form any judgment of his in-
tentions ; yet he is obliged to own that the fubjeét itfelf is
obfcure, metaphyfical, and uncertain. As to the ob{curity
in the phenomenon itfelf, we'deny it ; the third found, pro-
duced by two other founds, we have always found, from
innumerable experiments with two voices, two inftruments,
two founds on one inftrument, as double ftops on a violin,
violoncello, and on an organ, that the third found thus pro-
duced in the medium was the true fundamental bafe, fuch as
Tartini himfelf has expreffed by. mufical notes.

D’Alembert and all the French writers on the fubjedt,
have ftated the cafe (except Rouffeau) in a difingenuous
manner. Even when difputing Rameau’s principles, they
wifh to keep him above ‘Tartini and all foreign claimants to
original difcovery or improvement in mufic. Rouffeau is
envied for being the firft to abufe the old French mufic, even
by thofe who thought and allowed it to be bad in their other
writings. See the Abbé Arnauld and M. Suard’s critique
tpon his Diétionnaire dela Mufique, with thofe of the Abbé
Rouffier, M. Laborde, &c. &c.

Trxzo, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tanaro; 2 miles S.W. of Acqui.

TERZOLA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the eupatorium cannabinum, or water hemp-
agrimony.

TERZOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Rakonitz; 7 miles S.S.E. of Rakonitz.

TESA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Car-
mania, upon the gulf Paragon. Ptolemy.

TESAKON, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Nalus, on the Nuno Triftao.

TESCAPHE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, on the banks of the Tigris, near Seleucia.
Ptol.

TESCHAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore ; 42 miles E.S.E. of Bullaufpour.

TESCHEN, a principality of Silefia, bounded on the
N. by the principality of Ratibor, on the E, by Poland,
on the S. by Hungary, and on the W. by Moravia. It is
for the moft part hilly, the Moravian chain terminating near
Jablunkau, in the fouthern part, where alfo begin the (Cart
pathian mountains. On the other hand, the north part is
very fwampy, and overrun with lakes and meres ; notwitli-
ftanding which, there are feveral fertile fpots. Befides
which, it abounds likewife in wood. In the whoie princi-
pality are five towns, part of the inhabitants of which fpeak
German, and the others Polifh. ‘The mountains are inha-
bited by Walachians, who make good heyducks, or foot-
foldiers. ‘The excellent fire-arms here, called Te/chins, re-
ceive their name from this country, and more particularly
from its capital, where they are made in great quantities.

Trscuen, or Tei/fn, a town of Silefia, which gives
name to a principality, fituated on the Elfa, partly in a
valley, and partly on a hill, and furrounded by a morafs.
It contains a Roman Catholic and a Lutheran church, a col-
lege, and four convents. ‘The inhabitants carry on fome
commerce in leather, wool, and wine: here is a manufac-
ture of fire-arms, and a particular kind of fufil, cailed, from
the town, T¢/chins ; 26 miles S.E. of Ratibor. N. lat.
49° 43'. E. long. 18° 41’.

TESCHENAU, or Tescuna, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Bechin; 8 miles E. of Sobieflaw.

TESCHONOVITZ, atown of Pruffia, in Oberland 3
18 miles E.S.E. of Ortelfberg.

TESCUCO. See Tezcuco. :

TESCYLETIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, on the coaft of Magna Gracia, between the —

°

TES

of the Lacinian Juno and the town of Locri, according to
Diodorus Siculus.

TESE, in Geography. See Trst.

TESEGDELT, a town of Morocco, fituated on a
fharp rock, fuppofed to be impregnable ; 80 miles W.N.W.
of Morocco.

TESENI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 34
miles S.E. of Degnizlu.

TESEREN; a town of Africa, in the country of Ta-
filet ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Tafilet.

TESHOO-LOOMBOO, or Lusrong, the refidence of
the Tefhoo Lama, and the capital of that part of Thibet
immediately fubje& to his authority, is fituated in N. lat.
29° 4! 20". -E. long. 89° 7'. It is a large monattery, con-
fifting of three or Bar hundred houfes, the habitations of
the Gylongs, or priefts, befides temples, maufoleums, and
the palace of the fovereign pontiff ; in which is comprifed
alfo the refidence of the regent, and of all the fubordinate
officers, both ecclefiaftical and civil, belonging to the court.
It is included within the hollow form of a high rock, and
has a fouthern afpect. Its buildings are all of ftone, none
lefs than two ftories high, flat-roofed, and crowned with a
parapet rifing confiderably above the roof, compofed of
heath and brufh-wood, inferted between frames of timber,
which form a ledge below, and are fafhioned above into a
cornice, capped with mafonry. The building is ftained
of a deep garnet-colour; a cuftom univerfally adopted in
thefe regions, for diftinguifhing places of religious efta-
blifhment, and which, when contrafted with the white walls,
produces, in the appearance of their town, a very pleafing
effe&. All the houfes have windows, the centre, or princi-
pal one, projeGting beyond the walls,and forming a balcony :
they are clofed with black mohair curtains inftead of fhut-
ters. The principal apartment in the upper ftory has an
opening over it, covered with a moveable fhed, which ferves
the purpofe of fometimes admitting light and air, and in the
winter feafon, occafionally, the grateful warmth of the fun.
The tops of the walls are adorned with cylindrical monu-
ments ; fome of which are plain, covered with black cloth,
crofied by a white fillet; while’others are made of copper,
burnifhed with gold: as the palace and maufoleums are thus
adorned with profufion, the view of the monaftery, on ap-
proaching it from the plain, is brilliant and fplendid. The
plain of Dtiiish-T oanheo, which is perfe€tly level, is en-
compaffed by rocky hills: its length is about fifteen miles,
and its fouthern extremity, from E. to W.., is five or fix miles
broad. The rock, upon the fouthern face of which the
monattery is fituated, nearly occupies the whole width of the
valley, and approsches fo near to the hills, as to form a nar-
row defile, leaving room only for a road, and the bed of the

river Painom-tchieu, which runs through it, and at a {mall
diftance joins the Burhampooter. A fortrefs commands the
pafs. The rock of Tefhoo-Loomboo is the loftieft of all
that are in its vicinity ; and the monaftery near its bafe is
thus guarded from the violence of the N.W. winds. From
the fummit of this rock the eye commands a very extenfive
profpeé&t, and the moft interefting objeét in view 1s the cele-
brated river Burhampooter, called in the language of Thi-
bet Erechoomboo. Here it receives the tributary waters of
the Painom-tchieu. Turner’s Tibet.

TESI TRAMONTINI, Vittoria, in Biography, one
of the moft renowned female fingers that Italy has produced.
She was born at Florence in 1690; began her vocal ftudies
under the maeftro di cappella Francefco Redi; then went to
Bologna, and became a pupil of Campeggi; and received
her laft polifh from Bernacchi. But fhe was no lefs admired

Vou. XXXV.

TES

for the dignity, grace, and propriety of her aétion, than her
vocal powers.

Quantz, who heard her at Drefden in 1719, in the famous
opera that was performed on occafion of the nuptials of the
prince royal of Poland, fing with Senefino, the Berfelli,
wife of Lotti, Dureftante, and the Fauftina, charaéterizes
her in the following mafterly manner.

“‘ Vittoria Tefi had by nature a mafculine, ftrong, con-
tralto voice. In 1719 fhe generally fung, at Drefden
all’ ottava, fuch airs as are made for bafe voices; but after-
wards, befides the majettic and ferious ftyle, fhe had occa-
fionally fomething coquettifh in her manner, which was very
pleafing. The compafs of her voice was fo extraordinary,
that neither to fing high nor low gave her trouble. She was
not remarkable for her performance of rapid and difficult
paflages ; but fhe feemed born to captivate every {peétator
by her aétion, principally in male parts, which fhe performed
in a moft natural and intelligent manner.” Life of Quantz,
written by himfelf.

She fung at Naples in 1725, and at Vienna in 1748, where
fhe remained till the time of her deceafe, in 1775, at 85 years
of age. ;

She was the miftrefs of the Teuberinn and the De Amicis,
both as juftly famed for their a¢ting as finging. ,

We were told at Vienna in 1772, that fhe had long quitted
the ftage, though the remembrance of her talents was fo
deeply impreffed in the minds of many excellent judges, that
whenever fhe was mentioned, it was to the difadvantage of all
fubfequent female fingers. She had been very fprightly in
her day, and yet was in high favour with the emprefs-queen
in her latter years. Her ftory is fomewhat fingular. She
was connected with a certain count, a man of great quality
and diftin@tion, whofe fondnefs increafed by pofleffion to
fuch a degree as to determine him to marry her: a much
more uncommon refolution in a perfon of high birth on the
continent, than in England. She tried to diffuade him :
enumerated all the bad confequences of fuch an alliance ; but
he would liften to no reafoning, nor take any denial. Find-
ing all remonftrances vain, fhe left him one morning, went
into a neighbouring ftreet, and addreffing herfelf to a poor
labouring man, a journeyman baker, faid fhe would give him
fifty ducats if he would marry her; not with a view to their
cohabiting together, but to ferve a prefent purpofe. The
poor man readily confented to become her nominal hufband :
accordingly they were formally married ; and when the count
renewed his folicitations, fhe told him it was now utterly im-
poffible to grant his requeft, for fhe was already the wife of
another ; a facrifice fhe had made to his fame and family.

Since that time fhe had lived many years with a man of
great rank at Vienna, of nearly her own age; probably in a
very chafte and innocent manner.

TESIA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico, in the
province of Mayo ; 45 miles E.S.E. of Santa Cruz.

TESIN, a town of Syria, celebrated for its olive oil ; 18
miles N.E. of Antioch. :

TESINO, a department of Italy, formed of the Pavele.
It contains 156,471 inhabitants, who eleé twelve deputies.
Pavia is the.capital.— Alfo, a river of Italy, which rifes in
mount St. Gothard, and paffing through lake Maggiora,
empties itfelf into the Po, at Pavia.

Testno, or Teffin, a town of the county of Tyrol; 24
miles N.E. of Trent.

TESKELA, a town of Finland; 70 miles E. of
Biorneborg.

TESKOWA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 40 miles

E. of Lucko.
3C TESORO,

TES

TESORO, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh Main, near
the coaft of South America. N. lat. 10° 8’. W. long.
75° 46). eyes

TESPIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the in-
terior of Carmania, and near Carmana. Ptolemy. ata

TESS, in Geography, ariver of Moravia, which runs into
the Marfch, 8 miles N. of Muglitz.

TESSAILAH, a town oF Algiers ; 20 miles S. of
Oran.

TESSALON. See THeEssa.on.

TESSARACONTA, szcxpaxorrz, among the Athe-
nians, were forty men who went their circuits round the fe-
veral boroughs, and had cognizance of all controverfies
about money, if not above ten drachms ; as alfo of actions
of affault and battery. Potter, Archzol. Gree.

TESSARACONTERIS, in the Naval Archite@ure of
the Ancients, a word ufed to exprefs a fort of galley, in which
there were no lefs than forty tiers of rowers one above an-
other. Se Enneris and Potycrora.

TESSARA-COSTA, in our Ancient Writers. See

UADRAGESIMA. s

TESSARACOSTON, ssrxpanorcy, in Antiquity, a fo-
lemnity kept by women on the fortieth day after child-birth,
when they went to the temple, and paid fome grateful ac-
knowledgments for their fafe delivery. Pott. Archzol.
Gree. tom. i. p. 432. and tom ii. p. 335.

TESSARINI, Carzo, in ti le firft violin, and
leader of the band in the metropolitan church at Urbino, was
born at Rimini in 1690 ; he was a fpirited performer on his
inftrument, anda very voluminous compofer. His ftyle was
light and flimfy, compared with that of Corelli and Gemi-
nlani ; but his concertos not being very difficult, were much
played in country concerts in our own memory, with thofe
of Alberti, Albinoni, and Vivaldi.

Teffarini’s firft publication at Amfterdam has a title-page
of great promife; but whether the promife was ever per-
formed, fceptics in thefe incredulous days will be much in-
clined to doubt. The title is in French, but literally tranf-
lated, is the following: ‘* A new Method for learning theo-
retically,in a Month’s Time, to play on the Violin, divided
into three Claffes, with progreflive Leffons for two Violins.”
Then twelve violin concertos ; twelve flute folos ; the maf-
ter and {cholars; divertimenti for two violins ; twelve violin
folos ; fix divertimenti for two violins, in canon, &c. &c.
He lived till the year 1672, in the perpetual labour of pub-
lication ; but his produétions would now be as difficult to
find as thofe of Timotheus and Olympus.

TESSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarte ; 15 miles S.W. of Le Mans.

TESSELA, a word ufed in Pharmacy, to exprefs
lozenges cut into regular figures.

TESSELARII, among the Romans, artificers of che-
quered or mofaic work.

TESSELATED Pavement, pavimentum teffélatum, a
rich pavement of mofaic work, made of curious {mall fquare
ls bricks, or tiles, called ¢efelle, from the form of

ies.

Teffelated pavements were much ufed in the tents of the
Roman generals.

TESSERA, in Roman Antiquity, denoted in its primary
fenfe a cube or dye; fo called from the Greek word t:scase5
or séacepx, four; refpeét being had to its number of fides,
diftin& from the two horizontal planes, above and below.
And it was thus diftinguifhed from the talus, which, being
round at each end, contained only four planes or faces on
which it could ftand: and therefore, when thrown, had no

4

TES

more than two fide faces'in view. Hence Judere talis et ludere
teferis are {poken of by Roman writers as two different
games. The fyllable tes. occurs often in Roman infcrip-
tions.

The word tefera was applied to many other things, not fo
much from a fimilitude in the figure, as from the relation
they bore to fome other thing ' g which they were the fign
or token; as the points on the upper plane of the dye a
noted the good or ill fuccefs of the caft. ~

The teffera hofpitalis was either public or private. As to
the former, we find among the infcriptions publifhed by
Gruter, inftances of two municipal towns which put them-
felves under the patronage of the Roman governor; and
the reciprocal engagements between them, engraved on two
copper-plates in the form of an oblong fquare, with a pedi-
ment at the top, is called in both tefera ho/pitalis.

The defign of the. latter was to cultivate or maintain 2
lafting friendfhip between private perfons and their families ;
and gave a mutual claim to the contraéting parties, and their
defcendants, of a reception and kind treatment at each
other’s houfes,*as occafion offered. For which end thofe
teffere were fo contrived, as beft to preferve the memory of
that tranfaétion to pofterity. Aad one method of doin
this was by dividing “one of them lengthwife into two eq
parts, upon each of which one of the parties wrote his name,
and interchanged it with the other. From this cuftom came
the prevailing expreffion teferam hofpitalem confringere, ap-
plied to perfons who violated their engagements.

The teffere frumentaria were {mall tallies given by the em-
perors to the populace of Rome, entitling them to the re-
ception of a quantity of corn from the public at ftated

feafons. The perfon who had the infpeétion of thefe
was called ¢efférarius. ‘They were made of wood and of
ftone.

There was another kind of teffera which intitled perfons
to a fight of the public games and other diverfions, ufually
made in the form of an oblong f{quare.

The tefera militaris was a Ggual given by the general, or
chief commander of an army, as a direétion to the foldiers
for executing any duty or fervice required of them,

This, upon urgent occafions, was only vocal; but, in
ordinary cafes, it was written on a tablet, commonly made
of wood. Befide the civil and military teffere, there are
others which related to religious affairs, and may be called
facred. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. art. 12.

TESSERMUIT, in Geography, an ifland near the S.W.
coaft of Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 59° 59!. W. long. 44° 20/.

TESSET, a town and diftri& of Africa, in the country
of Sahara; 170 miles S. of Morocco. N. lat. 15°24/. W.

long. 7°.

PESSIN, Cuartes Gustavus, in Biography, a Swedith
count and confiderable ftatefman, was born at Stockholm in
1695, and received the rudiments of his education under his
father. In 1714 he fet out on his travels, and continued them
through various countries of Europe for five years, availing
himfelt of every opportunity that occurred of acquainting
himfelf with their refpeétive conftitution and laws. At the
age of twenty-five he was deputed to the courts of Great
Britain, Denmark, and France, and alfo to the States of Hol-
land, to announce the acceffion of Frederic I. to the Swedifh
throne ; and in 1725 he was fent to Vienna, to folicit the
attention of that court to the new treaty of alliance between
Sweden and Ruffia. On the death of his father, in 1728, he
fucceeded him as principal intendant of the court, and in
order to qualify himfelf for the office, he undertook a new
tour at hisown expence. In 1735 he was again difpatched

to

TES

to the court of Vienna, where he remained two years. He
was chofen by the nobility fpeaker at the famous diet of
1738, on which occafion he obtained, in recompence of his
condud, a gold medal, bearing on one fide his creft, and on
the other the motto “ Confcius Re&i.’’? He was appointed
in 1739 to-condué an embafly from this diet to France, and
refided at Paris till the year 1742, concluding during this
interval an advantageous treaty of commerce with the king
of the Two Sicilies, and terminating a fubfidiary treaty of al-
hance with France, by which Sweden was to receive in the
courfe of three years 27 tons of gold. In 1743 he was fent
to Denmark, and in the following yezr to Berlin, on bufi-
ne{s of great importance. At Berlin he was honoured with
the Prutffian order of the Black Eagle. He occupied feveral
other itations of dignity and truft, the duties of which he
difcharged with fingular wifdom and fidelity. But the moft
important office afligned him, was that of preceptor to the
crown prince, Guftavus III., to which he was appointed in
1747- On this occation he wrote his “ Letters addreffed to
a Young Prince,” for the ufe of his royal pupil, which
were afterwards tranflated into moft of the languages of
Europe. Retiring from public bufinefs in 1761, he lived
on his eftate till the time of his death, which happened in
January 1770. Count Teffin was a zealous patriot and
enlightened citizen, and a diftinguifhed patron of letters.
With a view of encouraging the arts and {ciences, he made
a great collection of books, pictures, drawings, coins, and
other curiofities. But notwith{tanding his various excellent
qualities, his enemies were affiduous in fruitlefs attempts to
throw a fhade over his charaéter, as may be feen in a work
entitled, “* An Hiftorical Account of the State of Sweden
under Frederic I.’ Gen. Biog. .

Tessin, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Mecklen-
burg; 18 miles S.E. of Roftock.

TESSIURSAK, an ifland near the W. coaft of Weft
Greenland. N. lat. 61° 10’... W. long. 47° 30!.

TESSOUA, aconfiderable town of Africa, in the coun-
try of Fezzan; 100 miles E.S.E. of Mourzouk. Near
this town, a river, now overwhelmed by the moving fands,
but formerly a deep and rapid ftream, had its courfe.

TESSOUELLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire; 5 miles S. of Chollet.

TESSUA, a town of Hindooftan, in Rohilcund; 18
miles S.S.E. of Bereilly.

TESSUE, a town of Pegfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 50 miles W. of Tans

TESSUNTEE, a town of the flate of Georgia; 80
miles W. of Tugeloo.

TESSUT. See Teceur.

TESSY, a town of France, in the department of the
Channel; 9 miles S. of St. Lo.

TEST, in Metallurgy, is a veffel of the nature of a cop-
pel, ufed for large quantities of metals at once, and formed
of the fame materials.

Lhe coppels, or {mall veflels, ferve for operations of this
kind, when fmall quantities only aye concerned ; but when
larger are worked on, veflels of a larger fize and coarfer
ae are employed, which are diftinguifhed by the name
of teffs.

TYhefe are ufually a foot and half broad, and are made of
wood-afhes, not prepared with fo much care as for coppel-
making, and mixed with finely powdered brick-duft ; thefe
are made into the proper fhape, either by means of a fhallow
veffel, made of crucible earth, or caft-iron, of proper dimen-
fions, or only an iron ring, or hoop, with three bars arched
downwards acrofs the bottom, about two inches deep, and
of different widths, from three or four inches to fifteen or

T,5°5

more, according to the quantity of metal to be tefted at
once,

To make them in the firft manner, an car€hen veflel is
to be procured, not glazed within, and by its depth and
breadth proportioned to the quantity of metal to be worked ;
the infide of this vefiel is to be well moiftened with fair wa-
ter, that the afhes to be put into it may adhere the better.
Put into this veflel, thus prepared, the afhes and brick-duit
before-mentioned, and firft moiftened either with water alone,
or with water with a little white of an egg mixed in it ; let
the quantity of this be fo much as will half fill the veffel,
then prefs the mafs with a wooden indented pettle, or, if not
for a very large teft, with.a wooden cylinder, only of an inch
thick : when thus prefled down. add frefh afhes, and prefs
them a fecond time, as in the making of coppels, and re-
peat this addition of frefh afhes till the earthen veffel be
nearly full; then remove the fuperfluous afhes with an iron
ruler, and let the inequalities remaining at the border be
{moothed with a wooden or glafs ball rolled round about.
This done, you are to cut the cavity with a bowed iron,
that you may have a broad {pherical fegment, not very deep;
and laftly, by means of a fieve, ftrew this cavity carefully
and regularly over with dry afhes of bones of animals, ground
extremely fine, and fqueeze thefe hard in, by the rotation
of the wooden or glafs ball. Thus you have a teft finifhed,
which, together with its earthen pot, muit be fet in a dry
warm place.

To make the tefts in the. other manner, or by means of
an iron ring; let a ring of that metal be filled with afhes
mixed with brick-duft, and moiftened as before mentioned,
in fuch manner that they may rife confiderably above the
ring’; then prefs them ftrongly either with your hands, or
with an indented peftle, and afterwards, with gentle blows
of a rammer, prefs the afhes from the circumference toward
the centre, in a fpiral line, and that in fuch manner, that,
after having been fufficiently prefled, they may be a {mall
matter higher than the brink of the ring. If there are now
any vacancies in the mafs, empty the ring, and fill it again
with more afhes; for if you fhould attempt to fill up thefe
by adding, were it but ever fo little, afhes, the fecond, or
additional quantities, will never cohere fo firmly with the
firft, but that they may probably feparate in the operation.

This done, turn the ring upfide down, and on the other
fide, or bottom, take out the afhes to the quantity of one-
third part of the depth of the ring, and again fill the va-
cuity with the fame afhes, in fuch a manner that there may
remain no fenfible cavity,

When the mafs is thus prepared, cut out a cavity in the
larger furface of the ring, with a bowed iron, as in the
former method.

The Germans have, befide thefe, another kind of tefts,
which they call ¢reib/cherben. Thefe are a fort of veflels
which refift the moft violent fire, and are fo extremely com-
pact, that they fometimes will retain not only melted metals,
but even the glafs of lead itfelf.

The figure and fize of thefe veffels may be the fame with
that of the coppel, but they are ufually made larger ; and
the great difference ef thefe tefts from coppels, and from
the ordinary tefts, which are indeed only a kind of large and
coarfe coppels, is, that the matter of thefe is more compact
and coherent.

The matter for making thefe tefts is thus prepared: take
of the pureft and fineft clay a fufficient quantity, make it
into balls, and dry them either in the air, or on the fire ;
when dried, beat them to powder in a mortar, and pour on
the powder a gieat quantity of warm water ; let this mix-
ture reft a while, and when the clay has fublided, pour off

aC 2 the

TEST. ?

the water which fwims at top; and let this wathing be fo
often repeated, that all the moft minute lumps of the clay
be broken, “nd whatever falt it contains perfectly wafhed
out: then add to this fine clay, of the pureft fand, of pow-
der of calcined flints, ground, and well wafhed, of faulty
but clean Heffian crucibles, or of any incombuttible ftones

round very fine, fuch a quantity as will render the mafs
thick, and hardly adhering to the hands in kneading it, or
pliant when rolled into a thin lamina.

This is the matter for making this fort of tefts; but, be-
fore any quantity of the veffels be made of this earth, it will
be prudent firft to finifh a fingle one, and try it, by putting
on it a quantity of glafs of lead, and expofing it for an hour
or more to the ftrongeft fire; by this trial you will be cer-
tain whether or not» the mafs is capable of making veflels
that will refift both the fire and the glafs of lead ; and by no
other means but this trial is it poffible to determine the due
proportion of the mixture of the ingredients for this ufe,
on account of the variety of the clays. Nature in fome
places affords a clay fo well tempered, that it is extremely
proper for the making of tefts without any preparation, or
without the admixture of any other matter. Sometimes
this only requires a fimple wafhing, but commonly it is ne-
ceffary to make it into balls, and powder or wafh them as
before directed.

On the trial of a teft made of this, or the former mixed
clay, if it runs into glafs, you muft add to it of the powder
of ftones, efpecially Fach as beft refifts the fire. Great care
is to be taken not to add too much powdered chalk to thefe
compofitions, fince if the matter is tempered with that
alone, the tefts will indeed refift the fire very well, but being
too porous, they will yield a paffage to litharge, which will
foften them to fuch a degree, that they will either fall afun-
der of themfelves, or be totally crufhed when taken hold of
with the tongs.

Thefe vellels are to be made in the following manner :
rub over the fides and bottom of a {mall mortar, and alfo
its peftle, with oil, or with the fat of bacon; fill it two-
thirds full of prepared clay, then make a flight impreffion
with your fingers in the middle of the clay ; then place the
bottom of the peftle there, and force it down with blows of
a hammer, the ftronger the better. When thus properly
hollowed, take it out of the mortar, and pare its edges, and
oe it, as the coppels are dried, in the air, in a dry warm

ace.

Tefts thus prepared may be ufed as foon as dry, unlefs
for falts or litharge ; but thefe bodies, when melted in veffels
not firft baked or hardened in the fire, always make their
way through them.

Some of the German writers alfo recommend, both for
tefts and coppéls, a fort of friable opaque ftone, called
white fpath, which appears to be a fpecies of gypfum,
or of the ftones from which plafter of Paris is prepared.
The fpath is dire&ed to be calcined with a gentle fire,
in acovered veffel, till the flight crackling, which happens at
firft, has ceafed, and the ftone has fallen in part into powder ;
the whole is then reduced into fubtle powder, which is
paffed through a fine fieve, and moiftened with fo much of
a weak folution of green vitriol, as is fufficient for making
it hold together. Gellert, however, finds, that if the ftone
is of the proper kind, which can be known only by trials,
calcination is not neceflary. Thefe tefts are liable to foften
or fall afunder in the fire, which inconvenience may be
remedied, according to Scheffer, by mixing with the uncal-
cined ftones foinewhine lefs than equal its weight, as eight-
ninths of fuch as had been already ufed and penetrated by
the fcoria of the lead, taking that part of the old teft which

appears of a a Se colour, and rejecting the red cruft
on the top. But from his account it. appears, that thefe
tefts are lefs durable than thofe made of the afhes of bones,
though much fuperior to thofe of wood-afhes. Vegetable
afhes, which ftand pretty well the tefting of filver, can
{carcely bear any great quantity of gold, which requires 2
confiderably ftronger fire than the other ; but bone-afhes,
fays Dr. Lewis, anfwer fo effeétually, and are among us fo
eafily procured, that it is unneceflary for the refiner to fearch
for any other materials. _Cramer’s Art of Affaying, p. 60.
62. Lewis’s Com. Ph. Tech. p. 144.

"Tes Lauon, aterm ufed by our dealers in brandies, &c.
for a liquor which they ufe as a teft of brandy, &c. to
prove whether they be genuine, or mixed with home fpirit.
The people who ufe this, place great confidence in it, but
it is really a very vague and uncertain thing. ‘They pretend
that this liquor will fhew, by the colour which it makes on
its being poured into brandy, whether it be genuine or
adulterated ; or if not genuine, in what proportion the
adulterating f{pirit is mixed with it.

The whole faét is this: if a little common green or white
vitriol be diffolved in fome fair water, it makes a teft-liquor,
a few drops of which being let fall into a glafs of old French
brandy, will turn the whole to a purple or fine violet-colour ;
and by the ftrength or palenefs of this colour, the dealers
judge the brandy to be genuine or mixed in different propor-
tions, with home fpirits. :

Old French brandy, having long lain in the eafk, takes a
dilute tin@ture of the wood of the cafk, that is, of oak ; and
this being of the fame nature with a folution or tin&ture of
galls, naturally turns blueifh or blackifh with vitriol. A
new diftilled brandy, though wholly foreign, would not give
this teft; and a common malt fpirit, with oak chips infufed
in ity will turn as dark as the fineft brandy. While our
diftillers, indeed, had nothing in ufe for the colouring of
their fpirits but burnt fugar, it was poffible to make Bme
guefs at an adulteration with them, becaufe the brandy, in
this cafe, would not become blackifh in proportion to its
former colour ; the fugar colourmot turning to ink with the
vitriol, like the other: but our diltillers fae fince found
a way of ufing an extraét of oak for the colouring of their
{pirits, and fince that, this teft-liquor is of very little ufe,
our common fpirits, of any kind, turning as deep with it as
the foreign brandies.

The very beft way of making this teft-liquor, is with a
calcined vitriol of iron, diffolved in a dilute or aqueous mineral
acid. The liquor, when well made in this manner, is of a
fine yellow colour, and will give, for a time, the fineft blue
to any fpirituous tinéture of oak.

The Englifh were, at one time, very fond of high-co-
loured brandies, and it was then that the ufe of this teft-
liquor was moft efteemed ; afterwards we, as well as other
nations, finding that this colour was only owing to the cafk,
began to diflike, and to favour the pale brandies: at length
we fell into the ufe of fuch as were wholly limpid and
colourlefs, and the re-diftilling of all the old brandies of which
people were pofleffed, took place ; on this the teft-liquor was
found to be of no ufé at all, and accordingly rejected ; but
as we are of late again come into the Di fea of coloured
brandies, and that with great juftice, as the colour, when
genuine, is a certain mark of the age of the liquor, this teft-
hquor is again got into more credit than it deferves. :

The famous Helvetian ftyptic depended wholly on this
accident for its colour; and it was no {mall mortification
to our chemifts, when, fome years ago, it was introduced
into ufe among us, that they could not make it with our
own {pirits, but muft be at the expence of true French

brandy

“ coloured.

TEST

brandy for it; our own fpirits, though equally coloured,
would never make that violet tin¢ture, becaufe their colour
was Owing to burnt fugar, not a tinéture of oak. At
length this myftery was explained, and a little ferapings of
galls made all thofe quantities of this ftyptic, which had
been fet by as good for nothing, perfectly fine and well-
Shaw’s Effay on Duttillery.

Test-44@, in Law, is the ftatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2.
(1673) which direéts all officers, civil and military, to take

e oaths, and make the declaration againft tranfubftan-
tiation, in the court of king’s bench or chancery, the next
term, or at the next quarter feffions, or (by fubfequent
ftatutes) within fix months after their admiffion ; and alfo
within the fame time to receive the facrament of the Lord’s
fupper, according to the ufage of the church of England,
in fome public church, immediately after divine fervice or
fermon, and to deliver into court a certificate thereof, figned
by the minifter and churchwarden, and alfo to prove the
fame by two credible witneffes, upon forfeiture of s500/. and
difability to hold the fame office. Befides this penalty, if,
without taking the facramental qualification within the time
preferibed by the aé, a perfon continues to occupy a civil
office, or to hold a military commiffion, and is lawfully con-
victed, then he is difabled from thenceforth, for ever, from
bringing any action in courfe of law, from profecuting any
fuit in any court of equity, from being guardian of any child,
or executor or adminiftrator of any perfon, as well as from
receiving any legacy. © For an account of the nature and
operation of the CorporaTION 44, we refer to that article.

The word ¢ef fignifies proof or trial, being formed of #e/fis,
qwiine/s ; this a€t being eftablifhed with a view to exclude
Roman Catholics from any fhare in the government, though
it has operated to the exclufion of Proteftant diffenters in

enerai. The Corporation act, enacted in the year 1661,
the 13th of Charles II., was principally, but not wholly,
defigned againft Proteftant Non-conformifts. It was paffed
in a period of great heat and violence, the year after the
Reftoration ; and it paved the way for the a& of unifor-
mity, which foon after paffed. The king, with his minifters,
and the majority in both houfes, hated the Prefbyterians,
whom they confidered, whether juftly or not, as the authors
of the late rebellion. Great power {till remained in their
hands, for, during the ProteCtorate, they had been appointed
magiftrates in all the country towns. To leave authority
in Fach hands feemed dangerous: it was therefore judged
expedient to regulate the corporations, and to expel thofe
magiftrates, whofe principles were inimical to the contftitu-
tion, civil and ecclefiaftical. This gave rife to the Corpo-
ration a@. The facramental claufe, however, in the Cor-
poration a& was intended againft the Catholics; for, as
the other provifions of the ftatute, by difpoffeffing the
enemies of the court, had eftablifhed the influence of the
crown in all the corporations of the kingdom, the parliament
was apprehenfive that in the next reign, under a Catholic
King, all corporation offices would be filled with Catholics.
Befiies, before the paffing of the a& of uniformity, thofe
that. were afterwards called diffenters, were within the
inclofure of the church, and confequently participated in
her facraments, fo that the facramental claufe mutt there-
fore have been intended as a guard againft the Catholics, to
whom it effe€tually applied, and not as a guard againtt
thofe who were afterwards called diffenters, on whom, at
that period, it could not operate.

It muft alfo be allowed, that the original defign of the teft
was not fo much to exclude the Proteftant diffenters, as
the papifts, as the Catholics were then called. It was
brought in by the patriots, in the reign of Charles II.,

-ACT.

under their apprehenfion of popery, and a popith fucceffor ;
and when, during the debate in the houfe of commons, it
was obferved, that it was drawn in {uch a manner as to com-
prehend the Proteftant diffenters, the court greatly endea-
voured to avail themfelves of that circumftance in order to
defeat the bill. But the diffenting members difappointed
them, by’ declaring, that they had rather confide in the
juttice and generofity of parliament, to pafs fome future
bill in their favour, than be the occafion of retarding or de-
feating the fecurity, which the prefent bill was calculated to
afford to the liberties of their country. Their patriotifm
produced, foon afterwards, a bill for their relief from the
penal laws; but the parliament was prorogued, through
the refentment of the court, to prevent its pafling : and
when, notwithftanding this, a bill in favour of the diffenters
did afterwards pafs both houfes, wiz. in the year 1680, and
lay ready for the royal affent, the court ventured upon a
very extraordinary expedient : the clerk of the crown was
ordered to convey away the bill, and, accordingly, it was
never afterwards to be found. The particular teft of re-
ceiving the facrament according to the rites of the church
of England, was calculated to exclude the papifts rather
than the Proteftant diffenters; as it was no uncommon
thing for the latter, at that time, to receive the facrament
occafionally in the church of England, in order to exprefs
their charity towards it, as a part of the church of Chrift.
If it had been the defign of the legiflature to exclude all
from civil offices but thofe who have a real affe€tion for the
conftitution and worfhip of the church, it is apprehended
they would have appointed the teft to be, not merely once
taking the facrament at church, but a ftated and conftant
conformity to its religious fervices.

It has been alleged, however, that though the Teft a&
was defigned againit the Catholics, yet that few, even then,
of the number, merited a treatment fo fevere. They, it is
faid by their advocates, had no concern in the views of
Charles or his brother, in the fchemes of wild minifters, or
in the machinations of bad politicians. They had fuffered™
much in the reyal caufe, and were pining in penury and
diitrefs, under the additional preflure of cruel laws. But
whatever might be the reafons, real or pretended, for
paffing an a&t, of which Catholics were the principal often-
fible objeéts, the cafe is now very much altered, and
Catholics have affumed anew charaé¢ter, which entitles them,
in the judgment of many, not merely to proteétion, but to
a participation of the privileges of their fellow-fubjects.

As the queftion concerning the repeal of the difqualifying
laws which we have already mentioned, has been, and 1s
likely foon again to become a fubje&t of public difcuffion,
and as it is,a fubje&t, generally confidered, of great im-
portance and intereft, it may not be thought improper to
{tate the arguments for and againft the repeal of thofe ex-
cluding ftatutes, comprehending both Proteitant diffenters
and Catholics, in as concife a manner as poffible. The
general principles upon which the equitable decifion of this
queftion depends, are fuch as follow :—Every man has an
undoubted right to judge for himfelf in matters of religion ;
nor fhould any mark ap infamy, or any civil penalty, be at-
tached to the exercife of this right :—Every man has a
right to the common’privileges of the’ fociety in which he
lives ; and among thefe common privileges, a capacity!1
Jaw for ferving his fovereign and country is one of the
mott valuable, diftinguifhing a /egal capacity of fervice, from
a right to an a¢tual appointment, which depends upon the
choice of his fovereign, or of his fellow citizens ; and this
capacity of ferving the ftate is a right of fuch high eftima-

tion, and of fuch tranfcendent value, that exclufion from it
18

TEST-ACT.

is deemed a proper punifhment for fome of the greateft
crimes :—A Gtions, and not opinions, political or religious, are
the proper objeéts of human authority and cognizance :—No
man, who does not forfeit that capacity of ferving his fovereign
and country, which is his natural right, as well as the honour
and emoluments that may happen to be conneéted with it,
by overt-aéts, ought to be deprived of them; and difabili-
ties that are not thus incurred are unjuft penalties, implying
both difgrace and privation :—Punifhment, without the pre-
vious proof of guilt, cannot be denied to be an injury ;
and injuries inflifted on account of religion are undoubtedly
perfecutions :—The ends of civil fociety can never juttify
any abridgment of natural rights that is not effential to
thefe ends :—The inftitutions of religion, and the ordinances
of civil government, are diftiné in their origin and
their objects, in the fanétions that enforce them, and the
mode in which they are adminiftered :—The inititution
of the Lord’s fupper, being wholly of a religious nature,
and appointed merely as a memorial of his death, is
improperly applied to the fecular ends of civil fociety ;
and if it be fo applied, it is not only an improper, but in
many cafes an infufficient, teft of the principles and cha-
raéter of thofe to whom it is adminiftered. Such are
fome of the leading principles, which have been the fubjects
of difcuffion in the debates that have occurred, both among
writers and among our legiflators, in confidering the expe-
diency of repealing the teft laws. The cafe of the Catho-
lics and of the Proteftant diffenters has been repeatedly argued
in both houfes of parliament, and may probably again be-
come the fubjeét of public difcuffion. Many (indeed moft)
of the fame arguments apply to both defcriptions of per-
fons ; but we fhall chiefly reftri€t ourfelves to-the pleas of
the diffenters. They have urged, that being well-affected
to his majefty and the eftablifhed government, and ready to
take the oaths required by law, and to give the fulleft proof
of their loyalty, they think their fcruple to receive the
facrament after the manner of the church of England, or
after the manner of any church, as a, qualification for an
office, ought not to render them incapable of holding public
employments, civil or military: they alfo allege, that the
o¢cafional receiving of the Lord’s fupper as a qualification
for a place, cannot, in the nature of things, imply that thofe
who thus receive it, mean to declare their fuil and entire
approbation of the whole conftitution and frame of the efta-
blifhed church ; fome men may be compelled by their necef-
fities, or under the allurement of fecular advantages, to do
what they would not do, if they were left to their free
choice. Others, perhaps, may comply with the facra-
mental teft who are not even Chriftians, and who therefore
cannot be fuppofed to wifh well to Chriftianity itfelf, or to
any national eftablifhment of it whatfoever. Hence they
are led to think, that fuch a telt can be no real or effectual
fecurity to the church of England. Conceiving that they
have a right, as men, to think for themfelves in matters of re-
ligion, and that this right is prefcribed and fanctioned by the
Author of Chriftianity ; and that they have a right, as citi-
zens, to a common chance with their fellow-fubje&s for
offices of civil and military truft, if their fovereign or fel-
low-citizens fhould think them worthy of confidence ; they
cannot be of opinion that any of the ends or objeéts of civil
fociety require that thefe rights fhould be fuperfeded, and that
they fhould be excluded from the fervice of the ftate. Their
advocates plead on their behalf, that the continuance of thofe
aéts which invade their rights is fo far from being neceflary
to the well-being of the flate, or to the eftablifhment of the
national church, that they are a¢tually pernicious both to
the ftate and church, and ought to be repealed. Their in-

utility is fhewn by referring to the higher truft of legiflative
authority, to which the diflenters are admitted without hefi-
tation or referve, and without fubmitting to any fuch teit.
An excifeman furely, it is faid, does not fuftain a more im-
portant office, neither is it neceffary that he fhould make a
profeffion of his Chriftian faith more than a member of: the
houfe of commons or the houfe of peers.
the diflenters, their attachment to the conftitution, and their
zeal in fupport of it, have been fufficiently manifefted in a
variety of initances, from the Revolution to the prefent day ;
and yet can it be aflerted, that their exclufion from the
fervice of the public is neceflary or beneficial to the ftate ?
Can it be faid that the continuance of the difabilities to which
their profeffion fubjeéts them, is neceflary for the fafety or
honour of the church? The eftablifhment of a church re-
quires a legal provifion for its minifters ; but it does not re-
quire for its laity an exclufive right to civil and military
truits. The eftablifhment of the church of England con-
fifts in her tithes, her prebendaries, her canonries, her arch-
deaconries, her deaneries, and her bifhoprics. Thefe confti-
tuted her eftablifhment before the Corporation and Teft aéts
had any exiftence: and they will equally conftitute her
eftablifhment if thefe ats fhould. be repealed. In Scotland
they have had no fuch aéts; and yet Scotland has an efta-
blifhed church. In Ireland thefe aéts have been repealed ;
and yet the eftablifhed church of Ireland remains. In Hol-
land, Ruffia, Pruffia, Germany, &c. they have no fuch aéts.
As to the intimate and beneficial conneétion between church”
and ftate, on which fome have grounded the fuppofed pro-
priety and neceflity of thefe laws, it would be fufficient to
refer to the authority of archdeacon Paley, who has ftated
what ought to be the fingle end of church eftablifhments.
(See Reticion.) Upon an appeal to hiftory, it has been
argued that the civil government maintained itfelf in former
times, when unconnedied with the church; and the dif-
turbances which terminated in the ruin of both church and
ftate, are faid to have originated in the intolerant f{pirit and
arbitrary proceedings of fome ecclefiaftics, who had them~-
felves exercifed powers, and had inftigated their unhap
fovereign to aétions and claims at leaft as contrary to, Pe
fubvertite of, the true fpirit of the conftitution, as any of
thofe violences of the times immediately fucceeding, which
have been fo juftly reprobated. In this conneétion, we may
refer to the {fpeech of an able advocate for the repeal of the
difabling ftatutes: who maintains that no human govern-
ment has a right to inquire into men’s private opinions, to
prefume that it knows them, or to act on that prefumption.
Men fhould be tried by their ations, not by their opinions.
This, if true with refpe& to political, was more peculiarly
fo with regard to religious opinions. In the pofition, faid
Mr. Fox, that the actions of men, and not their opinions,
were the proper objects of legiflation, he was fupported by
the general tenor of the laws of the land. Hiftory, how-
ever, afforded one glaring exception in the cafe of the Roman
Catholics. The Roniae Catholics, or rather the Papifts, as
they were then properly denominated, had been fuppofed
by our anceftors to entertain opinions that might lead to
mifchief in the ftate. But it was not their religious opinions
that were feared. Their acknowledging a foreign autho-
rity paramount to that of the legiflature ; their acknowledg-
ing a title to the crown fuperior to that conferred by the
voice of the people ; their political opinions, which they
were fuppofed to attach to their religious creed, were
dreaded, and juftly dreaded, as inimical to the conftitution.
Laws therefore were enaéted to guard againft the pernicious
tendency of their political, not of their religious, opinions ;
and the principle thus adopted, if not founded on juftice,
was

The principles of -

TEST-ACT.

was at leaft followed up with confiltency. Their influence
in the ftate was fearéd, and they were not only reftricted
from holding offices of power or truft, but rendered inca-
pable of purchafing lands, or acquiring influence of any
kind. But if the Roman Catholics of thofe times were
Papifts in the ftricteft fenfe of the word, and not the Roman
Catholics of the prefent day, itill he would fay, that the
legiflature ought not to have aéted againit them, till they
put in practice fome of the dangerous do¢trines which they
were thought to entertain. Difability and punifhment
ought to have followed, not to have anticipated, offence.
Thofe who attempted to juftify the difabilities impofed on
the diflenters, muft contend, if they argued fairly on their
own ground, not that their religious opinions were inimical
to the eftablifhed church, but that their political opinions
were inimical to the conftitution. If they failed to prove
this, to deprive the diflenters of any civil or political ad-
vantage, wasa manifelt injuitice ; for it was not fufficient to
fay to any fet of men, we apprehend certain dangers from
your opinions, we haye wifely provided a remedy againit
them, and you, who feel yourfelves aggrieved, calumniated,

‘ and profcribed, by this remedy, muft prove that our appre-
henfions are ill-founded. The onus proband: lay on the other
fide ; for whoever demanded that any other perfon fhould be
laid under a reftri€tion, it was incumbent on him firft to
prove that the reftriGtion was neceflary to his fafety, by
fome overt aét, and that the danger he apprehended was not
imaginary but real. Was it ferioufly to be contended, that
religion depends upon political opinions ; that it can fubfitt
only under this or that form of goverament? It was an
irreyerend and impious opinion to maintain, that the church
muft depend for fupport, on its being an engine, or ally, of
the ftate, and not on the evidence of its doétrines, to be
found by fearching the fcriptures, and the moral effects it
produced on the minds of thofe whom it was its duty to
inftru&. See ToLERATION.

Mr. Pitt agreed with Mr. Fox in admitting, as a general
principle, that the religious opinions of any fet of men were not
to be reftrained or limited, unlefs they fhould be found likely
to prove the fource of inconvenience to the {tate : nor ought
the civil magiftrate, in any other point of view, to’ interfere
with them ; but he maintained, that when religious opinions
are fuch as may produce a civil inconvenience, the govern-
snent has a right to guard againit the probability of the civil
inconvenience being produced ; nor ought they to wait till,
by being carried into action, the inconvenience has a¢tually
arifen. It was not therefore on the ground that the dif-
fenters would do any thing to affect the civil government of
the country, that they had been excluded from civil offices, but
that if they had any additional degree of power in their hands,
they might. On the other hand it has been pleaded, that to
reftrain men’s civil rights from the fuppofed tendency of their
opinions, is a very dangerous principle, as it muft render
their condition precarious and wholly dependent on the pre-
judices and will of the magiftrate, and warranted unlimited
reitraint, and almoft every occ of perfecution.

Mr. Pitt, premifing that the eftablifhment of a fettled
form of church and of its minifters is neceffary to the civil
government of the country, fuggeits the impropriety of dif-
tributing the emolumenfs and offices of the eftablifhed
church among perfons who, however refpeétable their cha-
raéters might be, were not members of the fame com-
munion ; but others fay, that the emoluments and offices of
the eftablithed church are not the objeéts contended for, but
thofe of the ftate, unlefs the church and ftate be abfolutely
identified. He alfo fays, that thefe offices may be con-
fidered as matter of favour, becaufe it is confiftent with the
government of this country, that all offices fhould be given at

its difcretion ; and here, he fays, from the delicate nature of
the cafe, the legiflature had thought proper to interpofe, and
to reftrain the fupretie magiltrate, the head of the executive
authority, and limit him in his appointment to thefe offices ;
but furely, as he contends, this differed effentially from any de-
gradation, difgrace, or punifhment of the diffenters. Others,
however, have confidered this kind of reafoning as fallacious,
both in its principle, and in the inference deduced from it.

Mr. Fox concurred with lord North, who, though an
advocate for the continuance of thefe difqualifying laws,
bore teftimony to the principles and charaéter of the dif-
fenters, in his avowal of their fteady attachment to govern-
ment; and he added, that their religious opinions were
favourable to civil liberty, and that the true principles of the
conititution had been remembered and affirmed by them, at
times when they were forgotten, perhaps betrayed, by the
church. See DissENTERs.

Mr. Fox maintained, that the Teft a& was altoge-
ther inadequate to the end it had in view. The purport
of it was, to proteét the eftablifhed church, by exclud-
ing from office every man who did not profefs himfelf well
affected to that church. But a profefled enemy to the
hierarchy might go to the communion table, and afterwards
fay, that in Cabilyiig with a form, enjoined by law, he had
not changed his opinion, nor, as he conceived, incurred any
religious obligation whatever. There were many men, not
of the eftablifhed church, to whofe fervices their country had
aclaim. Ought any fuch man to be examined, before he
came into office, touching his private opinions ? Was it not
fufficient that he did his duty as a good citizen? Might he
not fay, without incurring any difablility, “‘ 1 am not a friend
to the church of England, but I am a friend to the con-
ftitution, and on religious fubjects muft be permitted to
think and aé& as I pleafe.”” Ought their country to be de-
prived of the benefit fhe might derive from the talents of
fuch men, and his majefty prevented from difpenfing the
favours of the crown, except to one defcription of his fub-
jects? But whom did the teft exclude, the irreligious man,
the man of profligate principles, or the man of no principle
at all? Quite the contrary ; to fuch men the road to power
was open ; the teft excluded on/y the man of tender con-
feience ; the man who thought religion fo diftin& from all
temporal affairs, that he held it improper to profefs any re-
ligious opinion whatever, for the fake of a civil office. Was
a tender confcience inconfiftent with the charaéter of an
honeft man? or did a high fenfe of religion fhew that he was
unfit to be trufted? Allowing that the eftablifhed church
ought to be protected, it was natural to inquire what was
the eftablifhed church ? Was the church of England the
eftablifhed church of Great Britain? Certainly not: it was
only the eftablifhed church of a part of it; for, in Scotland,
the kirk was as much eftablifhed by law as the church was
in England. The religion of, the kirk was wifely fecured,
as the eftablifhed religion of Scotland, by the articles of
Union ; and it was furely abfurd to. fay, that a member of
the kirk of Scotland, accepting an office under government,
not for the fervice of England exclufively, but for the fer-
vice of the united kingdom, fhould be obliged to conform,
not to the religious eftablifhment of Scotland, in which
he had been bred, but to the religious eftablifhment of
England. sl

To the argument urged in favour of the Corporation and
Teft acts, founded on the apprehenfion that if they were re-
pealed, the diflenters might become a majority of the peo-
ple, Mr. Fox gives a brief reply, viz. that if the majority
of the people of England fhould ever be for the abolition of
the eftablifhed church, then it ought to be abolifhed. It
has been faid, that by manifefting indulgence to other sare

: a can

TEST-ACT:.

a candid refpeét for their opinions, and a defire to promote

mutual charity and good-will, the eftablifhed church will be.

molt likely to fecure its ftability and its honour. Whilft
the grievances of perfons of a different profeffion are re-
drefied, and they are admitted to a participation of their
civil rights, the church need not fear any combination for
fapping its foundation, or for depriving it of its peculiar and
diftinguifhing honours or emoluments. Men who are ag-
grieved, under a fenfe of what they conceive to be an indig-
nity and injury, are the moft likely to manifeft hoftility
againft an ecclefiaftical eftablifhment that engroffes all civil
and fecular advantages to itfelf.

It has been faid, that it would conduce to the honour of the
rulers and dignitaries of the church, if they would concur
in abolifhing laws which perpetuate the perverfion and profa-
nation of a religious inftitution ;—an inftitution which cer-
tainly was not intended by its divine founder for the attain-
ment and promotion of any felfifh and fecular purpofes.
Here, it is maintained, if any where, a line of {eparation
fhould be drawn between religious and civil policy ; nor
fhould the performance of a Chriftian duty be made an indif-
penfible qualification for a fecular office. The diflenters,
fays a well-informed member of the legiflature (Mr. W.
Smith), who, being himfelf one of them, is thoroughly ac-
quainted with their principles and charater, would equally
obje& to receiving the facrament as a te/? in their own places
of worfhip, though many of them would not fcruple to par-
take of it with their brethren of the eftablifhment, and ac-
cording to their form, when confidered only in its true light,
as a Enea duty, and an expreffion of Chriftian charity.
The writer of this article is acquainted with feveral con-
{cientious and avowed members of the eftablifhed church,
who lament this abufe of a Chriftian ordinance, and who
with, for the purity and honour of the church to which they
are attached, that the laws impofing this teft were repealed.
It would likewife contribute to the ftisfation of fcrupulous
minifters of the eftablifhed church, to be releafed from the
obligation of adminiftering the facrament, as a qualification
for office abftraétedly confidered, and more efpecially to per-
fons of known licentioufnefs of principles and condu&. By
the duties of his function, by the pofitive precepts of his
religion, and by the rubrick or canons of the church, the mi-
nifter is enjoined to warn from the facred table all blaf-
phemers of God, all flanderers of his word, all adulterers,
and all perfons of a profligate life ; and yet to thefe very per-
fons, if they demand it as a qualification, he is compelled, by
the Teft aét, to adminifter the facrament ; and if he refufes,
a ruinous profecution for damages is the obvious and ine-
vitable confequence. On the other hand it has been faid,
that if the minifter’s conyiction of profligacy of conduét is
fupported by all the circumftances which conftitute legal
proof, he may lawfully refufe the facrament. The truth of
this opinion is doubtful ; but it is certain, that if he fhould
fail in that proof, his ruin is inevitable : and if he fhould fuc-
ceed, it is almoft equally certain ; for the expences of his fuit
will devour his fcanty means, and probably confign him to
a prifon for his life. Allowing that any notorious evil-doer,
offering himfelf to receive the facrament, might be rejected
by the minifter, without becoming liable to any punifhment,
let it be confidered what is the fituation in which A or B,
or the perfon who upon application to a minifter had been re-
fufed the facrament, was placed: from that moment he had
incurred the penalties of the aét, and was punifhed in a man-
ner perfeétly new, unexampled, and unauthorized by the
laws of the land; he was convicted without a trial by jury,
and was difabled from enjoying an office which his majetty,
in the legal exercife of his prerogative, had thought proper to
confer on him; and a perfon was thereby abfolutely put into

the hands of the clergy, who were to be the great arbitrators
of qualification or difqualification for offices, and places of

ower and emolument. Some have attempted to juftify the
legal eftablifhment of the profanation of a religious infti-
tution, by comparing it with thofe provifions of our law
which enjoin the fanétion of an oath ; but this argument has
been confidered as inapplicable to the prefent cafe, and alto-
gether unavailing ; for though it be indeed true that the le-
giflature, by compelling every petty officer of the revenue,
and every colleGtor of a turnpike toll, to fwear deeply on
his admiffion into office, has made the crime of perjury more
common, at this time, in England, than it ever appears to
have been in any other age or country: yet how does the
frequent commiffion of this crime again/? law, juftify the
eftablifhment of a religious profanation 4y law? But, with-
out any comment on the folly of pleading for a legiflative de-
bafement of religion in one way, by fhewing that the legifla-
ture has contributed to its debafement in another, let it be
afked, what refemblance the facrament of the Lord’s fupper,
which is merely a religious inftitution, bears to the ceremon
of an oath, which is an inftitution fo entirely political, that
it anfwers none of the purpofes of religion, promotes none of
her interefts, forms no part of her eftablifhment, and belon
as much to the Jew, the Mahometan, and the idolater, as it
does to the Chriftian. The difference, fays Mr. W. Smith,
between the facrament, ufed as a teft for office, and an oath,
as a teft of truth, is too obvious to efcape the moft carelefs
obferver. An oath was neither primarily, nor at all, an a&
of worfhip ; nor, though it neceflarily fuppofed a belief in a
fupreme moral governor, was it ever ufed as a teft of
particular religious opinions : the fole objeét to which it was
dire&ted was the attainment of truth, (with refpeét either to
the paft or the future,) where other means were infufficient,
—an appeal to a Being who, by the fuppofition, muft be ae-
quainted with all the circumftances, and mutt alfo be both
able and inclined to punifh falfehood in fuch cafes, as an in-
fult added to a crime, was perfe&tly well calculated to attain
the propofed end, and inapplicable to any other purpofe.

If, fays Mr. Fox, in concurrence with fome previous ob- .
fervations of Mr. Beaufoy, when a man is feen going to
take the facrament, it fhould be afked, “ is this man going to
make his peace with God, and to repent him of his fins 2”?
the anfwer fhould be, “« No; he is only going there, becaufe
he has lately received the appointment of firft lord of the trea-
fury ;”? can any circumftance afford a greater proof of the in-
decency refulting from the praétice af is qualifying?

Some have contended, that to grant a remiffion in favour of
Scotland of the Teft and Corporation aéts, would be a breach
of the union; an opinion which fuppofes, that becaufe, by
the articles of union, nothing can be saken from Scotland but
what was then ftipulated, therefore nothing can be given.
Others fay, that as the Teft and Corporation aéts are among
the ftatutes which fecure the do&trines, difcipline, worfhip,
and government of the eftablifhed church of England, they
are therefore by the aét of union declared to be unalterable.
In reply to this mode of arguing it has been obferved, that
the government and difcipline, the doétrines and the wor-
fhip of the Englifh church, were the fame‘before the ftatutes
were ena¢ted, and would continue the fame if thofe ftatutes
were repealed ; and confequently do not derive their fecu-
rity from them: whereas the a& which relates to the pa-
tronage of the church of Scotland, and which did feem to
affe&t its difcipline, was held to be no breach of the articles
of union ; neither was that union underftood to be weakened
by the fubfequent a&, which gave a complete toleration in
Scotland to epifcopal diffenters.

When the articles of union were under the confideration
of parliament, a propofal was made in the houfe of lords,

that

TES

that the perpetual continuance of the Teft a& ; and in the
houfe of commons, that the perpetual continuance of the
Corporation aét, fhould be declared a fundamental condi-
tion of the intended union: but the motions were both re-
jected; a proof that the legiflature did not mean to give to
them the fame perpetual exiftence as to the a&t of uniformity,
and to the ftatute that was paffed in the thirteenth of Eh-
zabeth, both of which were fpecifically named, as condi-
tions of the compact, and exprefsly declared irrevocable.

If the teft and corporation laws are deemed unalterable
parts of the articles of union, it follows, of courfe, that
every alteration in thofe laws muft be deemed a breach of the
union, and that every fufpenfion of thofe laws muft be con-
fidered as a fufpenfion of the union. Now both thefe aéts
are altered, and in part repealed, by fubfequent ftatutes, and
for fix months in almoft every year are wholly fufpended.
But who will affert that the articles of union are diffolved,
or that their obligation on the two countries is fufpended
for fix months in every year? or who will deny that the
fame power which alters a part may alter the whole of
thofe laws? Who will deny that the fame authority which
fufpends a law for fix months, may abolifh it for ever ?

In favour of the continuance of thefe laws it has been
urged, that they have exifted for many years with great ad-
vantage ; but many attempts have been made to difprove the
advantage of them, and they have repeatedly been com-
plained of as both ufelefs and unjuft. Befides, this argument
for their exiftence is abfurd, as it tends to perpetuate every
enormity that can plead the fanétion of age. The horror
of innovation may be felt or feigned as a bar to every im-
provement. It may be neverthelefs afked, how have thefe
laws fubfilted ? By repeated fufpenfions ; for the indemnity
bills are, with few exceptions, annual acts: and where
would be the impropriety of fufpending them for ever, by an
act of perpetual operation. In order to filence complaints
of thefe partial and injurious laws, it has been faid that the
at of indemnity, annually paffed, protects from the penal-
ties of the teft and corporation laws all fuch perfons as have
offended againft them. If it afford fuch proteétion, what
inconvenience can arife from a repeal of the ftatutes them-
felves? Is not the con{tant and invariable practice of pafling
fuch a bill annually, a tacit acknowledgment that the teft
a¢ts are improper or unneceflary ; that the penalties, if in-
curred, ought not to be enforced; and therefore no man
could be blamed for reforting to an indemnity, held out as a
protection againit punifhments inflicted by laws which the le-
giflature itfelf continually treated with a kind of difrefpeét,
and which were already almoft repealed in praétice, though
they were {till preferved in the ftatute-book by a fpecies of
fuperftitious regard? The only jultification tor evading a
ftatute, that can be for a moment maintained, is, when that
ftatute notorioufly ought not to remain in force ; and when
to evade it, on account of its nature and tendency, is meri-
torious. But it has been faid, that the Indemnity a& does
not proteét the diffenters from the teft and corporation laws ;
for its only effe& is, that of allowing farther time to thofe
trefpaffers on the law, againft whom final judgment has not
been awarded. Should, for example, a profecution have
been commenced, but not concluded, the Indemnity aé&
does not difcharge the proceedings ; it merely fufpends them
for fix months ; fo that if the party accufed does not take
the facrament before the fix months allowed by the Indem-
ae aé& fhall expire, the proceedings will go on, and, long
before the next indemnity a¢t will come to his relief, final
judgment will be awarded againft him. Thus it appears,
that the Indemnity a& gives no effeétual proteGtion to the
diffenter, who accepts a civil office or military command ;

Vou, XXXV.

qT E'S

for he who cannot take the facrament at all, cannot take it
within the time required by that at. After all, indemnity
fuppofes criminality, and an obnoxioufnefs to punifhment :
the office and penalty are created by thefe ftatutes: repeal
the laws, and indemnity becomes needlefs. No man would
with, if it were always practicable, to fhelter himfelf under
an act of indemnity for omitting to do what, independently
of thefe laws, he ought not to do; or chufe to have it
thought that he is lefs fit and able to ferve his king and
country than his neighbour, who does not feel the reftraint
of his confcientious {cruples. In corporate towns and many
public offices, the obligation to qualify is confidered as a
kind of dead letter, and an informer would be very generally
thought an odious charaéter.

As to the Corporation act, it is faid to have been forced from
the legiflature as an act of felf-defence ; and this is the pro-
per defcription of an a&, which, after the lapfe of much more
than a century, when the grounds and reafons for pafling it
no longer exilted, ought to be repealed. The queftion that
forms the fubjeé of this article is, in our opinion, intimately
connected with the honour of the church and the profperity
of the ftate, as well as with the general interefts of religion
and liberty; and with thefe views of its importance, we
refer the decifion of it to the impartial judgment of the
reader.

Test, or Tefe, in Geography, a river of England, which
rifes in the north-weft part of Hampfhire, bordering
on Wiltfhire, and runs into Southampton Water. Sir
Henry Englefield feems inclined to think the original name
was Ant.

TESTA, in Antiquity, the fame with ofracon.
TRACISM.

Testa, in Jtalian Singing. When a performer fings
through the nofe, the throat, or the teeth, the voice is called
voce da tefta, to diltinguifh it from voce di petto. ofi fays:
“ let the mafter attend with great care to the voice of his
{cholar, which, whether it be di petto, or di teffa, fhould
always come forth neat and clear, without paffing through
the nofe, or being choaked in the throat ; which are two of
the moft horrible defets in a finger, and paft all remedy if
once grown into a habit.”’ Galliard’s Tranfl. of Tofi on
florid Song.

Testa, Pierro, in Biography, called I] Lucchefino, from
having been born at Lucca. His birth took place in 1611,
and he was firft inftru@ed in painting by Pietro Paolini;
afterwards he ftudied at Rome, under Domenichino and Pietro
da Cortona. The principal objects of his ftudy were an-
tique marbles, and the remains of ancient architeéture ; in
which employment fuch was his affiduity, that few veltiges
of antiquity were known which had efcaped his pencil. His
extreme poverty made him morofe and melancholy ; and he
made himfelf many enemies, by the freedom with which he
{poke of the produétions of other painters. From this
{tate of trouble he was relieved by Sandrart, who found him
among the ruins, and compaffionating his diftrefs, took him
to his houfe, where he clothed and entertained him, and in-
troduced him to the prince Juitiniani, who employed him.
After this he fucceeded ; and the great freedom and eafe of his
pencil procured him many patrons. Several of the ghurehes
and palaces at Rome are adorned with his produétions : the
beft are efteemed to be thofe of the Death of St. Angelo, in
the church of St. Martino 2 Monti, and of the Death of
Iphigenia, in the Palazzo Spada. His works, however, are
more frequently to be met with at Lucca. As a defigner,
Pietro Tefta was unequal: he frequently tacked to antique
torfos ignoble heads, and extremities copied from vulgar
models. Of female beauty he appears to haye been igno-

3 D rant,

See Os-

TES

rant, though he adopted a charaéter and form which are pe-
culiar to himfelf. Of his compofitions, generally perplexed
and crowded, the beft known and moft corre is that of
Achilles dragging Heétor from the walls of Troy to the
Grecian fleet. He delighted in allegoric fubjeéts, and pro-
duced many of piturefque effe& and attitudes : but, in their
meaning, as obf{cure as the occafions to which they allude.
Of expreffion, he only knew the extremes, grimace, or loath-
fomenefsand horror. Asa colouriit, he was frequently rich and
-ffetive, harmonious and warm: and his execution bears the
ftamp of incredible freedom: while his chiaro-fcuro is ma-
naged with great breadth and depth. His juft charaéter is that
of a powerful machinift. He was drowned inthe Tyber, in
1650, endeavouring to recover his hat, which the wind had
blown into the water ; though fome fufpeét that he threw
himfelf in, in a fit of defpondency, to which he was
prone.

He was an eminent engraver as well as a painter, and the
number of his works in both arts atteft his induftry and inge-
auity, confidering the fhort period of his life.

Testa, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, is the fkin of
a feed or kernel, which enfolds the embryo, cotyledons, and,
if prefent, the albumen, giving them their due fhape ; for
this integument is perfeétly formed, before they have at-
tained any folidity or diftinét organization. The fkin is ge-
nerally double, as may be feen in the peach, apricot, and
walnut, that glutinous coat of the latter, which {tains our
fingers in peeling the kernel, being lined with a much finer,
white and {mooth membrane, technically called membrana by
Gertner. In true pulpy feeds, like thofe of Ja/minum, a
quantity of pulp is lodged between the membrana and the
outer {kin. Both thefe integuments burtt irregularly, merely
from the fwelling of their contents in germination.

Testa di Moro, in Geography, a Brall ifland near the
E. coaft of Sardinia. N. lat. 40° 45'. E. long. 9° 53!.

Testa di Saori, a town of the ifland of Corfica ; 7 miles
N. of Battia.

Testa Nevilli, or Tefta de Nevil, an ancient record kept
by the king’s remembrancer in the exchequer, containing
the king’s fees throughout the greateft part of England,
with inquifitions of land efcheated, and fergeanties.

It was denominated from its compiler Johan. de Nevil,
one of the itinerant juftices under king Henry III.

Testa Sepie. See Currie-Fifh Bone.

TESTACEOLOGY, the fcience of teftaceous vermes,
or, in other words, of thofe foft and fimple worms, which
have a fhelly or teftaceous covering; whether, as in fome
kinds, it be fufficient to envelope and conceal the whole
body, or only to cover a portion of it, as in others. The
term is derived from te/fa, a fhell; or we fhould rather wifh,
in order to fupport our definition, from Tz/lacea, the name
of the order of thofe vermes which have a fhelly covering,
and which, in the Gmelinian fyftem, are thus defined :
Testacea. Animalia Mollufca fimplicia, domo fpius cal-
carea propria, obteéta.

Under this idea of its derivation, the word teftaceology
muft be confidered preferable to that of conchology, in
defignating the fcience of thofe bodies which have a fhelly
covering ; becaufe it may imply, or be underftood to imply,
not only the fcience of the thells which form the covering
or habitation, but the animal alfo by which it is inhabited,
while that of conchology might be confined to the hells
alone. It muft however be confeffed, that, ftriétly fpeak-
ing, the terms teftaceology and conchology are fyno-

nimous, and that their application in the manner we propofe,
mult rather be determined by the tafte of the future natu-
salift than any pofitive rule we might lay down. The

TES

{cience itfelf is but a branch of vermeology; and either the
term conchology or teftaceology may be applied with much
propriety, at the difcretion of the writer.

The term teftaceology is certainly of late invention, and
may in fome degree be regarded rather as an innovation than
amendment; for even with the definition we might be in-
clined to affign it, in order that it may be retained, there is
{till no aétual difference in its meaning from the term con-
chology, a term which, to ufe the words of a writer of the
laft century, ‘* comprehends the ftudy of all animals that
are teftaceous, or have fhelly coverings; not only thofe of the
fea, but alfo thofe of the rivers and land ;’’ and it has more-
over an evident claim to priority, having been in ufe for at
leaft the laft forty years among the bel Englifh authors.
Da Cofta, a writer of no ordinary information, indeed ap-
pears to have affumed to himfelf the eftablifhment, if not the
actual invention of the term; for in his “* Elements of Con-
chology,” publifhed in 1776, he exprefsly obferves, “ this
peculiar branch of the’hiftory of nature, I fhall call con-
chology.’? Many authors call it conchyliology ; and this we
find to be true in compliance both with the French and the
Latin, the “ Conchyliologie” of D’ Argenville, and “ Hiftoria
Conchylionum’? of Lifter, two works of great celebrity, that
had appeared fome time before his ‘* Elements’? were pub-
lifhed. We have thus endeavoured to prove that the terms
teftaceology and conchology are purely fynonimous; and if
any doubt remained, we might finally quote one further
paflage from the Elements before alluded to, in which we
are diftinétly told, that “¢ the term of Conchology, applied to
this branch of natural hiftory by all authors, is quite appli-
cable to its arrangement by the fhells, and not by the fifh.””
As we have-already endeavoured to exemplify the rife, pro-
grefs, and prefent itate of the {cience of teftaceous bodies in
a very ample manner under the article ConcHoLoGy, and
may be allowed to prefume, with fome little confidence, that
we have therein concentrated much ufeful information upon
this truly pleafing and very favourite fcience, it might be
efteemed a waite of words to enter into any very confiderable
digreffion upon the fame fubject aia ; we fhall therefore

merely recommend a careful perufal of that article to the at-

tention of the reader, and truft the refult will be confidered
fatisfactory.

It was indeed our wifh, and we had made fome general
promife to that effe&t, that under the prefent article we
would refume this fubje&t, and fubmit the outlines of what
we were induced to think an improvement upon the prefent
prevailing arrangement ; and upon this point it is now in-
cumbent to offer a few remarks.

The moft ardent admirer of the great Linnzus will
readily concede to us, that the fcience of conchology was
not one of thofe within the province of his deep refearch, or
the decided contemplation of his active mind. Its introduc+
tion asa fcience, was neceflary to complete the feries of the
vaft chain of animated nature, the claffification of which he
had undertaken in his “ Syitema Nature,’’ and it was
therefore one he could not omit. But for this, it is believed,
and with tolerable certainty, that he would have willingly
avoided the fubje& altogether in the latter editions of that
work, as it was in the early ones. We have already fhewn,

under our article ConcHoLocy, the actual ftate in which”

L.innzus found the fcience, as handed down to him by his
predeceffors ; and the various purpofes to which he applied
their labours and affiftance. From a general view of the
whole, there can no doubt remain that there is yet much to
amend in the claflification of fhells, and that the fubdivifion
of many of the genera already eftablifhed into natural genera,

appears defirgble. It was under this perfuafion that a
ha

NGO | LO A CN A CEI cet

TES

had intended, when writing the article TrsrscEoLoGy, to
have fubmitted our ideas as to a new and more comprehen-
five claffification of the genera; to have pointed out the
very effential diftin€tions that exift in fhells of the fame
Linnzan genera; and have thence endeavoured to deduce an
arrangement congenial with the characters of the refpective
natural genera which his artificial genera prefent. This we
believe would have been regarded as an improvement in the
claffical diftribution of the fhell-tribe, but fuch an illuftration
does not appear, upon more mature reflection, to be admiffible
here. It muft be apparent that no words, unaccompanied
by figures, could poffibly convey to the reader any adequate
conception of the minute, ambiguous, and intricate effential
gharaéters, which many among the various tribes of fhells
prefent; and that fuch a feries of plates as it would demand
to illuftrate a fubje€t fo very copious and diffufe, however
defirable in the opinion of the naturalift, could not be ap-
propriated, with any degree of propriety, in addition to the
very coftly feries of plates already devoted by the Cyclo-
pedia to this fcience in particular.

The feries of plates which have already appeared, eluci-
date the whole of the Linnzan genera, and under each of
thofe genera, anumber of the more ftriking natural genera
which appertain to them refpectively. Thefe plates are
numerous, and the fubjeéts for them have been felected with
every poffible attention; nor can we hefitate to thmk upon
the whole they will be confidered, without any further addi-
tion, as amply fufficient for every ufeful purpofe of general
information.

TESTACEOUS, in Natural Hiffory, an epithet given
to thofe fifh, which are covered with a ftrong, thick fhell ;
as oytters, pearl-fifh, &e. ‘

In ftri€inefs, however, teftaceous is only applied to fifh
whofe {trong and thick fhells are entire ; thofe which are
foft, thin, and confift of feveral pieces jointed, as the lobiter,
&e. being called cruffaceous.

In medicine, all preparations of fhells, and fubftances of
the like kind, are called teftaceous.—Such are powders of
crab’s claws and eyes, pearl, &c.

Dr. Quincy, and others, fuppofe the virtue of all tefta-
ceous medicines to be alike; that they feldom or never enter
the laGteals, but that the chief of their ation is in the firft
paflages; in which however they are of great ufe in ab-
forbing acidities.

Hence they become of ufe in fevers, and efpecially in
reGtifying the many diftempers in children, which generally
owe their origin to fuch acidities.

TESTAMENT, Testamentum, in Law, a folemn and
authentic aét, by which a perfon declares his will, as to the
difpofal of his eflate, effeGs, burial, &c.

Teitaments, according to Juftinian, and fir Edward Coke,
are fo called, becaufe they are teffatio mentis ; an etymon,
fays judge Blackftone, which feems to favour too much of
the conceit, it being plainly a fubftantive derived from the
verb teflari. The definition of the old Roman lawyers is
much better than their etymology; voluntatis noffre jufla
Jententia de eo, quod quis poft mortem fuam fieri velit; i. e. the
legal declaration of a man’s intentions, which he wills to be
performed after his death. It is called /ententia, to denote
the circumfpeétion and prudence with which it is fuppofed
to be made; it is voluntatis noflre fententia, becaufe its efficacy
depends on its declaring the teftator’s intention, whence in
England it is emphatically ftyled his will: it is jufla_fententia,
that is, drawn, attefted, and publifhed with all due folemnities
and forms of law: it is de eo, quod quis poft mortem fuam
jieri velit, becaufe a teftament is of no force till after the
death of the teftator. Blackftone’s Com. vol. ii.

TES

A teftament has no effec till after death, and is always
revocable till then. As teitaments are aéts, of all others,
the moft fubje& to deceits, furprize, &c. it was found
neceffary to ufe all kinds of precautions to prevent the wills
of the deceafed from being eluded, and the weaknefs of
dying perfons from being abufed. See Winx.

The moft ancient ecihavients among the Romans were
made viva voce, the teftator declaring his will in the prefence
of feven-witnefles ; thefe they called nuncupative teftaments ;
but the danger of trufting the will of the dead to the
memory of the living foon abolifhed thefe: and all tefta-
ments were ordered to be in writing.

The French legiflators thought holographic teftaments,
i. e. teftaments written wholly with the teftator’s hand,
an abundant fecurity ; but the Roman law, more fevere, did
not admit of teftaments without farther folemnity.

The eafieft, and moft favourable, is the twenty-firft law
in the code de teftamentis, which permits fuch as are un-
willing to truft the fecret of their teftaments to others, to
write it with their own hand, and to clofe it in the pre-
fence of feven witneffes, declaring to them, that it is their
teftament ; after which it is to be figned by all the feven
witneffes.

Otherwife, to make a folemn teftament, it was required
to be attefted by feven witnefles, and fealed with their
feals.

Yet the military teftament was not fubje& to fo many for-
malities: the foldier was fuppofed too much employed in
defending the laws, to be fubjeét to the trouble of knowing
them. His tumultuary profeffion excufed him from obferv-
ing all the rules. See Mruirary. °

Teftaments, whereia fathers difpofed of their eftates
among their children, had particular privileges, and were
difpenfed from moft of the ordinary formalities.

TrsTAMENT, Probate of a. See Prosarr and Wii.

TestTAMENT, Old and New, in Sacred Hiftory. The moft
common and general divifion of the canonical books of
{cripture, is that of the Old and New Teftament. (Sce
Canon.) The Hebrew word Berith, from which it is
tranflated, properly fignifies “ Covenant.’’ Accordingly St.
Paul (2 Cor. iii. 6—18.), when he is fhewing the fuperior
excellence of the gofpel covenant, or the aifceatarion by
Chrift above the legal covenant, or the difpenfation by
Mofes, ufes the word teftament, not only for the covenant
itfelf, but likewife for the books in which it is contained.
The Hebrew term 43, Jerith, invariably rendered cove-
nant by our tranflators in the Old Teftament, is uniformly
tranflated AiaAnxn in the Septuagint; and in the writings
of the apoftles and evangelifts, the words + xaiwvn dsebnxn
are almoit always rendered by ovr tranflators the New
Teftament.- It is obferved, that the Hebrew term cor-
refponds much better to the Englifh word ‘ Covenant,’
though not in every cafe perfectly equivalent, than to ~
« Teftament ;”” and yet the word diz4nx», in claffical ufe,
is more frequently rendered Teflament. Our tranflators,
ancient and modern, have probably been led to render it
Teftament, by the manner in which the author of the epiftle
to the Hebrews argues (ch. ix. 16, 17.), in allufion to the
claffical acceptation of the term. The term Ned is added
to diftinguifh the religious inftitution of Jefus Chrift from
the Old Covenant, that is, the difpenfation of Mofes. Ac-
cordingly the two covenants are always in {cripture the two
dieyfbone, or religious inftitutions; that under Mofes is
the O/d, and that ‘under the Meffiah is the Mew. Hence
from fignifying the two religious difpenfations, they came
foon to denote the books in which what related to thefe
difpenfations was céntained ; the feveral writings of the

3) 2 Jews

TESTAMENT.

Jews being called 4 r2Acim dsa$nxr, and the writings fuper-
added by the apoftles and evangeliits, » xan diqbnun.

The New Teftament confifted very ancieatly of two
codes or colleétions, called gofpels and epiitles. This was
the cafe in the time of Ignatius, and alfo in the time of
Tertullian, who diflinguifhes the gofpels by the names of
the writers, and calls them our “ Digefta,’’ or digefts, in
allufion, as it feems, to fome colleétion of the Roman laws
digefted into order. As to the order of the feveral gof-
pels, it appears, that in Tertullian’s time they were dif-
pofed, at leaft in the African churches, according to the
quality of the writers; thofe two occurring firft which
were written by apoftles, and then the other two written
by apoftolical men. In fome of the moit ancient MSS.
now extant, the order of the feveral evangelifts is thus;
Matthew, John, Luke, Mark. The order of the four
gofpels has been generally this: Matthew, Mark, Luke,
John ; then follow the Aéts, St. Paul’s epiitles, the Catholic
epiltles, and the Revelation. It fufliciently appears, from a
variety of confiderations fuggefted by the excellent Dr.
Lardner, that the books of the New Teftament, confifting of
a colle&tion of facred writings, in two parts, one Bie
Gofpel or Gofpels, or Evangelicon ; the other Epiftles, or
Apoitle or Apottles, or Apoftolicon, were only known,
read, and made ufe of by Chriftians. (See Canon.) It
has been a fubje&t of fome difpute, whether any facred books
of the New Teftament have been loft ; but there are many
confiderations, tending to fatisfy us, that no facred writings
of the apoftles of Chrift are loft.

The four gofpels, in our poffeffion, were written’ for the
benefit of thofe who would undoubtedly receive them with
refpe&, keep them with care, and recommend them to
others ; and if any other fuch authentic hiftories of Jefus
Chrift had been written by apoitles, or apoftolical men, they
would haye been received, and preferved in like manner.
The book of the Ads, which we ftill have, was the only
authentic hiftory of the preaching of the apoftles after our
Lord’s afcenfion, which they had in their hands, or had heard
of; confequently there was no other fuch hiftory to be
loft. The epiftles of Paul, James, Peter, John, Jude, were
fent to churches, people, or particular perfons, who would
fhew them great regard when received, would carefully pre-
ferve them, and readily communicate them to others, that
they might take copies of them, and ufe them for their
eltablifhment in religion and virtue; and if other fuch
epiftles had been written, the cafe would have been much the
fame, nor could any of them have been eafily loft. Befides,
the apoftles and evangelifts, who drew up any writings for
the inftruétion or confirmation of Chriltian people, muft
have been careful of them. Upon the whole, we have no
fufficient reafons for believing, that any facred writings of
the New Teftament have been loft. All the books oF the
New Teftament were written in Greek, except the gofpel
of St. Matthew, who, according to St. Jerom, firft wrote
in Judea in the Hebrew language. ‘Tertullian, as well as
many other ancient writers, afford us various teftimonies to
the integrity and_genuinenefs of the gofpels and other books
of the Moe Teftament in his time, as well as to their divine
infpiration. See Brewer.

Although the New Teitament was written in Greek, an
acquaintance with the Greek claffics will not be found fo
conducive to the interpretation of it, as an acquaintance with
the ancient Hebrew feriptures. The propriety of its being
written in the Greek language will appear from the follow-
ing hiftorical fa&. After the Macedonian conquefts, and
the divifion which the Grecian empire :nderwent among ‘the
commanders on the death of their chief, Greek foon

became the language of the people of rank through all the
extenfive dominions which had been fubdued by Alexander.
The perfecutions with which the Jews were haraffed under
Antiochus Epiphanes, concurring with feveral other caufes,
occafioned the difperfion of a great part of their nation
throughout the provinces of Afia Minor, A flyria, Phenicia,
Perfia, Arabia, Libya, and Egypt; which difperfion was
in procefs of time extended to Achaia, Macedonia, and
Italy. The unavoidable confequence of this was in a few
ages, to all thofe who fettled in diftant lands, the total lofs
of that diale&t, which their fathers had brought out of
Babylon into Paleitine, excepting only amongft the learned.
At length a complete verfion ee the fcriptures of the Old
Teftament was made into Greek ; a language which was
then, and continued for many ages afterwards, in far more
general ufe than any other. (See Sepruacint.) The
Jews, who inhabited Grecian cities, where the oriental
tongue was unknown, would be naturally anxious to obtain
copies of this tranflation. Wherever Greek was the mother-
tongue, this verfion would be gradually adopted into ufe
not only in private’ in Jewifh houfes, but alfo in public in
their fchools and fynagogues, for the explanation of the
weekly leffons from the law and the prophets. The ityle of it
would confequently foon become the itandard of language
to them with regard to religious fubjects. Hence would
arife a certain uniformity in phrafeology and idiom among
the Grecian Jews, wherefoever difperfed, in refpeét of their
religion and facred rites, whatever might be the particular
dialects which prevailed in the places fe their refidence, and
were ufed by them in converfing on ordinary matters. From
the conformity and peculiarity in language now noticed,
fome critics, in order to diftinguifh the idioms of the LXX
and New Teftament from that of common Greek, have
termed it Helos s which fee. Under that article we
have intimated, that the habit which the apoftles and evan-
gelifts had of reading the feriptures, and hearing them read,
whether in the original or in the ancient verfion; would, by
infecting their ftyle, co-operate with the tendency which,
as natives of Paleftine, they would derive from conyerfation,
to intermix Hebraifms and Chaldaifms in their writings.
Some modern writers, whilft they have adverted to this cir-
cumftance, have defended the diction of the facred penmen of
the New 'T'eftament, and extolled it as altogether pure and
elegant. Among thefe we may reckon Pfochenius and
Blackwall, who, with this view, have made diligent refearches
among the writings of the ancient Greeks, for the difcovery
of words and phrafes, which might appear to refemble what
has been accounted Hebraifm or Syriafm in the New Telta-
ment. Whereas the writings of the New Teftament carry,
in the very expreflion and idiom, an intrinfic and irrefiftible
evidence of their authenticity. They are fuch as, in refpeét of
{tyle, could not but have been written by Jews, and hardl
even by Jews fuperior in rank and education to thofe whale
names they bear; and yet, under this homely garb, we find .
the moit exalted fentiments, the clofeit reafoning, the purett
morality, and the fublimeit doétrine.

Abftracting from that loweit kind of beauty in language,
which refults from its foftnefs and harmony, confidered as
an obje& to the ear, every excellency of ityle is relative,
arifing folely from its fitnefs for producing, in the mind of
the hearer, the end intended by the writer. Now in this
view it is evident, that a ftyle and manner may, to readers
of one denomination, convey the writer’s fentiments with
energy as well as perfpicuity, which, to thofe of a different
denomination, would convey them feebly, darkly, and,
when judged by their rules of propriety, improperly. ‘This
feems to ine been actually the cafe with the writers of ae

ew

TES

New Teftament. The language of Matthew, Mark, Luke,
and John, is better adapted to the readers, for whofe ufe
the Gofpels and As were at firft compofed, than the lan-
guage of Plato or Demoithenes would have been.

If we would enter thoroughly into the idiom of the New
Teftament, we mutt familiarife ourfelves to that of the Sep-
tuagint ; and if we would enter thoroughly into the idiom
of the Septuagint, we muft accuftom ourfelves to the ftudy,
not only of the original of the Old ‘Teftament, but of the
diale& fpoken in Paleftine between the return of the Jews
from the Babylonifh captivity, and the deftruétion of Jeru-
falem by the Romans; for this lait, as well as the Hebrew,
has affected the language both of the old Greek tranilation
and of the New Teftament.

Such is the origin and the character of the idiom, which
prevails in the writings of the apoitles and evangeliils,
and the remarkable conformity of the new revelation we
have by them, though written in a different language, to
the idiom of the old. It has been diftinguifhed in the
former by the name Helleniftic, not with critical accuracy,
if regard be had to the derivation of the word, but with
fufficient exainefs, if attention be given to the application
which the Hebrews made of the term Hellenift, by which
they diftineuifhed their Jewifh brethren, who lived in Grecian
cities and {poke Greek. It has been by fome of late, after
father Simon of. the Oratory, more properly termed the
Greek of the fynagogue. It is acknowledged, that it
cannot ftriély be denominated a feparate language, or even
diale&t, when the term dialeét is conceived to imply pecu-
liarities in declenfion and conjugation. But, with the
greateft juftice, it is denominated a peculiar idiom, being
not only Hebrew and Chaldaic phrafes put in Greek words,
but even fingle Greek words ufed in ienfes in which they
neyer occur in the writings of profane authors, and which
can be learnt only from the extent of fignification given to
fome Hebrew or Chaldaic word, correfponding to the
Greek in its primitive and moft ordinary fenfe. This dif-
ference in idiom conftitutes a difficulty of another kind
from that which is created by a difference in diale@t ; a dif-
ficulty much harder to be furmounted, as it does not affe&
the form of the words, but the meaning.

It is pertinent, however, to obferve, that the above re-
marks on the Greek of the New Teftament, do not imply
that there was any thing which could be called idiomatical
or vulgar in the language of our Lord himfelf, who taught
always in his mother tongue. His apoftles and evangelitts,
on the contrary, who wrote in Greek, were, in writing,
obliged to tranflate the inftru€tions received from him into
a foreign language of a very different ftru€ture, and for
the ufe of people accuftomed to a peculiar idiom. The ap-
parently refpeétful manner in which our Saviour was accofted
by all ranks of his countrymen, and in which they fpoke
ob his teaching, fhews that he was univerfally confidered as
a perfon of eminent knowledge and abilities. It was the
amazing fuccefs of his difcourfes to the people, in com-

manding the attention and reverence of all who heard
him, which firft awakened the jealoufy of the fcribes and
harifees. ;

Although all the writers of the New Teftament wrote in
the idiom of the fynagogue, we are not to conclude from
hence, that there is no difcernible diverfity in their ftyles.
As the fame language admits of a variety of diale&ts, and
even of provincial and foreign idioms, fo the fame dialect
and the fame idiom are fufceptible of a variety of ftyles.
The ityle of Paul has fomething peculiar, by which, in our
opinion, there would be no difficulty in diftinguifhing him
from any other writer. A difcerning reader would not

7

TE S-

readily confound the ftyle of Luke with that of either of
the evangelifts who preceded him, Matthew or Mark; and
{till lefs would he miftake the apoftle John’s dition for that
of any other penman of the New Teftament. The fame
differences of ftyle will be difcovered by one who is but
moderately converfant in Hebrew in the writers of the Old
Teitament. In it we have ftill greater variety than in the
New. Some of the books are written in profe and fome
in verfe: and in each, the differences between one book and
another are confiderable. In the book of Job, for inftance,
the character of the ftyle is remarkably peculiar. What
can be more diffimilar in this refpe@, though both are ex-
cellent in their kind, than the towering flights of the fub-
lime Tfaiah, and the plaintive ftrains of the pathetic Jere-
miah? In the books of Scripture we can fpecify the con-
cife ftyle and the copious, the elevated and the fimple, the
aphoriftic and the diffufe.

How this diyerfity of ftyle is reconcileable with the idea
of infpiration, we have attempted to fhew under the article
Inspiration. See Campbell’s Prelim. Diff.

For other partieulars in conneétion with the fubjeé of
this article, fee Brnie and Canon.

TESTAMENTARY Apoprrion. See Apoprion.

TesTAMENTARY Cau/fes, in Law, are thofe that relate to
teftaments, which were originally cognizable in the king’s
courts of common law, viz. the county-courts ; and after-
wards transferred to the jurifdi€tion of the church, by the
favour of the crown, as a natural confequence of granting to
the bifhops the adminiftration of inteftates’ effets. This {pi-
ritual jurifdiction of teftamentary caufes is a peculiar contti-
tution of this ifland ; for in almoft all other (even in popith )
countries, all matters teftamentary are of the jurifdi¢tion of
the civil magiftrate. And that this privilege-is enjoyed by
the clergy in England not as a matter of ecclefiaftical right,
but by the fpecial favour and indulgence of the municipal
law, and as it fhould feem by fome public aé& of the great
council, is freely acknowledged by Lindewode, the ablett
canonift of the fifteenth century ; and about a century be-
fore, in a canon of archbifhop Stratford ; alfo by the confti-
tutions of cardinal Othobon; and likewife by archbifhop
Parker, in the time of queen Elizabeth. At what period
of time the ecclefiaftical jurifdiGtion of teftaments and intef-
tacies began in England, is not afcertained by any ancient
writer. It appears the foreign clergy were early ambitious
of this power, though they were curbed by the edié of the
emperor Juftin, which reftrained the infinuation or probate
of teftaments (as formerly) to the office of the magi/ler
cenfus : but afterwards by the canon law it was allowed, that
the bifhop might compel, by ecclefiaftical cenfures, the per-
formance of a bequeft to pious ufes. And therefore it fell
within the jurifdiétion of the fpiritual courts, by the exprefs
words of the charter of king William I. which feparated
thofe courts from the temporal. And afterwards, when king
Henry I. by his coronation-charter, directed that the goods
of an inteftate fhould be divided for the good of his foul,
this made all inteftacies immediately f{piritual caufes, as much
as a legacy to pious ufes had been before. This therefore,
fays judge Blackitone, we may poflibly conjeéture, was the
era referred to by Stratford and Othobon, when the king, by
the advice of the prelates, and with the confent of his barons,
invefted the church with this privilege.

This jurifdiGtion is principally exercifed with us in the
confiftory courts of every diocefan bifhop, or in the pre-
rogative court of the metropolitan originally ; and in the
arches court, and courts of delegates by appeal. It is
divifible into three branches ; the probate of wills, the grant-
ing of adminiitrations, and the fuing fer legacies. ig two

ormer

a

TES

former of which, when no oppofition is made, are granted
merely ex officio et debito juflitia, and are then the obje& of
what is called the voluntary, and not the contentious jurifdic-
tion. But when a caveat is entered againft proving the will
or granting adminiftration, and a fuit thereupon follows, in
order to determine either the validity of the teftament, or
who hath aright to the adminiftration, this claim and obftruc-
tion are remedied by the fentence of the fpiritual court,
either by eftablifhing the will, or granting the adminiftra-
tion. Blackitone’s Com. vol. ii. See SuBrRACTION of
Legacies.

TrestTAMENTARY Guardian, Succeffion, and Tutorage.
the fubftantives.

TESTAMENTO Annexo, Adminiftration cum. Ifa
teftator makes his will, without naming any executors, or if
he names incapable perfons, or if the executors named refufe
to a&t ; in any of thefe cafes, the ordinary muft grant admi-
niftration cum teffamento annexo, to fome other perfon.

TESTAMENTS of theT welve Patriarchs, in Ecclefiaftical
Hiflory, a kind of apocryphal or fuppofititious book, in which
thofe patriarchs are introduced, ipeaking their laft dying
words, containing predictions of things future, and rules of
virtue and piety ; which they deliver to their fons as a choice
treafure, to be carefully preferved, and to be delivered by
them to their children. We have feveral editions of thefe in
Latin ; they were firft publifhed in Greek, by Grabe, and
from his edition republifhed by Fabricius ; and tranflated
into Englifh by Mr. Whifton. Cave places the anonymous
author of this book in the year 192, or nearer the beginning
of the fecond century. ‘They are cited by Origen, and,
therefore, were probably written before his time. Grabe
thinks they were written before the time of our Saviour, and
afterwards interpolated by a Chriftian. But Mr. Whilton
afferts, that they are really genuine, and one of the facred
apocryphal, or concealed books of the Old Teftament.
Cave fuppofes that this book was written by a judaizing
Chriftian; Grabe apprehends that it was written in He-
brew: Beaufobre is of opinion that it was forged at the end
of the firft, or beginning of the fecond century, by fome
Chriftian converted from Judaifm, and he fufpeéts that the
author was an Ebionite, and that he believed Jefus to be the
fon of Jofeph and Mary. Dr. Lardner is pofitive that thefe
teftaments are not the real laft words of the twelve patri-
archs; but the clear knowledge of Chriftian affairs and
principles fhews this book to have been written, or elfe very
much interpolated, after the publication of the Chriftian
religion. He fays, there is nothing in this work that might
not have been written by a learned Jew of the fecond cen-
tury or later, though he thinks that the author was a Chrif-
tian, and well verfed in the Jewifh learning : and moreover
he is of opinion, that he is placed early enough by Cave, at
the year 192. Lardner’s Works, vol. ii.

TESTATOR, or Tesrarrix, the perfon who makes
his or her will and teftament.

M. Gillet fhews, that a perfon incapable of a legacy can-
not demand any fum which the teftator in his teftament de-
clares himfelf indebted to him in ; in regard fuch a declara-
tion of debt is prefumed a fraud againft the intention of
the law.

TESTATUM, in Law, a writ in perfonal actions ;
where, if the defendant cannot be arrefted on a capias in the
county where the aétion is laid, but is returned non ef? in-
wentus by the fheriff, this writ fhall be fent into any other
county, where fuch perfon is thought to be, or to have
wherewithal to fatisfy the demand.

It is called seflatum, becaufe the fheriff has before tefti-
fied, that the defendant was not to be found in his bailiwick.

See

}
‘¥

TES

TESTE, aterm commonly ufed in the clofe of a writ,
where the date is contained, which begins with T¢/le meip/o,
if it be an original writ ; or, if plicial, Tefte, the lord chief
juftice, &c. according to the court whence it comes. In
fome ancient formulas, we read Te/e caffode Anglie. There
mutt be at leaft fifteen days between the tefte and return of
every procefs awarded from the king’s bench into any
foreign county. See Writ.

TESTENICH, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf
of Venice. N. lat.44° 54’. E.long. 14° 47!.

TESTER. See Tesron.

TESTES, Tesricutt, in Anatomy ; quia virilitatem tef-
tantur ; glandular bodies, peculiar to the male fex of animals,.
ferving the office of fecreting the fecundating fluid: hence
their removal deprives an animal of the power of propagating
its kind. See Generation, Male Organs of. :

The teftes are wanting in moft of the fifth kind. The fpinofe
fifhes in general have neither teftes nor paraitate ; but all
the cetaceous fifhes have them, and not a few of the cartila-
ginous kinds. Thofe fifth that have them, have always two,
as in land-animals ; but they differ much in figure and fituation
in the feveral kinds, particularly in the whale and flat-fith.
See Anatomy of Fisu.

Testes of the Brain, two {mall hemifperical eminences,
fituated at the pofterior and inferior afpeét of the optic
thalami, and now more generally known, together with two
very fimilar ones immediately above them, by the name of
tubercula quadrigemina. See Brain.

Testes Synodales. See SYNODALES.

TESTI, Fuxvio, Count, in Biography, an Italian poet,
was born in 1593, at Ferrara, and fettling, when young, at
Modena, he rofe to the higheft offices and honours of the
{tate. Neverthelefs, alternate profperity and adverfity vifited
him: inconftant and ambitious, he fell into difgrace with
Francis I. who imprifoned him in the citadel of Modena,
where he died in 1646. His poems are chiefly of the lyric
clafs. The produétions of his maturer judgment are dif-
tinguifhed above thofe of his contemporaries for vigour and
poetical fpirit ; and fome of them, with re{peét to elevation
of fentiment and beauty of imagery, will bear comparifon
with the produétions of the belt Italian poets. He alfa
attempted tragedy in two compofitions, intitled ** Arfinda,””
and “ L’Ifola d’Alcina;’? but their ftyle is ie rather
than dramatic compofition. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog.

TESTIBUS Hus. Sce Hus.

TESTICLE, Tesris, in Anatomy. See GENERATION.

Testicre, Difzafed, in Surgery. See Sarcocere, Hy-
DROCELE, FunoGus of the Teflicl, Funcus Hematodes,
Hernia Humoralis, &c. ‘

TesticLe, Operation of removing. See CASTRATION.

TESTIGOS, Los, in Geography, a clufter of {mall
iflands, about ten leagues from the continent of South Ame-~
rica, and the fame ailsace from the ifland of Grenada. N.
lat. 11° 45'. W. long. 62° 5’.

TESTIMON, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Hilfberg. ™

TESTIMONIAL, a kind of certificate, figned either
by the matter and fellows of the college, where a perfon laft
refided, or by three, at leaft, reverend divines, who knew him
well for three years laft paft ; giving an account of the con-
dué& and learning of the perfon.

Such a teftimonial is always required before holy orders
are conferred ; and the bifhop even ordinarily demands one
of a prieft before he admits him to a benefice.

TsTIMONIAL is alfo a certificate under the hand of a

jultice of peace, teftifying the time and place when and where
1 a foldier

TES

a foldier or mariner landed, and the place of his dwelling,
and whither he is to pafs.

TESTIMONY. See Evipence.

Teftimony is a ferious intimation from another of any fact
or obfervation, as being what he remembers to have feen,
heard, or experienced. The evidence of teitimony is either
oral or written. Some have unreafonably fuppofed, that
this kind of evidence is folely and originally derived from
experience. With regard to this it may be obferved, that
the evidence of teftimony is to be confidered as ftriétly logi-
cal, no farther than human veracity, in general, or the vera-
city of witneffes of fuch a character, and in fuch circum-
ftances in particular, is fupported, or hath not been refuted
by experience. But that teftimony, antecedently to expe-
rience, hath a natural influence on belief, is undeniable, in
which refpe& it refembles memory. And in what regards
fingle faéts, it is a more adequate evidence than any conclu-
fions from experience. When experience is applied to the dif-
covery of the truth in a particular incident, the evidence is
called pre/umptive ; whereas ample teftimony is accounted a
pofitive proof of the fact. Teftimony is capable of giving
us abfolute certainty even of the moft miraculous fa&, or of
what is contrary to uniform experience. To this, when we
have no pofitive reafons of miftruft or doubt, we are, by an
original principle of our nature (analogous to that which
compels our faith in memory ), led to give an unlimited affent.
As on memory alone is founded the merely perfonal expe-
rience of the individual, fo on teftimony, in concurrence with
memory, is founded the much more extenfive experience,
which is not originally our own, but derived from others.
See on this fubject Campbell’s Philof: of Rhet. vol. i. book i.
chap. 5. and Differtation on Miracles, part i. feét. i. and i.
See Fairn.

For the credibility of human teftimony, fee CerTITUDE.

TESTINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, be-
longing to the Sabines, placed by D’Anville S.W. of Ami-
ternum.

TESTING, in Metallurgy, denotes the operation of re-
fining large quantities of gold and filver, by means of lead, in
the veffel called a #e/?. This operation is performed by the de-
ftru@tion, vitrification, and fcorification of all the extraneous
and deftruGuble metallic fubftances with which thofe noble
metals are alloyed. It confifts in adding to the alloyed gold
and filver, a certain quantity of lead, and in expofing after-
wards this mafs to the aétion of the fire. The lead, by increaf-
ing the proportion of imperfect metals, prevents them from
being fo well covered and proteé&ted by the perfeét metals ;
by uniting with thefe, it communicates to them a property
it has of lofing very eafily a great part of its inflammable
principle ; and laftly, by its vitrifying and fufing property,
which it exercifes with all its force upon the calcined and
naturally refractory parts of the other metals, it facilitates
and accelerates the fufion, the {corification, and feparation
of thefe metals. The lead, which in this operation is puri-
fied, and f{corifies along with it the imperfeét metals, fepa-
rates from the metallic mafs with which it is then incapable
of remaining united: it floats upon the furface of the melted
mafs ; becaufe by lofing part of its phlogifton, (according
to the former language of chemifts,) it Toied alfo part of its
{pecific gravity, and laftly it vitrifies. The removal of the
vitrified matter in the procefs is procured either by the na-
ture of the veffel in which the melted matter is contained,
and which, being porous, abforbs and imbibes the fcorified
matter as faft as it is formed; or by a channel cut in the
edge of the veffel through which the matter flows out.

he procefs of tefting is generally performed in the fame man-
ner as that of cupellation. See Assayinc and CoPELLING.

TES

But when great quantities of bafe metal are to be worked
off from a little gold, recourfe is had to a more expeditious
method, that of tefting before the bellows. An oval teft
is placed in a cavity, made in a hearth of a convenient height,
and fome moiftened fand or afhes preffed round it to keep it
fteady : the nofe of a bellows is direéted along its furface,
in fuch a manner, that if afhes are {prinkled in the cavity of
the teft, the bellows may blow them completely out ; fome
have an iron plate fixed before the bellows, to dire& the
blaft downwards. To keep the furface of the teft from
being injured in putting in the metal, fomé cloths or pieces
of paper are interpofed. The fuel confifts of billets of
barked oak, laid on the fides of the teft, with others laid
crois-wife on thefe: the bellows impels the flame on the
metal, clears the furface of afhes or {parks of coal, haftens
the {corification of the lead, and blows off the fcoria, as faft
as it is formed, to one end of the teft, where it runs out
through a notch made for that purpofe. About two-thirds
of the {corified lead may be thus collected; the reft being
partly abforbed by the teft, and partly diffipated by the
action of the bellows. Care muft be taken not to urge the
blait too ftrongly, left fome portion of the gold fhould be
carried away by the fumes impetuoufly forced off from the
lead, and fome minute particles of it entangled and blown
off with the fcoriz. Macquer’s Chem. Dié&. Art. Refining.
Lewis’s Ph. Techn. p. 146.

TESTO, Ital. literally se. In Mufic it implies a fub-
je&, or words of a fong, or other vocal compofition, to which
fome air, melody, or harmony, is to be compofed.

It is a matter of great concern to underftand well how to
appropriate or adapt the mufic to the words of a fong, to
exprefs the fenfe, and make a juit application of the long
and fhort fyllables to the notes and time with which they are
to be connected.

But this branch of the fcience, which depends greatly on
the knowledge of poetry, has lain a long time almoft unre-
garded ; and even at prefent, very little care is taken in this
point in the modern muiic, which is fomewhat wonderful,
fince it was to this that the ancients attributed the extra-
ordinary effeéts of their mufic ; for by them this branch was
mott accurately obferved, and by this they regulated and
governed their meafures, fo that they might produce the
defired effe&ts ; and fome philofophers fay, the human
paffions and affeGtions. Voflius de Poem. Cantu, &c.

TESTON, Tesrer, the name of a coin ftruck in France
by Louis XII. in 1513, and in Scotland in the time of
Francis II. and Mary queen of Scotland, fo called from the
head of the king, (‘e/e or téte,) which was engraved upon it.
The filver it contained was 11 deniers 18 grains; its weight,
7 deniers 111 grains; and its value 10 fols. The coinage of
it was prohibited by Henry IIT. in 1575, when the value of
it was augmented to 14 fols 6 deniers. Encycl.

A remarkable Scottifh medal of this kind was that in-
augurative of Francis II. of France with Mary of Scotland,
though it is more properly indeed French, being, as it is
thought, {truck upon their coronation, as being a queen of
that country. It prefents bufts of Francis and Mary, face
to face, with three legends around them, the outermoft of
which contains their titles, the middle one this fingular fen-
tence,

“ Which wonders how the, devil it got there :”’

HORA NONA DOMINUS IHS EXPIRAVIT HELLI CLAMANS, 2
moft ominous motto, one would imagine, to a fuperftitious
ear. The innermoft legend is only the name of the city of
Paris. There are fine French teftoons of Francis and Mary,
likewife prefenting them face to face, with the arms of

France
©

TrES

France and Scotland upon the reverfe, as is alfo the cafe of
the medal jut mentioned. Thefe pieces are fo fine and rare,
that Dr. Hunter gave ten guineas for the one in his cabinet,
which contains as. vaft and well-chofen a private collection,
of all forts of coins and medals, as any in the world.

Teftoons, or fhillings, were firft coined in Scotland about
the year 1553, and they bore the buit of the queen and the
arms of France and Scotland on the reverfe: they were of
the fame intrinfic value with thofe of England, and were
worth four fhillings ; the half-teftoon two, Scottifh money.
The filver teftoop of Mary, chiefly of 1553 or 1562, with
her buft, are rare, worth about 30s.; half ftill more rare,
valued at 3/. Pinkerton on Medals.

The teflton, teftoon, or tefter, among us, fucceeded the

‘ groat, which was introduced by Edward ITI. in1354. It
was alfo called fhilling, and firft coined by Henry VII. in
1503: and was rated at 12d. in the reign of Henry VIII.
and afterwards reduced to 6d. The teftoon of the firft year
of Edward VI. is extremely rare.

TESTOON, or Testone, a filver coin in Italy, and
alfo in Portugal. At Florence, the teftoon, or teftone, as
a money of account and a filver coin, is worth two lire, or
three paoli. The teftoon is a money of account at Lifbon,
and is valued at 100 rees. And of the gold coins ftruck
fince 1722, there are the Dezefeis teftoon of 1600 rees, and
the Oito teftoon of 8co rees. The filver coins are teftdons
of 100 and halves of 50 rees.

At Rome the fcudo, as a money of account, is divided
into 3% teftoni; and among the filver coins, the teftoni are
valued at 3 paoli, the paoli being worth 54d. fterling nearly.
See Coin.

TESTORE, Carto Giovanni, in Biography, a violinilt
and mufic-maiter, refident at Verfeilles in 1770. In 1767
he publifhed a treatife on mufic, entitled, “ Mufica ragio-
nata,” in 4to. This author was perhaps the firft Italian
who adopted Rameau’s principles. He fimplified his rules,
and made his treatife more intelligible to principiante than
Rameau himfelf, or his {cientific commentator d’ Alembert.
The full title of his book is « La Mufica ragionata efprefla
familiarmente in dodeci Pafleggiate a Dialogo, ornati 140
effempi Muficali in rami.”

TESTOURE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Tunis, on the Mejerdah; 40 miles S.W. of
Tunis.

TESTUDO, in Antiquity, was particularly ufed among
the poets, &c. for the ancient lyre, or lyre of Amphion ;
becaufe it was faid to have been originally made, by its in-
ventor Mercury, of the back or hollow fhell of a teftudo
aquatica, or fea-tortoife, which he accidentally found on the
banks of the river Nile.

Mr. Molyneux has an exprefs difcourfe, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaétions, to fhew that the tortoife-fhell was the
bafis of the ancient lyre, and that the whole inftrument had
thence the denomination teftudo ; which account throws fome
light on an obfcure paffage in Horace, ode iii. lib. 4. mif-
taken by all the commentators :

«¢ O, teftudinis auree
Dulcem que ee Pieri, temperas !
O mutis quoque pifcibus

Donatura cygni, fi libeat, fonum !”

Testupo, Tortoife, in the Military Art of the Ancients,
was a kind of cover, or fcreen, which the foldiers, ¢. gr. a
whole company, made themfelves of their targets, by hold-
ing them. up over their heads, and ftanding clofe d° each
other.

Thus, if we fuppofe the firft rank to have ftood upright

Printed by A. Strahan,

EES

on their feet, and the reft to have ftooped lower and lower
by degrees, till the laft rank kneeled down on their knees,
fo that.every rank covering with their targets the heads of
all in the rank before them, they reprefented a tortoife-fhell,
or a fort of floping roof.

This expedient ferved to fhelter them from darts, ftones,
&c. thrown upon them, efpecially thofe thrown from above
when they went to the aflault. It was alfo ufed in field-
battles as well as in fieges. ‘

Tesrupo was alfo a kind of large defenfive engine, of
an oval figure, compofed of boards, and wattled up at the
fides with wicker, which moved on feveral wheels, ferving
to fhelter the foldiers when they approached the walls to
mine them, or to batter them with rams.

Testupo, in Medicine, denotes a foft broad tumour, or
gathering of impure humoers between the fkull and the fkin,
called si talpa, as refembling the fubterraneous windings
of the tortoile or mole.

Testupo, Tortoife, in Zoology, a genus of animals of the
clafs of Amphibia and order of Repulees the generic charac-
ters of which are, that the body is furnifhed with a tail, and
defended by a bony or coriaceous integument above and be-
low, or above by {cales ; and that the upper mandible of the
mouth clofes over the lower; without diftin& or proper
teeth, the tecth, as they are called in the generality of tor-
toifes, being no other than the ferratures of the mandibles. .

Gmelin enumerates thirty-three fpecies, which are diftri-
buted into the three clafles of marine, fluviatile, and land
tortoifes.

A. Marine Tortoifes, or Turtles with pinniform Feet, the
; former being longer. .

The animals of this clafs are diftinguifhed from the land
tortoifes by their very large and long fin-fhaped feet, in
which are inclofed the bones of the toes, the firft and fecond
on each foot being furnifhed with vifible or projecting claws,’
the others not appearing beyond the edge. ‘The fhield, as
in the land tortoifes, confifts of a ftrong bony covering, in
which are imbedded the ribs, and which is coated externally
by hard horny plates, in one or two f{pecies much thicker
and {tronger than thofe of the land tortoifes. Mr. Scheepf,
cited by Dr. Shaw, obferves, that the apparent number of

claws or pers extremities on the feet of the marine tor-

toifes, appears to be no certain criterion of the f{pecies ; but,
on the contrary, is found to vary fo as to contradié& the Lin-
nan {pecific characters. : ;
Species.
Corracea ; Coriaceous Tortoife. Striated lengthwife ;
or brown turtle, paler beneath, with coriaceous fhell, marked .
by five longitudinal tuberculated ribs. This is the largeft of
the marine tortoifes, being found eight feet long, and one
thoufand pounds in weight. It is larger than others of its
tribe, and its external covering differs by not igs horny,

but relemaaae {trong leather, marked over the furface into
{mall, obfcurely fubhexagonal and pentagonal ae |

out deftroying its general {moothnefs. The longitudinal ribs _

or ridges-are five ; and comprehending thofe that border the
fides, the number is feven. It has no under or thoracic fhell;
the head is large, and the upper mandible notched at the
tip, fo as to exhibit the appearance of two large teeth, be-
tween which, when the mouth is clofed, is received the ti

of the lower mandibles: the fins are large and long, an

covered with a tough leathery fkin; the tail is rather fhort
and fharp-pointed. This fpecies is a native of the Meda
ranean, and has occafionally been taken on the coafts both of
France and England. It is alfo found, not only nea

a2”

@?

yopean feas, but in. thofe of South America, and about
fome of the African coafts. The Greeks, according to Cé-
péde, were well acquainted with this {pecimen, and ufed it
in the conftruction of the lyre or harp. (See TEsrupo, in
Antiquity.) Pennant fays, that this {pecies is extremely fat,
but the flefh coarfe and bad ; but the Carthufians will eat no
other fpecies. The {mall fea tortoife defcribed by Pennant
in the Phil. Tranf. for 1771, is faid to be the young of this
animal. Gmelin mentions this and another as‘varieties.

ImBRICATA.
thirteen imbricated fcales on the difk ; thefe lap over each
other at the extremities like tiles on the roof of a building.
The head is fmaller than in other turtles ; the neck longer ;
and the beak narrower, fharper, and more curved, fo as con-
fiderably to refemble the bill of a hawk, and from this cir-
cumitance the animal derives its popular name of the
« hawk(bill turtle.”? This turtle is a native of the Afiatic
and American feas, and is fometimes found in the Mediterra-
nean. It has been often known to meafure five feet in length,
and to weigh 500 or 600 pounds. In the Indian ocean it
attains a prodigious fize. Its fhell was anciently ufed for
a fhield, and full ferves for that purpofe among barbarous
nations. The flefh is not efteemed as a food ; the lamellz
er plates of the fhell, being much ftronger, thicker, and
clearer than thofe of any other kind, conftitute its fole
value. See TorteisE-Shell.

Myvas. Brownith turtle, with thirteen fcales on the
difk ; the green turtle of fome writers, with two nails on
the fore-feet, and fingle ones on the hind-feet. This com-
mon green turtle (efculent turtle), is fo named from the

\ green tinge, derived from the yegetable fub{tances on which
it feeds, often exhibited by its fat, when the, animal is in
its higheft perfection. It is one of the largeft of this genus,
often meafuring above five feet in length (fometimes more
than fix), and weighing more than 500 or 600 pounds. Its
colour is a dull palith brown, variegated with deeper undu-
lations, but not exhibiting the beautiful colours which dif-
tinguifh the T. imbricata. Its flefh, however, is in fuch
eftimation, that the inhabitants of the Weft Indian iflands
have long confidered it as one of the molt excellent articles
of food, and have introduced a fimilar tafte into fome of
the European nations. In our own country it is much
eiteemed, and confiderable quantities of it are imported to
fupply the luxury of the metropolis. Its introduction,
however, cannot be traced farther than about 50 or 60 years
backward. Sir Hans Sloane informs us, in his Hiftory of
Jamaica, that forty floops were employed by the inhabitants
of Port Royal, in Jamaica, for catching them, and that the
markets there are fupplied with turtle as ours are with
butcher’s meat. The method of taking them at the Ba-
hama iflands is by ftriking them with a fmall iron peg
two inches long, put in a focket at the end of a ftaff
twelve feet long. Two men ufually fet out for this work
in a little light boat or canoe, one to row and gently fteer
the boat, while the other ftands at the head of it with his
itriker. The turtle are fometimes difcovered by their {wim-
ming with their head and back out of the water, but they
are ofteneft difcovered lying at the bottom, a fatliom or
more deep, If a.turtle perceives he is difcovered, he ftarts
up to make his efcape, the men jin the boat purfuing him,
endeavour to keep fight of him, which they often lofe, and
recover again by the turtle putting his nofe out of the water
to breathe : thus they purfue him, one paddling or rowing,
while the other ftands ready with his ftriker. It is fome-
times half an hour before he is tired; then he finks at once
to the bottom, which giyes them an opportunity of ftriking

him, which is by pieremg him with an tron-peg, which flips —

"Vou. XXXV.

__ Printed by A. Strahan,

The mbricated or variegated turtle with”

al .

TESTUDO.

out of the focket, but is faftened with a {tring to the pole.
If he is {pent and tired by being long purfued, he tamely
fubmits, when ftruck, to be taken into the boat or hauled
afhore. There are men who by diving will get on their
backs, and by prefling down their hind parts, and raifing
the fore-part of them by force, bring them to the top of
the water, while another flips a noofe about their necks.

The fea tortoifes, or turtles, fays Catefby, never go on
fhore but to lay their eggs, which they do in April: they
then crawl up from the fe above the flowing of high water,
and dig a hole above two feet deep in the ead into which
they drop in one night above an hundred eggs, at which time
they are fo intent on Nature’s work, that they regard
none that approach them; but will drop their eggs into a
hat, if held under them; but if they are difturbed before
they begin to lay, they will forfake the place, and feek an-
other. They lay their eggs at three, and fometimes at four
different times; there being fourteen days between every
time ; fo that they hatch and creep from their holes into the
fea at different times alfo. When they have laid their com-
plement of eggs, they fill the hole with fand, and leave
them to be hatched by the heat of the fun, which is ufually
performed in about three weeks. It may be proper to add,
that the eggs are about the fize of tennis-balls, round, white,
and covered with a fmooth parchment-like fkin. Gmelin
mentions feveral varieties of this {pecies.

Caretta. The yariegated turtle, with fifteen dorfal
{cales, thofe of the middle range gibbous towards their
tips. This fpecies is larger than any yet difcovered, ex-
cept perhaps the coriacea, It is called the ‘* loggerhead
turtle ;”? and though it refembles the laft {pecies, or green
turtle, it is diftinguifhed by the fuperior fize of the oe
the proportional breadth of the fhell, and by its deeper and
more yariegated colours: but the principal diftin@tion con-
fifts in the number of dorfal fegments or {cutella of the
fhell, which amount conftantly to fifteen. The fore-feet
are very large and long ; the hind-feet much shorter, though
broad. In a commercial yiew, this {pecies is of little im-
portance ; its fiefh being rank and coarfe, and the lamine
of the fhell too thin for general ufe. It is faid, however, to
afford a good quantity a oil, which may be ufed for lamps,
&c. This turtle is yery itrong and fierce, and even dan-
gerous. It is aninhabitant of the fame feas with the green
turtle, but has been found in remote latitudes, even in the
Mediterranean, and particularly about the coafts of Italy
and Sicily.

Macropus. With an ovate, carinate,.emarginate fhield,
and the feet very large and bifarioufly eeted

B. Fluviatile, with palmaied feet, Joell joined with the feer-
num by a membrane, and fupported in the middle on both fides
by two proceffis of the fernum.

Orpicutaris. ‘The T. europea of Schneider, with
oval, flattifh, fmooth, dark brown fhell, marked with very
numerous yellowifh {pecks and ftreaks. This {peckled tor-
toife of the ‘* Naturalift’s Mifcellany,’? or 'T’. meleagris,
is of {mall fize, the fhell meafuring about four or five inches
in length, and its dif compofed of thirteen, and the margin
of twenty-five pieces ; the under fhell whitifh-yellow, tmged
towards the joints with brown; the head ovate, fomewhat
convex abpve, and flattifh on each fide and beneath; the
fin of the neck lax and wrinkly ; the legs fhort and {caly,
feet webbed, fore-feet having five toes and hinder only four 5
the claws on all the feet fharp-pointed, and crooked; the
tail nearly half as long as the body, thin, attenuated, eom-

_preffed and fealy, and alfo fpotted like the body.

This elegant {pecies is a native of many parts of Europe,
° 2 E being

TESTUDO. ; >

being found in Italy, Sardinia, France, Hungary, Pruffia,
&c. inhabiting lakes and muddy waters, and feeding on
aquatic plants, infeés, fnails, and {mall fifth. The flefh is
faid to be good as food, for which purpofe it is fold in the
markets, and occafionally kept in ponds, and fed or fattened
with lettuce-leaves, bread, &c. &c. It may be conveniently
kept in a cellar and fed with oats, feattered on the floor,
which it greedily eats when they begin to germinate. It
depofits its eggs in fandy and funny places in the beginning
of {pring, which are not hatched, as it is pretended, till
the fucceeding fpring.

MempraNAceA. With three claws on the feet, and
fhell ftriated on the back, membranaceous, ovate and grey.
Found in the fea that wafhes Guiana. See T. Frrox.

Triuncuis. With three claws on the feet, the difk of
the back rugofe and orbiculated, the lower border fmooth,
and noftrils in a cylinder elevated above and projecting be-
yond the head. Found rarely in the Nile, and fuppofed to
be the fame with the former.

Cartitacrea. Shell orbicular, membranaceous, {tri-
ated on the back; three claws on the feet, and nofe cylindric
and prolongated. This is the I’. Boddaerti and a rare fpe-
cies. See the next article.

Ferox; Fierce Tortoife. With ovate, cartilaginous
fhell; three claws on the feet, and tubular, prominent nof-
trils. Dr. Shaw queries whether the T. roftrata of
Schcepf, the T. with palmated feet, &c. of Thunberg,
the T. cartilaginea of Boddaert, the T. Boddaerti of
Schneider, the T. triunguis of Forfkal, and the T. mem-
branacea of Blumenberg, do not belong to this f{pecies.
This is a remarkable {pecies, and diftinguifhed by the un-
ufual nature of its fhield, which is hard and offeous only in
the middle part, while the edges gradually degenerate into a
flexible coriaceous verge ; obfcurely marked with five or fix
tranfverfe bands, and granulated with fmall warts or promi-
nences, gradually enlarging as they approach the flexible
edge; the head rather fmall, fomewhat trigonal, with the
fnout much lengthened, and the upper part drawn out into
a fub-cylindric form, terminated by the noftrils, and pro-
jecting much beyond the lower mandible ; the neck, when
Panera, thick, and furrounded with many folds of {fkin,
but when exferted, equal in length to that of the whole fhell ;
the legs fhort, thick, and covered with a wreathed fkin ;
the feet furnifhed with ftrong and broad webs, conne¢ting
the three laft toes of each; the three firft on each foot fur-
nifhed with {trong claws, and the remaining ones unarmed ;
having, befides the proper toes, two {purious ones on the
hind and one on the fore feet, ftrengthening and expanding
the web; the tail fhort, pointed, and curving inwards ; the
eyes very {mall and round ; the colour above deep brownifh-
olive, and below white ; the fhell marked beneath in a very
elegant manner, with ramifications of veffels.

This fpecies is found in Pennfylvania, Carolina, ke. &c. ;
and is poffeffed, differently from moft others of the tribe, of
confiderable vigour and fwiftnefs of motion, fpringing to-
wards its ailailant, when attacked, with great alaerity and
fiercenefs ; about a foot and half long, and fifteen inches
broad. It was firft defcribed by Dr. Garden. Its flefh is
faid to be extremely delicate, being equal, if not fuperior,
even to that of the green turtle. The great foft-billed
turtle, defcribed by Mr. Bartram in his Travels, appears to
be the fame with this. Found in all the rivers, lakes, and
pools of Eaft Florida, weighing from 30 to 40 pounds.
The T. roftrata of Thunberg feems to be the young of the
fpecies above defcribed; and the T. triunguis of Forfkall
is allied to the fame fpecies. Shaw. i

Scasra. With {mooth difcoloured head, and fhield oval,

convex, carinated and rough. The /cabra of Linnaeus is
defcribed as bee palmated feet and flattifh fhell, with all
the intermediate fcutella elevated on the back. The fhell
of this fpecies is figured by Seba ; it meafures about two
inches and a half in length, and nearly two inches in breadth;
being of a cordated figure, or fomewhat pointed at the
bottom, Its colour is light-reddifh, variegated on the head
and fhell with white lines and {pots ; the feet marked with
red fpecks, and having each five toes with fharp claws; the
head prominent, and eyes {mall. Shaw.

Squamata; Scaly Tortoife. With ovate body, fmooth
beneath, but covered above, together with the neck, feet,
and tail, with numerous fcales. According to Bontius, in
his Hiftory of Java, this fingular fpecies is an inhabitant of
frefh waters, where it burrows under the banks, in order
perhaps to depofit itseggs. The Javanefe call it taunah, or
the digger, and the Chinefe /ary, or the runner, a burlefque
title given to it on account of its flow pace. Its flefh is
faid to be extremely delicate ; and the Chinefe ufe the pul- *
verized {cales diffolved in water, as a remedy in dyfenteric
cafes and againft the colic. It is faid to prey on fmall fith.
This fpecies feems to conneét the lizard and tortoife tribes.
Shaw.

Luraria; Mud or Brown Tortoife. With flattith
fhell, and tail half the length of the body; carinated, ays
Gmelin, behind with three fcutella. This fpecies is fard
to be common in many parts of Europe, as well as Afia,
being found in’ India, Japan, &c. Acdéording to Cépéde,
it is not more than feven or eight inches from the tip of the
nofe to that of the tail; and about three or four mches in
breadth; the difk confifts of thirteen pieces, ftriated and
flightly punétated in the centre, and along the middle range
runs a longitudinal carina ; the margin confifts of twenty-three
pieces, bordered with flight ftrie ; the colour of the fhell
is blackifh and alfo of the fkin; the feet are webbed,
five toes before, and four behind ; the exterior toe. of each
foot is unarmed ; the tail is ftretched out in walking, from
which cireumftance the animal has been called “ Mus aqua-
tilis.”? Like other tortoifes, it fometimes utters a kind of
broken hifs. This animal is common in France, and parti-
cularly in Languedoc and many parts of Provence ; and in
a lake, fituated in the plain of Daren! fuch numbers were
found as to fupply the neighbouring peafantry for more
than three months. Although this feces be aquatic, it
always lays its eggs on land, digging a hollow and coverin
them with mould. This animal is vfeful in a garden, which
it frees from noxious animals, without doing any mifchief
itfelf. It may be domefticated, and kept in a bafon or re-
ceptacle of water, fo contrived on the edges as to give it a
ready egrefs, when it wifhes to wander about for prey. In
fith-ponds it is deftru@tive. Shaw. Gmelin mentions two
varieties, viz. T’. tabulata and T’. campanulata.

Scorpioipes. See T. Fimeriata.

HerManni. With four claws on the feet, and the tip
of the tail unguiculated. See T. TricarinaTa.

Gmelin mentions feveral varieties of this fpecies.

Carona. With digitated feet, gibbous fhell, and no
tail. This is the T. claufa, or clofe tortoife, of Linneus and
other writers, with blackifh thell, irregularly fpotted with
yellow, with obtufe dorfal carina, and bivalve under-fhell
completely clofing the upper, whence it obtains its name.
The under part of the fhell is fo continued round the
margin, that when the animal withdraws its head and legs,
it is able accurately to clofe all parts of the thell to 9.
fo as to be perfe€tly fecure. The defence of this little
animal, which rarely exceeds four or five inches in length,
is fuch, that it is uninjured by a weight of 500 or 600 pounds,

and

TESTUDO.

and able to walk under this heavy load. It is a native of
many parts of North America, found chiefly in marfhy
fituations, and occationally in the drieft and hotteft places.
It is principally fought for on account of its eggs, which are
reckoned a delicacy. It feeds on {mall animals, as beetles,
mice, and even ferpents, which it draws into its fhell, and
crufhes to death ; and alfo on various vegetable fubitances.

Paxustris. With depreffed fhell, five claws on the fore-
feet, and four on the hind-feet ; found in the ftagnant waters
of Jamaica, and feeking food in the adjoining meadows.
This is the T. terrapin of Schepf, and the T. concentrica
of other writers, with fub-depreffed, fub-carinated, oval
yellow fhell, with the fcutella marked by concentric brown
zones. The fhell meafures from four to fix inches, or
more. It is a native of North America, and fold in the

- markets at Philadelphia, and elfewhere, under the name of
* Terrapin,’ which name is indifcriminately applied in
America to feveral other {pecies. It is common, as we have
already faid, in Jamaica, and firit defcribed by Dr. Browne,
in his “* Hiftory of Jamaica,’? who fays it is a wholefome
and even delicate food. In the Leverian Mufeum there is a
large and beautiful fpecimen of the fhell of this fpecies.
Shaw.

Caspica. With orbicular fhell, fcaly head, five claws
on the fore-feet, four on the hind, and naked tail. Gmelin
reprefents it as a native of Hircania, inhabiting frefh waters,
and fometimes growing to a vait fize. The pieces cem=
pofing the difk are fub-quadrate; thofe of the border
parallelogrammic ; the colour variegated with black and
gteen ; the lower fhell blackifh, fpotted with white.

_ Crausa. See T. Carorrna, fupra.

Pensytvanica. Tortoife, according to Schepf, with
{mooth, elliptic, brown fhell, with flattifh back, the middle
range of {cutella fub-rhomboid and fub-imbricated, the firft
fub-triangular ; and according to Gmelin, with five claws
on the fore-feet and four on the hind, and the apex of the
tail horny and acute. This is the fmall mud tortoife of
Edwards ; the fhell meafuring three or four inches in length.
The head on the parts furrounding the jaws and eyes is of a
reddifh-yellow colour ; the upper part, as well as the neck,
legs, and tail, dufky; feet webbed; the tail fmall. It
is anative of North America, and is found in Peanfylvania,
&c. inhabiting muddy waters. When living, it is faid to
exhale a ftrong mufky odour. Mr. Schcepf mentions a
yariety, and another occurs in the Leverian Mufeum
Shaw.

SeRPENTINA. The {nake tortoife, chara¢terifed by
Scheepf as having an ovate, depreffed, triply carinated,
fharp-fealed fhell, rounded and acutely ferrated at the pofte-
rior margin ; and by Gmelin as having digitated feet, fub-
carinated fhell, behind obtufe, and acutely quindentated.
This is the ferrated tortoife of Pennant. It is a native of
North America, inhabiting ftagnant waters, growing to the
weight of fifteen or twenty pounds, or more, preying on
fifh, ducklings, &c. feizing its prey with great force, and at
the fame time ftretching out its neck, and hiffing at the
fame time. The head is large, depreffed, triangular, and
covered with a fcaly and warty fkin ; the orbits of the eyes
are oblique ; the mouth wide; the mandibles fharp ; the
neck covered by fcaly warts; the toes diftin@& ; the tail
ftraight, and about two-thirds the length of the fhell ; and the
under part of the body covered by a loofe, wrinkled fkin,
befet with fmallifh foft feales and-granules. This animal
conceals itfelf in muddy water, leaving out only a part of its
back, and thus appearing to be a ftone or other inanimate
objeét, more eafily obtains its prey. In New York it is
known by the title of the “ {napping tortoife.””

Spenciers. See T. SerRaTa, infra.

Fimpriara. Tortoife, according to Bruguiere, with
oval, fub-convex, triply carinated fhell, fub-digitated feet,
cylindric fnout, and neck fimbriated on cach fide. This is
an animal of very fingular and, difagreeable appearance.
The fhell is about fifteen inches or more in length, and its
breadth eleven ; but the whole animal, from the nofe to the
end of the tail, is two feet three inches. The head is large
and flat, rounded in front, and edged on the fides with
warty and wrinkled membranaceous appendages, about five
inches wide, and covered behind by a three-lobed promi-
nence ; the nofe refembles a probofcis, cylindric, ten lines
long, truncated, pierced by the noftrils, at the tip, where they
are feparated by a cartilaginous divifion ; the eyes are round,
feated at the bafe of the probofcis, and ten lines diftant from
each other ; the mandibles are equal in length, and entire ;
the gape of the mouth is wide; the neck feven inches long,
and four and a half broad; above flat and warted, and
furnifhed on each fide with fix fimbriated membranaceous
appendages difpofed lengthwife, and alternately larger and
{maller ; the under part of the neck is befet with four fimi-
lar appendages, placed oppofite to the two on the head, and
increafed by two longitudinal wrinkles: the fore-feet are
fcaly and warty, having five indiftin@ toes, with as many
longifh fharp claws, convex above and flat beneath ; the hind-
feet are alfo fealy, with lefs diftiné toes, having four claws,
the fifth toe being unarmed, and very fhort: the tail is an
inch long, bent flightly, and covered with a granulated fkin ; all
the thirteen femicircular pieces, of which the fhell confifts,
are wrinkled and irregularly notched at the hind part ; the
twenty-five marginal pieces are almoft {quare, radiated on the
furface with oblique wrinkles, and toothed in the interior
edge. The colour of the whole is brown, fomewhat paler
beneath. This animal is faid to be a native of Guiana, but is
now rare in the rivers of Cayenne, as it has been plentifully
taken by fifhermen, it being confidered as excellent food.
It feeds on aquatic plants, and wanders by night to fome
diftance in fearch of pafture. It has been fuggefted, but
without certainty, that this is the T. feorpioides of Linnzus.
Shaw.

Picra. ‘Tortoife with plane fhell, marked on both fides
with a double fpot of a black-blueifh colour ; feutella fur-
rounded with a yellow margin, and neck ftriated longi-
tudinally with yellow and black ; or tortoife with oblong,
flightly convex, fmooth, brown fhell, with the feutella bor-
dered with yellow. This is the cinereous tortoife of
Brown’s Zoology, and fufficiently diftinguifhed from all
others by the remarkable colours of the fhield. This is a
frefh-water fpecies, and inhabits flow and deep rivers in
North America, and fhould have been referred by Gmelin
to his fecond ¢lafs. In clear funny weather thefe animals
are faid to aflemble in multitudes, fitting on the fallen
trunks of trees, ftones, &c. and immediate y plunging into
the water on the leaft difturbance. They are faid to fwim
very fwiftly, but to walk flowly ; to be able to continue
many hours entirely beneath the water, but not to furvive
many days if kept out of their favourite element. ‘They
are very voracious, deftroying ducklings, &c. which they
feize by the feet, and drag under water. They are fome-
times ufed as a food. The colour, as has been’ above ob-
ferved, varies; being fometimes of a blackifh-brown, at
other times of a reddifh-chefnut: the yellow markings are
alfo either pale or deep in different individuals, and fometimes
whitifh ; the inferior, or under edges of the upper fhell, as
well as the upper edges, or commiffures of the lower, are
elegantly ftreaked with black, as if artificially painted, and
this variegation is continued over the fkin of the fides of the
body. Shaw.

Gutrata. Tortorfe fpotted, with oblong, moderately

3 1 ar convex,

TESTUDO. ?

convex, {mooth, brown thell, with feattered yellow fpots.
This is T. punétata of Schepf. It is a rather {mall
{pecies, and a native of North America, inhabiting rivers
and lakes. The young are fearcely larger than pigeon’s
eggs, and are very black, beautifully {potted with gold
colour.

Loneicoriis; Long-necked Tortoife. Smooth, ovate,
with extremely long neck. This fpecies is a native of New
Holland, and is of the river or frefh-water kind. The
colour of the whole animal above is deep olive-brown ;
beneath paler, and inclining to whitifh. Shaw.

C. Land tortoifes, with clavated unguiculated fect, convex
Shell, and bony commiffurcs joined with the flernum.

Denticerara. Tortoife with fub-digitated feet, and or-
bicularly-cordated fhell, with denticulated marginal feg-
ments. ‘The fhell is of a pale yellowifh-brown colour, about
four inches long and three broad, covered on the difk by
broad hexagonal and penta onal {cutella, of a flattened form,
with a large diftinét middle fpace, granulated by {mall tu-
bercles, and the remainder marked by five lines or furrows.
The edge of the fhell confifts of twenty-three pieces, project-
ing in a ferrated manner round the outline. It is fuppofed to
be anative of North America. The feet, in Gmelin’s edi-
tion of the Syftema Nature, are faid to be without diftin&
toes; and the tail fhort.

Grea. The common land tortoife, with fub-digitated
feet, hinder part of the fhell gibbous, lateral margin very
obtufe, and {cutella flattith. melin.

It is defcribed by others as the tortoife with hemifpheric
black and yellow fhell, gibbous. behind; the pieces com-
pofing the difk convex, and the fides obtufe. This tortoife
is fuppofed to be a native of almoft all the countries bor-
dering on the Mediterranean fea, and to be more frequent
in Greece than in other regions. It is found in the Euro-
pean Archipelago iflands, and in Corfica and Sardinia, and
alfo in many parts of Africa. In Greete it is an article of
food; the eggs are eaten boiled, and the blood is often
fwallowed recent. In September the animal hides itfelf
under ground, and emerges in February : it lays its eggs in
June, ina {mall hole ona funny fpot, out of which, after the
firft rains of September, the young are hatched. In Eng-
land it retires about the end of Oétober, and re-appears
about the middle of April; but thefe feafons vary with the
climate and weather, &c. The males often fight, butting
at each other with a noife that may be haat at a con-
fiderable diftance. This animal lives to a moft extraordinary
age, exceeding the period of even a century.

One of the moft remarkable inftances is that of a tortoife
introduced into the archiepifcopal garden at Lambeth, in
the time of archbifhop Laud, and as’ near as can be col-
leé&ted from its hiftory, about the year 1633; which con-
tinued to live there till the year 1753, when it was fuppofed
to have perifhed rather from accidental negleét on the part
of the gardener, than from the mere effet of age. This
tortoife has had the honour of being commemorated by
Derham, and many other writers, and its fhell is preferved
in the library of the palace at Lambeth.

The general manners of the tortoife, in a ftate of domefti-
cation in this country, are very agreeably detailed by Mr.
White, in his Hiftory of Selbourn. “A land tortoife,”’
fays Mr. White, “‘ which has been kept thirty years in a
little walled court, retires under eth about the middle of
November, and comes forth again about the middle of April.
When it firft appears in the fpring, it difcovers very little
inclination for ood, but in the height of fummer grows vo-
racious; and then, as the fummer declines, its appetite alfo de-
clines ; fo that for the laft weeks in autumn it hardly eats

at all. Milky plants, fuch as lettuces, dandelions, fow-
thiftles, &c. are its principal food.

«“‘The tortoife is totally a diurnal animal, and never ftirs
after it becomes dark. The tortoife,’? adds Mr. White,
“like other reptiles, has an arbitrary ftomach, as well as
lungs, and can refrain from eating, as well as breathing, for
a great part of the year. I was much aia with its faga-
city, in difcerning thofe that do it kind offices ; for as foon
as the good old lady comes in fight who has waited on it for
more than thirty years, it hobbles towards its benefa@trefs
with awkward alacrity ; but remains inattentive to ftrangers.
Thus, not only ‘the ox knoweth his owner, and the afs his
matter’s crib,’ but the moft abje€t and torpid of beings dif-
tinguifhes the hand that feeds it, and is touched with the feel-
ings of gratitude. This creature not only goes under the
earth from the middle of November to the midale of April,
but fleeps great part of the fummer ; for it goes to bed in
the longeft days at four in the afternoon, and often does not
ftir in the morning till late. Befides, it retires to reft for
every fhower, and does not move at all in wet days. Wher
one reflets on the ftate of this ftrange being, it is a matter
of wonder that Providence fhould beftow fuch «a feemin
waite of longevity ona reptile that appears to reliffi it re
little as to fquander away more than two-thirds of its exift-
ence in a joylefs ftupor, and be loft to all fenfation for
months together in the profoundett of all flumbers ! Though
he loves warm weather, he avoids the hot fan; becaufe his
thick fhell, when once heated, would, as the poet fays of
folid armour, ‘{cald with fafety.’ He therefore fpends
the more fultry hours under the umbrella of a large ea
leaf, or anmid ‘the waving forefts of an afparagus bed. Bu
as he avoids heat in the fummer, fo in the decline of the
year he improves the faint antumnal beams, by conn ing
within the refleGtion of a fruit-tree wall ; and though he has
never read that planes inclining to the horizon receive a
greater fhare of warmth, he inclines his fhell by tilting it
again{t the wall, to colle&t and admit every feeble ray.”

The tortoife is faid to be more tenacious of life than any
other of the amphibia; many experiments performed upon
them by Redi, of a cruel nature, fuch as opening their
fhells, taking out the brain, cutting off the head, evince their
tenacioufnels of life, and that the vital principle is very
flowly difcharged from thefe animals. Shaw.

Carinata. Tortoife with digitated feet, and gibbous
fhell, with the four firft dorfal fcutella carinated, and entire
fternum: found in warm regions, but very little known.

Geometrica. Shell ovated, with all the elevated feu-
tella above plane, marked with yellow ftrie iffuing from the
centre in form of a ftar: or, according to others, this is the
tortoife with ovate black fhell, and elevated fcutella radiated
with yellow; the T.teffelata minor of Ray. The pieces of
which the diflc of the fhell confifts are very prominent, ftriated,
or furrowed pretty diftin@ly with numerous lines on their fides,
and terminated above by a yellowifh, flat, fquare, or rather
hexagonal roughened fpace or centre, from which proceed,
in a radiated dire€tion, feveral well-defined yellow ftreaks
towards the edge; thus conftituting a beautiful kind of geo-
metrical appearance on the black ground colour on which
they are difpofed: the marginal pieces, which aré ¢om-
monly twenty-four, fometimes twenty-fix, in number, are
alfo freaked with yellow, but in a fomewhat different ftyle.

The native country of this beautiful tortoife is ate sy
not truly afcertained ; though the fhell is more frequenth:
feen in Europe than that af almoft any other kind. ~ fe
faid, however, to inhabit Afia and Africa, and evén to be
found in America. According to Mr. Thunberg it is par-
ticularly common in fhrubby places about the Cape of Good
Hope. It is faid to lay about twelve or fifteen eggs ata

tume.

TESTUDO.

time. "The count de Cépedé fuppofes this {pecies to be the
‘Terrapin of Dampier, which that navigator reprefents as
very beautifully variegated, and as delighting in moift and
marfhy places; adding, that its flefh is efteemed as a food,
and that it is found in plenty on the coafts of the Pime iflands,
between the continent of America and Cuba: they are found
in the forefts, where they are eafily taken: the hunters mark
them on the fhield, and let them wander about the woods ;
being fure to find them again at no great diftance, every one
eafily recognizing his own property, and afterwards carry-
ing themto Cuba. Shaw.

usitLA; Little Tortoife. With fub-digitated feet, and
hemifpheric fhell, with convex, trapezial fcutella, ftriated
on the margin, and punttated on the difk. This is the
African land tortoife of Edwards, and thus defcribed by
him from a fpecimen obtained from Weft Barbary. ‘“ The
iris of the eye is of a reddifh hazel colour; the lips hard,
Tike the bill of a bird; the head covered with feales of a

Howifh colour ; the neck, hind legs, and tail, covered with
a flexible fkin of a dirty flefh-colour ; the fore-legs covered
with yellow fcales on their outfides, which are partly ex-
pofed when the legs are drawn in; the fhell round, and
pretty much rifing on its upper fide, and flat beneath ; the
pieces of compartments are of a yellowifh colour, clouded
and {potted with large and fmall irregular dufky or blackith
fpots, and are alfo furrowed or creafed, the creafes leffening,
one within the other, till they reach the top or middle part
of each: the tail is thick, fcaly, and about an inch in length ;
and the vent is fituated within the tail itfelf near the bafe :
there are five claws on the fore-feet, and four on the hind,
all ftrong, black, rather bowed, and fharp-pointed.”? This
{pecies is found at the Cape of Good Hope, and mucit re-
fembles the T. greca.

Iwoica. Tortoife with brown fhell, refle&ed above the
neck, and marked with a tubercle on the three upper feutella.
This is the great Indian tortoife, firft defcribed by Perrault
in the “ Hiftory of Animals,’ publifhed by the Royal
Academy of France; and confounded by M. Cépéde
with the T. greca. It is found in India, on the coaft of
Coromandel, &c. Of this there are two varieties, one
brought from the Cape of Good Hope, and another from
the Southern iflands.

Surcata. ‘Tortoife with a tail, digitated feet, gibbofe
fhell, and feutella lineated and circumfcribed with a furrow ;
or tortoife with brown ovate fhell, with furrowed feutella
| Sate on each fide. This is one of the larger fpecies of
and tortoife, being about a foot or more in length from the
nofe to the tip oF the tail ‘The fhell is very convex, and
has the general habit of the greca and geometrica as to fhape.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of the Weft Indies, and
ae: may be the “ Hicatee’”’ of Brown, defcribed in his

iftory of Jamaica. Dr. Shaw fuggefts that this fpecies
may be the fame with T.. tabulata.

Pranarria. Tortoife with digitated feet, and fhell oval,
convex, and fmooth. Found at Surinam.

Americana Terresrris. Tortoife with ovaly gibbofe
fhell ; feutella yellow in the middle of the difk ; the margin
marked with fhining, black, furrowed, lateral polygons.
This ‘is conjefured by Gmelin to be the Jaboti of the
Brafilians, and the cagado of the Portuguefe.~ Found in
South America.

TasuLata. Tortoife with oblong, gibbofe, brown
thell, with the feutella of the difk retangular and fur-
rowed; with yellowifh centres. This was firft defcribed and
figured in Seba’s ‘ Thefaurus,’? and there faid to be a
native of Brafil, though it is believed to be rather an
African fpecies, The general length of the fhell is about

2)

five or fix inches: fufpe&ed to be the fame {pecies with
T. fulcata, fupra. Shaw.

Mareiara. Tortoife with blackith-brown, oblong,
gibbofe fhell, variegated with yellow, widened and de-
eee on the hind part. The true native country of this
pecies is not very diftinétly known. . Mr. Schepf inclines
to think that it is an American fpecies.
founded it with the T. ereca. Shaw. :

Rapriata. Tortoife with ovate black fhell, and flattith
{eutella radiated with yellow. This is the great chequered
tortoife-fhell of Grew’s Muf. Reg. It has been concluded
by fome perfons, from a general refemblance in the pattern
of the fhell, and a fimilarity in colours, that this is the fame
fpecies with T. geometrica, or a variety of it. But Dr.
Shaw has pointed out a variety of differences between them
and fuch as warrant our ftating that the two hells are per-
feétly diftin@. Grew, who has defcribed this {pecies,
{ays that its native country is Madagafcar ; but Dr. Shaw
fuggefts that it is alfo a native of Jamaica, and that in
characters and fize it agrees with the “ Hicatee’’ tortoife
mentioned in Brown’s Zoology. Shaw.

Rucosa. Tortoife wrinkled, with black wrinkled fhell,
mottled and variegated with yellow; with the middle
dorfal pieces fubpanduriform or fiddle-fhaped. In the
Leverian mufeum there is a variety, or perhaps a fexual
difference of this {pecies.

Execans. Tortoife with orbicular, convex, yellow theHl,
with tranfverfe, oval, brown {pots. Seba has defcribed it
under the name of the T’. terreftris Ceilonica elegans minor.
Shaw.

ArxgoLara. Tortoife with moderately convex fhell,
with fubquadrangular, elevated, deeply furrowed feutella,
and deprefled rough areole. This is deferibed by Seba
under the appellation of T’. terreftris Brafilienfis.

Serrata. Tortoife with deprefled yellowifh fhell, mi-
nutely freckled with dufky fpecks; all the feutella of the
dif carinated, and the hinder margin of the fhell ferrated.
This is fuppofed by Dr. Shaw to be the T. fpengleri of
Gmelin’s Linnean Syftem.

Tricartnata. Tortoife with oval, flightly convex, fhell,
with entire margin, and all the fcutella of the difk carinated.
This fpecies agrees, in fhape and other particulars, with
Linnzus’s defeription of his T. orbicularis. Shaw.

Scripta. Tortoife with orbicular depreffed hell, with
all the fcutella marked by varioufly-formed charaéters, and
the marginal pieces {potted beneath. This is the T. feabra
of Thunberg. Its native place is not afcertained. Shaw.

GateaTta. ‘Tortoife with depreffed oval fhell, with the
three middle feutella fharply carinated, and twenty-four
marginal pieces. The native place of this {pecies is not
known; but it was brought to Mr. Retzius from India,
and lived two years kept in frefh water: it fubfifted on
bread, &c. and fometimes on flies. From the beginning of
Oétober to the middle of May it remained without food,
fcarcely elevating its head above the water. It delighted
in funfhine, and endeavoured to climb up the fides of the
veffel occafionally, in order to enjoy its influence. It is
doubtful, whether this be the T. fcabra of Linnzus. It is
called galeata by Retzius, from the armed or cataphraéted
coveritig of the head. Shaw.

Granutarta ; Chagrin Tortoife. With orbicular, flat-
tifh, granulated fhell, with cartilaginous border. This
fpecies feems to be allied to the T. ferox, having the fhield
furnifhed with a cartilaginous and flexible border. It is de-
feribed by M. Cépéde, and was brought from India by M.
Sonnerat. Shaw.

Dr. Shaw, among the fea-tortoifes or turtles, has ere ON
the

Cépéde has con-

TEE

the: turtle with ‘green variegated: fhell, fo named by the
count de Cépéde. Thefe turtles are faid to be found in
great numbers in the Southern ocean, and about Cape
Blanco, in New Spain. They alfo occur in the gulf of
Mexico, and many of the large American rivers, bot above
and below the line; but they have never been difcovered in
the feas of the Old Continent. ‘The flefh is faid to be very
delicate ; and is even preferred in fome places to that of the
common turtle. M. Bomare is faid by Cépéde to have firtt
defcribed this {pecies.

The “trunk turtle’? is mentioned by Catefby, who
{ays, without ever having feen it, from the report of others,
that thefe turtles grow to a very large fize, of a narrow form,
but very deep, the upper fhell being more convex than in
other kinds of turtle. Their flefh is rank, but affords a
large quantity of oil, which conftitutes their value.

The “ rhinoceros turtle,”? or /a tortue najficorne, has not
been accurately defcribed. Count de Cépéde fays, that
it is anative of the American feas, and bears a general
refemblance to the common or green turtle; but is diftin-

uifhed by having a large foft tubercle on the tip of the
Rate: in which are fituated the noftrils. It is eaten in
the fame manner as the green turtle, and is chiefly found
in the equatorial regions. Shaw’s General Zoology, vol. ui.
t. I.

Testupo Veliformis Quadrabilis, an hemifpherical vault,
or cieling of a church, &c. in which four windows are fo
contrived, as that the reft of the vault is quadrable, or may
be fquared.

The determination of thefe windows was a problem pro-
pofed to the great mathematicians of Europe, particularly
the cultivators of the new calculus differentialis, in the
Aéta Eruditorum Lipfie, by fig. Viviani, under the ficti-
tious name of A. D. Piollfci pufillo-geometra, which was
the anagram of poftremo Galilei difcipulo.

It was folved by feveral perfons, particularly M. Leib-
nitz, the very day he faw it: and he gave it in the Leipfic
A&ts in a variety of ways; as alfo did M. Bernouilli, the
marquis de PHofpital, Dr. Wallis, and Dr. Gregory.

TESTWOOD, in Biography, a finging man in the choir
of Windfor, was burnt for his intemperate zeal in the caufe
of Proteftantifm, 1544, when Marbeck was likewife con-
demned, but afterwards pardoned.

TESZERSKEY, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 6
miles S.W. of Novi.

TET, a river of France, which rifes in the Pyrenées, a
little above Mont Louis, and runs into the Mediterranean,
7 miles E. of Perpignan.

TETANUS, in Medicine, a difeafe confifting in a {paf-
modic contraétion of feveral of the mufcles of voluntary
motion, and more particularly of thofe which fhut the lower
jaw : and this being a conftant and prominent fymptom, the
affe&tion is commonly known by the name of Jocked jaw.
The fpafin of the mufcles is of the tonic kind; or that in
which the exceflive contraétion continues for a confiderable
time, without any interval of complete relaxation : in which
refpeét it is oppofed to clonic fpafms, or convulfions, where
the contractions and relaxations alternate in rapid fucceffion.
(See Convunsion and Spasm.) The powers of fenfation
and of intelleét remain unimpaired in tetanus ; in which re-
{pect alfo it is contrafted with epilepfy.

Tetanus admits of many varieties and modifications, on
which the older nofologifts had founded different fpecies of
the difeafe. A rigidity of the mufcles of the lower jaw was
denominated /ri/mus. When the mufcles of the back were
chiefly afleted, the difeafe was termed opi//hotonos: when
thofe of the fore-part of the trunk, with the flexors of the

8

fh Od by

extremities, were the feat of {pafm, it was called emproffho-
tonos. Sumetimes, though very rarely, the {palms are con-
fined to one fide of the body only, bending it {trongly to
that fide ; a form of the difeafe which has been named by
Sauvages tetanus lateralis, and by later writers, the pleuroftho-
tonos, or pleurotonos. It was only when the fpafm was almoit
univerfal, that it was confidered as entitled to the appellation
of tetanus. Of late years, however, thefe names have very
properly been confidered as exprefling only varieties of one
and the fame affection, differing merely in feverity, but
arifing from the fame caufes, and requiring the fame mode of
treatment. 'Thefe various forms of {pafm often follow one
another in fucceffion in the fame cafe, and mark the progrefs
of the difeafe through its different ftages. . Thus the trifmus,
or locked jaw, is only a part or prelude of opifthotonos and
tetanus ; and though it may prove fatal at this early period,
the imperfeét form in which the fymptoms of a difeafe,
which has been thus arrefted in its courfe, may appear, is b
no means fufficient to eftablifh a generic difference in the dif-
eafe itfelf. There appears, however, to be fome foundation
for a divifion of cafes, according to their duration, into the
acute and the protra¢ted : the former being very little under
the controul of medicine, and in almoft every inftance fatal ;
the latter being milder in its character, and often yielding,
if proper means are employed for its fubjugation.

Another ground of diftinction among the different cafes of
this formidable diforder, is derived from the nature of the
caufes from which they have originated. The moit ufual
caufes are certain mechanical injuries to the body, more efpe-
cially fuch as are attended with a punéture or laceration of
anerve : on other occafions, it may be the effect of the fud-
den application of cold, when the body has been previoufl
overheated : and, in a few inftances, it has appeared to arife
{pontaneoufly ; that is, when it could not be traced to any

external exciting caufe whatever. Tetanus arifing from ,

wounds is, in general, flower in its progrefs than that which
percesds from cold ; but is attended with more danger to
life.

On fome occafions the difeafe comes on fuddenly, and with,
great violence ; but more commonly the attack is gradual.
It is often eight or ten days, and fometimes much longer,
after the infliction of a wound, before the firft fymptoms of
tetanus make their appearance : and this frequently happens
when the effects of the injury on the part itfelf appear to
haye fubfided ; when the wound has healed, and no pain or
uneafinefs has remained. Thofe cafes in which the difeafe
is more flow in its approach, afford the beft opportunity of
tracing the natural fucceflion of fymptoms: and the firft
uneafy fenfation which is then obferved, is that of a flight
{tiffnefs in the back part of the neck and about the fhoulders,
which, gradually increafing, impede the rotatory motions of
the head, and alfo its flexion forwards: fo that the patient
cannot look downwards, or to either fide, without turning
his whole body. This uneafy feeling, being chiefly felt on
motion, very much refembles what occurs from rheumatifm,
but it is accompanied with a fenfe of general laffitude and
debility. The rigidity now extends from the back of the
neck to the mufcles of the jaw, and of the root of the tongue,
fo that both maftication and {wallowing become difficult
and painful ; and at length impoflible. ‘The attempt at de-
glutition is attended with convulfive efforts ; fgesanle when
liquids are endeavoured to be {wallowed. So great is the
dittrefs which accompanies thefe convulfions, that the patient
becomes very reluctant to renew the trials, and refufes all
nourifhment ; and it fometimes infpires him with even a dread
of the fight of water. :

As the difeafe advances, another fet of fymptoms appears,

bringing

TETANUS.

bringing with them a confiderable increafe to the fufferings
of the patient. A fudden and violent pain is felt fhooting
from the lower extremity of the fternum to the fpine, in the
fituation of the diaphragm. Thefe fpafms recur from time
to time, at fhort are ; and at each recurrence, give the
fignal for an immediate aggravation of all the other {pafms.

he mufcles of the neck and jaw are immediately called into
violent aétion; the head is pulled ftrongly backwards ; and
the jaw becomes firmly clenched. Thefe periodical accef-
fions of {pafm become more fevere, and their effects more
durable ; fo that the head continues to be in a ftate of re-
traction, and the jaw is permanently clofed, the teeth being
fo firmly fet together, as not to admit of the {malleft open-
ing. Such conftitutes what may be regarded as the firft
ftage of the difeafe ; which fometimes takes up three or four
days. At other times the difeafe eftablifhes itfelf, with its
whole train of dreadful fymptoms, in a few hours; in which
cafe the danger is immiment ; as death generally takes place
in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and the patient
very rarely paifes over the third day.

The continuance of the difeafe, if the patient furvive the
immediate attack, is marked by the increafing {pafm of the
diaphragm, which now returns every ten or fifteen minutes,

‘and is inftantly fucceeded by a ftronger retraction of the
head, and rigidity of the mufcles extending down the back,
~ along the fpine, and affeGting even thofe of the lower extre-
mities. Their contractions increafing in force, the body is
frequently raifed in the form ef a bow, refting upon the
head and feet alone: a ftate which is more particularly de-
‘nominated opi/fhotonos.. The countenance, as is obferved by
Dr. Chalmers, is pale and contraéted ; the maftoid, coraco-
hyoid, and fterno-hyoid mufcles, together with the others
concerned in deglutition, and the deltoid and pectoral
’ mufcles, are moft violently contracted, fo that the fhoulders

are ftrongly raifed forwards, and the arms are ftretched out,

or drawn acrofs the body ; but the wrifts and fingers feem
not to be affected. In a few feconds, a remiffion takes place ;
the fhoulders and arms recline, and the inferior extremities
relax ; yet not fo entirely, but that generally fuch a degree
of rigidity continues, as to prevent their being bent, even
when this is attempted by another perfon. The mufcles on
the fides and fore part of the neck continue ftill contracted,
although not fo {trongly; but their action is overcome by
the number and ftrength of the pofterior ones ; fo that the
contraCtion of the head conftantly remains. The patient
breathes quick for fome minutes, as if he had been excef-
fively exercifed, and the pulfe is fmall, fluttering, and irregu-
lar, but both become more calm and flow. The face is
fometimes pale in the intervals, but oftener flufhed ; and the
whole countenance expreffes ftrong appearances of the moit
melancholy diftrefs ; as well on account of the terror the
patient feels at the approaching paroxy{m, as from the tor-
ture he has fuffered from the lait, of which the painful con-
traétions he {till feels perpetually remind him. He, for the
moft part, defires to lie ftill as much as poflible, and to
avoid all attempts at drinking, fpeaking, or any kind of mo-
tion ; all of which are apt to occafion a return of the fpafm in
all its horrors. Some, indeed, are folicitous to try a change
of pofition, in hopes of obtaining one of greater eafe ; but
the at of turing the patient never fails to bring on an attack
of the convulfion, by which the head is drawn back to the
{pine : and it is at length found, that the beft means of avoid-
ing this is for him to lie perfe@ly ftill on the back.

- It may, in general, be obferved, that the extenfor mufcles
are affected with fpafm before the flexors. In the lower
extremities, indeed, both the flexor and extenfor mufcles are
commonly at the fame time affeéted, and keep the limbs

rigidly extended. ‘The flexors of the head, anid the mufcles
that pull down the lower jaw, become affected in the progrefs
of the difeafe, together with the abdominal mufcles ; fo that
the belly is ftrongly retraGted, and feels hard, like a piece of
board. The fpafm of thefe and the other flexor mufcles,
becoming fo powerful as to balance the ation of the exten-
fors, is a circumiftance that marks the advance of the dif-
eafe, and may be regarded as con{titutmge the commence-
ment of a third ftage. In this fituation the body and limbs
are perfectly ftraight and rigid, and incapable of being moved
in any way ; and it is to this condition that the term fetanus
has been more efpecially applied. It isa ftate of the moft ex-
quifite fuffering : the patient is on the rack from the continual
recurrence of the fpafm, which has fearcely any remiffion.
The*reéti mufcles of the abdomen often contraé&t unequally,
producing the appearance of hard balls in particular parts.
The whole belly is drawn inwards, and does not yield in the
leaft to the defcent of the diaphragm in infpiration. Although
the lower extremities are always rigid at this period, yet
their aétion is fo violent during the height of the paroxy{ms,
that were it not for the ftanders-by, the patient would be pro-
jected feet foremoft off the bed; or would, at other times,
be pufhed upwards with fuch an impetus, as to {trike the
head with great force againft whatever might happen to be
in the way. Occafionally, the flexor mufcles acquire the
preponderance over the extenfors, and the trunk of the body
1s bent forwards, the chin being fixed to the breaft.. This
is what has been called emprofthotonos, and occurs only in
the moft violent, and of courfe the leaft frequent form of the
difeafe. It would appear from fome cafes reported by
Sauvages, that thefe oppofite ftates are difpofed to alternate
with one another.

In extreme cafes, there are hardly any of the voluntary
mufeles that remain in their natural ftate. The face and
eyes are diftorted; the tongue is fuddenly darted out be-
tween the teeth, and often miferably lacerated from their
clofing at the fame moment. Even the {mall mufcles of the
ear partake of the fpafmodic a€tion, which fo univerfally
prevails in the fyftem. While the tongue is thruft out, the
mufcular flefh, which is fituated between the arch of the
lower jaw, and the upper part of the trachea, is drawn up-
wards withm the throat. The countenance is much con-
tra&ted ; a general {weat breaks out; the eyes are watery
and languid; and a pale or bloody froth bubbles out from
between the lips. Tetanus, in thefe violent forms, is, per-
haps, the moft painful difeafe that can affe€&t the human
frame. So exquifite a degree of pain would fearcely be com-
patible with life, were it not occafionally affuaged by the fhort
and imperfeé remiffions of {fpafm which occur. A more
continued and fevere fpafm, or a general convulfion, gene-
rally finifhes the tragedy, and releafes the unhappy victim
from all his mifery: or, if already too exhautted by the
feverity of pain to admit of this mode of termination, deli-
rium often enfues, protects the patient by a happy infen-
fibility to further fuffering, and fmooths the avenue to
death, which is then preceded by a general relaxation of the
fpafms.

Such are the fymptoms which peculiarly belong to teta-
nus; and it is, perhaps, the moft remarkable circumiftance
attending the difeafe, that hardly any function is primarily ©
affeted, except that of mufcular action. The fenfes and appe-
tites are perfe€t and entire ; the intellectual funétions are
undifturbed ; and the natural funétions proceed in their
ufual courfe. Fever is neither an effential nor a common
attendant on the difeafe. In the firit ftage, when the fpafm
is confined to a few mufcles, the pulfe is not affected: it
becomes accelerated only when the fpafmodic a¢tioas are

general,

TETANUS.

general, and this merely in confequence, as it would appear,
of the mechanical effeét produced on the blood-veffels by the
contra¢tions of the mufcles, which will hurry on the circu-
lation, and throw the blood upon the heart in larger quantity
than ufual, rendering the pulfe contraéted, frequent, and
irregular. The refpiration is hurried from the fame caufe,
and the temperature of the body, as might be expeéted, is
increafed in the fame proportion. That thefe fymptoms are
not the effeét of fever, appears from the ftate of the blood,
which is ftated to be of aloofer texture than natural, and never
exhibits the buffy coat, as in inflammatory difeafes. This
circumftance is particularly noticed by Dr. Clephane, and alfo
by Dr. Chalmers; and the remark has often been verified by
fubfequent obfervers. On fome occafions, indeed, when the
diforder is very violent, the arterial ations are increafed, and
a febrile {tate prevails ; and this appears to take place more
frequently when the difeafe has originated from cold, than
when it has been excited by wounds. The {kin is at firft
natural, but, as the difeafe advances, is covered with a cold
fweat. The tongue is always moift. Vomiting fometimes
takes place early in the complaint, but it commonly fubfides
in the progrefs of it: it is even ufual for the appetite of
hunger to remain through the whole courfe of the difeafe ;
and what food can be got down appears to be fufficiently
well digefted. Some local effects feem to be attributable to
the contractions of the abdominal mufcles. ‘The f{phin&er
of the bladder is occafionally affeted with fpafm, fo as to
impede the difcharge of urine, which is voided with pain
and difficulty; at other times, its fecretion is fuppreffed.
When it can be obferved, it is ftated as being high-coloured,
and fomewhat turbid. The bowels are fii to be, in
every in{tance, obitinately coftive, a ftate which may partly
be accounted for by the effect of opiates, which are fo gene-
rally adminiftered far the cure: but’which, independently of
this caufe, appears to be inherent iw/the difeafe itfelf. The
bowels require the moft draftic purgatives ; and there is a
great fenfe of uneafinefs about the precordia, In the latter
flages of this diforder, indeed, when the powers of life begin
to decline from the vaft expenditure of energy rear es
the violent mufcular aétions, every funétion im the fyftem
partakes of the general diforder ; the intelle& gives way, and
the patient finks from exhauftion alone, if a general convul-
fion does not occur to haften his end. It is mentioned by
Dr. Cullen, that, in feveral cafes, a miliary eruption has ap-
peared upon the fkin; but he expreffes a doubt whether this
was a fymptom of the difeafe, or the effec of a certain treat-
ment of it. It has not been obferved, he adds, to denote
either fafety or danger, or to have any effect in changing
the courfe of the diflemper.

From the more violent forms of the difeafe, hardly any
inftance of recovery has been known to take place. On the
other hand, the mere protraétion of the fymptoms is an
indication of the comparative mildnefs of the difeafe. Few
patients fall a facrifice after the ninth or tenth days, which
period they never could have attained, unlefs the violence of
the complaint had in a great meafure fubfided. In this
milder form, however, it may be prolonged feveral weeks ;
and fometimes the fpafmodic difpofition remains, even for
months, before health is completely reftored. The pulfe, in
thefe cafes, continues flow and hard, and the belly bound :
but if blood b drawn, it does not exhibit any difference
from its ufual ftate. Under every circumftance of recovery,
indeed, the conyalefcent labours long under general debility,
and cannot, for months, raife himfelf from a fupine or re-
cumbent pofture without affiftance, nor without pain.

Occafional deviations from the courfe above deferibed are
met with in different cafes ; but they are not of fufficient

importance to lay the foundation of any diftin@ variety. The
moft fingular of thefe anomalies is the one recorded by Dr.
(now fir Gilbert ) Blane, of a cafe in which tetanus prevailed to
a very confiderable extent, without affeCting the patient with
the leaft degree of pain. The fpafms were, in this inftance,
accompanied with a tingling fenfation, which was even rather
agreeable than diftrefling. The cafe, however, terminated
fatally: but to the laft, no pain was experienced. In two
cafes mentioned by the fame author, the {pafms affected only
the fide of the body in which the wound was fituated.

The refult of diffe&tions of patients who have died of
tetanus, has thrown no light whatever on the nature of this
terrible affeétion. Sometimes there are found flight effufions
within the cranium: but, in general, no morbid appearance
whatever can be deteGted in the head. There appears to be
always more or lefs of an inflammatory appearance in the
villous coat about the cefophagus and ftomach in the neigh-
bourhood of the cardia. But thofe who are converfant with
diffeGtions, muft be well aware that thefe appearances are
common to a great number of difeafes, and are uniformly
met with in every cafe of rapid or violent death. Befides
the rednefs and increafed vafcularity of thefe parts, M. Lar-
rey flates that he found the pharynx and cefophagus much
coutraéted, and covered with a vifcid reddifh mucus. Dr.
M‘Arthur found, in feveral cafes, the inteftines much in-
flamed ; and in two of them a yellow waxy fluid, of a pe-
culiar offenfive fmell, covering their internal furface: but
whether the inflammation was primary, or only a confe-—
quence of the preflure of the abdominal mufcles, which
contraét fo violently in this. difeafe, he is unable to decide.
See Medico-Chirurgical Tranfaétions, vol. vii. p. 475-

Tetanus is a difeafe much more prevalent in hot than in
cold climates. It is comparatively a rare difeafe in this
ifland ; but even here, the effect of warmth in giving a pre-
difpofition to it is {ufficiently obfervable. It 1s more com-
mon in the fouth than in the north of England, and is much
more feldom met with in Scotland than in England. It is
fenfibly more frequent in warm than in cold feafons. In
warm, and efpecially in tropical climates, it may be regarded
as an endemic difeafe, appearing at all feafons, but efpe-
cially during the prevalence of the greateft heats. Warmth
operates by increafing-the mability of the fyftem, while at
the fame time it-tends to diminifh the politive ftrength of the
fibre. The fenfibility to all impreflions is greater in hot cli-
mates, while the power of refitting the caufes of injury is
leflened : hence the greater predif{pofition to fpafmodic dif-
eafes in general. The natives of hot climates do not enjoy
a greater exemption from tetanus than European fettlers.
Negro flaves are peculiarly liable to its attacks. It affeéts
all ages, fexes, conftitutions, and complexions ; but, ceteris
paribus, is more apt to feize upon thofe in whom the largeft
fhare of vital power has been beftowed upon the mufcles of
voluntary motion. Hence it attacks more readily the ro-
buft, and thofe who are accuftomed to much bodily labour.
Partly on this account, and partly from their being more ex-
pofed to the occafional caufes.of the difeafe, men are much
more frequently the fubjeéts of tetanus than women. _

In the torrid zone, the moft frequent exciting caufe of te-
tanus isthe application of cold when the body is heated. It
is often induced by the alternate expofure to the fcerching
heat of the fun, and to the heavy {howers which frequently
occur in tropical regions, and produce great and fudden vi-
ciffitudes of temperature. Sleeping out of doors after a
hot day, efpecially on damp ground, or in a fituation where
a ftream of cool air is admitted to the body, is often follow-
ed by tetanus in hot climates. Dr. Chalmers relates that a
young man chofe to cut off his hair aad {have his head on a

warm

TETANUS.

warm day in March, and went to bed without a cap: but
the weather changing and becoming cold in the night, he
was feized with tetanus, and the next morning was found
rigid with the difeafe. The imprudent ufe of the cold
bath, or even a draught of cold water, when the body has
been warm by exercife, has frequently brought on tetanus.

In temperate climates, on the other hand, the difeafe
feldom arifes from the application of cold; although there
is one well-attefted inftance mentioned by Dr. Gregory: in
his lectures, of its occurring from this caufe in Scotland:
but it is more frequently the e¢onfequence of lacerated or
punctured wounds, and is particularly incident to injuries of
nerves, and of tendinous parts. It fometimes follows the
amputation of a limb ; and it would appear that wounds of
the joints, particularly thofe of the hands or feet, are
more peculiarly liable to produce tetanus. In warm
countries, the flichteft cut or bruife is in danger of being
fucceeded by this formidable malady. Hence few of thofe
that are wounded in battle recover: and few furvive any
confiderable operation. It has been fuppofed by many, that
tetanus arofe from the partial divifion of fome nervous fibres,
in confequence of which the undivided filaments were un-
equally and violently ftretched: a ftate which would be re-
medied by their complete divifion. Experience, however,
the ftubborn enemy to fo many hypothefes, has by no means
proved favourable to this opinion. It has alfo been ftated
to.be more frequently the refult of wounds, which remain
in a ftate of great irritability, without proceeding to fup-

uration ; it does not, however, appear that this pofition is

pported on any extenfive obfervation. It very often hap-
pens, indeed, that tetanus fhews itfelf when the wound was
almoft healed, and the dreffings have been laid afide.

In the late campaigns of our armies in the peninfula of
Spain and Portugal, according to the report of fir James
Macgrigor, tetanus occurred in every defcription, and in
every ftage of wounds, from the flighteft to the moft for-
midable, from the healthy and the floughing, from the in-
cifed and lacerated, from the moft fimple and moft compli-
cated. It occurred at uncertain periods; but it was re-
marked, that if it did not commence before’ twenty-two
days from the date of the wound, the patient was fafe. It
terminated in the fecond, third, and fourth days, and even as
late as the feventeenth and twentieth days, though ufually it
was not protracted beyond the eighth. The moft rapidly
fatal cafe that has ever been recorded, is one that we have on
the authority of the late profeflor Robifon of Edinburgh.
It occurred im a negro, who was a waiter at a tavern, and
who happened to fcratch his thumb with the broken edge of
a china plate, and who died of tetanus a quarter of an hour
after this apparently flight accident.

As the acute form of traumatic tetanus, obferves Dr.
Dickfon, is fo uniformly fatal, it is of the greateft confe-
quence to attend to whatever may affift in deteéting the dif-
eafe early, or in warding it off. Richerand ftates, that in
wounds threatening convulfions and tetanus, a perfevering
extenfion of the limbs during fleep often manifeits itfelf
before any affection of the lower jaw ; and we fhould natu-
rally pay more attention to any admonition of this kind in
punctured or extenfive lacerated wounds, particularly of
tendinous or ligamentous parts, efpecially in injuries of the
feet, hands, knee-joint, back, &c. in which the difeafe mott
frequently fupervenes. Some prelufive indications of dan-
ger may often be derived from the increafe of pain, irrita-
tion, and reftleffnefs, neryous twitchings, pain and difficulty
in deglutition, or in turning the head; {pafms, or partial
rigidity of fome of the voluntary mufcles ; pain at the {ero-
biculus cordis ; a fuppreffled or vitiated ftate of the dif-

Vor. XXXV.

charge, &c. which mark the flower approaches of the dif-
eafe. M. Larrey adduces feveral inftances of tetanus, in
which the wound was either dry, or afforded only a feanty
ferous exudation, and where the fymptoms were relieved on
fuppuration being re-eftablifhed ; and Dr. Reid, in the
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal for July 1815, re-
marks, that on removing the dreffing, inftead of healthy pus,
the furface of the wound was ern with a darkifh unhealthy
looking matter, which he had in two former initances noticed
as the forerunner of tetanus. A torpor of the inteftines has
generally been obferved to precede as well as to accompany
the difeafe. Mr. Abernethy obferves, that in four cafes
where he inquired into the ftate of the bowels, the evacua-
tions were not like feces ; and he propofes as a queftion in
inveftigating the caufe, what is the ftate of the bowels be-
tween the infli€tion of the injury and the appearance of this
dreadful malady? Dr. Parry has adduced the velocity of
the circulation as an ufeful criterion of the danger of the
difeafe ; and obferves, that if the pulfe be not above 100 or
110, by the fourth or fifth day the patient almoit always re-
covers ; but if it be quickened early, that it proves fatal ; and
yet there are a few in{tances of recovery where the pulfe has
rifen to 120 on the firft day. M. Larrey remarks, that
when the perfpiration, which fo often attends the difeafe, is
fymptomatic, it begins upon the head and extremities; and
when it is critical, it occurs over the cheft and abdomen :
but in many cafes, perfpiration flows very freely without
bringing relief.

We have already fated, that in fome inftances the fource
of irritation producing the difeafe is not obvious. Such
cafes of {pontaneous tetanus are very rare. Dr. Willan, in
his Reports, p. 289, mentions having met with an inftance in
a female, 32 years of age, where there had not been any
previous accident or local injury whatever ; and where the
only eircumftance, which was likely to have contributed to
its production, was fevere diftrefs of mind, occurring in a
frame previoufly debilitated.

When we refle&t upon the obfcurity which inyolves both
the ratio /ymptomatum and the proximate caufe of tetanic af-
fections, we need not wonder that the practice in thefe
diforders fhould {till be entirely empirical. The indication
of cure which is generally applicable in all difeafes, namely,
the removal of the exciting caufes, has but littl place in a
morbid condition, which is the confequence of caufes that in
general have ceafed to a¢t, or which it is not in our power
either to remove or controul. In thofe cafes where we
could {fuppofe local irritation to be ftill operating, the moft
effetual method of counteraéting its effects on the fyftem,
would obvioufly be to intercept all communication between
the feat of the irritation and the fenforium. If, however,
the difeafe has already eftablifhed itfelf, and the fevere
fymptoms have come on, it does not appear that this would
fucceed in arrefting the courfe of the diforder. Experience
has but too fully fhewn, that the amputation of the limb
from the injury of which the tetanus had arifen, will very
feldom procure even a mitigation of the fymptoms, if per-
formed after a certain period from their firft appearance.
This plan was fully tried in our army at Touloufe, and
totally failed. In fome inftances, however, it is faid that a
favourable change has enfued, and that patients have even
recovered by the facrifice of the wounded limb: and it has
been remarked, that the fpafms relaxed immediately on the
divifion of the foft parts by the knife, and before the faw
was applied to the bone, in order to complete the operation.
It is, therefore, highly probable, that the free divifion of the
parts above the wound, or {till more certainly the ampu-
tation of the limb, would, at a certain flage of the affection,

any fecure

TETANUS.

fecure the patient from the approach of tetanus. But the
difficulty is here to eftimate the probability of the patient’s
having the difeafe, as nothing fhort of the certainty of its
being at hand, could well juitify the operatien.

As it is matter of experience that an early and highly
irritable and painful condition of the wound has a tendency
to excite tetanus, as well as a {tate in which the difcharge is
of a peculiar unhealthy character, or is fupprefled altogether,
our immediate objeéts fhould be to allay as much as poffible
the local irritation, and to re-eftablifh a healthy fecretion of
pus. Mechanical caufes of irritation fhould as much as
poffible be obviated, by early attention to remove fplinters
of bone, balls, or other foreign bodies, that may be lodged
in the wound. Poultices and foothing applications will
anfwer the double purpofe of quieting local inflammation,
and bringing on healthy fuppuration. he irritability of
the furface may fometimes be moft effectually deftroyed by
lunar cauftic, after which, an emollient poultice may be ap-
plied. An oppofite plan of treatment has been recom-
mended by Dr. Rush, namely, that of exciting confiderable
inflammation in the wounded part, by epithems of turpentine,
and other highly {timulating applications; which, though it
may in certain cafes have Feceded in preventing tetanus,
doés not appear to be generally applicable, and feems ac-
cordingly to have been abandoned. On the contrary, it
has of late been the univerfal praGtice in the navy, to add
tinéture of opium to the dreflings applied to wounds, with
a view of preventing tetanus. With the intention of re-
exciting fuppuration where there is no difcharge, M. Larrey
recommends the application of blifters as near as poffible to
the wound, and adduces iniftances of fuccefs from this mode
of treatment. : i

But the cure of tetanus, when once it has commenced, is
to be fought for more by the ufe of general, than of topical
remedies. The feat of the diforder has been transferred to
the brain and nervous fy{ftem, and our efforts muft be direéted
to allay their inordinate aétions. The plan from which
theory would lead us to expect moft fuccefs, is that of
exciting fome new aétion in thefe organs, by which their
energies would be direéted into fome different channel, and
the exifting morbid aétion would be fufpended and fuper-
feded. The remedies which exert the moft powerful imme-
diate effets in the nervous fyftem, are accordingly found
to be the moft efficacious in the cure of tetanus. Opium,
wine, and other highly diffufible ftimuli, digitalis and
other narcotics, the fedden affufion of cold water, bleeding,
purging, impregnating the fyftem with mercury, the exhibi-
tion of arfenic, of oil of turpentine, of alkalies, and of
ipecacuanha, have refpeCtively been reforted to, and with
very various, and in general but limited fuccefs. The fame
methods from which cures have been obtained in the milder
cafes, generally fail to make the leaft impreffion on the dif-
eafe in its feverer forms. We learn from the valuable report
of fir James Macgrigor, already alluded to, that there were
very few, out of feveral hundred cafes that occurred in the
Britifh armies duxing the late campaigns on the Peninfula,
where this difeafe had made any progrefs, in which it ter-
minated fuccefsfully, or in which remedies, however varied,
feemed to have any beneficial influence.

Opium is the remedy on which reliance has moft gene-
rally been placed in combating this formidable difeafe ; and
there is no doubt that in mild cafes it is competent to its
complete folution. But for this purpofe, it is abfolutely
neceflary that its ufe be begun from the earlieft appearance
of the fymptoms ; that it be given in very large dofes ; and
that the dofes be repeated at fhort intervals: fo that the
fyftem be kept conftantly under the influence of the remedy.

IO

It is, indeed, aftonifhing how the fyftem, when poflefled by a
{trong difpofition to fpafm, will refift the operation of this
and other remedies, which in its ordinary ftate would have
been more than fufficient to overpower and deftroy it.
Patients labouring under tetanus will bear with impunity
quantities of opium, that at any other time would have been
certainly fatal. Inftances are upon record of five, ten, and
even twenty grains, being taken every two or three hours
for many days, without its producing any extraordinary
narcotic effeéts upon the fenforium. It is always, however,
advifeable to begin with comparatively moderate dofes,
fuch as forty or fixty drops of tinéture of opium, which
may be repeated at intervals of three or four hours, and in-
creafed at each repetition, till fome fenfible effeét is pro-
duced on the fpafms. It feems requifite to augment the
dofe rapidly, as the difeafe preffes upon us every fours and
no time is to be loft in refifting its advances, while there is

yet a chance of controuling its fury. . The circumftance of —

the clofing of the jaw, and the difficulty of deglutition, the
increafe of which may foon render it hardly poffible to in-
troduce medicines into the ftomach, is an additional motive
urging us to pufh our remedies before thofe obftacles arife.
Glyfters are our only refouree, when it is impoflible to
overcome the fpafm of the fauces. Opium has alfo been
applied externally and topically to the jaws; and relief has
fometimes been obtained from an opiate plafter on the
maffeter mufcles, or behind the ears; but thefe are com-
paratively very trifling in their efficacy, and applicable only
to the flighteft cafes, or to thofe in which convalefcents are
fill affected with a recurrence of one or two local fymptoms.

It is of the greateft importance imall cafes of tetanus, and
more efpecially where opium is given, to excite a proper
aétion of the bowels, fo as to allow of no ftagnation of their
contents. The teftimony of the army phyficians, as appears
from the report of fir James Macgrigor, is highly in favour
of arigid perfeverance in the ufe of purgatives, given in
dofes to produce a full effeét daily. Dr. Forbes ftates, that
a folution of fulphate of magnefia, in infufion of fenna, was
found to anfwer better than any other purgative, and it was
daily given in a fufficient quantity to procure a copious
evacuation, which was always dark-coloured, and highly
offenfive : and to this pra€tice he chiefly attributes, in one
fevere cafe, the removal of the difeafe. The infrequency of
locked jaw in the Weft Indies, in the public fervice, of late
years, is chiefly afcribed by Dr. Dickfon, to the greater
freedom with which purgatives have been finpilayed par-
ticularly fince the publication of Dr. Hamilton’s work on
the operation of this clafs of remedies ; an opinion which is
corroborated by the teftimony of various authors, as to the
{tate of obftinate coftivenefs which prevails in this difeafe,
and the offenfive nature of the contents of the inteftines.

For the introduétion of the ftimulant and tonic plan of
treatment, we are chiefly indebted to Dr. Rufh, who was
led to adopt it from fome theoretical views he entertained
on the nature of tetanus, which he conceived to be effen-
tially a difeafe of debility. There can be no doubt that
in many cafes the exhibition of wine or fpirits has been
attended with very good effects. Dr. Hoffack, in vol. ii.
of the American Medical Repofitory, relates feveral cafes
which were cured by large quantities of wine.

A free allowance of wine and porter after gun-fhot wounds
has appeared alfo, according te the ftatement of Dr. M‘Ar-
thur, to have contributed to the very {mall number of cafes
of tetanus which occurred under his care in the hofpital at
Barbadoes, during nearly fix years of the moft active period of
the war. Of the numerous cafes of gun-fhot wounds received
into the hofpital, and of operations performed, during the

whole

TETANUS.

whole of that period, only two inftances of tetanus occurred.
Bark has been given in conjunction with wine and opium ;
and the muriated tin@ure of iron has alfo been ufed with ap-
parent advantage. The faccefs of the tonic plan of treat-
ment reits alfo on the teftimonies of Dr. Wright of Jamaica,
Dr. Cochrane of Nevis, and feveral other Weft Indian prac-
titioners ; and alfe on that of Dr. Currie of Liverpool.

The prefence of an inflammatory diathefis, which occa-
fionally accompanies the fpafmedic ftate, preferts, however,
a material obftacle to the employment of the above-mentioned
remedies. So much is this the cafe, that many phyficians
have recommended the free ufe of the lancet, particularly in
the early ftages of tetanus. Dr. Dickfon ftates it as his
opinion, that in a full habit, where the wound is {welled,
inflamed, and painful, venefeCtion, with free purging, and fuch
other means as are calculated to allay the ene and local
irritation, afford the faireft chance ef averting the danger.
(See the 7th volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Tranfactions,
part 2.) In the 6th volume of the fame work, a cafe is
detailed by Mr. Earle, in which, though it terminated fatally,
bleeding was beneficial, and leffened the patient’s fufferings ;
and in the fame volume, it is alfo mentioned with appro-
bation by the medical officers in the Peninfula. Dr. M‘Ar-
thur confiders that he ufed blood-letting with evident relief
in one cafe, in the naval hofpital at Barbadoes; that the
{pafms were ameliorated, the difeafe protraéted, and the
morbid appearanees after death were lefs marked in confe-
quence. M. Larrey alfo adduces fome examples where it
produced a good effet. Mr. Guthrie gives three cafes which
occurred in the hofpitals of St. Andero, out of many which
were recorded, where venefection was the principal remedy.
Tn the firft, in which tetanus from a wound in the hand was
advancing with rapidity, the patient was bled ad deliquium
feveral times with good effet, calomel and diaphoretics being
given at the fame time, and he recovered. In the fecond
cafe, the patient was bled in the fame manner, with an evident
amendment of the fymptoms ; fo much fo, indeed, that he
fuffered but little from fpafm, and could open his mouth
very well, when he was feized with diarrhoea, which, in the
debilitated ftate he was in, carried him off. In the third cafe,
of a man of a fanguine temperament, and fuffering from acute
tetanus, venefection pufhed to the utmoft totally failed.

Digitalis has been tried in the Peninfula in feveral cafes,
occafionally with good effect, though it never appears to
have effected acure. Ether, camphor, mufk, and other anti-
f{pafmodics, as likewife the alkalies, were alfo tried, and found
equally unfuccefsful. Caftor is itrongly recommended by
Aratzus, but is too feeble a remedy to have any decifive
influence in fo viclent adiforder.

The affufion of cold water has in general been attended
with great benefit. It is a praétice particularly recom-
mended by Dr. Wright, in the London Medical Obfervations,
and is fanétioned bythe concurring teftimonies of Dr.Cochrane,
in the Medical Commentaries, and of Dr. Currie, in his Me-
dical Reports, &c. as well as by many other practitioners.
A large pailful of cold water fhould be thrown upon the
patient every two or three hours; he is to be immediately
wiped dry, and laid in bed after each affufion, and an opiate
draught adminiftered. Some remiffion of the fpafms will in
tms way be generally obtained; and many inftances are upon
record, of complete cures being effeéted by perfeverance in
this plan. Before the introduétion of this practice, the warm
bath was very commonly employed ; the patient, after ufing
it, being placed in bed, without being dried, between two
blankets, with a view to bring out a fweat. It does not
appear, however, that this plan was attended with any ge-
eral or permanent advantage ; and is certainly inferior in

efficacy to the cold affufion. The cold bath, fays fir James
Macgrigor, in acute tetanus, is worfe than ufelefs. The ufe
of a hot bath impregnated with potafs, and a few ounces of
quick-lime, has been much recommended by Dr. Stutz of
Suabia in traumatic tetanus. See Medical and Phyfical
Journal, vol. iii.

The powerful relaxing effects of tobacco given in glyfter
in cafes of hernia and enteritis, have fuggefted its employ-
ment in tetanus. Mr. Earle tried it in one very acute cafe,
in which, although it afforded a temporary alleviation from
fpafm, fo much agitation was produced by it, that it was not
perfevered in. He is, however, induced to recommend the
trial of a fuppofitory made of the extraét of nicotiana; and
paffed up into the rectum. But, according to the report of
fir James Macgrigor, tobacco glyfters, tried in the advanced
ftage of the difeafe, feemed to have no effect. He repre-
fents, however, the tobacco fume as deferving of further
trial. A remarkable cafe is recorded by Dr. Phillips, in the
6th volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Tranfa€tions, in which
the jaw fuddenly fell, upon the exhibition of an enema with
oil of turpentine. ’

It has been fuppefed that mercury thrown quickly into
the fyftem, fo as to excite falivation, would prove highly
ferviceable in relieving the fpafms, and particularly ae of
the mufcles of the jaw. This praétice was firft introduced
by the practitioners in the Weft Indies, and in particular by
Drs. D. and A. Monro, and appears to have fucceeded in
many cafes. Dr. Rufh conceives that its falutary effect is
conneéted with its inducing in the fyftem a ftate of inflam-
matory diathefis incompatible with the fpafmodic aétion,
which it would therefore fuperfede. Whatever benefit, how-
ever, may have been experienced from this plan in mild cafes,
it completely fails in the more fevere of making any impref-
fion on the difeafe. Dr. Emery, Mr. Guthrie, and other
medical officers attached to our army in the Peninfula, after
the battle of Salamanca, tried inunétion of the whole body
three times a day, with ftrong mercurial ointment, in unli-
mited quantity, with no degree of fuccefs. Mr. Guthrie
reports, that after the battle of Touloufe, a fatal cafe occur-
red in a man ftrongly under the influence of mercury, which
he had ufed ‘previous to the action for the cure of the itch.
The combination of calomel with ipecacuanha, which has
been much recommended, is equally inefficacious with the
other remedies, in the acute and fully formed difeafe. In
the mild tetanus, benefit has been derived from calomel: and
its operation on the bowels is always ufeful, and fingularly
fo in the mild difeafe diftinguifhed by the fpafms commg on
flowly, and continuing of the fame violence ; inftead of their
fudden acceffion, and their continuing with increafing vio-
lence, as happens in the acute fully formed tetanus. In this,
calomel cannot be depended upon, as the patient 1s carried
off before the medicine can have any effect.

Several remedies were formerly in vogue, of which it is
hardly neceffary to give any account, as they have now loft
all the credit they once enjoyed. It may be fufficient to
mention the Barbadoes tar, alluded to by Dr. Cullen ; the
colchicum autumnale, or meadow faffron, recommended by
Dufrefnoy ; bliftering, eleGtricity, unétuous applications,
partial fomentations, &c. moft of which appear either to
bé inert, or at beft very weak auxiliaries to the remedies
already defcribed.

Of late years, tetanus has been much lefs frequent in the
Weft Indies, when compared with former wars. This is
attributed, apparently with great reafon, by Dr. Dickfon,
to the improvements in the medical and furgical treatment
of wounds ; to ‘greater cleanlinefs, and more perfect venti-
lation ; and in general to fuperior comforts, diet, and accom-

cpa modation ;

sd i

modation ; but particularly to the greater attention paid to
the ftate of the bowels. See Medico-Chirurgical Tranfac-
tions, vol. vii. '

TETARBOLION, in Ancient Coinage, the quarter-
obolus, which is the moft minute coin yet found, being of
22 grains, and its current worth a farthing and a half.

TETARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
fituated in that part of Lycaonia, which Ptolemy compre-
hends in Galatia.

TETARTEMORION, among the Ancients, denotes
the fourth part of the zodiac.

TETARTO-CHRUSOS, ciizeho-xeuce:, in Ancient Coin-
age, a gold coin of Philip, Alexander, and Lyfimachus,

“which was a quarter of the Philippus or xpuces 5 it weighs
33 grains, and pafled for 5 drachmz of filver, 3s. 9d., now
worth intrinfically 5s.

TETAVI, in Geography, a town of the principality of
Georgia, in the province of Caket.

TETBURY, or Tepzury, anciently Teteberiz, a large
and re{pe€table market-town in the hundred of Longtree,
and county of Gloucefter, England, is fituated 20 miles
S. by E. from Gloucefter, and gg miles W. by N. from
London. Its name evidently determines it to have been a
military ftation. On the S.E. fide, within the memory of
many living, were traces of a ftrong camp, now completely
deftroyed, where arrows and javelin-heads have been found,
with various Englifh coins of high antiquity. Roman coins
of the Lower Empire have likewife been met with in and
near the town. Tetbury-confifts principally of four ftreets,
croffing in the centre, and contains many good ftone. build-
ings. The governing officer is a bailiff, who is annually
chofen. The population of the parifh, including four ham-
lets, in the year 1811, was 2533, the number of houfes 522.
A weekly market is held on Wednefday, and four fairs an-
nually. The wool-combing and wool-itapling branches are
carried on here, but to no great extent. The clothing ma-
nufaéture was formerly attempted, but the want of a con-
tinual fupply of water prevented its being brought to per-
fection. Even for domeftic ufes, water has, till within a
few years, been fcarce; but in 1749, a well was funk to
the depth of 104 feet, fince which time other wells have been
opened, and the inconvenience in a great degree removed.
The parifh church confiits of an ancient tower, and a mo-
cern body ; the former is terminated by a fpire, the latter
is built in imitation of the pointed ftyle, appearing exter-
nally as a fingle nave with cloifters, but withinfide divided
into aifles, by a very flight arcade and cluftered columns, on
the principle on which the roof of the theatre at Oxford
was conftruéted. The old church, which was built foor
after the Conqueft, having become from length of time very
ruinous, was taken down (excepting the tower and fpire),
and rebuilt at the expence of 500o/.; and opened for divine
fervice. in 1784. Two turnpike roads lead through the
town in crofs direétions ; one to London and Bath, the
other to Gloucefter and Southampton. A deep hollow, in
the nature of a moat, at the weft end, made the entrance
into the town inconvenient, till the commiffioners of the
roads built a high bridge of four arches acrofs it in 1775.
Rudge’s Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire, vol. i. 1803. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. vy. Gloucefterfhire ; by J. Brit-
ton and E. W. Brayley, 1803.

TETCHA, a {mall river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Ifet, near Dolmatoy, in the province of Ekaterinburg.

TE-TCHUEN, a town of Corea; 60 miles E.N.E. of
Han-tcheou.

TETE, a fort belonging to the Portuguefe, in the coun-
try of Mocaranga, on the ental.

I

Ef

Tete de Buch, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Gironde, fituated on the’S. fide of a large bay, called
“©The Harbour of Arcachon,’ the entrance of which is
dangerous on account of the fand-banks; 30 miles S.W. of
Bourdeaux. .

TETEROA, ‘a harbour on the W. coaft of the ifland
of Ulietea. °

TETEROW, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
18 miles S.W. of Guttro. ‘

TETERSKOIJ, a town of Ruffia, on the Podkamen-
fkala Tungufka. “N. lat. 59° 54!. E. long ror? 14/.

TETHALASSOMENOS, a term uled by the old me-
dical writers, to exprefs wine mixed with fea-water.

TETHER. See Tepper.’ « ; a

TETHERING, the practice of confining animals to a
certain range of feeding, by means of ropes, chains, or other
contrivances. ig . :

TETHRONIUM, in ‘Ancient Geography, a town of
Greece, in the Phocide; being one of thofe which Hero-
dotus refers to the vicinity of the river Cephifus.

TETHUROA, in Gesgraphy, a {mall ifland in the South
Pacific ocean, fubje& to Otaheite, compofed of fix or feven
low iflets near each other, not many feet above the level .of
the fea; abounding in cocoa-nut trees, but not in bread-
fruit, which the inhabitants are not allowed to cultivate.
The inhabitants are about. 3000, chiefly employed in catch-
ing of fifh, which they bring to Otaheite, and exchange f
bread-fruit ; 24 miles N.W. of Point Venus. S. lat. 17° 4!-
W. long. 149° 30’.

TETHYS, in Afjthology, the daughter of Colum and
Terra, and wife of Oceanus. _ Her chariot, which is repre-
fented as gliding over the furface of the waters, was a fhell
of an extraordinary figure, and whiter than ivory.

Teruys, in Zoology, a genus of the Mollufca order of
Vermes, or worms ; the charaéters of which are, that the body
is free, fomewhat oblong, flefhy, and having no peduncles ;
the mouth terminating in a cylindric probofcis, under the
lip ; and two foramina on the left fide of the neck. It has
two fpecies.

Leporius.
ranean fea. .

Fimerica. With a crenulated lip ; found in the Adriatic
fea.

TETIMIXIRA, in Jchthyology, the name of an Ameri-
can fifh, more ufually known by the name of the pudiano.

TETIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Beraun; 3 miles S. of Beraun. ‘

TETITLAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Xalifco ; 18 miles S.Esof Compoftello.

TETIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the ifle of
Cyprus, which ran from the N.W. to the S.E. and dif-
charged itfelf into the fea, near the promontory of Dades,
after having watered Citium. .

TETIUSCHI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
rovernment of Kazan, on the Volga; 52 miles S. of Kazan.

TETOBE, a town of the ftate of Georgia; 5 miles W.
of Tugeloo. : ;

TETRACERA, in Botany, received that name from
Linnzus, in allufion to the four horn-like points of the cap-
fules of the original fpecies, the word being compounded of
TET BCS four folds and xsex:, a horn. The genus however has
fubfequently received an acceffion of feveral {pecies with foli-
tary capfules and ftyles, which invalidate the ftri@ propriety
of its name, and render its fituation in the artificial fyftem
of Linnzus ambiguous.—Linn. Gen. 275. Schreb. 369.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1240, Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Juff. 339.
Lamarck Iluftr.t. 485. Gaertn. t.69. (Delima; Linn.

: Gen.

With a ciliated lip ; found in the Mediter-

TETRACERA.

Gen. 271. Schreb. 359. Juff. 339. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. 475. Gertn. t. 106. Rhinium; Schreb. 7o1. Tigarea;
Aubl. Guian. 917. Jufl. 339. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 826.
Euryandra; Forft. Gen. t. 41. Schreb. 367. Jufl. 280.
See Eurvanpra.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Tetragynia,
Linn. Willd. Rather Jcofandria Monogynia ; or Pentagynia,
according to the principles laid down in Sm. Introd. to Bot.
ed. 3. 325. Nat. Ord. Senticofe, Linn. Rofacee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cail. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five or
fix deep, rounded, unequal fegments, permanent. Cor.
Petals from three to five, roundifh, concave, inferted into
the calyx, and longer than its fegments. Stam. Filaments
numerous, inferted into the calyx, fhorter than the petals ;
anthers of two round lobes. Pi/?. Germens fuperior, from
one to three or four, ovate, quite diftin@ ; ftyles vertical,
awl-fhaped; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Capfules from one to
three or four, ovate, divaricated, each of one valve, burit-
ing along the upper edge, of one cell. Seeds folitary,
roundifh, attached to the bottom of the capfule, and clothed
with a jagged tunic from the bafe.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five or fix deep unequal fegments.
Petals four or five. Capfules burfting at their upper edge.
Seeds folitary, tunicated.

Obf. The capfules refemble follicles, but the feed is at-
tached to their bafe.

Se&tion 1. lowers with a folitary germen and flyle.

1. T.-farmentofa. Trailing Tetracera. ‘¢ Vahl Symb.
yv. 3.70.” Willd. n.1. (Delima farmentofa; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 736. - Burm. Ind. 122. t. 37. f. 1. Piripu; Rheede
Hort. Malab. v. 7. ror. t. 54. Frutex indicus farmentofus,
foliis hifpidis rigidis, &c.; Burm. Zeyl. ror. )—Leaves el-
liptic-oblong, ferrated, rough. Style folitary. » Follicle
oyate, polifhed, briftly.—Native of Ceylon.—The lem is
fhrubby, with trailing, round, leafy branches, rough with
minute briftly hairs. Leaves alternate, ftalked, very rough
on the upper fide with minute fcales, furnifhed with one rib,
and many ftraight, parallel, tranfverfe, oblique veins, which
latter are hairy beneath. Panicles terminal, compound,
many-flowered, hairy. Calyx of the fruit reflexed, reddifh,
fringed. Follicle pointed, the fize of a {mall pea, brown,
highly polifhed, clothed with ereé& briftly hairs. Seed black,
itanding on a toothed cup-like tunic.

2. T. tomentofa. Downy Tetracera. Willd. n.2. (Ti-
garea dentata; Aubl. Guian. 920. t. 351.)—Leaves ellip-
tical, pointed, with tooth-like ferratures; fmooth above ;
downy beneath. Flowers dioecious. Style folitary.—Na-
tive of woods in Cayenne, flowering in January, and ripen-
ing its feed in March. The trailing fhrubby branched /flem
climbs to the tops of the higheft trees, from whence its pen-
dulous branches reach almoft to the ground. The young
Jhoots are downy. Leaves alternate, ftalked, four or five
inches long, and two or more in breadth; their upper fur-
face {mooth and green; the under filky and hoary. The
flowers and fruit agree with the following.

3. T. a/pera. WHarth Tetracera. Willd. n. 3. (Tigarea
afpera ; Aubl. Guian. 918. t. 350.)—Leaves roundith,
fomewhat undulated, rough. Flowers dioecious. Style fo-
litary.—Frequent in the woods of Cayenne, bearing flowers
and fruit in January. Aublet fays it is fometimes fo
abundant as to render the forefts impaffable, from the en-
tanglement of its flems and branches, which climb to the
tops of trees, and hang from therice to the ground. Their
roughnefs, like that of the aves, renders them the more
troublefome and dangerous. The French call this fhrub
Liane rouge, or red climber, from the colour of its de-
coétion, which the natives of the country confider as a
remedy for venereal diforders. The /eaves are alternate,

ftalked, of a broad elliptical, or roundith, figure, obtufe,
flizhtly wavy at the margin, rough on both fides. with
rigid, crooked, hoary hairs. Their ribs and veins like thofe
of the firft fpecies. The largeft /eaves are three inches
and a half long, and three broad. Flowers in axillary
panicles, male on one plant, female on another. Calyx in
four or five concave, pointed fegments. Petals four or five,
white. . Stamens numerous, fhort. Anthers yellow, their
two lobes feparated by a furrow. Pi/lil abortive in the male
flowers, as the flamens are without anthers in the female,
whofe germen is roundifh, with one ffy/e, and a broad blunt
fligma. Capfule folitary, reddifh, rough to the touch, con-
taining one feed. Aublet.

4. T. nitida. Polifhed 'Tetracera. ‘ Vahl Symb. v. 3.
70.”? Willd. n. 8.—“ Leaves lanceolate-oblong, rough, en-
tire. Style folitary.””—Suppefed to be a native of Trinidad.
Willd.

Willdenow has four more fpecies in this fection, of which
his T. Doliocarpus, flrida, and Calinea, will be found under
our article Doriocarpus; and his 7. obovata is our
Mappia.

Se&. 2. Flowers with three or four germens and flyles.

5. I. Euryandra. New-Caledonian Tetracera. ‘ Vahl
Symb. v. 3. 71.”? Willd. n. 9. (Euryandra feandens ;
Forft. Prod. 41.)—Leaves oblong, obtufe, {mooth, entire.
Styles three.—Native of New Caledonia. Svem fhrubby,
climbing. Leaves ftalked, two inches or more in length ;
paler beneath.

6. T. volubilis. Serrated Rough Tetracera.. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 751. Hort. Cliff. 214. Willd. n. 10. (Arbor ame-
ricana convolvulacea, Broad leaf, i. e. platyphyllos barba-
denfibus dicta, foliis ferratis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 146. f. 1.)—
Leavesyobovate-oblong, ferrated, very harfh. Styles four.
Calyx filky within.—Native of the Weit Indies. The
branches are round, with arough, dotted, membranous, de-
ciduous bark. eaves alternate, ftalked, five or fix inches
long, and two and a half or three wide, obtufe, very rough,
like a file, with minute fcales, efpecially beneath ; each late-
ral rib, at leaft in the upper half of the leaf, terminating in
‘a fharp but fhallow ferrature. Panicles terminal, compound,
rough with ftarry hairs. Calyx harfh and hoary externally ;
briftly and filky within. Cap/ules unequal, ovate, tumid,
beaked, brown, fmooth and highly polifhed; rounded, not
depreffed or keeled, at the fides. Seed fmall, black, in a
pale, finely laciniated, tunic.

7. T. rotundifolia. Round-leaved Tetracera.— Leaves
roundifh-elliptical, entire, very harfh on both fides. Styles
four. Calyx {mooth within.—Native of Guiana. We have
received fpecimens of this new fpecies from Mr. Rudge and
Mr. Forfter, under the name of Tigarea afpera of Aublet,
our Tetracera afpera, fee n. 3, which, unle{s that author has
made feveral great miftakes, muft be a very different plant.
The prefent has always three or four /ly/es, and as many cap-
Jules; and the leaves, though like Aublet’s t. 350. in fhape,
are quite entire, not aathileted They are harfh on both
fides, like a very fine file, as is the branch in a lefs degree.
The panicles are terminal. The calyx has a fhort, inverfely
conical, tube, and is hoary externally, fmooth and naked
within. The /famens appear to be perfect in the fame flower
with the four pi/fils. Capfules three or four, oval, brown,
fmooth and fhining ; keeled and deprefled at the fides, lefs
tumid than the foregoing. Seéd entirely enveloped in its
jagged tunic.

8. T. Jevis. Smooth Tetracera. ‘* Vahl Symb. v. 3. 71.”
Willd. n. 11.—* Leaves oblong, fmooth, pointed, nearly
entire. | Flowers terminal. Capfules four.””—Native of the
Eaft Indies. Stem fhrubby. Leaves alternate, two or ii

inches

Bigs 2 2

inches long, veiny, fmooth on both fides; tapering at the
bafe; ferrated with a few flight teeth towards the point.
Footftalks very fhort. Flower-/talks folitary or in pairs, ter-
minal, an inch long. FYowers fomewhat racemofe, one or
two on each partial ftalk. Calyx with fix roundifh feg-
ments. Capfules four, as long as the finger-nail, roundifh,
tumid, pointed, very imooth and polifhed. Seed {mall, black,
polifhed, covered in its lower half with a’ whitifh tunic,
whofe margin is toothed. Vahl.

g. T. alnifolia. -Alder-leaved Tetracera. Willd. mere:
—* Leaves oblong, acute, nearly entire ; roughith beneath.
Panicle terminal.’’—Native of Guinea. Branches woody,
round, fmooth. eaves coriaceous, tapering at the bafe,
rounded at the extremity, with fomewhat of a point ; moftly
entire, but occafionally furnifhed with an obfolete tooth or
two near the end; veiny ; fhining and {mooth above. Calyx
with four deep fegments. Petals apparently five. Filaments
a little dilated at the end, with an anther (or lobe) at each
fide. Cap/ules four. Seed black, entirely covered by its
whitifh tunic. Panicle fimple. Sta/ks three-flowered. Willd.

Willdenow fufpeéts the Aff indica, of Houttuyn’s
Dutch edition of the Vegetable Syitem of Linnzus, v. 4,
40. t. 26. f. 1, may be another fpecies of the genus before
us. The fame author is alfo inclined to refer Thunberg’s
Wauteomia, fee that article hereafter, to Tetracera.

TETRACHORD, Terracuorpon, formed of sera,
af r:xJapx, four times, and yop2n, a chord, or ftring, in the
Ancient Mufic, was aTeries of four founds, of which the ex-
tremes, or firft and laft, conftituted a fourth. Thefe ex-
tremes were fixed and immutable ; the two middle founds
were changeable according to the genera, and called
mobiles. There were three genera or ways of tuning
each tetrachord; the diatonic, chromatic, and en onic.
The charaéter of the diatonic was the tone; of the chro-
matic, the femitone ; and of the enharmonic, the quarter-

tone.
fj

In the chromatic genus, of two 5
femitones and a minor third. ee

The general fyftem or feale of the Greeks confifted of
tetrachords repeated, as the feale of Guido does of aétaves.
See Greek Mufic.

The tetrachord of Mercury contained four ftrings or
chords, in the proportion of twelve, nine, eight, and fix ;
fo as to giye the fourth, fifth, and o@ave of the lowett
chord. This is the opinion of Boethius, and after him of
Zarlino. Vide Wallis’s Append. Ptolem. Harm. p. 178.

TETRACTIS, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by
Linkius, and other authors, to a kind of ftar-fifh, com-
pofed only of four rays, the more. common kinds having
five.

TETRACTYC Arirumetic. See ArITHMETIC.

TETRACTYS, in the Ancient Geometry, The Pytha-

oric tetractys is a point, a line, afurface, and a folid.

TETRADECARHOMBIS, in Natural Hiftory, the
name of a genus of foflils, of the clafs of the felenitx.

The word is derived from the Greek alsa a2 dexacy

A tetrachord in the diatonic
genus confifted of one major femi-
tone and two tones.

In the enharmonic genus, of a
quarter tone, a femitone, and a
major third.

ten, and pouSos, a rhomboidal figure, and exprefles a rhom-

hoidal body confifting of fourteen planes,

a

The charaéters of this genus are, that the bodies of it
are exactly of the fame form with the ¢ommon felenitz ;
but that in thefe, each of the end planes is divided into two;
and there are by this means eight of thefe planes, inftead of
four. See SELRBNITES. :

TETRADIAPASON, Quadruple Diapafon, a wufical
chord, otherwife called a quadruple eighth, or nine-and-
twentieth. See Diapason.

TETRADITA, Terravtres, in Antiquity, a name
given to feveral different feéts of heretics, out of fome par-
ticular refpect they bore to the number four, called in
Greek z:zpx. Thus the Sabbatians were called tetradite,
from their fafting on Eafter-day, as on the fourth day, or
on Wednefday.

The Manichees, and others, who admitted of a quater-
nity inftead of a Trinity in the Godhead, or four perfons
in lieu of three, were alfo called tetradite. .

The followers of Petrus Fullenfis bore the fame appel-
lation of tetradite, by reafon of the addition they made
to the Trifagion, to countenance an error they held, that
in our Saviour’s paffion it was not any particular perfon of
the Godhead, e. gr. the Son that fuffered, but the whole
Deity. © :

The ancients alfo gave the name tetradite to children
born under the fourth moon, and thefe they believed un-
happy.

TETRADIUM, in Botany, from réeadior, a party of
four, as a file of four foldiers, &c. alluding to the pre-
valence of the number four in its parts of. frugtification.—
Loureir. Cochinch. 91.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Tetra-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Terebintacee, Jufl.? or perhaps Rutacea.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, permanent,
of four f{preading acute leaves. Cor. Petals four, ovate, in-
curved, or nearly ereét, longer than the calyx. Stam. Fila-
ments four, thick, awl-fhaped, hairy, equal to the corolla in
length ; anthers ovate, ereét, of two cells. Piff. Germen
roundifh, four-lobed ; ftyle none ; ftigmas four, awl-fhaped,
erect. Peric. Capfules four, roundifh, buriting at the top.
Seeds folitary, roundifh, polifhed, tunicated.

Eff..Ch. Calyx inferior, of four leaves.
Capfules four. Seeds folitary, tunicated.

1. T. trichotamum. Cdy dau dedi of the Cochinchinefe.
Native of the hills of Cochinchina. A middle-fized tree,
with afcending branches. Leaves pinnate, with an odd one 5
leaflets lanceolate, fmooth, entire. Flowers whitifh, in
ample, nearly terminal, three-forked clu/flers ; or rather, as
we prefume, panicles.

De Theis well remarks, that this genus appears to be
allied to Brucea: we think alfo it is evidently very near
Facara (fee thofe articles), In deference to the weighty
opinion of Juffieu, we have not, without doubt, referred it
to his natural order of TrrEBINTACER ; but it appears
rather to belong to his imperfeétly-defined one of Ruracex,
to both which articles we refer the reader.

Nothing is faid by Loureiro refpecting the qualities or
ufes of this tree.

TETRADRACHM, in Ancient Coinage, a filver coin
worth four drachmas, or 3s. fterling, the drachma being
valued at gd. But if we eitimate the value of the drachma
at a higher rate, that of the tetradrachm will increafe in
due proportion. This is the largeft form of Greek filver
coins, excepting the tetradrachm of the Eginean ftandard,
which is worth 5s. The largeit tetradrachms weighed from
430 to 440 grains. See DracuM and SHEKEL.

TETRADYNAMIA, in Botany, (from serge, four, and
Duvets, power, indicating a fuperiority of four ftamens over
the reft,) the fifteenth clafs of the Linnzan artificial eek

whic

Petals four. -

TET

which is in itfelf, with the exception of one genus, Gieome,
a natural clafs, comprehending all the cruciform flowers.
Its effential charaéter confifts in having fix ftamens, four of
which rife above the reft. This is indeed fo naturally dif-
tiné a tribe of plants, that it is hard to trace any particular
affinity between them and any others. The following is
the character of the flowers.

_ Cal. Perianth oblong, of four ovate-oblong, concave,
obtufe, converging leaves, projecting downwards at their
bafe, the oppofite ones moft fimilar to each other, deci-
duous. The projection generally obfervable at the bafe is
for the lodgment of honey, the calyx here being a neétary,
fo far at leaft as containing the honey. . Cer. termed cruci-
form, of four equal petals; their claws inverfely awl-fhaped,
or tapering downwards, flattened, ereét, rather longer than
the calyx ; limb flat, or nearly fo, the border of each petal
being dilated outwards, obtufe, its fides fcarcely touching
its neighbour. The petals are inferted into the fame circle
in which the ftamens are placed. Stam. Filaments fix, awl-
fhaped, erect, the two oppofite ones the length of the
ealyx, the reft rather longer, but not equal to the corolla ;
anthers fomewhat oblong, pointed, thickeft at the bafe,
erect, their points recurved. Neétariferous glands, vari-
oufly circumftaneed in the different genera, are feated at
the bafe of the ftamens, efpecially between the fhorter ones
and the piitil, thofe ftamens, to avoid prefling upon fuch
glands, being moftly curved, by which they become fhorter
than the four others. /Pi/?. Germen fuperior, daily in-
creafing in height; ftyle either the length of the longer
ftamens, or wanting ; itigma obtufe. eric. Pod of two
valves, and frequently as many cells, buriting from the bafe
to the fummit, the partition, if prefent, more or lefs ex-
tended beyond the valves, the prominent part being the ori-
ginal ftyle. Seeds roundifh, drooping or pendulous, ranged
alternately, in a double row, along the partition, in which
they make flight depreffions. Receptacle linear, furrounding
the edge of the partition, and embraced by the margins of
the valves.

Linnzus obferves, that all fyftematic botanifts, even the
moft eminent, have unanimoufly confidered this as a truly.
natural clafs of plants. Some of them have nevertheleis
admitted into it, here and there, a genus or two in oppofi-
tion to nature, which fault he juftly conceives himfelf to
have avoided, except with regard to Cleome.

The plants of this clafs have univerfally been termed an-
tifcorbutic. Their flavour is generally acrid, though
watery. Few vegetables yield lefs of an effential oil; yet
this fubftance is to be obtained from them by cohobation,
or repeated diftillation, and its qualities are peculiarly acrid
and fcetid, fomewhat like volatile alkali. This oil gives the
offenfive {cent to water in which cabbage has been boiled,
and it caufes thefe vegetables to difagree with fome
ftomachs, though they are generally reputed wholefome.

The elafs in queftion is divided into two orders, 1. Silicu-
ofa, in which the pod is roundifh, and for the moft part
hardly longer than its ftyle. 2. Siliquefa, with a very long
pod, to which the fcarcely perceptible ftyle bears no pro-
portion. :

The genera of the firft order are diftributed into two
feétions, one having the pod, here termed a filicula, or
pouch, entire, and the other furnifhed with a notched, or
emarginate, pouch. The genera here are ehara¢terifed by
the different fhapes of their pouch, or its valves, and the
comparative length of the ftyle. :

The order of Siliguofa is divided into fuch as have a clofe
calyx, whofe leaves converge longitudinally, and fueh as
have a gaping, or fpreading calyx, The genera here are

Poe ir

partly defined by the form of the pod and its valves, and
their mode of buriting, and partly by the fituation of the
nectariferous glands.

Thefe principles of generic diftinétion, laid down by
Linnzus, have not proved fo fatisfactory in practice as
could have been wifhed, infomuch that, not only Haller,
but fome lefs controverfial botanifts, have differed from the
learned Swede in their ideas of feveral of the cruciform
genera. The beft attempt to reform them has lately been
made by Mr. R. Brown, in the fecond edition of Mr.
Aiton’s Hortus Kewenfis. "This able obferver has recurred
for affiftance to the cotyledons, taking into confideration
their being either folded or flat, accumbent or incumbent.
The latter difference we believe to have been firft noticed
by Gaertner, in his charaéters of Eryfimum. By accumbent
is meant that the edges of the unexpanded cotyledons are
applied, in a parallel manner, to the infant radicle ; and by
incumbent, that the flat fide, or back, is prefented to that
part. The latter is feen in LEryfimum, and is the moft un-
ufual pofition. The number of feeds in each cell of the
pouch is alfo adverted to by Mr. Brown, as well as feveral
other incidental marks; by the affiftance of all which the
whole tribe appears much more fatisfactorily arranged than
heretofore, though we do not profefs to agree, in every point,
with our learned friend. His Mathiala, confifting of the
hoary f{pecies of Cheiranthus, fuch as incanus, Jinuatus, tri-
cufpidatus, &c. feems lefs happily feparated from the ori-
ginal genus, than his Malcomia, compofed of C. maritimus,
Hefperis africana, &c. In the latter cafe, the fimple acute
ftigma, incumbent cotyledons, and the habit of the plants,
afford a fufficiently clear diftinétion. In the former, what-
ever difference there may be in habit, the charaGters feem
to us not fufficiently evident or important. It is alfo
proper to remark, that whatever affiftance fuch a difference
as that above defcribed in the cotyledons may afford, to-
wards forming a philofophical idea of a genus, its great ob-
{curity renders it unfit for practical and daily ufe. On
this fubje& we need not enlarge upon what Linnzus has fo
happily enforced, and generally practifed.

TETRAEDRON, or Trerraneproy, formed of rerpx,
four, and idea, fide, in Geometry, one of the five regular
or Pktonic bodies of folids, comprehended under four equi-
lateral and equal triangles.

The tetraedron may be conceived as a triangular pyramid
of four equal faces. Such is that reprefented in Plate XV.
Geomet. fig. 4.

It is demonftrated by mathematicians, that the {quare of
the fide of a tetraedron is to the fquare of the diameter of
a f{phere, in which it may be infcribed, in a fubfefquialteral
ratio: whence it follows, that the fide of a tetraedron is to
the diameter of a {phere it is inferibed in, as ,/2 to the ,/3:
confequently they are incommenfurable. See REGULAR
Body.

TETRAETERIS, cergaerness, in the Athenian Chrono-
logy, a cycle of four years; for which fee Potter, Archzol.
Gree. lib. il. cap. 26. tom. i. p. 459.

TETRAGASTRIS, in Botany, from tere and yxcIne,
the fomach or belly, becaufe of the four protuberant lobes
of the feed-veffel—Gertn. v. 2. 130. t. 109. f. 5.—Clafs
and order, as well as Nat. Ord. unknown.

Nothing is known of this genus but its fruit, which
Gertner obtained from the colleétion at the botanic garden
of Amfterdam. He defcribes it as a depreffed berry, of
four lobes and four cells, with folitary feeds.

Its form is nearly globofe, a little depreffed, convex and
pointed at the fummit, marked with four longitudinal fur-
rows, feparating the prominent, cufhion-like lobes, into

which

TET

which it is divided below, and which form four fingle-feeded
cells. Its diameter is above aninch. The flefh, in the old
fruit at leaft, is thin and rather leathery. The nuts, or cells,
are large, hard, undivided, gibbous at the outfide, angular
at the inner, moderately thick, or rather thin, whitifh, not
feparated from each other by any intermediate pulp. Re-
ceptacle central, ending in the fummit of the berry, producing
_ from its upper part four fhort umbilical threads. Seeds foli-
tary, pendulous, large, obovate, reddifh-brown. Skin
fimple, thin, coriaceous. Albumennone. Embryo the fhape
of the feed, inverted, pale and whitifh. Cotyledons thick,
fiefhy, flat on one fide, convex on the other, emarginate at
the infertion of the radicle, which is minute, feated within
the notch of the cotyledons, at their upper end.

TETRAGON, <-rpxyov:, formed from zé1pz, four, and
yun, angle, in Geometry, a quadrangle, or a figure with
four angles. ‘ i

Thus a {quare, parallelogram, rhombus, and trapezium,
are tetragonal figures.

Terracon, in Affrology, denotes'an afpeé of two planets
with regard to the earth, when they are diflant from each
other a fourth part of a circle, or 90°.

The tetragon is exprefled by the charaéter 0.

TETRAGONIA, in Botany, fo called by Linnzus,
from zélex and yanx, an angle, alluding to the quadrangular
figure of the fruit. The word is happily abbreviated from
Boerhaave’s Tetragonocarpus, which has the fame meaning.
—Linn. Gen. 252. Schreb. 340. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.
1023. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
210. Juff. 317. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 437. Gaertn. t. 127.
and 179.—Clafs and order, Jcofandria Pentagynia. Nat.
Ord. Succulente, Linn. » Ficoidee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, in four, occafionally
three or five, ovate, flat, rather deflexed, coloured, perma-
nent, deep fegments, revolute at the edges. Cor. none, un-
lefs the calyx be taken for fuch. Stam. Filaments twenty,
capillary, florter than the calyx, into whofe bafe they are
inferted; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pi/?. Germen infe-
rior, roundifh, with four angles; {tyles four, awl-fhaped,
recurved, the length of the ftamens ; ftigmas downy, running
along the ftyles. Peric. Drupa coriaceous, quadrangular,
with four prominent longitudinal wings, or pomts, the op-
pofite ones narrowelt, not burfting. Seed. Nut folitary,
bony, of two or more cells, with oblong folitary kernels.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with from three to five deep permanent
fegments. Petals none.. Drupa inferior, angular. Nut
with feveral cells.

Obf. Linneus remarks that the primary flower is five-
cleft, which led him to refer this genus to the order Penta-
gynia. Butit only affords an inftance, among many others,
that his orders of Jcofandria, like thofe of Polyandria, ex-
cept Monogynia and Polygynia, are belt refolved into one,
they being liable to frequent uncertainty, not only in the
fame genus or f{pecies, but the fame individual plant. See
TETRACERA.

1. T. fruticofa. Shrubby Tetragonia. Linn. Sp. PI.
687. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (T. foliis linearibus ; Mill.
Tc. t. 263. f. 2. Tetragonocarpus africana fruticans, foliis
longis et anguftis; Commel. Hort v. 2. 205. t..103.)—
Stem fhrubby, ereét. Leaves linear. Fruit winged.—Na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope. A greenhoufe plant in
England, ever fince the time of bifhop Compton flowering
in the latter part of fummer, and eafily propagated by cut-
tings, but not endowed with much beauty, or any other qua-
lity to render it popular. The fem is fhrubby, bufhy, with
round, alternate, leafy branches. Leaves alternate, feffile.
linear-oblong, obtufe, entire, revolute, downy and foft, an

Te T

inch or more in length, with axillary tufts of {maller ones.
Flowers yellow, in fomewhat whorled leafy cluiters.

2. T. decumbens. Trailing Tetragonia. Ait. ed. 1. v. 2.
177. ed. 2.n.2. Willd. n. 2. Decand. Pl. Graffes; t..23.
(T. foliis ovatis integerrimis, caule fruticofo decumbente ;
Mill. Ic. t. 263. f. 1.)—Stem fhrubby, downy, decumbent.
Leaves obovate. Fruit winged.—Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. A greenhoufe fhrub, cultivated by Miller in
1758. It differs from the former’in the larger fize, and
broad obtufe form of its /eaves, as well as in having a more
gliftening mealy furface, and more numerous axillary tufts of

flowers. The lem is more or tefs decumbent, and clothed
with very; foft denfe hairs. :

3. T. herbacea. Herbaceous Tetragonia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
687. Willd. n. Ait. n. 3. (Tetragonocarpus afri-
cana, radice magna craffa et carnofa; Commel. Hort. v. 2.
203. t. 102.)—Stem herbaceous, f{mooth, decumbent.
Leaves ovate, ftalked. Flowers fomewhat corymbofe. Fruit
winged. Native of the Cape, cultivated by ‘Miller. The
root is perennial, thick, flefhy, and lobed. Herb {mooth,
fucculent, with many decumbent, branched, annual, leafy

Jems, and fcattered, ovate, more or lefs acute, entire leaves.

Flowers yellow, generally five-cleft, larger, and more fhowy,
than in the two preceding, ftalked, partly axillary, partly
corymbofe. All our knowledge of this {pecies is derived
from Commelin’s work, nor had Linnzus any {pecimen in his:
herbarium. ©The laft-defcribed is fometimes, in gardens,
miitaken for T. herbacea. “ ,

4. T. hirfuta. Wlairy Tetragonia. Linn. Suppl. 258%
Willd. n. 4. Thunb. Prodr. 87.—‘* Herbaceous, hairy,
procumbent. Leaves ovate, villous. «Flowers axillary,
feffile, three together.’’—Gathered by Thunberg, at the
Cape of Good Hope. o®%

5. T. fpicata. Spiked Tetragonia. Linn. Suppl. 258.
Willd. ee Thunb. Prodr. a Herbaceaue aaa
ereét. Lower leaves ovate 3 uppermoft lanceolate. Flowers ”
racemofe.”?—From the fame country as the laft. Thunbers.
We have feen no fpecimens of thefe two fpecies. It is re-
markable that the younger Linnzus defines the flowers of
T. hirfuta {effile, whilft Thunberg calls them ftalked. Pofs
fibly the latter confounded with his hirfuta, our decumbens,
of which there is a fpecimen, apparently gathered by him,
in the Linnzan colleétion. 2

6. T. echinata. Hedge-hog Tetragonia.
Ve 2eryy eds 2. niegey Willdianmigs
Grafles, t. 113.”?—Stem herbaceous. Leaves rhombeo-
ovate. Fruit prickly.—Native of the Cape, from whence
Mr. Maffon introduced it at Kew, in 1774. he root is
annnal or biennial. Stem herbaceous, divided from the bafe
into feveral decumbent branches, hardly a foot long, angular,
from the decurrent fvot/alks, which are half the length of the
{preading fucculent /eaves, each an inchlong. Flowers pen-
dulous, on very fhort, axillary, folitary, thread-fhaped, pur-
ple /alks clothed with cryitalline globules. Calyx in three or
four fegments ; crytftalline without ; greenifh-yellow within.
Stamens only three or four. Germen triangular, flat under-
neath, its angles befet with numerous conical thorns. Styles
three. Nut of three cells. Willden.

7. T. expanfa. Horned Tetragonia. Ait. ed. 1. v. 2.
178. ed. 2. n. 5. Willd. n. 7. Decand. Pl. Graffes,
t. 114.” Scop. Infubr. v. 1. 32. t. 14. Thunb. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 2. 335. (TT. halimifolia ; Forft. Prodr. 32.
Pl. Efcul. 67. T. japonica; Thunb. Jap. 208.)—Stem
herbaceous. Leaves ovate-rhomboid ; tapering at the bafe.
Fruit with four horns.—Native of New Zealand, about the
borders of woods, in buthy fandy places, as well as of the
Friendly iflands, and of Japan. Sir Jofeph Banks introduced

1t

Ait. ed. 1.
“ Decand. Pl.

a ie

it te Kew garden, in 1772, and from thence the other gar-
dens of Europe have been fupplied. The plant is a rather
tender biennial herb, flowering in Auguft and September.
Forfter tells us it proved a moft valuable refouree to captain
Cook’s crew, as a pot-herb, while his fhip lay at Tongatabu.
The whole. plant is fucculent, covered with very minute
eryitalline dots, as if moift with dew. Root fibrous. Stem
divided from the bottom into many irregular, round, leafy
branches. JLceaves alternate, ftalked, fomewhat deltoid, en-
tire, rather ‘heart-fhaped at the bafe, but tapering down into
the foviftalk. Flowers yellow, axillary, on fhort, ufually
folitary, ftalks. Fruit turbinate, clumfy, the fize of a
filberd, with four or five fharp horns. The cells are five or
fix, an{wering to the number of /fyles.

8. T. cryffallina. Diamond Tetragonia. Ait. ed. 1. v. 2.
178. ed. 2. n. 6. Willd. n. 8. L’Herit. Stirp. v. 1. Sr.
t. 39. ‘ Decand. Pl. Grafles, t. 34.’—Stem herbaceous.
Leaves ovate, feffile, dotted with cryftalline pomts. Fruit
without thorns.—Native of Peru. Dombey. Sent to Kew,
by M. Thouin, in 1788. It is annual, and flowers in the
dry ftove in June. Herb a fpan high, covered with cryftal-
line granules, like the Ice-plant. Stem nearly ereét, branched
from the bottom. Leaves acute, entire, about two inches
long, bright green. Flowers of a dull orange, or tawny
yellow, axillary, ftalked, moftly folitary, Calyx in four
iegments. Stamens about fixteen. Styles four. Drupa tur-
binate, quadrangular. Nut four-lobed, with four cells.

For Tetragonia ivefolia, Linn. Suppl. 257, fee Haro-
RAGIS, n. I.

TeTRAGONIA, in Gardening, contains plants of the
fhrubby and herbaceous, fucculent, perennial kinds, among
which the {pecies moft ufually cultivated are the following ;
the fhrubby tetragonia (T. fruticofa) ; the trailing tetrago-
nia (T. decumbens) ; the herbaceous tetragonia (T. her-
bacea) ; and the hedge-hog tetragonia (‘T. echinata). All
thefe plants are natives of the Cape, and, of courfe, of the
rather tender kind.

Method of Culture —The firft and laft forts may be in-
creafed by cuttings, which fhould be cut off from the plants
a few days before they are planted, that the part where they
are cut may be healed, fetting them out in July, that they
may have time to make good roots before winter, on a bed of
frefh earth, fhading them from the fun in the heat of the day.
They fhould afterwards be frequently refrefhed with water
in fmall quantities. In a few weeks, when well rooted, they
fhould be taken up, and planted into pots filled with light
frefh undunged earth, and be placed in a fhady fituation
until they have taken new root, after which they may be
placed with other hardy exotic plants in a fheltered fituation,
where they may remain till the middle or latter end of Oc-
tober, at which time they fhould be removed into the green-
houfe, and placed where they may enjoy as much air as pof-
fible in mild weather, as they only require to be protected
from the froft, being pretty hardy with refpe& to cold.
A\s, when planted in the full ground in the fummer feafon,
they are apt to grow rank and large, or even when permitted
to root into the ground through the holes at the bottom of
the pots, the pots fhould be frequently removed to prevent
it, as they are injured by it.

The firft and fecond forts are likewife capable’of being
raifed by feeds, fown in a gentle hot-bed, or in a warm
border of light frefh earth, in the fpring. When the plants
are about four inches high, they may be planted out in pots,
treating them in the fame manner as the cuttings.

And the third fort will grow from cuttings planted early
in the {pring, in the fame manner as the others.

The fhrubby forts are durable in their ftems, roots, and

Vor. XXXV.

T E T

branches ; but the herbaceous kinds often die down in the
ftalks and branches towards the autumn, and fend up new
ones at the end of that feafon, which retain their leaves
duriag the winter months.

They afford ornament among other potted plants, and
the firft fort has fomething fingular and curious about it.

TETRAGONIAS, a name given to a meteor whofe
head is of a quadrangular figure, and its tail or train long,
thick, and uniform : this is not much different from the trabs
or beam.

TETRAGONIS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Ara-
chofia, at the foot of mount Caucafus, called more anciently
Cartana. Pliny.

TETRAGONISM, Tirpmyoumuer, a term which fome
authors ufe to exprefs the quadrature of the circle.

TETRAGONOPTERUS, in Ichthyology. See Sar-
Mo Bimaculatus.

TETRAGONOPTRUS. See Zeus, CumtTopen
Cornutus, Nigricans, and Capiftratus. :

TETRAGONOTHECA, in Botany; from TiTENYWVOSy
quadrangular, and xxx, a cafe, or cell, a name firft contrived
by Dillenius, to exprefs the fquare form cf the common
calyx, and now retained by L’Heritier and Willdenow for
the original and only remaining fpecies of the genus. See
the others under Diperta, Potymyra, and WeEpeELIA.
—Dill. Elth. 378. Linn. Gen. 438. L?Herit. Stirp. 177.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2116. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.84. Purth
563.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-/uperflua. Nat.
Ord. Compofite oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx fimple, large, of one leaf, in
four deep, flat, fpreading, triangular-heartfhaped fegments,
permanent. Cor. compound, radiant. Florets of the dif
perfe&, numerous, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft, reflexed ;
thofe of the radius ten or twelve, ligulate, dilated outwards,
three-cleft, equal, bluntifh. Stam. in the florets of the
difk. Filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united
into a cylindrical tube. Pi/?. in all the florets. Germen
roundifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens;
ftigmas two, reflexed or revolute. Peric. none. Seeds foli-
tary; in the difk roundifh ; in the radius fomewhat ovate.
Down none. Recept. chaffy.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down none. Calyx
fimple, of one leaf, quadrangular, in four deep fegments.

Obf. The fynonym of Tetragonotheca, Linn. Gen. 438,
fhould be erafed from our article PotymNiA.

1. T. helianthoides. Sun-flower Tetragonotheca. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1273. Willd. n.1. Ait. n. 1. Purfhn.1. (T:
doronici maximi folio; Dill. Elth. 378. t. 283. Polymnia
tetragonotheca ; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 658. Sm. Inf.
of Georgia, v. 2. 137. t. 69.) —Native of North America,
in a fertile foil, on the borders of woods, and along hedges,
from Virginia to Florida, flowering from July to September.
Purfb. ‘The root’is perennial, hardy in our gardens. Stem
erect, round, leafy, hairy, branched, from four to fix
feet high. Leaves hairy, veiny, toothed or wavy; the
lowermoft ftalked, ovate; upper feffile ; oppofite acute.
Flowers from the forks and ends of the branches, ftalked,
large, of a golden yellow, refembling a fun-flower.

TETRAGONUS, in Anatomy, a mufele, called alfo
quadraius gene.

Ai oey RAGRAMMATON, TETPL) PH UUXTOV, A denomina-
tion given by the Greeks to the Hebrew name of God,
mim? Jehovah, becaufe in the Hebrew it confifts of four
letters. See Anonal.

TETRAGYNIA, in Botany, from rédex, and yun a
female, the name of an order in feveral claffes of the Linnzan
artificial fyitem, charatterized, as the word itfelf ee

‘ 3G Y

Lie ey

py the flowers having four ftyles, or piitils. This order
is better founded, and more invariable, in fome claffes than
others. With the TerranprrA, (fee that article,) it na-
turally correfponds, and is well exemplified in the genera
Potamogeton and Ruppia. In Odandria, though of rare oc-
currence, it is no lefs certain. In Jcafandria and Polyandria
it is very fallible, of which we have lately given examples.
(See Terracera and Terraconia ; alfo PoLYANDRIA. )
The order Tetragynia in the clafles Pentandria and Dode-
candria is, however, fufficiently well-founded. In Decan-
dria no example of it occurs, nor fearcely in Hexandria.

TETRAHIT, an old name, fuppofed to allude to the
four-cornered ftem. See GALEOPSIS.

TETRALOGIA, inthe Dramatic Poetry of the Ancients,
denoted four dramatic pieces of the fame author, of which
the three firft were tragedies, and the laft of the fatyric
kind. Their defign was to celebrate a victory in the lite-
rary contefts. AEichylus and Euripides have written fome
pieces of this kind. Encycl. :

TETRAMETER, in the Ancient Poetry, an iambic
verfe confifting of four feet.

The word is formed from +2j7a, four, and j<Izov, meafure
q. d. four metres.—We meet with none of thefe but in the
comic poets, as Terence, &c.

TETRANDRIA, in Botany, the fourth clafs in the
Linnzan artificial fyftem, is fo called from zerpz, and ane,
a man, becaufe it is charaéterized by having four ftamens,
in the fame flower with the piftil or piftils. Thefe are of
equal length, the flower being regular, by which this clafs
is diftinguifhed from the 14th, whofe flowers are ringent, and
two of their four ftamens, which ftand next each other, are
longer than the reft. See DinynaAmia.

The orders of this fourth clafs are three, diftinguifhed by
the number of their piftils. 1. A/onogynia, a numerous and
various order, comprifing the ample tribe of Proteaceae ; and
the intricate family of the Stellate, to which Galium and
Rubiabelong. The large genera of Scabiofa and Plantago
likewife range under the Tetrandria Monogynia ; the former
of which exhibits a curious example. of aberration in
number between the corolla and flamens. Some of its
fpecies have a four-cleft corolla, an{wering in that refpec
to the /lamens, whilft others have five fegments in the
former, though the number of the latter remains invaria-
bly but four. 2. Digynia is a {mall order, to which,
amongft a few other genera, Linnzus has referred Cu/cuta,
but it rather belongs to Pentandria Digynia, the greater
number of the fpecies having five-cleft pentandrous flowers.
This order will, however, receive a very curious acceffion in
Trerrarruens. (See that article.) 3. Te/ragynia contains
Tlex, Potamogeton, and Ruppia, Britifh genera, all of which
have four feflile ftigmas ; with feveral others, not naturally
related, but for the moft part feparated, by the artificial
chara@ter of number, from their allies in other parts of the
fyftem. That character however is fufliciently conftant in
the prefent inftance.

Terranpria is likewife the denomination of feveral
orders in the Linnzan Syftem, as in Gynandria, if SryLipiuM
(fee that article) be judged to have four ftamens ; and cer-
tainly in Monoecia and Divecia, where there are feveral really
tetrandrous genera.

TETRANGURIA, a name ufed by fome authors for
the citrul, a plant of the gourd kind, whofe feeds are ufed
in medicine.

TETRANTHERA, fo named by Jacquin, from rezex,
and asOnp, becaufe of the four feparate cells, which have the
appearance of four diftinét anthers, on the dilated fummit of
each filament, and were indeed confidered as fuch by the

12

‘

TiT

author. We greatly prefer this name to that of Litfea, ufed
by Lamarck and J uffieu ; becaufe the latter is of barbarous
origin, and becaufe we are happy to follow the example of
Mr. Brown, who juftly prefers, in this cafe, the claflical
authority of Jacquin. To the learned Juffieu neverthelefs
belongs the honour of having firft afflembled under this
genus feveral plants, which authors had either confidered
as diftinét genera, or erroneoufly referred to others already
eftablithed, as will appear by the various fynonyms we
are about to exhibit.—Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 59.
Dryandr. in Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 25. Brown Prodr.
Noy. Holl. vy. 1.408. (Litfeas Lamarck Did. v. 3. 574-
Juff. in Bull. des Sciences, v. 3. 73- Tomex; Thunb.
Jap. 10. Nov. Gen. 65. Schreb. Gen. 315. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 839. Mart. Mill. DiG@. v. 4. Juff. 440.
Hexanthus ; Loureir. Cochinch. 195. Sebifera; Loureir.
ibid. 637. See Tomex, Hexantuus, and Sepirera.)—
Clafs and order, Dodecandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Lauri,
Juff. Laurine, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Involucrum of four or five ovate, con-
cave, deciduous leaves, containing feveral ftalked flowers.
Perianth none, unlefs the corolla be taken for fuch. Cor.
of one petal, tubular, more or lefs deeply divided into
from four to fix elliptic-oblong equal fegments ; fometimes
abrupt and entire, the limb being deficient. Neétary of
feveral ftalked glands or fcales intermixed with the ftamens.
Stam. Filaments from twelve to eighteen, fometimes but
fix, thread-fhaped, ereGt, the outer ones longeft ; anthers
with four lateral cells at their inner fide. Pif. Germen
fuperior, ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped; ftigma notched.
Peric. Berry ovate or globofe, of one cell. Seed folitary,
the fhape of the berry.

Obf. The ftamens are ufually imperfect in the flowers of
one tree, and the piftil in thofe of another ; but this is hardly
a fufficient reafon for placing this genus in the clafs Disecia,
the ftru€ture of the flowers being alike, and both organs, at
leaft their rudiments, prefent in each. The four cells of
the anthers, as Mr. Brown obferves, diftinguith Tetranthera
from Laurus.

Eff. Ch. Involucrum of four or five leaves, deciduous.
Corolla with about five fegments. Neétary of feveral
ftalked glands. Anthers of four lateral cells. Stigma
fomewhat lobed. Berry fuperior, with one feed.

1. T. japonica. Japan Tetranthera. (Tomex japonica ;
Willd. n. 1. Thunb. Jap. 190.)—Stamens twelve. Leaves
obtufe; downy beneath, as wellas the involucrum. Flower-
ftalks fimple.-—Common at Kofido in Japan, flowering in
Oétober and November.—It is there known by the name
of Fiwa. The /fem is arboreous, tall, branching, above two
feet in diameter. Branches downy, knotty ; angular when
young. Leaves alternate, ftalked, oblong, obtufe, entire,
ereét, with parallel ribs; {mooth and green above ; hoar
and downy beneath ; three or four inches long. Foospalke
angular, ftriated, downy, an inch in length. Flowers
axillary, capitate, dioecious, on folitary, angular, downy,
bracteated ftalks, half aninchlong. The involucrum confite
of five or fix leaves, the outer ones fmalleft, and contains
the fame number of flowers. Thunberg.

2. T. Jaurifolia. Laurel-leaved Tetranthera. Jacq.
Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 59. t. 113. (Tomex Tetranthera ;
Willd. n. 2.)—Stamens about fifteen. Leaves obtufe,
fmooth, as well asthe involucrum. Flower-italks fomewhat
umbellate.—Native of China. Cultivated at the Mauritius
by the name of Cerifier dela Chine, or Chinefe Cherry-tree.
From thence it was brought to Schoenbrun gardens, where
it bears the open air in fummer, and flowers in the hot-
houfe in September and OGtober.—It is there a ¢ree, =

eet

TET

feet high, with a head of round knotty branches, downy
when young. Leaves about the ends of the branches,
alternate, on downy italks, an inch long, obovate, coria-
ceous, entire, light green, {mooth and fhining, except a
flight pubefcence on the rib and veins ; their length about
five inches. Flower-/lalks lateral, {cattered, below the
leaves, umbellate, about two inches long, each bearing from
two to five flowers, whofe involucrum is pale green, corolla
white; their fhort partial ftalks (within the involucrum)
hairy, as well as the flamens. Berries red, globofe, the {ize
of a currant. Jacquin fays nothing of the dioecious nature
of the fowers, but he appears to defcribe one with an im-
perfect pifil. His fruit perhaps was of exotic growth.

3. T. apetala. Apetalous Tetranthera. Roxb. Coro-
mand, v. 2. 25. t-147. Brown n.1. (Laurus involucrata;
Retz. Obf. fafc. 6. 27 ?)—Stamens about fifteen. Leaves
elliptical, obtufe, fingle-ribbed, fmooth. Corolla abrupt,
undivided, bearing the ftamens on its margin.—Natiye of
the mountainous parts of the circars of Hindooftan, flower-
ing in June. Roxburgh. Mr. Brown met with the fame in
the tropical part of New Holland. _ This is faid to be a
middle-fized tree, with round {mooth branches, leafy towards
the ends. The /eaves are ftalked, three or four inches long,
and two, or two and a half, wide, entire, bright green.
Flower-ftalks ufually three-flowered, much like thofe of the
laft, to which this {pecies is nearly akin; but the want of
a limb to the corolla, and the oval violet-coloured berry, fuf-
ficiently diftinguith it.

4. T. monopetala. Monopetalous Tetranthera, Roxb.
Corom. v. 2. 26. t. 148.—Stamens about nine. Leaves
elliptic-oblong, acute, fingle-ribbed; fomewhat downy
beneath. Flowers cluftered. Limb of the corolla half five-
cleft.—Native of the vallies of Hindooftan, flowering in the
hot feafon. Dr. Roxburgh fays the wood is white, tole-
rably hard; and that the bark is ufed by the inhabitants of
the hills, to cure diarrhceas, being given in fubftance. Its
tafte is mildly aftringent, with much balfamic fweetnefs.
The leaves are longer, narrower, and more acute than in
the former. Flowers in fhort, axillary, denfe, partly umbel-
late, clufters, with five leaves to the involucrum, and as many
fegments to the greenifh tubular corolla. Berries ovate, of
a violet black.

5. T. ferruginea. Rutty Tetranthera. Brown n. 2.
(Hexanthus umbellatus ; Loureir. Cochinch. 196. Litfea
hexantha; Juff. n. 4.)—Stamens about nine. Leaves el-
liptic-oblong, acute, fingle-ribbed ; downy beneath, as well
as the branches. Corolla in fix deep fegments.—Native of
Cochinchina, as well as of the tropical part of New
Holland. A tree of a moderate fize, whofe timber is
ufed in building. © The /eaves are large, entire, with many
tranfverfe veins. Flowers pale green, in {mall axillary
umbels.

6. T. dealbata. White-leaved Tetranthera. Brown
n. 3-—** Stamens fix. Leaves broadly elliptical, pointed,
triple-ribbed, fmooth ; whitened beneath. Footftalks and
branches downy. Corolla deeply four-cleft, hai Inyo-
lucrum villous.”—Native of the neighbourhood of Port
Jackfon, New South Wales. Mr. Brown thinks Zaurus
Myrrha, Loureir. Cochinch. 251, which is perhaps not
{pecifically different from Laurus involucrata, Roxb. Coro-
mand. y. 2. 46, t. 187, is very nearly related to the prefent
fpecies, though differing in having fmaller aves, a fome-
what filky involucrum on a fhort flalk, and nearly fmooth
sorolla. We cannot but obferve that Roxburgh’s t. 187.
by no means exhibits the peculiar anthers or ne@ary of a
Tetranthera. His plant however fhould feem to be the
Litfea trinervia of Juffieu, which the latter takes for Laurus

LET

involucrata of Retzius, but that fhould have fingle-ribbed
leaves. See our third fpecies.

7- T. chinenfis. Chinefe Tetranthera. (Litfea chinentis ;
Lamarck Diét. v. 3. 574. Juff. n. 5.)—Stamens nume-
rous, polyadelphous. Leaves elliptical, obtufe, {mooth.
Footitalks, branches, and inyolucrum downy. Corolla
none.—Native of China; cultivated in the ifland of Mauri-
tius, where its power of refifting the force of high winds,
renders this tree valuable for making tall hedges. The
leaves are four inches long, two broad; pale beneath.
Flowers dioecious. Jnvolucrum of four concave, {preading,
downy leaves. Stamens united into from five to nine downy
bundles. Germen furrounded with abortive ftamens. Berry
{pherical, fmooth, the fize of a {mall cherry, with a flavour
of camphor and ivy, which renders it difagreeable, and only
fit food for birds. Lamarck. This’ {pecies is faid to have
been brought alive to Europe, and was in 1789 cultivated
in the Parifian garden ; but we have neither heard nor feen
any thing of it in England.

8. T. febifera. Tallow Tetranthera. (Tomex febifera ;
Willd. n. 3, excluding the fynonym of Retzius. Sebifera glu-
tinofa ; Loureir. Cochinch. 638.)—Stamens from twelve to
fifteen. Leaves ovate-oblong, bluntifh, fingle-ribbed, fmooth.
Flower-ftalks umbellate, downy as well as the involucrum.
Corolla none.—For a further account of this fpecies, fee
SeBIFERA, under which article Loureiro’s faulty generic
character, and efpecially his defcription of the ftamens, pre-
vented our recognizing the plant as already defcribed by
Willdenow.

9. T. piperita. Pepper Tetranthera. (Litfea piperita ;
Juff. n. 7. Laurus Cubeba; Loureir. Cochinch. 252.)—
Stamens fix. Leaves lanceolate, without rib or vein. Stalks
fingle-flowered. Corolla in fix roundifh unequal fegments.
——Native of Cochinchina, and perhaps alfo of China. In the
former country it is frequently cultivated, for the fake of the
cordial and tonic qualities of its berries and bark. A decoc-
tion of one or the other, the latter being weakeit, is given in
hyfteric, paralytic, and melancholic dtrderds The recent
fruit is ufed as a feafoning for fifth. The {cent is fragrant ;
tafte aromatic and pungent. Each berry refembles a grain
of black pepper, with a long flender ftalk. Loureiro fuf-
pected it to be the trueCubeb, but erroneoufly. (See Piper.)
The tree is of a moderate fize, much branched. Leaves
alternate, ftalked, two inches long, entire, flat, fhining, and,
we prefume, fmooth. Flowers white, on crowded, lateral,
fimple ftalks. Jnvolucrum of four roundifh, concave, co-
loured, deciduous leaves, containing five flowers. Style none.
Berry globofe, very fmall, black.—Such is Loureiro’s ac-
count, from which, having feen no fpecimen, we have ex-
tracted the fpecific character.

TETRANTHUS, fo called by profeffor Swartz, in his
Prodromus, p. 115, from z:tex and eos, on account of the
four flowers in one common calyx.—Schreb. Gen. 592.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.2402. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 1385. t. 27.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly-
gamiafegregata. Nat. Ord. Compofite capitate, Linn.
Corymbifere, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx of five {mall, linear, fringed leaves,
at firit reflexed, then ereét, containing four flowers: partial
of one leaf, tubular, much longer than the former ; tapering
and fomewhat compreffed at the bafe ; oblique, acute and
fringed at the fummit ; containing one floret. Cor. of each
floret tubular ; its limb in five unequal fegments, the three
lowermott longeft, and moft reflexed. Stam. in each fioret,

‘Filaments five, capillary ; anthers united into a cylindrical

tube, rather fhorter than the tube of the corolla. Pi?. Ger-
men fuperior, in the tube of the partial calyx, oblong ; ftyle
3G2 thread-

TEE

thread-fhaped, divided, fpreading, longer than the corolla ;
ftigmas linear, downy, reflexed. Peric. none, except the
permanent fheathing partial calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong,
fomewhat ftriated, crowned with a membranous fringed
border. Recept. minuté, naked.

Eff. Ch, Common Calyx of five leaves, containing four
flowers: partial of one oblique leaf. Seeds with a mem-
branous fringed border. Receptacle naked.

1. T. littoralis. Shore Tetranthus. Willd. n. 1. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 1386.—Found on the banks of rivers in Hifpa-
niola. A {mall annual herb, flowering in the fpring, and, as
Swartz juftly obferves, very peculiar in its fruétification.
There certainly cannot be a better example of the order
Polygamia-fegregata. Willdenow fays it has the afpeé of
Mircuexa ; fee that article. The /fem is flender, creeping,
fmooth, fubdivided, a fpan long, attaching itfelf by little
tufts of long white fibrous sigue from each joint. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, roundifh-ovate, entire, with a fhort obtufe
point, three-ribbed, fmooth, half an inch leng. Fot/talks
{mooth and flender, nearly an inch in length. Flower-/lalks
axillary, folitary, ere&, longer than the leaves, flender and
downy. Flowers {mall, white.

TETRAO, in Ornithology, a genus of the Galline order
of birds ; the chara¢ters of which are, that it has a{pot near
the eyes naked, or papillofe, or rarely covered with feathers.
[t comprehends fixty-feven fpecies, claffed under feveral divi-
fions and fubdiyifions.

A. With the naked Spot above the Eyes, and hairy Legs.
Lacopopes.

a. With four-toed Feet.

Urocattus. With roundifh tail, and white axille.
This is the cock of the wood of Ray and Willughby, and
wood grous of Pennant and Latham. (See Grouse.) It
is found in the forefts and marfhes of the colder parts of
Europe and Northern A fia.

PuASIANELLUS. With wedge-fhaped tail ; head, neck,
and body above, teftaceous, and black-banded. This is the
long-tailed grous from Hudfon’s Bay of Edwards, long-
tailed grous of Latham, and fharp-tailed grous of Pennant.
Found in Hudfon’s Bay and the uncultivated parts of Vir-
ginia.

Terrix. With bifurcated tail, fecondary quills white
towards the bafe. This is the urogallus minor of Briffon and
Gefner, and black cack, black game, or black grous of Ray,
Willughby, Pennant, and Latham. Found in the woods,
heaths, &c. of the cold parts of Europe and Siberia. (See
Grousr.) The varieties of this fpecies are the tetrix
alba of Blum. AG. Stock. 1785, and the urogallus minor
punétatus of Briffon, or tetrao hybridus of Sparrman, or
fpurious grous of Pennant.

NemesiAnus. With red tail, fpotted with black ; black
tip, and body varied with black and red ; the Nemefian grous
of Latham.

Berutinus. With black tail, varied with black tranf-
verfe {pots ; and rump whitifh, with black bands: the birch
grous of Latham.

CanaAvensis. With black tail-feathers, yellow at the
tip, and two white ftreaks at the eyes: the black and {pot-
ted heath-cock of Edwards, and {potted grous of Pennant,
Forfter, and Latham ; and gelinotte du Canada of Buffon.

Canace. With entire tail, and white {pot near the ears
and noftrils : the black and {patted heath-cock of Edwards.
Found at Hudfon’s Bay.

Lacorus. Cinereous ; hairy toes ; white quills ; black
tail-feathers, tipped with white; the intermediate white :

1

ft 2.T

this is the white game of Willughby, and ptarmigan of Pen-
nant and Latham. (See Prarmican.) Of this f{pecies
there are feveral varieties ; as the lagopus varia of Gefner and
Willughby, the bonafia feotica of Briffon, and the atta-
gen of Briflon, or red game, moor-cock, or gor-cock of
Ray and Willughby, and red grous of Pennant and Latham.
(See Gor-cock.) Found in Siberia and the northern parts
of Europe.

Asus. Orange, varied with black bands and white
ftreaks ; hairy toes; tail-feathers black, tipped with white ;
the intermediate wholly white : this isthe white partridge of
Ellis and Edwards, and the white grous of Pennant and
Latham. Found gregarious in the Erelte of North Ame
rica, Europe, and Afia.

Ruprsrris. Orange, varied with black bands and white
{treaks ; plumofe toes ; black tail-feathers tipped with white ;
the intermediate wholly white with black lores: this is the
rock grous of Pennant. Found at Hudfon’s Bay.

Lapponicus. With naked fealy legs; with a fuperci-
liary fearlet line covered with a membrane of the fame co-
lour ; the primary quill-feathers and tail-feathers tipped with
white: the rehufak of the ArGic Zoology. Found in the
woods and mountains of Lapland. .

Curmo. With fuccenturiate cervical wings : the attinga
americana of Briffon, and pinnated grous of the Arétic Zoo-
logy and of Latham. Found gregarious in North Ame-
rica.

Umpetius. With the cervical umbo exftant: this is the
attagen pennfylvanica of Briffon, the ruffed heath-cock of
Edwards, and ruffed grous of the Arétic Zoology and of
Latham. Found in North America.

Tocarus. With the greater axillary feathers black-
azure: this is the bonafia major canadenfis of Briffon, and
fhoulder-knot grous of Forfter (Phil. Tranf. vol. lxii.) and
of Latham. Found at Hudfon’s Bay.

Bonasta. The tail-feathers cinereous, with black —
points and band; the two intefmediate excepted : this is
the bonafia of Briffon, the gallina corylorum of er and
Aldrovand, the gelinotte of Buffon, the hafelhuhn of Ray
and Willughby, and hazel grous of the Arétic Zoology and:
of Latham. Found among the hazels of Europe and Weftern
Siberia.

Canus. Body grey, undulated with brown; the beak
and legs black. Found in Sweden.

Atcuata. Above varied; the two intermediate tail-
feathers twice longer than the others, and fubulate: the
ganga of Buffon, the partridge of Damafcus of Willughby
and Ray, the kitiwiah or African lagopus of Shaw’s Tra-
vels, the kara of Ruffel’s Aleppo, the little pin-tailed grous
of Edwards and Latham. Of this there are two varieties,
viz. the tetrao fenegallus and gelinotte of Senegal of Buffon ;
and the tetrao caudatus of Gmelin’s Travels. Found in
Southern Europe, Africa, Arabia, Syria, and Perfia.

Namaqua. Above fpadiceous, with the two interme-
diate tail-feathers longer and fubulate : the Namaqua grous
of Latham, Found in Africa amid the dry defarts inha-
bitéed by the Namaquis, flying gregarious to fountains. ©

Inpvicus. Front white, furrounded by a wreath behind
black ; the body above yellowith-red, varied with black lu-
nules: the Indian grous of Latham. Found at Coromandel.

Arenarius. Ruff, abdomen, and vent black ;. tail-
feathers with brown and grey bands, tipped white ; the two
intermediate yellowifh: the fand grous of Latham. Found
about the Volga near Aftrachan.

b. With three-toed Feet.

Parapoxus.’ With three-toed feet ; toes hairy, almoft
joined

TETRAO.

joined at the apex: this is the heteroclitous grous of Latham.
Found in the Southern Tartarian defart.

B. With papillofe Skin about the Eyes ; and naked Legs.

“ With the Feet of the Male fpurred.
tridges.

_ Francorrxus. Abdomen and throat black, and wedge-

formed tail: this is the tetrao orientalis of Haffelquift, and
francolin of other authors. Found in the fouth of Afia and
Europe, and in Africa, of the fize of the partridge, feeding
on feeds, emitting a hiffing found, and flefh delicious.

Mapacascanriensis. Abdomen black, varied with large
red {pots ; throat white ; the two intermediate tail-feathers
reddith, with black bands ; the pintado partridge of Latham.
Found in Madagafcar.

Rurus. Legs and beak fanguineous; throat white,
furrounded with a band black, white pointed: this is the
perdix greca of Brifflon and Ray, the bartavelle of Buffon,
the red partridge of Albin, the Greek or great red par-
tridge of Willughby, and Greek partridge of Latham.
Of this fpecies there are three varieties, viz. the tetrao ru-
fus of Gmelin, or perdix rubra of Briffon, or perdix rufa
major of Gefner and Jonfton, or. red-legged partridge of
Ray, Willughby, and Albin, or Guernfey partridge of
Latham; the perdix rufa alba of Briffon ; and the perdix
rubra barberica of Briffon, or the red-legged partridge from
Barbary of Edwards, or Barbary partridge of Shaw’s Tra-
yels. Found gregarious in the woody mountains of Europe,
Afia, and Africa, much larger than the partridge.

Perpix. With a naked fcarlet fpot under the eyes ;
tail ferruginous ; breaft brown ; and legs whitifh: this is
the common partridge, (which fee.) Of this fpecies there
are the following varieties; iz. perdix cinereo alba
of Briffon ; perdix tota alba; perdix torque albo ; perdix
brunnea ; perdix mento gulaque, or chin and throat red.
Found im flocks in the cultivated fields and paftures of Eu-
rope and Siberia.

Damascenus. With a naked fcarlet fpot under the
eyes ; tail ferruginous ; breaft brown ; and legs yellow : the
perdix damafcena of Briffon, and Damafcus partridge of
Ray, Willughby, and Latham. This {pecies migrates in
flocks through the middle of Europe, and is allied to the
partridge, but lefs, with a longer beak. ;

Montanus. Legs and beak red; throat reddifh and
dingy: the perdix montana of Briffon. Found in the
-mountains of Europe.

Rusricoruis. Legs, beak, chin, and throat naked, all
red: the red-necked partridge of Latham. Found in
Africa. :

Perrosus. Beak and legs red ; body brown, and ferru-
ginous fpot on the breaft: the rufous-breafted partridge
of Latham. Found amid the rocks and mountains near
Gambia. 2

Pertatus. Legs and eye-brows red ; beak blackifh ;
throat white; and body varied with brown: the perdix
chinenfis of Briffon, and pearled partridge of Latham.
Found in China: and it has a variety with beak and legs
brown, eye-brows {potted with white and black, at the Cape
of Good Hope:

BicatearAtus. With double-fpurred feet, and black
eye-brows:: the Senegal partridge of Latham. Found near
the Senegal.

ZeEYLONNENSIS.. With double-fpurred. feet ; beak and
naked area of the eyes red ; tailround and brown : the Cey-
jon partridge of Latham.

Spapiceus. With two-fpurred feet red; beak yellow ;

Perpices, or Par-

and body fpadiceous or bright red-coloured ; the brown A fri
can partridge of Latham. Found in Madagafear.

Noupicottis. » With two-fpurred feet, and naked throat
red ; the bare-necked partridge of Latham.

Gineicus. Bill black ; rump and tail red, grey, and
black mixed ; and eye-brows white: the Gingi partridge of
Latham. Found near Gingi, in Coromandel.

PonpiceritANus. Bill black; two intermediate tail-
feathers red, numerous angulated lines brown; and four
bands ochre-coloured : the Pondicherry partridge of Latham.
Found in Coromandel.

Nevius. Legs and bill reddifh ; body brown, varie-
gated with yellow: the ococolin of Ray and Buffon, the
Mexican partridge of Latham. Found in the temperate
parts of New Spain.

d. Coturnices, or Quails. See Quats.

e. With four Toes.

Frrrucineus. Legs and beak brown; body beneath
diluted light red, above ferruginous-brown ; feathers of the
neck longer and acutely tipped; the hackled partridge of
Latham. Found in China.

Javanicus. Legs fleih-coloured ; front, fpot on the hind
head, and abdomen, orange; beak, breaft and tail cine-
reous, varied with black: Javan partridge of Latham.
Found in the ifland of Java. ;

Viripis. Green; legs and beak reddifh; area of the
eyes red; wings fpadiceous: the green partridge of
Latham.

Vircinianus. With a black band above and below the
eyes ; vertical line yellow; the Virginian partridge of La-
tham. Found among the trees of America.

Mariranpus. With white eye-brows; neck pointed
with white and black: the New England partridge of
various writers; the Maryland partridge of the Arétic Zoo-
logy and of Latham. Found in America.

KaxeLik. Bill, eye-lids and legs fearlet; breaft ci-
nereous ; back undulated with white and cinereous. Found
in Bucharia, &c.

Caspius. Cinereous, fpotted with light red; the nof-
trils, orbits, and temples dufky. Found near Aftrabad, in
Perfia.

Mexicanus. Legs and bill fanguineous ; the fuperciliary
line white: the coturnix ludoviciana of Briffon,, colcui-
cuiltu of Ray and Willughby, the Louifiana quail of La-
tham. Found in Louifiana.

FaLKLanpicus. Variegated with brown fpots and
curvated ftrie; beneath white; bill lead-coloured; legs
brown ; temples {potted with white ; Malouine quail of La-
tham. Found in the Falkland iflands.

Nov Hispant#. « Legs and bill black; crefted head
and neck variegated with white and black ; body and quill-
feathers yellow, the latter tipped with white: this 1s the grand
colin of Buffon, and Mexican quail of Latham. Found in
New Spain.

Coyoteos. With yellow legs ; crown and neck fafciated
with white and black ; body above yellow, varied with white.
This is the coturnix mexicana of Briflon; the coyolcozquo
of Ray and Willughby, the coyolcos of Buffon, and leffer
Mexican quail of Latham; the eyes are black.

Suscirator. Variegated with yellowifh, red, black and
grey; billlonger. This is the coturnix javenfis of Briflon,
the coturnix indica Bontii'of Ray and Willughby, the
reveil-matin or caille de Java of Buffon, and noily quail of
Latham. Found in the woods of Java. .

Srriatus. With reddih legs; white eye-brows ; tail,

throat,

Tee

throat, lower breaft and abdomen black, white-guttated :
the Madagafcar quail of Latham.

Grisgus. With black legs and bill ; body dilutely and
fordidly grey, black-banded: the grey-throated quail of
Latham. Found in Madagafcar.

CoromanpeLicus. Head black; vertex and ocular
fafcia red and yellow; throat white, furrounded with a
black ftria; body ftriated; quill-feathers brown: the Co-
romandel quail of Latham.

Novs Guinem. Brown; greyifh legs; black quill-
feathers, the covers of the wings obfoletely yellow: the
New Guinea quail of Latham.

Maniziznsis. Above black; legs and bill black ;
throat white ; breaft grey, {potted black ; abdomen yellow,
black-banded : the Manilla quail of Latham.

Crisratus. The dependent creft and throat yellow :
this is the quauhtzonecolin of Ray and Willughby, the
zone-colin of Buffon, the crefted quail of Latham. Found
in Guiana and New Spain.

Sinensis. Body fpotted grey; throat black, with a
white bow: the coturnix philippenfis of Briffon, and Chi-
nefe quail of Edwards and Latham. Found in China and
the Philippine ifles.

Coturnix. Body fpotted grey ; eye-brows white ; the
margin and lunule of the tail-feathers ferruginous : the quail
of Pennant and others. Of this there are two varieties,
the coturnix major of Briffon, and the coturnix wholly
white,

f. With three Toes.

Greratraricus. With pale legs; black bill; quill-
feathers and tail black: the Gibraltar quail of Latham.

Anpatusicus. Red, variegated with black; beneath
reddifh-white ; legs and bill flefh-coloured: the Andalufian
quail of Latham.

Nicricotuis. Body above cinereous, variegated with
red and black beneath ; legs and bill cinereous ; chin and
throat black ; quill-feathers brown: black-necked quail of
Latham. Found in Madagafcar.

Luzonniensis. Head, neck, and throat variegated with
white and black ; throat and breaft bay ; abdomen yellow-
ifh ; legs and bill dilutely grey : the Luzonian quail of La-
tham. Found in the Manilla iflands.

C. With the Area about the Eyes covered with Feathers, but
naked and tetrada@yle: TiNamou.

Gutanensts. With legs and bill brown; back varie-
gated with cinereous brown and blackifh ftreaks ; throat ci-
nereous ; abdomen palely orange and brown. This is the
partridge of Guiana of Bancroft and Latham. Found in
Cayenne and Guiana.

Magsor. Legs yellowifh and brown ; bill black ; vertex
red ; body olivaceous ; {pots on the back and tail black.
This isthe macucagua of Marcgrave, Ray, and Willughby,
the magona of Buffon, the tinamou of Cayenne, the great
tinamou of Latham. Found in South America, particu-
larly in the woods of Cayenne and Guiana.

Cinerevus. Cinereous-brown: the cinereous tinamou
of Latham.
VARIEGATUS. Legs and bill brown; head and neck

black ; body above variegated with tranfverfe lines, light red
and black ; beneath red; throat and middle of the abdo-
men white: the variegated tinamou of Latham. Found in
Guiana.

Suvi. Legs and bill yellow; head and neck black ;
body above brown ; beneath red: the little tinamou of La-
tham. Found in Guiana,

rE T

TETRAODON, in Ichthyology. See TeTropoy.

TETRAPETALOUS, in Botany, an epithet given to
the flowers that confift of four jingle petala, or leaves
placed around the pittil.

Thefe M. Juffieu calls polypetalous flowers.

Mr. Ray, who calls them ¢etrapetalous, makes them contti-
tute a diftin& clafs, which he divides into, 1. Such as have
an uniform tetrapetalous flower, and their feed-veffels a little
oblongifh, which he therefore calls /iiquofe. 2. Such as
have their feed-veffels fhorter, which therefore, for diftinc-
tion fake, he calls capfulate and filiculofz. 3. Such as have
a feeming tetrapetalous flower, that is, a monopetalous one,
divided deeply into four partitions, which he particularizes
alfo as anomalous. ;

TETRAPHARMACUM, TET PLP PLLKOVy compounded
of spa, four, and Gupuaxor, drug, or remedy, in the general
denotes any remedy confifting of four ingredients.

TETRAPHIS, in Botany, a name contrived by Hed-
wig, to exprefs the four points by which the fringe of this
mofs is peculiarly diftinguifhed. (See Frrvee. )—Hedw.
Fund. y. 2. 87. t. 7.f. 32. Schreb. Gen. 758. Sm. Fi.
Brit. 1179. Compend. 153.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Mufci. Nat. Ord. Mufci.

Eff. Ch. Capfule oblong. Fringe fimple, of four pyra-
midal, ere&t, unconneéted teeth.

1. T. pellucida. ‘Tranfparent Four-toothed Mofs. FI.
Brit. n. 1. Compend. 163. Engl. Bot. t. 1020. Hedw.
i Mufe. 45. t. 7. f. 1. a—f. Sibth. Oxon. 275. Turn.

ufc. Hib. 13. (Mnium pellucidum; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1574.
M. ferpilli foliis tenuibus pellucidis ; Dill. Mufe. 232. t. 31.
f. 2.)—Capfule cylindrical. Leaves ovate, acute, fingle-
ribbed.—Not rare in moift fhady places, about the roots of
trees, in various parts of Europe. It is annual, flowering
early in the fpring, and ripening fruit in May. The whole
mofs is of a bright tranfparent green. Root fibrous,
matted. Stems moitly fimple, an inch high, clothed with
alternate, feffile, ovato-lanceolate, acute, entire, wavy,
fingle-ribbed /eaves, and each terminated by a folitary flower.
The male flowers, far more abundant than the female, are
little, round, ftalked,. powdery heads, each enveloped in
three broad ovate leaves. The females, on a different ftem,
are lefs elevated, and more minute, each with from four to
fix flyles, one of which only, as ufual, is prolific, and the
cylindrical, f{mooth, nearly upright cap/ule becomes elevated
on a bright orange or crimfon ftalk, an inch long. The
tawny veil is torn at the bafe. Lid conical, reddifh, thin,
not half fo long as the capfule. ringe remarkable for its
four rigid, polifhed, acute, pyramidal teeth, of a fhining
brown, by which the genus was well charaéterized, even
when the prefent was the only known fpecies. Hedwig ob-
ferved the flowers to be fometimes abortive, and replaced by
buds. In the early fpring he now and then met with ffa-
mens and. piffils in the fame flower.

2. T. ovata. Ovate Four-toothed Mofs. Mohr Ind.
Crypt. 3. Sm. Compend..163. Grimmia Browniana ;
Engl. Bot. t. 1422. Bryum Brownianum; Dickf. Crypt.
fafc. 4. 7. t. 10. f. 16. Orthotrichum Brownianum ; Fl.
Brit. 1269. )—Capfule ovate. Radical leaves ligulate, ob-
tufe, without a rib.—Gathered by Mr. R. Brown, by the
river fide at Roflin, near Edinburgh; and by the late
Mr. William Brunton, on fand-{ftone rocks at lord Grant-
ley’s lakes, near Ripon, Yorkfhire. The habit of the
plant, and efpecially the ribbed vei/, caufed us firft to refer
our imperfect fpecimen to Orthotrichum, till Mr. Sowerby
thought he found the fringe to be that of a Grimmia, Mean-
while Mr. Funk, a German botanift, afcertained it to be
formed of four teeth only, conftituting a genuine sie a

thug

TET

thus adding a fecond fpecies to the curious genus before us.
With refpect to habit, indeed, this has little refemblance to
the original fpecies. It isa minute, brewnifh, pellucid mofs,
whofe foliage is all over dotted or reticulated. The root
feems annual. Svems none. Radical /eaves few, ereet, li-
near, very narrow, a little dilated upwards, obtufe, entire,
without rib or vein: thofe which form a fheath, at the bafe
of the fruitfalk, fhort, ovate, acute, with a rib or keel.
Stalk red, folitary, half an inch high. Cap/fule ered,
fmooth, ovate, brown. Zid fhort, with an oblique point.
Fringe red, certainly of only four fhort, acute, firm
teeth. ° H

TETRAPHOE, a name given by the people of Gu-
nea toa plant, which they give in decottion as a cure for
fluxes. This plant grows alfo in Malabar, where they ufe
the roots boiled in whey for the piles ; and in the colic they
give the root in powder, about a {cruple for a dofe. It is
called in this latter place wellia cadavalli, and by Petiver
xanthium Malabaricum capitulis lanuginofis. The ftalks of it
are woody and hoary, efpecially about the tops. Its leaves
ftand by pairs on fhort footftalks, and while young they are
hoary underneath, with a very foft and velvety down ; the
others are rough, like the fpotted lungwort, but feldom are
fo large; the flowers grow in fpikes, and confift each of
fine green leaves filled with fcarlet filaments ; after thefe the
fruit ripens, and is a fort of woolly bur, covered with foft
and hooked prickles, very like the common Englifh bur-
dock, but not of a third part of the fize. Phil. Tranf.
BNz232: fF ot

TETRAPILUS, a genus of Loureiro’s, in his Co-
chinch. 611, named from tJpx, and ido, a hat, or hood,
becaufe the four fegments of the corolla end each in a
hooded point. Every part of the defcription anfwers to the
genus Oxea, fee that article; except that the flowers are
dioecious {which indeed is of little confequence, fome of
the known fpecies being fubje to have the ftamens and pif-
tils occafionally in feparate flowers) ; and the berry is faid
to have two cells, with feveral feeds. Though Olea there-
fore is known to have two cells in the young germen, there
being here more than one ieed, muit reduce Loureiro’s
plant to Ligu/frum ; and it may prove very near L. ip tee
cum, Thunb. Jap. 17. t. 1, though fcarcely the fame
fpecies.

TETRAPLA, formed from zereemAc:, guadruplex, four-
fold, in Church Hiffory, a Bible difpofed by Origen, under
four columns, in each of which was a different Greek verfion,
vix. that of Aquila, that of Symmachus, that of the Se-
venty, and that of Theodotion.

Sixtus of Sienna confounds the tetrapla with the hexapla ;
but the tetrapla is a different work, compofed after the
hexapla, and in favour of fuch as could not have the
hexapla.

Some authors are of opinion, that the order in which the
four verfions of the tetrapla were ranged, was different from
that in which we have rehearfed them ; and particularly, that
the Septuagint was in the firft column ; but St. Epiphanius
fays exprefsly to the contrary, and places it in the third.
He even gives us Origen’s reafon for putting it there, which
was, fays he, that the beft verfion might be in the middle,
that the others might be the more eafily confronted with it,
and correéted from it.

Baronius, however, invhis Annals for the year 231, takes
the Septuagint to have been in the third place in the hexapla,
but in the firft in the tetrapla; but Epiphanius gives it the
fame place inboth. See Hexapia.

TETRAPOGON, in Botany, fo named by Desfontaines,
from trex, and wwyw, a beard, becaufe of the four awns

TET

affembled in each calyx.—Desfont. Atlant. y. 2. 388.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 898.—Clafs and order, Polygamia Mo-
noecia, Desfont. and Willd. rather Tyiandria Digynia. Nat.
Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of two nearly equal, oblong,
membranous, fhining, awnlefs valves, containing three flo-
rets. Cor. of two valves; the outer one keeled, abrupt,
villous, with a long, ftraight, terminal, {fpreading awn;
inner {maller, membranous, awnlefs. Stam. Filaments three,
fhort, capillary, deflexed; anthers oblong, emarginate,
pendulous. Piff. Germen {mall, roundifh, fuperior ; ftyles
two, fhort ; ftigmas feathery, oblong. Peric. none, except
the permanent corolla. Seed folitary, invelted with the co-
rolla, but not united to it. The terminal floret is imperfeét,
but both valves are awned.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, three-flowered. Corolla
of two unequal valves ; the outermoft abrupt, awned. Cen-
tral floret imperfeét ; both valves awned.

1. T. villofus. Villous Four-bearded Grafs. Willd. n. r.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 389. t. 255.—Gathered by Des-
fontaines in fandy ground in Barbary, near Cafsa. The
Jftem is ere, about a foot high, knotty, leafy, a little com-
prefled, fmooth. Leaves linear, {mooth, narrower than their
long fheaths, of which the uppermoft, in particular, is much
inflated, embracing the bafe of the /pike, which refembles
that of a Porypocon. (See that article.) The flowers
are feffile, difpofed in four ranks, on a flender zigzag com-
mon ftalk, or receptacle, their copious yellowith awns about
half an inch in length, fpreading every way. The outer
valve of the corolla is clothed with copious foft fpreading
hairs.

TETRAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography.
PATHOS.

TETRAPOLIs, Attica, the name of a country of Greece,
N. of Attica; in which, according to Strabo, were four
towns built by Kanthus, wher he reigned in this diftri@ of
Greece; whence its name, from sere, four, and woAty
city.

TH Ree Dorica, a country of Greece, in the Do-
ride, between the country of the Etolians and that of the
Enianes, according to Strabo.

Terrapo.is Syrie,a country of Afia, in Syria, accord-
ing to Strabo ; it contained four principal towns, which had
the fame founder.

TETRAPTOTE, Terraptoron, in Grammar, aname
given to fuch defeétive nouns as have only tour cates; fuch
are affus, &c.

TETRAPYRAMIDIA, derived from were, four, and
maueric, &@ pyramid, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a genus
of {pars.

The bodies of this genus are fpars influenced in their fhape
by an admixture of particles of tin ; and are found in form
of broad-bottomed pyramids of four fides.

Of this genus there is only one known fpecies, which is
ufually of a brownifh colour, and is found in Saxony ; as
alfo in Devonfhire, Cornwall, and other counties of England,
where there is tin. Hill.

TETRAPYRGIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Cappadocia, in Garfauria.—Alfo, a town of Atrica, upon
the coaft of Marmarica, before Portus-Phycus, according
to Strabo. .

TETRARCH, TETRARCHA, TETELENNSy formed of Tiledy
four, and xexn, rule, dominion, a prince who holds and go-
verns the fourth part of a kingdom.

Such, originally, was the import of the title tetrarchs
but it was afterwards applied to any petty king or fovereign 5
and became fynonimous with ethnarch, as appears ae the

ollow-.

See Car-

T27

following confiderations: 1. That Pliny makes mention of
fix tetrarchies within the cities of Decapolis. 2. That
Herod’s kingdom was only divided into three parts, which
yet were called tetrarchies, and the fovereigns of them
(Luke, iii. 1.) tetrarchs. 3. Jofephus Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv.
c. 23. tells us, that, after the battle of Philippi, Antony,
going into Syria, conftituted Herod tetrarch ; and on me-
dals the fame Herod is called ethnarch.

TETRARRHENA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. R.

Brown, from serpz, and appny, male, on account of the very
remarkable charaéter in this tribe, the grafles, of the four
ftamens, which Mr. Brown fays he has afcertained by re-
peated examination.—Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 209.
—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Digynia. Wat. Ord. Gra-
mina.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two-valves, fingle-flowered. Corolla
double; each of two valves, naked at the bafe. Nectary
of two fcales, oppofite, alternate with the valves’ of the
corolla. Stigmas feathery.

The inflorefcence is a fimple, equal, fomewhat racemofe
{fpike. Flowers awnlefs.

1. T. diftichophylla. Two-ranked 'Tetrandrous Grafs.
Br. n. 1. (Ehrharta diftichophylla ; Labill. Nov. Holl.
v. I, go. t. 117.)—Flowers downy. Corolla ribbed, ob-
tufe ; the outermoft valve half the length of the reft. Leaves
ftraight, hairy as well as their fheaths. Stem branched at
the bafe.—Native of Cape Van Diemen. The‘/fem is hardly
a foot high, with many ereét leafy branches. Leaves lan-
ceolate, acute, about an inch long, moderately fpreading in
two ranks. Spikes folitary, ftalked, terminal, ere¢t, about
an inch in length, fimple, the flowers almoft all feffile,
{preading in two rows.

2. T. acuminata. Pointed Tetrandrous Grafs. Br. n. 2.
—“ Flowers fmooth. Corolla ribbed; the outer glumes
acute ; one valve rather fhorter than the inner glumes; the
other longer, with a taper point. Leaves and their ftems
{mooth. Stem branched.’?—Found by Mr. Brown in the
fame country.

3. T. juncea. Rufhy Tetrandrous Grafs. Br. n. 3.—
<* Flowers {mooth, imbricated. Calyx without ribs. Co-
rolla ribbed, obtufe. Stem branched; ftraight and fmooth
like the leaves.”,—From the fouthern coaft of New Hol-
and. Brown.

4. T. levis. Smooth Tetrandrous Grafs. Br. n. 4.—
“¢ Flowers {fmooth, diftin@. Calyx ribbed, rather acute.
Corolla obtufe, fmooth, without ribs. Stems fimple.
Leaves {mooth, flat, rather lax.”,—Gathered by Mr. Brown
in the fame country with the laft fpecies.

TETRASARIUS, a word ufed by fome of the medi-
cal writers, to exprefs half an ounce.

TETRASPASTON, +téhpacrasoy, in Mechanics, a ma-
chine in which are four pullies. See PuLiey.

TETRASTATER, céleasaine, in Ancient Coinage, a
Grecian gold coin of Lyfimachus, Antiochus III., and of
fome of the Egyptian monarchs. It was the quadruple
chrufos (regu) weighing about 530 grains, and current for
80 drachmas of filver, valued at about 3/., now worth 4/.
iterling. Some weigh 540 grains, which may be owing to
the gold of fuch being of more alloy ; though it may well
be queftioned, fays Pinkerton (Medals, vol. i.), if they were
ever meant to relate to the Attic ftandard.

TETRASTICH, -zerpasixov, a ftanza, epigram, or
poem, confifting of four verfes.

TETRASTGCHON, in Botany, a term often ufed by
the Greek writers, and generally mifunderftood by thofe
who copy their accounts. Pliny has made an error in
the defcription of the euonymus, which has confounded

TET

two different fhrubs together ever fince, by miftaking the
fenfe of this word, ufed by Theophraftus, in his account of
it.. He fays, that the fruit is divided within into four
orders or feries of feeds; this he expreffes by the word
tetraflechon, which Pliny, fuppofing to be the fame with
the word /etragonon, has tranflated into granum quadrangala

Sigura.

But this is by no means the fenfe of the word which was
ufed by the Greeks, to exprefs that a thing had terapas
zaéec, four rows, orders, or feries of feeds in it: nor does
it at all exprefs the feeds being fquare, much lefs its being
fingle, for the original derivation of the word was from the
term xa7« soixov, ufed in dances. Thefe were compofed of
feveral feries of perfons, called sxx, flechi; and every
ftcechon confifted of feveral perfons, who all moved toge-
ther. See Evonymus. 9

TETRASTYLE, formed from zélja, four, and svdos,
column, in the Ancient Architedure, a building, and particularly
a temple, with four columns in its front.

TETRASYLLABICAL, a word confifting of four
fyllables.

TETRATHECA, in Botany, received that name from
the writer of the prefent article, in allufion to the four cells
of its anthers, the word being compounded of rerpx, and
nxn, a cafe, or cell. Mr. Brown indeed, in his General
Remarks on the Botany of Terra Auttralis, p. 12, offers
fome obfervations tending to invalidate this name and cha-
racter. - But it appears to us, that they both derive con-
firmation from the confideration, of which we are well aware,
that moft anthers have four cells when young, though, as
they burft lengthwife, the partition of each cell is obliterated«
Whereas the peculiarity of our Tetratheca, admitted by our
intelligent friend, confifts in the four cells remaining un-
altered, becaufe the pollen is difcharged by a terminal tube
or orifice; nor is it of any great confequence that he has
found, in fome {pecies, the partition to be obliterated, in an
advanced ftate of the anthers. Ceratopetalum, for exampl
is a good name and a well-marked genus, though there is a
fpecies deftitute of petals. With refpe& to the natura
order, and the fituation of the fingular appendage to the
feed, in the genus before us, we gladly profit by Mr. Brown’s
correction, hoping to be pardoned, though we may*have
made feveral falfe fteps, in the totally ftrange wildernefs of
New Holland plants, which we were among the firft, with-
out any guide, to attempt to lay open to botanifts.—Sm.
Bot. of New Holl. 5. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 37. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v.2. 321. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 347. —Clafs and
order, Ofandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. akin to Polygalee, a
new order to which Po/ycala is referred; but in Mr. Brown’s
opinion conttituting, along with another genus, a ftill differ-
ent order, which, from the name deftined for that genus, he
choofes to denominate TREMANDREX, of which we pro-
pofe to treat in its proper place.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in four deep equal
fegments, deciduous. Cor. Petals four, obovate, equal, many
times longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, inferted
into the receptacle, very fhort, equal, erect, fimple ; anthers
terminal ; oblong, fomewhat curved, much fhorter an the
corolla, with four longitudinal furrows, and as many cells,
and terminating in a fimple tubular beak, through which the
pollen is difcharged. Pi/. Germen fuperior, very fall;
obovate, compreifed; ityle yertical, cylindrical, fimple,
hardly fo long as the anthers; ftigma’ fimple. eric,
Capfule obovate, comprefled, of two cells and two valves,
the partitions from the middle of each valve. Seeds one ‘or
two in each cell, oval, pendulous, with a naked fear, but
crowned, at the oppofite end, with a twifted creft. aT

TET

Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Petals four. An-
Capfule of two cells and
Seeds

Ef. Ch.
thers beaked, with four cells.
two valves, with partitions from their middle.
erefted, about two in each cell.

1. T. juncea. Rufhy Tetratheca.
n.1. Sm. Bot. of New Holl. 5. t. 2.—Smooth. Leaves
alternate, lanceolate. Stem with fharp angles. Branches
elongated, and almoit naked.—Native of New South Wales,
from whence we received drawings and {pecimens, through
the hands of Dr. John White, foon after the fettlement of
the colony there. This plant was fent to Kew, by Mr. Peter
Good, in 1803, and it ts marked as flowering in July and
Auguit, being kept in the greenhoufe in winter. The root
is woody, {mall, perennial. Stems fomewhat fhrubby, much
branched even from the bafe; the branches long, flender,
very acutely angular, fo as to be almoft winged, leafy,
fmooth like every other part. Leaves generally few and
fmall, acute, feffile, entire, with a ftrong mid-rib. Stipulas
none. Flowers {cattered along the branches, on fimple
folitary red ftalks, about an inch long, each from the bofom
of a diminifhed leaf, and making a very elegant appearance.
The calyx is red. Petals crimfon or rofe-coloured, three-
fourths of an inch long. Anthers purplifh-brown, tipped
with yellow. We have a variety with white pefals, the
calyx and flalks of which preferve their ufual colour.

2. I. ericifolia. WHeath-leaved Tetratheca. Sm. Exot.
Bot. v. 1. 37. t. 20.— Leaves whorled, linear, revolute,
minutely toothed. Stem rough with afcending briftles.
Flower-ftalks and calyx very {mooth. From the fame
country as the foregoing, and fent, with drawings, at the
fame time. This is of more humble growth than 7. juncea,
and much more leafy. ‘The /eaves are four, five, or more,
in each whorl from top to bottom of the {tem and branches,
feffile, narrow, about half an inch long; their edges, and
fometimes their upper furface, near the point, rough with
minute teeth. /owers rofe-coloured, drooping, about half
the fize of the foregoing, on fimple, folitary, axillary ftalks,
as long as the leaves. Anthers purple, with yellow tips,
badly reprefented by the engraver, who miftook the original
drawing of the fection of an anther, for the germen, and
altered it accordingly. _ Capfule ovate, emarginate. Seeds
with a {mall white creft, moftly two in each cell.

3. T. glandulofa. Glandular Tetratheca. Sm. Exot.
Bot. v. 1. 39. t. 21.—Leaves imperfectly whorled, lanceo-
late, revolute, toothed with little fpines. Stem downy.
Flower-ftalks and calyx rough with glands.—Sent inter-
mixed with the laft, from New South Wales. The fpe-
cimens of both appeared to have been burnt down to the
ground, probably by fires made by the favages in the woods,
and had grown up again; which proves them to be perennial
plants, though fcarcely fhrubby. The fize of the prefent
fpecies, and its general afpect, agree with 7. ericifolia, but
the corolla and anthers are of a darker tint. The fem is
clothed with very fhort clofe down, by no means briftly ;
while the flower-/talks and calyx, inftead of being {fmooth,
are covered with glandular hairs. The /eaves are rather
broader, and lefs whorled, being often merely oppofite, or
even difperfed.

4. T. thymifolia. Thyme-leaved Tetratheca. Sm. Exot.
Bot. v. 1. 41. t. 22.—Leaves whorled, lanceolate, toothed
with little fpines. Stem, flower-ftalks, and calyx rough
with afcending briftles.—From the fame country. Rather
larger than either of the two laft, and readily diftinguifhed,
at firft fight, by its broader lefs revolute kaves. The
briftly hairs clothing the flower-falks and calyx are its pecu-
liarly diftinguifhing charafter. The flowers are of a fine
crimfon, with violet anthers, whofe tips are yellow. Few

Vor. XXXV.

Willd. n. 1. Ait.

TET

genera are more peculiar, or more elegant, than Tetratheca,
and the f{pecies are all worthy of a place ia our colle&tions.

TETRATONON, is the Greek name of an interval of
four tones; which in modern mufic is ufually called the
fuperfluous or fharp fifth.

TETRAX, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the ois
or buftard kind, called by fome authors anas campeftris, or
the field-duck, and alfo little buftard ; and by fome others,
the canna. See Orts.

It is a very common bird in France, where it is called
canne patrieres it is called anas, from its fitting on the
ground, juft as the duck does on the water. It is of the
lize of a pheafant, and has a beak like that of the common
hen. It is taken with nets, as the partridge: it runs very
{wiftly, and, like the buftard, has no hinder toes. Its belly
is white, and its back is variegated with grey, red, and
black. It feeds on vegetables, and on {mall infeéts.

TETREUMA, in Botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to a fpecies of fhrub, very common among them,
and ufed to cure whitlows. They dry the leaves, and
reduce them to powder; and, moiftening them with any
liquor, apply them to the place. Petiver has called this
arbor Guineenfis lauruftini facie, from its great likenefs to
the common fhrub which we call the lauruftine. The
leaves are opaque and ftiff, and are an inch and a quarter
broad, and two inches and a half long. 'Thefe ftand alter-
nately on all fides of the ftalk, and are fixed on fhort pedicles.
The flowers grow out of the bofoms of the leaves, and ftand
in clufters in the manner of thofe of the common lauruftine.
Phil. Tranf. N° 232.

TETRICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Sabines,
placed by Varro in the environs of mount Fifcellus, which
lay northward. Servius on Virgil fays, that it belonged to
Picenum, becaufe in his time, its limits had been changed.
The Abbé Chaupé places it where we now find Leoneffa.
There we find the terrible rocks, horrentes rupes, mentioned
by Virgil. .

TETRICUS Mons, a {craggy mountain of Italy, in
the country of the Sabines. Pliny.

TETRINA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Archangel, near the White fea; 100 miles
N.N.W. of Archangel.

TETRIX, in Ornithology, a {pecies of tetrao; which fee.

TETRODON, in Ichthyology, a genus of the Branchiof-
tegi order of fifhes, according to the arrangement of
Gmelin ; the charaGters of which are, that the jaws are long,
divided at the tip; the branchiz or gills have a linear aper-
ture ; the body is roughened beneath, and the ventral fins
are wanting. The fifhes of this genus, like the Chiodon,
have the power of inflating their bodies at pleafure, by
means of an internal membrane, and during this time the
{mall fpines of the fides and abdomen rife fo as to be a
defence againft their enemies. They live principally on
cruftaceous and teftaceous animals. Gmelin enumerates
thirteen fpecies.

Sceveratus; the Noxious Tetrodon. Tetragonal, with
very large head ; length two feet or more. Found in the
American and Pacific oceans, and confidered as highly
noxious, producing, when eaten, very fevere fymptoms.

TrsTupINEus; a Tortoife-fhell Tetrodon. Abdomen
plane, {mooth, and back with white curved futures ; length
two feet ; colour rufous-brown above, marked by numer-
ous round pale blue fpots; beneath blueifh or afh-coloured,
beautifully varied by longitudinal brown {treaks; fins and
tail bright ferruginous; the whole abdomen is furnifhed
with numerous {mall fpines, which, when the animal is un-

difturbed, are imbedded in correfponding cavities in the res
H ut

TET
but elevated, when the fifh is alarmed and difturbs its body.
Found in the Indian feas.

LacocepHatus; Hare Tetrodon. Abdomen acule-
ated; {mooth body, and prominent fhoulders; length twelve
inches ; thick in front ; hinder parts tapering fuddenly to-
wards the tail ; colour above yellowifh-brown, beneath
whitifh with a filyery caft; acrofs the back marked with
fhort, black, or dark-brown bars, and over the fides with
many, {cattered, round, blackifh {pots ; fides and abdomen
befet with radiated fpines; fins fmall, and tail flightly
rounded. Found in the Indian and American feas; and
ftraying into northern latitudes, are taken about the Britifh
coatts. This fifh has the power of inflating the abdomen
to a large fize; and derives its name from the refemblance
of its head to that of a hare.

Liveatus. With brown and pale bands; length ten
or twelve inches, fquare fhape ; and when inflated, like the
laft ; body befet with fmall {pines ; colour grey on the ab-
domen, with longitudinal, deep-brown flreaks; fins and
tail as in the laft fpecies. Found in the Indian and Ame-
rican feas, and alfo in the river Nile.

Execrricus. With red, green, and white {pots ; above
brown, and beneath fea-green; yellow at the fides, and
green fins; length feven or eight inches; eyes large, with
red circles. Found in the Indian and American feas, among
coral rocks ; and when touched with the hand, affecting it
with an eleétric or galvanic fhock.

Ocerratrus. Ocellated on the fhoulder-band; length
fix or eight inches; thick, ovate fhape, contraGting towards
the tail ; colour deep green above, paler on the fides and ab-
domen, which are whitifh ; acrofs the middle of the back, as
far as each peCtoral fin, a broad black crefcent, edged with
yellow ; dorfal fin fituated on a round black {pot with yellow
edges ; lateral line from beneath the eyes to the tail, which
is {mall and roundifh ; under parts befet with many fpines.
Found in the Indian feas and adjoining rivers, particularly
thofe of China and Japan ; very poifonous in its nature, and
it is prohibited to be eaten under very fevere penalties by
the emperor of Japan.

Spencteri. Head bearded with many cirri; length-
ened fhape; above brown-coloured, with roundifh deep
brown fpots; abdomen tumid, whitifh, and befet with
fmall {pines ; with cirri or foft prominences difperfed about
the upper parts of the body. Found in the Indian feas,
ten or twelve inches in length

Hawken. With lower jaw longer than the upper ;
length eight or ten inches; like the former in general ap-
pearance ; above brown-coloured, with {mall whitith clouds
or {pots ; beneath whitifh, with {mall fpines. Found in
the Indian feas.

Oxtoncus. Oblong, with equal jaws; length fix inches ;
lengthened fhape ; colour whitifh, with grey back, marked
by many femi-decurrent brown bands ; fins and tail cinere-
ous ; two lateral lines, one near the back, the other near
the abdomen. Found in the Indian feas.

Rostratus; Snouted Tetrodon. Both jaws elongated
to the beak ; length a few inches ; oblong-ovate fhape, con-
traéting towards the mouth and tail; fnout lengthened and
flightly tubular; colour blueifh-brown, beneath whitith ;
fore-part of the abdomen befet with fpines, few over the
back; fins brown. Found in the Indian feas.

Lavicatus; Smooth Tetrodon. With the abdomen
aculeated in front ; a large fpecies ; blueifh above, with two
white ftripes on each fide; under parts white ; from the
mouth to the end of the peétoral fins aculeated ; the other
parts being fmooth. Found in the American feas.

Hiseipus. Entirely hifpid, with briitly papille ; length

T E/T

two feet ; fhape, when inflated, like that of T. lagocephalus 3
colour whitifh ; upper parts marked acrofs the back by three
or four femi-decurrent brown bands; whole body befet
with {mall fpines. Found in the Mediterranean and Indian
feas. Small remains of this {pecies are faid to occur among
the petrifaGtions of mount Bolca near Verona.

Mora. Unarmed, fharp, compreffed, rounded ; a very
fhort rounded tail ; dorfal fin annexed to the anal, with oval
fpiracles. (See Sun-Fi/h.) Dr. Shaw has made a diftiné&
genus of the fun-fifh under the name of cephalus, the cha-
racters of which are, that the jaws are bony, and body ter-
minating abruptly, fo as to refemble the head of a fifh.
This genus comprehends the mola, or fhort fun-fifh; the ob-
long fun-fifh, with truncated body, or oblong diodon of
Pennant (fee Sun-Fi/b) ; the variegated, with whitifh un-
dulations and {pots ; and the Pallafian C. or filvery fun-fith,
with brownifh back, and fpiny carinated abdomen. The
mola, or fhort fun-fifh, is a native of the European feas.
Its general colour is brown, with a filvery caft on the fides
and abdomen; the {kin rough; the peétoral fins {mal},
rounded, and placed horizontally ; the dorfal and anal fins
placed oppofite, and of a lengthened fhape, with rounded
tips continued into the tail-fin. This fifth is fometimes feen
lying on its fide, on the furface of the water, when it may
be eafily taken. In the Northern feas it arrives at a vait
fize, of the length of ere or even ten feet, and 500 pounds
in weight: it is fuppofed to feed principally on fhell-fith,
and in the night it is faid to exhibit a high degree of phof-
phoric fplendour.

Of this there is a variety, viz. the ¢runcatus, unarmed,
fmooth, comprefled, oblong, with a very fhort tail, the

dorfal and anal fins annexed, with lunated fpiracles. This
is the oblong fun-fith of Pennant.
Sretiatus; Spherical Grey Tetrodon. Whitifh be-

neath, with the body befet with radiated fpines: the tetro-
don etoilé of Cepede. Length twelve or fourteen inches ;
fhape, when inflated, nearly fpherical; colour greenifh,
deeper on the back, marked with dufky fpecks; under
parts whitifh ; vent furrounded by a black circle; whole
body covered with fmall ftellated or radiated {pines ; dorfal
fin rounded at the tip, and attached at the bafe by a kind
of footftalk ; tail oval. Found in the Indian feas. Shaw.

Puncratus; Spherical Brown Tetrodon. With black
{pecks, whitifh abdomen, and very narrow dorfal fin: the
tetrodon pointellé of Cepede. Refembling the former.
Found in the Indian feas. Shaw.

Meveaaris; Pintado Tetrodon. Brown, f{peckled with
white. Found in the Indian feas, and when taken, making
a kind of grunting noife, like feveral others of this and
neighbouring genera.

TETSCHIN, or Terzin, or Dietfchin, in Geography,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leitmeritz, on the
river Elbe; 15 miles N. of Leitmeritz. N. lat. 50° 46/.
E. long. 14° 17).

TETSI, atown of Thibet; 27 miles E. of Laffa.

TETT, a place now in ruins, fituated to the fouth of
Azamore, on the northern extremity of the bay of Maza-
gen, in the empire of Morocco; the name fignifies in
Arabic Titus, and is therefore fuppofed to denominate the
ruins of Titus, founded by the Carthaginians.

TETTER, a difeafe among anime: which is of the
ring-worm kind, and which runs or {preads itfelf upon the
fkin in different direétions, whence probably it has received
the name. It attacks different parts, but is moft commonly
met with on and about the rump, not unfrequently running
down upon the joints of the tail for fome diftance.

It is of a feabby itchy nature and appearance, and when

neglected,

ha)

régletted, is faid to have fometimes become of the quality
of canker, in fome forts of animals. In cafes where it
fixes upon the more flefhy parts of the bodies of the ani-
mals, it is often attended with fuch troublefome itchings,
as to caufe them to rub themfelves againit pofts, walls, and
other places, until they rub off and deftroy the very hair
and {kin of the parts. Nay, the animals will, it is faid,
fometimes even tear off the flefh with their teeth, if they
can come at the parts.

The cure of the difeafe may moitly be accomplifhed by
the ufe of a ball compofed of from half a drachm to a
whole one of calomel, or more, according to circumitances,
in union with fome fort of cooling purgative powder: or a
powder conitituted of crude antimony, ethiops mineral, and
eremor of tartar, of each about half an ounce; which
fhould be given once or twice a day in a quart of oat-meal
gruel. At the fame time, wafhing the parts well with Gou-
lard water, and afterwards applying a little of an ointment
compofed of fulphur, blue ointment, and hog’s-lard to
them.

The animals fhould be well taken care of while the cure
is going on.

TETTIGES, <szriyes, grafshoppers, in Antiquity, a title
the Athenians affumed to themfelves. See GEGENEs.

TETTIGOMETRA, in Entomology, a name by which
the ancients called the nymph of the cicada, or teftyx ; and
they named this nymph, from which they frequently faw
that fly hatched, tettigometra, which fignifies the mother of
the cicada. See Harvest-Fly, Cicapa, and VEGETABLE-
Fly.

TETTIGONIA, a word ufed by the ancients to ex-
prefs the fmaller fpecies of cicada, with which they were
acguainted. They called the larger acheta.

It is generally fuppofed, that the tettigonia was the fame
with our fmalleft kind, called by the French cigalon ; but
M. Reaumur obferves, that as the ancients knew two
kinds of the cicada, we know three; and that our middle
one feems to have been their tettigonia or {mall cicada, and
that they were not acquainted with our fmalleft kind, or
cigalon, which is not larger than a hornet.

TETTIGONL& of Linnzus. See Gryxzus.

Terticonta of Fabricius. See Cicapa.
TETTNANG, in Geography, a town of Germany, and

incipal place of a lord{hip of the fame name, united with
oe ceded to Bavaria by the peace of Prefburg; 8
miles N. of Lindau.

TETTOVA, a town of European Turkey, in Mace-
donia ; 13 miles W. of Skopia.

TETTUA-MOTHU, a cape on the E. coaft of New
Zealand, the N.E. point of Poverty bay. N. lat. 38° 36!.
W. long. 181° 30/.

TETUAN, Terawan, or Teiteget, a town of Africa,
in the empire of Merocco and province of El Garb, fitu-
ated near the river Bufega, about a league and a half inland
from the Mediterranean, and inhabited by Moors and Jews ;
who for the moft part {peak a corrupt Spanifh, in which lan-
guage their commercial negociations are tranfacted. They
are genteel in their perfons and polite in their manners.
The enyirons of Tetuan are planted with vineyards and gar-
dens, which are kept in good order, and which produce
more excellent fruits than thofe in other parts of the em-
pire. From the raifins and figs the Jews diftil an ardent {pirit
(called Mahaya), which, at the age of a year, refembles
the Irifh ufquebaugh, and it is preferred to Englifh brandy
and rum. Of this they drink immoderately, and generally
take a glafs before eating. Leo Africanus attributes the
foundation of this town to the people of Africa. 1t was

ps Ca

afterwards embellifhed, and the population increafed, when
the Moors were driven out of Spain. This was the place
of refidence for many of the confuls of the European
powers, till the year 1770, when the reigning emperor,
Seedy Mahomed, would no longer permit them to remain,
nor again to eftablifh themfelves in the place. The port of
this town has kept a trading communication with Gibraltar,
whence the fhips come to victual, when the wind is in the
weit, and does not allow them to make Tangiers. The
fhore of Tetuan is only fafe when the wind is in the welt,
at which time fhips ride fecurely ; but when it veers to the
eaft, they muft remain here no longer. Our fleets often
vi€tual and water here, and this was the cafe with that of
the immortal Nelfon, preyioufly to his vitory in Aboukir
bay. Tetuan is faid to contain 16,000 people ; 30 miles
S.E. of Tangiers. N. lat. 35° 30’. W. long. 5° 20/.

TETYAN Heap, a cape on the W. coat of the ifland
of Mindanao; near which is a harbour that may be entered
without danger. N. lat. 7° 20'. E. long. 124° 36!.

TEVAKUN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raflan’; 45 miles E.S.E. of Mefchid.

TAVARA, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 5 miles
N.E. of Volturara.

TEUBER, or Teuserinn, Extsapetn, in Biography,
a celebrated German opera finger, and éléye of the famous
Tefi. She was chiefly attached to the court of Vienna,
where fhe refided in 1772. She had fung at Naples in
1769 with great applaufe ; but was peremptorily ordered
by her phyficians never to fing again. Her health had been
fo much impaired in Ruflia, where fhe had remained three
years, that the whole faculty was unanimous in pronouncing
that the exercife of her profeffion would be fatal. How-
ever, in fpite of this prediétion, fhe afterwards recovered
her health and voice fufficiently, in a journey to Ftaly, to
appear again on the ftage at Naples in 1785; where, finding
that her voice had fomewhat lowered its pitch, fhe performed
the principal man’s part in contralto, to the entire fatis-
faction of the public. She was the daughter of a famons
violinift in the emperor’s fervice ; fhe had leffons in finging
from Haffe, in a¢ting from the Tefi, and often fung in the
operas of Haydn at Efterhazi.

TEUCHERN, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia; 18 miles S.W. of Leipfie.

TEUCHITES, in Botany, a name ufed by fome for
the /cenanth or fchenanth, camel’s hay, which ought to be
written feuochitis. There is a city Zeuochis in Egypt, near
the borders of Arabia, and the geographers all mention a
lake in the neighbourhood of this city; in this lake it is
probable the fchananth might grow; and being gathered
there, and fold in the adjoining city of Teuochis, the
purchafers might diftinguifh it with an epithet formed of
the namé of the place where they bought it. See Sce-
NANTH.

TEUCHTLACOT-ZANHOUL, in Zoology, a name
by which the natives of fome of the American nations call
the rattle-fnake.

TEUCRIUM, in Botany, an ancient name, whether ap-
plied to any fpecies of this genus, or of any other, becaufe
the plant was difcovered by Teucer the Trojan prince, or
dedicated to him, or found in the country of Troy, fome-
times called Teucria, we mutt humbly profefs our inability
to form any opinion or conjeéture.—Linn. Gen. 2849.
Schreb. 384. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 13. Mart. Mill. Dit.
v. 4. Sm. Fh Brit. 606. Prodr. Fi Grec. Sibth. v. 1

390. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 365. Schreb. Unilab. 26.
Purfh 405. ourn. t. 98, ‘Juff.'rrz. Lamarck Illuftr.
Eee OLs Chamedrys; ‘Tourn.

(Polium; Tourn. t. 97.
‘ Elz

3 t. 97+)

TEUCRIUM.

t. 97-)—Clafs and order, Didynamia COREE ME Nat.
Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven
half way down into five acute, nearly equal, fegments, gib-
bous on one fide at its bafe, permanent. Cor. of one petal,
ringent. Tube cylindrical, fhort, ending in an incurved
throat. Upper lip ere&, acute, divided throughout into
two diftant fegments, divaricated towards each fide : lower
{preading, three-cleft ; its lateral fegments refembling the
upper lip, nearly erect ; the central one roundifh, and very
large. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, longer than the
upper lip of the corolla, afcending, curved, prominent _be-
tween its divifions; anthers {fmall, incumbent. Pi/?. Ger-
men fuperior, deeply four-lobed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, agree-
ing with the ftamens in fize and pofition ; itigmas two, flen-
der, acute. eric. none, the unchanged calyx containing
the feeds in its concave bafe. ‘Seeds four, roundifh, reticu-
lated or wrinkled.

Ef. Ch. Upper lip of the corolla deeply divided, beyond
its bafe, divaricated. Stamens prominent.

Obf. The upper lip of the corolla being fo deeply di-
vided, even below its bafe, into the tube itfelf, and its fee-
ments fo far afunder, there feems to be no upper lip at all.
The latter however is more truly the cafe in Ajuga, to which,
and not to Teucrium, belongs the Chamapitys of Tournefort ;
its upper lip being, in a manner, cut away. Teucrium of
Tournefort has a bell-fhaped calyx, and the middle fegment
of the lower lip of its corolla concave. Polium of the fame
author has its flowers colleéted into denfe terminal heads.
His Chamedrys has axillary flowers, and a tubular calyx.
Marum of Boerhaave has thyme-like leaves, and a peculiarly
pungent {mell. Scordium of Ray and Rivinus has the odour
of garlic. Jva of Dillenius has the calyx very protuberant
at the lower part. All thefe neverthelefs form together a
moft natural and well-defined genus, whofe qualities are
more or lefs aromatic or bitter ; its habit ufually herbaceous,
moftly perennial, often fhrubby; leaves oppofite, fimple,
though in fome inftances much divided ; pubefcence various,
but hardly ever abfent ; flowers blue, red, yellow, or whitifh,
axillary, folitary or whorled, panicled or capitate ; their in-
curved ftamens and ftyle always very con{picuous between
the divifions of the upper lip.

Thirty-five {pecies are enumerated in the fourteenth edi-
tion of Linn. Syft. Veg. from which Chamepitys, Iva and
falicifolium are to be removed to Ajuga. Willdenow, after
making thefe deductions, has fixty-four. He follows Schre-
ber and others, in making many more fpecies out of the
allies of Polium, than Linneus would ever allow to be more
than varieties. ‘Two new ones from Crete are added in the
Prodr. Fl, Grace. he genus is generally European, but
not entirely fo, and for the moft part inhabits warm funny
climates. No attempt has been made to diftribute it into
fections. We hall indicate fome traces of fuch, as we fele&
the more curious or remarkable {pecies for illuftration, de-
feribing all the Britifh as well as the new ones.

T. campanulatum. Bell-fhaped Germander. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 786. Willd. n.1. Ait. n,1. (T. fupinum, perenne,
paluitre, apulum, glabrum, foliis laciniatis, flore albo; Till.
Pif. 163. t. 49. f. 1.)—Leaves many-cleft, nearly fmooth.
Flowers axillary, folitary. Calyx awned. Stem procum-
bent.—Native of moift fituations, in Italy and the Levant.
Miller appears to have cultivated it in 1728, but the true
plant is now fcarcely to be feen in our gardens, and is little
kaown to botanifts. ‘The fynonym of Tilli has no right to
be marked as a variety, anfwering exaétly to the Linnzan
{pecimens and defcription, nor do we find any other figure
of this fpecies, Schreber feems to have mifled Willdenow,

to quote a fynonym of Rivinus, which has no exittence.
This we find tranfcribed into Hort. Kew. with a correétion
of t. 14 for 24; though nothing but 7. Botrys is there to
be feen. No lefs incorreétly is Rivinus, t. 19, cited by
Willdenow, after Schreber, for 7. orientale; as Dr. Sims
has noticed in Curt. Mag. 1279. TT. campanulatum is a very
diftint, perennial, herbaceous, nearly {mooth, {pecies, whofe
Jflems are {quare, leafy, more or lefs proftrate and creeping.
Leaves an inch long, twice three-cleft, with bluntifh, Rothe,
flightly revolute ae ok Flowers axillary, folitary, op-
polite, ftalked, with a large, bell-fhaped, rather pungent-
pointed, calyx. The corolla is {aid to be white.

T. levigatum. Smooth Yellow Germander. Vahl Symb.
y. 1. 40. Willd. n. 2.—Quite fmooth. Lower leaves many-
cleft ; upper three-cleft, entire. Flowers axillary, folitary.
Segments of the calyx oblong, without awns.—Gathered
at Monte Video, by Commerfon, whofe {pecimen is beforé
us. This {pecies is larger in all its parts than the foregoing,
and appears to be herbaceous and ereét, quite fmooth, éx-
cept a flight downinefs, here and there, upon the young
branches or ftalks. Leaves ftalked, an inch and half leng,
deeply divided into three wedge-fhaped, jagged, blunt, ve
fmooth and flat, lobes; the upper, or feral, ones mac
fmaller and narrower, fimply three-cleft. Flowers yellow.
Segments of the calyx oblong-lanceolate, with one central
rib and two marginal ones, acute, but not tipped with any
awn or briftly point.

T. orientale. Great-flowered Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl.
786. Willd. n.3. Ait. n.2. Curt. Mag. t.1279. (T-
orientale anguftifolium laciniatum, flore magno fubczruleo ;
Comm. Rar. 25. t. 25.)—Leaves deeply three-cleft, many-
cleft, linear. Clutters terminal, compound. Flower-ftalks
horizontal, longer than the floral leaves. —Native of the Le-
vant. Cultivated by Miller, and recently reftored to our
gardens by feeds obtained from Siberia, by Mr. Loddiges.
The root is perennial. Several decumbent branches from
the root bear /eaves divided into many linear fegments ; but
the foliage of the ere€t panicled flowering fem is doubly
three-cleft below, fimply above. Jn/fore/cence terminal, race-

mofe, compound, with {mall bracteaceous leaves. Flowers”

numerous, almoft as large as thofe of 7. fruticans hereafter
defcribed, of a light purplifh-blue. All the herbage, and
even the corolla, is hairy or downy. We have already men-
tioned, under our firft f{pecies, that the citation of Rivinus
by Willdenow is an error.

T. Botrys. Cut-leaved Annual Germander. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 786. Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 3. Mill. Ic. t. 264. f. 1.
(Iva mofchata, folio multifido; Riv. Monop. t.14. Cha-
mepitys feemina; Ger. Em. 525.)—Leaves many-cleft.
Flowers axillary, oppofite, in pairs, turned one way. Calyx
tubular, inflated and gibbous at the bafe.—Native of Ger-
many, Switzerland, France and Italy, in dry fields. Root
annual, fibrous. Herb hairy, branched from the bottom,
ere&t. Leaves deeply pinnatifid, fomewhat three-lobed.
Flowers ftalked, crimfon, four together, making a fort of
half whorl. The calyx becomes greatly enlarged after
flowering, tubular, remarkably inflated below, and termi-
nating in five triangular, awned, converging teeth. :

T. trifidum. Trifid-leaved Germander. Retz. Obf.
fafe. 1. 21. Willd. n.7. Ait. n.5. (T.capenfe; Thunb.
Prodr. 95. )—Leaves hoary, in three deep linear fegments.
Stalks axillary, three-flowered. Calyx hoary, without
awns.—Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, by Thun-
berg and Maffon. The latter fent feeds to Kew in 1791.
The plant is fhrubby, flowering moft part of the fummer,
and kept in the greenhoufe in winter. Its afpeét is not un-
like Winter Savory, but more hoary. The fegments of the

7 leaves

- i! BA LR ET TE “

TEUCRIUM.

leaves are an inch long, revolute, entire. Flower-ftalks half
the length of the leaves. Segments of the calyx elongated,
lanceolate, ‘revolute, fingle-ribbed, bluntly poiated, not
awned. Corolla purplith. Seeds with a net-work of wrinkles
over their furface.

T’. Pfeudo-chamepitys. Racemofe Slender-leaved German-
der. Linn. Sp. Pl. 787. Willd. n. 8; excluding the fy-
nonym of Clufius. (Chamepitys alia; Camer. Epit. 680.
Chamezpityos fpuriz alterius altera icon ; Dod. Pempt. 47.)
—Leaves deeply once or twice three-cleft, linear, acute, re-
volute, hairy. Clufter terminal, fimple. Braéteas three-
cleft. Calyx hoary, awned.—Native of Spain, Barbary,
and the fouth of France. he /lem is fhrubby, divided
from the bottom into many afcending, leafy, {quare, mottly
hairy branches. eaves in very narrow, fomewhat awned,
fegments, more or lefs hairy. Fowers much like thofe of
T. orientale, but forming a fimple terminal c/u/fer at the top
of each branch, with deeply three-cleft linear radeas, ufually
as long as the flower-flalks. Lip of the corolla externally
hairy. The P/eudochamapitys of Cluf. Hitt. v. 2. 185. Lob.
Ic. 385. f. 1. Chamepitys fpuria altera; Ger. Em. 526;
the left-hand figure in Dod. Pempt. 47; all from the fame
wooden block ; appears to us a different fpecies from the
above-defcribed, with which we are unacquainted. There can
be no doubt that the 7. mauritanum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 787, en-
tirely adopted from Shaw’s rude figure, n. 575 of his Phyt.
Afric. Specimen, is exaétly the fame with the real P/eudo-
chamepitys of Linnzus, which we have from Spain and Bar-
bary, and which the cut of Camerarius, as well as the right-
hand one of Dodonzus, clearly reprefents.

All the foregoing {pecies, with a few more which may be
found in Linnzus and Willdenow, apparently conftitute a
fe€tion-of the genus before us, whofe deeply-divided foliage
gives them a peculiar and ftriking character. Their inflore/cence
neverthelefs differs confiderably, and on a more careful ex-
amination it will be found, that the racemofe blue-flowered
ones are moft naturally akin to the T. fruticans, notwith-
ftanding its undivided entire /eaves ; while the others are
more related to fome cut-leaved red-flowered ipecies, with
which we fhall meet hereafter; infomuch that no natural
fubdivifion of this genus could be founded on the above
chara€ter.

T. fruticans. Blue Tree Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl. 787.
Willd. n.9. Ait. n.6. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 527, un-
publifhed. (T-. latifolium; Linn. Sp. Pl. 788. Curt. Mag.
t. 245. ‘T. fruticans beticum; Cluf. Hilt. v. 1. 348. Dill.
Elth. 379. t. 284. 'T. beeticum ; Ger. Em. 659. )—Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, entire; fnow-white and cottony beneath.
Flowers axillary, folitary. Segments of the calyx ovate,
cottony at the back.—Native of the fouth of Europe and
north of Africa. A hardy and common greenhoufe »plant
in England, fometimes bearing our milder winters in the
open air, efpecially near the fea. The /fem is fhrubby,
bufhy, three or four feet high, with ftraight, divaricated
branches, clothed, like the backs of the /eaves and calyx, as
well as all the /fa/ks, with peculiarly white, foft, denfe down.
The /eaves vary in fize and breadth, as may be feen in the
plate of Dillenius, whofe fig. 368. mifled Linnzus to make
a fpecies, by the name of Jatifolium, which is but a trifling
variety. The upper furface of the /eaves, and infide of
the calyx, are dark-green, ufually quite fmooth. Flowers
large and handfome, of a fine blue, coming out at all times
of the year: the middle fegment of their lower lip fome-
times deeply cloven.

T. brevifolium. Short Hyflop-leaved Germander. Schreb.
Vertic. Unilab. 27. Willd.n. 10. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 528,
unpublifhed. (Rofmarinum ftcechadis facie; Alpin. Exot.

103. t. 102. Polio retto di Candia; Pon. Bald. 156.)—
Leaves fanceolate, revolute, entire, obtufe, hoary. Flowers
folitary. Calyx without awns.—Native of rocks in Crete,
near the fea-fhore. The /femis fhrubby, with copious ‘{pread-
ing, fquare, leafy branches. Leaves about an inch long, of
a hoary green on both fides, veiny. Flowers on flender,
folitary, fimple ftalks, from the bofoms of the upper leaves.
Corolla blufh-coloured, with purple veins. Segments of the
calyx revolute and blunt. Schreber and Willdenow cite,
under this fpecies, T. frutefcens, ftcechadis arabice folio
et facie ; Tourn. Cor. 14. Rivin, Monop. t. 20; which is
correét as to Tournefort, but no fuch thing occurs in Ri-
vinus. If we had not confulted, in fir Jofeph Banks’s hbrary,
the moft perfect copy of his work known to exift, we fhould
not {peak fo decidedly on this head.

T. creticum. Rofemary-leaved Germander. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 788. Willd.n. 11. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 529, un-
publifhed. (T. hyflopifolium ; Schreb. Vertic. Unilab. 28.)
—Leaves linear-lanceolate, revolute, entire, obtufe; white
and cottony beneath. Flowers often two or three together.
Calyx cottony, {pinous.—Native of Crete, Cyprus, and
Egypt. AQ taller, larger /hrub than the laft, fome of whofe
fynonyms were confounded with it by Linneus. Its habit
and foliage much refemble Rofemary. The flowers are light
purple, or pink, and form long leafy clu/fers, at the ends of
the branches, being either folitary, or two or three together,
on fhort downy /falks, from the bofoms of the upper /eaves.
The calyx is cottony without ; green within; and has fhort

f{pinous points.

T. Marum. Marum Germander, or Cat-thyme. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 788. Willd.n.12z. Ait. n. 7. (Pfeudo-Marum ;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 13, not t. 40, which is Thymus Maf-
tichina. Marum Cortufi ; Bauh. Hitt. v. 3. 242.)—Leaves
ovate, acute, entire, {talked, cottony beneath. Flowers
racemofe, in pairs, turned one way. Calyx woolly.—Na-
tive of Spain, and the ifles of Hyeres. Frequent in green-
houfes, where it is very hardy, being cultivated for the
fake of its peculiarly pungent fcent, which powerfully in-
duces {neezing, and which renders it not lefs grateful to cats
than Valerian. The /fem is bufhy, of humble growth, with
round hoary branches. Leaves a quarter of an inch long,
of a hoary green on the upper fide, Flowers crimfon.

TT. quadratulum. Little Square-leaved Germander. Schreb.
Vertic. Unilab. 36. Willd. n.13. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
t. 530, unpublifhed. (T.ramofiflimum ; Desfont. Atlant.
v. 2. 4. t. 118. )—Leaves obovate-rhomboid, deeply tooth-
ed; cottony beneath. Flowers axillary, folitary, deflexed.
Calyx woolly.—Native of fiffures of rocks, in Spain, Bar-
bary, and Crete. A fmall, decumbent, branching /brub,
whofe /eaves are not half an inch long ; green above ; white
beneath. f/owers pink, their calyx bent down, fo as to
make a right angle with its foot/alk, and then recurved. Seg-
ments of the upper lip of the corolla advanced towards thofe
of the lower in a remarkable degree. Svy/e reflexed.

T. Laxmenni. Laxmann’s Germander. Linn. Syf.
Veg. ed. 13. 439. Willd. n.16. Ait. n. 10, Marfch.
von Bieberft. Taur. vy. 2. 35. ‘¢ Waldft. and Kitaib.
Hung. v. 1. 71. t. 69.”’—Leaves elliptic-oblong, villous,
ribbed, nearly entire. Flowers axillary, folitary, oppofite,
turned one way.—Native of Siberia, Hungary, &c. We
notice this {pecies here merely to exprefs our concurrence
with the opinion of the able author of the Flora Taurico-
Caucafica above cited, that it certainly belongs to Ajuga, as
well as the 7. falicifolium, Linn. Mant. 80, already siete
thither by Schreber and Willdenow. 'The two {pecies are
very nearly akin, and anfwer in chara¢ter and habit entirely
to Ajuga, and not to Zeucrium.

T. Arduini.

TEUCRIUM.

T. Arduini. Arduino’s Germander. Linn, Mant. 81.
Willd. n. 20. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 531, unpublifhed.
(ts foliis ovato-crenatis, fubhirfutis, petiolatis, caulibus
pica flavefcente pilofa terminatis ; Arduin. Spec. 1.12.
t. 3. Scutellaria cretica ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 836. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 3.176. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 429. Caflidacretica
fruticofa, catariz folio, flore albo; Tourn. Cor. 11.)—
Leaves ovate, ferrated, hairy. Clufters denfely imbricated,
cylindrical, with linear braéteas, longer than the flowers.
Upper fegment of the calyx dilated, heart-fhaped; two
loweft fetaceous.—Native of Crete, and of the fhady woods
of the Bithynian Olympus. It appears to have been culti-
vated by Miller in 1729. Although Linneus, in referring
this plant, after Tournefort, to Scutellaria, perceived it to
be a Zeucrium, neither he nor any one elfe, till lately, fuf-
pected it to be defcribed twice over in his works. ‘This we
difcovered by a comparifon of original fpecimens. ‘The fem
is herbaceous, not fhrubby, {quare, crofs-branched, leafy,
rough with {preading hairs. Leaves ftalked, not unlike thofe
of Balm in fize, form, andcolour. C/u/lers from one to four
inches long, near an inch in diameter, folitary at the ends of
the branches, ereét, of innumerable crowded white flowers.
The calyx is hairy, fuddenly bent downwards at its taper bafe,
then horizontal, its border very unequally five-cleft ; the
upper fegment broad, as in Scutellaria, reflexed at the fides,
tipped with a briftle ; two next fhort, triangular ; two loweft
long, narrow, with pungent points.

T. canadenfe. Nettle-leaved Hoary Germander. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 789. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 13. Purfh n. 1.
(Chamzdrys canadenfis, urtice folio, fubtis incano ; Tourn.
Inft. 205.)—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ftalked, fharply fer-
rated, downy on both fides; hoary beneath. Clutter ter-
minal, denfe, fomewhat whorled. Braéteas ovate, fhorter
than the flowers. Segments of the calyx nearly equal.—In
low grounds, on the borders of ponds and lakes, from Ca-
nada to New York, perennial, flowering in July and Au-
gut. The habit of the /eaves and safle chiens is like that
of fome fpiked Veronica. At the infertion of each pair of
{oaertes the /lem is furrounded with a ring of prominent

airs. The calyx is bell-fhaped, with five broad, nearly
equal, fegments. Corolla purple.

T.. virginicum. Viginian Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl. 789.
Willd. n. 22. Ait.n. 14. Purfhn.2. ‘ Schkuhr Handb.
t. 160.” (T. virginianum meliffophyllon, floribus ceruleis ;
Pluk. Almag. 363. Phyt. t. 318. f.15; with a very faulty
reprefentation of the corolla. )—Leaves ovate-oblong, f{er-
rated, downy ; the upper ones feffile. Spikes crowded,
whorled. Braéteas the length of the calyx.—In low grounds
and bogs, from New York to Carolina, perennial, flowering
from June to Auguft. It very much refembles the latt.
Purfh.—Miller is hid to have cultivated both thefe North
American fpecies in 1768. We have feen only the former.

T. abutiloides. Mulberry-leaved Germander. L?Herit.
Stirp. y. 1.84. Willd. n. 27. Ait.n.17. Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 3. 58. t. 358.—Leaves heart-fhaped, acute,
crenate, downy. Clutfters axillary, not longer than the foot-
ftalks.—Difcovered by Mr. Maffon in Madeira, from whence
it was brought to Kew, in 1777. It flowers in the green-
houfe in April and May, and is confpicuous for the large
fize of its eaves, four or five inches long, on denfely downy
footfalks, half that length. The flowers are no lefs remark-
able for their golden hue, and their fituation in denfe, fol?-
tary, ila {talked cluffers, which rarely equal the footftalks
in length.

T. Scorodonia. Wood Germander, or Wood Sage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 789. Willd. n.28. Fl. Brit. n.1. Engl. Bot.
ft 1543. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 40. Fl. Dan. t. 485.

4

(Scorodonia; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 12. S. five Salvia
agreftis ; Ger. Em. 662.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated,
ftalked, hairy. Stem erect. Flowers leaning to one fide, in
lateral and terminal clufters.—Very common in dry heathy
ground, and fandy woods, aie apr Europe, from Nor-
way to Greece, flowering in July and Auguft. Linnzus
feems to have recolleéted this plant with delight in the fields
of Hartecamp, where the garden of his friend Cliffort had
been to him a real paradife. The root is creeping and pe-
rennial. Herb a foot or two in height, dark green, hairy,
bitter, with a ftrong fcent like hops, for which it is faid to
be not a bad fubftitute in brewing. We with nothing worfe
had ever been ufed. The long aggregate clufters of flowers
are rendered confpicuous by the contrait of the pale yellow
corolla and purple flamens. ‘The upper fegment of the calyx
approaches in form and breadth to what we have pointed out
as fo remarkable in 7. Arduini.

T.. betonicum. Hoary Germander. Ait. ed. 1. y. 2.279.
ed.2.n. 19. Willd. n. 30. L’Herit. Stirp. v. 1. 83. t. 40.
Curt. Mag. t. 1114. (T. betonicefolium; Jacq. Coll.
v. I. 145. t. 17. £. 2.)—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, bluntly
ferrated, ftalked, foft and downy ; hoary beneath. Stem
fhrubby. Clufters aggregate, terminal. Bratteas lanceo-
late, entire. Native ar Madeira. A very handfome n-
houfe fhrub, introduced by fir Jofeph Banks, in 1775, acd
ing moft part of the fummer, and eafily propagated by cut-
tings. The crimfon flowers are elegantly contrafted with
the hoarinefs of the herbage ; the upper furface of the /eaves
being greener than the reft. The fegments of the upper lip
of the corolla being broader and blunter than ufual, fome
doubts have been ftarted whether this {pecies belonged to
Teucrium or to Ajuga, or whether thefe genera were really
diftin@. T’o this we would anfwer, that the habit of the
latter is peculiar, and its effential chara¢ter no lefs clear, con-
fifting in a fhort notched upper lip, inftead of the remotely-
lobed one of Teucrium. We believe moreover that the cen-
tral lobe of the lower lip is always divided and divaricated in,
Ajuga.

T. mafilienfe. Apple-fcented Germander. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 789. Willd. n. 32. Ait. n. 21. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
v. 1.41. t.94. (T.n. 6; Gerard. Gallopr. 277. t. 11.)
—Leaves ovate, rugged, hoary, ee crenate. Stem
ereét. Flowers turned to one fide, in lateral and terminal,
upright clufters.—Native of the ifles of Hyeres, but fcarcely
known in any other country, nor is it often to be feen in
gardens. "The /lems are afoot high. Leaves ftalked, blunt-
ih, hardly an inch long. Flowers {mall, light crimfon.
Upper fegment of the calyx broad-ovate. ‘The whole herd
is clothed with a hoary, foft, velvet-like pubefcence, and
when touched exhales a very powerful and peculiar fcent,
like mellow apples, and therefore, to many people, not agree-
able, though combined with a fpicy fragrance. Gerard’s
plate, like the others in his book, is very finely executed.

T. Scordium. Water Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl. 790.
Willd. n. 34. Fl. Brit.n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 828. Woody.
Med. Bot. t. 57. Fl. Dan. t. 593. (Scordium; Rivin.
Monop. Irr. t. 11. Ger. Em. 661.)—Leaves oblong, feflile,
with tooth-like ferratures.. Flowers axillary, ftalked, in
pairs. Stem procumbent.—Native of marfhy places in va-
rious parts of Europe, but rate in England, except in the
Ifle of Ely. It appears to be the true cxogdicy of Diofcorides,
retaining a fimilar appellation, among the modern Greeks,
and occurring, as Dr. Sibthorp obferved, in Crete, Zante,
and Afia Minor. The root is perennial and creeping. Herb
decumbent or proftrate, hairy, and fomewhat hoary, very
bitter, with a ftrong, unpleafant, garlie-like fcent. Flowers
pale purple, in oppofite pairs, from the bofoms of moft of

the

TEUCRIUM.

the eaves. This herb has formerly been celebrated for its
deobftruent and tonic qualities, but is now out of medical
ufe, except perhaps in the recefles of the country.

T.. fcordioides of Schreber, Willd. n. 35, feems to us, with-
out doubt, a variety of the laft, as it is made in Prodr. FT.
Grec. v. I. 393-

T. Chamedrys. Wall Germander. Lim. Sp. Pl. 790.
Willd. n. 36. Fl. Brit.n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 680. Woodv.
Suppl. t. 243. (Chamedrys ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 10.
f.2. Tourn. Inft. t. 97; a much better figure. C. major
latifolia; Ger. Em. 656.)—Leaves nearly ovate, ftalked,
deeply crenate.- Flowers axillary, three together, ftalked.
Stem round, hairy.—Found on dry rocks and old walls in
the more temperate or warm countries of Europe. It is
abundant on the old city wall, on the north fide of Norwich,
as well as here and there in other parts of England, but not
univerfally. Dr. Sibthorp obferved the plant in dry {tony
places, throughout Greece and the ifles of the Archipelago,
where it itill retains nearly the fame appellation of yopasdeuc.
recorded in Diofcorides. It flowers in July and Augutt,
and has a perennial creeping root. The ffem is bufhy, rather
diffufe, and flightly fhrubby, a fpan high. Leaves of a full
fhining green, flightly hairy, deeply crenate and cut. Flowers
crimfon, numerous, more handfome than thofe of 7. Scordium,
with which fpecies the prefent has been fuppofed nearly to
agree in virtues. It is equally bitter, but more agreeably,
though lefs powerfully, fcented. _

T.. lucidum. Shming Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl. 790.
Willd. n. 39. Ait. n. 25. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 532,
unpubl. (Chamedrys alpina frutefcens, folio f{plendente ;
Tourn. Init. 205. Magnol. Hort. 52. t. 9. )—Leaves ovate,
ftalked, deeply crenate, {mooth and fhining. Flowers axillary,
three together, ftalked. Stem fquare, ere, nearly fmooth.
—Native of alpine vallies in Savoy and Provence. Found
by Dr. Sibthorp on Parnaffus, and other Grecian mountains,
as well as in the ifland of Cyprus. _ The tall, ereét, fquare
ftems, often quite {mooth ; numerous whorls of large crimfon
flowers ; and fhining /eaves, of which the upper or floral
ones are more numeroufly quite entire ; all render this plant,
at firft fight, decidedly different from the laft, and yet they
are very nearly related, fo that an effential difference is dif-
ficult to feize, and perhaps none that has yet been indicated
is invariably conftant.

T. flavum. Yellow Shrubby Germander.

Linn. Sp.
Pl. 791. Willd. n. 41.

Ait. n. 26. Sm. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. t. 533, unpubl. (Teucrium; Rivin. Monop. Irr.
t. 10. f. 1. Chamedrys frutefcens major, floribus ochro-
leucis ; Morif. fect. 11. t. 22. f. 1.) —Leaves ovate, crenate,
downy. Whorls fix-flowered, compofing terminal clufters,
with ovate, concave, entire bra€teas. Stem fhrubby, downy.
—Native of rocks and old walls, in the fouth of Europe,
and north of Africa; abundant in the Archipelago, and
on the walls of Rome. The /lem is woody, branched, ereét,
about two feet high; its branches leafy, bluntly quadran-
gular, clothed with very foft, velvet-like, curved pubefcence,
as is the whole of the herbage. Leaves ftalked, hardly an
inch long ; tapering and entire at the bafe. Flowers pale
yellow, compofing long, whorled, ereé& clufters, with pale-
green braéeas, about equal to the calyx. The teeth of the
latter are nearly equal. Upper fegments of the corolla edged
with red.

T. bicolor. Two-coloured Chili Germander. (TT. hete-
rophyllum; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 56. t. 577.) —Leaves wedge-
fhaped, obtufe; undivided or cut. Flowers axillary, foli-
tary. Calyx nearly regular, with ten ftrong ribs.—Ga-
thered by Louis Née, in the neighbourhood of Talcahuano,
in Chili, flowering in November and December. . We have

a wild fpecimen from the late abbé Cavanilles, whofe
{pecific name we are obliged to change, there being already
a T. heterophyllum, Willd. n. 37. ‘The fem is thrubby,
almoft fix feet high, with fquare leafy branches, clothed,
like the calyx, ftalks, and under fide of the foliage, with very
fhort denfe pubefcence. The/eaves are about an inch long,
nearly fmooth on the upper fide, various in breadth ; the
broadeft deeply ‘and coarfely cut; the reft undivided and
entire ; the lower ones on {hort ftalks; the upper feffile.
Flowers from the bofoms of the upper leaves, on fhortifh,
round, finely downy ftalks. Calyx cut almoft half way
down into five, nearly equal, acute, ovato-lanceolate feg-
ments, each with a {trong mid-rib; its tube having five
intermediate ribs befides. Corolla externally hairy, white,
the middle of its lower lip of a violet red.

T. montanum. Dwarf Mountain Germander. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 7or. Willd. n. 42. Ait. n. 27. Sm. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. t. 534, unpublifhed. (Ajuga folio integro ; Rivin.
Monop. hrr. t. 15. Polium feptimum; Cluf. Hift. y. 1.
363. f. 1,2. P. lavandule folio; Ger. Em. 655. f. 2, 3.)

@. T. fupinum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 791. Willd. n. 43.
Ait. n. 28. Jacq. Auftr. t.417. (P.montanum o€tavum ;
Cluf. Hitt. v. 1. 363. P. moatanum minimum; Ger.
Em. 655.)

Corymbs terminal. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fomewhat
revolute, almoft entire; cottony beneath. Calyx reticu-
lated, ten-ribbed, flightly downy, with fpinous teeth.—
Native of dry mountainous or alpine fituations, in Ger-
many, Switzerland, France, Spain, and Greece ; fometimes,
though rarely, preferved in pots, under a frame, in our
more curious gardens. A dwarf bufhy /brub, like Thyme,
with a ftrong woody root, and many diffufe, downy, leafy
Jflems. Leaves crowded, oppofite, ftalked, hardly an inch
long, very rarely notched, various in breadth; green, con-
vex, and nearly fmooth, above ; veiny, very white and cot-
tony, beneath. lowers in denfe, feffile, folitary corymbs.
Calyx tubular, pale, with equal, fpreading, tapering, pun-
gent teeth, from whofe intermediate finufes the veins fpread
ftar-wife. Corolla pale buff-coloured, the fegments of its
upper lip veined with red.

Schreber has long ago united T. montanum and Sfupinum ;
nor was-Linnzus ignorant of their near affinity ; though in
this inftance, as in every thing relative to alpine plants of
the fouth of Europe, which he had rarely examined alive,
he was difpofed to give up his own opinion, to that of
practical obfervers. Clufius having reprefented 7. /upinum
fo different in fize and habit from montanum, might help to
miflead following botanifts; but in truth they hardly
deferve to be diftinguifhed as varieties, /upinum being only
rather lefs luxuriant, with narrower /eaves, which indeed vary
on the very fame root. The f{pecies before us has lent a
fpecific name to fome other plants, as Andromeda polifolia
of Linneus, and Menziefia polifolia of Juffieu, which have
no fimilitude to the true ancient Polium hereafter defcribed,
but greatly refemble this. :

T. pyrenaicum. Pyrenean Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl. 791.
Willd. n. 45. Ait. n. 29.—Corymbs terminal. Leaves
orbicular, crenate, hairy ; entire and flightly wedge-fhaped
at the bafe. Calyx-teeth tapering, fringed. —Native of the
Pyrenées. Cultivated by Miller in 1731, at Chelfea garden,
where we have feen it a few years fince, yet there feems to
be no certain figure of this beautiful plantextant. Its habit
is fomewhat like the laft, but the /aves totally different,
being almoft orbicular, and from half an inch to an inch in
diameter, flat, green, veiny and hairy. Flowers in denfe
convex tufts, variegated with pale yellow and purple; the
ribs and teeth of the calyx fringed with long briftly hairs.

Whether

TEUCRIUM.

Whether Schreber’s T. rotundifolium, Willd. n. 46, to
which the figures of Boccone and Barrelier, cited for the
former, are {aid to belong, be more than a variety, we have
no means of determining.

T. Polium. White Poley Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl.
792. Willd. n. 52. Ait. n. 31, Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
t._535, unpublifhed. (T. Teuthrion 5 Schreb. Unilab. 46.
Polium montanum; Ger. Em. 653, 654. P. montanum
album ferratum, &c.; Barrel. Ic. t. 1074.)—Heads round-
ifh, leafy. Leaves feffile, oblong, obtufe, convex, bluntly
crenat¢, denfely woolly, Calyx very woolly, obtufe, point-
lefs.—Native of mountains in Italy, Spain, and the fouth
of France ; very common in Greece, the Archipelago, and
throughout the Levant; rarely feen in our gardens, being
impatient of wet. The root is woody and very Pe
Stems numerous, a {pan long, afcending, ereét, or partly
decumbent, round, clothed, like the reft of the herbage,
with extremely foft, white, woolly down. eaves nume-
rous, oppofite, half an inch or an inch long, thick and
woolly, their edges remarkably deflexed, with ftrong, round,
recurved teeth; the bafe flightly wedge-fhaped, {carcely
ftalked. Flowers numerous, in denfe, feffile, terminal, often
aggregate, heads, or fhort {pikes, intermixed with leaves ;
the lower heads ufually ftalked. Calyx very woolly and
obtufe. Corolla white, with a yellow palate.

Schreber, who is followed by Willdenow, makes nume-
rous fpecies out of the reputed varieties of this plant, of
which we are unable, for want of fufficient means of examin-
ation, to form an opinion. The characters given do not
fatisfy us, nor do the f{pecimens we have feen afford better.

The moft ftriking of the whole is J. aureum, Schreb.
Unilab. 43. Willd. n. 48. Ait. n. 30. Cavan. Ic. v. 2.
16. t. 17, remarkable for the golden tint on its heads and
upper leaves. This has ufually a folitary head or fpike,
and perhaps the calyx-teeth are more flender and acute than
in the common 7. Polium, which merits inquiry. On the
other hand, 7. capitatum, which we fhall next defcribe, ap-
proaches nearly to fome of the above-mentioned varieties,
fo that perhaps they ought to be referred to it, rather than

to Polium.
T.. capitatum. Purple Poley Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl.
792. Willd. n. 56. Ait. n. 32. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 17.

t. 119. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 536, unpublifhed. ( Po-
lium monfpeffulanum; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 299.)—Heads
roundifh, leafy, lateral and terminal, ftalked. Stem crofs-
branched. Leaves feffile, linear-oblong, obtufe, convex,
crenate, hoary. Calyx woolly, oblong, obtufe, pointlefs.—
Native of hills in Siberia, Spain, the fouth of France,
Zante, Cyprus, and Greece. This is of a more flender
habit thaw the laft, lefs woolly, and more hoary, with purple
flowers, 2 more elongated tubular calyx, and narrower leaves.
The tube of the corolla alfo is longer, and much lefs bell-
fhaped, or inflated in the throat. It is nearly related to
T. Polium, but furely a diftin& fpecies.

T. cuneifolium. Wedge-leaved Poley Germander. Sm.
Prodr. F]. Gree. Sibth. n. 1311. Fl. Gree. t. 537, un-
publifhed.— Heads terminal, denfe. Leaves rounded, deeply
erenate ; wedge-fhaped at the bafe ; woolly all over. Calyx
blunt, fointlefs.Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the Spha-
ciote mountains of Crete. The general outline of the plant
anfwers to T. rotundifolium, Willd. n. 46; but that is a far
lefs woolly plant, with a pointed calyx, and not allied to the
Polium tribe. The ereteht has round, trailing, fhrubby,
crofs-branched ffems, a foot or more in length. Every
part of the herbage is covered with thick, white, foft,
woolly or veWwetty down. Leaves, with their ftalks, an
inch long. Flowers {now-white, in aggregate terminal

heads. Calyx tubular, with fhort rounded teeth. Se
ments of the upper lip of the corolla large, as long as t
flamens, which they embrace, and partly conceal. Anthers
red. ,

T. alpefire. Sharp-toothed Alpine Poley Germander.
Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 1312. Fl. Grac. t. 538,
unpublifhed.—Flowers axillary, folitary. Leaves wedge-
fhaped, rounded, deeply crenate, downy. Stem tufted,
much branched.—Found by Dr. Sibthorp, upon the moft
lofty fummits of the Spachiote mountains of Crete. The
root is woody, dividing at the crown into innumerable ftrong,
woody, depreffed /lems, which bear a denfe tuft of afcend-
ing, leafy, dowry branches, hardly a finger’s length. Leaves
ftalked, greyifh, about half an inch long, obtufe. Flowers
oppofite, on fhort ftalks, from the bofoms of two or three
of the uppermoft pair of leaves. Calyx tubular, finely
downy. Tube, throat, and upper lip of the corolla, pale
yellow ; lower lip white, its middle fegment deeply concave.

a “yp aage Rofemary-leaved Poley Germander. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 792. Willd. n. 61. (Polium montanum pumilum
rubrum; Barrel. Ic. t. 1092, 1093.)—Heads terminal,
folitary, feflile, leafy. Leaves crowded, feffile, linear, revo-
lute, {mooth; downy beneath. Stems afcending, woolly.
Calyx pointed.—Native of hills in Spain, flowering in July
and Auguft.—From the woody perennial rect, {pring feveral,
more or lefs creét, fimple or branched, leafy /fems, three or
four inches long, clothed with denfe, foft, white wool. The
leaves are hardly an inch long, crowded and fomewhat im-
bricated, in four rows, narrow, ftrongly revolute, obtufe ;
convex, green and polifhed on the upper fide ; concave,
with a downy rib, juft vifible beneath. Calyx ribbed, downy,
with fhort, thick, fpinous points. Tube of the corolla
flender, downy, as well as the outfide of the limb.

We are quite unable to imagine how J. Libanitis of
Schreber, Willd. n. 60. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 17. t. 118, came
to be diftinguifhed from pumilum, as there does not appear
to be the leaft difference between them, except the fem of
Libanitis being more ere& ; but that circumftance is evi-
dently variable. TZ. verticillatum, Cavan. t. 198. Willd.
n. 59, feems alfo but a variety ; though we prefume not to
determine this without feeing a {fpecimen.

T. /pinofum. Thorny Germander. Linn. Sp. Pl. 793.
Willd. n. 64. Ait. n. 33. Sm. Fl. Grae. Sibth. t. 539,
unpublifhed. (Chamedrys fpinofa; Bauh. Prodr. 117.
Scordium fpinofum odoratum ; Cornut. Canad. 123. t. 124.
Barrel. Ic. t. 202. S.f{pinofum; Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 19. t. 31.)
—Stem and branches fpinous, hairy. Flowers axillary, oppo-
fite. Upper fegment of the calyx ovate; the reft awl-fhaped,
{pinous.—Native of fields and hilly places in Spain and Por-
tugal. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in fields between Smyrna
and Burfa. The root is annual. Stem branched copioufly
from the very bottom, about a foot high, bufhy, the branches
oppofite, crofling each other in pairs, fpreading, fquare,
clothed with very foft prominent hairs, tipped with ftrong
{pines, and furnifhed with f{maller lateral ones, particularly
at the infertion of the leaves and flowers. Leaves feffile,
deflexed, fmall, oblong, obtufe, notched, green, hairy.
Flowers numerous, folitary or in pairs, from the bofoms of
the diminifhed or upper leaves, each on a fhort, round, hairy
flalk. Calyx deflexed and bent at the bafe, then horizontal
and fomewhat bell-fhaped; its upper fegment very broad,
ribbed, f{pinous-pointed, ereét, or rather reflexed, the four
others fhorter, prominent, afcending, pungent. Corolla
white, with red ftripes on its upper lip ; the middle feg-
ment of the lower very large, flightly concave ; the bafe of
the tube globular.—The flowers are by no means reverfed,
refupinati, in Sibthorp’s figure of this fpectes, though

Lecfling

TEU

Leefling fo defcribes them, and led Linneus to adopt that
chara@ter. His 7. mucronatum; Sp. Pl. 793, differs in no
refpe& from the /pino/um, to which therefore we have trans-
ferred itsfynonyms.

Trucrium, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the under-
fhrubby and herbaceous kinds, among the great number of
which, the f{pecies following are the moft generally culti-
vated : the yellow-flowered fhrubby germander pee flavum) ;
the fage-leaved germander, or wood-fage (T. {corodonia) ;
ths ese leased germander ('T. canadenfe); the dwarf
mountain germander (T. montanum) ; the Pyrenean ger-
mander (‘T’. pyrenaicum) ; the poley (T. polium) ; the
round-headed germander (T. capitatum) ; the dwarf ger-
mander (T. pumilum); the narrow-leaved tree-germander
(T. fruticans) ; the broad-leaved tree-germander (T. lati-
folium); the Cretan germander (‘T. creticum) ; and the
common marum or cat-thyme (T. marum).

There is a variety in the firft. fort which is hairy, with
yellow flowers, with pale white flowers, and with purple
flowers.

In the fourth fort there is likewife a variety with much
{maller leaves, which are hoary on their under fide.

Alfo in the fixth fort there are feveral varieties; as the
common yellow poley, which has the ftalks rather herbaceous
and trailing, about fix inches long, and hoary: leaves
woolly, about half an inch long, fome wedge-fhaped, others
oblong, ending in obtufe points, and crenate towards their
ends: the flowers colle€ted in oblorig thick fpikes at the

end of the branches, of a deep yellow colour, and appear-_

ing at the beginning of June. This grows naturally in
Spain. The narrow-leaved yellow poley, which has woody
ftalks, ereét, branching, and covered with a hoary down,
rifing fix or eight inches high; the leaves linear, woolly,
about half an inch long, having fometimes two or three flight
indentures on their edges; the flowers colleGed in roundifh
{pikes at the end of the branches; they are bright yellow,
have woolly calyces, and appear in June and July. It
grows naturally in Spain and Portugal. The white poley,
which has the ftems a foot long, and trailing : the leaves are
a little cottony, entire on the fides, but toothed at the end :
the flowers are pretty large, white, tinged a little with purple.
ft is a native of the fouth of France. There is alfo the pur-
ple poley.

Andithere is a variety in the feventh fort which has an
eret branching ftalk, that rifes a foot high; the lower
part becomes woody, but the upper is herbaceous : the leaves
are linear-lanceolate, about an inch long, crenate, of a pretty
thick confiftence, and a little woolly : the flowers collected
in a corymb at the end of the branches, white, appearing in
July and Auguft.

The ninth contains a variety which is a little more
branched, and has fmaller fhorter leaves: the flowers are
paler, the ftamens fomewhat longer, the anthers {maller and
brown ; whereas in the larger fort they are violet: and an-
other with variegated leaves.

Method of Culture.—All the herbaceous and ligneous
kinds may be readily increafed by parting the roots, by flips
of the young branches, and feeds : the roots may be divided
in the autumn, or early fpring, and the flips of the branches
be taken off in the fpring and fummer, being planted out in
moift fhady fituations, and well rooted, they may be removed
to where they are to remain, though it is beft to plant them
at once where they are to grow: the feeds may be fown in a
bed or border of common earth in the early {pring feafon.

But in the polium kinds, the feeds fhould be fown in a bed
of light earth, and the plants be either put out in nurfery-

Vou, XXXY.

TEV

rows, or fet where they are to remain, in the latter end of
fummer.

The fhrubby forts may likewife be inereafed by flips or
cuttings of the young fhoots of the branches, which fhould
be planted in pots filled with light mould, in the {pring and
fummer months, in order to be removed under the protection
of the greenhoufe in winter, being afterwards managed as
other greenhoufe exotics. :

Thefe plants are all of the perennial kind, and fome of
them are durable in the ftems and branches for {feveral
years.

The firft forts afford variety in the borders, &c. and the
latter in aflemblage with greenhoufe plants. *

TEUDERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the vicinity of Bogadium and Mediolanium.
Ptolemy. rd

TEVENDEZ, in Geography, a mountain in the S.E.
part of Fez; being part of the Atlas.

TEVERONE, a river of Italy, which joins the. Tiber
near Rome.

TEVESAR, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. S. lat. 29 2! E. long. 119° 21’.

TEUFFEL’s Bruck, or Devil’s Bridge, a bridge over
the Reufs, formed of a fingle arch, about twenty-two feet
radius, fupported by two rocky peaks, nearly perpendi-
cular, between which the river runs-at the depth of fome
hundred feet ; 3 milesfrom Urferen.

TEUFFEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Appenzel ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Appenzel. ;

TEUFING, or Tavzim, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Pilfen; 22 miles N.W. of Pilfen. N. lat. 50° 2/.
E. long. 13° 5/.

TEUGA, in Botany, the name given in the Hortus Ma-
labaricus to a genus of plants, called by Linnezus and others
coccus.

TEUGLASSA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland which
Thucydides feems to place on the coaft of Afia Minor, in
the neighbourhood of the Doride.

TEVIN, in Geography, a town of Perfian Armenia, on
a {mall river which runs into the Aras; 15 miles S.E. of
Erivan. }

TEUKE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raflan ; 32 miles E. of Tabas-kileki. i

TEUMES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece, in
Beeotia, which watered the town of ‘Thebes, according to
Hefychius.

TEUMESSUS, a borough of Beeotia, upon a mountain
E. of Thebes, and near‘a {mall river called Thermodon. Here
was a temple of Diana Telchinia. It was notorious for the
fuperftitious credulity of its inhabitants.—Alfo, a mountain
of Greece,,in Boeotia.

-TEVO, Zaccaria, in Biography, author of an ample
treatife on mufic, written in Italian, and publifhed at Veniee,
in {mall quarto, 1706, entitled “* Il Mufico Teftore ;”
(teffore literally means a weaver ; but metaphorically, acom-
pofer, an author ;) the mufician’s text, or guide. . ‘lhe work
is divided into four parts, twenty chapters in each, the titles
of which are very promifing ; but his ftyle is not very plea-
fant, nor are his definitions or inftructions very fatisfactory.
The author had read much, but his digeftion was not fo
good as his appetite. He fwallowed, without due matftica-
tion, all the old ftories about the invention and miraculous
powers of mufic. He affigns to Orpheus, the fon of
Apollo, the invention of the violin, and to Sappho that of
the bow ; affuring us that fhe was the firft who ufed it in the
prefent manner! He not only finds the inventor of every

au {pecies

TEU

{pecies of inftrument, but the time when and place where it
was firft conftru€@ted.° There is little feience, and full lefs
ingenuity, in the examples of ‘compofition pe in illuftra-
tion of the rules of counterpoint : fo thatif the young ftu-
dent, who perufes this work for inftruction, is not a con-
jurer before he begins the tafk, he will not be made one by
the myfteries which it unfolds.

Yet with patient perfeverance, a young ftudent who has
little leifure, and few books to read, may become fuperficially
learned with little trouble by this book. Tevo quotes au-
thority for all that he advances ; but his authorities are not
always good, nor does he diftinguifh good from bad. Se-
veral ob{cure and even contemptible authors are quoted in
the fame folemn manner as the beft. But in iar fo many
writers indifcriminately, the chief part are now fo carce and
difficult to be found, that in fearch of them all the great
libraries of Europe may be vifited in vain. ‘To fave the ftu-
dent’s time, arid form his tafte in literature, as well as judg-
ment in mufic, the author fhould have quoted none but
writers of the firft authority, or have told his young readers
what ftrefs was to be laid on the reft. hie

But fince the time of Tevo, fo many better authorities in
compofition and didaétic works, both on the theory and
practice of mufic, have appeared, that we can hardly recom-
mend the ‘ Mufico Teftore” to the perufal of any but thofe
who have much time to {pare, who read every thing, and
are curious to know the hiftory and ftate of the art-at every

eriod of time.
i TEUOCHIS, in Ancient Geography, a lake and town of
Lgypt.
aE VOEN-SOUSON, in Geography, a town of Chinefe
Tartary ; 12 mfiles N.W. of Teldom.

TEUPITZ, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark, on a lake; 20 miles S. of Berlin. N. lat. 52° 5/.
E. long. 13° 30!.

TEURERT, or Tevrert, atown of Fez, on the bor-
ders of Algiers ; 40 miles E.N.E. of Teza. N. lat. 34°2!.
W. long. 3° 30/.

TEURISCI, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by
Ptolemy in the northern part of Dacia, between the Anerti
and the Ciftoboci. :

TEURIST ZA, a people of Germany, placed by Strabo
in the vicinity of the Danube and the Alps.

TEURNIA, a town of Norica, S. of the Danube, be-
tween Virunum and Idunum. Ptol. and Plin.

TEURTEVILLE, in Geography, a2 town of France, in
the department of the Channel ; 6 miles N. of Valognes.

TEUSCHNITZ, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg; 34 miles N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 50°
23/. E. long. 11° 30!. f

TEUSHANUSHSOUGGOGHTPA, an Indian town
of Pennfylvania, on the Alleghany river. »

TEUTATES, in Mythology, a name or attribute of
the Supreme Being, which was worfhipped by the Gauls
and Britons as a particular divinity. It is evidently com-
pounded of the two Britifh words “* Deu-tatt,’’ which fig-
nify God the parent or creator, aname properly due only to

the. one true God, who was originally intended by that.

name. Thus Lucan, 1. i. v. 445.

“¢ Et quibus immitis placetur fanguine divo
Teutates ; horranique feris altaribus Hefus.”’
When thefe ancient nations funk into indolatry, ‘they de-
graded Teutates into the fovereign of the infernal world,
the fame with the Dis and Pluto of the Greeks and Ro-
mans (or, as others think, with Mercury) ; and worfhipped

TEV

him in fuch a manner as could be agreeable to none but an
infernal power.

TEUTHEA, in Ancient Geography, aconfiderable town
of the Peloponnefus, in Achaia, W. of Tritza. .

TEUTHIS, atown of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,
in which were a temple of Venus, and another of Diana.

Truruis, in the Linnzan fyitem of Ichthyology, a ge-
nus of the abdominal fifhes; the charaéters of which are,
that the head is a little truncated on the fore-part; that the
branchioftege membrane has five rays ; and that the teeth are
equal, rigid, and near each other, and forming a regular
chain. Linnzus and Gmelin mention two fpecies; viz.
hepatus, and javus or java. This genus is now annulled, and
the {pecies are transferred to Acanthurus and Chetodon.

Heratus; Acanthurus Teuthis; Blue Acanthurus.
With the middle of the body paler, and a {pine on each
fide of the tail. This is a native of the Indian and Ameri-
can feas, ten or twelve inches long, or more; refembling in
fhape the chetodons, the head floping in front from the ori-
gin of the dorfal fin; the colour, when recent, a deep or
blackifh-blue ; on each fide of the body isa very large, ob-
long-ovate whitifh patch or {pot, furrounded by a border of
a deeper caft; the {kin is roughened by very {mall feales ;
the tail is flightly lunated, dufky on the upper and lower
part, and marked towards the bafe by a whitifh ovate fpot ;
the teeth are crenated; and on each fide of the bafe of the
tail is a very ftrong fpine, capable of elevation at the ani-
mal’s pleafure, to an horizontal direétion, from the channel
in which it lies. The fifh figured by Catefby in his Natural
Hiftory of Carolina, under the name of Teng, is fuppofed to
be this {pecies.

Java or Javus; Chetodon Guttatus. Whitifh-grey,
with oblong body, fprinkled with very numerous, round,
rufous {pots; length about ten or twelve inches ; colour
grey, with a dufky tinge on the upper parts, and every
where {prinkled, except on the head, petoral, ventral, dor-
fal and anal fins, with numerous, {mall, round, rufous {pots ;
{cales {mall, none at the bafes of the fins ; gill-covers fmooth ;
dorfal and anal fin of moderate breadth; tail flightly in-
clining to a forked, or rather lunated fhape, and fpeckled
like the body. Native of Java. This fpecies is fuppofed
by Bloch and Cepede to be the teuthis javus of Linnzus.
But Dr. Shaw remarks, that Linnzus’s defeription does not
agree in the difpofition of its colours with thofe of the'C. gut-
tatus, as it is exprefsly faid to be marked with longitudinal
{treaks: fo it is figured by Gronovius. See Cu®TODON
Guttatus, changing Japan in the clofe of that article to
Java.

TEUTHOPHACE, a word ufed by the ancients to
exprefs a fort of food made of beet-roots and lentils, often
prefcribed as a good diet for the fick.

TEUTHRANIA, in. Ancient Geography, a town and
{mall country of Myfia, fituated towards the E., and near the
fource of the Caicus. Herodotus fays that it was once a
gulf, and it was gradually formed by the accumulation oc-
cafioned by the Caicus. :

TEUTHRONA, a town of Laconia, in a {mall bay,
on the Laconic gulf, N.E. of Pyrrhicus.

TEUTLAN, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guadalajara; 50 miles N.N.W. of Guadala-

jara.
” TEUTLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the principality

of Gotha; 4 miles W. of Gotha. F
TEUTONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger-
many, who at the time when the Romans became acquainted
with them, were politically conneéted with the arr if
, ey

TEU

they were not actually a tribe of the fame people ; and fet-
tled at no great diftance from them. (See Crusri.) They
are faid to have worfhipped a divinity called Thaut, who is
f{uppofed to have been one of their anceftors deified. ‘The
Teutones were known before the Cimbri, and uniting with
them, overran the territories that were fubje& to the Romans}
and it has been affirmed that they inhabited the banks of the
Codani Sinus, and the iflandcalled Codania Infula, whence they
affumed the appellation of ‘* Codani.”? Pytheas of Mar-
feilles, according to Pliny, is the firft author who mentions
the Teutones ; and Pomponius Mela fays, that their habita-
tions were near the gulf Codanus. It is very probable that
they extended themfelves through the country that bordered
on the Baltic fea; and that from thence they engaged in
many warlike emigrations ; tranfporting themfelves with their
arms and baggage, their wives and children, ‘through other
countries which they pillaged. It was in the year of Rome
640 that they firft became known to the Romans; having
adyanced fouth of the Danube to the country called Nericum,
where they were encountered by the conful C. Papirius
Curfor, who obftruéted their paflage towards the-borders of
Italy. They then proceeded towards Gaul, and made their
ingrefs among the Helvetians. Having arrived in Gallia
Narbonnenfis, the Cimbri were there defeated by the conful
Aurelius ; but the Teutones made an attempt to invade
Italy by the Weftern Alps. ‘They were, however, refifted
hy Marius, and in a defperate engagement, in which the
latter proved victorious, the Teutones left upon the field an
almoft incredible number of flain; which, including the
Gauls who had fallen in a combat which took place fome
days before, amounted, according to hiftorians that have not
been chargeable with exaggeration, to 100,000 perfons.
Marius alfo defeated the Cimbri in Italy.

TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the Teutones, an
ancient people of Germany, inhabiting chiefly along the
coaft of the Germanocean. See Goruic.

Teutonic Language, is the ancient language of Ger-
many, which is ranked among the mother-tongues.

The Teutonic is now called the German, or Dutch, and
is diftinguifhed into upper and lower.

The upper has two notable diale&ts; viz. 1. The Scan-
dian, Danifh, or perhaps Gothic ; to which belong the lan-
guages {poken in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland.
2. ‘The Saxon, to which belong the feveral languages
of the Englifh, Scots, Frifian, and thofe on the north of
the Elbe.

To the lower belong the Low Dutch, Flemifh, &c.
Spoken through the Netherlands, &c.

The learned Mr. Whitaker has lately, in his Hiftory
of Manchefter, controverted the opinion of thofe who af-
firm the Englifh language to be genuine and unmixed Teu-
tonic, and afferted it to be of Celtic origin. Mr. Drake,
in his Effay on the Origin of the Englifh Language, Ar-
chzol. vol. 5. has endeavoured to fupport the former opi-
nion, by comparing part of Ulphila’s Gothic verfion of the
gofpel of St. John, executed above 1400 years ago, with
the fame in our prefent tranflation, and evincing the ftrikin
affinity between the two languages ; notwith{tanding the aif.
ferent mediums through which they have defcended, and the
many ages that have elapfed fince they have been feparated.
Every circumftance; he obferves, that conftitutes the true
genius of a language, is vifibly derived to the Englifh from the
Goths and Saxons. The articles, flexure of the genitive
cafe, prepofitions and auxiliary verbs, are all abfolutely Teu-
tonic. ‘The Englifh, he fays, is clearly the natural defcend-
ant of the Gothic or Teutonic ; and he challenges the deepeft
enquirer into the Celtic to produce fo decifive a proof of

TEU

any affinity of that tongue with ours.. The Britiih, he
adds, has little or no refemblance to the Englith. Many of
their terms’ may have gained’ admiffion among us, as, from
the vicinity and long intercourfe we have had with. that
people, may neceflarily be imagined, but their idioms and
genius are as radically and effentially different as any two
languages can poflibly be.

Truronic Order, a military religious order of knights,
eftablifhed towards the clofe of the twelfth century 3 and
thus called, becaufe it confifted principally of Germans, or
Teutones. ©

The origin, &c. of this order were thus: the Chrif-
tians, under Guy of Lufignan, laying fiege to Acre, or
Acon, a city of Syria, on the borders of the Holy Land;
at which fiege were prefent, Richard king of England,
Philip Auguftus of France, &c. fome Germans of Bre-
men and Lubec, touched with compaffion for the fick
and wounded of the army, who wanted common necef-
faries, fet on foot a kind of hofpital under a tent, which
they made of a fhip’s fail; and here-betook themfelves to
a charitable attendance on them. é

This ftarted a thought (about the year r11go) of efta-
blifhing a third military ordér, in imitation of the Tem-
plars, and the Hofpitalers. ve

The defign was approved by the patriarch of Jerufalem,
the archbifhops and bifhops of the neighbouring places,
the king of Jerufalem, the mafters of the Temple and
the Hofpital, and the German lords and prelates then in
the Holy Land; and, by common confent, Frederic duke
of Suabia, who was then -at their head, fent ambaffadors
to his brother Henry, king of the Romans, to folicit the
pope to confirm the new order.

Calixtus IIT. who then governed the church, granted it
by a bull of the 23d of February, 1192, and the new
order was called “ The Order of Teutonic Knights of the
Houfe of St. Mary of Jerufalem.”

The habit of this order was a white mantle, with a black
crofs.

The pope granted them all the privileges of the Tem-
plars, and the Hofpitalers of St. John; excepting that
they were to be fubjeét to the patriarchs, and other pre-
lates; and that they fhould pay tithe of what they
poffeffed.

The firft mafter of the Teutonic order, Henry Walpot,
elected during the time of the fiege of Acre, after the
taking of that city, purchafed a garden, in which he built
a church, and an hofpital, which was the firft houfe of
the Teutonic order.

Such is the account given by Peter of Duifbourg, a prieit
of this order.

Jaques de Vitty differs a little from this account; and
relates, that the Teutonic order was eftablifhed at Jerufalem
before the city of Acre was befieged.

The order made no great progrefs under the three firft
grand-mafters ; but under the fourth, Herman de: Salza,
it became very powerful; infomuch that Conrade, duke
of Mazovia and Cujavia, about the year 1230, fent an
embafly to him, to folicit his friendfhip and affiftance,
offering him and his order the provinces of Culme and
Livonia, with -ali the lands they could recover from the
idolatrous Pruffians, who harafied him exceedingly with
their continual incurfions, and againft whom’ he intended
this new militia; his own knights of the order of Chrift,
or of Dobrin, inftituted for the like purpofe, being found
too weak.

De Salza accepted the donation, and Gregory IX. con-
firmed it; and, to aid the knights in reducing the Pruf-

Bul2 lians,

TEU

fians, Innocent IV. publifhed a croifade. With this
help, in a year’s time, they fubdued the provinces of
Warmia, Natangia, and Barthia; the inhabitants of which
renounced the worfhip of idols; and, in the courfe of fifty
years more, they reduced all Pruffia, Livonia, Samo-
gitia, and’Pomerania, &c.

In 1204, duke Albert had founded the order of Sword-
bearers, Port-glaives, which now became united to the
Teutonic knights, and the union was approved by pope
Gregory [X. .

"The order, thus mafters of all Pruffia, built the cities of

Elbing, Marienburg, Thorn, Dantzick, Koningfberg,
and fome others: the emperor Frederic II. permitted
them to add to the arms of their order, the imperial
eagle ; and St. Louis, in 1250, allowed them to quarter
the fleur-de-lis.

After the city of Acre had been recovered by the infi-
dels, the grand-mafter of the Teutonic order removed his
feat from that city to Marienburg. As the order grew in
power, the knights took more ftate on them ; and at
ree inftead of friars, brothers, as at firft, would be
called Jords. And though the grand-maiter Conrade
Zolnera, of Rotenfteine, oppofed this innovation, his
fucceffor Conrade .Wallerod not only approved it, but
even procured himfelf to be treated with honours only
rendered to the greateft princes.

Divifions being got into the order, the kings of Poland
made their advantage of them: the Pruffians revolted to
them : and after feveral wars between the knights and the
Poles, the former yielded to king Cafimir the Upper Pruf-
fia, and did homage to him for the Lower.

At the time of the Reformation, Albert, marquis’ of
Brandenburg, then grand-mafter, becoming a Lutheran,
renounced the dignity of grand-mafter, diflolyed the com-
manderies, and drove the knights out of Pruflia.

Mott of the knights followed his example, and embraced
the reformation: the’ reft transférred the feat of their
order to Margentheim, or Mariendahl, in Franconia,
which they ftill retain.

They there elected Walter of Cromberg their grand-
mafter, formed a procefs againft Albert, and the emperor
put him to.the ban of the empire. The order, how-
ever, could never recover their domains; and are now
little more than the fhadow of what they formerly were,
having only three or four commanderies, fcarcely fufficient
for the ordinary fubfiftence of the grand-mafter and his
kni hts. .

‘Phe officers of the Teutonic order, when in its {plendor,
were the grand-mafter, who refided at Marienburg: un-
der him were the grand-commander; the grand-marfhal,
who had his refidence at Koningfberg ; the grand-hofpi-
taler, who refided at Elbing; the draper, who took
care to furnifh the habits; the treafurer, who lived at
the court of the grand-mafter ; and feveral commanders,
as thofe of Thorne, Culme, Brandenburg, Koningfberg,
Elbing, &c.

oy had alfo their commanders of particular caftles and
fortrefles; advocates, proveditors, intendants of mills,
provifions, &c.

Waiflelius, in his Annals, fays they had twenty-eight
commanders of cities, forty-fix of caftles, eighty-one
hofpitalers, thirty-five mafters of convents, forty flew-
ards, thirty-feven proveditors, nincty-three matters of
mills, feven hundred brothers or knights to take the
field, one hundred and fixty-two brothers of the choir,
or priefts, and fix thoufand two hundred fervitors or
domettics, i

T EW

TEUTSCH Lees, in Geography, atownof Hungary
5 miles E. of Rofenberg.

TeutscuH Pron, a town of Hungary; 10 miles N.W.
of Kremnitz, . ;

TEUTSCHDORYF, a town of Hungary; 5 miles
N.W. of Cafchau.

TEUTSDORYF, a town of Proffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 10 miles E.N.E. of Holland.

TEUVRENT, a town of Africa; 145 miles E.N.E.
of Fez. ®

TEUW, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. S. lat.
7° 11!. E. long. 129° 201.

TEUXUNTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
which had been built by Micythus, king of Rhegium and
Zancle, according to Diodorus Siculus. ,

TEWANTAPAGUE, in Geography, atownof Mexico,
in the province of Guaxaca; 135 miles E.S.E. of Guaxaca.

TEWKESBURY, anciently Teodeche/berie, a. large
and refpe€table borough and market-town, in the lower
divifion of the hundred of the fame name, in Gloucefter- ~
fhire, England, is fituated in the vale,of Evefham, on the
eaftern banks of the Avon, near its confluence with the
Severn, at the diftance of 8 miles N.N.E. from Gloucefter,
and 104 miles W.N.W..from London. This town was
rendered famous in hiftory, from a battle fought near
it, between the Yorkifts and Lancaftrians; wherein Ed-
ward IV. gave a total overthrow to Henry VI. Three
thoufand of the Lancaftrians were reported to have been
flain in the field, and queen Margaret, with many others,
was taken prifoner. The feveral circumftances which oc-
curred during the SoEARTets and the events fubfequent to
the victory, are very fully related in the hiftories of England.
Tewkefbury was-again the fcene of another ation in the
civil wars of Charles I. It was at different periods in
poffeffion of both parties; and the final capture of it by
the parliamentary forces was of great confequence as a
frontier town, fecuring that fide of the county, and com-
manding great part of Worcefterfhire.

Tewkefbury was firft incorporated by charter in the 17th
of Elizabeth, under the title of “bailiffs, burgeffes, and com-
munity of the borough of Tewkefbury.” Other charters
were granted by James I. and James II.; the latter, in the
fecond year of his reign, re-incorporated them by the
name of ‘¢ mayor, aldermen, and common council ;”” but this
charter was not a¢ted upon: and the government of the
town, as a corporation, was dormant till 13 William III.
when the prefent charter was obtained, under which the
town is governed by twenty-four principal burgeffes, who,
with twenty-four affiftants, aét independent of the magif-
trates of the county. From thefe are annually eleéted two
bailiff and four juftices, who, with the recorder, form the
magiftracy of the corporation. The privilege of fending.
members to parliament was firft obtained 7 James I. The
right of eleétion is in the freemen and freeholders within
the borough: the latter of whom have a vote generally for
the county. The number of voters amount to about 500,
and the bailiffs are the returning officers. The principal
manufaéture for-the employment of the inhabitants is
ftocking-frame work knitting, particularly cotton. This
fupplies work. for the Houfe-of Induftry, which is a
modern aoe well adapted for the purpofe of render-
ing the poor c eanly, moral, and induftrious. The mar-
kets, which were eftablifhed as early as the Conqueit, are
held on Wednefday and Saturday: and here are feven
anhual fairs. The town-hall, which is a handfome edifice,
was erected by fir William Codrington in 1788, at an
expence of 1200/. The ground-floor is appropriated for

holding

TEW

holding the quarter-feffions ; the upper floor for a banquetting
room, and for the meeting of the corporation. Among
the charitable eftablifhments are a free grammar-fchool, a
charity-fchool, and feveral alms-houfes. "The Anabaptifts,
Quakers, Independents, and Methodifts, have each a’ meet-
ing-houfe in the town. The population, according to the
returns of the year 1811, amounted to "4820; the number
of houfes being 1003: the latter are chiefly of brick, and
principally ranged in three fpacious ftreets. Since the
year 1786, when an at was paffed for paving and lighting
the town, many improvements have been made; and the
buildings have affumed an air of refpe€tability.

The Abbey. — A monaftery was firft ereéted here, and
endowed by two brothers, Oddo and Doddo, dukes of
Mercia, A.D. 715, to the honour of the Bleffed Virgin,
which having undergone many calamities during the civil
and Danifh wars, about g80 became a priory, fubjeé to
Cranbourn in Dorfetfhire: but Robert Fitzhamon, a noble
Norman, who came~to England with the Conqueror,
enlarged the buildings and increafed the poffeffions of
Tewkefbury fo much, that the monks of Cranbourn
chofe, -about 1102, to remove to this place, leaving
only a prior and two monks. behind, and made Cran-
bourn in future fubje& to the abbey of Tewkefbury.
From this time it became a great eftablifhment of Benedic-
tine monks; and at the fuppreflion, the annual revenues
amounted to 1598/. ts. 3d., exclufive of 136/. 85. 1d.
granted by the convent for fees and annuities: its plate
alfo was very valuable, the facrifty alone containing 1421
ounces. After the diffolution, the deftruGtion of the
monaftic buildings was rapid and complete, through the
ineffe€tual oppofition of the monks to the vifitors ap-
pointed by the king, who, in revenge, deftroyed the
Lady chapel, cloifters,. chapter-houfe, and other appen-
dages by fire. The remains of the buildings were after-
wards purchafed by the inhabitants: and the Abbey
Church was: made parochial. ‘ This magnificent ftruéture
difplays an irterefting example of early Norman architec-
ture, combined with fpecimens of later ftyies,-and is in
other refpeéts well calculated to arreft the attention of the
antiquary. It is built in the cathedral form, and confifts
of a nave, choir, tranfept, and central tower, with the
addition of feveral chapels, ranged round the aifle of the
choir. The nave and choir are feparated from the aifles
by eighteen maflive columns, fuftaining the roof, and four
fubftantial piers which fupport the tower. At the welt
end is a large window with a pointed arch, which appears
to have been introduced within a femicircular arch in
1656. There were cloifters on the fouth fide of the
nave, where fome fragments yet remain; and appear to
have been highly ornamented in a fimilar ftyle to thofe at
Gloucefter. The tower, according to the Abbey chro-
nicles, was once terminated by a wooden {fpire, which fell
down on Eafter-day, 1559. The moft remarkable fpecimens
of the architeéture are three tiers of arcades in the upper
part; the arches of the middle tier have interefting
mouldings. The length of the church is 300 feet ; of the
tranfept 120; the breadth of the choir and fide-aifles is
70 feet ; of the weft front 1003 the height from the area
to the roof is‘120 feet ; the height of the tower 152 feet.
The monuments, which are numerous, have attraéted the
attention of various antiquaries, particularly Mr. Gough
and Mr. Lyfons; the latter of whom has taken great
pains in afligning the different tombs to the real pea
they were intended to commemorate: many miftakes, in
this refpeé&t, having been committed on traditional authority

TEX

by former writers. Near the weit end of the church is the
Abbey Gate-houfe, which appears of the age of the fifteenth
century: it is embattled and ornamented with grotefque
figures, projecting from a cornice; beneath which is a
canopied niche between two fquare windows.—Dyde’s
Hittory, &c. of ‘Tewkefbury, 8vo. 1798. Rudge’s Hiftory
of Gloucetterfhire, vol. i. 1803. Beauties of England and
‘Wales, vol. v. Gloucefterfhire ; by J. Britton and E. W.
Brayley.

Tewkespury, called Wamefit, or Pawtucket, by the In-
dians, a townthip of Maffachuletts, in the county of Middle-
fex, containing 943 inhabitants; 24 miles N. of Bofton.

TEXALI, in Ancient Geography, the inhabitants of .the
fea-coafts of Aberdeenfhire ; who had a town, called De-
vana, at the mouth of the river Deva (Dee), where old
Aberdeen now ftands. ;

TEXAS, in Geography, a province of New Spain, which
properly forms part of Louifiana. This province is claimed
by Spain as part of the internal provinces, and included in
the yaft intendancy of San Louis Potofi: it is bounded E.
by the ftate of Louifiana, S. by the gulf of Mexico, W.
by an imaginary limit, and N. by Red river, and contains an
area exceeding 100,000 fquare miles. The capital of this
province is the garrifon of San Antonio de Bejar, ridicu-
loufly called the New Philippines. It was founded in 1731,
confilting of a captain, a lieutenant, and one company of
foldiers. The ftation of Cenis in this province, is now a mere
Indian village, with the ruins of a fort built by the French.
That called Natchitoches, from an Indian tribe, friends of
the French and enemies of the Spaniards, was a {mall fort,
built on an ifland of the Red river by fome French veterans.
But the ftation of Adayes, or Adaes, is regarded by the
Spanifh writers as the extreme fortrefs in this quarter: it is
feated ina fertile country, at the diftance of two leagues from
a lake of the fame name, which abounds in fifh, and which
in fome parts is five leagues in diameter, and probably ten in
circumference, with a gulf which may be navigated by large
veffels. In the middle of the lake is a hill, or rocks of a
pyramidal form, more than too yards in circumference, the
{tone of which refembles cryftal in its refleGion of the folar
rays, and it is the highett in the diftri€. The vicinity
abounds in wild cattle, bears and beavers ; and the foil is
fertile in maize and other grain. Pinkerton.

TEXEIRA, Josrex (becen)s in Biography, a Portu-
tuguefe hiftorian, was born in 1543, entered among the Do-
minicans, and became prior of the monaitery at Santarem
in 1578. When Philip II. of Spain took poffeffion of Por-
tugal, Texeira attached himfelf to Don Antonio, who had
been proclaimed king by the Portuguefe, and accompanied
him into France. In 1582 he was taken prifoner by the
Spaniards, but made his efcape from Lifbon. He became
confeffor to Don Antonio, and, in procefs of time, preacher
and almoner tothe French king Henry ILI. He afterwards
attached himfelf to Henry IV., and in 1596 aiflifted at the
abjuration of Calvinifm by the princefs of Condé. He was
fent on one miflion to England, and favourably received by
king James. He died at Paris in 1604, as fome fay ; but
according to another account, in 1620.

In 1582, Texeira printed his “ Compendium de Portu-
gallie ortu Regni initiis, &c.” This work was anfwered
by order of the king of Spain; and Texeira replied, in
1592, by a “ Confutatio, &c.’? which profeffed to refute
the hereditary right. of Philip to the crown of Portugal, and
to vindicate that of Don Antonio ;—probably the fame work
that is entitled “* De EleGtionis Jure quod competit Viris
Portugallenfibus inaugurandis fuis Regibus,’’ Lyons, 15 oc

TEX

As a génealogilt, under which character he was diftinguithed,
he publifhed in 1590, ‘ Exegefis Genealogica Arboris Gen-
tilitiz Henrici IV., Gallorum Regis,”’ enlarged in 1598, with
the addition of the princefs of Condé’s abjuration. In
token of the indignation he felt at the feizure of his country
by Philip, he a ed, as it is faid, in one of his fermons,
that“** we were bound to love all men, of whatever religion,
fe& or nation, even if they were Caftilians.”” Bayle.
Moreri.

TEXEL, or Tessex, in Geography, an ifland of Hol-
land, about 11 miles in length, and fix in its greateft breadth’;
fituated at the mouth of the Zuyder See, with a capacious
and good harbour, and a fort, which commands the en-
trance ; befides a town of the fame name, it contains fix vil-
lages: the land is fertile in pafture, and the whole well fe-
cured with dikes of prodigious ftrength and height. Near
this ifland was the celebrated fea-fight, between the fleet of
Holland, under admiral Martin Harpertz Tromp, and that of
England, under admiral Blake, in the year 1653, in which
Tromp was killed. Inthe year 1673 a battle was fought
between the fleet of Holland and the united fleets of Eng-
Jand and France, in which the victory was doubtful. N.
lat. 53° 5’. E.long. 4° 4o!. :

TEXEUIT, or Teyent, a town of Morocco; 100
miles W.N.W. of Morocco.

TEXT, a relative term, contradiftinguifhed to g/o/s or
commentary ; and fignifying an original difcourfe, exclufive
of any note or interpretation.

Infinite pains have been taken by the critics, to reftore,
reconcile, fettle, explain, &c. the text of the bible, and
that of the claffics. See Brsie. '

Mr. Whifton accounts for all thofe mifunderftandings
between the Old and New Teftament, particularly as to the
prophecies in the Old, cited as fulfilled in the New, from the
corruption of the text of the Old Teftament ; and to obviate
objetions made againft Chriftianity on that head, has pub-
lifhed an “* Effay towards reftoring the true T’ext of the
Old Teftament.’? See PRopHecy.

This reftoration he attempts to effe&t from the Samaritan
Pentateuch, the Roman Pfalter, the Apoftolical Conttitu-
tions, &c. | :

It fufficiently appears from the learned and acceptable Ja-
bours of the late Dr. Kennicott, in collating the Hebrew
manufcripts of the Old Teftament, that the alterations in-
troduced into the text, &c. are moftly of a trivial na-
ture, and by no means affe&t the authority of the facred
writings. .

Text is particularly ufed for a certain paflage of {erip-
ture chofen by a preacher, to be the fubjeét of his fermon.

A collection of texts appropriate to different fubjects,
and ji@icioufly arranged, has been publifhed by Dr. En-
field for the ufe of preachers in the compofition of their dif-
courfes, and alfo of biblical readers and ftudents.

Anciently, the lawyers began all their pleadings with like-
texts of {cripture.

A text-book, in feveral univerfities, is a elaflic author
written very wide, by the ftudents, to give room for an inter-
pretation di€tated by the mafter or regent, to be inferted in
the interlines.

In this fenfe, the French fay, proverbially, Glofe d’Or-
leans plus obfcure que le texte.

The Spaniards gave the name text to a kind of little
poem, or fet of verfes placed at the head of a glofs, and
making the fubject of it: each verfe. being explained, one
after another, in the courfe of the glofs.

Text, in Ancient Law Authors, is appropriated to the

£2

book of the Four Gofpels, by way of eminence. Thefe
were written in gold letters, and carefully preferved in the
churches. :

“« Codex aurato confeptus grammate {eriptus.
Auétus evangelicum ct ae corpore textum.”?

TEXTUARIES, Texruanrn, a name given to the feé&
of the Caraites, among the Jews. :

Hillel fhone among the traditionaries, and Schammai
among the textuaries. ;

The civil and canon lawyers fometimes alfo call a book
containing the bare text, without any glofs or commentary,
a textuary, fextuarium. ,

TEXTURE, Texrura, formed of texo, [ weave, pro-
perly denotes the arrangement and cohefion of feveral flen-
der bodies or threads, interwoven or entangled among each
other: as in the webs of fpiders, or in cloths, ftuffs, &c.

Texture is alfo ufed in {peaking of any union or cohe-
fion of the conftituent particles of a concrete body ; whether
by weaving, hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting,
intruding, comprefling, attracting, or any other way. .

In this fenfe, we ie a clofe, compact texture; a lax,
porous texture ; a regular or irregular texture, &c. ;

A great deal depends on the texture-of the component
parts of a body: hence moft of its particular properties, its
{pecific gravity, colour, &c. vee

TEXTUS Rorrensts, is an ancient manufcript, con-
taining the rights, cuftoms, tenures, &c. of the church of
Rochefter, granted by the laws of Ethelbert, Hholthere,
Eadred, and Withred, kings of Keat, collected by Er-
nulf, the venerable bifhop of Rochefter, about the year
1100.

TEYA, in Geoguaphy, a river of Auftria, which rifes
about three miles N. from Germs, pafles through a part
of Moravia, and runs into. the Marfch, 11 miles N.E. of
Zifterfdorf. rr

DEYN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflau;
12 miles W.N.W. of Jung Buntzel.

TTE-YUEN, a town of Afia, in the kingdomof Corea;
93 miles N.E. of. King-ki-tao. ; ;

TEZA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, with
acaftle. It was once a populous city, but is now much
decayed, yet is ftill the refidence of a governor and a gar-
rifon ; 20 leagues N.N.E. of Fez.

TEZCUCO, or Terzcuco, a lake of Spanifh Ame-
rica, in the province of Mexico. The conjuné lakes of
Tezcuco and Chalco are found to be about 30 Britifh miles
in length, and the former is about 15 miles in breadth; but
as the latter is partly drained, fo as to’ be at the diftance of a
league from the city,-it is probably about twelve miles in
breadth. This lake is celebrated in hiftory, as originally
containing the city of Mexico, and alfo as remarkable for
the qualities of the water, partly frefh, and partly faline.
The Chalco, or frefh-water lake in the fouth, appears to flow
by a narrow channel into the falt lake of Tezcuéo. "See
Mexico, fubftituting for Tezeuco, Tezcuco. !

TEZELA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Al-
giers; 5 leagues S.W. of Oran.

TEZERGBE, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Fez; 100 miles E.S.E. of Teza. g

TEZOUT, or Tessot, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Fez ; 35 miles S. of Melilla.

TFENI, a town of Egypt, on the Nile’; 10 miles S.E.
of Rofetta.

TFUOL, inthe Chinefe Manufaaory of Porcelain, a word
ufed to exprefs a particular fort of varnifh for that ware,

4 with

LE ALL LOGE ADOT

aa

a A

with violet-colour and gold. The ufual method of doing
this at firft, was by mixing gold with the common varnifh,
breaking the leaves very imall, and then adding the com-
mon blae and the powder of calcined agate of a coarfe
kind, found in great plenty on the fhores of their rivers.
But they have fince found that the brown varnifh called
z/ekin {ucceeds much better, for when the blue is mixed
with this, its brown colour is loft, and the gold lies on much
better than it would any other way. ,

They had once a method of a varied varnifh, which was
very beautiful, but is much negleGted now ; this was the
giving a veffel the brown varnifh on the outfide with a large
portion of gold, and the common white varnifh within.
They alfo varied the degree of colour on the outfide, by
laying on more or lefs of the varnifh; and gave this way a
variety, even in the fame colour. Obferv. fur les Codtumes
de ’Afie,. p. 308.

TGIDT, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Oman; 48 miles N. of Fartach.

THABBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Felix, fituated between Menambis and Seba, now Edda.
Ptol.—Alfo, an ancient town of Africa, in the vicinity of
Tichafa.

THABET Eszw Korra, in Biography.
Ben Conran.

THABILIACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Albania, between the rivers Gerrus and Soanes. Prtol:

THABIR, in Geography, a mountain of Arabia; 20
miles S..of Medina.

THABOR, in Ancient Geography. See Tazor.

THABORITES. See Tazorires.

THABRACA Cotonta, Tabarka, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town and Roman colony of Africa, in Numidia, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. It was fituated on the weftern bank,
and near the mouth of the river Tufca, Some veftiges re-
main of walls and cifterns.

THABUCA, a town of Spain, in the interior of: the
Tarragonenfis, belonging to the Varduli. Ptol.

THACAS, Saxas, in Antiquity, a general name given to
the place or feat where the augurs made their obfervations.

THACCONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Babylonia, upon.an armof the Euphrates. Ptol.

THACES, a people of Scythia, on this fide of the
Imaus, and near it. Ptol.

THACK Tyues. See Tyzez.

THAMA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the interior
of Arabia Deferta. Prtol.

THENA, or Tun, atown placed by Strabo, Pliny,
and Ptolemy, .on the coaft of Africa, towards the commence-
ment of the Leffer Syrtes—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Syria,
fituated, according to Ptolemy, in Cyrrheftica.

THAGIA, in Geography, atown of Africa; 100 miles
S.S.W. of Fez. ;

THAGORA, Tincoran, in Ancient Geography, a pol
of India, at the bottom of a {mall gulf, in the eaitern part
of the peninfula, beyond the Ganges.

THAGULIS, a town of ‘Avice. fituated between the
Two Syrtes. tol. . : \

THAHAR Kamen, in Geography, a poft of Chinefe
Tartary ; 15 miles N.E. of Tcitcicar.

THAHATH,, in Ancient Geography, the place of the 23d
itation of the Iraelites, where they encamped, after havin
left Mauloth ; fituated in the defert of Arabia, S. of Mauloth.

THAINEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis, near the eaft coaft, but without aharbour,
at a {mall diftance from the mouth of a river of the fame
name; 120 miles S. of Tunis. :

See THEBIT

BH A

THAIS, a town of France, in the department of Paris ;
2 leagues $.S.E. of Paris. : ,

Tuals, aname given by Xginetato a cof{metic cerate, in-
tended to give a beautiful red to the face. Galen ufes the
fame word to exprefs a fort of bandage.

THALA, Ferre Anach, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Numidia, according to Salluft and 'Tacitus.—Alfo,
a mountain of Africa, in Interior Libya, and the people in-
habiting its vicinity were called Thale.

THALACH, in Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
runs into the Schwarzach ; 5 miles W. of Greding.

THALAMEGUS, among the Ancients, a {hip of plea-
fure, or yatch ufed by princes. It was always provided with
a good cabin, or bed-chamber. See Suip.

THALAMI Nervorum Opticorum, in Anatomy, twio em-
nences in the brain. See Brain.

THALAMIA, in Botany, fee Licnenes, one of whofe
kinds of Apothecium, or receptacle, is fo denominated by
Acharius. {

THALAMILE, among the Ancients, thofe rowers who
fat in the loweft part of the fhip. See the next article.

THALAMIT AS, inthe Naval Archite@ure of the An-
cients, a term ufed to exprefs thofe rowers in the polycrote gal-
leys, or thofe who contained feveral feries of rowers, who fat
on the thalamus of the veffel, and made the loweft row. Thefe
moved their oars and hands under the feats of the row that
fat next abovethem. See PoLycroTa.

THALAMIUM, among the Ancients, a port-hole,
through which the oars of the rowers in the bottom of the
fhip went. ‘ 4

THALAMUS, in Botany, a term ufed-to exprefs that
part of the flower in the capitated or flofculous-flowered
plants, where the embryo fruits of every feparate flofcule are
lodged, and where afterwards the feeds are contained. This
is the bottom of the cup, in the central part of which it ad-
heres tothe ftalk. - ;

THALASSAR, in Ancient Geography, a province of
Afia, between Mefopotamia and Armenia.

THALASSOMELT, the name of a medicine ufed as
a purge among the ancients. It was compofed of equal
parts of honey, fea-water, and rain-water, ‘expofed to the
fun in thé dog-days, in a veflel pitched on the infide. It
purged in the fame manner that fea-water alone would do,
but only in a milder way.

THALASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town or port
in the fouthern part of the ifle of Crete.

THALATHA, a town of Afia, in Babylonia, on the
banks of the Tigris, and S. of Apamea.

THALATTA, a lake or marth, at the foot of mount
Caucafus, in the environs of the people called ‘ Coraxi.”?
It difcharged its waters into the Euxine fea, near a place
called Beithea-Ponti.

THALBIS, a river of Albania, between the Gerrus and
the Soanes. Ptol.

THALEA, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Simeon,
according to the book of Jofhua.

THALER. in Commerce. -See Rrxpotiar.

THALES, in Biography, the founder of the Ionic
fchool, and of the fcientific method of philofophifing among
the Greeks, was born of Phcenician parents, at Miletus, in
the firft year of the 35th Olympiad, or about the year 580
B.C. He acquired wealth and diftin&tion among his coun-
trymen, and was employed at an early age in public af-
fairs. He declined involving himfelf by marriage, in the
cares of a family, that he might devote his whole time and
attention to the ftudy of philofophy; alleging, as it is
faid, to his mother, who urged him to marry, at an early age

it

THA

« it is too foon,’’ and at a more advanced period “it is too
late.’ In order more entirely to difengage himfelf from
every avocation that would divert his mind from his fa-
vourite purfuits, he committed the care of his eftate to his
fifter’s fon, whom he adopted. In fearch of wifdom, he
travelled to Crete, and afterwards to Egypt. From the
priefts at Memphis in the latter country, he is faid by feveral
writers to have gained his knowledge of philofophy and ma-
thematics. But it is more probable that he was more in-
debted to his own talents and affiduity in the exercife of
them, than to any communication from them’; and accord-
ingly it has been affirmed, that he taught them how to mea-
fure the height of their pyramids. Upon his return to
Miletus, he was univerfally. refpe€ted for his extraordinary
wifdom and learning; and his acquaintance was eagerly
courted by all who wifhed to improve in knowledge or to
be ranked among philofophers. He was not prevented,
however, by thefe engagements from profecuting his mathe-
matical, philofophical, and metaphyfical ftudies. In this
courfe of improvement and ufefulnefs, and of Dope as
well as of acquiring knowledge, he protracted his lite to
the great age of ninety years, and died, through mere in-
firmity, whilft he was attending the Olympic games.
Thales was ranked among the feven wife men of Greece,
and might juftly be reckoned one of this number, whether we
confider his {cientific attainments, or the moral maxims and
aphorifms which are afcribed to him. Of thefe maxims, we
fhall fele& the following: “ Neither the crimes, nor the
thoughts, of bad men are concealed from the gods. Health
of body, competent fortune, and a cultivated mind, are
the chief fources of happinefs. What is the moft difficult
thing? To know one’s felf. What the eafieft? To give
advice-to others. How fhall we beft attain to virtue? By
abftaining from all that we blame in others. Parents may ex-
peét from their children that obedience which they paid to
their own,parents. ‘Take more pains to correét the blemifhes
of the mind, than thofe of the face. Stop the mouth of flan-
der by prudence. Be careful not to do that yourfelf, which
you blame in another. Friends fhould be remembered when
abfent, as well as when prefent.’’? Laertius. Brucker by
Enfield, vol.i. For an account of his philofophical doc-
trines and other particulars, we refer to the article Ionic
Sed.

THALETAS of Crete, a famous lyric poet, celebrated
by all antiquity as a medical mufician, is faid to have delivered
the Lacedemonians from the petftilence by the fweetuefs of
his lyre ; but credulity in the powers of mufic muft be very
{trong indeed, in thofe who could believe it poffible for mu-
fic to drive away the peftilence. Thaletas, however, was
univerfally believed to have poffefled this power ; but it is
impoffible to render the fa& credible, without qualifying it
by feveral circumftances omitted in the relation. In the Beit
place, it is certain that this poet was received among the La-
cedzmonians during the plague, by command of an oracle ;
that by virtue of this mufion, all the poetry of the hymns
which he fung, muft have confifted of prayers and fupplica-
tions, in order tg avert the anger of the gods againit the
people, whom he exhorted to faerifices, expiations, purifica-
tions, and many other aéts of devotion; which, however
fuperftitious, could not fail to agitate the minds of the mul-
titude, and to produce nearly the fame effeés as public fatts,
and, in Catholic countries, proceffions, at prefent, in times
of danger, by exalting tne courage, and by animating hope.

The difeafe having, probably, reached its hice pitch
of malignity when the mufician arrived, muit afterwards
have become lefs contagious by degrees; till, at length,
ceafing of itfelf, by the air wafting away the feeds of infec:

10

THA

tion, and recovering its former purity, the extirpation of
the difeafe was attributed by the people to the mufic of.
Thaletas, who had been thought the fole mediator, to whom
they owed their happy deliverance. ;

This is probably what Plutarch means, who tells the
ftory ; and what Homer meant, in attributing the ceffation
of oe plague among the Greeks, at the fiege of Troy, to
mufic.

«¢ With hymns divine the joyous banquet ends,
The Pzans lengthen’d till the fun defcends :
The Greeks reftor’d, the grateful notes prolong; .
Apollo liftens, and approves the fong.”’
Pope’s Homer’s Iliad, book i

For the poet, in this paflage, feems only to fay, that Apollo
was rendered favourable, and had delivered the Greeks from
the fcourge with which they were attacked, in confequence
of Chryfeis having been reftored to her father, and of facri-
fices and offerings. ° 3

This poet-mufician has been confounded by fome writers
with Thales the celebrated Milefian philofopher; but ac-
cording to Plutarch (in Lycurg.) he was cotemporary with
Lycurgus the Spartan legiflator, and lived about three hun-
dred years after the Trojan war. Plutarch alfo informs us,
that though Thaletas was only ftyled a lyric poet and mu-
fician, he was likewife a great philofopher and politician ;
infomuch that Lycurgus brought him from Crete, when he
returned from his travels, to Sparta, in order to have af-
fiftance from him, in eftablifhing his new form of govern-
ment. His odes, continues Plutarch, were fo many exhort-
ations to obedience and concord, which he enforced by the
fweetnefs of his voice and melody. Plato, likewife, deferibes
his captivating manner of finging; and Plutarch, in his
Dialogue on Mufic, afcribes to Thaletas many mufical com-
pofitions and inventions: fuch as Paans, and new meafures
in verfe, as well as rhythms in mufic, which he had acquired
from the flute-playing of Olympus, whom he at firft had
imitated. Porphyry, in his Lite of Pythagoras, fays that
this philofopher ufedto amufe himfelf with finging the old
Pzans of Thaletas; and Atheneus likewife tells us, that
the Spartans long continued to fing his airs; and, accerd-
ing to the {choliaft on Pindar, this poet-mufician was the firft
who compofed the Hyporchemes for the armed, or military
dance. :

There was another poet and mufician‘of the name of
Thaletas, who was likewife a Cretan, but who flourifhed
much later than the cotemporary and friend of Lycurgus.

THALFANG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Sarre; 11 miles S.S.W. of Traarbach.

THALHEIM, a citadel of Bavaria, in the territory of
Nuremberg ; 6 miles S.E. of Herfbruck. es

THALIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linneus, in
memory of John Thalius, a phyfician at Nordhaufen, in
Germany, who wrote Sylva Hercynia, a catalogue of the
plants of the Hercynian foreft towards Saxony, which ac-
companies the Hortus Medicus of Joachim Camerarius, both
having been printed together at Francfort on the Maine in
1588; and they are both illuftrated by excellent wooden
cuts. Thalius died in 1587, of a fra€tured thigh, in con-
fequence of a fall from his carriage. His work abounds
with original defcriptions and remarks; but as Haller ob-
ferves, it is not eafy to afcertain all the numerous fpecies or
varieties of which he treats. The genus before us was ori-
ginally called Corrusa by Plumier ; but that name remains
with a very different plant, as the reader will find in its pro-
per place.x—Linn. Gen. 4. Schreb. 6. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1.15. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 3. - Rofcoe Tr. o ae

OC.

aH A

Soc. v. 8. 340. t. 20. f. 3. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.
307. Purfh 584. Juffl. 63. (Cortufa; Plum. Gen. 26.
t. 8. Peronia; Redout. Liliac. v. 6. 342. )—Clafs and order,
Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Scitaminee, Linn. Canna,
Juff. Cannez, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of three equal, ovato-
lanceolate, permanent leaves. Cor. of one petal, irregular.
Tube none. Limb double: the outer divided to the bafe
into three equal, oblang, concave fegments, much longer
than the calyx: inner two-lipped ; its upper lip convolute,
abrupt, flichtly three-lobed, hardly fo long as the outer
limb ; lower twice as long, deeply three-lobed, with two
awl-fhaped appendages, the central lobe contracted in the
middle. Stam. Filament one, declining, linear, depreffed,
the length of the upper lip, and attached to one of its
edges; anther fimple, ovate, of one cell, opening inwards.
Pift. Germen inferior, rounaifh; ityle cylindrical, longer
than the ftamen, revolute; ftigma irregular, ringent, per-
forated, beardlefs. Peric. Berry oval, of one cell, with a
thin pulp. Seed folitary, large, oval, with a large horny
albumen, and a folitary, central, curved embryo, accom-
panied by an empty cell.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Corolla of one petal,
in five deep unequal fegments, without a tube. Anther
fimple, ovate. Style recurved. Stigma ringent, perforated.
Berry with one feed.

Obf. The charaéters and ftruéture of the flower have in
few genera been involved in fo much uncertainty asin Thalia.
We have endeavoured to draw up as correct a defcription as
we could, from Mr. Sowerby’s excellent plate of Thalia
dealbata, publifhed in 1794, by the late Mr. Frafer, and de-
lineated under our infpe&tion. Mr. Brown’s learned remarks
have affifted us as to the feed. The above defcription will
be found to agree with Plumier’s account of the original
fpecies, as far as any thing can be underftood from thence ;
leaving little doubt that the two plants in queftion form one
genus. Linneus has left many manufcript correétions of his
generic characters of Thalia, we know not from whence de-
rived, which, though they accord as far as they go with
our obfervations, do not fuperfede them. The prefent genus,
no doubt, is next akin to MARANTA, but their differences
will appear evident from a comparifon of their defcriptions.
They both belong to the new order of Canna, or Cannea,
recently feparated by Mr. Rofcoe and Mr. Brown from the
Linnean SciraMine®. See that article.

1. T. geniculata. Diftant-flowered Thalia. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 3. Willd. n. 1. Swartz Obf. 9. (Cortufa arundinacea,
amplis cannacori foliis; Plum. Gen.'26. Ic. 98. t. 108.
£. 1.)—Leaves ovate. Flowers remote, alternate. Bracteas
oblong.—Native of the Weft Indies, but hitherto feen by
Plumier only. His figures are our only certain authority
for this {pecies ; for Dr. Swartz has well obferved, that the
fynonyms which authors have accumulated, do not belong
to it; and that what Rottboll has defcribed and figured,
feems more akin to T- canneformis, hereafter mentioned. We
have indeed fpecimens, gathered by Mr. Frafer in 1810, in
Cuba, near the Havannah, which greatly refemble Plumier’s
figure, and may be his plant, though from the impoffibility
of examining their fruGtification, we dare not affert them to
be fo. Neverthelefs we hall defcribe them, that botanifts
may form their own opinion. The /lem is feveral feet in
height, ere&t, round, fmooth, leafy, alternately branched.
Leaves alternate, ovate, pointed, {mooth, above a foot long,
with one rib, and many fine tranfverfe curved veins. J’cot-
fralk theathing, compreifed, half as long as the leaf, with an
oblong, cylindrical knot at the fummit. Panicle fubdivided,
with long, linear, obtufe, flat, ere&t /tales, or general bradeas,

You. KXXV.

Pon”

at each fubdivifion. Jlower-flalks zigzag, knotty, round,
two or three inches long. Partial brafeas two at each knot,
the outermoft much the largeft, embracing and concealing
the other, an inch in length, elliptic-oblong, green, finely
ribbed, clothed with fcattered fhining hairs. Between thefe
braéeas is fituated a pair of flowers, whofe dried corolla is
partly purple, and whofe pale, much convoluted and wrinkled
lip bears fome refemblance to Plumier’s figure.

2. T. déalbata. Mealy Thalia. Rofcoe. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 8. 340. Dryand. in’ Ait. n. 1. Purfh n. 1.
Frafer’s fingle plate. Curt. Mag. t. 1690. (Peronia
flriéta; Redout. Liliac. t. 342.)—Leaves ovate. Flowers
crowded. Braéteas ovate, mealy.—Native of impenetrable
fwamps in South Carolina, flowering in Auguft and Sep-
tember. Mr. Purfh fays it was firft difcovered there by
T. Millington, efq. Living plants were brought to Eng-
land by the late Mr. Frafer in 1791, by which this hand-
fome and curious fpecies firft became known to botanitts.
Its root is of courfe perennial. Stem four or five feet high,
ere&t, round, {mooth; leafy at the bottom; panicled at
the top, covered with a filvery mealinefs, which clothes alfo
the general as well as partial éraéteas, and is eafily rubbed
off by atouch. Leaves light green, {mooth, above a foot
long, on round fheathing ffa/és, with a knot at the top.
General braéeas lanceolate, concave, convolute, a {pan long.
Flower-ftalks aggregate or compound. Partial braéeas
crowded, in pairs, much more tumid, ovate, and fhorter
than in the foregoing, each pair containing two purple
flowers, whofe ftru€ture is detailed in our generic character.
Fruit purple, the fize of a hazel-nut, flightly pulpy.

3. T. canneformis. Elliptical Thalia. Forft. Prodr. r.
Willd. n. 3, Buchanan in Symes’s Embafly to Ava, ed. 2.
V. 3. 305. t. 21.—Leaves elliptical. Partial bracteas linear-
lanceolate, fhorter than the divided partial flower-ftalk.—
Native of moift woods in the remote iflands of the Eaft
Indies, and the New Hebrides, flowering in March and
April. The fem is folid, branched, round, fmooth, leafy,
divaricated at the joints. Leaves alternate, broadly ellip-
tical, pointed, fmooth, on round fheathing ftalks. Panicle ter-
minal, with long, flender, pendulous branches, upon which the
flowers are arranged pretty clofely. Every pair of long nar-
row partial bradeas contains a divided ftalk, bearing two large
white flowers, each with the rudiment of another at its bate.
The corolla is fomewhat tubular, and the lower lip of its
inner limb has two large equal lobes, but in other refpeéts
the parts of fruétification feem to anfwer well enough to
the generic charaéter. The fruit, however, which mutt
fettle that point, is unknown.

Our learned and highly valued friend Mr. Rofcoe has fug-
gefted, that the Maranta Cachibou, Jacq. Fragm. Bot. 52.
t. 6g and 79, of which we have a fpecimen gathered by
Mr. Maffon at St. Kitt’s, may probably be a Thalia. Its
feed certainly confirms this opinion, but the parts of the
flower are not yet fufficiently defcribed to authorize any
conclufion, nor can we uamravel their ftru&ture from the
dried plant. Whatever becomes of this fpecies, the AZa-
ranta Cafupo, t. 63. f. 4, of the fame work, and AZ. Ca-
Supito, t. 64. f. 2, muft affuredly be referred to the fame

enus. :
: Tua ta, in Mythology, one of the nine Mufes, who pre-
fided over comedy and paftorals. She is diftinguifhed from
the other Mufes by her mafk, and from the tragie Mufe
by her fhepherd’s crook ;' her afpeét is likewife meaner than ©
that, of Melpomene, and her drefs fhorter and lefs noble
than that of the other Mufes,

THALIA was alfo the name of one of the Graccs.

THALICTRUM, in Botany, may poffibly be, as gene-
3K rally

THALICTRUM.

rally fuppofed, the Sarrnrgov of Diofcorides, from whom
the name isadopted. That point, however, was not deter-
mined by Dr. Sibthorp, though he noticed five fpecies of
this genus in Greece or its neighbourhood. The above
name is, by. Ambrofini and others, derived from $aAaw, to
be green and Sloss fens. Some old authors occafionally write
it Thalietrum.—Linn. Gen. 280. Schreb. 277. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1295: . Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 583. Prodr.. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1. 378. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 3. 346. Purfh 388. Juff. 232. Tourn.
t. 143. Lamarck [lluftr..t. 497. Gaertn. t. 74.—Clafs
and order, Polyandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Multifiliqua,
Linn. Ranunculaceae, Jufi. :

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, except the corolla be taken for
fuch. Cor. Petals four or five, réundifh, obtufe, concave,
deciduous. Sfam. Filaments numerous, dilated upwards,
comprefled, longer than the corolla; anthers terminal, ob-
long, erect. Pi/f. Germens fuperior, numerous, moftly
ftalked, roundifh; ftyles none; ftigmas thickifh. There
are alfo feveral very fhort imperfect piftils. Peric. none.
Seeds feveral, ovate, furrowed, without any appendage.

Ef Ch. Calyx none. Petals four or five. Seeds
naked, without appendages.

Obf. Linnzus remarks, that his 7. ¢uberofum and cor-
nutum have five petals ; dioicum has the ftamens and piftils
on feparate plants ; aquilegifolium and contortum have ftalked
pendulous feeds, furnifhed with three dilated or winged an-
rles; moreover, that the number of ftamens-and piltils dif-
fais in the different fpecies, being fometimes lefs than the
chara&ers of the clafs and order require.

This is a very diftinét well-marked genus of perennial
herbaceous plants, all natives of the cold or temperate
climates of Europe and North America. The /eaves are
compound, with roundifh, rarely oblong, lobed or notched
leaflets ; paler, or glaucous, underneath; ufually fmooth.
” Inflorefcence panicled. Flowers white or yellowifh, with
fome flight tinge of purple, generally of an elegant feathery
appearance. Fourteen fpecies are defcribed in Linn. Sp.
Pl.; twenty-one in*Syft. Veg. ed. 14. Willdenow has
twenty-three. Four are Britifh. Nineteen are enumerated
in Mr. Aiton’s Hortus Kewenfis. Their qualities in ge-
neral are believed to be of an acrid nature, like thofe of
Ranunculus and Clematis ; but milder.

We have fome additions and correétions to make, which
require a compendious review of the whole genus. }

1. T. alpinum. Alpine Meadow-Rue. Linn. Sp. Pl.
767- Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 262.
Lightf. 286. t.13. f.1. Fl. Dan. t. 11. (T. mini-
mum montanum atro-rubens, foliis fplendentibus ; Raii
Syn. 204. Boerh. Ind. Alt. v. 1. 44. t. 1.)—Stem per-
feétly fimple, and almoft naked. Clufter fimple, termi-
nal. — Native’ of moift black bogs, or the turfy margins
of alpine rills, on the loftieft mountains of Lapland, Scot-
land, and Wales, flowering in June. The root is peren-
nial, creeping, with a few fimple fibres. Stem ereét, about
fix inches high, round, glaucous or purplifh, with one leaf,
more or lefs compound, about the middle. Radical leaves
feveral, ftalked, ereé&t, half as tall as the ftem; firft ternate;
then either again ternate, or pinnate ; the leaflets roundifh,
or wedge-fhaped, veiny ; glaucous beneath. Cluffer at firft
drooping, then ere&, of eight or ten alternate flowers,
whofe petals, and eight or ten filaments, are either white/or
purple ; their anthers orange. Germens two or four only,
roundifh, green, each with a whitifh, broadly-lanceolate,
divaricated, downy fligma, about its own length. Linnezus
defcribes twelve flamens, and eight piffils.

2. T. fatidum. Foetid Meadow-rue.

10

Linn. Sp. Pl.

768. Willd. n.2. Ait. n. 2.
Hung. v. 2. 190. t. 174.” (T. minimum feetidiffimum 3
Bauh. Prodr. 147. Pluk. Phyt. t. 65. f. 4. Morif-
fe&. 9. t. 20. f. 13. T. n. 1140; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 58.)
—Stem panicled, round, leafy, Leaves triply compound,
minutely downy on both fides. Flowers drooping. — Petals
flightly hairy. Stigmas auricled at the bafe.—Native of
France, Switzerland, and Siberia, flowering in May. A
fpecies of a delicate afpe&, and glaucous hue, about a foot
high, with innumerable, fmall, rounded, lobed, tender —
lets. "The petals are externally reddifh, efpecially in the
young plant, and finely downy or hairy. Stamens long and
capillary. Seeds. ovate, ftrongly furrowed, crowned with
the permanent. fhrivelled /figmas, whofe dilated or auricled
bafe is diftinguifhable in our Swifs fpecimens. This laft
charaéter is, in the Supplementum, p. 271, made the pecu-
liar mark of T. flyloideum, there defcribed from a Siberian
fpecimen, which Linneus did not recognize as his own
T. fatidim. The ftyloideum, Willd. n. 22, is therefore to
be ftruck out. Several Swifs botanifts have confounded the
fpecies before us with T. minus, hereafter defcribed, which
is Haller’s n. 1139. That eminent writer had fome doubts
refpeéting the difference between the two, which we thall
attempt to remove when we come to the other, Linneus
having placed them far afunder. The rte is faid to ex-
hale a very bad and powerful odour, like Geranium robertia-
num, or, aS Haller fays, the urine of cats. :

3. T. tuberofum. Tuberous-rooted Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 768. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Mill. Ic. v. 2.
177. t. 265. f. 2. (Oenanthe Myconi; Dalech. Hitt. 785.
Ranunculus thali&tri folio minor, afphodeli radice ; Morif.
fe&t. 4. t. 28. f. 13.)—Leaflets rounded, glaucous, fmooth.
Petals five. Root tuberous. — Native of Spain and the
Pyrenees. A hardy perennial in our gardens, ‘flowering in
June, but confined to the more curious-colle&tions. ‘The
root confifts of ovate knobs. Herb {mooth, a foot or more
in height, of a light glaucous green. Flowers panicled,
not numerous, diftinguifhed by their five large, ovate, white
petals, and ets bi Morifon’s figure is badly copied
from that of Dalechamp. dn 4

4. T. Cornuti. Canadian Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. Pl.
768. Willd. n. 4. Aitenv4.. Purfh n. 3. (TT cana-
denfe ; Cornut. Canad. 186. t. 187. TT. femine triquetro,
foliis aquilegie ; Morif. fe&. 9. t. 20. f. 15.) — Leaflets
rounded, three-lobed, glaucous, fmooth. Panicles terminal.
Flowers dioecious. Petals five. Root. fibrous. —On the
banks of rivers, and in wet meadows, from Canada to
New England; flowering in June and July. Root perennial.
Stem from two to three feet high. #F/owers {mall, greenith-
yellow. Purfh. Cornuti fays the unexpanded petals are
pale purple; the /famens white, numerous, with. yellow
anthers. * Seeds triangular. The dioecious nature of the
flowers, which we have had no opportunity of obferving,
was firft noticed in Hort. Kew.

5. T. dioicum. Dioecious Early Meadow-tue. + Linn:
Sp. Pl. 768. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. Burfi ns 2:
Muhlenb. Cat. 54. — Leaflets heart-fhaped, many-lobed,
very fmooth. Panicles axillary. Flowers dioecious. Petals
not longer than the filaments or germens, Stigmas almoft
capillary.—Native of fhady woods and the banks of rivers,
from Canada to Virginia, flowering from May to July, ae-
cording to Purfh, who fays the fowers are white. He’con-
ceives his plant to be the fame with 7. /evigatum of Michaux,
Fl. Boreali-Amer. y. 1. 322, who confefles his inability to
determine the North American Thaliara, they being almoft
all dioecious. Specimens from the late Dr. Muhlenberg, new
before us, and agreeing exaétly with thofe fent by Kalm to

Linnzus,

«© Waldit. et Kitaib-

THALICTRUM.

Linnzus, as recorded in Sp. Pl., are certainly dioecious,
about a foot high, very {mooth, with thrice-ternate Leaves,
whofe lobes are ufually from five to feven, blunt, and rather
fhallow ; both their furfaces reticulated with flightly pro-
minent veins. Panicles folitary or in pairs from the bofoms
- of the leaves, fomewhat umbellate, on long ftalks, and often
accompanied by a long-ftalked folitary Hower. Petals of
the male flowers white or reddifh, ovate, ribbed, the length
of the very flender. numerous filaments, whofe anthers are
yellow, very narrow, pointed: thofe of the female flowers
much fmaller and rounder, white or greenifh, hardly fo long
as the little, oval, ribbed germens. The /figmas are very
flender, and remain in a prominent, almoft capillary, form,
on the oyate-oblong, ftriated /eeds.

6. T. elatum. Tall Meadow-rue. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V3. 49. t.95. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 6.—Leaflets ovate,
three-lobed, {mooth, fomewhat notched. Panicle much
branched, terminal. Flowers erect. Filaments capillary.
Stigmas ovate, fhort.—Native of Hungary. Introduced
into England by Mr. Hunnemann in 1794. A hardy
perennial, flowering from June. to Auguft. iton. An
unnamed fpecimen in the Linnzan herbarium manifeftly

es with Jacquin’s plant, which is four feet or more in
height. The /fem is more furrowed in our fpecimen than
he reprefents. The /eaves are ternate from their very bafe,
then twice or thrice pinnate, glaucous, incorreétly three-
lobed,.and fomewhat cut befides. Flowers white, ered,
in an upright compound panicle. Petals ovate, rather {mall,
fometimes purplifh. Filaments of equal thicknefs through-
out, about thrice the length of their oblong, linear, pointed
anthers, which Jacquin reprefents rather fhorter and rounder
than we find them. Germens angular. Seeds -elliptic-
oblong, glaucous, furrowed, crowned with the fhort fhrivel-
ed fligmas.

7- T. majus. Greater Meadow-rue. Jacq. Auftr. v. 5.9.
t.420. Willd. a. 7. Fl. Brit, n.3. Engl, Bot. t. 611.
—Leaflets roundifh, fomewhat heart-fhaped, three-cleft ;
glaucous beneath. Panicle leafy, with aggregate branches.
Flowers drooping.—Native of woods and bufhy places in
Auftria, Hungary, Mount Athos, and the north of England,
perennial, flowering in June and July. The late Mr. Robfon
of Darlington found it at Baydales, near that town, as well
as on the margin of Ulls-water, Cumberland. This is
about the fize of the laft, but the eaves are of adarker green
on the upper fide, very glaucous beneath. ‘The branches
of the pee grow feveral together, from the bofoms of the
upper leaves, and the flowers, at leaft their famens, are pen-
dulous, with longer anthers than the preceding. The petals
moreover are green. In the germens and ffigmas we perceive
no particular diftin@tion.

8. T. medium. Intermediate Meadow-rue. Jacq. Hort.
Vind. v. 3. 50. t.96. Willd. n.8. Ait. n. 8.—Leaflets
oblong-wedge-{haped, three-cleft, notched ; the uppermoft
lanceolate. Panicle mueh branched, flightly leafy. Stamens
fpreading.—Native of hilly fituations in Hungary. A
hardy perennial, flowering in June and July, introduced at
Kew, by Mr. Hunneman, in 1789. Specimens in the
herbarium of Linnzus, from the Upfal garden, which he
fufpected might be T. tuberofum, n. 3, appear rather to belong
to the prefent fpecies, which differs from the two laft in the
narrownefs of its /eaflets, agreeing with them in the germens
and fligmas. The panicle is more like elatum than majus.
The flamens are not pendulous, but divaricated. Petals
elliptical, greenifh. Leaves light green, fomewhat glau-
cous.

9. T. minus. Lefler Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. Pl. 769.
Willd. n.g. Fi. Brit.n.2. Engl. Bot.t.11. WI. Dan.

t.732. Jacq. Auftr. v. 5.9. t-419. Segu. Veron. 476.
Vill. Dauph. v. 3.713. Ger. Em. 1251. (T. alpinum
minus faxatile, rutz folio, ftaminibus luteis ; Segu. Veron.
476. t. 11.) —Leaflets roundifh, three-cleft, notched, fome-
what glaucous ,on both fides. Panicle flightly. leafy.
Flowers pendulous.—Native of various parts of Europe,
from Sweden to Greece, generally on a limeftone or chalky
foil, flowering in June and July. Our Britith plant pre-
cifely agrees with what was found in Gothland by Linnzus,
though he fubfequently confounded “ thimgs innumerable,
both imall and great,’? under FT. minus. The true one is a
buthy {preading herbaceous perennial, of humble growth,
generally but a foot high, {mooth, of a glaucous hue, with
tints of violet. Leaflets rather {mall, various in breadth.
Panicle moderately branched. Flowers pendulous, though
the ftalks become more ere& when in feed. _ Petals elliptical,
concave, light purple, fometimes jagged or fringed. Stamens
capillary. Anthers long, linear, pointed, ‘as in the lait.
Germens and feeds fmall. Linneus’s fpecific definition,
foliis fexpartitis, has puzzled every body, and is inapplicable
to any thing ever taken for the prefent {pecies. _ He perhaps
meant that each /eaf confifted of fix primary divifions, which
is moitly the cafe.

10. T. rugofum. Rugged Meadow-rue. Ait. ed. 1.
Vv. 2. 262.ed.2.n.10. Willd. n. ro. Purfh n. 3. Muh-
lenb. Cat. 54.—Leaflets ovate or lanceolate, rugged, veiny,
bluntly lobed. Stem round, itriated. Panicle corymbofe.
Flowers ereét.—On the banks of rivers, and in fwamps,
from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering from June to
Auguit. Perennial, very tall, fometimes above five feet
high. Flowers white. Purfh. The habit of this plant is
more like fome of the large {pecies hereafter defcribed, with
a large terminal denfe, almoft leaflefs, tufted panicle. Stamens

capillary. _Anthers linear.
ur. T. fibiricum. Siberian Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. PI.
769. Willd: n. 11. Aiten. 11. (T. orientale minimum,

fumarie folio; Tourn. Cor. 20. Willd.)—‘ Leaves in
three divifions ; leaflets fomewhat reflexed, fharply cut.
Flowers drooping.” —Found by Gmelin in Siberia ; and by
Tournefort, if we are right in his fynonym, in Armenia.
Linneus doubtingly cites a fynonym of Seguir, which,
after Haller, we,have referred to T. minus. His account of
the prefent {pecies, of which we know nothing, is, that its
habit accords with 7. minus, or purpurafcens, but the leaflets
are {mall, but one-fixth as large as thofe fpecies, glaucous
like Rue or Fumitory. Svem green, copioufly panicled.
Panicle brown at its divarications. It flowers later, at the
fame time as favum and divicum.

12. T. /quarrofum. Squarrofe Meadow-rue. Willd.
n. 12.—‘“ Leaflets three-cleft or undivided. Footitalks
membranous, winged, clafping the item. Flowers droop-
ing.’?—Native of Siberia. Differs from all the foregoing
{pecies which have drooping flawers, in the ftruGture of its
footftalk. The laves are repeatedly compound, as in the
reft; their lateral /eaffets moftly ovate, acute, and entire,
but the terminal, and even the uppermott lateral ones, are
divided or three-cleft. Fvot/talk greatly dilated at the bafe,
with orbicular membranous wings, toothed at the margin,
There are alfo leffer orbicular toothed auricles, upon the
partial footitalks, by which mark the fpecies is eafily
known. Willdenow. We have met with nothing anfwering
to this defcription.

13. T. purpurafcens. Purplifh Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 769. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 12. Purfh n. 5.—
(T. virginiahum elatius glaucum, florum ftaminulis pur-
purafcentibus ; Morif. v. 3. 324.) —‘ Stem twice as tal
as the leaves.- Leaflets roundifh, three-cleft, cut. Panicles

aK 2 nearly

THALICTRUM.

nearly naked. Flowers droopang. Stamens coloured.””—
On dry funny hills, in Pennfylvania and Virginia. Perennial,
flowering in May and June. A fmall plant. Stem and
filaments purple. Purfo. Linneus contratts this with
T. minus, a ee concerning which his ideas were too
vague, for us to learn any thing from fuch a comparifon,
nor does his herbarium lend us any certain aid. There is,
however, an unmarked fpecimen, which he affociated with
T. dioicum, but which may poflibly be the purpurafcens. It
has broad ivy-like leaflets, but is more particularly diftin-
guifhed by fhort elliptical anthers, whofe filaments are _gra-
dually dilated upwards, approaching to thofe of T. flamineum
hereafter defcribed.

14. T. pubefcens. Downy sgh eile Meadow-rue.
Purfh n. 4. Muhlenb. Cat. 54.— eaflets ovate, fome-
what heart-fhaped, or wedge-fhaped three-lobed_at the
end; flightly downy beneath. Panicles terminal. Flowers
polygamous. Annthers linear. Styles awl-fhaped, twice as
long as the germens.—On the banks of ditches and rivulets,
in Pennfylvania and Virginia, flowering from June to Augutt.
A tall fpecies, with white flowers. Purhh. We have this
from our late venerable correfpondent, the Rev. Dr. Muh-
lenberg. The leaflets are rather large ; dark green, and
fomewhat rugged, above ; paler, reticulated with prominent
veins, and minutely downy, at the back. Flowers neareft
to thofe of T. dicicum, and like them diftinguifhed by long
tapering fligmas. The anthers are linear-oblong ;_ their
filaments almoft equally flender throughout. :

15. T. angu/tifolium. Narrow-leaved Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 769. Willd. n. 14. Ait. a. 13. Jacq. Hort.
Vind. v. 3. 25. t. 43-—Leaflets linear-lanceolate, or linear,
moftly undivided, entire. Panicle much branched, denfe.
Flowers ere&t. Stigmas heart-fhaped, half the length of
the germens. Native of Switzerland and Germany, but not
frequent any where. Dr. Sibthorp, however, gathered it
on the Bithynian Olympus. Miller feems to have cultivated
it, in his time, at Chelfea, but we have fearcely ever feen a
living fpecimen, and we are much inclined to concur in
opinion with thofe who judge it a variety of the following,
their habit, inflorefcence, and flowers, being exactly the fame,
however different the breadth of their /eaflets. Bauhin’s
{ynonym, uniformly referred to this, certainly belongs to
T. fimplex, n. 17.

16. T. flavum. Common Meadow-rue.

yo. Willd. n. 15. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Bek Bot. t. 367.
FL Dan. t..939. (T. nigricans ; Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. 10.
t.421. Willd. n. 16. ‘T. nigrius, caule et femine {triato ;
Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 486. T. majus, foliis rugofis trifidis ;
Morif. feét. 9. t. 20. f. 3.)—Leaflets rounded or oblong,
three-cleft. Panicle much branched, denfe. Flowers ereét.
Stigmas heart-fhaped, half the length of the germens.—
Found in moift meadows, and the reedy margins of rivers,
throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in
July. The root is yellow, perennial. Stem three feet high,
ere&t, fmooth, leafy, furrowed or angular, fimple below.
Leaves nearly feffile, twice ternate, with a fhort fheathing
bafe, or footflalk ; leaflets Nightly glaucous, mott fo beneath ;
either undivided or thrée-cleft, entire, veiny, varying ex-
tremely in breadth, length, and fharpnefs. Panicle terminal,
ere&t, denfe, corymbofe, much branched, fomewhat leafy.
Flowers and flamens ere&, yéllowith-white, with oblong,
flightly pointed, yellow anthers. Stigmas oblique, heart-
fhaped, downy. Seeds deeply furrowed. The vague re-
femblance of this plant to the garden rue, and its place of
growth, feem to have given the Englifh name of the whole
genus. Jaequin’s nigricans, found frequently in England,
differs merely in the elongation and comparative narrownefs

9

Linn. Sp. Pl.

of its deaflets, which approach in thofe refpe€ts to the angu/-
tifolium, \aft defcribed.

17. T. fimplex. Simple-ftalked Meadow-rue. Linn.
Mant. 78, excluding the fynonym. Willd. n.17. Ait.
n.15. Fl. Dan. t. 244. Ehrh. Phytoph. 15. (T. anguf-
tifollum; Villars Dauph. v. 3.712. T. anguttiffimo folio ;
Bauh. Prodr. 146. Morif. feét. 9. t. 20. f. 8.) —Leaflets
linear. Stem angular, fimple. Panicle branched, com-
pound, lax, fomewhat racemofe. Flowers pendulous.
Stigmas roundifh-heartfhaped.—Native of Sweden, Den-
mark, Switzerland, and France. Introduced at Kew by
the very eminent cultivator and botanift M.'Thouin, in
1778. It is a hardy perennial, flowering in May and June.
This is unqueftionably akin to the laft, but effentially dif-
ting. The whole plant is but half as large, with a much
more angular /lem. The /eaffets are extremely narrow, and

revolute, unaccompanied by any of the partial fipulary ~

{cales, feen on the leaves of T. flavum. The panicle is more
oblong and lax, not corymboie. Flowers {maller, droop-
ing, or rather quite pendulous, not erect. Petals green,
not white or yellowifh. Stigmas remarkably round and
convex. We have fpecimens from Villars, which prove the
corre€tnefs of Willdenow refpeéting his fynonym. We have
alfo from profeffor Lachenal a {pecimen gathered at Michel-
feld, which fhews this to be the plant of I Bauhin, cited by
Linnzus and others for 7. anguffifolium. Indeed Bauhin’s
wooden cut, copied by Morifon, fufficiently evinces this,
though, being delineated perhaps from a dried f{pecimen, it
is not exaét in the pofition of the flowers. TY. gallioides,
Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 585. we believe is a very narrow-

leaved variety of /implex.
18. T. Jucidum. Shining-leaved Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 770. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 16. (T. minus
lucidum, libanogidis coronariz foliis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 65.
f. 5.) —** Stem leafy, furrowed. Leaflets linear, flefhy.”’—
Said to be a native of France and Spain. Miller had fome-
thing in his garden which pafled for this plant, and hence it
is enumerated in Hort. Kew. We have never feen a fpeci-
men, nor did Linneus know any more of the matter than
what Dalibard, whofe fpecific charaéter we more exactly
copy, has given in his F/. Paris. 162. The late Mr. Davall
fent us a Swifs Thalidrum for lucidum, which anfwers to the
character, but is indubitably the /fmp/ex in a luxuriant ftate.
Linneus thought the /ucidum was probably a variety of
flavum. We prefume various things have been taken for
this plant, but in reality that it has no exiftence as a fpecies.
19. T’. aguilegifolium. Columbine-leaved Meadow-rue, or
Feathery Columbine. Linn. Sp. Pl. 770. Willd. n. 19.
Ait. n. 17. Jacq. Auitr. v. 4. 10. t. 318. Curt. Mag.
t. 1818. (T.atropurpureum ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 34.
t. 61. T. majus, florum ftaminibus purpurafcentibus ;
Bauh. Pin. 337. Morif. feet. 9. t. 20. f. 16.)—Leaflets
rounded, lobed, and cut. Stem round. Panicle corym-
bofe. Flowers ereé&t. Stamens dilated upwards. Germens
ftalked. Fruit pendulous, with three dilated wings.—
Native of Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Thrace, and
Greece, common and hardy in our gardens, flowering from
May to July. The /fem is three or four feet high, round,
fomewhat ftriated, leafy, {mooth, either glaucous or purple.
Leaves large and fpreading, much refembling thofe of
Agquilegia vulgaris, though often more acute. Flowers
large and elegant, white or pale violet ; their ee reflexed ;
their very numerous /famens moderately dilated upwards,
flattened, of the hue of the petals, with fhort yellow anthers.
Germens triangular, on long ftalks, at Jength deflexed or
pendulous, and becoming fomewhat obovate, obtufe,.
flraightifh feeds, with three unequal, much dilated, fmooth
wings.

—E

i

THA

wings. Retzius, in his Obf Bot. fafe. 6. 30: fect. 52,
juftly indicates the identity of Jacquin’s 7. atropurpureum
and the Linnzan agquilegifolium, confefling he could not
decide concerning the aguilegifolium of Jacquin. We have a
wild Swifs fpecimen of the. latter, Haller’s n. 1141, pre-
cifely anfwering to the plate in F/. Auffrica, and certainly
not differing in any effential chara¢ter from the true plant
of Linneus, fo frequently cultivated for ornament,. and
preferved in his herbarium.

20. T. contortum. Twitted-feeded Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 770. Am. Acad. v. 4.47. Willd. n. 20. Ait.
n. 18.—‘ Fruit pendulous, triangular, contorted. Stem

rather two-edged.’’—Native of Siberia. Linneus thought
it a hybrid offspring of aguilegifolium impregnated by the
minus. His fpecimen is not to be diftinguifhed from the
former, and we cannot but agree with Willdenow’s remark,
that the contortion of the /eeds is merely a fign of imper-
feGtion. Neither can any more folid dependance be had on
the comparative number of the parts of fruétification, on
the white colour of the flowers, or the humbler ftature of
the herbage. We conclude this fuppofed fpecies therefore
to be fcarcely even a variety of the latt.

21. T. petaloideum.. Daurian Meadow-que. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 771. Willd. n. 21. Ait. no 1g. (T. ftamineum ;
Linn. Suppl. 271. )—Leaflets rounded, obtufe ; partly three-
lobed. Stem nearly leaflefs. Panicle fomewhat umbellate.
Stamens much dilated, linear-obovate. Germens feffile.—
Native of Siberia. Mr. Loddiges is faid to have intro-
duced this curious and very diftin@ fpecies to the know-
ledge of our-cultivators, in 1799. It has a perennial root,
with long, fimple, rather flefhy fibres. Stem fimple, about
a foot high, ftriated, purple at the bottom, leaflefs, except
an occafional leaf, accompanying a {mall lateral branch.
Radical leaves two, fpreading, thrice compound, on pur-
plith ftalks; /eajlets very much like Common Rue, but
imaller. Flowers white, large but not numerous, in a fort
of corymb, or imperfe& umbel, accompanied by a few {mall
leaflets. Petals roundifh, deciduous. Stamens very nume-
rous, white, flat, and fingularly dilated, with a mid-rib ;
their anthers yellow, narrow and fhort. Germens ovate,
ribbed, with awl-fhaped recurved ffigmas. Willdenow
makes T. ffamineum a variety, little fuppofing that the very
identical {pecimens, fo minutely and bcodivetely defcribed in
the Species Plantarum, could be again defcribed, without a
reference, in the Supplementum.

We have to exclude JT. japonicum, Thunb. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 2. 337. Willd. n. 22, a fpecimen from Thunberg
himfelf proving it to be no other than Coptis a/plenifolia of
Mr. Salifbury, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 306, a circumftance
as wonderful as that its difcoverer fhould ever have thought
this plant fimilar to a Sa/wia. See Fl. Jap. 364.

T. ranunculinum, Willd, Enum. Hort. Berol. 585. Purth
n- 6, having fimple /eaves, and being not noticed as a Tha-
liéirum by Muhlenberg himfelf, who is quoted for it, is, we
prefume, beft omitted here ; as well as 7. concinnum, Willd.
Enum. 584, which is probably comprehended under fome
of the foregoing fpecies.

Tuaticrrum, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, fibrous-rooted, perennial kinds, among the
number of -which the fpecies moftly cultivated are; the
tuberous-rooted meadow-rue (T’. tuberofum); the Cana-
dian meadow-rue (T.. cornuti); the fetid meadow-rue (T.
foctidum); the narrow-leaved meadow-rue (T. angufti-
folium); the fhining-leaved meadow-rue (T. lucidum) ;
and the columbine-leaved meadow-rue, or feathered colum-
bine (T. aquilegifolium).

_In the fecond fort there is a variety, which is {maller,
with pale purple filaments, than the common kind.

fH Zz

Alfo in the fixth fort there are varieties with a green italk
and-white ftamens, and with a purple ftalk and ftamens.
Betides, there are other forts that may be cultivated for
variety. ;

Method of Culture.—AN\ the forts are readily increafed
by parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn
when the ftems decay, or in the fpring before the new
ones are fet forth, the ftrongeft where they are to remain,
and the weaker ones in nurfery-rows for further growth :
they may alfo be raifed from feeds, which fhould be fown in
a bed or border in the fpring : when the plants rife, they
fhould be kept clean, and be.planted out where they are to
remain, in the following autumn. They are all hardy
durable plants that fucceed and grow well in any common
foil and expofure in the open ground, but which flourifh
moft in moult fhady fituations. ‘They afford variety in the
borders, and other parts of ornamented grounds, when fet
out in a properly varied manner, requiring but little trouble
or attention in fuch fituations.

THALINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the Greater Armenia, upon the banks of the Euphrates.
Ptol. -

THALLABA, Tarasan, a town of Afia, in Mefo-

otamia, upon the banks of the river Chaboras, fituated
E.S.E. of Refzina. »

THALLAND, in Geography. See Datta.

THALLITE, in Mineralogy ; Epidote, Hatiy ; Delphi-
nite, Sauffure ; Shorl vert du Dauphiny, Romé de Lite ;
Acanticene, Dendrada; Piffacit, Werner, Few minerals
have received fo many names as this : it is at prefent better
known by the name of epidote or thallite. It has frequently
been confounded with aétinolite or ftrahlftein, and with
green hornblende. and green afbeftus. Some account of
this mineral is given under PisracirrE. We fhall here add its
diftin@tive characters and conftituent parts. From aétino-
lite it may be diftinguifhed by the colour, the latter being
generally a lighter green. ‘he ftru€ture of the maffive
varieties of aétinolite is generally radiated, that of epidote
compaét or foliated. Both the joints of a¢tinolite are dif-
tinly feen ; but in epidote, frequently one joint only is feen.
Epidote melts into a blackifh fcoria before the blowpipe,
and is harder than aétinolite or hornblende; the latter
has generally a different fhade of green: the fracture of
hornblende is alfo lefs vitreous than that of epidote. Green
afbeftus is foft when pounded; the powder of epidote is
harfh and rough. Thallite or epidote occurs both maffive
and cryftallized. The joints are in two direétions, one’ of
which is more obvious than the other. The alternate angles
are about 1144° and 654°; the crofs fra¢ture is {plintery.
The primitive form of the cryftal is a prifm with rhom-
boidal bafes. ‘The moft common forms are fix or eight-
fided prifms, of which four are larger than the others.
Thefe prifms are terminated by feveral oblique planes,
and are often flatly acuminated: the terminating planes of
the cryftals are {mooth, and have a high natural polifh ;
they are fometimes convex. The lateral planes, or fides of
the cryftals, are ftriated. This mineral is found in beds and
veins, and fometimes as a conftituent part of rocks. It is
affociated with augite, garnet, hornblende, quartz, calca-
reous fpar, and magnetic iron-ftone. ‘The varieties that
occur in veins are of a lighter colour, and the cryitals are
more acicular than thofe which are found in beds. The
veins contain felfpar, axinite, rock-cryftal, chlorite, and
other minerals ; the epidote forming only a {mall part of
the fubftance of the vein. It is found in feveral parts of
the Scotch Hebrides, and in various alpine diftricts, in
fienite, porphyry, and granitic rocks. The finett cryftals

have been procured at Arundel in Norway. ‘The con~
flituent

THA

ftituent parts of this mineral, from different fituations, agree
more nearly than is frequently the cafe with other minerals.

From the Valais. From Oifans. From Arundel.
Silex - - 37:0 37-0 37
Alumine - - 26.6 27.0 21
Lime - - 20.0 14.0 15
Oxyd of iron - 13:0 17-0 24
Oxyd of manganefe 0.6 shy 1.5
Water .- + 1.8 3-5 1.5
Lofs - - Ee ° °

It differs in chemical compofition from hornblende and
aétinolite, by the abfence of magnefia, and by the large
proportion of alumine which it contains.

THALLOPHORI, DarroPopor in Antiquity, the old
mén and women, who, in the proceffion of the fettival pana-
thenea, carried olive-boughs in their hands.

THALLUS, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, 322200,
an olive bud, or a green bough; from $xrrw, to be verdant, to

Shoot forth, or /pread abroad; a term aptly enough chofen

by the diftinguifhed profeffor Acharius, for the frond, or -
foliage, of a Lichen, whether that part be of aleafy, fibrous, .

fcaly, or cruftaceous nature. But this term, however apt,
is fuperfluous, frons, ufed by Linneus, being fynonimous
with it, and fufficient for every requifite purpofe. See
Licuen and Licnenes; alfo Fronp.

THALMANSFELD, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the marggravate of Anipach; 4 miles W. of
Thalmefling.

‘THALMESSING, or. THALMEsSINGEN, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Anfpach ; 31 miles S.E.
of Anfpach. N. lat. 49° 1!. E. long. 11° rol.

THALMIS, or Tacmis, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Egypt, between Taphis and Tutzis. Anton. Itin.

THALPUSA, atown of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia ;
which belonged to the Orchomenians.

THALSEA, or THe sea, a town of Pheenicia, marked
on the route from Remmaris to Neapolis, between Geroda
and Damafeus.

THALUDA, ariver of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana,
the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the coatt of the
Iberian fea, between Jagath and the promontory Oleaftrum.

THALYSIA, Seruciz, in Antiquity, a facrifice offered
by the hufbandmen after harveft. For the origin and cere-
monies of which, fee Potter, Archzol. Gree. tom. i. p. 400.

THAMALAPATHRA. See Forrum Jndicum.

THAMAR, a word ufed by the Arabian phyficians to
exprefs. a date. Hence a pectoral decoGtion, made with
dates and other ingredients, was called diathamyron; and
the word was afterwards corruptly written dicameron.

THAMAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, near
Malis or Malath, which, according to Eufebius, had a
Roman garrifon.

THAMARITA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania

efarienfis.

THAMARO, a town of Paleftine, on the weftern fide
of Jordan. Ptolemy.

THAMASCHALTIS, a town of Africa Propria, on
the route from the Greater Leptis to Tacapa, between
Thramufdifis and Thentei. Anton. Itin.

THAMBES. in Geography, a mountain of Algiers; 30
miles S. of Bona.

THAME. See Team.

THame, or Tame, in Geography, a market-town in a hun-
dred of the fame name, and’ county of Oxford, England, is
fituated on the banks of the river Thames ( whence it derives its
same), at the north-eaftern extremity of the county adjoining
to Buckinghambhire, 13 miles E. from Oxford, and 46 miles

LZHaA
N.W. by W. from London. Dr: Stukeley calls this place

Tamefe, and it is unqueftionable that a Roman military
road went through the town, though it was by degrees ne-
gleéted in the latter times of the empire. Thame was a
place of fome confequence in the tenth century; for we
find that Wulfere, king of Mercia, granted charter “ in the
vill called Thama ;” and in the year 970, Ofketyl, archbifhop
of York, is known to have died here. In ro1o, when the
Danes over-run thefe parts of the kingdom, this town,
among others, fuffered feverelys The Domefday record
deferibes the manor of Thame as a part of the bifhop of Lin-
coln’s extenfive poffeflions in Oxfordfhire. Leland fays,
“¢ about Alexander, bifhop of Lincoln’s time, the town of
Tame, being the king’s, was given for rent, in fee-farm to
the bifhop of Lincoln and his Saree To the patron-
age of the bifhops the town was indebted for numerous ad-
vantages. By them the church was ereéted, the vicarage
and a prebend endowed, and a neighbouring abbey reared:
Through their intereft the fairs and market were granted ;
and Henry Lexington, bifhop in Henry the Third’s reign,
rendered an important fervice, by turning the high road
through the middle of the town. Thame continued depend-
ant on the bifhops till the reign of Edward VI., when the

fee was difmembered of many of its valuable poffeffions. -

Sir John Williams obtained a grant of the eftate, which de-
{cending by marriages to the family of Bertie, it became
vetted: in the earls of Abingdon, the prefent poffeffors.
During the civil wars of the feventeenth century, Thame was
furrounded by garrifons of the contending parties, and
confequently experienced its full fhare of the miferies of that
period. The town confitts principally of one long and fpacious
itreet, gently rifing from the river: The church isa large,
well-built ftructure, of the cruciform defcription, and com-

prifes a nave, two aifles, a north and fouth tranfept, and a-

chancel ; with an embattled tower fupported by four mafly
pillars. The interior exhibits numerous tombs and memo-
rials of families once. important in this neighbourhood.
Near the church are the remains of the prebendal houfe,
which evince confiderable former grandeur, and confift of

nearly three fides of a quadrangle. A fchool, once of great ~

celebrity, was founded here by John, lord Williams: the
houfe is a fpacious building, and the fchool of noble dimen-
fions. Through the whole of the feventeenth century, this
eftablifhment maintained a high charaéter: but has now
fallen into difufe ; though the building is in excellent: pre-
fervation. There is likewife a charity-fchool of an humble
defcription for the education of twenty-five boys. Thame
has a good weekly market on Tuefdays, and two annual
fairs: the market is of ancient date, for we find that the
prior of Rufford was reftrained from holding a market at
Haddenham, te the prejudice of that of Thame. In the
year 1811, the number of houfes was returned as 460; the
population as 2328, of which more than half were paupers
receiving alms from the parifh. By the retarn of the ex-
pences attending the maintenance of the poor in 1811, thofe
of this parifh amounted to 3686/., a fum exceeding the ex-
penditure of any other parifh in the county. The parifh
contains about 4600 acres of land, and is divided into fix
hamlets or liberties, Old Thame, New Thame, Prieft End,
Thame Park, Moreton, and North Wefton: the town com-
prifes the three firft. In Thame park, about a mile from
the town, ftood an abbey of fome importance, eftablifhed by
bifhop Alexander in 1138. At the diffolution, the fociety
confitted of an abbot and fixteen monks ; and the annual
revenue was 256/. 14s. 7d, ‘The abbey, with all its poffef-
fions, was furrendered to the crown by Robert Kyng, the laft
abbot, who, for his ready compliance, was on the ereétion of
the fee of Oxford appointed its firft bifhop. On the {cite of

a part

eH A

2 part of the abbey.the prefent manfion was built by Philip,
the father of the late lord Wenman. Confiderable fragments
of the abbey {till remain, which are protected by the modern
eleyation. The park contains about 220 acres, and is fkirted
with woodland.

Sir John Holt, the celebrated chief juftice of the court of
king’s bench, was born at Thame in 1642, and died in 1709,
(See Hort, Sir Joun. )—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xii. Oxfordfhire; by J. N. Brewer.

THAMES, the name of the moit important river of
Great Britain, is pre-eminently diftinguifhed for its com-
mercial confequence, the fcenery, edifices, and towns on its
banks ; for the bridges which are raifed acrofs its channel ;
for the yaft docks, quays, and warehoufes which are annexed
to it; and for the variety and intereft of the hiftoric occur-
rences which are conneéted or aflociated with its name. Yet,
though fo eminent at the prefent time, it was neglected in
former ages ; and it is fingular to remark, that its fource and
early progrefs haye occafioned much doubt. and ‘difpute.
Some topographers have affigned its origin to a {pot in Ox-
fordfhire, near the town of Thame; while others, with
more regard to probability and record, haye traced its
fource to a {pring near Cricklade, in Wiltfhire. In that dif-
triG three or four ftreams emerge from the earth, and each
of thefe has been honoured with the appellation of Thames-
head: but at prefent it is very generally admitted, that this
name ftriély belongs to a fine f{pring, which rifes in the
parifh of Kemble, in Wiltfhire, about five miles N.W. of
Cricklade, and two anda half miles S.W. of the town of
Cirencefter. Some writers {tate that the fpring-head is in the
parifh of Cotes, anid county of Gloucefter. As a proof that
this ftream was defignated as the Thames, or Tems, at an
early period, we may refer to a Saxon charter of Malmfbury
Abbey, wherein it is named “ Temis,”? as the boundary of
certain lands. Again, fome of the old Monkifh hiftorians
itate that the Danes croffed the Thames at Cricklade in the
early part of the tenth century.

It has been erroneoufly faid, that the name of this river
is the Zfs till it arrives at Dorchefter, and receives the
waters of the Thame, where it attained the compound name
of Thamefis. Some old Oxford poets have given currency
and celebrity to this ftory. Pope, in his ‘‘ Windfor Foreit,”’
{peaking of the union of various {treams with this river,
thus fings: :

‘s Firft the famed authors of its ancient name,

The winding Ifis, and the fruitful Thame ;

The Kennet fwift, for filver eels renowned ;
The Loddon flow, for verdant alders crowned ;
Cole, whofe dark ftreams his flowery iflands lave,
And chalky Wey, that rolls a milky wave.”

Denham, the poetical encomiaft of “‘ Cooper’s Hill,’
thus charatterifes the Thames.
“ My eye defcending from the hill, furveys
Where Thames among the wanton vallies ftrays. »
Thames the moft loved of all the Ocean’s fons
By his old fire to his embraces runs;
Batting to pay his tribute to the fea,
Like mortal life to meet eternity.”

The nature of the prefent work will not allow of a particu-
lar defcription of the'courfe of this river, with brief accounts
of all the prominent objeéts on its banks. It mutt fuflice to
fpecify the names of the towns, chief feats, and prominent
features; and refer to the former, under their refpective
names in the Cyclopedia, for further information, and to fuch
books wherein the beft accounts are to be obtained. One
charaCteriftic of this river is entitled to notice ; and’ which

DH &

fhews, that at the original formation of fhires, and fubdivifien
of lands in England, the Thames was at that time a noted
and confiderable ftream. From the town of Cricklade, to its
junction with the fea at Sheernefs, this river is a boundary,
or natural line of feparation, to counties. Soon after its
fource, it divides the counties of Wilts and Gloucefter ;
next, thofe of Oxford and Berks, and Buckingham and
Berks; afterwards Middlefex and Surrey; and, laftly,
Kent and Effex. The Thames is alfo a navigable river
nearly the whole of its courfe, and thus affords an eafy
and cheap paflage for heavy goods from the ocean, and the
port of London, to the interior parts of the ifland. By
means of a canal, extending from the town of Lechlade, in
a north-welterly direction, to the river Severn, the latter
great weftern river and the Briftol Channel are joined by a
navigable courfe to the Englifh Channel. See Canar,
THame, and SreveRN.

As nearly the whole courfe of the Thames is through a
plain or level country, we find its current is confequently flow
and irriguous : forfifteen or twenty miles it is only a narrow
and {mall ftream, but after receiving the waters of feyeral
rivulets, it afflumes a river-like appearance at Lechlade,
and is capable of fuftaining barges of 100 tons burthen.
From that town (about 138 miles by water from London
to Sheernefs, it is {tri€tly a navigable river. In its courfe
to the fea, the following rivers, befides feveral fmaller
ftreams, pour their waters into the Thames: the Wainruth,
Eyenlode, Cherwell at Oxford, Thame, Kennet, Loddon,
Coln, Wey, Mole, Brent, Lea, Roding, Dart, and Medway.

The following cities, towns, and large villages are feated
on the banks of this river: viz. the cities of Oxford, Lon-
don, and Weitminfter ; the towns of -Cricklade, Lechlade,
Abingdon, Wallingford, Henley, Great Marlow, Maiden-
head, Windfor, Staines, Kingfton, Richmond, Brentford,
Greenwich, Woolwich, and Gravefend;~ the villages of
Pangbourn, Wargrave, Eton, Datchet, Old Windfor,
Shepperton, Walton, Sunbury, Moulfey, Hampton and
Hampton-Court, Twickenham, Ifleworth, Barnes, Chif-
wick, Fulham, Putney, Hammerfmith, Chelfea, Black-
wall, &c. The banks of this river are alfo ornamented
with the palaces of Windfor, Hampton-Court, Kew, Ful-
ham, and Lambeth: likewife the. following diitinguifhed
feats of Englifh nobility and gentry, befides feveral fmaller
villas, &c.; Nuneham-Courtney, Bafildon Houfe, Combe
Lodge, Purley, Park Place, Fawley Court, Culham Court,
Temple Houfe, Harleyford Houfe, Bifham Abbey, ‘Tap-
low, Cliefden, Cookham, The Willows, Beaumont Lodge,
Oatlands, Garrick’s Villa and Pope’s Villa at T'wicken-
ham, Strawberry Hill, Thames-Ditton, Marble-Hill Cot-
tage, the duke of Buccleugh’s, lord vifcount Sidmouth’s,
and Mr. Keen’s at Richmond, Keppel Houfe, Sion Houle,
Brandenburgh Houfe, and Ingrefs. Among the numerous
bridges which crofs this national river, the’ following are
juftly noted either for their beauty or extent. The firit
ftone bridge on its courfe is at Enfham, and the next at
Lechlade ; Oxford, Abingdon, Shillingford, Wallingford, Ca-
verfham, Henley, Maidenhead, Eton, Staines, Walton, King-
fton, Richmond, Kew, Fulham, Batterfea, Vauxhall, (finifhed
1816,) Weftminfter, the Waterloo and Southwark (now
erecting from defigns by that fcientific enigneer, John
Rennie, efq.), Blackfriars, and London. The laft fix may
be faid to belong to the metropolis. The jurifdiction of the
lord mayor of London over the river Thames, extends from
Coln-Ditch, near Stains, to Yendal or Yenlech, near Sheer-
nefs, and alfo includes parts of the rivers Lea and Medway.
A very interefting aceount.of the fcenery and various ob-
jeGts on this river, with numerous beautiful en ny

THz
W. B. Cooke, and George Cooke, is publifhed in a work

in 2 vols. entitled “ The Thames, or Graphic Iluftrations
of Seats, Villas, &c. on the Banks of that noble River.”
See alfo an account of the “ Police of the River Thames,””
by P. Colquhoun, efq. a magiftrate of London ; 8vo. 1800;
and Skrine’s ** Account of Rivers of Note in Great Bri-
tain,” 8vo. 1801. S. Ireland publifhed “ Piéturefque
Views on the River Thames,” 2 vols. imp. 8vo. Boydell
alfo publifhed a work in 2 vols. folio, confifting of hittory
and defcription by Dr. Combe, and views from drawings
by Farringdon.

Under the word Canat will be found an ample account
of the commerce and navigation of this river, divided under
the heads of Tuames River (/ower part); THAmEs
River (middle part); Tuames and Ists NaviGarion ;
Tuames and Mepway Cana; and THAmes and SE-
vern CANAL.

Tuames, ariver of New Zealand. Capt. Cook, Mr. (now
fir Jofeph) Banks, and Dr. Solander, failed up this river ina
pinnace ; at about fourteen miles from the entrance, it is as
wide as the Thames at Greenwich, and the tide at flood is as
ftrong ; it is not quite fo deep, but has water enough for veffels
of more than a middle fize, anda bottom of mud fo foft, that
nothing could take damage by running afhore. The courfe is
from fouth to north, and the entrance between Cape Colville
and Point Rodney.—Alfo, a river of Upper Canada, which
runs into lake St. Clair, N. lat. 42°45’. W. long. 82° 10o’—
Alfo, a river of Conneéticut, which runs into the fea, 4 miles
below New London.

THAMESIS, called Jamifa by Ptolemy, in Ancient
Geography, a river of the ifle of Albion. See THAmeEs.

AMETHIS, a town of Egypt. See DAMIETTA.

THAMMUZ, in Mythology, is a name under which the
Pheenicians worfhipped Adonis or Ofiris.

Tuammuz, in Chronology, a name given by the Jews to
the tenth month of the civil year, containing twenty-nine
days, and anfwering to our June.

THAMNA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town of
Paleftine, on the road from Diofpolis to Jerufalem. It was
the capital of the Thamnitic toparchy.

THAMNATH-SAAR, atown of Paleftine, in Samaria,
in the tribe and upon the mount of Ephraim, N. of mount
Gaas. This town was built by Jofhua, and his tomb was
there in the time of Jerome.

THAMNERIA, a town of Afia, in Media, in the
neighbourhood of the country belonging to the Caduiii.
Xenophon.

THAMNIUM, in Botany, bauyor, a little forubbery, from
Sapve, a forub, a name chofen by Ventenat, in his Tableau du
Regne Vegetal, v. 2. 35, for the fhrubby kinds of Lichen, of
which he makes a genus. Its character is

Stems branched in the form of a fhrub. ‘Tubercles fun-
gous, coloured.

Lichen rangiferinus, and L. Roccella, are mentioned as fpe-
cies of this genus, which is now, like the reft of the author’s
labours in this department, difregarded, the whole tribe
having been fo much better ftudied and arranged by Acha-
rius. See LicHENeEs,

THAMNOCHORTUS, fo called by Bergius, from
Pauvas,a forub, and xop)«, agra, alluding to the hard fhrubby
habit, and natural affinity, of the plant. Berg. Cap. 353.
t. 5. f. 8, This genus is now funk in Resto Me that
article) ; andthe particular f{pecies is R. /cariofus of Thunb.
Prodr, 15, and Willd. Sp. Pl. y. 4. 723, though thofe au-
thors have ufed Thamnochortus as the f{pecific name of another
plant, immediately preceding this in Willdenow, who enu-
merates thirty {pecies of Retin

THA

THAMSBRUCK, or Tuoomassruck, in Geography, a
town of Saxony, in Thuringia; 8 miles S.E. of Mulhaufen.
N. lat. 51° 5’. E. long. 16° 42!.

THAMUNDACANA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia, in Interior Libya, S. of the river Niger. Ptol.

THAMYRIS, a town of Meefia, near the Danube. It
was built, according to Jornandes, by Thamyris, queen of
the Getz.

Tuamyris, in Mythology, called by Homer KiGxpisns, one
who plays on the cithara, was the fon of Philammon. (See
his article.) Plutarch, in his Dialogue on Mufic, tells us
that Thamyris was born in Thrace, the country of Orpheus,
and had the fweeteft and moft fonorous voice of any bard
of his time. Homer, in his catalogue of fhips, where ‘he
fpeaks of the cities under the dominion of Neftor, mentions
Dorion as the place where Thamyris contended with the
Mufes, whom he had the arrogance to challenge to a trial of
fkill in poetry and mufic. The conditions and confequences
of this contention are fully defcribed by the poet.

«« And Dorion, fam’d for Thamyris’ difgrace,
Superior once of all the tuneful race,
Till, vain of mortals empty praife, he ftrove
To match the feed of cloud-compelling Jove !
Too daring bard! whofe untfuccefsful pride
Th’ immortal Mufes in their art defy’d :
Th’ avenging Mufes of the light of day
Depriv’d his eyes, and fnatch’d his voice away ;
No more his heay’nly voice was heard to fing,
His hand no more awak’d the filver ftring.”?

Iliad, book if.

Homer availed himfelf of the popular ftory concerning the
blindnefs of Thamyris, and embellifhed it by his verfification.
Probably the whole allegory of this blindnefs had its rife
from his having injured the ezan of fight by too intenfe an
application to the ftudy of mufic and poetry. And it is the
opinion of Paufanias, that there was no other difference be-
tween his misfortune and that of Homer, than that Thamyris
was wholly filenced by it, and Homer, without being dif-
couraged, continued his poetical and mufical occupation long
after his blindnefs.

THAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-
zerat ; 55 miles N.N.E. of Junagur. :

THANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on this fide of Jordan.

THANE, or Tuary, Thanus, the name of an ancient
dignity among the Englifh, or Anglo-Saxons.

Skene makes thane to have been a dignity equal with that
of the fon of an earl : Camden will have it, that thanes were
only dignified by the offices which they bore.

T’here were two kinds or orders of thanes; the éing’s
thanes, and the ordinary thanes. The firft were thofe who
attended our Englifh-Saxon kings in their courts, and whe
held lands immediately of the king : whence, in Domefday-
book, they are peamileaally called thani, and fervientes regis,

Soon shen the Conqueft this name was difufed ; and inftead
of it, they were called the king’s 4arons, barones regis.

Their origin is referred to king Canutus, who, taking the
chief of the Danifh nobility, to the number of three thoufand,
for his guard, and arming them with battle-axes and fabres
with gilt handles, called them thing lith, from the two Danifh
words theing or thein, body of nobility, and ith, order of battle.

The ordinary thanes, or thani minores, were the lords of
manors, who had particular jurifdiction within their limits,
and over their own tenants.

Thefe changed their name for that of barons ; and hence
their courts are called courts baron to this day.

In old authors, charters, &c, we alfo meet with thane as

fignifying

fH A

fignifying a nobleman ; though fometimes only a freeman,
and fometimes a magiftrate. :

Tuane Lands, were lands granted by charter of the Saxon
kings to their thanes.

THANET, Je of, in Geography, is a tract of land on
the fouthern coaft of the county of Kent, England, confift-
ing of about 27,000 acres, and is feparated from the remain-
ing part of the county by the narrow channel of the river
Stour, and the fmaller itream called the Nethergong. The
marfhes which border thefe ftreams are extenfive, and afford
rich pafturage for cattle, but the higher grounds are prin-
cipally appropriated to the growth of corn. The ifle is in
fhape a long oval, being about nine miles in length from
eaft to weft, and nearly five miles broad from north to fouth.
Solinus, who is quoted by Camden, calls it Athanatos, and
in fome copies Thanatos, which probably gave origin to the
6axon appellation Tenet, or Tanetlond; though Lewis de-
rives this from Tene, a fire or beacon ; and he fuppofes the
We to have been fo named on account of the beacons or fires
which were kept here to give notice of Danifh or other
pirates, to whofe ravages it was greatly expofed. Thanet is
bounded on the north and eaft fides by the ocean ; a circum-
ftance which, connected with the falubrity of its air, and its
convenient diftance from the metropolis, has led to the efta-
blifhment of feveral watering-places ; and thefe, in the fum-
mer and autumnal feafons, occafion a continual influx of
vifitants, whofe expenditure adds greatly to the wealth of
the fixed inhabitants. The chalk cliffs which furround the
coait abound in foffils ; and among them, the cornua am-
monis has been found, meafuring «pwards of three feet in
diameter. The whole of Thanet is divided into the two
capital manors of Minfter and Monkton, by St. Mildred’s
Lynch, a narrow ftrip of land, left unploughed, and extend-
ing quite acrofs the ifle, from Weftgate by Woodchurch, to
Sheriff’s Hope near Monkton. The ifle anciently contained
eleven parifhes ; but thofe of Sarre and All Saints have been
united to St. Nicholas, and that of Woodchurch to Bir-
chington. The parifhes of Minfter, Monkton, and Stonar,
with parts of thofe St. Nicholas and St. Lawrence, are under
the jurifdiction of two conttables ; the other parifhes, namely
St. John’s, including the town of Margate; Birchington,
with Gore’s End, St. Peter’s, and Wood or Woodchurch,
the ville of Ramfgate, and the ville of Sarre, with the remain-
der of St. Nicholas and St. Lawrence, are all members of,
and fubje€ to the controul of the ports of Dover and Sand-
wich. The population return of the year 1811 itated the
inhabitants of the ifle to be 16,156; the number of houfes
3209. (See Marcare, Ramscarte, and REcuLvEeR.)—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol.xii. Kent; by
E. W. Brayley.

THANN, or Dann, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine ; 13 miles N.N.E. of Befort.

THAnn. See TANNA.

THANNHAUSEN, or TannuHAusEeN, a town of
Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and principal place of a
lordfhip of the fame name, on the river Mindel; 14 miles
N. of Mindelheim.

THANNOURIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Ofrhoene ; and another in Mefopotamia.

THANTIA, a town of Paleftine, in Batanaa, eaft-
ward towards the mountains, S.E. of Adraa,

THANWALD, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Breflau; 13 miles N.W. of Breflau.

THAOUAOUIS. See Tavavis.

THAPAUA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the interior of Arabia Felix. tol.

Vor. XXXV.

TH A

THAPSA, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Ephraim.

THAPSACUS, or Amputroris, a large and flourifhing
town of Afia, in Syria, on the banks of the Euphrates.
When Alexander, after leaving Egypt, came to Thapfacus,
he found here two bridges over the Euphrates, Kenophon
tells us that Cyrus fojourned here five days ; and that it was
here that he informed the Greeks of his intention to march
to Babylon. The foldiers mutinied, but were afterwards
appeaied by his promifes. Thapfaeus is now a village, called
« El-Der.” The channel of the river is here about half a
mile in breadth, and would appear to have been fordable from
the earlieft times to the prefent day. It was paffed on foot
by Cyrus and his whole army, and, as fome fay, by that of
Alexander the Great.

THAPSIA, in Botany, a name adopted from the ancient
Greeks, whofe $a)sx, if not precifely a fpecies of our pre-
fent genus, was certainly, like it, a large umbelliferous
plant, yielding a gummy exudation, and bearing yellow
flowers, fucceeded by broad feeds. Such ts the defcription
given by Diofcorides, who moreover adds, that his fa}t,
o named from the ifland of Thapfos, where it grew, was in
every refpeé like Ferula, but with a more flender ftem, and
leaves nearly akin to fennel. The root was large; white
within, black on the outfide, witha thick acrid bark. He
attributes various virtues to its gum or juice, either taken as
a purge, in oppreffions of the cheft ; or applied externally,
along with honey, wax, or frankincenfe, for cutaneous com-
plaints, tumours, &c.— Linn. Gen. 144. Schreb. 193.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1464. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 2. 156. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
v.1. 201. Juff. 220. Tourn. t.171- Lamarck Illufts.
t. 206. Gertn. t. 21.—Clafs and order, Pentandria
Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Umbellifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. General Umbel large, with about twenty rays,
of nearly equal length; partial of as many, nearly equal,
rays. \ Jnvolucrum none, neither general nor partial. Perianth
fearcely difcernible. Cor. Univerfal uniform; all the
flowers fertile; partial of five lanceolate incurved petals.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary, the length of the corolla 5
anthers fimple. Pi/?. Germen inferior, oblong ; ftyles two,
fhort ; ftigmas obtufe. eric. Fruit oblong, encompafled
longitudinally with a membranous border, feparable into
two parts. Seeds two, very large, oblong, convex, pointed
at each end, encompaffed at each fide with a large, flat,
entire-edged border, which is emarginate at each extremity.

Eff. Ch. Involucrum neither general nor partial. Fruit
oblong, encompaffed with a membranous border. Petals
uniform, lanceolate, inflexed. Flowers all fertile.

1. Th. villefa. Villous Deadly Carrot. Linn. Sp. Ph
375. Willd. n. 1. Ait.n.1. (Th. prima; Cluf, Hitt.
v. 2. 192. * Th. latifolia Clufii; Ger. Em. 1030.)—
Leaflets toothed, villous; confluent at the bafe.—Native of
ftony ground, in Spain, Portugal, and the fouth of France.
Dr. Sibthorp found it in the fields of Patmos and Cyprus,
and Dr. Brouffonet at Algiers. The root is perennial,
tap-fhaped, faid to be of an extremely feetid, acrid, and
naufeous quality, which has given rife to the Englifh name.
Gerarde applies to this fpecies what Diofcorides fays of
T. garganica, that exhalations from the root or plant exul-
cerate the fkin. The fem is three or four feet high, ere&,
round, {mooth, leafy, branched at the top. Leaves large
and f{preading, twice or thrice pinnate; their leaflets feffile,
obtufe, pinnatifid, notched, confluent at the bafe, in the
manner of a fern; hairy on both fides ; whitifh and downy
at the back. Unmbels feveral, ftalked, terminal, large,
fmooth, naked. Flowers yellow, rather {mall. Fruit about
half an inch long, and a quarter broad, with four ribs at

3L each

THA

each fide, and a thin, brown, membranous double wing at

each margin. ,

2. Th. fetida. Stinking. Deadly Carrot. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 375. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (Th. vulgaris; Ger.
Em. 1031. Th. vulgaris, carote effigie; Lob. Ic. 780.
Morif. fe&. 9. t. 18. f. 7.) —Leaflets many-cleft, acute ;
contraGted at the bafe.—Native of Spain, as well as of
Zante and Cyprus. Gerarde had this plant in his garden,
and it is ftill, like the foregoing, to be feen in curious
botanical colleétions, though not very commonly. It differs
from the villofa in having more finely, acutely, and deeply
divided Leaflets, which are wedge-fhaped, not dilated at the
bafe. The fize of the whole plant is {maller, and the /lem

more branched. ‘

3. Th. Afclepium. Fine-leaved Deadly Carrot. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 375. Willd. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 286,
unpubl. (Th. apula, foliis millefolii; Morif. fect. 9. t. 18.
f. 9. Panax Afclepium Diofcoridis et aliorum, gummi-
ferum; Column. Ecphr. p. 1. 87. t. 86.)—Leaves digitate ;
leaflets doubly pinnate, in many briftle-fhaped fegments.—
Native of the fouth of Italy, and of the Levant ; unknown
in our gardens. Dr. Sibthorp met with this plant in
Greece, Rhodes, and near Conftantinople. The root 1s
tapering, perennial, brown, gummy, crowned with briftly
fibres. Stem folitary, ere&t, a yard high, flightly branched,
round, {fmooth, the thicknefs of a goofe-quill, almoft defti-
tute of foliage, except about the bottom. Leaves on long
ftalks, of five principal unequal leaflets, radiating from the
bafe, which are doubly, or almoft triply, pinnate, their {mall
leaflets being divided very deeply into fine acute fegments,
one-eighth of an inch long, fmooth, and of a bright green.
Flowers yellow, in fpreading long-ftalked umbels. Petals
dilated at the bafe, fo as to be, from the inflexion of the
point, almoft heart-fhaped. Seeds with broad, linear, obtufe
wings.

Pa T’. garganica. Garganian, or rather Greek, Deadly-
Carrot. Linn. Mant. 57. Willd. n.4. Ait. n. 3. Gouan.
Illuftr. 18. t. 10. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 287, unpubl.

Th. thali€tri folio; Magn. Monfp. 287. t. 286. Th. five

urbith garganicum, femine latiffimo; Bauh. Hitt. v. 3.
p- 2. 50.)— Leaves radiato-pinnate ; leaflets deeply pinna-
tifid, with linear decurrent fegments. _ Native of Barbary,
the fouth of Italy, and the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp finding
it very common throughout Greece, and the neighbouring
iflands, juftly concluded this fpecies to be the true alia
of Dicivorides, with whofe defcription it agrees better than
any of the reft. It is a ftately perennial plant, whofe
feeds were probably obtained from the garden of Mont-
pellier, by our Britifh cultivators, towards the year 1680.
The firm round leafy /lem, as well as the fheathing bafes
of the foot/lalks, and the ripening feeds, are tinged with a
fine glaucous purple. Leaves large, deep green; {mooth
above; glaucous, and fometimes hairy, below; their feg-
ments near an inch long, linear, entire. Common footftalks
long, round, fometimes very hairy. Umbels very large, yel-
low. Petals lanceolate, involute. Fruit an inch long, with
broad, fhining, brown wings ; its fides finely ribbed.

For Th. trifoliata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 376, fee Smyrnrum
n. 6, cordatum.

Th. polygama, Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 261. t. 75. Mart.
Mill. Diét. n.6, found on the fea-coaft of Barbary, .can-
not belong to this genus, having a general, as well as
partial, involucrum, and abortive central flowers. It
fhould feem to be a Laserprtium. See that article.

THAPSIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Scythia,
in the environs of the Palus Mzotides, according to Dio-
dorus Siculus.

£ Ha

THAPSOS, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a
name given to a kind of wood of a pale yellow colour, ufed
of old in dyeing of linen and woollen cloths. “The Greek
Thapfos fignifies a pale dead yellow colour, and is appli-
cable either to the fubftance, or the juice or tinéture of
all thefe.

The people of Crete at this time ufe the lycium-wood in
dyeing a yellow colour, and it is probable that the shap/os
was this very tree. Diofcorides tells us, that the wood
of this tree was alfo ufed in his time to tinge the hair
yellow, which was a favourite colour with the Greeks.
The lycium is of a colour fomewhat deeper than our
box-wood, and parts with its ftain fo eafily, that it feems
very proper for fuch a purpofe.

THAPSUM, among the old Roman Writers, a common
name. for the verbafcum, or mullein; but as there were
many other plants, very different in their nature, yet
whofe names refembled this ; fuch as the thapfia, or deadly
carrot, and the thapfum or geniftella tin@oria; it was foon
found neceffary to add fome other name, and it was fhen
called hapfum barbatum, or barbaffum. ;

The reafon of the geniftella being called thap/um, was,
that its flowers were yellow, and were ufed to colour the
ladies’ hair; that being the favourite colour of thofe days.
The flowers of mullein are yellow, and feem more fit for
the colouring of the hair than thofe of the geniftella ;
their colour being more eafily feparated, and continuin
on fo well, that the glovers of many parts of England “e
them in the feafon for colouring their yellow gloves.

It is probable, that the ladies of old a this, as well
as the geniftella, for this purpofe: and it might hence ob-
tain the common name thap/um. The other part of. its
diftinétion, barbatum, feems owing to the leaves being fo
coloured with a woolly down that they look bearded.
And when this word is written darbafum, it may proba-
bly be given as the name of fome of thofe fpecies of
mullein which are not hairy, as our black or fage-leaved
mullein, and be a corruption of the word verba/cum.
This black mullein has no lefs title than the white or
bearded kind to the name thap/um ; its flowers being of
a yet finer yellow than thofe of that kind, and being as
fit for the ufe of ftaining. The glovers in fome places ufe
this {pecies for their leather-gloves.

THAPSUS, Demass, in Ancient Geography, a maritime
town of Africa, upon a tongue of low land, S. of the
Leffer Leptis. The place abounds with ruins.

Tuapsus, or Tap/us,-in Botany, fee VeRBascum. This
name feems to have originated with Gerarde, who gives no
explanation, nor do we find any authority for the opinion
of De Theis, that it alludes to the ifle of Thapfos, as the
native country of the plant. Such indeed is the acknow-
ledged derivation of Tuapsta, fee that article ; with which
this Verbafcum, a Qdouo; of the Greeks, has no relationfhip
whatever.

THAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix,
belonging to the people called "Phemi.

THARAND, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, and circle of Erzgeburg ;
10 miles E.N.E. of Freyburg.

THARE, in Ancient Geography, a place of the en-
campment of the Ifraelites, whence they went to Methea.
(Numb. xxxiii. 27.) Thare, fituated in Arabia Deferta,
was the 24th ftation of the Ifraelites.

THARELA, a town of Palettine, in the tribe of Ben-
amin. :

THARGELIA, SeepysAtcy in Antiquity, an Athenian
feftival in honour of the fun, and his attendants, the
12 Hours :

rH A

Hours: or, aS others think, of the Delian Apollo aad
Diana. For an account of the ceremonies of this folem-

nity, fee Potter Archzol, Gree. lib. ii. cap. 20. tom. i.
- 400. feq.

THA RGELION, Seepyerswr, in Chronology, the eleventh
month of the Athenian year. It contained thirty days, and
anf{wered to the latter part of our April, and the beginning
of May.

Tek its name from the feftival Thargelia, kept in it.

THARNAU, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Neifle ; 1 mile N. of Grotkau.

THARO, in Ancient Geography, an ifland, fituated, ac-
cording to Ptolemy, in the Perfian gulf.

THARPA, a town of India, beyond the Ganges, in
the Golden Cherfonefus. Ptolemy.

THARRANA, a town of India, beyond the Ganges,
on the coaft of the Great gulf. Prtol.

THARSIA, a town of Africa propria, or one of thofe
which Ptolemy points out between Bagradas and the town
of Thabraca. ;

THARSIS, Tuarsuisn, or Tarfhifh. See Opuir.

THASO, in Geography, an ifland of the Grecian Ar-

'; chipelago, fituated in the gulf of Contefa, anciently called

ria, or Ethria, being famous, even to a proverb, for its
rich gold-mines. It has a town or village of the fame
name. N. lat. 40° 34/. E. long. 42° 30!.

THASSUS, Tuassos, or Thafus, in Ancient Geography,
an ifland fituated on the coaft of Thrace, oppofite to the
mouth of the river Neftus. Thafus, fon of Agenor, king of
the Phcenicians, is faid to have remained many years in this
ifland, to have peopled it, and to have given it his name.
Tt was afterwards increafed by a Greek colony. The Athe-
nians made themfelves matters of this ifland, and treated the
inhabitants with great rigour; but they were expelled by
the Macedonians, and thefe again by the Romans.

THATCH, in Rural Economy, prepared ftraw which
is intended to be laid on the top of a building, rick, &c.
to keep out the wet. There are many different forts of
materials that may be made ufe of as thatch, but thofe
which are moft commonly employed are the ftraw of dif-
ferent forts of grain, as wheat, rye, &c. reed, ftubble,
heather, &c. The ftraw of wheat and rye, when well pre-
pared and laid, probably forms the neateft and moft fecure
covering for general purpofes. It has indeed been ftated,
that the moft fuitable material for the purpofe is that of
good wheat-ftraw that has been much bruifed in threfhing
out the grain. But when this cannot be had in fufficient
quantity, rye-ftraw may be fubftituted in its place ; how-
ever, from its rough and itubborn quality, it is neither fo
neat in its appearance, fo durable, nor affords fo fecure a
covering. And that barley and oat ftraw are fometimes
made afe of for the purpofe, but they form very indifferent
coverings, and fuch as are not by any means lafting. The
former, when ftrong, is however preferable to the latter.

The reed is a highly valuable article for the purpofe of
thatch, where a lafting roof is required ; but is much too
expenfive and ftubborn for common purpofes. It has been
remarked by Mr. Marfhall, in the Rural Economy of Nor-
folk, that there, the favourite material for roofs, and that
which is the moft eligible after good flate for farm purpofes,
is reed. And that a reed roof properly laid, will lie fifty
years without touching; and thirty or forty more, with
only adjufting (arting) it, and levelling the hollows with
a little frefh reed. At an hundred years old it may be
relaid ; and will then, if laid upon the upper parts of the
roof, laft through a confiderable part of another century.
‘The reed is, he fays, principally cut from the margins of

THA

the broads, (large pieces of water, )
pee or fifty Na into the central
ie county. nd it is added, that though a cover}

reed is, in the firft inftance, coltly ; shied its araiee
and the high degree of prefervation in which it keeps the
roof, are taken into the account, it is of all other the
cheapett covering ; befides its being, whether in the extreme
of heat or cold, the moft comfortable.

_ And it is ftated, that the price of reed, in the place of
its growth, Is from three pounds to three guineas a hun-
dred, containing fix fcore fathoms ; each fathom (com-
pofed of five or fix fheaves) meafuring fix feet in circum-
ference. A hundred of reed will cover five {quares of roof :
the laying is a halfpenny a yard, or four fhillings and two-
pence a {quare ; and the tar rope and rods for fattening
it on coft eighteen pence a fquare: fo that a covering of
new reed cofts about eighteen thillings a fquare, containing
100 {quare feet ; befides carriage, and what is called roofing $
namely, a cap of wheat-ftraw placed upon the ridge, in a
fomewhat fimilar manner, and for the fame purpofe, as
ridge-tiles are put on. This capping, which is done in a
mott effectual, but in a tedious and expenfive manner,
cofts, in materials and workmanfhip, about fixteen pence
each foot in length : which, upon a roof of fixteen feet
and a half {par, is an additional expence of four fhillings
each fquare of reeding.

With regard to the carriage, it is in proportion to the
diftance. Taking twenty miles as a medium diftance, and
one fhilling a mile as a medium price ; the expence is, he
fays, twenty fhillings a ¢ load’ of fixty fathoms, or forty
fhillings a hundred ; which laying five fquares is a further
addition of eight fhillings a fquare: therefore, the whole
expence of a covering of reed fetched twenty miles, may,
he fuppofes, be laid at thirty fhillings a fquare. The wri-
ter has been thus minute, he fays, in his account of this
material, as it has been much overlooked in other diftriéts,
where it may be found ufeful.

This material is a great deal more expenfive in every
re{peét which has any relation to this objet, at the prefent
time, than it was then. ‘

P And with refpe& to the ftubble, it is faid to be a mates
rial that may be made ufe of with propriety and advantage
in fome fituations. This is the ftubble of fuch wheat or
other crops as have been cut at a great height ; which, after
being mown clofe to the ground and raked up, ferves this
purpofe, efpecially for the more common purpofes of the
farm, fuch as covering hay and ftraw ftacks, &c. the
thatching potatoes when hogged in the ground, znd many
other fuch cafes.

The laft material, heather, is alfo found a highly valuable
article for'the purpofe of thatch in diftrits where it grows
in abundance, as it is extremely durable. See Hearuer.

The thatch which is removed from the ftacks or buildings
may be ufed as a litter for various purpofes.

The modes of preparing and applying thefe different

matters to the roofs of ftacks and buildings will be pointed
out in {peaking of the-operation of fecuring fuch roofs by
means of fuch fubftances. See THATCHING.
_ Where ftraw of the rye or wheat kind is very ftrong, it
is often termed reed or ftraw reed by the thatcher, and ufed
soe covering large hay-ftacks very commonly in many dif-
tricts.

THATCHAM, in Geography, a village and parifh in
the hundred of Reading and county of Berks, England, is
fituated 3 miles E. from Newbury, and 53 miles W. from
London. It appears to have been formerly a town of fome
confequence, from the Domefday Survey, and other re-

3L2 ebrds,

and is earried, perhaps»
and northern parts of

THs

cords, in which it is deferibed as an ancient borough ; but it
does not appear ever to have fent reprefentatives to parliament.
From a very early period it had a market on Sundays,
which was confirmed to the abbot and convent of Reading
by a charter of Henry II. The market-day was changed
by Henry III. in 1218 to Thurfday ; but the market has
long been difcontinued. Two annual fairs are ftill held.
The manor of Thatcham was given to the abbot and con-
vent of Reading by Henry I. At the diffolution it was
granted, in 1539, to John Winchcombe, fon of the cele-
brated Jack of Newbury: it is now the property of Wil-
liam Mount, efq. of Wafing. A charity-fchool was
founded here, in 1707, by lady Frances Winchcombe, who
endowed it with 53/. per annum. The fchool had been
long difcontinued, and its revenue loft to the parith ; when
Mr. Thompfon, a late vicar, inftituted a fuit for their reco-
very, and after a long conteft fucceeded in the re-eftablifh-
ment of the fchool, with an income for the matter increafed
to 200/. per annum; forty boys are now clothed and educated,
and fix of them annually apprenticed with premiums of ro/.
each. The parifh of Thatcham is the moft extenfive of any
in the county, excepting Lamborn, and includes fix town-
fhips. ‘The population, according to the parliamentary re-
port of the year 1811, was eftimated at 2104; the number
of houfes at 424.— Lyfons’s “* Magna Britannia,” vol.i.
Berkfhire.

THATCHER, a rock ia the Englifh Channel, on the
north fide of Torbay.

Tuarcuer, in Rural Economy, a perfon who performs
the bufinefs of thatching.

THATCHING, the operation of covering the roofs of
buildings, ftacks, and other things, with fome ee of thatch.
For this purpofe, articles of the ftraw kind are pre-
pared in the following manner: After being well moiftened
with water, they are drawn out in handfuls perfectly ftraight
and even into regular lengths, and the fhort ftraw feparated
from them, leaving them placed in convenient ranges for
forming bundles to be carried to the thatcher by the perfon
who has the ferving of him.

In regard to the application of the thatch to ftacks
of hay or corn, there are different methods purfued, ac-
cording to the nature of the materials employed. Where
long ftraw is made ufe of, the operator or workman ufually
begins at the eaves or bottom part of the roof, depofiting
it in handfuls in regular breadths till he reaches the top,
the different handfuls being fo placed endways as to overlap
each other, the upper ends being conftantly pufhed a little
into the bottom parts of the fheaves or other matters. In
this manner he gradually proceeds, breadth after breadth,
till the whole of the roof is covered, which is ufually done to
the thicknefs of about four or five inches. And in order to
retain the thatch in its place, fhort fharp-pointed fticks, termed
prods in fome places, are occafionally thrutt in, in a flanting
direction upwards; and fometimes fall fticks, often called
Jpelks, Sharpened at the ends, are bent and thruit in along
the top parts and fides. But as the water is apt to follow
the courfe of the fticks, it is perhaps.a better practice to
make ufe of ropes of twifted ftraw for this purpofe. In
fome cafes, thefe are applied only round the bottom parts of
the roof and the fides; while in others, which is a much
better and more fecure method, they are applied in fuch a
manner over the whole ftacks, as to form a fort of coarfe
net-work of nine or twelye inches in width in the
niches, the ends being well faftened either to belt-ropes
paffed in fuitable directions for the.purpofe, or to different
parts of the ftraw of the ftack.

In the application of flubble as a thatch, it is moftly,

7

THA

after being prepared, put on by fticking one of its ends into
the roof of the ttack in a regular and exa& manner, fo as
that it may ftand out very clofe and thick; when the
other, with fuch loofe ftraws as may occur, is to be cut
over or pared off, with a very fharp tool for the pur-
pofe, fo as to form a neat and impenetrable thatch, having
the appearance of a newly thatched houfe roof; the whole
being well fecured in its place by fhort pegs made for the
purpofe, fomewhat in the fame way as in the thatch of
other ftacks.

In the thatching of the roofs of houfes or other buildings
with any of the different forts of {traw, the materials are to
be laid on to a confiderable thicknefs, and firmly fecured.
They are applied in regular narrow flips, or what in fome
diftri&ts are termed gangs, from the eaves of the building to
the ridges, the ladder being moved forward as the work pro-
ceeds. he thatch is fecured by fhort fharpened fticks, as
above, thruft in where neceflary. And bended fticks,
fharpened at each end, are likewife fometimes made ufe of
near the ridges, being thruft in at each end. In finifhing
the work, the thatcher moftly employs an iron-toothed rake,
with which the whole is raked and trimmed over from top to
bottom, fo as to render it completely {mooth and even, and
take away all the fhort ftraws, and other irregular matters.

The method of thatching with reed, according to Mr,
Marfhall, in his account of the Rural Economy of Norfolk,
is this : no laths being made ufe of, in laying it, a little of the
longeft and ftouteft of the reed is {eattered irregularly acrofs
the naked {pars, as a foundation to lay the main coat upon :
this partial gauze-like covering is called the ‘ fleaking.’?
On this fleaking the main covering is laid, and faftened down
to the fpars by means of long rods, provincially ‘ fways,’?
laid acrofs the middle of the reed, and tied to the fpars with
rope-yarn, or with ‘ bramble bonds,” formerly much uled,
but now pretty nearly laid afide. In laying on the reed, the
workman begins at the lower corner of the roof, on his right
hand, for inftance, and keeps an irregular diagonal line, or
face, until he reaches the upper corner to his left, a narrow
eaves-board being nailed acrofs the feet of the fpars, and
fome fleaking fcattered on; the thatcher begins to “fet his
eaves,” by laying a coat of reed, eight or ten inches thick,
with the heads refting upon the fleaking, and the butts upon
the eaves-board. He then lays on his /zay (a rod about
the fize of a {mall edder) about fix or eight inches from the
lower point of the reed ; whilft his affiftant, on the infide,
runs a needle, threaded with rope-yarn, clofe to the fpar ;
and, in this cafe, clofe to the upper edge of the eaves-board.
The thatcher draws it through on one fide of the fway, and
enters it again on the contrary fide, both of the fway and of
the {par : the affiftant draws it through, unthreads it, and
with the two ends of the yarn makes a knot round the {par ;
thereby drawing the fway, and confequently the reed, tight
down to the roof : whillt the thatcher above, beating the
{way and preffing it down, aflifts in making the a the
firmer. "Che afliftant having made good the knot below, he
proceeds with another length of thread to the next fpar,
and fo on, till the fway be bound down the whole length ;
namely, eight or ten feet. This being done, another ftratum
of reed is laid on upon the firft, fo as to make the entire
coat eighteen or twenty inches thick at the butts; and an-
other fway laid along, and bound down, about twelve inches
above the firtt.

The eaves being thus completely fet, they are adjufted and
formed, not fquare with the fpars, but nearly horizontal :
nor are they formed by cutting, but by ‘ driving’? them
with a “legget,”’ a tool made of a board eight or nine inches
fquare, with a handle two feet long, fixed upon the back of

it,

THA

it, obliquely, in the manner of the tool ufed by gardeners in
beating turf. The face of the legget is fet with large-
headed nails, to render it rough, and make it lay hold of the
butts of the reeds. ‘Then another layer of reed is laid on,
and bound down by another fway, fomewhat fhorter than
the laft, and placed eighteen or twenty inches above it ; and
above this another, and another, continuing to fhorten the
fways, until they be brought off to nothing, and a triangular
corner of thatching formed. After this the {ways are ufed
their whole length, whatever it happens to be, until the
workman arrives at the finifhing corner.

In order to give a finifh to the ridge, a cap (provincially a
* roof’’) of ftraw is fet on in a matterly, but in an expentive
manner. In this operation, the workman begins, it is ob-
ferved, by bringing the roof to an angle, with ftraw laid the
long way upon the ridge, in the manner in which a rick is
topt up; and to render it firm, to keep it in its place, and to
prevent the wind from blowing it off, or ruffling it, he pegs it
down flightly with ‘ double broaches ;”’ namely, cleft twigs,
two feet long, and as thick as the finger, fharpened at both
ends, bent double, and perhaps with the twifting of the
crown, and perhaps barbed, by partial chops on the fides, to
make them hold in the better. This done, the workman
lays a coat of ftraight ftraw, fix or eight inches thick, acrofs
the ridge ; beginning, on either fide, at the uppermoft butts
of the reed, and finifhing with-ftraight handfuls evenly acrofs
the top of the ridge. Having laid a length of about four
feet in this manner, he proceeds to faften it firmly down, fo
as to render it proof againft wind and rain. This is done by
laying a“ broachen ligger”’ (a quarter-cleft rod as thick as
the finger, and four feet in length) along the middle of the
ridge, pegging it down at every four inches with a double
broach, which is firft thruft down with the hands, and after-
wards driven with the legget, or with a mallet ufed for this
purpofe. The middle ligger being firmly laid, the thatcher
fmooths down the ftraw with a rake and his hands, about
eight or nine inches on one fide, and at fix inches from the
firft lays another ligger, and pegs it down with a fimilar
number of double broaches, thus proceeding to fmooth the
ftraw, and to faften on liggers at every fix inches, until he
reach the bottom of the cap. One fide finifhed, the other
is treated in the fame manner ; and the firft length being
completed, another and another length is laid, and finifhed
as the firft, until the other end of the ridge be reached. He
then cuts off the tails of the ftraw {quare and neatly with a
pair of fhears, level with the uppermoft butts of the reed ;
above which the cap (or moft properly the ee fhews an
eaves of about fix inches thick. And laftly, he {weeps the
fides of the main roof with a bow of holly, when the work
is completed. his, when well performed, muft be-a
durable and ufeful mode of thatching, and at the fame time
one which has a neat appearance.

In thatching with heather, that material moftly under-
goes fome fort of preparation, fo as to render it as equal as
poffible in fize and ftrength, being laid and faftened upon the
roofs then in fomewhat the fame manner as that of ftraw.
It is afterwards {wept, cleaned, and finifhed off in a neat and
exa& manner, fo as to look extremely well.

In fome of the more expofed fituations in the northern
parts of the ifland, they have other modes and practices of
thatching buildings with itraw in ufe, fuch as performing
it with clay, or thin turf and that material.

If the roof be covered with thin turf or divots, the work-
man is to twift the upper part of the ftraw into a fort of
knot ; then, with a ftick prepared for the purpofe, to force
the knot thus formed either under or through the turves or
divots, fo that it may have a firm hold of the roof ; after

oH A

which, to fpread the lower part of the bundle of {traw nicely
on the roof, continuing to do the fame to the very top
of the roof ; and then to clay it all over, and begin an-
other tier, gang, or row of the thatch. In this way, the
thatch fhould not be laid thinner than fix inches, and when
it is laid eight inches thick, it is the more durable. Thin
turf, or divots, were originally thought the beft foundation ;
but it has been fince found by experience, that they rot the
{traw, and that {traw alone, when {titched on with rope-yarn,
lafts much longer. If ftraw alone be ufed in this manner, it
willlaft twenty years; but the ftraw mutt be laid on two inches
thicker than when clay is added. A roof that is thatched
with divots, ftraw, and clay, in the common way, will laft
from feventeen to twenty years ; and is alfo capable of being
mended without raifing any part of the roof that is entire.
The above kind of roof is much lefs liable to catch fire than
{traw roofs without clay. ‘Fhe clay that anfwers the pur-
pofe beft is that which has a due proportion of fand in it.
If {tiff clay fhould be ufed, it will be neceffary to add one
cart-load of fand to every two of the clay.

This fort of claying may, of courfe, be ufeful and advan-
tageous in thatching the roofs of buildings in many fitua-
tions and places.

THAU, in Geography, a lake of France, in the depart-
ment of the Herault, near the Mediterranean, between
Frontignan and Agde.

THAUANA, in Ancient Geography, a town fitwated in
the interior of Arabia Felix.

THAUBA, a town in the interior of Arabia Felix.
Ptol.

THAUGHTS, or Tuoucuts, in a Boas, are the
benches on which the rowers fit to row.

THAUMASIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a
mountain of Arcadia, N.W. of Mantinea, above the river
Moloffus.

THAUMATURGUS, formed from Sxuu«, wonderful
thing, and «py, work, worker of miracles; an appellation
which the Romanifts gave to feveral of their faints, eminent
for the number and greatnefs of their miracles.

St. Gregory, called Thaumaturgus, or Gregory of Neo-
cefarea, was a difciple of Origen about the year 223, and
afterwards bifhop of Czfarea, in Pontus; and in that ca-
pacity he affifted at the firft council of Antioch, and at that
of Ephefus, againft Paulus Samofatenus. St. Leo of Ca-
tanea is alfo called Leo Thaumaturgus. He lived in the eighth
century ; and his body is ftill honoured at Rome, in the
church of St. Martin de Tours. St. Francis Paul, and
St. Francis Xavier, are the great Thaumaturgi of thefe lait
ages.

THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former fluid
ftate, by the warmth of the air.

THAXTED, in Geography, an ancient market-town in
the hundred of Dunmow, and county of Effex, England,
is fituated 19 miles N.N.W. from Chelmsford; and 43 miles
N.N.E. from London. The town was known in the Saxon
times, as the church is recorded to have belonged, in the
reign of Edward the Confeffor, to the college of St. John
Baptift, at Clare, in Suffolk. Thaxted was incorporated
by charter of Philip and Mary, which was confirmed by
queen Elizabeth ; under this the civil government is vetted
in a mayor, recorder, two bailiffs, and twenty principal
burgeffes. In the reign of James II. the corporation ex-
perienced a temporary fufpenfion ; for being ferved with a
writ of quo warranto, the corporate officers, either through
fear or poverty, thought fit ‘to retire from their offices.
The market was granted by Edward II., but was difcon-

tinued for a long period: it has been recently revived, and
is

THE

is now held on Fridays. Here are alfo two annual fairs. In
the population return of the year 1811, Thaxted was ftated
to.contain 390 houfes, occupied by 1733 perfons. The
church is a very large and beautiful ftruéture, and appears,
from the various arms and cognizances on feyeral parts, to
have been built at different times in the fourteenth and fif-
teenth centuries. The whole fabric is embattled, and fup-
ported by ftrong buttreflés, terminated by canopied niches,
and curioufly purfled pinnacles. At the weft end is an em-
battled tower, fuftained by buttreffes, and furmounted by a
neat otagonal {pire, rifing to the height of 181 feet. The
interior confilts of a nave, tranfept, chancel, and fide aifles :
the arches of the nave are pointed, and fupported by eight
cluftered columns on each fide. ‘The expence of the erec-
tion of this church was principally defrayed by the noble fa-
milies of Clare and Mortimer, who then pofleffed the manor,
with fome afliftance from king Edward [V. A chantry,
befides various chapels and altars, were ufed here before the
reformation. The charitable benefaétions for the ufe of the
poor inhabitants of Thaxted are confiderable. An eftate,
called Yendleys, deriving its name from ‘Thomas Yendale
(who refided on it temp. Henry VI.) was, on his death,
vefted in truft for his four fons and their iffue; and in de-
fault of fuch iffue, to be fold for the benefit of the church
and poor. The fons all dying childlefs, the eftate was fold
5 Henry VII. and the produce is applied to the fupport of
a {chool, repairing the church, improving the highways,
&c. In 1698, William, lord Maynard, bequeathed 4ooo/. in
truft, the produce to be applied for increafing the minifter’s
falary, repairing the church, marrying poor young women,
binding out apprentices, and relieving poor people overbur-
thened with children. Among other benefactions are en-
dowments for alms-houfes in feveral parts of the town: one
of the buildings appropriated for that purpofe is the old
chantry-houfe. The ancient guildhall is now the parifh
workhoufe: the mote-hall is ufed for a public fchool.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Effex ; by J. Brit-
ton and E, W. Brayley. Morant’s Hiftory, &c. of Effex,
2 vols. folio. ,

THEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Peloponnefus,
in Laconia.

Tue, in Botany, the Tea-tree, a name of barbarous de-
rivation, originating in the Chinefe Tcha, or Japanefe Tsya,
of which the various nations of Europe have made, accord-
ing to their fancy, Chaa, Tea, Thé, &c. and which Kampfer
has formed in Latin into Thea. This laft has been admitted
by Lirinzus, for the fake of its Greek orthography, exactly
that of ex, a godde/s, a coincidence highly welcome to thole
who honour the cordial beverage of tea as it deferves.—
Linn. Gen. 269. Schreb. 361. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1180.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 303.
Jufl. 262. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 474. Gertn. t. 95.—Clafs
and order, Polyandria Monogynia, Linn. Rather Monadel-
phia Polyandria ; {ee Sm. Introd. to Bot. ed. 3. 335. Nat.
Ord. Columnifera, Linn. Aurantiis et Meliis affine, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, fmall, of one leaf, in five
deep, rounded, obtufe, permanent fegments. Cor. of one
petal; tube none; limb in fix, or more, deep, unequal,
rounded, concaye, imbricated fegments, much longer than
the calyx; the outer ones fmalleit. Stam. Filaments nu-
merous, about two hundred, thread-fhaped, fhorter than the
corolla, united at the bafe into a fhallow cup-like tube, inferted
into the receptacle, and conneéted with the bottom of the
petal; anthers peltate, fimple, nearly globofe. Pi/?. Ger-
men fuperior, globofe, with three obtufe angles ; ftyle tri-
angular, with three furrows, the length of the ftamens,
fplitting into three parts ; ftigmas three, linear-oblong, de-

TE

flexed. Peric. Capfule three-lobed, three-celled, buritiag
along the upper fide of each lobe. Steds folitary, globofe,
fomewhat angular.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep rounded fegments.
in fix, or more, deep imbricated fegments.
rior, three-lobed. Seeds folitary.

Obf. Gertner remarks that there are rudiments of four or
fix feeds in each cell of the germen. The genus is, doubt-
lefs, nearly relatedto CAMELLIA, (fee that article, ) and fhould
ftand next to it in the artificial, as well as natural fyftem.
Whether the conneétion of the ftamens varies, or whether we
have fometimes in our gardens Thunberg’s C. Safangua for
the true Tea-plant, is extremely difficult to determine.
The flowers in England are certainly never fo large as in his
plate of Sa/angua, which latter may poffibly be a fpecies of
Thea, though very diftiné from the Linnean fpecimens
marked JT. Bohea, and from all we have ever examined in
gardens. Plukenet’s Fruticis Thee fpecies altera Sinarum,
Amalth. t. 405. f. 3, may belong to this Sa/angua. The
{pecies of Thea are involved in much obfcurity, L.innzus
was led to deferibe two, under the popular names of Bohea
and viridis, which he diftinguifhed by the former having fix
petals, or rather fegments of the corolla, and the latter nine.
But for thefe charaéters he is indebted to Hill, whofe autho-
rity is little to be relied on. We have never feen perfeé& {pe-
cimens of more than one fpecies, which anfwers to the defi-
nition of the Bohea, with fcarcely any variation ; nor do the
leaves of common green or black tea, when expanded by hot
water, betray any difference in their ferratures, veins, or
other refpeéts, from that or from each other. The Pehoe,
whofe filky young branches are con{picuous in the tea-cheft
for their whitenefs, agrees in that particular with our gar-
den {pecimens of Thea, and not with Camellia Safanqua ae
by Thunberg, for this laft is hairy in a very different manner.
Such being the ftate of the cafe, we can undertake to deferibe
only one (pecs of Thea.

1. T. viridis. Green Tea. Gaertn. v. 2. 83.t. 95. f. 1.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 735. Willd. n. 2. (T. bohea; Linn. Sp. Pl.
734. Ameen. Acad. v. 7. 253.t. 4. Willd.n.1. Ait.n. 1,
Thea; Kempf. Am. Exot. 605. t. 606. Woody. Med.
Bot. fuppl. 116. t. 256. ‘T. chinenfis ; Curt. Mag. t. 998.
T. cantonienfis; Lour. Cochinch. 339. Thée; Barth.
A&.v. 4. 1. t. 1. Tea-tree; Letfom Monogr. t. Hie
Native of Chinaand Japan. The late Mr. John Ellis is faid
to have firft raifed it from feed in England, about the year
1768. The fhrub is propagated by cuttings, and will bear
our winters with a flight degree of fhelter, though it rarely
flowers, except in a greenhoufe or ftove. The din is from
three to fix feet high, bufhy, with numerous, alternate, round,
leafy branches, {mooth, except at the very extremity, where
the youngeft fhoots are finely filky, with clofe-prefled hairs.
Leaves alternate, on fhort, thick, channelled, fmooth foot-

Jlalks, evergreen, elliptic-oblong, with a blunt emarginate
point, copioufly ferrated, except at the bafe, with i pe
pointed ferratures, fmooth on both fides, with one rib and
many tranfverfe veins, interbranching towards the margin ;
paler beneath; their length two or three inches; their
breadth about one inch; the young ones finely filky before
expanfion, with a deciduous point. Stipulas none. Flowers
axillary, or, on the lateral fhoots, nearly terminal, white, not
unlike thofe of a Myrtle, but rather larger, and on fhort,
thick, recurved, round, {mooth /a/ks, ufually two together,
accompanied by a few alternate, fhort, ovate, deciduous
braGeas. The two outer fegments of the corolla, {maller than
the reft, are green, or purplifh, at the back. Anthers and

Jftigmas yellow.

For the economical hiftory of this plant, fee Tra.

Corolla
Capfule fupe-

We
have

THEA.

have been greatly at a lofs for a fpecific name, and have
adopted viridis to avoid any needlefs change, thinking it
rather preferable to Bohea, which is a partial name, and of
corrupt orthography. Dr. Sims, in Curt. Mag., has ufed
chinenfis, but this is liable to objeGtion, as the name of a
country to which the plant is not quite peculiar ; and Lou-
reiro’s cantonien/is is therefore {till more exceptionable. This
laft author concurs in the opinion'that all the common Chi-
nefe teas belong to one fpecies. He defcribes indeed two
others, T. cochinchinenfis, which feems a trifling variety of the
above ; and T. oleofa, growing wild near Canton, faid to
bear a yellow Jerry, whofe feeds fupply the Chinefe with
lamp-oil.

Tues, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the exotic fhrubby
kind, the fpecies of which chiefly in ufe is the tea-tree
(thea).

ee tree, as it is commonly defcribed, differs in height,
in its native climate, from five or fix feet to thirty, and even
one hundred and fifty, or more, when let grow to its full
fize and dimenfions.

And in ref{pe& to the varieties of it, Martyn has confidered
them all as forming one fpecies, in which he is, he aflerts,
fupported by the beft authorities. Kmpfer; he contends,
attributes their difference to foil, culture, age of the leaves,
and method of curing them. Mr. Ellis alfo direétly afferts,
that the green and bohea tea are one and the fame fpecies ;
and that it is the nature of the foil, the culture, and manner
of gathering and drying the leaves, that make the difference.
So alfo fir George Staunton maintains, that every informa-
tion received concerning the tea plant concurred in affirming,
that its qualities depended upon the foil in which it grew,
and the age at which the leaves were plucked off the tree,
as well as upon the management of them afterwards. See
‘Tea and Tura.

The bohea tea-trees now introduced into many botanic
gardens near London, exhibit very obvious varieties: the
leaves are of a deeper green colour, and not fo deeply fer-
rated ; and the ftalk is ufually of a darker colour: but the
botanical. characters are the fame. Thunberg alfo diftin-
guifhes two varieties from the leaves, which in one are {maller,
Hat, darker green, with ftraight ferratures, and in the other
larger, waved, brighter green, with finuate ferratures: but
they can fearcely be confidered asidiftiné {pecies. Loureiro
obferved little difference in the fou-chong which he exa-
mined : both thefe have a brown colour, but are more odo-
riferous and precious than the common bohea of the pro-
vince Fo-kien, which he had not an opportunity of feein
in a living ftate, though it is the moft common and None
of all. He examined the dry flowers of the green-tea from
the province of Kiang-fi, and obferved the fame incon-
ftancy as to the number of parts in the calyx and corolla,
as inthe bohea. Upon the whole, he concludes that all the
differences of Chinefe tea form only one botanical {pecies,
owing their variation to foil, culture, and method of prepa-
ration; all retaining the fame inconftancy in the parts of
the flower, which gave occafion to Linneus to confider
them as two fpecies. Befides, it is evident that many varie-
ties of tea are known in China, which arife from mixture
and management.

The diftinétions chiefly regarded in Europe are the fol-
lowing.

Green Teas.—1. Bing, imperial or bloom tea, with a large
nee leaf, of a light green colour, and a faint delicate

mell.

2, Hy-tiann, hikiong, hayffuen or heechun, known to
us by the name of hyfon tea: the leaves are clofely curled

and {mall, of a green colour verging towards blue. Another
hyfon tea, with narrow fhort leaves, is called hyfon-utchia.
phe is alfo a green tea named globe, with long narrow
eaves.

3. Song-lo or finglo, which name it receives, like feveral
others, from the place where it is cultivated.

Bohea Teas.—1. Soo-chuen, fut-chong, fou-chong, or
fu-chong, called by the Chinefe faa-tyang, and fact-chaon
or fy-tyann, is a fuperior kind of cong-fou tea. It imparts a
yellowifh-green colour by infufion, and has its name from a
place or province in China. Padre futchong has a finer taite
and f{mell : the leaves are large and yellowifh, not rolled up,
and packed in papers of half a poundeach. It is generally
conveyed by caravans into Ruffia: without much care
it will be injured at fea. It is rarely to be met with in
England.

2. Cam-ho or foum-lo, called after the name of the place
where it is gathered : a fragrant tea with a violet {mell ; its
infufion is pale.

. Cong-fou, congo, or bong-fo: this has a larger leaf
than the following, and the infufion is a little deeper
coloured. It refembles the common bohea in the colour of
the leaf.

There is alfo a fort called lin-kifam, with narrow rough
leaves. It is feldom ufed alone, but mixed with other kinds.
By adding it to congo, the Chinefe fometimes make a kind
of pekoe tea.

4. Pekao, pecko, or pekoe, by the Chinefe called back-
ho or pack-ho : it is known by having the appearance of
{mall white flowers intermixed with it.

5. Common bohea or black tea, called moji or mo-ee
by the Chinefe, confifts of leaves of one colour. The belt
is named Tao-kyonn. An inferior kind is called An-kai,
from a place of that name. In the diftna@ of Honam, near
Canton, the tea is very coarfe, the leaves yellow or brownifh,
and the tafte the leaft agreeable of any. By the Chinefe it
is named honam-te, or kuli-te.

But befides thefe, tea, both bohea and green, is fometimes
imported in balls, from two ounces to the fize of a nutmeg
and of peas. The Chinefe call it poncul-tcha. The {malleit
in this form is well known under the name of gunpowder
tea.
And fometimes the fucculent leaves are twifted like pack-
thread, an inch and a half, or two inches long ; three of
thefe are ufually tied together at the ends by different co-
loured filk threads. Both green and bohea teas are pre-
pared in this manner.

The manner of gathering and preparing the leaves, as
praétifed in Japan, according to Kempfer, as far as our in-
formation reaches, is in a great meafure conformable to the
method ufed by the Chinefe. See Tra.

Whethet the Chinefe colleé the tea precifely at the fame
feafons as in Japan, we are not well informed ; but moit pro-
bably the tea harveft is nearly at the fame periods, the na-
tives having frequent intercourfe, and their commercial con-
cerns with each other being very extenfive.

For an account of the preparation of the tea-leaves, &c.
fee Tra.

The country people cure their tea-leaves in earthen kettles,
which anfwer every neceflary purpofe, at lefs trouble and
expence than by the procefs defcribed under the article Tra,
and they are thus enabled to fell them cheaper. After the
tea has been kept for fome months, it is taken out of the
veflels in which it was ftored, and dried again over a yery
gentle fire, that it may be deprived of any humidity which
remained, or it might have fince contracted, ae

THE

The common tea is kept in earthen pots with narrow
mouths ; but the beft forts, ufed by the emperor and nobi-
lity, is put into porcelain or china veffels. The coarfeft tea
is kept by the country people in ftraw bafkets, made in the
fhape of barrels, which they place under the roofs of
their houfes, near the hole that lets out the fmoke.

Method of Culture—Thefe plants may be raifed in this
country by feeds, layers, and cuttings of the young branches.
The editor of Miller’s Ditionary advifes that the feeds
fhould be procured from China, and that care fhould be
taken that they be frefh, found, ripe, white, plump, and
moift internally. After being well dried in the fun, they
may be inclofed in bees-wax, or, left in their cap-
fules, they may be put into very clofe canifters of tin or
tutenague. Thouin, in his directions to Peroufe, it is faid,
recommends thefe and other feeds to be placed in alternate
layers of earth or fand, in tin boxes, dtoked up exaétly, and
placed in folid cafes, covered with waxed cloth ; the boxes
to be placed in a part of the fhip the leaft acceflible to
moifture, and the moft fheltered from extreme heat or
cold. And Mr. Sneyd, it is added, was very fuccefsful
in having feeds packed up in abforbent paper, and fur-
rounded by raifins or moift fugar, which kept them in
a ftate fit for vegetation. American feeds are frequently
brought over, by putting them into a box, not made too clofe,
upon alternate layers of mofs, in fuch a manner as to admit
the feeds to vegetate. This might be tried with the feeds
of the tea-tree ; and to fucceed more certainly, fome of the feeds
might be fown in pots or boxes, when the veffel arrives at
St. Helena, and after paffing the tropic of Cancer, near the
latitude of thirty degrees north. But the beft method
feems to be, to fow ripe feeds in good light earth in boxes,
at leaving Canton, covering them with wire, to prevent rats
and other vermin from getting to them; and taking care
that the boxes be not expofed to too much air, nor to the
{pray of the fea. A little frefh or rain-water fhould be
fprinkled over them now and then; and when the feedling
plants appear, they fhould be kept moift and out of the
burning fun, If young plants can be procured in China,
they may be fent over in a growing ftate in boxes, forty
inches long by twenty broad, and as much in depth, haying
a few holes bored through the bottom. When the trees ar-
rive here, they muft be Fept in a greenhoufe during the win-
ter, and in the open air during the fummer ; and if they
come in bad condition, it may not be amifs to plunge the
pots into which they are tranfplanted in a gentle hot-bed, or
to fet them in a tan-pit, to make them firike and fhoot more
freely. It is further remarked, that though the tea-tree
will not at prefent bear the rigour of our winters in the
open air, yet it is not impoffible but it may gradually be-
come naturalized to our climate, like the magnolia, among
feveral other trees and fhrubs ; efpecially fit were to be
brought from the coldeft provinces of China, where it
grows, or from the parts of Europe a little to the fouth-
ward of us, when it has been naturalized there. It is in-
creafed freely from cuttings, when managed in the fame
manner as gardenias: and it alfo fometimes grows from
layers laid down in the autumn or f{pring.

Some of thefe plants fhould be always kept in pots, to be
removed under the fhelter either of a greenhoufe, glafs cafe,
or deep garden frame, in winter ; and others be planted in
a dry, well-fheltered, warm, confpicuous part of the fhrub-
para to be afforded occafional covering from rigorous

olts.

They afford variety in greenhoule colleétions, as well as
in the fhrubberies, ‘

AT wel ¢E

Although in this country, plants of this kind are only cul-
tivated for the purpofe of curiofity, variety, and diverfity
among greenhoufe and other colle¢tions, in {mali quantities ;
in China, where they are natives, they are raifed in vaft abun-
dance in plantations of very great extent for their leaves,
which form a great and valuable article of merchandize to
that country for the fupply of England and moft other parts
of Europe, they being employed, in their different prepared
ftates, for the making of an infufion with boiling water,
which is called tea, and which is very generally in oie, efpe-
cially in this and fome other countries. For other particu-
lars, fee Tra.

THEAK, in Rural Economy, a word provincially ufed
to fignify thatch.

THEAKIKY, in Geography, a river of North America,
which runs into lake Ilinois, N. lat. 40° 52'. W. long.
89° 15!.

"THIEAME, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Babylonia, on the confines of Arabia Deferta. tol.

THEANDRIC, Sead pixoc, dei-virile; a term lignify-
ing divine and human, formed from ©:0;, God, and asnp,
man.

St. Dionyfius, bifhop of Athens, firft ufed the word
theandric, to exprefs a double operation, or two operations
united in Jefus Chrift; the one divine, the other human.
The Monophyfites afterwards abufed it, to fignify the one
only operation which they admitted in Jefus Chrift ; in whom
they believed there was a mixture of the divine and human
nature, whence refulted a third nature, which was a com-
pound of the one and the other, whofe operations followed
the effence and qualities of the mixture, and were neither
divine nor human, both at once, or, in one word, theandric.

@ravderxn EVERY Ey theandric, or dei-virile operation, in the
fenfe of Dionyfius and Damafcenus, is thus exemplified by
Athanafius. When Chrift healed the perfon who was born
blind, the f{pittle he voided was human, but the opening of
the eyes was done by his divine power. And thus, in raif-
ing Lazarus, he called as man, but awaked him from the
dead as God.

The term theandric, and the dogma of theandric opera-
tions, were examined with great care and attention, at the
council of Lateran, held in 649, where pope Martin folidly
refuted the notion of theandric operations, and fhewed, that
the fenfe in which St. Dionyfius firft ufed the word was Ca-
tholic, and quite remote from that of the Monophyfites and
Monothelites.

THEANGELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria.

THEANO, or Treano, in Geography, a town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, and province of Lavora; the
fee of a bitho , fuffragan of Capua; 15 miles N. of Capua,

THEANTHROPOS, ©:a$:wxes, formed from Ococy
God, and «s$ewroc, man, denominated God-man ; a term fome-
times ufed in the fchools to fignify Jefus Chrift, who was
regarded as God-man; or reprefented by fome feholaftic
theological writers, as comprehending two natures in one

erfon.
E THEANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Campania, upon the Latin way, S.E. of Cafinum, See
Tueano.—Alfo, a river of Italy.

THEATER, or Tueatre, Theatrum, formed from
States, Spectacle, Of Sscopasy IT fee, ee 2 the Ancients, a
public edifice, for the exhibition of fcenic {peétacles or fhows
to the people.

Under the word theater was comprehended, not only the
eminenee on which the a¢tors appeared, and the aétion

pafled, |

THE

pailed, but alfo the whole area or extent of the place, com-
mon to the aétors and {pectators.

In this fenfe, the theater was a building encompafled with

orticoes, and furnifhed with feats of itone, difpofed in
emicircles, afcending gradually over one another; which
encompafied a {pace called the orche/ra, in the front of
which wes the profcenium, or pulpitum, on which the aétors
performed, and-which is what we diftin¢tly call the theater,
or flage. The profcenium was divided into two parts; the
one higher, on which the a€tors declaimed, and the other
lower, on which the chorus was commonly placed. This
latter was raifed ten or twelve feet above the pit, from
which there was an afcent to it; and thus fituated, the chorus
might eafily turn either towards the actors or towards the
{peckators.

On the profcenium ftood the fcena, a large front, adorned
with orders of architeéture, behind which was the poft-
feenium, or places where the aGtors made themfelves ready,
retired, &c. So that the fcena, in its fuil extent, compre-
hended all the part belonging to the actors. In the firtt
ages of the Roman commonwealth, theaters were only tem-
porary, and formed of. wood: the moit celebrated of thefe
was that of M. Scaurus, mentioned by Pliny. The firft
fixed theater was erefted by Pompey the Great, who built
it very magnificently with {quare ftone.

In the Greek theaters, the orcheftra made a part of the
fcena, but in the Roman theaters, none of the actors ever
defcended into the orcheftra; which was taken up by the
feats of the fenators.

The moft celebrated theaters remaining of antiquity, are
the theater of Marcellus, and that of Pompey ;, which are
alfo called amphitheaters.

At Athens are ftill feen the remains of the temple of
Bacchus, which was the firft theater in the world, and was
a mafter-piece in architeCture. All theaters were confecrated
to Venus and Bacchus. ;

THeatTer, among the Moderns, more peculiarly denotes

the ftage, or place on which the drama, or play, is exhi-
bited; anfwering to the profcenium of the ancients.
In its full latitude, however, the theater includes the
whole play-houfe; in which fenfe it is a {pacious room, or
hall, part of which is taken up by the {cena,. which compre-
hends the ftage, the decorations, and the machines; and the
reft is diftributed into a f{pace, called the pit, or parterre,
which is covered with feats, boxes, &c. and terminated with
an elevation of one or two galleries, difpoied into benches
afcending over one another. See Dramatic Scenery, Puay-
Hloufe, and ScCENOGRAPHY.

THeater is alfo ufed in Archite@ure, chiefly among the
Italians, for an affemblage of feveral buildings, which, by
a happy difpofition and elevation, reprefents an agreeable
{cene to the eye.

Such are moft of the vineyards at Rome; but particu-
larly that of Monte Dragone, at Frefcati; and in France,
the new caftle of St. Germain en Laye.

THEATER, Anatomical, in a {chool of Medicine and Sur-
gery, is a hall, with feveral rows of feats, difpofed in the
circumference of an amphitheater, having a table, bearing
on a pivot, in the middle, for the diffe€tion of bodies.

Such is the anatomical theater of the royal garden at
Paris.

The Theater at Oxford is a beautiful building, ereGted
by archbifhop Sheldon, for the ufe of fcholaftic exercifes.
See Oxrorp.

THEATINES, an order of nuns, under the direGtion
of the Theatins.

There are two kinds of Theatines, under the title of

Vor. XXXV.

Tt 2 E

‘ Sifters of the Immaculate Conception,’”? who form two
different congregations, the one engaged by folemn vows,
and the other only by fimple vows. ‘Their common foundrefs
was Urfula Benincafa. ‘Thofe who make the fimple vows
are the moft ancient, and are called abfolutely ‘ Theatines
of the Congregation:” they had their rife at Naples in
1583.

The others are called “ Theatines of the Hermitage :””
the whole bufinefs of thefe is praying in retirement, and an
auftere folitude, to which they engage themfelves by folemn
vows.

The Theatines of the firft congregation take care of the
temporal concerns of thefe laft. Their houfes ftand toge-
ther, and communicate by a large hall. Their foundrefs
drew up their conftitutions, and laid the foundation of their
houfe at Naples; but died before it was finifhed.

Gregory XV. who confirmed the new inftitute under the
rule of St. Auguftine, appointed that they fhould be under
the dire€tion of the Theatins. Urban VIII. revoked this
article by a brief in 1624, and fubje&ted them to the nuncio
of Naples: but Clement IX. annulled this brief, and fub-
mitted them anew to the Theatins by a brief in 1668.

THEATINS; a religious order of regular priefts: thus
called from their firft fuperior Don John Pietro Caraffa, arch-
bifhop of Chieti, in the kingdom of Naples, which was an-
ciently called Theate. :

The fame archbifhop became afterwards pope, by the
name of Paul IV. after having been a companion of Gaetan,
or Cajetan, a Venetian gentleman, the firft founder of this
order, at Rome, in 1524.

The Theatins were the firft who affumed the title of regu-
lar clerks. They have not only no lands, or fixed revenues,
either in common, or in propriety ; but they do not even
afk or beg any thing; but wait for what Providence fhall
fend them for their fubfiftence.

They employ themfelves much in foreign miffions; and
in 1627, they entered upon Mingrelia, where they have an
eflablifhment : they have had the like in Tartary, Circaffia,
and Georgia; but this they have fince abandoned.

Their firft congregation appeared at Rome in 1524, and
was confirmed in the fame year by Clement VII. Their
conititutions were drawn up at a general chapter in 1604,
and approved by Clement VIII. They wear the pmieft’s
habit. f %
THEATRE. See Tueater and AmPnituearer.

THEATRIC Banpacss, a term ufed by Hippocrates,
to exprefs the parade of furgery in applying bandages for
fhow, when there was no real ufe in them. All fuch ban-
dages he called theatric, only proper to be looked at.

THEAUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
the interior of the Tarragonentfis. j

THEAVE, a term applied in fome diftriéts to an ewe
of the firft year. It is fometimes written ¢have, and alfo
thief in different diftri&ts.

THEBA&, or THeses, in Ancient Geography, a confi-
derable, and in fome refpeéts the principal, town of Beeotia,
fituated towards the middle of the country, near the river
Ifmené, S.E. of the lake Copais. This town owed its
origin to Cadmus ; but being confiderably augmented, the
part.of the town which was feated upon an eminence, and
which was called Cadmza from the name of its founder,
was regarded as a citadel in reference to the lower town.
Here was a f{pring, which conveyed water to the city by
fubterraneous channels. Amphion and Zethus, having taken
poffeffion of the country, joined the upper and lower towns,
and called the place Thebes. According to Homer it had
Seven gates, the intervals being oceupied by walls. [t is

3 M fatd

THE

faid to have been 43 ftadia (1 league 1563 toifes) in cir-
cumference. Its environs axe embellifhed by two rivers, by
meadows and gardens. Myron-of Byzantium fays, that
Amphion was the firft perfon who ereéted an altar to Mer-
cury, and that the god recompenfed his zeal by giving him
a lyre. The Thebans carried on various wars with the Pla-
teans for afcertaining their refpeétive limits; and againft
the Athenians at Platwa for having fought the friendfhip of
the king of Perfia againft the common intereft of the Greeks.
In procefs of time, the Thebans avenged themfelves by de-
feating the Athenians at Delium, near the Tanagra. The
Macedonians, after the battle of Cheronza, placed a garri-
fon at Thebes, where it remained till after the death of Phi-
lip. Alexander having taken the city, and expelled its ‘in-
habitants, who retired to Athens, Caflander, the fon of An-
tipater, re-eftablifhed them there, with the affiftance of the
_Athenians, the Meffenians, and the Megalopolitans. Sylla
at length reduced them to extreme mifery, for having de-
clared in favour of Mithridates.

In the time of Paufinias, the whole lower part of the
town was in ruins, except the temples, and the citadel only
was inhabited and denominated ‘Thebes. ‘The temple of
Apollo was feated on an eminence near one of the gates, and
the river Ifmené, which paffed by it, gave to the god and
the hill on which his temple ftood the name of I{menius.
Mercury and Minerva had each a ftatue of marble at the
entrance of the veftibule of this temple: that of Mercury
was the work of Phidias, and that of Minerva was exe-
cuted by Scopas. ‘The ftatue of Apollo in the temple was
wrought of cedar-wood. In this temple were alfo brazen
tripods of excellent workmanfhip. Hercules Promachus
had a temple near another of the gates of the city, in
which was his ftatue of marble; a coloffal figure by Al-
camenes, and his labours by Praxiteles. The temple of
Ammon had a ftatue executed by Calamis and dedicated
by Pindar. Here was alfo the temple of Fortune, and the
goddefs held Plutus in her arms under the form of an
infant. The ternple of Ceres Thefmophorus, or the legif-
lator, had been anciently the houfe of Cadmus, in which was
exhibited a buit of the ftatue of the goddefs. ‘The theatre
was near another gate, and near it a temple of Bacchus Ly-
fius. The temple of Diana Euclea was in the fame quar-
ter; the flatue of the goddefs was the work of Scopas.
Jupiter, furnamed the Highe/f, had a temple near the gate of
this appellation. Here were a place of exercife and a ftadium ;
and in the midft of the ftadium was the tomb of Pindar.
The river Irce paffed near Thebes, and beyond it were the
ruins of the houfe of Pindar, and a kind of chapel which
this poet had built in honour of Cybele. Her itatue was
formed of Pentelic marble. Entrance into the chapel was
allowed only one day in the year. The temple of The-
mis was near one of the gates of Thebes, and her ftatue
was of white marble. Jupiter Agoreus and the Paree had
alfo their temples. The ftatue of Hercules Rhinocoluftes
was in full view in this part of the city. The facred wood
of Ceres Cabiria and of Proferpine lay at about 25 fladia
from Thebes. The temple of the Cabiri was at the diltance
of feven ftadia. According to Paufanias, there was feen at
Thebes a ftatue of Venus Urania, which was faid to-have
been formed of parts of the fhips that brought Cadmus
into Greece. It was the molt ancient) fatue in. Greece.

The population of this city was very confiderable. » When it

was taken by Alexander, more than 6000 perfons:perifhed,
and more than 30,000 were fold for flaves. Some priefts
were {pared and many citizens fled. Hence we may prefume,
that the number of inhabitants in Thebes and its diftia
might amount to 50,000 of all ages and fexes, without in-

THE

cluding flaves. The inhabitants, like thofe of Athens, were
divided into three claffes; the firft compofed of citizens,
the fecond of naturalized foreigners, and the third of flaves.
The Thebans were deemed to be courageous, infolent, and
vain; and murders were frequently the confequence of the
moft frivolous quarrels. "The women were both well made
and generally of a fair complexion, of a noble carriage, and
not inelegant drefs; their voice was remarkably fweet and
tender ; and that of the men harfh and difagreeable, and in
fome meafure fuited to their charaéter. The ‘ facred bat-
talion” of Thebes is famous in hiftory. It confifted of a
body of young warriors, brought up together, and main-
tained at the public expence, in the citadel. Their exer-
cifes, and even their amufements, were regulated by the me-
lodious founds of the flute ; and in order to prevent their
courage from degenerating into blind fury, care was taken
to infpire them with the nobleft and moft animated fenti-
ments. Each warrior chofe from the band a friend, to
whom he remained infeparably united. 'Thefe 300 warriors
were anciently diftributed in troops at the head of the dif-
ferent divifions of the army Pelopidas, who had frequently
the honour of commanding them, having made them fight
in a body, the Thebans were indebted to them for almoft all

the advantages they gained over the Lacedemonians. Philip .

deftroyed this hitherto invincible cohort at’ Cheronza; and
the prince, feeing thofe young Thebans ftretched on the
field of battle, covered with honourable wounds, and lyin
fide by fide on the ground on which they had been ftationed;
could not reftrain his tears, but bore a noble teftimony
to their virtue as well as their valour. ‘Travels of Anachar-
fis, vol. iii, See Tuiva.

Tues, atown of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of
the Nile. According to the ideas given us of this town by
Homer, it was the moft celebrated of antiquity. Ancient
authors have given very different accounts of its extent.
In the time of Strabo, this city had been deftroyed. It had
been ravaged by Cambyfes; it was afterwards defpoiled of
its riches by Ptolemy Philometer ; and under the reign of Au-
guitus, it was feverely treated by Gallus on account of its
rebellion. From this time it fell into a ftate of decline, from
which it has not recovered. Tacitus mentions it as a town
in ruins; and Juvenal fpeaks thus of it: This city extended
on both fides of the Nile, although it was more particularly
fituated on the right bank of this river: a confiderable por-
tion of it lay to the left, which, according to Strabo, bore
the name of “‘ Memmonium.” For a further account of
this city, fee Tienes. ;

THEE was a name given to many ancient towns. Thebo
was a town of Afia, in Cilicia hypoplaciana, fituated on a
plain, at the foot of mount Placion.—Alfo, a town of Ju-
dea, in the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on this fide of Jordan.—
Alfo, a town of Macedonia, in the Phthiotide, 100 ftadia
from. the town of Alos, according to Strabo.—Alfo, a
town of Afia Minor, in Ionia, in the vicinity of Miletus.—
Alfo, a town of Greece, in Attica.—Alfo, a town of Afia,
in Cataonia.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Syria.—Alfo, a town
of Paleftine, in the tribe of Ephraim.—Alfo, a town of
Arabia Felix, upon the coaft of the Red fea, in the coun-
try of the Cinedocolpites. Ptolemy.

THEBAID, Tnuesats, a famous heroic poem of Statius,
the fubje&t of which is the civil war of Thebes between
the two brothers Eteocles and Polynices ; or Thebes taken
by Thefeus.

Statius was twelve years in compofing his Thebaid, which
confilts of twelve books; he wrote under Domitian. He
is cenfured by the beft critics, as Boflu, &c. for a vicious
multiplicity of fables and a&ions, for too much heat and

9 extra.

T.-H E

extravagance, and for geing beyond the bounds of pro-
bability.

Saou Greek poets had compofed Thebaids, or poems of
this name, before him; the principal were Antagoras, Anti-
phanes of Colophon, Menelaus the Aigean; and an anony-
mous author mentioned by Paufanias, lib. ix.

Ariftotle, praifing Homer for the fimplicity of his fable,
oppofes to him the ignorance of certain poets, who imagined
that the unity of fable or aGtion was abundantly provided
for by the unity of the hero, and who compofed Theifeids,
Herculeids, &c. in each of which, they colleéted every thing
that had ever happened to their principal perfon.

THEBAIS, or Tuesar, called alfo Said, in Ancient
Geography, aname given to Upper Egypt, from its princi-
pal city Thebes. It is in f{cripture called Pathros. This
is the moft fouthern part of Egypt next to A&thiopia, and
is almoft as extenfive as all the other parts of Egypt, in-
cluding the country on both fides of the Nile down to the
Heptanomis or Middle Egypt; its beft city, according
to the ancients, being Lycopolis, (fee Srut,) on the
weftern, and Antzopolis on the eaftern fide of the river.
Thefe dimenfions agree pretty exa¢tly with the prefent extent
of Al Said, the moft northern city of which is Manfelit. In
this part of Egypt there were formerly feveral cities of
great note; fuch as Lycopolis, on the {cite of which is fup-
pofed to be the prefent Manfelit; Hypfele, or Aboutig,
about a mile W. of the Nile; Aphroditopolis ; Ptolemais ;
Abydus, once the fecond city of the Thebaid, famous for the
magnificent palace of Memnon, but in the time of Strabo
only a village; Little Diofpolis, probably the prefent
Hou (which fee) ; Tentyra, the inhabitants of which were
famous for their enmity to the crocodile, the ruins of which
are ftill to be feen at Dendera (which fee); lLatopolis, or
Efnzh (which fee) ; Great Apollinopolis, on the fcite of which
Etfu is now fuppofed to ftand (fee Arotiinis Urss, and
Erru); and Elephantine, on an ifland of that name, where
are the ruins of a fmall temple. On the eaft fide of the
Nile are Antzopolis, on the {cite of which Siout is fuppofed
to have been built; Paffalus, conje€tured to be the prefent
Gava-Kiebre, where is feen a very beautiful portico of a
temple, with eighteen pillars, in three rows; Panopolis and
Cheramis, fuppofed to be the fame city, but diftinguifhed
by Herodotus; the {cite of Panopolis is faid to be that of the
prefent Akraim, about a mile from the river; Chenobofcia ;
Czne or Neapolis, perhaps the prefent Kene, a {mall town
on an eminence, about a mile from the river Coptos or Kept,
and called by Pliny the emporium of commodities brought
from India and Arabia; Coptos, where Chriftians were
formerly very numerous (fee Corros); Apollinopolis
{fee Avouiinis Urss, or Apollinopolis Parvaor Kous) ; and
Thebes ; which fee. To the fouth of Thebes, and on the
fame fide of the river, were the following cities: viz.
Chnumis or Cnuphis; Elethya or city of Lucina;
Onebos, now Comombo, or the hill of Ombo, on which are
feen the ruins of an ancient temple (fee Comomso) ;
Syene; Philez, (fee Puinoz,) an ifland deemed facred
from an opinion that Ofiris was buried there. The Thebaid
in the firft ages of the church was rendered famous by the
number of hermits who reforted thither.

THEBAIS, a river of Afia Minor, in Caria.
that it traverfed the town of Trallis.

THEBAN Harp. See Harp.

THEBANUS Opuirtss, in Natural Hiffory, a name
given by fome of the ancients to that fpecies of the ophites,
or ferpentine marble, more commonly called ophites niger, the
black ferpentine.

THEBARMAT, in Ancient Geography, Ormed, a town

Pliny fays

THE

of Afia, S.W. of lake Spauta, and at fome diftance from it,
lies between a mountain and a {mall river that falls into this
Jake. The worship of fire prevailed in this province, under a
perfuafion that the firft pyrzum was kindled by Zoroafter
himfelf.

THEBES, the capital city of the Thebais, or Upper
Egypt, which was defervedly reckoned one of the fineft
cities in the world. It was alfo called Diofpolis, or the
city of Jupiter, and was built, as fome fay, by Offris, but
according to others, by Bufiris. Its length, in the time of
Strabo, was eighty furlongs, or ten miles; but this was
very inconfiderable, compared with its ancient extent, before
it was ruined by Cambyfes, which, we are told, was no lefs
than 420 ftadia, or 524 miles. Its wealth was fo great,
that, after it had been plundered by the Perfians, what was
found, on burning the remains of the pillage, amounted to
above 300 talents of gold, and 2300 of filver. The roo
gates of Thebes are mentioned by Homer, and, after him,
by many others; but fome think that this was not the
number of the gates, but of the temples; and that from
them the city had the epithet Hecatompylos, exprefling a
definite for an indefinite number. Pomponius Mela, and
others, by the 100 gates, underftand fo many palaces of
princes, each of whom could, on any occafion, arm and fend
out 20,000 fighting men, and 200 chariots. A modern
traveller could obferve no figns or remains of walls round
Thebes: and if it had none, we muft conclude, that by
100 gates, were meant the gates of the temples, or rather
the palaces of great men. a Strabo’s time the city ftood
chiefly on the eaft fide of the river. At Thebes there were
anciently four remarkable temples; one of them is faid, by
Diodorus Siculus, to have been 14 mile in circumference,
and 45 cubits in height, with walls 24 feet thick.

The venerable ruins of this city, probably the moft an-
cient in the world, fays Mr. Browne (Travels, &c.), extend
for about three leagues in length along the Nile. Eaft and
weit they reach to the mountains, a breadth of about 24
leagues. The river here is about 300 yards broad ; the cir-
cumference of the ancient city muft therefore have been
about 27 miles. In failing up the Nile, the firit village that
occurs within the precinéts is Kourna, on the W., with few
honfes, as the people chiefly live in the caverns. Next is
Abuhedjodj, a village, and Karnac, a {mall diftri&t, both on
the E. The largeft portion of the city ftood on the eaftern
fide of the river. On the S.W. Medinet-Abu marks the
extremity of the ruins; for Arment, which is about two
leagues to the S., cannot be confidered as a. part. Modera
authors have ftyled the fcite of Thebes, “* Luxor’? (which
fee); and others have denominated it “ Akfor;’ both
which terms are, in Mr. Browne’s opinion, corruptions of
« El Kaffur,”’ the appellation ftill applied to the ruins by the
Arabs. e moft confiderable ruins are thofe on the E.
of the Nile. The chief of thefe is the “¢ great temple,’’ an
oblong fquare building of vaft extent, with a double
colonnade, one at each extremity. Fhe mafly columns and
walls are covered with hieroglyphics. The “ great temple”
ftands in the diftri& called Karnac. Next to this in im-
portance is the temple at Abu-Hedjadj, and here are nu-
merous ruins, avenues marked with {phinxes, &c. On the
W. fide of the Nile appear two coloffal figures, apparently
of a man and woman, formed of a calcareous ftone like the
reft of the ruins :—remains of a large temple, with caverns
excavated in the rock:—the magnificent edifice ftyled
the ‘* palace of Memnon,” fome of the columns being
about 40 feet high, and about 93 in diameter : the columns
and walls are covered with hieroglyphics: this ftands at
Kourna; Behind the palace is the paflage denominated

3M2 «: Bibans

THE

« Biban-el-Molfik,”? leading up the mountain; at the ex-
tremity of which paffage, in the fides of the rock, are the
celebrated caverns known as the fepulchres of the ancient
kings. Thefe fepulchres, which have lately been difcovered,
are particularly defcribed by Mr. Browne. In the cells or
recefles of the paflage of the largeft of thefe, appear the
chief paintings, reprefenting the myfteries, which, as well
as the hieroglyphics covering all the walls, are very frefh.
Our traveller particularly obferved the two harpers defcribed
by Bruce, but his engraved figures, he fuggetts, feem to be
from memory. Althongh Pococke and many others are of
opinion that Thebes was never furrounded by a wall,
Mr. Browne inclines to a contrary opinion, from fome faint
remains which are ftill vifible.

Weare principally indebted to Denon (Travels in Upper
and Lower Egypt, in 3 vols. 8vo. tranflated by Aikin),
for an interefting account of the magnificent ruins of Thebes,
as well as of other places in Egypt, illuftrated by beautiful
engravings. Four large hamlets (fays Denon) divide
amongft them the remains of the ancient monuments of
Thebes, whilft the river, by the finuofity of its courfe,
feems {till proud of flowing among its ruins. In croffing
the ground occupied by the ancient Thebes, Denon found
nothing but temples ; not a veftige of the 100 gates fo cele-
brated in hifory; no walls, quays, bridges, baths, or
theatres; not a fingle edifice of public utility or conve-
nience. Temples indeed were numerous, and walls covered
with obfcure emblems and hieroglyphies, which attefted the
afcendancy of the priefthood, who flill feemed to reign over
thefe mighty ruins. The fpace occupied by this incom-
prehenfible town now enfolds four villages and as many
hamlets, thinly fcattered over immenfe fields. Pafling
through the territory of Thebes on another occation, Denon
faw at the diftance of three-fourths of a league from the
Nile, the ruins of a large temple not before noticed by any
traveller, which may give an idea of the immenfity of that
city, fince, if we fuppofe that it was the laft edifice on the
eaftern fide, it is more than 25 leagues diftant from Medinet-
Abu, where the moft weftern temple is fituated. ‘The
temple, on the feite of which the village of Karnac has been
built, is of fuch a circumference, that it would require half an
hour to walk round it. Herodotus has given us a more
corre&t idea of its grandeur and magnificence. Diodorus
and Strabo, who examined it in its ruinous ftate, appear to
have furnifhed a defcription of its prefent condition, but
none of the travellers who have copied the accounts of thefe
writers have prefumed (fays Denon) to prefer to this
temple that of Apollinopolis at Etfu, that of Tentyra, and
the fimple portico at Efneh. It is probable (fays this
writer) that the temples of Karnac and Luxor were built
in the time of Sefoftris, when the flourifhing condition of
the Egyptians gave birth to the arts among them, and when
thefe arts were difplayed to the world for the firft time.
Of the 100 columns of the portico of the temple of Karnac
or Carnac (which fee), the fmalleft are 74 feet in diameter,
and the largeft 12. The fpace occupied by its circum-
vallation contains lakes and mountains. This edifice is now
in a degraded ftate. The fphinxes have been wantonly
mutilated; and the avenue that leads from Karnac to Luxor,
nearly half a league in extent, contains a fucceflion of chime-
rical figures to the right and left, with fragments of ftone
walls, of {mall columns, and of ftatues.

Luxor (which fee), the fineft village in thefe environs, is
alfo built on the {cite of the ruins of a temple, not fo large as
that of Karnac, but in a better ftate of prefervation, the
mafles not having as yet fallen through time, and by the
preflure of their own weight. ‘The moft coloffal parts con-

THE

fift of fourteen columns of nearly eleven feet in diameter,
and of two ftatues in granite, at the outer gate, buried up
to the middle of the arms, and having in front of them the
two largeft and beit preferved obelifks known.

A peculiarity belonging to the temple of Luxor, is, that
a quay, provided with an epaulement, fecured the eaftern
part, which was near the river, from the damages the inun-
dations might otherwife have occafioned. The epaulement,
which fince its original ftruture has been repaired and aug-
mented in brick-work, proves that the river has not changed
its bed; and its prefervation is an evidence that the Nile has
never been banked by other quays, fince no traces of fimilar
conftruGions are elfewhere to be met with.

Nothing can .be more grand, and at the fame time more
fimple, than the {mall number of obje&ts of which this en-
trance is compofed. No city whatever makes fo proud a
difplay at its approach as this wretched village, the popula-
tion of which confifts of two or three thoufand fouls, who
have taken up their abodes on the roofs and beneath the
galleries of this temple, which has, neverthelefs, the air of
being in a manner uninhabited.

Denon has particularly defcribed the tombs above-men-
tioned, in the village of Kurnu, the ancient Necropolis of
Thebes; and he concludes with remarking, that the myf-
tery and magnificence obfervable within thefe excavations,
and the number of flaves by which they are proteéted, in-

‘dicate, that the religious worfhip which had feooped out

and decorated thefe grottoes, was the fame as that which
had raifed the pyramids; but our limits forbid a farther
detail.

THEBET, in Chronology. See TEper. 3

THEBIT Ben Coran, or Tuaser Espn Koara, in
Biography, an Arabian teacher of philofophy and mathe-
matics, was a hative of Harran, and belonged to the fect
of the Sabzans, and on this account was furnamed ‘ Al-
Sabi-Al-Harrani.’’? ‘The time in which he flourifhed is un-
certain. Some fay that he was born in the 221ft year of
the Hegira, or A.D. 835; others refer him to. the 1oth
century; and others again have placed him in the 12th or
13th century. He was fecretary to the caliph Mothaded ;
and was diftinguifhed by his flull in the mathematics, and
by his knowledge of aftronomy. He is faid’ to have ob+
ferved the declination of the ecliptic, which he fixed at
23° 33! 30’: and from this circumftance it has been con-
cluded, that he lived in the 12th or 13th century, or that
he was contemporary with’ Almeon and Profalius, who
about that period affigned to the ecliptic the fame declina-
tion. ‘To Thebit has been afcribed the origin of the aftro-
nomical fe&t, which maintained the trepidation of the fixed
ftars. It was his opinion, founded on fome erroneous ob-
fervations, that the fixed ftars moved for fome time accord -
ing to the order of the figns; that they afterwards pro-
ceeded in a retrograde dire€tion and returned to their former
places, after which they affumed a dire& motion; and that
then they had an irregular motion, which was rapid for a
certain period, then became flower, and at laft infenfible.
According to Thebit, the obliquity of the ecliptic was
variable, and fubje& to fimilar periods of increafe and de-
creafe. His opinions prevailed for a confiderable time, not
only among the aftronomers of his own nation, but among
fome Chriftians. Montucla Hift. de Math. Pococke, p. 377-
Fabr. Bib. Grec. v. ii. p. 354.

THECA, Sueatn, in Anatomy, hollow organs, ferving
to contain others. The thecw of the fingers are ftrong
fheaths binding down the flexor tendons. "The theca verte-
bralis is the fheath of dura mater lining the vertebral canal,
and containing the medulla fpinalis.

TuHeca,

|

THE

Teca, in Botany, the Latin word for a cell, fheath, or
cafe, is ufed occafionally by fome botanifts in their deferip-
tions of feed-veffels ; and efpecially by Acharius, for thofe
minute vertical parallel cells, in the difk of the fhields or
tubercles of a Lichen, in which its feeds are lodged. See
Licuenes and Peziza.

THECHES, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia,
in Armenia, according to Xenophon, who fays that the
Greeks, after leaving Gymnias, arrived on the fifth day at
the facred mountain called Theches, and from thence they
for the firit time perceived the Euxine fea, which occafioned
loud exclamations of joy...

THECUA, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Juda;
fituated 12 miles S. of Jerufalem, according to Eufebius
and Jerome. Jofephus fays that it was in the vicinity of
Herodium. See Trkoa.

THEDINGHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Hoya; 12 miles N.N.W. of
Hoya.

THEDO, in Jchthyology, a name given by Figulus and
others to the trout.

THEFT, Furrum, in Lew, an unlawful, felonious

taking away another man’s moveable and perfonal goods,
acainit the owner’s will, with an intent to fteal them. See
Larceny.

Open theft from the perfon, or in the prefence of the
owner, is properly called robbery; which fee.

THEFTBOTE, the receiving of a man’s goods again
from a thief, or other amends, by way of compofition, and
to prevent profecution, that the felon may efcape un-
punifhed ; the punifhment of which is now fine and im-
prifonment.

This is frequently called compounding of felony. By
25 Geo. II. c. 36. even to advertife a reward for the re-
turn of things ftolen, with no queftions afked, or words
to the fame import, fubjects the advertifer and the printer
to a forfeiture of 50/. each.

THEIFENEGE, in Geography, a town of Carinthia ;
3 miles N.E. of Wolfsberg.

THEIMSDORF, a town of Lufatia; 6 miles E. of
Rothenburg.

THEINRED, in Biography, precentor of the monaf-
tery of Dover, and author ase treatife on mufic, in Latin,
preferved among the MSS. of the Bodleian Library, in
three books, written about the year 1371.

The firft book treats of mufical proportion; ‘¢ De Pro-
portionibus Muficorum Sonorum.’? ‘This is a very early
treatife upon harmonics, in which, when he {peaks of the major
and minor femitone, and of the different portions into which
they are divifible, his do€trine is illuftrated by many nu-
merical tables, and nice fplittings of tones into commas ;
“De Comatis ; alia Proportio ejufdem Comatis, &c.”
which prove a temperament of the f{cale to have been then in
ufe.

The fecond book treats of mufical concords; ‘¢ De Con-
fonantiis Muficorum Sonorum.”? Here, after fpecifying
the different kinds of concords, he informs his reader, that
in organifing, major and minor thirds, as well as fixths, are
admiffible in fucceffion. ;

The third book contains diagrams and fcales innumerable
of different fpecies of otave, in a literal notation. No
mufical charaéters, or examples of practical mufic in eom-
mon notes, appear throughout the treatife.

The praifes beftowed by Pits, Bale, Tanner, and others
on Theinred, whofe name is fometimes written Thaured, and
Thinred, make it neceffary to acquaint fuch of our readers
as may be inclined to take the trouble of examining this

5

THE

tratt themfelves, that, hke many other mufical writings of
the middle and lower ages, it but ill rewards the drudgery
of an entire and careful perufal ; for after perfeverance has
vanquifhed the abbreviations, and the barbarifm and ob-
{curity of the Latin, the vain fpeculations and ufelefs divi-
fions of the feale, with which this work fo much abounds,
and which could have been but of {mall utility to practical
mufic, at the time when it was written, are fuch, that now,
fince the theory of found is fo much better underftood and
explained by the writings of Galileo, Merfennus, Holder,
Smith, and many others; our old countryman, Theinred,
may henceforth remain peaceably on his fhelf, without much
lofs to the art or fcience of mufic. Bodl. 842. 1. De
legitimis ordinibus Pentachordorum et Tetrachordorum,
Pr. Quoniam Muficorum de his Cantibus frequens eft di-
itinGtio, &c. 46 folios, {mall fize. Walther in his Lexi-
con calls this work a Pheenix.

THEIOCRUS, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients,
a name given by fome to the melanteria.

The name ¢heiocrus fignifies only fulphur-coloured, and
was at firit ufed with the name of vitriol, as expreflive of
the difference of this kind from others; but in time it be-
came common to ufe it alone.

THEISM. See Deism.

THEISOA, or Tuisoa, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia.

THEIUM, atown of Greece, in Athamenia.

THEIUS, a river of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,
which difcharged itfelf into the Alpheus.

_THEKA, in Botany, the Malabar name of the Teak
tree, retained as generic by Juflieu. See Trectona.

THEKUPHA. See Trexuruz.

THELA, in Botany, fo named by Loureiro, Cochinch.
119, from @nAn, a nipple, in allufion to the little elandular
prominences which cover the calyx, appears, by his de-
{cription, to be the fame genus with the Linnean Prun-
BAGO. See that article.

THELARY, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 18 miles S.W. of Bahar.

THELBALANA, in Anctent Geography, a town of
Afia, in the Greater Armenia. Prtol.

THELBENCANA, a town of Afia, in Babylonia, oa
an arm of the Euphrates. :

THELDA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, on the
banks of the Euphrates.. Ptol.

THELE, a word uwled by fome to exprefs the nipple,
and by others for the whole breatt.

THELEBO, in Ancient Geography, 2 people of
Epirus, in Acarnania, who pafled into Italy, and efta-
blifhed themfelves in the ifland of Caprea.

THELEBOLUS, in Botany, from Onn, a nipple, and
Porc, a cajt, or throw, becaufe the little veficle, lodging
the feeds, refembles a nipple, and is thrown off with a de-
gree of elafticity. The name was originally written Theleo-
bolus, but the above is juftly preferred— ode Mecklenb.
v. 3. 41. Perf. Syn, 116.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi angiocarpi.

Eif. Ch. Receptacle cup-like, fomewhat globofe, en-
tire at the edge, difcharging a papillary, nearly naked,
feed-veffel.

1. Th. flercoreus. Small Nipple-fungus. Perf. n. "1.
Tode n. i. t. 7. f. 56.—Found by Tode on the dung of
{wine, after rainy weather in June and July. He compares
it to the roe of fith in appearance, and to poppy-feed
nearly in fize. The colour is a tawny yellow. Each in-
dividual is globular, attached at the bottom by capillary
roots, and crowned with a fmall papillary tubercle, of a

more

THE

more orange or golden hue thay the ret. This is at length
thrown off, with a fudden and ftrong elaftic force, leaving
a minute, bordered, vifcid pit, or cup, which gradually
dilates into a level furface.

The minute fungus above defcribed is clofely related to
SpH#RoBOLUS, and ftill more nearly perhaps to Prrogo.us.
(See thofe articles.) Whether it might be allowable to com-
prehend them under one genus, may admit of much difpute.
Even the many-cleft receptacle, or involucrum of Spherobolus
can hardly be deemed a fufficient important difference to
fuperfede this meafure, and ftill lefs the elongated figure,
or pellucid fubftance, of Pilobolus. Botanifts who beftow
their concentrated attention exclufively on particular tribes
of plants, are prone to multiply diftin€tions ; but they are
not rafhly to be correéted by thofe who have not looked fo
clofely, nor, perhaps, fo well. 1

THELEDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Syria, fituated on a plain W. of Seriana, and E. of
Cappare.

THELEPHORA, in Botany, from Onn, a nipple, and
@pw, to bear, becaufe of the generally papillary covering of
the under furface.—Willd. Berol. 396. Perf. Syn. 565.
Schrad. Spicil. 182. (Craterella; Perf. Obf. Mycol. v. 1.
39. Corticium; ib. 37.) —Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi gymnocarpi.

Eff. Ch. Head coriaceous, dilated ; minutely papillary,
briftly, or fmooth, beneath. An ample, and, in our opi-
nion, rather vague gens of the fungus tribe, of which
Perfoon reckons up forty-feven fpecies, ranged under three
feGtions, once confidered by him as diftinct genera. We
fhall, after our ufual manner, fele€&t a few examples of
each.

Se&. 1. CRATERELLA. Head sapere hollow or
funnel-fhaped above, with a fhaggy difk. Two fpecies.

The pide Pale Tee Peri n.) tansy lesnet
Defcr. Fung. 3. t. 1. £..3, fub Craterella.”—“ Aggre-
grate, corky, pale. Head concave, fhaggy with {cales.”’—
Rarely found on the ground in moift woods. The alk
is very fhort ; villous at the bafe. Head rough beneath,
with little briftles, vifible under a magnifying glafs. Per-
bon.

/ Th. caryophyllea. Carnation Thelephora. Perf. n. 2.
Albert. and Schwein. Nifk. 272. (Craterella ambigua ;
Perf. Obf. Mycol. v. 1. 39. t. 6. f. 8—10. Hielvella
caryophyllea; Scheff. Fung. v. 4. 115. t. 325. Dickf.
Crypt. fafc. 1. 20. Auricularia caryophyllea ; Bulliard.
t. 278. 483. Sowerb. Fung. t. 213.) — Head funnel-
fhaped, thin, purplifh-brown, fringed, varioufly jagged or
crifped.—Found on the ground in fir woods. Mr. Wood-
ward firft met with this fpecies in Britain, near Bungay,
Suffolk. Continental botanifts ufually {peak of it as rare,
but Mr. Sowerby fays it is ‘a very common parafite on
the expofed fantaftic roots of old firs, in autumn.” ‘The
fubftance is tough and fomewhat woody; the colour a
chocolate-brown, - The plants often grow in mafles, at-
tached by their upper fide to fticks, old bark, &c., and
are from one to three inches in diameter. Sometimes the
fhaggy edge is white. Perfoon in his Obf. Mycol. above
ye feems ‘difpofed to think the prefent fungus may vary
o much as to become Ramaria palmata of Holmikiold,
Fung. Dan. v. 1. 106. t. 333; but furely the multiplied
divifions and ramifications of the latter, as well as its fmooth-
nefs and colour, preclude fuch an idea.

Seé&. 2. Srercum. Head halved, finally horizontal.
Thirteen {pecies,

Th. terreftris, Ground Thelephora. Perf. n. 3.

Ehrh.
Crypt, n. 179.

(Th, mefenteriformis ; Willd. Berol. 397,

_ Albert. and Schwein. Nifk. 273.

ft H.E

t. 7. £. 15.) — Somewhat imbricated, dull brown. Head
flattened, fhaggy with fibres. On fandy ground. ‘This
feems to us a mere variety of the lait, or rather its moft
ufual form, as reprefented in Mr. Sowerby’s t. 213. Yet
Perfoon cites this plate, with doubt, under his fourth fpe-
cies, Th. laciniata. He feems to lay too much ftrefs on the
abfence or prefence of a ftalk, and perhaps makes too many
diftinétions.

Th. rubiginofa. Rutty Thelephora. Perf. n.6. (Th.
fragilis; Ehrh. Crypt. n. 238. Helvella rubiginofa; Dickf.
Crypt. fafe. 1. 20. Auricularia ferruginea; Bulliard.
t. 378. Sowerb. Fung. t. 26.)—-Imbricated, rigid, rufty-
brown, {mooth on both fides, with fcattered, rather large,
knobs. — Not uncommon on gate-poits or pales, generally
placed fo low as to be partly hid by the earth and neigh-
bouring plants, as Mr. Sowerby remarks. It is very dif-
ting from the foregoing, foft like velvet to the touch; the
under fide bearing fcattered, roundifh prominences, which,
however, do not appear concerned in the fruétification.
The edge is ufually pale. No part is hairy or fhaggy.
The diameter of each plant is about aninch,

Th. ferruginea. Snufl-coloured Thelephora. Perf. n. g,
( Auricularia tabacina ;
Sowerb. Fung. t. 25.)—Wavy, fomewhat reflexed, bright
brown. Head thin, nearly even, flightly downy; hairy
underneath.—Frequent on ftumps and rotten branches, in
various fituations. ‘The plants are feffile, attached by the
back, projecting over each other, of an elegant undulated
figure ; the colour of both fides a bright reddifh-brown,
efpecially the upper, elegantly contrafted with the light-
yellow border.

Th. hirfuta. Common Hairy Thelephora. Perf. n. ri.
Willd. Berol. 397. Albert. and Schwein. Nifk. 274. (Th.
pallida; Ehrh. Crypt. n. 169. Auricularia reflexa; Bul-
liard. t. 274. Sowerb. Fung. t. 27.)—Agegregate, rounded,
coriaceous, convex, fomewhat zoned, yellowifh; fhaggy above ;
{mooth and tawny beneath.—Frequent on rotten ftumps,
polts, pales, tubs, &c.; either growing folitary, and roundifh,
about an inch in diameter ; or incontinued, confluent, fome-
what imbricated mafles. The under fide is yellow or tawny ;
the upper of a pale yellowifh-brown, marked with different
concentric fhades, and rough with imbricated foft fha
hairs. The whole is often tinged with black, as if f{moked.
It varies in fize as well as colour, and often confifts of an
expanded orange-coloured furface, clofely prefled by its
back to the wood, previous to its acquiring any projection
by which the upper fide is expofed. In this ftate it might
be referred to the next fection. uricularia papyrina, Bul-
liard t. 402, feems nearly akin to this.

Se&. 3. Corricium. Plant laid entirely on its back, inde-
terminate in form, papillary, various in fubftance —Thirty-two
{pecies, divided into fuberdinate feGtions, according to the
colour, whether pale or dark red, yellowifh, brown, grey,
or white.—It is very neceflary to trace the progrefs of the
{pecies of this divifion, in order to be certain they do not,
at any period, acquire a diftin¢ét upper furface, fo as to
range under the preceding.

Th. quercina. Oak Thelephora. Perf. n. 16. Albert.
and Aen. Nifk. 276. (Th. carnea; Ehrh, Crypt
n. 269. (Auricularia corticalis; Bullard t. 436. f. 1.)—
Oblong, coriaceous, rugofe, pale flefh-coloured ; the margin
fomewhat inyolute, af blackifh-brown at the back.—
Found running longitudinally along decayed branches of
oak. Each plant is two or three inches in length, fome-
what oval, of a light flefh-coloured hue, with a powdery. or
downy furface, which water will not moiften, and which
is bef prinkled with round depreffed protuberances, ob{curely

repre»

THE

repredenting the fhields of a Lichen. ‘The margin foon be-
comes elevated and inflexed, efpecially by drought or cold,
and difplays the blackifh under fide, which ought to be the
upper.

‘ Th. cruenta. Blood-red Thelephora. Perf. n..24.—
«¢ Smooth, coriaceous, tuberculated, blood-red.’’—An ele-
gant fpecies, found on the branches of trees, and communi-
cated by Ludwig from Mifnia. Per/oon.

Th. fanguinea. Gory Thelephora. Perf. n.25. (Tre-
mella cruenta; Engl. Bot. t. 1800.)—‘ Widely {preading
on the ground, fomewhat gelatinous, blood-coloured,
{mooth.””—“ This fingular fpecies,”’ fays Perfoon, “ grows
in the ftreets of towns, about the walls of houfes, looking
at a diftance like blood poured on the ground. By drying
it becomes paler. Is it not rather to be referred to the
order of A/ge?”’ In this laft fuggeftion we readily concur.
The whole is truly an expanded mafs of minute, uniform,
gelatinous, pellucid granulations, with nothing of a coria-
ceous or fungous texture, nor any other charatter of the
prefent genus.

Th. Aydnoidea. Awl-bearing Thelephora. Perf. n. 28.
Albert. and Schwein. Nifk. 279. . (Corticium hydnoideum ;
Perf. Obf{. Mycol. v. 1. 15.)—Spreading, concealed, orange-
yellow, bearing awl-fhaped elongated prominences.—This
{preads under the feparated cuticle of decayed dry branches
of beech, which it fometimes totally encircles, extending to
the length of four or fix inches. Its great peculiarity confifts
in the awl-fhaped projeGtions, thrown out from its furface,
to the height of two or three lines, which either penetrate,
or force off, the fuperjacent cuticle of the tree, and, except
in their great irregularity of fize and figure, refemble the
prickles of a Hydnum.

Th. umbrina. Umber-brown Thelephora. Perf. n. 36.
Albert. and Schwein. Nifk. 281.—Spreading on the
ground, foft, of an umber brown; the margin whitifh and
rather downy.—Found on the ground, in a fandy foil,
fpreading to the extent of two or three inches, and not of a
very thin fubftance. Perfoon fpeaks of it as very rare,
hut the obferving authors of the Fungi Ni/kienfes find it not
unfrequently, in Auguft and the following months, in fhady
fandy places. 2

Th. cefia. Grey Ground Thelephora. Perf. n. 40.
(Corticium czfium ; Obf. Mycol. -v. 1. 15. t. 3. f. 6.)—
Orbicular, on the ground, nearly fmooth, of a greyifh
afh-colour.—Not unfrequent in autumn, on the bare ground,
from one and a half to three inches broad, with a white,
fibrous, rounded, fcolloped edge. The grey furface is
befprinkled with minute powdery feeds, regularly difpofed
in fpots, four together. Perfoon.

Th. /aGea. Miik-white Fir Thelephora. Perf. n. 45.—
* Nearly orbicular, of a livid white ; fomewhat flefhy in the
middle; fibrous at the margin.”—Rarely found on the
bark of the Spruce Fir. The furface is fmooth. The
colour becomes paler by drying. Perfoon.

Albertini and Schweiniz defcribe feveral more fpecies of
this genus, to which every thing of a membranous texture,
and fungous afpeét, feems to be referred by authors. Some
fuch may poflibly be imperfe& vegetable productions, whofe
growth, when completed, might prove them of a different
nature. When their fmooth furface difcharges powdery
feeds, they are to be confidered as perfect fpecies of
Thelephora.

THELIGONUM. See Tuetyconum.

THELMENISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Syria, on an immenfe plain on the E. of the
Orontes, N. of Apamea, and S.W. of Chalcis.

THELONIUM, Texontum, fignifies toll.

THE

Among the Romans, #elonium denoted a cultem-houfe, or
place where the toll was collected.

Tuetonto, Breve effendi quieti de, a writ lying for
the citizens of a city, or burgefles of a town, that have a2
charter or prefcription to free them from toll, againft the
officers of any town or market, who would conftrain them
to pay it, contrary to the faid grant or prefcription.

Tuetonto rationabili habendo pro dominis habentibus domi-
nica regis ad firmam, a writ lying for him that hath of the
king’s demefne in fee-farm to recover reafonable toll of the
king’s tenants there, if his demefne hath been accuftomed to
be tolled. f

THELOTREMA, in Botany, from 6nd», a nipple, and
tenuc, an orifice, in allufion to the pierced protuberances of
the cruft ; a genus of the order of Lichenes, inftituted by
Acharius, in his Methodus, 130. ‘The original type of this
genus is Lichen pertufus of Linneus, which is reduced, by
the writer of the prefent article, to ENpocarpon, (fee
that article,) in Prodr. Fl. Grec. v. 2. 304. The reft of
the fuppofed {pecies may perhaps be in like manner dif-
pofed of, or referred to Urceolaria. —

THELPUSA, in Ancient Geography.

THELSEA. See TuHatsea.

THELYGONUM, in Botany, a name of very whimfical
derivation, concerning which Linneus has fallen into an
error, like profeffor Martyn and M. De Theis, who have
both of them been jefs penetrating than ufual in their en-
quiries. They all deduce it from 9xau:, female, and yow, a
joint, or knee; and the laft of them fuppofes the original
plant, which was our MercuriA.is, (fee that article,) to
have been called §nAvyov, becaufe its {welled joints refembled
the knees of a woman. ‘This we modettly prefume to be a
very unauthorized comparifon; and Pliny, from whom the
name is borrowed, leads us to a lefs injurious, if not a wifer,
folution.. His fapient pages affure us that Arfenogonon
(ponvoyovory Or xppnvoyovoy) was taken to procure male chil-
dren, its fruit refembling a part of the male organs ; while
Thelygonon, which, though otherwife the fame, bore no fuch
fruit, was fuppofed to caufe the produétion of females.
The word therefore is compofed of OrAue, and yovs:, genera-
tion, or offspring, Quadro, a leaf, being underftood, a confirm-
ation of which may be found under the 6th fpecies of our
article MercuriALis, above-mentioned. If we may be
allowed to play further upon this word, we fhould- remark
that its own generation is truly anile. Yet hence arofe
Bauhin’s Mercurialis tefticulata, five mas, and /picata, five
femina ; appellations perverfely beftowed on the two fexes
of our Mercurialis annua, as well, as of perennis. . How
Linnezus came to transfer Thelygonum to the genus which
now bears it, can no otherwife be accounted for, than from
the fuppofed affinity of the plants to each other, and both
having borne the name of Cynacrambe, or Dog’s Cabbage ;
a name retained by Gertner, after Tournefort, and liable
to no objection, except being compofed of one already efta-
blifhed, which doubtlefs caufed Linnzus to reje&t it. The
imaginary affinity juft alluded to has apparently ftamped a
poifonous charaéter on the herb before us, which, confider=
ing its natural order, is probably undeferved.— Linn. Gen.
494. Schreb. 644. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.420. Mart.
Mill. Dié&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 285. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 2. 237- Jufl. 405. Lamarck Hluftr.
t.777. . (Cynocrambe; Tourn. t. 485. Gaertn. t- 75.)—
Clafs and order, Monoecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Scabride,
Linn. Urtice, Jufl. é

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, turbinate,
coloured, cloven half way down into two revolute fegments.

Cor. none. Stam. Filaments numerous, from fix to twelve
or

See THatrusa.

THE

or more, capillary, prominent, as long as the calyx, anthers
verfatile, linear, ftraight.

Female, on the fame plant, Ca/. Perianth minute, of two
ere&t, lanceolate, acute, lateral leaves, permanent. Cor.
none. iff. Germen fuperior, globofe ; ftyle lateral, be-
tween the calyx-leaves, thread-fhaped, much longer than
the germen ; ftigma fimple, curved. eric. none. Seed
folitary, globofe, feated on 2 callous annular receptacle, which
falls off with it.

Eff. Ch, Male, Calyx in two revolute fegments. Co-
rolia none. Stamens about twelve.

Female, Calyx lateral, of two leaves. Corolla none.
Style one. Seed naked, on a deciduous annular receptacle.

1.°Th. Cynocrambe. Dog’s Mercury. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1411. Willd. n.2. Ait. nor. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
t. 941, unpublifhed. (Cynocrambe Diofcoridis; Bauh.
Prodr. 59. C. alfinefolia; Barrel. Ic. t. 335. Alfines
facie planta nova; Column. Phyt. 28. t. 30. ed. alt. 120.
t. 36.)—The only known fpecies, found in wafte ground
and the fiffures of rocks, efpecially in fhady or moift places,
in the fouth of Europe, as well as in Afia, flowering
at. almoft all feafons. About Rome and Naples it is
very frequent. Its feeds may have been brought, from
time to time, into our curious botanic gardens, but the
plant has no charms, nor any known quality, to render it a
popular favourite. The root is annual, fimple, cylindrical,
with many fibres below. Stems feveral; fpreading or prof-
trate, a {pan long, leafy, fearcely branched, round, very
fmooth and fhining, moftly purplifh. Leaves alternate,
ftalked, each with an axillary tuft of {maller ones, ovate,
rather fucculent, an inch, or thereabouts, in length, of a
bright fhining green, very fmooth on both fides; roughifh
at the edges. oot/alks almoft as long as the leaves,
dilated at the bafe into an annular toothed fipula. Flowers
{mall, whitifh, from the bofoms of the upper leaves. The
calyx of the males is not unlike the corolla of a honey-fuckle
in miniature. Seed purplifh-brown, furrowed, not much
bigger than muftard-feed. The general afpe& of the plant
evinces its affinity to Parietaria, though the flowers in
detail are extremely different.—Dr. Sibthorp’s figure has
but fix famens. We have ufually found more, and authors
defcribe from twelve to nineteen.

That this herb is the xuna, or xwoxgauSn, of Diofcorides,
there can fearcely be a doubt. He defcribes it fufficiently
well, and informs us that it was fometimes called Wild Male
Mercury ; which renders the name of Thelygonum {till more
unfuitable ; but Linnzus did not always fearch deeply into
fuch matters, though he will commonly be found quite as
learned as moft of his critics or correétors. Diofcorides
fpeaks of the plant in- queftion as'a gentle purge. This
probably caufed the Mercurialis to be taken with the fame
iitention, though at the peril of the patient’s life, as we
have already mentioned in its proper place ; where alfo it
may be feen that fome of the earlier European botanifts
took that very plant for the swoxexuPn.

THELYMITRA, from brav-, female, and uitea, a dia-
dem, or ornament for the head. 'This name of Forfter’s, not
one of the moft happy, alludes to the cap or hood, orna-
roented with a pair of plumy tufts, and covering the imme-
diate organs of frudtification.—Forft. Gen. t. 49. Swartz
A&G. Holm. 1800. 228. t. 3. f. L. Ejufd. in Schrad. Neues
Journ. v. 1. 56. t-1. f. L. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 55.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 314. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.79.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 200.—Clafs and order, Gynandria
Monandria. Nat. Ord. Orchidez.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of three equal, ovato-lanceolate,
coloured leaves, exactly refembling the petals. Cor. Petals

THE

two, ovato-lanceolate, the’fize of the calyx, and exaétly like
it. Neary a fefiile lip, of the fhape, fize, and appearance,
of the petals and calyx, without afpur. Stam. Anther pa-

rallel to the ftigma, permanent, of two cells clofe together,

attached to the central lobe of a three-cleft hooded append-
age to the column ; “ mafies of pollen powdery, pendulous
by a thread from the gland of the ftigma.’? Brown. Pif?.
Germen inferior, obovate; ftyle fhort, united with the
hood; _ftigma in front, obtufe. Peric. Capfule obovate,
furrowed, with one cell and three valves. Seeds numerous,
chaffy. e

Eff. Ch. Calyx-leaves coloured, the fize and figure of
the petals and lip. Cclumn encompaffed by a three-lobed
hood. Anther parallel to the ftyle, permanent. ¥

1. Th. Forflerit. Forfter’s Thelymitra. Swartz A@.
Holm. 1800. 228. t. 3. f. L,c. Willd. n. 1. (Th.dongi-
folia ; Forft. Gen. t. 49. Serapias regularis; Forit.
Prodr. 59.)—Lateral fegments of the hood plumous : in-
termediate one vaulted. Clufter many-flo
thered by Forfter in New Zeeland. he ffem, is ve a
foot high, round, ftriated, fomewhat fpiral, clothed with a
few fheathing lanceolate ‘aves. Clufler terminal, ereét,
three inches long, of about a dozen upright flowers, {carcely
half the fize of the next {pecies, each accompanied by an
elliptic-lanceolate acute braéea, longer than the partial ftalk.
Of the colour of the flowers we have no information. Their
hood appears, by the dried fpecimen, as well as Forfter’s
figure, to have its middle fegment vaulted, convex, and
undivided.

2. Th. ixioides. Large-flowered Thelymitra. Swartz
A&. Holm. 1800. 228. t. 3. f. L, a, b, dg. Willd. n. 2.
Br.n.1. Ait. n. x. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 55. t. 29.—

‘Lateral fegments of the hood plumous: intermediate one

three-cleft ; its lateral lobes jagged; central one fhorteft,
cloven, crefted at the back. Clufter many-fiowered.—Found
in the neighbourhood of Port Jackfon, New South Wales,
from whence we received {pecimens and drawings about the
year 1790. Mr. G. Caley fent out plants to Kew in 1810, but
they do not appear to. have fucceeded there. This isa larger
taller fpecies than the foregoing ; its fowers above an inch in
diameter, very handfome, of a fine blue, fpotted, according
to Mr. Brown, with a deeper colour. The ood is fringed
with hairs, juft below the fummit, and overtopped by its
two lateral, ftalked, plumous tufts. The calyx, petals, and
lip, {pread almoft equally in both thefe, and, we believe,
if the following f{pecies, except our n.9, Mr. Brown’s
venofa.
3. Th. media. Intermediate Thelymitra. Br. n. 2.—
«© Outer fegments of the hood plumous ; intermediate one
naked at the back, three-cleft ; its central lobe emarginate,
half the length of the uthers. Spike (or clufter?) many-
flowered.” —Gathered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon.
4- Th. canaliculata. Channelled Thelymitra. Br. n. 3.—
“ Outer fegments of the hood plumous : intermediate one
naked at the back, many-cleft ; lobes corrugated ; the outer
one longeft and moft remote. Spike many-flowered.”*—
Found by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New Holland.
5. Th. pauciflora. Few-flowered Thelymitra. Br. n. 4.
— Hood half the length of the petals: its outer fegments
plumous : intermediate one naked at the back, emarginate,
with rounded entire lobes. Spike of few flowers.””—Ga-
thered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon. =
6. Th. nuda. Naked Thelymitra. Br. n. 5.—“ Hood
half the length of the petals; its outer fegments plumous ;
intermediate one naked at the back, emarginate, with rounded
entire lobes. Spike many-flowered.”—-Gathered in the
ifland of Van Diemen, by Mr. Brown. By the above defi-
: nition;

ee

THE

vition, this fpecies differs from the laft only in having more
numerous flowers. #

7. Th. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Thelymitra. Br. n. 6.
—* Outer fegments of the hood plumous ; intermediate one
naked at the back, emarginate, with toothed lobes. Spike
of few flowers. Leaf as tall as the fower-ftalk.”’—Found
by Mr. Brown, in the neighbourhood of Port Jackfon.

8. Th. carnea. Flefh-coloured Thelymitra. Br. n. 7.
— Calyx and petals fpreading. Outer fegments of the
hood finely toothed, beardlefs. Stalk with one or two
flowers.”’—-Found by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon. A
drawing in our poffeffion, which feems to belong to this
{pecies, reprefents the /a/é about four inches high, with a
light-red terminal flower, above an inch wide, and a few

’ fhort, radical, lanceolate leaves.

9. Th. venofa.- Veiny Thelymitra. Br. n. 8.— Calyx
and petals converging. Outer fegments of the hood beard-
lefs, {pirally involute.””—Gathered alfo, near Port Jackfon,
by Mr. Brown.

10. Th. tigrina. Tiger-fpotted Thelymitra. Br. n. 9.
—‘ Lateral fegments of the hood diftin&, with tufted beards ;
intermediate one fhorter, crefted. Leaves linear, channelled.”’
—Difcovered by Mr. Brown,-on the fouth coaft of New
Holland. The flowers are yellow, with darker fpots.

11. Th. fu/co-lutea. Brownith-yellow Thelymitra. Br. n.to.
—* Lateral fegments of the hood converging, connected,
fringed ; intermediate one ere€t, naked. Leaves lanceolate.”
—Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the fame country with the
tigrina. He defcribes the yellow colour of the flowers as pe-
culiar to thefe two latt {pecies ; all the reft, as far as hitherto
difcovered, having them generally blue, fometimes white, or
flefh-coloured. We have neceffarily, for want of authentic
f{pecimens, except of the firft two f{pecies, adopted the {pe-
cific chara¢ters of the excellent author whofe name we have
cited.—He eftablifhes a genus under the name of ErinLEMa,
which appears to differ from Thelymitra, in having a ftalked
lip with tufts of fibres at its bafe ; an appendage to the bafe
of the column, conneéted with the claw of the lip under-
neath ; and the anther accompanied at each fide by a petal-
like lobe. Of this there is only one {pecies, EZ. grandiflorum,
found on the fouth coaft of New Holland. Its flowers are
large, blue, and handfome.

THELY PHONON, from 6xAu:, female, and Govo:, murder,
or deftrudion, the name of an herb mentioned by Pliny,
book 25, chap. 10, which he faysis by fome called Scorpion,
from the refemblance of its root to afcorpion, and the touch
of which is fatal to that animal, as a remedy for whofe fting
it is given internally. He adds, that the fame root kills any
fort of quadruped, if applied to the parts of generation ;
and that its leaf, which refembles that of Cyclamen, produces
the fame effet within the courfe of a day. His defcription
an{wers to the Doronicum fcorpicides, Willd. Sp. Pl.v.3.21143
D. latifolium, Cluf. Hit. v. 2. 16; Great Leopard’s-bane,
Ger. Em. 759; but there is apparently much fuperftition,
miftake; or exaggeration, intermixed in his relation.

THELYPTERIS, from $naus, female, and aeei:, a-fern,
a name by which Pliny defignates a fpecies of the Fern tribe,
whofe habit appears to be more delicate than that of his Filix
mas, or Male Fern. The latter fhould feem, by his defcription,
to be our Preris aquilina. (See Preris.) The name of
Fihx mas, however, has remained with a large fpecies of
Afpidium, Sm. Fl. Brit. 1121. Engl. Bot. t. 1458; and
that of Filix feména with a more flender and finely-divided
one ofthe fame genus, Engl. Bot. t. 1459: while a third,
whofe texture is more thin and tender than either, has received
the appellation of A/pidium Thelypteris. They were all
geferred by Linnus, under the fame fpecific names, to

Vou, XXXV,

THE

Poiypoptum. (Sec that article.) Our prefent Thelypteris,
therefore, muft not be taken for that of Pliny, being rather
a north-country plant, not hitherto noticed in Greece by any
botanical traveller.

THEMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, in the
Chalibonitide territory ; and alfo of Arabia Deferta.

THEMAN, a town of Arabia Petra, 5 miles from Pe-
tra, which had a Roman garrifon.—Alfo, a town of Judea,
in the half-tribe of Manafleh, on the other fide of Jordan ;
famed for the wifdom of its inhabitants. Eliphaz, one of
Job’s three friends, came from this place.

THEMAR, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg, onthe Werra; 12 miles S.E. of Mei-
nungen. ;

THEME, Tuema, a fubjeé& or topic, upon which to
write or compofe.

TuEME, among Afrologers, denotes the figure they con-
ftruét when they draw the horofcope ; reprefenting the ftate
of the heavens for a certain point, or moment, required ; i. ¢.
the places of the flars and planets for that moment.

The celeftial theme confifts of twelve triangles, inclofed
within two fquares, and called the twelve hou/es.

TueEmeE, in Grammar, denotes a verb, confidered in its
primary and abfolute fenfe, and not limited to any particular
mode or tenfe : or it is the verb in its primitive radical ftate,
whence its different formations are derived.

Teme, in Mufic ; Thema, Lat. ; Tema, Ital. ; Mottivo, Sog-
getto, 1s a feries of notes fele€ted as the text or fubjeét of a
new compofition, or an old favourite and well-known air to
grace and embellifh with variations. About the middle of
the laft century, the mufical world was overwhelmed with
dull, unmeaning, and monotonous variations to old and new
tunes, which confifted of nothing more than a regular multi-
plication of notes, without fancy, tafte, or harmonical re-
fources ; till Haydn, in the flow and graceful middle move-
ments of his quartets and fymphonies, by a richnefs of ima-
gination, by double counterpoint, and inexhauttible refourees
of melody and harmony, rendered variations the moft inge-
nious, pleafing, and heart-felt of his admirable produtions
a grand orcheftra; and Mozart, in a totally different ftyle, and
for a totally different purpofe, has rendered little favourite
French, Italian, German, and Englifh airs the moft beauti-
ful, amufing, and ufeful compofitions for the piano forte that
have ever been produced fince the invention of that inftru-
ment.’ More than twenty of thefe have been printed in
England that were brought from Vienna by Mrs. Peploe,
who played them, as fhe did all other mufic, with a firmnefs,
accuracy, and fpirit, which neither dilettante nor profeffor
has ever exceeded.

Thefe themes feem to have been a feries of leffons, com-
pofed exprefsly to form the hand and tafte of fome difciple
of the author, who promifed to be a great performer. In
every one of thefe themes, there are fome peculiar difficulties
of execution, refinement, and expreffion to vanquifh, at
which it is in vain for mediocrity to afpire.

THEMEDA, in Botany, a genus of graffes, fo called
from its Arabic name Themed.—Forfk. /Egypt-Arab. 178.
Juff. 447.—It is found in Yemen, near Hadie. Forfkail
names the only fpecies T. triandra, and defcribes it as
follows.
~ “A polygamous grafs. Spikelets proceeding from a fheath,
capitate ; the outer ones whorled, male. Calyx of one valve,
fingle-flowered. Corolla of two valves. Styles and awns
wanting. In the middle of the head of flowers arifes a fhort
ftalk, bearing two {talked male Spikelets, and a feffile herma-
phrodite one ; the calyx is of one valve, coralla of two; awn
proceeding from the receptacle, much longer thaa the flower.

3.N Stenis

EEE
Stems racemofe. Sheaths comprefled, broad, fword-fhaped,
concealing the branches, and the heads of flowers, before ex-
panfion. All the heads are originally concealed in the fheath
of a leaf.”

This can only be the Linnzan Anthiffiria, a genus which
Mr. Brown, in his Prodr, Nov. Holl. v. 1. 200, afferts to
have been firft defcribed by Forfkall, but he gives no reference
to the Themeda, which omiffion has caufed us much trouble,
and after all, leaves the matter in fome uncertainty. Des-
fontaines, in his Fl. Atlant. vy. 2. 380, has reformed the cha-
rater of Anthiftiriz, and has given a figure, t. 254, of 4.
glauca, called by fome authors Stipa paleacea, which agrees,
as nearly as poffible, with Forfkall’s defcription. It does
not appear that Vahl, Willdenow, or any other author, has
adverted toThemeda, except Juifiex, who has merely admitted

it, on Forflall’s authority, into his appendix, without exa-

mination or elucidation.

We prefume here to obferve, that every corret writer
ought invariably to cite the page of his author ; efpecially in
referring to a confufed poithumous work, without an index,
like that of Forflcall.

THEMIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Pro-
pria, fituated between Tabraca and the river Bagradas.

Tuemis, in Geography, ariver of Tranfylvania, which runs
iato the Alaut, near Marienburg.

Tuenis, in Affronomy, a name given by fome to the third
fatellite of Jupiter.

Tuemis, iu Mythology, the daughter of Celum and Terra,
or of Uranus and Titaia, the eldeit fifter of Saturn, and aunt
of Jupiter.

Themis, according to Diodorus, eftablifhed divination,
facrifices, the laws of religion, and every regulation that
contributed to maintain order and peace among men. She
alfo applied herfelf to aftrology, iffued prediétions, and after
her death temples were ereéted to her, in which oracles were
delivered. She had a temple on mount Parnaflus, and an-
other in the citadel of Athens.

THEMISCYRA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia
Minor, in the kingdom of Pontus, fituated in the open
country to which it gave name, upon the banks of the
river Thermodon, towards its mouth in the Euxine fea.
Diodorus Siculus fays that it was a royal city of the
Amazons, and that they founded it.

THEMISONIUM, a town and country of Afia, in

Phrygia.

THEMISSUS, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria.

THEMISTEAS, a promontory of Afia, in Carmania.

THEMISTIUS, furnamed Luphrades, or the fine
{peaker, in Biography, an Ecleétic philofopher, was born
in an obf{cure village of Paphlagonia, about the year 317,
and having fixed his refidence at Con{tantinople, taught
eloquence and philofophy with great reputation and {uc-
cefs. His difciples, both Pagan and Chriftian, were nu-
merous; to the: former clafs belonged Libanius, and to
the latter, Gregory Nazianzen. By the emperors he was
highly efteemed, and they conferred upon him diftinguifhed
honours. In the year 355, Conftantius admitted him
into the fenate; and in return for an eloquent eulogium,
prefented him with a brazen ftatue. Julian correfponded
with him as a friend; and in 362, appointed him prafeét
of Conftantinople. His charaéter and eloquence induced
other emperors to beftow upon him peculiar favours.
When Jovian iffued his edié of toleration, Themiftius was
deputed by the fenate to exprefs its loyalty ; and on this
eccafion he expatiated with elegance and liberality on the
rights of confcience, and the independence of the human
mind. Of his eandour and liberality, the following me-

THE

morable infianee is recorded by Socrates, Sozomen, and
other ecclefiaftical hiftorians. The emperor Valens, who
favoured the Arian party, treated the Trinitarians with
great feverity. Themiltius, difapproving the meafures which
the emperor purfued, addreffed him in an eloquent fpeech,
itating that the diverfity of opinions among Chriftians was
inconfiderable, compared with that of the Pagan philofo-
phers; and urging upon his attention, that this diverfity
could not be iipleaiie to God, fince it did not prevent
men from worfhipping him with true piety. By fuch
arguments, Themiftius, it is faid, prevailed upon the em-
peror to treat the Trinitarians with greater lenity. What
an example does this Pagan philofopher exhibit eyen to
Chriftian divines! In the year 376 Themiftius vifited Rome,
but though folicited to take up his abode there, he preferred.
returning to Conftantinople. It redounds very much to the
honour of this philofopher, and alfo to the liberal fentiments
of Theodofius the Great, that during his vifit tethe Weftern
empire, the emperor entruited Themiftius, notwithitanding
difference of religion, with the care and education of his
fon Arcadius. Themiftius was no lefs diftinguifhed by
gentlenefs of temper and urbanity of manners, than by his
eloquence and wifdom, and ability in-the conduét of public
affairs. After a long courfe of civil honours, he withdrew
about the year 387, at an advanced age, from public bufi-
nefs ; and foon after died. 'Themiftius, the fubjeét of this
article, who does not appear to have ever deferted the Pa-
gan {chools, fhould be diftinguifhed from a Chriftian deacon
of the fame name, who lived after the council of Chalcedon,
held in the year 551, and who was the head of the fe&
called Agnocte; which fee. As a philofopher, Themiftius
illuftrated feveral of the works of Ariftotle, particularly the
Analytics, the Phyfics, and the book on the Soul, in com-
mentaries, written with great perfpicuity and elegance.
His “ Orations,”? which were thirty-fix, and of which thirty-
three are. ftill remaining, are ftrongly marked with the fame
charaéters. ‘The beft editions of his Orations are thofe of
Petau, Gr. and Lat. Paris, 4to. 1618; and of Hardouin,
Gr. and Lat. Paris, fol. 1684. Fabr. Bib. Grec. Brucker
by Enfield. Gibbon. Lardner’s Works, vol. viii. ;
THEMISTOCLES, an Athenian ftatefman and com-
mander, the fon of Neocles, a perfon of middle rank at
Athens. At a very early age he manifefted, both in his
amufements and in his literary purfuits, thofe views and in-
clinations, which marked the charafter and deftiny of his
maturer years. To thofe who ridiculed him on account of
his apparent contempt of ornamental accomplifhments, he
replied, It is true, I never learned how to tune a harp, or
play upon a lute; but I know how to raife a {mall ftate to a
great one.”” Ambition feems to have been his ruling paffion,
and he loft no opportunity of acquiring military and politi-
cal diflin@tions. He fought popularity with a view to his
perfonal advancement ; and lel pure and difinterefted in hie
principles than Ariftides, his folicitude for the glory of his
country was fubfervient to his own reputation and emi-
nence. After the defeat of the Perfian invafion by the battle
of Marathon, an event which interefted his feelings and roufed
into exercife his predominant love of glory, he forefaw that
the attempt might be renewed by fea as well as by land;
and he therefore exerted his influence in rendering the Athe-
nian ftate a naval power. With this view, he induced his
countrymen to appropriate the revenue accruing from the
filver mines to the equipment of a number of galleys; and
as he poffeffed the chief authority at Athens, in siateqiaee
of the banifhment of Ariftides, he found no obftacle to the
execution of his defign. In the courte of three years after
this event, the hoftile preparations of Kerxes for an expedi-
tion

THEMISTOCLES.

tion into Greece to enforce the demand of fubjeétion, fur-
nifhed him with a plea for urging the Grecian ftates to com-
promife their mutual diffentions, and to unite in defending
themfelves againft the invader. In the choice of a general,
with whom the command fhould be intrufted in this emer-
gency, the Athenians favoured the claims of.a democratical
orator, named Epicydes, who had fafcinated them by his elo-
quence ; but Themiftocles induced him to furrender his pre-
teafions to an office for which he was totally unqualified by
a bribe, and thus fecured the appointment for himfelf with-
out a competitor. When news arrived that the Perfian
army, conveyed by a fleet, was approaching the ftraits of
Thermopyle, Themiftocles propofed that the Athenians
fhould fit out their galleys and fail to meet them; but this
counfel being rejeCted, he took the command of their troops,

and having joined the Lacedemonians, marched towards:

Tempé. In the mean while, intelligence was received that
the paffage of the ftraits had been forced, and that Beotia
had fubmitted to the invaders ; and upon this alarm the army
returned without feeing the enemy. In thefe circumftances
of apprehended danger, the Athenians, according to their
cuftomary practice, had recourfe for counfel to the Delphic
oracle. The anfwer, probably fuggefted by Themiftocles
himfelf, was, that they fhould rely folely on their fleet. It
was now propofed, that the city fhould be wholly abandoned
te the Perfians, without any attempt for its defence; that
the women, children, and aged fhould be removed to fome
place of fecurity; and that all who were able to bear arms,
fiould embark on board the galleys, and watch the event.
A decree was obtained, after much fruitlefs oppofition, to
this purpofe ; and this.was followed by another, which per-
mitted all exiled citizens to return. Arriftides was one of
this number, who nobly facrificing, in the moment of his
country’s danger, all private animofities, concurred in all
the f{pirited meafures of his former rival. :
Eurybiades, a Spartan, to whom the command of the
confederate fleet was affigned, and who was very unequal to
the office, differed with Themiftocles as to the meafures pro-
per to be purfued; and behaved with an infolence, which,
probably for the fake of the public fervice, the latter did
not think proper to refeut. Eurybiades was pacified by the
et and felf-command of Themiftocles, and convinced
y his reafoning. Finding it prudent, however, to change
the meafures which he originally contemplated, he employed
a ftratagem to induce the Perfians to advance and make an
attack. This was followed by the famous battle of Salamis,
which took place in the year B.C. 480, and which termi-
nated in the fignal defeat of the Perfian navy. “The victory
has been chiefly afcribed to the fkill and valour of Themif-
tocles ; and having thus fucceeded, he advifed the confede-
rates to fail immediately to the Hellefpont, in order to de-
ftroy the bridge of boats by which the army of Kerxes had
pafled over, and thus to intercept his communication with
Afia; but being overruled in this propofal, he difpatched a
fecret meffenger to the Perfian king, with information that
the Greeks intended to break his bridge, and advifing him
to retreat immediately before the defign was executed. The
policy of Themiftocles, as we may judge from this inftance,
was not always uniform and confiftent ; and in another cafe,
which remains to be mentioned, on the authority of Plu-
tarch, it was inexcufably flagitious. When the combined
Grecian fleet was wintering at Pegafa in Magnefia, he
informed the Athenians, that he had conceived a project
which would be of infinite fervice to the republic, and at
their defire, he would communicate it to Ariftides. This
virtuous man told them, that the {cheme of Themiftocles
would be highly advantageous, but that nothing could be

ae difmiffed him with money acrofs the continent to a port
in

more unjuit ; upon which, very much to their honour, they
determined not to adopt it. ‘The plan was to burn all the
fhips of the fleet, except thofe of Athens, by which fhe
would remain complete miftrefs of the feas.

The vi€tory at Salamais advanced the name and charaéter
of Themiftocles to the higheft pitch of glory throughout
Greece. On his vifit to Sparta, he was received with every
token of refpe&t ; and whilft the firft prize of valour was
decreed by the people to their countryman Eurybiades, the
olive wreath of fuperior wifdom was placed on the head of
the Athenian; and they alfo prefented him with a magnifi-
cent chariot, and ordered three hundred of their youth to
attend him back to the borders. At the next Olympic
games, the eyes of the whole aflembly were fixed upon The-
miftocles, and he was pointed out to ftrangers as the moit in-
terefting object at the fpectacle. Themiitocles himfelf ac-
knowledged, that this was the nobleft day of his life. When
the conftitution of Athens was about to be re-eftablifhed, after
the rebuilding of the city, Themiftocles, in conformity to
the political princtples which he had adopted, propofed that
every citizen fhould have an equal right to participate in the
government, and that the members fhould be chofen from
the body of the people, without diftin@ion ; and in his pro-
pofals the people unanimoufly acquiefced. He alfo propofed
to fortify the city ; but as the Lacedemontans objected to
the propofal, he was deputed upon an embafly to Sparta
with a view of conciliating them. He contrived, however,
by various artifices, to prolong the negociation, fo that the
Athenians had conftruéted their walls before the Spartans
were duly apprized of the fa&. Themiftocles vindicated
this artifice by alleging, “ that all things are lawful in ferv-
ing our poaae 3”? and the Spartans, admiring his patriotifm,
filently acquiefced. In the following year, his {cheme for
rendering the Pyreum the principal port of Athens, and
conneCting it with the city by long walls, was adopted and
accomplifhed.

Independently of the deceits which Themiftocles had
practifed with regard to the Lacedemonians, anothe? cir-
cumftance had occurred which increafed their enmity againft
him. He had fucceistully oppofed their fending deputies
to the Amphi€tyonie couneil, and thus degraded their au-
thority in Greece. Incenfed againft him, they joined his
rivals at Athens, and ufed all their influence to deftroy his
reputation. His own condué alfo had excited jealoufy and
refentment ; for he had caufed to be erected near his own
houfe a temple to “ Diana Ariftobule,” or “ of the beft
counfel,”’. thus intimating, that his counfels had been the
beft for the Grecian community. His enemies prevailed, and
procured his banifhment from Athens by the fentence of
Oftracifm. During his exile at Argos, his enemies gained
an additienal advantage over him. Avpprized of the trea-
fonable defigns of Paufanias, the Spartan, againft the li-
berty of Greece, he declined the diiclofure of them; and
after the dete¢tion and death of Paufanias, letters of The-
miftocles were found, which proved that they had conferred
on this bufinefs. "The Lacedemonians preferred an aecufa-
tion againft him to the Athenians; and they called him to
account in the prefence of the ftates of Greece. Dreading
a trial, he fled to Corcyra, and thinking himfelf infeeure
there, he withdrew to Epirus: and at length was reduced
to the neceflity of feeking the protection of Admetus, king
of the Moloffi, whom he had formerly offended. ‘The ven-
geance of the Spartans purfued him, and Admetus was
threatened with a war, if he proteCted the criminal. The

e JEgean fea, whence he reached Afia in fafety. In
the year B.C. 462, he arrived at the Perfian court ; but here
SVN. 2 his

THE

his name was fo obnoxious, that a reward of 200 talents
had been offered for apprehending him. Here he appeal
in difguife, and pretending that he had important informa-
tion which he wifhed to communicate to the king in perfon,
he was admitted to the royal prefence, and favourably re-
ceived: the 200 talents, which were the price of his head,
were paid to himfelf, and a more ample recompence was
offered to him, if he would give ufeful information concern-
ing Greece. He was granted time for acquiring the Perfian
language, and after a year he appeared at court like a native.
The king and royal family treated him with diftintion ; and
it is faid that the revenues of three cities, viz. Magnefia,
Lampfacus, and Myus, were afligned him, under the name of
bread, wine and meat; and as fome fay, two more, for
lodging and wardrobes. In this ftate of luxury and magni-
ficence he was joined by the members of his family, who had
been conveyed to him by his friends, and to them he ex-
preffed a kind of fatisfaGtion with his condition, which
proves that moral meannefs may accompany exalted talents.

The clofe of his life is involved in obfcurity. Plutarch
relates, that upon the revolt of Egypt, fupported by the
Athenians, againft the Perfian dominion, the Greek king,
refolving to fend an expedition into Greece, difpatched an
order to Themiftocles at Magnefia, reminding him of his
promifes, and claiming the fulfilment of them: upon which
it is faid, that, in order to avoid the difgrace of bearing
arms againft his country, after facrificing to the gods and
taking folemn leave of his friends, he drank poifon, and died
in that city at the age of fixty-five years. Thucydides,
his contemporary, fays that he died of a diftemper; and
others again report, that he poifoned himfelf, becaufe it was
not in his power to accomplifh what he had promifed. The
Magnefians honoured his memory with a fumptuous tomb ;
but his remains, according to his own orders, were privately
conveyed to Attica, where they were interred. It is fur-
ther faid, that the Athenians, repenting of their treatment
of him, raifed a tomb for him in the Pyreum, which was
an interefting objet to all who vifited that port. His fin-
gular talents, and the fervices which he rendered to his coun-
try, muft be acknowledged ; and thofe who think favourably
of him, afcribe his defertion of them to unjuft perfecution.
But in Themiftocles we look in vain for the virtues of an
Ariftides ; and he can only be allowed the honour of a dif-
tinguifhed general and ftate{man. Thucydides. Plut. in
Them. Ancient Un. Hitt.

THEMNA, Timya, or Thamnata, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Dan. Josh. xix.
43-—Alfo, a town of Arabia Deferta, on the confines of
Mefopotamia.

THEN, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Weze, near Francremont.

THENA, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of
Africa, fituated N.E. of the Fanais and near it, and two
miles in cireuit.—Alfo, a town of Samaria, in the vicinity
of Sichem.

THENAGC, or THanac, a royal town of Judzxa, in
the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on this fide of Jordan. It was
given to the Levites of this tribe, and its king was one of
thofe who were vanquifhed and flain by Jofhua.

THEN, a town of the ifle of Crete, near Cnoffus.

THENAR, in Anatomy.. The eminence in the palm of the
hand, formed by the mufcles of the thumb, has been called
thenar: and fome of the mufcles ‘have been defcribed under
the fame name. :

The thenar of Riolan and Winflow includes the abduétor

llicis brevis, and the opponens pollicis.

THENEATE ¢! Gannim, the Sheep Cliffs, in Geogra-

THE

phy, mountains of Africa, in Sahara; go miles S. of AL

iers.

THENEZAY, atown of France, in the department of
the Two Sevres ; 10 miles N.E. of Partenay.

THENGEN, a town of Germany, which gives name
toa principality, fituated in the Hegau, bordering on Schaff-
haufen; 8 miles N. of Schaffhaufen.

THENON, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordogne ; 6 miles miles N.W.-of Montignac.

THENONGOUDN, a town of the Birman empire ; 4
miles S.W. of Ava. z

THENOPSYCHITES. See TuneropsycuiTEs.

THENSA, among the Romans, a veil or canopy, ufed
in the chariots of games; arid likewife to cover a feat of
ftate. ,

Thenfe could not be granted to any but by the exprefs
allowance of the fenate. Hilt. Acad. Infcript. vol. i. .

P- 359+

THEOBALD, Lewis, in Biography, a profefled
writer, was the fon of an eminent attorney at Sittingbourn,
in the county of Kent, and is here noticed as one of the nu-
merous editors of Shakfpeare. Of his various works, critical,
poetical, and dramatic, it is needlefs to give any account, as
they have funk into oblivion. He a the misfortune of
becoming, to an undue degree, the object of Mr. Pope’s
contempt and fatire, and of having the firft place affigned
him in the Dunciad, though he was afterwards fuperfeded
by Cibber. His edition of Shakfpeare was preceded by a
work entitled “‘ Shak{peare reftored,”’ and publifhed in 17265;
and alfo by that of Mr. Pope. It is thus charaéterized by
Dr. Johnfon: ‘* Pope was fucceeded by Theobald, aman
of narrow comprehenfion and {mall acquifitions, with no
native and intrinfic fplendour of genius, with little of the
artificial light of learning, but zealous for minute accu-
racy, and not negligent in purfuing it. He collated the
ancient. copies, and retified many errors. A man fo
anxioufly fcrupulous might have been expeéted to do
more ; for what little he did was commonly right.” Of
the tragedy which he brought on the ftage, and which is

entitled “« The Double Falfehood,’’ the greater part is ~

afcribed by him to Shak{fpeare ; but Dr. Farmer has proved
that this is a miftake.

THEOBROMA, in Botany, the Chocolate-tree, received
that name from Linnzus, who probably, like the prefident
Bachot, cited by De Theis, was fond of the delicious pro-
duce of this tree ; for the word is formed of @:0:, a god,
and Ppwux, food. A French writer, M. Tuffac, in his
magnificent Flore des Antilles, has obje€ted to the above
generic name, for a reafon which we confefs to have been
one of the laft we fhould have thought of; that “it carries
with it the fignification of a quality, and feems therefore
more fit for the name of a fpecies.”? Surely nothing can be
more defirable than a generic appellation which conveys
information ; on which account Amaranthus, Artocarpus,
Biferrula, are excellent ; we need not run through the bota-
nical alphabet in fearch of numerous others. Such probably —
was the origin of moft names, in every language, and who
can tell that the American word Cacao, fubitituted, or rather
reftored, by Tuffac, may not exprefs fome quality of the
plant? Neither is it an obje&tion to any fignificative gene-
ric names, that they exprefs merely fome general property or
peculiarity, not found in every one of the fpecies, witnefs
Urtica. The idea of ftinging is affociated with the name of
a Nettle ; like rednefs with that of a Rofe; though there
are Dead Nettles, and White Rofes.—Linn. Gen. 391,
with an erroneous defcription, correéted in Linn. Suppl.

1, Schreb. 513. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1422. Mart.
34 EDs 573 a2 Mill

ae ee Set,

2 a =

A A Aa PD a RD as

ad

= + ee

T HE
Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 408. Juff. 276.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 635. (Cacao; Tourn. t. 444. Gertn.
t. 122.)—Clafs and order, Polyadelphia Decandria. Nat.
Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvacee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovato-lanceolate,
acute, fpreading, coloured, deciduous leaves. Cor. Petals
five, rather longer than the calyx ; their claws dilated, con-
cave, hooded, marked internally with two ribs from the bafe,
and one from the fummit: their borders roundifh-ovate,
pointed, {preading, each contraéted at the bafe into a narrow,
ere&t and recurved ftalk, conneGted with the claw. Neary
fhort, cup-fhaped, crowned with five long, ere&, awl-
fhaped, pointed, equal, converging fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments five, thread-fhaped, ere&, recurved at the upper part,
concealed in the hollow claws of the petals, inferted into the
outfide of the nectary between its fegments, but not above
half fo long ; anthers two to each filament, (one on each
fide, at the fummit,) vertical, two-lobed, one lobe over the
other. iff. Germen fuperior, nearly feffile, ovate, with
five furrows; ftyle cylindrical; ftigma in five awl-fhaped
fegments. Peric. Berry elliptic-oblong, beaked, coated, of
one cell. Seeds large, ovate, fmooth, numerous, in five
rows: their cotyledons in many deep lobes.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, vaulted at the
bafe. Neétary cup-fhaped, with five taper points. An-
thers two to each filament. Stigma five-cleft. Berry
coated. Seeds ovate.

Obf. Gertner obferves that he could find no traces of
the five cells attributed by authors to this fruit. It is pro-
bable, however, from analogy, that they may exift in the
germen, and Aublet’s account is fufficiently explicit of their
prefence in the fruit. The drawing in the Linnzan herba-
rium, which appears to have been fent by Allamand from
the Weit Indies, has led us to fuppofe each filament bore
four anthers; but it feems there are only two, each of two
round, diftin&, vertical lobes, as reprefented by Aublet,
t. 275, and copied by Lamarck. The order of Decandria
muft therefore be reftored in the clafs Polyadelphia. See
Sm. Intr. to Bot. ed. 3. 340. Linnzus’s charaGters of
Theobroma in Gen. Pl. were taken chiefly from Plumier’s
Guazuma, the Busroma of Schreb. Gen. 513; fee that
article. ~ He has left a more correét defcription in manu-
fcript, from which perhaps his fon compofed what is given
in the Supplementum. From thefe fources, with the help of
Allamand’s drawing, and what is to be found in Aublet and
Schreber, we have drawn up our account, having no oppor-
tunity of examining a flower.

1. Th. Cacao. Smooth-leayed Chocolate-tree. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1100. Suppl. 341. Willd. n.1. Ait. n.1. (Th.
n. 2 and 3; Browne Jam. 306. Cacao; Merian. Surin.
t. 26and 63. C. Theobroma; Tuffac Flore des Antilles,
t. 13. Arbor cacavifera americana; Pluk. Almag. 40.
Phyt. t. 268. f. 3.)—Leaves entire, fmooth on both fides.
—Native of South America. Miller appears to have had
this plant alive at Chelfea, but it has never long fucceeded
in our ftoves ; being extremely tender, even in fome parts of
the Weft Indies. Browne fays the Chocolate-trees, though
naturalized in the woods of Jamaica, are very delicate, and
rarely furvive when once they are loofened in the ground by
hurricanes. (See Cuocotate.) Thefe trees are the fize
of a middling apple-tree, but feldom exceed fix or feven
inches in diameter. They are very beautiful, efpecially
when laden with fruit, which is difperfed, on fhort ftalks,
over the /fem, and round principal branches ; its yellow hue
and warty furface fomewhat refembling a citron. The kaves
are alternate, ftalked, drooping, a foot long, and three
inches broad, elliptic-oblong, pointed, entire, flightly wavy,

THE

very fmooth on both fides, with one mid-rib, and many
tranfverfe ones, connected by innumerable, mimute, re-
ticulated veins. Foot/falks round, hairy, aninchlong. St#-
pulas minute, deciduous. Flowers {mall, feveral together in
tufts, at the fides of the branches, on fimple ftalks, only
one in each, tuft, commonly producing fruit. Calyx light
rofe-coloured. Petals yellow. :

2. Th. guianenfis. Downy-leaved Chocolate-tree. Willd.
n.I. Ait.n.1. (Cacao guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. v. 2.
683. t. 275.)— Leaves wavy, and fomewhat toothed;
downy beneath.—Native of marfhy woods in Guiana, bear-
ing flowers and fruit in September. Ofrather more humble
growth than the foregoing. The /eaves are, at moft, but
eight inches in length, and three in breadth; their margin
wavy, or rather bordered with fhallow teeth, towards the
extremity ; their upper furface {mooth and green ; the under
clothed with fhort, afh-coloured, or rufty pubefcence, and
reticulated with fine veins. Foot/lalks fhort, channelled,
downy. Flowers fituated like the former. Calyx green
without, yellow within. Petals yellowifh. Fruit elliptical,
with five angles, and clothed with fhort rufty down. Aublet
fays it has five cells, feparated by membranous partitions ;
the /eeds enveloped in a gelatinous, white, melting fubftance ;
their kernel white, very good eating when frefh. He {peaks
of this fpecies as the Chocolate of Guiana, though he men-
tions a Cacao fativa, with entire leaves, as a cultivated kind,
under which he cites Theobroma Cacao of Linneus, and its
acknowledged fynonyms,

Aublet has alfo a Cacao fylveftris, vy. 2. 687. t. 276, with
entire /eaves, downy beneath, and a downy fruit, without
ribs. Willdenow afferts, we know not on what authority,
that this laft is Duroia Eriopila, Linn. Suppl. 209, of which
we, unfortunately, have met with no fpecimen. A branch
of Aublet’s plant, communicated from his own herbarium
by fir Jofeph Banks, appears a variety of the laft, its /eaves
being obfcurely toothed in a fimilar manner; but for want
of flowers we cannot fay how far it anfwers to Duroia, be-
tween which and Theobroma there is no affinity in that refpe@.
Aublet clearly defcribes his as a Theobroma, and we cannot
help fufpeCting fome error in Willdenow, as well as, pof-
fibly, a difasreement between Aublet’s figure and our above- .
mentioned fpecimen, which latter may be, as above hinted,
his Cacao guianenfis. At any rate, the two fpecies of Theo-
broma which we have defcribed, are certainly and perma-
nently diftiné.

THEOBROMA, in Gardening, contains a plant of the exotic
tree kind, of which the f{pecies ufually cultivated is the cho-
colate nut-tree (T. cacao).

In its natural ftate, this tree produces a nut or fruit which
is fmooth, of a yellow, red, or of both colours, about
three inches in diameter: it has a flefhy rind, near half an
inch in thicknefs, which is flefh-coloured within: the pulp
being whitifh, of the confiftence of butter, feparating from
the rind in a ftate of ripenefs, and adhering to it only by
filaments, which penetrate it, and reach to the feeds. Hence
it is known when the feeds are ripe by the rattling of the
capfule when it is fhaken : the pulp has a fweet and not un-
pleafant tafte, with a flight acidity; it is fucked and eaten
raw by the natives ; it may be eafily feparated into as many
parts as there are feeds, to which it adheres ftrongly, and
they are wrapped up in it, fo that each feed feems to have
its own proper pulp: the feeds are about twenty-five in
number : when frefh, they are of a flefh-colour: gathered
before they are ripe, they preferve them in fugar, and thus
they are very grateful to the palate: they quickly lofe their
power of vegetation, if taken out of the capfule, but kept
in it, they preferve that power for a long time: the tree

4 bears

THE

bears leaves, flowers, and fruit «ll the year through ; but
the ufual feafons for gathering the fruit are June and De-
cember: in two years from the feed, the tree is above three
feet high, and fpreads its branches, not more than five of
which are fuffered to remain. Before its third year is com-
plete, it fhews for fruit; 2 tree yields from two to three
pounds of feed annually. Such trees are of courfe very
rodu€tive.

Method of Culture.—It is increafed by feed obtained from
abroad, fowing it as foon after its arrival as poffible, in pots
filled with light earth, and plunging them in a bark-bed,
where they will foon come up; and when the plants are
about three inches high, potting them off feparately, and
replunging them in the bark-bed in the ftove, managing
them as other woody exotics of the ftove kind afterwards.
They afford an agreeable variety in ftove collections.

This tree is cultivated to confiderable extent, and with
very great attention in its native fituations in the hot parts of
America, for the fake of its fruit, the kernels of which are
much ufed in the making of chocolate there, as well as in
this country. In thts intention, they are firft brought to a
pulverizable {tate by drying or roafting in a proper appara-
ratus ; they are then reduced into a fine powder by mills or
other contrivances : after which, this fine powder is wrought
up into a pafte with orange-water, milk, and other liquids,
and has fugar, different forts of aromatic fpices, and fome
aromatic perfumes, mixed and incorporated with it, when
it is formed into cakes, or made into pretty large rolls, for
exportation and fale in the European and other markets, if
prepared in the places of its native growth. ;

It is employed fomewhat in the manner of coffee as a fine
rich breakfaft article of diet, and ufed pretty extenfively for
that purpofe in this and fome other countries.

THEOCATAGNOST, formed from ©«:, God,
and xaraywuoxw, J judge, or condemn, a fect of heretics, or
rather of blafphemers, who prefumed to find fault with cer-
tain words and aétions of God, and to blame many things
in the Scriptures.

Marthal, in his Tables, places thefe heretics in the feventh
century ; for what reafon we know not. Damafcenus is
the only author that mentions them, but without taking any
notice of the time of their appearance.

THEOCRACY, formed from @to:, God, and xexro:,
power, empire, a {tate governed by the immediate direction
of God alone.

According to Jofephus, the ancient government of the
Jews was theocratic; God himfelf ordering and directing
every thing belonging to the fovereign authority.

By the oracle of Jehovah himfelf, all laws were ena&ed,
war was proclaimed, and magiftrates were appointed; in
which three particulars the /umma pote/las, or fovereign au-
thority, of any ftate, confifts. And as Jehovah was the
king, as well as the God of Ifrael, the priefts and Levites,
who were the ftated attendants on his prefence, and to whom
the execution of the law in many cafes wascommitted, were
properly minifters of ftate and of civil government, as well
as of religion. The facrifices alfo, befide their religious
ufe, were intended for the fupport of the ftate, and civil
government,

This theocracy lafted till the time of Saul; when the
Ifraelites, weary of it, defired they might have a king
like other nations ; and thence forward the ftate became
monarchic.

There was alfo a kind of imaginary theocracy at Athens:
while the fons of Codrus were difputing the fucceffion, the
Athenians, wearied out with the miferies of an inteftine war,

THE
abolifhed the royalty, and declared Jupiter the only king of
the people at Athens.

THEOCRITUS, in Biography, a Greek poet, elteemed
as the model of paftoral poetry, was a native of Syracufe,
and the fon of Praxagoras and Philina. The time in which
he flourifhed is afcertained by two of his poems, one ad-
dreffed to Hiero, king of Syracufe, who began his reign
about the year B.C. 265, and the other to Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus, whofe reign comprehended the interval be-
tween 281 and 246 B.C. Although Hiero is reported
to have been a patron of literature, perfons of rank,
as we may infer from Theocritus’s poem, did not fol-
low his example, at leaft in granting encouragement to
poets; and therefore Theocritus left Sicily, and vifited
the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus at Alexandria, on
whom he pronounces a fplendid eulogy. The compofitions
of this poet are denominated “ Idylls ;”” they are written in
the Doric or ruftic diale&t, and few of them are paftorals,
though moft of them relate to rural life and manners. The
sie paltoral are diftinguifhed by the truth and fimplicity
of the manners, defcending fometimes even to coarfenefs,
and the pleafing defcription of natural objects, drawn from
the life. To thofe who have a taite for genuine fimplicity,
and the beauties of nature, fays one of his biographers, the
poetry of Theocritus is highly agreeable. The moft
efteemed editions of his works, are D. Heinfius’s, 4to. Com-
mel. 1604.; R. Weit’s, Oxon. 8vo. 1699; Th. Warton’s,
Oxon. 2 vols. 4to. 1770; Valkenaer’s, cum Bione et Mof-
7 Lugd. Bat. 8vo. 1779. Suidas, Voffius. Gen.

jog.

THEODOLITE, or THeEopoxet, is an inftrument
ufed for meafuring horizontal and vertical angles in land-
furveying. This inftrument was at firft made on a fmall
portable feale, fupported by a tripod that will fhut up into
the form of a walking-ftick, when the mechanifm of brafs-
work is difmounted: and the ftate of dividing circles is
now brought to that perfection in England, that fmall por-
table theodolites are ftill in ufe among land-furveyors, who
confine themfelves to the planning of fingle eitates, for
which thefe inftruments are competent ; but for furveys on
a large {cale, fuch as county furveys, or trigonometrical
meafurement of diftant ftations, theodolites of an enlarged
conftruétion have been ufed with correfponding advantage.
Out of the numerous modifications of this inftrument, that
different artifts have contrived, we propofe to fele& two
for particular defcription, which are generally confidered
as the beft for accurate furveys; one by Ramfden, and the
other by Troughton. We will begin with that large in-
{trument already referred to in a former article, which was
made by Ramfden, in the year 1777, for the ufe of general
Roy, when he undertook his grand trigonometrical opera-
tions, and which is defcribed in the Soth vol. of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfactions of London (1790), with all the
bodititadne parts given feparate in four large plates. A
fimilar inftrument, by the fame maker, has fince been
ufed for the grand general furvey of the different coun-
ties, by Meffrs. Mudge and Dalby. Plate VIII. fig. 1.
of Surveying, fhews the perfpeétive view of this mafter-
piece of workmanfhip, nearly as reprefented in gene-
ral Roy’s third plate; but his account, having reference
to the feveral plates, will not anfwer our purpofe. The
ftand on which the inftrument is placed for ufe, is a four-
legged mahogany ftool A BC, braced as feen in the figure,
with an o¢tagonal top perforated at the centre by a hole
of nine inches diameter. This ftool or ftand, when ufed,
has its fect {crewed faft to the tops of four piles driven into
the ground, and nicely levelled, before the inftrument is

placed

THEODOLITE.

placed on it, and one of the four faftening {crews may be
zen at B, at the junction of the bracing bars. - Upon this
ftool another, but larger, otagonal board of mahogany,
DE, refts, which has a ring or circular curb on its plane,
about half an inch from the fides of the o@agon: this upper
o€tagonal board may be fixed to, or releafed from, the top of
the {tand by four vertical {crews, which penetrate both boards,
but which allow one to flide over the other, fo as to be either
concentric or excentric, as the adjuftment of a plumb-line to
the mark or hole under the inftrument may require, for the
exa&t place of the ftation, over which the centre of the
inftrument muit be exaétly fixed. The. four horizontal
ferews of adjuftment, of which three are feen at F, F, and F,
carried by the board D E, are fo contrived as to effect this
adjuftment by preffure againft the edge of the fland, after
which the two oGtagonal boards are made fait together by
the faid four vertical ferews not fhewn. The upper o¢ta-
gonal D E has an open conical focket of brafs, three inches
in diameter, in its centre. Next above the board D E, thus
adjufted and fecured, comes the third board, which is cir-
cular, and which forms the bafis of the inftrument. In the
centre of this bafe another brafs conical focket, three inches
and a quarter in diameter, is made faft, and flips over
the fmaller conical focket of the board D E of adjuftment
for central pofition, fo that the centre of the inftrument
being concentric with this board partakes of the adjuftment,
while the plumb-line defcends through both fockets down
towards the ground. The large mahogany circle G H, of
more than three feet in diameter, is fupported by feveral
pillars conneéted with the circular board, which we have
called the bafe of the inftrument, and forms with them a
baluitrade, that protects the inftrument, as feen in the figure.
A brafs circle of three feet diameter, within the baluf-
trade, is attached by ten ftrong conical radii to the large
vertical hollow axis, formed into the fruftum of a cone, of
twenty-four inches in height above the metallic wheel, which
we fhall in future denominate the graduated circle, when
confidered with its radii and hollow axis attached to it.
This axis, by way of diftin@ion, may be called the exterior
axis ; it has a collar of caft-{teel driven faft into the cavity of
its inferior or thicker end, and a plate of bell-metal, with a
floping edge, furmounts the fuperior end, which plate may
be raifed or lowered by means of five {crews a€ting verti-
cally. The inftrument ftands on three fhort feet near
D and E, and at an equidiftant point not feen behind, which
feet are firmly united together, at the place where they
branch off, by a circular ftrong plate of bell-metal, upon
which is carried an attached vertical cone of metal fmaller
than the former one, and as it fills the cavity of the other,
we will call it the interior conical axis; the exterior one being
moveable round the interior one without the leaft perceptible
liberty, beyond what is neceffary for rotatory motion. On
the vertex of this interior axis is inferted a caft-{teel pivot with
floping cheeks, which, entering the central hole of the bell-
metal plate, exactly fits its cheeks there, while the beli-
metal bafe of the interior axis fits the caft-iteel collar in-
ferted into the lower extremity of the exterior conical axis.
This mode of centering allows the wheel to be taken off
and put on without injury, and is alfo free from the objection
that applies to thofe large inftruments that have’ the
fuperior end of the vertical axis fupported in a frame that
is liable to alter in its dimenfions:by expofure to the fun ;
of which imperfe@tion, as we have noticed in- our article
Crrcier, Piazzi had great reafon to complain. Befides,
this kind of centre-work allows of carriage from one place
to another, without any danger of injury being done to the
inftrument when properly packed. There are two achro-

matic telefcopes with double objett-glafles of each thirty-fix
inches focus, with eye-pieces of different powers both for
ere&t and inverted pofitions. One of thefe telefcopes lies
acrois the body of the inftrument, with the ends feen be-
tween the oppofite pillars of the baluftrade, the ufe of which
is to watch the pofition of the inftrument during the time
of an obferyation being made ; and, therefore, it requires
but little elevation in altitude: the other is mounted,
exaGly lke a tranfit-inftrument, over the top of the ex-
terior vertical axis, and has a femi-circle attached to the
extreme end of its horizontal axis of motion, of fix inches
radius, and graduated for fhewing angles of altitude or of
depreffion. ‘The Y’s in which the pivots of the upper
telefecope move, are fupported by the horizontal bar IK,
which is braced by the ladder-pieces attached to the
thick part of the exterior conical axis, and made fait
to the top of this axis by its focket, as feen in the
fe€tion in fig. 43 which feétion exhibits moreover the
internal fittings of both the internal and external axes at
their fuperior ends. This upper telefcope has a fpirit-
level with the ufual adjuftments at the Y’s, and at the bar
of fufpenfion for the horizontal pofition; and, as it will
reverfe in the Y’s, and has moveable wires in the focus of
the eye-piece, it may alio be adjufted by a horizontal
mark for collimation, and for taking exa& altitudes, (as
well as for taking minute angles of elevation without the
femi-circle by the motion of the micrometrical wires, ) when
the level is applied to a rod on the fide of the tube, as is the
cafe in our drawing. When thefe adjuftments are made,
by dividing the errors between the proper f{crews, as-ufual,
the level is hung to the crofs-bar I K to watch its pofition
while this telefcope is ufed, and when both telefcopes con-
tinue to bife@ the fame diftant mark during an obfervation,
with the bubble of the level in the middle, it is a proof
that the initrument keeps its pofition. When a {tar or
other object is viewed by night, the illuminating lamp K
throws light into the axis of the telefcope, which has a dia-
gonal perforated refleGtor, as is ufual in tranfit telefcopes.
A fyftem of darkening prifms is alfo applied to the fame
end of the axis to regulate the quantity of light that. fhall
come to the eye. All thefe adjuftments and appendages
have been minutely explained under our articles CircLE and
Transit-Jnfirument, and therefore need not be detailed in
this article; but it may be proper to obferve, that the
femi-circle has a moveable clamping-piece, bearing the fteel
arbor of a vertical ferew, the lower end of which falls on
a polifhed piece of fteel on the plane of the horizontal bar
I K, the ufe of which clamp and {crew is not only to give
a flow motion in altitude, but to allow the preponderating
eye-end of the telefenpe to reft fteady thereon, while the
obfervation. has been read and repeated. The obfervation,
in altitude is read by the compound microfcope at I, which
is nine inches long, and which, by means of its micrometrical
ferew, reads the divifions of the femi-circle to the accuracy
of 5", when an allowance of 12" is made for excentricity.
When this theodolite was firft brought into ufe, it was
found that the ferew L, with an ivory thumb-piece, moved’
the circle in azimuth by jerks, on which account the appa-
ratus for flow motion, feen in fig. 2, was fubftituted, in

which two crown-wheels and a, Hooke’s joint are in-

troduced to give motion to the tangent-fcrew ; which addi-
tion not only remedied the jerks, but allowed the obferver
to reach the handle while his eye remained at the upper tele-
fcope. The large brafs horizontal circle is divided into
quarters of a degree, and the fubdivifiong are made by the
vertical micrometrical microfcopes, the divided heads of
which read exact feconds, when properly adjuited for =e

or

THEODOLITE.

for diftinét vifion, and for power.. The fcrew of the ver-
tical micrometers has feventy-two threads in the inch, and
the notches that indicate the fifteen minutes on the micro-
metrical feale of fteel, are formed by this {crew, which we
mention particularly, becaufe this mode of reading was pro-
bably an original mode, though now become common.
Thefe vertical microfcopes, G and H, have each a ftage,
reprefented by Plate 1X. fig. 4; and a dot made ona thin
flip of gold, called a gold tongue, lies under the objeét-lens in
fuch a fituation, that the capftan fcrews can adjuft it to a
given place in the field of view of each microfcope, fo as to
become a mark for making the adjuftments by, and for
bifecting the circle at reverfed oppofite readings. The
pofition of the three glafles of each microfcope is feen
in fig. 3. of the fame plate, together with the magnified
appearance of the notched fcale and divifions of the
circle. In fig. 5. the general plan of the micrometer is
exhibited, and in fg. 6. is the plan of the ftage where the
pillars enter, that fupport the microfcope. Fig. 7. fhews
the lower or fteel flide, and ff. 8. the upper or
brafs flide, that feparate the wires of the micrometer ;
while fig. 9. is a reprefentation of the long horizontal micro-
{cope that reads the divifions of the femi-circle above
noticed, at the’ letter I in the large figure of Plate VIII.
As it was not eafy to defcribe the conftruétion of the three
feet, two of which, we have faid, only are vifible, oppofite
to D and E, we have added figs. 3. and 5. in Plate VIII.
to illuftrate their pofition. In fig. 3. the piece F F, as
before, is a portion of the ftand, and D E a portion of the
ofagonal board, to which the ferew F is attached, that
prefles againft the angular corner of the ftand, into which
a piece of brafs is let for the {crew to prefs againft, an end
fetion of which is fhewn in fig. 5, with the fame letters of
reference to the fame parts: M N is a feétion of the bafe
of the inftrument, and O one of the three brafs branches
that bears the foot-ferew P, and its two fide {crews or tight-
ening fcrews Q, R, as feen in fig. 5. AtS is acurved piece
of box, faft to M N, which bears the principal part of the
weight laid on this fcrew, and does not gall the parts
on whieh it flides, when a circular motion is given; but, to
take off a part of the weight, a cylindrical roller near S is
put to a horizontal {pring bearing the central pin of the rol-
ler, which {pring preffes the roller even with the face of the
curved block of box, and may be made to take more or lefs
of the weight by a {crew prefling upon it from above, and
giving it more or lefs tenfion. Hence all the parts of this large
inftrument are ftrong, and yet the moving parts are made to
go freely and {moothly ; and the only alteration that can appa-
rently be made for the better, is the addition of a third vertical
micro{cope, for which the conftruétion is peculiarly adapted ;
for each branch of the triple bar that carries the three feet,
being braced firmly, is made as though each was intended
to have a microfcope over it, which is the cafe with only
one; and an additional foundation for the fecond ftage is
made to receive the fecond microfcope, as we think, unne-
ceffarily ; for if three equidiftant microfcopes had been
ufed inftead of two oppofite ones, not only would the
errors of divifion and of eccentricity have been leffened
thereby, but in the reverfed pofition new parts of the circle
would have been pointed to, equidiftant from the former
three, fo that fix portions of the circle would thus have
been employed in meafuring a reverfed obfervation, which
the prefent aftronomer royal firft pointed out to be an ad-
vantage peculiar to three readings on a horizontal circle.
We have been informed, that it is yet intended to have three
microfeopes attached to the horizontal circle of this large
inflrument, to be ufed as we hawe here fuggefted. For the

advantage of a triple reading, fee our table for three verniers
in the article CrrcLeE.

After having given a defcription of Ramfden’s great
theodolite, we proceed, in the next place, to explain how
its different adjuftments are made, for putting it into a Rate
proper for ufe, which we cannot do better, than by adopt-
ing the dire€tions laid down by general Roy himfelf.

The Adjuftment of the Axis Level.—The axis of the upper
or tranfit telefcope, being brought over any one of the feet,
and the circle being clamped, hang the axis level on the
pivots, or anfz of the telefcope, and bring the bubble to
the two indices ; then reverfe the level, that is, turn it end
for end, and note the difference. Bife& this difference,
one half by the level’s adjufting fcrew, and the other half
by that foot-ferew only which is in a line with the axis.
This operation being repeated until the difference wholly
vanifhes, the level will be truly adjufted, that is to fay,
the bubble will reft between the fame points in both
pofitions.

Adjuftment of the Elevation Level.— This level being fuf-
pended on the rod attached to the outfide of the tranfit
telefcope, {crew the ere@ eye-tube on, to make that end
preponderate. Adjuft the bubble to the indices by the
fteel finger-ferew at the tail of the femi-circle’s clamp,
reverfe the level, and note the difference. Then bifect
that difference, and correét one half by the finger-
fcrew, and the other half by the proper adjufting ferew

under the level, and fo on, repeatedly, until the difference

wholly vanifhes. The level may then be hung on the two
pins that projet from the horizontal bar which carries the
telefcope, where, being parallel to the axis level, it will
fhew, when that is removed (as is commonly the cafe when
terreftrial objeéts only are obferved) whether the plane of
the inftrument fuffers any alteration. If this fhould have
happened, the level on the horizontal bar is at all times
fufficient to corre& it. :

To fet the vertical Axis je pea ae may be done
by either level, but beft with the axis level, which, being
fufpended on its pivots, mufl be brought parallel with two

of the feet of the inftrument ; and by the ferews of thefe-

two feet, the bubble is to be brought between its indices.
The circle being then turned round 180°, if the bubble
changes its place, half the difference is to be corrected by
one of the feet-ferews, and the other half by two capftan-
headed fcrews, that aét againft each other, under and be-
longing to one of the Y’s, or fupports, in which the pivots
reft. When the bubble is found to be jut in thefe two
pofitions, turn the circle 90°, which will neceflarily bring
the axis over the third foot of this inftrument: then correét
any error there may be by that foot-ferew. In this manner
the circle will be made to revolve again and again, without
any alteration whatever of the bubble, which fhews that
the vertical axis is then truly perpendicular to the horizon,

To make the Line of Collimation in the pels at right angles
with the tranfverfe Axis—The pivots retting in their Vs,
direé&t the telefcope to fome diftant well-defined obje&, and
let the circle be clamped. Then reverfe the axis, that is,
turn the telefcope upfide down. If the interfection of the
wires does not coincide with the objet in both pofitions,
half the difference mult be corrected by the motion of the
circle with the Hooke’s joint, and the other half by the
motion of the brafs {lide in the eye-end of the telefcope, by
applying the milled-head key in the {mall focket feen in
the figure; and fo repeatedly until the difference wholly
difappears.

To fet the Rod on which the Elevation Level hangs parallel to”

the Line of Gollimation—The vertical axis being fuppofed “*
€

$

T_T ee ee ae RET RN a ee

THEODOLITE.

be nearly vertical, hang the level on its rod, and reétify the
bubble by the finger-ferew of the clamp. Set the horizon-
tal wire on the heel flide, to interfeét the centre of the
oblique wires, and place the dart or index at zero on the
micrometer head. Then obferve fome diftant diftin& ob-
je& covered by the horizontal wire. Invert the femi-
circle, that is, turn the azimuth circle 180°, and the tele-
fcope upfide down, fo as to bring the wire upon, or nearly
upon, the fame object. Now, if the level be not right,
reétify it by the finger-ferew at the tailof the clamp. If
the telefcope does not now accurately cover the fame object,
as in the former pofition, bifeét the difference by the finger-
fcrew of the clamp, and then reétify the bubble by the
capitan-nuts under one end of the rod. Repeat this opera-
tion until the level is right, when the telefcope fees the fame
obje& in both pofitions, and thereby the rod will be
brought parallel in altitude to the line of collimation, or
axis of vifion.

We have defcribed other and more recent conftruétions
of large circular inftruments, under the word Circr.e, that
have all the properties of the theodolite which we have here
defcribed, and fome of which have the advantage of a large
vertical circle, that renders their ufe in aftronomy co-exten-
five with their application to geodetical operations, and
which therefore we recommend in preference to the bulky
inftrument with which the Englifh trigonometrical furveys
were performed.

A theodolite of a portable fize, and of Troughton’s beft
conftrution, is exhibited in Plate IX. fig. 1. of Surveying,
fuch as is adapted for land-furveying, or for the furveying
of harbours. A, B, C, are the three mahogany legs of a
tripod, furmounted with brafs joints which allow the legs
to form one entire cylinder, about four feet long. The
brafs-work above the three joints has a male fcrew, upon
which a focket, under the brafs circular plate D E, fcrews,
and bears the inftrument, which is almoft entirely of brafs.
This plate D E has four fockets made fait into it, projeét-
ing both above and below, as feen in the figure, in which
are exhibited three out of the four, with as many {crews
with milled heads, that afcend and defcend as they are
turned round, forwards or backwards, by means of their
conneétion with their refpective fockets, that have each a
female f{crew: the heads of thofe fcrews prefs againft the
inferior face of the upper circular brafs plate F G, to
which a ball, ending with a vertical axis, is attached, and is
embraced by the upper portion of the focket of plate D E,
within the four fcrews. ‘The intention of the ball and
focket, and of the two plates with the four intervening
fcrews, is to place the axis of the ball in a vertical pof-
tion, and to keep it in that pofition while the parts above
are employed in making an obfervation ; which office this
mechanifm will perform on floping as well on level ground.
The axis of the ball, however, is made hollow, to admit of a
fmaller folid axis within it, and has alfo two fockets or
tubes furrounding it ; all which have feparate motions, when
the ball is made faft by the preffure of the four fcrews.
The inner tube is attached to the graduated circle L M, of
eight inches diameter, the chamfered edge of which circle
is folid filver, that receives the dividing ftrokes read by
the microfcope K: and the clamping piece, feen feparately
in fig. 2, will fix the faid tube and graduated plate in any given
fituation by means of the {crew F, after which the fcrew G
with the milled head, attached to the plate F G, will pro-
duce the flow motion when neceflary. ‘The lower telefcope
H I turns on two pivots not feen, one of which pivots has
its hole in a cock, borne by a {fmaller circular plate under
the graduated plate, into which the two {crews H and I

Vor. XXXV.

enter, and the other pivot enters. the outermoft tube; fo
that an elevation or depreflion of about 20° can be ef-
feted by this telefcope, before its motion is limited by
the fuperior and inferior plates. This telefeope has a
proper motion in azimuth, independently of the graduated
plate, which motion is produced by the thumb-fcrew H,
the axis of which has a pinion a€ting with a concealed
wheel made fait to the graduated plate; but when the
clamping-{crew I is made Bf, then the telefcope and gra-
duated plate have but one common motion, which is com-
manded by the tangent-fcrew G of the clamping-piece F G.
The ufe of the feparate motion of this telefcope will be
explained prefently. Above the graduated plate L M, and
in clofe conta& with it, the vernier-plate revolves with the
folid or innermoft axis, that is faft to it, and its clamp and
{crew of flow motion are hid from the fight by the fuper-
incumbent frame. This plate, which has four oppofite ver-
niers, each reading to the accuracy of 15%, will move fepa-
rately, or may be clamped to the graduated plate, as oeca~
fion may require. Upon the plane of this vernier-plate, two
{pirit-levels are placed with their proper adjufting-fcrews,
one of which is feen at N; but the other, which ftands at
right angles to this, is concealed in the drawing by the
frame-work. A compafs and magnetic needle are alfo con-
cealed within the frame, but may be conceived to be con-
centric with the vernier-plate within the faid frame. The
tail-piece of the revolving microfcope K fits into a eircular
groove under the graduated plate LM, and, without hav-
Ing a centre of motion, will flide along the groove into.
any of the four pofitions, where the verniers require to be
read, without interfering with any of the other motions.
The inftrument now ee us has been fome years in ufe,
and is drawn on an enlarged {cale, that all the parts may be
the better defcribed ; but the moft recent theodolites of this
conftruétion have only three verniers, in preference to four,
by reafon of the property, which this number has, of mea-
furing at fix different and equidiftant points on the gra-
duated limb, when the meafurement of an angle is repeated
in a reverfed pofition of the fuperior telefcope; fo that
whatever errors of excentricity or of graduation may exift
in, the horizontal circle, they will be made to vanifh, in a
great meafure, by their counteraction in the reverfed pofition
of the verniers. Upon the plane of the vernier-plate is
{crewed, by three {crews, forming an ifofceles triangle, the
frame which fupports the pivots of the horizontal axis
of the femi-circle P Q, on which the upper telefcope T U
is placed. The arm, which bears the microfcope O for
reading the altitude or depreffion meafured by the femi-
circle, has a tube that flides upon the projecting horizontal
axis, that allows of fome degrees of motion between the
end-bars ofthe frame ; and another arm, that clamps the
oppofite end of the faid axis, has a tangent-fcrew of flow
motion at R, which finifhes the final conta& of the inter-
feéting point of the fpider’s lines, within the eye-end of the
telefcope, with the obje&t viewed. The vernier for the
femi-circle is {crewed to the frame, after {panning over the
compaf{s-box ; and its exact place may be adjufted by the
{crew of the frame above M, which ftands at the apex of
the ifofceles triangle formed by the three fcrews. The
level, that is feen under and parallel to the upper telefeope,
is attached to it by two pairs of fcrews, one pair of which
adjufts for the elevation or depreffion of one end of the tube
that holds the bubble, and the other pair adjufts laterally
for true parallelifm in this refpe@: when the pins ‘and U
are removed, the upper femi-circle of each ring, V and W,
will turn back each on a hinge, and allow the telefcope to be
taken out of its Y’s, for the purpofe of being reverfed in

30 pofition ;

THEODOLITE.

pofition ; and in both fituations the telefcope is capable of
having’ a circular motion, that carries the attached level
round with it an entire revolution. During this revolution,
an eye obferving the interfeéted point of the field of view,
as projected on a diftant point, will fee whether or not any
adjuftment of the fpider’s lines is neceflary, and in what
palyietis The aperture of each telefcope is an inch and a half,
and the ordinary magnifying powers are from ten to eleven,
with nearly fourtéen inches of tube; but the upper or mea-
furing telefcope has a fecond eye-piece of the pofitive kind,
which produces a magnifying power of twenty times. There
are three fpider’s lines in each eye-piece, one horizontal, and
two crofling it fo as to include a fmall angle between
them ; which method of fixing the lines, allows the obferver
an opportunity of bifeéting the faid fmall angle by a ver-
tical ftaff ereéted at a diftance, which is better than cover-
ing the ftaff with a vertical line, that would difappear upon
the plane of fuch ftaff. Before we proceed to explain how
this theodolite is ufed in the field, it will be requifite to
fhew how the previous adjuftments are to be performed.

When the inftrument is ferewed to the head of the tripod,
the legs muft be opened wide enough to enfure a firm pofi-
tion, and the points mutt be preffed into the ground equally,
exaétly over the hole into which a ftation ftaff has been, or is
intended to be, inferted; fo that the plumb, fufpended from
a pin at the junGtion of the legs, will fall exa¢tly upon the
faid hole ; in which fituation the lation, marked ©, is faid
to be taken.

When the theodolite has been properly fixed in its flation,
the firft adjuftment that will require to be made, is that
which regards the line of collimation. When all the parts of
the inftrument are properly in their places, let the upper
tele{cope be pointed in a horizontal line, that pafles over
two of the four ferews of plate D E, and note what point
in a diftant obje@ is covered by the horizontal fpider’s line,
near the middle of the field of view ; then turn the telefcope
half round in the Y’s, till the level lies above it, and obferve
if the fame point is again cut by the faid line ; if not, ele-
vate or lower the horizontal line by the proper fcrews in the
eye-piece, releafing one and {crewing up the other, till the
diftance between the two points, correfponding to the two
pofitions, is bife&ted by the horizontal {pider’s line: and if,
when the telefcope is turned back to its original pofition,
with the level under it, the fpider’s line covers the point ad-
jufted to, the line of collimation in altitude or depreffion
will be correét; but if not, the operation mult be repeated
delicately, till the horizontal line covers the fame diftant
point in both pofitions. The fame operation will alfo put
the vertical line correét, or rather the point of interfetion,
when there are two oblique lines inftead of a vertical line,
as in Troughton’s theodolite ; and the adjuftments will be
known to be complete, when the point of interfection con-
tinues on the fame diftant point, while the telefcope is made
to revolve round the line of collimation as an axis.

The fecond adjuftment is that which puts the long /evel pa-
rallel to the reétified line of collimation. While the telefcope
remains parallel to the line that joins two oppofite ferews
of plate D E, adjuft thofe two ferews by turning them in
oppofite direétions, until the bubble is obferved to be in the
middle of its: tube under the telefcope: then, the femi-ringss
V and W being previoufly turned back, reverfe the ends of
the telefcope, tind alfo of the level attached to it; and if the
bubble will refume its former fituation in the middle of the
tube, both the line of collimation and the level will be truly
horizontal, and confequently parallel to each other; but if
the bubble recedes to one end, bring it back one half by the
{crews that elevate or deprefs one end of the level, and the

io

other half by the ferews of plate DE. Let this speration
be repeated till the bubble will remain in the middle of the
tube, after the telefcope has been réverfed into both pofi-
tions. The adjuftment of the level, however, is not yet eom-
plete; for though the axes of the two tubes may be equi-
diftant at both ends of the level, yet may they be in-
clined fo as to form an horizontal angle with each other
at fome diftance; and in this cafe the bubble willrun to
the higher end of its tube, when the telefcope rotates ;
there are therefore two lateral {crews, which adjuit the paral-
lelifm of the two tubes, fo that the bubble will remain in
the middle, in every part of a rotation of the telefcope
round its line of collimation, which adjuftment muft now
be made ; and if this lateral adjuftment fhould be found to-
derange the vertical one before made, it mult be re-adjufted,
and the level will then be in a proper {tate for ufe, provided
the Y’s are alike, and alfo the cylinders that reft in them ;
but if not, the bubble will not reft in the middle in both of
the reverfed pofitions, till they are made fo. - 1

The third adjuftment that we propofe to explain, is that
which puts the line of collimation exactly at right angles
to the axis of the femi-circle’s vertical motion, which has
not yet. been deferibed, but which is eflentially rieceflary
to be attended to, more particularly by the maker. Let
the upper telefcope be dire&ed to fome horizontal well-
defined mark, that is included within the angular fpace
formed by the two oblique lines, juft where the vertical
line would have been, if fuch line had been ufed, while zero
of the vernier coincides with zero (360°) of the horizon-
tal limb of plate LM; then all the fcrews being fait, ex-
cept the one which allows the vernier-plate to revolve, turn
180° in azimuth, and reverfe the telefcope by taking it out
of its Y’s, into its original pofition with refpeét to the
mark ; andif this is feen in precifely the fame fituation in
the angular {pace, (though not perhaps with refpe& to alti-
tude, if the axis of the vernier-plate was not previoufly
adjufted,) the line of collimation will be at right angles
to the axis of the vertical motion; but fhould this not
prove to be the cafe, one of the Y’s will require to be al-
tered laterally, but the adjuftment of the level will not be
deranged thereby. This alteration of one of the Y’s had,
however, better be effeCted by a regular workman, and
fhould never be negle&ted by the maker.

The fourth adjuftment, which might have preceded the
third without inconvenience, is that which makes the com-
mon axis of motion of the verhier-plate and horizontal gra-
duated circle truly vertical. This is done partly by the
{crews that fix the ball and focket, inferted into plate DE,
and partly by the adjufting-ferew R of the vertical femi-
circle. Hitherto the upper telefcope has lain over two of
the four {crews ‘only, and in a horizontal line, with the bub-
ble in the middle. Let it now be turned along with the
vernier-plate juft go°, till it lies over the other pair of op-
pofite ferews, and fee if the bubble be now alfo in the
middle, if not, make it fo by thofe {crews ; and if, after this
operation, the bubble will remain in the middle during a
whole revolution of the vernier-plate, in both the reverfed
pofitions of the telefcope, the vertical axis of motion will
be truly adjufted.

The fifth adjuftment relates to the levels fixed to the
plane of the horizontal graduated circle, which are ufe-
ful in watching the horizontal pofition of the inftrument,
while an obfervation is making; thefe, which are at right
angles to each other horizontally, muft alfo be feparately
at right angles to the vertical axis that carries them round.
When this axis has been adjufted, as we have juft explained,
by the level of the upper telefeope, the bubbles of fon

ce

THEODOLITE.

the fixed levels muft be brought to the middle of their re-
{peétive tubes by their proper fcrews, fo that the bubbles
of all the three levels may remain ftationary in every part
of the revolution of the vernier-plate, which they will do
if its axis is truly vertical.

The fixth adjuftment“is that which puts the axis of the
femi-circle’s motion truly horizontal, or at right angles to
the vertical axis of the horizontal circles: this is known to
be fo, when the point of interfection of the fpider’s lines
will cover a long plumb-line, fufpended at a diftance, as the
angle of elevation increafes, from the inferior to the fuperior
end of the fufpended line ; and itill better by trying if the

le ftar, and its refleted image, feen in a bafon of quick-
filver, will be fuccefliyely covered by the faid point of interfec-
tior of the {pider’s lines. In fome theodolites, the horizontal
axis lies in adjnftable Y’s, like thofe of a tranfit-inftrument ;
but in the inftrument before us, the adjuftment was made
permanent by the maker.

Laftly, the adjuftment of the vernier to zero of the femi-
circle is made by the {crew near M, which elevates or de-
prefles the whole frame in which the telefeope and femi-
circle move, and confequently alters the fituation of the
level, which has its bubble brought back again by the fcrew
R, that gives flow motion to the femi-circle, when the
clamp at the fuperior end of the arm is made faft to the
axis of motion; but it is not effential that zero of the
vernier fhould be at zero of the femi-circle when the level is
right, becaufe when an altitude or depreflion is repeated in
the reverfed pofitions of the telefcope, the two readings
will have equal and oppofite errors; and one half of the
difference of thofe readings will be the conftant index error,
which may be afcertained with great precifion from an
average of a number of reverfed obfervations.

The lower telefcope, being placed as a guard to watch
any azimuthal alteration in the pofition of the inftrument,
requires no adjuitments, except that for diftinét vifion, after
it is brought to its obje&t by its proper vertical and hori-
zontal motions, in which fituation its horizontal motion is
clamped by the fcrew I under the horizontal plate.

After the adjuftments are all made, or examined, the
theodolite may be ufed for meafuring either horizontal or
vertical angles in the following manner. Let us fuppofe
two ftaves erected vertically on level ground, one towards
the eaft and the other towards the fouth of the ftation
where the inftrument ftands in a ftate of adjuftment; and let
it be required to afcertain the angle fubtended at the centre
of the inftrument by a line joining thefe itaves: in the firft
place, the lozenge of the vernier No. 1. muit be clamped to
360° on the horizontal circle, and the clamping ferew F
mutt be releafed, fo that the upper tele{cope, vernier-plate,
and graduated horizontal circle, may all move in azimuth
together, till the ftaff to the eaft is feen in the field of
view ; this clamp F may then alfo be made faft, and the
ferew of flow motion, G, will bring the ftaff to bifect the
angle formed by the fpider’s lines, in which fituation zero
of the meafuring circle is truly placed: in the next place,
bring the lower telefcope, by its proper {crew H, into pre-
cifely the fame fituation, and fix it there by the fixing
{crew I: then, having examined that the upper telefcope
has not moved from the ftaff by any accident, releafe the
clamping ferew that held the vernier-plate, and turn the
upper telefcope, till the fecond ftaff in the fouth bifeéts the
ane of the {pider’s hairs; which may firft be done roughly

ore clamping, and afterwards more exa€tly, by the tangent-
{crew of the clamp ; then, having examined the pofition of
the lower telefcope again, let all the four (or three) readings
of the vernier-plate be put down, and.take the fourth (or
third) part of their amount as the true angle, and fee that

both telefcopes have their flaves bifecting their vefpeétive
angular {paces as at firit, after the meafures are read, and then
the average thus afcertained will be nearly the true angle:
but to prove the exactnefs of the meafure thus taken, and
alfo the accurate conftru€tion of the inftrument, the tele-
{cope refting in the Y’s may now have its pofition reverfed,
and then No. 3. of the four verniers muft be clamped to the
point 360° of the graduated circle, and the fame operation
muift be repeated, when another average of four meafures
will be had, and an average of thefe two refults with oppo-
fite index errors, may be confidered as very near the truth ;
and more particularly if there are only three verniers; for
then, as we have ftated above, the readings will be at fix
equidiftant points of the circle, and will correé&t for excen-
tricity as well as inequality of divifions, if any exift. In
ordinary meafurements of angles, in {mall furveys of land,
this attention to extreme aceuracy may be {uperfluous,
where the inftrument is well centered and graduated: but
where the lings to be meafured are long, the angles cannot
be taken with too much care; particularly when any fide of
a ne is to be determined, or checked, by the oppofite
angle.

In taking an angle of altitude or of depreffion with the
femi-circle of the theodolite in queftion, very great aceu-
racy is not to be expected, feeing there is but one vernier ;
but by proper attention to the previous adjuftment of the
level of the upper telefcope, and by ufing the telefcope in
the reverfed pofitions, two meafures will be obtained with
oppolite errors, that counteraét each other’s effeéts, fo as to
render the meafure true to 15". It is hardly neceffary to
add, that the meafure of a vertical angle is taken by the
horizontal f{pider’s line, and that the lower telefcope is of no
ufe in taking fuch meafure.

We proceed, laftly, to exemplify the ufe of a common
theodolite by an a€tual furvey of a {mall eftate, fuch as will
come within the limits of one of our plates, and by an ex-
planation of the manner in which a feld-book is kept in
practice, and its contents transferred to the formation of a
map, agreeably to the moft approved methods of meafuring
and plotting an eftate of any affigned dimenfions. For
this part of our article we are indebted to Mr. James Wad-
more, whofe experience and acknowledged {kill, in his pro-
feffion of land-furveyor, eminently qualify him for commu-
nicating the requifite information which we have referved
for this place, to render the fubje&t of /urveying complete.

“© Preparatory to making a furvey with the affiftance of
a theodolite, I confider it indifpenfably neceflary, (fays
Mr. Wadmore,) that the furveyor fhould feel well affured
that his inftrument is in a perfe& {tate of adjuftment, and
alfo that his chain is correét, otherwife no dependance can
be placed pon the moft particular and minute field-book he
could make ; for if thefe primary things are not attended
to, the refult of his labours, on plotting his dimenfions, will
turn out to be only fo much time loft, as well as that which
he may have beftowed upon his furvey.

*¢ In order to obviate thefe difficulties in fome meafure, I
moft earneftly recommend to the young praétitioner, that,
in choofing his theodolite, as well as his protraétor, cafe of
inftruments, plotting {cales, &c. on which every thing de-
pends to. enable him to complete his furveys with correét-
nefs, that he be not {paring of a little money in purchafing
thofe that are good, and can be relied upon for accuraey ;
as the being furnifhed with fuch, in the firft inftance, will
be the means of enfuring to him that ultimate difpateh in
the progrefs of his profeffion, which will lead him to the
mott fatisfactory refults.

“© As nearly the whole of the profeffion of furyeyors
have fome material or nice diftinétions in keeping their field-

302 books,

THEODOLITE.

books, ariling either from the peculiar methods they have
been taught, the inftruments they ufe, the methods the more
experienced have been led to adopt ; from the more enlarged
and enlightened views they may have taken to afcertain the
beft poffible manner of facilitating the defired object, that of
making a correét furvey; or from the more improved ftate
of mathematical {cience ; I truft I may be permitted to offer
the following method of taking dimenfions, the form of
keeping -a field-book, and the method to be adopted in
plotting the fame. Having made ufe of the theodolite, and
endeavoured, by practical experience, to avail myfelf of its
moft beneficial fervices, I have no doubt but the fpeci-
men I now fubmit will be moft readily comprehended, and
the moft intricate and difficult furveys accomplifhed by the
fame means; viz. with the affiftance of the theodolite, where
other methods, by poffibility, may be found partially (if
not wholly) to fail.

« On commencing a furvey, I have always found it necef-
fary to look out for an intelligent labourer, well acquainted
with the locality of the neighbourhood, with whofe affiit-
ance, and another to carry the theodolite, I ufually com-
mehce ; invariably taking the chain myfelf after the leader :
and here it may not be amifs to remind the young practi-
tioner, that, in following, he muft be moft particular in
dire&ting his chain-leader in a ftraight line, otherwife the re-
lative bearings of the ftations forward, taken by the theo-
dolite, will be rendered incorreét, and the protractor im
plotting will not fail to convince him of his error, to his
great chagrin and difappointment. I mutt alfo remind him
of the neceflity of keeping his chain-hand, and alfo direéting
that of his chain-leader to be kept as near the furface as
conveniently can be done, and the chain properly ftretched,
by which means he will obtain more corre lengths in
meafuring from ftation to ftation, infuring thereby the
greater accuracy in his furvey (particularly if it be large) ;
as he will very early find, in the courfe of his practice, that
errors, when once begun, will aptly increafe; to prevent
which, it will be fiulid very convenient to plot every day’s
work on his return home, before he commences another,
when, if any error is found, it can be rectified on the follow-
ing day.

« Many other neceffary cautions might be given to the
young furveyor, which by fome may be hodeht uperfluous,
but the following I cannot help recommending to his atten-
tion ; viz. that of being exceedingly particular in marking
and defcribing his exterior boundaries, having myfelf, more
than once, feen litigation prevented by the produétion of
corre@ furveys, where the boundaries of eftates in difpute
were clearly defined. And let him not be fearful of taking
too many offsets, or dimenfions; for by trufting obferva-
tions neceffary to his furvey to memory, he cannot but
fail to omit fome ; whereas by a copious field-book, not even
the flighteft bend in a fence, or object of any fort, can pofli-
bly be omitted. Above all, let him feel well fatisfied of the
correétnefs of his chain; to enable him to do which, he fhould
always have a fpare one, on a large furvey, to correct by ;
as it is well known that accidents will happen by the break-
ing of the fame, by lofs of rings, &c. ; and the offset ftaff,
from being too short, cannot be depended upon for this
purpofe.

“ Having faid thus much, I now proceed to fhew the
method I have praétifed in furveying with the theodolite ; in
doing which, I fhall firft premife that I have always con-
fidered it advantageous to take a view of the eftate to be
furveyed, by doing which, I have been enabled to avail
myfelf of ftudying the beft ftations, and to judge how the.
biifinefs may be accomplifhed with the greatelt facility.

« The theodolite which I have been accuftomed to ufe

is a very good one, made by Cary, about five inches
diameter on the limb, which is finely graduated, with a
vernier reading minutes, and with degrees numbered from
1 to 360; it has an achromatic telefcope and vertical arc, for
the purpofe of afcertaining the angles of elevation and de-
preffion in hilly furveys, on one fide, and the correfponding
deduétions to be made in the chain lines on the other, and
moves by rack-work.

“<The method adopted by me, after fome years’ praétice,
in keeping a field-book, perhaps may be thought fingular,
namely, that of commencing at the bottom of the laft page
of the fame, and working upwards therefrom; but it will
readily be feen, on reference to the accompanying field-book
in Plate X. to be the beft way, as in proceeding, you meet
the objeéts you have to defcribe in fucceflion as you advance,
and it affords a much greater facility in laying off the off-
sets from the chain-lines, than in the other way.

“It is well known that the needle is frequently affected,
in the firft place, by the atmofphere, and liable to get out of
order ; in the fecond, the chain being made of iron as well _
as the arrows, and their not being moved a fufficient diftance
in general, when the theodolite is planted for taking an
angle, it may thereby be very materially affected; in the
third, articles of iron or fteel may be about the perfons
attending the furvey, which may have the fame effe&; in
the fourth, it may not be found improbable, from the
very nature of the ground on which a furvey may be carried
on, that veins of iron, or metallic ore, may exit under the
furface, which will not fail to influence the polarity, to
the utter detriment of afcertaining the true bearings; and,
laftly, without a vernier, the angle cannot be read with fuffi-
clent accuracy.

“« Trutting that the foregoing remarks will fuffice to con-
vince thofe, who may be carrying on furveys by the needle
alone, of the danger of trufting to this method, as well as to pre-
vent the ftudent in the profeflion from fo doing, I now proceed
to fhew, that by taking the included angles of the furvey
upon the limb of the theodolite, and by carefully noting
them in the field fketch, (as feen in the plate, ) no fuch danger
can poflibly exift. The following problem will give futh-—
cient proof of the accuracy of this method of meafuring the
internal angles of any geometrical figure, whatever may be
the number of its fides ; viz. double the number of fides, and
multiply them by 90°; and then, if 360° be fubtraéted
from the produét, the remainder will be the fum of all the
internal angles ; for if we fuppofe lines drawn from every
angle to one common point in or near the middle of the
figure, there will be as many triangles as there are fides, and
the fum of all the angles at the apex, or point aflumed, will
be 360°, as will appear when circumferibed by a {mall circle :
therefore, as every triangle contains 180°, the amount of all
the triangles will be as many times 180° (or 90° x 2) as
there are bafes, when diminifhed by 360°. In our example,
the furvey is bounded by five chain lines, with as many in-
cluded angles, and therefore the amount of the angles will
be 5 X 90° x 2) — 360°; or go0® — 360° = 540°, agree~
ably to the fubjoined meafurements taken in the field ; viz.

At © 2 - - 85° 14!
© 4 - - 88 18
3 Gow il

Gis t 1+ 74 ey: f

73°43

oe = * U+ 71 16
© 1 - - 87 12
Total fum - 540 0

Having

THEODOLITE,

* Having faid fo much relative to the means of applying
the theodolite moft beneficially, I fhall now explain an
example of each of the methods I have alluded to ; in doing
which, I beg it may be underftood, that although the
difficulties I have enumerated may in fome cafes exift,
yet it is poffible a furvey of moderate extent may be carried
on by the needle with caution fufficient to obviate them ;
though I am fully fatisfied, from experience, that the latter
method is the moft to be relied upon; I fhall, however,
proceed to exemplify both in the order before-mentioned.

“The Method of ufing the Theodolite in afcertaining the
Bearings by the Needle.—It will be feen by the field-
book, that I commence at ({ftation) © 1, at the back of
the manfion: here, having the theodolite firmly fixed in
the ground, by means of the four adjufting-ferews, I fet
it perfeétly level, firft in the dire€tion of the magnetic
north, and afterwards at right angles: being thus fatis-
fied, I fet the vernier on the upper limb correctly to

60° on the graduated circle, and loofen the fcrew that
a the inftrument. I then move the graduated circle
round until I afcertain that the needle points to N. in
the compafs-box, and then tighten the fame fcrew, which
prevents it from moving. Being now ready to take the
bearing from © 1 to © 2, I dire& the telefcope to fome
obje&t in that direétion, keeping as near to the boundary-fence
as can well be admitted, in order to reduce the length of the
offsets ; and having brought the crofs-wires in the telefcope
to bear upon the obje&, I then look to fee what part of the
limb is cut by the vernier, which I find to be 330° 2!, and
in a north-weft direction. This I note down as in the
field-book, and afterwards examine whether it is corre@. I
then dire the chain-man to move forward towards that
obje&, leaving a mark behind, to return to, and proceed by
firft taking the following offset at oo; that is, at the place
of commencement, I find an offset to the right of 86
links to lady Buckinghamfhire’s fence, and 40 from thence
back to the building, which I note down. _I then proceed,
and at 212, I meafure 5 links to the right, toa tree; and
going forwards at 274, I meafure 2 links to the left, to
another tree, (which objets I am always induced to mark
in the furvey, for the purpofe of embellifhing the fair map) :
proceeding onwards at 310, the offset to the corner of lady
Buckinghamfhire’s fummer-houfe is 10; at 360, the chain
touches the fence, confequently I mark the offset o (no-
thing); at 738, there is an offset to the left of 23 links, to
a tree; and at 917, one to the fence of 13: continuing the
line, I fet up a mark at 950, and write the fame down in the

field-book, thus « (352) G) mark left,’? meaning it for
a ftation, to join to hereafter: I call it ftation G» being

the next number following the ftation I am,meafuring to-
wards ; and I inclofe it in a circle, to make it more pro-
minent to refer to; and mark the 950, the number of links
on the chain-line, alfo in a circle, that I may not err in
plotting off the fituation of the fame. I then go on, and
at 960 come to the outer a8 of a fmall clump of trees ;
at 975, an offset to the left afcertains the width of the
clump that way to be 50 links, and one to the right of 13
links to the fence; 986 paffes the outer aa of the
clump ; at 1031, an offset of 31 links on the left to the
canal; at 1100, paffing clofe to the edge of the canal,
there being no offset on the left, I mark it o (nothing) ;
at 1155, I crofs the gravel-walk, the width of which was
previoufly noted in the field-book to be 8 links ; and at
1180, I halt, and mark the offset to the fence on the right
5 links. Here I again plant my theodolite, as before,
9

exaGly over the ftation-hole ; and after fetting it perfeétly
level, and having brought the vernier 360° on the circle, and
afcertained that the needle was correétly pointing to N. in
the compafs-box, I tighten the fixing {crew, then move the
telefcope round gently to the left, until the crofs-wires cut
a confpicuous objeét in the direGtion in which I mean to
proceed, and afcertain that the vernier cuts 235° 7! in a
fouth-weft direétion in the box. This I note down imme-
diately in the field-book, as there reprefented; and after
examining that I had done fo correctly, I proceeed on to
meafure the line from © 2 to © 4, taking the offsets right
and left, and making the neceflary remarks, to enable me to
give a correct map and defcription of the eftate, and fo on
throughout the furvey. I haye been particular in the field-
book, which I truft, by the above defcription, will be con-
fidered to bea plain and facile way.

“ The Method of ufing the Theodolite in afcertaining the Angles
upon the graduated Circle, without Reference to the Needle.
—On commencing, I plant the theodolite firmly in the
ground, and after adjufting the level perfeétly, and fet-
ting the vernier to 360° on the limb, I move the circle
round, until I afcertain that the needle in the compafs-box
points correétly to N.; then tightening the ferew that fixes
the inftrument, as before, I move the telefcope gently
round in the direGtion of the line to © 2, in doing which,
I find that the vernier cuts upon 330° 2’ N.W. This is noted
down, in order to fhew the bearing of the eftate upon the
map, and which, on being deduéted from 360°, leaves an
angle to the left of the meridian of 29° 58', as fhewn in the
example: then leaving a mark at ftation © 1, and having
proceeded along the line to ftation © 2, and taken the
offsets, and made the neceflary remarks in the field-book,
as in the former method, on arriving at © 2, I again
plant the theodolite firmly in the ground, and adjufting it
as before, move the telefcope round until the crofs-wires
cut the lower part of the mark left at © 1: then noting in
my field fketch the number of degrees cut by the vernier
upon the limb, without regarding zero, I afterwards move
the telefcope carefully round to the right, and dire@ it to-
wards © 4; and bringing the crofs-wires in the telefcope
to cut the objet propofed to be meafured to, I look and fee
the number of degrees cut by the vernier on the limb, as
before: dedu€ting one from the other, I get the Z at © 2,
viz. 85° 14/; and after having meafured the line, on my
arriving at @ 4, I proceed exa@tly in a fimilar way, by
firit looking back to the laft ftation, and then forward to
the next, deduéting the number of degrees and minutes
in one direction from thofe read in the other, which gives
the angle 88° 18!. Following this courfe, I proceed on
the furvey until all the angles and fides are completed.

“« It is neceflary, however, before quitting each ftation, to
take particular care in reading off the angles by the vernier,
and alfo in writing them down correly : and in this way
of proceeding, the trouble,of adjufting for zero of the
vernier to 360° at every ftation is avoided.

«« By plotting, is underftood the making of a draught of
the eftate from the field-book ; and as the inftruments necef-
fary to be ufed by the furveyor, in taking the dimenfions
in the field, are fuch, that he may be enabled to afcertain
diftances and angles correétly ;' it naturally occurs that
correfponding requifites are neceflary to make a ground-
plot, or draught thereof, for laying down the quantities of
the feveral angles, and of the diftances meafured by the
chain upon paper, which are ufually accomplifhed by means
of the protraétor for the former, and feales of equal parts
for the latter.

“* With refpe& to the protraétor, I have hitherto ufed,

and recommended the young furveyor to ufe, one of ee
inches

THE

inches diameter, graduated to half a degree, and numbered
from 1 to 360°, to correfpond with my theodolite, with a ver-
nier to mark off the angles to one minute of a degree, and
a projeGting pointer of two inches and a half beyond the
outer radius of it, which in general furveying will be found,
with care, to be fufficiently correét. This I had alfo from
Mr. Cary of the Strand, together with the fet of ivory
plotting-feales, of about twelve inches long, decimally divided
the whole length clofe by the edges, which are chamfered,
to lay clofe to the paper, and give additional facility in
pricking off the chain-lines, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. which
are chains: thefe again are fubdivided into tenths, every
one of which divifions are reckoned 10 links. The numbers
are fo placed as to reckon backwards and forwards for con-
venience ; but the method of ufing them is now fo univer-
fally known, and fo eafily anderfidod; as to preclude the
neceffity of any further defcription. I fhall, therefore,
proceed direGtly to ftate the method ufed by me of trans-
ferring the dimenfions of the eftate from the field-book,
which is as follows ; viz.

«« Having provided myfelf with a fheet of drawing-paper
of fufficient fize, I proceed to draw a line acrofs the fame
in pencil, which line is nominally reprefentative of the
magnetic meridian, or that which the needle in the compafs
box points to. On a convenient fituation on this line, with
a fine pointer, I make a mark thus ©, and calling that

ftation) © 1, I lay the protraétor with its centre upon the
{tation-point, and take care that 360° of the protractor
cuts the line on the northern fide, and 180° the fouthern
fide of the meridional line: I then turn the moveable
pointer to the left, until the centre of the vernier thereof
cuts 330° 2! on the limb of the protraétor, when I prefs
down the pointer fufficiently hard to make a vifible mark ;
then taking off the protraétor, I draw a fine line with a
pencil from © 1 to the point fo pricked off ; and afterwards,
with a feale of chains, mark off the length of the firft chain-
line, viz. 1180 links: I alfo mark off 950 links for © 3,
where a mark was left to join to. This done, I draw a line
parallel to the firft magnetic meridional line through © 2 ;
when I put the protraétor upon the fame, taking care that
the centre is exa€tly upon © 2, and that 360° and 180°
exactly cut the meridional line north and fouth refpeétively ;
which being done, I move the pointer to the left ; and when
I find the vernier cuts 235° 7! on the limb, I again prefs
down the pointer, and make a fufficient impreffion on the
paper, to which I draw a line from © 2: then taking
the feale, I prick off the length of the chain-line from © 2
to © 4, being 1274 links, and alfo 994 links on the fame
line from @ 2 to a mark left there, and called in the field-
book © 5. I proceed in this manner until the whole of the
bearings and chain-lines are laid down, the laft of which, or
the conneéting-line, viz. from © 10 to G 1, on being
Jaid down, and the protraétor having pricked off the
angle 62° 41! N-E., I draw the pencil-line, and finding
that it clofes upon © 1, both as to bearing and diftance, I
am fatisfied the whole is correét.

“ Tn laying down the angles and chain-lines of the fur-
vey taken by the latter method, without the ufe of the
needle, little need be faid; for, having firft drawn the mag-
netic meridian line, marked N. S., a mark is made on fome
convenient part thereof for @ 1; then laying the centre of
the protractor thereon, and 360° and 180° thereof cutting
the meridian line north and fouth refpetively, I prick off
29° 58! on the left-hand, or north-welt fide, as being the
relative bearing of © 2 from * 1; then drawing a fine line,
I mark off the length of the chain-line, and lay the centre
of the protra&tor upon © 2, and mark off the 4 between
© 1, which I firft look back to, and © 4, the angle of

T YE

which, on dedu@ting the quantity of one from that of the
other, I find to be 85° 14!: this I prick off, and drawing
a line thereto, I mark off the length of the chain-line 1274
links, and fo continue to proceed until the boundary is
finifhed. I then proceed to mark off the offsets at their
proper points in each chain-line, and conne¢ting the points
of fuch offsets, I have the boundary defined of its true
fhape and dimenfions, as feen inthe map. Liattly, I caft
up the dimenfions of the feveral triangles and offsets, con-
fidered as {mall trapezia, the method of doing which has
been explained under the word Cuarn, and find the con-
tents as expreffed in the fubjoined table.

Freehold in Hand.

Manfi buildings, thrub fe: rote
A. Manfion, out-buildings, fhrub- Biss
ge: sae lawn, canal, &c. et 8 1 a6
B. Garden - . . - o 32 410
C. Part of Pightle (formerly
> > a a Oo 2 13
Woolley’s :
D. Adjoining fhrubbery and lawn : ° 0 37
E. Freehold part of garden - » OT Wald,
F. Stable - - - - Copperas” ww 4
G. Cottage and garden -— - Op 4D G
Total freehold ~ EG. Boat
Copyhold in Hand.
ALLR ska.
H. Sheds and yard - - =, 1.0, ZI
I. Copyhold part of garden - © 0 | 5
K. Woolley’s, three ares Pam es a!
L. Late Slatt’s , .- - = 0.1. Ta. 27,
$i: 234 4g
Total of eftate - 14245

THEODORE I. pope, in Biography, was the fon of a
bifhop of the fame name, and born at Jerufalem. He fuc-
ceeded John IV. in the papal chair in the year 642. Of
this pope no material circumftance occurs, except his contro-
verfy with the church at Conftantinople, concerning the
do&trine of the Monothelites; and this controyerfy is fo
little interefting to our readers, that we fhall pafs it over
without any farther notice. Theodore died in the year 649.
Befides fome letters relating to the above-mentioned contro-
verfy, a memorial againft Pyrrhus, the depofed patriarch of
Conftantinople, and his errors, addreiled to the Eaft
bifhops, is preferved. Bower. ;

Turopore II. pope, a native of Rome, fucceeded» Ro-
manus about the clofe of the year 898. During his pof-
feffion of the fee, which he held only for twenty days, he
caufed the body of his predeceffor Stephen to be taken out
of the T'yber, and interred in the Vatican, and declared all
his aéts to be legal and valid. Bower.

Turopore Lascaris I. a Greek emperor, was fon-in-
law of Alexius Angelus, who imprifoned his brother [faac
and ufurped the throne. Having valiantly but unfuccefs-
fully defended Conftantinople againft the French and Vene-
tians in the year 1204, he withdrew from the fcene of con-
teft acrofs the Bofphorus, and put himfelf at the head of a
body of troops; but when he found that the confederates
were purfuing him, he fought refuge with the Turkifh ful-
tan of Iconium. Being joined by the inhabitants of Bithy-
nia, he took pofleffion of the country from the river Mean-
der to the Euxine fea, and fixed his refidence at Nice, where
he was crowned by the patriarch of Conftantinople. When
his father-in-law heard of his fuccefs,*he went over from

Greece,

THE

Greece, where he had remained concealed, to Afia, and im-
plored the affiftance of the fultan of Iconium in Aeerete
that part of his dominions of which Theodore had taken pof-
feffion ; and having induced him to march with 20,000 men,
he laid fiege to Antioch on the Meander. Theodore, at the
head of 2000 men, marched to its relief, and routed the be-
fiegers. The fultan renewed the conteft, and fingling out
Theodore, beat him off his horfe ; but the emperor recover-
img himfelf, unhorfed the fultan, cut off his head, and plac-
ing it on a pole, terrified his enemies, fo that they all fled.
Alexius was carried, as a prifoner, to Nice, where he was
confined. Theodore, having made peace with the Turks,
formed a treaty with the Latin emperor of Conftantinople,
and fpent the remaining eighteen years of his reign, in fe-
curing his newly-founded empire, which he tranfmitted to
his defcendants ; bequeathing it, at his death, to his fon-in-
law, John Ducas Vataces. "The Nicean empire terminated
about fifty-feven years after its eftablifhment by the elevation
of its poffeffor, Michael Paleologus, to the throne of Con-
ftantinople. Anc. Un. Hitt. ibbon. Gen. Biog.

TueEopor:E, bifhop of Mopfueftia in Cilicia, was prieft, and
probably native, of Antioch, a difciple of Diodorus, and
an intimate friend of John Chryfoftom. He was ordained
bifhop in 392 or 394, and died in 428 or 429. Sozomen
fays, that he was well {killed in the facred f{eriptures, and in
the liberal fciences of the rhetoricians and philofophers: and
‘Theodoret calls him the doétor of the whole church, fayin
that he was bifhop thirty-fix years, and that he wrote pet
all herefies, particularly thofe of Arius, Eunomius, and
Apollinarius. He wrote commentaries probably upon all
the books of the Old and New Teitament, though two or
three of them are not particularly mentioned : and in thefe
commentaries, as Photius fays, he avoided all allegorical in-
terpretations, and confined himfelf to the hiftorical and lite-
ral fenfe. He defended this mode in a work concerning
allegory and hiftory againft Origen. Some have charged him
with treating the book of Job, the Canticles, and the Pfalms,
with difrefpe& ; but thefe are the accufations of his enemies,
and perhaps founded in error, as he a€tually wrote com-
ments on fome of thefe books. The book of Job he is faid
to have reprefented as written in a fabulous manner, though
founded on truth ; the Canticles he is faid to have confidered
as a nuptial poem, and the Pfalms as chiefly referring to the
hiftory of the times. His other works were numerous, and
related to the controverfies of his times, and to various theo-
logical do&trines. Moft of Theodore’s works are now loft,
but fome fragments of them may be found, chiefly in Latin,
and perhaps not fairly reprefented, in the A&s of the fecond
general council of Conftantinople, or the fifth general coun-
cil, held in 553, and alfo in Facundus, and in the Greek
Chains. Fabricius affures us, that his commentary upon the
Twelve Prophets is ftill extant in manufcript in the empe-
ror’s library at Vienna; and Montfaucon {peaks of its being
in the library of St. Mark at Venice, as well as in the library
at Vienna, and in the Vatican.

Theodore was no lefs celebrated as a preacher, than as a
commentator and general writer : under the former charac-
ter he was admired at Antioch, at Conftantinople, and all
over the Eaft. Diftinguifhed by his learning and liberality,
confidering the time in which he lived, he has been charged
with adopting the fentiments of Neftorius and Pelagius ; and
fome moderns have called him the parent both of Pelagianifm
and Neftorianifm ; whilft others allow, that he held the Pe-
Jagian principle, but are of opinion that the charge of Nef-
torianifm is not fo clear. The above-mentioned council de-
voted a conference to the examination of Theodore’s writ-
ings; and began with reading a creed attributed to him:

THE

upon whiéh the bifhops clamoured for an aviathema againft
his books and his perfon, and againft all who did not join in
that anathema. Several bifhops, however, rofe in his de-
fence, and refufed to concur in the anathema. Some learned
moderns have charged him with adopting fentiments con-
cerning the perfon of Chrift fimilar to thofe of the prefent
Unitarians ; but of this faét there is no fatisfa€tory evidence.
Mofheim. Lardner.

Treopore of Tarfus, a monk of that city, was ordained
bifhop by pope Vitalian, and being fent into England in the
year 668, at the defire of king Egbert, was appointed to
govern the church of Canterbury. In this high ftation he
affiduonfly employed himfelf in fettling the faith and eccle-
fiaftica! difcipline of England; and after having fpent
twenty years in the performance of various important and
ufeful fervices, he died in 690, at the age of eighty-eight
years. With a view to the reftoration of the neglected
difcipline of penance, he publifhed a book of canons, under
the title of * Penitential.’? In this book, fins were diftri-
buted into various claffes, according to their refpeétive na-
ture and aggravation ; and various kinds of penance were
afligned to them ; forms of confolation, exhortation, and ab-
folution were preferibed, and other fuch matters refpecting
difcipline were regulated. This Penitential pafled from
Britain to other countries, and became the model of fimilar
works. It is {till extant, in an imperfect ftate; and an
edition of it was publifhed at Paris by Petit, in 1679, 4to.
with notes and differtations. Dupin. Mofheim.

Tueopore STupITA, an eminent ecclefiaftic of the ninth
century, was educated under Plato, head of the monaftery
upon mount Olympus, the government of which was com-
mitted to him in the year 795. By avowing his oppofition
to the marriage of Conftantine Copronymus to one of the
maids of honour of his wife, whom he had compelled for
this purpofe to take the religious vows, and by his fepara-
tion from the communion of the patriarch of Conttantinople,
Theodore incurred banifhment ; but at the death of the em-
peror he returned, and was appointed abbot of the monaf-
tery of Studa, in the fuburbs of Conftantinople. On ac-
count of his difapprobation of the decifion of a fynod
which declared the fecond marriage of Conftantine lawful,
he was banifhed a fecond time. After the death of the em-
peror Nicephorus, in 811, he returned from banifhment, and
was reconciled to the patriarch. For his zealous defence of
image-worfhip in the reign of Leo, he was banifhed a third
time, and treated by the emperor with great feverity. In
821 the emperor Michael allowed him to return to Conftan-
tinople, where he indulged a freedom of fpeech that obliged
him to withdraw. He died in the year 826, in his fixty-
feventh year. He was a man of learning, and author of
many works, which were publifhed by Sirmond, in Greek
and Latin, at the end of his own works. Dupin. Moshe.
Gen. Biog.

THEODORET, alearned prelate of the Greek church,
was born at Antioch about the year 386, and placed at the
age of feven in the monaftery of St. Euprepius. He was
educated under Theodore of Mopfueftia and John’ Chry-
foftom, and from his youth addiéted himfelf to all the auf.
terities and exercifes of a monaftic life. Upon the death of
his parents, he diftributed his whole property among the
poor. In the year 420, or 423, he was confecrated, againit
his own inclination, bifhop of Cyrus in Syria, in the Eu-
phratenfian province, the inhabitants of which were ignorant
and barbarous, and notorious for their fuperftitious practices
and heretical errors. Theodoret laboured induftrioufly and
fuccefsfully in enlightening and reforming them. In his

own condu& he was an exemplary paftor; aad in every
thing

THE

thing that related to his own gratification, he was felf-
denying and frugal, that he might poffefs more ample means
of relieving the poor and promoting works of public utility.
No bifhop of his time was more aétive in performing the
duties that pertained to his profeflion and itation, or had
greater influence in every kind of public bufinefs, particu-
larly of an ecclefiaftical nature. He was prudent in counfel,
pacific in his temper, and always difpofed to compromife
differences that occurred, and to recommend mutual forbear-
ance and union among contending parties. But like other
pacificators, he could not efcape obloquy and harfh treat-
ment. Between him and Cyril, however, an irreconcileable
antipathy fubfifted, as was generally the cafe between the
Eaftern and Egyptian bifhops; and this antipathy was mani-
felted, even after Cyril’s death, by his fucceffor Diofcorus,
who caufed Theodoret to be anathematized, and to be de-
pofed in a general fynod at Ephefus. In the reign of the
emperor Marcia a general council was affembled at Chal-
cedon ; and this council decreed, that Theodoret was worthy
to hold his fee, and he was accordingly reftored to the
church of Cyrus. He died, without any further moleftation,
in the beginning of the reign of the emperor Leo, A.D.
457 or 458. ;
Theodoret bears a high rank among the ancients as a
commentator on the fcriptures for the purity of his Attic
ftyle, and the clearnefs and good fenfe of his explanations.
He wrote commentaries upon moft parts of the facred ferip-
tures. His canon of the Old Teftament was very little, if
at all, different from that of the Jews. With regard to the
New Teftament, it appears that he received only four gofpels,
the book of Aéts, which he afcribed to St. Luke, and four-
teen epiftles of the apoftle Paul, upon which he wrote com-
mentaries ; digefting them according to the order of time in
which they were written, and noticing the places from which
they were fent. He has feldom quoted the Catholic epiftles,
though they are not wholly overlooked. He feems to have
received the epiftle of James, the firft of Peter, and the firft
of John; but there is no certain proof that he received the
book of the Revelation, or the other four Catholic epiftles :
fo that we may conclude, that his canon of the New Tefta-
ment was the fame with that.of the Syrian Chriftians. His
“ Ecclefiafltical Hiftory,’”? comprifed in five books, may be
confidered as a fupplement to thofe of Socrates and Sozo-
men; beginning where that of Eufebius ends, at the rife of
Arianifm in 322 or 323, and terminating in 428. Its ftyle,
according to Photius, is clear and fublime, but too much
abounding in metaphors, It is deficient in chronological
precifion, but contains many valuable documents, and fome
remarkable circumftances, which other ecclefiaftical hifto-
rians have omitted, His ‘¢ Philotheus,”’ or treatife on the
monattic life, the genuinenefs of which fome have queftioned
without fufficient reafon, ;yelates the actions and extols the
piety of the Eaftern monks, and abounds with inftances of
the credulity and fuperftition of the times. In his work en-
titled “* Of Heretical Fables,” in five books, he diltributes
the different herefies into claffes, and concludes with a ftate-
ment of the faith of the Catholic church, ‘* The Cure of
the falfe Opinions of the Heathens,” in twelve difcourfes, is
a learned and yaluable apology for Chriftianity. Lardner has
given copious extraéts from this performance, which merit
high commendation. His other works confift of letters and
tracts on different theological fubjects. They are all com-
prifed in the beft edition of his writings, which is that of
father Sirmond, in four vols. fol. Gr, and Lat. printed at
Paris in 1642. To thefe the Jefuit Garnier added a fifth in
1684. Beaufobre gives the following candid account of
Theodoret, * Theodoret is, in’ my opinion, one of the molt

THE

valuable of the Fathers. He is learned; he reafons well,
efpecially in his dialogues againft the Greek herefies of his
times: he is a good literal interpreter of the feriptures. I
cannot but admire his prudence and moderation, when I
confider that he ended his ecclefiaftical hiftory at the time
when the Neftorian difputes, in which he was fo deeply in-
terefted, begun. But, I fear, his zeal againit heretics im-
pofed upon him almoft as much, as his admiration of the
heroes of the Afcetic life, with whom he was charmed.
Monatteries have undoubtedly fent forth great men into the
world ; but the difciples of the monks contraéted in their
youth a fuperftitious difpofition which is fearcely ever fhaken
off ; and the weak fide of this able man feems to have been
an exceffiye credulity.” Dupin. Mofheim. Lardner,
Beaufobre.

THEODORIC I., king of the Vifigoths, was the fon
of Alaric, and in 419 fucceeded Wallia in the kingdom
eftablifhed in the fouth of France. After raifing the fiege
of Arles, he made peace with the Romans, and was fubfi-
dized by them in the Spanifh war ; but being defirous of re-
newing his attempts in Gaul, he took an opportunity, in
435, of re{uming his hoftilities againft them, and laid fiege
to Narbonne ; but being Secret to raife the reese
was under a neceflity of dire¢ting his attention to the fafety
of Touloufe, his own capital, which was invefted by a body
of Huns, under the command of count Litorius. Ina very
fanguinary engagement with the affailants, he totally routed
them, and too iy prifoner ; who was firft expofed to
the infults of the populace at Touloufe, and then thrown
into a dungeon, where he died. After this event, Theodoric¢
made peace with the Romans. His rank among the fo-
vereigns of that period was refpectable ; and both his fons
and daughters were well educated. The latter formed
matrimonial conne¢tions with the eldeft fons of the kings of
the Suevi and Vandals, who reigned in Spain and in Africa.
But thefe conneGtions proved unfortunate. The hufband of
the Suevian princefs was maffacred by his hrother; and the
Vandal princefs, being fufpected of a defign to poifon her
father-in-law, Genferic, was doomed to lofe her nofe and
ears, and in this mutilated condition was fent home to her
father. ‘Theodoric eagerly fought an opportunity for re-
venging this cruel infult. With this view, the Vifigoths and
Romans formed an alliance to refift Attila the Hun, who,
inftigated by Genferic, invaded Gaul in 441; and Theodo-
ric, at the head of his army, marched to the relief of Orleans,
which was befieged by the Huns. . In their way the hoftile
armies met on the plains of Chalons, and a dreadful battle
enfued. Theodoric was wounded by a Goth in the fervice
of Attila, and being difmounted, was trampled to death
under the feet of his own cavalry. When his body was
found, his funeral rites were performed in the face of the
retiring enemy.

Tueoporic, king of the Oftrogoths, furnamed the Great,
was a defcendant of the Gothic race of the Amali, and
born near Vienna, A.D. 455. At the age of eight years,
he was fent to Conftantinople as a hoftage for the fulfilment
of the fubfidiary treaty formed by the emperor Leo with
the Goths. Here he had an opportunity of acquiring that
charaéter which he fuftained among the princes of that age:
but his means of inftru€tion muft have been very limited,
when it is confidered that, though he excelled in all military
exercifes, he was fo badly taught, as not to be able to write
his own name. After ten years’ refidence at the court of
Leo, he returned to his father, Theodomir, who was then
the fole ruler of the Oftrogoths, in whofe fervice he diftin-
guifhed himfelf by his martial {pirit. Upon the death of his
father, in 475, the crown devolved on Theodoric, The em-

peror

‘

THE

peror Zeno, withing to fecure the attachment of the young
prince, invited him to his court, and conferred upon him the
rank of patrician. After having rendered fubftantial fervice
to the emperor, he was reduced to the neceffity of deferting
the Roman caufe, and forming an alliance with Theodoric,
the fon of Triarius. Having been altogether negle&ted by
Zeno, he marched in an hoftile manner into the fertile pro-
vinces of Thrace, which he laid wafte with wanton cruelty.
In the war that enfued between the empire and the Goths, a
variety of events occurred; but, upon the whole, Theo-
doric became more and more formidable, and by the death
of the fon of Triarius, he was placed at the head of his na-
tion. Such was the power he acquired, that the emperor
found it neceffary to cede to him part of Lower Meefia
and Lower Dacia, and to honour him with the confulate,
which office he difcharged at Conftantinople. But con-
ceiving that he was an objeé of jealoufy, and that his life
was in danger, he withdrew into Thrace, and afterwards
avowed himielf an undifguifed enemy to the empire. De-
clining to lay fiege to Conftantinople, he determined, as it is
faid, at the fuggeition of Zeno, to turn his forces againit
Odoacer, who having depofed Auguftulus, the laft Weftern
emperor, had affumed the title of king of Italy.

In the year 488, Theodoric, having colle&ed together all
the fwarms of Goths that had fucceflively arrived on the
frontiers of the empire, fet out on his Italian expedition ;
and’ after encountering many difficulties in his progrefs, de-
feended from the Italian alps, and reached the banks of the
Sontius near Aquileia. Here, in Auguit 489, he attacked
Odoacer’s numerous hoft, and forced him to retreat as far as
the plains of Verona. The refult of a fecond engagement
was a complete victory on the part of the Goths, which
compelled Odoacer and his fugitives to take refuge within the
walls of Ravenna, while the conqueror obtained poffeffion
of the cities of Pavia and Milan. But, as the fortune of war
is uncertain, one of Odoacer’s commanders, having deferted
to Theodoric, proved treacherous, and induced feveral of
the officers of the Gothic king to join his former matter.
Odoacer, having alfo gained an acceffion of other fugitives
from the Gothic fervice, recovered Milan, and obliged
Theodoric to immure himfelf in Pavia. Theodoric, how-
ever; inthis crifis of danger, obtained a powerful reinforce-
ment from Alaric II. king of the Vifigoths, fettled in Gaul,
and attacking Odoacer on the Addna, totally defeated him.
Upon this difaiter, Odoacer fled to Ravenna; where, in the
autumn of 492, he was befieged by Theodoric, who had
made himfelf mafter of all Italy, except this city. In the
following fpring, Odoacer was reduced to the neceflity of
propofing terms of accommodation, with which Theodoric
complied; and the confequence was the furrender of Ra-
vennato the Gothic army. It was ftipulated between thefe
two fovereigns, that they fhould govern Italy with equal
authority. Such a ftipulation was not likely to produce any
permanent effeét ; and it was very foon violated on the part
of Theodoric, by an aét which entails on his memory eternal
difhonour. Having invited Odoacer toa banquet, he ftabbed
him, as it is faid, with his own hand, under a pretext that
his dead rival had formed a fimilar defign with regard to him-
felf. After this event, Theodoric affumed the enfigns of
royalty, and caufed himfelf to be proclaimed by his army
“ king of Italy.”- This affumption was reluétantly con-
firmed by Anattafius, the fucceflor of Zeno. The manner
in which he exercifed the royal authority, however unwar-
rantable the means by which he acquired it, placed him far
above all the fovereigns of that age. Sicily having been
united to Italy by a voluntary ceffion, Theodoric fheathed
the fword of war, and cultivated alliances with neighbour-

VoL. XXXV.

THE

ing powers for the fecurity of his kingdom. He ettablifhed
peace with the imperial court at Conttantinople, married a
daughter of the king of the Franks, and beftowed his own
two daughters by a concubine, one on the king of the Vifi-
goths, and the other on the fon of the king of the Burgan-
dians, and his fifter on the king of the Vandals. He fe-
cured the attachment of his foldiers by affigning to them a
third part of the lands of Italy; and he reitri¢ted the mili-
tary profeffion to his countrymen the Goths, whilft he encou-
raged induftry and the arts of peace among his Italian fub-
jects. The Goths held their lands and benefices as a mili-
tary {tipend, in confideration of which they were engaged to
march on a fummons under their provincial officers : and the
whole extent of Italy was diftributed into the quarters of a
well-regulated camp. The civil offices were committed to
the native Italians ; and the form of government, and diftri-
bution of magiftracies and of provinces, which had pre-
vailed under the emperors, were continued ; fo that the tranf-
fer of power from the Romans to the Goths was fcarcely
perceived. The taxes remained the fame, and on occafion of
any public calamity, were remitted. He fixed his ordinary
refidence at Ravenna; and when he removed his court, it
was to Verona. In the year 500 he vifited Rome, and was
treated with refpect. He iffued ediéts for preventing the
demolition of ancient monuments, and appropriated reve-
nues to the repair of public edifices. He decorated other
cities of Italy ; and it has been faid, that, after the flourifh-
ing times of Rome, this country was never fo profperous and
happy. He provided a fleet for guarding the country again{t
maritime attacks: and thofe wars by land in which he en-
gaged, were terminated without difturbing the peace and ha-
zarding the fecurity of Italy. By his prudent condu&, and
military achievements, he maintained the balance of power
in the Welt, till it was overthrown by the ambition of Clovis,
who defeated and put to death Alaric, the Vifigoth king :
neverthelefs he faved the remainder of his family and people,
and checked the career of the Franks. f
Theodoric, with regard to his religious fentiments and
profeffion, was an Arian; but he mmanifefied no ardent zeal
for making profelytes to his own opinions, nor did he moleft
others in their profeffion. Such was the government of
Theodoric, that it reflected a fhort-lived luftre on the Gothic
name, and eftablifhed an era of public happinefs which it is
pleafing to contemplate. His fecretary Caffiodorus, who was
himfelf a man of erudition, and who caufed his untaught
maiter to patronize literature, has recorded in his cual
books of Epiftles, the events at which we have here glanced.
It muit not be difguifed, however, that the reign of Theo-
doric was not exempt from the evils infeparable from a def-
potifm upheld by military power. The yoke of a foreigner
was galling’s and more efpecially that of a foreigner who
was confidered as a barbarian and a heretic. The tolerant
principles of Theodoric did not accord with the orthodox
zeal of his fubjeéts ; and his punifhment of fome outrages
committed againft the Jews, who were fettled in the cities of
Italy, was reprefented asa perfecution of the church. An
intolerant ediét againft the Arians, iffued by the Byzantine
court, provoked the king to retaliate on the Catholics under
his jurifdi€tion ; and fhortly before his death an order was
prepared to forbid the exercife of the Catholic worfhip in
Italy after a certain day. In the mean time, jealoufies of the fe-
natorial party in Rome, and of their conneétion with the impe-
rial court, took pofleffion of the mind of Theodoric, who was
made fufpicious by age ; and an initance of tyranny infliGed
upon two exemplary charaGers, fays one of his biographers,
is unhappily the lait a& recorded of a fovereign diftinguifhed
for the mildnefs and equity of his adminiftration. For an ac-
2P count

THE

count of the circumftances to'which we here refer, fee the ar-
ticle Borrurius. ‘Theodoric, at the clofe of life, reflected
without doubt with remorfe and felf-reproach on his conduét
towards Boethius and Symmachus. Itis faid that, whilft he
was fitting at table, he perceived the gaping head of a large
fifh, which was ferved up before him, and at the fight ex-
claimed, that he beheld the angry and menacing countenance
ef Symmachus. Then probably did that fever commence,
which being attended with a dyfentery, terminated his life
within three days, Auguft, A.D. 526, in the 72d year of
his age, andthe 34th of his reign, dating its commencement
with the death of Odoacer. His dominions were divided by
his teftament between his two grandfons, Amalaric and Atha-
naric, afligning the Rhone as their boundary ; and the guar-
dianfhip of the latter, who was king of Italy, was entrufted
with his daughter Amalafuntha. He erected to his memory
a fplendid monument in a confpicuous fituation above the
city of Ravenna. Anc. Un. Hift. Gibbon’s Rom. Hitt.
Gen. Biog.

THeoporic, or Turerry of Niem, an ecclefiaftiral writer,
was born at Paderborn, and ferved Gregory XI. Urban VII.
and feveral fucceeding popes, as under-fecretary. The time
in which he lived may be inferred from his ** Hiftory of the
Schifm of the Popes,” written between the years 4400 and
1410; in which workhe fays that he had lived near thirty years
atthe court of Rome, and that being then worn down with age,
it was his intention to withdraw from public bufinefs. This
work, compofed in Latin, comprifed, in three books, the
interval from the death of Gregory XI. to the election of
Alexander V.* Another work relating to the fame fubjeé&
was entitled “* Nemus Unionis.”” In 1412 he publifhed a
“ Treatife on the Rights and Privileges of the Emperors in
the Inveftiture of Bifhops and Abbots.’? He alfo wrote
a journal of the proceedings of the council of Conftance,
ending in June 1416, in which year he died. From his own
obfervation, he exhibits a fhocking pifture of the court of
Rome, and the clergy of that period. Dupin. Moreri.

THEODOROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Mecefia, founded by the emperor Juftinian, who called it
after the name of his wife.

THEODORUS, in Biography, a Cyrenaic philofopher,

was a difciple of Anicerris, and tee {peaking freely concern-
ing the gods, he was ftigmatifed with the appellation of
Atheilt, and banifhed from Cyrene. At Athens, where he
fought refuge, he was protected by Demetrius Phalereus,
and gained accefs to the court of Ptolemy Lagis. A fter-
wards, upon his return to Athens, he is faid to have fuffered
death by hemlock ; but it has been difputed whether atheifm,
or contempt of the Grecian fuperftitions, was the caufe of
his death. He is joined by Sextus Empiricus with Eume-
rus, and others, who maintained, that thofe who were
efteemed gods, were men who had pofleffed great power on
earth ; and Clemens Alexandrinus expreffes his furprife, that
Eumerus, Nicanor, Diagoras, Theodorus, and others, who
had lived virtuoufly, fhould be pronounced atheifts from
ae, oppofition to gentile polytheifm. Brucker by Enfield,
vol. i.
’ 'Turroporus, an Athenian flute-maker, the father of
Tfocrates the orator. How great the demand was at
this time for flutes at Athens, may be conceived from a
cireumf{tance mentioned by Plutarch in his life of the orator.
His father, fays he, acquired wealth fufficient by his bufi-
nefs,not only to educate his children in a liberal manner, but
alfo to bear one of the heavieft public burdens to which an
Athenian citizen was liable ; that of furnifhing a choir or
chorus for his tribe, or ward, at feftivals and religious cere-
momes. See IsMENIAS.

5

THE

THEODOSIA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated
on the S.E. coaft of the Tauric Cherfonefus. See Carra.
—Alfo, atown of Afia, in the Greater Armenia.

THEODOSIOPOLIS, a town of Afia, in the Greater
Armenia, on the frontiers of Perfarmenia.—Alfo, a town of
A fia, in Mefopotamia, upon the river Chaborras.

THEODOSIUS I. furnamed the Great, in Biography, a
Roman emperor, was the fon of an eminent general of the
fame name, who was executed for treafon at Carthage in the
year 376. He was born about the year 346, as fome fay,
at Caucha, in Gallicia, or according to others, at Italica, near
Seville. His education was liberal, and he learned the art
of war by ferving under his father, both in Britain and in
Africa. The death of his father put a temporary ftop to
his military career, and he retired to Spain for the improye-
ment of his mind and the culture of his paternal eftate.
He was in this fituation when the emperor Valens was
killed in battle, and the empire was left in great danger.
Thus circumftanced, the other emperor, Gratian, fent for
Theodofius, and in January, A.D. 379, declared him his
partner in the empire. ‘l’o him was committed the care of
Thrace and the eaftern provinces, threatened at this time by
numerous bands of barbarians. The refult of his campaign:
was, that fome of the Goths fubmitted to his authority,
and the reft evacuated Thrace. Having been baptized in
the fecond year of his reign, in confequence of a dangerous
difeafe, he became a zealous advocate for the orthodoxy of
the church, and was much applauded by the Catholics.
He iffued an edi&, enjoining the fubjeéts of his government
to adhere ftedfaftly to the religion taught by St. Peter,
which afferts the fole deity of the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghoft, under an equal majeity and a pious Trinity ;
and to affume the title of Catholic Chriftians, all other
perfons who did not embrace this doétrine being branded as
infamous heretics, and their churches being declared conven-
ticles. It alfo announces, that befides the condemnation of
divine juftice, thefe perfons muft expeét the fevere penalties
which his authority, guided by heavenly wifdom, fhall think
proper to infli@ upon them. ‘This declaration, fo incompa-
tible with the genuine fpirit of the religion and the pro-
feffion in which he had been initiated, was followed by corre-
fpondent deeds. When he entered Conftantinople, after
the campaign of 380, his firft act was to remove the patri-
arch Demophilus, and to offer him the alternative of fub-
{cribing the Nicene creed, or refigning all his dignities to the
orthodox party. The patriarch nobly chofe the latter alter-
native, and withdrew into exile. Ae after he iflued a
decree for expelling from their churches all the clergy who
refufed to accept the Nicene creed, and he appointed a mi-
litary force for the execution of it. By thefe meafures the
emperor fucceeded, without tumult or bloodthed, in eftablith-
ing, through the provinces of the Eaft, the Catholic faith
upon the ruins of Arianifm. So afliduous was the emperor
in this exercife of his zeal, that he is faid to have promul-
gated, in fifteen years, at leait fifteen penal ediéts againft
heretics, fome of which denounced capital punifhment : and
it is moreover afferted, that the office of inquifitors of the
faith was firft in{tituted in his reign. It has been affirmed,
however, that he chiefly meant intimidation, and that the
threatened penalties were feldom carried into effect.

The military ardour of this emperor feems to have been
exercifed with greater prudence than his religious zeal. In
order to liberate the provinces from the barbarians, he con-
trived to weaken their ftrength by fomenting divifions
among their chiefs, and he conciliated others by his gene-
rofity : fo that about four years after the death of Valens,
he figned a capitulation with the whole nation of the Goths ;

an

THE

and as their own country was occupied by the Huns, he
permitted them to fettle in Thrace and Meetia, with exemp-
tions from tribute and taxes. With Maximus, who had
revolted againit the emperor Gratian, Theodofius entered
into a treaty, by which it was ftipulated that the ufurper
fhould retain the countries beyond the Alps, and that Valen-
tinian, the brother of Gratian, fhould be fecured in the pof-
feffion of the remaining part of the Weltern empire. Maxi-
mus was acknowledged by Theodofius as his colleague in the
Roman empire, and Arcadius, the fon of Theodofius, though
only eight years of age, was admitted to a fhare in the purple.
At this time Theodofius iffued fome fevere ediéts againtt
heathen idolatry: and he pafled a law againft the marriage
of coufins-german, which condemned both parties to be
burnt alive, and which declared their children illegitimate.
In 386, the Gruthungi, or Oftrogoths, in their attempt to pafs
the Danube, were defeated with great flaughter. In 387,
Maximus invaded Italy ; and Valentinian, deferted by his
fubje@ts, took refuge in the dominions of Theodofius, who
married Galla, the fifter of that emperor. Jn this year the
people of Antioch, having without effect remonitrated
againft the proceedings of Theodofius, both as to religious
matters and the impofition of an extraordinary tax, broke
out into an infurreétion ; threatened the life of the governor ;
and, difappointed in this effort of their rage, demolifhed the
ftatues of the emperor and his family. Theodofius, in the firft
tranfports of refentment, upon receiving intelligence of their
conduét, ordered the city to be laid in afhes, and all the inha-
bitants, without difcrimination of age or fex, to be put to
the fword. Upon cooler refletion he revoked this fanguin-
ary order, and contented himfelf with degrading Antioch
from the rank of “a city, and depriving the inhabitants of
their cuftomary largefs of bread. Thofe who upon inquiry
were found guilty, were condemned to death. But by the
interceffion of the bifhop of Antioch, and other holy men,
the culprits were pardoned, and the city reftored to all its
privileges.

Theodofius, on a vifit to Valentinian at Theffalonica, pre-
vailed on him to renounce Arianifm, and to adopt the Nicene
faith ; and determined totake uparmss in his caufe againit Maxi-
mus. After feveral fuccefsful encounters with the ufurper,
he was defpoiled of all his imperial ornaments, and dragged
like a malefag&tor into the prefence of Theodofius, who
caufed him to be beheaded. His fon Victor was alfo put
to death ; and the civil war terminated A.D. 388. In con-
fequence of thefe events, Theodofius became the fole head
of the Roman world ; and he invefted the fon of Valen-
tinian, now a minor, with the fovereignty of the provinces
wreited from him by Maximus, and alfo with the pofleffion
of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, of which Gratian had been de-
prived by this ufurper. Theodofius remained three years
in Italy, giving vigour to the law, corre€ting abufes, and
fei a variety of meafures for totally eradicating pa-

anifm.

d In 390, a fedition took place at Theffalonica, which was
followed by many difaftrous confequences, and by the ex-
ercife of a degree of cruelty, which the emperor was obliged
to expiate by a public penance. About this time he took
advantage of a religious tumult at Alexandria for demolifh-
ing the famous temple of Serapis, and of all the heathen
temples throughout Egypt. He alfo iffued a final ediét
again{t the ancient worfhip.

In 392, the emperor Valentinian was murdered by his ge-
neral Arbogaftes, and Eugenius was placed on the throne.
When this meafure was announced to Theodofius, he prepared
for war; and having obtained a favourable anfwer from
a holy hermit in Thebais, whom he confulted, iffued new

THE

edi&s againit herefy, and abrogated the ancient penalties of
treafon againft thofe who uttered feditious words againft the
prince ; he openly took up arms, A.D. 394, and forcing the
pafiage of the Alps, defcended into Tialy. He met Euge-
nius and Arbogaftes with a great force, and after feveral
conflicts, Eugenius was totally defeated, and put to death
by the foldiers. His children, however, and thofe of Arbo-
gaftes, who put an end to his own life after the battle,
were treated humanely, and removed to their paternal pof-
feflions.

After this fuccefs, Theodofius fent for his fon Honorius to
Milan, and declared him emperor of the Weft; Arcadius
having been already put in poffeflion of the Eaftern empire.
In January 395, Theodofius terminated his life by a dropfical
diforder at Milan, at the age of fifty years, and at the clofe
of the fixteenth year of his reign.

The name of Theodofius has been celebrated, but his cha-
racter has been very differently appreciated. Politically con-
fidered, whilft it exhibits many virtues and excellencies, it is
chargeable with many errors and obliquities. Conneéted
with the ecclefiaftical interefts of the period in which he lived,
his condué& on various occafions was altogether indefenfible ;
and we may add, that how much foever he has been extolled
by partial hiftorians, his bigotry and intolerance were very
reprehenfible. Anc. Un. Hift. Gibbon’s Rom. Hitt.
Gen. Biog.

Tueopostus IT., fon of the emperor Arcadius, and grand-
fon of the preceding Theodofius, was born in the year 401 ;
and being of feeble faculties, was educated merely to fuftain
the pageantry of a throne ; or, as Mr. Gibbon exprefles it,
** to reprefent with grace and dignity the external figure of
a Roman emperor.’ His only active purfuit was hunting ;
and his more private exercifes were painting and carving,
making elegant tranfcripts of religious books, and finging
pfalms. He alfo fafted, gave credit to miracles and doc-
trines prefented to his faith, and paid due homage to all
the dead and living faints of the Catholic church. His dif-
pofition was gentle and kind; in his conduét he was free
from vices, and yet, as his biographer fays, ‘“ he did not rife
to virtues.” Upon his father’s death, A.D. 408, he fue-
ceeded him in the Eaftern empire. To the influence of his
fitter Pulcheria, fuperior in talents to himfelf, he implicitly
fubmitted ; and in 414 he raifed “her to the rank of Au-
guita, and entruited with her the reins of government. By
her feleGtion and recommendation he married, A.D. 421, the
celebrated Athanais, aftewards named Eudocia. he war
which broke out in 422, in confequence of a perfecution ex-
cited by the Magi againft the Chriftians, terminated in a
truce of a hundred years, and a divifion of the kingdom of
Armenia between the contending powers. On the death of
the emperor Honorius, in 423, the throne of the Weft was
ufurped by John ; but Theodofius reftored it to its proper
heir, Valentinian III., who afterwards married his daughter.
When Attila made an irruption into the Roman empire, he
was oppofed by Theodofius, whofe armies were repeatedly
defeated : and Theodofius himfelf was compelled in 446 to
make a humiliating treaty with the king of the Huns. By
one of his favourites, the eunuch Chryfaphius, he was induced
to free himfelf from Attila by aflaffination, but the treachery
was defeated, and he received a juft and fevere reprimand from
the barbariaa. Soon after this mortification, he died in confe-
quence of a fall from his horfe, A.D. 450, in the fiftieth year
of hisage. What his grandfather had done towards the fub-
verfion of the Pagan religion in the-Eaft, Theodofius com-
pleted. He always approved himfelf a dutiful fon of the
church, but he is faid to have favoured the Eutychian herefy.
His principal merit was the publication, A.D. 438, of the

3 Piz “ Theodofian

THE

s Theodofian Code.”” Anc. Un. Hitt.
Biog.

THEODOSIUS, an eminent mathematician, was born at Tri-
poli, and flourifhed about the fecond or third century. On
the doétrine of the Sphere he wrote three books, containing a
confiderable number of propofitions, demonftrated in the pure
geometrical manner of the ancients, and eitablifhing the geo-
metrical principles of aftronomy. Ptolemy and Pcogeding
writers availed themfelves of thefe books,which were tranflated
by the Arabians from the original Greek into their own lan-
guage. ‘They were afterwards tranflated from the Arabic
into Latin, and printed at Venice; but the defeéts of the
Arabic verfion were fupplied in a more complete edition,
publifhed in Greek and Latin at Paris in 1556, 4to. by John
Pena, regius profeflor of aftronomy. On this work there
have been many comments ; but the edition of Theodofius’s
Spherics now generally ufed 1s that of Dr. Barrow, publifhed
in 1675, illuftrated and demonftrated in a new and concife
method. Theodofius was alfo the author of two other trea-
tifes, one ‘“¢ De Habitationibus,”’ and the other ** De Diebus
et Noétibus.”” Greek copies of thefe were preferved
in the king’s library at Paris, and a Latin edition was pub-
lifhed by Peter Dafypodius in 1572. Montucla Hitt. des
Mathem.

THEODULEF,a learned prelate of a Gothic family, was
a native of Cifalpine Gaul ; and being invited to France by
Charlemagne, he was promoted to the bifhopric of Orleans,
A.D. 794, and the abbacy of the monaftery of Fleury.
He continued in favour at court till the death of Charle-
magne, and for fome time under the emperor Lewis. But
being implicated in the confpiracy of Bernard, king of Italy,
againft Lewis, he was committed to prifon at Angers, where
he remained in confinement for three years. After his
liberation, and before his return to his diocefe, he died at
Angers, about the year 821. Theodulf was the friend of
Alcuin, and deferves honourable mention as one of the vo-
taries and promoters of literature in a dark age. He was
the author of feveral works, publifhed by Father Sirmond, in
1646, 8vo. One of his hymns, beginning

«« Gloria, laus et honor tibi fit, Rex Chrifte Redemptor,”’

has been adopted by the Catholic church for the fervice on
Palm-Sunday. Dupin. Gen. Biog.

THEOGAMIA, Ocyausz, in Antiquity, a Sicilian fef-
tival, in honour of Proferpine, which feems to have been in-
{tituted in memory of her marriage with Pluto.

THEOGNIS, in Biography, a Greek poet, was a native
of Megara, in Attica, and flourifhed about the year B.C.
546. He has been denominated “* Gnomologus,’’ or the
writer of fentences: and we have extant a work written by
him, without order, confifting of moral maxims or precepts,
fimply expreffed and deftitute of poetical ornaments, verfi-
fied probably for affifting the memory. Athenzus reckons
him among the advocates for licentious pleafures; and
Suidas refers to a work of his compofition, entitled “ Ex-
hortations’”? or ‘* Admontions,’? which contained various
impurities. In the verfes that now remain, nothing of this
kind appears; fo that if the charge be true, they muft have
undergone caftigation. ‘ The Sentences of Theognis’’
have been often printed by themfelves, and with the works
of other minor Greek poets. Among the beft editions are
thofe of Camerarius and Sylburgius. Voffii Poet. Grec.
Gen. Biog.

THEOGONY, formed from @:0:, God, and yon, geniture,
feed, ofiprings that branch of the heathen theology which
taught the genealogy of their gods. 3

Hefiod gives us the ancient theogony, in a poem under

Gibbon. Gen.

THE

that title. This poem treats of the origin and defcent of
the gods ; or rather, under the allegorical drefs of theogony,
reprefents the formation of the world, and the hiftory
of eminent men. The plan of this work is intricate and
confufed. (See Hestop.) The writer feems to have made
ufe of feveral different theogonies, aud to have blended
them together with lttle regard to confiftency. He alfo
frequently adds, for the fake of poetical ornament, fictions
of his own, which have no relation to the hiftory and origi
of the world. Ariftophanes, in his comedy of “ The
Birds,’’ has introduced a defcription of the formation of
the world, which was borrowed, without doubt, from the
ancient theogonies; but it deferves little attention. All
the theogonies make an eternal chaos the origin of all
things. Thus Ovid. Met. 1.1. v. 5.

“ Ante mare, et terras, et quod tegit omnia celum,
Unus erat toto naturz vultus in orbe,
Quem dixere Chaos, rudis indigeftaque moles,
Nec quicquam nifi pondus iners, congeftaque eodem
Non bene jun€turam difcordia femina rerum.”

‘“« Ere fea and earth, and heav’ns high canopy
Were form’d, great Nature’s face was one ;
A lifelefs, rude, and undigefted mafs
Of jarring feeds in one wild chaos lay.”? See Cuaos.

Whether, befides this chaotic mafs, the ancient theogo-
nies fuppofe an infinite, a¢tive, intelligent principle, who
from the firft matter formed the univerie, is a queition that
has occafioned much debate. It is evident, upon the moft
curfory review of the ancient theogonies, that God, the
great Creator of all things, is not exprefsly introduced ;
but it is doubted, whether the writers meant to exelude
him from their fyftem, or indire&ly to fuppofe his exiit-
ence, and the exertion of his power in giving motion to
matter. In the folution of this queition, it ought to be
confidered, whether the theogonifts fuppofed God to have
exifted before chaos, and to have created it from nothing ;
or thought him to have fprung from a pre-exifting chaos; or
conceived God and matter to have been two co-exifting and
independent principles : whether they imagined God to have
been the foul of nature, informing the eternal mafs of mat-
ter; or were of opinion, that God fent forth matter as an
emanation from himfelf ; if the latter, whether this emana-
tion was the effect of neceffity, or of a free act of yolition ;
whether it was from all eternity, or began at fome limited
period of duration. It mutt alfo be inquired, whether, “ac-
cording to the doétrine of the theogonies, a divine mind in-
terpofed in the formation of the world, or the effect was pro-
duced by the neceffary laws of motion acting apo homo-
geneous and heterogeneous portions of matter. If the latter
of thefe was their dotrine, it is to be farther confidered,
whether it neceflarily follows, that they denied the exiftence
of God, or whether it may not be fuppofed, that, neglecting
all confideration of deity, they only endeavoured to explain
the phyfical formation of the world, by laws originally im-
prefled upon matter by the author of nature.

The theogonies certainly do not fuppofe God to have
been prior in the order of time to matter: they fpeak of
chaos as eternal, and feem to have been wholly unacquainted
with the doétrine of creation from nothing. But, on the
other hand, they never fuppofe the Deity to be derived from
chaos: for Jupiter is not to he confounded with the Su-
preme Being, but merely to be confidered as the chief of
thofe inferior divinities, who, according to the Grecian the-
ology, were either portions of the divinity, inhabiting and

animating parts of nature, or departed fpirits of be
luis

THE

iWluftricus men, exalted to divine honours. There is no fuf-
ficient proof, that Orpheus, Hefiod, or any other Grecian
cofmogonilt, fuppofed two independent principles in nature :
for, though they afcribe the origin of evil to Chaos, they
might, neverthelefs, be of opinion, as we fhall find to have
been the cafe with many later philofophers, that matter is
derived from God.

There were, perhaps, different opinions among the ancient
cofmogonifts, concerning the firft caufe of nature. Some
might, poffibly, afcribe the origin of all things to a ge-
nerating force, deftitute of thought, which they conceived
to be inherent in matter, without looking to any higher
principle. But it is probable, that the general opinion
among them was that which had prevailed among the Egyp-
tians and in the Eaft, and was communicated by tradition
to the Greeks, that matter, or chaos, exifted eternally
with God, and that by the divine energy of emanation,
material forms were fent forth from him, and the vifible
world arofe into exiftence. This principle being admitted,
the whole fyftem of the ancient theogonies appears confift-
ent, and a fatisfaGtory explanation may be given of moft of
the Grecian fables. Uvon this fuppofition, the fum of the
doétrine of the theogonies, divefted of allegory and poetry,
will be as follows :

The firft matter, containing the feeds of all future being,
exifted from eternity with God. At length, the divine
energy upon matter produced a motion among its parts, by
which thofe of the fame kind were brought together, and
thofe of a different kind were feparated, and by which,
according to certain wife laws, the various forms of the
material world were produced. The fame energy of ema-
nation gave exiftence to animals and men, and to gods who
inhabit the heavenly bodies, and various other parts of
nature. Among men, thofe who poffefs a larger portion of
the divine nature than others, are hereby impelled to great
and beneficent attions, and afford illuftrious proofs of their
divine original, on account of which, they are after death
railed to a place among the gods, and become objects of
religious worfhip.

Upon the bafis of thefe notions, it is eafy to conceive,
that the whole mythological fyitem, and all the religious
rites and myfteries of the Greeks, might be founded.
Brucker’s Hift. Phil. by Enf. vol. i.

Among the moft ancient writers, Dr. Burnet obferves,
that theogony and cofmogony fignified the fame thing. (See
Cosmocony.) In effect, the generation of the gods of the
ancient Perfians, fire, water, and earth, is apparently no
other than that of the primary elements.

THEOLOGICAL €nriricism. See Criticism.

TueroLocicaL Prebend. See PREBEND.

THEOLOGIUM, formed from @ros, and Aoyos /peech,
or difcourfe, in the ancient theatre, was a place, or little
{tage, above that on which the ordinary a¢tors appeared.
See THEATER.

The theologium was the place where their gods appeared.
It alfo included the machines on which they defcended,
and from which they fpoke.

There was a theologium required for the reprefentation
of the Ajax of Sophocles, the Hippolitus of Euripides,
&e. Scal. Poet. lib.i. cap. 1.

THEOLOGY, compounded of @:0:, God, and royos, dif-
courfe, divinity ; a {cience, which inftrudts us in the know-
ledge of God, and divine things; or which has God, and
the things he has revealed, for its obje&.

1h bebe is a fcience which fhews us what we are to be-
lieve of God, and the manner in which he would be ferved.

BH E

It is divided into two branches, the natural, and the revealed
or /upernatural.

Turotocy, Natural, is the knowledge we have of God
from his works, by the light of nature, and reafon.

THEOLOGY, Supernatural, is that which we learn from re-
yelation. See RELIGION.

Tuerotocy, Pofitive, is the knowledge of the holy Scrip-
tures, and of the fignification of them, conformably to the
opinions of the fathers and councils ; without the affiftance
of any argumentation. But fome will have it, that this
ought to be called expofitive, rather than pofitive.

Turotocy, Moral, is that which teaches us the divine
laws relating to our manners and actions ; in contradiftinc-
tion to

Turotocy, Speculative, which explains and eftablifhes the
doétrines of religion, as objects of faith.

Tuerotocy, Scholaftic, or School, is that which proceeds
by reafoning ; or that derives the knowledge of feveral
divine things from certain eftablifhed principles of faith.
See Scworastic Divinity.

The ancients, according to Varro, Scevola, and Plu-
tarch, had a three-fold theology ; the firlt pudixn, mythic,
fabulous, which flourifhed among the poets; and was
chiefly employed in the theogony, or genealogy, amd hif-
tory of the gods: to whom all things were attributed,
which men, and even the vileft of men, could be guilty
of, Neyverthelefs, the popular religion and worfhip were
in a great meafure founded upon that mythology, which
run through the whole of their religion, and was of great
authority with the people. Many unexceptionable proofs
of this are produced by Dr. Leland, in his ‘ Advantage
and Neceffity of the Chriftian Revelation,” vol.i. part 1.
chap. 6.

The fecond, woditixn, political, or civil, was that efta-
bhfhed by the Roman laws, and chiefly embraced by the
politicians, priefts, and people, as moft fuitable and expe-
dient to the fafety, quiet, and profperity of the ftate.
This, though not the true, was the vulgar theology, and
conftituted the public and authorized religion. It was
that which the philofophers themfelves, whatever private
opinions or {peculations they might entertain, or difpute of
in their {chools, univerfally conformed to in their own prac-
tice, and alfo exhorted others to do fo. Varro informs us,
that this theology particularly determined what gods they
were publicly to worfhip, what facred rites they were to
obferve, and what facrifices to offer.

Although even the vulgar among the Pagans feem, in ge-
neral, to have had fome notion of one fupreme God, yet
their theology was properly polytheifm ; and the providence
they acknowledged, was the providence, not of one God,
but of many gods. The learned Dr. Cudworth, who
feems inclined to put the moft favourable conftruétion upon
the Pagan theology, acknowledges, that the civil theology,
as well as the poetical, had not only many fantaftic gods
in it, but an appearance of a plurality of independent dei-
ties ; feveral being made fupreme in their refpe¢tive territo-
ries or funGtions. Arriftotle (Oper. tom. i. p. 1246. edit.
Paris, 1629) intimates, that according to the laws of cities
and countries, that is, in the civil or political theology, there
feems to be no one abfolutely powerful or all-perfeét being,
but a plurality of gods, one of whom is fuppofed to be
more powerful in one refpeét, and another in another refpect.
Befides, the public religion was made up partly of the phy-
fical, and "partly of the poetical theology. Thofe poetical
fables, which Varro cenfures as unworthy of the gods, and
as afcribing to them a¢tions which none but the vileft of

men

A a 2 oe

ynen would be guilty of, were not only permitted to be
acted on the public theatres, and heard with pleafure by the
people, but they were regarded as things pleafing to the
gods then f-lves, by which they were propitiated and ren-

Jered fsvourable ; and accordingly they were taken into
the pul ligion. Games were celebrated, and plays were
found: v1 them ; and the public games and plays were
on certzin vecafions confidered as aéts of religion, encou-
raged by their deities, and celebrated in honour of them.

It is alfo juftly obferved, that the images, forms, habits, and
ornaments of their gods, their different fexes and ages, and
the facred feftivals inftituted to their honour, had all of them
3 reference to the fables of the poets and mythologifts, and
were founded upon them ; fo that the civil and the fabulous
theology might each of them be called civil, and each fabu-
lous. Hence proceeded many abfurd and ridiculous, and
many immoral and inhuman rites, which were made ufe of
in the worthip of their gods, and which were either prefcribed
by the laws, or were eftablifhed cuftoms, countenanced by
the magiftrates, and which had obtained the force of laws,
and may, therefore, be regarded as belonging to the public
religion of the Pagans. See Leland’s Chriftian Revelation,
ubi fupra, cap. 7-

The third, usin, natural, was chiefly cultivated by the
philofophers, as moft agreeable to nature andreafon. The
phyfical or natural theology ae a Mie one only fupreme
God; to which it added demons or fpirits, as mediators
between him and man.

Dr. Leland has urged a variety of confiderations to prove
that, notwithftanding the high encomiums which have been
beftowed upon the philofophical theology of the Pagans, it
was of little ufe in leading the people into a right know-
ledge of God and religion, and for reclaiming them from
their idolatry and polytheifm. To this purpofe he obferves,
that, if the philofophers had been right in their own notions
of religion, they could have but little influence on the people,
for want of a proper authority to enforce their inftructions.
The affeGed obfcurity of the Pagan philofophers was an-
other caufe which rendered them unfit to inftruét the people
in religion: to which it may be added, that fome of them
ufed their utmoft efforts to deftroy all certainty and evidence,
and to unfettle men’s minds as to the belief of the fundamen-
tal principles of all religion ; and even the beft and greateft
of them acknowledged the darknefs and uncertainty they
were under, efpecially in divine matters. The philofophers
themfelves were alfo, for the moft part, very wrong in their
own notions of the Divinity; they very much corrupted
the ancient tradition relating ‘to the one true God and the
creation of the world, and endeavoured to account for the
formation of all things without the interpofition of a Deity.
And the opinions of thofe philofophers who were of a nobler
kind, were chargeable with great defects: they generally
exprefled itidenteleed in the polytheiftic ftrain, and inttead
of leading the people to the one true God, they {poke of a
plurality of gods, even in their moft ferious difcourfes ;
afcribing thot works to the gods, and direéting thofe duties
to be rendered to them, which properly belong to the fu-
preme. he philofophers likewife referred the people for
inftruGtion in divine matters to the oracles, which were ma-
naged by the priefts : this was particularly the cafe with So-
crates, Plato, and the Stoics.

It was an univerfal maxim among them, that it was the
duty of every wife and good man to conform to the reli-
gion of his country; and they not only worfhipped the

ods of their refpeétive countries according to the efta-
lifhed rites, and exhorted others to do fo ; fas when they

THE

took upon themfelves the character of legiflators, and drew
up plans of laws, and of the beft forms of government,
polytheifm, and not the worfhip of the one true God, was
the religion they propofed to eftablifh. Moreover, they
employed their learning and abilities to defend and juftify
the popular idolatry and polytheifm. The worfhip of in-
ferior deities was recommended by them, under pretence
that it tended to the honour of the fupreme. Some of the
moft eminent of them endeavoured to colour over the moit
abfurd part of the Pagan poetical theology, by allegorizing
the moft indecent fables. They apologized for the Egyp-
tian animal worfhip, which the generality of the vulear Pa-
gans in other nations ridiculed. They vindicated idolatry
and image-worfhip, as neceflary to keep the people from
falling into irreligior and atheifm; and befides, fome of
the more refined philofophers were againft any external
worfhip of the fupreme God.

Many of the philofophers, and of the learned and polite
Pagans, denied a providence. Of thofe who profeffed to
acknowled eit, fome confined it to heaven and heavenly
pel others fuppofed it to extend to the earth and to
mankind, yet fo as only to exercife a general care and fuper-
intendency, but not to extend to individuals; others,
again, fuppofed all things, the leaft as well as the greateft,
to be under the care of providence ; but they afcribed this not
to the fupreme God, who, they thought, was above con-
cerning himfelf with fuch things as thefe, and committed
the care of them wholly to inferior deities. See the illuftra-
tion and proof of thefe feveral allegations by Dr. Leland,
ubi fupra, cap. 1o—17. ‘

Tueo.ocy, Bachelor in. See BACHELOR.

TueoLocy, Myftic. See Mysric.

TueoLtocy, Polemical. See PoLEMICAL.

THEOMANTIA, Ocxuayiax, in Antiquity, divination
by the fuppofed infpiration of fome deity. For a particular
account of which, fee Potter, Archzol. Gree. lib. ii.
cap. 12. tom. i. p. 298.

THEON, in Biography, a mathematician of the Platonic
f{chool, was a native of Smyrna, and flourifhed under the empe-
rors Trajan and Adrian. His mathematical treatifes are faid
to have been written for the purpofe of elucidating the philo-
fophy of Plato ; and his difcourfes, treating of geometry, arith -
metic, mufic, aftronomy, and the harmony of the univerfe,
may ferve to throw fome light upon the Pythagorean fyftem.
Part only of his work, “ De iis que in Mathematicis ad
Platonis le&tionem utilia funt,’’ or that which relates to arith-
metic and mufic, has been publifhed. The remainder, which
pertained to altronomy and geometry, is faid to have been
preferved in the Ambrofian library at Milan. Ptolemy re-
fers to his aftronomical obfervations. Brucker by Enfield.
Montucla Hilt. des Math.

Another mathematician of the fame name belonged to the
Alexandrian fchool, and flourifhed about A.D. 365. He
was the father of the learned but unfortunate Hypatias
His works are various: among thefe we may mention his
* Recenfio Elementoram Euchdis,” publifhed by Comman-
deni; his “ Fatti Graci priores, et Pragmenti Commentarii
in Ptolomei Canonem expeditum, five Recenfio fuccinéta
Chronologica regem a Nabonaffaro ad Antoninum Pium:’”?
“ Scholia in Aratum,” {aid to be interpolated ; and “ Com-
mentarius in Magnum Ptolomei Syntaxin,’’? which is incom-

lete. Montucla,

THEOPASCHITES, Tueopascuir®, in wey a
cal Hiflory, afe& of heretics in the fifth century, the fol-
lowers of Petrus Fullenfis, or Peter the Fuller, who
ufurped the fee of Antioch ; and after having been feveral

times

THE

times depofed, and condemned, on account of his oppofition
to the council of Chalcedon, was at laft fixed-in it, A.D.
482, by the authority of the emperor Zeno, and the favour
of Acacius, bifhop of Conftantinople ; whence they are alfo
fometimes denominated Fulloniani.

Their diftinguifhing doctrine was, that the whole Trinity
faffered in the paffion of Jefus Chrift.

This herefy was embraced by the Eutychian monks of
Scythia, or, according to La Croze, of Egypt; who
ufing their utmott efforts to make it obtain, raifed great dif-
orders towards the beginning of.the following century.

It was condemned, at its firft rife, in the councils of Rome
and Conftantinople, held in 483. It was again revived in
the ninth century, and again condemned in a council at
Rome, held in 862, under pope Nicolas I.

F. le Quien, in his notes on Damafcenus, fays, that the
fame error had been taught before Fullenfis, by A polli-
narius, whofe difciples were the firft that were called Theo-
patite, or Theopafchite.

THEOPHANES, in Biography, a Greek hiftorian and
poet, was of noble extraction, and born at Mitylene, in the
ifland of Lefbos. About the commencement of the Mithri-
datic war, he is fuppofed to have come to Rome in his youth ;
and when Pompey was appointed to the chief command
againft Mithridates, he took Theophanes with him to record
his exploits, procuring for him the citizenfhip of Rome, and
adding to his name thofe of “* Cornelius Balbus.’ It is alfo
fuppofed that it was principally on his account, that on his
return he vifited Lefbos, and reftored to the Mitylenians the
privileges of which they had bcen deprived by the Roman
fenate. At Rome he connefed himfelf with the mott dif-
tinguifhed citizens, and he was deputed to Alexandria for
the confirmation of treaties of alliance with Ptolemy Auletes.
After the defeat of Pompey at Pharfalia, he accompanied
him in his flight ; and by his advice this commander declined
to take refuge with Juba, king of Mauritania, and failed to
Egypt, where he met his fate. Theophanes afterwards
jomed the party of Cafar. The moft important of his
writings was a “ Hiftory of the Wars of the Romans, in
different Countries under the Command of Pompey.” Of
this work there remain only five fragments, quoted by
Strabo, Plutarch, and Stobeus; but Plutarch is fuppofed
to have made great ufe of his authority in his life of Pom-
pey, though he does not fpeak favourably of his chara¢ter.
He fays, “‘ Theophanes afferts, that in the private papers of
Mithridates taken at Cznon, there was found a memorial,
compofed by Rutilius (Rufus), exhorting Mithridates to
maflacre all the Romans in Afia. But it is generally’ be-
lieved, that this was a malicious fiction of Theophanes to
blacken Rutilius, whom probably he hated, becaufe lie was
a perfe& contraft to himfelf; or it might be invented by

Pompey, whofe father was reprefented by Rutilius in his
hiftory, as one of the worft of men.’’ Rutilius was a man
of fuch excellent character, as to be incapable of the crime
with which he is charged; and without doubt fuch a falii-
fication of hiftory, for bafe and private purpofes, is fuffi-
cient to deftroy all efteem for the writer.

Of the poetry of Theophanes, which was celebrated in
his time, there remain only two epigrams, inferted in the
Anthologia. Voflius. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

TuHrEopHANES, GEORGE, a Conitantinopolitan Greek, of
a rich and noble family, married young, but from fupertfti-
tious motives lived in a ftate of celibacy. He afterwards
became.a monk. At the general council held in 787, he
was prefent, and was treated with refpeét. When Niee-
phorus, patriarch of Conftantinople, was exiled by the

THE

emperor Leo the Armenian, Theophanes paid him extra-
ordinary honours, and was himfelf banithed to the Mle of
Samothrace, where he died in 818. His chronicle, com-
mencing where that of Syncellus terminated, was extended
to the commencement of the reign of Michael Curopalata.
This was printed at Paris, with the Latin verfion and notes
of F. Goar, under the care of Combelis, in 1665, fol.
It is valuable for its fats, but difplays the credulity and
Sa judgment of a fuperftitious mind. Voffius. Gen.
iog.

HEOPHANES Prokopovircu (the fon of Procopius),
archbifhop of Novogorod, a learned Ruffian hiftorian, and
mifcellaneous writer, was born at Kiof in the year 1681,
and having ftudied under his uncle Theophanes at the Brat-
fkoi convent in Kiof, travelled into Italy in his eighteenth
year. In three years he completed his courfe of preparatory
ftudy, and then returned to his native town, where he read
le€tures on the Latin and Slavonian art of poetry, at the
feminary where he had received his education. Having
affumed the monattic habit, with the name of Theophanes,
he was appointed, at the age of twenty-five, prefect of the
feminary, and profeffor of philofophy. By a Latin oration
and a fermon, delivered before czar Peter the Great, he
attracted his notice, and was chofen his companion in his
war againit the Turks. In 1711 he was made abbot of the
monattery of Bratfkoi, rector of its feminary, and profeflor
of diyinity. By cenfuring the ignorance of the clergy, and
endeayouring to excite a tafte for literature, he recommended
himfelf to the czar as a proper coadjutor in his plans for re-
forming the church. He was accordingly placed at the head
of the fynod, in the new ecclefiaftical eftablifhment, the
plan of which he had prepared, and in 1718 he was pro-
moted to the bifhopric of Plefkof. In 1720 he was created
archbifhop of the fame diocefe, and foon after the acceflion
of Catharine I. he was advanced to the rank of archbifhop
of Novogorod, and metropolitan of all Ruffia; and in this
ftation he died in 1730. This prelate was in a high de-
gree the patron of literature, and engaged in a variety of
ways, by his perfonal munificence and labour, in promoting
it. His works were fermons and theological tra¢ts,. a trea-
tife on rhetoric, and rules for compofing Latin and Slavonian
poetry, Latin verfes, and more efpecially the Life of Peter
the Great, terminating with his battle of Pultawa. Le
Clere afferts that he endeavoured to perfuade Peter to intro-
duce the Proteftant religion into Ruffia, and that this event
would have taken place, if it had not been prevented by
Peter’s death. The prelate’s education at Rome, and the
high rank he fuftained in his own church, render this anec-
dote improbable. Coxe’s Travels in Ruffia.

THEOPHANIA, OxnOxx0, formed of @c0c, God,
and Gaiww, ‘J appear, in Antiquity, a feltival obferved by the
Delphians upon the day on which Apollo firft maimfeited
himfelf to them.

THEOPHANY, in Church Hiftory, is fometimes uled
in the fame fenfe with Epiphany.

THEOPHILA, in Ancient Geography, atown of India,
on this fide of the Ganges.

THEOPHILE, named Viaud, in Biography, a French
poet, was born at Clerac, in the Agenois, about the year
1590. By educativn he was a Calvinift, but in his eonduct
and writings he was licentious. In 1619 he withdrew to
England, and unfuccefsfully attempted to introduce him-
felf to king James. After his return he abjured Calvinifm,
but his manners remained the fame. On account of a work
entitled “ Le Parnafle Satirique,’? publifhed in 1622, and
attributed to him, in which were feveral pieces offenfive to

ceeency

THE

decency and religion, he was profecuted. Being arrefted in
Picardy, he was brought to Paris, and thrown into the dun-
geon that had been occupied by Ravaillac, where he re-
mained for two years. He was at length releafed by the
parliament, and fentenced to banifhment. The duke of
Montmorency took him under his prote¢tion, and at his
hotel he died in 1626. His writings are partly profe and
partly verfe. His verfes are negligent and irregular, but
they difplay genius and imagination. His works confilt of
odes, elegies, fonnets, &c.; tragedies; a dramatic dialogue
on the immortality of the foul, entitled “ Socrate Mou-
rant ;”? apologies for himfelf, and letters. A colle¢tion of
his poems and apologies was printed at Rouen in 1627, 8vo.;
and his friend Mairet printed his French and Latin letters at
Paris, in 1642, with his portrait prefixed. Nouv. Did.
Hitt. Gen. Biog.

THEOPHILUS, emperor of Conftantinople, was the
fon of Michael the Stammerer, and fucceeded his father
in 829. He began his reign with the exercife of juftice
in its utmoft rigour, heedlefs not only of the claims of
gratitude, but of the feelings of humanity. His father
had been indebted for his life and crown to the murderers
of his predeceffor Leo IV. Theophilus, under a pre-
tence of paying the debts of his father to thofe who had
contributed to his elevation, f{ummoned them, among other
confiderable perfons in the empire, to his prefence ; and de-
firing the former to withdraw into an adjoining apartment,
that their claims might be examined, he ordered them, on
their own confeffion, to be capitally punifhed. In another
cafe, a poor woman threw herfelf at his feet, complaining of
the injury which fhe had fuftained from a powerful neigh-
bour (the emprefs’s brother), who had raifed the wall of his
palace fo high, that her humble dwelling. was deprived of
light and air. Theophilus gave her the palace, with the
ground upon which it ftood, and caufed the offender to be
ftripped and fcourged in the public fquare of the city. The
effect of his fingular rigour, though altogether indefenfible,
was, that a fcrutiny of feventeen days coud not difcover a
Binge crime or abufe in the court or city.

uring this emperor’s whole reign he was engaged in,

wars with the Saracens, the detail of which we fhall omit.
Theophilus died in 842, after a reign of more than twelve
years. His zeal againft the worfhip of images has caufed
his charaéter to be treated with great feverity, and his faults
to be exaggerated. Although he was inexcufably rigorous
in his adminiftration, he was a reformer of manners. Of
his fuperiority to avarice, and high ideas of the dignity of
the regal chara&ter, the following anecdote furnifhes an
inftance. Seeing one day a merchant-fhip, which was deeply
laden, entering the harbour of Conftantinople, he afked the
mariners to whom it belonged: they replied, “* to the em-
prefs.”” ‘ God has made me (he exclaimed) a prince, and
is my wife a merchant? If princes trade, their fubjects
mutt ftarve :’”” he then ordered the veffel to be fet on fire with
all her cargo. Anc. Un. Hift. Gibbon’s Rom. Hitt.
Tueornitus, bifhop of Antioch, was ordained to this
fee in 168 or 170, and governed it for twelve or thirteen
years. In his zeal again{ft herefy, he wrote againft Marcion
and againft Hermogenes, and he compofed other tracts,
fome of which are preferved. We have alfo extant three
books againft Autolycus, a learned heathen, in which he
difplays great learning, and from which it appears that he
had once been a heathen. Thefe works afford, as it is faid,
the earlieft example of the ufe of the term “ Trinity,” ap-
plied by the author to the three perfons of the Godhead.
Some have fuppofed that he approaches to Arianifm, when
4

THE

he afferts that the Word may exift in place, and that he was be-
gotten in time. Theophilus’s books to Autolycus were pub-
lifhed in Latin by Conrad Gefner at Zurich, in 1546, and were
inferted in the ‘* Orthodoxographia,” Bafil, 1555. They
were annexed in Gr. and Lat. to the Supplement of the
* Bibliotheca Patrum,”? 1624; and were printed at the end
of St. Juftin’s Works by Morellus. Lardner.

Tueopruitus, bifhop or patriarch of Alexandria, of vio-
lent and turbulent difpofition, was ordained to that fee in
385. He gained reputation and influence by his zeal in de-
itroying the temple of Serapis, and other pagan temples of
Egyptin 389. (See Turoposius.) He was, under the
guife of a friend, a fecret enemy to John Chryfoftom,
after he had been ordained to the fee of Conftantinople in
397- Without much real regard for religion, he was the
zealous champion of orthodoxy ; and having called a coun-
cil at Alexandria in 399, he prevailed with the affembly to
condemn all the followers of Origen, and with the affiftance
of a band of foldiers, compelled them to abandon their
refidence on mount Nitria, The poor monks, failing to
find afecure refuge, repaired to Conitantinople, to lay their
complaints before the emperor. The humanity of John
Chryfottom irritated Theophilus, who was employed by the
emprefs Eudoxia, for profecuting her revenge againit Chry-
foftom. Accordingly, he arrived at Contanginaile at the
head of a body of Egyptian failors and dependent bifhops,
avowing that he was going to depofe John. His purpofe
was executed at the fynod of Chalcedon in 403. (See
Curysostom.) His malignity purfued this venerable pre-
late in his exile, by a libel filled with abufive expreffions,
which was tranflated at his requeft by Jerom, from Greek
into Latin, Theophilus died at Alexandria in 412. The
moft confiderable of his works was a large treatife againft
Origen. Some of his epiftles are found among thofe of
Jerom, and fome of his canonical epiftles are contained in
the colleétions of Zonaras and Balfamon. Of this prelate
Dupin has given the following character; ‘“ There is no-
thing in the writings of Theophilus that can turn to his
commendation ; they are obfcure, unintelligible, and full of
falfe and impertinent reafonings and reflections. He was a
good politician, but abad author. He knew better how to
manage a court intrigue, than to refolve a queftion in divinity.
The only rule for his opinions was his intereit or his ambition.
He was ready to embrace any opinion or party that fuited
his purpofe, without examining whether it was juft or rea
fonable.”? Dupin. Lardner. Gibbon.

THEOPHRASTA, in Botany, fo called in memory
of the father of all natural hiftorians, Theophraftus, native
of Erefos in the ifle of Lefbos; whence Plumier named
this genus Eresia. (See that article.) Linnzus on fuch
oduaters always preferred the appellation by which the per-
fon intended to be celebrated was beft known. — Linn.
Gen. 84. Schreb. 110. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 824. Mart.
Mill. Dig. v. 4. Swartz Obf. 58. Juffl. 150. Lamarck
Iluftr. t. 119. (Erefia; Plum. Gen. 8. t. 25.) — Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Apocineis
affine, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, fmall, of one leaf, in
five deep, obtufe, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal,
bell-fhaped, fpreading, cut more than half way down into
five rounded equal fegments. ‘ Ne¢tary five {mall, ovate,
obtufe glands, thickeft at the point, lying upon the {eg
ments of the corolla.”? Jacy.—Stam. Filaments five, thread-
fhaped, united below to an internal membrane, fo as to
form a fhort, thick, furrowed column, crowned with a five-
rayed horizontal difk ; anthers five, of two feparate as

obes,

T H'E

Jobes, attached to the fides of each fegment of the difk,
underneath. Piff. Germen fuperior, ovate 5 ftyle cylin-
drical, the length of the ftamens, erect ; ftigma in five ob-
tufe lobes. Peric. Berry globofe, coated, of one cell.
Seeds feveral, roundith, fomewhat comprefled.

Ef. Ch. Corolla bell-fhaped, in five obtufe fpreading
fegments, with a ne¢tary of five incumbent glands. Berry
coated, of one cell, with feveral feeds. :

1. Th. americana. Large-fruited Theophrafta. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 212. Willd. n. 1. Swartz Obf. 59. (Erefia
foliis aquifoliilongiffimis ; Plum. Ic. 119. t. 126.)—Leaves
obtufe. Clufters terminal, ereét.— Native of barren dry
bufhy fhady places in Hifpaniola. Swartz. Stem fhrubby,
one or two feet high, erect, fimple, leafy in its upper half,
round, thorny, clothed with rufty down. Leaves oppofite
or whorled, on very fhort. ftalks, ered, oblong-lanceolate,
obtufe, tapering at the bafe, very rigid, ferrated ; their fer-
ratures alternately inflexed and reflexed, each tipped with a
f{mall, prominent, ae black-pointed fpine. Foot/falks thick,
rufous, clofely preffed to the ftem. C/ufters fhort, terminal,
from the midft of the terminal leaves, many-flowered, par-
tial fowerfialks numerous, fhort, curved, fingle-flowered.
Fruit two inches in diameter, yellow, brittle, often for the
moft part hollow or empty, its receptacle juicy at the bottom.
Seeds black, hard, attached by their bafe. Swartz. We
prefume the c/uffers, from Plumier’s figure, to be ere&t, and
the /eeds numerous.

2. Th. Jongifolia. Small-fruited Theophrafta. Jacq.
Coll. v. 4. 136. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 62. t. 116.
Willd. n. 2.—Leavesacute. Clufters lateral, drooping.—
Native of the Caraccas. It flowered in the ftove at Schoen-
brun from Auguft till November. The /fem is faid to be
twenty feet high, but always unbranched. Leaves imper-
fe&tly whorled, near two feet long, reclining, with f{pinous
ferratures, fmooth, of a dark fhining green, with nume-
rous tranfverfe veins from the mid-rib. Clu/fers numerous,
{cattered between the whorls of leaves, ftalked, drooping,
a {pan long, of numerous little orange-coloured or fearlet

lowers. Fruit in its native country about an inch in dia-
meter, with about four feeds; but in the garden it did not
attain more than half that fize, and perfe€ted only one. If
there be no miftake in Dr. Swartz’s defeription of the firft
fpecies, there is a prodigious difference between the ftature
of the two. Yet we have a fufpicion, that they may pof-
fibly not be more than varieties of each other. As to the
generic charaéter, Plumier’s reprefentation of the parts of
the flower is too imperfeét for us to fuppofe him more right
than the faithful Jacquin. Swartz’s defcription may eafily
be reconciled with the Hortus Schoenbrunenfis.

THEOPHRASTICS, a name given to the followers
of Paracelfus, from his name Theophrattus.

THEOPHRASTUS, in Biography, a diftinguifhed
Greek philofopher, the favourite pupil of Ariftotle, and
nominated by him as his fucceffor in the {chool of the Ly-
ceum, was born at Erefium, a maritime town of Lefbos,
in the fecond year of the 1ozd Olympiad, B.C. 371. His
firft rudiments of education were received under Alcippus
in his own country, and being fent by his father to Athens,
he became firft a difciple of Plato and afterwards of Arif-
totle. Such were his natural talents, that, under fuch tui-
tion, he made great progrefs both in philofophy and elo-
quence: fo that his original name, Tyrtamus, was changed,
either by his mafter or his followers, into Theophraftus,
After he undertook the Peripatetic fchool in the year B.C.

23, his reputation was fo diftinguifhed, that the number of
is {cholars was about 2000. His erudition and engaging
manners recommended him to the notice of Caflander and

Voit. XXXV,

THE

Ptolemy : by the former he was invited to Macedon, and
by the latter to Egypt; and among the Athenians he
was fo great a favourite, that, when he was accufed by
one of his enemies of teaching impious doétrines, the ac-
cufer could not without difficulty efcape the punifhment
which he endeavoured to bring upon Theophraftus. Theo-
phraftus is no lefs highly citeated for his generofity and
public fpirit, than for his induftry, learning, and eloquence.
He is faid to have twice faved his country from the oppref-
fion of tyrants; and he contributed liberally towards de-
fraying the expence of public meetings held by philofophers
for learned and ingenious convetfation. In the public
{chools he appeared, after the manner of Ariftotle, in an
elegant drefs, and was very attentive to the graces of elocu-
tion: and hence it is faid he obtained the appellation of
Theophrattus, the divine fpeaker. Towards the clofe of life,
which was prolonged to the age of 85 years, he became very
infirm, and was conveyed to the fchool in a carriage. In
contemplating the fhortnefs of life, he expreffed great re-
gret ; complaining that long life was granted to ftags and
crows, to whom it was of little value, but was denied to
man, who, if it were of longer duration, might attain the
fummit of feience: whereas now, as foon as he arrives
within fight of it, he istaken away. His laft advice to his
difciples was, that fince it is the lot of man to die as foon as
he begins to live, they fhould take greater pains to enjoy life
as it pafles, than to acquire pofthumous fame. A large
body of Athenians attended his funeral.

The works of Theophraftus comprehended a variety of
fubjets, and were numerous. His doétrine differed in fome
refpects from that of his mafter Ariftotle. He taught
that the predicaments, or categories, were as numerous as the
motions and changes to which beings are liable; and that
among motions, or changes, are to be reckoned defires, ap-
petites, judgments and thoughts. He maintained, that all
things are not produced from contraries; but fome from con-
traries, fome from fimilar caufes, and fome from fimple energy ;
that motion is not te be diftinguifhed from aétion ; and that
there is one divine principle of all things, by which all
things fubfift. By this divine principle, it is thought that
Theophraftus meant the Firft Mover, without whom other
things could not be moved, and therefore could not fubfift.
Of his moral maxims, the following are the moft worthy of
notice. ‘ Refpeét yourfelf, and you will never have reafon
to be afhamed before others. Love is the paffion of an in-
dolent mind. Blufhing is the complexion of virtue. ‘Time
is the moft precious expenditure.”

Few of his works, of which Diogenes Laertius enume-
rates more than 200, have reached our time : of thefe, the moft
famous is entitled “* Chara¢ters,’? defcribing different moral
claffes of men, fuch as the flatterer, the impudent, the dif-
contented, the garrulous, the fuperttitious, &c.; fo diftin-
aria and defcribed, as to fhew great knowledge of man-

ind. Of his other works on natural hiftory, the prin-
cipal are his “ Hiftory of Plants,’? in nine books, which
Haller has particularly recommended to the notice of bota-
nical ftudents ; “¢On the-Canfes of Plants,” relating chiefly to
the natural and artificial means of bringing them to maturity ;
to agriculture and horticulture; to the taftes and odours of
vegetables ; “ On Stones ;”? “ On Winds ;”’ * On Fire ;”’
“ On Honey ;” “ On the Signs of Fair Weather, and of
Tempefts and Rain ;’? “ On Animals which change their
Colour ;’? “On Animals which are born fuddenly ;?? “ On
Fifh which live out of Water.’? Theophraftus ranks
amongit the moft diftinguifhed of the ancients for compre-
henfive genius and diligent enquiry into nature. The laft
edition of the whole extant works of Theophraftus is that

3Q of

THE

‘of Dan. Heinfius, Greek and Latin, fol. Lugd. Bat.
1613. OF his hiftory of plants, the moft complete is that
of Budzus, Greek and Latin, fol. Amft. 1644. Among
the moft efteemed editions of his ‘* Charaéters,’? which are
numerous, we may reckon thofe of If. Cafaubon, of Need-
ham, with the notes of Duport, Cantab. 1712, and of
{. Fr. Fifcher, Coburg. 1763. Diog. Laert. Brucker
by Enfield. Haller Bib. Bot.

THEOPHYLACT, named Simocatta, a Greek hiftorian,
a native of Greece, but of Egyptian origin, flourifhed about
A.D. 612. His hiftory of the reign of the emperor Mau-
rice is comprehended in eight books, and terminates with the
maffacre of this prince and his children by Phocas. Cafau-
bon reckons Simocatta one of the belt of the later Greek
hiftorians. The work juft mentioned was printed at the
Louvre, in 1647, fol. and forms a part of the Byzantine hif-
torians. An edition of his “ Epiftles, Moral, Rural, and
Amatory,’”? was given by Aldus. His “ Phyfical Pro-
blems’’ were publifhed firft by Vulcanius at Leyden, and
afterwards by Andrew Schottus. His “ Hiftory of the
Habitable World” is cited by Euftathius, in his Commen-
tary on the Periegefis of Dionyfius. Gen. Biog.

TreopuyLact, archbifhop of Acris, the capital of
Bulgaria, was a native of Conftantinople, and flourifhed
under the emperors Michael Ducas, Nicephorus Botoniates,
and Alexis Comnenus. After his elevation to the arch-
bifhopric of Acris, by the perfuafion of the wife of Ducas,
he diligently laboured in propagating the Chriftian faith,
and compofed feveral works, which give him rank among
the principal ecclefiaftical writers of his age. The time of
his death is not known; but he was living in 1071. His
“Commentaries on the Four Gofpels, the Ads of the
Apottles,: and the Epiftles of St. Paul,’ which are his
chief work, are for the moft part abridged from Chryfof-
tom and others. He alfo wrote ‘‘ Commentaries on the
Minor Prophets.’”? Several editions of his Commentaries
have been publifhed in Greek and Latin, and alfo in Latin
only. ‘ Seventy-five Epiftles’”” of this author were publifhed
by Meurfius, in Greek, in 1617, aud’a Latin tranflation in
1622. Some other traéts have been attributed to this author.
Dupin fays, that the Commentaries of Theophylact are very
afeful for the literal explanation of the Scriptures: and
Lardner obferves, that he quotes no forged writings or
apocryphal books of the New Teftament, many of which
he excludes by his obfervation on John, i. 31—34. that
Chrift wrought no miracle in his infancy, or before the
time of his public miniftry. Dupin. Lardner.

THEOPNEUST A, Osomvsx, formed of ©:0:, God,
and ave, I breathe, an epithet given to enthufiaftical
diyiners.

THEOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, belonging to the Aventici, N.E. of Forum
Novum.

THEOPROPRIA, O:omporia, formed of Geo:, God, and
expiw, J excel, a defignation given to oracles. See
ORACLE.

THEOPSIA, ©cormz, formed of O:0:, God, and orz0pne1,
I fee, in Mythology, denoted the appearance of gods. Cicero,
Plutarch, Arnobius, and Chryfoftom, mention appearances
of this kind.

THEORBO, Tuiorsa, or Trorsa, a mufical inftru-
ment, made in form of a large lute ; except that it has two
necks, or juga, the fecond and longer of which fuftains the
four laft rows of chords, which are to give the deepeft
founds. See Lure.

‘The word is formed from the French seorbe, or theorbe,

THE

and that from the Italian tiorbe} which fighi Ges the fame,

and which fome will have to be the name of the inventor.
The theorbo is an inftrument which for many years fuc-
ceeded to the lute, in the playing of thorough baffes; it is
faid by fome to have been invented in France, by the fieur
Hotteman, and thence introduced into Italy, &c.
The only difference between the theorbo and the lute is,

that the former has eight bafs or thick ftrings twice as lon :

as thofe of the lute; which excefs of length renders their
found fo exceedingly foft, and keeps it. up fo long a time,
that it is no wonder many prefer it to the harpfichord itfelf,
At leaft it has this advantage over it, that it is eafily removed
from place to place, &c.

All its ftrings are ufually fingle; though there are fome
who double the bafs-{trings with a little octave, or the {mall
ftrings with an unifon; in which cafe, bearing more re-
femblance to the lute than the common theorbo,.the Italians
call it the arcileuto, or arch-lute.

THEOREM, in the Mathematical Method, a propofition
which terminates in theory, and which confiders the properties
of things already made or done.

Or, a theorem:is a {peculative propofition, deduced fron
feveral definitions compared together. , Thus, if a triangle
be compared with a parallelogram ftanding on the fame bafe,
and of the fame altitude, and partly from their immediate
definitions, and partly from other of their properties alread:
determined, it is inferred, that the parallelogram is dgukle
the triangle : that propofition is the theorem, ;

Theorem ftands contradiftinguifhed from problem. ,

There are two things to be chiefly regarded in every
theorem, viz. the propofition and the demonftration: in the
firft is expreffed what agrees to fome certain thing under
certain conditions, and what does not.

In the latter, the reafons are laid down, by which the
underftanding comes to conceive, that it does or does not
agree to them.

Theorenis are of various kinds: as,

Turorem, Univer/al, is that which extends to any quan-
tity without reftri€tion, univerfally. As this, that the
re€tangle of the fum and difference of any two quantities
is equal to the difference of their {quares. _

Turorem, Particular, is that which extends only to a
particular quantity. As this: in an equilateral right-lined
triangle, each of the angles is fixty degrees.

TueEorem, Negative, is that which expreffes the impoffi-
bility of any affertion. As, that the fum of two biqua-
drate numbers cannot make a {quare number.

TuroreM, Local, is that which relates toa furface. As,
that triangles of the fame bafe and altitude are equal,

TurorEemM, Plane, is that which either relates to a reétili-
near furface, or to one terminated by the circumference of a
circle. As, that all angles in the fame fegment of a circle
are equal.

Tueorem, Solid, is that which confiders a {pace terx-
minated by a folid; that. is, by any of the three conic
feGtions. £. gr. this: that if a right line cut two afymp-
totic parabolas, its two parts terminated by them fhall be
equal. See Sorin. '

TxHrorneM, Reciprocal, is one whofe converfe is true.
As, that if a triangle have two equal fides, it, muft have
two equal angles: the converfe of which is likewife true,
tee if it have two equal angles, it muft have two equal
fides. ;

Tueorem, in Algebra and Analyfis, is fometimes ufed
to denote a rule, particularly when that rule, is expreffed
in fymbols or formule, of which there is of courfe a great
number; but of thefe, fome few, either from their im-

portance,

THEOREM.

portance; curiofity, or other confiderations, have retained
particular denominations, under which they are frequently
referred to by modern authors: it is therefore neceflary to
have them fo claffed, that a reader may be able to afcertain
the principles on which they are founded, the purpofes they
are intended to anfwer, and the cafes to which they will
beit apply. The theorems to which we here allude, are
Bernoulli’s theorem, the Binomial theorem, Cotes’s, Taylor’s,
Maclaurin’s, &c.

Bernoull’s Theorem, is a general formula for the de-
velopement of any fluent or integral, of any propofed
fluxion or differential; which may be ftated as follows: viz.
X being any funétion of x,

x dX ee d?X <3
ge, IS deel roar dx? "1.2.3

3 4

d3 xX ais a

TS aes Hee
Let us denote by Y, the value of this integral when x = 0,
d ed? X
dx’ dx?

and we fhall have generally,
fXde=V4+VI~ 4 vI=_4 ym
I Te

, &c. being alfo denoted by Y’, ¥”, Y"", &c.

x3

+ &c.
ioe &

Now, in order to pafs from the general value of /Xd x,
which we fhall reprefent by y, to that which anfwers to the
cafe of x = 0, it is evident that we muft in Taylor’s formula
make 4 = ~— x, which gives

(iN ES d*y x? d?y x3
ede r dat 16d ae eg
Brite tathis equation, ia the plane of», S2, 2, &
uw g fee TRUE place o oy da” c

their refpective values, and taking that of /X d x, we hall
have ;

2 2 3
pets ave x Sh gn Be ae — &e.
I dik) Greets Cixi 22.9
the quantity Y being ftilk a conitant arbitrary, By inte-
grating, we arrive alo at this developement : thus, if we

decompofe the differential X d x into its two fa&tors X and
dx, and integrate the fecond, we fhall have

[¥dx=Kx— fxd X.

But
; dX dX aX
% Bei Et eat yee
es ez Soa ee “ree a
d?*X d?X a*X d3X
2 pea 2 af 3 past . Sew
Beige gee 8 tas oh ae
d? Xx da? X a3X a‘X
Oo Hfaar tides 3 x 3 — 4 iis
&e. &e &e.
And putting fucceffively for fx d X, fx* = aS ‘&e. their
x
sefpective values, there refults,
x dX x? a? xX Cae
f le rece oes Pare hie 5 ee

which is the theorem of John Bernoulli, and is the fame

with regard to the integral calculus, as that of Taylor to the
differential.

Binomial Theorem, or Newtonian theorem, is a general
formula for the developement of any binomial of the

mm
form (@ + x)? viz.
m
n

(a +x)
eBid ye ™(=) mm—n = mm m—R
Uv ty TMI Be Tay (- bie Thitzeg

= 3
2 Ree *(<) se. |
3n a

See Brnomrat Theorem.

Briggs’s Theorem.—There are more than one formula that
have received this defignation, but we believe that the fol-
lowing is generally underftood to be implied; viz.

“ The nth differences of any confecutive nth powers,’ or
of any th powers whofe roots are in arithmetical pro-
greflion, are expreffed by the formula

n(n—1)(2—2)(2—3)(n—4)---1-0
d being the common difference of the roots.”

The demonftration of this theorem is commonly made to
depend upon principles drawn from the fluxional analyfis ;
but we prefer giving a fketch of that which appeared in
vol. xi. of the Irifh Tranfa@tions by Mr. Burk, being de-
duced from the moft elementary confiderations.

We know that the expanfion of (p +x)", is of the form

P taxp 4+ Cup? 4+ Dai pr + &e.

Let 0, p, 9, 7; 5, &t. be the terms of any decreafing arith-
metical progreffion, of which the difference is d; then finee
o=p+d, p=q+d4, &c: we have

o = (p4d)* =p" + adp"*-'+ Cd’p*-* + &e.
P=H(¢qtdaHa_gradg'+Cdg*+ ke.
G=(r+df=H=r+ndr'+ Cader + Kc.
Taking the firft, fecond, third, &¢. differences, we have
Firft Differences

nd pit Cd'p"-* + &e.

ndg*—*+ Cd’g*—?+ &e.

ndr*—>+ Cd? 7"? +-&c.

Aand fince p-*= (q+ d)"= gh" + (a 1) d gto" &e-
we have for the

Second Differences
nd(n—1)dg*"?+ &c.
nd(n—1)dr"~?+ &c.
nd(n—1)ds"—?+ &c.

Third Differences,
nd(z2—1)d(2—2)dr*-?4 &e.
nd(n— 1)d(n—2)ds*-*+ &e.

Fourth Differences

nd(n—1)d(n—2)ds*-? (2 —3)dr*-*+ &e.
Whence, by an infallible and obvious deduétion,
nth Differences
nd(n—1)d(n—2).....(n—n—1)dw*~*
(1 + 1)th Differences
nd(n—1)d(s—2z) (n—2)dov.

But

THEOREM.

But fince n — »=0, the (n + 1)th differences = 0; and
Gnce w*~"= w°=1, the ath differences become

n(n —1)(n—2)(n—3)..-.-. 3/2. 1. dy"

It may not be amifs to obferve, that we have only em-
ployed the firft term of the feveral orders of differences,
which however is fufficient for our purpofe, fince it is ob-
vious that the nth difference can have but one term; for
the developement of (p + d)"gives x + 1 terms; and fince
one term vanifhes with every difference, the firft difference
will have nm terms, the fecond nm — 1, the third nm — 2, &c.;
and confequently the nth difference will have n — (n — 1)
= 1 term only. See Irith Tranfaétions, vol. x1. or Monthly
Review, vol. lxxiv.

Cotes’s Theorem, or Cotefian Theorem.—The geometrical
properties of this very interefting theerem are explained
under the article Corestan Theorem ; it will only be necef-
fary therefore in this place to ftate the fame analytically. In
this cafe, the general enunciation is :

«« All the imaginary roots of the binomial equation x" —

1 =0, are contained in the general formula x* — 2 cof. -

kz
eal + 1=0; and thofe of x"-++ 1 = 0, in the formula

x* — 2 cof. Arie )% x + 1 =0, & being any integer not
n

divifible by 1, and x reprefenting the femi-circumference.”’
See Reciprocar £quations.

Luler’s Theorem is ufed to denote the theorem or formula
firft given by this author, for afcertaining the dire&t integra-
bility of differential equations, which is as follows. The
equation being reduced to the form

Mdx+Ndy=o,

where M and N are funétions of x and y; if is = = then
dy dx

the integration may he obtained by a direét procefs; but if

this equality have not place, the integration can then only

be effected by indire& means, which frequently involve con-

fiderable difficulty.

Fermat's Theorem.—There are feveral theorems in the
theory of numbers which are due to this ingenious analyft ;
but that which is more particularly defigned by Fermat’s
theorem is this; viz. “ Neither the fum nor difference of any
two integral powers, above the fquare, can be equal to a
rational power of the fame dimenfion:?? or, which is the
fame, thé equation

x” + y" = yz”
. always impoffible in rational numbers, if n be greater
than 2.

The cafes of » = 3 and n = 4 have been demonttrated ;
but notwithftanding the numerous attempts of the moft ce-
lebrated analyfts of the laft and of the prefent age, the cafe
of n=5, and all the fucceeding values of n, remain with-
out demonftration; and as this is now the only theorem of
this author which has not fubmitted to the power of the
modern analyfis, the National Inftitute of France has made
it the fubjeét of the prize of 3000 francs, to be decided
by 1818.

Under the article Numprrs, amongft the mifcellaneous
propofitions, we have mentioned another theorem of Fermat’s,
which had not then been demonftrated, but which has fince
been effected by M. Cauchy, correfponding member of the
Inftitute. The reader will alfo find fome farther remarks
relative to the equation x” -+ y" = 2", under our article
Power.

il

Gau/fi’s Theorem is ufed to denote a theorem invented by
this diftinguifhed mathematician, for the folution of certain
binomial equations. We have feen, in the article Recipro-
cat Equations, in what manner the roots of binomial equations

-may be obtained by means of a table of fines and cofines ;

but Gaufs’s theorem is the converfe of this, and fhews in
what manner the fines and cofines of certain angles may be
obtained, by the numerical folution of fuch equations. See
PoLyGox. Se

Guldin’s Theorem is the fame as the CENTROBARYC Method;
which fee.

Lagrange’s Theorem is commonly ufed to denote the gene-
ral formula afflumed by Lagrange as the foundation of his
theory of funétions ; which may be thus enunciated.

“If ¢x be any funtion whatever of a variable quantity
x, and if x changes its value, and becomes x + #, then the
@(x +i) may be reprefented or refolved into a feries of
the form

O(x+i)=eox~+Pi4+ Qi? + Riis &e.
in which the co-efficients of the powers of # are new func-
tions of x, derived from the primitive funétion x, indepen-
dent of i; and, moreover, that every co-efficient is derived
from the preceding one, in the fame manner as the firft is
derived from the original funétion.”” See Funcrrons.

Leibnit2’s Theorem is a theorem propofed by this author for
differencing under the fign /, and it may be exhibited under

the form a = dx, where M = = u beng
any funétion of x and y.
Since" 3 8" te ‘the: kira ae
dxdy dydx mi P P

differential calculus ; if we make u = f Md, we fhall have

ae ia 3 ash and integrating with regard te x,

iar ee ay
we fhall find
du d‘u du dM
Ce om rtaegeny prongs oes Sapen

This is called by Leibnitz différentiatio de curva in curvam,
becaufe in the queftion which he propofed to refolve, he
paffed from one curve to another of the fame fpecies, by
making one of the conftant quantities variable. See La
Croix *¢ Calcul Integral.” q

Madclaurin’s Theorem is a formula which we owe to this
author for exprefling any funtion y, of a variable quantity x 5
viz. adopting the differential notation,

d d*y\ x faay
y=) + (q)* + 4(g3)* +55 (Ga) t Be

where (y), (2) (2) &c. reprefent what thefe feveral

quantities become when x = o.
Let y=At+ Bx + Cx* + Dx + &e.
differencing, and dividing by dx, we have

2 =B+2Cx+ 3Dx* + &c.

—= 2C +2.3Dx + &e.

+2.3D a &e.
confe-

THEOREM.

confequently, when x in each of thefe = o, we have

dy) _ ; (4)= eye 2
w=A.(2)=8s (ae Se ieee ee 4

therefore,

dy eye "2 (dey
9=0) + (33) *+ ia + ty Ta) te.
See Maclaurin’s “ Fluxions,’? and Boucharlat’s ‘ Calcul

Differentiel, &c.’’

Moivre’s Theorem. See the next article.

(A + Ax +.Ax® + Ax} +

“pe AB
og Ae Bd oe 7H
+ (m—1)AB

+ (m—2) AB °

Where B = A», and B, B, B, &c. are the co-efficients

of the terms immediately preceding thofe in which they firft
appear; and the manner of applying this theorem to any
particular cafe, is by fubftituting the numbers or letters in
the given example for A, A, A, &c. and the numerical

value of m for m. It would lead us too far to attempt the
demonttration of this theorem in this place, we mutt, there-
fore, refer the reader for fuch information to the works
above-mentioned.

Newtonian Theorem. See Brnom1at Theorem.

Taylor’s Theorem, an elegant and highly valuable formula,
which was firft publifhed by Dr. Brook Taylor in his
« Methodus Incrementorum,”’ which is as follows; viz.

« If Y reprefent any funétion whatever of the variable
quantity x, and if x be increafed by any difference A x, the
value of Y, viz. Y + AY, becomes (employing the dif-
ferential notation)

AxdY Ax’? a Y Axid3Y

cs ih ieatiding Bede | r.2.dx* | 1.2.3d ace
AxdY Ax? d?7Y Ax3d3 Y

rece oan 1.dx 1.2.0x” Tai

The demonftration of this celebrated theorem is given very
concifely by La Croix, on the following principles.

Let Y be any function of x, and let Y! denote what this
funGtion becomes, when x becomes x + 4, we may write

Y=A+ BS + Ch? + Dd? + &e.

in which developement, it is obvious that A, B, C, &c.
are functions of x.

If now we difference this equation with / variable and x

conftant, we obtain, dividing by dA,

'
XO =B42Ch4 3Ds" + &e.
Again, differencing with x variable and 4 conftant, we have
WT de dB dC dD
Gh) cenit ay [tos peed | Fale. Bee 973 :
Sokal SiaG Rae IT \irok beled ce

But as x and / enter exaétly in the fame manner, it follows

t 1
sed Y ¥

ic ae whence the firft of thefe feries is equal to the

Aa faz — 1) AB xe

Multinomial Theorem, fometimes called Moivre’s theorem,
having been firft difcovered by that author, is a general
expreffion or formula for determining any power or root
of a given quantity confifting of any number of terms.
This theorem was firft publifhed by its author in N° 230.
of the Phil. Tranf. 1697; but it was afterwards fim-
plified by Euler in his Calcul Differentiel,”’ and the
fame has alfo been done by Arbogaft in his ‘* Calcul des
Derivations.”

The general form of this theorem, as given in Bonny-
caftle’s Algebra, is as follows : :

= Jap Vite er fal Beh

Se — 4mA B)
aa + Gm As! ;
A pee:
EDEN Cea aie Car gates
2 2 °

+ (m —3) aB|

fecond; equating, therefore, the co-efficients of the like
powers of 4, we have

dA dB dC
BaGo C= Jyy D= So &
Now
dY day) d3Y
Ee
whence
dY GEG d?Y
Cc peep 3 A
op Solas ein Maadede’ t03 2 Fie tree

Or writing
Yi= Y +AY,andx+4=x + Ax,
we have

AxdY Ax?d?7Y Ax3d3Y
oe.

1.dx 1.2.dx? A SAB EGK a

See La Croix “ Calcul Differentiel,”’ p. 21. *

Trinomial Theorem is only a particular cafe of the Mulsi-
nomial Theorem, which fee.

Wilfon’s Theorem is a curious formula relative to prime
numbers, publifhed firft by Waring in his ‘* Meditationes
Algebraice,”’ which is as follows.

“¢ If n be any prime number, then will

1.2.3.4, &c.(2—1)+1
be divifible by 2.”

This curious theorem was not demonttrated by fir John
Wilfon, who firft difcovered it, nor by Waring, by whom it
was firft made public; it has, however, fince received
different demonftrations from Lagrange, Gaufs, &c. the
latter of which is very fimple, and has been adopted by
Barlow in his ‘“* Theory of Numbers,’’ to which work we
beg to refer our readers, as it would require more room
than we can allow ourfelves to give it at full length in this

lace.
, The above include, we believe, all thofe theorems which
are known by any particular defignation ; there are, doubt-
lefs, many others equally important, and which are equally
entitled to bear the names of their refpective authors,
but cuftom has not fan@tioned the adoption ; and we have,

therefore, not introduced them.
THEO-

Ya

ol (ies) © 3
THEORETIC, Tueoreticat, or Theoric, formed

from Sewgex, J fee or contemplate, fomething relating to theory,
or that terminates in fpeculation. In which fenfe it ftands
oppofed to pradical.

The feiences are ordinarily divided into theoretical, as theo-
logy, philofophy, &c.; and pradical, as medicine, law, &c.
See Science.

Tueoreric, Theoreticus, is an appellation peculiarly given
to an ancient fe& of phyficians, contradiftinguifhed by it from
the empirics. See Empiric. }

Theoretic phyficians were fuch as applied themfelves toa
careful ftudy and confideration of what relates to health and
difeafes ; the principles of the human body, and its ftru€ture
and parts, with their aétions and ufes ; whatever befals it,
either naturally or preternaturally ; the differences of dif-
eafes, their nature, caufes, figns, indications, &c.; the tex-
tures, properties, &c. of ieee and other medicines, &c.
In a word, the theoretic phyficians were fuch as proceeded
in their judgment and praétice on the foot of reafon, in op-
pofition to the empirical phyficians, who proceeded wholly
on experience. See MepIcrNeE.

THEORETICAL Arithmetic and Philofophy.
ftantives.

THEORIL, Sogo, in Antiquity, an appellation given to
thofe Athenians who performed the folemnity called ¢heoria.

THEORIA, Swix, a folemn annual voyage to Apollo’s
temple, in the ifland of Delos, performed by the Athenians
always in the fame fhip in which Thefeus went. For the
particularities of this naval proceffion, fee Potter Archzol.
Grac. lib. ii. cap. 9. tom.i. p. 284, feq.

THEORIC Money, in Ancient Authors, was what was
raifed, by way of tax on the people, to defray the expences
of theatrical reprefentations, and other fpeétacles.

_ There were particular queftors and treafurers of the theoric

money. By a law of Eubulus, it was made a capital crime

to pervert the theoric money to any other ufe; even to em-
loy it in the occafions of war.

THEORICAL Asrronomy, is that part of aftronomy
which confiders the true {truéture and difpofition of the hea-
vens, and heavenly bodies; and accounts for their various
phenomena therefrom, See AstRoNoMyY.

It is thus called, in oppofition to that part which con-
fiders their apparent ftru€ture, or their difpofition as viewed
by the eye, which is called /pherical aftronomy.

The feveral parts of theorical aftonomy, fee under Sys-
TEM, Sun, Star, PLanet, Earrn, Moon, SaTevuire,
and Comer.

THEORY, a doétrine which terminates ir. the fole {pe-
culation, or confideration, of its object, without any view to
the pra€tice or application of it.

To be learned in an art, &c. the theory fuffices; to be a
mafter of it, both the theory and praétice are required. Ma-
chines, many times, promife very well in the theory, yet fail
in the practice.

We fay, theory of the moon, theory of the rainbow, of
the microfcope, the camera obfcura, the motion of the heart,
the operation of purgatives, &c.

Tueories of the Planets, &c. are fyftems or hypothefes,
according to which the aftronomers explain the reafons of
the phenomena or appearances of them. See System.

Tueory, in Wufic, in the hands of a mere mathematician
is confined only to ratios and the philofophy of found. (See

‘ Harmonics.) But among pradical muficians, the theory
of harmony or compofition is conneéted with the combina-
tion of agreeable founds, and the praétice and performance
of real mufic. :

Turory, Atomic, in Chemifry, the means of explaining

9

See the fub-

a ih Ro

the compofition and decompofition of chemical bodies, by
confidering their ultimate atoms ‘or particles as peculiar and
diftin& elementary folids, never changing in their figure,
weight, or volume, under any circumftances.

It would be difficult to conceive the exiftence of any com-
pound, without fuppofing it to have originated by union, im
fome way or other, of particles of its elementary conftituents :
but the prevalence of a doétrine, which has been generall
advanced by mathematicians, viz. the infinite divifibility of
matter, has never allowed philofophers to conclude that the —
circumftance of compounds being made up of particles, mut
neceflarily limit the proportions in which the elements com-
bine. If the elementary bodies be conceived infinitely divi-
fible, the molecules, or compound particles, may be con-
ceived infinitely fmall, and the number of mean compounds
exifting between any two given extremes may be alfo con-
fidered infinite.

If fuch were the nature of elementary matter, and no
other caufes interfered, there could be no limitation to the
proportions in which fimple matter would combine. This,
however, is contrary to faét; as it is a faét known from the
earlieft dawnings of chemical knowledge, that bodies are
limited in the proportions of their elements; the moft
ftriking of thefe faéts being the mutual faturation whiclz
takes place between an acid and an alkali, and the uniform
proportions afforded in the analyfis of many native conr-
pounds. agg

Philofophers were always fatisfied to confider this fa& of
the limitation of the proportions of bodies as one of the hidden
fecrets of nature, as difficult to conceive as the nature of the
attraction by which their elements were held together. Ber-
thollet appears to have been the firft to attempt this arduous
tafk, in his ingenious work, entitled “* Chemical Statics.’
He {uppofes that the particles of bodies, when brought within
the {phere of attraétion, combine without controul till the
compound affumes fome definite form, by which it is with-
drawn from the fituation in which it was formed. He fup-
pofes the chemical affinity of bodies to be diftin& from that
power on which their cohefion depends, and alfo that power
by which they tend to an elaftic ftate. pipe

Hence he concludes, that every folid compound is deter-
mined by the cohefion which takes place at fome limit in the
proportion of its elements: fuch he fuppofes to be the cafe
with falts and other cryftallizable compounds. On the other
hand, he fuppofes the limitations of the proportions of the
elements of gafeous compounds to arife from the elaftic
form which they affume in certain ftages of combination.
This hypothefis was fupported by fo many ftriking faés,
that it was thought by fone to explain in general the caufe
of limited proportions. All agreed, that whatever might
be the true theory, the caufes pointed out by Berthollet had
confiderable influence in the compofition and decompofition
of bodies, but they faw at the fame time numerous cafes in
which this hypothefis failed to explain the faéts.

Chemifts have, from the earlieft times, been acquainted
with thofe points of limitation which we call mutual fatu-
ration, and have been long familiar with thofe limited aug-
mentations of their proportions, called by fome dofes and
by others particles. Among the oxyds of metals, which
had been little examined before the time of Lavoifier, it was
found, that inftead of having an infinite number of means
between the loweft and higheft flages of oxydation, only a
certain number of oxyds df each metal could be formed, in
which the ratio of the metal to the oxygen is uniform.
Many of the falts in the fame way are formed by limited
dofes of acid. Some of the facts in the latter have been
explained on Berthollet’s hypothefis, while its application

ta

THEORY.

- to the former facts is totally infufficient. Long previous to
the true caufe of thefe limited dofes, the fats were fo confpi-
cuous, that a decided nomenclature was adopted for the pur-
pofe of exprefling thefe different ftages of combination. The
oxyds have been diftinguifhed by the Greek numerals prot,
deut, trit, &c. The falts containing two dofes of acid have
been called /uper-falts ; and thofe containing an extra dofe of
bafe, have been called /ub-/alts.
__ Although chemiits have frequently ufed a language which
appeared to fhew their acquaintance with the real caufe of
the definite proportions, fuch as one compound being forced
by one proportion, dofe, or particle of one of its elements,
and another with two proportions, dofes, or particles: on
the other hand, we find expreffions which would fayour the
idea of indefinite proportions;, fuch as bodies lofing a
{mall portioa of their oxygen, or abforbing a little oxygen
from the atmofphere. Salts are fometimes faid to contain a
flight excefs of acid, or a {mall excefs of bafe.

he moft decided language ufed in any chemical work
before the difcoveries of Mr. John Dalton, giving any idea
that the dofes ar= limited by diftin&t atoms, will be found in
a work by Mr. Higgins, entitled “« A Comparative View of
the Phlogiftic and Antiphlogiftic Theories.” We beg leave
to correct a miftake in a former article, in which we have
entitled this work a Treatife on Phlogifton.

This work was written for the exprefs purpofe of com-
batting the phlogiftic theory, and principally in anfwer to
Mr. Kirwan’s treatife of phlogifton. In order to fhew the
contradiGtions and abfurdities of the phlogiftic doétrine,
which, under the name of phlogifton, confounded a number
of bodies which were very different, he exhibited by
diagrams a number of chemical operations, in which he
fuppofed the elementary bodies concerned to be ultimate
particles, and their immediate compounds molecules. He
in the fame diagrams alfo ufed numbers, which he fuppofed
to be eitimates of the ftrength of affinity of the combin-
ing particles: By this means he very fucceisfully fhewed
many of the inconfiftencies which muft be admitted to
explain the phenomena on the phlogiitic theory. _ In this
mode of proceeding, however, the numbers expreffing the
relative attractions, ferved his purpofe much more than the
confideration of the proportions being caufed by diftin&
atoms; and the language which would induce the belief
that he had fuch a conception of the nature of elementary
matter, occurs only in a very few parts of his work.

After concluding that it is unneceffary to admit the ex-
aftence of the imaginary fubftance phlogifton in fulphur, he
concludes, in page 36, that fulphurous acid is compounded
of one ultimate particle of fulphur with one of oxygen,
and that fulphuric acid confifts of one of fulphur and two
of oxygen.

In the fame page he alfo obferves, that water is formed
by one ultimate particle of water united to one of oxygen.

In page 81, he fuppofes fulphuretted hydrogen to confit
of nine ultimate particles of fulphur with five of hydro-

en. Previous, however, to this conclufion, he believes
that the fulphur and hydrogen are not chemically combined,
but that the fulphur is diffelved in hydrogen, as a falt dif-
folves in water.

After ufing arguments to fhew, in anfwer to Mr. Kirwan,
that the nitric acid does not contain what was thought to be
phlogifton, he concludes, in page 132, with giving what he
conceives to be its conftituents, viz. that the nitrous oxyd
confifts of one ultimate particle of azote and one of oxygen;
nitrous gas, of one of azote and two of oxygen; red ni-
trous vapour, one of azote and three of oxygen; ftraw-

coloured nitrous acid, one of azote to four of oxygen; and
laftly, that the nitric acid is conftituted by one of azote and
five of oxygen. Thefe faéts are certainly very remarkable,
us they agree with the conclufions in the prefent time, and give
a ftrong proof of Mr. Higgins’s genius at the time he wrote.

He does not, however, lay any ftrefs upon thefe remarks,
and was not probably aware that they would be confirmed
by future refearch. We are induced to think fo, from the
manner in which he exprefles himfelf in other parts of his
work, in which he frequently {peaks of the abforption of
fmall portions of oxygen, and of bodies haying a {mail
portion of oxygen more than they can retain. This vague
manner of {peaking, and others which we do not immediately
recollect, is fufficient to fhew that Mr. Higgins had no
fixed notions of the caufe of definite proportions, and that
the language in which he has ufed the words ultimate par-
ticles and molecules, was employed rather with a view to
iluftrate his examples, than to. broach any new theory to
explain indefinite proportions. Indeed it would have been
inconfiftent to have treated two fubjets, fo very different in
their objects, in the fame pages.

As a proof that there was nothing ftriking in the remarks
in which the words ultimate atoms and molecules are men-
tioned, we only need refer to the article which Mr. Hig-
gins himfelf quotes from the Analytical Review, written
foon after the appearance of the work in queftion. ‘The
reviewer gives him the higheft praife for the able manner in
which he has refuted the dotrine of phlogiiton, but does not
even hint at his diagrams or the ultimate particles. Indeed
we can venture to affert, that if no more had been faid on
the fubjeét of definite proportions than is to be found in
this work, we might yet have been as much in the dark
as we were twenty years after the publication of Mr. Hig-
gins’s “¢ Comparative View.”’

It was not enough to know that compound bodies were
formed of particles, to enable us to explain the caufe of
definite proportions ; and we want no greater proof of this,
than the fact of the true caufe not being known till twenty-
eight years after Mr. Higgins had told us that one particle
of fulphur and one of oxygen formed fulphurous acid,
and that one to two formed fulphuric acid. Thefe
loofe expreffions were but a {mall ftep indeed towards the
difcovery of the atomic theory in its prefent form, which
has placed chemiftry on the fame ground with that on
which the difcovery of the laws of gravity placed the
{cience of aftronomy.

We are inclined to believe that the firft flep towards this
important difcovery was given by Richter. He found,
in the double decompofition of falts, that the acid of one
falt was always juft fufficient to faturate the bafe of the
other, and wite verfa. He alfo afcertained, that when one
metal was precipitated by another,. the oxygen of the pre-
cipitated metal was juft what was required by the preci-
pitating metal.

The inference to be drawn from thefe facts was, that
if A combine with « to faturation, and B with y to the
fame; then, if A fhould be found to faturate y, B
would alfo faturate x. This inference may be ftill further
extended ; for if A be 2 body capable of combining with
B, they will mutually faturate each other.

It is the means of drawing thefe inferences arifing from
the mutual fitnefs of thofe parts of bodies which combine,
that ‘conflitutes the importance of the atomic theory, and it
is for the eftablifhment of this new principle that we are in-
debted to Mr. John Dalton. When Mr. Higgins can
fhew, from the data given in his work, that funifar infer-

ences

THEORY.

ences could be drawa, he then will be entitled to fhare
ia the merit of the difcovery of the atomic theory. We
fay fhare with him, for we are firmly convinced that Mr. Dal-
ton had never read Mr. Higgins’s book previous to the pub-
lication of his own work.

We perfeétly recolleé& the time, not more than four or
five years ago, even when Mr. Dalton’s book was before
the public, very few chemifts underftood the true fpirit of
the atomic theory ; and thofe who conceived they did under-
ftand it, in general difcarded it. All knew that he con-
fidered compounds to be formed of atoms united 1 to 1,
I to 2, 1 to 3, &c.: but it was not till the reciprocal
fitnefs of thefe atoms with each other was found to agree
with analyfis, that it was generally received. When they
faw that the numbers, which Dalton called the weights of
the atoms, expreffed the fimple proportions in which bodies
combine, they knew it could not be the effeét of chance,
and have willingly joined in the refearch. It is for this
part of the difcovery that Mr. Dalton juftly merits the
fame he has acquired. :

We have given all the faéts on which Mr. Higgins could
poffibly found his claim to the difcovery ; and we muft
leave it to our readers to judge, whether they contain the
{malleft data on which to utablith what in the prefent time
we call the atomic theory.

In all the chemical articles fince the article Iron, we have
had the greateft confidence in the atomic theory ; and we
have never failed to compare the analyfes of different autho-
rities with the refults given by theory. We have in general
found, that thefe refults have been nearer to the beft of thefe
authorities, than they have been to each other.

We have already given an outline of the atomic theory,
with a table of the weights of the fimple atoms, and an-
other of fome of the moit confpicuous compounds, in our
articles Definite Proportions, and Simpie Bodies.

The French chemifts have adopted the atomic theory
under another form, which will be found to agree with the
language given by Berzelius, who ufes the word volume for
atom, as we have already explained in the article above al-
luded to.

Gay Luffac feveral years ago publifhed a new law refpe&-
ing the combination of gafeous bodies. He held that gafes
which combine chesecealiy: either unite in equal volumes,
or 1 to 2, or fome multiple of 1, by a whole number.
Although a number of faéts feemed te agree with this law,
the truth of it was doubted by fome chemifts, and princi-
pally becaufe no apparent reafon appeared for fuch a law.

In ftating (under the article Proportions) the notion
of Berzelius refpe&ting volumes, we have pointed out a
curious coincidence between the fpecific gravity and the
weight of atoms of the gafes, which has fince been con-
firmed by Dr. Prout in Dr. Thomfon’s Annals. In order
that the weights of the atoms may be equal to their f{pecific
gravities, we have there ftated, that the number of particles
In equal volumes of all gafes muft be equal, and the dif-
tance between the centres of the particles of all gafes the
fame, fo that the weights of equal volumes of different
gafes, would be as the weights of the atoms.

This would alfo require, that the attraction between the
particles fhould either be the fame in all, or that it fhould
be nothing ; and the diftance of the particles be at points
where the repulfion of the calorific atmofphere is balanced
by the incumbent preffure.

The ftate here f{uppofed, however, is not the cafe, fince
we find that the weights of the atoms of the gafes gene-
rally are not equal to the fpecific gravity, when reduced to

the fame ftandard, although it is ftrifly the cafe witha —

great proportion of them. And in thofe cafes where they are
not equal, the one is faid to be fome multiple of the other,
by a whole number.

This circumftance favours the hope that fome general
law exifts, by which the weights of the atoms of bodies are
intimately conneéted with their fpecific gravities in the
elaftic form. When the fpecific gravity is double the weight
of the atom, as is the cafe with oxygen, we have to fup-
pofe, that the particles are nearer each other in the propor-
tion of 2 to 1, or that two particles come together, and
are furrounded by the caloric, which belongs to one of
them in their fingle ftate.

It would appear that the oxygen puts on this fingle ftate
ef exiftence in the formation of carbonic oxyd, becaufe that
gafeous body contains only one atom of oxygen; hence
its f{pecific gravity is the fame as if it were formed from a
gafeous oxygen of half the real fpecific gravity united to
an atom of carbon without any change of volume, the fame
as takes place when fulphur or carbon is burned in oxygen
gas. Hence we may explain the great tendency that oxy-
gen has to combine in double dofes with bodies, as is t
cafe with carbon, fulphur, phofphorus, iron, and many
other bodies.

We have alfo an inftance of a compound gafeous body be-
coming of double the fpecific gravity which would be ex-
pected in olefacient gas, which is compofed of an atom of
carbon and an atom of hydrogen. The fpecific gravity
(hydrogen being 1) ought to be 1 + 5.4 = 6.43 but
in faét it is about the double of this. Hence we fhould
conclude, that the repulfion between the particles is halved,
or that the compound atoms have united in pairs, by which
the denfity is doubled.

Tueory of the Manufadure and Produdion of Bread, in
Rural Economy, the explanation of the principles and prac-
tices on which it depends in different cafes. The means which
are employed in fuch cafes are moftly well underftood ; but
the principles upon which they depend are far from bein
fo well known. ‘The writer of a late work on the “ Ele-
ments of Agricultural Chemiftry,’” has, however, thrown
fome light on this hitherto intricate fubjeé&t. He has noe
ticed, that a number of the changes taking place in the
vegetable principles, depend upon the feparation of oxygen
and hydrogen as water from the compound ; but that there
is one of very great importance, in which a new combina~
tion of the elements of water is the principal operation :
this is in the manufaéture of bread. When any kind of
flour, which confifts principally of ftarch, is made into a
palte with water, and immediately and gradually heated to
about 440°, it increafes, it is faid, in weight, and is found
entirely altered in its properties ; it has loll its folubility in
water, and its power of being converted into fugar. In this
ftate it is unleavened bread.

And when the flour of corn, or the ftarch of potatoes,
mixed with boiled roots of the fame kind, is made into a
pafte with water, kept warm, and fuffered to remain thirty
or forty hours, it ferments, carbonic acid gas is difengaged
from it, and it becomes filled with globules of elaftic fluid.
In this ftate it is raifed dough, and affords by bakin
leavened bread ; but this bread, it is faid, is four and dif-
agreeable to the tafte; and that leavened bread for ufe is
made by mixing a little dough that has fermented, with new
dough, and kneading them together, or by kneading the
materials for the bread with a {mall quantity of yeaft.

It is ftated, that in the formation of wheaten bread, more
than one-fourth of the elements of water combine — the

our 5

THE

flour; that more water in proportion is confolidated in the
formation of bread from barley, and {till a larger quantity
in that from oats; but that the gluten in wheat, being in
much larger quantity than in other grain, feems to form a
combination with the ftarch and water, which renders
wheaten bread more digeftible than other fpecies or kinds
_ of bread.

On this principle too it is probable, that this fort of
bread may be more fuitable and proper for the lefs labori-
ous claffes of fociety, though the other kinds may be equally
or more nourifhing and See for thofe who are engaged
in hard work.

THEOSOPHISTS, the denomination of a clafs of
philofophers, who profefs to derive their knowledge of na-
ture from divine revelation. Not contented with the natural
light of human reafon, nor with the fimple doétrines of
fcripture underftood in their literal fenfe, thefe perfons have
recourfe to an internal fupernatural light, fuperior to all
other illuminations, from which they pretend to derive a
mytterious and divine philofophy, manifefted only to the
chofen favourites of heaven. They boaft, that, by means
of this celeftial light, they are not only admitted to the
intimate knowledge of God, and of all divine truth, but
have accef{$ to the moft fublime fecrets of nature. They
alcribe it to the fingular manifeftation of divine benevolence,
that they are able to make fuch an ufe of the element of
fire, in the chemical art, as enables them to difcover the
effential principle of bodies, and to difclofe ftupendous
myfteries in the phyfical world. (See Fire Philofophers.)
‘They even pretend to an acquaintance with thofe celeftial
beings, which form the medium of intercourfe between
God and man, and to a power of obtaining from them, by
the aid of magic, aftrology, and other fimilar arts, various
kinds of information and affiftance. This they affirm to
have been the ancient fecret wifdom, firft revealed to the
Jews under the name of Cabbala, and tranfmitted by tradi-
tion to potterity. Philofophers of this clafs have no com-
mon fyftem; but every one follows the impulfe of his own
imagination, and conftruéts anedifice of fanaticifm for him-
felf. They only agree in abandoning human reafon, and pre-
tending to divine illumination. Many traces of the fpirit of
Theofophifm are to be found in the ‘whole hiftory of philo-
fophy, in which fanatical and hypocritical pretenfions to divine
illumination frequently occur. Among moderns, the firft
name that is mentioned with any diftinétion in this clafs of
philofophers is Paracelfus. (See his biographical article.)
He was fucceeded by Robert Fludd, who compounded
into a new mafs of abfurdity all the myfterious and ineom-
prehenfible dreams of the Cabbalifts and Paracelfians. He
fuppofed two uniyerfal principles, the northern or condenf-
ing power, and the fouthern or rarefying power ; and over
thefe he placed innumerable intelligences and geniufes, and
called together whole troops of fpirits from the four winds,
to which he committed the charge of difeafes. (See his
article.) Another dazzling luminary in the conftellation of
Theofophifts was Jacob Bochmen. See BeHmen.

A more {cientific Theofophift than Behmen was Van
Helmont, (See Heymonr.) The moft elegant and philofo-
phical of all the Theofophifts was Peter Poiret, who was
born at Metz in the year 1646, and educated in the academy
of Bafil. In 1668 he became a ftudent in the univerfity of
Heidelberg, witha view of qualifying himfelf for the cleri-
cal profeflion, and in 1672 he aflumed the charater of an
ecclefiaftic in the principality of Deux-Ponts. After a
fevere fit of illnefs, he wrote his ¢¢ Cogitationes Rationales de
Deo, Anima, et Malo,” in which he moftly followed the
principles of Des Cartes, having in his youth ftudied the

VoL. XXXV.

THE

Cartefian philofophy ; a work which he defended againft
the cenfures of Bayle. Being obliged by the public tumults
to withdraw from his clerical cure, he removed to Holland,
and afterwards to Hamburgh, where he became acquainted
with the celebrated myftic Mad. Bourignon, and enlifted
himfelf in the number of her difciples. Abandoning Car-
tefianifm, and fafcinated with Bourignonian mytticifm, he re-
je€ted the light of reafon as ufelefs and dangerous, and in-
veighed againft every kind of philofophy that was not the
effet of divine illumination. ‘Towards the clofe of his life
he fettled at Rheinfburg, in Holland, and employed himfelf
in writing myftical books; fuch were his treatifes ‘¢ De Gico-
nomia Divina,” ** De Eruditione Triplici,’’ and the laft edi-.
tion of his “* Cogitationes Rationales.” He died in the year
1719. ' Some of his myftical notions may be colle¢ted from
the preliminary differtation prefixed to his works: they are
fuch as thefe: ‘* It hath pleafed God, in order that he may
enjoy a vivid and delightful contemplation of himfelf, be-
yond that folitude which belongs to the divine efferice, to
create external beings in whom he may produce an image of
himfelf. The effence of the human mind is ‘ thought,’
capable and defirous of light, and joyful complacence ; the
properties in which it bears a refemblance of the divine
effence. Nothing is more intimate or effential to the. mind
than this defire; by which it is borne always towards the
true and infinite good. In order to fatisfy this defire, the
illumination of faith is neceflary ; by means of which the
mind, confcious of its weaknefs and impotence, difclaims
all the fi€tions of human reafon, and direis itfelf towards
God with an intenfe and ineffable ardour, till, by the filent
contemplation of him, it is filled with tranquillizing light
and joyful complacence; although, whilft ppnefled with
the load of mortality, it cannot behold his unveiled face.
From this divine illumination proceeds the moft pacific fe-
renity of mind, the moft ardent love of God, and the moft
intimate union with him.”?

To the clafs of Theofophifts it has been ufual to refer
the entire fociety of Ro/ycructans ; which fee.

It will be fufficient to obferve, at the clofe of this article,
that the whole fyftem of Theofophifm is founded in delu-
fion, and that it is injurious both to philofophy and religion.
Thefe fuppofed illuminations are to be alcribed either to
fanaticifm or to impofture. The faitidious contempt, with
which thefe pretenders to divine wifdom have treated thofe
who are contented to follow the plain di€iates of common
fenfe, and the fimple doétrine of feriptures, has unquef-
tionably impofed upon the credulous vulgar, and produced
an indifference to rational enquiry, which has obftructed the
progrefs of knowledge. And their example has encou-
raged others to traduce philofophy and theology in general,
by reprefenting them as refting upon no better foundation
than enthufiafm and abfurdity. It is to be charitably pre-

fumed, that thefe deluded vifionaries have not been them-

felves aware of the injury which they have been doing to
the interefts of fcience and religion. Neverthelefs, it muft
be regretted, both on their own account, and on account of
the multitudes they have mifled, that whilft they have
thought themfelves following'a bright and fteady luminary,
they have been led aftray by wandering meteors. Brucker
by Enfield.

THEOTOCUS, Derrara. See Motuer of God.

THEOXENTA, O:ofeux, in Antiquity, a feftival in ho-
nour of all the gods, and celebrated in many cities of
Greece, but efpecially Athens. »

THEOXINI Maracma, the name of a fort of cata»
plafm, good againft pains of the feet.

THERA »n Ancient Geography, one of the iflands called

3R Sporades,

THE

Sporades, in the AE gean fea, betweeb the ifland of Crete and
the Cyclades: It is faid to have taken its name from 'Theras,
a prince of the race of Cadmus, who removed from Lace-
dzmon into this ifland, which was occupied by the defcend-
ants of the Membliarii, who had jiofteffon of it 1550 years
before our era; whereas Pliny fays that it firft appeared in
the fourth year of the 135th olympiad. This ifland is now
called Santorin ; which fee.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of
the fame name.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria, be-
tween Idymus and Pyftus.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Sog-
diana.

THERAMBUS, a town of Macedonia, in the penin-
fula of Pallené.

THERAMN 2, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia; con-
fecrated to Apollo.

THE RAPEUTE, Sepcemevrosty a Greek term fignifying
fervants, more efpecially thofe employed in the fervice of
God. ‘The Greeks gave the appellation therapeute to fuch
as applied themfelves to a contemplative life, whether it
were from the great concern they had for their fouls, or
from the partidales mode and manner of their religion ; the
word Szparsusiy, whence therapeute, fignifying the care a
phyfician takes of his patient, or the fervice any one renders
another.

Philo, in his firft book of the Contemplative Life, relates,
that there were a people fpread throughout moft of the
known world, but particularly throughout Egypt, and
about Alexandria, who renounced their friends, their goods,
&c. and who, after difcharging themfelves of all temporal
concerns, retired into folitary places, where they had each
their feparate manfion, called femncium, or monaftery, and
placed their whole felicity in the contemplation of the divine
nature.

The principal fociety of this kind was formed near
Alexandria, where they lived, not far from each other, in
{eparate cottages, each of which had its own facred apart-
ment, to which the inhabitant retired for the purpofes of de-
votion. After their morning prayers, they {pent the day in
ftudying the law and the prophets, endeavouring, by the
commentaries of their anceftors, to difcover fome allegorical
meaning in every part. They alfo amufed themfelves with
compofing facred hymns in various kinds of metre. Six
days of the week were thus pafled in folitude. On the
feventh day they met, decently clothed, in a public affembly,
where, feated according to their age, they held the right
hand between the breaft and the chin, and the left at the
fide, Then one of the elders, {tepping to the middle of
the affembly, difcourfed, gravely and calmly, on the doc-
trines of the feé&t ; the audience remaining filent and occa-
fionally exprefling their approbation by a nod. The chapel
in which they aflembled was feparated into two apartments,
one for the men, the other for the women. At the clofe,
the fpeaker fung a hymn of praife to God, in the laft verfe
of which the whole aflembly joined. On great feftivals,
facred mufic was performed, accompanied with folemn danc-
ing 3 and thefe vigils were continued till morning, when the
aflembly, after a morning prayer, in which their faces were
direéted towards the rifing fun, was broken up. Such was
their abftemioufnefs, that the commonly ate nothing before
the fetting fun, and often fated two or three days. They
wholly ab{tained from wine, and their ordinary food was
bread and herbs.

There are two points relating to thefe therapeute ex-
ceedingly controverted among critics, viz. 1. Whether
they were Jews or Chriftians; and, 2. If they were the
latter, whether they were monks or feculars? é

Mofheim affirms, that the therapeuta were neither Chrif-

10

HE

tians nor Egyptians, as fome have erroneoufly imagined <
they were undoubtedly Jews; nay, they gloried in that title,
and ftyled themfelves, with particular affetation, the true
difciples of Mofes, though their manner of life was equally
repugnant to the inftitutions of that great lawgiver, and to
the dictates of right reafon, and fhewed them to be a tribe
of melancholy and wrong-headed enthufiafts.

Calmet alfo, in his Dictionary of the Bible, alleges a
variety of reafons to prove, that the therapeute were Jews
and not Chriftians; and that they were not monks in the
fenfe which eeclefiaftical writers affix to this term. Some
have imagined that they were judaizing Gentiles ; but Philo,
by claffing them with the Effenes, evidently fuppofes them to
be Jews. Others have maintained, that they were an Alex-
andrian feét of Jewifh converts to the Chriftian faith, who
devoted themfelves to a monattic life. But this is impoffi-
ble; for Philo, who wrote before Chriftianity appeared in
Egypt, fpeaks of this as an eftablifhed fe@. From a com-
parifon of Philo’s account of this fe& with the ftate of phi-
lofophy in the country where it flourifhed, we may reafon-
ably conclude, that the therapeute were a body of Jewith
fanatics, who fuffered themfelves to be drawn afide from tlge
fimplicity of their ancient religion by the example of the
Egyptians and Pythagoreans. It is uncertain how long
this fe&t continued ; but it is thought not improbable, that,
after the appearance of Chriftianity in Egypt, it foon be-
came extinét. See EssEnes.

THERAPEUTICE, Tuerareurics, degarerixn, form-
ed from Sepzxivew, to attend, to nurfe, cure, &c. that part of
medicine which is employed in feeking out remedies againit
difeafes, and in prefcribing and applying them to effe& a
cure.

Therapeutice teaches the ufe of diet, pharmacy, furgery,
and the methodus medendi.

TuHEeRaPevtice is alfo ufed figuratively, in fpeaking of
the mind, and of difcourfes made to correé the errors and
defeéts of it.

Such is the Therapeutice or Therapeutics of Theodoret ;
being a treatife againft the errors of unwholefome opinions
of the Greeks, i. ¢. the heathens. :

THERAPHIM, or Terarpuin, an Hebrew term, which
has given great exercife to the critics. We meet with it
thirteen or fourteen times in Scripture, where it is com-
monly interpreted idols: but the rabbins are not contented
to have them fimply fignify idols, but will have it denote a
peculiar fort of idols or images intended for the knowledge
of futurity, i. ¢. oracles.

R. David de Pomis obferves, that they were called thera-
phim, from 7, raphah, to leave, becaufe people quitted
every thing to confult them.

Others hold, that the theraphim were brazen inftruments
which pointed out the hours and mimates of future events,
as direéted by the ftars.

R. Eliezer tells us the reafon why the rabbins will have
the theraphim to fpeak, and render oracles: it is, fays he,
becaufe it is written in the prophet Zechariah, x. 2. ‘* The
theraphim have fpoken vain things.’’

The fame rabbin adds, that to make the theraphim, they
killed a firft-born child, clove his head, and feafoned it with
falt and oil: that they wrote on a plate of gold the name of
fome impure fpirit, laid it under the tongue of the dead,
placed the head againft the wall, lighted lamps before it,
and prayed to it, and that it then talked with them.

Vorftius alfo obferves, that, befide the paflage of Zecha-
riah, juft quoted, it appears likewife from Evably XX. gi.
that the theraphim were confulted as oracles.

F. Kircher direéts us to feek the origin of the theraphim

in

TE
in Egypt; adding, that the word is Egyptian. Spencer,

in his differtation on the urim and thummim, maintains the
word to be Chaldee, and to fignify the fame with feraphim :
the Chaldeans being frequently known to change the yy into
fT, that is finto # He adds, that thofe images were bor-
rowed from the Amorites, Chaldeans, or Syrians; and that
the Serapis of the Egyptians is the fame thing with the
theraphim of the Chaldeans. See Selden de Diis Syris,
fynt. i. cap. 2.

Calmet obferves, that the figure of a winged ferpent,
called feraph, whence the name feraphim, has given rife to
the appellation theraphim, becaufe in the abraxas and other
talifmans of the ancients, which are real theraphims, we
find the figures of ferpents both with and without wings ;
whence he infers, that the theraphims of Laban, which were
ftolen by Rachael, were real talifmans. Jurieu conjectures,
that thefe theraphims were the penates, or houfhold gods of
Laban, which, he fays, were the fouls of the heroes of
families, deified and worfhipped ; and he adds, that the the-
raphims of Laban were the images of Noah, the reftorer of
the human race, and of Shem, the chief of the family of
Laban. But Calmet, in reply to this conjeCture, obferves,
that it is by no means credible, that the worfhip of the
penates and lares was known in the time of Laban; and
that it is not likely, that Laban fhould have ranked among
the gods Noah and Shem, who had died fo near his own
time: for Noah died A.M. 2006, and Shem A.M. 2158,
about eighty-feven years before Jacob came to Mefopotami
after Laban. ;

THERAPIDION, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the common oyfter-green, or fea-laver, a fubftance
of the tremella kind.

THERASIA, in Geography, a fmall rocky ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago, feparated from the N.W. coait of
Santorin (the ancient Thera) by a narrow channel, which
forms a fecure harbour for boats ; 3 miles N. of St. Nicolo.
Therafia is faid by Tournefort and Sonnini to be the prefent
Afpronifi (which fee) ; but Olivier mentions them as diftin&
iflands. Therafia, fays this laft-mentioned traveller, on which
Ptolemy places a town, and which Pliny conjectures, with
reafon, to have been detached from Thera, cannot be taken
for Afpronifi, nor the latter for the former, as Tournefort
imagines. Afpronifi is not large enough to have had upon
it the {malleft village, or the {malleft habitation ; whereas
Therafia has fufficient extent, and its territory is fufficiently
good, to have been always the {cite of a town, as one is ftill
to be feen there at the prefent day.

THERESA, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Atlantic, S. lat. 13°.

Tueresa, Order of Maria, a military order inftituted
by the emprefs-queen in Germany, on the 18th of June,
1757, and compofed of two claffes, viz. grand croffes and
knights. To thefe the emperor Jofeph II., in the year 1765,
added an intermediate clafs, under the appellation of com-
manders. The number of knights is not fixed, and the em-
peror is grand-mafter. The badge of the order is, “ a crofs
of gold, enamelled white, edged with gold ;’’ on the centre
are the arms of Auttria, viz. “ gules, a feffe-argent, encir-
cled with the word Fortitudini ;”? onthe reverfe is “‘ a cipher
of the letters M.L. F. in gold, on an enamelled green
ground.”” "he badge is worn pendant to a ftriped crimfon
and white ribbon.

THERGUBIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the interior of Mefopotamia, fituated on the bank and
towards the fource of the river Chaborras.

THERYIACA, Snpiaxz, Treacle, in Medicine, a name
given by the ancients to various compofitions efteemed goed

f HD

againit poifons ; but afterwards chiefly reftrained to what,
by way of diftinGion, has been called sheriaca Andromachi, or
Venice treacle: but now altogether out of ufe.

This is a compound of no lefs than fixty-four drugs, pre-
pared, pulverized, and reduced, by means of honey, into. an
electuary. The bafis or foundation of the compofition is
viper’s flefh. M.Charas has written a particular hiftory of
the animals, plants, and minerals, which enter the compofition
of this famed remedy.

It is faid to be fovereign againit the bites of -venomous.
beafts, and in the wind-colic ; and was alfo ufed in inter-
mitting fevers, and in cafes requiring perfpiratives and dia-
phoretics ; alfo in continual fevers, efpecially fuch as are ma-
lignant, and where the pulfe is low and ticking ; and in the
{mall-pox and meafles : and, as moft of the ingredients of it
are very hot, in all difeafes where the natural heat is weak
and languid.

Andromachus, Nero’s phyfician, paffes for the inventor
of the theriaca; at leaft, it was he who gave the firft de-
{cription of it in elegiac verfes ; his fon did the fame in profe,
and Damocrates in 1tambics.

Anciently, the treacle made at Venice had all the vogue :
and many {till retain the ancient prejudice ; but it has been
fince prepared at Montpellier, at Paris, and at London, with
as much advantage as at Venice.

There is another vulgar kind of theriaca, called diateffaron,
becaufe it only confifts of four ingredients.

Treacle-water and treacle-vinegar are found good preferva-
tives againft putrid air, whether by only being fmelt at, or
by rubbing the wrifts, temples, and nofe with them.

Tueriaca Rufficorum, a name given to garlic, from its
ufe as an antidote againft the contagion of peftilential and
other putrid diforders.

THERIOMA, from $reicw, fo rage, in Surgery, a ma-
lignant ulcer.

THERMA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Cappadocia,
on the route from Tavia to Cefarea, between Tavia and So-
anda. Anton. Itin.—AlIfo, a town fituated on the confines
of Macedonia, or rather of Theffaly, towards Thermopyle.
This town was fituated on the gulf called Thermzus, whence
its name.

Tuerma Pythia, baths of Afia Minor, in Bithynia. Pro-
copius mentions this place, and fays that Juftinian conftru@ted
here a bath for public ufe, and a canal to condué into it
frefh water, and that he alfo provided others, which indicated
a magnificence truly royal.

THERMA, $:yuas, in Architedure, ancient buildings,
furnifhed with baths, efpecially of the hot kind.

Among the nobleft monuments of ancient Rome, are
reckoned the therme, or baths of Dioclefian, See Barus.

Therme, or hot {prings, it is commonly argued, owe heat
to a collu€tation, or efferye{cence, of the minerals in them.
Though Dr. Woodward afcribes it to the fubterraneous
heat, or fire, which communicates with them by fome {pi-
racle, or canal, whereby a greater quantity of heat is derived
thither, than to ordinary fprings. See BATH.

THERM®, in Ancient Geography, a place on the fouthern
coait of Sicily, Pliny denominates this place a Roman co-
lony ; and Antonine calls the fources of the hot water which

ave the name of Therme to this place “ Aque Larodz.”’
There were alfo baths at Selinonti in Sicily, called Therme
Selinuntiz. The name therme was alfo given to thofe highly
faline warm waters that were found in the neighbourhood of
Corinth.

THERMZUS Sinus, a gulf of the igean fea, on the
coait of Macedonia.

THERMASMA, a word ufed by fome of the ancients

2uke 2 to

FRE

to exprefs any thing that warms the body, and by others

particularly for a warm fomentation, prefcribed by Hippo-

crates for removing pains in the fide, and giving eafe in
leurifies.

THERMES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, S. of Numantia.

THERMI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia; 24 miles N. of Burfa.

THERMIA, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, fo
called from its abounding with hot fprings. It is not fo
mountainous as fome of the other iflands, and the foil, when
well cultivated, produces very large quantities of barley,
wine, and figs. The ifland alfo affords plenty of honey,
wax, partridges, a great quantity of fine filk, and as much
cotton as the inhabitants require for their own ufe. The
Greek Chriftians in this ifland are computed at 16,000.
Thermia is the fee of a bifhop, and contains fifteen orfixteen
churches, and feveral convents. On the ifland are ftill vifible
the ruins of two cities ; one of which, on the fouth coaft,
mult have been of extraordinary fplendour. N. lat. 37° 20’.
E. long. 24° 32!.

‘THERMIA, a town and capital of the ifland of 'Thermia.
N. lat. 37° 24!. E. long. 24° 26!

THERMOMETER,’ Tuermometium, derived from
D-zuor, heat, and p-lex, to meafure, an inftrument fhewing, or
rather meafuring, the increafe and decreafe of the heat and
cold of the air.

The degree of heat, as afcertained by a thermometer, is
only to be confidered in relation to the furrounding bodies,
by virtue of which a body fupports the equilibrium of tem-
perature, when it is in the neighbourhood of bodies equally
heated: thus, if a thermometer ftands at 60°, both in a veffel
of water and in another of mercury, we may infer that the
water and the mercury may be mixed without any change
of their temperature ; but the abfolute quantity of heat con-
tained in equal weights, or in equal bulks, of any two bodies
at the fame temperature, is by no means the fame. Sce
Hear.

The general principles upon which the conftruétion and
ufe of thermometers, or meafurers of heat depend, are ftated
and explained under the articles Catoric, Corp, Conce-
LATION, FrrezinG, Heat, &c.

It will be fufficient to obferve in this place, that the well-
known and moft general effeét of heat, whether it be ob-
tained by compreffing a certain fubftance into a narrower
f{pace, fo that a quantity of heat may come out of it and
be communicated to certain bodies, or by expanding a cer-
tain fubftance into a larger fpace, fo that it may abforb a
quantity of heat from furrounding bodies, and thus cool
thefe bodies, or in whatever other way it be procured, is
a dilatation of bodies, or an augmentation of their bulks.
The contrary effet is produced by cold, i. e. by a diminu-
tion of the free caloric. It muft, however, be obferved,
that bodies of equal bulks, but of different kinds, are not
expanded alike by being heated to the fame degree; nor
are the increments of bulk in the fame body always pro-
portional to the quantities of heat which are communicated
toit. £. gr. if a given quantity of water, by being heated to
acertain degree, be increafed in bulk one cubie inch, the
addition of double or treble that quantity of heat will not
increafe its bulk two or three cubic inches refpeétively ;
therefore the expanfions of water are not proportional to the
increments of heat.

The only praéticable method of meafuring the expanfions
of fluids, is by inclofing them in certain veffels, and by mea-
furing that part of the cavity of each veffel which is occupied
by the pafticular fluid which fills it in different temperatures.

3

THE

It is evident, that the fubflance of the veflel is alfo expanded
by the heat, and of courfe its cavity is enlarged. Therefore,
when we find that the bulk of the fluid is increafed, that
apparent increment is only the difference between the en-
larged capacity of the veffel and the increafed bulk of the
fluid. For this reafon thofe veffels muft be made of fuch
fubftances as are leaft expanfible by heat. Indeed glafs
is the fubftanee which is univerfally ufed for fuch pur-
pofes, both on account of its little expanfibility, and of its
tranfparency, befides its having other remarkably ufeful
properties.

A glafs veffel filled to a certain degree with a liquid, for
the purpofe of fhewing the expanfion of that liquid in differ-
ent temperatures, or for the purpofe of fhewing the temper-
ature by the correfponding expanfion of that liquid, is called
a thermometer.

The thermometer and thermofcope are ordinarily ac-

counted the fame thing : Wolfius, however, makes a differ-
ence; but fhews, at the fame time, that what we call ther-
mometers are, in reality, no more than thermofcopes.
. The invention of the thermometer is attributed to feveral
perfons by different authors, wiz. to San@torio, Galileo,
Father Paul, and Drebbel. The invention is afcribed to
Cornelius Drebbelius of Alcmaer, about the be inning of
the feventeenth century, by his countrymen Boerhaave
(Chem. i. p. 152. 156.) and Mufchenbroeck, Introd. ad
Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 625.

Fulgenzio, in his life of Father Paul, gives him the ho-
nour of the firft difcovery. Vincenzio Viviani (Vit, de
Galil. p. 67. See too Oper. di Galil. pref. p. 47.) {peaks
of Galileo as the inventor of thermometers. But Sane-
torio himfelf (Com. in Galen. Art. Med. p. 736— 842.
Com. in Avicen. Can. Fen. i. p. 22. 78. 219.) ekbiclly
affumes this invention; and Borelli (De Mot. Animal. i.
prop. 175.) and Malpighi (Oper. Pofth. p. 30.) aferibe it
to him without referve. Upon which Dr. Martine remarks,
that thefe Florentine academicians are not to be fufpeéted
of partiality in favour of one of the Patavinian fchool. But
whoever was the firft inventor of this inftrument, it was very
rude and imperfect ; and as the various degrees of heat were
indicated by the different contraction or expanfion of air, it
was afterwards found to be an uncertain and fometimes a
deceiving meafure of heat, becaufe the bulk of air was af-
feéted, not only by the difference of heat, but likewife by
the variable weight of the atmofphere.

There are various kinds of thermometers ; the conftruétion,
defeéts, theory, &c. of which, are as follow :

Conftrudtion of the Thermometer, depending on the Rarefaéion
of the Air.—This aerial thermometer, which was that firft
invented by Drebbel, confitts of a glafs tube B E ( Plate XVI.
Pneumatics, fig. 1.), conneéted at one end with a large glafs
ball A, and at the other end immerfed in an open veiled or
terminating in a ball DE, with a narrow orifice at D ;

which veffel, or ball, contains any coloured liquor that will _

not eafily freeze. Aqua fortis tinged of a fine blue colour
with folution of vitriol or copper, or fpirit of wine tinged
with cochineal, or Brafil wood, will anfwer this purpofe.
But the ball, A, mutt be firft moderately warmed, fo that a
part of the air contained in it may be expelled through the
orifice D ; and then the liquor prefled by the weight of the
atmofphere will enter the ball D E, and rife, e.g. to the
middle of the tube at C, at a mean temperature of the wea-
ther ; and in this ftate the liquor by its weight, and the air
included in the ball A, &c. by its elafticity, will counter-
balance the weight of the atmofphere. As the furrounding
air becomes warmer, the air in the ball and upper part of
the tube, expanding by heat, will drive the liquor a the

ower

SS

THERMOMETER.

lower ball, and confequently its furface will defcend ; on
the contrary, as the ambient air becomes colder, that in the
ball is condenfed, and the liquor preffed by the weight of
the atmofphere will afcend: fo that the liquor in the tube
will afcend or defcend more or lefs, according to the {tate
of the air contiguous to the inftrument. To the tube is
affixed a feale of the fame length, divided upwards and
downwards from the middle, C, into one hundred equal parts,
by means of which the afcent and defcent of the liquor in
the tube, and confequently the variations in the cold or heat
of the atmofphere, may be obferved.

It muft be acknowledged, that the expanfion of elaftic
fluids affords, in fome cafes, a teft of heat, which is very
convenient from its great delicacy, and becaufe a very {mall
quantity of heat is fufficient to raife their temperature very
confiderably.

A fimilar thermometer may be conftru€ted by putting a
{mall quantity of mercury, not exceeding the bulk of a pea,
into the tube BC (fg. 2.) thus bent in wreaths, that taking
up the lefs height, it may be the more manageable and leis
liable to harm ; divide this tube into any number of equal parts
to ferve for a feale.

Here the approaches of the mercury towards the ball, A,
will fhew the increafe of the degree of heat. ‘The reafon is
the fame as in the former.

The defe& of both thefe inftruments confifts in this, that
they are liable to be a&ted on by a double caufe: for, not
only a decreafe of heat, but alfo an increafe of weight of the
atmofphere, will make the liquor rife in the one, and the
mercury if the other ; and, on the contrary, either an in-
creafe of heat, or decreafe of weight of the atmofphere, will
make it defcend.

In winter, for example, the liquor would rife and fink too
much; for a froft condenfing the internal air, the liquor
would afcend, but as the air is heavier in frofty weather, its
preffure on the liquor in the veffel D E (fg: 1.) being in-
creafed, would raife the liquor ftill higher in the tube, and
thus indicate a degree of cold greater than it really is. On
the other hand, if the weather grows warm, as it does in
rainy weather in winter, the air in the ball will expand, and
the liquor defcend in the tube ; but as the weight of the at-
mofphere is lefs in foul weather, the liquor in D E will be lefs
prefled than it was, and fuffer the liquor to defcend more than
it fhould do, and fhew a greater degree of warmth than that
of the ambient air. The reverfe of tks will happen in fum-
mer: for warm weather being fair weather, and the atmo-
fphere being then heavier than ufual, the liquor will be made
to fland higher in the tube than it fhould do, and fhew
the degree of heat to be lefs than it really is. And as in
fummer, the weather becomes cold with rain; but the
weight of the atmofphere being diminifhed, the liquor will
not afcend fo far as it ought to afcend by the condenfation
of the internal air, and therefore indicate the cold to be lefs
than it really is: and when the two caufes, thus contributing
to the rife and fall of the liquor, aét equally in oppofite di-
re€tions, the liquor would appear neither to afcend nor de-
fcead, whatever might be the changes in the temperature of
the atmofphere, on account of equal correfponding varia-
tions in its gravity. Befides, the air in the ball, &c. is liable
to be affeéted more or Jefs in its elaftic quality by the vapours
that detach themfelves from the included liquor according to
the degree in which it is heated or cooled. For thefe and
other meafures, thermometers of this kind have been long
difufed.

Inftruments of this kind, when they are fubje&t to the
variations of the preflure of the atmotphere, as well as to
thofe of its temperature, are properly called manometers,

and require, for enabling us to employ them as thermome-
ters, a comparifon with the barometer ; while, on the other
hand, they may be ufed as barometers if the temperature be
otherwife afcertained. They are, however, very ufeful
without this comparifon, in delicate experiments of fhort
duration ; befides, the changes of the barometer are feldom
very rapid, and they may alfo be wholly freed from the
effects of the preflure of the atmofphere in various ways.

Bernouilli’s method confifts in clofing the tube of a com-
mon barometer foas to leave the column of mercury in equi-
librium with the air contained in the bulb at its aétual tem-
perature, and capable of indicating, by the changes of its
height and of its preffure, any fubfequent changes in the
temperature of the air, which mutt affeé both its bulk and
its elafticity. (See fg. 3.) Mr. Leflie’s photometer, or
Differential THERMOMETER (which fee), has {ome advantages
which render it better than this initrument ; but it can only
be employed when the changes of the temperature can be
confined only to a part of the inftrument. The elafticity of
the air contained in the bulb is here counteraéted, not by the
preflure of a column of mercury, but by the elafticity of
another portion of air in a fecond bulb, which is not to be
expofed to the heat or cold that is to be examined ; and the
difference of the temperatures of the two bulbs is indicated
by the place of a drop of a liquid, moving freely in the
tube which joins them.

M. Amontons, in 1702, with a view of perfeting the
aerial thermometer, contrived his univerfal thermometer.
Finding that the changes produced by heat and cold in the
bulk of the air were fubje€& to invincible irregularities, he
fubftituted for thefe the variations produced by heat in the
elaftic force of this fluid. This thermometer confifted of a
long tube of glafs (fee fig. 4.) open at one end, and recurved
at the other end, which terminated in a ball. A certain
quantity of air was compreffed into this ball by the weight
of a column of mercury, and alfo by the weight of the at-
mofphere. The effe€& of heat on this included air was to
make it fuftain a greater or lefs weight ; and this effect was
meafured by the variation of the column of mercury in the
tube, correéted by that of the barometer, with refpe&t to
the changes of the weight of the external air. This inftru-
ment, though much more perfec than thofe in the room of
which it was fubftituted by its inventor, is neverthelefs fub-
je&t to very confiderable defe&ts and inconveniences. Its
length of four feet renders it unfit for a variety of experi-
ments, and its conftruGtion is difficult and complex’: it is
extremely inconvenient for carriage, as a very fmall inclina-
tion of the tube would fuffer the included airto efeape : and
the fri@tion of the mercury in the tube, and the comprefli-
bility of the air, contribute to render the indications of this
inftrument extremely uncertain. Befides, the dilatation of the
air is not fo regularly proportional to its heat, nor is its dila-
tation by a given heat nearly fo uniform as he fuppofed. This
depends, as the abbé Nollet has fuggefted, much on its
moifture ; for dry air does not expand near fo much bya
given heat, as air ftored with watery particles; which by
being converted into fteam, very much increafe the feeming
volume of the air. For thefe and other reafons enumerated
by M. de Luc, ( Récherches fur les Mod. de ? Atm. tom. i.
p- 278, &c.) this inftrument was imitated by very few, and
never came to be of general ufe.

Conftrudtion of the Florentine Thermometer.—The acade-
mifts del Cimento, about the middle of the feventeenth cen-
tury, confidering the inconveniences of the air-thermome-
ters above defcribed, attempted another, that fhould mea-
fure heat and cold by the rarefaétion and condenfation of
{pirit of wine ; though much lefs than thofe of air, and con-

fequently

THERMOMETER,

fequently the alterations m the degree of heat likely to be
much lefs fenfible.

The fpirit of wine was enclofed in glafs tubes, hermetically
fealed ; fo that thefe thermometers could be fubje& to no
iuconvenience by the evaporation of the liquor, or the va-
riable gravity of the incumbent atmofphere. Inftruments
of this kind were firft introduced into England by Mr.
Boyle, and they were foon univerfally ufed among philofo-
phers in other countries. The //orentine thermometer con-
fifte of a {mall narrow tube BC D (fig. 5.) conneéted with
a glafs ball A. The tube fhould be procured as cylindric
as poffible : and it may be tried, by putting into one end of
it as much mercury as will fill the length of one inch, and
letting this quantity of mercury pafs from one part of the
tube to another, through its whole length; meafure with
compaffes the length it oécupies in every part of the tube ;
and if it every where takes up an inch, the tube is cylindric,
and a {cale of equal divifions will agree with it: otherwife it
will be longer where the tube is fmaller, and fhorter than an
inch where the tube is larger ; and in this cafe, the divifions
muft be fuited to the contents of the bore. The glafs ball
may then be joined to the tube, and a {mall cavity be made
at the otherend. Fill the ball and tube with reétified fpirit
of wine to a convenient height, as to C, when the weather
isof a mean temperature, which may be done by inverting
the tube into a veflel of ftagnant coloured {pirit, under a re-
ceiver of the air-pump, or by many other ways. The
{pirit may be colonred by pouring a quantity of it on {mall
pieces of turmeric, which will hereby receive a red tinéture ;
and the fpirit may be repeatedly filtrated through brown
paper, in order to feparate from it the coarfer particles of the
root. Some perfons, in filling the ball and tube, for pre-
venting the {pirit from shally defcending into the ball in
winter, recommend putting the ball into a lump of fnow,
mixed with falt ; or if the inftrument be made in fummer,
into {pring-water impregnated with falt-petre, that the con-
denfed fpirit may fhew how far it will retire in extreme cold.
If it rifes to too great a height from the ball, part of it
is to be taken out ; and that the tube may not be made
longer than neceflary, it is convenient to immerge the ball,
filled with its {pirit in boiling water, and to mark the fartheft
point to which it then rifes. When the thermometer is pro-
perly filled, with a lamp heat the little bubble left at the
end of D red-hot, and feal it hermetically, leaving, as Dr.
Defaguliers recommends, in the thermometer only the third
part of the air that was in it, which will give room to the
dilatation of the fpirit ; and this rarefied air will prevent the
air left in the fpirit, even after the air-pump has been applied,
from dividing the {pirit by its expanfion. ‘To the tube apply
a feale, divided into one hundred equal parts, from C
towards D, and alfo from C towards B.

Now, fpirit of wine rarefying and condenfing very confi-
derably ; as the heat of the ambient air increafes, the fpirit
will dilate, and confequently will afcend in the tube ; and as
the heat decreafes, the {pirit will defcend: and the degree
or quantity of afcent and defcent will be feen in the feale.
Yet as the ratio of yefterday’s heat to to-day’s is not hereby
difcovered, this inflrument is not ftri€ly a thermometer, any
more than the former.

It is to be here obferved, 1. That as the natural gravity
of the liquor makes it tend downwards, fo it refifts its afeent
ont of the ball into the tube ; and that the more, as it rifes
higher ; for which reafon, fome have advifed to have the
tube horizontal,

z. Since there mutt of neceflity be fome air left in the
void part of the tube, over the liquor, that air, by its elaf-
bicity, will tend downwards, and of confequence will refift

the rife of the liquor, and be compreffed by it as it does
rife : its elafticity therefore is thus increafed.

3. Since it is found from experience, that a lefs degree of
heat is communicated more eafily to the {pirit of wine in the
ball than a greater, the rarefaétions of the f{pirit of wine are
not proportionable to their producing caufes ; efpecially fince
agreater degree of heat finds more liquor in the tube than a
pe does, to which, notwithftanding, the heat may be more
eafily communicated than to that ftagnating in the ball.

4. Spirit of wine is incapable of bearing very great heat
or very great cold. It boils fooner than any other liquor,
and, therefore, the degrees of heat of boiling fluids cannot
be determined by this thermometer. And though it retains
its fluidity in pretty fevere cold, yet it feems not to condenfe
very regularly in them: and at Torneo, near the polar
circle, the winter cold was fo fevere, as Maupertuis informs
us, that the fpirits were frozen in all their thermometers.
So that the latitude of heat and cold, which {fpirit of wine
is capable of indicating, is much too limited to be of very
great or univerfal ufe. On thefe accounts, the Florentine
thermometer, though it has been much ufed, is far from
being an accurate meafure of heat, &c. to which may be
added what Dr. Halley obferves in the Philofophical Tranf-
aétions, that he has learned from thofe who have kept {pirit
of wine long, that it always lofes part of its expanfive force
in courfe of time.

This objeétion, fuggefted by Dr. Halley, and often in-
fifted on by others, has, according to Dr. Martine, no great
weight. Well reétified {pirit of wine, if fealed up ina glafs,
isin a confiderable degree unalterable. It cannot evaporate ;
and by many years experience its force of expanfion has con-
tinued the fame ; as, befide other obfervations, we know
efpecially from the Annual Regifters of M. de la Hire’s
{pirit, thermometer, that have been kept in the Obferyatory
for many years.

Another great defeét of thefe, and other thermometers, is,
that their degrees are not comparable with each other. They
mark, indeed, the different degrees of heat and cold ; but
each marks only for itfelf, and after its own manner ; be-
caufe they do not proceed from any point of heat, or cold,
that is common to them all. It is with them as with two
clocks, which for want of having been firft fet to the fame
hour by the fun, will, indeed, mark that one, two, or more
hours are paffed, but not what hour it is by the day. Nor
can we be aflured, that when the liquor is rifen a dooms in
two different thermometers, they have both fuffered the fame
impreflion of an equal additional heat: fince the fpirit of
wine may not be the famein both ; and, in proportion as the
{pirit is more or lefs rectified, it will rife more or lefs high by
the fame heat. Nor is this all; for in graduating thermo-
meters, they often take equal lengths of the tube for equal
afcents of the fpirit: whereas, f{uppofing the diameters of
the tube equal throughout, which very rarely happens, there
are fo many irregularities withinfide, that a certain length
of tube fometimes requires double the quantity of liquor to
fill it, that the fame length in another tube of the fame dia-
meter requires. All which arifes from the unequal thicknefles
of the parietes of tubes in different places; and from acci-
dental prominences and cavities, always found in the inner
furfaces of tubes; and efpecially from their being always
bigger at one end than the other.

Befides, the divifions of the fcale cannot accurately indi-
cate the quantity of rarefaction, unlefs the proportion of the
cavity of the tube D B to that of the ball A were known.
Hence it is, that the comparifon of thermometers becomes
fo precarious and defe&tive. Yet the moft curious and inte-
refting ufe of thermometers is, what ought to arife ae

uc

fuch comparifon. It is by this we fhould know the heat or
cold of another feafon, of another ‘year, another climate,
&e. and what is the greateit degree of heat or cold in
which men and other animals can {ubfitt.

M. de Reaumur contrived a new thermometer for the pur-
pofe; wherein the inconveniences above recited are pro-
pofed to be remedied. He took a large ball and tube,
and knowing the content of the ball as well as that of the
tube in every part, he graduated the tube, fo that the {pace
from one divifion to another might contain a thoufandth
part of the liquor, which liquor would contain one thoufand
parts when it ftood at the freezing point: then putting the
ball of his thermometer, and part of the tube, into boiling
water, he obferved whether it rofe eighty divifions ; and if
it exceeded thefe, he changed his liquor, and by adding
water lowered it, fo that on the next trial from the freezing
point to the point of boiling water, it fhould only rife
eighty divifions: but if the liquor, being too low, fell fhort
of eighty divifions, he raifed it by adding re€tified {pirit to
it. The liquor thus prepared fuited his purpofe, and ferved
for making a thermometer of any fize, whofe fcale would
agree with his ftandard.. Such liquor, or fpirits, being
about the ftrength of common brandy, may eafily be had
any where, or made of a proper degree of denfity by raifing
or lowering it.

The abbé Nollet made many excellent thermometers upon
M. de Reaumur’s principle. Dr. Martine, however, ex-
prefles his apprehenfions that thermometers of this kind are
conftru&ted on principles, that will by no means be found fo
accurate as were to be wifhed and expected. The balls,
or bulbs, being large, as three or four inches in diameter,
are neither heated nor cooled foon enough to fhew the
variations in the heat of bodies, and in the weather. Small
bulbs and {mall tubes, he fays, are much more convenient,
and may be conftructed with fufficient accuracy. Though
it muft be allowed, that Reaumur, by his excellent fcale,
and by depriving the {pirit of wine of its air, and expelling
the air by means of heat from the ball and tube of his
thermometer, has brought it to as great a degree of perfec-
tion as it may poflibly admit ; yet it is liable to fome of the
inconveniences of /pirit thermometers, and much inferior to
the mercurial thermometers. Thermometers of this kind,
and thofe of mercury, do not agree in indicating the fame
degrees of extreme cold; for when the mercury has ftood
at 22° below o, the {pirit indicated only 18°; and when the
mercury ftood at 28° or 37° below o, the {pirit refted at 25°
or 29°. See the defeription of Reaumur’s thermometer at
large in Mem. de l’Acad. R. des Scienc. an. 1730, p. 645.
Hit. p.15. Ibid. an. 1731, p.354. Hit. p. 7.

In 1740, M. Micheli du Creft conftru@ted a fpirit thermo-
meter, to which he annexes four {cales befides its own, viz.
that of the old thermometer in the Obfervatory at Paris,
Reaumur’s, de l’Ifle’s, and Fahrenheit’s. See Fixed Points
of THERMOMETERS.

Tuermometer, Mercurial. Jt is a circumftance of prin-
cipal importance in the conftru€tion of thermometers, to
procure a fluid that meafures equal variations of heat by
correfponding equal variations in its own bulk or volume :
and the fluid which poflefles this effential requifite in the
moft perfeé&t degree is mercury: the variations in its bulk
approaching nearer to a proportion with the correfpond-
ing variations of its heat than any other fluid. This general
propofition M. de Luc has very elaborately evinced, by
fhewing that the condenfations of fluids, which increafe in
bulk when they freeze, are not proportional to the dimi-
nutions of heat ; and that the dilatations of fluids, which are

THERMOMETER.

eafily converted into vapour by heat, are not proportional
to the augmentations of heat : whereas the bulk of mercury
is not enlarged when it freezes, and it refifts evaporation
more than every other liquid that has been ufed in the con-
ftruétion of thermometers. Befides, it is of all liquids the
moit eafily purged of its air. It is alfo the moft proper for
meafuring very confiderable variations of heat; for, if a fcale
be graduated with o at the point of melting ice, and 80 at
that of boiling water, mercury well purged of its air will
indicate feven times this difference of heat, or 561 degrees
in fuch a feale ; as it will condenfe without freezing to — 26%
of this fcale, and expand without boiling to 300 of the
fame fcale. Mercury is alfo more fenfible than any other
fluid, air excepted, and conforms more readily to the feveral
variations of heat. Moreover, as mercury is an homogene-
ous fluid, it will in every thermometer exhibit the fame dila-
tation or condenfation by the fame variations of heat. The
expanfion of mercury is f{carcely lefs regular than that of
folids, which probably approaches the neareft to the fteps of
the natural fcale, though not without fome inequality ; and
therefore a portion of mercury inclofed in a bulb of glafs,
haying a fine tube connected with it, forms a thermometer
the moft convenient and probably the moft accurate of any,
for common ufe; the degrees correfponding very nearly
with thofe of the natural {cale, although, according to the
moft accurate experiments, they appear to indicate, towards
the middle of the common {fcale of Fahrenheit, a temperature
two or three degrees too low. There is an inequality of
the fame kind, but ftill greater, in the degrees of the fpirit
thermometer ; and this inftrument has alfo the difadvantage
of being liable to burft in a heat below that of boiling: water ;
neverthelefs, it is well calculated for the meafurement of
very low temperatures, fince pure alcohol has never yet been
frozen, while mercury has been reduced to a folid by the
cold of Siberia and of Hudfon’s Bay; but both mercury
and linfeed oil fupport a heat of between 500° and 600°,
without ebullition.

In order to render thermometers uniform and comparable,
it is defirable that mercury, fo excellently adapted for this
purpofe, fhould be the only fluid ufed in the conftru€tion of
them, more efpecially as a thermometer with mercury may
be more eafily conftruéted than any others. De Luc’s
Récherches, &c. vol. i. part ii. cap. 2. paffim.

Dr. Halley, though apprifed only of fome of the remark-
able properties of mercury above recited, feems to have
been the firft who fuggefted the application of this fluid
to the conftruétion of thermometers. Phil. Trani. Abr.
vol. il. p. 34.

Boerhaave (Chem.i. p. 720.) fays, thefe mercurial ther-
mometers were firft contrived by Olaus Roemer; but the
claims of Eahrenheit of Amfterdam, who gave an account
of his invention to the Royal Society in 1724 (Phil. Tranf.
N° 381, or Abr. vol. vii. p. 49.), have been generally
allowed. And though Prins and others, in England,
Holland, France, and other countries, have made this inftru-
ment as well as Fahrenheit, moft of the mercurial thermo-
meters are graduated according to his feale, and are called
Fahrenhei?s thermometers. Thefe are made of different
lengths, and with fome variation in the form of the bulb,
according to the purpofes for which they are defigned.
Inftead of the ball, ufed in the fpirit thermometer, a cone or
cylinder is annexed to the tube, which may be eafily enlarged
or diminifhed, and made of fuch a magnitude, that its
capacity may have a certain and known proportion to that
of the tube; and by this means feveral thermometers may
be conftruéted to the fame fcale: befides, the heat ne

ealily

THERMOMETER. e

eafily penetrates and reaches the inmoft parts of the cylindric
bulb, and caufes the whole content to expand uniformly,
and the mercury to rife almoft immediately ; whereas in
thermometers with a fpherical bulb it is feen frit to fall,
and then to rife. This phenomenon has beén long fince
noticed both in Florentine and mercurial thermometers,
when they are fuddenly plunged into a heated liquor, the
fpirit of wine or mercury firft defcends, and then afcends ;
aad when they are plunged into a cold fluid, the included
liquor firft afcends and then defcends: this is the more re-
markable in thermometers whofe bulb is made of thick
glafs ; and the reafon of the phenomenon is obvious. The
bulb of glafs is focner affeéted by the heat or cold applied
to it than the included fluid; and as the glafs expands by
heat, the capacity of the bulb is enlarged, and the liquor
defcends in the tube, but being condenied by cold, and its
capacity diminifhed, the liquor is preffed upwards in the
tube : and both thefe effeéts continue till the heat and cold
equally affeét the inclofed fluid. Hence it follows, that all
the variations of afcent and defcent, to which the fpirit or
mercury is fubje& in the thermometer, are only the differ-
ence of the rarefa€tions and condenfations of glafs, and of
the contained fluid. Hift. Ac. Royal, 1705.

The cone, or cylinder, of the thermometer is made of
glafs of a moderate thicknefs, left, when the exhaufted tube
is hermetically fealed, its internal capacity fhould be di-
minifhed by the weight of the ambient atmofphere. When
the mercury is thoroughly purged of its air and moifture
by boiling, the thermometer is filled with a fufficient quan-
tity of it; and before the tube is hermetically fealed, the
air is wholly expelled by heating the mercury, fo that it may
be rarefied and afcend to the top of the tube. To the fide
of the tube is annexed a fcale (fee fig. 4.) which Fahrenheit
divided into fix hundred parts, beginning with that of the
fevere cold which he had obferved in Iceland in 1709, or
that produced by furrounding the bulb of the thermometer
with a mixture of {now or beaten ice and fal ammoniac or
fea-falt.» This he apprehended to be the greateft degree of
cold, and accordingly he marked this, as the beginning of
his feale, with o; the point at which mercury begins to
boil, he conceived to fhew the greateft degree of heat, and
this he made the limit of his fcale. ‘The diftance between
thefe two points, he divided into fix hundred equal parts
or degrees; of which 32 reckoned from 0, indicates the
degree of cold when fnow or ice thaws naturally, or water
begins to freeze, and this is called the freezing point: and he
marked the heat of boiling water with 212, &c. In order
more particularly to explain the divifions of this fcale, and
to fhew how the dilatation and condenfation of the mercury
are eftimated by it, we may obferve that the bulb is fup-
pofed to contain, according to Boerhaave and Mufchenbroek,
11124 parts of quickfilver, which ftands at the loweft mark,
or gr. ©, in an intenfe cold, &c. as above determined : if the
bulb be immerged in fnow or ice thawing naturally, or in
water beginning to freeze, the quickfilver is dilated, and
rifes in the tube 32 of thefe 11124 parts; and therefore
the {pace of the tube from gr. o to the freezing point gr.
32, is divided into thirty-two equal parts. When the ther-
mometer is placed in water brought to a ftrong boiling at a
middle ftate of the atmofphere in places near the level of the
fea, when the mercury in the barometer ftands at about 30
inches or a very little under it, the quickfilver is dilated 212
of thefe parts beyond its original bulk of 11124, fo as now
to poflefs in the bulb and tube together a {pace equal to
14336 fuch parts ; and the {pace from gr. 32 to gr. 212, is
divided into 180 equal parts or degrees of the thermometer ;

which, if the tube be long enough, may be protracted as far
as is convenient. It may extend well enough to gr. 600,
and not much farther, for with a heat but little greater than
that the mercury begins to boil.

Dr. Boerhaave, in one place, makes the number of parts
into which the mercury in the bulb is fuppofed to be divided
to be 10782 inftead of 11124, and in another place {lates it
at 11520, which Dr. Martine apprehends to be nearer the
truth, or about 11790 parts; and he thinks the eafieft and
fureft method is to fill the bulb and tube, without being
folicitous about the bulk of the quickfilver, fo that in freez-
ing water, or melting ice, the mercury fhall ftand at a con-
venient height, which muft be very nicely marked gr. 32 ;
and then as accurately to obferve where it ftands when
dilated by the heat of boiling water to gr. 212. The inter-
mediate {pace is then divided into 180 degrees, which feale
may be protracted upwards or downwards as far as we fhall
judge convenient. .See Fixed Points of THERMOMETERS.

In the above method of graduating the feale, the bore of
the tube is fuppofed to be perfeGtly cylindric, which cannot
always be obtained. But though it be belditie “eas fome-
what unequal, it is eafy to manage that matter, in the manner
propofed by the abbé Nollet (Legons de Phyf. Exp.
tom. iv. p. 376.) by making a {mall portion of the quick-
filver, e. g- as much as fills up an inch or half an inch, flide
backward and forward in the tube; and thus to find the
proportions of all its inequalities, and from thence to adjuft
the divifions to a feale of the moft perfect equality. See
Obfervations on the Conftruétion of THERMOMETERS. :

Other thermometers of a fimilar conftruétion have been
accommodated to common ufe, the feale of which is only a
part of that above defcribed. They have been made of a
{mall fize and portable form, and the tube with its annexed
fcale has been enclofed in another thicker glafs hermetically
fealed, in order to preferve it from injury. Mr. Ramfden,
at the defire and for the ufe of Mr. Hunter in his experi-
ments on the heat of animals and vegetables, conftruéted
very {mall thermometers, fix or feven inches long, and not
above two twelfths of an inch thick in the ftem; having the
external diameter very little larger than that of the ftem, on
which was marked the freezing point. ‘The ftem was em-
braced by a {mall ivory feale, fo as to flide upon it eafily,
and retain any pofition. Upon the hollow furface of this
{cale were marked the degrees which were feen through the
ftem. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. parti. p. 8.

Several varieties of thermometers are conftruéted for phi-
lofophical purpofes. For comprehending the whole ran
of thermometrical temperature from the moft intenfe artifi-
cial cold to the boiling point of mercury, it is neceflary to
be provided with a very long tube; but for moft chemical
purpofes, it need only be graduated to about ten degrees
above the boiling point, which will reach the'temperature of
moft faline folutions when boiling. For experiments in in-
tenfe cold, a fpirit thermometer fhould be graduated about
100 degrees below o, and the lower extremity of the feale
fhould be at fome diftance from the bulb, that the tempera-
ture may be obferved without lifting the bulb out of any
deep veflel that may contain the freezing mixture. The
moft delicate and fenfible thermometers are made with a very
{mall bulb, fcarcely larger than the ftem, and a tube of an
extremely narrow bore, not larger than a horfe-hair. For
chemical purpofes alfo, the fcale fhould either be fcratched
on the glafs itfelf, or, as this is difficult to be feen in a com-
mon light, an ivory fcale fhould be attached without reach~
ing fo low as the bulb, that the latter may be fafely im-
merfed in acid or corrofive liquors. :

rH

THERMOMETER.

In 1733, M. de VIfle of Peterfburg conitructed a mercu-
ria/ thermometer (fee fg. 4.) on the principles of Reaumur’s
fpirit thermometer. In his thermometer, the whole bulk of
quickfilver, when immerged in boiling water, is conceived to
be divided into 10,000, or rather 100,000 parts; and from
this one fixed point, the various degrees of heat, either above
or below it, are marked in thefe parts on the tube or feale,
by the various expanfion or contra¢tion of the quickfilver in
all the imiaginable variety of heat. Dr. Martine apprehends
it would have been better if M. de I’Ifle had made the in-
teger of 100,000 parts, or fixed point at freezing water, and
from thence computed the dilatations or condenfations of the
quickfilver in thofe parts. All the common obfervations
of the weather, &c. would have been exprefled by numbers
increafing as the heat increafed, which is the more natural
way ; nor would there have been any great incongruity, or
inconvenience, in exprefling, after the manner of Reaumur,
the few obfervations that occur below fimple freezing by
numbers of contraction below gr. 0, or 100,000. How-
eyer, in practice, it will not be very eafy to determine ex-
a@tly all the divifions from the alteration of the bulk of the
contained fluid. And befides, as glafs itfelf is dilated by
heat, though in a lefs proportion than quickfilver, fo that it
is only the excefs of the dilatation of the contained fluid
above that of the glafs that is obfervable ; if different kinds
of glafs be differently affe€ted by a given degree of heat,
this will make a feeming difference in the dilatation of the
quickfilver in the thermometers, conftruéted in the New-
tonian method, either by M. de Reaumur’s or M. de |’ Ifle’s
rules. Accordingly, it has been found, that the quickfilver
in thermometers, conftru@tedin M. de l’Ifle’s way, has ftood
at different degrees of the fcale when immerged in thawing
fnow: In fome it was at gr. 154, in others at 156, and in
another at 158: and it appears by M. de I’Ifle’s own ac-
count, that his thermometers difagree confiderably from one
amother. Celfius’s thermometer has been chiefly ufed in
Sweden, and hence it has been called the Swedi/hb thermo-
meter. The French chemifts have lately adopted it, under
the name of centigrade thermometer. See Fixed Points of
‘THERMOMETERS, and the table at the clofe of this article.

THERMOMETER, Metalline, is a name given to a machine
compofed of two metals, which, whilft it indicates the va-
riations of cold and heat, ferves to correét the errors that
refult from hence in the conftru€tion of pendulum clocks.
Inftruments of this kind have been contrived by Graham,
Le Roy, in 1738, Ellicot, Harrifon, &c. See Compound
PENDULUM.

We have alfo an account of inftruments of this kind in-
vented by Mortimer, Frotheringham, and Fitzgerald, in the
Phil. Tranf. vol. xliv. p. 689, vol. xlv. p. 129, and vol. li.
p- 823; towhich we muft refer for a particular defcription
of each, illuftrated by figures.

M. de Luc has likewife defcribed two thermometers of
metal, which he ufes for correcting the effects of heat upon
a barometer, and an hygrometer of his conftruction con-
neéted with them. In one of thefe, a ftrong rod of well-
hardened brafs, fupports upon an edge, at a convenient
diftance from the centre of motion, a lever, which holds the
{cale of the barometer fufpended, and makes it rife or fall
by the dilatation or condenfation of the brafs rod, as the
quiekfilver rifes or falls in the barometer, by the correfpond-
ing variations of heat. This fcale of the barometer, when
it moves, draws or loofens a thread of filk-grafs, which
goes over a {mall pulley placed upon the fame axis with a
much larger one, to which the fcale of the hygrometer is
hung likewife by a fimilar thread, which thus varies, by the
proportion of the diameters of the pulleys, as the heat makes

Vor. XXXV.

the quickfilver in the hygrometer vary. This inftrument is
convenient for meteorological obfervations: becaufe it faves
one obfervation and two correétions for the heat ; but it is
neceflary from time to time to correé an irregularity in it,
which is eafily perceived by means of an index, carried by
the moyeable fcales of the two inftruments, which, going
over immoyeable feales of the fame fort, fhews their difféer-
ence of height. When this difference is no longer con-
formable to the indication of the thermometer, it is eafily
rectified by turning fmall pegs, on which is twifted the
thread of filk-grafs, which feryes for the fufpenfion of the
feales. The irregularity juft mentioned confiits in this, that
when the heat, after having varied, returns to the fame point
of the quickfilver thermometer, the metallic thermometer
does not return to it exa€tly, but varies nearly in the fol-
lowing manner: during the fummer, the latter gains con-
{tantly on the former, i. ¢. amidft its variations, it always
preferves a {mall part of the lengthening, which is at that
time its ordinary itate. In winter, on the contrary, it be-
comes infenfibly a little too fhort, The other metallic ther-
mometer, which is more curious than ufeful, on account of
its greater irregularity, confifts of a rod of lead, which,
communicating by a thread of filk-grafs with a {mall pulley
fixed to the fame axis with a greater one, conduéts, by means
of another pulley, a needle through whofe axis, which is
bored, -pafles another axis that carries the needle of a pulley
barometer. Thus this inftrument marks the heat and
weight of the air upon two concentric circles, by means of
two needles turning upon the fame centre, as in clocks ; be-
fides which, the needle of the thermometer points out upon
a third circle the corre€tion for the heat, to be made on the
barometer. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii, parti, p. 437, &c.
THERMOMETERS, Oi]. To this clafs belongs fir Ifaac
Newton’s thermometer, conftruéted in 1701, with linfeed
oil inftead of {pirit of wine. This liquor has the advantage
of being fufficiently homogeneous, and capable of a con-
fiderable rarefa€tion, not lets than fifteen times greater than
that of fpirit of wine. It has not been obferved to freeze
even in very great colds, and it is able to bear a great heat,
about four times that of water, without boiling. With thefe
advantages it was made ufe of by fir Ifaac Newton, who
difcovered by it the comparative degree of heat for boiling
water, melting wax, boiling f{pirit of wine, and melting tin ;
beyond which it does not appear that this thermometer was
applied. The method he ufed for adjufting the feale of this
oil-thermometer was as follows: fuppofing the bulb, when
immerged in thawing {now, to contain 10,000 parts, he found
the oil expanded by the heat of the human body fo as to
take up one thirty-ninth more fpace, or 10256 fuch parts ;
and by the heat of water boiling ftrongly, 10725 ; and by
the heat of melting tin, 11516. So that, reckoning the
freezing point as a common limit between heat and cold, he
began his fcale there, marking {t gr. 0, and the heat of the
human body he made gr. 12 ; and, confequently, the degrees
of heat being proportional to the degrees of rarefaction, or
10256: 10725, i. c, 256 : 725 :: 12 : 34, the heat of boil-

ape and that
256

Phil. Tranf. No. 270, or

ing water was exprefled by gr. 34 =

of the melting tin by gr. 72.

Abr. vol. iv. part ii. p. 3.
Although in this graduation fir Ifaac Newton does not
{pecify any ia So of cold below that of freezing water, yet
it would be eafy to protraé& his {cale downward below gr. 0,
or the freezing point, and thus to adapt it for eftimating
greater degrees of cold, like other thermometers. But
there is another infuperable inconvenience that attends all
35 ther«

THERMOMETER.

thermometers made with oil, or any other vifcid liquor, viz.
that fuch a liquor adheres too much to the fides of the tube.
In a fudden cold or fall of the oil, much of it fticks by the
way, and only finks gradually afterwards, fo that at firft the
{urface appears really lower than the prefent_ temperature
requires. And befides, as at all times fome of the oil mutt
continue to {tick and moiften the infide of the tube, in dif-
ferent degrees of heat and cold, the oil, becoming alternately
more or lefs vifcid, will adhere fometimes more and fometimes
lefs; and will, therefore, inevitably difturb the regularity
and uniformity of the thermometer. Martine’s Effays,
EM. iii.

THERMOMETERS, Fixed Points of. Various methods have
been propofed by various authors, for finding a fixed point,
or degree, of heat and cold, from which to reckon the other
degrees, and adjuft the feale; fo that obfervations made at
the fame or different times, in different places, might be com-
pared together. For want of this, notwithftanding all the
numerous regifters of the weather, &c. that have been kept
and publifhed by different authors, we are much at a lofs to
determine the comparative differences of heat and cold in
different countries and climates, and the refult of many other
obfervations. If all the weather-glaffes in the world had
been made according to one determined feale, thefe incon-
veniences and uncertainties would have been prevented ;
which, indeed, are now unavoidable, and mutt ftill continue
fo, till all agree to graduate their thermometers in the fame
manner, or at leaft determine fome fixed or unalterable points
of heat, to which all the different feales of thofe inftruments
may be reduced. The honourable Mr. Boyle was very
fenfible of this inconvenience, and much laments it ; and he
propofed the freezing of the effential oil of anifeeds, as a
term of heat and cold that might be of ufe in making and
judging of thermometers, and fo to graduate them from this
point acoording to the proportional dilatations or contrac-
tions of the jaluaed {pirits. He mentioned alfo the cold-
nefs requifite to begin the congelation of diftilled water as
another fixed term that might be adopted; for he was per-
fuaded, that among the ordinary waters, fome were apt to
freeze more eafily than others. But he was deterred from
profecuting this {cheme of fixing a ftandard for making and
graduating all thermometers in the fame way. Experi-
ments, &c. on cold, in his works abridged by Shaw, vol. i.

P- 579:

Dr. Halley (Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol.ii. p. 36.) feems to
have been fully apprized of the bad effeéts of the indefinite
method of conttruéting thermometers, and wifhed to have
them adjufted to fome determined points. What he feems
to prefer for this purpofe is the degree of temperature
which is found in fubterranean places, where the heat in
fummer and cold in winter appears to have no influence.
But this degree of temperature is fhewn by Dr. Martine to
be a term for the univerfal conftruétion of thermometers,
both convenient, as it cannot be eafily afcertained ; and a
precarious one, as the difference of foils and depths may
occafion a confiderable variation. Another term of heat
which he thought might be of ufe in a general graduation of
thermometers, is that of boiling fpirit of wine that has
been highly reétified: but a much more convenient term
of heat, though lefs infifted on by Dr. Halley, is that
of boiling water. The firft trace that occurs of the me-
thod of actually applying fixed points or terms to the ther-
mometer, and of graduating it, fo that the unequal divi-
fions of it might correfpond to equal degrees of heat, is the
projeé&t of Renaldinus, profeffor, of Padua, in 1694: it is
thus defcribed in the AGta Erud. Lipf. ‘Take a flender
tube, about four palms long, with a ball faitened to the

fame ; pour into it fpirit of wine, enough juft to fill the
ball, when furrounded with ice, and not a drop over: in
this ftate, feal the orifice of the tube hermetically, and pro-.
vide twelve veffels, each capable of containing a pound of
water, and fomewhat more ; and’ into the firft pour eleven
ounces of cold water, into the fecond ten ounces, into the
third nine, &c.: this done, immerge the thermometer in the
firft veffel, and pour into it one ounce of hot water, ob-
ferving how high the fpirit rifes in the tube, and noting the
point with unity: then remove the thermometer into the
fecond veffel, into which are to be poured two ounces of
hot water, and note the place the fpirit rifes to with 2. By
thus proceeding till the whole pound of water is fpent, the
inftrument will be found divided into twelve parts denotin
fo many terms or degrees of heat ; fo that at 2 the heat is
double to that at 1, at 3, triple, &c.””

But this method, though plaufible, Wolfius fhews, is
deceitful, and is built on falfe fuppofitions ; for it takes for
granted, that we have one degree of heat, by adding one
ounce of hot to eleven of cold water; two degrees, by
adding two ounces to ten, &c.: it fuppofes, alfo, that a
fingle degree of heat a¢ts on the fpirit of wine in the balf
with a fingle force; a double with a double force, &c. -
laftly, it fuppofes, that if the effet be produced in the
thermometer by the heat of the ambient air, which is here
produced by the hot water, the air has the fame degree of
heat with the water.

Soon after this proje&t of Renaldinus, viz. in 1701, fir
Haac Newton conftruéted his oi/ thermometer, and fixed
the bafe or loweft fixed point of his feale at the tempera-
ture of thawing fnow, and twelve at that of the human
body, &c. in the manner explained under the article Oil
‘THERMOMETER. :

M. de Luc obferves, that the fecond term of his feale
fhould have been at a greater diftance from the firft, and
that the heat of boiling water would have anfwered this
purpofe better than that of the human body.

In 1702, M. Amontons contrived his univerfal thermome-
ter, the feale of which was graduated in the following man-
ner. He chofe for the firft term the weight that counter-
balanced the air included in his thermometer, when it was
heated by boiling water: and in this ftate he fo adjufted
the quantity of mercury contained in it, till the fum of its
height in the tube, and of its height in the barometer at
the moment of obfervation, was equal to feventy-three
inches. Fixing this number at the point to which the
mercury in the tube rofe by plunging it into boiling water,
it is evident, that, if the barometer at this time was twenty-
eight inches, the height of the column of mercury in the
thermometer above the level of that in the ball was forty-
five inches ; but if the height of the barometer was lefs by
a certain quantity, the column of the thermometer ought te
be greater by the fame quantity, and reciprocally. He
formed his feale on the fuppofition that the weight of
the atmofphere was always equal to that of a column
of mercury of twenty-eight inches, and divided it into
inches from the point 73 downwards, marking the divi-
fions with 72, 71, 70, &c. and he fubdivided the inches
into lines. ‘

But as the weight of the atmofphere is variable, the ba-
rometer mu{t be obferved at the fame time with the thermo-
meter, that the number indicated by this laft inftrument
may be properly corrected, by adding or fubtraéting the
quantity of which the mercury is below or above twenty-
eight inches in the barometer. In this fcale, then, the
freezing point is at 514 inches, correfponding to gr.
32 of Fr aieahait, and. the heat of boiling water at 73

' jnches,

THERMOMETER.

inches, anfwering to gr. 212 of Fahrenheit’s: and thus
they may be eafily compared together.

The fixed points of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which is

enerally ufed in Great Britain, (as we have already ob-
erved under Mercurial THERMOMETER,) are the congela-
tion produced by fal ammoniae and the heat of boiling
water. The interval between thefe points is divided into
212 equal parts ; the firft of thefe points is marked 0, 32
degrees below the freezing point, and the other 212; the
diftance of courfe between the freezing and boiling points
being 180. The reafon why Fahrenheit fixed his feale fo far
below the water-freezing point was founded on an erro-
neous hypothefis relative to the real zero or point of abfolute
privation of heat; neverthelefs it has this advantage, that
the diftinétion between the pofitive and negative terms, or
thofe which exprefs degrees above -or below the zero,
much lefs frequently occurs in any experiments, and
ficarcely ever in the regifter of natural cold in temperate
climates, by which many accidental errors are avoided.
Reaumur, in his thermometer, the conftruétion of which he
publifhed in 1730, and which is generally ufed in France and
other parts of the continent, begins his {cale at an artificial
congelation of water in warm weather, which, as he ufes
large bulbs for his glaffes, gives the freezing point much
higher than it fhould be, and at boiling water he marks gr.
$0, (the diftance between both points being 80, ) which point
Dr. Martine apprehends to be more vague and uncertain
than his freezing point. The fpirit in the thermometer,
he obferves, is abfolutely incapable of fuch a great heat
as Reaumur afcribed to it, and that not by a {mall or
trifling difference. He finds, that highly rectified fpirit of
wine cannot be heated beyond gr. 175 in Fahrenheit’s ther-
mometer, while boiling water raifes the quickfilver 37 de-
grees higher ; and common brandy was able to conceive a
heat no greater than about gr. 190. So far, he concludes,
was Reaumur in the wrong, when he thought that all {pi-
rits, weak and ftrong, immerged in boiling water, received
a given degree of heat, and that equal to the heat of the
furrounding water. He fuppofes his ftandard heat could
take a heat only of about gr. 180; lefs by 32 degrees than
what he reckoned. In order to determine the correfpond-
ence of his feale with that of Fahrenheit, it is to be confi-
dered that his boiling-water heat is really only the boiling
heat of weakened fpirit of wine, coinciding nearly, as
Dr. Martine apprehends, with Fahrenheit’s gr. 180. And
as his gr. 104 is the conftant heat of the cave of the ob-
fervatory at Paris, or Fahrenheit’s gr. 53, he thence finds
his freezing point, inftead of anfwering juit to gr. 32, to
be fomething above gr. 34.

The thermometer of M. de I’Ifle, of which he prefented
an account to the Academy of Sciences at Peterfburg in
1733, has only one fixed point, which is the heat of boiling
water, and, contrary to the common order, the feveral de-
grees are marked downwards from this point or zero, ac-
cording to the condenfations of the contained quickfilver, and
confequently by numbers increafing as the heat decreafes to
150, the freezing point. In order to determine the extent
of the degrees of this fcale, M. de I’Ifle firft weighed the
empty tube, and then weighed it full of mercury; and
the difference of thefe two weights gave him that of the
mercury. He then expofed the thermometer to the heat of
boiling water, and took care to preferve the mercury,
which this increafe of heat forced out of it; this he accu-
rately weighed, and deducting its weight from the total
weight of the mercury, he made the remainder, or that
which was left in the thermometer, equal to 10000: he
then found by calculation how many 10000 parts of this

refidue that forced owt of the tube contained, and thefe
parts formed the divifions of the feale from the point,
determined by the condenfation of the mercury to the
fame point at which it ftood before it was plunged in boil-
ing water, to the upper end of the tube; and thefe divi-
fions formed the extent of the degrees of M. de l’Ifle’s
feale. According to his ftandards, the freezing point,
fays Dr. Martine, is near to his gr. 150, correfponding to
Fahrenheit’s gr. 32, by which means they may be com-
pared ; but M. Ducreit fays, that this point ought to be
marked at leaft at gr. 154.

M. Ducreft, in his fpirit thermometer, conftruéted in
1740, made ufe of two fixed points; the firft, or o, indi-
cated the temperature of the earth, and was marked on his
{cale in the cave of the Royal Obfervatory at Paris ; and
the other was the heat of boiling water, which the {pirit in
his thermometer was made to endure, by leaving the upper
part of the tube full of air. He divided the interval be-
tween thefe points into 100 equal parts ; calling the divi-
fiona upwards degrees of heat, and thofe below o degrees of
cold.

He afterwards regulated his thermometer by the degree
of cold indicated by melting ice, which he found to be
to2. In Celfius’s, or the centigrade thermometer, the
freezing point, like that of Reaumur’s, was 0, the boiling
point at 100, and the diftance between both 100. See the
table at the clofe of the article.

The Florentine thermometers made and ufed by the
members of the famous academy del’ Cimento, being fome
of the firft inftruments of the fort, were vaguely graduated,
fome of them having many more degrees than others; but
thofe of their moft common graduation were of two forts ;
in one fort the freezing point, determined by the degree at
which the f{pirit ftood in the ordinary cold of ice or fnow
(probably in a thawing ftate), and coinciding with gr. 32 of
Fahrenheit, fell at gr. 20; and in the other fort at gr. 132:
and the natural heat of the vifcera of cows and deer, &c.
raifed the f{pirit in the latter, or lefs fort, to about gr. 40,
coinciding with their fummer heat, and nearly with gr. 102
in Fahrenheit’s, and in their other long thermometer,
the fpirit, when expofed to the great midfummer heat in
their country, rofe to the point at which they marked gr. 8o.
The freezing point of one was 20, the boiling point 174,
and the diftance between both was 154: in the other the
freezing point was 134, the boiling point 813, and the dif-
tance 683.

In the Parifian thermometer, or the ancient thermometer
of the Academy of Sciences, the freezing point was at 29,
the boiling point at 239, and the diftance between both
214.

In the thermometer of the obfervatory at Paris, made of
{pirit of wine by M. de la Hire, the fpirit always ftands at
gr-48, in the cave of the obfervatory, correfponding to
gr-53 in Fahrenheit’s; and his gr. 28 correfponded with
51 inches fix lines in Amontons’s thermometer, and con-
fequently with the freezing point, or gr. 32 of Fahren-
heit’s. This thermometer of De la Hire, which ftood ‘in
the obfervatory of Paris above 60 years, feems to have
been graduated thus; the freezing point 28, the boiling
point 199+, and the diftance between both 1714. In Amon-
tons’s thermometer the freezing point was 514, the boiling
point 73, and the diftance between them 214.

In the thermometer of Poleni, made after the manner of
Amontons’s, but with lefs mercury, 47 inches corre-
{ponded, according to Dr. Martine, with 51 in that of
Amontons’s, and 53 with 593. It was graduated thus ;
the freezmg point at 477, the boiling point at 622%, and

352 the

THERMOMETER.

the diftance between them 157%. In Crucquius’s, the
freezing point was 1070, the boiling point 1510, and the
diftance 440.

In the ancient ftandard thermometer of the Royal So-
ciety, after which thermometers were for a long time cop-
ftru@ted in England, Dr. Martine found that gr. 343, an-
{wered to gr. 64 in Fahrenheit’s, and gr.o to 89 or 88.
From that point the numeration afcended and defcended
thus; the freezing point was 73}, the boiling point 1413,
and the diftance between them 21523. In fir Ifaac New-
ton’s, the freezing point was 0, the boiling point 34, and
the diftance 34. ;

In the thermometers graduated for adjufting the degrees
of heat proper for exotic plants, &c. in ftoves and green
houfes, the middle temperature of the air is marked at
gr.o, and the degrees of heat and cold are numbered
both above and below. Many of thefe are made on no
regular and fixed principles. But in that formerly much
ufed, called Fowler’s regulator, the fpirit fell, in melting
fnow, to about gr. 34 under 0; and Dr. Martine found,
that his gr.16 above o, coincided with nearly gr. 64 of
Fahrenheit. His o feems to have coincided with about
the 53d or 54th degree of Fahrenheit’s, and from that
point the numeration afcended and defcended thus ; the
freezing point 34, the boiling pomt 250!, and the diftance
between them 2845.

Dr. Hales (Statical Effays, vol. i. p. 58.) in his thermo-
meter made with fpirit of wine, and ufed in experiments
on vegetation, began his feale with the loweft degree of
freezing, or gr. 32 of Fahrenheit, and earried it up to
gr- 100, which he marked where the {pirit flood when the
ball was heated in hot water, on which wax fwimming firft
began to coagulate, and this point Dr. Martine found to
correfpond with gr.142 of Fahrenheit. But by expe-
rience Hales’s gr. 100 falls confiderably above our gr. 142.
According to others, his freezing point was 0, his boiling
point was 163, and the diftance of courfe 163. my

In the Edinburgh thermometer, made with fpirit of
wine, and ufed in the meteorological obfervations pub-
lifhed in the Medical Effays, the fcale is divided into
inches and tenths. In melting {now the fpirit ftood at
83,, and the heat of the human fkin raifed to 23.4. Dr.
Martine found, that the heat of the perfon who graduated
it was gr. 97 of Fahrenheit. It feems to have been gra-
duated thus; the freezing point 8!, the boiling point 47,
and the diftance between them 38.

As it is often of ufe to compare different thermometers,
in order to judge of the refult of former obfervations, we
have annexed from Dr. Martine’s Effays, the table by which
he compared fifteen different thermometers. See Plate XVI.
Pneumatics, fig. 4. See alfo the table at the clofe of this
article.

There is a thermometer which was formerly much ufed
in London, called the thermometer of Lyons, becaufe M.
Criftin brought it there into ufe, which is made of mer-
cury: the freezing point is marked gr.o, and the inter-
val from that point to the heat of boiling water is divided
into 100 equal degrees.

From the above abftraét of the hiftory of the conftruc-
tion of thermometers, it appears that freezing and boiling
water have furnifhed the diftinguifhing points that have
been marked upon almoft all thermometers. The inferior
fixed point is that of freezing, which fome have determined
by the freezing of water, and others by the melting of
ice; and though the difference between thefe two tempera-
tures is not commonly very confiderable, yet it is not in-
variable, :

It is now well known, that all, or almoft all bodies, by
changing from a fluid to a folid ftate; or from the ftate of am
elaftic to that of an unelaftic fluid, generate heat ; and that
cold is produced by the contrary procefs.

In order to obtain this fixed point or limit, melting ice, or
ice powdered and mixed with water, will produce the fame
temperature. And though there may be fome trifling dif-
ference between the temperature of ice difpofed to melt, and
that of melted ice or the water produced by it ; this differ-
ence, however, has no fenfible effect on the thermometer ;
confequently, the temperature of water fucceffively produced
by ice, and accumulated in its interftices, or from powdered
ice mixed with the water which is produced by it in melting,
affords, as De Luc obferves, a fixed point, which is eafily
obtained, and which fhould be adopted in the conftruétion of
all thermometers.

The fuperior fixed point of almoft all thermometers, is
the heat of boiling water; but this point cannot be confi-
dered as fixed, unlefs the heat be produced by the fame de-
gree of boiling, and under the fame weight of the atmo-
phere. With regard to the firft circumftance, it is obferved,
that water, when it begins to boil, has not attained to its
greateft degree of heat, which is known by its bubbling or
foaming from the bottom of the veffel, and over the whole
furface of the water, with the greateft violence which it is
capable of acquiring ; and in this ftate the water difcovers
am augmentation of heat more than one degree above the heat
it had when it began to boil. The temperature of water
which beils with vehemence fhould, therefore, be the
ftandard of the fixed point of thermometers : neverthelefs
it isto be confidered farther, that this degree of heat with
which water violently boils, is invariably the fame, only un-
der a given preffure of the atmofphere ; but if the preflure
be diminifhed or increafed, the boiling heat is diminifhed or
increafed. It is well known that water, placed under the
exhaufted receiver of an air-pump, will be converted into
fteam with a degree of heat far inferior to that which is ne-
ceflary to its palling in the open air; and under the preffure
of its own vapour, confined in Papin’s digefter, it is faid to
fuftain a degree of heat, without boiling, far exceeding that
which, in the oper air, would convert itinto fteam. ence
it follows that, in climates where the preflure of the atmo-
{phere is liable to confiderable change, the heat of boiling
water, in open air, will be different at different times. Con-
fequently thermometers, made in different ftates of the ba-
rometer, will difagree ; unlefs allowance has been made for
the effe&t of the variation of the barometer upon accurate
principles. ‘That the heat of boiling was variable, accord-
ing to the preffure of the atmofphere, feems to have been
known to Fahrenheit as early asthe year 1724. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 385.

Some time after this period, Meflrs. le Monnier and Caf-
fini (Mem. de l’Acad. des Sc. for 1740) made fome decifive
obfervations, in order to fhew that this quantity was very
confiderable.

M. de Luc, in 1762, made a much more complete feries
of experiments, which he has defcribed and reduced into a
fyitem in his Recherches fur les Mod. de l’Atmofphere,
vol. i. p. 382, &c. vol. ii. p. 338, &c. and thefe have been
finee verified by fir George Shuckburgh, in 1775 and 1778.
See Phil. Tranf. vol. lxix. part ii. p. 362, &c.

M. de Luce fixes the boiling point of his thermometer
when the barometer is at 27 Paris, or 28.75 Englifh inches,
that being its mean height at Geneva. He divides the fun-
damental interval, i. e. the whole extent of the feale, be-
tween melting ice and boiling water, after the French man-
ner, into eighty equal parts; and by a great number of ex-

periments

THERMOMETER.

periments on the heat of boiling water, at different heights
above the level of the fea, he hath found, that the height of
his thermometer, plunged in boiling water, may be exprefled,
in all ftates of the barometer, by the following formula, viz,

99 tina
eseae log. y —a=T:
the barometer in fixteenths of a Parifian line, T the height
of a thermometer, plunged in boiling water, above melting
ice, in hundredths of a degree of his fcale ; and a the eon-
tant number 10387.

By logarithms he always means the tabular or Briggian
logarithms, and confiders the feven figures given by the
tables, befides the index, as integral figures, 7. e. he con-
fiders the eighth figure of the logarithm as itanding in the
place of units. But as it is more ufual with mathemati-
cians, and, in general, more conyenient, to confider all the
figures after the index as decimals, the number which M. de

99
200000

in which y denotes the height of

Luc exprefles by

log. y, would in that cafe be

2 XA log. y3 OF 99 X 50 log. y.
fequel, M. de Luc’s notation is retained.

Now if care were taken by the above formula, or in any
other way, to adjuft the boiling point to the main height of
the barometer in every country, the inftruments of the fame
country would always be confiftent ; but thofe of different
countries would ftill difagree ; that is, they would exprefs the
fame temperature differently, though their fimilar intervals
fhould be fimilarly divided ; for in every feale, the number
of degrees above or below melting ice, by which any given
temperature is expreffed, will be as the value of each degree
inverfely ; that is, if each be a given part of the fundamen-
tal interval, as the value of the fundamental interval in-
verfely ; but if the degrees of different fcales be different
parts of the fundamental intervals, as the value of the fun-
damental interval inverfely, and the number of degrees con-
tained in it dire€tly.

In order, therefore, to compare the thermometers of dif-
ferent countries, the proportions of their fundamental inter-
vals to each other mutt be afcertained, or we muft have fome
means of finding, upon one fecale, the place of the boiling
point of another. For this purpofe, a general folution is re-
quifite of the following problem, viz. the fundamental in-
terval being given for a given height of the barometer,
to find the fundamental interval for any other given height
of the barometer. The folution is furnifhed by M. de
Luc’s refearches; and his formula, above given, is re-
duced to Englifh meafures, and adapted to Englifh in-
ftruments, by Dr. Horfley. As the fubje& is curious
and important, we fhall fubjoin the procefs he has pur-
fued for this purpofe. It is but feldom that the barc-
meter in this country ftands fo low as 27 Paris inches.
Its main height upon the plain country about London is
near 30 Englifh inches. It may, therefore, be proper for
the London workmen to fix their boiling point when the
barometer is at 30 inches. Fahrenheit’s divifion of the fcale,
which makes 180 degrees between melting ice and boiling
water, and places the point o at the 32d degree below melting
ice, may be retained: and the thermometer thus conitruéted
is called by Dr. Horfley, Bird’s Fahrenheit, becaufe Mr.
Bird, he apprehends, is the firft workman who took the pains
to attend to the ftate of the barometer in making thermo-
meters, and has always fixed the boiling point when his ba-
rometer has ftood at 30 inches.

T, then, being put for the height of a thermometer

7

However, in the

plunged in boiling water, above melting ice, in 1eedths of
a degree of De Luc’sfeale, in any given ftate of the baro-
meter ; let © denote the fame height in roodths of a degree
of Bird’s Fahrenheit ; put y for the height of the barome-
ter, in 16ths of a Paris line; v, for its height in Paris
lines ; 4, in roths of a Parisinch; z, in roths of an Eng-
lith inch ; and for 10387 put a; for 16, 4; for 10, c; for
12, d; and let E and F reprefent numbers expretfling the
proportion of the Englifh foot to the French foot.

M. de Luc hath found that, whatever be the value of y,

99 2
FEES log. y—a=T. But log. y = log. v + log. 4;
and log. v = log. x + log. d — log. c; and log. x = log.
z+ log. E — log. F; therefore log. y = log. = + log.

log. . 6 — log. F — log.c; ae a
E + log. d + log. 4 og. F — log. c; and oo ileg

Oo) Ses pes nae ELE Gain aay ty EPL PSR)

Se oie a log. E + log. d + log. 6 — log. F — log.c
—eST. Bot ie > log. do bog. 6 log.
2OOCOO mee eat es eee

F — log. c — « = — 4171.55; the French foot being

99

to th li 2. $ heref ‘
o the Englith as 2.1315 to 2. Therefore sae x
— 471.55 = LT; and _—— leg. 2 — 41.7155 =

aa the height of the thermometer, plunged in boiling
fe)

water, above melting ice, in degrees of De Luc’s feale,
when the height of the barometer in tenths of an Englith

inch,isz. For % write 300: then = = 80.902; which
is therefore the height of the thermometer, in boiling water,
above melting ice, in degrees of De Luc’s fcale, when the
barometer is at 30 inches Englifh. And in the fame ftate of
the barometer, the height of the thermometer plunged in
boiling water, above melting ice, in degrees of Bird’s Fah-

renheit, or Hence the numbers T and ©

Qs
» 1S 180.
fore)

are in the conftant proportion of 809 and 1800, whatever
be the value of z. For the change produced in the heat
of boiling water, by any change of z, being always the
fame for both thermometers, the temperature exprefied by
T in parts of one fcale is always the fame, as © ex_

L
and 3 for the values of the roodth part of a degree of the

preffes in parts of the other; and therefore putting

{cales of De Luc and Bird refpetively, the fractions =

eure always equal, and T, © are in the conftant propor-

B

tion of the invariable numbers L, B: confequently, when
the proportion of T and © is determined for any particular
value of z, it is found generally for all: confequently T.: ©
809 899
8 =
1800 2000
in all values of z: and fubftituting this value for T in the
equation

:: 809: 1800. And T = © very nearly

THERMOMETER.

equation exhibiting the relation between x and T, we have,

for the relation between z and ©, ae a og. & —
20000000
ey 855 99 1
417455 = F560 x 100 "> Fe000 x 899 SE

(2) = ; Fon
92.804 = ae the height of the thermometer in boiling
water, above melting ice, in degrees of Bird’s Fahrenheit,
when the height of. the barometer in tenths of an Englifh
inch, isz. And thus M. de Luc’s formula, for the varia-
tion of the boiling point, is adapted to Englifh inftruments,
and reduced to Englifh meafures of length.
For z write 287.7525, the air of 27 French inches i in

tenths of an Englith inch, and — = the height of De Luc’s
boiling point above melting ice, in eee of Bird’s Fahren-
heit, comes out 177.989. Hence M. de Luc’s boiling point
falls upon 209.989 of Bird’s feale, 7. e. upon 210 very nearly,
or infenfibly more than two degrees below Bird’s point
of boiling. But as 899 is a troublefome divifor, the
computation will be more eafy and ae by writing

II
1000000

for log. z, s.

Then s + ea? — 92.804 =

very nearly. Upon thefe principles Dr. Horfley has
computed the table following, for finding the heights to
which a good Bird’s Fahrenheit will rife, when plunged in
boiling water, in all ftates of the barometer, from 27 to 31
Englifh inches ; which will ferve, among other ufes, to direct
inftrument-makers in making a true allowance for the effect
of the variation of the barometer, if they are obliged to
finifh a’thermometer, when the barometer is above or below
30 inches ; though it is beft to fix the boiling point when the
barometer is at the height prefcribed.

Equation of the Boiling Point.

Barometer. | Equation. | Difference.
31.0 + 1.57 aes
30-5 | +o79 | oe
30.0 0.00 54
29-5 — 0.80 oa
29.0 — 1.62 0.83
28.5 — 2.45 0.85
28.0 — 3-31 ass
275 — 4.16 0.88
27-0 | — 5-04

|

The numbers in the firft column of this table exprefs
heights of the quickfilver in the barometer in Englifh
inches and decimal parts: the fecond column fhews the
equation to be applied, according to the fign prefixed, to
212° of Bird’s Fahrenheit to find the true boiling point
for every fuch ftate of the barometer. The boiling point
for all intermediate {tates of the barometer may be had
with fufficient accuracy by taking proportional parts, by
means of the third column of differences of the equations.
(See Phil. Tranf. vol. lxiv. part i. art. 30. See alfo an
excellent paper on this fubject by Dr. Mafkelyne, in the
Phil. Tranf. vol. lxiv. part i. art. 20.) In the following
table we have the refult of fifteen different obfervations

made by fir George Shuekburgh (ubi fupra) compared
with the refult of M. de Luc’s rules. ‘

Height of the

Barometer re- | Mean Boiling | Boiling Point

duced to the | Point by Ob- | by De Lue’s
fame Tempera-] —fervation. Rules.
ture of 50°.

Inch. Deg. Deg.
26.498 207.07 208.54
27.241 208.64 208.84.
27-954 209.87 210.03
28.377 210.50 210.81
28.699 211.27 211.34
28.898 211.50 211.67
28.999 211.60 211.85
20-447 212.55 212.74
29.805 212.95 213.15
30.008 213.22 213.47
30.207 213.58 213.79
30.489 214.15 214.23
30.763 214.37 214.66
30.847 214.83 214.79
30-957 | 214.96 214.96

Sir George Shuckburgh has alfo fubjoined the follow-
ing general table for the ufe of artifts in conftruéting the
thermometer, both according to his own obfervations,, and

thofe of M. de Luc.

Correét. of the

Height of Correé&. accord, Teissiance:

Difference.

the Barom.} Boiling Point. to M. de Luc.
Inch. Deg Deg.
26.0 — 7.09 or — 6.83
26.5 — 6.18 gl — 5-93
27-0 Baresi We wise — 15S
27-5 en Aaah “89 — 4-16
28.0 — 3.48 89 — 3-31
28.5 — 2.59 87 — 2-45
29.0 — 1.72 87 — 1.62
29-5 | — 0.85 185 — 0.80
30.0 0.00 85 0.00
30-5 + 0.85 84. + 0-79
31.0 kee ee ROI he [oh + 1.69 + 1.57

The Royal Society, fully apprized of the importance of
adjufting the fixed points of thermometers, appointed a
committee of feven gentlemen to confider of the beft method
for this purpofe ; and their report is publifhed in the Phil.
Tranf. vol. lxvii. part ii. art. 37. From a variety of expe-
riments and obfervations, relating to this fubjeét, the com-
mittee have deduced the fcllowing practical rules, which
they recommend in adjufting the fixed points of ther-
mometers. The moft accurate way of adjufting the boiling
point is, not to dip the thermometer into fs water, but to
expofe it only to the fteam, in a veffel clofed up in the
manner reprefented in Plate XVI. Pneumatics, fig. 6. where
ABdbais the veffel containing the boiling water, Dd the
cover, E a chimney made in the cover intended to carry
off the fteam, and Mm the thermometer pafled through a
hole in the cover. In the purfuit of this method the fol-
lowing particulars muft be regarded: the boiling point
muft be adjufted when the barometer is at 29.8 inches ;
unlefs the operator corrects the obferved point in the

manner

THERMOMETER.

manner direGted in the fequel of this article. The ball of
the thermometer muit be placed at fuch a depth within the
pot, that the boiling point may rife very little above the
cover ; and the furface of the water in the pot fhould be
at leaft one or two inches below the bottom of the ball.
Care mutt be taken to ftop up the hole in the cover through
which the tube is inferted, and to make the cover fit pretty
clofe, fo that no air fhall enter into the pot that way, and
that not much fteam may efcape. A piece of thin flat tin-
plate muft alfo be laid on the mouth of the chimney, fo as
to leave no more paflage than what is fufficient to carry off
the fteam.

Tf the artift pleafes, he may tie each corner of this plate
by a ftring to prongs fixed to the chimney, and {tanding on
a level with the plate, as it will be thus always kept in its

lace.
, Fig, 7. is a perfpetive view of the chimney and tin-
late; ABCD is the plate, E the chimney, Ff, Gg,

'm, and Nz, the prongs faftened to the chimney, to
which the four corners of the plate are to be tied by the
firings AF, BG, CM, and DN;; the ends F, G, M,
and N, of the prongs muit be on a level with the plate,
und the ftrings fhould not be ftretched tight. The chimney
ought not to be lefs than half a fquare inch in area, and
not lefs than two or three inches in length. The cover
fhould be made to take on and off eafily, and a ring
of woollen cloth may be placed under it, fo as to
lie between it and the top of the pot. The hole in the
cover may be ftopped up by a cork, with a hole bored
through it, big enough to receive the tube, and then cut
into two, parallel to the length of the hole. Another
method, more convenient in ufe, but not fo eafily made, is
reprefented in fig. 8. which exhibits a perfpective view of
the apparatus: A ais the cover, H the hole through which
the thermometer is pafled, B4é a flat piece of trafs fixed
upon the cover, and Dd Ee a fliding piece of brafs, made
fo as either to cover the hole H, or to leave it uncovered,
as in the figure, and to be tightened in either pofition by
the ferew s fliding in the flit Mm; alfo in the edge Dd,
to enclofe the tube of the thermometer: pieces of
woollen cloth fhould alfo be faftened to the edges BJ and
Dd, and alfo to the bottom of the fliding-piece Dd Ee,
unlefs that piece and the cover are made fufficiently flat to
prevent the efcape of the fteam. In order to keep the
thermometer fufpended at the proper height, a clip may
be ufed like that reprefented in fg. 9. which, by the
ferew s, muft be made to embrace the tube tightly, and
may reft on the cover.

Another method, which is rather more convenient, when
the top of the tube of the thermometer is bent into a right
angle, in the manner often praétifed at prefent for the fake
of more conveniently fixing it to the feale, is reprefented in
Jjig-10.: GgFf is a plate of brafs ftanding perpendicu-
larly on the cover, and L/ Nn a piece of brafs bent at the
bottom into the form of a loop, with a notch in it, fo as to
receive the tube of the thermometer, and to fuffer the bent
part to reft on the bottom of the loop; this piece mutt
flide in a flit K £, in the plate L7 Nx, and be tightened at
any height by the fcrew T.

Moreover, it is beft to make the water boil pretty brifkly,
as otherwife the thermometer is apt to be a great while
before it acquires its full heat, efpecially if the veffel is very
deep; and the obferver fhould wait at leaft one or two
minutes after the thermometer appears to be ftationary,
before he concludes that it has acquired its full height.

Another way of adjufting the boiling point is to try it in
a veflel of the fame kind as the former, only with the water
; 12

rifing a little way, wiz. from one to three or four inches
above the ball, taking care that the boiling point fhall rife
very little above the cover. In this method there is no need
to cover the chimney with the tin-plate, and there is lefs
need to make the cover fit clofe, unlefs to prevent the
operator from being incommoded with the fteam. The
height of the barometer in this method is 294 inches.

It will be convenient to have two or three pots of dif-
ferent depths for adjufting thermometers of different
lengths. A third way of adjufting the boiling point is to
wrap feveral folds of linen rags or flannel round the tube of
the thermometer, and to try it in an open veflel, taking care
to pour boiling water on the rags, in order to keep the
quickiilver in the tube as nearly of the heat of boiling water
as poffible. In this method the barometer fhould be at
29.8 inches ; the water fhould boil faft, and the thermometer
fhould be held upright, with its ball two or three inches
under water, and in that part of the veflel where the current
of water afcends.

Whichever of thefe methods of adjuiting the boiling
point is ufed, it is not neceffary to wait till the barometer is
at the proper height, provided the operator will take care
to correét the obferved height according to the following
table.

Height of the Barome-

| Height of the Barome-
| ter when the Boiling | CorreQion |

ter when the Boiling |Corre@ion in
Point is adjufted ac-

| Point is adjufted ac- 15, y990dths < 1000dths of
cording to the of the Interc| cording to the Renter
val between between 32°
Mt or 3d} 2d Me- |32°and212°]) 1ft or 3d} od Me- | and 212°.
| Method. thod. | Method. thod.
| ee \
30.60 | 10} 29.69 | 29.39 | 1)
53 {9 || eee at a
30.71 4r°| 8 47 17 3
50m) 29.107 36}. 06 | 4
48 Tete o Ze 28.95 | 5 fe
37 Gh Sap. 14 84 | 6 f =
25 95 | 4/8 4 93 re ea es
14 } 84 3 28.92 52 8
03 mB | a2 81 511 9
29.91 61 I 70 10
80 50 oJ | 59 sit

In ufing this table, feek the height of the barometer in
the column anfwering to the method of adjufting the boil-
ing point, the correfponding number in the third column
fhews how much the point of 212° mutt be placed above or
below the obferved point: e. gr. fuppofe the boiling point
to be adjufted’in them when the barometer is at 29 inches,
and that the interval between the boiling and freezing points
is 11 inches; the neareft number to 29 in the left-hand
column is 29.03, and the correfponding number in the table
is 7 higher, and therefore the mark of 212° mutt be placed
higher than the obferved point by +~,sths of the interval

Rin Sk

1000

of aninch. This method of correting the boiling point is
not ftriétly juft, unlefs the tube is of an equal bore in all its
parts; but the tube is feldom fo unequal as to caufe any
fenfible error, where the whole correétion is fo {mall. The
trouble of making the correétion will be abridged by a
diagonal fcale, fuch as is reprefented in fig. Io.

Although it is of no great confequence what kind of

water is ufed in adjufting the boiling point, fo that it ae
alt,

between boiling and freezing, 7. e. by 7, or .077

THERMOMETER.

falt, or, if it be hard, that it fhould be kept boiling at leatt
ten minutes before it is ufed; yet the committee recom-
mend, for the adjuftment of thermometers intended for nice
experiments, to employ rain or diftilled water, and to per-
form the operation in fteam.

It is obferved, that though the boiling point be placed fo
much higher on fome of the thermometers now made than
on others, yet this does not produce any confiderable error
in the obfervations of the weather, at leaft in this climate ;
for an error of r£° in the pofition of the boiling point, will
make an error only of half a degree in the pofition of 92°,
and of not more than a quarter of a degree in the point
of 62°.

It is only in nice experiments, or in trying the heat of
hot liquors, that this error in the boiling point can be of
much fignification. i ;

In adjufting the freezing, as well as the pos point, the
quickfilver in the tube ought to be kept of the fame heat as
that in the ball. When the freezing point is placed at a
confiderable diftance from the ball, the pounded ice fhould
be piled to fuch a height above the ball, that the error
which can arife from the quickfilver in the remaining part of
the tube, not being heated equally with that in the ball,
fhall be very {mall, or the obferved point muft be corrected
on that account, according to the following table.

Boi the Corre&tion.
42° -00087
52 -OO174
62 -00261
72 00348
82 +0435

The correétion in this table is expreffed in 1oooth parts
of the diftanee between the freezing point and the furface
of the ice: e.g. if the freezing point ftands feven inches
above the furface of the ice, and the heat of the room is 62°,
the point of 32° fhould be placed 7 x .00261, or .018 of
an inch lower than the obferved point. A diagonal fcale
will facilitate this corre€tion.

The committee obferve, that in trying the heat of liquors,
care fhould be taken that the quickfilver in the tube of the
thermometer be heated to the fame degree as that in the
ball; or if this cannot be done conveniently, the obferved
heat fhould be correéted on that account ; for the manner of
doing which, and a table calculated for this purpofe, we
muft refer to their excellent report in the Phil. Tranf,
vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37.

Several experiments made by governor Hutchins, at
Albany Fort, in Hudfon’s Bay, in 1782, in purfuance of a
method fuggefted by Dr. Black and Mr. Cavendifh, and
for which he obtained fir Godfrey Copley’s medal from the
Royal Society in 1783, have not only confirmed the ob-
fervations before made, relative to the folid ftate into which
quickfilver can be brought by cold, its metalline fplendour
and polifh when f{mooth, its roughnefs and cryftallization
where the furface was unconfined, its malleability, foftnefs,
and dull found when ftruck ; but have alfo clearly demon-
ftrated, that its point of congelation is no lower than — 40°,
or rather — 39°, of Fahrenheit’s feale; that it will bear,
however, to be cooled a few degrees below that point, to
which it jumps up again on beginning to congeal ; and that
its rapid defcent in a thermometer, through many hundred
of degrees, when it has onee paffed the above-mentioned

limit, proceeds merely from its great contraétion in the a&
of freezing. See Phil. Tranf. vol. lxxiii. part ii. -art.
¥20;'205255

THERMOMETERS, Obfervations on the Conflrudion of. t
is abfolutely neceflary that thofe who would derive any ad-
vantage from thefe inftruments, fhould agree in ufing the
fame liquor, and'in determining, according to the fame
method, the two fundamental points. If they agree in thefe
fixed points, it is of no great importance whether they di-
vide the interval between them into a greater or lefs number
of equal parts.. The fcale of Fahrenheit, in which i
damental interval between 212°, the point of boiling water,
and 32°, that of melting ice, is divided into 180 parts,
fhould be retained in the northern countries, where Fahren-
heit’s thermometer is ufed: and the feale, in which the fun-
damental interval is divided into 80 parts, will ferve
thofe countries where the thermometer of M. de Reaumur
is adopted. But no inconvenience is to be apprehended
from varying the feale for particular ufes, provided care be
taken to fignify into what number of parts the fundamental
interval is divided, and the point where o is placed.

With regard to the choice of tubes, it is moft defirable to
have them exa¢tly cylindric through their whole lengthaySee
Mercurial THERMOMETER. : <2

The capillary tubes are preferable to others, becaufe th

require lefs bulbs, and they are alfo lefs brittle, and more

fenfible. Thofe of the moft convenient fize for common:
experiments are {uch as have their internal diameter about
the fourth of a line: and thofe made of thin glafs are better
than others, as the rife and fall of the mercury may be
more diftinétly perceived. The length of nine inches will
ferve for all common occafions ; but for particular purpofes,
the length both of the tubes and of the divifions fhould be
adapted to the ufes for which they are defigned.

In determining the beft fize of the balls or bulbs, it has
been ufual to compare new tubes with fuch thermometers
as are well proportioned. But M. Durand has propofed a —
formula for finding the proportion which the balls ought to
bear to their refpeCtive tubes. With this view he exprefles
the length of the tube, meafured in diameters of itfelf, by a ;
the whole capacity of the ball and tube by ¢; the capacity
of the fundamental interval, expreffed in the fame parts with
the whole capacity, by d; the number of degrees of the
fundamental interval by m; the number of other degrees
which the {cale is to contain, befides thofe of the fundamental
interval both above and below it, by 2; and the diameter of
the ball meafured in diameters of the tube by d: and 6 =

3
cm

— — Ie

2ax For two cylinders having

dxm+n
equal bafes being as their heights, m : 2:: d: a which is
m

the capacity of that part of the tube which exceeds the
fundamental interval, to which adding d, that inter-

val, we have the total capacity of the tube = by + d, or
m

dn+dm

m

Subtra@ting this from c, we fhall have the

dn + dm_cm—dm—dn

capacity of the ball = ¢ — = =

If this quantity be divided by the capacity of the tube,
the quotient will thew how often the capacity of the
ball contains that of the tube; and this quotient is =

cm

\

THERMOMETER.

cm—dm—dn
dm + dn
cylinders having a diameters of the tube, for their re{pective
height, and 1 diameter for the bafe, as are contained in this
laft quotient ; and, therefere, its cylindric folidity ex-
preffed in the cylindric folidities of the tube will be = @ x

. Confequently the ball is equal to as many

em—dm—dn

dm+dn
the bafe of the cylinder in which it may be infcribed, and the fo-
lidity of this cylinder is equal to ‘ds the folidity of the cireum-
{eribing fphere. Confequently the folidity of this cylinder

. But the diameter of this ball is equal to

cm—dmj—dn

dm+ dn
its bafe equal to the diameter of the bail, will be =
cm—dm—dna

Lax —————— or 74x
\ dm+dn dxmt+n1

It is evident that, ceteris paribus, the larger the bulb is, in
proportion to the diameter of the cavity of the tube, or
the narrower the latter is in proportion to the former, the
greater will the motion of the furface of the fluid be in the
tube. But it muft be obferved, that when the bulb is very
large, the thermometer will not eafily arrive at the precife
temperature of any place, wherein it may be fituated.
Some perfons, in order to give the bulb a greater furface,
and of courfe to render it more capable of readily attaining a
given temperature, have made it not globular, but cylin-
drical (which fhape was adopted by Fahrenheit), or flat, or
bell-like, &c.; but thofe fhapes are improper, becaufe they
are liable to be altered by the varying gravity of the atmo-
fphere, confequently thofe thermometers cannot be ac-
curate. The bulb fhould be clean and colourlefs ; fince
coloured furfaces are apt to be partially heated by a ftrong
light. If you take two equal thermometers, and paint the
bulb of one of them black, or of any dark colour, and ex-
pofe them both to the fun; the mercury in that whofe bulb
is painted will rife feveral degrees higher than in the other :
even a ftrong day-light, independently of the direét rays of
the fun, will affe& them differently. The ball of the ther-
mometer fhould not be in contaé with the fubftance of the
{cale, left it fhould be influenced by the temperature of that
fubftance.

When a proper tube and ball are procured, and their pro-
portion afcertained, the next obje€t which requires peculiar
attention is that of filling the thermometer. For this pur-
pofe the tubes fhould be clean and dry, and the mercury
very pure. (See Mercury and Baromerer.) The mer-
cury may be introduced into the tube by means of a kind of
refervoir fixed at the top of it, and proportioned in fize to
the bulk of the ball, or by rolling upon the tube a flip of
fine paper, about two or three inches broad. In order to
clear the tube of its air and moifture, it fhould be held over
a gentle fire, fo difpofed, as that it may heat at once the
whole extent of the tube, till its heat becomes too great for
the operator’s hand to bear, who therefore ufes a glove or
nippers for this purpofe ; care being taken that the ball is
not heated at the fame time. After the inclofed air is thus
rarefied, and the particles that might obftrudt the free motion
of the mercury are made to float in vapours within the bore
ef the tube, the tube is to be held upright, and the ball fud-
denly heated, by which means the air contained in it will be
dilated, and carry off the impurities of the tube, fo that it
os be rendered clean and free from air. When the ball is

eated to a confiderable degree, the mercury may be poured

Vou, XXXV. a ci Ra tls

will be = 32a4x ; and the diameter of

cm

—-—1

into the refervoir fixed at the top of the tube, through a
{mall corner of the paper. When the refervoir is almoft
full, the ball fhould be withdrawn from the fire, and the air
will then be condenfed, and the {pace left by it will be foon
occupied by the mercury: By alternately heating and cool-
ing the ball, it may thus be filled with mercury ; but when
it is nearly full, the mercury contained in it muit be made to
boil, by placing it over burning coals, in order to purge it
of its air. However, as a {mall quantity of air will be left
in the ball after this operation, it will be expedient to re-
move the mercury, which remains in the refervoir, imme-
diately after the thermometer is withdrawn from the frre ;
and thus the whole column, unfupplied with mercury from
the refervoir, will defcend into the ball by the conden{fation
of that which is contained in it, and the tube being empty,
the {mall bubble of air will efcape. Let the tube be again
heated fucceffively through its whole length, commencing
from the bottom, and preferving the heat of the ball, that
the mercury may occupy it entirely, and no air be allowed
to enter. During this operation, when the mercury of the
thermometer begins to appear in the refervoir, let the mer-
cury contained in a paper funnel be poured into it in fuch a
quantity as will more than fill the thermometer, which is
then to be removed from the fire. The mercury of the
tube, and that difcharged from the funnel, will unite, and
pafs together into the thermometer, and thus it will be
wholly filled. In this ftate it may be left for any time at
pleafure, without any apprehenfion of its imbibing either air
or moifture. Nothing now remains but to get rid of the
fuperfluous quickfilver, and to fealthe tube. For this pur-
pofe the thermometer is held in the hand and heated, till a
drop of mercury falls out of it, and is then left to recover
the temperature of the air; by which means there will re-
main at the top of the tube a {mall empty fpace. Then
with a blow-pipe and the flame of a candle, let the end of
the tube be formed into a fine point, of fuch a length as
will admit of its being properly fealed. When this prepa-
ratory procefs is completed, let the thermometer be gradually
plunged into boiling water, fo that the fuperfluous mercury
may iffue from it flowly ; and when it ceafes to be dil-
charged, withdraw the thermometer from the boiling water ;
wipe it dry, and as foon as poffible, put the ball of it over
a {mall fire, covered with afhes, and previoufly prepared for
the purpofe. In this part of the operation, it is neceflary
to be quick, that the mercury may not have time to con-
denfe, and the air enter into the tube. In this ftate the
thermometer may be left to heat, till it parts with more or
fewer drops of the mercury, according to the proportion
which the length of the tube bears to that of the feale ap-
plied to it. ‘The thermometer is then fealed, by melting
only the end’ of the point above mentioned, and at the fame
inftant withdrawing it from the fire.

The method of filling the thermometer with a paper tube,
or funnel, is as follows. Let the ball be heated, fo that
the mercury may rife to the top of the tube ; whilft it ap-
proaches it, apply the tube of paper to the end of the tube,
fo that it may ferve for a referyoir. "The thermometer be-
ing placed near the fire, fo that it may always preferve the
fame degree of dilatation, take fome well purified mercury
in a paper cornet, and communicate a little more heat to
the ball, When the mercury rifes, and forms a {mall drep
at the end, pour the mercury of the cornet into the refer-
voir of paper, and withdraw the ball from the fire. Hav-
ing removed the paper refervoir, place the ball again over
the fire, and feal the point of the tube at the moment
when the mereury rifes tg it, and withdraw the thermometer
from the fire. This operation will be acquired by ufe.

Bul Thermne-

THERMOMETER.

Thermometers that are defired for meafuring great de-
grees of heat, require to be filled with particular precau-
tions, which M. de Luc has minutely defcribed.

When the thermometer is filled and fealed, nothing more
is neceflary than to mark the two fixed points, graduate
the feale, and attach it to a properframe. See de Luc’s
Récherches, &c. yol.i. p. 393, &c.

The frame may be made of any fubftance, or kind of
wood, at pleafure: and the degrees may be marked on
metal or wood, or paper, or ivory, &c.; but fuch fub-
ftances fhould be preferred for the fcales of thermometers
as are not apt to be bent or fhortened, or otherwife altered
by the weather, efpecially if the inftruments are not de-
fended by a glafs cafe, or by a box with a glafs face.
Thermometers for indicating the temperature of the atmo-
fphere need not have feales that are much extended; if
they go as high as 120° it is fufficient. The lower degrees
may be carried down as low as may be neceflary for the cold
of any particular climate. The mercurial thermometer need
not be graduated lower than 40° below o, becaufe at about
that degree mercury ceafes to be fluid. The fpirit ther-
mometer may be graduated lower, if neceflary.

Thermometers ufed for obfervation, muft be fituated in
the open air out of the houfe, and at the diftance of a foot
(at leaft) from the wall, and where the light of the fun may
not fall dire&ly upon them. For chemical purpofes, the
bulbs and part of the tubes of the thermometers fhould
project fome way below the fcales, that they may be dipped
in Itquids, mixtures, &c. For other purpofes, as for bota-
nical obfervations, hot-houfes, brewing manufa¢tories, baths,
&c. the thermometers muft be made longer or fhorter, or
narrower ; and particular dire€tions may be given with re-
gard to the {cales and other appendages.

Great inconvenience has attended the ufe of various kinds
of thermometers with different graduations. Kirwan pro-
yes to lay all thefe afide, and to conftru a general one,

eginning at the congelation of mercury, and terminating at
the boiling of water, and divided into 250°. Mr. Murray of
Edinburgh has fince fuggefted, that it would be convenient
to form a {cale whofe extreme points fhould be the tem-
peratures of freezing and boiling mercury, both which are
now capable of being accurately afcertained, and to divide
this {cale into 1000°.

THERMOMETERS, Experiments with. We thall here in-
fert a table of fome obfervations made with the thermo-
meters of Fahrenheit, Reaumur, fir Ifaac Newton, and
Dr. Hales.

Obfervations by Fahrenheit’s Thermometer.

Deg.
At 600 Mercury boils .
546 Oilof vitriol boils | According to Muf-
242 Spirit of nitre boils ea cabs ARES
240 Lixivium tartari boils Rhiknd pte a
213 Cow’s milk boils ot eae eae
212 Water boils.
206 Freth human urine boils.
190 Brandy boils,
174 Alcohol boils.
176 according to Mufchenbroeck.
156 Serum of blood and white of eggs hardens,
146 Killing heat for animals, in a few minutes.
108 A hen hatching eggs, but {eldom fo hot.
From 107 ] Heat of fkin in ducks, geefe, hens, pigeons,
to le partridges and fwallows,
At 106 Heat of {kin in a common ague and fever.

3

Deg.
From 103 eat of fkin in dogs, cats, fheep, oxen, fwine,
to 100 and other quadrupeds.
wise as Heat of the human fkin in health.
At 97 Heat of a fwarm of bees.

A perch died in three minutes, in water fo
heated.
8 ee of the air in the fhade, in very hot wea-
ther.
74 Butter begins to melt.
6 j Heat of the air in the fhade, in warm wea-
4 ther.
48 Temperate air, in England and Holland.
43 _Oil of olive begins to ftiffen and grow opaque.
Water juft freezing, or fnow and ice juft
3? thawing.
30 ©Milk freezes.
28 Urine and common vinegar freezes.
25 Blood out of the body freezes.
™ { Good Burgundy, ftrong claret, and Madeira
1 freezes.
_ § One part of fpirit of wine mixed with three

fl parts water freezes.
Greateft cold in Pennfylvania in 1731-2,
40° lat. :

4 Greateft cold at Utrecht, in 1728-9. .
A mixture of fnow and falt, which is able to
of freeze oil of tartar per deliquium, but not
brandy. +
— 39 Mercury freezes.

Martine’s Effays, p. 284, &c.
We mutt here obferve, that the heat of a hen hatching
chickens is placed, by this table, at 108° of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer : but it appears from M. Reaumur’s experi-
ments, that eggs will hatch in a heat no greater than that

of the human fkin. See Harcuine.

2. Obfervations by Reaumur’s Thermometer.

97+ Anfwers to the heat of boiling water.
80 Spirit of wine in Reaumur’s thermometer boils.
Agi eos oar height of the air in the fhade, ob-
os ferved at Paris in 1706, 1707, 1724.
eas press heat of the caves. of the obfervatory,
6) at Paris.

° Artificial congelation of water.
143 Lower than {o) greateft. cold at Paris, in
-s

1709.
3. Obfervations by fir Ifuac Newton's Thermometer.
34 Water boils vehemently.

28‘, Heat between water boiling and wax melting.
Heat of water on which floating wax melts.

24,
Heat of water on which floating melted wax
2017 begins, by cooling, to lofe its Auidity and
tran{parency.

1 eee of a bath fupportable to the hand at
reft.

Heat of a bath fupportable to the hand in

ee motion. “t

4°5) The heat of blood juft let out is almoft the
| fame.

Heat of thermometer in conta& with a human

body. 2

The heat of a bird hatching her eggs much

the fame,

m2

THERMOMETER.

ort

{rte of the air in fummer.
[rte of the air in {pring and autumn.

Heat of the air in the winter.

COON HUEY any

Water begins to freeze. i
Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. iv. partit. p. I.

4. Obfervations by Dr. Hales’s Thermometer.

1464 Anfwers to the heat of boiling water.
Heat of water on which floating wax begins
£Q0 to melt.
88 Hiotteft funfhine in 1727.

Scorching heat of a hot-bed of horfe-dung,
35 and alfo the heat of blood in high fevers.
Heat of the blood of animals; whence the
heat of the blood to that of boiling water
is as 14.27 to 33.
Heat of urine.
Due healthy heat of a hot-bed of horfe-dung
" in February, that of the open air being 17°,

64

56 and nearly the bofom heat, and heat for
hatching of eggs.

55 Heat of milk from the cow.

54 External heat of the body. _

50 Common noon heat in the fun in July.

38 Mean heat of the air in the fhade in July.

From

May and June heat ; and the mott genial heat
3° } for moft plants, in which they flourifh and

‘2 grow mott.
aa Autumnal and vernal heat.
to 10
From
free 7108 \ Winter heat.
point
to 10
18 Temperate point. t
31 The moft kindly heat for melon-thiftle.
29 —_—_—__——_—_ ananas or pine-apple.
26 ——— pimento.
24.0 ————-—__-—-——_ euphorbium.
21-0 cereus.
19 aloe.
16; —— —— Indian fig.
14 —— ficoides.
Iz ——

——— aie
eee ere eee yet
o = Frefh water juft freezing.
Hales’s Statical Eff. vol. i. p. 58, &c.
For other fimilar obfervations, fee Freezinc Mixture,
and Heat. F
See on the general fubje&t of thermometers, Martine’s
Effays, Medical and Philofophical, printed at London in
1740, 8vo. Defaguliers’s Exp. Phil. vol. ii. p. 289, &c.
Maufchenbroeck’s Int. ad Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 625, &e.
ed. 1762. De Luc’s Récherches fur les Modifications de
V’Atmofphere, tom. i. part ii. c. 2. Nollet’s Lecons de
Phyfique, tom. iv. p. 375, &c. j
THERMOMETERS for particular Ufes. In 1757, the right
hon. the earl of Cavendifh prefented to the Royal Society
an account of a curious conftruétion of thermometers, of
two different forms; one contrived to fhew the greatef de-

e.

gree of heat, and the other the greeteft cold, that may
happen at any time in a perfon’s sales The firft confifts
of a cylinder of glafs joined to a tube, and differs from the
common fort cay in having the top of the’ ftem drawn
out into a capillary tube, which enters into a glafs ball C
( Plate XVI. Pneumatics, fig. 11.) joined on to the ftem at
the place where it begins to be contra@ted. The cylinder,
and part of the tube, are filled with mercury, the top of
which fhews the common degrees of heat as ufual. The
upper part of the tube above the mercury is filled with
{pirit of wine, and fome of the fame liquor is left in the ball
C, fo as to fill it almoft to the top of the capillary tube.

When the thermometer rifes, the fpirit of wine will be
driven out of the tube, and will fall into the ball C. When
the thermometer finks again, as the f{pirit cannot be returned
back from the ball, the top of the tube will remain empty,
and the length of the empty part will be proportional to the
fall of the thermometer. Confequently, by means of a
proper fcale, the top of the fpirit of wine will thew how
many degrees it has been higher than when obferved, which
being added to the prefent height, will give the greateft de-
gree of heat it has been at. ‘To fit this thermometer for a
new obfervation, it is neceflary to fill the upper part of the
tube with fpirits, by inclining the inftrument till the {pirits
in the ball C cover the end of the capillary tube ; for if the
cylinder is then heated, by applying the hand to it, or by
the flame of a lamp held at fome diftance, till the fpirits rife
to the top of the tube, and run over into the ball C, and is
then fuffered to cool in the fame pofition, the tube will re-
main full of fpirits, and the thermometer will be fitted for a
new experiment.

The feale of degrees at top, which fhews the defcent of
the thermometer from the higheft point it has arrived at,
ought not, in ftri€inefs, to be the fame at all times of the
year ; for thefe degrees exceed the common degrees of heat
pointed out by the top of the mercury, as much as the co-
lumn of fpirit of wine expands, and therefore are greateft
when that column is fo; i.e. when the greateft heat to
which the inftrument has been expofed is leaft. A difference
of 30 degrees of Fahrenheit’s fcale, in the greateft rife of
the thermometer, would require the fcale to be altered one
fixtieth part ; and the error arifing from making ufe of the
fame feale, will be about one-fixth of a degree, if the ther-
mometer is obferved when it has fallen ten degrees.

In the thermometer here defcribed, the bore of the tube
is about 0.027 inches ; and one inch of it contains two grains
of mercury, and anfwers to about ten degrees, the cylinder
containing about 2280 grains. When the feale of degrees
is large, the cylinder muft be of confiderable fize. The
quickfilver in the ball C ferves to fupply the tube, in cafe
any of it fhouid be driven into the ball by the thermometer’s
being expofed to too great a heat.

If the weight of the mercury be thought inconvenient, it
may be avoided by the conftruétion in fig. 12. where the
bottom of the tube is bent fo as to point upwards, and is
joined to a ball A, which communicates with a cylinder
placed above it. It is in all other refpeéts the fame as the
former inftrument. — It is filled with {pirits of wine and mer-
cury ; the quantity of the latter being fufficient to fill the
whole tube and the ball A.

The thermometer for fhewing the greateft degree of cold
that happens in any place during the time the inftrument is
left in it, is reprefented in fg. 13. The tube is bent into
the fhape of a fiphon, of unequal legs, ftanding parallel to
one another ; the top of the fhorter leg is bent to.a right

-angle, and opens into a ball A, which, by means of a fhort

bent tube on the oppofite fide, commpnicates with a cylin-
e sales: der

THERMOMETER.

der ftanding parallel to the legs of the fiphon, and pointing
downwards. "This cylinder contains the greateft part of the
fluid, and is added only to make the thermometer more
fenfible than it would be, if the ball A was made of a fuf-
ficient fize to contain the proper quantity of fluid. This
jafrument is filled with fpirit of wine, with the addition of
as much mercury as is fufficient to fill both legs of the
fiphon, and about a fourth or fifth part of the ball A. The
common degrees of heat are fhewn by the top of the mer-
cury in the longeit leg, or by the top of the fpirit, in cafe
any of it is left above the mercury. When the mercury in
the longeft leg finks by cold, that in the fhorter leg will
rife, and will run over into the ball A ; from whence it can-
not return back when the thermometer rifes again, as the
furface of the mercury in the ball is below the orifice of the
tube x. Therefore the upper part of the fhorter leg will be
filled with a column of fpirits of a length proportional to
the increafe of heat; the bottom of which, by means of a
proper {cale, will fhew how much the thermometer has been
lower than it is; which being fubtraéted from the prefent
height, will give the loweft point that it has been at. In
order to prevent the mercury from falling into the ball A in
large drops, which would affeét the accuracy of the inftru-
ment, the top of the fhorter leg, clofe to the ball, is con-
tracted, by being held in the flame of a lamp, and the paf-
fage farther ftraightened by a folid thread of glafs placed
within the tube, and extending from the bottom of the
fhorter leg to the part near the ball A, where it is moft con-
traéted. By this means, as foon as any fmall portion of mer-
cury is got beyond the thread of glafs, it breaks off, and
falls into the ball in very {mall drops.

In order to fill the fhorter leg with mercury, for a new
experiment, it muft be inclined till the mercury in the ball
covers the orifice of the tube x. The cylinder being then
heated, the mercury will be forced into the fhorter leg, and
will run down the thread of glafs in drops, which will foon
unite. Thus fuch a quantity of mercury muft be got into
the fhorter leg, as, upon the cooling of the inftrument, will
be fufficient to drive all the fpirit of wine into the ball, with
a lefs degree cf cold than what the thermometer is likely to
be expofed to. The ball A muft always have fome mercury
in it, but never enough to fill it up to the orifice of the
tube 2. It will be beft to leave a little of the fpirit above
the mercury in the longeft leg ; in which cafe the top of the
{pirit will thew the common degrees of heat. The feale of
degrees on the fhorter leg will, in different feafons, be liable
to an error fimilar to that which was explained in the firft
mentioned thermometer ; but it will be lefs confiderable, as
the fpace between the two fcales is filled with mercury,
whofe expanfion is about fix times lefs than that of the fpirit
of wine. In the thermometer now defcribed, the bore of the
tube is about 0.054 inches; and one inch of it contains
eight grains of mercury, and anfwers to feven degrees of
Fahrenheit’s {cale. The drops of mercury which Pall into
the ball A, anfwer to about one-eighth of a degree.

Inftruments of this kind, with fome alteration in their
conftru€tion, would ferve for finding the temperature of the
fea at great depths, and alfo for finding that of the air at
confiderable heights. Lord Charles Cavendifh has fhewn
how to adapt them for fuch purpofes. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. I. art. 38. p. 300, &c.

Since the publication of Mr. Canton’s difcovery of the
compreffibility (fee Compression) of fpirits of wine and
other fluids, there are two correétions neceflary to be made
in the refult given by lord Charles Cavendifh’s thermometer.
For in eftimating, c.g. the temperature of the fea at any
depth, the thermometer will appear to have been colder than

6

it really was: and befides, the expanfion of fpirits of wine
by any given number of degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermome-
ter is greater in the higher degrees than in the lower. For
the method of making thefe two correGtions by Mr. Caven-
difh, fee Phipps’s Voyage to the North Pole, p. 145.

Inftruments of this kind, for determining the degree of
heat or cold in the abfence of the obferver, have been in-
vented and defcribed by others. Wan Swinden (Diff. fur la
Comparifon du Therm. p. 253—255.) defcribes one, which,
he fays, was the firft of the kind made on a plan communi-
cated by M. Bernouilli to M. Leibnitz. M. Kraft, he
alfo tells us, made one nearly like it. Mr. Six, in 1782,
propofed another conftru€tion of a thermometer of the fame
kind, which has been well received.

This is properly a fpirit thermometer, though mercury is
employed in it for the purpofe of fupporting a certain in-
dex: ab (fig. 14.) is a tube of thin glafs, about fixteen
inches long, and ,3,ths of an inch in diameter; cdefgh is
a {maller tube, with the inner diameter about -',th, joined
to a larger at the upper end 4, and bent down firft on the
left fide, and then, after defcending two inches below a 4,
upwards again on the right, in the feveral dire€tions ¢ de,
fgh, parallel to, and one inch diftant from it. At the end
of the fame tube at 4, the inner diameter is enlarged to half
an inch from 4 to i, which is two inches in length. This
glafs is filled with highly reétified fpirit of wine to within
half an inch of the end i, excepting that part of the fmall
tube from d to g, which is filled with mercury. From a
view of the inftrument it will be readily conceived, that when
the {pirit in the large tube is expanded by heat, the mercury
in the {mall tube on the left fide will be preffed down, and
caufe that on the right fide to rife: on the contrary, when
the fpirit is condenfed by cold, the reverfe will happen.
Fahrenheit’s fcale, which begins with 0 at the top of the
left fide, has the degrees numbered downwards, while that
at the right fide, beginning with o at the bottom, afcends.
The divifions are aleertainel by placing the thermometer
with a good ftandard mercurial one in water, gradually heat-
ing or cooling, and marking the divifions of the new feale
at every five degrees. The divifions below the freezing point
are taken by means of a mixture of fea-falt and ice, as de-
fcribed by Nollet, De Luc, and others. In order to fhew
how high the mercury has rifen in the obferver’s abfence,
there is placed within the {mall tube of the thermometer,
above the furface of the mercury on either fide, immerfed in
the fpirit of wine, a {mall index, fo fitted as to pafs up and
down as occafion may require. One of thefe indices is re-
prefented in fg. 15; a is a fmall glafs tube, three-quarters
of an inch long, hermetically fealed at each end, inclofin
a piece of fteel wire nearly of the fame length; at each aa
c, d, is fixed a fhort piece of atube of black glafs, of fuch
a diameter as to pafs freely up and down within the {mall
tube of the thermometer. The lower end, floating on the
furface of the mercury, is carried up with it when it rifes,
while the piece at the upper end, being of the fame diame-
ter, keeps the body of the index parallel to the fides of the
thermometrical tube. From the upper end of the body of
the index at c is drawn a {pring of glafs to the finenefs of a
hair, about five-fourths of an inch in length, which being
fet a little oblique, preffes lightly againft the furface of the
tube, and prevents the index from following the mercury
when it defcends, or being moved by the fpirit pafling up
and down, or by any fudden motion given to the inftru-
ment ; but at the fame time the preffure is fo adjuited as to
permit this index to be readily carried up by the furface of
the rifing mercury, and downwards, whenever the inftru-
ment is rectified for obfervation. This index, by not re-

turning

THERMOMETER.

turning with the mercury when it defcends, fhews diftin@ly
and accurately how high the mercury has rifen, and con-
fequently what degree of cold or heat has happened. To
prevent the fpirit from evaporating, the tube at the end 2 is
clofely fealed. The daily retification of this inftrument is
performed, by applying a {mall magnet to that part of the
tube againft which the index refts ; by the a€tion of which
the included piece of fteel wire, and confequently the index,
is eafily brought down to the furface of the mereury. When
this has been done, the inftrument is rectified for the next
day’s obfervation, without heating, cooling, feparating, or
at all difturbing the mercury, or moving the inftrument.
With a thermometer of this fort, Mr. Six obferved the
greateft heat and cold that happened every day and night
throughout the year 1781. But for the more particular de-
feription of this inftrument, the illuftration of it by figures,
and an account of its advantages, the limits of this work
require our referring to Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxii. part 1.
Pp 72, &c. : ‘

A fimilar eff2€ to that produced by Six’s thermometer is
obtained in Rutherford’s arrangement of a pair of thermo-
meters, one with mercury, the other with fpirit of wine,
placed in a horizontal pofition ; one index being without the
furface of the mercury, the other within that of the fpirit :
the thermometers being in contrary directions, both indices
may be brought back to their places, by merely raifing the
end of the inftrument. (See fir. 16.) Self-regiftering ther-
mometers have alfo fometimes been conftructed for keeping a
ftill more accurate account of all the variations of tempera-
ture that have occurred, by defcribing a line on a revolving
barrel, which fhews the height for every inftant during the
whole time of their operation. :

M. de Luc has defcribed the beft method of conftruG-
ing a thermometer, fit for determining the temperature of
the air, in the menfuration of heights by the barometer.
He has alfo fhewn how to divide the fcale of a thermometer,
fo as to adapt it for aftronomical purpofes in the obferva-
tion of refraction. See Récherches, &c. tom. ii, p. 35, &c.
Pp: 265, &e.

Mr. Cavallo, in 1781, propofed the conftruGion of a
thermometrical barometer, which, by means of boiling water,
‘might indicate the various gravity of the atmofphere, or the
height of the barometer. This thermometer, he fays, with
its apparatus, might be packed up into a {mall portable box,
and ferve for determining the heights of mountains, &c. with
greater facility than with the common portable barometer.
The inftrument, in its prefent ftate, confifts of a cylindrical
tin veffel, about two inches in diameter, and five inches high,
in which veffel the water is contained, which may be made
to boil by the flame of a large wax-candle. The thermo-
meter is faftened to the tin veffel in fuch a manner, as that
its bulb may be about one inch above the bottom. The
feale of this thermometer, which is of brafs, exhibits on one
fide of the glafs tube a few degrees of Fahrenheit’s {cale,
viz. from 200° to 216°. On the other fide of the tube are
marked the various barometrical heights, at which the boil-
ing water fhews thofe particular degrees of heat which are
fet down in fir G. Shuckburgh’s table. With this inftru-
ment the barometrical height is fhewn within one-tenth of an
inch. The degrees of this thermometer are fomewhat
longer than one-ninth of an inch, and therefore may be
divided into many parts, efpecially by a Nonius. But the
greateft imperfection of the inftrument arifes from the fmall-
refs of the tin veffel, which does not admit a fufficient
quantity of water; but when the quantity of water is
fufficiently large, e. g. 10 or 12 ounces, and is kept boiling

in a proper veffel, its degree of heat under the fame preflure
of the atmofphere is very fettled; whereas when a thermo-
meter is kept in a fmall quantity of boiling water, the
quickfilver in its flem does not ftand very fteady, fometimes
rifing or falling even half a degree. Mr. Cavallo propofes
a farther improvement of this inftrument in the Phil. Tranf.
vol. lxxi. partil. p. 524.

The ingenious Mr. Wedgwood, fo well known for his
various improvements in the different forts of pottery-ware,
has contrived to make a thermometer for meafuring the
higher degrees of heat, by means of a diftinguifhing property
of argillaceous bodies, vz. the diminution of their bulk by
fire. This diminutiom commences in a low red heat, and
proceeds regularly, as the heat increafes, till ‘the clay be-
comes vitrified. ‘The total contraétion of fome good clays
which he has examined in the ftrongeft of his own fires, is
confiderably more than one-fourth part in every dimenfion.
If, therefore, we can procure at all times a clay fufficiently
apyrous or unvitrefcible, and always of the fame quality in
regard to contra¢tion by heat ; and if we can find means of
meafuring this contraction with eafe and accuracy, we thall
be furnifhed with a meafure of fire fufficient for every pur-
pofe of experiment or bufinefs. Some of the pureft Cornzfh
porcelain clays (which, by the analyfis of Mr. Wedgwood,
appear to contain no calcareous earth nor gypfeous matter,
but to confift of pure argillaceous or alum earth, and
another indiffoluble earth, which he apprehends to be of the
filiceous kind, in the’ proportion of three parts of the former
to two parts of the latter) feem the beft adapted, both for
fupporting the intenfity, and meafuring the degrees of fire.
This material is prepared for ufe by wafhing it over, and
whil{t in a diluted ftate pafling it through a fine lawn: it is
then dried and put vp in boxes. The dry clay is to’ be
foftened for ufe with about two-fifths its weight of water ;
and formed into {mall pieces, in little moulds of metal, ,%,ths
of an inch broad, with the fides exa@ly parallel; about
ths of an inch deep, and an inch long. ‘The moulds are
to be oiled and warmed. Thefe pieces, when perfeétly dry,
are put into another iron mould or gage, confilting only of
a bottom, with two fides, .*,ths of an inch deep, to the
dimenfions of which fides the breadth of the pieces is to be
pared down. For meafuring the diminution which they are
to fuffer from the ation of fire, another gage is made of two
pieces of brafs, twenty-four inches long, with the fides
exactly ftraight, divided into inches and tenths, fixed five-
tenths of an inch afunder at one end, and three-tenths at the
other, upon a brafs plate; fo that one of the thermometric
pieces, when pared down in the iron gage, will juft fit to the
wider end. If this piece be fuppofed to have diminifhed in
the fire one-fifth of its bulk, it will then pafs on to half the
length of thé gage ; if diminifhed two-fifths, it will go on
to the narroweit end: and in any intermediate degree of
contraction, if the piece be flid along till it refts againft the
converging fides, the degree at which it ftops will be the
meafure of its contraétion, and confequently of the degree
of heat it has undergone. The thermometric pieces may
ve formed much more expeditioufly than in the fingle mould
by means of an inftrument, confifting of a cylindrical iron
veffel, with holes in the bottom, of the form and dimenfions
required.—The foft clay, put in the veifel, is forced by a
prefs down through thefe apertures, in long rods, which
may be cut while moift, or broken when dry, into pieces of
convenient lengths. After which, recourfe fhould be had
to the paring gage for afcertaining and adjufting their breadth
when perfeétly dry.

Each divifion of the feale, though fo’ large as a tenth of

an

THERMOMETER.

an inch, anfwers to 745th part of the breadth of the little
piece of clay. When one gage is accurately adjufted to
the proportional meafures above ftated, two pieces of brafs
fhould be made, one fitting exa¢tly into one end, and the
other into the other; which will ferve as ftandards for the
ready adjuftment of other gages to the dimenfions of the
original, and thus we may be affured, that thermometers on
this principle, though made by different perfons, and in
different countries, will all be equally affeéted by equal
degrees of heat, and all fpeak the fame language. The
AE commences at a red heat fully vifible in day light ;
and the greateft heat which Mr. Wedgwood has hitherto
obtained in his experiments, is 160°. Swedifh copper has
been found to melt at 27°, filver at 28°, and gold at 32°,
of this thermometer. Brafs is in fufion at 21°: the
welding heat of iron is from go° to 95°, and the greateft
heat that could be produced in a common {mith’s forge,
125°. Caft iron melted at 130°; and the heat by which
iron is run down among the fuel for cafting is 150°. A
Heffian crucible melted into a flag-like fubftance at about
150°. The fonding heat of glafs furnaces, or that by which
the perfeét vitrifications of the materials is produced, was
at one of them 114° for flint-glafs, and 124° for plate-glafs.
Delft-ware is fired by a heat of 40° or 41°; Queen’s-ware
by 86°; and ftone-ware by 102°, which degree of heat
changes it to a true porcelain texture. The thermometer
pieces begin to acquire a porcelain texture at about 110%.
A piece of an Etrufcan vafe melted completely at 33°;
pieces of other vafe and Roman ware about 36°; Worceiter
china vitrified at 94°; Mr. Sprimont’s Chelfea china at
105°; the Derby at 112°; the Bow at 121°; but Briftol
china fhewed no appearance of vitrification at 135°. The
common fort of Chinefe porcelain does not perfectly vitrify
by any fire which Mr. Wedgwood could produce: but
began to foften about 120°, and at 156° became fo foft as
to fink down and apply itfelf clofe upon an irregular furface
underneath. ‘The true ftone Nankeen does not foften in
the leaft, by this ftrong heat ; nor even acquire a porcelain
texture. The Drefden porcelain is more refractory than
the common Chinefe, but not equally fo with the ftone
Nankeen. The cream-coloured or Queen’s-ware bears the
fame heat as the Drefden. Mr. Pott fays, that to melt a
mixture of chalk and clay in certain proportions, which
appear from his tables to be equal parts, is ‘“‘ among the
mafter-pieces of art.’’? This mixture melts into a perfect
glafs at 123° of this thermometer. For other curious par-
ticulars, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. lxxii. part 11. p. 305, &c.

This thermometer, fays Dr. Young, (ieee. on Nat.
Philof. vol. i. 648.) may be extremely ufeful for identifying
the degree of heat which is required for a particular pur-
pofe; but for the comparifon of temperatures by an ex-
tenfion of the numerical {cale, we have not fufficient evidence
of its accuracy to allow us to depend on its indications; and
it is fcarcely credible, that the operation of furnaces of any
kind, can produce a heat of fo many thoufand degrees of a
natural fcale, as Mr. Wedgwood’s experiments have led him
to fuppofe ; nor is the fuppofition confiftent with the ob-
fervations of other philofophers.

Tuermometer, Differential, a curious fort of thermo-
meter invented by proteffor Leflie, which expreffes not the
abfolute degree of heat, but the difference, when any exifts,
between the temperatures of the two {pots where its two
bulbs are placed. The method of conftruéting it is as
follows. (See Plate XVI. Pneumatics, fig. 17-) Sele two
thermometer tubes with bores rather wider than ufual, and
one a little wider than the other. Let the balls be blown

as equal as the eye can judge, and from .4. to .7 of an inch
in diameter, and let the open end of the tube alfo be widened
in a flight degree. . The tubes muft be of unequal length,
the longeft being nearly twice the length of the other. Then
introduce into the longer tube a little fulphuric acid tinged
with carmine, fufficient to fill about an inch of its cavity ;
join the two tubes together by the blow-pipe, and when
joined, bend them in the form of the letter U, with the
bulbs about three or four inches afunder, making one
flexure juft below the junGture of the two tubes, where the
{mall cavity (which is reprefented in the plate) facilitates
the adjuftment of the inftrument, which by a little dexterity
is performed by forcing a few globules of air by the heat
of the hand from one bulb to the other. Attach a gra-
duated fcale to the fhorter tube, making the zero about the
middle of it, and adjuft to it the quantity of air in each bulb,
fo that when the bulbs are at the fame temperature, the
upper furface of the coloured liquor may juft correfpond
with the zero. Sulphuric acid is chofen as the liquor in-
terpofed between the bulb, on account of its bearing any
heat or cold that would be ufed without being evaporated ,
or congealed. :

In this inftrument the air inclofed in the bulbs is the fub-
ftance, which, by its expanfion or contra¢tion, caufes the
motion of the coloured liquor up or down the fcale, and as
gafes are much more expanfible than liquids, the inftrument
is fooner affeted by minute changes of heat. But as the
two bulbs are of equal fize, and both filled with air, and
feparated from each other by the intervening liquor, it is
obvious that when the temperature is the fame in each bulb,
be it high or low, the preflure on each fide of the liquor is
alfo equal, and it muft remain ftationary : fo that it can only
move when one bulb is warmer than the other. Hence the
particular and fole ufe of this inftrument as a differential
thermometer. ‘The lower part of the inftrument (or the
{pace included between the two bends) is cemented to an
upright ftem, by which it is fupported.

This inftrument has been employed by the inventor in a
variety of curious experiments on caloric, or the matter of
heat. The peculiar advantage which this inftrument pof-
feffes is, that, befides its extreme fenfibility, in ufing it the
common temperature of the furrounding air may, in gene-
ral, be difregarded ; this being always the zero of the fale,
whatever be the aétual variation of heat in the furrounding
atmofphere ; and hence a much greater degree of fimplicity
is introduced into the delicate refearches on this fubjeét. For
the refleGion of heat mirrors were employed, generally of
block-tin, highly polifhed, and hammered to fit a wooden
gage, the fegment of a parabolic curve, by which much of
the difperfion produced by a fimple concave form was
avoided ; fo that when expofed to the dire& rays of the
fun, they colleted them into a pretty diftin& focus, of
about half an inch in diameter. The fubftance employed to
generate the radiant heat was a hollow cubic tin canifter,
placed diretly in front of the mirror of its focal point,
and when ufed, filled with boiling water, and fitted with a
common thermometer, pafling through a hole in the cover, .
and immerfed in the water. The cubical form of the ca-
nifter allowed of four fides, of perfe&tly equal dimenfions,
each of which, when turned to the mirror, afforded a
heated furface for the tranfmiffion of radiant caloric, and
they were occafionally coated with various fubftances to
afcertain the effeé& of colour, polith, and the like, in re-
tarding or promoting the radiation of the heat within.
With this apparatus, and his differential thermometer,
Mr. Leflie performed a variety of interefting ia ey

or

THERMOMETER.’

for the general refults of which we refer to the article
Hear; and for a more minute detail to Leflie’s ‘ In-
quiry into the Nature of Heat ;’? and for an extenfive
abftraét, to an elaborate article on Caloric in Aikin’s Dic-
tionary. See alfo our articles Catoric, Rapiant Rays,
&c. &e.

TaerMometeR, Balance, an inftrument invented by Mr.
James Kewley, of the Ifle of Man, and for which he ob-
tained a patent for Scotland, dated Nov. 4, 1816; for Eng-
land, dated Nov. 21, 18163; and for Ireland, dated Jan. 4,
18197. This inftrument (befides anfwering the purpofe of
afcertaining the temperature) is ufed as a firft moving power
for putting machinery into motion, for the purpofe of regu-
lating the temperature, by opening or clofing the flues,
windows, or doors of the apartment in which it is placed.
This invention muft therefore be of great importance to the
horticulturift ; as by it the artificial climate of hot-houfes,
confervatories, hot-beds, &c. can be accurately regulated,
without the leaft attention from the gardener, farther
than occafionally to wind up the machine to which it is
attached.

In Plate XVI. Pneumatics, fig. 18.is a perfpeCtive reprefent-
ation of Kewley’s balance thermometer. A is a glafs tube,
with its bulbs ¢ and d hermetically fealed at e, and having a
very fine aperture at f, for the admiffion of the preffure of
the atmofphere upon the furface of the quickfilver con-
tained in the bulb d: gis a milled-headed nut, let into a
mortife in the frame 4, having a female {crew in its centre,
through which the fcrewi is madeto pafs. This nut ferves to

elevate or deprefs the tube with the two clamptng-pieces
(between which it is fcrewed faft) in the frame 4, for the
purpofe of adjufting the initrument to its proper centre of
gravity: £ is a milled nut, having a pinion on its arbor, and
ferves the purpofe of moving the fcale / to the right or left,
as may be required : m and n are the knife-edged centres, on
which the inftrument {wings in any ornamental frame that the
poffeffor may choofe. When the inftrument is at the mean
temperature of its range, the bulbs ¢ and d ought to be
each about half full, and the fmall tube communicating
with the bulbs quite full of quickfilver ; and the large tube,
and half of the bulb c, full of alcohol. Now it is evident,
that when the alcohol in the large tube expands by an in-
creafe of temperature, it muft prefs upon the furface of the
quickfilver in the bulb c, and force a quantity of quick-
filver, equal to its expanfion, into the bulb d: the centre of
gravity of the inftrument will thereby be altered, and it will
turn upon its centres, like the beam of a pair of {cales ;
therefore, when the temperature is defired to be known, the
{cale is to be moved by turning the nut 4, in order to bring
the inftrument to a balance; when that is done, the degree
is read off at o. When this inftrument is ufed as a firft
moving power, to reculate the temperature of hot-houfes,
&c. it has a lever or wheel attached to one of its centres,
which communicating with machinery, puts it in motion
when the temperature is either higher or lower than the
degree defired, which motion opens or clofes the windows,
flues, &c. as may be neceflary, until the degree of tempe-
rature to which the inftrument is at be produced.

CoMPARISONS OF DIFFERENT THERMOMETERS.

T ase for Reaumur’s Thermometer.

Fahr.
146.75
Se)
142.25
140.
137-75
nb)
n33 25
131.
128.75
126.5
124.25
122.
119.75
117.5
115.25
113.
110.75
108.5
106.25
104.
101.75
99-5
97-25
95+
92-75
90-5
88.25
86.

Cent.
63-75
62.5
61.25
60

58.75

Cent.
Ioo.
98.75

Reau, Cent.
23 2 6.25
22
21
20
i9
18
17
16

THERMOMETER.

Tape for Fahrenheit’s Thermometer.

OO OA AMFWHK OK BWHY HAA WO

88
44
00

Owe
BI ARM

BEE

THE

Taste for the Centigrade Thermometer.

a5
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THERMOPOL{AUM, formed of 3:py0:, hot, and wwrsw,
I fell, a name for a fort of public houfes among the ancients,
in which hot liquors were fold, in the manner of our coffce-
houfes.

THERMOPSIS, in Botany, from O:eucc, a Lupine, and
olic, appearance or a/ped, indicating a general refemblance to
that genus of plants.—Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 3.
—Clafs and ordet, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Papilio-
nacee, Linn. Leguminofz, Jufl.

Eff. Ch. Calyx oblong, five-cleft half way down, two-
lipped ; convex behind ; tapering at the bafe. Corolla pa-
pilionaceous ; petals nearly of equal length ; flandard re-
flexed at the fides, keel obtufe. Stamens permanent. Le-
gume compreffed, linear, with many feeds, Br.

t. Th. lanceolata. Sharp-leaved Thermoplis. Ait. n. 1.
( Podalyria lupinoides ; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 504. Sophora
lupinoides; Linn. Sp, Pl. 534. ‘ Pallas Aftrag. rig.
t. 89.”’)—Leaflets oblong-lanceolate. Stipulas lanceolate,
twice as long as the footftaiks | Flowers whorled.—Native
of Siberia ; from whence the late duke of Northumberland
is faid to have received it in 1776. This is a hardy peren-
nial herbaceous plant, flowering in June and: July. The /fems
are {preading or decumbent, about a foot long, branched in
an alternate manner, round, hairy, leafy. L-aves ternate,
light green, hairy, on fhort ftalks ; their /caflets about an

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inch long. Svipulas half as large, or more. Flowers ftalked,
about three in each whorl, yellow, much refembling thofe
of a Lupine. Calyx hairy.

By Mr. Brown’s fpecific charafter, we prefume there are
more f{pecies of this genus, though not in our garda, of
which he will one day give an account. For the foundnefs
of the generic diftinctions, we rely en him. ‘The compreffed
legume nee the moft important difference between Thermop-
fis and the Baprifia of Ventenat and Brown; fee Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 53 alfo our articles SopHora and Popa-
LYRIA.

THERMOPYLA, in Ancient Geography, a ftrait or
pats, rendered famous by the valour of Leonidas and his
companions, who defended it againft the army of Xerxes
in the year 480 B.C; and which, long after that celebrated
event, was defended againft the Gauls. ‘This pafs is the
only road by which an army can penetrate from Theffaly
into Locris, Phocis, Bootiz, Attica, and the adjacent
countries. The following fucciné& defcription is given of
this ftrait by the abbé Barthelemy, in his “ Anacharfis.”? On
quitting Phocis to go into Theflaly, having paffed the little
country of the:Locrians, we arrive, fays the abbé, at the
town of Alpenus, fituated by the fea. As it ftands at the
entrance of the ftrait, it has been fortified. The road at
firft is only wide enough for the paffage of a waggon; but

3U it

THE

it afterwards enlarges itfelf between morafles formed by the
waters of the fea and almoft inacceffible rocks, which termi-
nate the chain of mountains known by the name of Oeta.
After leaving Alpenus, a ftone is difcovered on the left,
confecrated to Hercules Melanpygus, and a path prefents
itfelf that leads to the fummit of the mountain. Farther
on, the traveller croffes a current of hot water, which gives
this place its name of Thermopyle. Next to this ftream is
the town of Anthela; and in the plain which furrounds it
are a {mall eminence and a temple of Ceres, in which the
Amphiétyons annually held one of their affemblies. On
coming out of the plain there is a road, or rather caufeway,
only about feven or eight feet wide. Here the Phocians
had formerly built a wall, to protect their country from the
inroads of the Theffalians. After paffing the Phenix, which
at laft falls into the Afopus, a river that rifes in an adjacent
valley, we come to the laft defile, half a plethrum (15 or 16
yards) in breadth. The road then widens as far as Trachinia,
which takes its name from the city of Trachis, that was
mhabited by the Malians. This country prefents to the
view of the traveller extenfive plains watered by the Sper-
chius and other rivers. To the E. of Trachis ftood the city of
Heraclea, which did not exift in the time of Kerxes. The
whole ftrait, from the defile before we arrive at Alpenus to
that which is beyond the Pheenix, may be about 48 ftadia
(about 2 leagues) in length. Its breadth varies almoft at
every ftep; but through its whole extent it is fhut in on one
fide by fteep mountains, and on the other by the fea, or im-
penetrable moraffes. The road is often deftroyed by the
torrents, or by ftagnant waters. Leonidas pofted his little
army near Anthela, rebuilt the wall of the Phocians, and
difpatched a few advanced troops to defend the approaches.
But it was not fufficient to guard the paffage at the foot of
the mountain ; on the mountain itfelf there was a path, which,
beginning at the plain of Trachis, terminated, after various
windings, near the town of Alpenus. Leonidas entrufted
the defence of this path to the thoufand Phocians he had
with him, and who took poft on the heights of mount Oeta.
As foon as thefe arrangements were completed, the army of
Xerxes was difcovered, {preading itfelf over Trachinia, and
covering the plain with its innumerable tents. ‘The Greeks
deliberated on the meafures proper to be adopted; moft of
the saree were for retiring to the ifthmus ; but Leonidas
rejected this counfel. A Perfian horfeman was deputed to
reconnoitre the advanced poft of the Greeks, which was
compofed of Spartans; and as the reft*of the army was
concggied from him by the wall, he only gave an account to
Xerxes of the 300 men he had feen at fre entrance of the
defile. After various meflages from Xerxes to Leonidas,
and the firm and calm replies of the latter, the Perfian king
was enraged, and gave orders for an attack. The Medes
rufhed on with fury, and one rank fell after another, while
the Greeks, preffing clofe againft each other, and covered
with large bucklers, prefented an impenetrable front of long
pikes, and a phalanx which frefh troops fucceflively in vain
attempted to break. - At length the Medes were feized with
a panic, and fled ; but they were fpeedily relieved by the
chofen body of the 10,000 immortals, commanded by Hy-
darnes. The a€tion now became more bloody; but the
Greeks had the advantage of fituation, and fuperiority of
arms. The Perfians loft many men; and Xerxes, witneff-
ing their flight, leaped, as it is faid, more than once from
his chariot, and trembled for their fate. Next day the attack
was renewed, but with fo little fuccefs, that Xerxes def-
paired of forcing the paflage. At length Epialtes, an in-
habitant of thofe diftriéts, difcovered to him the fatal path
by which he might turn the Grecians ; and ferved as a guide
10

THE

to Hydarnes and his corps of immortals, under whofe con-
dué they arrived near the fpot where Leonidas had pofted a
detachment of his‘army ; and prepared to attack it. When
this dreadful news reached the Greeks, their leaders affem-
bled. Some were for retreating, and others for remaining ;
but Leonidas declared for himfelf and his companions, that
they were not permitted to quit a poft which Sparta had
confided to their care. In the middle of the night, the
Greeks, with Leonidas at their head, iffued out of the de-
file, advanced through the plain, overthrew the advanced pofts,
and penetrated to the tent of Xerxes, who had already taken
flight. They fpread over the camp, and glutted themfelves
with carnage. The Perfians were terrified and confufed, and
many of them perifhed by the hands of one another. At
length, with the dawn of day they difcovered the inconfi-
derable number of their victors, and rallying, attacked the
Greeks on all fides. Leonidas fell beneath a fhower of
darts; and a conteft for the honour of carrying off his
body, occafioned a terrible confli& between his companions
and the moft expert and hardy warriors of the Perfian army.
The Greeks, however, prevailed, and carried off their ge-
neral ; and having regained the defile, pofted themfelves on
an eminence, and for fome time continued to defend them-
felves. When Xerxes -offered to Leonidas the empire of
Greece, if he fubmitted to his power, he replied, “ I
rather choofe to die free than to enflave my country.” When
the king commanded him to furrender his arms, he wrote
the laconic anfwer, ‘¢ come and take them.”’ ** The Perfians
are near us,’”’ faid one of his foldiers to Leonidas: ‘ rather
fay,’’ he coolly replied, ‘‘ that we are near the Perfians.’?
See Leonmpas.

It has been a fubje& of difpute what was the number of
Grecian troops under the command of Leonidas at Ther-
mopyle. Herodotus ftates them at 5100, Paufanias at
11,200, and Diodorus at 7400. The abbé Barthelemy at-
tempts to reconcile thefe different ftatements, and concludes,
upon the whole, that Leonidas had with him about 7000. men.
If we may credit Diodorus, he had no more than 500 fol-
diers when he determined to attack the Perfian camp.

On the eminence to which the companions of Leonidas
retired after the death of their commander, there were fe-
veral monuments erected by order of the Amphyétionic
council, in honour of the 300 Spartans, and the other Gre-
cian troops engaged in the combat. On one of thefe cippi
is infcribed, * ere four thoufand Greeks of Peloponnefus
fought againft three millions of Perfians.”’

THE MOSCOPE, an inftrument fhewing the changes
happening in the air with refpeét to heat and cold.

The word thermofcope is generally ufed indifferently with
that of thermometer. ‘There is fome difference, however,
in the literal import of the two; the firft fignifying an in-
ftrument that fhews or exhibits the changes of heat, &e. to
the eye; formed from Sepuun, heat, and oxorew, video, I fee;
and the latter an inftrument that meafures thofe changes,
from Sepun, heat, and pele, #0 meafure, on which foundation
the thermometer fhould be a more accurate thermofcope, &c.
This difference the excellent Wolfius taking hold of, deferibes
all the thermometers in ufe as thermofcopes ; fhewing that
none of them properly meafure the changes of heat, &c.
none of them do more than indicate the fame. Though their
different heights yelterday and to-day fhew a difference of
heat ; yet, fince they do not difcover the ratio of yefterday’s
heat to to-day’s, they are not ftriftly thermometers.

THERONDELS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the’department of the Aveiron; 3 miles N.E. of Mur.

THEROUANNE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Straits of Calais, on the Lys. It was ae

the

THE

the capital of the Morini, and afterwards an epifcopal fee,
with feveral churches and convents ; but being taken in the
year 1553 by the emperor Charles V., he demolifhed it.
The diftri& belonging to it, however, was ceded by Spain
to France, at the treaties of the years 1559 and 1659; 6
miles S. of St. Omer.

THERSA, or Tuapsa, in Ancient Geography, a royal
town of Judea, in the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on this fide
of Jordan. Therfa was the feat, capital, and burying-place
of the firft kings of Ifrael.

Tuersa, or Thirza, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of
Ephraim. hae?

THERSARA, a town of Afia, in the interior of Af-
fyria. Ptolemy.

THERSITA, a people of Spain, in Iberia; they were
_ of the number of thofe whom Annibal caufed to pafs into

— :
HERUINGI, a people who inhabited a part of Dacia,
on the other fide of the Danube.

THESBON, a town of Paleftine, on the other fide of
Jordan, in the tribe of Gad.

THESEA, or Tues#A, Orcas, in Antiquity, feafts cele-
brated by the Athenians in honour of Thefeus.

In {pite of the important fervices that hero had done his
country, in delivering it from a fhameful tribute of fo many
youths, of either fex, fent yearly to be devoured by the Mi-
notaur in Crete (as the fable has it), or fent as flaves to
Minos, king of Crete, as the hiftories have it, from which he
ffeed them, by overturning Taurus, Minos’s general ; he
was banifhed for fome time, and retired to Scyros, under the
protection of Lycomedes, king of that ifland, where he finally
loft his hfe either by accident, or in confequence of the
jealoufy of the king.

The gods, it is faid, revenged this treatment Thefeus
received from the Athenians, by affli€ting them with a fa-
mine, which the oracle affured them fhould not ceafe till they
had avenged his death. Upon this they flew Lycomedes,
brought Thefeus’s bones to Athens, placed them ina temple
ere&ted to him, and appointed Thefea to be held every eighth
day of each month, in which largefles were diitributed to the
people, and the day was fpent, by the rich, in feafting and
rejoicing, and with peculiar folemnity on the eighth day of
the month Pyanepfion.

Plutarch, however, gives a different account of the origin
of this feaft ; he fays that the Athenians, imagining they faw
Thefeus at the battle of Marathon under the form of a tute-
lary deity, confulted the oracle on this prodigy : and being
ordered to colleét his bones in the ifland of Scyros, removed
them with great pomp to Athens ; and depofited them under
a magnificent monument ereéted in the middle of the city,
which became afterwards an afylum for flaves, in comme-
moration of the fuccour afforded by this prince to the unfor-
tunate during his life. They alfo ereGted a temple where they
offered facrifices, &c. At Rome, Thefeus was held in very
different eftimation, for Virgil (En. lib, wb) places him in
Tartarus, among thofe who were tormented for their crimes.

THESEUS, in Biography, a hero celebrated in the fabu-
lous ages of Greece, and referred by chronologers to the
thirteenth century B.C. was the illegitimate fon of Egeus,
king of Athens, by A&thra, daughter of Pittheus, king of
Treezern ; and as he adyanced towards maturity difcovered a
vigorous fpirit in an athletic frame. In his journey to
Athens by land he met with many adventures and conflicts,
and on his arrival found the city agitated by diffenfions.
The fons of Pallas, the brother of /Zgeus, fufpeéting that
the aged and childlefs fovereign would adopt this newly
arrived ftranger for his heir, fomented his jealoufies, fo that

THE

/Egeus prepared poifon for difpatching him; but before his
plan could be accomplithed, he difcovered by certain tokens
that he was his fon. ‘The confequence of this difcovery was
a revolt of the Pallantides, which Thefeus fuppreffed.

For an account of the further exploits of Thefeus for the
relief of the Athenians, we refer to our article Hiftory of
Aruens. Thefeus having, in the manner there related, eita-
blihed a conftitution for the Athenians, yielded to the im-
pulfe of ambition ; and quitting his throne, and fometimes in
the company of Hercules and fometimes of Pirithous, fon of
Ixion, king of Theffaly, whofe friendfhip he had fecured,
undertook a variety of enterprizes, the account of which is fo
intermixed with the fabulous, that it is impoffible fatisfac-
torily to develope it. He is faid, however, to have con-
quered certain Amazons on the banks of the Thermodon,
in Afia, taking a queen from among them for his wife ; to
have affifted Pirithous in overcommg the Centaurs in Thef-
faly ; and to have ftolen away from Sparta the celebrated
Helen ; and afterwards to have joined the fame friend in a
fimilar attempt upon Proferpina, the daughter of Aido-
neus, king of the Moloffians, in which Pirithous loft his
life, and Thefeus underwent an imprifonment, from which
Hercules procured his efcape. Upon his return from this
romantic expedition, he found his kingdom and family in
confufion. Caftor and Pollux, the brothers of Helen, ra-
vaged Attica by way of revenge for the infult offered to
their fifter. His queen Phedra, falling in love with Hip-
polytus, his fon by the Amazon, and being rejected, calum-
niated him to his father, and occafioned his death, as his
tragedy has recorded. From a variety of circumftanees that
occurred, Thefeus finding that he had loft the attachment
of the Athenians, abandoned the city, and intended to repair
to Demetrius, fon of Minos, now reigning in Crete. In his
paflage thither he was driven by a ftorm to the ifle of Scy-
ros, where he was kindly received by the king, Lyco-
medes ; but foon afterwards he loft his life by a fall from a
rock. (See Tuesea.) The refentment of the Athenians
afterwards fubfided, and they regarded him only as a hero
and benefactor ; and Cimon, fon of Miltiades, having con-
veyed his bones, as they were fuppofed to be, to Athens,
in confequence of the injunétions of an oracle, a magnificent
temple was erected over them, which was made an afylum for
the unfortunate. Its remains ftill fubfift as one of the nobleft
relics of ancient art in that famous capital. Plut. in Vit.
Thefei. Anc. Univ. Hift. Travels of Anacharfis, vol. i.

THESIN.—Per Anjin and Thefin. See Per Arfn.

THESIS, S:oi:, pofition, formed from 1$nys, 7 put or lay
down, in the Schools, a general propofition, which a perfon
advances, and offers to maintain.

In the college it is frequent to have placards, containing
a number of thefe thefes in theology, in medicine, in philo-
fophy, inlaw, &c. The maintaining a thefis, isa great part
of the exercife a ftudent is to undergo for a degree.

Tuesis, in Logic, &c.—Every propofition may be divided
into thefis and hypothefis; thefis contains the thing af-
firmed or denied, and hypothefis the conditions of the affirm-
ation or negation,

Thus, in Euclid, if a triangle and parallelogram have
equal bafes and altitudes (is the hypothefis), the firft is half
of the fecond (the thefis),

Arfis and Thefis. See Arsis.

Tuesis, S:cic, depofitio or remiffio, the beating down the
hand or foot at the beginning of a bar inmufic. See ARrsis,
tollo, which is the lifting up the hand or foot in the middle
or latter part of a bar.

THESIUM, in Botany, an ancient name, adopted from
the Greeks, enumerated by Linnzus, Phil. Bot, 174, among

3°Ui.2 thofe

THESIUM.

thofe whofe derivation is extremely difficult, and, after all,
doubtful. Pliny has the Thefium in two places ; book 21.
chap. 17, and book 22. chap.22. In the former,’ it is
mentioned amongft bulbous plants, as having a harth
taite: in the latter, it ftands next to Pieris, as very bitter,
and purgative. This laft account 1s copied from Theo-
phraftus, who, in his book 7. chap. 11, fpeaks of Sncioy in
the fame terms, along with a number of plants of the Sow-
thiftle and Dandelion tribe, or Ciehoraceaz. To thefe indeed
fome of the Arum family are fubjoined, and Thefium is placed
at the end. All we can hence gather is, that the plant in
queftion may poflibly be fome plant of the Syngenefia Poly-
gamia-equalis, of the feé&tion femiflofculofe, whofe root is
tuberous. Of this defcription there are feveral natives of
Greece; fee ScorzonEeRA, n. 12 and 13. Ambrofini derives
the word from 6n:, a fervant, or rather a poor trade/man, be-
caufe, as he thinks, of its being ferviceable in many refpects,
both for food and medicine. Poffibly Linneus, who fre-
quently confulted this author, may hence have been led to
apply the name of Thefium to the prefent genus, totally dif-
ferent indeed from all that is recorded of the Greek 6xci0v, but
remarkable for its mean habit and hardy texture.—Linn.
Gen. 114. Schreb. 160. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1211. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 269. Prodr. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 1.164. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.63. Purfh 177.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 352. Juff. 75. Lamarck
Tiluftr. t. 142. Gaertn. t. 86.—Clafs and order, Pentandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Veprecule, Linn. Eleagni, Jufl. San-
talacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular,
in four or five ereét fegments, intetnally coloured and hairy,
permanent. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments equal in number
to the fegments of the calyx, but not fo long, inferted into
their bafe, awl-fhaped; anthers roundifh, of two lobes.
Pift. Germen inferior, roundifh, confluent with the bafe of
the calyx ; ,ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ;
ftigma tumid, cloven. Peric. none. Seed. Nut oval, an-
gular, coated, crowned with the permanent involute calyx,
of one cell, with a folitary kernel.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, of one leaf, bearing the fta-
mens. Corolla none. Nut folitary, coated, crowned with
the calyx.

Obf. Our learned friend Mr. Brown propofes to feparate
the Cape f{pecies of this genus from the reit, perhaps even
into two diftin& genera; but as we cannot find fufficient
grounds for this meafure, we fhall admit the whole here, at
leaft till we can obtain fuller information. 7. Colpoon, Linn.
Suppl. 161. Willd. n. 18, is of courfe excluded, having a
Drupa, and a very different habit. This is defcribed, by
fome one of our coadjutors, under the article Fusanus. See
alfo Lypromerta.—We are enabled to add a few in its
ftead to Willdenow’s lift, but cannot adopt fuch as are
merely named by Mr. Brown, unlefs where we happen to
have {pecimens.

The whole genus is of a rigid broom-like habit ; fome-
times roughifh, though {carcely pubefcent; with fimple,
ufually very narrow, feattered /eaves ; and incon{picuous
green, whitifh, or yellowith flowers, either cluftered, {piked,
or {fomewhat capitate.

1. Th. linophyllum. Baftard Toad-fiax Thefium. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 301. Willd. n. x. Fl. Brit. no. Prodr. Fl.
Grec.n.1. Engl. Bot. t. 247. Pollich Palat. v. 1. 238.
Roth. in Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot. v. 2.18. (Th.
pratenfe ; Ehrh. Herb. n. 12. Th. montanum; ibid. n. 2.
Th. intermedium; Schrad. Spicil. 27. Anonymos lini
folio; Clof. Hift. v.a. 323. LLinaria adulterina;. Ger.
Em. 555.) —=Stem ereét, fomewhat branched. Clufter

moftly compound. Bratteas ternate. Leaves linear-tanceo=
late. ‘Tube of the calyx cup-fhaped, very fhort.—Native of
dry chalky hills throughout moft parts of Europe, thou
reckoned amongtt our rarer Englifh plants, flowering in nuke
The root is woody, perennial, branched, crooked,’ whitith,
fending up feveral ereét or reclining, {mooth, leafy, more or
lefs angular, rigid, branched fems, from four to twelve inches
high. Leaves numerous, alternate, linear, entire, in fome
degree fucculent and glaucous, minutely rough at the edges,
as are fometimes the angles of the ftem. Clufters, rather
than fpikes, more or lefs branched, or even panicled, each
branch bearing one or more flowers, either folitaty at the
extremity, accompanied by three lanceolate, leafy, unequal
braGeas, or without bradeas, in the fork of the ftalk, whofe
divifions bear other fowers, with one or more bra&eas. "The
latter is the more luxuriant ftate of this plant, in which it
has been called intermedium by Schrader, and montanum b
Ehrhart ; we cannot fee, by original {pecimens, that thefe
two fuppofed f{pecies differ at all, not even fo as to merit
Willdenow’s diltinétion of them as varieties. Our Englith
plant is lefs luxuriant, anfwering to Pollich’s excellent de-
{eription. The ca/yx is turbinate, having hardly any tube :
its limb five-cleft, whitifh, {preading, acutely five-cleft,
fometimes with intermediate teeth ; clofely involute after
flowering. Anthers yellow: Stigma white, of two knobs.
Fruit hard, ftriated, with five angles. The herb is fearcel:
bitter, a little faltifh. It ufually grows among grafs, widtins
it fo much refembles at a little diftance, as not to be readily
difcernible. “The pure air of the open hills about Bury,
and fimilar fituations, feems to fuit this plant, though the
foil does not much promote its luxuriance of growth.

2. Th. ramofum. Branched German Thefium. ‘ Hayne
in Schrad. Journ. v. 1. 30. t. 7.”?. Roth in Sims and Kon.
Ann. of Bot. vy. 2. 18. Marfch. von Bieberft. Caucaf.
v. 1.1375. (T. alpinum; Pollich Palat. v. 1. 239.)—Stem
ere&t, branched. Clufter elongated. Braéteas ternate.
Leaves linear-lanceolate. Flowers three or four-cleft, with
a very fhort, cup-fhaped tube.—Native of heaths, and fandy
paftures or woods, in the Palatinate, flowering at the fame
time as the preceding. Not having been able to afcertain
this {pecies amongft our {pecimens, we fhall copy Pollich’s
defcription, having endeavoured to improve our fpecific
character by the affiftance of that faithful and inftruétive
writer. ‘ The root,’”? fays he, “is white, fibrous. Stem
erect, from three inches to a foot high, round, ftriated,
{mooth, branched from the very bafe ; the dranchés alternate,
very fhort. Leaves alternate or fcattered, linear-lanceolate,
fharpifh, entire, rather flefhy ; convex on one fide, flat on
the other ; feffile, above an inch long, three-quarters of a
line wide. Flowers folitary and feflie at the ends of the
very fhort branches, between three leaves, of which the two
Jateral ones are fmaller than the third. There is a white
roundifh bafis, or receptacle, on which each flower ftands.
The calyx is two lines in diameter, green without, white
within, having but three or four fegments, which fpread
crofewife. Anthers pale yellow. Stigma white, capitate.
Evidently different from the foregoing.”” Pollich. THe mif-
takes however in his reference to Linneus, Gerard, and
Haller. As to Jacquin’s Lnumeratio, 40 and 213, we have
no pofitive means of determining, the tube of the calyx not
being there deferibed. Marfchall von Bicberftem confiders
our Englifh plant, above defcribed, as belonging to this
fpecies, and not to /nophyllum. >

3. Th. alpinum. Alpine Tubular Thefium. Linn. Sp.
Pl. gor. Willd. n. 2. Roth in Sims and Kon. Ann. of
Bot. vy. 2. 18. (Th. floribus fubfeffilibus, pedunculis folio-
fis, foliis linearibus ; Gerard Gallopr. 442. t.17.f. 1. Th.

ne 15745

THESIUM.

n. 15745 Hall. Hifl. v. 2, 265.)—Stems procumbent, un-
branched. Cluftersfimple. Braéteas ternate ; the odd one
very long. Leaves linear. Flowers three or four-cleft ;
their tube prifmatic, as long as the limb.—Native of the
mountains of Germany, Siberia, Switzerland, and Italy.
We received it from Switzerland, and have gathered the
fame on mount Cenis. Haller doubted whether his plant
were really diftin@ from Th. linophyllum, not adverting to
the oblong angular tube of the calyx, which indeed we have
not found noticed by any author, except Vahl, “nor is it fuf-
ficiently indicated in Gerard’s plate. That character how-
eyer clearly diftinguifhes the a/pinum, which may alfo be re-
cognized by its numerous, fhort, fimple, moftly procum-
bent, flems ; narrower leaves; very unequal bra&eas, the
middle one being from three to five times the length of the
others, and greatly exceeding the fower with its ftalk. The
fruit is exattly oval, copioufly marked with branching ribs,
but not furnifhed with angles. The flawers, wlually four-
cleft, are faid by Haller to have fometimes but three
fegments.

4. Th. ebraeatum. Naked-flowered Thefium. ‘ Hayne
im Schrad. Journ. v. 1. 33. t. 7. Termin. Bot. n. 6. t. 26.
f. 4.2” Roth in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. vy. 2. 18.)—
Stem ere&t, unbranched. Clufter fimple. Flowers without
lateral bracteas ; their tube cup-fhaped, very fhort.—Found
near Berlin, by Mr. Hayne, author of an elegant German
and Latin work on botanical terminology. We have an au-
thentic fpecimen from profeffor Schrader, though we acci-
dentally are deficient in that fafciculus of his Journal, which
contains the defcription of the prefent fpecies. No difpute
can arife as to its difference from all the foregoing. The
wide fhallow form of the calyx is like the two firft, but the
narrow foliage, and the long narrow terminal dradeas, agree
with Tb. alpinum. The total abfence of the pair of {maller
lateral braéeas, effentially diftinguifhes it from all three.

5. Th. humilz. Dwarf Thefium. Wahl Symb. v. 3. 43.
Willd. n. 3. (Alchimilla linariz folio, floribus et vafculis
in foliorum alis feffilibus ; Shaw A fric. n. 14.) —Stem ere&,
branched. Flowers axillary, feffile, five-clett ; their tube
very fhort. Gathered in cultivated ground near Tunis, by
Vahl, who refers hither the fynonym of Shaw, applied by
Linnzus, not without fcruple, to his a/sinum; from which
therefore it muft of courfe be erafed. The prefent is faid
to be annual, with an herbaceous fm hardly three inches
high, branched from the bafe; branches {mooth, angular,
fomewhat divided, as tall as the main ftem. caves linear,
thick, numerous, acute, an inch and helf long. Tube of
the calyx fearcely any ; not elongated as in Th. alpinum.
Fruit globofe, rugofe, the fize of Coriander-feed. Vahl.

6. Th. auffrale. Auftralian Thefium. Br. n. 1.— Cluf-
ter fimple, elongated, fomewhat fpiked. Partial-ftalks
fhorter than the flower. Calyx four or five-cleft ; its feg-
ments bordered longitudinally, rather longer than the tube.”
—Gathered by Mr. Brown, at Port Jackfon, as well as in
Van Diemen’s ifland, and on the fouth coaft of New Hol-
land. We have feen no f{pecimens.

3. Th. kineatum. Lineated Thefium. Linn. Suppl. 162.
Thunb. Prodr. 45. Willd. n. 4.— Leaves linear. Stem
round, fomewhat angular; leaflefs in the lower part :
branches ftraight, divaricated. Flowers axillary, ftalked.”’
Cinn.—Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, by Thun-
berg, who, in his Prodromus, defines it, ‘leaves lanceolate,
remote ; branches ftriated, ere&.’? We have not feen the
plant, nor does Mr. Brown mention its name.

8. Th. fguarrofum. Recurve-leaved Thefium. Linn.
Suppl. 162. Thunb. Prodr. 46. Willd. n. 5.—Leaves

linear-awlfhaped, recurved. Stem round. Flowers axillary,
feffile.— From the fame country. Thunberg fays the flowers
are ftalked. The younger Linnzus remarks that the re-
curved, or reflexed, foliage gives this plant a very fquarrofe
afpe&t. It does not appear that he poffefled any {pecimen.

g- Th. Frifea. Little Trailing Thefium. Linn. Mant. —
213. Willd. n.6. Thunb. Prodr. 46.—Stem decumbent.
Leaves awl-fhaped. Flowers {piked ; denfely woolly within.
Fruit globofe, wrinkled.—Found at the Cape of Good
Hope by Koenig, who fent f{pecimens to his preceptor Lin-
neus, under the new generic name of Frifea, by which, we
prefume, he meant to commemorate his own countryman
Chriftian Friis Rottboll; but Linneus reduced the plant to
Thefium. tis one of thofe fpecies whofe calyx is denfely
lined with reflexed pubefcence, and of which Mr. Brown
has, juftifiably perhaps, made a diftin& genus, on that ac-
count. Yet it has all the habit of an European Thefum.
The little woody knobbed rso¢ fends forth numerous decum-
bent, fimple, Jeafy, roundifh, fmooth /fems, two or three
inches in length. Leaves not an inch long, linear, acutely
pointed; channelled above. lowers feffile, each accom-
panied by two fmall acute éraéeas. Calyx in five deep,
lanceolate, acute fegments, with fcarcely any tube; their
denfe internal white woollinefs did not efcape Linnzus.
fruit nearly globofe, much wrinkled, not fo large as Cori-
ander-feed. ;

to. Th. funale. Stringy Thefium. Linn. Sp. Pl. 302.
Willd. n. 7. Thunb. Prodr. 45.—Stem with numerous
long, nearly naked, branches. Leaves, and lateral bracteas,
awl-fhaped, very fhort. Flowers fpiked; their fegments
lanceolate, denfely woolly within.—Native of the Cape.
The fhrubby round fmooth fem, with its numerous crowded
upright éranches, has a very rufhy afpet. The little Laves
are diftantly f{cattered. The /pikes are terminal, folitary,
fcarcely an inch long, compofed of feveral {mall, crowded,
not quite feflile, flowers, in ftruéture like the laft ; each ae-
companied by one ovate, pointed, keeled draéea, and a pair
of minute, lateral, awl-fhaped ones.

11. Th. /picatum. Large-fpiked Thefium. Linn. Mant.
214. Willd. n. 8.—Stem ere¢t, repeatedly branched.
Leaves awl-thaped, minute, fcattered. Flowers fpiked ;
their fegments linear, denfely woolly within. Lateral brac-
teas lanceolate.—From the fame country, growing on hills.
Allied to the laft, but thrice as large in almoft every part,
with a flout, round, ftraight, determinately branched fem.
The eaves however are even more minute than in that fpecies.
The /pikes are thick, of numerous, very denfely crowded,
flowers, which Linneus defines /eves, {mooth, apparently
in contradiftinGtion to thofe of Fh. funale; but however
fmooth, or even, like that, externally, their fegments, which
are linear, narrow, and parallel, are full as hairy or woolly
within. The outer dra&eas are much dilated and rounded
in their lower half ; the lateral ones alfo are broadly lanceo-
late, very different from thofe of funale.

12. Th. capitaium. Capitate Thefium. Linn. Sp. Pl.
302. Willd. n.9. Thunb. Prodr. 46.—Flowers capitate,
jeffile, terminal. Leaves three-edged, pointed, {mooth.
Braéteas ovate. Segments of the calyx ftrongly pomted ;
denfely woolly within.—Native of the fame country. The
fiem is hard and fhrubby, with alternate diftant branches ; the
upper ones gradually longer. Leaves alternate, fmall, awl-
fhaped, pointed. Heads of fowers terminal, a frefh branch
fhooting out from beneath each. Segments of the calyx
very much pointed, and internally villous throughout cheir
whole length. Linneus. In his herbarium cre fpecimens
which anfwer to this defeription, though left by him with-

out

THESIUM.

out any fpecific name, he having originally defcribed the
prefent fpecies in Van Royen’s Prodromus. The younger
Linnzus took thefe fpecimens for /eabrum, with which they
agree only fo far as to confirm their being the capitatum,
contrafted therewith in Sp. Pl. Their /eaves however can
hardly be termed fmall, meafuring near an inch in length.
The braéeas have dilated membranous edges; fringed, as
Thunberg defcribes them. Calyx with an oblong, five-
angled tube. We cannot fo blindly follow Willdenow, as
to infert any {pecies between this and /cabrum.

13. Th. feabrum. Rough Thefium. Limn. Sp. Pl. 302.
Willd. n. 13. Thunb. Prodr. 45.—Heads of flowers ftalked.
Leaves three-edged, pointed ; their edges very rough with
cartilaginous teeth.—Native likewife of the Cape. Nearly
allied to the laft, though undoubtedly a very diitic& {pecies.
The /eaves are but half as large, and remarkable for the
cartilaginous teeth of their three edges. Flower-/talks fome-
times two or three inches long, naked. Calyx with hardly
any tube; its fegments, according to Linnzus, internally
villous at the tips only, but of this we are not perfe@ly
convinced.

14. Th. fridum. Wand-like Thefium. Berg. Cap. 73.
Linn. Mant. 214. Willd. n. 10. Thunb. Prodr. 45.—
Leaves lanceolate, with a decurrent keel. Cymes terminal.
Calyx obtufe, fmooth, except at the back of each ftamen.
—Found at the Cape, and firft defcribed by Bergius.
Linnzus originally referred the defcription of this author
to his own Th. capitatum, from which fearcely any fpecies
can be more diftinct. In general dimenfions, and fhrubby
habit, indeed they are not unlike; but the /eaves of the
prefent plant are much fewer, and more diftant, and the in-
frrefcence totally different, being a fort of compound irregu-
lar umbel, or cyme. "The calyx being {mooth both within and
without, except a flender tuft of hairs at the back of each
Jftamen, as obferved by Mr. Brown, reduces this fpecies to a
different fection, according to that author, along with
Lege fee n. 8, fragile, n. 16, and fome others. A note
at the back of one of the Linnzan fpecimens of Th. friéum,
gathered by Sparrmann, fays “the fruit is a drupa, like
that of Prunus Padus.’ If fo, this fpecies fhould feem
referrible to fome other genus, as Fu/fanus ; yet their habits
are too diffimilar.

15. Th. umbellatum. Umbel’d Thefium. Linn, Sp.
Pl. 302. Willd. n.11. Ait. n.2. Purfh n.1. (Cen-
taurium luteum afcyroides virginianum ; Pluk. Mant. 43.
Phyt. t. 342. f. 1.)—Flowers umbellate. Leaves elliptic-
oblong.—On dry hills and fields, from New York to Caro-
Jina. Perennial, flowering in June and July.—Flowers
white. Pur/h. Mr. Aiton records its having firft been in-
troduced into the Britifh gardens in 1782, by the late Dr.
Hope, profeffor of botany at Edinburgh. This is an
herbaceous fpecies, about a foot high, ereét, fcarcely
branched, except at the top, and having more of the afpect
of fome annual Luphorbie, than of the genus of which we
are treating. The /eaves are fcattered, on fhort ftalks,
ereét, {mooth, nearly oval, about an inch long. Flowers
three or four together in {mall umbels, on fender, folitary
fialks, either axillary or terminal. Braéeas three or four
under each umbel, pale, lanceolate, deflexed. Mr. Brown
fays the charaGter of the flower of this, the only American
{pecies, is between Fufanus and Santalum. Of the fruit no-
thing is known,

16. Th. fragile. Brittle Thefium. Linn. Suppl. 162.
Willd. n. 12, Thunb. Prodr. 45. — Leaves three-edged,
fomewhat ovate, keeled, decurrent. Stem angular. Flowers

axillary, feffile.—Difcovered by Thunberg at the Cape of

Good Hope. We have feen no {pecimen of this f{pecies,
It is faid to have the habit of a Salfola, and to be extremely
brittle. The /eaves are fo very fhort, that at firft fight
they feem to be altogether wanting.

17. Th. pantculatum. Panicled Thefium. Linn. Mant.
si. Willd. n.14. Thunb. Prodr. 45.— Stem much
branched ; branches diffufe, panicled, angular, many-flowered.
Flowers folitary, ftalked. Leaves awl-fhaped.—From the
Cape of Good Hope:—The ffem is round, fhrubby, with
feveral round primary branches, fubdivided throughout i
many lateral and terminal, flender, angular ones, ae
and irregularly cloven and forked, bearing innumerable,
{mall, terminal, ftalked, folitary fowers, each of which is
fubtended by four or five fharp awl-fhaped bra@eas, which
Linnzus defcribes as an inferior, but not a proper, calyx.
The real calyx is obtufe and five-cleft. Fruit like Coriander-
feed. Many of the flowers are abortive. Vhe eaves are
fcattered, and for the moft part very minute. Mr. Brown
does not mention this {pecies, perhaps from not having been
able to examine the infide of the flowers.

18. Th. ericoides. Heath-like Thefium. Herb. Banks.
Brown Predr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 353.—Stem much branch-
ed, panicled ; branches ere¢t, many-flowered. Flowers
capitate. Leaves lanceolate, channelled, decurrent, acute.
—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. This has a round
fhrubby jem, with the panicled habit, and innumerable
{mall fowers, of many Erice. The younger Linnzus con-
founded it very negligently with the laft, and it feems to
have paffed undefcribed, being only mentioned in Mr,
Brown’s work, by the apt name it bears in the Bankfian
herbarium. The /eaves are pretty numerous, minute, {pread-
ing, concave, broad at the bafe; decurrent at the margins
and keel. Flowers feffile, two, three, or four, in each
little terminal head, accompanied by feveral imbricated,
ovate, keeled, fheathing dbraéeas, partly jagged or frin
at the edges. Thefe braéeas evince the true nature of what
Linnzus terms, in the foregoing, an inferior calyx.

19. Th. amplexicaule. Heart-leaved Thefium. Linn.
Mant 213. Willd: n. 15. Ait. n. 3.—*¢ Clufters termi-
nal. Leaves heart-fhaped, feffile.”’—Native of lofty hills at
the Cape of Good Hope.—Stem rather woody, ereét, fome-
what angular, four feet high, fmooth. Leaves alternate,
feffile, clafping the ftem, heart-fhaped, entire, rather acute,
{mooth, thickifh, an inch long. Cluffers terminal, confit-
ing of minute flowers, intermixed with large ovate braéeas.
Linnaeus. Neither Mr. Brown nor profeflor Thunberg men-
tion this fpecies. There is no authentic fpecimen of it in
the Linnzan colleétion, and we are almoft convinced of its
being the fame plant as the following. Willdenow has made
a fingular miftake in copying the Taeoiie character of Th.
Frifea, fee n. 9, over again, for the amplexicaule, which
{tands above it in the Mantiffa,

20. Th. euphorbioides. Spurge-like Thefium. _ Berg,
Cap. 74. inn. Mant. 214. Willd. n. 17. Thunb,
Prodr. 46. (Planta africana frutefcens, portulace foliis,
Morgfani Syrorum, ex brevi pediculo binis, fimilis; Pluk,
Amalth. 173.) — Stalks three-flowered, terminal. Leaves
roundifh-ovate, acute, flefhy. Stem fhrubby, with alter-
nate corymbofe branches.—Native of the Cape of Good
Hope. This was adopted from Bergius by Linnzus, with-
out feeing a fpecimen, at leaft from that author. Oneus
preferved in his own herbarium, on which-he had written
Theflum capenfe, which his fon altered to euphorbioides, con-
fidering it as the fame with the plant of Bergius. A fimilar
fpecimen lies in the Bankfian collection for Ts. amplexicaule.
Both names are excellent, but perhaps euphorbioides, as the

original

THE

original one, ought to be preferred. The plant is of a
{tout fhrubby habit, turning black in drying. Leaves about
the fize of the finger-nail, alternate, feffile, ovate or rather
heart-fhaped, clafping the ftem, acute, entire, flefhy, fmooth,
without rib or veins. Flowers about the tops of the alter-
nate corymbofe upper branches, enveloped in bra@eas, like
the leaves, but {maller. Tube of the calyx very fhort, and
ftrongly angular; limb fmooth within, except perhaps a
few minute hairs behind the /famens, indicated by Mr.
Brown. Fruit globofe, chiefly angular at the top.

‘21. Th. triflorum. Three-flowered Thefium. Linn.
Suppl. 162. Willd. n. 16. Thunb. Prodr. 46.—‘ Leaves
lanceolate. Stem angular. Flower-ftalks axillary, three-
forked, compound.’’—Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape.
The flower-falks are three-flowered, fometimes divided, or
three-cleft, greatly divaricated. Linn. We have met with
no {pecimen anfwering to this {pecies, nor does Mr. Brown
advert to it. ,

22. Th. /pinofum. Spinous Thefium. Linn, Suppl.
161. Willd. n. 19. Thunb. Prodr. 45.— Leaves awl-
fhaped, fpinous-pointed, fpreading, flefhy, decurrent.
Flowers axillary, ftalked, folitary. — Gathered by Thun-
berg at the Cape. A very fingular fpecies, whofe woody
decumbent /fem is befet with numerous, aicending, fimple
branches, two or three inches long, clothed with alternate,
horizontally projecting, pungent /eaves, one-third of an
inch in length, giving the plant the afpeét of an Ulex.
Flowerftalks about as long as the leaves. — Mr. Brown
places this in his fection of fuch Cape fpecies as have the
calyx internally naked, except a flender tuft of hairs behind
each ffamen. With it ranges /quarrofum, fragile, /tridum,
Spinofum, ericoides, euphorbioides, and one unknown to us,
called fparteum. The feétion whofe calyx is lined with a
denfe deflexed beard, confifts of Frifea, funale, /picatum,
capitatum, and /cabrum, befides five fpecies unknown to us,
called craffifolium, teretifolium, debile, ciliatum, and divari-
catum.

THESMOPHORIA, O:cyogopix, in Antiguity, a fetti-
val in honour of Ceres, which was celebrated by many
cities of Greece; but efpecially the Athenians obferved it
with great devotion and pomp. For the ceremonies of this
folemnity, fee Potter, Archeol. Grec. tom. i. p. 403, feq.
See Cerrania and Eveusinia. .

THESMOTHET A, ©:cyofdas, an appellation given
to fix of the nine Athenian archons ; the firft and chief of
the nine was called, by way of eminence, archon; the
fecond in dignity was called bafileus ; the third, polemarchus ;
and the other fix, the/mothete: for an account of whofe
power and jurifdiction, fee Potter, Archzol. Grec. tom. i.

P+ 77:

THESPANIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afiatic
Sarmatia ; the mouth of which, according to Ptolemy, lay
between that of Rhembitus and the town of Azara.

THESPHATA, ©:79aiz, in Antiquity, an appellation

iven to oracles. See Oracte.

‘THESPTA, or Tuesprm, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Beeotia, fituated at the foot of mount Helicon, about
50 ftadia from the city of Thebes. The Thebans, who
deftroyed this city, fpared nothing but the facred monu-
ments, among which were the temple of Hercules, which
was ferved by a prieftefs reftri€ted to celibacy during her
whole life, and the ftatue of that Cupid (or Cupidon),
fometimes confounded with the god of love, which was
only a fhapelefs ftone as it was dug in the quarry, for thus
the objeéts of public worfhip were reprefented in ancient
times. Praxiteles is faid to have formed a ftatue of Cupidon
ef Penthelic marble; and Lyfippus made one of bronze.

THE

The Thefpians reported, that the flatue of Praxiteles was
taken away by Caius, the Roman emperor; but others
fay, that it was returned by Claudius, and that Nero re-
moved it to Rome, where it was confumed by fire. This
ftatue was fo beautiful, that, according to Cicero, Thefpia
was vifited merely for the fake of feeing it. The Cupidon
that exifted in the time of Paufanias was an imitation of
that of Praxiteles by Menodorus, the Athenian ; but here
were a Venus and Phryné in marble, executed by Praxiteles
himfelf. In one quarter of the city was a temple confe-
crated to Venus Melenis. he theatre was a beautiful
ftruéture, ornamented with a ftatue of Hefiod in bronze.
Near it wasa Victory in bronze, and a chapel confecrated
to the Mufes, each of which had a {mall ftatue in marble.
At Thefpia there was a ftatute of Venus in marble, made
by Praxiteles.

THESPIADES, in Mythology, an appellation given
to the Mufes from the city of Thefpia, where they were
honoured.

THESPIA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Theffaly,
in Magnefia.

THESPIANA, the name of an antidote intended for
internal abfceffes.

THESPIS, in Biography, an ancient poet, and the fup-
pofed inventor of tragedy, was born in a {mall borough of
Attica, named Icaria, and he, as well as Sufarion, a native of the
fame place, appeared each at the head of a company of ators,
one ona kind of {tage and the otherin a cart. Sufarion at-
tacked the vices and abfurdities of his time, and reprefented
his firft pieces towards the year 580 B.C. Thefpis treated
nobler fubje&ts, which he drew from hiftory : he appeared
fome years after Sufarion, made his firft attempts in tragedy,
and a€ted his Alceftis in the year 536 B.C. He was
followed in this fpecies of drama by /®{chylus, Sopho-
cles, and Euripides. Thefpis having obferved at the fefti-
vals, in which before his time hymns only were fung, one
of the fingers, mounted on a table, forming a kind of dia-
logue with the chorus, took the hint of introducing into his
tragedies an actor, who by fimple recitals, introduced at
intervals, fhould relieve the chorus, divide the action, and
render it more interefting. This innovation, together with
fome other liberties in which he indulged himfelf, alarmed
Solon, the legiflator of Athens, who condemned a {pecies
of compofition, in which the ancient traditions were dif-
guifed by fiGtion. ‘ If we applaud falfehood in our public
exhibitions,”’ faid he to Thefpis, ‘ we fhall foon find that
it will infinuate itfelf into our moft facred engagements.”’

The exceffive approbation and delight with which both
the city and country received the pieces of Thefpis and
Sufarion, at once juftified and rendered ufelefs the fufpicious
forefight of Solon ; the poets, who till that time had only
exercifed their genius in dithyrambics and licentious fatire,
ftruck with the elegant forms which thefe fpecies of com-
pofition began to aflume, dedicated their talents to tragedy
and comedy. See TRAGEDY.

Thefpis, according to the defcription of Horace, ex-
tended his plan farther than the introduction of a fingle
aétor in the intervals between the fongs of the chorus, to
the reprefentation of fome fable by actors on a kind of
moveable ftage, who alternately fung and played, with their
faces ftained by the lees of wine.

“« Tgnotum tragice genus invenifle Camcenz

Dicitur, et plauftris vexifle poemata Thefpis,
Quz canerent agerentque perunéti fecibus ora.”
Art. Poet.

Some writers have mentioned three pieces of Thefpis,

VIZ.

THE

wiz. “ The Conteft of Pelias or Phorbas ;”’ ‘ The Sacred
Youths ;”?*and “* Pentheus.’? Socrates fays that he repre-
fented tragedies in the 61{t Olympiad, long after Solon’s
death. Travels of Anacharfis, vol. vi. 8vo.

THESPIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece,
in Beotia.

THESPROTI, a people of Epirus, who inhabited
Thefprotia, in the vicinity of the Ambraciates ; and formed
one nation with the Chaonians. They derived their name
from Thefprotus, the fon of Pelafgus, who was the fon of
Lycaon, and who was the firft that conduéted the Pelafgi
into Epirus.

THESPROTIA, or Tuesprotis, a fmall country of
Epirus, S. of Chaonia, having to the E. the lake Am-
bracius and Ambracia, and to the S. the fea. This coun-
try was watered by three rivers, which ran from W. to E,
viz. Thiamis, Cocytus, and Acheron.

THESSALIA, Tuessary, a celebrated country of
Greece. This country, comprifing Magnefia and other
{mall diftrifts which have particular denominations, is
bounded to the E. by the fea, to the N. by mount Olym-
pus, to the W. by mount Pindus, and to the S. by mount
Oeta. From thefe permanent boundaries branch out other
chains of mountains and hills, that wind through the
country, occafionally embracing fertile plains, which, from
their form, and the manner in which they are inclofed, re-
femble vaft amphitheatres. Opulent cities are feated on
the heights that encircle thefe plains; and the whole coun-
try is watered by rivers falling in general into the Peneus,
which, before it lofes itfelf in the fea, flows through the
famous valley of Tempé. The Aphidanus, or Apidanus,
proceeded from the §. where was Dolopia, afcended north-
ward (fee Pengus), traverfed the plains of Pharfalia in
the Theflaliotide, and difcharged ithe into the Alpheus,
W. of Lariffa. (See Aprpano.) The Oncheftus, or
Onfchones, took its rife S. of Lariffa, pafled by the Palus
Bebeis, and after having received the Naurus, difcharged
itfelf into the Pelafgic gnlf, between Demetrius on the
left-and Pagafe on the right. The Sperchius commenced
5.W. in an angle which was formed by the chains of Pin-
dus with thofe of mount Oeta, afcended N.E., watered
Sperchium, turned to the E., and having paffed Hypata, re-
ceived the Achelous of Theffaly, which proceeded from
mount Othrys, and being joined by the Lamina, difcharged
itfelf into the Maliac or Lamiac gulf. The country was
marihy, and abounded with a variety of plants, fome of which
were medicinal and fanative, and others venomous and per-
nicious. The knowledge of their different properties
caufed the Theffalians to be regarded as a clals of for-
cerers, who poffeffed the art of producing fupernatural
effects. The principal people of Theflaly were the
ZEthices, fituated towards the N.W., whofe chief town was
Oxinia, near a lake that lay between {mall chains of moun-
tains :—the Pelagoni Tripoliti, in a kind of hollow terri-
tory, feparated from Macedonia by a chain of mountains,
called Cambrunii monates ; denominated Tripolitans on ac-
count of their three towns, Dolicha, Pythium, and Azo-
rus: in the eaftern part of this territory was the Afcuris
palus, or marfh Afcuri:—the Perrhebi, lying S. of the
mountains which formed this territory, and extending from
W. to E., the N. of the Peneus ;—S. of the Peneus, to-
wards the W., was the Eftizotis, watered by the rivers Ion
and ‘Thecus, and bounded W. and S. by mount Pindus:
its moft confiderable towns being Gomphi, Trica, Pel-
Tinzum, and Pharcadon :—the Pelafgiotis, towards the E.,
having the Peneus to the N. and’commencing W. from the
Apidanus, which received the Enipeus, that pafled to Phar-

THE

fala: the principal towns of this part of Theffaly were
Lariffa, reckoned the capital of Theflaly ; Pherfala, one of
the largeft and moft opulent towns, now Pharfalia, Scotuffa,
Cranon, &c. :—the Theffaliotis being to the §, and watered”
by the Enipeus in the lower part ae its courfe, and having
to the S. mount Othrys, and to the S.W. Dolopia; its
principal town was Melitea upon the Enipeus :—the
Phthiotis, towards the S.E., terminating in a peninfula,
and watered by the Sperchius and Achelous; its princi-
pal towns were Phere, to the N.; Thaumaci, to the W.,
commanding one of the fineft profpeéts in Greece; Alos
and Lamia, towards the middle; Phalara, at the bottom
of the Amaliac gulf ; in the peninfula, Thebe, Lariffa,
Cremaita and Echinus: at the extremity the port of Aphe-
te, and §.E. Heraclea Trachina, the road from which
led to the ftraits of Thermopyle ; which fee. Magnefia was
feparated from the fea by mount Pelion: here were the
towns of Demetrias and Iolcos, and S.E., on the eaftern
coaft, the town of Magnefia, and at the extremity of the
peninfula to the S.W. the town of Antium. At the bot- ~
tom of the Pelafgiotic gulf were the two {mall iflands of Deu-
calion and Pyrrha. Dolopia lay towards A&tolia, and con-
tained no confiderable towns. ‘I'he extremity of the S.E. of
Magnefia was terminated by the promontory Sepias, where
the fleet of Kerxes was battered by a tempeft. The town
of Gonnus, at the entrance of the valley of Tempé, was
the key of Theffaly on the fide of Macedonia, as the poit of

Thermopyle was on the fide of Phocis. See THessany.
The feveral nations which we have recounted, as pro-
perly Theffalian, were formerly governed by kings, but
after various revolutions became for the moft part fubject
to an oligarchy. The ftates and the towns were independent
of each other. The confederacy of the Theflalians, pro-
perly fo called, was the moft powerful of all, both from. the
number of towns pertaining to it, and from the acceflion of
the Magnefians and Perrhabians which were brought almoft
under complete fubjeGion. ‘There were fome free cities,
unconneéted with any of the ‘tates. The Theffalians
could bring into the field an army of 6000 horfe and 10,000
infantry, exclufively of their archers, who were excellent,
and who from their infancy were accuftomed to draw the
bow. The Theffalians are faid to have been the firlt who
managed horfes with the bit, and ufed them in battle; and
hence, it is faid, originated the tradition that a race of crea-
tures, called centaurs, half horfe and half man, formerly
exifted in Theffaly. This country produced wine, oil, and
fruit of different kinds. ‘The land has been reprefented to
be fo rich, that the corn grew too faft, if it were not cut,
or fheep turned in to graze upon it. They carried ona con~
fiderable commerce in corn. The Theffalians, though they
boafted of their liberty, were the firft to reduce Greeks to
flavery. Amongft them they had a prodigious number of
flaves, known by the name of Penefte. Thefe people are
very hofpitable to ftrangers, and treat them magnifieently.
In their drefs and houfes luxury is confpicuous ; and at
their entertainments they hire dancing girls to amufe them.
They are reckoned paflionate and turbulent, and very dif-
ficult to be governed ; and they are reproached with infin-
cerity and falfehood. They have cultivated poetry from
their moft early ages, and pretend that Theffaly gave birth
to Thamyris, Orpheus, Linus, and many others who lived
in the heroic age ; but fince that period, they have preduced
no writer nor any celebrated artift. ‘They were much ad-
difted to dancing ; and in fome places generals or magif-
trates were called chiefs of the dance. Their mufie ob-
ferves a medium between the Doric and Ionic, and accord-
ingly harmonizes with the chara€ter and manners of the
5 country.

THE

country. They have never on any occafion killed ftorks,
and the fame punifhment was inflicted on a perfon who
killed one of thefe birds as if he had taken away the life of
aman. This law, it is faid, was founded on the circum-
france, that ftorks had freed Theffaly from the enormous
ferpents which formerly infefted it.

THESSALICUM Senter, the Theffalian chair, fo called
from Theflaly, where chairs of this figure were moft in ufe :
it is recommended by Hippocrates, Lib. de Art. in place of
a machine for reducing a recent luxation of the fhoulder-
bone. The back of this chair is perpendicular to the feat,
as Galen tells us, by which conftru&ion it is diftinguifhed,
and accommodated to the operation.

THESSALIOTIS. See THessatta.

THESSALON, in Geography, a river of Canada, which
runs into lake Huron, N. lat. 49° 6!. W. long. 82° 8’.

THESSALONIANS, £piftles to, in Scripture Hiffory.
See Epistle. ©

THESSALONICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Macedonia, fituated on the Thermaic gulf; and built on
the declivity of a mountain in the form of an amphitheatre,
the fummit of which was defended by a caitle of great ex-
tent. " Strabo fays that it was named ‘¢ Therma,’’ and that
it was only a village; that Caffander augmented it confider-
ably, and tranfported hither the inhabitants of fome neigh-
bouring cities, and gave it the name of Theffalonica, that
of his wife, the fifter of Alexander the Great. In the year
168 B.C., Macedonia was divided into four parts, and
Theflalonica was the capital of the fecond part. Its
yernment was regulated by magiftrates, called “ Political.”
Under the Greek empire it continued to be governed by a
fenate. Cicero, during his exile, paffed fome time at Thef-
falonica. This city had feveral divinities, and alfo empe-
rors, whe were objects of public worfhip. Jupiter was the

rincipal ; Apollo was alfo reprefented on its monuments ;
and the Cabiri had a temple in Theffalonica. The Cabirian
and Pyrrhic games were exhibited in this city in honour of
the’Cabiri, and the Olympic games were celebrated in ho-
nour of Jupiter. That rich and powerful city had, for its
fpeétacles and the amufement of the citizens, an amphithea-
tre for the combats of gladiators, and a circus for the pub-
lic games. The emperors Valerian and Gallienus gave it
the title of a colony. It had alfo the title of Neocorus,
The modern name of Theflalonica is Salonica or Saloniki.
(which fee.) Although there are different routes by which
goods are tranfported from Macedonia into the Auftrian
dominions, the beft, fays Dr. Holland in his Travels into
Albania, &c. is through Bulgaria, by Widin and Offovo,
where it enters the Auftrian territory, and is thence conti-
nued through the Bannat by Temefwar, Peft, Raab to
Vienna. The goods landed at Salonica are made up in
packages of 1+ hundred weight, and two of thefe are the
load of a horfe. The cavalcades for this inland journey
confift often of 200 or 300, and fometimes of 1000 horfes.
The property fo tranfported, at a moderate eftimate,
might be worth 30,coo/. on its arrival in Germany. The
time occupied between Salonica and Vienna was in general
thirty-five days, exclufive of the quarantine at Offovo, which
fometimes took place. The cavalcades ufually travel eight
hours in the twenty-four.

THESSALY, or Janna, in Geography, a province of
European Turkey, bounded on the N. by Macedonia, on
the E. by the Archipelago, on the S. by Livadia, and on
the W. by Livadia and Epire, anciently called Theffalia,
Pelafgia, and Pyrrheca, (fee THEssaLta,) and now by the
Turks Janna. It was fometimes annexed to Macedonia,
and fometimes feparated from it. The celebrated mount

Vou. XXXV.

és i 2

Pindus, now Meffova, or Meffo Novo, feparated it from
Epirus, or 2 part of the prefent Albania. Amongit its
once celebrated twenty-four mountains, the moft remark-
able are Olympus, Pelion, and Offa. Here are alfo fitu-
ated the plains of Pharfalia, and the delightful valley of
Tempé. The country is extremely fertile, and retains its
ancient character in this refpe&t. It produces oranges, ci-
trons, lemons, pomegranates, very {weet grapes, excellent
figs and melons, almonds, olives, cotton, and chefnuts,
which take their name from Caftanea in Magnefia. The
modern Theffalians are a well-made f{pirited people. The
moft remarkable places in the country are Lariffa and
Janna. See THESSALIA.

THESTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Epirus, in
Acarnania.— Alfo, a river of the Peloponnefus, in La-
conia.

THESTIDION, a town of Greece, in Theffaly.

THESTIS, a town which belonged to the Arabs.—
Alfo, a town of Africa, in Libya—Alfo, a fountain of
Africa, in the Cyrenaica, near Irafa. .

THETA, 6, among the “Ancients, one of the Greek
letters. It was ufed as a mark on the ballots of judges,
by which they condemned the perfon to death, it being
the firft letter of the word @zvx70;, death. Whence it had
the epithet of niger aud infelix, thus :

«OQ multum ante alias infelix litera theta.’’

THETES, ©ntes, in Antiquity, the loweft elafs of peo-
ple at Athens. Avriftides repealed Solon’s law by which
the thetes were made incapable of bearing any office in the

‘overnment.

THETFORD, in Geography, an ancient borough and
market-town, partly in she hundred of Shropham, and
county of Norfolk, and partly in the hundred of Laekford,
in the connty of Suffolk, England, is fituated at the diftance
of 28 miles S.W. from Norwich, and 80 miles N.N.E.
from London. It was a place of confiderable confequence
at an early period.

Thetford, called in the Saxon Chronicle Theodford, has
an acknowledged claim of having been once the feat of the
Eaft Anglian kings. Being the metropolis of that portion
of the heptarchy, it became fubje&t to the ravages of the
Danes, by whom it was repeatedly laid in afhes. From
numerons coins, it is evident that there was a mint at
Thetford from the time of Athelftan to the reign of king
John. At the eaftern extremity of the town are fome ex-
tenfive remains of fortifications, confifting of a large artifi-
cial mount, or keep, with lofty banks and deep ditches.
Thefe fortitications were probably firft farmed by the early
kings of Eaft Anglia, and the keep an addition, made fub-
fequent to thé Norman conqueft. Eaft of the mount is a
large area, or place of arms, three hundred feet f{quare.
The mount is about one hundred feet in height, and nine
hundred and eighty-four feet in circumference, at the bafe.
The flope is extremely fteep ; and yet no traces remain of
any path or fteps for the purpofe of carrying up machines
or weighty ammunition.

In the Conqueror’s time, Herfaft having removed the
epilcopal fee from North Elmham to Thetford, the latter
became the head of the Eaft Anglian diocefe; but in the
fucceeding reign, the fee was transferred to Norwich. The
ruins of ecclefiaftical and other buildings ftrongly point out
the*ancient {plendour of this town. At one period it is
faid to have had twenty churches, anfwerable to the number
of parifhes, and eight monafteries, befides other religious
and‘charitable foundations. But of thefe, the names only of
fome remain ; and of others, a few dilapidated walls. ferve

3X to

THE

+o mark their fcites. Of the twenty churches, three only are’

preferved ; St. Peter’s, and St. Cuthbert’s, on the Norfolk
fide of the river; and St. Mary the Lefs on the Suffolk
fide. St. Peter’s, commonly called the Black church, from
its being conitruéted chiefly of flint, confifts of a chancel,
nave, two aifles, and a tower. The latter was rebuilt in
178g, when a great part of the church was alfo re-edified.
The battlements on the fouth fide, and the buttreffes, are
decorated with allufive ornaments and large letters inlaid in
the flint work.

The Nunnery was founded by Uvius, the firft abbot of
St. Edmund’s Bury, in the reign of king Canute ; in com-
memoration of the number of perfons who fell at Snaref-
hill, near this town, in the fanguinary confliét between king
Edmund’s army and the forces under the Danifh leaders
Ingwar and Ubba. A few monks were placed in this
monaftery, which was then confidered as a cell to Bury
Abbey. Inthe year 1176, the monks, being reduced to
two, refigned, by the requeft of the abbot of Bury, who
placed in their ftead a convent of nuns, who had previoufly
refided at Lynn. At the diflolution, the revenues and {cite
were granted to fir Richard Fulmerfton, who made this
houfe his refidence. It was afterwards let to a farmer, and
fome years fince the greater part was taken down: a new
farm-houfe was built of the materials, and the conventual
church converted into a barn. Some of the walls, with
buttrefles, windows, &c. ftill remain.

The Priory or Abbey was founded by Roger Bigod, in the
year 1104, for monks of the Cluniac order. ‘This was a
peculiarly privileged houfe ; for other Cluniac monatteries
were fubject to have their revenues feized, on a war break-
ing out between England and France, becaufe being de-
pendant on the abbey of Clugny, in Burgundy, the monks
were confidered as foreigners ; but the religious perfons of
this monaftery were naturalized, and treated as other fub-
jets of the realm. At the fuppreffion the revenues were
granted to the duke of Norfolk, and are now the property
of lord Petre. The ancient gateway, conftruéted with
freeftone and black flint, with parts of the church, &e. ftill
remain. This monaftery had been the burial-place of the
feveral noble families who had fucceffively borne the title of
earls of Norfolk.

St. Auftin’s Friary was founded by John of Gaunt, duke
of Lancatter, in the year 1387, for friars mendicant of the
Auguttine order. The fcite, granted to fir Richard Ful-
mertton, is {till called the Friar’s Clofe.

The Monefitry of St. Sepulchre was founded in 1109, by
William, earl of Warren and Surrey, for canons of the
Auguttine order, and additionally endowed by king
Henry II. ‘The {cite is ftill called Canons ; part of the con-
ventual church, yet ftanding, has long fince been ufed as a
barn. The gate of the porter’s lodge, and fome other parts
of the buildings, remain, Of the other four religious houfes,
no yeftiges are now left. In the Suffolk part of the town,
near St. Mary’s church, is a free grammar-{chool. In the
year 1566, fir Richard Fulmerfton bequeathed property for
the ereétion of a free-fchool, with dwelling-houfes and fala-
ries for a mafter and ufher ; and alfo habitations and weekly
penfions for two poor men and two poor women. The
benevolent defign of the donor, however, was not carried
into effeé till the time of James I., when it was enaéted by
authority of parliament, that there fhould be for ever a free
grammar-{chool and hofpital ; and that the matter, ufher, and
the four poor people, fhould be a body politic, under the
title of ‘The mafter and fellows of the fchool and hofpital
at Thetford, founded by king James the Firft, according to
the will of fir Richard Fulmerfton, kat.”

THE

Thetford, though avery ancient burgh, is comparatively
a modern corporation. In the time of the Conqueror, the
town was governed by a conful and other inferior officers.
Not being a free burgh, it fuffered greatly at times by the
oppreffion of the officers nominated by the crown. But in
the year 1573, queen Elizabeth granted a charter, by which
a mayor, ten aldermen, twenty common-councilmen, a re-
corder, town-clerk, {word-bearer, and two ferjeants at mace,
conftitute the corporation. The mayor for the time being
is clerk of the market, and in the year after his mayoralty
officiates as coroner. The corporation had alfo permiffion
to fend two burgeffes to parliament, ‘“ provided they were
difcreet and honeft men, and were eleéted at the expence of
the borough.” This charter was furrendered to the
crown in the thirty-fourth year of Charles II., and a very
imperfeé& one obtained in its ftead. But in 1692 am order
was procured from the court of chancery for cancelling the
furrender, and procuring a tranfcript of the charter granted
by Elizabeth, under which the town is at prefent governed.
Thetford has been honoured with the prefence of many of
our foyereigns, particularly Henry I. and LI. » Seyeral
charters, granted by the former, bear date from this
town. When the manor fell with the duchy of Lancafter,
of which it formed a parcel, to the crown, the ancient feat
of the earls Warren became the royal palace. This was
rebuilt in the time of queen Elizabeth, who occafionally re-
fided here. King James I. made it one of his hunting
feats; but being difgufted with the abrupt remonitrance of
a farmer, over whofe lands he had been hunting, he gaye the
palace to fir Philip Wodehoufe: it has been rebuilt, and is
now the property of a private gentleman; but ftill bears
the appellation of the ‘* King’s Houfe.”” The old guildhall
or council-houfe being in a dilapidated condition, fir Jofeph
Williamfon, fecretary of ftate to king Charles II., ereéted
at his own expence the prefent council-chamber, and the
apartment for the juries. Thetford has been much im-
proved within the laft twenty years. A new bridge has
been built, the principal ftreet paved, and feveral handfome
houfes have been erected. The navigation of the river has
been attended to, and by this communication fome mer-
cantile bufinefs is tranfa¢ted in the corn and coal trade.
Five fairs are held annually, and a market weekly on
Saturdays ; but, compared with its former greatnefs, it is
now a very inconfiderable place. The population in the
return of the year 1811, was ftated to be 2450, occupying
530 houfes.

Near to Thetford is a mineral {pring, the waters of which
poflefs confiderable virtues, though their celebrity has b
no means been commenfurate with their acknowledged et-
ficacy. Thomas Paine, well known for his political and
theological tracts, was a native of this town, and received
his education in the grammar-{chool.—Blomefield’s Effay
towards a Topographical Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. ii.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. by John Britton,
F.S.A. Hiftory, &c. of Thetford, by Thomas Martin,
4to.

Tuerrorp, a town of the United States, in the county
of Orange, Vermont; 1omiles N. of Hanover; containing
1735 inhabitants.

THETIS, in Mythology, the name of the moft beautiful
of the Nereids.

THEVACOURCHRY, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Carnatic ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Tiagar.

THEUDORIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Achaia, from which the Macedonians were driven by the
Romans.

THEUDURUM, a town of Lower Germany, on the

route

Pi E

toute from Colonia Trajana to Colonia Agrippina, between
Mederiacum and Coriovallum. Anton. Itin.

THEVEN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Lariftan; 40 miles E. of Lar.

THEVENARD, Gasrier Vincent, of Paris, in Bio-
graphy, born in 1669, became in the operas of Lulli the firft
jinger and ator of his time. He had a tenor voice, which
made the public forget that of Beaumavielle ; it was fono-
rous, mellow, and extenfive in compafs. He fung a little
through the throat, but by dint of art, he found the means
of rendering this little defe@& even agreeable. His appear-
ance on the ftage was dignified, and his performance won-
derful! -It was to him that the prefent manner (1780) of
{peaking recitative is due. He excelled above all in finging
at table; nor has he ever been furpaffed in that talent, ex-
cept by De Chaffé and Jeliote, who fo many years delighted
their friends. :

He fung more than forty years at the Opera, and only
retired in the year 1730. He was more than fixty years
old, when, feeing a beautiful female flipper in a fhoemaker’s
fhop, he fell violently in love, unfight, unfeen, with the
perfon for whom it was made; and having difcovered the
lady, married her, after obtaining the confent of an uncle on
whom fhe was dependent, with the affiftance of many bot-
tles of wine which they cracked together with the utmoft
cordiality, and which Thevenard meliorated with the charms
of his voice.

He died at Paris in 1741, at the age of 72. Thevenard
was the caufe of the duke d’Antin quitting the manage-
ment of the opera. This finger having a penfion offered
him for his fervices, found it fo mconfiderable, that he re-
fufed to accept of it, faying it was only fit for his footman.
The duke, piqued at this infolence, would have fent him to
prifon; but it having been reprefented to him that the
public would fuffer by his abfence, he facrificed to this con-
iideration his refentment ; but determining to have nothing
more to do with fuch people, he quitted the fuperintend-
ance of the opera. Laborde.

THEVENOT, Jouy, a traveller in the Levant, was
born in Lorraine, and after repeated journies, died in Perfia
in 1667. He is faid to have introduced the ufe of coffee
into France. His “‘ Voyage in Afia’’ was publifhed in 1664,
which is a work confiderably efteemed, and has been often
re-edited. The Amiterdam edition in 12mo., 1727, is com-
prifed in 5 vols. Nouv. Di&. Hittor.

Tuevenot, Nicnoras MELCHISEDEC, a writer of travels,
was born in 1621, probably at Paris, and having finifhed his
ftudies, indulged his propenfity for vifiting foreign countries,
confining himfelf chiefly to various parts of Europe. Some
perfons have given him the credit of being a great linguitt,
but this is difputed by Huet, who was perfonally ac-
quainted with him. The refult of his obfervations and in-
quiries was publifhed in a ‘Colle€tion of Voyages and
Travels”? comprifed in 4 vols. fol. from 1663 to 1672.
Thevenot was a great colleGtor of books, confifting of more
than 2000 volumes, in which the royal library, of which
he was keeper, was deficient. Nointel, on returning from
his embafly to Conftantinople, enriched this colleGtion by a
prefent of his marbles, infcriptions, and bas-reliefs. He
died in 1692. From various MSS. in the royal library, he
had compiled “The Works of Ancient Mathematicians,’’
= edition of which was publifhed after his death. Moreri.

uet.

THEVET, Annprew, a traveller and writer, was born
at Angouleme in 1502; and being defirous of vifiting
foreign countries, he obtained, by the intereft of the cardinal

of Lorraine, an opportunity of going to Jerufalem. His

THE

travels in the Levant occupied him from 1549 to 1554 and
after his return to France, he accompanied the fieur de
Villegaignon, in 1555, to found a colony in Brazil. In
1556 he took the habit of an ecclefiaftic, and was appomted
almoner to queen Catharine de Medicis. He alfo obtained
the titles of hiftoriographer and cofmographer royal, and
died at Paris in 1590, at the advanced age of 88 years.
Befides other works, he publifhed « Cofmographie du
Levant,”? 1554, 4to.; “ Les Singularités de la France An-
tarctique,”’ 1588, 4to. ; and “ Cofmographie Univerfelle,”’
2 vols. fol. 1575; but unfortunately his veracity is quef-
tionable. Moreri.

THEVESTE, Tirreste, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa, fituated on a delightful plain in the interior
of the country, on the banks of a river, E. of Sigus, and
E.S.E. of Cirta. In Anton. Itin. this town has the title of
a Roman colony, and is placed on the route from Carthage
to Cefarea, between Ammedara Colonia and Attaba.

THEVET. See Trser.

THEVETIA, in Botany, a name given by Linneus, in
his Hortus Cliffortianus 75, to a genus diftinguifhed by Plu-
mier, and other authors, under the American appellation of
Ahouai. The perfon commemorated by the above name was
André Thevet, a French monk, who travelled to Brafil, of
which he publifhed an account in 4554, under the title of
Les Singularitez, de la France Antardlique, autrement nommée
Amerique, &c. Of this book there are feveral editions, with
rude wooden cuts, and fome accounts of plants, amongft
which the Ahouai is, for the firft time, deferibed. The
author, aecording to De Theis, died in 1590, about the age
of eighty-eight. Haller fays he has injudicioufly applied
paflages in the writings of the ancients to the produ@ions of
the new world; and that he has deferibed many countries
which he never vifited. Linneus himfelf appears not to
have been fatisfied with the honour he was conferring, for he
fays he fhould not be difpleafed with any perfon who might
change this name for another. He fubfequently retained it
as a ipecific name only, when the genus in queftion was funk
in hisown Cerpera. See that article.

THEU-PROSOPON, in Ancient Geography; a promon-
tory of Phoenicia, between Tripolis and Botrys. Melacalls
it Euprofopon.

THEURGY, Beoupysay a name which the ancients gave to
that facred part of magic which we fometimes call hit
magic, or the white art. :

The word is formed from 9::, God, and seyox, work ;
g- d. the art of doing divine things, or things which God
alone can do: or the power of working extraordinary and
fupernatural things, by invoking the names of God, faints,
angels, &c.

Accordingly, thofe who have written of magic in the ge-
neral, divide it into three parts: the firft of which is called
theurgy, as operating by divine or celeftial means; the fe-
cond, natural magic, performed by the powers of nature ;
and the third, zecromancy,; which proceeds by invoking
demons.

This theurgy, or pretended art of fo purging and refinmg
that faculty of the mind, which receives the images of things,
as to render it capable of perceiving the demons, and of
performing many marvellous things by their affiftance, was
adopted by the difciples of Ammonius towards the clofe of
the fecond century. Ammonius, the founder of the fe& of
modern Platonics (fee PEATonism), with a view of recon-
ciling the popular religions of different countries, and parti-
cularly the Chriftian, with his own fyftem, turned into mere
allegory the whole hiftory of the gods, and maintained that
thofe beings, whom the priefls and people dignified with this

3 X 2 title,

i Hat

title, were no more than celeftial minifters, to whom a cer-
tain kind of inferior worfhip was due. He acknowledged
Chrift to be a moft excellent man, the friend of God, and
the admirable theurge; but denied that it was his intention
entirely to abolifh the worfhip of demons, and of the other
minifters of divine providence ;. affirming, on the contrary,
that he merely purified the ancient religion, and that his fol-
lowers had manifeftly corrupted the dotrine of their divine
matter. Moth. Eccl. Hift. vol. i. 8vo.

THEUTIS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Ar-
cadia, S.of the river Lodon, and near that of Tuthoa.

THEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ourthe; 5 miles N.W. of Spa.

THEXIS, a word ufed by the old medical writers,
fometimes for wounds made by puncture with fmall inftru-
ments, and fometimes for the operation of the future, or the
fewing together the lips of a wound, to make it heal with a
lefs fear.

THEYA, in Geography. See Teva.

THEYE-CHEEKE Lakzg, a lake of North America.
N. lat. 65°. W. long. 109°.

THEYE-NOYE-KYED Lakg, a lake of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 64° 10!. W. long. 108°.

THEYHOLEKYED Lakg, a lake of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 62°. W. long. 102° 5!.

THEYSSE, a river which rifes in the E. part of Hun-
gary, on the borders of Poland, and runs into the Danube ;
19 miles N.W. of Belgrade.

THEZE, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Pyrenees ; 12 miles N. of Pau.

THIA, or Diving, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
which, A.D. 46, was under the empire of Claudius.
It was one of the Cyclades, fituated between Thera and
Therafia. It either difappeared, or was reunited to that of
Hiera towards the year 726, on occafion of a violent erup-
tion which took place at that time.

Tura, atown of Cappadocian Pontus, upon the route
from Trapezunte to Satala, between Zigana and Sediflca-
pifonti. Anton. Itin.

THIACAR, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 75 miles
S.E. of Laffa.

THIAGOLA, in Ancient Geography, a name given to
the moft northerly mouth of the Danube, and to the marfh
which it forms before it runs into the Euxine fea.

THIAN, in Geography, a town of the county of Tyrol ;
13 miles W. of Bolzano.

THIAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, upon
the route from Tarragona to Caftula, between Illicis and
Carthage. Anton. Itin.

THIAUCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Meurthe; 7 miles W. of Pont-a-
Mouffon.

THIAUMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albania,
between the rivers Czfius and Gerrus.

THIBAULT VL, in Biography, count of Champagne
and king of Navarre, deferves to be recorded as one of the
earlieft cok fong-writers. In 1234 he fucceeded to the
crown of Navarre on the death of his maternal uncle.
Upon his return from the Eaft, whither he went as one of
the crufaders, he cultivated fiterature, and_ particularly
poetry. He died at Pampelona in 1253, having acquired
the fomewhat inconfiftent titles of the Great and the Song-
maker. Under the latter charaSter he obtained permanent
reputation, degraded, however, by the occafional licen-
tioufnefs of his imagery. He was the firit, it is faid, who
blended mafculine with feminine rhymes :—a capital inven-
tion in French verfification. Moreri. Nouv. Dié&. Hitt.

TH

The fongs of this prince are placed by fome at the head of
thofe that have been preferved in the French language, as
thofe by Guillaume IX., duke of Aquitaine, are in that
of Provence. There were indeed fongs written in both
languages before thefe princes had done poetry the honour
to make it their favourite amufement ; but'the chief part of
thofe of higher antiquity than the time of thefe patriarchs
of Provengal and French verfification are either loft, or
thought of little value.

This prince was contemporary with Philip Auguftus, and
Lewis VIII. and IX., which laft priace he accompanied to
the Holy War. Ithas been faid by feveral hiftorians that he
was much captivated by the charms of queen Blanche of Caf-
tile, mother of St. Lewis, to whom many. of his fongs were
addreffed ; but this point of hiftory has been difputed with
great zeal by M.I’ Evequede Ja Ravalliere, editor of Thibault’s
poems, which he publifhed in 1742, with notes, in 2 vols.
12mo, and a hiftory of the revolutions, in the French lan-
guage, from the time of Charlemagne to that of St. Lewis, to-
gether with an Effay on the Antiquity of French Songs. This
learned prelate has defended the honour of queen Blanche
with his pen, five hundred years after her deceafe, with as
much prowefs and true chivalry, as the moft valiant cham-
pion of injured innocence could have done with his fword
and lance, had he been animated by the prefence of that
princefs, and the heroifm of the times in which fhe lived.

“« Les Grandes Chroniques de France”? tell us that Thi-
bault, at the age of thirty-five, having conceived a violent
and hopelefs paffion for queen Blanche, was advifed by wife
and prudent counfellors to apply himfelf to mufic and poetry,
which he did with fuch fuccefs, that he produced ‘ the moft
beautiful fongs and melodies that have ever been heard.’?
Fauchet Des Anciens Poetes Francois.

Two airs by Thibault may be feen in Burney’s General
Hittory of Mufic, from the Vatican colleGtion of Provencal
fongs in Gregorian notes, without bars or bafe ; and given
afterwards in modern notation, with a bafe, and an Englifh
verfion of the words.

THIBERVILLE, in Geography, atown of France, in
the department of the Eure ; 9 miles E. of Lifieux.

THIBET, or Tizzr, pronounced Tibbet and Tibt in
Bengal, and called by its own inhabitants Pus, or Put-
hoachim, pué fignifying northern, and koachim, fnow, that is,
the {nowy region of the North, isa country of Afia, of
which our knowledge, principally obtained at a very recent
period, is ftill very imperfe&. We have no evidence that
the ancients ever penetrated the {nowy mountains of Tibet.
It feems to have been in fome meafure difclofed to the Por-
tuguefe, in their commercial intercourfe with the Eaft In-
dies; and the name of it was known to Marco Paolo and
other travellers of the 12th and 13th centuries. Accord-
ingly, Tibet feems to have been the fouthern part of their
Tangut. Paolo indeed defcribes the province of “* Tebeth,’”
as containing eight kingdoms, with many cities and villages,
and as being a mountainous country, which produced fome
gold and fpices, a large breed of dogs, and excellent falcons.
But we have no geographical nor ftatiftical account of this
conntry upon which we can depend previoufly to the laft cen-
tury ; and even now our knowledge of it is very partial and
defe&tive. About the year 1715, the emperor of China, as
we learn from Du Halde, being defirous of obtaining a map
of Tibet, fent two lamas, who had &tudied geometry, for
this purpofe. Thefe lamas drew a map, from Sining, in the
province of Shen-fi, to the fources of the Ganges, which
was afterwards examined by the Jefuits, and improved. This
map is publifhed in the Atlas of Du Halde, and has been
followed, with few variations, by our modern geographers.

Its

THIBET.

Its authority is doubtful, its accuracy very fufpicious, and
the information it affords concerning kingdoms, ftates, and
provinces, as well as particular places, very limited and unfa-
tisfactory. According to our moft recent maps, Tibet ex-
tends from about the 75th to the 1o01ft degree of longitude,
which, in the latitude of 30°, may be about 1350 geogra-
phical miles. The breadth may be regarded as extending
from the 27th to the 35th degree of latitude, or about 480
‘geographical miles. it appears, however, from the tefti-
monies of two intelligent travellers, Mr. Forfter and 'Tief-
fenthaler, that the northern boundary of Tibet may be
fafely extended two degrees farther than it appears in our
beit maps, in which there is no portion of Great Tibet to
the N.E. of Cafhmir. Major Rennell moved it one degree
farther to the north than D’Anville’s boundary in lat. 34°,
and Pinkerton thinks that he might fafely have extended it
at leaft 3°. The northern boundary of ‘Tibet, according to
the Ruffians, is Mus Tag, and they place that range in 38°.
By adding 2° to 35°, we obtain an addition of 120 geogra-
phical miles to the number of 480 above ftated.

Thibet, according to Mr. Bogle’s account (Phil. Tranf.)
begins properly from the top of the great ridge of the Cau-
cafus, and extends from thence in breadth to the confines of
Great Tartary, and perhaps to the dominions of the Ruf-
fian empire. He fays, that having once attained the fummit
of the Bootan mountains, you do not defcend in an equal
proportion on the fide of Thibet ; but continuing full on a
very elevated bafe, you traverfe vallies which are wider and
not fo deep as the former, and mountains that are neither fo
fteep, nor apparently fo high. On the other hand, he repre-
fents it as the moft bare and defolate country he ever faw ; and
the climate as extremely fevere. According to Mr. Turner,
the boundaries of Tibet and Bootan are feparated by the lofty
‘range of mountains called Soomoonang, and are marked by
a long row of little infcribed flags, fixed in rude heaps of
itones, and fluttering in the wind. Thefe, at the fame time,
are fuppofed to operate as a charm over the Dewtas, or
*¢ genii loci,” who are paramount here. No mountain is
thought to be wholly exempt from their influence ; and they
range chiefly in the moft elevated regions, where, drenched
with dews, and worried with tempeftuous weather, they are
fuppofed to deal around them, in ill humour, their moft
baneful fpells, to harafs and annoy the traveller.

Tibet is fometimes divided into three parts, viz. Upper,
Middle, and Lower. Upper Tibet comprifes chiefly the
province of Nagari, abounding with tremendous rocks and
mountains, always covered with fnow. The countries of
Lata or Ladak (Latac) and Breguiong or Bramafcion (per-
haps Sirinagur) probably conftitute a portion of Upper
Tibet, as well as Nagari. Middle Tibet contains the pro-
vinces of Shang, Ou, and Kiang; and thofe of Lower
Tibet are Takbo, Congbo, and Kahang. Many of thefe
provinces are again fubdivided: e. g. Nagari, which is con-
fidered as a kingdom confifting of three departments, Sang-
har, Pourang, and Tamo (Damor Daum). Shang is on the
W. bounded by Nipal. The province of Ou contains La-
haifa or Laffa, the capital of Tibet. Kiang lies to the N.
{or N.E.) of Ou, and is inhabited by a mixture of Tibetians
and Monguls intents. Kahang is on the S.E. bordering on
the Birmans, and is divided into twelye departments. To
thefe we muft add the wide region of Amdoa, if it be not
the fame with Kahang, the natives of which {peak the Chi-
nefe language. The country of Hor lies between Tartary
and the provinces of Nagari and Kiang, and feems to be the
Hohonor of our maps.. Our Bastar (which fee) is called
by the natives Decpo or Takbo ; and the countries W. of
it, viz. Moringa or Morung, Mocampour, Nipal, Gorca,

and Kamaoon, are not confidered as parts of Tibet. Onthe
weitern fide, high mountains, covered with perpetual fnow,
and terrible avalanches, have prevented the accefs and inva-
fions of the Perfians and the conquerors of Bucharia ; while
the deferts on the N.E. haye proved ineffeétual barriers
againit the Monguls and Eluts. Travellers have alfo been
prevented from exploring this quarter by the weftern moun-
tains, fo that it is even now little known.

According to the topography, compiled from the papers
of Pinnabilla, a Capuchin friar, who died in 1747, and was
buried at Patan, by father Giorgi, in a work publifhed at
Rome in 1762, Tibet is bounded on the E. by China and
Tarcenton, a province abounding with tea, and, fince the year
1720, incorporated with the Chinefe empire ; on the S. by
Bengal, Lotenke, Altibary, Mon, Brukpa, Lhoba, Lho-
khaptra, Sciapado, and Bha; on the W. by Cafhmir,
Nekpal, and Moronga; and on the N. by Great Tartary,
the Ufbeks, Cafhur, and Jonkar, as far as Jerkend and
Cokonor or Kokonor. The kingdoms and provinces in this
topography are enumerated by Pinkerton,. wz infra.

The government of Tibet has been confidered as eccle-
fiaftical or f{piritual ; though the lamas were accuftomed to
appoint a “ tipa,’’ or fecular regent, a right which has been
probably transferred to the Chinefe emperor. This officer
refides at Lafla the capital, and he is invefted with the go-
vernment and fupreme controul over the whole country.
Mr. Turner, however, is of opinion, that the temporal au-
thority of the lamas-may again recover its former dignity
and {plendour. Bootan, which is generally confidered as a
feudatory province of Tibet, has a raja or prince called
Daab, of no very permanent or extenfive authority. The
laws mutt, like the religion, bear fome affinity to thofe of
the Hindoos.

The lama of Tibet was the Prefter John of the middle
ages, if he were not fome Neftorian khan ; and the appella-
tion was unaccountably transferred by Portuguefe ignorance
to the emperor of Abyflinia. (See Prester Jonn.) In
the time of Marco Paolo, Tibet, having been ravaged by
the Monguls, was almoft defolate. For fome time this coun-
try had been fubje& to fecular kings, called Tfan Pa; and
the lama refided at Laffa, with a power refembling that of the
fpiritual prince of Japan. According to Giorgi, the fuc-
ceffion of kings and lamas commences about 1340 years B.C.
but about 1160 years after Chrift the Chinefe emperor gave
to a celebrated lama the regal power. Thofe Monguls, called
Eluts, conquered the fecular prince, and transferred the
whole power to the lama. (See Du Halde, iy. 50.) In
1792, the Nipalefe, having committed great ravages in ‘Tibet,
the Chinefe emperor fent an army to protect the lama; in
confequence of which the Chinefe eftablifhed military pofts
on the frontiers, fo that the intercourfe between their country
and Bengalis now precluded. ‘The revenues of the lama and
of the fecular princes are trifling ; nor is it likely that Tibet
can ever afpire to any political importance.

Some have faid, that the religion of Tibet is a corrupted
Chriftianity ; and even father Difiderii, a Jefuit, who vifited
the country about the beginning of the laft century, thinks
he can refolve all their mytteries into ours ; and he afferts that
they have a good notion of the Trinity, fince, in their ad-
drefs to the Deity, they fay as often koneiok-oik in the plu-
ral, as koneiok in the fingular, and with their rofaries pro-
nounce thefe words, Om, Ha, Hum. Of thefe whimfical
conjectures we fhallfay no more, but pafs on to obferve, that
the religion of the Tibetians feems to have derived its origin,
{ays Turner, (wi infra,) froma difciple of Budh, who firft
broached the do&trine which now prevails over the wide ex-
tent of Tartary. It is reported to have received its earlieft

admiffion

THIBET.

admiffion in that part of Tibet bordering upon India, (which
from hence became the feat of the fovereign lamas,) to have
traverfed over Mantchew Tartary, and to have been ulti-
mately diffeminated over China and Japan. Though it dif-
fers from the Hindoo in many of its outward forms, yet it
ftill bears a very clofe affinity with the religion of Brahma in
many important particulars. The principal idol in the temples
of Tibet is Mahamoonie, the Budha of Bengal, who is
worfhipped under thefe and various other epithets through-
out the great extent of Tartary, and among all the nations
to the eaftward of the Berhampooter. In the wide extended
fpace over which this faith prevails, the fame object of vene-
ration is acknowledged under numerous titles ; among others,
he is ftyled Godama or Gowtama, in Affam and Ava; Sa-
mana, in Siam; Amida Buth, in Japan; Fohi, in China;
Budhaand Shakamuna, in Bengal and Hindooitan; Dherma
Raja and Mahamoonie, in Bootan and Tibet. Durga and
Kali ; Ganeifh, the emblem of wifdom ; and Cartikeah, with
his numerous heads and arms, as well as many other deities of
the Hindoo mythology, have alfo a place in their aflemblage
of gods.

Fhe fame places of popular efteem or religious refort,
are equally refpected in Tibet and in Bengal; Praag, Cathi,
Durgeedin, Saugor, and Jagarnaut, are objects of devout pil-
grimage ; and loads of the facred water taken from the Ganges,
have been feen travelling over thefe mountains, ( which, by the
bye, contribute largely to its increafe,) upon the fhoulders of
men, whom enthufiafts have deemed it worth their while to
hire at a confiderable expence for fo pious a purpofe.

As far as can be judged refpecting their ritual or ce-
remonial worfhip, it differs materially from the Hindoo.
The Tibetians affemble in chapels, and unite together in
prodigious numbers, to perform their religious fervice, which
they chant in alternate recitative and chorus, accompanied by
an extenfive band of loud and powerful inftruments. So that,
whenever thefe congregations were heard, they forcibly re-
called to remembrance, both the folemnity and found of the
Roman Catholic mafs.

The inftruments made ufe of were all of an enormous fize.
Trumpets above fix feet long ; drums ftretched over a cop-
per cauldron, fuch as are termed nowbut in Hindoottan ; the
gong, a circular Chinefe inftrument of thin hammered bell-
metal, capable of producing a furprifing found; cymbals,
hautboys ; and a double drum, fhallow, but of great circum-
ference, mounted upon a tall, flender pedeftal, which the
performer turns with great facility, ftriking either fide with
along curved iron, as the piece requires a higher or a lower
tone: thefe, together with the human tibia, and fea-conch, a
large fpecies of the buccinum, compofe, for the moft part,
their religious band. Harfh as thefe initruments, individually
taken, might found to a mufical ear, yet when joined toge-
ther in untfon with the voices of two or three hundred boys
and men, managed with varying modulation, from the lowett
and fofteft cadence to the loudeft fwell, they produce to the
ear an effect extremely grand.

Other mufieal initruments are in the hands of the people
of Tibet.

Among the Tibetians, fays Mr. Turner, all is fyftem and
order. ‘The mind readily obeys the fuperiority it has been
accuitomed to acknowledge. A fovereign lama, immaculate,
immortal, omniprefent, and omnifcient, is placed at the fum-
mit of their fabric. He is efteemed the vicegerent of the
only God, the mediator between mortals and the fupreme.
They view him only in the moft amiable light, as perpe-
tually abforbed in religious duty ; and, when called to be-
{tow attention on mortal beings, as employed only in the be-
nign office of diftributing comfort and confolation by his

bleffing, and in exercifing the firft of all attributes, forgive-
nefs and mercy. He is alfo the centre of all civil govern-
ment, which derives from his authority all its influence and
power. At the fame time that he is the foul which animates
their whole fyftem, a regular gradation, from the moft vene-
rated lama, through the whole order of Gylongs to the
young noviciate, is obferved with rigid feverity.

The inferior gradations from the prefident of a monaftery,
who is always ityled lama, in addition to the name of the
ftation to which he belongs, are Gylong, Tohba, and
Tuppa. See Gytonc, TresHoo-Loomsoo, Tousa, and
Tuppa.

The nation is divided into two diftin& and feparate clafles,
thofe who carry on the bufinefs of the world, and thofe whe
hold intercourfe with heaven. No interference of the laity
ever interrupts the regulated duties of the clergy. The
latter, by mutual compaét, take charge of all their fpirituat
concerns; and the former, by their labours enrich and po-
pulate the ftate.

In Tibet there are two feéts, diftinguifhed by the appella-
tions of Gyllookpa and Shammar, but the external appear-
ance, or drefs of both, is fimilar, except the diftin@ion
in the colour of the cap; the Gylloopka having adopt-
ed yellow, the Shammar red; a circum{tance which is
ftriGtly attended to, on all occafions of ceremony. Three
lamas are placed at the head of each fe& ; Dalai lama,
Tefhoo lama, and Taranaut lama, prefide over the Gyl-
lookpa, who have their refidence at Pootalah, Tefhoo-
Loomboo, and Kharka. This feét prevails over the greateft
part of Tibet, and a divifion of the fame is faid to be eita-
blifhed in a province of the Decan, called Seurra or Serrora.

In like manner, three lamas alfo, lam’ Rimbochay, lam’
Sobroo Nawangnamghi, and lam’Ghafflatoo, prefide over the
Shammar ; thefe have their refidence in Bootan, in feparate
monatteries, but, from the limited extent of that country,
at no great diftance from each other. The principal-of the
Shammar feét in Tibet is ftyled Gongfo Rimbochay, and
has his refidence at Sakia.

The Tibetians are actuated by an ardent fpirit of devo-
tion ; and they attribute the merit of every thing great,
or fingularly beneficial, to the agency of fome fupernatural
being. It is the cuftom in Tibet to preferve entire the
mortal remains of their fovereign Lama only ; every other
corpfe is either confumed by fire, or given to be the promif-
cuous food of beafts and birds of prey. Ass foon as life has
left the body of the Lama, it is placed upright, fitting in
an attitude of devotion, the legs being folded before him,
with the inftep reaching upon each thigh, and the foles of
the feet turned upwards. It is the practice here to cover
the bodies of men, found dead in the fields, with clods of
earth, which the rains gradually diflolve and incorporate,
forming the loofe mafs into a compact hillock. This
always attraéts the fame refpeét, and paffengers continue to
add to the heap, long after all traces of the body are
loft, and its exiftence forgotten. Thus alfo the piety of
the Tibetians offers a fimilar rite to the bodies of thofe
whom chance may have led to the fpot, where the fragment
lay at the inftant of its fall, though the fatal effeéts of it
may not have been certainly known.

A tribute of refpeét is paid, in this region, to the manes
of the dead in various ways. The fovereign lamas:are depo-
fited entire, in fhrines prepared for their remains, which
ever after are looked upon as facred, and vilited with reli-
gious awe. The bodies of inferior lamas are ufually burnt,
and their afhes preferved with great care in little metallic
idols, which have places afligned them in their facred
cabinets. Common fubjeéts are treated with lefs cere-

mony ;

THIBET.

mony ; fome of them are carried to lofty eminenoes, where,
after having been disjointed, and the limbs divided, they
are left a prey for ravens, kites, and other carnivorous
birds. Others, with lefs refpe&t, are committed to the
ufual receptacle of the dead. he lait, but lefs frequent,
mode of difpofing of the dead, is committing them to the
waters of the river. Burial, that is, inhuming the corpfe
entire in the earth, is altogether unpractifed.

On one fide of the monaftery of Tefhoo-Loomboo is the
place to which they convey their dead. It is a {pacious
area, inclofed on one part by a perpendicular rock, and
on the others by lofty walls, raifed probably with a view to
feclude from public obfervation, the difgufting objeéts
contained within them. At the top it was totally un-
covered, fo as to be perfetly open to the birds; and at the
bottom a narrow paflage was left through the walls, near
their foundation, for the fole purpofe of admitting dogs, or
other beafts of prey. On the rock above, a platform
overhung the inclofure, which had been conftruéted for the
conyeniency of precipitating the dead bodies with greater
eafe over the walls, into the area. And here, the only
rites performed, in honour of the dead, were merely fuch as
tended to facilitate the deftruétion of the body by dogs
or birds of prey. But though this was the general recep-
tacle, yet there were fome who declined the ufe of it, and
conyeyed their friends to the fummit of fome neighbouring
hill, where they disjointed and mangled the dead body, that
it might become a more eafy prey to carnivorous birds.
Hence it was concluded that there was a ftrong prejudice
in their minds of fome idea of pollution attached to ‘ being
given to the, dogs,” which was fufficient to create a pre-

erence of the contrary praétice. In Tibet, as well as in
Bengal, an annual feftival is kept in honour of the dead.

The Tibetians are much addiéted to fuperftition ; and
accordingly they lay great ftrefs on lucky and unlucky
days. They alfo pay great refpe&t to the profeffors of
aftrology. Hence we find no prudent traveller ever at-
tempting to undertake a journey, without previoufly ap-
pealing to this authority, and endeavouring to obtain an
aufpicious prefage. The fame fignal of favour is deemed
indifpenfably requifite in every important enterprife, and
the fame wary circumfpeétion enters equally into all the
more minute concerns of domettic life. The union of the
fexes, and the giving names to infants, are neither of them
events to be accomplifhed without a regular appeal to the
fame decifive oracle. This fcience is alfo regarded in the
conftruétion of their almanacs. Their year, which is lunar,
confifts of 12 months, each month having 29 days; and the
days are reckoned from the appearance of the new moon,
in regular fucceffion, till it fhews itfelf again. The parts
of the days are, evening, night, morning, and noon: and
their computation of time is conformable to the general
practice of the Eaft, by a cycle of 12 years. The art of
printing is faid to have been very anciently praétifed in
Tibet; but it has hitherto been principally appropriated
to facred works, and to the fervice of learning and reli-
gion. Their books are printed with blocks of wood, on
narrow flips of thin paper, fabricated from the fibrous root of
2 {mall fhrub. The printed and written letters appropriated
to works of learning and religion, are called * uchen ;”” and
thofe of bufinefs and spmaireailanes are called ‘‘ umin.’
‘The Gylongs, or priefts, pafs through a regular education.
As for the language of Tibet, its origin is not fatisfatorily
afcertained. Du Halde reports, that it is the fame with
that fpoken by the people of Sifan, on the frontiers of
China; but as this province is fometimes included in Tibet,
this information is vague and indeterminate. Their cha-

I

racters, fays fir William Jones, are apparently Indian, but
their language has now the difadvantage of being written
with more letters than are ever pronounced; for, although
it was anciently Sanfcrit and polyfyllabic, it feems at pre-
fent, from the influence of Chinefe manners, to confift of
monofyllables, to form which, with fome regard to gram-
matical derivation, it has become neceflary to fupprefs, in
common difcourfe, many letters which we fee in their books ;
and thus we are enabled to trace in their writings a number
of Sanfcrit words and phrafes, which, in their fpoken
dialect, are quite undiftinguifhable.

A fingular cuftom prevails in this country, which may
be called polyandry. One female affociates her fate and
fortune with all the brethren of a family, without any re-
itri€tion of age or of numbers. The choice of a wife is the
privilege of the elder brother; and it is faid, that a
Tibetian wife is as jealous of her connubial rites, though
thus joined to a numerous party of hufbands, as the defpot
of an Indian zennana is of the favours of his imprifoned
fair. The bufinefs of propagating the fpecies is abandoned
to mere plebeians; and marriage feems to be confidered
rather as an odium and a burden. The influence of this
cuftom on the manners of the people is not found to be
unfavourable. Humanity and gentlenefs of difpofition are
the conftant inheritance of a Tibetian. Mr. Turner fays
that he never faw thefe qualities poflefled by any people in
a more eminent degree. Without being fervilely officious,
they are always obliging ; the higher ranks are unaffuming ;
the inferior, refpeétful in their behaviour; nor are they at
all deficient in attention to the female fex ; but, as we find
them moderate in all their paffions in this refpe, alfo their
conduét is equally remote from rudenefs and adulation.
Comparatively with their fouthern neighbours, the women
of Tibet enjoy an elevated ftation in fociety. To the pri-
vileges of unbounded liberty, the wife here adds the charaéter
of miftrefs of the family, and companion of her hufbands.
The company of all, indeed, fhe is not at all times entitled
to expect. Different purfuits, either agricultural employ-
ments or mercantile {peculations, may occafionally caufe
the temporary abfence of each ; yet whatever be the refult,
the profit of the labourer flows into the common ftore ; and
when he returns, whatever may have been his fortune, he
is fecure of a grateful welcome to a focial home. The men
are generally vale having in a degree the Tataric features,
and the women are of a ruddy brown complexion, heightened
like the fruits by the proximity of the fun, while the moun-
tain breezes beftow health and vigour.

The ceremonies of marriage are neither tedious nor intri-
cate in Tibet. Their courtfhips are carried on with little
art, and quickly brought to a conclufion. The elder bro-
ther of a family, to whom the choice belongs, when ena-
moured of a damfel, makes his propofal to the parents.
If his fut is approved, and the offer accepted, the parents,
with their daughter, repair to the fuitor’s houfe, where the
male and female acquaintance of both parties meet and
caroufe for the fpace of three days, with mufic, dancing,
and every kind of feitivity. At the expiration of this time
the marriage is complete.

Tibet is thinly fcattered with inhabitants, on account of
its mountainous furface and the feverity of its climate; nor
can any accurate eflimate be made ofits population. From
fome circumftances it has been conjectured, that upon the
whole it cannot be lefs than half a million. Giorgi, in-
deed, or rather Pinnabilla, from whom he deduces his ftate-
ment, computes the number of inhabitants in 1730 at 33
millions, and the foldiers at 690,000; but both thefe num-
bers are moft extravagantly exaggerated ; for pis

een

= THIBET.

been often conquered by the Chinefe with armies not ex-
ceeding 40,000 men. The fingular cuftom of polyandry,
already mentioned, feems adapted to check the progrefs of
population, the fuperabundance of which, in an infertile
country like Tibet, would be one of the greateft calamities,
as it muft produce eternal warfare or internal want.

Bootan and Tibet exhibit a very remarkable contraft in
theirexternal appearance. Bootan prefents to the view nothing
but the moft mis-fhapen irregularities ; mountains covered
with eternal verdure, and rich with abundant forefts of large
and lofty trees. Almoft every favourable afpe& of them,
coated with the {malleft quantity of foil, is cleared and
adapted to cultivation, by being fhelved into horizontal
beds : not a flope or narrow flip of land between the ridges
lies unimproved. There is fcarcely a mountain, whofe
bafe is not wafhed by fome rapid torrent, and many of the
loftieft_ bear populous villages, amidft orchards and other
plantations, on their fummits and on their fides. It com-
bines in its extent the moft extravagant traits of rude nature
and laborious art.

Tibet, on the other hand, ftrikes a traveller, at firft fight,
as one of the leaft favoured countries under heaven, and
appears to be in a great meafure incapable of culture. It
exhibits only low rocky hills, without any vifible vege-
tation, or extenfive arid plains, both of the moft ftern and
ftubborn afpe&, promifing full as little as they produce.
Its climate is cold and bleak in the extreme, from the fevere
effects of which the inhabitants are obliged to feek refuge
in fheltered valleys and hollows, or amidft the warmett
afpeéts of the rocks. Yet perhaps Providence, in its im-
partial diftribution of bleffings, has beftowed on each coun-
try a tolerably equal fhare. The advantages that one pof-
feffes in fertility, and in the richnefs of its forefts and its
fruits, are amply counterbalanced in the other by its multi-
tudinous flocks and invaluable mines. As one feems to
poffefs the pabulum of vegetable, in the other we find a
fuperabundance of animal, life. The variety and quantity
of wild fowl, game, and beaifts of prey, flocks, droves, and
herds in Tibet, are aftonifhing. In Bootan, except domettic
creatures, nothing of the fort is feen. It has been afferted
that Tibet was, in remote times, almoft totally inundated ;
and the removal of the waters that covered its furface is
afcribed to the miraculous interpofition of fome object of
their worfhip, whofe chief temple is reported to be at
Dungeedin, Gya. In this traditionary belief we may
poflibly difcover fome traces of the univerfal deluge ;
though the tradition be obf{cured by fable and disfigured
by a mixture of abfurdity. In the temperature of the
feafons in Tibet, a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well
as in their periodical duration and return. The fame divi-
fion of them takes place here, as in the more fouthern
region of Bengal. ‘The fpring is marked from March to
May, by a variable atmofphere ; heat, thunder-ftorms, and
occafionally with refrefhing fhowers. From June to Sep-
tember is the feafon of humidity, when heavy and continued
rains. fill the rivers to their brim, which run off from
hence with rapidity, to affift in inundating Bengal. From
Oétober to March, a clear and uniform {ky fucceeds, feldom
obfcured either by fogs or clouds. For three months of
this feafon, a degree of cold is felt, far greater perhaps than
is known to prevail in Europe. Its extreme feverity is
more, particularly confined to the fouthern boundary. of
Tibet, near that elevated range of mountains which divides
it from Affam, Bootan, and Nipal. The fummits of thefe
are covered all the year with fnow, and their vicinity is
remarkable, at all feafons, for the drynefs of the winds.
The range is confined between the twenty-fixth and

4

twenty-feventh degrees of northern latitude. During the
winter, a practice is adopted in the neighbourhood of thefe
mountains, fimilar to that in ufe in the coldeft parts of
North America, but in fome refpeéts more complete. It
is that of preparing meat and fifh for carriage, by the
aétion of extreme cold. This praétice, however, feems to
be confined to the prefervation of mutton alone, which is a ~
very fimple procefs, and requiring no ufe of falt. The
Tibetians generally ufe that which is recently killed in a
raw ftate, without any previous cookery.

Among the valuable and ufeful animals of Tibet, which
are mufk-deer, horfes of a fmall fize, goats yielding the
hair that is manufa€tured into fhawls, and cattle that are
diminutive, to which we may refer the yak of the Tartars,
their breed of fheep claims a diftinguifhed rank. OF thefe
the flocks are numerous, and upon them they chiefly de-
pend for their winter food. A peculiar fpecies, thought
to be indigenous to this climate, is marked almoft inva-
riably by black heads and legs. Their fize is fmall, their
wool is foft, and their flefh, fays Mr. Turner, is the fineft
mutton in the world. The wool affords material for one
of their principal manufactures. (See eee
Their fkins and thofe of the lambs are cured with the wool
on, and conftitute a valuable article for winter garments, and
for foreign traffic.

The foil and climate of Tibet are very unfavourable to any
kind of exertion and activity that have for their obje& the
cultivation of the land, but from time immemorial it has been
the refort of merchants. Commerce, however, has been very
languidly encouraged. The form of government, which is
arbitrary, is inimical to induftry and enterprife. In Tibet,
and alfo in Bootan, the firft member of the ftate is the chief
merchant ; and his ftation and power of controul give him
great advantages oyer the common adventurer ; and of courfe
by this monopoly of the fovereign, emulation is reftrained
and fuppreffed. .

Although, as we have faid, the nature of the foil pro-
hibits agriculture ; yet the vales on the approach of winter
being laid under water, they are ploughed and fown: in
{pring, and the crops are matured by frequent fhowers and
a powerful fun. The autumn being clear and tranquil,the
harveit is long left to dry on the ground ; and when fuffi-
ciently hardened is trod out by cattle. The courfe of cul-
tivation is wheat, peas, and barley ; rice being confined to
a more fouthern foil. Neverthelefs, the country abounds
with commodities, which in different circumftances would
give fpirit and extent to commercial tranfaétions, whilft
they are languifhing in floth, or exhibiting every indication
of poverty. The trade with Bengal was formerly not in-
confiderable ; but this has been interrupted and diminifhed
by the commotions which have long diftraéted the kingdom
of Nipal, which was the only known channel of commu-
nication. Bengal tranfmitted to Tibet, broad cloth, chiefly
of inferior quality, and of yellow and fcarlet colours; fome
few trinkets, fuch as f{nuff-boxes, fmelling-bottles, knives,
{ciffars, and optic-glaffes; and {pices, particularly cloves
and nutmegs; fandal wood, pearls, emeralds, fapphires,
lapis lazuli, coral, jet, amber, fhells, cloths, leather, tobacco,
indigo, and otter-{kins ; and it received from Tibet, gold-
duft, mufk, and tincal. The articles of trade next in im-
portance, amongit the natural produétions of Tibet, are.
goats’ hair and rock-falt. Bootan, Nipal, Bengal, and
Hindooftan, are fupplied with tincal from Tibet. The hai
of the goats is carried to Cafhmire, where it is manufaétured
into fhawls. The demand for falt is in the confumption of
Nipal and Bootan. as

The trade from Tibet to Bootan confifts of gold-duft;

tea,

THiIBET.

tea, woollen cloths, and falt ; from Bootan to Tibet, the
articles are Englifh broad cloth, Rungpore leather, tobacco,
coarfe cotton cies, &c. paper, rice, fandal wood, indigo.
Tibet fends to Luddauk, the mart between Cafhmire and
Tefhoo-Loomboo, the fine hair of goats, and receives in re-
turn gamboge, fhawls, dried fruits, as apricots, raifins,
currants, dates, almonds, and faffron. Khumbauk fends to
Tibet, horfes, dromedaries, and Balgar hides. In Tibet
there are feveral mines of lead; and as lead-ore contains
filver, it might be feparated from it to great advantage, if the
method of doing it were known. Here are alfo mines of
cinnabar, which contains a great proportion of mercury, if
the Tibetians knew how to extract it. "The copper-mines
furnifh materials for the manufaéture of idols, and all the
ornaments difpofed about monafteries, on which gilding
is beftowed, for which there is a great demand in Tibet.

A very {mall quantity of fpecie is current in Tibet, and
that is of a bafe ftandard. It ig the filver coin of Nipal,
here denominated indermillee, and worth about one-third of
a ficea rupee; and it is cut into halves, third parts, and
quarters. In all mercantile tranfaétions, however, the equi-
valent is made in bullion, #. ¢. talents of gold and filver, valued
in proportion to the purity and fpecific gravity of the
metal.

The commerce between Tibet and China is carried on
principally at a garrifon town, on the weftern frontier of
China, named Sinning, or Silling: thither merchants refort
from Tibet with their manufacture; vie. a thin cloth re-
fembling frieze, but rather of a more open texture, gold-
duft, and fome other commodities procured from Bengal ;
which they exchange for tea, filver bullion, brocades, and
fruit. In thefe articles an extenfive trade is carried on; and
Mr. Turner has been affured that, on the territory of 'Tefhoo-
Loomboo alone, tea, to the amount of five or fix lacs of
rupees, is annually confumed. From hence, too, Bootan is
fupplied with tea, which is in the fame general ufe there.

Tibet exports to China, gold-duft, diamonds, pearls,
coral, mufk, woollen cloths of its own manufa¢ture, lamb-
fkins and otter-fkins, called ood, brought from Bengal ; and
China returns to Tibet, gold and filver brocades, plain filks,
fatins, black teas of four or five different forts, tobacco,
filver bullion, quickfilver, cinnabar, china ware, trumpets,
cymbals, and other mufical inftruments; furs, viz. fable,
ermine, black fox ; and dried fruits of various forts.

The regulations for carrying the commerce of the Englifh
Eat India Company through the dominions of Bootan, by
means of the agency of native merchants, were fettled by
the treaty entered into by Mr. Bogle, in the year 1775.

The cities and towns of Tibet are little known: the
capital is Laffa; which fee. Among the edifices, the mo-
naiteries occupy the firft clafs. (See TrsHoo-Loomsoo. )
The chief river of Tibet is Berhampooter ; which fee. The
Hoan-ho and Kian-ku of the Chinefe alfo derive their origin
from the eaftern boundaries of Tibet. The great Japanefe
river of Cambodia, or Maykaung of Laos, that of Nou Kia,
fuppofed to pafs near Martaban, into the gulf of Pegu, and
the Irawaddy of the eaft country, are apoted to have
their fources from the mountains of Tibet, which may be
ftyled the Alps of Afia. Another large river, called the
Sardjoo or Gagra, which, after a courfe of about 600 miles,
nearly parallel on the E. with that of the Ganges, joins it
near Chupra, and derives its {pring from the lofty weftern
mountains of Tibet. In thefe Alpine regions are many
lakes, fuch as Terkiri, and Jamdro or Pelté; which fee.
The ranges of Tibetian mountains in the W. and S. feem
to bend in the form of acrefcent, from the fources of the
Ganges to the frontiers of Afam, ina N.W. and S.E. direc-

* Von. XX XV.

tion. To the N. of Sampoo » parallel and higher ridge
feems to extend, the northern extremities abounding with
large frozen lakes. The chief elevation of mountains ap-
pears to be central, S. of the lake Terkiri, and is called
Koiran, the weftern part being denominated Kantel. The
fouthern range prefents many names of diftin@ mountains,
comprehended under the Hindoo name of Himmela. From
thefe ranges many branches extend N. and S. This country
poffeffes many mineral waters, the falutary ufe of which is
not unknown to the natives. Among its natural curiofities
we may reckon a fingular rock, N. of Taflifudon, defcribed
by Mr. Saunders in the Appendix to Turner’s Travels, and
forming in front fix or feven angular femi-pillars of large
circumference, and fome one hundred feet in height. This
natural curiofity is partly detached from the mountains,
and projeéts over a confiderable fall of water, which
heightens the piéturefque appearance of the whole. The
rock is laminated, and might be formed into flate; and as
iron-{tones are found in the vicinity, thefe pilafters probably,
like thofe of bafalt, arife from the influence of that metal.
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. Sir W. Jones’s Works, vol. iu.
Turner’s Travels. Pinkerton’s Geography.

Tuiset or Treet, Little, a diftrid N.W. of Cafhmire,
which is fuppofed to contain the chief fource of the
Indus. The fituation of this country is doubtful ; it pro-
bably lies on the N. and N.W. of Cafhmire, and is divided
from Great Tibet by a high mountainous ridge, and by a
higher chain, that of Belur, from Great Bucharia. It is
defcribed as a very mountainous and poor country, pervaded
by the Indus, and towards the N. full of forefts. The
capital is Afcardu, and further to the N. is Schekar.
Temir-kand, or the fortrefs of iron, feems to command the
pafs between Great and Little Tibet ; and the two Ganges
of the Chinefe maps (f{uppofed fources of the Ganges)
are probably rivers which join the Indus from the Eaft.
Pinkerton.

The delineation of the country of the Saez, by Ptolemy
and Strabo, (fee Sacx,) will be found to correfpond, fays
Hugh Murray, efq. in his “ Ancient Geography of Central
and Eaftern Afia,”? in every refpe&t, with that given by
Mr. Elphinftone of the Plain of Pamera and Little Thibet,
It was bounded on the S. by Hindooftan, from which it
was feparated by the ridge of Imaus. On the N. it was
bounded by the next parallel chain, “* Mons Afcataneas,”’
which cannot poflibly be any other than the Mooz-Taugh,
to whofe name, indeed, it bears a rude refemblance. It
extended E. from the Montes Comedorun, (the Beloor or
Belur,) to fomewhat beyond the head of the Ganges ;_ pre-
cifely the dimenfions of Little Thibet. Great and Little
Thibet form a table land of extraordinary elevation, border-
ing on Hindoeftan to the S.:; and two parallel chains,
running from E. to W., prop this mighty bulwark of A fia.
The northern barrier is formed by an immenfe chain,
known under the name of Hindoo Coofh, and Himmela
or Himalaya, which forms the northern limit of India.
The whole extent of it is covered, to a great depth, with
perpetual fnow; and every meafurement yet made, from
Pefhaur to Nepaul, has made it exceed 20,000 feet above
the level of the plain, being higher than the higheft peaks of
the Andes. The whole is recognized by Ptolemy under the
name of Imaus. The northern range, known by the un-
couth appellation of Mooz-Taugh, taugh being merely the
generic name of mountain, or Karrakorum, Mr. H. Mur-
ray apprehends to be defcribed by him under the name
of Mons Afcataneas. Its abfolute elevation feems to ex-
ceed that of Himalaya, and yet from the high level of its
bafe, it does pot prefent fo formidable an afpect. At right

ANG angles

Tad

angles te both, conneéting them, and fhutting in the weftern
fide of the table land, is another chaia, called the Beloor-
Taugh ; forming the eaftern limit of Shognaun, the ancient
Sogdiana, and thus coinciding with ‘the Montes Comedorun.
According to the writer now cited, the ** Scythia extra
Imaum” of Ptolemy muft be Great Thibet, with an extent
of Tartary ftretching indefinitely northwards. After
Scythia, he fays, comes the famous Serica; and if Great
Thibet be Scythia extra Imaum, the next great country
muft be China, which he concludes from a variety of cir-
cumftances to be Serica. This writer thinks Pinkerton’s
hypothefis, mentioned under Serica, of its beimg Little
Bucharia, altogether inadmiffible. See Murray’s Ancient
Geography of Central and Eaftern Afia.

THICKET, a clofe knot or tuft of trees; a clofe wood,
&c. in any field or inclofure of any kind.

Tuicxers, in Gardening, a fort of clofe plantations
of trees and fhrubs, in pleafure-grounds, parks, &c. They
are defigned for different purpofes, as fometimes to repel the
force oh eaanetinens and cold cutting winds; either from the
habitation, or fome particular part of the garden; or to form
places of fhade and retirement in fummer, having {paces for
walks, recefles, &c. under the umbrage of the trees, and
occafionally to conceal from view any unfightly or difagree-
able objeét, and alfo fometimes to form a fereen or blind
arranged towards fome outward boundary.

They are fometimes planted wholly of the large tree
kinds, five or fix to eight or ten feet afunder, fome in regular
lines, like a.clofe grove, or more generally in a fort of pro-
mifcuous planting, but with fome degree of order in the
diftances: they are alfo often compofed of various trees and
fhrubs together, to effe& a more full, clofe growth below and
above, and to difplay a greater diverfity in the plantation, by
difpofing the various fhrubs properly between the larger trees,
in fome order of gradation, the loweft towards the front, and
the taller growths backward, fo as to form a fort of clofe
underwood thicket below, while the trees run up and form
athicketty growth above; and fometimes they are formed
wholly of fhrubs of different forts and degrees of growth,
from the loweft placed forward, to the talleft behind.

They are fometimes, too, formed wholly of particular
forts of trees difpofed feparately in diftiné plantations, as of
elm, ath, beech, poplar, alder, willow, &c.

The planting of thicket plantations fhould be effected
with young trees of from four, five, or fix, to eight or ten
feet growth, and the fhrub kinds proportionally ; in all of
ahiduahe planting may be performed in the common {eafons
of autumn, winter, and {pring.

In the culture of thicket plantations, little is required but
that of keeping them clear from large overbearing weeds,
while the trees and fhrubs are in young {mall growth.

Thickets are now much lefs in ufe than was formerly the
cafe in ornamental gardening, and pleafure-ground planting ;
they may, however, on fome occafions, be introduced with
good effect.

THICKON, in Cosrpiys ariver of Pennfylvania, which
runs into the Delaware, N. lat. 40°25’. W. long. 75° 8/.

THICKSTUFF, a name for fided timber exceeding
four inches in thicknefs, but not being more than twelve
inches in thicknefs.

THIEBLEMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Marne; 8 miles E.S.E. of Vitry le
Francais.

THIEL, or Trex, a city or town of Holland, in the
department of Guelderland, fituated on the north fide of the
‘Wahal, in a {mall ifland called Tieler-Weert. In one of its
fauxbourgs, called Santawyck, which is well fortified, is a

=
: “

SN ty

ftrong citadel: the fortifications were deftroyed iuithe year
1674, by the French, who had made themfelves matters of
the place about two years, before, and have been fince re-,
paired. Inthe year 1528, it was befieged by the Spaniards,’
when Charles V. was at war with the duke of Gueldyes ;'
but they were compeiled to raife the fiege, through the:
brave refiftance of the citizens. The country about it is,
marfhy, and the air reckoned unwholefome. . The fortifi-
cations are deftroyed; 18 miles N.N.E. of Bois-le-Duc.

THIELLE, a town of the county of Neufchatel, be-.
tween the lake of Bienne and the lake of Neufchatel ;. 5
miles N.E. of Neufchatel—Alfo, a river of Switzerland,
which rifes in the Vaudois, pafles through the lakes of
Neufcnatel and Bienne, and runs into the Aar, 3 miles below
Buren.

THIELLEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Uri; 2 miles N.W. of Altorff.

THIELT, a town of France, in the department
Lys; 10 miles N. of Courtray.

THIENE, a town of Italy, in the Vicentin; 9g miles
N.W. of Vicenza.

THIERS, Joun Baptist, in Biography, a divine, was:
born at Chartres about the year 1636, and became a batche-.
lor of the Sorbonne, profefior in the college of Du Pleffis,
at Paris, and curé of Chauprend, in the diocefe of Chartres.
Being arrefted in confequence of a difpute with the clergy:
of Chartres, and a fatire again{t one of them, he efeaped by
a ftratagem, and found refuge with the bifhop of Mans, who
gave him the cure of Vibraie, where he died in February,
1703- is works are numerous, freely written, and on
fingular fubjeéts ; but we refer for an account of them to
Moreri, the Nouv. Dict. Hiftor. and Gen. Biog. ;

THIERS, in Geography, a town of France, andprincipal
place of a diftri&, in the department of the Puy-de-Déme ;
here are manufactures of cutlery, playing-cards, papery.
thread, &c.; 21 miles S.E. of Gannat. N. lat. 45° 52/-
E. long. 3° 38/. .

THIERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 6 miles N.E. of Wonfiedel. ,

THIERSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach, on the Eger; 5 miles N.E. of Wonfiedel.

THIE-WEY-ARA-YETH Lakxg, a lake of North
America. N. lat. 61° 20!. W. long. 106° 307.

THIGH, Femur, a part of the body of men, quad-
rupeds, and birds, between the leg and the trunk. See
EXTREMITIES: a

We have an account in the Philofophical Tranfa@tions of
a large piece of a young man’s thigh-bone being taken out,
and the place fo well fupplied by a callus, that he walked
ftraight. See N° 461. fe&. 2.

Tuicu-Bone, Fra@ured. See FRacTURE.

Tuicu, Luxation of. See Luxation.

Tuieu, in the Manege. The effe& of the horfeman’s
thigh is one of the aids that ferves to make a horfe work
vigoroufly. See Arp.

Fore-thigh, or arm of a horfe, is that part of the fore-leg
that runs between the fhoulder and the knee: though the
fore-thigh does not bend or bow, yet we commonly fay, a
horfe goes fine, that bends well the fore-thigh, importing
byzit, that he bends well his hei

Horfes fhould always be full and well made in the thick
parts of the thigh, efpecially in horfes of the working kinds.

THIGHT, in Agriculture, aterm provincially applied to
turnip, or other crops which are thick or clofely fet. It
alfo fignifies impervious, when applied to roofs or yeflels in
fome Tiftriéts. hued

THILACHIUM, in Botany, fo named by iol,

of the:

THI

from Grae, @ little bag, alluding to the form of ‘the calyx.
It ought rather therefore to have been Tylachium.—Loureir:
_ Cochinch. 342.—Clafs and order, Polyandria Monegynia.
Nat. Ord. Capparides, Juff. |

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, oblong-turbinate,
ribbed, pointed, undivided, clofe, at length burtting all
round. Cor. none. Sfam. Filaments numerous, about
feventy, awl-fhaped, long, ere&t, inferted into the recep-
tacle; anthers oblong, upright. Pi. Germen fuperior,
on a ftalk the length of the filaments, oblong, ftriated ;
ftyle noae ; ftigma roundifh. Peric. Berry oblong, with
ten fides, of one cell. Seeds numerous, kidney-fhaped, im-
bedded in pulp.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, oblong, burfting all round.
Corolla none. Berry ftalked, with ten angles, one cell, and
many feeds.

1. Th. africanum. African Pouch-flower.—Obferved by

‘Loureiro on the eaftern coaft of Africa, near Mozambique,
where it is called by the Portuguefe Mangueiro. The tree is
fmall, with fpreading branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked,
ovate, entire, fmooth. Stalks terminal, bearing feyeral
flowers, whole long ffamens are of a fafiron colour. The
author obferves that this genus approaches Capparis, in its
ftamens and the ftalk of its derry, but differs widely in the
unufual form of the calyx, as well as the want of a corolla,
and the figure of the /eed-veffel. De Theis thinks it allied
to MarcGravia, fee that article. As far as it is related
to Capparis, he is right ; but between the corolla of Marc-
gravia, and the calyx of Thilachium, which he feems to have
had in view, there can be no affinity ; any more than be-
tween the latter and the pouch in the outer calyx of
Ruyscuta, which article the reader may likewife confult.
We mutt be content to leave the matter as we find it, there
being great | apeec confidering how little we know of
the botany of its native country, that the plant, and even
its genus, are entirely new to Europeans.

THILAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardennes; 7 miles N.N.E. of Charleville.

THILCHATEL, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cote d’Or; 14 miles N. of Dijon.

THILCO, or rather T’H1100, in Botany. See Fuscuta,

D. Q-

THILL, in Rural Economy, the name of the framed
fhafts of carts and waggons, between which the horfe draws
and moves. The thills of thefe kinds of carriages fhould
always, as much as poflible, be made of tough afh-wood,
and light in proportion to the nature and ufes of them.

Tuitt-Horfe, the lait horfe in a team, or the horfe that
goes between the thills or fhafts ; which often fuftains much
undue weight and preffure on the back, in confequence of
the load which is drawn. This is capable of being re-

ved in various ways and by different contrivances, but the
two which are noticed below would feem to be the moft
fimple and eafy. It is well known to be almoft univer-
fally the practice to hook or attach the fecond horfes, in
cart or waggon teams, on at the end of the fhafts. The
eonfequence of which is obvioufly this: whenever the cart
or carriage afcends a hill, and the fore part of the team
comes to level ground, which not unfrequently happens,
while the thill-horfe or horfes are ftill on the declivity, from
their force being exerted in a right line to the ends of the
fhafts, all the powers of the whole of the leading horfes
muft, in fuch cafes, inevitably load and opprefs the thill-
horfe or hories, when fo direéted, as they tend to deprefs
the fhafts, in their exertion to draw at the proper point of
draught ; that is, in the line with the axle. The thill-horfe
or horfes are often feen, in fuch inftances, nearly borne

TH @

down, where the afcente are fteep, and the levels rather
fuddenly regained. The back, or backs, of fuch horfes
become a fort of fulcrum, on which the ftrength of all the
preceding horfes a&ts as a kind of lever ; which, if fufficiently
forcible, and the thill-horfe or horfes’ backs were ftrong
enough to bear the preffure, mutt lift the carriage off the
ground, until it fhould come to a level with the line of their
pull.

In order to remedy this great preflure and inconvenience,
it is advifed that a looped iron, of about a foot in depth, in
the whole, be faftened to the end of the fhaft; nailing and
rivetting it firmly, by means of expanded flats. The looped
part will then reach about eight or nine inches under or be-
low the fhafts. Each trace is to be carried through thefe
loops inftead of hooking on there, and be faftened at the
bottom of the fhaft, near to where it hitches onto the frame
of the carriage. This will give play to the traces, and
wholly relieve the thill-horfe or horfes from the undue pref-
fure to which they are expofed.

The principle here laid down is neceflary, whatever other
method may be had recourfe to in removing the incon-
venience.

At Hinton-Houfe, in Berkfhire, S. Nicolls, efq. is faid
to effe@ this in a fomewhat different manner, the aim of
which is the prevention of the draught of the trace-horfes
pulling down the thill-horfe or thiller, which is always found
to be the cafe, when they draw from a drail, as it is termed,
in the fore part of the fhaft, if the thill-horfe be taller than
the trace-horfes, or if the latter are going down a declivity,
before the former has paffed its fummit, -as feen above.

The preventive pra€tice or mode in this cafe is by infert-
ing a chain to the hinder part of the fhafts, which is alfo
attached, and confined in fome meafure, to the fore part of
the fhaft (where the drail is generally placed) by a piece of
chain, which allows it to move freely to a certain diftance
from the fhaft, in order that the draught may be conftantly
kept in a horizontal dire€tion.

THILYPTERIS, in Botany, a term ufed by Dillenius
to exprefs the common female fern or brakes.

THIMA, in Geography. See Tra.

THIMBLE, a cover for the finger, made of brafs,
fteel, or filver, and ufed by all people who few, as taylors,
milliners, &c.

TuimBLe, in Sea Language, an iron ring with a groove
round the outfide, to receive the rope it is {pliced into.
Thimbles are fpliced into the rigging and fails for blocks
to be hooked to, or ropes to reeve through where blocks
would appear too heavy.

Tumse Jflands, in Geography, {mall iflands near the
coait of Conneticut. N. lat. 41° 11!. W-~long. 72° 42'.

THIMBRIC-KEUY, a village of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia, on the fcite of an ancient town
called “ Thymbra,”’ built by Dardanus, king of Phrygia.
Here are fome confiderable ruins, fuppofed of a temple of
Apollo.

THIMDA, a town of Tunis; 8 miles S.W. of Bizerta.

THIMIO, im the Materia Medica, a name ufed by fome
authors for a peculiar fort of lignum aloes, which is blackifh
and very heavy, and extremely iweet.

THIN, a name given by the Arabian writers to earth of
any kind.

Thus the bole armenic of Galen is called by Avicenna
thin Arment; and hence the word muthin, an adjective figni-
fying earthy, or approaching to the nature of earth; a term
applied to many medicines of this kind.

THINA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors have
called the larix, or larch-tree.

3Y 2 THINGAU,

Twi

THINGAU, m Gapratly: See TInGAw.

THINGVALLA, a place of Iceland, about 26 miles
diftant from Reikiavik, and 24 miles from Skalholt; in
which is a fmall, mean, and dirty church. The fcenery
about it is romantic ; but the want of wood, and the effeés
of fubterraneous heat, combine to give it a dreary afpect.
The adjoining lake of the fame name is a fine fheet of water,
reckoned to be about ten miles long and from three to feven
in breadth. In the lakes are two pretty large iflands, called
Sanday and Nefey, compofed entirely of volcanic matter.
The depth of the lake is faid to be very great; a line of
yoo fathoms having been funk without reaching the bottom.
It receives the waters of the furrounding bogs, and near it
in different places vapours are feen to afcend from hot
fprings. It abounds with trout. At the S. end the moun-
tains are very picturefque, and the afcending vapours contri-
bute to the folemnity of the whole {cene, as they arife from
{prings that have been produced by the moft dreadful com-
motions, and the deftruction of a country that may once have
been beautiful and fertile.» Near Thingvalla is a building,
where the courts of juftice were formerly held; but as
Reikiavik is now the feat of government, the courts are held
there. It does not appear why this place was originally fe-
le&ted for the feat of juftice; but a town being once efta-
blifhed, and trade carried on freely, and toa greater extent
than in former times, ready recourfe to the law became ne-
cefflary. Although not more than fifteen years have elapfed
(1817) fince the judicial courts were transferred to Reikia-
vik, few remains are left to mark a fpot fo famous in the
hiftory of Iceland. The only building is a fmall wooden
houfe, in which the confultations were held and fentence pro-
nounced by the ftiftantment or governor. ‘The magiitrates
and people affembled on the occafion lived in tents. The
culprits who were condemned to die were beheaded on a
{mall ifland in the river Oxeran, which here flows into the
lake. The females were drowned in a deep pool below the
lava, a little farther up the valley. An ecelefiaftical court
ufed to be held at Thingvalla by the Eiliog of Skalholt, at-
tended by the provofts and two minifters from each Sy‘ffel.
It is fuggefted, that Tingwall in Shetland, and Dingwall in
Rofsfhire, are evidently the fame names as Thingvalla; and
were probably, in ancient times, places where safes was ad-
miniftered. ‘Towards the N. are feveral ranges of moun-
tains, which, from the account received, and the appearances
obferved, are volcanic. Among thefe, the principal feems to
be Skalbreidé, a lofty Jokul, of which defcription of moun-
tains others were feen at a diftance. Although the trans-
ference of the fuperior court from Thingvalla to Reikiavik
has, probably, been attended with advantage, the Icelanders,
as a people, have fome reafons for regarding this change
with regret. The annual meeting at Thingvalla was not
merely that of a tribunal of juftice, but an aflembly of the
nation ; and though the importance of this aflembly was di-
minifhed, and its dignity degraded, by the fubjetion of the
ifland to a foreign power, yet on the foot where the greatett
among his atin cs fo often ftood, the mind of the Icelander
mult ever have been awake to enthufiafm and patriotic pride.
“ Hie facra, hic genus, hic majorum multa veftigia !”? Mac-
kenzie’s Iceland.

THINKING, Coeiration, a general name for any act
or operation of the mind.

Chauvin, with the Cartefians, will have thinking to con-
fift in a certain native, inherent motion or agitation of the
human mind, of which itfelf is confcious.—Native and in-
herent, fince he conceives it no other than the very effence of
the mind itfelf, or, at leaft, its principal and fundamental
property : an agitation, fince there is a new modification or

Tw T

change made in the mind, which we fcarcely know how to
coneeive without motion ; add, that the origin and etymo-
logy of the word cogitation, according to Varro and Feftus,
implies 2s much ; cogito being ufed for coagito.

When the mind turns its view inwards, upon itfelf, the
firft idea that offers, fays Mr. Locke, is thinking ; in which
it obferves a great variety of modifications, and of them
frames to itfelf diftinft ideas: thus the perception annexed
to any impreffion on the body, made by an external obje@,
is called fenfation. .

When an idea recurs without the prefence of the objeét,
it is called remembrance. ,

When fought after by the mind, and brought again into
view, it is called recolleGion.

When held there long under attentive confideration, it is
called contemplation.

When ideas float in the mind without regard or refle@tion,
it is called a revery ; when they are taken exprefs notice of,
and, as it were, regiftered in the memory, it is attention;
and when the mind fixes its view on any one idea, and con-
fiders it on all fides, it is /ffudy and attention.

Thefe are the moft obvious modes of thinking ; but there
are feveral others which we know of ; and, doubtlefs, the
mind is capable of infinite others, of which we haye no-
notion at all.

The {chool-philofophers ufually divide thinking, with re-
gard to the objeé it is employed about, into underftanding,
intelledio ; and willing, wolttio.

And hence, thofe are faid to be the two powers or facul-
ties of the human mind.

IntelleGual thinking is farther fubdivided into divers kinds ;
the firft, when the mind merely apprehends or takes notice
of a thing, called perception; the fecond, when it affirms or
denies a thing, called judgment; the third, when it gathers
or infers a thing from others given, called reafoning; the
fourth, when the mind difpofes its own thoughts or ideas in
order, called method.

Volitive thinking, or volition, admits of infinite different
modifications, or new determinations. :

Some authors extend the idea of thinking farther; and
confider it in God, angels, brutes, &c. whence refults a
new divifion of thinking, into divine, angelieal, human, and
animal or fenfitive.

But the two firft we know little or nothing of: the third
is that of which we have already been treating.—As to the
laft, viz. animal or fenfitive thought, it is defined to be, an
aétion of the foul attending to an external objet, affected
by means of the animal fpirits duly agitated in the brain, to
excite an idea.

The Cartefians maintain, that thinking is effential to the
human foul; and, confequently, that there is no time when
the foul does not think: but this doétrine has been very vi-
goroufly attacked by Mr. Locke; who labours to fhew,
that in fleep, without dreaming, there is an entire ceffation
of the modes of thinking.

I think, cogito, according to Des Cartes, is the firft, and
moft certain, of all truths; from which, alone, we draw
this confequence, therefore I am, or exilt, /um.—One might
alfo fay, cogito, ergo Deus eft; I think, therefore there is a Gad.
—Logic is defined, the art of thinking methodically. _

THINNING of Plantations and Woods, in Agriculture.
The pra¢tice of thinning plantations of trees and woods, fo
as to let the plants of them have more room as they advance
in growth, is moftly an operation of confiderable importance ;
as upon it, perhaps, more than upon any other point of the
after-management in fuch cafes, depends the nature, quan-

uty,

PH i

tity, and modification of the timber which is raifed and
produced. :

Woods of the natural kinds, the feeds of which are fown
by birds or the winds on foils and furfaces of very dif-
ferent defcriptions and forts, rife and {pring up at different
times, and of very different degrees of thicknefs, {trength,
and vigour in themfelves and their different parts ; confe-
quently it is eafy to fuppofe, that thofe which are placed
in favourable fituations and circumftances, will quickly
overtop the others; and if they do not wholly deftroy, will
at leaft weaken them in fuch a way as not to be affected or
inconvenienced by them, until the ftrongeft trees ultimately
find ample and fufficient room for their growth. In this
way, although nature may be flow in her operations, fhe
effects her purpofe in a very complete manner. Befides
thefe obfervations, Mr. Loudon has noticed that artificial
thinning is only affifting nature ; and that hence even leay-
ing natural woods to be thinned by time, would not be
economical.

It is fuggefted with regard to artificial plantations, that in
thefe the foil is equally cultivated, and the plants are put
into the ground much about the fame fize, and at the fame
time, and that hence they of courfe rufh up together
all nearly of the fame height, producing neither ornament nor
timber ; and none being produced fo ftrong as to take the
lead and deftroy the reft, they grow in this manner until
they are fo crowded as to exclude air and moifture. At
which period, unlefs affiftance has been previoufly given
by thinning, the whole of the plantation dies together, and
is deftroyed.

Where thinning is neceffary in old natural woods, or fuch
as haye been planted, it fhould conftantly be performed by
degrees in a regular manner, well confidering the {tate,
qualities, and habits of the trees, as well as the nature of the
foil on which they grow, the fituation and expofure in
which they are placed, and other fimilar matters. The
outfides of them fhould commonly be lefs thinned than the
other parts, and the trees on the richer parts of the land be
more thinned than thofe on the other defcriptions of it.
The thinning of the fide fhoots and branches of the trees
fhould likewife, in fome meafure, accompany the other thin-
nings, and be performed in a fuitable manner to their
natures, {tates, and purpofes for which they are intended.

It is, however, moftly the cuftom to begin to thin them
out at about feven years from the time of planting them, or
that of their firft growing up, and to repeat it every feven
years afterwards. When the planting has been performed
in the proportion of from fix to eight hundred trees to the
acre, they may be made to ftand, in the firft thinning, at about
one tree to each rod of ground, or nine trees to eight rods.
But in the fecond thinning, a rather larger proportion of
trees fhould be taken out, as rather more than one to each
rod; and in the third thinning, the proportion may be made
itill in a larger ratio, fo as to leave the trees about a rod
fquare each. Much muft, however, always depend upon
the nature, fituation, and circumftances of the partieular
plantations and woods.

In all thefe thinnings the worft trees fhould be removed,
fo as to leave the ftraighteft and beft plants to ftand for
timber or other purpofes. ,

It is fuggefted, that as in moft plantations the fir tribe of
trees has been introduced either for the purpofe of orna-
ment or fhelter ; where thinning is praétifed, in fuch cafes,
too large a proportion of thefe firs are moftly left. Hence,
from their comparatively quick growth, it is concluded
that fuch plantations have a difagreeable famenefs through-

12

find

out ; and that, as moft of them are made in the fame manner,
this appearance extends itfelf over the whole country.

The plantations in which thinnings in the way of orna-
ment is moft particularly required, are thofe which are de-
figned for groves. In many woods and copfes no plants re-
quire to be taken out but the nurfe ones, where any fuch
have been planted. Plantations of the fir kind, Mr.
Loudon advifes to be thinned fomewhat gradually, begin-
ning the work after they have been five or fix years planted,
and continuing it for ten or twelve years : after which time,
thinning, he thinks, becomes pernicious. And that the
trees which are to be thinned out fhould conftantly be
grubbed up by the roots; for that when thefe are fuffered
to remain, they check the progrefs of the trees which are
left. But thefe forts of plantations are fometimes, and very
properly, left altogether without thinning, being cut down
wholly as a crop when fifteen or twenty years old, or of
about that ftanding. This is conceived to be in general the
mott profitable mode of planting and after-management on
thin, bare foils in the vicinity of mines and pits, where
wood of this fort is greatly in demand by the proprietors
for the fupport of the upper ftrata. Where fome of the fir
tribe have been planted as nurfes, they are recommended to
be thinned out in a gradual manner, by being grubbed up
as they begin to injure and inconvenience the principal trees.
And groves, where the trees are of the deciduous kinds,
fhould be thinned out after the fame manner; only, the
work in thefe cafes may proceed until the trees have arrived
at nearly their full growths.

Woods, where under-growth is always the object intended
when they are properly planted, require, as has been feen
above, no fort of thinning, unlefs in cafes where nurfes have
been planted, or when the timber-trees are too much
crowded by the low growths; the whole fhould be fuffered
to grow for twelve, fourteen, or more years, or until the
under-growth is in a fuitable ftate to be cut over; when at
that period the ftrongeft trees fhould be fixed upon, and left
as {tandards in a properly thin ftate. As copfe-woods ufually
grow a certain length of time in proportion to their natures
and kinds, and are then wholly cut over by the furface of the
ground ; they, of courfe, demand lefs thinning than others,
or none at all, except when nurfes have been planted among
them; and in the cafe of both woods and copfes, thefe, as
they are thinned out, fhould conftantly be replaced by the
principal trees at fuitable diftances.

In all cafes where ornament is in any way confidered, the
above writer thinks the trees or copfe left in thinning fhould
not be equidiftant from each other, but in'groups of irregular
thicknefs ; and it is fuppofed that the fame may be had re-
courfe to even in woods where utility is the chief confider-
ation ; as it will make no material difference in the produce
of timber, and is fo much more natural. See PLANTATION
and PLantine. See alfo Timper and Woop.

THINNING oit Crops, the practice of thinning out fuch
plants among them as are too thickly or clofely placed to-
gether, as in the cafe of turnips or other fimilar crops. In
the different forts of turnips, the thinnings may be made in
fuch a manner as that the plants may ftand ultimately at. the
diftance of from feven or eight to nine or ten inches every
way from each other, in proportion as the land is more
poor or rich in its quality. But in carrot crops, the thin-
ning them out to the diftance of about eight or twelve
inches, according to the richnefs of the foil, may probably
be the moft proper practice. And the fame will moftly be
the cafe for thofe of the parfnip and beet kinds.

Where cabbage, borecole, or other fimilar eros are

own,

THI

fown, they fhould always be thinned out to the diftance of
a foot and a half, two feet or more, as the foil may be of a
lefs or more rich quality. And lettuces, when put in by
fowing, fhould be thinned to the diftance of from eight to
twelve inches, according to the nature of the foil.

The thinning out of any other forts of field-crops of thefe
kinds mutt alfo be performed according to their natures and
particular habits of growth. ,

Some of thefe forts of crops are beft thinned out ina
gradual manner, as the turnip, carrot, beet, &c.; while in
others it may be done all at once, as for the cabbage, and
fome other kinds.

There are feveral different methods praétifed in accom-
plifhing this bufinefs, as by means of the hand fimply, the
ufe of the hand-hoe of different fuitable fizes, according to
the ftates and circumftances of the crops, and lately in the
row kinds, by an implement invented for the purpofe. This
laft is by much the cheapeft and moft expeditious manner
of performing the work ; if it fhould be found, on further
trial, to be equally accurate and effeétual in the execution of
the bufinefs. This fort of tool or machinery was invented
and conftruéted on the farm of Charles Gibfon, efq. at
Quarmer Park, near Lancatter, and a reprefentation of it is
given in the Correéted Agricultural Survey of that county,
lately publifhed. See Tuinntnc and Hocing Machine for
Turnips, Sc.

The other modes of effeéting and completing this kind
of work, are a great deal more troublefome, laborious, and
expenfive than the above, efpecially the firft of them, as
many hands and much time are required for doing it in the
mott proper and effeétual manner by fuch means. Where
the hand-hoe is employed, two or three different fized hoes
are moftly made ufe of for the purpofe in the different fuc-
ceffive thinning hoeings, which, when in the hands of expe-
rienced workmen, do the bufinefs in a pretty quick, eafy,
and complete manner, as the fupernumerary plants are
ftruck and cut out with much exaétnefs and regularity. It
is conftantly neceffary in fuch cafes to keep the hoes in a
pretty fharp ftate, in order to perform the work well, and
with neatnefs. ‘The principal objeétions to doing this fort
of labour by the hand, are its tedioufnefs, and the treading
which takes place during the operation.

THINNING out Plants, in Gardening, the pulling or drawing
out fuch as are too clofe and thick in fome crops of the
general and other kinds, as well as in fome other cafes, fo as
that the remaining ones may ftand at proper and fuitable
diftances for producing the moft favourable crops, plants, or
other produétions. ‘This is moftly praétifed in the cafes of
the main crops of onion, carrots, par{nips, beets, fpinach,
and feveral other fimilar kinds, which are fown in the broad-
caft manner ; in different {mall feed crops, for raifing plants
to be afterwards fet out, fuch, for inftance, as the cauli-
flower, brocoli, cabbage, borecole, lettuce, endive, and many
others ; and in the producing and bringing forward young
tree plants of moft forts in nurfery grounds and other
places.

Onion crops are, fer the molt part, thinned out at dif-
ferent times, as the demands of the markets, or in other
ways may be, fo as to leave the remaining plants at the dif-
tances of four or five inches or more from each other, ac-
cording to their nature, kinds, and other circumftances ;
always, however, allowing fufficient room for their full and
complete growths. Much advantage is often made in this
way by the young onions which are thinned out, which
would otherwife be loft and thrown away.

The carrot, parfnip, and beet crops are commonly thinned

Tiny

out at one or two thinnings, the ftanding plants being left
at the diftances of about fix or eight inches apart, as the
nature of the foil and crops may be. The young plants of
the carrot kind, thus drawn, are in fome cafes bunched and
made ufe of, efpecially when the crops are late in being
thinned out, which fhould always be avoided as much as
poffible.

Lettuce and fpinach crops may be thinned out at once to
the diftances of fix, eight, or more inches between the
plants, in the different kinds, as the nature of them may be,
when put in upon the broad-cait plan. The thinnings are
of little ufe or value, except for wafte purpofes, fuch as
being thrown to the hogs, &c. in thefe inftances. Moft
other fimilar forts of crops may be thinned out in the fame
manner.

The {mall feed crops of the different kinds fhould con-
{tantly be kept fo thinned out as to prevent the plants of
them from being drawn up in a weak manner, and unfit for
being fet out ; as where the contrary is the cafe, there is
always great wafte, and the plants feldom fucceed fo well.
They fhould be gradually thinned out by planting, as well
as in other ways.

Young tree plants, in moft cafes, require frequently thin-
ning out in their early growths, in order to raife and bring
them forward in the beit and moft perfe&t manner. They
fhould therefore, in general, be fo kept thinned out as never
to want fufficient room for rifing in the manner which is the
moft natural and proper for them, and for preventing the in-
jury they may fuftain by ftanding too clofe in the rows or
otherways.

Due, early, and proper thinning out of crops and plants,
is of courfe a matter of confiderable importance and utility
in the garden culture of different forts of vegetables, trees,
and other productions of the fame kinds.

Tuinninc and Hoeing Machine for Turnips, that fort of
implement or machine which is contrived for the purpofe of
thinning or fetting out this as well as other fimilar kinds of
crops that ftand in rows. It is made light, and conitruéted
fomewhat in the form of the plough, having a fuitable ap-
paratus fo attached to it behind as to be put in motion, and
itrike out the fupernumerary plants as the horfe proceeds
regularly along the intervals of the ridges. The horfe is
driven by the perfon who holds and direéts the tool while
at work. It is capable of going over a very confiderable
fpace of ground in a fhort time, and if found, on the refult
of further trials, to perform the work with due accuracy
and correétnefs, will be a very great acquifition to the drill
turnip hufbandry, and for different other purpofes of the
fame nature.

THIONVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the Mo-
felle. The place contains 5014, and the canton 13,988 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 175 kiliometres, in 27 communes ;
formerly belonging to the duchy of Luxemburgh, and ceded
to France by the treaty of the Pyrenées in 1659. N. lat.

9° 21. BE. long: 6° 15.

THIORSAA, a large turbid river of Iceland, on the
road from Skalholt to mount Hetla, the courfe of which is
nearly from N.E. to S.W. In its paflage over rugged
maffes of lava rifing abruptly fromits bed, this river salted
among the rocks, and forms impetuous rapids and falls.

THIR, in Chronology, the name of the fifth month of the
Ethiopians, which correfpends, according to Ludolf, to the
month of January.

THIRD, Tertius. See Numppr and NUMERATION.

Turn, in Mufic. The 3d is the moft agreeable and

neceflary

flee > ae

neceflary concord in counterpoint, throughout the whole
fyitem of praétical harmony.

There are two kinds of thirds; the major or fharp 3d, which
js four femitones or half notes above the bafe ; and the mi-
nor or flat 3d, which is three.

Very agreeable mufic in two parts may be compofed, and
often is compofed, of thirds ou The 3d is wanted with
every other concord, and even difcord, except the 4th, when
it is ufed as fuch with the 2d inftead of the gth. ‘

Dr. Pepufch, in his “ Treatife on Harmony,” has given
curious and ample inftru@tions for the ufe of thirds in com-
pofition.

Tt would be a curious inquiry, why a 3d was regarded
by the ancients as a difcord; and why it is called by the
moderns an imperfect concord. We cannot afford {pace for
long difquifitions on every fubje& of vain and frivolous curi-
ofity, among which this would probably be numbered. But it
feems as if the ancients eitimated the perfection of confo-
nances by the fimplicity of ratios in the divifion of the mono-
chord ; regarding the ofave as the moft perfect concord next
to the cates as it was produced by a fimple divifion of

a ftring into halves, expreffed by - + - 4
The next in perfeétion was the 5th, produced by at 3
third. part of a ftring - - - - z
After this, the 4th, which was reckoned by the an-
cients not only aconcord, but a perfec concord, xt 3
preficd by the ratio of - - = -
A fourth part of a ftring gives the 15th, or fiers a
otave - = = ~ = +
The fifth part of a ftring produces the major 3d to
the t5th, which, though in the organ the ftop a
called the éierce, it is a major 17th to the diapafon : 2
its ratio is expreffed by = 4 =
The minor 34 is expreffed by = - Se
The major 6th, compofed of four tones and a femi- 1
tone major, as G: its ratio is = o 5
The minor 6th, compofed of three tones and two
major femitones, as E: its ratio is + : bo
The extreme fharp, or, as the French call it, the fu-
perfluous 6th, compofed of four tones, a femitone =
125

major, and a femitone minor, as Bb? the ratio of

this 6th is - - = - -

We believe that the triple progreffion of a feries of perfect
ths made the major 3ds fo extremely harfh, that no natural
good ear could admit them among the concords. And in the
firft attempts at counterpoint, it was along time before a 3d
was admitted in di/cant, in which diateffaronare and quintoier,
or a diatonic feries of 4ths and 5ths, now prohibited, was
preferred to 3ds and 6ths in fucceeffion.

Tuirp Borough, in our Ancient Law-Books, denotes a
conftable.

Turn Earing, in Hufbandry, the tilling or ploughing of
the ground a ¢hird time.

Toes Effate. See Estate, Commons, &e.

Turrp Night-acun-hynd. By the laws of Edward the
Confeffor, a gueft, who had lain three nights in an inn, was
reputed a domeftic, and his hoft was anfwerable for what
offence he fhould commit.

For one night he was accounted uncuth; for two nights,
gueft; and the third, awn-hynd, or hogen-hyne. ‘ Prima
noéte incognitus, fecunda hofpes, tertia domefticus cen-
fetur.”’ we

Tuirp Order, a fort of religious order, that obferves the

7

Till

fame rule, and the fame manner of life, in proportion as
fome other two orders inftituted before.

The third orders are not originally religious orders, but
affociations of fecular, and even married perfons, who con-
form, ag far as their condition will allow them, to the defign,
intention, and rules of a religious order, which affociates and
dire&ts them.

The Premonftrantes, Carmelites, Auguftines, and Fran-
cifcans, difpute among themfelves the honour of having firft
introduced third orders ; but the pretenfions of the lal ap-
pear to be the beft founded.

The firft contend, that the third order of Premonftrantes
began in the life-time of their founder St. Norbert, who died
in 1134.

F. Diego de Coria Maldonado, a Spanifh Carmelite, who
has a particular treatife on the third order of Carmelites, de-
rives them immediately, as well as the Carmelites themfelves,
from the prophet Elijah.

The third order of Auguftines, if we credit F. Bruno, was
inftituted by St. Auguftine himfelf; but the arguments he
produces are fo frivolous, that F. Helyot obferves, they are
not worth refuting.

The third order of Francifcans was inftituted by St.
Francis in 1221, in favour of people of both fexes; who
being {mitten with the preachings of that faint, demanded
of him an eafy manner of living a Chriftian life ; wpon which
he gave them a rule, the conftitutions of which are not
now extant, as written by himfelf, but only as reduced
and confirmed by pope Nicholas IV. fixty-eight years
afterwards.

Thofe of the firft order of this faint are the monks called
Minor Friars, comprehending the Cordeliers, Capuchins, and
Recolle&ts ; the fecond comprehends the nuns of St. Clare ;
and the third, feveral perfons of both fexes, who live at
liberty : and thefe are what we call the third order. See
FRANCISCANS, &c.

Of this order, which was only eftablifhed for fecular per-
fons, feveral of both fexes, to attain the greater perfeétion,
have afterwards commenced religious, and formed various
congregations, under various names; as‘ Religious Penitents
of the Third Order,” &c.

Tuirp Point, or Tierce-point, in Archite@ure, the point of
fection in the vertex of an equilateral triangle.

Arches or vaults of the third point, called by the Italians
diierzo acuto, are thofe confifting of two arcs of a circle
meeting in an angle at top. See Arcn.

Tuirp Point, in Perfpedive. See Point.

Turrp Rate. See Rare.

Turn Subfidy Duty. See Dury.

Turrp Sound, in Mufic. See Trerzo Suono, Tarrist,
and STILLINGFLEET.

Tuirp Year, Tithe of the. See TitTue.

THIRDENDALE, a liquid meafure ufed at Salifbury,
containing three pints.

THIRDINGS, the third year of the corn or grain grow-
ing on the ground at the tenant’s death, due to the lord for
an heriot, within the manor of Turfat, in Herefordthire.

THIRLAGE, or Thirlage to Mills, in Rural Economy,
a contraét or power authorized by law, to prevent the te-
nants of certain diftri€ts from carrying their corn to be
ground any where elfe than at a particular mill. It was a
practice which formerly prevailed much; and it was too
often ufed as an engine of oppreiffion, that proved extremely
galling te thofe who were obliged to fubmit to it, but
which at prefent is nearly, if not wholly done away, except
in certain places. ‘

The account of the origin and nature of this oppreflive

practice,

THIRLAGE.

prattice, which has been given by the author of the original
Agricultural Survey of Eaft Lothian, in the latter di triét
of country, may not be uninterefting to the curious inquirer.
It is conceived that there, in former times, corn was reduced
into meal, as in ancient Rome, by a hand-mill, which was
called a guern; and which was ufed in the remote parts of
the Highlands of Scotland long after the year 1745.

It is certain, however, that the water machine called the
mill, for the grinding of oats into meal, is of high antiquity in
the fame country ; and asit was introduced before the period
of record, it may be fairly faid “ caput inter nubilia condit.””
But from the ancient name of one of the duties, knave/hip,
which will be afterwards explained, the mill would feem to
be of Saxon original.

It feems alfo natural, that a perfon who poffeffed a ftream
of water upon his eftate, fhould be invited by his neigh-
bours to be at the expence of ereéting a mill upon this
{tream ; and that they, on the other hand, fhould fAirle, that
is, aftri@ and bind their lands, in all time coming, to ufe and
frequent this mill with their corns, and to pay a certain pro-
portion of the meal according to the univerfal mode then
praétifed of paying in kind for the grinding of it.

Anciently, it is contended, there is reafon to believe, the
mills were at firft ereéted upon ecclefiaftical lands, and be-
longed to the clergy.

It is flated, that there are three different fpecies of this
fort of fervitude known and acknowledged in the law of the
above country ; but of thefe, two only belong properly to
rural economy ; however, in order more thoroughly to under-
{tand the fubjeét, the whole may be fhortly explained.

It is noticed, that the firft and the lighteft fpecies of
thirlage, is called the thirlage of grindable grain, and it means
that the tenants and poffeflors afk aftriéted lands (in the
law of the above country the /ervient tenement) fhall be
obliged to refort to the mill (the dominant tenement) to
which thefe lands have been aftricted, with all the oats and
barley they fhall ufe for food, and there pay certain dues
for the grinding of them.

The Ecos and the oppreflive thirlage, is, it is faid, called
the thirlage of growing corn. By this covenant of thirlage, it
is ftated, that every ounce of corn produced upon the fervient
lands, let the quantity be ever fo great, muft be brought to
the dominant mill, and there manufaétured into meal, and
the covenanted or accuftomed duties paid.

It is fuggefted, that the only limitation that this fevere
thirlage admitted of, was in favour of feed and of horfe
corn.

Sometimes a fpecial covenant was made, by which the
pofleffors of the fervient lands paid what was called dry
multure ; that is, they paid a quantity of corn to purchate
the freedom of going to market with the remainder in the
fame ftate ; and where conftant immemorial ufage has fanc-
tioned this cuftom, the courts of law generally, it is faid,
have fo far mitigated the feverity of this {pecies of thirlage,
as to find, that the proprietor of the dominant mill can de-
mand no more than that quantity of dry multure, which the
immemorial wfage has eftablifhed. Such decifions are afferted
to be grounded upon the principle of a prefumed contraét,
of which the record or memory has been loft betwixt thefe
parties, whereby the one agreed to pay, and the other to
receive, the commutation fixed by the ufage.

The third and laft fpecies of thirlage is, it is obferved,
called the thirlage of inveéa et illata, and belongs properly
to urban tenements: the meaning of it is, that corn, wher-
ever produced, if brought for confumption within the bound-
aries of the dominant mill, muft be carried to the mill and
manufactured there, and pay the ateuftomed duties.

It is ftated that this fpecies of thirlage exifted in moft
of the boroughs of the above ‘country ; and that the mill
generally belongs to the incorporation, where the borough
holds direétly of the crown, or what are called royal
boroughs. But wherea borough holds of a fubje&t fuperior
ee lord of the manor), the mill generally belongs to the

uperior, and the accuftomed duties are paid to him, or to his
tenant in the mill.

It is to be obferved, the writer fays, that in all thefe
thirlages, it was the land of the fervient tenement that was
bound ; and that although it fhould pafs by purchafe’
through twenty different hands, every purchafer, and all
his people upon thefe lands, were equally bound to fre-
quent the dominant mill.

It is further noticed, that there were alfo three different
fpecies of duties paid at the dominant mill; as, firft, the
multure (multura, grinding) ; fecondly, the bannock (loaf) ;
and, thirdly, the Inavifbp.

It is remarked, that the firft of thefe duties belonged to
the heritor and proprietor of the mill; and feems evidently
to have been the fine or premium, originally fettled, as the
inducement for his being at the expence of ereéting the
mull, and for fupporting the machinery of it in future. The
bannock was the duty paid to the miller ; and the knave/bip
the duty paid to the under fervants in the mill.

It is ftated, that the quantity of meal paid under the
name of multure, varied confiderably in different counties,
and even at different mills. It has Leen known as high as
the eleventh boll, and fometimes as low as the twenty-
fecond boll; and in one particular inftance fo {mall as the
thirty-fecond: but it may be taken, on the average, at
nearly the feventeenth boll.

The other duties were alfo various ; but they may, it is
fuppofed, be taken jointly as equal to the half, or from that
to three-fourths of the multure.

But wholly independent of thefe feveral duties, the pof-
feffors of the fervient tenement were, it is faid, bound to
perform certain perfonal fervices to the mill and its append-
ages: for inftance, when the dam-dyke, or the rampart
that direéts the ftream of water from the river to the mill
wanted repair, or when the aqueduéts to and from the mill
required to be fcoured, the people of the fervient tenement
muft turn out and perform thefe works. When the roof
of the houfe in which the mill ftood decayed, they maft
find thatch for making that repair, and they muft put it on.
When grind-ftones were wanted, or an axle, or any other
part of the machinery that required a heavy carriage, they
muit go with their horfes and carriage to the neareft a
(whatever might be the diftance) to bring thefe articles to
the mill.

But this fpecies of thirlage, it is believed, never was
known in the above county; or that at leaft, if it was, it
has long fince been forgot. Befides, it is noticed, that
there was another circumftance peeuliarly fortunate, which
put it in the power of moft of the landed proprietors of
that county, without difficulty, to emancipate their tenants
from the thirlage even of grindable grain, namely, that the
landlord almoft univerfally was proprietor both of the domi-
nant and fervient tenement; and that as he aftriéted his
tenants to his own mill by a covenant in the leafe, progref-
fively as the leafes of the mills expired, the landlords in
general emancipated their tenants from every ‘{pecies of
thirlage, at a converfion of twenty fhillings per plough,
which was paid by the tenant ; and he and his fervants were
left at perfect freedom to refort to any mill, where they
could get their work beft done, and at the loweft rate.

The cafe, however, it is remarked, was widely different

in

THI

in many parts of the north of the above country ; and it is
known, from what has already been mentioned, that there
were many eftates, or fervient tenements, belonging to one
proprietor, which were aitricted to mills, or the dominant
tenements, belonging to another proprietor, and that not
a few of thefe thirlages were the fevere one of growing
corns.

The writer does not think it here neceffary to inquire whe-
ther thefe mills were originally erected by the clergy, and
fince the reformation in religion, have paffed into the hands of
laymen ; or whether, perhaps, if mills are truly of Saxon
origin, they were generally, and at once introduced into
the above country, when under the Saxons, who certainly
were, it is thought, a more enlightened people than the
Scottifh and Piéifh inhabitants of the North, whofe igno-
rance, of courfe, may have led them more generally to fub-
je& themfelves in the fervitude of thirlage, to invite their
clergy, or a few of the more wealthy among them, to
undertake the arduous taf of ereéting mills.

From the near analogy betwixt tithes and thirlage, it has
appeared to the writer a matter of juft furprife, that the
parliament of the above country, which, in the courfe of
a preceding century, firft authorifed the valuing of tithes
for the purpofe of fixing a modus of payment, and after-
wards compelled the lay titulars (proprietors) to fell their
tithes at nine, and in fome cafes at fix years’ purchafe, to
the proprietors of the lands, did not introduce a fixed
modus for thirlage, which certainly operated like tithes, as
a tax upon induftry, to bar, or at leaft to retard agricul-
tural improvement in its progrefs. See TirHe.

THIRLBY, Srvyan, LL.D. in Biography, a learned
critic, was born about the year 1692 at Leicefter, and
finifhed his education at Jefus college, Cambridge, blending
promifing talents with felf-conceit, litigioufnefs of temper,
and a habit of intemperance. He appeared at an early age
as a writer of controverfial pamphlets, and thus acquiring
fome degree of reputation, obtained the fellowfhip of his
college at the age of about 21 years. In maturer life he
probably applied to itudy with greater diligence, for his
edition of Juftin Martyr, to which he was indebted for
literary reputation, was publifhed in 1722. Verfatile in his
difpofition, he diverted his attention at this time from divi-
nity to phyfic, and accepted the poft of librarian to the
duke of Chandos. In this ftation he continued for a fhort
time, and being under-a neceflity of quitting it, he became
firft a ftudent in civil law, and afterwards in common law.
Weary of thefe purfuits, he refided in the houfe of his former
pupil, fir Edward Walpole, by whofe intereft he obtained a
finecure place in the port of London, of the value of about
1oo/. a-year. Upon Jeaving this afylum, he took private
lodgings ; but continued to indulge his habit of fotting and
intoxication. He is faid to have contributed fome notes to
Theobald’s edition of Shakfpeare ; but his felf-indulgence
and indolence rendered him unfit for mental exertion, and
he clofed his career in December 1753. His edition of
Juftin Martyr, cenfured by fome, but regarded upon the
whole as a valuable performance, contains Juftin’s two apo-
logies, and his dialogue with Tryphon the Jew, Greek and
Latin, with notes and emendations by the editor, and fele&
aoe by former editors. Nichols’s Lit. Anecd. Gen.

iog.

THIRLWAL Cast x, in Geography, a boundary
fortrefs between England and Scotland, op the Piéts’ Wall ;
3 miles N.W. of Haltwefel.

THIRON de Gardais, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eure and Loire, 21 miles S.W. of
Chartres.

VoL. XXXV.

Et as Lit

THIRSK, or Turusk, a borough and market-town in
the wapentake of Birdforth, North Riding of the county of
York, England; is 23 miles N.W. by N. from the city of
York, and 223 miles N.N.W. from London. It is fituated
in a plain, nearly furrounded by hills, on the banks of a
rivulet called Cod-beck, which divides the town into two
parts, refpeétively named the Old Town and the New,
which are conneGted by two {mall ftone bridges. The two
towns are diftin@, as far as relates to the eleGtion of mem+
bers ; but in all other refpeéts are confidered as one. The
civil government is vefted in a bailiff, annually chofen by
the burgage holders. The New Town ftands within the
precinéts of the ancient caftle of the Mowbrays. In the
centre of the town is the market-place ; which would be
one of the fineft in the county, were it not for the tolbooth
and fhambles, now in a ruinous condition. The market is
held on Mondays, and is well fupplied with all kinds of
provifions. Five fairs are held annually for horned cattle,
fheep, leather, and woollen cloth. Thefe fairs attra& a
confiderable number of dealers, and, with the advantage of
the great North road from York, are very beneficial to the
town, and in fome degree fupply the want of manufactures,
of which here are only a {mall quantity of coarfe linens and
facking, and a few bridles and faddles. The population,
as returned to parliament in the year 1811, confifted of
2155 perfons, occupying 549 houfes. The parifh church
ftands on a rifing ground at the northern extremity of the
town. The roof, which is elliptical, and of oak, orna-
mented with carving, is fupported by a double row of
pillars and pointed arches. In the fouth wall of the chaneel,
near the altar, are three ornamented ftone feats. The church is
generally fuppofed to have been built out of the ruins of the
ancient caftle, which was demolifhed in the reign of Henry II.
A moat and rampart are {till to be feen, but no veftige of
the building remains ; and in Camden’s time, it was nearly
in the fame ftate. It had once, however, been a place of
great ftrength, when held by the potent Mowbray family.
It was here that Roger de Mowbray began his rebellion
againft Henry IJ. and joined the king of Scotland againft
his own fovereign. The revolt was fuppreffed, and the
caftle of Thirfk, as well as feveral others belonging to the
rebellious lords, were by the king’s order deftroyed. Be-
fides the parifh church, the Calvinifts, the Quakers, and
the Methodifts, have their refpeétive meeting-houfes. Here
is alfo a School of Induftry for poor girls, who are clothed

_and taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, plain work,

knitting, &c.

That divifion of the town called Old Thirfe, is a borough
by prefcription, and returns two members to parliament.
The right of ele€ion is in the occupiers of burgage tene-
ments, now only fifty in number, of which forty-nine are
the property of fir’ Thomas Frankland, bart. Old Thirfk
confifts of a range of cottages on each fide of the turnpike
road leading from York to Stockton, and of two fquares
furrounded by the fame kind of buildings. In one of thefe
f{quares, called St. James’s Green, the cattle fairs are held ;
the other is the fcite of an ancient church, of which, time
has long fince {wept away every veftige. In the latter of
thefe {quares is an elm-tree of venerable antiquity, from
which the place takes its name, Hawm (that is Elm)
Green; and under the fhade of whofe branches the mem-
bers of parliament are eleéted. One of the chief incon-
veniences of Thirfk and the adjacent country, is the fcareity
and high price of coal, which is brought from the county of
Durham in {mall carts, containing from eighteen to twenty-
two bufhels, varying in price according to the feafon.

In the vicinity oF the town is Byland abbey, which was

22Z founded

files Gel

founded in the year 1177, by Roger de Mowbray, when a
ftately monaftery and church were ereéted, and dedicated
to the Virgin Mary. This abbey continued to flourifh till
the general diffolution in 1540, when the fcite and moft of
the demefnes were granted to fir William Pickering. At
prefent, the ruins and fcite belong to the honourable family
of Stapylton.

Near the bafe of the Hambleton hills, within four
miles of Thirfk, is Thirkleby-Hall, the feat of fir Thomas
Frankland, bart. The walks and pleafure-grounds are ex-
tenfive and well laid out; and the houfe is an elegant mo-
dern ftruéture.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi.
Yorkfhire ; by J. Bigland.

THIRST, a painful fenfation, occafioned by a vellica-
tion of the nerves of the throat or fauces, and producing a
defire of drinking. See Dicrstion.

Thirft may be fometimes eluded by rolling a clean bullet
ora pebble in the mouth, which occafions an extraordinary
iffue of faliva to moiften the throat, &c.

Mr. Boyle mentions a man who could eafily abftain from
drinking for nine days, and yet have his diet nothing more
liquid ha ufual ; the fecretions of urine, fweat, &c. being
performed all the while regularly, and in the fame quantity
asufual,

In dropfical cafes, where there is not a right fecretion of
the urine by the renal glands, and the veffels and parts of
the body are loaded with too great a quantity of ferous
humours, a great moderation in drink might be attended
with good fuccefs, provided fome liquor could be found
out to allay that uneafy fenfation. Probably this would be
beft performed by mucilages acidulated with {pirit of vitriol
or fulphur, or jellies with juice of lemon, &c. and that a
fmall quantity of fuch a compofition, now and then ufed,
might be of as much real fervice, in quenching thirft, as
draughts of liquors, which increafe the {ymptoms.

In feverifh diforders, the patient is frequently tormented
with a violent thirft, which is moderated by acidulating the
barley-water, or fage-tea, with fpirit of vitriol, or with
lemon-juice: but by nothing fo much, as allowing the
patient fome flices of an orange. Pringle, Obfery. on Dif-
eafes of the Army, p. 135.

THIRSTY Sounp, in Geography, an inlet or bay on the
N.E. coaft of New Holland, fo called by Cook in 1770,
becaufe it afforded no frefh water. It lies in §. lat. 22° 10’,
and W. long. 210° 18’; and may be known by a group
of {mall iflands lying under the fhore, from two to five
leagues diftant, in the dire&tion of N.W., and by another
group of iflands that lie right before it, between three and
our leagues out at fea. In this inlet is good anchorage in
7, 6, 5, and 4 fathom ; and here are places very convenient
for laying a fhip down, where, at {pring-tides, the water
does not rife lefs than 16 or 18 feet. The N.W. point of
Thirfty Sound was called “* Pier-Head.”’

THIRTEEN Istanps, a clufter of iflands in the
Pacific ocean, among the New Carolinas, fo named by
Capt. Wilfon. N. lat. of the moft foutherly 7° 16.
E. long. 144° 301.

THISATON, a river of Canada, which runs into lake
Huron, N. lat. 46°. W. long. 84°.

THISMA, a name ufed by fome for any fubterranean
yein, or bed of a mineral.

THISTLE, in Agriculture, a well-known prickly trou-
blefome weed, common.in corn and other fields. It has
been obferved, that wherever thiftles grow naturally, it is a
fure fign that the land is {trong, and of a tolerable good
quality ; but that they are at the fame time a great annoy-
ance to every plant intended to be cultivated.. And it has

| Nd |

alfo been well remarked, that there are no weed-plants over
which the economical farmer ought to keep a more watchful
eye than the thiftle tribe, as they are not only wholly ufe-
lefs, but occupy much ground, and being furnifhed with
downy feeds, are capable of being multiplied and car-
ried almoft to any diftance. Befides, they do much mif-
chief by impeding the work both in handling hay and core
crops. It is of courfe a matter of much confequence to be
well acquainted with the qualities of each kind, in order
to enable the farmer to judge with certainty how far and by
what means their deftruétion may be effected in the moit
certain and ready manner.

There are a great many forts of thiftles; and thofe which
chiefly deferve the attention of the farmer, are the annual,
biennial, and perennial kinds. . v2

There are four of thefe plants belonging to the firft divi-
fion or fort, namely, the mu/b-thifile, which Sie to the
height of two or three feet ; the heads hang down, and the
flowers fmell fomewhat like mufk. It is Fecuently found
occupying whole fields, particularly where the lands are of
a chalky or barren quality ; aud fending forth flowers in
July and the following month in em abundance. The
milk-thiftle, which is found plentiful in moft waite places,
and upon old banks, being well known by its beautiful
large leaves, which are variegated with white fpots and
veins, as if they had been {prinkled with milk. The flow-
ering feafon of this plant is in Augutt, or thereabouts. The
welted or curled thiftle, which is frequently met with on
banks, and by road-fides, but feldom intruding itfelf into
fields or paftures. Its time of flowering is June and the
following month. See Carpuus.

And the common fow-thifile, which is a very troublefome
weed in fields and gardens; it is found in fome fituations
that the plant is {mooth, but in others that it is rough, being
prickly on the margins and mid-ribs of the leaves, and alfo
on the peduncles and calyces of the flowers, and the {tems
or ftalks abound with a laétefcent or milky juice. See
Soncuus.

But in the fecond divifion, or biennial kind, there are not
more than three, as the /pear or bull-ibifile, which rifes about
three or four feet in height, the extremity of each leaf
running out into a long fharp point, remarkably prickly :
hence, in fome places it is called by the name of the bull-
thiftle. It has large heads of flowers, and commonly grows
by the fides of roads, near dunghills, and not unfrequently
in fields and pattures, flowering in June and the following
month: the mar/b-ihiffle, which grows very tall and prickly,
having numerous heads of flowers, {mall and of a red co-
lour, growing abundantly in wet meadows and in woods,
flowering in July and the month which fucceeds it. See
Carpuus.

And the cotton-thifile, which is found plentifully in uneul-
tivated places in many parts. The roots are long and
fibrous, and fend forth feveral oblong fharp-pointed whitifh-

een finuated leaves, covered with a cottony down, and

et with fpines on their edges. In the middle of thefe
fhoots up a ftalk, to the height of five or fix feet, divided
towards the top into diverfe branches, fet with leaves at
their joints, and having jagged, leafy borders running sss
them, edged with fpires, as has the main ftalk alfo. Eac
branch terminates with a {caly head of reddifh purple flo-
rets, having; narrow tubes, and cut at their brim into five
teeth. They contain flowers, which are fucceeded by
{mall oblong feeds crowned with down. The time of its
flowering is about July, for the moft part. See Onoror-
DUM.

And in the third divifion or fort there are only two; as

le

é THISTLE.

the corn fow-thiflle, which is a very troublefome weed in
arable land, flowering in July and the fucceeding month.
See Soncuus. Aas

And the common or field-thiflle, which has many provincial
names in different places, as the horfe-thiflle, the curfed
thiflle, &c. This is a thiftle which is more general in its

wth than any of the others, being found not only by the
Res of roads, but alfo in arable and pafture lands, and it is
remarkably prickly, growing from two to three feet in
height, but the heads of the flowers are {mall, and of a
purplifh colour, though fometimes white; it flowers in
July, or about that period. See Carpuus and SEerRa-
TULA.

It is obvious, from what has been faid, that the annual
and biennial forts of thiftles may be readily removed, by

reventing their runing to feed and difleminating them-
i over the land; which is beft effected probably by
carefully eradicating them, or frequently mowing them over
clofely by the furface, and rolling. But in the perennial
forts, from their roots continuing in the earth, increafing
and throwing out new fhoots or items every year, there is
much more difficulty in extirpating them, and they, perhaps,
can be no other way completely deftroyed than by rooting
them out on arable land by trench or deep ploughing and
frequent Ly aig ae or by fallowing or laying the land
down to paiture ; for the firft of thefe forts feldom appears
in pafture lands. But for deftroying the common thittles,
the beft method is perhaps by cutting them over in the
bleeding feafon frequently by proper implements. The
writer of the Berkfhire Agricultural Report, avho thinks
them particularly noxious, troublefome, and inconvenient
among the corn and grafs crops, propofes drawing them up
by an implement of the forceps kind, fomewhat fimilar to
that defcribed under the head noticed below, efpecially the
fort which is termed /érratula arvenfis; or if they be cut
oyer about an inch above the furface of the ground, it is
believed they will be liable to rot, on account of the ftem
being filled with water. They alfo frequently bleed to
death when cut over in this way about the month of Au-
guft, as hinted at above. See TuistLe-Drawer.

Others fuggeft that thiftles might probably be deftroyed
in arable land by continued fallowing for one or two fum-
mers ; with fuch repeated ploughing and hoeing as wholly
to prevent their vegetating: but as fuch a progrefs would
be tedious and expenfive, an eafy, expeditious, and effectual
mode of eradicating them in this cafe, feems equally want-
ing and defirable, as in that of grafs lands. Thiftles are
likewife very troublefome in hedges, efpecially thofe of the
fow and the large rough kinds, and fhould conftantly be
rooted out and removed as foon as poflible, as no hedge
can go on well that is much infefted with them. See Tu1s-
TLE-Cutier, WeEED, and WEEDING.

It may be noticed, that by an excellent regulation in
France, a farmer may fue his neighbour who neglects to
thiftle his land at the proper feafons, or may employ people
to do it at the other’s expence. And it were to be wifhed
that a fimilar Jaw was enaéted here, to prevent the wide-
{preading mifchief occafioned by the feeding of this per-
nicious weed ; among which may be reckoned, befides its
choaking the young corn, that if wheat in particular be not
well thiftled, the reapers take up the grips fo tenderly,
left they fhould prick themfelves, that by their loofe hand-
ling of them, they fometimes leave upon the ground
corn enough to fow the whole field. There is much in-
convenience often experienced too in working hay from
them.

Something in the fame way as above has alfo lately been

done here, efpecially in regard to the removal of them from
the fides of highways and roads.

Though the fow-thiftle has commonly been confidered as
a troublefome and injurious weed in tillage lands, it has
lately been conceived by fome to poffefs no {mall degree of
nutrient power; and on this ground it has been fuggefted
by the writer of the ‘¢ Experienced Farmer,” that it may be
a plant of confiderable fattening properties when properly
raifed and cultivated. When taken young, and cut or
broken, it produces fomething, it is faid, like cream ; and he
has noticed that many animals eat it in preference to every
other plant now in vogue. Sheep, when in clover, &e.
will feed upon it fo greedily as to eat the very roots. Pigs
likewife prefer it to almoft any other green food. Rab-
bits will breed more fpeedily when fed with fow-thiftles,
than with any other food he knows of, except dandelion ;
which is of the fame nature: and is now fold in Covent
Garden market to the breeders of tame rabbits, to make
the does take buck more readily. A man of his acquaint-
ance, who was allowed better {kill with ftallions than the
generality of people, ufed to fearch for fow-thiftles,
and give them to his horfes to make them ferve mares more
readily and effectually. When he could not get fow-thiftles,
he fed them, it is faid, with new laid eggs and milk, or cream,
if he could get it ; but he preferred fow-thiftles or dande-
lion to any thing.

And there is, he contends, a well-known and remarkable
proof of the nourifhing and feeding quality of the fow-thiftle,
in the fat wether fheep fed to fuch an amazing fize by
Mr. Trimnel, of Bicker-fen, near Bofton, upon fen-land.
This fheep, it is faid, was bred by Mr. Hutchinfon, in Hail-
fen, from a ram bred by Mr. Robinfon of Kirby, near
Sleaford. He never ate any corn, oil-cake, or other fimi-
lar dry food, but fed wholly on grafs and herbage. Being
turned with many other fheep into a field of clover, he was
obferved firft to fearch for the fow-thiftles, and would eat
no other food while any of thefe could be found in the
parts of the field that were hurdled off fucceffively, a little
at a time. None of the other fheep that fed with him, how-
ever, fhewed any extraordinary liking for the fow-thiftle.
A {mall hut was built for him in the field to repofe under
in hot weather: and when the part that was hurdled off be-
came bare of food, his attendants, on account of his liking
for fow-thiftles, gathered a quantity of them for him, which
they gave him at particular hours, three times a day, from
two to five pounds at a meal.

It is added, that when ftanding on his feet, he meafured
only two feet fix inches high: he was weighed once a
month, and weighed alive twenty-fix ftone, at fourteen
pounds to the ftone. He gained only one pound the laft
month: and as it was judged, therefore, that he was quite
ripe, and would not increafe any more, but might poflibly
lofe weight the next month, he was killed on the 13th of
Oober 1791, by Mr. Ifaac Lumby, of Bicker, being
then a four-fhear, or four-year-old fheep.

The writer further ftates, that the fkin, hung up by the nofe
part, meafured ten feet two inches from the point of the
nofe to the tip of the tail, and was fold for 7s. 6d. in the
common courfe of bufinefs. And that the carcafe mea-
fured five feet from the nofe to the tail; the rump or
cufhion eight inches and a half in depth; plate or fore-flank
the fame thicknefs; breaft end feven inches; and was one
yard five inches and a half round the collar. That the
legs were reckoned at golbs. each; but if cut haunch of
venifon fafhion, they would, it is faid, have weighed solbs.
each. Mr. Lumby was offered 25. a2 pound for them; fo
that he could have fold the two legs alone for ro/. when fo cut.

3Z2 This

TAH

-

This is certainly a remarkable inftance of fatnefs, but it
might probably depend more on the difpofition of the ani-
ell to take on fat, than the fattening quality of the thiftle
or food on which the fheep was fed. Many further trials
are neceflary to fully afcertain the point.

TuistLe, Bleffed, carduus benediétus, vel cnicus.
TAUREA.

As an article of the Materia Medica, the bleffed thiftle,
which is the hairy wild enicus of Miller, and the centaurea
benediGa of Linneus, was formerly much ufed in infufion,
as a gentle emetic, in fevers and certain naufeas.

Dr. Lewis has often obferved excellent effe&ts from a
light infufion of carduus, in weaknefs of appetite and in-
digeftion, where the ftomach was injured by irregularities,
or oppreffed by vifcid phlegm; nor has he found any one
medicine of the bitter kind to fit fo eafily on weak ftomachs,
or to heat fo little. Thefe infufions, taken freely, promote
the natural fecretions. Drank warm in bed, they com-
monly increafe perfpiration or excite fweat ; and as they
a&t with great mildnefs, not heating or irritating confider-
ably, they have been ufed, in this intention, in acute as well
as chronical cafes. The feeds, which, as well as the leaves,
have a confiderably bitter tafte, have fometimes been ufed
as fudorifics or diaphoretics, in the form of an emulfion.
Cold water poured on the leaves, extraéts, in an hour or
two, a light grateful bitternefs ; by ftanding long upon the
plant, the liquor becomes difagreeable: a ftrong decoétion
is very naufeous and offenfive to the ftomach. The ex-
traéts, obtained by infpiffating both the cold infufion and
decoétion, have the fame differences as the liquors them-
felves. Reétified fpirit extraéts, in a fhort time, the light
bitter part of this plant, but does not take up the naufeous
near fo eafily as water. On keeping the watery extracts
for fome months, a confiderable quantity of faline matter
was formed on the furface, in {mall cryftals, refembling in
fhape thofe of nitre, in the tafte bitterifh, with an impreffion
of coolnefs. Lewis’s Mat. Med. See Centaurea Bene-
diGa.

Some diftil a water from it, which they ufe in cordial and
fudorific potions.

TuistLe, Carline. See CARLINA.

The root of the carlina acaulis of Linnzus, is fuppofed
to be diaphoretic, antihyfteric, and anthelmintic. It has
been greatly efteemed by fome foreign phyficians, in acute
malignant as well as in chronical difeafes, and given in fub-
ftance from a {cruple to a drachm, and in infufion from one
to two drachms and more. It is rarely to be met with in our
fhops. See Carina Caulefcens.

TuistiE, Diflaf. See ATRAcTYLIs.

The roots of the atraétylis gummifera of Linnzus, or pine-
thiftle, which is a native of Italy and the ifland of Candy,
yield, if wounded when frefh, a vifcous milky juice, which
concretes into tenacious mafles, at firft whitifh and refembling
wax, but when much handled growing black ; fuppofed to
be the ixion, and acanthina maftiche of the ancients. ‘The
juice is faid to have been formerly chewed for the fame pur-
pofes as maftich, and the root itfelf of the fame virtue with
that of the earline thiftle. Lewis.

Tuistix, Fifh, a fpecies of Carduus ; which fee.

TuistLe, Fuller’s. See Dipsacus and TEASEL.

TuistLe, Gentle, a {pecies of Carduus ; which fee.

THISTLE, Globe. See Ecurnops.

TuistLe, Golden. See Scorymus.

TuistLy, Hedge-hog, a {pecies of Ca@us ; which fee.

Tuistie, Ladies, or Milk, a {pecies of Carduus ; which
fee.

TuistTLE, Melon. See Cactus.

3

See CEn-

cha ia |

TuisTLE, Sow. See Soncuus.

TuisTLeE, Downy Sow. See ANDRYALA.

TuistLe, Star. See CenrAuREA.

TuisTie, Torch. See Cactus.

TuistLE, Woolly. See ONoporpuM.

TuistLe-Cutter, in Agriculture, a tool of the f{ward-
dreffing kind, for cutting up thiftles and other coarfe weeds
and plants.

An effeétive implement of this fort has lately been in-
vented, delineated, and defcribed by Mr. Amos, in his work
on “ Agriculture and Planting.”

The plan of the whole machine, when complete, is that of
a fort of fquare, in which the leading fhare is made of cait-
fteel, in the form of an ifofceles triangle, whofe equal fides
are fourteen inches long, and its bafe twelve inches, being
about one-eighth of an inch thick in the middle, tapering
to a very fine edge on the outfides. There are four pieces
of afh-wood, three inches fquare, and two feet four inches -
long, to which the fcythes are fixed, and which are called the
{cythe-handles. There are alfo four feythes, three feet long
from point to point, four inches broad at the wideft part,
made of caft-fteel, and which, the inventor fays, are manu-
faGured by Mefirs. Hunt and Company, at their caft-fteel
manufactory, Brades, Birmingham. There are likewife four
other pieces of afh-wood, three inches fquare and two feet
five inches long, for throwing the two hindmoft feythes to
their proper diftance, and which are braced two and twe
together by four: bars, which are one by two inches fquare,
and eighteen inches and one-fourth long. And there is a
main piece of afh-wood, three by four inches fquare, and
five and a half feet long, to which all the other pieces are
fixed by hooks, and eye-bolts, by means ef which the feythe-
handles act as it were upon hinges, and the fcythes are
thereby made to form the fame parallel line with the furface
of the land, whether it be concave, convex, or level. For
this purpofe, it is fuggefted that it might be ufeful to make
a joint in the middle of this piece, where the land is uneven.
And in the fore part of this piece a fawgate is to be made,
three-fourths of an inch from the under fide, at the hind
part of the fhare, and one inch from the under fide at the
front of the wood, which gives an elevation to the point of
the fhare, to receive the fhare where it is fixed.

There are four iron braces, one of the ends of which are
fixed in the fcythe-handles, and the other ends to the under
fides of the fcythes by a fcrew. There is a ftaple, to which
the chain and fwinging-tree is fixed, and by which the ma-
chine is drawn. ‘There are two mortife-holes on the fides,
which receive the tenons of two upright ftuds, to which
pullies are fixed for lifting the fcythes off the ground, where
there is any thing to ob{tru& them or retard their progrefs.
Each of thefe ftuds is one and a half by four inches fquare,
and three feet long. Two fmall pullies are fixed on each
fide of thefe upright ftuds. Through the pullies of the
foremoft ftud, a fmall rope paffes (one end of which is fixed
to the outfides of the iron braces), and likewife through
the pullies of the hindmoft ftud, and then the two ropes
unite at about two or three feet behind the whole machine ;
and through the pullies of the hindmoft ftud pafs two other
{mall ropes (one end of each being fixed to the outfide of
the hindmoft iron braces), and then the four ropes unite to-
gether, where the manager holds them as a coachman does
the reins of four horfes. By means of thefe ropes the
{cythes may be lifted to any degree of elevation, by which
contrivance any unevennefs of the ground, or other obftruc-
tions on its furface, fuch as ftones, roots, ant-hills, &c. &e.
may be eafily avoided and pafled by.

The fwinging-tree is thirty-three inches long, and Ki

chain

Tu 'T

chain which hooks into the ftaple for drawing the machine
by, is thirty inches long.

The whole of the fcythes, when properly soothes eae be-
yond the wood, and cut the thiftles three-quarters of an inch
above the furface of the ground.

In cafes where the fcythes want fharpening, it is obferved
that they may be reared perpendicularly up, or taken off
entirely ; and that, at the fame time, the horfes fhould be
ungeared and taken away. | sidw:

In ufing the machine, it is advifed by the ingenious in-
yentor, that as foon as the thiftles are in full flower it fhould
be fet to work, the length way of the ridges; and that if
the feythes are kept very fharp, it will make excellent work.
And when the thiftles have been cut, they fhould lie a day
or two, it is faid, to perifh by the lofs of their fap-juice :
the ground mutt then be cleared, and the clofe or field
rolled, the crofs way of the ridges, with a very heavy roller,
which fo crufhes the hollow ftumps, and renders them fo per-
vious to water, that their roots foon rot and are deftroyed.
But to expedite the operation of the implement, and the de-
ftruction of the weeds and plants, the land fhould be cleaned
of all kinds of rubbifh, the latter end of March or begin-
ning of April, being dreffed with the fward-dreffer, and
then rolled the crofs way of the land, or ridges, with a
weighty roller, as juft mentioned. See Swarv-Dreffer.

Tuistie-Drawer, an ufeful implement of the forceps
kind, which is extremely beneficial in drawing up the com-
mon field-thiftle and fome other {trong forts of weeds. It
may be conitruéted either of wood or iron, in the latter
cafe having fockets for receiving wooden handles. When
made of wood, it fhould be of the hard and lefs brittle kind,
as good tough afh. It is ufually formed from two to three
feet in length, having fix notches or blunt teeth cut in each
blade, at the bottom part, where it bites or feizes the plants,
and each arm well fitted to the other, turning upon a ftrong
pivot or pin. In its operation the thiftle is feized clofe to
the ground and firmly held, fo as to be drawn out with
confiderable length of root. It has been long in ufe in the
northern parts of Lancafhire ; and is faid to be lately intro-
duced from Wiltfhire into the county of Gloucefterfhire, in
the agriculture report of that diftri@. It is an ufeful and
effe€tive tool for the above purpofe, and only cofts about
two fhillings when made of wood, and three or four when
of iron. It has long been known in the firft of the above
counties by the provincial name of Gripes.

Tuistix-F/y, in Natural Hiflory, a {mall fly produced
from a fly-worm hatching in the protuberances of the car-
duus hemorrhoidalis. In the protuberances of this thiftle,
while they are clofed in all parts, the worm of this fly,
from whofe injuring it, at the time of depofiting the egg
from which it was hatched, the protuberances arofe, under-
goes its laft transformation. It here makes of its own fkin
a fhell in form of an egg, within which it puts on the nymph
ftate. When this nymph becomes a living fly, the leaft
part of its difficulty is the finding its way out of this thell ;
it has a ftronger prifon than that, and before it can obtain
its liberty, mutt force its way through the much more clofely
compacted fibres of the protuberance of the vegetable. It
has, however, no other means of doing this dificult work,
but that of inflating its head, and throwing out the bladder
or muzzle with which all thefe creatures are provided in this
ftate. See TuistiE-Galls.

This is a difficult operation, and many of the creatures
perifh in the attempt ; but what much forwards the fuccefs
of it, in many cafes is, that the ftalk of the thiftle often
becomes naturally half rotten before the time of the fly’s
egrefs. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 338.

ss 5 al

Tutstie-Galls, a name given by the more accurate au-
thors to the protuberances on the ftalk of a fpecies of
thiftle, called by authors carduus hemorrhoidalis, from thofe
tubercles, which are fuppofed to refemble thofe of the hx-
morrhoidal veins in perfons fubjeét to the piles. Thefe
have been fuppofed a natural produétion of the plant; but
they are far otherwife. The whole hiftory of them is, that
a certain {pecies of fly always depofits its eggs on the
{talks ; and the young ones, when hatched, gnaw their way
into the fubftance of the ftalks, and the copious derivation
of the juice, occafioned by their fucking, produces the tu-
bercles which are found on it.

Thefe tubercles are of a roundifh or oblong figure, and
are of various fizes, from that of a pea to the bignefs of a
nutmeg; they are much harder than the reft of the ftalk,
approaching to a woody ftruéture ; when cut open, they
are found to contain each feveral oblong and narrow cells ;
thefe have no communication with one another, and are
each inhabited by a {mall white worm, which has two hooks
at the head; with thefe it breaks the fibres of the plant, in
order to get at its juices. When it has arrived at the time
of its change into the nymph itate, it ceafes to eat, and
drawing up its body much fhorter than ufual, its fkin
hardens, and forms a fhell, under which it changes into a
very beautiful two-winged fly ; the wings are whitifh and
tran{parent in the middle ; and at the edges furrounded with
black in the form of a chain of figures like the letter Z ;
the body and breaft of this fly are of a beautiful black, with
fome flight variations of yellow, with which the fhoulders
are ftreaked ; the anterior part of the head is white, and
its back-part edged with a yellow down; the antennz are
reddifh, and the legs are partly black, and partly of a fine
clear brown.

In obferving the changes of the worms of thefe galls,
there are often obferved fome which go through them in a
different manner from the reft, and finally produce a very
different {pecies of fly. ‘Thefe are the progeny of the eggs
of fome other {pecies of fly, whofe worm being carnivorous,
is lodged by the art of its parents, while it is yet in the egg
flate, in the fubltance of this gall, there to prey upon the
defencelefs inhabitants.

There are many fpecies of galls the inhabitants of which
are expofed to enemies. Ia thofe it is common to find the
proper inhabitant and the devourer in the fame cell; the
one feeding on the juices of the plant, the other on its
juices; but this is not the cafe here, thefe worms imme-
diately deftroying the proper inhabitants, and being found
always alone in their cells. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. vi.

22 Ke
\ TuistLE, Order of. See ANDREW.

Tuistxx, sour Lady of the, was alfo a military order, in-
{tituted in 1370, by Louis II. duke of Bourbon. It con-
fitted of twenty-fix knights, of which that prince and his
fucceffors were the chiefs. Their badge was a flcy-blue
girdle; and, on folemn occafions, a mantle of the fame
colour, with a gold collar, interwoven with flower-de-luecs ;
among which was the word ¢/perance, hope, in capitals.

THISTLE-TAKE, a cuftom in the hundred of Hal-
ton, in the county of Chefter, whereby, if in driving beafts
over the common, the driver permits them to graze, or take
but a thiftle, he fhall pay a halfpenny a beaft to the lord of
the fee.

AtvFifkerton, in Nottinghamfhire, by ancient cuftom, if
a natie, or cottager, killed a fwine above a year old, he
paid the lord one penny, which was alfo called thiftle-
take.

THIVA, or Srises, in Geography, a town of European

Turkey,

THL

Turkey, in the province of Livadia, anciently called
« Thebes,”’ and the capital of Beeotia, fituated on a _
ground between two {mallrivers, fuppofed to be the If{-
menus and Dirce of the ancients. (See Tuespx.) The
town is of an oval form, about three miles in circumference,
and the houfes are higher and better built ‘than is ufual in
moft parts of Greece. It contains four or five thoufand in-
habitants, about half Turks and half Chriftians, which lat-
ter have feveral churches, not remarkable for any thing ex-
cept fome few infcriptions to be feen upon the pavement of
the cathedral. The air of the country about Thebes is thick
and foggy, whence the ancient inhabitants of Boeotia were
accounted dull and phlegmatic, and were neither famous for
their wit nor valour. (See Basorra.) Epaminondas raifed
Thebes to its higheft pitch of grandeur ; after whofe death
it was not remarkable for its virtues, but misfortunes, till it
funk into its original ob{eurity ; fo that its glory took birth
with this great man, and with him expired ; 28 miles
W.N.W. of Athens. N, lat. 38° 25'. E. long. 23° 34!.

THIVIERS, a town of France, in the department of
the Dordogne ; 7 miles N.W. of Exideuil.

THIULETIS-TSKALI, a river of Georgia, which
runs into the Kur.

THIZY, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire; 27 miles N.W. of Lyons.

THLASIAS, a term ufed by the ancients to exprefs an
eunuch made by a compreflion or contufion of the tefticles,
not by the cutting them out.

THLASIS, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs either
a contufion without a wound, or a wound made by fome
blunt inftrument, which contufed the parts.

THLASMA, a word fometimes ufed like thlafis, to ex-
prefs a contufion either with or without a wound; fome-
times applied particularly to a recefs of the cranium inward
without a fracture, an accident principally affecting children.

THLASPEOS Semen, in the Materia Medica, the name
of a feed produced by the common thla/pi arvenfe filiquis
Jatis, or common treacle-muftard. It ufed to be an ingre-
dient in feveral of our fhop compofitions, and was efteemed
attenuating, deterfive, and aperient, and is faid to promote
urine and the menfes, and to expel the after-birth.

THLASPI, in Botany, Gazexs, an ancient name, which
Diofcorides tells us, in his book 2. chap. 186, originated in
the broken, or pounded, appearance of the feed, alluding,
we fuppofe, to its {mallnefs. The word therefore is derived
from $2, to bruife, or beat. He compares this feed to
that of his xxgdxzus., our apa fativum, or Garden Crefs,
adding that the feed-veffel is moderately dilated upwards,
the flower white, and the plant found about paths, walls,
and banks. Every other part of his defcription, refpecting
the leaves and ftems, is fo appofite, that no doubt can re-
main of his 6aaers being our Shepherd’s Purfe, which Dr.
Sibthorp found common in Greece and the Archipelago, in
the early fpring. Linneus might furely have {pared his
mark of uncertainty concerning the etymology of the above
name, in Phil. Bot. 183. But as he tranflates Gaxw by the
Latin word comprimo, to comprefs, he, moft likely, had in
view the Th. arvenf2, which feveral old writers have taken
for the plant of Diofcorides, and whofe feed-veffel is very
remarkably comprefled.—Linn. Gen. 334. Schreb. 437.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 442. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 683. Compend. ed. 2. 98. Prodr. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. v. 2. 7. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 80. Juff.
241. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 557. Gaertn. t. 141.—Clafs and
order, Tetradynamia Siliculofa. Nat. Ord. Siltquofe, Linn.
Crucifera, Juff. ‘

Gen. Ch, Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate, concave,

THL .

fomewhat {preading, deciduous leaves. Cor. cruciform,
equal, of four obovate petals, twice the length of the calyx,
with narrow claws. Stam. Filaments fix, but half the length
of the corolla, the two oppofite ones {till fhorter ; anthers
pointed. iff. Germen fuperior, roundifh, compreffed,
emarginate ; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma
obtufe. Peric. Pouch compreffed, inverfely heart-fhaped,
emarginate, the ftyle being moftly the length of the notch
in which it ftands, of two cells, the partition lanceolate, and
the valves boat-like, with more or lefs of a dilated keel.
Seeds feveral in each cell, pendulous, inferted into the fu-
tures, roundifh, compreffed.

Eff. Ch. Pouch compreffed, emarginate, inverfely heart-
fhaped ; its valves boat-like, keeled. Seeds feveral.

Obf. Mr. Brown has very happily feparated from this
genus the Linnean Th. campeffre. That {pecies, on account
of its folitary feeds, properly belongs to Lepidium, to which
genus it, as well as 74. hirtum, is removed in the new edition
of our Compendium Fil. Brit. The fame ingenious botanitt,
of whofe elucidation and reformation of the cruciform
genera we have fpoken under the article TeETRADYNAMIA,
has founded a new genus, called Aethionema, upon Th. faxa-
tile, with another {pecies, whofe pouch has no ‘valves, and
only a fingle feed. With this latter, a Spanifh plant, we
are unacquainted; but as the /axatile has two cells, and
many feeds, we can hardly either disjoin it from Thlafpi, or
unite it with this, though, it feems, they agree in having an
unequal infertion of their calyx-leaves, which in Th/a/pi is
equal; and their longer filaments are either combined, or
elfe toothed near the top. As there are but two fpecies,
we prefume one of thefe laft charaéters belongs to each.
The queftion feems at leaft doubtful, and therefore, without
pref{uming to form an opinion refpecting Mr. Brown’s
Aethionema monofpermum, we prefer keeping his /axatile where
it is.

The plants of this genus are herbaceous, and moft of
them annual, with fimple /eaves, and numerous ‘corymbofe
flowers; their furface more frequently fmooth, and fome-
what glaucous, than pubefcent ; /fem leafy and branched.

1. Th. peregrinum. Red Penny-Crefs. Linn. Sp. Pi. gor.
Willd. n. 1. Scop. Carn. v. 2.17. (Th. capfula cordata,
peregrinum ; Bauh. Hitt. v. 2. 927, badly copied in Morif.
fect. 3. t. 18. f. 30.) —Pouches roundifh-heartfhaped. Leaves
lanceolate, entire.—Native of dry hills, above Heidenfchaft
in Carniola. Scopoli. Of this very rare plant we have never
feen a certain {pecimen. Scopoli fays the flems are a {pan
high, hard, branched, turning reddifh, as well as the /eaves,
as they advance in age. ‘The caves grow on fhort ftalks.
Flowers {mall, red, with entire ovate petals, and reddifh
Jtamens. Anthers yellow, as well as the fhort fy/e, and the
Stigma, which laft is flat at the top. Seeds two in each cell,
ovate, yellowifh, flightly rugged, fhining, attached to the
faleate partition. ,

‘2. Th. arabicum. Purple Arabian Penny-Crefs. Vahl
Symb. v. 2. 76. Willd. n.2. (Th, humile, {pica purpu-
rea; Buxb. Cent. 1.2. t. 2. f. 1. Iberis arabica; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 906. Am. Acad. v. 4. Subularia purpurea ; Forfk.
ZEgypt.-Arab. 117.)—Pouch nearly orbicular, compreffed,
with a notch at each extremity. Lower leaves wedge-
fhaped ; upper oblong-heartfhaped, entire, clafping the
ftem.—Native of Arabia and Cappadocia.—The root is
tapering, fibrous, annual. Stem more or lefs branched,
round, copith, from three to fix inches high, leafy, ee
bofe. Leaves an inch long, acute, entire, fmooth, ra‘
fucculent, lightly ftalked. Flowers {mall, purple or red-
dith. Pouch light green, with a very broad ftriated border,
much exceeding the fy/e, and notched at the hafe gine as
UMMiIt,

THLASPI.

fammit. Seeds two in each cell. This fpecies appears
nearly related to the foregoing, nor fhould we be greatly
farprifed if they proved one and the fame. Tf Bauhin’s
delineation of the pouch of the former be corre&t, they muit
be difting.

3. Th. arvenfo. Common Penny-Crefs, or Smooth Mith-
ridate Muftard. Linn. Sp. Pl. gor, Willd. n.3. Fl.
Brit. n.1. Prodr. Fl. Gree. n.1. Engl. Bot. t. 1659.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 43. Fl. Dan. t. 793. (Th. Diof-
coridis; Ger. Em. 262. Th. fecundum; Matth. Valgr.
¥.I.519. Camer. Epit. 337.)—Pouch orbicular, com-
prefled, entire at the bafe. Leaves oblong, toothed,
{mooth. — Native of cultivated fields, in moit parts of
Europe, but not frequent in England. It is annual, flow-
ering in June and July. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in the
countries north of Greece. The root is {mall, and tapering.
Whole plant fmooth, about a foot high, branched; the
fiem leafy, angular upwards. Leaves two or three inches
long, clafping the ftem with their arrow-fhaped bafe ; their
edges wavy and toothed. /Vowers numerous, {mall, white.
Pouch large, ere&, almoft perfe@ly orbicular. Style much
fhorter than the notch in which it ttands. Seeds numerous.
The warm pungent tafte of this plant is combined with a
difagreeable garlick flavour. The feeds, as obferved in
Engl. Bot. “make an ingredient in that naufeous oppro-
brium of pharmacy, the Mithridate Confeétion, the receipt
for which may be found, with many excellent critical re-
marks, in Lewis’s Difpenfatory.”” See Miruripare.

4. Th. alliaceum. Garlick Baftard-Crefs. “Linn. Sp.
Pl. got. Willd. n.4. Ait.n.2. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 121.
(Th. allium redolens ; Morif. feét. 3. t. 18. f. 28.)—Pouch
nearly obovate, tumid, with a narrow border. Leaves ob-
long, obtufe, fmooth, fomewhat toothed.—Native of the
fouth of Europe. An annual herb, much refembling the
laft, but the /eaves are blunter, and lefs toothed. The
pouches are very different, having but a flight border at their
upper part only, their bafe being wedge-{haped.

5. Th. P/ychine. Long-ftyled Baftard-Crefs. Willd. n. 5.
(Pfychine ftylofa; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 69. t. 148.
Burfa paftoris hirfuta, eruce flore, ftilo prominente ; Shaw
Afric. n. gt. f. 91.)—Pouch abrupt. Style prominent.
Leaves heartfhaped-oblong, toothed, downy, clafping the
ftem.—Native of the borders of fields in Barbary. Root
annual. Herd larger than the foregoing, and clothed with
hoary hairs. Leaves rounded, not acute, at the bafe.
Flowers pale yellow, as large as the Common Muftard.
Pouch wedge-fhaped, or triangular, being quite abrupt at
the end; the /fyle, which is as long as the whole pouch,
ftanding prominent at the fummit. Willdenow is certainly
correct as to the genus.

6. Th. faxatile. Rock Baftard-Crefs. Linn. Sp. Pl. go1.
Willd. n. 6. Jacq. Auftr. t. 236. (Lithothlafpi quartum,
earnofo rotundo folio; Column. Ecphr. 279. t. 277- f. 2.
Acthionema faxatile; Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 80.)—
Pouch nearly orbicular ; concave above ; convex below.
Stems moltly fimple. Leaves linear-lanceolate, flefhy, ob-
tufe.—Native of dry hills, and the clefts of rocks, in Italy,
Auttria, Switzerland, Greece, and the fouth of France,
flowering in April and May. The root is perennial, and in
fome degree woody, though generally marked as annual.
Stems annual, afcending, fix or eight inches high, round,
leafy, rarely fubdivided. Leaves numerous, feattered, on
fhart ftalks, glaucous, {mooth, entire, three quarters of an
inch long; the lower ones rather elliptical. Flowers
{mall, pink, numerous, in denfe terminal corymbs, foon elon-
gated into lax ci of glaucous pouches, tinged with pink,
each on a flender, fpreading, partial {talk ; their border

broad, ftriated, fomewhat cremate, emarginate at the top
only, where the minute /fy/e is fituated. The fhrabby
habit, glaucous hue, and very pretty little red flowers with
a pale-green calyx, render this one of the moft elegant plants
of its natural order. Jberis faxatilis, Linn. Sp. Pl. gos,
diftinguifhed from this by the accurate Fabius Columna, and
figured in the fame plate of his work, is fo like it, that they
are hardly to be known afunder, except by the unequal
petals, proper to [beris, and the downinefs of this latter plant.
On a clofe compariion, the fhapes and furfaces of their
feed-veffels will be found effentially different.

q- Th. montanum. Mountain Baftard-Crefs. Linn. Sp.
Pl. goz. Willd. n.g9. Ait. n. 7. Jacq. Auftr. t. 237.
(Th. montanum, burfe paftoris fru€tu; Column. Ecphr.
275. t.276. f. 1. Th. precox; Wulf. in Jacq. Coll.
v.2.124.t.9. Lepidium n. 518; FHlall. Hift. v. 1. 223.

8. Th. alpinum; Jacq. Auftr. t. 238. Willd. n. ro.
Crantz Auttr. fafc. 1. 25. t.3. f. 1. (Th. minimum ;
Arduin. Spec. 2. 33. t. 15. f. 2.)

Pouch inverfely heart-fhaped. Leaves {mooth, nearly
entire ; radical ones obovate, {talked ; the reft feffile, clafp-
ing the ftem. Petals thrice as long as the calyx. Stems
fimple.—Native of ftony places, on the lofty mountains
of Switzerland, Auftria, Dauphiny, and Italy, flowering in
April or May. The roots are perennial, long, fubdivided
at the fummit, each trailing fhoot crowned with a tuft of
obovate /eaves, rarely a little ferrated, their fize, and the
length of their foot/falks, varying according to luxuriance
of foil, or a more or lefs elevated place of growth. From
the centre of each tuft arifes a folitary, fimple, afcending
or upright /fem, from three inches to a {pan long, round,
fmooth, clothed with numerous, alternate, feflile, cordate
or arrow-fhaped, very rarely toothed, /eaves, whofe bafe is
more or lefs elongated and acute; their length three
quarters of an inch. Yowers in folitary terminal corymbs,
numerous, large, white and handfome ; their broad, obo-
vate, {preading petals at leaft thrice as long as the {mooth,
often purplifh, calyx. Pouch tapering at the bafe; more
or lefs deeply lobed at the end, with a /y/e almoit as long
as itfelf, projeGing far beyond the lobes. Seeds naturally
two in each cell, as Jacquin defcribes them. Haller found
one only. This may be accounted for from their being
often abortive, as indeed are generally moft of the pouches
themfelves, the plant increafing much by root. Having
had oceafion to ftudy this and the neighbouring {pecies
very minutely, in our inveftigation of Swifs and Britifh
plants, we can with confidence maintain the correétnefs of
our fynonyms, on the authority of original {pecimens.
Our @ alone is entitled to be diftinguifhed as a variety, and
that an infignificant one, being merely rendered {mall in
fize by its very elevated or expofed fituation. The faith-
ful Jacquin himfelf evidently miftruited this fuppofed
fpecies, though he fays it retained the fame habit when
cultivated.

8. Th. alpefire. Alpine Shepherd’s Purfe. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 903. Willd. n. 12. Fl. Brit. n.5. Engl. Bot. t. 81.
Ait. n. 6. (Th. foliis globularie ; Raii Syn. ed. 2. 175.
ed. 3. 305. Bauh. Hift. v. 2. 926. Th. montanum fe-
cundum badenfe; Cluf. Hitt. v. 2. 131. Th. albi fupini
varietas; Ger. Em. 268. f. 2. Lepidium n. 519; Hall.
Hitt. v. 1. 223, on the authority of fpecimens from Davall
and Du Cros. )—Pouch obovate, abrupt, fomewhat heart-
fhaped, with many feeds. Stem-leaves arrow-fhaped. Stems
fimple. Style prominent.—Native of mountainous pattures
in Switzerland and England, flowering in June and July.
It abounds on limeftone rocks, and about lead-mines, in
Yorkfhire and Derbyfhire. Many authors have iia

this

Tear.

this with the laft, from which it differs in having a tufted
root, not throwing out f{cyons, or runners; ufually taller
and more numerous ole more glaucous herbage; much
{maller flowers, whole petals are erect, and though variable
in dimenfions, never a quarter fo large as in montanum; but
above all, in having at leaft three or four /eeds in each cell.
The pouches moreover are always numerous, and all perfect.
Their terminal lobes are variable in length or dilatation,
but conftantly much fhorter than the /fy/e. (See the fol-
lowing.) We have often been inclined to remove from
this {pecies to the foregoing the fynonyms of Bauhin,
Clufius, and Gerarde, cited in F/. Brit. on account of
the large fpreading petals of their figures. But this ap-
pears to be an inaccuracy on their part. The habit of
their plant ; feveral /lems from the fimple crown of the root ;
and the copious pouches in long continued cluffers, all pro-
perly belong to our al, bef, by no means to montanum.
We have fome fufpicion that the alpe/fre is rather biennial
than perennial. It never remains long in gardens, but that
is no proof, nor have we had an opportunity of watch-
ing the plant through a feafon, on its own native hills.
Hudfon miftook the perfoliatum, next defcribed, for alpe/ire.

g. Th. perfoliatum. Perfoliate Shepherd’s Purfe. Linn.
Sp. Pl. goz. Willd. n. 11. Fi. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot.
t. 2354. Jacq. Auftr. t. 337; not. 237, as in Willdenow.
(Th. alterum mitius rotundifolium, burfe paftoris fruétu ;
Column. Ecphr. 278. t. 276. f. 2. Th. rotundifolium ;
Ger. Em. 266. ‘Th. cordatum minus, flore albo, infipidum ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 815. Th. tertium pumilum; Cluf. Hift.
y. 2.131. Th. minus Clufii; Ger. Em. 268. Nafturtium
n. 510; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 220. Pilofella filiquata ; Thal.
Harcyn. t. 7. f. C, at the end of Camer. Hort. )—Pouch
exactly inverfely heart-fhaped. Stem-leaves heart-fhaped,
fharpifh at the bafe, clafping the branched ftem. Style very
fhort.—Native of calcareous paftures or rocks, walls, and
dry places, in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, Greece,
and England, flowering in the fpring. In the laft-men-
tioned country it is hardly known any where but in the
limeftone part of Oxfordfhire, about Witney and Burford.
We have gathered it at Caferta, near Naples. The root is
fibrous and annual. Stem branched from the bottom, ex-
cept on poor ground, ufually from four to fix inches high,
round, {mooth, leafy. Leaves glaucous, fmooth, various
in fize, entire, or now and then flightly toothed ; the radical
ones ftalked, ovate, obtufe; the reft feffile, alternate.
Flowers white, {mali, with narrow, erect petals. Style fo
fhort as to be {carcely difcernible between the rounded
lobes of the pouch. Seeds three or four, at leaft, in each
cell. The fmall annual root, ufually branched /fem, and
minute /fyle, are quite fufficient to diftinguifh this {pecies
from the laft, with which it has been confounded ; nor is
it difficult, with a moderate degree of obfervation, to avoid
the error of thofe old botanifts, who defcribed its ftarved
and luxuriant ftates for diftin&t fpecies. Ray fufpected
this, and has adverted to it in his own fecond edition of the
Synopfis, by far the moft exad, p. 176.

10. Th. /uteum. Yellow Sicilian Shepherd’s Purfe. Bi-
von. Cent. 1. 78. ( Th. montanum, glafti folio, parvum,
perfoliatum, nonnpihil ferratum, filicula cordata; Cupan.
Panphyt. v. 2. t. 256. Th. montanum luteum, glafti folio,
parvum, perfoliatum, nonnihil ferratum, filicula cordiformi ;
Gupan. Hort. Cathol. 212.’?)—Pouch inverfely heart-
fhaped, nearly orbicular. Leaves toothed, the lowermoft
ftalked ; the reft clafping the ftem. Style almoft equal to
the lobes of the feed-veflel—Native of dry mountainous
places near Palermo, flowering in April and May, and fent
us by the baron Bivona. This is a fmall, {mooth, glaucous,

THL

annual plant, from one to three inches high. Stem ereét,
either fimple, or branched from the bafe. Leaves half an
inch, more or lefs, in length ; the lower ones f{patulate ; the
others ovate-oblong, bluntifh, witha heart-fhaped bafe ; all
having one or two large teeth at each fide. Flowers re-
markable for being yellow. They are fmall, not many
together, in fhort terminal corymbs, becoming elongated
clufters of rather large, rounded, reticulated pouches, with a
few feeds in each cell. The petals are emarginate, ereét,
longer than the calyx. Stigma large, on a level with the
lobes of the pouch.

11. Th. Burfa Paforis. Common Shepherd’s Purfe.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 903. Willd. n.13. Fl. Brit. n.6. Prodr.
Fl. Graec. n. 1499. . Engl. Bot. t. 1485. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 1. t. 50. (Burfa Paftoris; Ger. Em. 276. Matth.
Valgr. v. 1. 521.)—Hairy. Pouch inverfely heart-fhaped,
fomewhat triangular, fcarcely bordered. Radical leaves
pinnatifid—A very common weed in cultivated and waite
ground, throughout Europe, as well as in North America,
and in moft cauntries where European merchandife or cul-
tivation has reached. We have already mentioned that this
{pecies is indubitably the axons of Diofcorides. It flowers
at all times, from the beginning of fpring to the end of
autumn. The white tapering annual root is diftinguifhed
by a very peculiar naufeous {moke-like feent, when pulled
out of the ground. Whole /erb rough with ftarry as well
as prominent hairs. Stem various in height, ereét, round,
with alternate fpreading branches, though fometimes fo
ftarved as to be quite fimple and flender, with all the aves
of the plant undivided ; in which ftate the fpecies is difficult
to be recognized. The radical /eaves are numerous, clofe
to the ground, varioufly pinnatifid, moftly toothed, fome-
what lyrate, about two or three inches long; the reft
linear-oblong, acute, fefflile, entire or toothed, embracing the
ftem with their elongated heart-fhaped bafe. Flowers fmall,
white, in denfe corymbs, often tinged with purplifh-brown.
Pouches {meoth, fatchel-fhaped, whence the modern name,
difpofed in very long, lax, upright cluffers. Style rather
prominent. Seeds numerous, fmall, oval, a favourite food of
{mall birds, as well as the fiower-buds. The flavour of
both is warm and pungent.

12. Th. ceratocarpon. Horned Shepherd’s Purfe. Mur-
ray in Comm. Goett. v. 5. 21. t. 1. Linn. Suppl. 295.
Willd. n. 14. Ait. n.3. Scop. Infub. v. 1. 10. t. 4.)—
Very fmooth. Pouch obovate, tumid, with a terminal,
double horn-ike, comprefled border. Leaves lanceolate,
fomewhat toothed ; arrow-fhaped at the bafe.—Native of
Siberia, from whence Pallas brought the feeds. The root
is annual, tapering. Stem folitary, erect, twelve or eighteen
inches high, leafy, moftly quite fimple. Leaves all {mooth;
flightly toothed, or wavy ; the radical ones obovate,.on long
ftalks; the reft feffile. Flowers numerous, white, very
fmall. Pouches compofing a long clu/fer, very con{picuous
for their two fharp prominent horns, between which ftands
the very fhort fyle. Seeds large, about two in each cell.

THLASPIDIUM, ?aaeriduy of Cratevas, according to
Tragus ; a name whofe etymology has been miftaken, like
Tuvaspi, (fee that article,) from whence it is manifeftly
derived. Tournefort, who in his Jnffitutiones 214, adopts
this name, for what Linneus more aptly termed Bi/cutella,
explains it as meaning that the plants which bore it were
allied to Thla/pi; and this, no doubt, is correét. But
Ambrofini, who confiders Th/a/pi itfelf as applying to the
beaten or flattened form of the feed-veffel, deduces the pre-
fent word from raw, to bruife or beat, and aoridsov, a little
JSbield, which is evidently applicable to the flat fhield-like
fruit of Th/a/pi arven/e, and is fo plaufible an explanation,

that

THO

that it feems to have chiefly led the modern expounders of
ancient writers to take this {pecies for xxcz+ of Diofcorides.
We have already, in its proper place, fhewn our Shepherd’s
Purfe to be what he deferibes ; and we can underftand the
name, as derived from aw, in no other light, than alluding
to the minute feeds, which feem as if beaten to powder.
This is by no means the firft inftance, in which the moft
apparently juft etymology, proves not to be the real one.

THLIBIA, in Antiquity, a kind of eunuchs. See
‘Tuvastas and CAsTRATION.

THLIPSIS, Sasrcic, is ufed, by anatomifts, for the
compreflion of any veffel or aperture, by which its cavity is
leffened.

THNETOPSYCHITES, compofed of Syxlo:, mortal,
and Lux, foul, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory ; a {eé&t in the ancient
church, who believed the foul of man perfeétly like that of
brutes ; and taught that it died with the body. See Sour.

We meet with no account of thefe heretics any where but
in J. Damafcenus Hzref. go, unlefs they be the fame with
thofe Eufebius fpeaks of, Hiit. Ecclef. lib. ix. c. 38, who
relates, that in Origen’s time, there were heretics in Arabia,
who taught, that the foul of man died with the body ; but
that it fhould rife again with it at the end of the world.
He adds, that Origen refuted them in a numerous council,
and reclaimed them from their errors. St. Auguitine and
Tfidore call them the Arabian heretics.

Marfhall, in his tables, ufes the word Thenop/ychites inftead
of Thnetop/ychites.

THOA, in Botany, a Guiana name adopted by Aublet,
and retained by Juffieu, and even Schreber ; fee our article
Gxetum, to which genus this plant is there, for the firft
time, referred, as a fecond f{pecies.

THOALABIAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in
the province of Nedsjed ; 260 miles E.N.E. of Hajar.

THOANHOA, atown of Cochinchina, at the bottom
of a large bay. N. fat. 16°45'. E. long. 106° 27!.

THOARD, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Alps; 9 miles E.S.E. of Sifteron.

THOCO, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, near the
coaft of Greece, about eight miles in circumference. N. lat.
37-20. ~E.tong. 23° 21's

THOCOS, 3uxo-, in Antiquity, the fame with Thacas.

THOGRAJ, in Bispeath , a Perfian of If{pahan, who
was grand vizier to the fultan Malich Mafhud, is celebrated
for his poetical talents, a fpecimen of which is given by
Pococke; and for a commentary upon the republic of
Plato, to whom the Saracens paid little attention. After a
flrange reverfe of fortune, Thograi was put to death by
order of the fultan in the year 1121.

THOIRY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ain; 6 miles S.S.W. of Gex.

THOKES, in our Old Writers, fifh with broken bellies,
forbid by ftatute to be mixed or packed with tale-fith.
22 Ed. IV. cap. 2.

THOLEN, in Geography. See Torn.

THOLES, in Sea Language, denote {mall pins driven
perpendicularly into the upper edge of a boat. In rowing,
the oar paffes between the two tholes, in the {pace called the
row-lock. Sometimes there is only one pin to each oar, asin
the boats navigated on the Mediterranean fea: in that cafe
the oar is hung upon the pin by means of a ftrop.

THOMAANS, Tuomeans, Tuomites, or Chriflians
of St.Thomas, a people of the Eaft Indies, in Cochin, and
upon the coaft of Malabar and Coromandel, who, according
to tradition, reccived the Gofpel from the apoftle St.
Thomas.

It appears by the teftimony of Cofmas, who wrote about

Voi. XXXV.

¥ 21:0

A.D. 547, and whofe work is tranflated by F. Montfaucon,
that Chriftianity was eftablifhed in India in the fixth cen-
tury. We alfo find in the fubfcriptions of the council of
Nice, that of a prelate, who calls himfelf bifhop of Perfia.
Moreover, an ancient author, cited by Suidas, fays, that
the inhabitants of Interior India, (a name which Cofmas
gives to the coaft of Malabar, ) the Iberians and Armenians,
were baptized under the reign of Conftantine.

The princes of the country, and particularly Serant Pe-
roumal, emperor of Malabar, the founder of the city of
Calicut, A.D. 825, granted extraordinary privileges to
thefe Chriftians.

When Vafco de Gama, the Portuguefe admiral, arrived
at Cochin with a fleet, in the year 1502, thefe Chriftians
fent deputies to him, imploring his protection, and that of
the king his mafter. The admiral treated them kindly, but
was in no condition to afford them any effectual affiftance, in
relieving them from the yoke of the Pagan kings, to which
they were then fubjeét. The language they ule in /acris, is
the Syriac, or, as fome fay, the Chaldee ; but their ordinary
language is the fame with that of their neighbours. The
firft miffionaries, who attempted to profelyte them to the
church of Rome, were Cordeliers, but their endeavours
proved ineffetual. The diftinguifhing opinions and reli-
gious rites of thefe Chriftians are as follow.

They are charged with an invincible attachment to the
doétrine of Neftorius, and with an obitinate refufal to ac-
knowledge, that the Virgin is the mother of God: they
have no images in their churches: they believe that the
fouls of the blefled are not admitted into the prefence of
God till after the day of univerfal judgment: they allow
only of three facraments, viz. baptifm, orders, and the
eucharift : they defer the baptifm of infants for fome time,
as for a month, or even for feven, eight, or ten years, after
they are born: they make no ufe of holy oil, neither in
baptifm, nor in the adminiftration of the other facraments ;
but after baptizing their infants, they {prinkle the oil of a
{pecies of Indian faffron all over their bodies: they allow of
no auricular confeffion, treat purgatory as a fable, and their
priefts are permitted to marry: they entertain an extraor-
dinary affection for the Neftorian patriarch of Babylon, but
will not fuffer any mention of the pope, or of the Romifh
churches in their affemblies. Their days of abftinence are
Wednefday and Friday, and their faft is very fevere in Lent,
during which time they go to church three times a day.
They alfo faft in the fame manner during the time of
Advent. Befides thefe two greater fafts, which are enjoined
on pain of excommunication, they have feveral others of a
religious nature. Their women do not enter a church for
forty days atter their delivery of a male child, nor for
eighty days after the birth of a daughter.

Thefe Chriftians are in general poorly inftruéted, knowing
only the Lord’s prayer and the angelical falutation. Their
churches are mean and unadorned buildings, and conftruc&ted
after the manner of the pagodas. ‘They appear to maintain
many of the religious opinions and practices received among
Proteftants, and reject either wholly, or ina very great mea-
fure, thofe of the church of Rome. They deny the fu-
premacy of the pope, and tranfubftantiation, and exclude
from the number of facraments, confirmation, extreme unc-
tion, and marriage. Such are the errors proferibed by the
fynod of Diamper, held in 1599, by Aleixo de Menefes,
archbifhop of Goa, in order to unite the Thomzans to the
Romifh church. However, notwithftanding the temporary
fuccefs that attended the vigorous exertions of the arch-
bifhop, for which he was recompenfed after his return to
Europe, with the archbifhopric of Braga, the viceroyfhip

4 A of

LH

of Portugal, and the prefidency of the council of fate at
Madrid, thefe Chriftians, opprefled and abufed by the
Jefuits, relapfed from the church of Rome foon after the
death of the archbifhop; and notwithftanding the en-
deavours of Alexander VII. to conciliate them by the
miffion of four bare-footed Carmelites, they could no more
be reduced to fubmiffion. At length, when the Dutch
took Cochin, in 1663, the Chriftians of St. Thomas re-
covered the liberty which they had formerly enjoyed ; but
they derived little advantage befides from their new maiters.
Encyclopédie, and Geddes’s Hiftory of the Church of
Malabar and Synod of Diamper, in his Traéts, vol. vy. Tor
a further account of this fe&, fee Curistians of St. Thomas.

THOMAR, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
Eitremadura, containing two churches, an hofpital, four con-
vents, and about 3600 inhabitants; 63 miles N.E. of
Lifbon. N. lat. 39° 34’. W. long. 8° 8/.

THOMAS, furnamed Didymus, or the Twin, in Scripture
Biography, one of our Lord’s twelve apoftles, of whom the
evangelift John has given a fhort account in the 2oth chapter
of his Gofpel. John Chryfoftom informs us, that Thomas
preached the gofpel to the Ethiopians, Parthians, Perfians,
and Medes, and even, according to tradition, to the Indians,
and in the ifland of Taprobana; and the Chriftians called
after his name in the Eaft, regard him as the founder of their
church. See Curistians of St. Thomas, aud THoMmANS.

For an accouut of the fpurious gofpel attributed to St.
Thomas, we refer to the article GosPEL.

Tuomas, Antony Leonarp, in Biography, a diftinguifhed
French writer, was born in the diocefe of Clermont, in Au-
vergne, in the year 1732, and defigned for the profeffion of the
law ; but his attachment to literature induced him to prefer a
profefforfhip in the college of Beauvais. His reputation as a
man of letters recommended him to the office of confidential
fecretary to the duke De Praflin, in which he conducted
himfelf with integrity and honour. When he was advifed by
the duke to become a candidate for a feat in the French
Academy, after having five times gained the prize for his
compofitions, and difcovered that he was put forward as a
competitor to Marmontel, who was out of favour with per-
fons in power, he refufed to be the inftrument of fuch a
defign. In confequence of this circumftance, the duke dif-
mifled him his office, but procured for him the place of
fecretary-interpreter for the Swifs Cantons, to which a very
inconfiderable falary was annexed; and yet this was the
whole benefit which he obtained from court-favour. His
career as a writer commenced in 1756, by ‘ Refleétions
hiftorical and literary on Voltaire’s Poem on Natural Reli-
gion ;”” and on all fubfequent occafions he proved himfelf
the friend of virtue, and a lover of mankind. His eulogies,
particularly thofe on Des Cartes and Marcus Aurelius, were
highly commended. His ‘Effai fur les Charaétéres, les
Meceurs, et l’Efprit des Femmes,” 1772, is a {prightly per-
formance, in which fine writing and philofophical obfery-
ation are combined. His “ Effai fur les Eloges,” in 2 vols.
1775, exhibits ftriking portraits with juft ideas. As a poet,
he appears to advantage in his “ Epitre au Peuple,’’ his
“Ode fur les Temps,’”’ and his ‘* Poeme de Jumonville.”’
His epic poem, entitled “ Le Petreide,”’ the hero of which
was czar Peter, was left unfinifhed. He was diftinguifhed
by his fingularities, and alfo by his fympathy with perfons
in diftrefs, for whofe relief he fubmitted to perfonal incon-
venience and privation. His death took place at the feat of
the archbifhop of Lyons, in September 1785, at the age
of 53. His works, in profe and verfe, were publifhed at
Paris, in 7 vols. 8vo. Gen. Biog.

Tuomas, Curistian, an EcleGtic philofopher of the

5

THO

German {chools, who deferyes notice on account of the
boldnefs with which he threw off the yoke of human autho~
rity, and the perfeverance with which, againft much oppofi-
tion, and in many viciffitudes of fortune, he maintained and
exercifed the right of free inquiry. He was born at
Leipfic in the year 1655, and finifhed his courfe of edu-
cation in the univerfity of his native city. Upon a perufal
of Puffendorf’s Apology for rejeCting the fcholaitic prin-
ciples of morals and law, he renounced implicit deference to
all ancient dogmas; and engaged in reading leCtures on the
fubje& of natural law, firft from the text of Grotius, and
afterwards from that of Puffendorf, in the full exercife of
his own judgment, with prudent caution while his father
lived, but after his death, with a boldnefs which incurred
the violent refentment of theologians and profeffors. In
1687 he publifhed an ‘ Introduétion to Puffendorf,” in
which he deduced the obligation of morality from natural
principles, and thus gave great offence. In the following
year he became {till more unpopular, by commencing a
monthly literary journal, entitled “Free Thoughts; or,
Monthly Dialogues on various Books, chiefly new,” con-
taining a fevere attack upon many of his contemporaries.
Complaints of the raillery of this fatirical work were lodged
before the ecclefiaftical court of Drefden ; and Thomas with
difficulty efcaped punifhment. Some other farcaftical
pieces inflamed the refentment of his enemies, and he was
charged before the fame court by the clergy of Leiptic
with a contempt of religion. Soon after he publithed
another fatirical work ‘On the Divine Right of Kings,’
“A Defence of the Se& of the Pictifts,”? and fome other
eccentric works of the fame general charaéter, for which he
was threatened with imprifonment; but obtaining permif-
fion from the eleétor of Brandenburgh to retire, he became a
yoluntary exile from Leipfic : and foon after was appointed
public profeffor of jurifprudence, firft in Berlin, ie after-
wards at Halle. In thefe fituations he indulged his fatiri-
cal humour, and his inclination for controverfy, as long as he
lived ; perfevering in his endeavours to correét and fubdue
the prejudices of mankind, and to improve the ftate of phi-
lofophy. He died at Halle, in the year 1728. Thomas
was the author of feveral treatifes on logic, morals, and
jurifprudence, in which he deviates from opinions generally
received ; and his latter publications are, in many refpects,
inconfiftent with the former. His principal philofophical
works are, “ An Introduétion to Aulic Philofophy; or
Outlines of the Art of Thinking and Reafoning,” Pear
1688; ‘ Introduétion to Rational Philofophy ;”? “ A Lo-
gical Praxis,’ Hal. 1691; ‘‘ Introdu€tion to Moral Phi-
lofophy,”? 1692; ‘A Cure for irregular Paffions, and
the DoGrine of Self-knowledge,”? 1696; “The new Art
of difcovering the fecret Thoughts of Men ;” ‘ Divine
Jurifprudence ;?? “ Foundations of the Law of Nature and
Nations ;” ‘¢ Differtation on the Crime of Magic ;”? “* Effay
on the Nature and Effence of Spirit, or Principles of

Natural and Moral Science,” 1699; and “ Hiftory of ~

Wifdom and Folly.” :

As a f{pecimen of the peculiar tenets and maxims of this
eccentric philofopher, we {hall fubjoin the following.

« Thonght arifes from images imprefled upon the brain ;
and the action of thinking is, performed in the whole brain.
Brutes are deftitute of fenfation. Man is a corporeal fub-
ftance, capable of thinking and moving, or endued with in-
telleé&t and will. Man does not always think. Truth is
the agreement of thought with the nature of things. The
fenfes are not Feceitful but all fallacy is the effeét of pre-
cipitation and prejudice. From perceptions arife ideas, and

their relations ; and from thefe, reafonings. It is impoflible
to

PY HO

to difcover truth by the fyllogiftic art. No other rule is
neceflary in reafoning, than that of following the natural
order of inveftigation ; beginning from thofe things which
are beft known, and proceeding, by eafy fteps, to thofe
which are more difficult.

« Perception is a paflive affe€tion, produced by fome ex-
ternal objet, either in the intelleG@tua! fenfe, or in the in-
clination of the will. Effence is that without which a thing
cannot be perceived. God is not perceived by the intel-
le@ual fenfe, but by the inclination of the will: for creatures
affe&t the brain; but God, the heart. All creatures are in
God: nothing is exterior to him. Creation is extenfion
produced from nothing by the divine power. Creatures are
of two kinds, paffive and aCtive ; the former is matter; the
Vatter, fpirit. Matter is dark and cold, and capable of
being aéted upon by fpirit, which is light, warm, and ative.
Spirit may fubfift without matter, but defires a union with
it. All bodies confift of matter and {pirit, and have there-
fore fome kind of life. Spirit attraéts fpirit, and thus fen-
fibly operates upon matter united to fpirit. This attrae-
tion in man is called love; in other bodies, fympathy. A
finite {pirit may be confidered as a limited {phere in which
rays, luminous, warm, and active, flow from a centre.
Spirit is the region of the body to which it is united. The
region of finite {pirits is God. The human foul is a ray
from the divine nature ; whence it defires union with God,
who is love. Since the effence of fpirit confilts in aétion,
and of body in paffion, fpirit may exift without thought :
of this kind are light, ether, and other a¢tive principles in
nature.

“Good confifts in the harmony of other things with man
and his feveral powers. The higheft felicity of man con-
fifts in tranquil delight. The fountain of this delight is
the rational love of man and of God. Internal love and
reverence are all the homage which naturé teaches us to pay
to God. With refpeét to God, the two capital errors are
atheifm and fuperftition. Superftition is worfe than atheifm.
The love of God is a fupernatural affeCtion, which prepares
the foul for future felicity. The rational love of man com-
prehends all focial virtues. Rational felf-love includes felf-
prefervation, temperance, purity, induftry, fortitude. To
wife men, virtue is its own reward. Laws are appointed
for the fake of fools, to condué them to internal tran-
quillity, and external peace. Of fools, there are three
claffes; thofe who difturb external peace ; thofe who do
nothing to promote it ; and thofe who do not enjoy internal
peace. ‘The firft have need of authority ; the iecond of
authority and counfel; the third of counfel alone. The
obligation of authority and law extends only to external
aGtions, which are juft when they are conformable to law:
juitice is therefore to be diftinguifhed from virtue, which
refpeéts the internal man, and requires a conformity to the
law of nature.”” Brucker by Enfield, vol. ii.

Tuomas. Chrifians of St. Thomas. See THOMMANS.

Tuomas’s Hofpital. See Hosprtau.

Tuomas, St., in Geography, an ifland of the Atlantic, near
the coaft of Guinea, fituated on the equinoétial line, of a cir-
cular form, about ten leagues in circumference, difcovered by
the Portuguefe in the year 1640. The climate is infalubrious,
and at fome feafons of the year the fky is even darkened by
thick fogs, which are difperfed by the winds that blow in the
months of July and Auguft. In this ifland the inhabitants
have two winters, like thofe of other places that are under
the fame parallel, but without the cold that diftinguifhes that
feafon in Europe. The rains continue from December to
February ; and {pring begins with our fummer, in the month

of May. During the firit three months of this period, the

FH SO

heat is infupportable, and the firft fettlers gradually inured
themfelves to the climate. The foil on this ifland is vifeous
and clayey, and mixed with chalk ; but it is rendered fertile
by the heavy night dews. The plants and fhrubs, which it
rapidly produces, are burnt to afhes, and applied-as the moft
beneficial manure to fugar-canes ; which were firft planted
here by the Portuguefe: in their endeavours to cultivate
which they have been difappointed. Rice and millet fucceed,
and vines of the richeft kind, as well as melons, cucumbers,
figs, ginger, and all forts of roots, pulfe, and pot-herbs, are
cheaply reared, and they arrive at the utmoit perfeétion.
Yams are in this ifland a very wholefome and delicious diet.
The land of this ifland is well watered, and much fertilized
by its rivers and ftreams. In the centre is a high mountain,
covered with wood and fruit-trees, whofe fummit is never-
thelefs always covered with fnow. Its quadrupeds, birds,
and fifhes, are very various, and abundant ; and St. Thomas
would be equal to any {pot in the globe, if its temperature
correfponded to its other qualities. The inhabitants are
the defcendants of the Portuguefe firft fettlers and the ne-
groes, who are retained in the fervice of Europeans, and fuch
as prefer a refidence here to Angola. They are for the
moit part Roman Catholics, and extremely ignorant, fuper-
{titious, and bigotted. The ecclefiaftical government is under
the direction of the bifhop, who is a fuffragan of the arch-
bifhop of Lifbon. E. long. 8° 6.—Alfo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, on the coaft of Coromandel. Here was formerly
a powerful city, called “ Meliapour,’? or ‘ Meilabour,”?
the capital of the kingdom of Coromandel; but on the
ruins of this city the Portuguefe ereGted the ftately city of
St. Thomas. ‘This is inhabited chiefly by weavers and dyers,
who manufaéture the beft coloured ftuffs in India. The
Portuguefe, who rebuilt this place in 1545, have raifed it from
a ftate of defolation to a flourifhing ftate, both with regard
to its buildings and inhabitants. Whilft the Portuguefe
retained it, it was a bifhopric under the archbifhop of Goa ;
and they had feveral churches, befides monafteries, and a
college for the inftru€tion of the Portuguefe and Malabar
children. Here is alfo the famous church of St. Thomas
the Apoftle, where it is pretended that he was buried. (See
THoM®ANS, and CuristTIAns of St. Thomas.) The city had
feven gates, and was, on account of its fituation, guarded by
the fea on one fide, and a chain of mountains on the other,
very ftrong: neverthelefs it was taken by the Moors after a
long fiege, and retained in their poffeffion.— Alfo, a town of
Germany, in the archduchy of Auftria; 6 miles N.W. of
Grein.—Alfo, a town of Savoy, in the‘county of Maurienne ;
3 miles-N. of Monftier.—Alfo, the principal of the Virgin
Iflands, in the Weft Indies, about fix leagues in circum-
ference, belonging to the Danes. It abounds with potatoes,
millet, manioc, and moft forts of fruits and herbage, and
efpecially fugar and tobacco, but is much expofed to the
attacks of mofquitos and other vermin. ‘The Englifh had
formerly a f{pacious fettlement in this ifland ; and here is a
fafe and commodious harbour, with two natural mounds upon
it, fitted for the reception of two batteries to guard its en-
trance. Nearly in the centre of the harbour is a {mall fort 5
and about 50 or 60 paces W. of it is the town, confifting
chiefly of one long ftreet, at the end of which is the Danifh
factory, with convenient warehoufes. On the right fide of
this faGtory is the Brandenburgh quarter, containing two
{mall ftreets, full of French refugees from Europe and the
iflands. Mot of the houfes are built of brick, and one ftory
high. The trade of this {mall ifland is confiderable, par-
ticularly in time of peace; as it is the ftaple for fuch articles
of traffic as the French, Englifh, Dutch, and Spaniards are
not allowed to deal in publicly in their own iflands ; and

4A 2 in

BHO

in war, their privateers bring their prizes hither for fale.
N. lat. 18°22! W. long. 64° 50'.—Alfo, the capital of
Spanifh Guiana, called «San Tomé,” which is fituated at
the foot of a {mall mountain on the right bank of the Oro-
noko. For its defence, a fort is placed oppofite to the city
and on the left bank of the river ; it is furrounded by a num-
ber of houfes, dependent, like the fort, on the province of
Guiana. They call this place Port Raphael ; and itis here the
communication between Guiana and the provinces of Vene-
zuela and Comanais found. Between Port Raphael and the
city is feen the ifland called “* Del Medio,” or the Middle,
becaufe it is in the middle of the river. Itis a rock, which,
in itsfouthern part, difcovers itfelf in fummer, and is under
water in floods. The principal channel is between the city
and this ifland: when the water is low it has 200 feet, and
oa the increafe of the river 50 or 60 more.—Alfo, a town
of the United States of America, in South Carolina; 21 miles
N. of Charleftown.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
130 miles W.S.W. of Havannah.

THoMAS de Calite St., atown of North America, in the
government of Mexico, and province of Guatimala.

Tuomas’s Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of Antigua.

Tuomas’s Creek, a river of South Carolina, which runs
into the Great Pedee.

Tuomas’s Gulf, St., a bay of the Atlantic, on the W. coat
of Africa, S. lat. 24° 50’.

Tuomas’s Head, St., a cape of England, on the N.W.
coaft of the county of Somerfet, at the mouth of the Severn.
N. lat. 51° 20!.. W. long. 73° 35!.

Tuomas’s Hofpital. See Hospirat.

THOMASBRUCK, in Geography.
BRUCK. .

THOMASIUS, Jacosus, in Biography, a writer in
hiftory and philofophy, profeffor of eloquence in the univer-
fity of Leipfic, eae diftinguifhed as the preceptor of
the illuftrious Leibnitz, was born at Leipfic in the year 1622.
Having obtained diftinétion by his letures and public thefes
in his native city, he was advanced to the office of co-reétor,
fir of the college of St. Nicholas, and afterwards of that
of St. Thomas. His erudition was extenfive, nor was he
lefs aippenines by his modefty and by his difinclination to

y-

Sce THAms-

controver Among his numerous works, the principal are
** Antiquities of Philofophical and Ecclefiaftical Hiftory :”
“« Differtations on the Stoical Philofophy, and on other Sub-
jects relating to the Hiftory of Philofophy ;”? and * A Differ-
tation on Literary Plagiarifm, with a Lift of 100 Plagi-
aries,” allin Latin. He died in the year 1684. Brucker.
Moreri.

Tuomastus, Curistian, fon of the preceding, an emi-
nent jurift, was born at Leipfic in 1655. Having ftudied
the law at Francfort on the Oder, he was made a door in
that faculty in 1679; and returning to his native city, he
attended the bar, and wrote fome treatifeson thelaw. He
was the friend of Puffendorf. By oppofing the fcholaftic
philofophy in a German journal, commenced in 1688, he
excited oppofition, and raifed againft himfelf many enemies.
Many circumftances occurred which increafed the number
of his adverfaries, and at length he was denounced to the
court of Drefden as a heretic and Calvinift. The dread of
perfecution induced him to withdraw to Berlin, and the king
of Pruffia offered him an afylum at Halle, where he intended
to found an univerfity. In this inftitution he occupied the
fecond chair of law, and on the death of Stryckius, in 1710,
he was advanced to the firft chair. In 1713 he defended con-
cubinage, and being denounced for this opinion by the theo-
logical faculty. of Halle, orders were iffued for proceeding
againit him criminally, But upon the examination of his

THO

thefes, by commiflioners, the proceedings againit him were
ftopped. The difpute, however, continued ; neverthelefs he
rofe to the poft of privy-counfellor to the king, and direGtor
of the univerfity of Halle, and died in 1728. Mofheim has
given this chara@er of Thomafius. ‘ His views were vaft ;
he aimed at the reformation of philofophy in general, and of
the Peripatetic fyftem in particular ; and he afliduoufly em-
ployed both the power of exhortation and the influence of
example, in order to perfuade the Saxons to reje@t the Anf-
totelian fyftem, which he had never read, and which moft
certainly he did not underftand. The fcheme of philofophy
which he fubftituted in its place was received with little ap-
plaufe, and foon funk into oblivion; but his attempt to
overturn the fyftem of the Peripatetics, and to reftore the
freedom of philofophical inquiry, was attended with remark-
able fuccefs, made in a little time the moft rapid progrefs,,
and produced fuch admirable effeéts, that ‘Thomaftus is
looked upon, to this day, as the chief of thofe bold fpirits
who pulled down philofophical tyranny from its throne in
Germany, and gave a mortal blow to what was called the
SeGarian philofophy in that country.”? Mofheim’s Eccl.
Hift. Moreri.

THOMASSIN, Louis, an ecclefiaftical writer, was
born at Aix, in Provence, in 1619, and was admitted into
the congregation of the Oratory in the fourteenth year of his
age. He afterwards became profeffor of theology at Sau-
mur, and laying afide {cholaitic fubtleties, adopted the me-
thod of teaching by the f{criptures, fathers, and councils :
and in 1654 he was called to the feminary of St. Magloire at
Paris. His * Latin Differtations on the Councils,’”? were
publifhed by the defire of the archbifhop of Paris, of which
the firit and only volume appeared in 1667, 4to. In the
following year he publifhed ‘“‘ Memoires fur la Grace,’
3 vols, 8vo., in which work he attempts to conciliate the
Greek fathers with St. Auguftine. This was reprinted in
1682, with the addition of two memoirs. In 1678 he pub-
lifhed the firft volume of a work, entitled “ De la Difcipline
Ecclefiaitique,”’ which was followed by a fecond volume in
1679, and a third in 1681. This work was tranflated into
Latin, in 3 vols. fol. from refpe& to pope Innocent XI.
and for the advantage of more unlimited circulation. His
other works, which we can merely enumerate, were “ Dog-
mata Theologica,’”’ 3 vols. 1680-89; ‘* The Difcipline of
the Church and Chriitian Morality ;”? ‘ On the Divine Ser-
vice ;”’ ** On Feftivals ;”? “ On Fats ;?? “ On Truth and
Falfehood ;”? “ On the Unity of the Church ;” **On Alms,
Trade, and Ufury ;”? ‘ Methode d’enfeigner chretienne-
ment la Grammaire, ou les Langues par rapport a l’Ecri-
ture Sainte,’’ 2 vols. 8vo.; and “ Gloffaire univerfelle He-
braique,’’ which latter appeared after his death in 1697,
folio. :

Thomaffin died in the year 1695, having for fome time
enjoyed a penfion of 1000 livres granted to him by the
French clergy, and of which he gave one half to the poor.
One of his biographers charaéterifes him as “ humble, mo-
deft, and mild, fond of ftudy and retirement, and fhunning
difputes.”-—Although his reading was extenfive, his eru-
dition was not of the higheft clafs, and it is faid that his
work on Difcipline contains many miftakes where Greek
authors are cited. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

THOMASTOWN, in Geography, a poft-town of the
county of Kilkenny, Ireland, fituate on the river Nore, over
which it has a fine bridge. The caftle was built about 1180,
by Thomas Fitzanthony, from whom the town takes its Irifh
name of Bally-mac-Andan ; i.e. town of Anthony. It was
a borough, and fent two members to parliament, but loft that
privilege by the Union. The Nore is nayigable to this re

or

f HO

for fmall veffels. It is 59 miles S.S.W. from Dublin, and
as3 N. from Waterford.

THOMASTOWN, a poft-town of the United States, in the
diftri@ of Maine, and couuty of Lincoln, containing 2100
inhabitants.

THOMISM, or TuHomaism, the dodtrine of St. Thomas
Aquinas, and his followers the Thomitts, chiefly with regard
to predeftination and grace. See his biographical article.

There is fome doubt what the true, genuine Thomifm is:
the Dominicans pretend to hold pure Thomifm ; but there
are other authors who diltinguifh the Thomifm of St. Thomas
from that of the Dominicans.

Others, again, make Thomifm no other than a kind of
Janfenifm difguifed; but Janfenifm, we know, has been
condemned by the popes, which pure Thomifm never was.

In effe&, the writings of Alyarez and Lemos, who were
appointed, by their order, to lay down and defend before the
holy fee, the dogmata of their fchool, have fince been reputed
the rule of pure Thomifm.

Thofe two authors diftinguifh four clafles of Thomitts :
the firft, which they reje&t, deftroys or takes away liberty ;
the fecond and third do not differ from Molina. The laft,
which Alvarez embraces, admits a phyfical premotion, or
predetermination, which is a complement of the active power,
by which it paffes from the firft a€t to the fecond ; that is,
from complete and next power to action.

This premotion, they hold, is offered in fufficient grace :
fufficient grace is given to all men ; and that they have a com-
plete, independent, next power not to aét, and even to reject
the moft efficacious grace.

THOMISTS, a fe& of {chool divines, who maintain
Thomifm.

The avowed antagonitts of the Thomifts are the Scotifts.

THOMITES. See Tuom#ans.

THOMMDAMM, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Saxe Lauenburg, on the Elbe; z 5 miles S.E. of Lauen-
burg.

THOMPSON, Sir Benzamin, Count of Rumford, in
Biography, diftinguifhed by his affiduity and zeal in the pro-
motion of {cience, and in devifing and executing {chemes of
public utility, was born at the village of Rumford, in New
England, in the year 1752; and with the affiftance afforded
him by a profeffor of natural philofophy in the American
univerfity of Cambridge, acquired in early life fuch a degree
of knowledge as enabled him to give inftruétion to others.
By an advantageous marriage, while he was young, his ad-
yancement was accelerated, fo that he obtained the rank of
a major in the militia of his native diftrid. When the war
broke out between the mother-country and her colonies, he
took part with the former, and by means of his local know-
ledge, he rendered himfelf ufeful to the Britifh generals in
America. In procefs of time he repaired to England, and
recommending himfelf to lord George Germaine, the chief
minifter in the American department, he obtained a place in
his office. Towards the clofe of the war, the fame noble-
man, with a view of fecuring for him a permanent provifion,
fent him to New York, where he raifed a regiment of dra-
goons, and by being appointed lieutenant-colonel, became
entitled to half-pay. Upon his return to England, his ma-
jetty, in 1784, conferred upon him the honour of knight-
hood ; and for fome time he occupied the poft of one of the
under-fecretaries of flate. Soon after he made a tour to the
continent, and being warmly recommended by the prince of
Deux-Ponts, afterward king of Bavaria, to his relation the
reigning eleétor-palatine, and duke of Bavaria, he was ad-
mitted into his fervice, and occupied an eminent ftation. He
had thus an opportunity of effecting many important and

THO

ufeful reforms in the departments of the ftate, both civil
and military. His attention was at this time particularly di-
reed to the fuppreffion of mendicity, which prevailed not
only at Munich, the capital, but through the whole coun-
try, to an extent that rendered the reftraint and abolition of
it a very difficult and hazardous undertaking. With this
view he formed a plan for employing all mendicants; and
having provided a building for their reception, and materials
for their labour, he fallied forth into the ftreets of the city
on the 1{t of January 1790 (New-year’s day being fet apart
for giving alms in Bavaria), accompanied by the field-officers
of the garrifon and the magiftrates of the city ; and arrefting
with his own hand the firft beggar that came in his way, his
attendants followed his example, fo that before night not a
fingle beggar was to be feen in the whole metropolis. Thofe
that were arrefted were conducted to the town-hall, where
their names were infcribed, and then ordered to repair to the
work-houfe, where they would find employment, and a fufh-
ciency of wholefome food. In confequence of thefe prompt
and vigorous meafures, the evil was redreffed, and the men-
dicants were led by habit to prefer induftry to idlenefs, and
decency to the filth, rags, and {qualid wretchednefs attendant
on beggary. He alfo introduced into Bavaria the culture
and ufe of potatoes. For all thefe fervices fir Benjamin was
decorated by the Bavarian fovereign with feveral orders, pro-
moted to the rank of lieutenant-general, and created a count
by the title of his native place, Rumford. During his
abode at Munich, he commenced his experiments upon the
improvement of fire-places, with refpeé to the economy of
fuel, and the convenience of cooking ; and alfo his plans for
a cheaper and more nutritive mode éPieccine the poor, which
gave him peculiar celebrity. Having quitted Bavaria in
1799, he refided for fome time in this country, purfuing a
variety of experiments on the nature and application of
heat, and the conftru€tion of chimneys, grates, and fire-
places. He alfo promoted fcience both by his own refearches
and experiments, and by liberally exciting emulation in others,
upon amore enlarged plan. For the latter purpofe, he trans-
ferred, on an occafional vifit to this country in 1796, to the
Royal Society of London, of which he was a member, 1000/.
3 per cent. ttock, the intereit of which was to be applied every
fecond year as a premium to the author of the moit important
difcovery on the fubjeéts of heat and light in any part of
Europe during the two preceding years ; the preference to be
always given to fuch difcoveries as, in the opinion of the pre-
fident and council, tend -moft to the benefit of mankind ;
which indeed was the leading objec of all his refearches.
He alfo fuggefted the plan, and affifted in the formation of
the Royal Inttitution, which has produced feveral other efta-
blfhments of a fimilar nature.

In the year’1802 he left England for Paris, which be-
came his fixed refidence, and where he married the widow
of the celebrated chemift, Lavoifier; but this connection
proving unhappy, it was foon terminated by a feparation.
The count afterwards retired to a country-houfe at Au-
teuil, about four miles from Paris, which he rendered a de-
lightful habitation. Befides the improvement of his grounds,
in which he took great pleafure, he purfued a variety of
philofophical and mechanical refearches. With his fuperior
talents he combined certain peculiarities, and a tenacioufnefs,
not to call it obftinacy, of temper, which prevented his en-
joying the pleafures of focialintercourfe. Although he dif-
approved both the charaéter and politics of the French,
he preferred their climate to every other; and he obtained
permiffion from the king of Bavaria to continue in France,
and to enjoy his penfion of 1200/. a-year. He lived in a
ftate of ‘retirement, and alfo in a courfe of abflemioufnefs,

4 , which

BHO

which debilitated his conftitution, and rendered it incapable
of refifting an attack of low fever, by which he was carried
off in Auguft 1814, in his 63d year. By his firft wife he
had one daughter, now refident at Bofton.

Although count Rumford was not a learned man, he ac-
quired by his knowledge of the French and German lan-
guages, and by his extenfive acquaintance, and frequent con-
verfation with literary men, a large ftock of literature and
{cience. His peculiar talent was that of contriving inftru-
ments, and devifing experiments for facilitating his refearches
in thofe branches of economics and feientific philofophy to
which-his attention was direGted. He was alfo diftinguifhed
by a fteadinefs and perfeverance of purfuit, which were fa-
vourable to his attainment of the objeéts which he had in
view. As to his perfon, his ftature was above the mid-
dle fize, his countenance was dignified and pleafing, and his
manner and tone of yoice mild and gentle. He was, never-
thelefs, ambitious of diftinétion, and too prone to diétate in
tranfaétions with regard to which other perfons were jointly
concerned with himfelf. The papers which he communi-
cated both to the Royal Society and French Inftitute, and
which are publifhed in their TranfaGtions and Memoirs, are
numerous. The only feparate publication of count Rum-
ford was a feries of «€ Effays, Experimental, Political, Eco-
nomical, and Philofophical,’? commencing with the year
1796, and continued to 18 in number, and occupying 4 vols.
8vo. Gent. Mag. for O&ober 1814.

Tuomeson, in Geography, a town of America, in the ftate

of New York, the capital of Sullivan county; bounded N.
by Wawerfing and Neverfink, E. by Mamakating, S. by
Deerpark in Orange county, and W. by the Mongaup, which
feparates it from Lumberland, Bethel, and Liberty. Its
length N. and S. is about 34 miles, and breadth 12. The
principal fettlements are Thompfon, Monticello, Bridgeville,
and Concord. The whole area of Thompfon is 139,500
acres ; and the population by the cenfus of 1810, confilted
of 1290 perfons. The principal ftreams are the Neverfink,
Mongaup, and Sheldrake.—A fo, a townfhip of Conne@icut,
in the county of Windham ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Windham:
the place contains 2467 inhabitants.
; Tuompson’s Creek, ariver of South Carolina, which runs
into the Atlantic, N. lat. 34° 44! W. long. 79° 46/.—
Alfo, a river of Weft Florida, which runs into the Miffiffippi,
N. lat. 30°59’. W. long. g1° 30!

Tuompson’s Harbour, a harbour in Hudfon’s Bay. N.
lat. 60° 20/. W. long. 78°.

Txompson’s I/land, a {mall ifland of Upper Canada, at
the entrance of the river St. Claire.

THOMPSONSBOROUGH, a town of America, in
the diftri& of Maine ; 30 miles N.E. of Portland.

THOMSI, a town of Hungary; 11 miles S.W. of
Canifcha.

THOMSON, Jamas, in Biography, a popular Englith
poet, was born at Ednam, near Kelfo, in Scotland, in the
year 1700, being one of the nine children of the minifter
of that place. Whilft he was at {chool at Jedburgh, he
manifefted no powers fuperior to thofe of other boys, ex-
cept in a tafte for poetry, which he betimes indulged, and
which introduced him, during his vacations, to the fociety
of fome neighbouring gentlemen. Of his produétions, how-
ever, he thought fo humbly, that on New-year’s day he
committed to the flames thofe of each preceding year. From
Jedburgh he was removed to the univerfity om Edinburgh,
where he perfevered in the cultivation and exercife of his
poetical talents; but upon the death of his father, he con-
plied with the wifhes of his friends by entering on a courfe
of divinity. His probationary exercife was the explanation

fHO

of a pfalm, which was written in a ftyle fo fplendid, as te
incur reproof from the theological profeffor, as being alto-
gether unfuitable to the audience which might probably attend
his future miniftry. Having no great inclination for the
office, this admonition induced him to devote himfelf en-
tirely to poetry : and after {pending fome time as private
tutor: in the family of lord Binning, he determined, at the
fuggeftion of a lady, who was his mother’s friend, to try
his fortune in London. In 1725 he came to London, and
meeting with his college acquaintance Mallet, he fhewed him
his poem of ‘ Winter,’’ in an imperfeG ftate ; who advifed
him to finifh and publifh it. Mr. Millar, a well-known
London bookfeller, bought it for a fmall fum, and pub-
lifhed it in 1726. At firit it attra¢ted little attention; but
Mr. Whateley, a gentleman of acknowledged tafte, giving a
favourable account of it, brought the poem and its author
into notice. The author was introduced to Pope, and re-
commended by bifhop Rundle to lord chancellor Talbot.
In 1727 he publifhed his “ Summer,” and in the fame year
“A Poem facred to the Memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,’
juft deceafed, and alfo his ‘¢ Britannia.’”’ His ** Spring”? was
publifhed in 1728; and in 1730 the Seafons were completed
by “ Autumn,” and publifhed colleétively. In 1728 Thom-
fon, afpiring to the popularity and emolument of dramatic
compofition, fucceeded in introducing upon the flage of
Drury-lane his tragedy of ‘* Sophonifba.’”? Its reception,
however, was not very flattering. Soon after he was ae
pointed, by the recommendation of Dr. Rundle, trave
companion to the Hon. Mr. Talbot, the eldeft fon of the
chancellor, and had an opportunity of vifiting moft of the
courts and countries of the European continent. Durin
this tour, the idea of his poem on “ Liberty”? was fagpetied
to him, and he employed two years in completing it. In
confequence of this excurfion, he obtained, by the intereft of
Mr. Talbot, the place of fecretary of the briefs, which,
being almoft a finecure, afforded him leifure for his private
literary purfuits. His poem on “ Liberty’? was more coolly
received than the nature of the fubjeét led him to expe.
When lord Hardwick fucceeded the lord chancellor Talbot,
Thomfon loft his place ; but upon being queftioned by the
prince of Wales, to whom he was introduced, by Mr. (after-
wards lord) Lyttelton, as to his circumftances, a pentfion of
1oo/. a year was granted to him.

Upon the introduétion of his fecond tragedy, “ Agamem-
non,” to Drury-lane, in 1738, he was fo anxious concerning
its fuccefs, that he is faid to have been thrown into a copious
perfpiration. His ‘* Edward and Eleonora’’ was prevented
from appearing by the interference of the lord chamberlain.
The “ Mafque of Alfred,’ performed before the prince at
Cliefden-houfe, in 1740, was the joint produétion of himfelf
and Mallet ; and in this piece was introduced the famous
fong of “ Rule Britannia,’’ the production of one or other
of thefe two perfons. The moft fuccefsful of Thomfon’s
dramatic pieces was his “‘'T'ancred and Sigifmunda,”’ which
appeared at Drury-lane in 1745 ; but his “crowning perform-
ance,”’ as one of his biographers calls it, was “ ‘The Caftle
of Indolence,” publifhed in 1746. Our poet was now ren-
dered independent by the intereft of Mr. Lyttelton, who
obtained for him the office of furveyor-general of the Lee-
ward iflands, which, after payment of a deputy, yielded
him about 300/. a year. Death, however, in confequence
of a fever occafioned by a cold, deprived him, in Auguft
1748, of the comparative affluence derived from this ap-
pointment. His remains were interred in Richmond church,
without any memorial ; but in 1762 amonument was ere€ted
in Weftminfter Abbey, the expence of which was defrayed
out of the profits of an edition of his works, aa

r

HBO

Mr. Millar. His ‘ Coriolanus’? was brought on the ftage
by his executors, in 1749, for the benefit of the furviving
branches of his family. The prologue, compofed by Lyt-
telton, was very feelingly delivered by Quin, the intimate
friend of Thomfon.

Thomfon’s perfon was large and awkward, and his coun-
tenance unanimated ; nor did his appearance or manners indi-
cate genius or refinement. With fele& friends, however, he
was eafy and cheerful, and univerfally beloved for the
kindnefs of his heart, and freedom from thofe paffions that
fometimes difgrace men of literary chara&ter. He was in-
dolent and felfindulgent in his habits; although “ no poet,”
as his biographer fays, ‘* has deferved more praife for the
moral tenor of his writings. Unbounded philanthropy, en-
larged ideas of the dignity of man, and of his rights, love
of virtue, public and private, and a devotional fpirit, nar-
rowed by no views of fect or party, give foul to his verfe
when not merely defcriptive ; but no one can rife from the
perufal of his pages without melioration of his principles or
feelings.”? His poetical merit is moft confpicuous in his
*¢ Seafons,”’ and though Dr. Johnfon charges it witha defect
of method, yet asa hiftory of the year through its changes,
depending upon the viciflitude of the feafons, it adheres
fufficiently to its general plan for preferving a continuity of
fubje&, with due allowances for the moral and philofophical
digreffions by which itisvaried. Its di€tion, though fome-
what laboured, is energetic and expreflive. Its verfification,
though it does not indicate a nice ear, is feldom unpleafantly
harfh. Upon the whole, continues the biographer now
cited, “{carcely any poem has been more, andmore defervedly,
popular ; and it has exerted a powerful influence upon public
tate, not only in this country, but throughout Europe.
Thomfon’s other pieces in blank yerfe difplay a vivid imagina-
tion, a comprehenfive underftanding, and exalted fentiments,
but are not marked with any peculiar charaéter. The addi-
tion to his fame as a poet has principally arifen from his
* Caftle of Indolence,”’? an allegorical compolition in the
manner of Spenfer.”? Of his tragedies, the beft that can
be faid is that they maintain a ref{pe€table rank among the
productions of the modern fchool of the drama, which,
when they difappear from the ftage, are feldom taken up
in the clofet. Murdoch’s Life of Thomfon. Johnfon’s
Lives of the Poets. Gen. Biog.

THONE, in Geography. See Toner.

THONE, in Agriculture, a term fignifying fomewhat damp
and cold, not thoroughly dry. Alfo flaxid or limber, as
undried hay, corn, or {traw in a moitt ftate.

THONGTONG, in Geography, a town of the Birman
empire ; 10 miles N.W. of Raynangong.

THONNA, a town of Saxony, in the principality of
Gotha; 12 miles from Gotha.

THONNAUSTAUFF, atown of Bavaria, near the
Danube ; 3 miles from Ratifbon.

THONNES, or Tuonnex, a town of France, in the
department of the Leman; 9 miles S.E. of Annecy.

THONON, or Tonoy, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Leman, late capital of the duchy of Chablais,
on the lake of Geneva, fituated on a plain a little elevated.
It is not environed with walls, but was formerly defended
by a ftrong cattle, furrounded with lofty towers, where
Amadeus VIII, and IX. and Louis, dukes of Savoy, re-
fided for fome time. The caftle was burned and demolifhed,
in the 16th century, by the Bernois. It has one parifh
church and feveral convents; 18 miles N.E. of Geneva.
N. lat. 46° 18'. E. long. 6° 32/.

THOPH. See Macuur and Sistrum.

THOPHAIL, Asu Giarar, in Biography, a celes

THO

brated Peripatetic philofopher and phyfician, was a native
of Seville in Spain, and preceptor to Maimonides and Aver-
roes. This philofopher employed the Ariftotelian doétrine
to the purpofes of enthufiafm, in the elegant tale {till extant
of * Hat Ebr Yockdan;’? a youth who, having been ex-
pofed when an infant on the fea-coaft, was nourifhed by a
hind, and grew up in the woods, without any intercourfe
with human beings; and who, by the unaided exertions of
his own powers, attained to the knowledge of things na-
tural and fupernatural, and arrived at the felicity of an in-
tuitive intercourfe with the divine mind. This piece is
written with fuch elegance of language and vigour of imagi-
nation, that, notwith{tanding the improbability of the ftory,
it has been univerfally admired. It exhibits a favourable {pe-
cimen of Peripatetic philofophy, as it was taught among the
Saracens ; and, at the fame time, affords a memorable ex-
ample of the unnatural alliance, which was now fo generally
eftablifhed between philofophy and fanaticifm. This work
was tranflated by Edward Pococke, jun. from the Arabic
into Latin, under the title of “* Philofophus Autodida@us,”?
and printed in 4to. at Oxford,in1700. It was alfo tranflated
into Englith by S. Hoadley, profeffor of Arabic in Cam-
bridge, ed. Lond. 1711, 8vo., and alfo into Dutch. Tho-
phail is faid to have written feveral other works, and died at
Seville in 1175. Brucker by Enfield. Gen. Biog.

THOR, in Mythology, a deity worfhipped by the ancient
inhabitants of the northern nations; particularly by the
ancient Scandinavians and Celts. Julius Cxfar (Com.
lib. vi. c.17.) fpeaks of a god of the Gauls, who was
charged with the conduét of the atmofphere, and prefided
over the winds and tempefts, under the name of Jupiter:
but Lucan gives him a name, which bears a greater refem-
blance to that of Thor, viz. Taranis, a word which, to this
day, in the Welfh language, fignifies thunder. The autho-
rity of this deity extended over the winds and feafons, and
particularly over thunder and lightning. In the fyftem of
the primitive religion, the god Thor was probably one of
thofe genii, or fubaltern deities, {prung from the union of
Odin, or the Supreme Being, and the Earth. The Edda
calls him the moft valiant of the fons of Odin; and in the
Icelandic mythology, he is confidered as the defender and
avenger of the gods. He always carried a mace, or club,
which as often as he difcharged it returned to his hand
of itfelf; he grafped it with gauntlets of iron, and was
poflefled of a girdle which had the virtue to renew his
ftrength as often as was needful. With thefe formidable
arms he overthrew the moniters and giants, when the gods
fent him to oppofe their enemies. ‘Thor, Friga, or Freya,
and Odin, compofed the court or fupreme council of the
gods, and were the principal objets of the worfhip and
veneration of all the Scandinavians. The Danes feem to
have paid the higheft honour to Odin. The inhabitants of
Norway and octet appear to have been under the imme-
diate protetion of Thor: and the Swedes chofe for their
tutelar deity Freya, or Frey, an inferior divinity, who, ac-
cording to the Edda, prefided over the feafons of the year,
and beftowed peace, fertility, and riches.

There was a day confecrated to Thor, which {till retains
his name in the Danifh, Swedifh, Englifh, and Low Dutch
languages, viz. Thurfday. "This word has been rendered
into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter’s day ; for this- deity,
according to the ideas of the Romans, was the god of
thunder. Mallet’s North. Ant. vol.i. p. 95.

Tuor, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mouths of the Rhone ; g miles E. of Avignon.

THORA, a town of Hindooftan, in the cirear of Ran-
tampour ; 45 miles S. of Rantampour.

Tuora,

¥ -@

Taora, in Botany. See Aconitum. ;

THORACIC, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various
parts in and about the cheft, as to the aorta above the dia-
phragm, and to fome branches of the axillary artery (fee
Artery); to fome branches of the axillary plexus of
nerves (fee Nerve); to the trunk of the abforbing
fyftem of veffels. See AssorBENTS.

THORACICL, in the Linnean Syftem of Ichthyology, the
name of the third order of bony fifhes, refpiring by means
of gills only: the character of which is, that the bronchia
are officulated, and the ventral fins are placed underneath the
thorax. This order in Gmelin’s edition of the Linnzan
fyftem, includes nineteen genera, and a good number of
fpecies. The genera are, the cepola, echencis, coryphena,
gobius, cottus, fcorpena, zeus, pleuroneéies, chetodon, /parus,
fearus, labrus, /ciena, perca, gafterofteus, fcomber, centrogafter,
mullus, and trigla.

THOR Rapix, in the Materia Medica, the name of a
root which keeps its place in the catalogues of officinal
fimples, but is feldom ufed. See Aconrrum and An-
THORA.

The plant which produces it is the hora valdenfis of
Gerarde. It is kept in the gardens of the curious, but
grows wild in the mountainous parts of Germany. The
root is compofed of a number of granules or {mall lumps,
like that of the common ranunculus; the leaves are roundifh,
and ftand on {mall pedicles, and the ftalks are about fix
inches high, and the flowers yellow, and like thofe of our
common wild ranunculufes.

The root is acrid and corrofive, and the juice of the
leaves is faid to poifon animals, and to have been ufed by
the ancients for that purpofe.

THORAME, in Geography, 2 town of France, in the
department of the Lower Alps; 13 miles E. of Digne.

THORAX, in Anatomy, that divifion of the fkeleton
which contains the bones forming the cavity of the chett ;
or it is ufed to denote the cavity of the cheft. See Lune,
where the bones and their articulations are deferibed, as well
as the cavity they form, and its contents.

THorax. For an account of the operation of tappin
refer to EmpyeMA, ParaceNTESIS, and Wounps a)
Thorax.

The fubje& of wounds of the cheft will be found in the
article Wounps.

THORDO, Diaconus or Lecirer, in Biography, de-
{cended from an ancient family, was provincial judge in North
Jutland, and flourifhed in the time of Waldemar ILI., or about
the year 1350. He was the author of the following work ;
“ Conftitutio Voldemari Regis, per Thordonem Legiferum,
&e.’’ Ripis, 1504, et Havn. 1508, 4to.;tranflated into Latin
together with Waldemar’s Jutland Laws, and afterwards pub-
lifhed in Ludewig’s “ Reliquie MSS.” tom. xii. and alfo in
German by Eric Krabbe, in ‘* Weftphal’s Monuments.”
Gen. Biog.

THORDSEN, or TuroportSrurva, called alfo Frode
or Polyhiffor, was born in Iceland, about the beginning of
the 13th century. His father was Thordur Sturlefon, bro-
ther to the celebrated Snorro. (See Srurteson.) He is
reprefented to be one of the greateft Icelandic poets of his
time, as well as an eminent lawyer and hiltorian. His talents
excited enemies, fo that he was forcibly carried away from
the ifland in 1263, and conveyed to Norway, where he was
favourably received by the king Magnus Lagebzter, ad-
mitted into his council, and appointed his hiftorian and da-
pifer, one of the higheft offices at the Norwegian court.
Afterwards, however, he returned to Iceland, and having
been chief juftice of the country for many years, died in

?
e

THO

1284. His works are “ l.andnama Saga,” or “ Liber Ori-
ginum Iflandiz,”’ publifhed entire by bifhop Thordur Thor-
lakfen, Skalholt, 1688, 4to., and by J. Finneus, Hayn.
1774, 4to.:—A continuation of “ Sturlunga Saga,”’ or the
hiftory of the Sturla family, and almoft the whole of Ice-
land, during his time, which was begun by the learned
bifhop Brand :—*‘ The Hiftory of King Haager Haagen-
fen,” publifhed at the expence of the crown-prince Frede-
ric :—“ The Hiltory of King Magnus Lagebeter,’? com-~
piled from the public records of the kingdom, the greater
part of which has been loft. Gen. Biog. :

THORESBY, Ratpn, an eminent antiquary, the fon
of a confiderable merchant of an ancient family at Leeds,
where he was born in the year 1658. His father belonged
to the body of Prefbyterians, and being addi€ed to anti-
quarian ftudies, founded the colle&ion entitled « Mufeum
Thorefbianum.”? The fubjeé of this article was intended
for a mercantile profeffion, and in order to complete his edu-
cation, begun at Leeds, and profecuted in London, he was
fent, in his twentieth year, to Rotterdam, to acquire the
Dutch and French languages. But his father dying in 1679,
he fucceeded him in bufinefs, married, and fettled in his na-
tive town. To antiquarian refearches, for which his father’s
example had given him an early tafte, he devoted much time
and attention. In the earlier period of his life he had been
an occafional conformift, in common with many of thofe whe
were called Diffenters, and difgufted by the indifcreet zeal
of his paftor in maturer life, as well as probably influenced
by his diocefan, archbifhop Sharp, he joined in full commu-
nion with the eftablifhed church. His conneétion and cor-
refpondence with perfons engaged in fimilar purfuits with
his own were gradually enlarged : and upon communicating,
by Dr. Martin Lifter, an account of fome Roman antiqui-
ties difcovered in Yorkfhire, to the Royal Society, he was
admitted a member of that learned body in 1697. In 1714
he publifhed a work in which he had been long engaged,
containing a hiftory of his native town, and entitled “ Duca-
tus Leodenfis; or the Topography of Leedes, and Parts ad-
jacent,” together with a catalogue of the antiquities, &c-
contained in the Mufeum Thorefbianum. An hiftorical part,
to which he often refers, and comprehending a view of the
ftate of the northern diftri€s of this kingdom in remote
see» was left in MS. continued to the fixth century ; which

S. being communicated to the editors of the Biographia
Britannica, was by them printed entire in the article “ Tho-
refby.”? He publithed alfo “ Vicaria Leodenfis, or the
Hiftory of the Church of Leedes,’? Lond. 1724, com-
prehending obfervations on the origin of parochial churches,
and the ancient manner of building them, together with
biographical memoirs of feveral clergymen. In the follow-
ing year he was feized with a paralytic affe€tion, which ter-
minated his life at the age of fixty-eight years. Poffefling
an extenfive acquaintance with the hiftory of his country,
genealogy and heraldry, and ancient coins and medals, he
always manifelted a difpofition to affift thofe who were en-
gaged in works of the antiquarian and biographical defcrip-
tion. The fentiments of Mr. 'Thorefby were liberal and
Catholic ; his manners regular, and his difcharge of focial
and religious duties exemplary. Biog. Brit.

THORIGNY, in Geo raphy, a town of France, in the
department of the Chantel 6 miles S.S.E. of St. Lo.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne ;
18 miles S.S.E. of Provins.

THORLASKEN Gupsranp, in Biography, an Ice-
landic writer and prelate, was born at Stadarbakke, in the
diftri& of Holum, in 1542. In 1561 he was fent to the
univerfity of Copenhagen ; in 1564 he became reétor aa of

choo

~

THO

{chool of Holum ; and in 1570 he was appointed bifhop of
that diocefe. With a view of diffufing knowledge, he efta-
blifhed a printing-prefs, firft at Rupee, and afterwards at
Holum, which he perfonally fuperintended. He was one of
the moft learned of the icelandic bifhops, but too arbitrary
in the exercife of his epifcopal functions. He died in 1629,
in the 85th year of his age. Many confiderable works,
partly his own, and partly thofe of others, iffued from his
prefs. He alfo conftru€&ted a map of Iceland, which was
engraved by Ortelius. Gen. Biog.

THORN, in Geography, a city of Pruffia, fituated on the
Viftula, formerly the chief city of Polifh Pruffia. It was
founded by Herman Balck, firft grand-matter of the Teutonic
order, who built the caftle of Thorn in 1231. In the follow-
ing year, the foundation of the town was laid; but the build-
ing was difcontinued in 1235, on account of the inconvenient
fituation, and Thorn was built about a German mile farther
up the river, on the {pot where it now ftands. It is fup-
pofed to have been called Thorn, becaufe the knights of
the Teutonic order, by building this city, opened themfelves
a thor or door into Pruffia. When the knights of the
Teutonic order enormoufly abufed their power throughout
all Pruffia, Thorn was the firft city which formed the noble
{cheme of fhaking off their oppreflive yoke. The inhabit-
ants then put themfelves under the protection of Cafimir the
Great, king of Poland, upon advantageous conditions, as a
free city. Thorn has ten gates, and is divided into the Old
and the New Town, each of which had formerly its re-
{pective council, magiftracy, and police. But, in 1454,
they were incorporated into one city. They are, however,
feparated from each other by a wall and moat within the
town ; and without, they are defended in common by a fine
double wall and moats. Thorn was formerly ftrongly for-

tified; and it gradually improved its advantageous fituation,

fo as to become a place of very confiderable trade, and one
of the principal of the Hanfe towns. It likewife carried
on an extenfive commerce in the Baltic, independently of
the other cities of that confederacy ; for before the river
widened fo much, and confequently became fhallower, fhips
of burden could come up to the very city. From various
caufes, in little more than half a century, Thorn greatly
declined from its flourifhing condition; for it furrendered
by capitulation, in 1655, to Charles Guftavus, king of
Sweden ; and, in 1658, after a vigorous fiege, it was taken
by the Poles and Brandenburghers. In 1703, it was bom-
barded and taken by Charles XII. king of Sweden, who
not only exhaufted it by the heavieft contribution, but alfo
demolifhed all the fortifications, contrary to the articles of
capitulation. Between the years 1708 and 1710, great
numbers of its inhabitants were {wept away by the plague.

"Inthe following years, the revenues of the city fuffered con-

fiderably by the confederations in Poland, and no lefs by
the commotions occafioned by the competitors for the crown
of that kingdom. In 1793, fome Pruffian troops entered
this town, and from that time it has formed part of the
dominions of that king; the king of Pruffia taking poffef-
fion of Thorn and Dantzic, together with the palatinates of
Pofnania, Kalifh, &c. agreeably to a proclamation, pub-
lithed on the 25th of March. The foap, ginger-bread, &c.
of Thorn, are every where in great requeft ; and, accord-
ingly, great quantities of them are exported. The afpa-
ae that grows wild on fome of the city lands, is not
inferior to that which is cultivated with fo much care in
other countries; 70 miles S. of Dantzic. N. Jat. 52° 55/.
E. long. 18° 30!.

-Tuorn, or Thoren, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Meufe. It had a noble abbey, whofe fuperior

Vor, XXXV.

TH to

was a princefs. This abbey was affeffed in the matricula at
one horfe or twelve florins ; 7 miles S.W. of Ruremond.

Torn, in Botany, a name generally given to all trees, or
the larger kinds of fhrubs, which are armed with {pines or
prickles, but more particularly applied to the Linnzan
genus CraTt&cus, now funk in Mespitus. (See thofe
articles.) Otherwife this name is almoft as vaguely applied
as its Greek and Latin fynonyms, oxe.42 and Jpina, neither
of which is ftriétly appropriated to any one plant, or family
of plants. Ax242, in Diofcorides, is the name of that well-
known herb, whofe leaves compofe the ornamental part of a
Corinthian capital, and whichis the Brank-urfine, or Acaz-
thus of modern botanifts, as well as of the generality of
writers. But he applies the fame likewife to a kind of
thittle. The Acanthus of Virgil can fearcely be any thing
elfe than the Common Holly, lex Aquifolium, though we
do not find that this idea has occurred to his critics or
illuftrators. This fhrub, fo abundant in Italy, cannot be
traced, under any other name or allufion, in the poet ; while
the bright afpeét, the faffron or fcarlet colour, the pliant
twigs of his Acanthus ; but, above all, its being evergreen
and bearing berries, Georg. 2. 119, and fubjected in winter
to the fhears of the gardener, ibid. 4. 137, are circumitances
itrikingly appropriate to the Holly, not to the Brank-
urfine; though the name may allude to the prickly foliage
of either.

TuHorn-4pple. See Datura, and Datura Stramonium.

Tuorn, Black, or Sloe-tree, a {pecies of the prunus, called
prunus fylvefiris. See Prunus and Stor.

Tuorn, Box. See Lycium.

Tuorn, Buck. See Ruamnus, and Ruamnus Ca-
tharticus.

Tuorn, Chrif?’s. See Patrurus and Ruamnus.

Tuorn, Cock/pur. See Crarmcus, Mespitus, and
Pyrus.

“‘Tuorn, Egyptian, a name fometimes applied to a plant
which is armed with ftrong thorns or prickles, and which
is faid to have been lately found to make a good hedge-
plant when kept low by being well cut in. It is alfo a
very ornamental fhrubby tree-plant for pleafure-grounds.
See Acacia.

Tuorn, Evergreen. See Mespitus and Pyrus.

- THorN, Glaffonbury, a variety of the hawthorn. See
CratGus and Mespitus.

TuorN, Goa?’s, afpecies of A/fragalus ; which fee. See
alfo TRAGACANTHA.

Tuorn, Haw. The fruit of this thorn has been found
ufeful by farmers in feeding team and other horfes. See
Cratmcous and MeEspItus.

Tuorn, Lily. See CATESBHA.-

TuorN, Purging. See RHAMNUS.

Tuorn, Scorpion’s, a fpecies of Ulex ; which fee.

: TuHorN, Spanifh Hedge-hog, a {pecies of Anthyllis ; which
ee.

Torn, White, a {pecies of Crategus ; which fee. See
alfo MespPIvus.

Tuorn, in Vegetable Phyfiology. See Spina and Furcra.

Tuorn-Hedges, in Agriculture, a term often applied to
fuch as are made of that plant, whether of the white or black
kind. They in molt cafes form the beft fences. See
Fence, QuicksetT, Quickset-Hedge, &c.

THORNBACK, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of a
fpecies of ray-fifh, the raia clavata of Linnezus, prickly on
the back, and with tuberculofe teeth, and a tranfverfe carti-
lage in the belly: the young fifh have very few {pines on
them, and their backs are often {potted with white, and each
{pot encircled with black. (See Raia.) This fpecies

4B frequents

TLH'O

frequents our fandy fhores, is very voracious, and feeds’on
all forts of flat fith, and is particularly fond of pees and
fand-eels, and fometimes eats cruftaceous animals, fuch as
crabs. The thornbacks begin to generate in June, and
bring forth their young in July and Auguft, which (as
well as thofe of the fkate) before they are old enough to
breed, are called maids. They begin to be in feafon in
November, and continue fo later than fkate ; but the young
of both are good at all times of the year. Pennant.

THORNBURGH, in Geography, a town of Virginia ;
74 miles S. of Wafhington.

THORNBURY, an ancient market-town in the lower
divifion of the hundred of the fame name, in the county of
Gloucefter, England ; is fituated 24 miles S.-W. from the
city of Gloucefter, and 122 miles W. by N. from London.
The town confifts principally of three fireets, in the form of
the Roman Y, “having firft,’”’ fays Leland, “one longe
ftrete, and two hornes goyne owt of it.”? The corporation
is compofed of a mayor, twelve aldermen, and a town-clerk ;
but the power of thefe officers is become much limited by
difufe. A weekly market is held on Saturdays, but is not
much frequented: here are three annual fairs. The church
is fpacious and handfome: the tower is lofty, and orna-
mented with rich open-worked battlements, and eight pin-
nacles. The population, as returned under the aét of the
year 1811, amounted to 1083; the number of houfes to
216. At the north end of the town are the remains of an
upfinifhed caftle, which was commenced by Edward Stafford,
duke of Buckingham, but ftopped when he was beheaded
in 1522. This caftle may be confidered as particularly de-
ferving notice, from its affording fome interefting {pecimens
of the laft gradation of caftellated architeéture. ‘The former
{plendour of Richmond and Nonfuch, which were con-
temporary with it, are known only by defcription and en-

avings ; and Hampton Court, though it rofe under the
hands of Wolfey at the fame period, is certainly lefs rich in
the minute-and capricious ornaments peculiar to the build-
ei of Henry VII. and his fucceffor. A {mall part moit
refembling Thornbury, is feen at Windfor Caftle, in an ad-
dition made by the firft-mentioned fovereign. It is evident,
from a furvey made in the year 1582, that the whole
fouthern fide was habitable, and that it confifted of feveral
chambers, of magnificent dimenfions. ‘The tower, the walls
of which are peter was divided into four rooms, the duke’s
own apartments: this ftands at the fouth-weft angle of the
caftle. The duke was meditating the completion of the
quadrangle which would have inclofed an area of two acres
and a. half, when his fatal attainder clofed his views for
ever. Within the circuit walls twelve acres were inclofed :
annexed to them are fmall rooms, intended as barracks for
foldiers, In the reign of Elizabeth, the principal timbers
were taken away ; and time has forwarded the dilapidation.
A fingular coincidence has been remarked between the front
of Thornbury caftle and that of Chriftchurch, Oxford ;
and it appears as if the rivalry of the duke and cardinal
Wolfey was exerted even in their architecture. — Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. v. Gloucefterfhire ; by J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley. Lyfons’s “Gloucefterfhire Anti-
quities,”’ folio.

THORNE, a market-town in the lower divifion of the
wapentake of Strafford and Tickhill, in the Weft Riding of
the county of York, England; is fituated near the fouth
bank of the river Don, at the diftance of 10 miles N.E.
from Doncafter, 29 miles S. by E. from York, and 167
N. by W. from London. ‘The town appears to be in a
progreffive ftate of improvement : it carries on a confider-
ah]e ecommerce by the Don; and veflels trade regularly to

10

TH‘O

London. Ships of a fize fufficiently large for the coaiting
trade, are built at the fuburb called Hangman Hill, on the
banks of the river, which is alfo the landing-place for all
the merchandize. A canal cut from the Don to the Trent
pafies within a furlong on the weft fide of the town. A
weekly market is held on Wednefdays; and two fairs an-
nually, each of three days continuance, for horned cattle,
woollen cloth, &c. According to the population returns
of the year 1811, Thorne contained 637 houfes, the number
of inhabitants being 2713. The country about Thorne is
for the moft part fertile; but low, flat, and totally un-
pi€turefque. On the eaft fide of the town is a field of rich
{andy loam, and more elevated than the other lands in the
vicinity. Beyond this are vaft moors, which however are
moftly drained and inclofed.

At the diftance of about three miles weftward from
Thorne, and on the Doncafter road, is Hatfield, a large yil-
lage, famous in the annals of hiftory for the battle fought
there A.D. 633, by Edwin, the firft Chriftian king of
Northumbria, againft Cadwallo, king of Wales, and Penda,
the Pagan king of Mercia. ‘This confli€t, which was ex-
tremely fanguinary, terminated fatally for the Northum-
brians: their monarch, and his eldeft fon Offrid, were flain,
their kingdom fubdued, and their country laid wafte. This
village was the birth-place of William de Hatfield, the
fecond fon of king Edward III. The extenfive level of
Hatfield Chace is {aid to contain within its limits 180,000
acres, of which nearly one-half was formerly a great part of
the year under water. It was fold by Charles I. to Cor-
nelius Vermuiden, a naturalized Dutchman, without the
confent of the ecommiffioners and tenants, to drain and cul-
tivate ; which he effeéted at the expence of about 400,000/.,
but the affair involved him in ruinous law-fuits. In the
year 1811, an act was obtained for inclofing between eight
and nine thoufand acres of rich common in this neighbour-
hood, which muft be ultimately produGtive of great public
and private advantage. — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xvi. Yorkfhire ; by J. Bigland.

Tuorng, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the Little Belt,
near the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 59° 15’. EE. long.

° '

THORNESS Bay, a bay on the N.W. coaft of the Ile
of Wight, between Newtown and Cowes. 7

THORNEY, a market-town in the north part of the
hundred of Witchford, and county of Cambridge, England $
is fituated in the north-weft fide of the county bordering on
Northamptonshire, 10 miles W. from March, 5 miles S.E.
from Crowland, and 84 miles N. from London. — It is fur-
rounded by low and fertile grounds, which are now in a very
complete ftate of drainage, the expence of which is defrayed
by an annual tax of about a fhilling per acre. Its ‘ancient
appellation was Ankeridge, which it obtained from the an-
chorites who dwelt in a monaftery, or rather an aflemblage
of hermitages, founded here about the year 662, by Saxul-
phus, the firft abbot of Peterborough. The Danes de-
ftroyed thefe hermitages in 870, and the place lay wafte tll
‘972, when Ethelwold, bifhop of Winchefter, founded on
the feite an abbey for Benediétinegnonks, which became an
opulent eftablifhment, and ranked among the mitred abbeys, —
In the year 1085, the ancient church was taken down, and a
new one commenced by the abbot Gunter, but it was not
completed till 1128. This ftruéture pofleffed confiderable
magnificence, and -was, according to Brown Willis, ‘at
leaft five times as large as at prefent.’? When the abbey
was diffolved by Henry VIII. great, part of thechurch
was deftroyed ; but the remainder efcaped by being made
parochial. ‘The weft front, which is the entrance to the

church,

Britannia, vol. ii. part 1. Cambridgefhire.

. Ruity and induftry.

‘to Italy.

PU

church, is the moft perfeét part of the ancient building.
The revenues of the abbey were eftimated, at the diffolu-
tion, at 411/. 12s. 11d. clear yearly value. Great part of
its poffeffions, with the fcite, was granted in 1549 to John,
lord Ruffell, anceftor to the duke of Bedford, who is lord
of the manor, and owner, not only of the town, but alfo of
19,000 acres of the furrounding lands. This extentive pro-
perty is divided into farms from 25/. to 400/. per annum,

enerally in a very improved ftate of cultivation. A market
is held on Thurfdays, and two annual fairs were granted for
Thorney to Francis, earl of Bedford, in the 13th year of
Charles I. by the charter of incorporation for the govern-
ment of the Bedford Level. The inhabitants of the parith,
who are chiefly the defcendants of French Protettants, are
flated in the population return of the year 1811, to amount to
1675 : the number of houfes being 251.—Lyfons’s Magna
Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. ii. Cambridgefhire ; by J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley.

Tuorney J/land, a {mall ifland, in a bay of the Englifh
Channel, near the coaft of Sufféx, about four miles in cir-
cumference, with a village of the fame name, at the mouth of
the Lavant ; 7 miles S.W. of Chichefter.

THORNHILL, Sir James, in Biography, may be called
the father of hiftoric painting in England. He was the fon of
a gentleman of an ancient family in Dorfetfhire, and was born
at Weymouth in 1676. His family having fallen in fortune,
he was obliged to refort to fome profeffion for fupport, and
guided by an early tafte for painting, fixed upon that art as
a bafe on which to raife a fortune and a name. He came
to London, and was affifted by the celebrated phyfician
Sydenham, who placed him under the tuition of an artift of
little note, whofe name is not known, and to whom, from
the ftate of the art at the time, he mutt have been far lefs
indebted for the progrefs he made, than to his own inge-
After having pra@tifed for a while
with fome celebrity, he travelled to Holland and to
Flanders ; and thence vifited France, but did not proceed
Moft probably his objeét in this journey was
only to acquire a knowledge of colouring ; and he might
have fatisfied his mind on compofition and form, by having
fpent three years in copying the cartoons of Raphael, which
he was permitted to do by the favour of the earl of Halifax.
Thefe copies are in oil, and were bought after his death by
the then duke of Bedford; and by his grace’s fucceffor,
the late duke, were prefented to the Royal Academy.
They are wrought with care, but lack the delicacy of cha-
racter and feeling obfervable in the originals. On his re-
turn to England, his reputation was increafed, and honour
and employment accompanied it. Queen Anne com-

miffioned him to paint the interior of the cupola of St.,

Paul’s, which he did in eight compartments. ‘The fubje&
afligned him was the hiftory of St. Paul ; and he treated it
with confiderable grandeur of ftyle, both as to compofition and
execution ; but his defign wanted chaftity and fimplicity,
and the heads of his figures have not fufficient refinement of
expreffion. It was, however, the firft attempt by an Eng-
lifhman of the kind, and fully juftified the preference given
to him over La Guerre and La Foffe, who were then paint-
ing the halls and ftaircafes of our nobility. He was after-
wards employed to decorate an apartment at Hampton
Court, with emblematical allufions to the hiftory’ of the
queen, and her union with her confort, George, prince of
Denmark. But his grand work is the great hall at Green-
wich Hofpital, where he has painted naval trophies and
allegorical figures in great profufion; and if much praife
cannot be given to the purity of the deéfign, it ought not to

THO

be withheld from the brilliancy and vigour of ‘the execu-
tion. Altogether, it is a work unrivalled in its kind here,
and well entitled him to the honour of knighthood, which
George I. foon after conferred upon him. This was fome
compenfation to him for the mortification of having his
demand for thefe paintings contefted, and beingwin the end
paid only at the labourer’s rate of fo much fer fquare
yard, (40s).

He had the honour of fo far re-eftablifhing his family in-
fluence as could be effe€ted by being chofen to reprefent his
native town in parliament ; but he did not enjoy his honours
long, as he died at the early age of 57, leaving a fon, named
alfo James, for whom he had procured the appoimtment of
ferjeant-painter to the king, and a daughter married te
Hogarth.

THORNY Treroir, in Botany. See Fagonia.

Tuorny Ref-Harrow, in Agricultdre, a frequent weed in
poor barren patture land, which is not removed without
difficulty, in confequence of its perennial nature.

THOROE, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Denmark,
in the Little Belt, near the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 55° 15/.
E. long. 9° 53!.

THOROLD, a townfhip of Upper Canada.

THOROUGH, the common name of an inter-furrow
between two ridges. They fhould always be clean and
well-drawn.

TxHorovau-Ba/fe, or accompaniment to a continued bafe
by figures. ,

Thorough-bafe is but an aukward tranflation of the
Italian terms baffo continuo, by which accompaniment by figures,
without any other guide for the right-hand on keyed inftru-
ments, was at firft called.

The French term accompagnement is the fhorteft and moft
comprehenfive title for the harmony exprefled by figures
over the bafe; if, as Rameau has done in his ** Code de
Mufique,” we add “for the harpfichord or organ,’ as
there are feveral other kinds of accompaniment belides that
on keyed-inftruments.

Rameau defines accompaniment or thorough-bafe in the
following manner. ‘* Accompaniment on the harpfichord
or organ, confifts in the execution of a complete and regu-
lar harmony, by feeing only the notes of one part of: that
harmony ; and this part is called the bafe, being in reality
the bafis or foundation of the whole compofition. This
bafe is played with the left-hand, and its harmony with the
right.”

owe fhall endeavour to affift our mufical reader, who has
every thing to learn in the art of accompaniment, more by
example than precept, and fhall give him a feries of pro-
greflive leffons in the mufical plates, which will explain
the whole myftery of mufical combinations from the com-
mon chord, to the moft extrarieous harmony.

We take it for granted that he is perfeétly acquainted
with the mufical fale or gammut, in the bafe and treble
clefs at leaft, as well as with the time-table ; and that the
accidents of flat, fharp, and natural, are familiar to him.

The firft thing, therefore, that we fhall recommend to
his ftudy, is a table of intervals, both in notes and figures.
See Plate II. .

N° x. prefents a fcale in half notes, in which all the flats
occur, from the unifon to the gth; another {cale exprefled
by fharps.

2. Number of femitones above the bafe in each interval.

3. Common chords, major and minor, to all the twelve
femitones, modulating by 5ths.

4. Modulation in common chords, major and minor alter-
nately, the bafe falling a 3d at each change. And in

A Baz order

THO

order to familiarize the ftudent to thefe chords in every part
of the inftrument, he is advifed to make three voyages
round the harmonical world : beginning with the 8th upper-
moit, then the 5th, and laftly the 3d; and if no miftake is
made, the laft chord in each of thefe circumnavigations will
be an oétave above the firft. But all difficulty in thefe
exercifes will be removed, if it. be remembered that, in
going from chord-to chord, only one note is to be changed
by the right-hand, which note is always the oftave of the
new bafe.

5. Exercife of common chords in accompanying the
hexachords in all the keys, major and minor, to their fun-
damental bafes: in the pra¢tice of which, dots are placed
on the notes in the treble, which are to be played with the
little finger. And though only the firft hexachord, or fix
notes, is written backwards, each of them is intended to be
played backwards as well as forwards.

Many years ago, we tried to reduce all the rules of
thorough-bafe to the compafs of a nieffaze-card, and almoft
all the combinations exprefled by figures to common chords.
And now, if the preceding exercifes of the hand in common
chords have done their duty, the ftudent will perceive, from
an engraving of the two fides of this thorough-bafe card, that
what has been explained in words and figures on one fide,
is illuftrated with notes on the other.

The fecond card goes fomewhat deeper into harmonical
mytteries, by what the French call /a regle de oGave, or
rule for accompanying with a f{pecific chord every note of
the key, afcending and defcending ; which, if praétifed
well in all the 24 keys, and impreffed on the memory, will
enable the ftudent to figure a bafe himfelf, or to play with-
out figures ; and by a Fa divination, without a treble
part, to know the harmony that belongs to each bafe of a
regular compofition, in a diatonic afcent and defcent.

After thefe chords are literally at the fingers’ -ends of the
itudent, the following eight rules and exceptions in playing
without figures muft be obferved.

1. An accidental /harp note in the bafe is generally ac-
companied with a %, and changes the key to the half note
above fuch fharp.

2. An accidental flat note in the bafe is generally ac-
companied with a *, and changes the key to the 4th below
fuch flat.

3. To the sth of a key, if repeated at a clofe, two chords
are generally played in modern mufie; the © and *: in
old mufic, the § 5, and fometimes the 7th with the common
chord.

4. When the bafe moves fer faltum, a 3d, 4th, 5th, or
6th, common chords will do.

5. When the bafe rifes a 4th, and falls a sth alternately,
and the contrary, each note may be accompanied by a 7th.

6. In fyncopated or binding notes the 4 are played to

the laft part of the ligature, by anticipation.

7. Slow notes in the bafe, in old mufic, are generally
accompanied, as on the plate, by a # and 2 alternately.

8. Su/penfions of a whole chord, or part of a chord, are
expreffed by a dafh (—) preceding the refolution.

The reverfe of the fecond card contains explanations of
thefe eight rules in notation.

It muft be remembered, that whoever is ambitious of
playing thorough-bafe without figures, muft previoufly pof-
fefs the art of accompanying readily with figures. See
Composition and CounTErroint, to which thorough-bafe
is the beft introduction: as what is good in playing, would
be good, as far as harmony is concerned, in writing. In-

6

THO

vention, fancy, and good tafte, are neceflary to break thefe

.chords into meledy.

TuorouGH-Wax, in Botany. See BupLEURUM.

THORP Arcu, in Geography, a village of England, in
the county of York, where is a medicinal {pring, impreg-
nated with fulphur and fteel ; 3 miles S.E. of Wetherby.

Tuorp, Bifhop’s, a village of England, in the county of
York, where the archbifhop has a palace, built by arch-
bifhop Gray in 1241; 3 miles S. of York.

THORPNESS, a cape on the eait coaft of England, in
the county of Suffolk, forming the fouthern part of
Solebay. i

THORSAKER, a 'town of Sweden, in Geftricia; 21
miles S.W. of Gefle.

THORSBERG, a mountain of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuus; 18 miles W. of Tonfberg.

THORSHAVEN, a fea-port town of the ifland of
Stromoe, and capital of ali the Faroer iflands, as well as the
common market, and refidence of the landvogt, and king’s
counfel. ‘

THORSTORP, atown of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
28 miles S.E. of Gotheborg.

THOS, Tuous, ©»:, in Zoology, a name given to an
animal of the wolf-kind, but larger than the common wolf,
common in Surinam. It is a f{pecies of the canis, with a
light bent tail, and white belly. It never touches men or
cattle, and rather provides its food by cunning than open
force ; preying chiefly on poultry and water-fowl.

THOTCHI, or Tuarcnr Horun, in Geography, a town
of Chinefe Tartary ; 368 miles W. Tourfan. N. lat. 42°52".
E. long. 83° 24/. :

THOTRA, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ran-
tampour ; 40 miles §.S.W. of Rantampour.

THOU, James Avucustus pz, (THuaNus,) in Bio-
graphy, an eminent magiftrate and hiftorian, was the fon of
Chriftopher de Thou, prefident of the parliament of Paris,
diftinguifhed for integrity and patriotifm, and born at Paris
in the year 1553. Inthe college of Burgundy, where he
was placed at the age of ten years, his education was inter-
rupted by a fever, which feemed for fome time to have
proved fatal to him; but upon his recovery he ftudied the
civil law, firft at Orleans, and afterwards at Valence, under
the celebrated Cujacius, in which latter place he com-
menced an intimate acquaintance with Jofeph Scaliger,
which was continued through life. Upon his return to
Paris in 1572, he witneffed the horrors of the maffacre of
St. Bartholomew, and this fcene impreffed him with an
eternal deteftation of bigotry and intolerance. He was
originally deftined for the church, with the profpe& of
valuable preferments, which his uncle, the bifhop of Chartres,
intended to refign to him. In the mean while he travelled
to Italy, the Low Countries, and Germany ; but upon the
death of his brother, his views were changed, and the law
became his deftined profeffion. After the death of his
father, whofe memory he held in high veneration, he was
made mafter of requefts in 1584; and in 1587, he married
Marie Barbanfon, a lady of a noble family. Upon the re-
volt of Paris, on occafion of the league, in 1586, he repaired
to. Henry III. at Chartres, and was deputed by him to
confirm the province of Normandy in its allegiance. On
the affaffination of the duke of Guife, his family at Paris re-
ceived public infults, which made it neceflary for his wife
to make her efcapein difguife, and he went to the king at
Blois, who was almoft deferted, and induced him to form
a coalition with Henry, king of Navarre. Being at Venice,
he was informed of the aifaffination of Henry III., after
which he immediately jomed the legitimate fucceffor to the

crown,

2H O
crown, Henry IV., at Chateaudun. The king, fully ap-

prized of his excellent qualities, repofed confidence in him,
and employed him in many interefting negociations. On
the death of Amyot, the king’s principal librarian, De
Thou was nominated his fucceffor ; and in 1594 he fuc-
ceeded his uncle as “ prefident 4 mortier.”? He officiated
as one of the Catholic commiffioners at the theological con-
ference of Fontainebleau between Du Perron and Du Pleflis
Mornai ; and in the regency of Mary de Medicis, he was
one of the dire¢tors-general of the finances. At the con-
ference of Loudun, he acquired diftinguifhed reputation by
his virtue and ability ; and he was joined with cardinal Du
Perron in a commiffion for the reform of the univerfity of
Paris, and the conftruétion of the college-royal, the edifice
of which was begun under his fuperintendance. Although
De Thou was occupied in a variety of public tranfactions,
he referved time for the cultivation of literature, and par-
ticularly for that of Latin verfe, in which latter department
he publifhed, in 1584, a didaétic and deferiptive poem,
“De Re Accipitraria,”” (on Hawking,) which was well
received by the learned. He alfo gave to the public other
pieces of Latin poetry, fome of which were on fcriptural
fubjects. But his “ Opus majus,’? as we may call it,
which has eftablifhed his permanent fame, was ‘ The Hif-
tory of his own Times,” the firlt part of which appeared
in 1604. The condemnation of this interelting work re-
flects indelible diferedit on Henry IV. ard his court:
the ground of their enmity feems to have been the freedom
with which he {poke of the popes, clergy, and the houfe of
Guife, and the difpofition he manifefted to extenuate the
offences charged upon the Huguenots, and toextol the virtues
and abilities of that fe. Our author’s Hiftory, when
completed, confifted of 138 books, comprehending the
events from 1545 to 1607. No perfon could be better qua-
lified for undertaking fuch a work ; and when we contider
his native candour and love of truth, no one was.more
likely to execute it with impartiality. Mr. Hayley, in his
« Effay on Hiftory,” has with equal juftice and eloquence
charaéterized this illuftrious writer in the following lines :

«« There, in the dignity of virtuous pride,
Thro’ painful {cenes of public fervice try’d,
And keenly confcious of his country’s woes,
The liberal {pirit of Thuanus rofe :
O’er earth’s wide {tage a curious eye he cait,
And caught the living pageant as it paft :
With patriot care moft eager to advance
The rights of nature, and the weal of France !
His language noble, and his temper clear
From faétion’s rage, and fuperftitious fear !
In wealth laborious ! amid wrongs fedate !
His virtue lovely, as his genius great !
Ting’d with fome marks that from his climate f{pring,
. He priz’d his country, but ador’d his king ;
Yet with a zeal from flavifh awe refin’d,
Shone the clear model of a Gallic mind.’’

To this work De Thou has annexed ‘* Commentaries or
Memoirs of his own Life.”’

Having loft his firft wife in 1601, whofe virtues he cele-
brated in a Latin poem ; arid having no iffue, he married,
in 1603, a fecond wife, of a noble family, by whom he had
three fons and three daughters, and fhe died in 1616. This
lofs, and the calamities that befel his country on the murder
of Henry IV., are fuppofed to have haftened his own death,
which happened in 1617, at the age of 64 years. His library,
which was very valuable, and which by his will was to have

been kept undivided in his family, was neverthelefs fold

TOHMNO

after the death of one of his fons. The moit complete edition
of De Thou’s Hittory is that publifhed at London in 1733,
by Buckley, in 7 vols fol. with memoirs of his life, and
other pieces not before publifhed. Dr. Mead, always dif-
tinguifhed as the munificent patron of letters, contributed
to render this edition peculiarly valuable, by the purchafe
of Carte’s papers, which he had colleéted during his refi-
dence in France.—Mem. of De Thou, by himfelf. Moreri.
Nouv. Di&. Hilt: Gen. Biog. M

The eldeft fon of De Thou, viz. Francis Auguftus de
Thou, born in 1607, inherited the virtue and talents of his
father, and became a mafter of requefts, and afterwards
grand-mafter of the royal library, and acquired, by the
gentlenefs of his manners and profound learning, general
efteem. But falling under the difpleafure of cardinal Riche-
lieu, he was kept out of all confidential employments ;_ and
by this flight he was induced to join the party of the
favourite Cingmars, who entered into a fecret negociation
with Spain. De Thou was implicated in the confpiracy,
and capitally condemned. He was beheaded at Lyons, in
1642, at the age of 35, dying with great refolution, and
univerfally lamented ; a victim to the vindictive feeling of
Richelieu, becaufe his father, in his Hiftory, had {poken in
opprobrious terms of one of his family.

THOUARCE,, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mayne and Loire; i2 miles S. of
Angers.

THOUARE’, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Loire; 5 miles N.E. of Nantes.

THOUARS, a town of France, and principal place of
a diflri€t, in the department of the 'T'wo Sevres, near the —
river Thoue. The place contains 2035, and the canton
13,950 inhabitants, on a territory of 3174 kiliometres, in
24 communes ; 31 miles W. of Poitiers. N. lat. 46° 58!.
E. long. 0° 8!.

THOUE, a river of France, which runs into the Loire,
a little below St. Florent.

THOUGHT, Sentiment, a general name for all the
ideas confequent on the operations of the mind, and even
for the operations themfelves.

As, in the idea of thought, there is nothing included of
what we include in the idea of an extended fubftance ; and

-that whatever belongs to body, may be denied to belong

to thought ; we may conclude, that thought is not a mode
of extended fubftance, it being the nature of a mode not to
be conceived, if the thing, of which it is the mode, be
denied. Hence we infer, that thought, not being a mode
of extended fubftance, muft be the attribute of fome other
fubftance very different.

F. Malebranche, with the fpirit of a Cartefian, denies
that a man who thinks ferioufly on the matter, can doubt
but that the eflence of the mind confifts altogether in
thought, as that of matter does in extenfion; and that,
according to the various modifications of thought, the mind
fometimes wills, fometimes imagines, &c.; as, according to
the various modifications of extenfion, matter is fometimes
water, fometimes wood, fire, &c. By the way, by thought
he does not mean the particular modifications of the foul,
i. e. fuch or fuch a thought, but thought, or thinking in the
general, confidered as capable of all kinds of modifications,
or ideas ; as by extenfion he does not mean fuch or fuch an
extenfion, as a {quare, oval, or the like, but extenfion in the
abftraét, confidered as fufceptible of all kinds of modifi-
cations or figures. in

He adds, that he takes it to be impoffible to conceive a
mind which does not think, though it be eafy to conceive
one which does not feel, or imagine, or will; in like manner

as

THO

as it is impoffible to conceive a matter which is not extended,
though it be eafy to conceive one that is neither earth nor
pag nor {quare, nor round, nor that is even in motion.

Hence it may be concluded, that as it is poflible there
may be matter which is neither earth nor metal ; nor fquare,
nor round, nor even in motion; it is alfo poffible, that a
mind may neither perceive heat nor cold, nor joy nor grief,
nor imagine any thing, nor will any thing ; fo that thefe
modifications are not effential to it. ‘Thinking alone, there-
fore, according to this author, is the eflence of the mind, as
extenfion alone is the eflence of matter. :

But this doétrine is not now generally received. The
followers of fir Ifaac Newton, and the new philofophy,
deny extenfion to be the effence of matter ; and the fol-
lowers of Mr. Locke deny thought to be the effence of the
mind.

Tuoucuts, or Thaughts, in a Boat, a name given by
feamen to the benches on which the men fit down to row.

THOUINIA, in Botany, a noble genus, though con-
fitting of only one known fpecies, fo named by the writer
of this, in grateful remembrance of his diftinguifhed friend
M. André Thouin, member of the Inftitute, and at prefent
Profeflor of Agriculture at Paris. This gentleman is one
of the original foreign members of the Linnzan Society,
and ranks among the beft and moft philofophical cultivators,
as well as botanifts, of this or any age. The prefent plant
was feleéted out of the large and fine collection of new and
rare {pecimens, given by himfelf to the younger Linnzus,
chiefly from the herbarium of Commerfon. We were not
aware of its having been named Humbertia by its difcoverer,
or Enpracuium by Lamarck (fee the latter article) ;
where we have remarked that the name is barbarous ; we
fhould therefore not have adopted it, if known. Humbertia
is not accounted for, there being no botanift on record of
the name of Humbert, nor has any body explained or
defended this appellation. The younger Linnzus had in-
deed eftablifhed a Thouinia, Suppl. 9, after Thunberg ;
neither of them fufpecting their plant to be a real Chionan-
thus, the zeylanica of Linn. Sp. Pl. 11. Swartz moreover,
in his Prodr. 14, added a fecond fpecies to this fuppofed
genus, which he afterwards diftinguifhed from it, by the
name of Lryoctera, under which head our doubts refpeét-
ing even that matter are recorded. Confidering therefore
our original name no more juftly fuperfeded than our genus,
we cannot allow it to give place to M. Poiteau’s Thouinia,
Ann. du Mufée fafc. 13, though De Theis has decided
otherwife—Sm. Plant. Ic. 7. Schreb. 793. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 1. 935. Mart. Mill. Di€&. v. 4. (Endrachium ;
Juff. 133. Humbertia; Lamarck Di@. v. 1. 356. Il-
luftr. t. 103.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Convolvuli, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, of five
roundjfh, coriaceous, concave leaves; the three outer ones
moft thick and rugged, naked; two inner membranous at
the margin, filky at the back. Cor. of one petal, twice
the length of the calyx, bell-fhaped, plaited, externally
briftly ; its margin in five triangular blunt fegments. Stam.
Filaments five, awl-fhaped, fmooth, declining, twice the
length of the corolla, and inferted into its bafe; anthers
incumbent, heart-fhaped, of two lobes. Pif. Germen fu-
perior, ovate, very hairy ; ftyle of the length, figure, and
fituation of the ftamens, a little fwelling upward; ftigma
obtufe, notched. Peric. Berry globofe, coriaceous, ftand-
ing on the permanent calyx, of two cells. Seeds two in
each cell, triangular, fomewhat ovate.

Ef. Ch. Calyx inferior, of five unequal leaves, per-
manent. Corolla of one petal, bell-fhaped; externally

THAR
briftly. Styfe fimple. Berry coriaceous, of two cells.
Seeds two in each cell. sity

Obf. We fee no reafon to adopt Juflieu’s or Lamarck’s
idea of this fruit. They call it a coriaceous, or woody,
capfule, which does not burft. Commerfon, who alone has
examined it frefh, denominates it a drupa, which term we
would reftrain to pulpy fruits with a fingle nut, and there-
fore we judge the prefent to be a dacca, however tough or
dry its fullest may appear when dry.

1. T. /peGabilis. Beautiful Thouinia. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 7.
Willd. n. 1. (Humbertia madagafcarienfis; Lamarck n. 1.
“« H. eviternia; Commerf. MSS. et Ic. Endrach-En-
drach; Flac. Hift. Madagafc. 137. f. 100. Arbre im-
mortel.’’ )—Native of Madagafcar ; unknown in the gardens
of Europe. AA tall and large tree, whofe wood is-yellowith,
compact, heavy, as hard as iron, and almoft incorruptible
even under ground. Lamarck. The branches are round,
fcarred, filky towards the ends, where they bear tufts of
leaves, intermixed with axillary flowers. The feaves are
fcattered, two or three inches long, obovato-lanceolate,
obtufe, entize, fmooth and fhining, with a ftrong mid-rib,
on channelled filky footfalks, without flipulas. Flowers on
folitary, axillary, fimple /fa/és, rather fhorter than the leaves,
each with a pair of {mall braGeas about the middle. Of
the colour of the corolla we have no account ; its length is
about an inch; and the filky hairs on the outfide, in a dry
ftate, are of a fhining brown. Fruit the fize of a {mall

lum.

THOUN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Khoraffan ; 75 miles W. of Herat.

THOURY, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure and Loire ; 3 miles E. of Janville. ‘

THOUSAND. See Numerartion.

Tuovusann Years’ Reign. See MILLENNIUM.

Tuousann Iflands, in Geography, a clufter of {mall
iflands in the Straits of Sunda. S. lat. 5°33. E. long.
106° 33'.—Alfo, a number of fmall iflands in the river
St. Laurence, a little below lake Ontario; the part of the
river being called Thoufand Ifland Lake. :

Tuousann Lakes, a name given to a number of {mall
lakes in America, near the river Miffiffippi ; 60 miles above
St. Anthony’s Falls.

Tuousanp Rocks, rocks in the river St. Laurence; 72
miles S.W. of Montreal.

THOWLES, in a Boat. See Tuovres. ;

THOYNARD, Nicuoras, in Biography, a native of
Orleans, was born in 1629, and at an early age a proficient
in the learned languages, and in medallic {cience. His own
original works were Few, but he was liberal in the affiftance °
he afforded to other writers. He publifhed two fhort Latin
differtations on particular medals, and notes upon *¢ Laétan- -
tius de Mortibus Perfecutorum,’’ and alfo a Critique on
R. Simon’s tranflation of the New Teftament; but his
principal performance was ‘* A Concord of the Four Evan-
gelifts,’”” in Greek and Latin, which was printing at the time
of his death at Paris in 1706, and appeared in 1707, with
learned notes, chronologieal and hiftorical. In this work he
maintains that St. Matthew, of all the evangelifts, paid the
leaft regard in his narrative to the order of time. This
work was printed at confiderable expence, and is now rare.
Moreri.

THOYT. See Tuaut.
- THRACE, in Aneient Geography, an extenfive country
of Europe, fituated in the S.E. Its natural boundaries
are, on the S. the AXgean fea, the Propontis, and the Bof-
phorus of Thrace; on the E. the Euxine fea. Its limits
to the N. and W. are not fo determinately afcertained.

A penin-

2 IR

A peninfala to the S., between the Melanic ‘gulf and the
Hellefpont, made part of the continent of Thrace, but it
affumed the name of the Cherfonefus of Thrace. _

The continent may be confidered as divided into fix parts :
viz. 1. The part bounded to the W. by the river Melas,
which difcharged itfelf into a gulf of the fame name. To
the S. it had the Cherfonefus and the Propontide, and to
the E. the Bofphorus of Thrace and the Euxine fea. The
chief towns of this part were, on the borders of the Pro-
pontide, Ganos, Bifanthe or Reedeftus, Perinthus called
alfo Heraclea, Selymbria, Byfantium ; and on the Enuxine
fea, Dercon, Salmydeffus. p

2. The fecond part of Thrace extended from Melas to
the Hebrus. It had feveral towns on the banks of the
Hebrus, of which, the principal were Philipopolis and
Adrianopolis, called alfo Oreftes, and Trajanopolis. The
Hebrus took its rife in mount Hemus, and difcharged itfelf
into the Melanic gulf, near the town of Enos.

,3- The third part lay between the Hebrus and the lake
Biftonis to the W., confifting, according to fome authors, of
two fubdivifions, viz. from the Hebrus to Liffus, and from
Liffus to the lake Biftonis. On the fea-coaft was fituated
Maronea, and in the interior of the country Scaptahyla,
enriched by its mines.

4. The fourth part was narrow, and lay between the lake
Biftonis and the Neftus to the W. The Neftus had its
fource to the N.W. of mount Rhodope, and near it were
the towns of Jamphorinum and of Nicopolis ad Neftum.

5. The fifth part was fituated N. of the Twarus, a river
which had its fource in the mountains S. of Delnetum, and
not far from the Euxine fea, and which ran into the Hebrus
on the left fide of it. :

6. The fixth part lay N. of that part of the Hebrus
which ran from Befla towards the S.E. to Oreftis. In this
“part were the towns of Bercea and that of Cabyla, S. of the
Hemus. :

The Cherfonefus of Thrace had for its boundaries to the
‘S.E. the Hellefpont and a {mall portion of the Propontide ;
to the N. the continent of Thrace; to the N.W. the Car-
diac or Melanic gulf; this is the peninfulaof Romania; and
a wall feparated it from the continent.

Thofe who feek the origin of the Thracians in the
Old Teftament, trace them to Tiras, one of the firft de-
{cendants of Japhet. But whatever was the origin of thefe
ancient people, it is certain that they were warlike and fero-
cious, and lived very much like favages. They were divided
into different hordes, like the ancient Scythians or modern
Tartars. This country, on account of the coldnefs of its
climate, attributed to its mountains, was regarded by the
Greeks with a kind of horror.

Thrace, in the Notitia Imperii, is divided into fix pro-
vinces, viz. Europe, Rhodope, Thrace, Heminont, the
fecond Mcefia, and Scythia. According to the Notitia of
Hierocles, thefe fix provinces contain 53 cities, of which the
Thrace of Europe contained 14.

Thrace was anciently governed by kings; of thefe, the
firft who gave them laws for regulating and civilizing their
manners was Zamolxis, a difciple of Pythagoras. Our limits
will not allow us to trace its f{ubfequent hiftory, as far as it is
known. The whole, or various parts of this country were
poffeffed by Philip of Macedon, by the Athenians, by the
Lacedemonians, and by Alexander, who made a conqueft of
the whole country, nor did they recover their liberty till
after his death. Lyfimachus, one of the fucceffors of
Alexander, was vanquifhed by a defcendant of one of the
ancient fovereigns of Thrace. But the tranquillity of the
country was of fhort duration; for a party of Gauls,

THR

under Brennus, ravaged Greece, and took poffeffion of
Thrace. The Thracians afterwards exterminated the Gauls,
and reftored the race of their ancient kings. This prince,
whofe name was Seuthes, and his defcendants, reigned
without interruption till the time of Vefpafian, who re-
duced Thrace into a Roman province. It afterwards be-
came fubje& to the Turks, who now poffefs it. See
Romania.

THRACES, or Turactans, in Antiquity, were an order
of sladiators, reputed to be the moft fierce and cruel of all.
They were fo called, either becaufe they were natives of
Thrace, or wore armour after the manner of that country.
The particular weapon they ufed was the fica, or faulchion,
and their defence confifted in a parma, or alittle round thield,
proper to their country.

THRACIA Gemma, a {tone mentioned by Pliny, and
defcribed by him to be of three kinds: the one of a plain
green, but aconfiderably deep and ftrong colour ; the other
of a paler green, without variegation ; and the third {potted
with blood-coloured {pots. This is a fhort defcription, but
the ftone feems to have been a jafper, of the nature of our
green Oriental jafper and heliotrope.

THRACIUS Lapis, in the Natural Hiftory of the Au-
cients, a {tone often mentioned, and firft called Bene lapis,
from the place where it was firft found, which was in the
neighbourhood of Bina, or Bena, atown in Thrace. It has
been by fome authors allowed a place in the catalogues of
the materia medica ; but it is impoffible for us to fay, with
any certainty, which, of feveral fubftances now known
(which all anfwer in fome degree to the accounts left us of
it) is the real body they meant by that name.

It was an inflammable body, found in mines, and in the
beds of rivers; and, in burning, afforded a very offenfive
fmell.

Some of the late authors have fuppofed it was our com-
mon pit-coal ‘the ancients expreffed by this name ; others,
that it was jet ; and others, the common cannel coal. Hill’s
Theophrattus, p. 34.

THRANITA, in the Roman Trireme-gallies, or thofe
which had three rows of rowers ; thofe of the upper row

were called by this name, the fecond the zygite, and the

‘loweft thalamite.

The xygite, or middle row of men, in thefe veffels, took
up but very little room, having a conveniency of moving
their hands and oars under the feats of thofe who fat next
before them. See Enneris and Potycrora.

THRAPSTON, in Geography, a {mall market-town in
the hundred of Navisford, and county of Northampton,
England ; is fituated on the fouthern banks of the river Nen,
22 miles N.E. by E. from the town of Northampton, and 75
miles N.N.W. from London, The town, in general, is well-
built ; and at the weft end is a handfome ftone bridge croff-
ing the Nen. By this river a confiderable trade is carried
on with Lynn, Northampton, and various other towns in its
courfe. The country round Thrapiton is open, and affords
extenfive profpeéts : from an eminence, half a mile to the
fouth-eaft, may be feen at one view thirty-fix church towers
and {pires. An annual court-leet and court-baron is held:
here ; at which are appointed the governing officers, a con-
{table, and a thirdborough ; and alfo bread-weighers, whofe
office is to fee that the bread, butter, and every other mar-
ketable commodity, is good and of juft weight. A well-
{upplied market is held on Thurfdays ; it is the largeft mart
for hogs in the country: that branch alone returns every
market-day, on an average, about 5oo/. Here are alfo two
annual fairs, befides a large market, equal to either of the
fairs, which is held yearly at Michaelmas. The population

return

THR

return of the year 1811, ftates the number of houfes in this
town to be 133, occupied by 708 perfons. It appears
from Leland, that there was formerly a monattic eftablifh-
ment here. He fays, “« At the very end of Thrapefton i
ftand ruines of a very large hermitage, and principally welle
buildid, but a late difcoverid and fuppreffid.””—Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. xi. Northamptonfhire ; by J. Evans
and J. Britton.

THRASEA Pzrtus, in Biography, 2 Roman fenator,
who deferves to be recorded for his integrity and patriotifm,
was a native of Padua; educated in Stoical tenets, and a
great admirer of Cato of Utica, whofe life he compofed.
As a fenator, he was a ftrenuous affertor of the liberty that
remained under imperial defpotifm, and on this account he ex-
pofed himfelf to the obloquy of all the fycophants of power.
His integrity commanded the acknowledgment of Nero, the
execrable tyrant who put him to death, and many initances
occur of his undaunted fortitude in maintaining it. We can
only fele& the following: After Nero had committed the
deteftable crime ‘of matricide, when the fervile fenate was
decreeing folemn thank{giving and annual feftivals to com-
memorate the event, Thrafea, who, we are told, had been
accuftomed to fuffer other adulations to pafs in filence, or
with a flight affent, marked the profligacy of thefe motions
by walking out of the fenate-houfe ; thus openly expofing
his life to a danger which he contemned ; for, conformably to
the Stoical principles, he was ufed to fay, ‘ Nero may kill me,
but he cannot hurt me.’ But though Thrafea often efeaped
the brutal vengeance of this imperial tyrant, his fate was at
length decreed. Inthe year 66, the 13th of Nero, this
monfter having imbrued his hands in the blood of many of
the moft illuftrious Romans, now refolved, fays Tacitus, to
extirpate virtue itfelf, by the deftruction of Thrafea Petus
and Barcas Soranus. The amount of the charges againtt
Thrafea only evinced his contempt of the bafe adulation of
the fenate, and his difpleafure with the vices ‘and enormities
of the reign. No defence could be of any avail, and there-
fore Thrafea prepared in filence to fubmit to his fate. When
the determination of the fenate was announced to him, he was
in his garden furrounded by a number of illuftrious perfons
of both fexes, and attentively liftening to Demetrius, a Cynic
philofopher, who was difcourfing on the nature of the foul,
and its feparation from the body. Having received the
decree of the fenate, he retired into his bed-chamber, and
laid bare the veins of both arms, and then bled to death.
Tacit. Annal. Suetonius. Dion Caff. Plin. Epitt.

THRASHING, &c. in Agriculture. See 'THRESHING.

THRASOS, a term ufed by Hippocrates, to exprefs a
wildnefs and fiercenefs in the eyes of perfons who approach
to a delirium.

THRASYBULUS, in Biography, an eminent Athenian,
was the fon of Lycus, and the reftorer of liberty to his
country. When the government of the 4oo fucceeded the
overthrow of the democracy in the year B.C. 411, he was
commander of a galley ; and in conneétion with Thrafyllus,
he dettroyed the ariftocracy in the camp at Samos, and re-
eftablifhed democracy there, and then propofed the recall of
Alcibiades, in exile at Magnefia, and reftored him to his
country. Thrafybulus and ‘Thrafyllus, having purfued the
Peloponnefian fleet, brought it to an aétion in the {traits
between Seftos and Abydus, in which the Athenians cap-
tured 20 fhips of the enemy, with the lofs of 15 of their
own. Another engagement foon after occurred, and the
refult of the arrival of Alcibiades’s {quadron was a com-
plete victory on the part of the Athenians. When Alci-
biades was made general of the Athenian forces both by fea
and land, he nominated Thrafybulus for one of his colleagues ;

THR

but a mifunderftanding afterwards taking place between
them, Thrafybulus impeached Alcibiades before an affembly
of the Athenians, and procured his difgrace. On occafion
of the eftablifhment of the thirty tyrants at Athens by the
influence of the Lacedemonians, Thrafybulus was one of feve-
ral other citizens who took refuge in the Theban territory ;
and zealous for the emancipation of his country from fervi-
tude, he engaged a fmall body of fugitives to join him in an
expedition to Attica, and took pofleflion of the important
fortrefs of Phyla, on the frontiers of Beotia. Befieged by
the Greeks, Thrafybulus by his activity repulfed them, and
even followed them in diforder to Athens. i
furprifed a poft which they occupied near Phyla, the thirty
tyrants removed from Athens to Eleufis, and Thrafybulus
feized this opportunity of attacking the Pireus, and his
enterprife fucceeded. He then iflued a proclamation, ani-
mating the Athenians to refift their tyrants, and to re-
{tore a free government. Having done this, he eftabliftied
himfelf in the Pireus. The coniftitution of Athens was then
changed, by fubftituting inftead of the thirty tyrants, ten ma-
giftrates, one from each tribe. The Lacedemonians ftill
retained their influence over thefe magiftrates, who fent
to Sparta foliciting afliftance againft Thrafybulus. At length,
however, this refolute commander prevailed fo as to open a
negotiation between the Athenians’ and the Spartan govern-
ment, which terminated in the withdrawing of the Spar-
tan garrifon, and the re-eftablifhment of a popular conftitu-
tion at Athens. This happy clofe of the conteft was fol-
lowed by the union of citizens of both parties, in a folemn
thankfgiving to Minerva at her temple in the citadel, when
Thrafybulus exhorted them to future concord. The remaining
tyrants at Eleufisendeavoured to foment diffenfionsin Athens;
but the bufinefs terminated in an aét of amnefty or oblivion,
which was paffed by the influence of Thrafybulus in the
affembly of the people, and ratified by an oath. This revo-
lution happened in the year B.C. gor. In accomplifning
this event, Thrafybulus aéted with the moft difinterefted
patriotifm ; for the thirty tyrants, when he feized the caftle
of Phyla, had offered to make him one of their number, and
to pardon any twelve of the exiles whom he might name;
to which offer he replied, that exile was much more honour-
able than any civil authority purchafed on fuch conditions.
Thrafybulus remained for fome time in unmoletted retirement,
enjoying the honour accompanying the olive wreath, which,
according to the fimple manners of the age, was beftowed
upon him for his fervices. But in the year B.C. 390, after
the death of Conon, the foreign poffeffions and influence of the
Athenians were in danger of being loft; and therefore a fleet
of forty fhips was placed under the command of Thrafybulus,
with which he failed to the Hellefpont. On this occafion he
induced two Thracian princes to become allies to Athens,
and compelled the Byzantines and the inhabitants of fome
other cities to abolifh their ariftocratical governments, and
accept of the Athenian model and alliance. He next pro-
ceeded againft the ifle of Lefbos, in the Lacedemonian inte-
reft, and reduced the whole ifland to obedience. Thence he
{failed for Rhodes, having previoufly raifed fupplies from the
maritime towns of Afia, and the capital of Pamphylia. He
alfo indulged his men in private pillage; and thus fo much
provoked the inhabitants, that they made an attack in the
night on the tents, and put a number of the Athenians to
the fword, among whom was Thrafybulus himfelf. Such
was the inglorious termination of a life that had been de-
voted to the benefit of his native country. Corn. Nepos.

Un. Hift. Gen. Biog. '
THRAVE, or Tureave, of Corn, in moft pasts of
England, is twenty-four fheaves, or four fhocks of fix fheaves
ta

Having alfo |

—————S

fi ‘RR

to the fhock: though, in fome counties, they only reckon
twelve fhocks to the thrave.

King Athelftan, anno 923, gave by charter, to St. John
of Beverley, four thraves of corn for every plough-land in
the Eaft Riding of Yorkthire. }

“ Ya fou threve be heaven king,
Of ilka plough of eft riding.”’

THRAUPIS, in Ornithology, a name given by many
authors to the bird more commonly called citrinella.

THRAUSMA, a name given by the ancients to a kind
of gum ammoniacum, which was drier than the common, and
more eafily crumbled to pieces.

THRAUSTOMICTHES, in Natural Hiftory, the name
of a genus of compound earths. The word 1s derived from
the Greek 9pauco;, brittle, and juxOesc, mixt.

The bodies of this genus are loams compofed of fand
and a lefs vifcid clay, and are therefore of a friable or
crumbly texture. f

The earths of this genusare generally ufed to make bricks ;
and there are feveral fpecies of them. Hill.

THREAD, in the Linen Manufadure, a {mall line or
twift of flax, the weaving of which compofes cloth. There
is a ftronger kind made ufe of to few the feams of linen gar-
ments, or to mend them. The fame term is applicable to
cotton or wool. See Sprnninc.

Thread, fays an eminent French writer (Pajot des
Charmes), bleached by the oxygenated muriatic acid, may
be ufed by the fempftrefs with much greater {peed and brifk-
nefs than thread of the fame quality bleached in the field : it
is lefs brittle, and may be ftruck much more effeétually home
to its place in weaving, and does not move afterwards. This
information, he fays, was received by him from impartial
and unprejudiced manufaéturers. :

The thread of the Laplanders is very fine, white, and
ftrong, but it is of a very different nature from our’s ; they
know nothing of flax or hemp, nor of any other plant whofe
{talks might fupply the place of thefe in making thread, but
their’s is made of the finews of the rein-deer.

They kill of thefe animals a very great number continu-
ally, partly for food, partly for the fkins, which they ufe in
clothing themfelves, covering their huts, and on many other
oceafions ; the finews of all they kill are very carefully pre-
ferved, and delivered to the women, whofe province it is to
prepare this neceflary matter. They beat the finews very
well, after having fteeped them a long time in water, and
then they {pin them out.

The thread they thus make is of any degree of finenefs
they pleafe ; but it is never any longer than the finew from
which it is made. They ufe this in fewing their elothes,
fhoes, gloves, &c. and the trappings of their rein-deer. The
threads of the fame finew are laid up together, and are all of
a length; and as the different finews afford them very different
lengths, they accordingly pick out fuch as the prefent ufe
requires, both in regard to length and finenefs. This fort
of thread is made with much more labour than our’s ; but it
is greatly fuperior to it on many occafions, where {trength is
rather required than beauty.

_Thefe people have, befides this, a way of making a fort of
yarn of fheep’s wool, which they. weave into garters and a
fort of ribbands, ufed by way of ornament ; but they place
no value on it, becaufe of its want of ftrength. Scheffer’s
Hift. Lapland. F

TarReAp, in Botany, is under{tood of thofe capillaments
ufually found in the middle of flowers, as in the lily, tulip,

Voi. XXXV.

THR

rofe, &c. There are two kinds ; thofe which fupport apices,
are particularly called /famina ; and thofe which have none,
piftilla.

TureEAD, Gold. See Gorn.

TureAD, Virgin's. See VirGIN.

Tureaps, Jir, aterm ufed by fome to exprefs thofe fine
long white filaments, or thready fub{tances, which we meet
with in vait numbers floating about in the air in Auguft and
September.

The world has been much perplexed about the generation
of thefe, till it was known that they were the work of fpi-
ders, and that.they ferved thofe creatures to move from
place to place by. They are long, downy, and very foft,
and though they hold together when untouched, they ftick
to re fingers in handling, and eafily break with a light
touch.

The general method of thefe creatures fpinning and
weaving the webs, is by letting down the thread, then draw-
ing it after them, and fo difpofing it as they think proper ;
but in the midft of their work of this fort, if they are clofely
obferved, they will be fometimes found to defift, and turning
the tail to the contrary way of the wind, they will emit a
thread with great violence, no lefs than that with which a
jet of water is difcharged from a cock. In this manner
they continue darting forth the thread, which the wind
takes, and carrying it forwards, it foon becomes many yards
long. Soon after this the creature will throw herfelf off
from the web, and truiting herfelf to the air with this long
tail, will afcend fwiftly, and to a great height with it. The
fragments of thefe lines, or the whole lines, and the {piders
attached to them, though unobferved, make thefe air-threads,
and the ufe nature deftines them for, is evidently the wafting
of the creature along the air, and giving it an opportunity
of preying on gnats, and many other infeéts that inhabit
the air, out of the reach of thefe creatures by any other
means.

When the threads are newly {pun, they are always fingle,
and are generally feen afcending higher and higher in the
air ; but when they are feen coming down, they are found
fometimes compofed of three or four others, and either
without any fpider at the ends, or with two or three, or
more. It is plain that this happens from the meeting of
thefe threads one with another in the air, and their fangling
together ; and this incommodes the creatures, and brings
them down.

Thefe are what fill the air with the loofe threads we fee
in autumn ; and as thefe foon entangle together, and bring
one another down, it is no wonder that they are more fre-
quent in the lower regions of the air, than thofe with the
{piders adhering to them, which ufually rife to great heights,
and fuftain themfelves there. And hence the origin of the
threads was much perplexed among the enquirers, becaufe
they were found without any mark of the animal to which
they owed their exiftence. The bufinefs of feeding is not
all the ufe of thefe threads, but the creatures evidently {port
and amufe themfelves by means of them, floating about in
the air, and changing height and place at pleafure.

When a fpider has once raifed itfelf from the earth in
this manner, it does not defcend always on the fame thread
it arofe by, bat draws that up at times, and winds it up
into a hank with its fore-feet, and darts out another by way
of fupport ; and the new thread is made more or lefs long,
as it is intended for ahigher or lower flight. Philof. Tran{.
N° 50.

TureEap of Glafs may be obtained of indefinite minute-
nefs by means of the blow-pipe. When no thicker than

4C fine

f HE

fine hair, it is extremely flexible and claftic; and if fill
finer, it may be wound almoft like common thread without
breaking. The way of doing it isvery fimple. A piece of
glafs tube is heated in the lamp, and the end drawn out into
a thread by means of another piece of glafs cemented to it.
When a fine thread is once drawn, the end is carried round a
reel or wheel two or three feet in diameter, and by turning
the wheel and continuing to heat the tube, an endlefs thread
is drawn out, winding round it as long as the artift pleafes
or the glafs lafts. ‘The quicker the wheel revolves, and the
hotter the glafs is kept, the firmer is the thread, which may
thus be made as delicate as a fingle filk-worm’s thread, with
extreme flexibility. Different coloured threads are made in
this way by ufing very deeply coloured glaffes inftead of
common glafs.

Tureaps, in Glafs. See Grass.

THREAF, in Agriculture, a term fignifying a handful,
a bundle, or a pottle, in different diitri€s of the country.

THREATENING Lerrers, in Law. By ftatute
9 Geo. I. c. 22. amended by ftat. 27 Geo. II. c. 15. know-
ingly to fend any letter without a name, or with a fictitious
name, demanding money, venifon, or any other valuable
thing, or threatening (without any demand) to kill any of
the king’s fubjects, or to fire their houfes, out-houfes, barns
or ricks, is made felony without benefit of clergy. This
offence was formerly high treafon, by 8 Hen. V. c. 6.

The offence of fending letters, threatening to accufe any
perfon of a crime punifhable with death, tranfportation,
pillory, or other infamous punifhment, with a view to extort
from him any money or other valuable chattels, is punifh-
able by ftat. 30 Geo. II. c.24. at the difcretion of the
court, with fine, imprifonment, pillory, whipping or tranf-

ortation for feven years. Black{t. Com. book iv.

THREATS, a fpecies of perfonal injury. Threats and
menaces of bodily hurt, through fear of which a man’s
bufinefs is interrupted, are comprehended under this de-
{cription. A menace alone, without a confequent incon-
venience, does not conftitute the injury; but, to complete
the wrong, there muft be both of them together. The
remedy for this is in pecuniary damages, to be recovered by
aétion of trefpafs, vi et armis; this being an inchoate, though
not an abfolute violence. Blackft. Com. book iil.

THREAVE. See Turave.

THREE Chapters. See CHAPTER.

Turee Legs, Compaffes of. See COMPASSES.

Turez, Ombre by. See OMBRE.

Turee, Rule of. See Rue.

Turee-legged Staff, an inftrument confiiting of three
wooden legs, made with joints, fo as to fhut all together,
and to take off in the middle, for the better carriage ; and
ufually having on the top a ball or focket: its ufe is to
fupport and adjuft mftruments for aftronomy, furveying,
&e.

Turee-pointed Pick, in Agriculture and Rural Economy,
a tool of the pick-kind, having the broad end formed in a
three-toothed manner, about fix inches in length, of great
ftrength, and having the width, from the outfides of the
teeth or prongs, of about fix inches, ‘The other end is
formed in the gently curving ordinary one-pointed manner.
When complete, it is provided with a handle of the ftrong
wooden kind, inferted into the eye or focket of the head-

art.

: Turer-pronged Fork, a name fometimes applied to the
common fork which is employed for various purpofes on
farms. See Prone and Spun.

Tureg-Share Horfe-hoe, a light three-fhared tool of the

THR

horfe-hoe kind, for one horfe, which is often found very
convenient and ufeful in working the intervals of ridged
turnip crops, and thofe of fimilar kinds, as well as for -
different other purpofes of tillage hufbandry.

It is conftruéted and wrought fomewhat in the form and
manner of the common plough, the hoe parts being fo
contrived and fet as to pare and clean the fides and bottom
ot each of the ridges in the fame operation. See Hor/e-

OE.

Turee Brethren Hill, in Geography, a town of Scotland,
in the county of Selkirk ; 5 miles N.W. of Selkirk.

Turee Brothers, three iflands in the Indian ocean.
S. lat. 3° 44’. E. long. 62° 25!.—Alfo, three iflands in
the Ealt Indian fea. N. lat. 10° 42’. E. long. 108°.—
Alfo, three fmall iflands on the coaft of Guiana, in the
mouth of the Effequibo.—Alfo, three fmall iflands in
the Indian fea, near the E. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat.
13° 20!. E. long. 51° 10'.— Alo, three {mall iflands in
the Eaft Indian fea. S. lat. 5° 30!. E. long. 132° 15/.
—Alfo, three {mall iflands in the Atlantic, near Prince’s
ifland. N. lat. 1° 32’. E. long. 7°.— Alfo, three {mall
iflands in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of Am-
boyna. S. lat. 3° 39/. E. long. 128° 18!.—Alfo, {mall
iflands in the Eaft Indian fea, near the S.W. coaft
of Celebes. S. lat. 5° 25'. E. long. 119° 38/.—Alfo,
{mall iflands in the bay of Gunong Tallu, on the coaft of
Celebes. S. lat. 1°. E. long. 120° 27!.—Alfo, fimalk
iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 6°. E. long. 71° 36/.—
Alfo, three hills on the N.E. coaft of Terra del Fuego;
g miles W. of Cape St. Diego.—Alfo, three hills on the
E. coaft of New Holland, fo called by captain Cook.
S. lat. 31° 40’.—Ao, three iflands on the Spanifh Main,
near the Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 11°. W. long. 82° 52.

Turee Creek Run, a river of Virginia, which runs into
the Nottoway, N. lat. 36° 36!. W. long. 77° 12'.

Turee Hill [/land, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Arehi-
pelago. N. lat. ro° 13/.

Turee Hills Ifland, one of the New Hebrides, in the
South Pacific ocean, about 12 miles in circumference.
S. lat. 17° 7!. E. long. 168° 35’. See HEBRIDES. ©

Turee //land Harbour, a bay on the coaft of Patagonia,
in the Straits of Magellan; 8 miles N.N.W. of Batchelor’s
river.

Taree J/lands, {mall iflands in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the E. coaft of Bintang. S. lat. 1° 10'. E. long. 105°2!.
—Alfo, {mall iflands in the Indian fea, near the coait of
Africa. S. lat. 4° so’.

Turee Jflands Bay, or Harbour, a bay on the E. coaft
of the ifland of St. Lucia.

Turee Kings, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, near
the N. coaft of New Zealand, difcovered by Tafman.
S. lat.-34° 12. E. long. 172° 12!.

Turee Rivers. See Trois Rivieres.

Tures Rivers Harbour, a bay on the EB. coaft of the
ifland of St. John, in the gulf of St. Laurence. N, lat.
46° 8!. W. long. 62° 10!. é

Turee Sifers, three {mall iflands on the W. fide of
Chefapeak bay.—Alfo, fmall iflands in the Eaft Indian
fea. §. lat. 5° 42’. E. long. 105° 41! 36".

Turee Stone Oar, a rock near the W. coaft of Corn-
wall. N. lat. 50° 12/. . W, long. 5° 32!. ;

Turee Sugar Loaves, {mall iflands in the Mergui Ar-
chipelago. N. lat. 9° 13'.

THRELKELDIA, in Botany, has been fo named by
Mr. R. Brown, in memory of Dr. Caleb Threlkeld, a Dub-
lin phyfician, who publifhed a Synopfis Stirpium Hibernica-

9 run —

or R.

rum in 1727. This is an alphabetical catalogue, princi-
pally founded on the papers of Dr. Thomas Molyneux, or
the communications of other people ; nor does it, accord-
ing to our judgment, entitle its editor to any {cientific
rank.—Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 409.—Clafs and
order, Firiandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn.
Atriplices, Jul. Chenopodea, De Candolle, Brown.

Eff. Ch. Calyx pitcher-fhaped, with an abrupt inner mar-
gin. Petals three, membranous. Stamens oppofite to the
petals, inferted into the receptacle. Capfule membranous,
imbedded in the pulpy permanent calyx. Seed folitary,
ovate.

1. T. diffufa. Spreading Threlkeldia—Gathered by
Mr: Brown on the fouth coaft of New Holland, and in
Van Diemen’s ifland, growing on the beach. This is a
fmall, diffufe, fmooth /rub. Leaves alternate, femicylin-
drical. Flowers axillary, folitary, feffile, without braéeas.
Seed furnifhed with albumen, which is embraced by the
circularly inverted embryo. Brown. We have prefumed
to take for petals, though by no means pertinacioufly,
what Mr. Brown, led by the analogy of the natural order
of the plant, confiders as mere fcales belonging to the
calyx.

THRENGI, or THRENGES, in our Ancient Cuftoms, a
denomination given to vaffals, but not thofe of the loweft
degree, but fuch as held lands of the chief lord; other-
wile called drengi, or drenches.

“« Quia vero non erant adhuc tempore regis Willielmi
milites in Anglia, fed threnges; precipit rex, ut de eis
milites fierent ad defendendam ferram: fecit autem Lanfran-
cus threngos fuo milites, &c.’? Somm. Gavelk.

The name was impofed by the Conqueror: for when
one Edward Sharnbourn, of Norfolk, and others, were
ejeGed out of their lands, they complained to the Con-
queror, infifting that they were always on his fide, and
never oppofed him; which, upon inquiry, he found to
be true; and therefore he commanded that every one
fhould be reftored to their lands, and be for ever after
called drenches, or threnges. Spelm. Du-Cange.

THRENODY, Turenonia, formed of Spnvos, mournful,
and 43», fong, a mournful or funeral fong.

THRESHER, in Ichthyology, a name fometimes given
. to the fea-fox.

THRESHER, in Agriculture, a perfon employed in threth-
ing out grain and other feed crops by means of the flail.
See TuresuinG, and Turesuinc-Machine.

THRESHING, the aé& of beating out the corn or
other produce from grain or other crops. The flail was the
implement formerly ufed for threfhing of corn, and which
feparated the grain from the ftraw and hufks effeCtually and
expeditioufly ; but which is now become mach too tedious
and expenfive, as well as liable, to many other objections,
and always bruifes a great many feeds, befides leaving many
in the ears. It has been attempted to avoid thefe inconve-
niencies by proper machines provided with a number of
flails, or other parts anfwering the fame purpofe, made
to move by the power of water, wind, fteam, or horfes,
Of thefe, various forts have been lately invented, and brought
to very great perfection. See Turesuine- Machine.

Although there are many different methods made ufe of
in feparating the grain from the ear of the corn, that by
the flail is thé moft general and common.

Sometimes two perfons threfh together; and where more
than two are employed together, which is fometimes the
cafe, there muft be frequent interruptions, and a confequent
lofs of time. It is fuggefted alfo, that the’tool by which
this fort of bufinefs is performed, fhould’be well adapted to

Taek

the fize and ftrength of the perfon who ufes it, for prevent-
ing prejudicial fatigue. The beft method of attaching
the different parts of the implement together, is probably,
it is thought, by means of caps and thongs of good tough
leather. Iron is, however, fometimes employed. In the
execution of the work, when the corn is bound into fheaves,
it is ufual for the threfhers to begin at the ear-ends, and
proceed regularly to the others ; then turning the fheaves in
a quick manner by means of the flail, to proceed in the
fame way with the other fide, thus finifhing the work in a
quick eafy manner by their becoming loofe and open.

It is, however, obferved by the author of the « Expe-
rienced Farmer,”’ that threfhing with the flail is uncertain
when moft carefully performed, for the threfher may beat
a long time and not meet with every head, which with the
machine it is hardly poffible to mifs; and that the grain
wafted by the ufe of the flail is certainly great. In fhort,
he is-of opinion that the corn loft by threfhing with the
flail, is more than would pay for threfhing it by the machine
all over the kingdom.

In fome places it is the praétice to threfh by the meafure
of grain, as the bufhel, quarter, &c. while in others it is
done by the threave of twenty-four fheaves, and in fome by
the day.

In whatever way the farmer has this fort of bufinefs perform-
ed, there is always much neceffity for his conftant infpeétion,
in order to prevent the frauds and impofitions that are too
frequently praétifed upon him by the perfons engaged in
the execution of it.

The flail praétice, however, from its being fo extremely
flow, tedious, and expenfive, and at the fame time requiring
a great number of labourers, is perhaps only capable of
being had recourfe to with advantage on the {maller kinds
of grain-farms, that are cheaply fituated in regard to the
command of workmen, and where the expence of having
large machines would be much too great for the quantity of

rain which they produce. But even in thefe cafes, if the
mall horfe or hand threfhing engines that are conitruéted
on cheap fimple principles, and which occupy but little
room, fhould be brought to perform the bufinefs in an
eafy, expeditious, and effeCtual manner, which feems not
improbable from the improvements that have been recently
made in this fort of machinery, it will moft probably be to
the advantage of fuch farmers to abandon it, as the faving
in various ways muft foon repay them the expence of the
machine, and at the fame time afford them a confiderable
profit.

It is moreover ftated, that where threfhing is performed by
the flail, expenfive barn-floors, either of the fixed or moveable
kind, will conftantly be neceffary ; but that the latter fort may
fometimes be capable of being converted to other purpofes,
which may render it ufeful in other views and intentions,
and thereby leffen the heavy charge of providing them. See
THRESHING-Floor.

It is ftated by the author of “ Pra@ical Agriculture,”
that the fuperiority of the method by machinery over that
of the flail is very confiderable in many other refpeéts, be-
fides thofe of its executing the work in a much more
clean and perfe€t manner, more cheaply, and with much
greater difpatch, fo as to'admit of the farmer being prefent
during the procefs in moft cafes.

It Fy been further faid, that the flail is a tool which is
only fit for the rude or favage ftate of a people; while the
threfhing by the machine can be performed at any feafon,
as when the weather is wet, and when no other fort of
work can be done, efpecially of the out-door kinds; and it
will employ women and children, or boys, as well as other

pu Ghie) forts

THRESHING.

forts of labourers. By the ufe of it, the farmer is enabled
to get the advantage of markets, as he has thereby the
power of felling and delivering almoft any quantity within
a little time ; and by threfhing out and placing the corn in
a fecure ftore room or granary, the great lofs often occa-
fioned by vermin may be wholly prevented and removed.
Numerous other beneficial confequences may likewife refult
from the prattice of threfhing by means of machinery, but
particularly that of faving the heavy expence of raifing
and upholding many different large buildings of the barn
kind, on extenfive farms of the arable defcription.

It may be ftated, that the writer of the Account of the
State of Agriculture in the County of Kent, found, on
having different parcels of wheat-ftraw, of thirty-fix pounds
each, threfhed out clean by the flail, by different farmers,
and the fame weight of ftraw threfhed after it came from the
machine, the average produce of corn left in the ftraw by the
common mode of threfhing was half a pint in every thirty-
fix pounds of ftraw, more than that left in by the machine
method. And that, befides, fufficient fupplies of both corn
and ftraw may at any time be almoft immediately provided,
either for the purpofes of feed, the market, or the feed-
ing of animals, without the other operations of the farm
being in any degree interrupted. It is likewife obtained
with much lefs wafte of the grain, and with lefs danger
of its being injured by being bruifed. Likewife, that from
the then increafing fearcity of labourers, the great advance
in the price of labour in all the well-cultivated diftriés,
and the impoffibility of having this fort of work performed
in a clean and exa&t manner by the flail, the neceflity as well
as utility of the machine are eftablifhed. And it is further
contended, that the principal obftacles to machines of this
nature being more generally made ufe of, are thofe of ex-
pence in their conftruétion and erection, and the littering
flovenly pra@tice which prevails in fome of the more fouth-
ern diftriéts of harvefting or fecuring the grain crops in a
loofe uneyen manner. But the firft of thefe objections
may probably, it is fuppofed, be obviated by the conftruc-
tion and introdu@ion of hand, or one-horfe, or ox-threfh-
ing machines; and the latter by the daily difcoveries that
are making in the improvement of this fort of machinery.

It is conceived, that the oppofition that has been raifed
againft this praétice, on the ground of its being calculated
to deprive and prevent the labourers of employment during
the winter feafon, is fcarcely deferving of notice, as expe-
rience has fully fhewn that no injurious confequences can
refult from it, as there muft always be work enough of
other kinds at fuch periods, where farms are under a judi-
cious mode of cultivation.

It is on the whole fuppofed, however, that the faving of
expence in this mode of threfhing over that of the flail,
mutt differ much according to the nature and manner of
conftruéting the machinery, the power by which it is
wrought, and alfo on the flate and condition of the grain
at the time of performing the operation, as well as the
full manner and regularity with which it is fupplied and
managed. By fome farmers it is confidered as nearly, if not
quite, one half, while others make it much lefs than that
proportion. But with the belt conttru€ted machinery, there
can be little doubt but that it will be performed on an
average of different forts of grain, and ‘different ftates of
them, at lefs than one-third the expence of the flail method,
without taking into the account any thing for the vatt
faving in grain, in which fome reckon a profit of at leaft
5 per cent.; others, as € ual to the feed and prices of
threfhing, which is fomewhat more than half the price in
ihe flail method ; or either of the other operations that may

be performed at the fame time with the fame machinery,
fuch as thofe of winnowing or cleaning the corn, cutting
ftraw into chaff, bruifing and grinding the grain for cattle
food, breaking bones for manure, and various other purpofes
aud works.

In addition to the advantages that have been chiefly con-
fidered in refpeét to thefe machines, there is another
which, in the then fearcity of procuring labourers, and in-
deed af all feafons and times, muft be of great importance
to the farmer, which is that of their enabling him to per-
form his work with greater certainty and convenience,
and at much lefs expence of labour. It has indeed been
{tated by a writer, in a late periodical work on farming,
that with a machine, two labourers on a farm will be equal
to four without it; as they are left at liberty, during the
winter months, for performing various other forts of farm
labour.

It has already been noticed, that the charge of this fort
of work with thefe machines will vary confiderably, accord-
ing to the manner in which they are conftructed. In the
Agricultural Survey of the County of Kent, the expences and
produce of threfhing per day, in different forts of corn,
with an engine of the common conftruétion, without the
late improvements, are fated in the manner following :

Eftimate of Threfhing Expences, Fc. by the Machine.

For Wheat.

: £ ise od
Eight men, at 1s. 4d. each - - - O13 4
Four boys, at 1s. each - - - - OMe ye)
Four horfes, at 25. 6d. each - - - © 10 0
Cleaning and meafuring 24 qrs. at 3d. each - OW Osa0

Leta

This is about 1s. 4d. per quarter, or nearly half the price
of the flail method.

For Barley.
: Le hay de
Cleaning and meafuring 32qrs. at 3d. each - o 8 o
Other expences, as above - - - 5 a, en A

This is fomewhat more than half the price of the flail
method, this fort of grain having of late been ufually
threfhed at about 1s. 6d. the quarter.

For Oats.
£ its bdo
Cleaning and pesiuete 40 qrs. at 1d. each - ° 3 4
Other expences, as before - = C 2 ei,
110 8

This is a little more than half the price of that by the flail ;

this fort of grain being commonly threfhed at about 1s. 3d. -

per = aa

The expences are here, however, calculated confiderably
too low for the fucceeding times, as the men would finee
require 2s. or 2s. 6d. and the horfes 5s. or 6s. each at leat
for the day.

But in the improved machinery of this kind fewer hands
are required, and a number of other operations are per-

formed

THRESHING.

formed at the fame time, which greatly ieffens the expences
of executing the work.

In threfhing with a powerful improved machine belonging
to Mr. Harbottle, on the Riminham farm in Berkthire,
according to the writer of the Agricultural Report of that
diftri&, the comparative calculations of expence and faving
ftand as below.

Eftimate for Wheat.

ye Se,

A man to feed the machine with fheaves, of
per day - - - - .

A woman to throw up the fheaves into ot
fheaf-fhelf, at per day —- = =

A girl or boy to hand and unbind the fheaves t
to the man who feeds, at the fame -

A man to riddle or fift the corn from cockles, >
or fmall chaff, at = = :

A woman to affift him - - - TO. O

Two men to remove the ftraw, and to make
it up into bundles, at 2s. 6d. = 5

°
0D nN © © OA

°

A\ boy to drive the horfes, and attend to Bier gee
paces, at - - - - -
In all eight perfons - - - =O SSH 6
Four horfes, at 7s. 6d. per day, a liberal teihe
allowance - - - - -
Expence of threfhing 20 qrs. which is done 6
in the day of 12 hours - - 3
Ditto by the flail, at 3s. 6d. per quarter,
fuppofing a man can threfh a quarter nt 3 10 0
the day, which is too much -

Saving by the machine in 20 qrs. - =e) 2086) 6
Or by the quarter - < - - ay AON 4
Eftimate for Barley.

Two men to feed and loofe bands, at 2s. 6d. Ops O

Two women to pitch up and fupply machine,
at 8d. each - - - - t eis ait
Two women to riddle, at 8d. - - - a ert
Two men to remove {ftraw, at 25. 6d., and? SEG
one boy ditto, at 1s. 6d. - -
One boytodrive - - ate a Abe Ona oO
In all nine perfons - i) ge - o15 8
Four horfes, at 7s. 6d. each - - - I 10 0
Zant iSn so
Ufual price by the fiail, 2s. 2d. per quarter,
3oqrs. the quantity done in the day ait Seni Fue:
12 hours - - ss = =
Saving on the above quantity - - - O19 4
Or by the quarter - = - - - Op, C148
Eftimate for Oats.
Nine perfons employed, as for barley, and
the Gane arate oF horfes - : Baily S
Ufual price by the flail 2s. per quarter, on
40 qrs., the quantity done in the day aif 4 OUNO
12 hours - - - - -
Saving on the above quantity - - - 114 4
Or by the quarter - - - - - © o 10%

It fhould be noticed, that thefe calculations are made
fully to the higheft, which is fo much the more in favour
of the machine.

In fome of the northern diftri@s, the execution of this
fort of bufinefs by the machine is fometimes undertaken by

labourers, the farmer finding horfes. By this method, in
Yorkfhire, the work cofts for wheat 1s. the quarter, and
oats 6d. And in Northumberland they make ufe of a
machine, which threfhes at the rate of 33 buthels per hour,
or 264 in the day of eight hours. In this machine, the ex-
pences in the attendance of the threfhing and dreffing parts
of it being merely that of three women ; one to feed in,
another to hand the fheaves to the feeder, and a third to
take away and riddle the corn after it is winnowed; confe-
quently the threfhing and dreffing the above number of bufhels
only cofts 1s. 6d., while the threfhing the fame quantity by
the flail would be 5th part, or 104 bufhels, which at 25.
the bufhel is 215.3 to which muft be added 2s. for the ex-
pence of a man and two women to affift in winnowing,
which makes in all 23s.

But in the Agricultural Survey of the County of Nor-
folk, there is an account of the expence of threfhing with the
machine in comparifon with that of the flail, which furnifhes
avery different refult. The machine was built by a perfon
from Leith in Scotland, for Mr. Bevan, and coft 100/.; and
ftrongly fhews, it is thought, that bad machines are worfe
than the old method of the flail.

Threfhing by Means of the Flail.

Loses
Forty coombs of barley, at 7d. come to - Eg Aca:
To dreffing of ditto - - - - O02 KO
ip Sg
Fifty coombs of oats, at 6d. - - - k 550
Drefling ditto, at 1s. per {core - - - OL 216
Ty B76
Forty coombs of rye, at gd. - - - 110 0
Drefling ditto, at 1s. per {core - - - Q} (2A .0
LPI2ifjO
Forty coombs of wheat, at 1s. - - - 2) iO} 0
Drefling ditto _- - - - - . Qjji25,0
2jP2sto
Threfbing by the Machine.
Forty coombs of barley take eight horfes, a intoaae
2s. 6d. - - = - E
Ten men, at 1s. 6d. each - - - OFT Sid
To drefling ditto, five men one day - aT eta: LO7RIG
Ll RG)
Thus barley cofts more by 17s. 2d.
Fifty coombs of oats take eight horfes, at ahaes
25. 6d. - - = = = 2
Ten men, at 1s. 6d. each - = = ~ © 15710
To drefling ditto = eee ea ite helen 10. an 6
Z Bre 6
Thus oats coft more by 155.
Forty coombs of rye take eight horfes, at pe
2s. 6d. - - - Z =
Ten men, at 1s. 6dseach. =) -) 5 = 015-0
To five ditto, at 1s. 6d. one day drefing - 0 7 6
% 22) 96

Thus rye cofts more by 10s. 6d.

THRESHING.

£ sl ad,

Forty coombs of wheat take eight horfes, =! potas
25. 6d. - = - * A

Ten men, at Is. 6d. each - - - - O15 o

Five ditto to drefling - - - - oO) 4726

ZZ 6

And wheat cofts more by 6d. a

The calculations of the expences are here made greatly
under the rate of wages and hire of horfes which has fince
taken place. ,

The above fhould lead the farmer to be careful in put-
ting up thefe machines ; and to be certain of their being
conttru@ted in fuch a way, as to anfwer the purpofe in a
perfeét manner before he begins the work.

It is well obferved by Mr. Somerville, in the Agricul-
tural Report of Eaft Lothian, in calling the attention of
the public to the unrewarded merits of Mr. Mickle, in
bringing the threfhing machine to a ftate of perfection, that
it is computed, by thofe who have paid every poffible at-
tention to the fubjeG, that in Britain about 7,500,000 acres
are annually employed in raifing grain, the produce of
which, if averaged at three quarters per acre, amounts to
22,500,000 qrs.; and, as it is admitted that the furplus
quantity gained by the ufe of threfhing machines is at
leaft a twentieth part more than when the flail is ufed, it
will appear that 1,112,500 qrs. would be faved annually,
were the whole of the grain in the kingdom threfhed in that
way ; the value of which, if only calculated at 325. per quarter,
would be 1,781,250/.; to which adding the favings of ex-
pence, at Is. per quarter, upon 22,500,000 acres, viz.
1,125,000/., it would make the enormous fum of 2,906,250/.
fterling ; a faét almoft incredible to any but thofe who have
turned their attention to the fubjeét, and are well acquainted
with the great difference between the threfhing-machine and
the flail.

All forts of grain fhould be in a proper, hard, dry con-
dition, when it is to be threfhed out, otherwife the work
cannot be performed in a clean and perfeét manner, whether
it is to be executed by the flail or the machine.

It is a remark of the time of Lifle, founded on his own
extenfive experience, that wheat threfhed in damp weather
generally yields but little flour, with a great deal of bran,
when it is ground ; and that if it be put into facks, it will
grow mufty in lefs than three weeks, let the weather be
ever fo dry afterwards: but if, on the contrary, it be
threfhed when the air is perfe@tly clear and dry, it will keep
well in facks for a long time, efpecially if thefe are laid
upon treffels high enough to fecure them from the damp-
nefs of the ground or floor.

But for Feening of the meal or flour, in general, there
is no better way than firft to bolt and clean it from the
bran or hufks, which is apt to make it mutty, and then to
tread it down as hard as poffible, and head it up clofely
in clean, dry, tight, and well-bound eafks, which muft be
laid in a cool dry place.

It may be noticed, that the beards of barley come off
beft, in threfhing, when the fheaves or {warths of this corn
have taken the dew before their being houfed. It will keep
well in the mow unthrefhed for one year; but for making
it into malt, which muft be done before the heat of the
fummer comes on, it fhould not be kept above a year and
a half, or at moft two years: otherwife it will be filled with
weevils or infects ; unlefs it has been previoufly cured in a
ftove or kiln.

But oats, from their being defended with a double hufk,
are the grain leaft fubjeé to Rabu vermin. ‘The beft way
so keep them after they are threfhed, which fhould be done

when dry, is to dry them well on a kiln, and then to barref
them up in clean clofe cafks.

As for beans and peas, they always threfh beft after they
have {weated in the mow, which they are very apt to do ;
as the whole crop of either of them never ripens altogether,
the green parts heat, and communicate their ferment to the
whole heap. The danger to be guarded againft is, that
they do not heat too much. For this reafon, farmers gene-
rally choofe to ftack them without doors, rather than to
houfe them ; that they may be the more thoroughly dried
by the fun and air. As beans are a very large feed, and
confequently full of moifture, it is found beft to let thofe
that are intended for keeping, fweat and feafon in the mow
until March, when they may be threfhed without danger,
for beans never give again, after they have once been
thoroughly dried and hardened.

And vetches, when wanted for fowing immediately after
they are cut, may be threfhed very well on a hurdle, with
a cloth ; though they then be too foft, notwithftanding their
being ripe, to be threfhed on a floor, where the flail and the
threfher’s feet would bruife and break them.

In general, in the bufinefs of threfhing, as the work pro-
ceeds, it will from time to time be neceflary to remove all
the long ftraw from the corn beaten out of it, which laft
always lies underneath, with a prong or fork, and then the
pieces of ftraw, broken ears, &c. with a wooden rake.
The remaining grain fhould then be fhovelled up on one fide
of the floor, and the work be repeated till enough be
threfhed out to make what is commonly called a clearing.
The heap fhould then be wholly paffed through a wide fieve,
which retains only the bits of ftraw, and fuch fragments or
ends of the ears as have efcaped the flail. Thefe frequentl
contain fome good corn, and form an ufeful fodder for mol
forts of animals, being what are commonly called cavings, as
feen below.

Much labour may often be faved in the ufe of the fieve
by faftening a loop to its rim, and refting it thereby on a
hook fufpended by arope. This will fuftain half the weight
of the corn, and the neceflary circular motion ‘may more
eafily be given to it. }

After much threfhed grain has thus accumulated on the
threfhing-floor, and the fhort ftraw and chaffy matter have
been feparated from it, as juft noticed, by paffing it through
a wide riddle or fieve for the purpofe, which fhould always
be done before too much grain has been colleéted, as in that
way the bruifing of it is more effe¢tually prevented ; it mult
be put by to afford more room. The fhort chaffy fub-
{tance thus feparated from the grain is in fome diftri€@s de-
nominated cavings, or caving-chaff, and is capable of being
employed with advantage, as feen above, in the feeding of
horfes, or neat cattle and fheep. When this has been done,
the loofe grain fhould be thrown into a chamber or other
place conveniently formed for feceiving it, where it fhould
remain till a fufficient quantity has been colleted to render
the clearing and cleaning of it by fome kind of machine
for the purpofe, requifite. But the improved threfhin
machines render this unneceffary, as they drefs or clean it
at the fame time it is threfhing out, See WinnowineG
Machine. :

Furze tops in their young ftates of growth are in tome
northern fituations beat or threfhed by the flail, and in that
way bruifed as horfe-food, where proper machinery for this
purpofe is not at hand. The proneebigie} during their ufe
have little other food, it is faid, though performing great
labour.

From the whole of what has been faid, it is evident that
the farmer fhould always confider well before he decides on
the mode of threfhing which may be the moft aia and

J advane

THRESHING.

advantageous, as well as the molt fuitable, to the fort of
farm which he holds.

Turesuinc-Floor, the floor on which grain is threfhed
out in the barn or other place. All floors of this fort
fhould be well formed and conftru&ted, of whatever fort of
materials they are made, as without it they give way and
fall to pieces. When the material employed in this inten-
tion is wood, the timber fhould always be of the beit kind,
and well feafoned, being put together in a careful and firm
manner; and when of the earthy kind, the different matters
be well reduced, wrought together, and laid up for fome
length of time before the floor is formed, being then laid
down in a fmooth even manner, and made firm and folid
by frequent ramming with a proper tool for the purpofe,
until the flooring fubftance, whatever it may be, becomes
quite dry. Wiia
~ It has been obferved, that as grain is threfhed out by
machinery, from the circumftance of its being feparated
from the ftraw immediately, and not permitted to remain
upon the floor for above an hour or two, when brought to
market, is always much drier, looks better, and brings a
higher price than that which is threfhed by the hand, and
fuffered to remain upon the floor for weeks, where it
becomes mutty, lofes its colour, and is fo raw, that much of
it is bruifed and rendered ufelefs in the working. There-
fore, if the flail-mode of threfhing is ftill purfued, it is fup-
_ pofed that the inconveniences above-mentioned may, in fome

degree, be remedied, by paying proper attention to the
materials of which the floor is made, and raifing it fuff-
ciently above the reach of moifture. Where the barns are
very extenfive, and the price of wood uncommonly high, as
is the cafe at prefent, a very good and durable threfhing-
floor may fometimes be made by laying an uniform ftratum
of round gravel, covering it with a coat of well-tempered
clay ; above which, a mixture of clay, brick-duft, forge-
afhes, and a {mall proportion of lime, will make it a hard
uniform floor, proper and fuitable for the purpofe of threth-
ing upon. It is obferved that the brick-duft and forge-
afhes fhould previoufly be beaten very {mall, and well in-
corporated with the clay, ufing a fufficiency of water to
bring the whole to the confiltence of mortar; in that ftate
the lime, having been previoufly flaked, fhould be incor-
porated with the other ingredients; the whole fmoothed
over with the back of the {pade, and allowed to remain in a
round heap for two or three weeks, at the end of which time
it fhould be turned over in the fame manner as plafter lime,
and after being rendered fufficiently {oft with water, it may
be fpread upon the floor, an operation that will require fome

ains on the part of the workman. The floor, in the firlt
inftance, fhould haye the coat of clay, that is laid above the
gravel, rendered perfeétly fmooth and uniform, by rolling,
beating, or otherwife ; the finifhing coat, compofed of the
mixture above-mentioned, may then be applied, taking care
to break the furface of the clay with fhallow lines, in the
way practifed by plaiterers, for the purpofe of making one
coat adhere to another in a firm and perfect manner.

Many other forts of materials, fomewhat of this nature,
are made ufe of for threfhing-floors in different diftricts of
the kingdom.

The following plan has been fuggefted as the means of
excluding rats and mice from the barn and threfhing-floors.
Firft, that when the floor is entirely of wood, the {pace
between the fleepers, upon which the boards are laid, fhould
be entirely filled with wafhed gravel, well beat down, an
operation which, when properly done, will effectually pre-
vent the entrance of either rats or mice ; where this precau-
tion is not taken, when the floor is laid, openings fhould be

made at the bottom of the wall large enough to admit cats,
a contrivance that will have the two-fold effe@ of deftroying
the vermin, and affording a free circulation of air. Secondly,
that when the floor is of clay, the vermin generally burrow
under the foundation, and have the entry to their retreats at
the bottom of the wall: in fuch cafes, their accefs into the
barn will be, in fome meafure, if not entirely, prevented, by
mixing a confiderable quantity of broken glafs with the
materials with which the threfhing-floor is made. It does
not appear neceflary to mix the glafs with the clay over the
whole floor; perhaps two feet from the wall quite round
will be fufficient. And thirdly, that the top of the wall,
as furnifhing a temporary retreat for vermin, deferves alfo
to be noticed: in every initance it is cuftomary for the
mafon to level the top of the wall previous to the roof being
put on, which, when the building is finifhed, is left in that
{tate, by which a confiderable {pace remains for the fhelter
of rats and other vermin : to prevent this, as foon as the roof
is finifhed, the building of the wall on the infide fhould be
continued upwards till it joins the roof, to which it fhould
be clofely united by hard plaftering. It is fuppofed, by
thefe precautions, and fmooth plaftering, the walls of barns
as well as the threfhing-floors may be preferved free from
vermin.

Turesuinc-Machine, an engine of the mill kind, con-
trived for the purpofe of threfhing grain, feeds, and pulfe
out of the ftraw or the ear.

This is a fort of mill or machine that has been chiefly con-
{truéted on the fame principles as thofe of the flax-mill, and
which is capable of being wrought by different powers, as
thofe of horfes, oxen, wind, water, and fteam; but thofe of
water and animals are the moft proper and convenient in
moft inftances: in fome cafes, the grain being beaten or
{wingled out of the ears by means of beaters attached to a
cylinder that has much velocity, while in others it is rubbed
out by fuitable means againft confined cylinders, as will be
more fully feen and explained in what is {aid below.

There is fome reafon to fuppofe, that the original hint or
notion of thefe mills or machines, was derived a long time
ago from Holland or the Low Countries, and thence
brought into the northern parts of this country, where the
different parts of the machinery of them have fince been
gradually undergoing much modification and improvement,
to render them more fuitable and efficient for the purpofe ;
fo that they have now attained a confiderable ftate of per-
feétion in moft parts of the kingdom. The firft of thefe im-
proved machines was, as Mr. Somerville fays, invented by a
Mr. Menzies, brother to the then fheriff depute of the
county: the machinery was driven by a water-wheel,
which put in motion a number of flails of the fame kind
with thofe ufed*in threfhing by the hand. Trials made with
thefe machines were fo far fatisfaGtory, that a great deal of
work was done in a given time, but owing to the velocity
required to do the work perfectly, they tan broke, and
the invention fell into difgrace.

Some time in the year 1758, another attempt was made
by a farmer in the parifh of Dumblane, in Perthfhire. His
machine was conitructed upon principles fimilar to the flax-
mill, having an’ upright fhaft with four arms inclofed in a
cylinder, three feet and a half in height and eight in diameter,
within which the fhaft and its arms were turned with con-
fiderable velocity by a water-wheel. ‘The fheaves, being
prefented by the hand, were let down from the top upon
the arms, by which the grain was heat out, and together
with the ftraw defcended through an: opening in the floor,
where they were feparated by riddles and fauners, alfo
turned by the water-wheel.

: And

THRESHING-MACHINE.

And it is added, that, about twenty years after this, a
third attempt was made by a Mr. Elderton, near Alnwick,
and a Mr. Smart, at Wark, both nearly about the fame time.
Their machines were fo conftruéted as to a by rubbing, in
place of beating out the grain. The fheaves were carried
between an indented drum, about fix feet in diameter, and a
umber of rollers of the fame defcription ranged round the
drum, towards which they were preffed by fprings, in fuch
a way as to rub out the grain when’the drum was turned
round. Upon trial, this method of conftruétion in thefe
machines was alfo found defeétive, as along with its aT 2
very little work in a given time, it bruifed the grain, and fo
materially hurt its appearance, as to leffen its value confider-
ably in the markets.

It is further ftated that the machine, in its then imperfeé
ftate, was feen by the late fir Francis Kinloch, bart. of
Glimerton, a gentleman well acquainted with mechanics,
and who had paid much attention to country affairs: it
occurred to him, that the machine might be rendered more
perfeét, by inclofing the drum in a fluted cover, and fixing
on the outfide of it four fluted pieces of wood, capable of
being raifed a little from the circumference by fprings, in
fuch a way as to prefs againit the fluted cover, and to rub
out the grain as the fheaves paffed between them ; but after
repeated trials, it was likewife found to bruife the grain
nearly as much as the model from which it was copied. In
that {tate it remained for fome time, and was afterwards fent
by fir Francis to a very worthy and ingenious charaéter,
Mr. Mickle of Know-Mill, in his neighbourhood, (a mill-
wright by profeflion,) who had for a confiderable time em-
ployed his thoughts upon the fame fubje&. After much
confideration, and feveral trials, it appeared to Mr. Mickle,
that the purpofe of feparating the grain from the ftraw
might be accomplifhed upon a pahsigle different from any
that had hitherto been attempted, namely, by fkutches aét-
ing upon the fheaves by their velocity, and beating out the
grain, in place of prefling or rubbing it out. Accordingly
a motel was conftru@ed at Know-Mill, in which the grain
was beat out by the drum, to which it was prefented through
two plain feeding rollers, which were afterwards altered for
fluted ones. The firft machine, ona large fcale, executed upon
this principle, was, it is faid, done by a fon of Mr. Mickle’s,
for a Mr. Stein of Kilbagie, in the year 1786, which,
when finifhed, performed the work to the fatisfaction of all
parties. A patent was afterwards applied for and obtained
in 1788. Since that period, as well as the firft introduétion
of thefe machines, many other improvements haye been made
on them by different ingenious artificers in many different
places; afcreen has been added for the grain to pafs through
into a winnowing machine, and a circular rake to remove
the ftraw from it; as before this addition, the ftraw was
forced out from the beater upon the upper barn-floor, and
required much time and labour in fhaking and putting it into
order, which by this contrivance is faved. And befides hav-
ing a fufficient degree of velocity, without its being fo great
as to injure the machinery, it is found that a point upon
which the clean threfhing of all forts of grain materially de-
pends in the ufe of this machine, is the management of
the iron covering, under which the beating-wheel, having
fix or more beaters, moves: in fome machines this is fixed,
while the beating-wheel is capable of being raifed or db-
prefled at pleafure; but a more late improvement is to
render the iron roof moveable and the wheel fixed, the iron
being placed fo clofe to the beaters, that the grain is rubbed
as well as fhaken out of the ear. And in in cafes the
beaters are fomewhat rounded, but the flat form is probably
better, 12

Different machines of this fort are alfo faid to have been
lately conftruéted fo as to work with chains inftead of cogs,
and to perform the bufinefs in a {atisfa&tory manner.
Another great improvement is likewife believed to have
been made on the feeding rollers ; which is that of havin
the upper roller, inftead of being one folid cylinder of wot
with rods of iron fixed upon it, as was formerly the cafe, an
oétagon or decagon of caft iron, and divided into four parts,
which are loofely joined into each other, fo that in turnin
round, each part can rife or fall in a feparate manner, accord-
ing as the corn is fpread out in a thicker or thinner way.
The advantage is, that by means of this contrivance the corn
is regularly held; whereas, by the roller being all of one
piece, if at one part the grain fhould happen to be more ina
heap or lump than at another, the whole roller is raifed, and
a great part of the grain pafles through, without having been
held fufficiently to the beaters, and is confequently imper-
fe&ly threfhed out.

This fort of machine is fometimes conftruéted with a
vertical fhaft, on which is fixed in a horizontal manner an
iron bevil wheel, fix feet in diameter, which drives another
about eighteen inches diameter upon a tumbling fhaft, upon
which is alfo an iron {pur-wheel, three feet fix inches in
diameter, driving one about ten inches upon a fhort iron
fhaft, which likewife carries a drum or pulley, three feet fix
inches in diameter, from which a fix-inch ftrap drives one
nine or ten inches in diameter, hung upon the iron fhaft or
{pindle which runs quite through the wood-beater or barrel, ~
two feet in diameter, and three feet in length, having fixed
upon it, by means of ftrong fcrews into its iron bonds,
twelve wrought-iron bars, about an inch fquare, ‘which
beater making upon its horizontal axis about three hundred
revolutions in a minute, and confequently nearly three thou-
fand fix hundred ftrokes in that {pace of time; the corn
being carried to it by means of a cloth, which is moved
forwards by rollers, lying nearly upon a flat furface of fix
feet long, by three feet wide, two to three feet high from
the ground-floor, which is a very convenient pofition to feed
upon, and pafling between a pair of fluted rollers, over a
bar, comes in contaét with the beater, through a cavity,
which may be varied by fcrews, from an inch in width, to
the thicknefs of a grain of corn, when the ftraw is imme-
diately delivered, perfeétly clean upon the floor on the out~
fide of the machine, no more injured for thatch, or other
purpofes, than by the flail, and the corn in its pallige under
the beater is filtered through a wooden frame to the floor,
where it remains for removal. Upon this kind of threfhing-
machine many different trials have been made in the view
of afcertaining what fort of power, conitruction, and velo-
city or {fpeed, would produce the beft and moft beneficial
effe€&ts on the work, and many improvements have been
fuggefted which we have not room for mecalinge

Some machines of this fort have large wooden fly-wheels,
of from twelve to fifteen feet diameter, fixed upon the
tumbling-fhafts, which run oyer or above the horfe’s heads,
perhaps made of fir-timber, as cork unfortunately is feldom
to be met with; but as their {peed, in fuch a fituation, can
rarely afford any affiftance, the lighter they are, the lefs
impediment, it is f{uppofed, they will produce. The bars or
beaters are alfo. fometimes as much as an inch and a half, or
two inches thick, from the barrel or roller upon which they
are fixed, and the roller itfelf three feet or more in diameter ;
but fo much of the bar is certainly, it is thought, unneceffary,
as exceeds the length of ftraw drawn in by the rollers,
during each interval between the ftrokes, and which is
feldom more than half an inch ; confequently, whatever is
more than three quarters, produces an increafed impedi-

ment,

THRESHING-MACHINE.

meat. The greater the diameter of the fame beater, from
meeting with the principal refiftance, fo much farther from
the centre, of courfe, the proportionately greater power is
required to work it; but this laft defcription of beater is
faid, in general, to be found to make the beft work, and the
reafon is thought obvious: they are neceffarily driven by
water, fteam, or a number of horfes, and, it is concluded,
calculated to make the fame number of revolutions in a
minute as one of two feet, in which cafe their velocity, on
which all depends, is juft half as much more —a moit im-
portant point indeed. The means of regular fteady driving
1s likewife of material importance in all machines of this
nature, where animal labour is neceffary.

A very powerful improved machine belonging to Mr.
Harbottle, of the Riminham farm, near Henley on Thames,
eonfifts of a horfe-wheel which contains 136 teeth, or pinion
wheel with 26, a large wheel with 88, another with 21, the
fame with 88, and a further one with 21, forming the drum.
Underneath the drum is the contrivance for winnowing, or
the wheel that feparates the chaff from the corn, by blowing
it back into a bin below the feeder, and allowing the corn
to fall into a box, from whence it runs. Every revolution
of the horfe-wheel in this machine produces eighty-eight and a
half of the drum; and as the horfe-wheel goes about three
rounds of twenty-four yards each per minute, or two miles
and a half in an hour, the drum of confequence mutt revolve
on its circumference, of three yards and a half, 265 times in
a minute, or 927 yards. The feeding-board is five feet four
inches wide. The drum-wheel is four feet four inches dia-
meter, being covered with fheet-iron, and has four beaters,
which project four inches ; making the above number of re-
volutions to one of the horfe-wheel, and the horfes going
the above diftance in the hour; in a path twenty-feven feet
diameter. The cogs of the wheels are of white thorn pro-
perly feafoned, icing into others of caft-iron; payed only
with black lead, not any greafe being employed. The
level of the ftage on which the men ftand to feed, is eight
feet above tho barn-floor in which the machine is fixed.

The drums of threfhing-machines, it is remarked, in ge-
neral revolve from fixty to a hundred times for one revolution
of the horfe-wheels ; and that in proportion as thefe move
flower, the horfes mult go fafter, fo that the utmoft nicety
is neceflary to properly adjuft this: as if the horfes are under
the neceflity of trotting, they are greatly injured in long con-
tinued exertion, and if they move too flowly, the work is im-
perfectly performed. A fteady common walk is the pace at
which horfes fhould be kept, and the drums of machines
fhould be formed accordingly, in order fully to effect their
work, and at the fame time to enable the horfes to doa good
day’s Jabour without too much fatigue and inconvenience.

This machine will threfh, it is faid, from twenty to thirty
quarters of wheat in twelve hours in great perfection ; from
thirty to forty-five of barley in the fame time; and from
forty to fifty quarters of oats. It threfhes every thing per-
feetly clean when the grain is in fheaves. But though it
cleans the corn from chaff, as feen above, winnowing 1s re-
quired afterwards. It was feen with one feeder to threfh
twenty-two large and long fheaves in three minutes, without
any variation in the ordinary movement of the horfes. This
machine was conftruéted by Elliott of Hexham, in Northum-
berland, and coft about 200/., without the expences of fit-
ting up, &c.

It is ftated, in the Effex Agricultural Report, that Mr.
Newman of Hornchurch has a threfhing-mill which was built
by two young milkwrights from Somerfetfhire, in which
there are two new circumftances of ‘improvement, one of
which is a movement fo prepared, as that the perfon who

Vor. XXXV.

feeds the mill, by putting his foot on a pedal can lift one of
the fluted cylinders out of its work, fo that the wheat-ears
having been advanced far enough to be threfhed, the ftraw
may be drawn back again and be prevented from being
broken; the other is a click, or iron, which admits the
horfes to be {topped fuddenly without {topping the beaters ;
by which the conneétion is removed for a moment, fo that
one operates without the other: this is of capital im-
portance in working the machine. Reprefentations of thefe
Improvements are given in the above work.

Thefe machines haye occafionally grinding-mills combined
with them, and are in this way found very conyenient and
advantageous. The Hon. Newton Fellows, in Devonthire,
has been at very great expence, it is faid, in ere@ting a
threfhing-mill conneéted with one for grinding, both of
which are wrought by a never-failing ftream of water. The
power of this mill or machine is faid to be calculated as
equal to fixteen horfes. And together with its power and
capability for threfhing, winnowing, and dreffing every kind
of corn, the pair of ftones for grinding attached to it are
about four feet in diameter, to which a bolting-machine or
apparatus is added.

In working, this threfhing-machine is capable of difcharg-
ing about twenty-five bufhels of wheat, and nearly forty
bufhels of barley or oats in the hour. The barn, or place
where the machine is placed, being filled with the wheat or
other corn; the manual affiftance for performing the bufi-
nefsis diftributed through it in this manner : one man and two
women for unbinding the fheaves of corn and feeding the
rollers, which laft are grooved and divided into lengths of fix
or eight inches: on the ftraw being difcharged from the
machine, one perfon attends to fhake it well over a large
open {creen, whence it is tofled over to another perfon, who
removes it out of the way. At and under each of the win-
nowing-machines, fieves are placed to receive the grain com-
ing directly from the machine, which is then put into the
hopper of the fan of the fecond winnowing-machine, from
which it is again received into another fieve, and thence dif-
charged into the hopper for grinding, for the market, or
for other purpofes: in pafling through this little fan, fuch
a feparation takes place as completely to divide the head
from the tail corn. A cylindrical pearl-barley machine or
apparatus is alfo applied and ufed to cleanfe the wad of its
{mut, and thus by taking off the downy end of the grain, a
much finer {ample of both wheat and flour is obtained. This
is preferred to the brufh apparatus ; for although that may
cleanfe the body of the grain, it will not carry off the down
from its end, which may reafonably be fuppofed to con-
tain the germ of fmut, or to form the neft of other animal-
cule equally injurious to fuch grain when ufed as feed on
lands.

There is in this machine only one labouring man employed
to five women, which is an advantage of great importance
in many fituations. The introdu@tion of fuch machinery as
this is therefore of great benefit in bettering and improving
the rural condition of the country.

But, befides machines of this fort being conftru@ted for
performing the different operations of thrething, winnowing,
grinding, and bolting, they have fometimes contrivances for
other purpofes, as an iron hopper axis for grinding apples ;
and a contrivance for fhelling clover feed, and the haddocks
of wheat. Thefe two additions belong to a thrething-
machine of Mr. Vinns in the above diftri@ ; and fome others
are occafionally met with in other places which are a little
different in their nature, but unneceffary to be here de-
feribed.

In the general conftrudtion of thefe machines, they are

4D commonly,

THRESHING-MACHINE. |

commonly, as has been feen, made of two defcriptions,
large and fmall kinds; the former of which probably not
only perform their work more expeditioufly, but in a more
perfeét manner, though their expence is an objection to them
on {mall farms. They require very different ftrength of
teams or other powers in working them, according to their
fizes, the nature of their conftruction, and other circum-
tances.

It is ftated, that in fome large machines of this kind, the
rollers take in about three hundred inches of grain in a mi-
nute. The medium length of the ftraw being eftimated at
about thirty inches, and fuppofing half a fheaf to be intro-
duced into the machine at a time, the whole fheaf will be
equal to fixty inches, and the machine, when fupplied with a
middling quantity of water, will threfh five fheayes in a mi-
nute. But in refpe& to the performance of thefe mills,
much muft depend on the attention with which they are fed,
as a {mall negle& in this point will make a very confiderable
difference in the quantity of work that is performed in a
given time.

In regard to the expence of thefe machines, it muft de-
pend upon the fize and power which they poffefs of per-
forming work, the number of other operations which they
perform at the fame time, and whether they be fixed or
moveable. According to fome perfons well informed on
the fubjeét, a fixed mill that requires the power of two or
three horfgs, will coft from fixty to a hundred guineas.
This will threfh about fifteen quarters of wheat, and from
that to twenty of barley, oats, peas or beans in the courfe
of eight or nine hours.

It is noticed, that the only defe&t of machines worked
by wind, upon their firft introduétion, confifted in the
rifk to which they were expofed, by {topping them to
take in the fails, which could fearcely be done during a
brifk gale: in that way it fometimes happened, that when
the wind frefhened confiderably after the machine was fet
a going, either the fails were torn to pieces, or the arms
broken off. That defegét, however, is now remedied by a
late invention of Mr. Mickle, by which the whole fails can
‘be taken in, or let out, in lefs than half a minute, merely
by a perfon pulling a rope within the houfe ; by this con-
trivance the fails are, with eafe and expedition, proportioned
to any degree of wind, an uniform motion is produced, and
all danger of ftraining or hurting the machine is avoided.

It is further obferved, that the number of hands required
for working one of thefe machines, is from five to fix ; but
that this depends greatly on the conftru€tion of the machine,
fome of them being fo contrived, that the work can be per-
formed with much fewer hands.

It is, however, noticed in the Agricultural Survey of
Norfolk, that a machine ereéted by Mr. Johnfon, at Lemp-
fton, appears to be one of the beft, if not the very beft, of
the Jarger kind that has yet been met with. The movements
in it are uncommonly fmooth. It requires from fix to eight
horfes, fix men, and one woman ; it threfhes, without any quef-
tion, much cleaner than the flail, and, without any doubt,
cheaper. To bring it to its prefent perfection, as he was
determined to carry his point, he never ftopped till it worked
to his mind ; and having completed it, the repairs fince have
been quite trifling. The common complaint of their being
always out of order is attributed to original errors or inat-
tention in the conftruction of them. The arrangement is
excellent, it is faid, in this machine, for difpofing of the
chaff, colder, ftraw, and corn, at once, in their refpeétive
places, without any confufion or after-removals; and it
takes up a very {mall part of a barn. It was built by Mr.
Wigful of Lynn.

Mr. Whiting, of Fring, has alfo a large threthings
mill, built by Mr. Fordyce, an engineer from Scotland.
It coft him zoo/.; is worked by fix horfes; threfhes
twenty-four coombs of wheat in the day, fifty-five of barley,
and from fixty-three to eighty-four of oats. It has five
beaters on the drum-wheel, and the fluted fegment of a
cylinder which covers the drum in twe parts, with an un~
fluted plate between them, which is raifed or funk by a fhort
lever: this is a guard againft {tones getting in. In another
circumftance alfo it is fingular; there is a long platform,
with a rolling cloth bottom: the whole raifed or funk at
pleafure, for delivering the corn, acrofs the floor fpace of
the barn, from the goff in which the corn is ftacked, to the
other end in which the mill is built ; which faves much la-
bour, and works to his fatisfaCtion.

The horfe-wheel is here upon a different conftru€tion
from the common ones, working by a cogged-wheel of fmalt
diameter below, inftead of above the horfes; and the com-
municating {pindle under their path; but it is faid to be
hard work.

And Mr. Coke, of Holkham, is ftated to have a very
large machine, which coft about 600/. Betides threfhing,
it grinds corn, works two chaff-cutters, and breaks oil-cake.
It threfhes fixty-four coombs a day.

Mr. Reeves, of Heverland, has a threfhing-mill which is,
the writer thinks, [till nearer to perfeétion than any other he
has feen; it was made by Afbey, works with two or three
horfes, and coft a hundred guineas. He found it at work,
threfhing oats; it does for barley as well as for any other
grain, threfhing thirty-two coombs in a day of feven hours
and a half; more of oats; forty of peas; and thirty of
wheat: its day’s work of wheat, threfhed the day before
he faw it, was thirty-one coombs, which were ftanding facked
in the barn. It varies confiderably in the beating-drum
cylinder from the others he has feen, it being of a much
larger diameter, and has eleven beaters.

At Brightwell-Grove, in Oxfordfhire, according to the
Agricultural Report of that diftriét, there is a threfhing-
machine, belonging to Mr. Lowndes, which was conftruéted
by Rajtrick, and in which there is fome novelty of con-
trivance: it works by means of four horfes: the drum-
wheel, in this cafe, is three feet and a half in diameter,
makes two hundred and {fixty revolutions in a minute, and,
having fixteen beaters, it gives 4160 ftrokes in that time :
there is a rake with four fets of teeth which takes the ftraw,
and delivers it to a fecond drum-beating cylinder two feet
in diameter. This drum is termed the drefler, and turning
in an oppofite dire¢tion to the motion of the ftraw, beats it
down, and in its defcent ftrikes it againft a circular board,
faced with bars fhod with iron, through the {pace of eighteen
inches, by which the {traw receives feveral additional ftrokes,
which, it is conceived, have a great effeé& in diflodging that
corn which has not been comletels feparated in paffing the
principal drum. This is the addition not ufual in thefe ma-
chines. Thefe are wrought four hours at a time, in which
eight quarters of wheat are threfhed out. Every thing is
threfhed perfeétly clean ; and the ftraw is not broken more
than by the flail. Twelve quarters of barley are threfhed
in four hours, and fixteen have been done in that length of
time. The horfes, in this machine, are not attached in the
draught, in the manner which refembles pufhing, by ad-
vancing with the lever before them, but in the common
drawing method, with the lever behind them, in which
way they are fuppofed by fome to do the work much
better.

This machine was feen to threfh forty-three fheaves in ten
minutes. It dreffes at the fame time ; and there is a chaff-

cutter,

THRESHING-MACHINE.

cutter, as well as a corn grinding-mill with ftones, for farm
ufe, attached, and wrought or not, at pleafure.

It is perhaps only in places fituated in the immediate vi-
cinity of a colliery, and where, from the cheapnefs of fuel,
they are capable of being worked at a very trifling expence,
that fleam can be had recourfe to as the moving power of
thefe machines. See Steam, and Sream-Engine.

With regard to {mall machines, it is faid in the Eaft
Lothian Agricultural Report, that they have been intro-
duced there, upon a reduced feale, at a price fo low as
4o/.: that thefe fmall machines, having little work to do,
and that little being, in general, done flowly, anfwer the
purpofe tolerably well ; but though cheaper in the firft in-
ftance, they are, in the end, more expenfive than larger ones,
a certain degree of ftrength being abfolutely requifite to
do the work perfeGtly. If the parts of the machine are
below that degree of itrength, the work is either ill done,
or the machine is deftroyed, by being exerted above what it
is able to bear.

The writer of the Effex Agricultural Survey too ftates,
that in that diftriét at prefent many are made by Balls of
Norfolk, the price fifty guineas, and do their work very
clean and well for all forts of corn, but do not drefs. They
have been applied to white clover, and have done it to the
fatisfaction of the growers, by pafling it through twice or
thrice. In one ereéted by Mr. Vaizey, which is worked by
horfes, one man feeds, two fupply, a boy drives, and two
men clear away the ftraw. He has threfhed fixty quarters
of wheat with it in eighteen hours. It coft 52/. 10s., and
1o/. putting up; the fhed added about 20/., two win-
nowing machines 15/. 15s.; in all, complete, about r1o0o/.
But in this a greater number of horfes are ufed than are
noticed aboye. The owner has no fault to find with its
performance, but is very well fatisfied with it. He has
applied it to cobbing white clover with great fuccefs; by
pafling it thrice through the mill, he got from three jags,
feven bufhels of clean feed in four hours. And one built
by Dickfon of Ipfwich, for Mr. Sanxter, goes with two or
four horfes, and coft fifty guineas. It is fuppofed that it
will threfh twenty quarters of wheat per diem. But it is
now fifty-five guineas, put up and ready to work. Two
horfes work it, without hard labour. The latt year’s
wheat, which was very badly threfhed at 7s. fer quarter,
was done by this machine perfectly well. Alfo at Little
Wakering, Dr. Afplin has a machine which the writer faw
working with one horfe, which moved with great eafe, driven
by a little girl ; one man and two boys work it, and it does
three quarters of wheat in a day. The writer examined the
itraw for about a quarter of an hour, and did not finda
fingle kernel in it. The price is fixty guineas. The con-
ftruction in this machine varies from the others he has feen,
in the wheels which communicate the motion. ‘The doétor
threfhes only wheat with it, though it will do for all forts
of grain. He thinks it anfwers greatly, and is perfedtly
fatisfied with it. It was made by T'urbot, Bankfide, Weft-
minfter, but they are now made by Jones, Clement’s-Lane,
Clare-market, London.

There are many other perfons who put up thefe machines
at an equally reafonable rate, and fo as to work with much
perfeétion.

Where machines of this fort coft about one hundred
guineas, the annual expence in intereft of capital and re-
pairs cannot be more than from 1o/. to 12/. at mott,
except in the expences of teams and the labour of the per-
fons employed in the execution of the bufinefs and work
about them.

The expenfive machines which have rollers for rubbing

out the grain inftead of beaters, are thought in general to
perform the bufinefs in the moft perfeét manner, though
they require more power to work them.

It is, however, thought by fome to be utterly impoffible
to build threfhing-machines which will do juitice to the
owners for any fuch fum as so/., or thereabouts, as their
durability and fuccefs depend materially on their firm-
nefs, ftrength, folidity, and other circumftances of the fame
nature, which are by no means attainable for any fuch
money. Yet many of thefe {mall machines of one or two
horfe power, are faid to perform their work well, and at
the rate of fix quarters of wheat, and the relative propor-
tions of other forts of grain, in the courfe of the day. They
are ftated to be made in feveral different diftriéts, at the
prices of from thirty to fifty guineas, fo as to threfh well at
nearly the above rate, and to have, in fome inftances, other
additions, fuch as chaff-cutters, &c. made to them. In
particular cafes, they are thought not to break the wheat-
itraw fo much as the flail ; and though wheat and beans are
moftly well threfhed by them, barley is under the neceflity
of being often twice pafled through fuch machines, as feen
above. They do not drefs in general; but fometimes head
feed clover in a pretty perfe&t manner, as noticed already.

Small threfhing-machines have likewife been conftruéted
fo as to be wrought by hand, in fome diftri€ts, both in the
northern and fouthern parts of the kingdom, and been af-
ferted by fome to perform their work in a clean and {atis-
factory manner; but from their moftly wanting that de-
gree of velocity, in being wrought in this manner, which
is eflential to good work of this kind, they have not yet be-
come in any way general. Indeed, in fome diftri€ts in the
fouth, the working of them by the hand not being found to
fucceed well in actual praétice, the ufual feeding rollers
have been applied with the horfe-tackle, at the additional
charge of about 20/., which has enabled them, it is faid,
to do the work properly, and in an eafy manner, even by
the power of one horfe. Where the teeth of the iron
wheels in fuch machines have been found too fine for the in-
creafed force made ufe of in this way, vertical wooden
wheels and pinions have been put in their place, which have
contributed to the ftrength and preferved the fimplicity of
the machinery.

Threfhing-machines have now been known, and in fome
meafure employed, in the northern parts of this country for
more than half a century, and are at prefent very general in
thofe that are any way improved ; but in the more fouthern
diftriéts, they have only been attended to, in any confider-
able degree, for the {pace of the laft thirty or forty years,
yet their ufe and application are faft becoming general
among the more extenfive farmers whofe farms are of the
arable kind. In fhort, it is not improbable but that in a
little time the machine will be the moft prevalent method of
threfhing out corn. And it has been fuggefted, that parifh
machines of this nature, in centrical fituations, would per-
haps not be lefs ufeful or convenient than parifh mills, while, at
the fame time, they might be eafily fo regulated as to be
rendered of great general benefit to the community, as well
as advantageous in the way of private {peculation to indi-
viduals. Something of this fort is faid to be already the
cafe in fome diftri€ts of the North, and would, it is believed,
be defirable in all, for the convenience and accommodation of
the fmall farmer ; as the fame conveyance that brought the
corn to be threfhed, might take back the ftraw and grain,
and in this way little waite of labour or time be fuitained,
while the faving would be confiderable and certain.

It may be noticed alfo, that in all cafes where threfhmg-
machines are made ufe of, they fhould be well fuited to the

4D 2 extent

gi taal sO

extent of the farms, and be ereéted in fuch a manner as to be
convenient for having the contents of the ftacks brought to
them. In this view it has been fuggefted, in the Report on
Agriculture for the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, that the
barns to which they are attached fhould extend into the
yards in which the ftacks are contained; as in that way the
labour and time will be confiderably leffened of fupplying
them with corn in the ftraw for being threfhed. And it has
been juftly remarked, by an intelligent promoter of agricul-
tural improvements, that this machine has not been attended
with one-half of the advantage which might have flowed
from fo ufeful a difcovery, for want of combining the ule
of it with the various conneéted circumftances of the farm-
yard. The bufinefs of ftacking corn, for inftance, muit, it
is conceived, receive an entirely new arrangement in confe-
quence of building a threfhing-mill or machine. By means
of no other additional expence than that of an iron railway,
and placing the ftacks on frames refting on block-wheels,
two feet in diameter, a very confiderable annual expence in
time and labour mutt, it is fuppofed, be faved in carting
{tacks to the barns, in lofs of corn, and in waiting for good
weather, as well as in the faving of threfhing by fiails, and
all the attendant evils of pilfering and leaving corn in the
itraw. This isa material objeét, which it is thought cannot
receive too much attention from both landlord and tenant.
It is contended that there cannot be the fmalleft doubt of
the propriety or profit of having one of thefe machines
fixed in the principal farm-yard. But that where: the farm
is large, and ftacks confequently fcattered over various fields
or parts of it, then it may be right to have a moveable one
alfo ; but fo many operations are wanting at home, that one
fhould certainly be fixed. The circular form of the rail-
way upon which the ftacks are brought to the mill or
machine, is confidered neceffary in fuch cafes, as being the
only one which permits a choice of any particular flack to
threth, without waiting for all or many others being done
before it can be got at ; but a ftraight line leading to and
pait the mill or machine is admiffible, except for this cir-
cumftance, though much inferior, in fome other points, to
the circular form. In forming this plan, a fort of railway
fhould be fo contrived as that a horfe or two may be fuf-
ficient to draw all common ftacks to the mill or machine.
And it is direted that the wooden ftumps on which the
frame refts fhould be tinned, or laid in the common manner
with brafs latten, which is more durable than common tin,
to keep out rats. Alfo, that as the power applied to the
threfhing-mill in other ways is at hand, and applicable alfo
to the above fort of work of drawing the ftacks, it may be
ufed for the purpofe in many cafes.

Turesuinc-Mill Barn or Building, that fort of barn,
fed, or other building which is calculated for receiving, or
which contains this kind of mill or machine.

In this intention, an upper floor, raifed eight, nine, or ten
feet from the ground, in proportion to the height or fize of
the animals, and the arrangement of the machinery which is
to be employed, will be required, and which fhould reach
from end to end of the barn or building, as a repofitory for
the unthrefhed corn, which fhould be there lodged and depo-
fited, at leifure times, from the ftack-yard, or other places,
in order to be ready to feed the mill or machine with from
this upper floor. The ground-ftoor fhould contain the large
mill-wheel, and a horfe-path round it, all the lower parts of
the machinery, a drefling-room for the grain, and a wide
open fpace for ftraw a different forts, which is there to
be piled up, ready for the cattle-fheds, on each fide of
this repofitory of fodder. it (

‘The expences of thefe prepared barns or buildings, will

tn “Rk

probably not only be much leflened, but wholly done away,
in fome cafes, by the ufe of the threfhing ftack farm-yard,
which has been defcribed in {peaking of the mills or ma-
chines for this ufe, and much convenience and accommoda-
tion be thereby gained to the farmer in the difpatch of the
bufinefs, &c.

On the whole, by thefe means the labouring teams and
hands will be enabled to perform the work of threfhing at
fuch wet, {tormy, and leifure periods as will render it the
leaft troublefome and expenfive to the farmer. See
TuresHinc- Machine.

THRESHOLD Point, in Geography, a cape on the ~
north-weit coaft of New Guinea. S. lat. 0° 37. E.
long. 132°.

THREX, among the Romans. See THraces.

THRIFT, in Botany. See Statice.

THRIHING. See Trinine.

THRIMSA, in Antiquity, a filver coin, the value of
which has occafioned a variety of conje¢tures. Lambard,
who gave the firft eftimate of it, makes it a three-fhilling
piece, in which opinion he is followed by fir Henry Spelman.
Bifhop Nicholfon apprehends, that it was the name of their
common coin, and that the thrimfa, fceata, and penny, were
all of them the fame. Somner, from the import of the
word, and the value given to the thrimfa in the Saxon laws,
rates it at three-pence. Selden, Brady, and Hickes, are of
opinion, that this coin was either the laft tremiffis of the
Franks and Germans, and confequently four-pence, or the
third part of the Saxon fhilling, i. e. three halfpence and
one-third of a halfpenny in their money. Mr. Clarke adopts,
and endeavours to eftablifh the opinion of Somner, who ob-
ferved, from the laws of Athelitan, that the price of a
thane’s life was, by the Angli, valued at 2000 thrimfas,
which, by the Mercian eftimate, was 1200 fhillings ; and if
each of thefe fums denotes the fame value, which is pro-
bable, the thrimfa muft be to the fhilling as 2000 is to 1200,
or three parts in five of a Saxon fhilling, #. e. three-pence.

The thrimfa was firft coined in the reigns before Athel-
ftan, during their greater affluence in cafh, and defigned
merely for the convenience of exchange, as the moft proper
divifion that could be made in their money without a frac-
tion, between the fhilling and the penny. But when the
fhilling was reduced, it was of little ufe, and by degrees
entirely laid afide.

Dr. Hickes obferves, that the method of computing by
thrimfas was chiefly ufed in the more mercantile parts of
this kingdom, among the Eaft and Weft and South Saxons,
and poflibly coined only among them; for it appears that
the inland provinces, the Mercians, reckoned generally by
the fhilling. Clarke’s Conn. of the Roman, Saxon, and
Englifh Coins, p. 229, &c.

HRIN, in Geography, a river of Norfolk, which joins
the Yare at Yarmouth.

THRINAX, in Botany, %ewxt, a fan, in allufion to the
form of its leaves; a name beftowed by the younger Lin-
neus on the little Fan Palm of Jamaica, when he firft dif-
tinguifhed this plant generically from Corypha, to which it
had been referred by Browne. To that genus it is, as
Swartz obferves, very clofely allied, differin chiefly in the
want of a corolla.—Swartz Prodr. 57. Ind. Occ. Vv. I. 613.
t.13. Schreb. Gen. 772. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.2. 202,
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 307.—
Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Palme.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, minute,
hemifpherical, with fix fmall, ere&t, marginal teeth. Cor.
none. Stam. Filaments fix, ereét, equal, thread-fhaped,

about

a oH

about twice the length of the calyx, inferted at the bale of
the germen; anthers terminal, ere&t, linear, longer than
the filaments, cloven at each end. Pi. Germen half
immerfed in the bafe of the calyx, ovate; ftyle cylindrical,
thickifh, ereét, the length of the filaments; ftigma very
large, funnel-fhaped, oblique, of a fingle, dilated, ovate,
rather tumid, lip, finely crenate at the margin, rarely accom-
panjed by another lip. Peric. Drupa {mall, globular, naked,
rather dry. Seed. Nut folitary, large, globofe, brittle, of
one cell, with a folitary kernel.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with fix teeth. Corolla none. Stigma
funnel-fhaped, oblique. Drupa globular, with a fingle feed.

1. Th. parviflora. Small Jamaica Fan Palm; Palmetto
Royal; or Palmetto Thatch. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1.—
Native of the fea-coaft, and other barren dry fituations, in
Jamaica and Hifpaniola. Swartz. The /fem is from ten
to twenty feet high, unarmed ; tumid at the bafe. Leaves
coileéted about the top, ftalked, from one to two feet long,
palmate, plaited like a fan ; their fegments lanceolate, ribbed
and itreaked, rigid, nearly equal. vot/falés longer than
the leaves, roundifh, fomewhat comprefled, {mooth, flexible,
unarmed, General Sheath compound. Flower-ftalk ter-
minal, folitary, nearly ereét, two or three feet long, pani-
cled, imbricated with partial /beaths, or bradeas ; its branches
alternate, fubdivided, fpreading ; the ultimate ones oppofite
or ternate, crofling each other. Flowers ftalked, oppofite
or ternate, fmall, perfect. dnthers yellow.—Brown fays,
Hitt. of Jamaica, 191, this tree covers whole fields in man
parts of that ifland, thriving better on the rocky hills, than
on the low moift plains near the fea. The copious little
berries ferve as food for birds and wild beafts. The trunk,
feldom more than four or five inches in diameter, ten or
fourteen feet high, is called the Thatch-pole, and is much
ufed for piles in wharfs and other buildings made in the fea ;
for it ftands the water well, and is never corroded or touched
by worms. ‘The fplit footftalks make bafkets, bow-{trings,
ropes, &c. being very ftrong and tough. The leaves are
called thatch, and are ufed as fuch, for outhoufes efpecially,
being found to refift the weather for many years. Such
coverings of buildings have only the inconvenience of har-
nerve rats or other vermin, which prevents their general
ufe.

THRINCIA, fo called by Roth, from $5) x0:, the battle-
ment of a wall, to which he compares the feed-crown of the
marginal florets. The Italian name Trinciatella, ufed by
Camerarius, Hort. Med. 173, for Hyo/eris radiata, may, as
Dr. Roth fuppofes, have a fimilar origin; but it comes di-
re€tly from the Italian verb ¢rinciare, to cut, alluding to the
remarkable fegments of the leaf in that plant.

This genus of Thrincia confifts of two {pecies, Leontodon
hirtum of Linueus, ‘and Hyoferis taraxacoides of Villars, ex-
cluding the fynonyms of the latter. We fee no occafion to
feparate them from Apargia of Schreber and Willdenow,
the Hedypnois of Hudfon. Having, in the Prodr. Fl. Grec.
Y. 2. 142, adopted Hepypnois; and in p. 130 of the fame
volume, Aparcia ; we refer the reader to the former in its
proper place, and fhall here introduce the latter, with its full
chara&ters and fynonyms.

APARGIA, Azaeyiz, an ancient Greek name, with whofe
original meaning, or application, we are unacquainted.
Dalechamp has applied it to fomething of the Hieracium
kind ; and Schreber, after Scopoli, to the genus now before
us, with which we hope it will remain.—Schreb. Gen. 527.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1547. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 4.445. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2.
130. Compend. Fl. Brit.ed. 2. 117. Marfch. a Bieberft.
Caucaf. v. 2. 247. (Hedypnois; Hudf. Fl. Angl. 340.

7

THR

Leontodon; Juff. 170. Thrineia ;
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1554. Ait.

Virea; Gertn. t. 159.)—Clafs
Nat. Ord. Compo-

Sm. Fl. Brit. 823.
Roth. Catal. v. 1. 97-
Hort. Kew. v. 4. 447.
and order, Syngencfia Polygamia-equalis.
Sie femiflofculofe, Linn. Cichoracee, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx oblong, permanent, imbricated,
of feveral linear, parallel, unequal, longitudinal, incumbent
{cales ; thofe at the bafe very fmall. Cor. compound, im-
bricated, uniform ; the florets numerous, all perfect, equal,
monopetalous, ligulate, hnear, abrupt, with five teeth.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united
into a cylindrical tube. Pi/?. Germen nearly obovate ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigmas two, re-
curved. eric. none, except the permanent, {traight calyx,
at length reflexed. Seeds folitary, oblong, ftriated, crowned
with feffile feathery down, fomewhat chaffy in the lower
part, and often unequal in the marginal florets ; fomewhat
italked in the central ones, frequently accompanied by
fhorter hairs or plumes. Recept. dotted, naked, or very
flightly hairy.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked, dotted. Seed-down feathery,
feffile, unequal. Calyx imbricated, with {mall feattered
{cales at the bafe.

This génus, though very natural and well defined, has the
general habit of Hedypnois, or of Hieracium, agreeing with
the latter in having fome caulefcent fpecies, though in moft
the flower-falks are radical and fingle-flowered. The /eaves
are varioufly toothed or finuated, moftly hairy, rarely vil-
lous. Flowers of a full yellow. Root, except in our thir-
teenth {pecies, perennial, tuberous. We adopt the Englifh
name of Hawk-bit from Petiver.

1. A. aurantiaca. Orange-coloured Hawk-bit. Willd.
ni. Waldit. et Kitaib. Hung.”—* Stalk radical,
fingle-flowered, naked ; tumid and hairy in the upper part.
Calyx hifpid. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, flightly toothed.’?
—Found on the lofty mountains of Hungary. Leaves three
or four inches long, fmooth. Stal fix inches high, fmooth,
except juft below the flower. Calyx clothed with rigid
blackifh hairs. Corolla orange-coloured. Seed-dowwn feflile,
feathery. It differs from the next in having no fcales on the
Jfealk, which is more tumid in its upper part ; very fmooth
leaves ; and a different-coloured flower. Willd.

2. A. alpina. Alpine Hawk-bit. Hoft. Syn. 423.
Willd. n.2. (Leontodon alpinum; Jacq. Auftr. t. 93.
L. pyrenaicum ; Gouan. Illuftr. 55. t. 22. f. 1, 2. Hedyp-
nois pyrenaica; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 78, from the author.
Picris faxatilis ; Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 211. t. 14. f.4. Ta-
raxacum foliis integris dentatis, calyce hifpido, pappo plu-
mofo; Hall. Helvet. ed. 1. 741.)—Stalk radical, folitary,
fingle-flowered, fcaly ; flightly tumid, and fomewhat hairy,
at the top. Calyx hifpid. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, flightly
toothed, fomewhat hairy.—Native of graffy paftures, on the
Alps of Auftria, Switzerland, Dauphiny, and Italy. Haller
found it on mount St. Gothard, Schleicher on mount Fouly,
and the late Mr. Davall onSt. Bernard. Our fynonym of Hal-
ler’s firft edition, mif{quoted by Willdenow, refts on the autho-
rity of Allioni. Wedo not find the plant in his fubfequent pub-
lications. The root is tuberous, perennial, with long fibres.
Leaves from three to eight, radical, ftalked, ere&, obtufe, two
or three inches long; tapering at the bafe ; diftantly toothed
about the middle or lower part: rough, with fhaggy fhort
hairs, particularly about their rib and foot/alk ; which latter
is fometimes red or purple. F/ower-/talk from three to ten
inches high, flender, ereét, bearing a few feattered linear
{cales, and one yellow flower, hardly fo big as our common
Dandelion, whofe calyx-feales are narrow, black with

tha hairs.
= 3. A.

-

THRINCIA.

3. A. crocea. Saffron-coloured Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 3.
(Leontodon croceum; Haenke in Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 16.)—
“ Stalk radical, folitary, fingle-flowered, flightly fealy ; tu-
mid and hairy above. Calyx hifpid. Leaves {mooth, run-
cinate, with a triangular terminal lobe.’-—Gathered by
Haenke on the alpine heights of Judenberg, in Upper Stiria,
where it inhabits dry, open, barren paftures, but ts elfewhere
rarely to be feen. This is faid by Willdenow to be like
the preceding, but different in the aboye-defcribed figure of
its Jeaves, which are only fometimes hairy. Flower an inch
and half, or two inches, in diameter, very handfome, and
readily diftinguifhed from all the furrounding fpecies of
its own tribe, by its colour, which is that of tinéture of
faffron.

4. A. haftilis. Shining Spear-leaved Hawk-bit.
Syn. 423. Willd. n. 4. Ait. ns 1. (Leontodon hattile ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1123. Jacq. Auftr. t. 164. L. prothei-
forme B & C; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 87. Picris, n. 26;
Hall. Helvet. vy. 1. 12.)—Stalks radical, fingle-flowered,
fmooth as well as the calyx. Leaves obovato-lanceolate,
fmooth, with numerous flightly hooked teeth.—Native of
the fouth of Europe; very abundant in Switzerland. The
leaves are often a foot long, tapering at the bafe into purplifh,
flat, winged foot/falks ; their furface fmooth, even, and fome-
what glaucous; their margin cut into many deep, acute,
triangular teeth, partly hooked backward. Stalks feveral,
round, very {mooth, glaucous, very rarely divided, twelve
or eighteen inches high. ower bright yellow, an inch and
half wide, with’ {careely any perceptible hairs on the calyx ;
drooping when in bud. Sometimes the flower-/talks bear a
few linear dittant fcales.

5. A. dubia. Doubtful Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 5.—
“¢ Stalk fingle-flowered, radical, nearly naked; hairy, as
well as the calyx, above. Leaves lanceolate, toothed at the
bafe, flightly clothed with forked hairs.””—Communicated
to Willdenow by Hoppe, from the Saltzburg alps, under
the above name, which feems to us but too well applied.
We have not indeed feen a {pecimen of this plant. Willde-
now defcribes it as intermediate between the laft and A. hi/-
pida. The flalks are moftly furnifhed with one {mall fcale,
and are tumid under the flower, whofe calyx, as well as the
upper part of the ftalk, are befet with fhort forked hairs.
The Jeaves feem {mooth at firlt fight, but bear feattered,
white, forked hairs,

6. A. tuberofa. _Knotty-rooted Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 6.
Ait. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 797, unpubl. (Leon-
todon tuberofum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1123. Dens leonis bul-
bofus; Ger. Em, 290. Chondrilla altera Diofcoridis, &c.;
Lob. Ic. 232.)—Stalks radical, fingle-flowered, naked,
fomewhat hairy. Calyx hairy. Leaves pinnatifid, runci-
nate, fomewhat lyrate, rough with forked hairs. Root of
many ovate tapering knobs.—Native of the fouth of Eu-
rope and the Levant ; very common in the fandy meadows
of Greece, Cyprus, and Zante. The modern Greeks name
it fadixs, or radifp; and it may be, as fome old botanitts
have thought, the xovJeaan fepx of Diofcorides, but this is
hard to determine. The perennial root is a clutter of feffile
ovate knobs, above an inch long, tapering into radicles.
Leaves numerous, fpreading, dark green, obtufe, either
fimply runcinate, with a large terminal lobe, or deeply,
fometimes interruptedly, pinnatifid, and bluntly toothed.
Flower-flalks feveral, a {pan high, afcending, ftriated, more
or lefs hairy ; purple, like the footfalks, at their bafe. Ca-
lyx flender, with acute feales. F/owers above an inch wide,
full yellow ; red underneath.

7- A. incana. Hoary Hawk-bit.
113. Willd. n. 7. Ajit. n. 3.

Hott.

Scop. Carn. v. 2.
(Hieracium incanum ;

Jacq. Auftr. t. 287. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 799. H. fextum
montanum ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 141. Ger. Em. 302. Leon-
todon hifpidum @ ; Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 2. 1124.)—Stalks ra-
dical, fingle-flowered, almoft naked, hoary as well as the
calyx. Leaves lanceolate, ereét, very minutely and {paringly
toothed, hoary with {tarry hairs.—Found on hills and moun-
tains in Germany, Switzerland, Carniola and France. The
root is long and woody, divided at the crown, where its bears
feveral tufts of ftraight, upright, more or lefs acute, very
hoary, /eaves, tapering at the bafe, from three to five inches
tong, with a few little, marginal, glandular teeth. Stalks
often folitary in each tuft, a foot high, {welling at the top.
Flowers light yellow, an inch and a half broad. Calyx-
Jeales narrow, acute. The uniformly entire /eaves, though
befet with a few glandular teeth, and the ftru@ture of moft
other parts, when minutely examined, render this plant fuf-
ficiently diftin&t from 4. hi/pida, hereafter defcribed, with
which Linneus fubfequently confounded it as a variety.

8. A. Taraxaci. Dandelion-leaved Hawk-bit. Willd.
n.8. Ait. n. 4. Compend. Fl. Brit. n. 3. _(Hedypnois.
Taraxaci ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 80. t.26. Fl. Brit. 825.
Engl. Bot. t. 1109. Hieracium Taraxaci; Linn. Sp. Pl.
1125. Retz. Obf. fafe. 4. 30. t.2. Lightf. Scot. 435.
Picris n. 27; Hall. Hilt. v. 1.12. P. Taraxaci; Allion.
Ped. v. 1. 211. t. 31. f. 1.) —Stalks radical, moftly fingle-
flowered ; tumid and hairy at the top. Leaves fmooth, with
recurved teeth. Calyx hairy.—Native of watery paftures
on the loftieft mountains of Lapland, Scotland, Wales,
Switzerland, Savoy, and Dauphiny, flowering in July or
Augutt. Root abrupt, with long lateral fimple fibres. Herd
very variable in the breadth of its aves, as well as the num-
ber, height and luxuriance of its fower-flalks. The former
are either lanceolate, and almoft linear, or fpatulate and
obovate, fharp or blunt, from two to four inches long, with
fhallow or very deep, always runcinate, teeth. The latter
are afcending or ere@, folitary or in pairs, fometimes, though
rarely, divided, naked or furnifhed with a few linear {cales,
fhaggy with black hairs at the top, as is likewife the broad
and thick calyx. Flowers an inch broad, or more, of a full
yellow, with brownifh terminal feet. Germen furmounted
with a taper neck, like a ftalk, but as the feed fwells, this
appearance vanifhes, and the feathery dozn is truly feffile.
Receptacle naked. Willdenow juftly remarks, that Gouan’s
fynonym is mifapplied to this {pecies in the F/. Brit. We
have now quoted it more correétly under our fecond A. alpina,
to which fome of the flender varieties of the prefent bear a
great refemblance. Solander, as well as Linneus, thought
this plant a mule between Hieracium alpinum and Leontodon
Taraxacum, merely becaufe its flowers refembled one, and
its /eaves the other. The generic character differs from
both.

g: A. autumnalis. Autumnal Hawk-bit. Hoffm. Germ.
for 1791. 274. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 5. Compend. Fl.
Brit. n. 4. (Hedypnois autumnalis; Fl. Brit. n. 4.
Engl. Bot. t. 830, Leontodon autumnale ; Linn. Sp. Pl.
1123. Hieracium minus; Fuchs Hift. 320. H. minus,
five leporinum ; Ger. Em. 296. )—Stalks radical, branched 5
their ultimate divifions fealy. Leaves lanceolate, toothed,
or pinnatifid, {moothifh.—Native of meadows and paftures
throughout Europe, flowering in autumn; very common
in Britain. The roof is abrupt, with very long and co-
pious fibres. Leaves numerous, varioufly and unequally
pinnatifid, or merely toothed, rarely a little rough or fhaggy;
oblique, or fomewhat ferpentine, in their general form or
pofition. General flalks one or more, a foot or two in height,
{preading, curved and zigzag, alternately branched, not
quite without pubefcence, terminating in a few long fealy

partial

THRINCIA.

tial faiks, which are hollow, and each contains a peculiar
tuft of very white cotton, remarked by the Rev. Mr. Holme.
Galyx, and top of each ffalk, a little downy. Flowers
bright lemon-coloured, hardly an inch broad, often reddifh
on the outfide. Seeds flender, all crowned with feffile
feathery down. Sometimes the flowers are proliferous, like
the Hen-and-chicken Daify.

1o. A. crifpa. Curled Hawk-bit. Willd. n. ro. Ait.
n. 6. (Leontodon crifpum ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 84. t. 25.
Hieracium alterum faxatile montanum ; Column. ‘Ecphr.
244. t.243. H. parvum hirtum, caule aphyllo, crifpum
ubi ficcatum; Bauh. Hiit. v. 2. 1038.)—Stalks radical,
almoft naked, fingle-flowered, hairy as well as the calyx.
Leaves with various divaricated teeth and fegments, rough
with denfe three-forked hairs. Seeds with a rough elong-
ated beak.—Native of rocks in Dauphiny, Switzerland,
and Italy.—The root is faid to be very long, thrufting itfelf
deep into the fcarcely vifible clefts of large rocks, and fend-
ing forth many long, fimple, lateral fibres. Leaves nu-
merous, in denfe fpreading tufts, from two to four inches,
Columna fays more than fix, in length, pinnatifid in a rather
lyrate manner, fome of their fegments or teeth turned
various ways, efpecially, as J. Bauhin obferves, when dry ;
they are denfely clothed, on both fides, with prominent
hairs, whofe peculiarly white tips have three or more
fpreading forks or points. F/ower-ftalks afcending, a {pan
high, furrowed, bearing a few linear feales near the top.
Flower full an inch broad. Seeds uniform, each terminating
in a long, tapering, brown, minutely rough beak, which
looks like a ftalk to the denfe feathery down. This f{pecies
comes very near the following, but appears to be effen-
tially diftinguifhed by the beak of the feeds. Villars con-
founds its fynonyms with thofe of 4. hirta, which differs
very materially in having a fealy fhort crown to its mar-
ginal /zeds, as will hereafter be defcribed.

11. A. hifpida. Rough Hawk-bit.
Ait. n.7. Compend. Fl. Brit. n.1. (Hedypnois hifpida;
Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 554. Leontodon hifpidum ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1124. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 56. Fl. Dan.
t. 862. Hieracium dentis leonis folio, hirfutum ; Ger.
Em. 303.)—Stalks radical, naked, fingle-flowered. Leaves
with reverfed teeth, rough. Florets hairy at their orifice ;
glandular at the tip. Seeds fearcely beaked.—Very com-
mon in meadows, paftures, and waite ground, throughout
Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in fummer.
The root is tapering, zigzag, long and flender. Leaves ob-
long, more or lefs deeply toothed, or in fome meafure pin-
natifid, their teeth acute, pointing downwards; they are
much lefs denfely hairy than thofe of the lait, their hairs
generally fimply forked only ; but we are aware of the un-
certainty of this character. Stalks feveral, upright, ftriated,
clothed with fimilar hairs. Flowers drooping while in bud ;
afterwards ere&t, bright yellow, an inch and half broad.
Calyx hairy ; its outer {cales lax and fcattered. Florets
with a tuft of long yellow ereé& hairs, at the top of their
tube externally ; their fummit terminates in five teeth, at
the back of each of which Mr. Sowerby firft deteéted a
{mall triangular clufter of brown glands. Thefe two cha-
raéters ferve admirably to diftinguifh the prefent {pecies
from every other Britifh one, but the firft of them, if not the
other, is found in 4. crifpa. The /teds however have not
near fo long a beak as in that {pecies, and they differ from
A. hirta in being all uniformly furnifhed with a feathery
crown. It is curious to trace an affertion of the /ced-down
being ftalked in this {pecies, publithed by Willdenow, taken
from Haller, on the authority of Reichard. On turning to
Haller, n. 25, we find he trufted to Berkhey, who, in his

Willd. n. 11.

Flores Compofiti, t. 6. £. 10, has tigured a feed, fuppofed to
belong to the plant before us. On examination however its
crown proves to confift of fimple, not feathery, rays, and
therefore it has nothing to do with any Apargia. We men-
tion this circumftance, to fhew the mifchief of taking things
for granted ; not only in botanical criticifm, but any other
inquiry of the human mind.

12. A.hirta. Deficient Hawk-bit. Hoffm. Germ. for
1791. 274. Compend. Fl. Brit. n. 2. (Thrincia hirta ;
Roth. Catal. v.1. 98. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.3. 1554. Ajit.
Hort. Kew. v. 4. 447. Hedypnois hirta; Fl. Brit. n.z.
Engl. Bot. t. 555. Leontodon hirtum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1123.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 59. Rhagadiolusn. 7; Hall. Hitt.
y. I. 5, with fome doubtful fynonyms.)—Stalks radical,
naked, fingle-flowered. Leaves toothed, rough. Calyx
nearly fmooth. Outer row of feeds deftitute of down.—
Native of gravelly heaths and waite ground throughout
Europe. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it, along with our violets
and primrofes, in Arcadia. Mr. Curtis obferves that this
{pecies feldom occurs on the fame fpot with the preceding,
of which Mr. Hudfon made it a variety. Other iotantts
have found great difficulty in diftinguifhing them under all
their various appearances, whilft Haller, and more recently
Roth and Willdenow, have feparated them generically.
Linnzus thought the fimple hairs of the plant before us
afforded a good mark ; but this isfallacious. The herbage
of both is nearly the fame, or at lea{t their varieties clofely
approach each other. The flowers of both droop in the
bud, but thofe of 4. hirta are the fmalleft ; their florets
orange beneath, deftitute of hairs about the orifice, and of
glands at the fummit. The moft effential difference of all
is found in the feeds of the circumference, which have no
feathery down, but inftead thereof a crown of fhort jagged
fcales. The root is abrupt, or bitten off, not tapering.

13. A. annua. Annual Hawk-bit. (Thrincia hnfpida 5
Roth. Catal. v. 1. 99. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1555. Hyo-
feris taraxacoides; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 166. t. 25, ex-
cluding the fynonyms.)—Stalks radical, naked, fin le-
flowered. Leaves lanceolate, toothed, rough with forked
hairs. Calyx hoary and hifpid. Outer row of feeds def-
titute of down : thofe of the difk beaked.—Native of Spain
and France, in fandy ground. The annual fibrous root dif-
tinguifhes this from all the other known fpecies, and efpe-
cially from the laft, with which the fhort crown of its outer
row of feeds agrees. The reft of the /eeds however are
elongated at the fummit into a flender beak, which elevates
the feathery down, as on a longifh ftalk, but is not really
fuch. The rough and hoary calyx, and the brighter green
of the eaves, are further differences. The name of hi/pida
ae preoccupied, fee fp. 11, we are obliged to feleét a new
one for the prefent f{pecies.

14. A. Villarfii. Villarfian Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 12.
(Leontodon hirtum; Villars Dauph. 82. t. 25, excluding
the fynonyms. )—“ Stalks radical, naked, fingle-flowered,
nearly {mooth as well as the calyx. Leaves deeply toothed,
or pinnatifid, rough with fimple awlfhaped_briftles.”—
Native of dry funny rocks in Dauphiny. Willdenow, who
had a dried fpecimen, fays the /eaves are hoary with co-
pious white hairs. We have not feen the plant, nor dare
we attempt any illuftration of it; Villars having fo con-
founded various fynonyms under this and his Leontodon pro-
theiforme, p. 87. t. 24, that, even with fome of his fpeci-
mens before us, the defcriptions are not fatisfactory.

15. A. caucafica. Caucafian Hawk-bit. -Marfch..a
Bieberft. Caucaf. v. 2. 247.—* Stalk radical, fingle-flow-
ered, fmooth. Calyx hairy. .Leaves runcinate, rough,
{paringly clothed with fimple depreffed hairs.”’—Native of

I grafly

ga |

grafly paftures on the Caucafian alps, flowering in Auguft
and September. Root perennial, abrupt. Leaves with
triangular, nearly entire lobes pointing backward, be-
fprinkled on the upper fide with decumbent hairs, fo
fparingly that they feem altogether fmooth. Stalk longer
than the leaves, ftriated, naked except a minute feale or two 3
a little tumid and downy under the calyx, which is blackith,
though hifpid with whitifh hairs. Flower of a full yellow.
Seeds {mooth to the naked eye; their down feffile, feathery.
This plant has the habit and ftature of A. hifpida, n. 11,
but differs in the want of hairs on the fab as well as in the
form and pofition of the pubefcence of the foliage.

16. A. coronopifolia. Bucks-horn-leaved Hawk-bit.
Willd. n. 13. (Leontodon coronopifolium ; Desfont.
Atlant. v. 2. 229. t.214.)—Stalks radical, fingle-flow-
ered, fealy, fhorter than the leaves, hairy as well as the
ealyx. Leaves pinnatifid, with blant lobes, rough with
forked hairs.—Native of the fandy deferts of Barbary, near
Cafsa. The whole plant is rough with branched hairs.
Leaves thrce or four inches long, ree elit on the ground,
unequally, but rather regularly, pinnatifid. Stalks feveral,
afeendins, an inch or two high. Flowers yellow, an inch
broad. :

17. A. hifpanica. Spanith Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 14.
Marfch. a Bicberft. Caucaf. v. 2. 248. (Leontodon hif-
pidum ; Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 39. t. 149, excluding the fy-
nonym. )—Stems leafy, moftly fingle-flowered, hairy as well
as the calyx. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, toothed or pinna-
tifid, rough, with forked hairs. —Native of hilly fituations
in Spain, flowering the beginning of May. Frequent alfo
in Tauria. This, as Willdenow remarks, differs as much
as poflible from A. hifpida. The whole herb is even more
rough or briftly than that fpecies. Stems fix inches high,
furnifhed with lanceolate fcales, accompanied by fome ob-

obtufe, entire or toothed, /eaves, an inch or inch and Sst

long,

half long. The radical leaves are more numerous and longer,
tapering at the bafe, gradually dilated upward, bluntly
toothed, or in fome degree pinnatifid. Flowers terminal,
folitary, pale yellow, nearly an inch and half broad.
Calyx with numerous long, narrow, very hairy fcales. The
hairs of the ftem and other parts are white, fometimes
forked.

18. A. a/pera. Branching Rough Hawk-bit. “ Waldit.
et Kitaib. Hung. v. 2. 11g. t. 110.” Willd. n. 15. Aut.
n. 8. — Stem leafy, fomewhat branched, hairy. Calyx
{mooth. Leaves lanceolate, runcinate, hairy, with forked
briftles.—Native of rocky woods in Hungary, near the
baths of Hercules. Very nearly akin to the lait, but the
more branching /lem, runcinate eaves, and {mooth very clofe-
preffed feales of the calyx, fringed at the edges only, not lax
and hairy, appear fufficient, as Willdenow thinks, to dif-
tinguifh this fpecies.

19. A. frrigofa. Briftly Hawk-bit. Marfch. a Biebertt.
Caucaf. v. 2. 249. panda afperrima ; Willd. Sp.
Pl.v. 3. 1507. §S.hifpida; Forfk. Agypt.-Arab. 215. )—
“Stem leafy, hifpid, bearing one or two flowers. Calyx
hoary; the margin and keel of its feales fringed with
brifties. Leaves lanceolate, toothed, hifpid, with forked
hairs. Seeds rough.”*—Native of dry open places in Ibe-
ria, and the eaftern part of Caucafus, flowering in June.
Forfkall found it at Eftac, near Marfeilles. We have al-
ready defcribed this under the article ScORZONERA, 0. 32.
The able author of the Flora Taurico-Caucafica {fays, “ the
leaves and lems are extremely hifpid ; the caly: only hoary,
except the edges and keels of the fcales. Stems bearing
one ot two leaves, and from one to three flowers, like 4. hif-
panica. Florets pale yellow ; the outermoft purple beneath.

to R

Seeds brown, linear, tapering much at the top, as in the
Scorzonera ; they are rough with minute prominent points.
Down feathery. The habit of this plant, and its affinity to
A. hifpanica, n.17, and incana, un. 7, make it rather ar
Apargiathan a Scorzenera.”’ We have feen no fpecimen. The
regularly imbricated membranous-edged feales of the calyx
in the latter, and the naked tips of its /eed-down, are fuf-
ficient indications of that genus, and if not found in the
prefent plant. there can be’no doubt upon the fubje& ; but
of this we are left in ignorance.

20. A. variegata. Party-coloured Hawk-bit. Willd.
n. 16. (Hieracium variegatum; Lamarck Di@. v. 2.
362.)—Stem nearly leaflefs, fomewhat branched, thaggy.
Radical leaves oblong, ftrongly toothed, hairy towards the
edges. Calyx-feales fpatulate, flat ; downy at the bafe and
margin. —Gathered by Commerfon at Monte Video. The
root feems rather woody. Stems feveral, fix inches high,
each terminating in one large yellow or orange-coloured
flower, and bearing feveral linear acute fcales, with the rudi-
ments of branches ; but we find none of the pinnatifid ftem-
leaves mentioned in Lamarck. The numerous radical leaves
are two inches long, tapering at the bafe, bluntifh, with |
coarfe blunt unequal teeth, green, not hoary ; fhaggy with
fimple briftly hairs about the margin and mid-rib on both
fides. ‘The dilated, obtufe, fmooth feales of the calyx are
more regularly and copioufly imbricated than ufual in this
genus, and are prettily variegated with white marginal cot-
tony down. The /eed-down is feathery, but of the feeds or
receptacle we can fee nothing.

21. A. hieracioides. Corymbofe Hawk-bit. Willd.
n. 17.— Stem. branched at the top, hairy. Leaves ob-
long-lanceolate, hairy, toothed. Hairs forked.’’—Native
of Galatia. Willdenow, who had a dried fpecimen, de-
{cribes this plant as refembling Aieracium murorum. The
em is ereét. Leaves feffile; an inch and a half long.
Flower-flalks. {caly and hairy. Down feffile, feathery-
Receptacle naked.

THRINIUM-Gixp. See Trinium-Gild.

THRIO, Spo, m Antiquity, a feltival in honour
Apollo. .

THRIPS, in Natural Hiffory, a name ufed among the
ancients to exprefs a fort of worm hatched from the egg
of a beetle: which, while in the worm-ftate, eats its 2
into wood,’ and forms cells and cavities in it of various
fhapes, and in various dire€tions, often refembling the
figures of letters or other things. See EnxyLon.

The ancient Greeks are faid to have ufed fmall pieces of
the wood thus eroded in particular forms, as feals,
the engraving of thefe utenfils was invented ; and indeed
they muft very well have ferved this purpofe, fince it is
fcarcely poflibly to conceive how one of thefe pieces of cor-
roded wood fhould be counterfeited, or the impreffion
imitated.

Lucian mentions his marking his olives with a fignature
of one of thefe pieces of wood greatly eroded, and ufes
the word thrips, not as the name of the animal, but of
the piece of wood eroded by it. Theophraftus, Pliny,
and Ariftotle, alfo ufe the fame expreflion; and we find
that the word thrips was as frequently ufed to fignify
the pieces of wood eroded, as the animal which eroded
them.

Turips, in the Linnean Syflem of Zoology, is a genus of
the order of Hemiptera, the chara¢ters of which are, that the
roftrum is obfolete, being hidden within the mouth ; the an-
tenne filiform, and as long as the thorax ; the body flender,
and of equal thicknefs ; the abdomen reflexible, and often
bent upwards; the four wings extended, incumbent, nar-

row,

i

THEIES.

row, and croffing one another at {ome diftance from their
bafe. The thrips has fix feet, and the tarfus of each foot
has only two articulations. Gmelin enumerates the follow-
ing eleven

Species.

Parapoxa. Brown, with abbreviated wings, and antenne
pectinate, fiffile and*filiform. Found in China, but Gmelin
doubts whether it be of this genus.

Puysapus. With glaucous elytra or fhell-wings, and
black body. Found frequently on flowers in Europe.

Mixvtissima. With glaucous elytra and body, and
brown eyes. Found as the former. :

Junteerina. With fnowy elytra and brown body.
Found in the galls of the juniper.

Uimi. Black, with {nowy ciliated wings, and acumi-
nated anus. Found gregarious on the bark of the elm.

Urricm. Yellow, with whitifh elytra. Found folitary
on the leaves of the nettle, vine, and hazle.

_ Fascrara. With elytra banded with white and black,
and brown body. Found on flowers in Europe.
Fusca. Blackifh, with glaucous elytra.

Denmark : the female probably fafciated ?

‘Oxzscura. Yellowifh, with palifh elytra, and eyes and
wings of the abdomen black. Found in Denmark.

Rura. Red. Found on the {pikes of wheat ; if it be
not the larva of the minutiilima.

Variecata. Variegated. Found on flax.

The thrips is highly injurious and deitructive to many
forts of fine fruited trees, but particularly fo to thofe of
the grape or vine kind. The beft and moit effe€tual means
of preventing its mifchievous effects, in fuch cafes, is pro-
bably that of frequent good wafhing of the trees with com-
mon water, by the engine or otherwife. It has lately been
advifed that this flould be done every evening, as, when
performed in-the heat of the fun, the vines are materially
injured. Indeed all fuch trees fhould, it is fuppofed, be
well wafhed every evening, until the berries begin to colour,
whether infefted with infeGts or not, but efpecially in the
former ftate ; after which it is to be wholly difcon-
tinued.

Where there is a negle& of wafhing the trees in this or
fome other way, the thrips, for the moit part, makes its ap-
pearance. In fuch cafes, thefe infe@s may without much
difficulty be deftroyed by the fumigation of tobacco and
damp hay; the plants or trees being well wafhed after it
by pure water.

The white-bug is another. infeé&t which is often very
hurtful to peach-trees and vines in forcing-houfes; and
the caufe of which is believed to be much owing to the
trees not being daily properly wafhed in the above manner.
Each of thefe forts of trees ftand in need of particular

management in clearing them of this infect.

The brawn-bug too occafionally makes its appearance
on, and is hurtful to peach-trees in fuch fituations, efpe-
cially when they are fhaded, or approach near the: flues of
the houfes.. Proper wafhing of the trees, in thefe cafes,
with lime-watér, in the winter feafon; and fyringing them
with it as foon as the leaves have fallen off, are often very
effeGual in removing fuch infects.

The green-fly is alfo very deftruétive to peach-trees, efpe-
cially when in the forcing ftate. Thefe are the mot effec-
tually deftroyed by means of well wafhing the trees daily in
a regular manner, after the work of forcing is begun. It is
the common practice of moft gardeners to difcontinue fuch
wafhings as foon as the flowers begin to make their appear-
ance, but others haye lately continued them with fuppofed

Vou. XXXV.

Found in

advantage, and not found them to prevent the fruit from
fetting. If any flies of this fort prefent themfelves, they
may be kept under by proper watering or wafhing, as above,
and by carefully picking off the firft buds on which they
appear, which is found to prevent them from breeding,
and to render the ufe of tobacco-fmoke unneceflary. Fu-
migations of this fubftance are, however, fometimes bene-
ficial in thefe cafes in removing the vermin.

This and the d/ue-fly too are often very injurious to plum-
trees, efpecially after they have been affeted with the honey-
dew. The manner of getting rid of them in fuch cafes,
which has lately been recommended, is that of watering
the trees in a plentiful manner two or three times a week,
if the weather be dry ; and during the continuance of the
above fort of dew upon the trees, preparing the water with
a little common falt and the fluid part of a good portion
of broom that has been boiled. This mixture, it is faid,
effe€tually kills the flies, while it does no injury to the trees,
if care has been taken not to’ ufe too large a proportion of
falt.. This praGtice alfo tends to make the trees fhoot
{tronger, and to hinder fuch infeé&ts from breeding.

There is another infeét which has lately been found to
be greatly injurious to apple and other fruit trees, but
which is yet only little known to gardeners. It is the
Tortrix waberana, which may be feen well defcribed in the
fecond volume of the “ TranfaGions of the Horticultural
Society of London.’ It is there {tated to be occafionally
very hurtful to fuch trees, not only in the larva ftate, but
others ; and that its attacks are by no means confined to the
difeafed parts of fuch trees. The infeét in its perfect ftate
is a {mall moth, which is very abundant in gardens and fruit
grounds.

In what regards the means of removing and deftroying
fuch infe€&ts when their attacks become injurious, the hints
given below are thrown out. The firit and moft effential
procefs evidently is, it is thought, to cut away the edges of
the cankery parts where they are chiefly found, making
the wound fmooth, and covering it with any compofition
likely to prevent the moth from depofiting her ova or eggs
there again. One precaution is neceffary, which is to put
into boiling water, or to bury at a confiderable depth, the
cut-out pieces of decayed bark containing the larve 5
which, if left near the tree, would foon crawl from their
holes or other places, and remount it; thus defeating the
labour of the horticulturalift, who often, from negleét-
ing a flight additional trouble, lofes the benefit of more
painful exertions. Where the larve are found to have in-
finuated themfelves generally into the rough bark of old
trees, it would probably, it is thought, be advifable to
ferape off the whole of the lifelefs bark, and. fuch portions
of the alburnunt as are injured, as fuggefted by Mr. Knight
on another occafion ; a procefs which, there can be no doubt,
it is faid, would be advantageous to the tree in other re-
fpects, as pointed out by the above writer. And where
projecting faw-duft-like maffes fhew that the larva has at-
tacked even fmooth-barked trees, the infertion of a blunt
pricker into the hole would probably, in moft cafes, fuffice
to deftroy it, and do lefs injury to the tree than fuffering it
to attain its srowth. But the mode which is moft to be
recommended in this, as in the cafe of almoft all infects
hurtful to fruit or other trees, is, it is faid, to deftroy the
moths themfelves by colle&ting them from off the trees, or
other places, during the fummer months, which might be
done by children properly dire&ted and provided with fuit-
able means for the purpofe, or in other ways. The deftruc-
tion of every fernale moth, before the depolition of its
eggs, may, it is faid, be fairly calculated to prevent the

: 45 exiftence

TEER

exiftence of fome hundreds of larve; and thus, in any
garden or. fruit-ground not in the neighbourhood of others,
where the fame methods are negleéted, the whole race
might, it is fuppofed, be extirpated in a few years.

THRISSA, in Ichthyology, the name given by the
Greeks and by the modern Latin writers to the fifh which
we call the fhad, or the mother of the herrings.

THRIVING, in Neat Cattle, a term made ufe of by
graziers and other ftock-farmers to fignify the property
they have of doing well on the food they confume, or of
fattening kindly, in contradiftinétion to that of a ftunted
unthrifty growth, or bad fort of feeding. It is moftly
known by the hides or coats of the beafts having a mel-
lownefs-of feel in handling them, with a finenefs and fleek-
nefs in their appearance. This depends, in a very great
degree, upon the pile and growth of the coats, for the
fhorter and fleeker they are, the more thriving the beafts ;
as, on the contrary, in proportion to length and hardnefs,
is the unthriftinefs of the ftock.

A coarfe, rough, thick hide is an indication too of hard-
nefs of fleth in beafts; while, on the contrary, finenefs and
clofenefs of grain in it, give the feel of fine texture in the
hide.

Thefe circumftances demand great attention in choofing
neat cattle for all purpofes.

Turivine Drinks, fuch drinks as are prepared and given
to neat cattle, or other beafts, when in a low unthrifty ftate.
They are moftly compofed of the powders of different
forts of aromatic feeds, fuch as thofe of anifeeds, carraway
feeds, and grains of paradife, in the proportion of about
two ounces of each: which are mixed well together and
put into a quart of warm ale, in which they are given to
the beafts; or of {weet fennel feeds and cummin feeds,
each two ounces, long pepper, ginger, turmeric, and ele-
campane, each one ounce, mixed together, to be given in
the fame way as above, to which fometimes a little freth
butter and treacle or coarfe fugar are added. Snake-root
and gentian root, in powder, too, are fometimes employed
in fuch drinks.

As the principal effe& of fuch drinks, for the moft part,
depends upon the effential oil the fubftances may contain,
they will be fomewhat preferved and increafed by. giving
them in the above manner.

The moft proper management for the beafts in thefe cafes,
is to change their food as much as poflible for the better,
letting them have occafional good mafhes of fcalded bran,
ground malt, or other fuch fubftances, with a {mall propor-
tion of ground oats or barley meal put into them: warm
water may alfo fometimes be neceflary.

By the ufe of drinks of this fort, very reduced cows and
other neat cattle may often be readily reftored and brought
into a thriving condition.

THRIXSPERMUM, in Botany, fo called by Lou-
reiro, from $2, @ hair, and orepux, feed. We cannot fay
much for the conftruétion of this word, which fhould have
been Tricho/permum, provided there be no dormant claim to
that name ; but it is not worth changing, till we are better
affured of the genus. —Loureir. Cochinch. 519.—Clafs and
order, Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Orchideae ?

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx catkin-like, linear, compreffed,
flefhy, with alternate, acute, fingle-flowered fcales. Pe-
rianth none. Cor. Petals five, linear-awlfhaped, long, ereét,
nearly equal. Neétary attached to the receptacle, between
the two lowermolt petals, deeply divided into two lips; the
inner one three-cleft, embraced by the petals, its lateral
feements fhort and blunt, the middle fegment longelt, co-
nical, afcending ; outer one ovate, undivided, prominent

5

EER

beyond the petals. Stam. Filament folitary, thread-fhaped,
fhort, attached to the piftil; anther ovate, of two cells,
with a lid. Pi? Germen thread-fhaped, ftraight, bearing
the flower; ftyle thick, unequal, ftanding on the bafe of
the ne&ary; fligma fimple. Peric. Capfule oblong, tri-
angular, the angles acutely emarginate, of three valves and
one cell. Seeds numerous; Jong, very flender, like hairs.

Eff. Ch. Petals five, linear, erect. Outer lip of the
nectary ovate, prominent.

1. Th. centipeda. Nhanh goi rit of the Cochinchinefe.
Found in Cochinchina, creeping upon the native trees.
The /lem is parafitical, long, compreffed, perennial, creep-
ing by means of fimple, very fhort, lateral roots. Leaves
linear-lanceolate, entire, {mall, fheathing, reflexed. Flowers
pale yellow, with a reddifh ne@ary, in ftraight, lateral,
catkin-like, two-ranked /pikes.

We guefs this to be allied to fome-of thofe parafitical
Orchidee, formerly referred to Epidendrum by Linnzus ;
and by Swartz chiefly to Cymbidium. The ftruéture of
the whole tribe is fo obfcure, that Loureiro may very well
be excufed if we cannot entirely unravel his defcription.

THROANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
the other fide of the Ganges, which Ptolemy afligns to the
people called Lefti, or pirates.—Alfo, a town of Serica,
near the mountains in the vicinity of Afmirea. Ptolemy.

THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, bere
head and the fhoulders, in which is the gullet..

Phyficians include, under the word throat, all that hollow,
or cavity, which may be feen when the mouth is wide open.

It is fometimes alfo called ifhmus, becaufe it is narrow,
and bears fome refemblance to what is called by geogra-
phers i/thmus.

Turoat, Sore, in Medicine. See Quinzy.

Turoat, Wounds of, in Surgery. See Wouyps.

Turoat, in Architecture, Fortification, kc. See GORGE
and Guta.

Turoat, in Ship-Building, the infide of knee-timber at
the middle or turn of the arms. Alfo, the middle part of
the floor-timbers ; the inner part of the arms of an anchor,
where they join the fhank ; and the inner ends of booms and
gaffs, where they traverfe round the matt.

The throat is oppofed to peek, which implies the outer
extremity of the faid gaff, or that part which extends the
fail behind. Hence the ropes employed to hoift up and
lower a gaff, being applied to thofe parts of it, are called
the throat and peek haliards. Falconer.

Turoatr-Wort, in Botany, the name of a perennial weed
common in pafture grounds.. The ftalk is cornered and
undivided. The flowers grow in bunches at the top of the
ftalk. They are ere€t, of a beautiful purple colour, and
divided in the middle into five acute fegments. It is a very
pernicious weed when fuffered to get a-head in fuch lands,
and not capable of being deftroyed without confiderable
difficulty and trouble. See TracHELIUM.

This plant yields, when wounded, a milky juice in great
plenty, and this, if received into a fhell or other {mall veflel,
curdles immediately, and the whey runs from the thick
part : this whey is of a brown colour, whereas that of the
wild lettuce is of a fine purple, and dries into a cake that
may be crumbled into a purple powder. The juice of the
throat-wort {mells four, and its curdled part, being dried,
burns like refin at the flame of a candle. Phil. Tranf.
N° 224.

THROATING, in Agriculture, the a& of mowing
beans again{t their bending, which is never done but in a
thin crop. But in fuch it is often neceffary, in order to
cut them with the moft perfeGtion and advantage. dant

ou

Alen: See Ue

———

~~

HR

fhould never be allowed to become too ripe wnen intended
to be cut in this manner. The term is alfo occafionally
applied to fome other purpofes in hufbandry.

THROGGY, in Geography, a river of Monmouthfhire,
which runs into the Severn, 4 miles S.W. of Chepitow.

THROMBUS, from S:ou6o;, coagulated blood, a clot of
blood. The term has alfo been applied to a tumour, formed
of a colleétion of extravafated blood under the integuments
after bleeding. When fuch an extravafation, though: of
fome extent, is not confiderable, it is ufually called an
ecchymofis ; which fee.

A thrombus fometimes depends on the furgeon having
totally divided the vein; but much more frequently on his not
having made the opening in the veffel properly corre{pond to
that in the fkin. The patient’s altering the pofture of his
arm, while the blood is flowing into the bafin, will often caufe
an interruption to the efcape of the fluid from the external
orifice of the pun€ture ; and, confequently, it infinuates itfelf
into the cellular fubftance in the vicinity of the opening in
the vein. In proportion as the blood iflues from the veffel,
it becomes effufed between the fkin and fafcia in the inter-
itices of the cellular fubftance, and this, with more or lefs
rapidity, and in a greater or lefler quantity, according as
the edges of the {kin impede more or lefs the outward
efcape of the fluid. Sometimes, alfo, a thrombus forms
- after venefeétion, when the ufual dreflings, comprefs, and
bandage, have been put over the pyn€ture, and the patient
imprudently makes ufe of the arm on which the operation
has been done. This is more particularly liable to happen
when avery large opening has been made in the vein.

The accident is not attended with any danger when the
extravalation is inconfiderable ; for, in this circumftance,
the tumour generally admits of being eafily refolved by
applying te it linen dipped in any difcutient lotion. If the
{welling fhould be more extenfive, applying to it a comprefs
wet with a folution of common fea-falt, is deemed a very
efficacious plan of promoting the abforption of the extra-
vafated blood. Brandy, and@ a folution of the muriate of
ammonia in vinegar, are likewife eligible applications.

It fometimes happens, that a thrombus induces inflam-
mation and fuppuration of the edges of the punGture. The
treatment is now like that of any little abfcefs : a common
linfeed poultice may be applied, and any confiderable accu-
mulation of matter fhould be prevented, by making an
opening with a lancet in proper time. As foon as the
inflammatory fymptoms have ceafed, difcutients ees be
ceforted to again, for the purpofe of difperfing the remain-
ing clots of blood and furrounding induration. Cooper’s
Di&. of Prattical Surgery.

THRONE, 3eovoc, a royal feat, or chair of ftate, en-
riched with ornaments of architeGture and fculpture, made
of fome precious matter, raifed one or more fteps, and co-
vered with a kind of canopy.

Such are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings,
and other fovereigns.

THRONI, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifle of
Cyprus, upon the fouthern coaft, S.W. of Leucolla, and at
fome diftance N.W. of the promontory of Pedalium. Near
this town was a promontory of the fame name, according
to Ptolemy.

THRONION, or Turontum, a town fa to the
Locrians, fituated, according to Strabo, 20 ftadia from the
fea. :
THRONIUM, a town of the Abantide, which was a
diftri& of Thefprotia, in Epirus, towards the Ceraunian
mountains. On the return from the war of Troy, when
the fhips of the Greeks were difperfed, the Locrians of

LEE

Thromum, and the Abantes of Euboea, were driven with
eight veflels towards the Ceraunian mountains. They efta-
blifhed themfelves-in this place, and built a town, which
they called Thronium, and they gave the country the name
of the Abantide. They were afterwards expelled by the
Apolloniates.

THROO, or Turoveu, in Agriculture, a term fignify-
ing a breadth, flip, or width of corn, which a fet of reapers,
&c. drive before them at once, whether it confift of one or
more lands or ridges. The mode of reaping by means of
throos is very common in fome of the northern counties of
the kingdom, and fuppofed by fome to greatly expedite
the work.

THROPPLE, among country people, denotes the
wind-pipe of a horfe.

THROSTLE, or Song-Thrufh, Mavis, or Turdus muficus
of Linneus, in Ornithology, is called by authors the urdus
vifcivorus minor, to diftinguifh it from the larger fpecies,
called in Enghth the miffel-bird, and -ufually known
among us by the fimple name of ¢hru/h. It is called vifc-
vorus by authors, from its refemblance in colour to the
other vi/civorus, not from its feeding on the mifletoe-berries,
as that does.

It refembles the miffel-thrufh in colour, except that the
inner coyerts of the wings are yellow.

It feeds on worms, {nails, and fmall infe€&ts, and remains
with us the whole year. It builds with mofs and ftubble,
and lines the neft tvith mud. On this it lays five or fix
eggs, which are of a blueifh-green, variegated with a few
black fpots. It fits on hedges and bufhes, and fings very
agreeably. h

The throftle is the fineft of our finging-birds, not only
for the fweetnefs and variety of its notes, but for the long
continuance of its harmony ; as it obliges us with its fong
for nearly three parts of the year. See Turpus.

THROSTLING, a difeafe of black cattle, proceeding
from humours gathering under their throats; by which
means their throats are fo dangeroufly fwelled, that they will
be choaked, unlefs feafonably relieved by bleeding. -

THROUGH-Srong, in Rural Economy, a term which
fignifies a long {tone which paffes the whole breadth of the
wall in making fences of that kind, and which binds them
together in a more perfeét manner than would otherwife
have been the cafe. It is always of great importance to
have plenty of throughs in fences of this nature, from
almoit the bottom part to near the top.

THROW, the provincial name of a turner’s lathe.
There is a great variety of thefe forts of tools in wfe for
different purpofes. See Larue.

Turow the Glove. See GLove.

THROWED Sirk. See Sirk.

THROWSTER, one who prepares raw filk for the.
weaver, by cleanfing and twifting it. See Mriuine and
SILK.

THRUM, in Gardening, among the cultivators of fine
flowers, is a term applied to the thread-like internal bufhy
parts of them, and which, in fome forts of good flowers,
fuch, for inftance, as the auricula and other fimilar kinds,
fhould be of a bright colour, and the chives, or thready
briftles, of which it is compofed, clear and fhining with
fpangles, fomewhat like gold-duft; and they fhould alfo
be diitiné from each other, leaning inwardly towards the
pipe; as when they appear clotted together,.or look bat-
tered or mis-fhapen, the beauty of the flowers to which they
belong is much impaired ; which is not unfrequently occa-
fioned by the wild and other bees, which, when in fearch
of honey or food, are apt to greatly hurt fuch parts of fine

4E2 flowers.

THR

flowers. The bees, in fuch cafes, fhould be carefully taken
by proper means, and be prevented as much as poffible from
colle&ting their food from fuch fine kinds of flowers, —

Turum-Cap Ifland, in Geography, a low woody ifland,
of a circular form, and not much more than a mile in com-
pafs, in the South Pacific ocean, covered with verdure of
many hues, but without inhabitants, difcovered and fo
called by Cook in April 1769. S. lat. 18°35’. W. long.
139° 48'.

TurumM-Wort, in Agriculture, a troublefome weed in
fome lands of the rather moift down kind, which is of the
perennial fort.

THRUMMING, in Rigging, denotes interplacing fhort
pieces of thrums, or rope-yarn, in a regular manner into
matting, through intervals made by a fid, or large needle.

THRUSH, an affection of the inflammatory and fup-
purating kind in the feet of the horfe, and fome other
animals. In the horfe it is an inflammation taking place in
that part of the foot termed the fenfible frog, which is
moftly occafioned from want of due cleanlinefs in it, efpe-
cially in thofe of the team or working fort, from the heels
being in a contracted ftate, or from fhoeing upen erroneous
and bad principles, but moft commonly from the laft of
thefe caufes. See SHorinc.

The difeafe may be known to be prefent in this, as well
as in other animals, by a tendernefs and uneafy feel being
fhewn on prefling the se or affeGted part, and its
being accompanied with a di ae of matter of the puru-
lent kind, as well as by other fimilar appearances.

The means of removing the complaint in the horfe, when
inflammation is chiefly prefent, confift firft in taking away
the fhoe, and lowering the heels, in fuch a manner as that
the frog or difeafed part may come in contaét with the
ground or floor: after which the animal may be fuffered
to ftand fome days without fhoes, the part being well
wathed two or three times a day with a common ftable
brufh, and a folution of foft foap in rain-water, an appli-
cation compofed of white vitriol, Armenian bole, and alum,
in fine powder, of each half an ounce, mixed up with com-
mon tar, in a fufficient proportion to make a fort of ointment,
being then had recourfe to as a dreffing. This may be
ufed fpread upon lint, being applied between the cleft of
the frog, or affected part, and renewed as often as there may
be a neceflity.

It is likewile advifed by fome, that all the difeafed parts,
in fuch cafes, fhould be carefully removed by means of a
drawing-knife, and that 1f the animal be not allowed to have
reft, a bar-fhoe muft be had recourfe to, until the difeafe
becomes quite removed. It is thought, too, that three or
four pints of blood may often be taken away with advan-
tage in cafes where there is much inflammation, and mafhes
with nitre be given in the evenings. Much benefit alfo
may fometimes be found from the ufe of diuretic balls, and
from the foot affefted being fomented with warm water, in
which a handful of common falt has been diffolved, jutt
before the application of the above dreffing. Great utility
is occafionally derived, too, from the infertion of a feton
or rowel in the cheft, or other proper part, and letting it
continue fome time. See Suor.

In cafes where the complaint proceeds chiefly from con-
tracted heels, fome fuppofe the only certain and effeétual
mode of removing the affection is, perhaps, that of the ufe
of the artificial, or patent frog, not long ago invented by
Mr. Coleman, who has beftowed much attention on the
feet of animals, efpecially of the horfe. See Fro.

In other animals, where the hoofs, claws, or other parts
of the feet are affected with inflammation, and collections

5 a

f HOR

or difcharges of matter, in fome meafure of the thruth kind,
or having fome refemblance to it, the beft means of relief
are probably thofe of firft trying the effects of difcutient
faturnine applications, and if thefe do not fucceed, to have
recourfe to warm emollient fomentations or poultices, then
cutting or paring the parts down fo as to lay them well
open, and let out any thing they may contain, dreffing the
openings with mild efcharotics, as there may be occafion.
In this way, very troublefome affections of this fort may
often be f{peedily removed.

Turusu, in Medicine. See APHTH® and INFANT.

Turusu, in Ornithology, is the turdus vifcivorus of Lin-
nus, and the largeft of the genus. See Turpus and Mis-
6EL- Bird.

Turusn, Wind. See Rep-Wing.

THRUSHEL, in Geography, a river of England, in
the county of Devon, which runs into the Tamer, oppofite
to Launcetton.

THRUSK. See Turrsx.

THRUST, in Fencing, is an a€tion of which there are
three kinds. To thruff in carte, is to throw your hand as far
as poflible on the infide, with the point oh your {word to-

~ wards your adverfary’s breaft : to thruff feconde, is to have

your arm in a perfect oppofition to your adverfary’s, hold-
ing your head infide : to thru/} tierce, differs from carte only
by the pofition of the hand, which muft be reverfed.

THRUSTING, or Hand-preffing, in Dairying, is a
term applied to the practice of {queezing and forcing the
liquid parts contained in the curd out of it by the hand, or
other fuch means, after it has been properly reduced, and
placed by a cloth in an upheaped or conical manner in the
vat or hoop.

Turustine-Screw, in Rural Economy, a contrivance of
the large {crew kind, calculated for affording due pref-
fure in the making of cheefe with facilty and con-
venience. Thefe fcrews are perfeétly fimple, and capable
of being made either of wood or iron; but the latter mate-
rial is probably by much the beft. They may be wrought
in feveral different ways, but it is commonly done by means
of a fort of lever applied in fome manner or other, not un-
frequently through a hole for the purpofe in the head of
the large fcrew. In fome diftri€s they have them fixed up
to the under-fides of the floors above the eee and
the power of them fo managed as to be regulated at plea-
fure. By means of thefe thrufting-ferews, it is evident that
the preflure can be gradually increafed, as there may be
occafion, from the firft application to the concluding hard
or heavy preffure in finifhing the work. This command of
power is, of courfe, a circumftance of great utility and
advantage in fuch bufinefs,

THRUSTINGS, aterm applied in cheefe-making, in
fome diftri€s, to the white whey, or that which is the lait
prefled or forced out’ of the curd by the hand and other |
means, after it has been put into the cheefe vat. In fome
inftances in the procefs and praétice of making butter of
the whey kind, thefe thruftings are fet by in earthen pans
for the purpofe, in order to acidulate, or carve, as it is
called in fome places, either by means of the warmth of the
feafon, or of a room, for being churned, in the fame way
as in the common manner practifed, in many places, for
making butter from-milk. See Wuey.

Thefe thruftings, probably, form and conftitute the beft
butter of the whey fort, though it is made from that fluid
managed in other ways, as feen under the head juft referred
to above.

THRYALLIS, in Botany, an ancient Greek name for
fomething of the Mullein kind, whofe woolly leaves feryed

to

THU

to make wicks for lamps. It is not eafy to conceive how
Linnzus came to apply this name here, nor can we trace
out any thing to account for his having done fo. We moft
readily agree with De Theis, that the fhrub about to be
defcribed has nothing in common with Verba/cum but its
yellow flowers. (See Diofcorides, book 4. chap. 104.)—
Lian. Gen. 213. Schreb. 289. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 570.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4.. Juff. 251.—Clafs and order,
Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn, Acera,
Juff. Ee
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, in five deep, lanceolate,
erect, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, roundifh,
{preading. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, longer than
the calyx ; anthers roundifh. Pi? Germen Shen ityle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; itigma fimple.
Peric. Capfule with three fides, and three angles, obtufe,
feparable into three parts; its cells buriting at the external
angle. Sveds folitary, very {mooth, obovate ; obtufe at the
bafe, with an incurved point.

1. Th. brafilienfs. Brafilian Thryallis. Linn. Sp. PI.
554. Willd. n.1. (Fruticefcens herba; Marcgr. Braf. 79.
f. 3. )—Native of Brafil. A little /4rub, with round, jointed,
reddifh branches. Leaves on reddifh footitalks, oppofite,
ovate, entire, about an inch long ; pale green above ; whitith
beneath, with a flender mid-rib. Stipulas briftle-thaped.
Clufizrs terminal, folitary, from fix or feven inches to a foot
jong, with very flender partial /fa/és, longer than the flowers,
and yery fhort fetaceous braécas. Flowers {mall, elegant,
yellow, bordered with red, with which colour alfo their
yellow flamens are fpeckled. Fruit three-lobed. Neither
the plant nor its flower has any remarkable odour.—Lin-
nzus appears to have examined a dry f{pecimen of this plant,
but it is wanting in his herbarium, as well as in every other
that we have feen. His idea of its natural order is furely
lefs correct than Juffieu’s. Specimens without fruit are
not unlikely to have been overlooked for fome nondefcript
Bannifteria or Malpighia.

THRYANDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

THRYOCEPHALUM, in Botany, a genus of Forfter’s,
named from 9vo», a fart of rufb, and x:¢arn, a head, becaule
of the habit of the plant, and its little round head of flowers.
This genus is the fame as Kyiiincia. (See that article.)
‘The only f{pecies mentioned by Forfter, is there confidered
by usas K. monocephala. Vahl, in his Exum. Plant. v.2. 381,
refers it to K. triceps, probably becaufe he faw a fpecimen with
a compound head. This yery circumiftance ftrengthens his
own fufpicion, that thefe two fuppofed f{pecies of Kyllingia
are not, in reality, diftin@. Our fpecimen from Fortter
himfelf has a very flight indication of a {mall lateral head,
by the fide of the principal one, nor can it be otherwife
diftinguifhed from K. monocephala. In the ftruéture or
appearance of any other part, we cannot difcern the leait
difference between monocephala and triceps, in feparating
which we confided more in thofe who have originally de-
feribed thefe plants, than it feems they deferved.

THRYOESSA, or Turyon, in Ancient Geography,
called from the time of Strabo Epitalium, fituated on the
left banks of the Alpheus, E. of Olympia.

.THUAREA, in Botany, bears that name in honour of
M. Aubert du Petit Thuars, a French botanift of the pre-
fent day, who is cited for the genus itfelf in Perf. Syn. v. 1.
110.—Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 197.—Clafs and order,
Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Eff. Ch. Calyx-glumes of one valve, two-flowered, {piked,
unilateral, on a dilated common ftalk ; the lowermoit ones

only partly perfec ; the reit male only ; the inner floret of

rH Uv

the lowermoft giume male, its outer valve refembling the
calyx. Nectary of two feales at the bafe of the germen.
Stigmas feathery. Seed wrapped in the corolla, and en-
folded in the hardened, clofed, involute ftalk.

The /fems are creeping, very long, with ere&, fhort, un-
divided, leafy branches. Spike folitary, terminal, fhort, for
a long time half enclofed in a leaf-like fheath. The common
alk is thick and coriaceous, not membranous, as M. du Pe-
tit Thuars terms it, he having, as Mr. Brown fuppofes,
confounded that part with the fheath. FVowers feffile, in a
fimple row, one or two of the loweft only being perfect, the
remaining four, five, or fix, in the contracted portion of the
{pike, males.

Mr. Brown obferves, that this genus of graffes is not
very diftantly related to Panicum (fee that article) ; efpe-
cially to P. dimidiatum, Retz. Obf. fafc. 6. 23 3, but in
Thuarea, the calyx-glumes are, with re{pe& to the /falk, in-
verted, and want an outer value. In itru@ture this genus
agrees, in many particulars, with SprnirEx, (fee that arti-
cle,) in which the fexes are indeed more feparated, and
therefore a requifite abundance of males is provided. The
figure and economy of the common-ftalk, or rachis, too is
different ; though that part is permanent in both genera,
and affifts in both, though not in the fame manner, to dif-
perfe the feeds.

The only {pecies of which we can give an account are
the three following, though Mr. Brown mentions alfo a
T. farmentofa.

T. latifolia. Br. n. 1.— Perfect flowers two. Stems
downy. Leaves lanceolate, filky on both fides.’’—Ga-
thered by fir Jofeph Banks, in the tropical part of New
Holland.

T. media. Br. n. 2.—“ Perfect flowers folitary.- Leaves
linear-lanceolate ; their under fide fmooth, as well as the
ftem.’?—Found by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New
Holland.

T.. involuta. (Ifchemum involutum; Forft. Prodr. 73.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 741.) — Perfe& flowers folitary.
Leaves lanceolate, nearly {mooth on both fides.—Gathered
by Forfter in the Society Ifles, and fome other places within
the tropics. The fpecimen given by him to the younger
Linnzus is marked Taheité. The ere jlems, or branches,
are but two or three inches high, fimple, ftriated, {mooth,
each bearing at the bottom one lanceolate, acute, ftriated
leaf, about its own length ; fheathing at the bafe ; becoming
involute in drying. Sometimes there is another /eaf, about
half as long, with a fheath almoft an inch in length, near
the middle of the branch. Spike {carcely an inch long, ter-
minal, of about four flowers, {pringing laterally from the
hollow of a concave pointed leaf, rather fhorter than the
reft. Calyx ribbed. Corolla fmooth. Feathery /figmas
very con{picuous in the lowermoft flower.

THUBUNA, Tusnag, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Mauritaria Sitifenfis, according to Ptolemy ; fituated in the
mountains, between two rivers, S.W. of Igilgili.

THUBURSICA, a town of Africa, in New Numidia.
Prol.

THUBUTIS, a town of Africa Propria, near Bullaria.
Ptol.

THUCCA, or Tueca, Dugga, a town of the interior
of Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy ; fituated at the extremity
of a {mall chain of hills about two miles S. of Tiburficum-
bure. On this {cite were found many maufoleums, and the
portico of a temple ornamented with beautiful columns,
Here was alfo an aqueduét.

THUCYDIDES, in Biography, a celebrated Greek
hiftorian, was born in the 77th Olympiad, about 470 ie

€

THD

The name of his father was Olorus, or Orolus, that of a
Thracian prince, indicating aconneétion with Thrace, in which
he feems to have pofleffed gold-mines, and to have had influence
over its chiefs. He belonged to one of the principal families at
Athens, and was related to that of Miltiades. His education
was that which diftinguifhed Athenians of rank : Antiphon
being his preceptor in rhetoric, and Anaxagorasin philofophy.
When he heard Herodotus recite his hiftory at the Olympic
feftival, he is faid to have fhed tears ; and Herodotus obferving
it, congratulated Olorus on his fon’s difpofition. At the com-
mencement of the Peloponnefian war he was at Athens, and
fhared in the calamity of peftilence that then occurred ; and
in the eighth year of that war he had a command in Thrace,
‘and was oppofed to the Spartan eee Brafidas, who fur-
prifed the town of Amphipolis, for the lofs of which Thu-
cydides was punifhed by banifhment, though it does not ap-
pear that he could have prevented it. During the twenty
years of his exile, he devoted himfelf to literary refearches
and obfervations through different parts of Greece, and thus
colleéted materials for the hiftory which he was projecting.
He refided for a confiderable time in Thrace, but the place

and time of his death are not afcertained. Dodwell conjec-:

tures that he paffed his 80th year, and diedin Thrace. His
hiftory comprehends the tranfaétions of the firft twenty years
of the Peloponnefian war, difpofed in eight books; more
limited in its compafs than that of Herodotus, but not
mercly rivalling but furpaffing it in hiftorical merit, more
efpecially if we admit what a modern writer fays of it,
“ that the firft page of Thucydides is the commencement of
real hiftory.”” The diftinguifhing charaéteriftics of this
hiftorian are diligence of relceec and the feleétion of the
beft authorities, and perfect impartiality. To thefe quali-
ties we may add fagacity in inveftigating caufes and effects,
and a philofophical {pirit in forming a ee judg-
ment of human affairs. His narration is occafionally very
interefting, and indicates the writer of genius. His ftyle,
which has undergone much criticifm, is of that kind which
the ancients termed the auftere, aiming at force and brevity
rather than harmony, elegance, or perfpicuity. Its con-
cifenefs and frequent tranfpofitions render it frequently ob-
f{cure, nor is this defe€t compenfated by its energy and
elevation. The moft valued editions of this work are
Hudfon’s, Oxon. 1696 ; Wafle and Ducker’s, Amit. fol.
1731; and the Leipfic, 2 vols. 4to. 1790-—1804. Voll.
Hitt. Grec. Gen. Biog.
THUDACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Cefariana, near Tingis. Ptol.
THUELATH, a maritime town of Africa, on the coait
of Libya, between Autolate and Thagana. ~ Ptol.
THUEYE, in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardeche ; 18 miles W. of Privas.
THUJA, in Botany, Qvicv, Gui, or bux of the Greeks,
the name of a tree, whofe very durable wood ferved, accord-
ing to Theophraftus, tomake images. Its root in particular,
being curioufly twifted or veined, was ufed for the mott
valuable ornamental works. ‘This plant was probably the
Juniperus Oxycedrus, very common throughout Greece and
the Archipelago, of which Mr. Hawkins is of opinion that
the moft ancient ftatues were made. It is the Small Cedar,
x3eos jusxen of Diofcorides, and ftill univerfally bears the name
of »deos in modern Greek. Our prefent genus of Thuja has
nothing in common with this claffical plant, except being an
aromatic evergreen tree, of the fame natural order, with a very
durable wood ; but it is not a native of Greece or the Le-
vant.—Linn. Gen. 500. Schreb. 651. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 4. 508. Mart. Mill. Diét.v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.
321. Purhh 646. Jafl. 413. Tourn. t. 358. Lamarck

fav

Illuftr. t. 787. Gertn. t. g1.—Clafs and order, Monoecia
Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Conifere, Linn. Jul.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Catkin ovate, compofed of a com-
mon ftalk, on which the flowers ftand oppofite, in three rows,
each flower having for its bafe a nearly ovate, concave, ob-
tufe fcale. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments in each flower four,
but fearcely vifible ; anthers as many, attached to the bafe
of the fcale above mentioned. :

Female on the fame plant, Ca/. Catkin nearly ovate, with
oppofite flowers, and confifting of two-flowered, ovate, con-
vex fcales, converging longitudinally. Cor. none. Pip.
Germen minute ; ftyle awl-fhaped; ftigma fimple. Peric,
Cone ovate-oblong, obtufe, burfting lengthwife, into oblong
imbricated, nearly equal, obtufe, externally convex feales,
Seeds folitary, oblong, each furrounded by a longitudinal
membranous emarginate wing.

Eff. Ch. Male, Catkin with imbricated feales. Corolla
none. Anthers four.

Female, Catkin becoming an imbricated cone, with two-
flowered feales. Corolla none. Seed furrounded by 2
vertical membranous wing.

Obf. Linnzus indicates the clofe relationfhip of this genus
to Cupreffus. They are neverthelefs diftinguifhed by the
peltate fcales of the cone in the latter, and its angular, obtufe,
{carcely winged, feeds, or nuts.

1. Th. occidentalis. American Arbor-vite. Linn. Sp.
Pl..zq21.t) Willd.n. 1..) Ait. nea.) Purfh ns ree Mi
chaux Arb. For. v. 3. 29. t. 3? (Arbor vite; Cluf.
Hift. v. 1. 36. Ger. Em. 1369.)—Young branches two-
edged. Leaves imbricated in four rows, comprefied, ovate,
fomewhat rhomboid, dotted. Inner fcales of the cone
abrupt, tumid under the point.—Native of North America,
from Canada to the mountains of Virginia and Carolina,
blofloming in May. It is rather fearce in the fouthern
{tates, and only found on the fteep banks of mountain tor-
rents. The branches are extremely tough. Pur/b. This
tree was introduced into our gardens in Gerarde’s time, or

before, and is much efteemed for ornament and fhelter in |

fhrubberies, or for platted and clipped hedges in nurfery-
gardens, in which lat {tate it is really very beautiful. By a
itrange miftake of Linnzus, this fpecies is handed down as
a native of Siberia ; becaufe Gmelin, F/. Sib. v. 1. 182, men-
tions a Thuja, to which he mifapplies the fynonyms of the
prefent, but which by his own account is different ; for he
{ays it is ‘¢ paler than the garden kind, and f{maller in all its
parts.”? It was brought him by a travelling furgeon, from
rocks near Pekin in China, and could be no other than the
Th. orientalis, hereafter defcribed. Th. occidentalis is a per-
feétly evergreen tree, of humble growth, much branched,
very different from moft others in the compreffed vertical
afpe& of its younger fhoots, and their clofely imbricated
leaves, which are fmall, obtufe with a point, fmooth ; thofe
of two oppofite rows compreffed and keeled ; the interme-
diate ones flat, with a glandular point, or cell of refin, at the
back. The flowers appear in May, and are fmall, folitary,
terminal ; the males yellowifh, and moft abundant. Cones
ripened the following year, drooping, each the fize of a
filberd-kernel, confifting of about half a dozen lax, fmooth,
coriaceous fcales. The {mell of the bruifed plant is fome-
thing like Savine, aromatic, but not agreeable. The wood
is not hard, but tough and extremely durable, on which laft
account it is much efteemed in America for making pales
and fences.

2. Th. orientalis. Chinefe Arbor-vite. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1422. Willd. n.2. Ait. n.2. Gertn. f.1. Schku
Handb. v. 3. 285. t. 309. (Thuya; Gmel. Sib. v. 1. 182,
Th. n. 33; Duhamel Arb. v. 2. 320. t. go, the two lower

figures.

ae tas, Ee ee

THUJA.

figures. Very bad. )—Young branches two-edged. Leaves
imbricated in four rows, compreiled, ovate, fomewhat rhom-
Boid, with a central furrow. Inner feales of the cone ob-
. tufe, with a recurved dorfal point.—Native of rocky fitua-
tions in China. Gmelin. On mountains m Japan. Thunb.
Jap. 266. A hardy tree in our gardens, which appears to
_ have been cultivated by Miller in 1752. It flowers at the
fame time as the former, but though a much more handfome
tree, is lels common. The very copious and crowded young
branches are more ere&t, more flender, and rather lefs com-
preffed than the former, and the /eaves are furrowed, with-
out any refinous dot. The differences between thefe two
fpecies are accurately marked in our fpecific characters,
adopted from Linneus and Willdenow. The inner feales
of the cone.in that before us are remarkably hooked. Gert-
_ner obferves that the wing of its feed is hardly difcernible.

3. Th. articulata. Jointed Arbor-vite. Wahl. Symb.
v. 2.96. t. 48. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 353. t.252. Willd.
n.3- (Th. aphylla; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1422, as to the fynonym
of Shaw, and part of the charater taken from thence, but
not of Am. Acad. v. 4. 295; fee Tamarix. Cypreflus
fru€&tu quadrivalvi, foliis equifeti inftar articulatis; Shaw
Afric. n. 188. £. 188.)—Young branches jointed, rather
compreffed, with four furrows. Leaves minute, concave,
pointed, four at the top of each joint ; glandular at the back.
Cones quadrangular, of four hooked {cales.—Native of the
mountains of Barbary, where it is not uncommon. A free
from fifteen to thirty feet high, with round dranches, the
younger ones repeatedly fubdivided, in a partly oppofite,
partly alternate manner, moderately comprefled, compofed
of a feries of linear, {mooth, brittle joints, from a quarter to
half an inch long, and marked with four longitudinal fur-
rows, which are continued to the interftices of the four mi-
nute feale-like eaves crowning each of thefe joints. Willde-
now, mifled by the analogy of other fpecies, and the figures
of authors, fuppofes each joint to be an aflemblage of /eaves,
from which error the faithful defcriptions of Vahl and Des-
fontaines might have guarded him. Catkins terminal, foli-
tary; the males ovate-oblong, of many feales; females
roundifh, of much fewer. Fruit fomewhat deprefled, about
the fize of a black currant, with four protuberant angles,
and crowned with as many intermediate reflexed points.
The /eales feparate at the angles, but are firmly united at
their bafe. Seeds {mall, with a broad kidney-fhaped wing.
The late celebrated Brouffonet obferved the refin called Gum
Sandarache'to be precured from thi§ tree. Dale attributes
it to the Common Juniper. Such being the hiftory of the
{pecies before us, the Th. aphylla of Linnzus becomes a non-
entity.

4. Th. dolabrata. Sculptured Arbor-vite. Linn.
Suppl. 420. Willd. n. 4. Thunb. Jap. 266. (Quai,
vulgo Fino kiet Ibuki; Kempf. Am. 884.) — Young
branches two-edged, jointed ; convex on one fide ; concave
and white on the other; joints obovate. Leaves lateral,
oppofite, keeled, compreffed.—Native of Japan. Thunberg
obferved it in the countries of Oygawa and Fakonia, between

Miaco and Jedo ; and it was planted along the high road on |

the hill of Fakonia. He fpeaks of it as a tree of vait height
and dimenfions, the moft beautiful of all the evergreen tribe.
The branches are alternate, repeatedly fubdivided, comprefled
and clothed with imbricated /eaves. At firit fight the young
Sranches appear covered with four. rows of /eaves, but the
analogy of the foregoing fpecies, even of the firlt of all, leads
us to believe the intermediate row, on each fide, is an obovate
furrowed joint, infenfibly terminating in a fhort broad af,
while the more obvious /eaves are oppofite, laterally inferted
to the bafe of the joint at each fide, and about the fame

length ; each of them ftrongly compreffed, with a thick keel,
and incurved point. Their great peculiarity confifts in being
all convex and green on the upper fide of the branch; con-
cave and asif whitewafhed, like the furrows of the joints, on
the under. This gives the plant an artificial, but moft ele-
gant, appearance. The flowers we have not feen. Kaempfer
fays the fruit is warty, the fize of a pea.

5. Th. cupreffoides. African Arbor-vitez. Linn. Mant. 125.
Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 110. (Th. aphylla ;
Burm. Prodr. 27, excluding the reference to Shaw. )—
Young branches but flightly compreffed. Leaves imbricated
in four rows, even. Cones nearly globofe, of four acute
warty feales.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from
whence Dr. Roxburgh introduced it to Kew Garden in 1799.
The growth of the free is tall and clofe, like that of the Cy-
prefs. Leaves clofely imbricated, not {preading. Fruit of
the fize and appearance of the Cyprefs, nearly globular, with
four obfolete angles, feparating into four thick acute valves
or {cales, tuberculated externally, keeled within. Seeds
numerous, each terminated by a membranous obovate wing.
Linneus adds to this defeription, “* Ramuli minime articulati ~
more Equifeti.” If minime be not printed by miftake for
minimi, we prefume this alludes to Shaw’s fynonym, cited in
the AZantifja with many {cruples, and certainly not belonging
to this but to articulata, our third {pecies.

Tuusa, n Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, ever-
green tree-kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are, the
American arbor-vite (T. occidentalis) ; and the Chinefe
arbor-vite (T. orientalis). :

In the firft of thefe fpecies there are different vari-
eties; as the American fweet-{cented, and the variegated-
leaved. : :

Method of Culture —Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, layers, and cuttings. Good feeds fhould be obtained
from the native fituations of the trees, and be fown foon
after they are ripe, or as foon as they can be obtained, in
autumn or {pring, in pots or boxes of light earth, covering
them half an inch deep, placing the pots, &c. in a fheltered
warm fituation, or under the {helter of a frame in bad wea-,
ther, efpecially when fown in autumn, that they may be
protected from fevere frofts: they fometimes come up in
the fpring, but are frequently apt to remain in the ground
till the feeout year. When the plants are come up, the
pots fhould be placed in an eaft border to have only the
morning fun, but open to the free air, giving frequent but
very moderate waterings all the fummer ; and in winter re-
moving the pots again to a fheltered place till {pring, when
they may be pricked out in nurfery-rows; or, when they
are {mall and weakly, continued in the pots another year,
placing them in a fhady fituation during fummer, and in a
fheltered place in winter ; and in the {pring following plant-
ing them out in the murfery, in rows a foot or two afunder,
in order to acquire fize and ftrength for planting out where
they are to remain.

The layers fhould be made from the young fhoots of one
or two years growth, which may be laid down early in
autumn, bending down the branches to the earth, and lay-
ing all the young wood in by flit or twift-laying, with the
tops only appearing a little above ground; fhortening any
that have much longer tops than the others: they moftly
emit roots in the earth, and form proper plants by the autumn
following ; when, or rather in {pring after, they fhould be
feparated from the ftools, and be planted in nurfery-rows,
to remain two or.three years, or till of a proper fize for
the fhrubbery, “&c.

The cuttings fhould be made from the ftrong young
fhqots of the fame year’s growth, which fhould be planted

: in

THU

in the autumn in a fhady border, taking the opportunity of
fhowery weather, if poflible, for the bufinefs; they fhould
be cut off with a {mall part of the old wood, where prac-
ticable, and be planted in rows a foot afunder, clofing the
earth well about them: they will be properly rooted in one
year for planting out in wider nurfery-rows : they may alfo
be planted in pots, and placed in a hot-bed, in order to have
them more forward. :

And they all may be planted out into the borders, &c. in
the autumn or early {pring months.

Thefe trees in their native fituations grow to very confider-
able fizes and magnitudes, but in this climate they are of
much inferior growths, feldom rifing to any great height
or thicknefs. They fucceed beft im the countries from
which they are brought, in rather moift foils; but here they
thrive perfeétly in any tolerably good common kind, and in
any fituation. They have a beautiful form of growth, be-
ing much and finely branched from their very bottoms, and
conftantly clofely adorned with leaves, which are of a very
minute fize, and arranged in a curioufly compact imbricated
manner, difplaying a continual verdure and ornamental va-
riety at all times of the year.

They are highly ornamental evergreens, proper for adorn-
ing the fhrubbery and other parts, having a fine effect alfo
when difpofed fingly in borders, &c. and in open {paces of
grafs; in all of which fituations they fhould be fuffered to
grow with their full branches, in their own natural way, ex-
cept reducing with a knife any low ftraggling or rambling
branches occafionally : this is all the culture they require
afterwards.

They may alfo be employed as timber-trees, in the ever-
green Prefietnee plantations.

_And thofe in the pots, as the Chinefe arbor-vite, may
be placed among other potted plants to adorn any parti-
cular compartment, and in aflemblage with greenhoufe

lants for variety.

THUILLIER, Vincent, in Biography, a learned Bene-
diétine, was born at Coucy, in the diocefe of Laon, in
1685; and entered into the congregation of St. Maur in
1703, where he was diftinguifhed for his talents. Having
officiated as profeffor of philofophy and theology in the
abbey of St. Germaine-des-Pres, he was made {fub-prior,
and died in 1736. With his extenfive literature, he com-
bined a lively imagination and a turn for fatire, which in-
volved him in feveral controverfies. He firft oppofed, and
then warmly defended the bull “ Unigenitus,”’ on which
fubjeét he publifhed two treatifes. But he was more ufefully
employedin a French tranflation of Polybius, which appeared
in 1721-28, in 6 vols. 4to. His verfion is elegant and faith-
ful. Morert.

THUIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment af Jemappe, on the Sambre; 14 miles S.E. of
Mons. N, lat. 50° 20!. E. long. 4° 21!.

THUIR, a town of France, in the department of the
Eaftern Pyrenées; 7 miles S.W. of Perpignan.

THULDEN, Tueonore Van, in Biography, was one
of the moft diftinguifhed among the pupils of Rubens,
whom he affifted in forwarding the pictures of the Luxem-
bourg gallery. He was born at Bois-le-Duc in 1607,
He painted a confiderable number of large works for the
churches and public buildings of the principal towns and
cities in Flanders ; fome of which have been honoured by
being confidered as from the hand of Rubens. Among the
beft of them are the Martyrdom of St. Sebaftian, at
Mechlin; the Martyrdom of St. Adrian, at Ghent; and
the Affymption of the Virgin, formerly in the church of
the Jefuits, at Bruges. He was engaged at Paris, which

THU

he vifited in 1633, to paint a feries of pictures of the life
of the patron faint of the Mathurins, St. John of Matha,
which he afterwards etched and publifhed in twenty-four
plates. He is alfo the author of feveral other etchings
from his own works and thofe of others ; particularly of
58 plates of the life of Ulyfles, from pictures painted at
Fontainebleau by Primaticcio, of moit of which there is
now no other remembrancer than his etchings. He died in

1676, at the age of 69. ~
THULE, or Tuvte, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
of the Northern ocean, defcribed in a very vague man-
ner by the ancients; but which fome maintain to have’
been the Shetland ifles. Virgil (Georg. l.i. v. 30.) and
Seneca (Medea, v. 379.) call this ifland “ Ultima Thule.’”
It is difficult to afcertain its precife fituation. Strabo
afcribes the ignorance and uncertainty that prevailed with
regard to this ifland to its great diftance, and charges.
Pytheas with having made many falfe reports concerning ity
Ptolemy places the middle of this ifland in 63° of latitude,
and fays, that at the time of the equinoxes, the days were
24 hours, which could not have been true at the equinoxes,
but muft have referred to the folitices ; and, therefore, this
ifland is fuppofed to have been in 66° 30! lat. or under the.
polar circle. Stephanus Byzantinus fays of this ifland,
“ Thula infula magna in oceano fub Huperboreas partes
ubi Alttivus dies ex viginti horis equalibus conftat, nox vero
ex quatuor. Hyberne vero dies é contrario.”” From this
account it appears that the ancients defcribed an ifland
which was fituated three degrees on this fide of the polar
circle; but its fituation, if fuch an ifland exifted, full re-
mained very uncertain. As the ancients have not given us
the dimenfions of this iffand, fome authors have concluded
that the appellation of Thule was given to Scandinavia, of
which the ancients had a very imperfeét knowledge. Ac-
cording to Procopius (I. iii. de Bell. Goth. c. 14.) a
party of the Etulians, when vanquifhed by the Lombards,
fought an abode towards the extremities of the earth. With
this view they traverfed the country of the Sclavonians ;
and in their progrefs entered into the country of the Varnez,
and into Denmark, and at length arrived on the ocean,
where they embarked, and then landed on the land of
Thule. This ifland, he adds, is ten times larger than
Great Britain, and is far remote from the northern coaft,
a great part of it being defert. The habitable part was
occupied by thirteen different claffes of people, who had
their refpective kings. Towards the fummer folftice, the
fun appeared 40 days fucceflively above, their horizon ; fix
months afterwards, the inhabitants had 40 days of night,
which they paffed in a ftate that was truly deplorable, as
their commerce was totally interrupted. By the account
of Procopius, it appears that the place to which he refers
muft have been beyond the polar circle, and of courfe be-
yond 63° lat., where Ptolemy placed the middle of Thule.
Procopius fays, that he often wifhed to vifit this ifland,
but was never able to accomplifh his objeét ; but he pro-
feffes to have derived his information from perfons who had
actually vifited the country, and he defcribes its afpe&, and
produ¢tions, and the manners of its inhabitants. His de-
tails correfpond to the accounts that have been given of the
ancient {tate of Lapland (which fee); but this could not
have been the Thule of the ancients. The defcriptions
tranfmitted to us from the ancients of their pretended ifle
of Thule are fo intermixed with fabulous and incredible re-
lations, that fome modern geographers have even doubted
whether fuch an ifland as they defcribe ever exifted ; others
have fuppofed that they refer to Scandinavia, or fome
country far diftant to the north, of which they could have
no

THU

no certain and fatisfactory accounts ; and others again have
been of opinion, that no iflands to which modern voyagers
have had accefs, corref{pond more exactly to their reports
than the ifles of Shetland, N. of Scotland. See Zxr-
LAND J/lands.

TuuLe, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia, in the bi-
fhopric of Paderborn; 6 miles W.S.W. of Paderborn.

Tuuts, a river of Wales, in the county of Glamorgan,
which runs into the Lloghor, near its mouth.

Tuucr, Southern, a part of Sandwich Land, obferved by
Capt. Cook in January 1775, in S. lat. 59° 13! 30! and W.
long. 27° 45', and fo called becaufe it is the moft fouthern
land that has ever yet been difcovered. It exhibits a furface
of vait height, and is every where covered with fnow. Some
thought that they faw land in the {pace between Thule and
Cape Briltol : Cook thought it more than probable that thefe
two lands are conneéted, and that this fpace is a deep bay,
which he called Forlfter’s bay.

THUM, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ;
7 miles S. of Chemnitz. N. lat. 50°37!. E. long. 12°
5o0'.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg; 3 miles S.S.W. of Forcheim. '

THUMATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Arabs, placed by Pliny on the banks of the Tigris, at a
confiderable diftance from the town of Petra.

THUMATHA, atown fituated in the interior of Arabia
Felix, between Chabuata and Olaphia. tol.

THUMB, Pottex, in Anatomy, one of the members or
parts of the hand. See Exrremirins.

Tuume-Stal/, a ferrule made of iron, horn, or leather,
with the edges turned up, to receive the thread in making
fails. It is worn on the thumb to tighten the ftitches while
fewing.

THUMELITHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Interior Libya, near the fource of the river Ci-
nyphis. Ptol.

THUMEREVILLE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Mofelle; 6 miles S.W. of
Briey.

THUMERSTONE, in Mineralogy ; Axinite, Haiiy.
This mineral was called Thumerftone by Werner, from
Thum, in Saxony, the place where it was found; and Axi-
nite by Hatiy, from the flattened fharp edges of the cryftals
refembling the edge of an axe. This is the firft character
which ftrikes the eye when this mineral is prefented for in-
fpection. It is moft commonly found cryftallized, but
fometimes maffive or difleminated. The form of the cryf-
tals is a very compreffed oblique rhomboidal prifm. The
primitive cryftal, according to Hatiy, is a four-fided prifm,
whofe bafes are parallelograms with very oblique angles :
the larger angle being 101.32, and the fmaller 78.28. In
the fecondary cryftals, the acute edges are generally trun-
cated. It is cryftallized alfo in oblique four-fided tables.
The form of the cryftals is fometimes very difficult to be de-
termined; they not unfrequently interfeét one another, form-
ing acellular aggregation. The external luftre is generally
{plendent ; internally it is gliftening or fhining, and is vitre-
ous. It is tranfparent or tranflucent. The fracture is
fine-grained and uneven ; in the tranflucent varieties, it
fometimes approaches to fplintery ; and in the tranfparent
varieties, to the fmall and imperfe&tly conchoidal. © It
{cratches glafs ; is harder than felfpar, but not fo hard as
quartz ; it is fragile, and fufible by the blow-pipe into a
greenifh-white ue but if laid on charcoal into a black
glafs. The fpecific gravity is from 3.2 to 3.3. The
colours of this mineral are moft commonly a clove-brown of
various degrees of intenfity, inclining to violet and green.

Vou. XXXV.

fe sh 9

It is fometimes green and opaque : according to Bronguiart,
this is owing to a mixture of chlorite. It has been ob-
ferved, he remarks, that the cryftals which are coloured
with this earth are the moft regular. The conftituent parts
are given by Klaproth and Vauquelin as under.

Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Silex - anaes 52.70 and 50.50 44
Alumine - - 25-79 16. 18
Lime - - 9:39 17. 19
Oxyd of iron - 8.63 9:50 14
Oxyd of manganefe UG 5-25 4
Potath - - 0.25

This mineral occurs in Saxony, France, Switzerland,
and Spain, and at mount Atlas, in Africa. It is found alfo
maffive and cryftallized near St. Juft, in Cornwall, at the
Botellock mine, affociated with common garnet, and in veins
between Marazion and. Penzance.

The moft beautiful variety is met with ina rock of fer-
pentine, near Balme d’Auris, in Dauphiny, in the depart-
ment of the If{ére,; where it generally occurs in well-defined
cryftals, fometimes calamise and tranfparent, but more
frequently of a dull reddifh-violet colour, whence it ob-
tained the name of violet {chorl of Dauphiny. The cryf-
tals of thumerftone, which are not fymmetrical, become
electric by heat : it is indeed a general law, that all minerals
which poffefs the pyro-eleftric property, are defective in
the fymmetry of the cryttals.

THUMLITZ, in Geography, a river of Saxony, which
runs into the Mulda; 3 miles S. of Grima.

THUMMIM, in the Scripture Learning.
THUMMIM.

THUMNA, in Ancient Geography, the name of two
towns fituated in the interior of Arabia Felix ; one between
Mochura and Aluare, and another between Mariama and
Vodona. Ptol.

THOUN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, at the diftance of about 12 miles from the
town of Bern. It occupies the bottom and brow of a hill,
and ftretches on both fides of the Aar. It contains 1200
inhabitants, enjoys confiderable immunities, has its own ma-
giftrates and courts of juftice, in which the bailiff from Bern
always prefides, and from whofe decifion an appeal always
lies to the capital. The inhabitants employ themfelves in
carding and {pinning filk for the manufactures of Bafle.
Some of the burghers poflefs large herds of cattle. To the
N.E., on an eminence, ftand the church, and the caftle, which
is the refidence of the bailiff. N. lat. 46° 4q4!. E. long.
7° 31!.—Alfo, a lake of Switzerland, in the canton of
Bern; about four leagues long, and one broad, and pro-
bably very deep : "the borders are richly variegated, and pre-
fent feveral fine points of view, much heightened by many
rugged rocksrifing boldly from the margin of the water. The
river Aar pafles through the lake of Brientz, and then en-
ters that of Thun, from which it is again difcharged, pafling
between two level promontories, prettily fprinkled with
trees, on one of which ftands the caftle of Schadao; 15
miles S.S.E. of Bern.

THUNA, a town of Cachemire; 45 miles S, of Ca-
chemire.

THUNBERGIA, in Botany, received that name firft from
profeflor Retzius, and next in the Supplementum Plantarum,
from the pen of the younger Linnzus, in honour of their
mutual friend, fir Charles Peter Thunberg, knight of the
order of Wala, by whole difcoveries that work was pecu-
liarly enriched with new and curious {pecies, efpecially from
the Cape of Good Hope. This illuftrious veteran {till

. 4 F fits

See Uri and

THU

fits in the profefforial chair of Rudbeck and Linneus at
Upfal, after having effentially added to the general ftock of
knowledge by his Travels to Japan, his Floras of that
country and of the Cape, and his very numerous academical
differtations. The liberal communications, and amiable cha-
raéter of profeffor Thunberg, have fecured him no lefs per-
fonal efteem than his extenfive application and knowledge.
His conftitution, though fhaken by a terrible misfortune in
his voyage, the accidental ufe of white lead in his food,
which proved fatal to fome of his mefs-mates, has ftill car-
ried him on to the advanced age of 73.—Retz. A&. Lund.
y.1. 163. Linn. Suppl. 46. Schreb. Gen. 426. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 388. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 4.65. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 21. Prodr. 106.
Juff. 103. Lamarck Mluftr. t.549.— Clafs and order,
Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn.
Acanthi, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, double, permanent :
the outermoft of two ovate, obtufe, ribbed, equal leaves, as
long as the tube of the corolla: inner of one leaf, in many,
about twelve, awl-fhaped ereét fegments, not one-third fo long
as the former. Cor. of one petal, falver-fhaped : tube gra-
dually dilated upwards: limb in five deep, nearly equal,
obovate, very abrupt fegments, about half the length of the
tube. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, inferted into the
tube, the two lower ones fhorteft, all included within the
tube ; anthers arrow-fhaped. Piff. Germen fuperior,
roundifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, ereét, hardly fo long as the
tube; ftigma of two rounded flat lobes. Peric. Capfule
globofe with a beak, fmooth, or two cells and two valves,
buriting lengthwife: the beak linear, obtufe, compreffed,
furrowed ; partition obovate, emarginate, perforated below
the fummit, membranous at the fides, permanent. Seeds two
in each cell, kidney-fhaped, rugged, convex on the outfide,
concave on the inner, with a longitudinal furrow.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer of two leaves; inner
in many awl-fhaped fegments. Corolla falver-fhaped, with
five regular lobes. Capfule beaked, of two cells.

Obf. Linnzus remarks that this genus agrees in many
points with Barleria. Thunberg takes the outer calyx-
leaves for braéteas, but this is not countenanced by the alto-

ether peculiar appearance of the inner calyx, by no means
ike an external perianth.

1. T.capenfis. Diffufe Thunbergia. Linn. Suppl. 292.
Willd. n.1. Retz. A&. Lund. v. 1. 163, witha figure.—
Leaves roundifh-ovate, obtufe. Stem diffufe.—Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. The raot feems to be perennial.
Stems a finger’s length, diffufe, fimple, leafy, fquare, hairy.
Leaves oppofite, on fhort hairy ftalks, entire or fomewhat
toothed, hardly an inch long, ftrongly reticulated with
veins: very rough with minute briftles above; hairy be-
neath. Flowers yellow, on fimple, folitary, ftriated, ere&,
axillary, hairy /fa/ks, twice the length of the leaves. Outer
calyx very hairy ; inner rigid, with almoft pungent points.
Corolla about an inch long, its fegments fomewhat rounded.
Capfule rigid, about the fame length.

2. T. fragrans. Twining Thunbergia. Roxb. Corom.
v.1. 47. t.67. Willd. n.2. Ait. nei. Andr. Repof.
t. 123.—Leaves ovate-oblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped, acute.
Stem twining—Common in hedges, among bufhes, on the
banks of water-courfes, about Samulcotah, flowering in the
wet and cold feafons. Dr. Roxburgh never met with it
any where elfe. He fays the plant poffeffes a peculiar and
agreeable fragrance, and the beauty of its flowers, though
not fragrant, entitles it to a place in the flower-garden.
No fcent has been difcovered in any part of this plant in our
{toves, where it bloffoms freely all fummer long. The long

L

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and twining flems readily diftinguifh this {pecies from the
foregoing, as well as the elongated form of the eaves, which
are occafionally angular, or toothed, near the bafe. The
flowers are white, larger, and with a narrower tube than the
capenfis, their fegments more abrupt or fomewhat notched.

It appears by the Linnzan herbarium that the younger
Linnzus had orginally deftined the name of Solandra for this

enus.
: Another Thunbergia was previoufly eftablifhed by Dr.
Montin, ia the Stockholm Tranfaétions for 1773, but the
noble plant on which it was founded proved a GARDENIA.
See that article.

THUNDER, a noife in the loweft region of the air, ex-
cited by a fudden explofion of ele¢trical clouds ; which, on
this account, are called thunder-clouds.

Seneca, Rohault, and other authors, both ancient and
modern, account for thunder by fuppofing two clouds im-
pending over one another, the upper and rarer of which, be-
coming condenfed by a frefh acceffion of air raifed thither
by warmth from the lower parts of the atmofphere, or driven
upon it by the wind, immediately falls forcibly down upon
the lower and denfer cloud: by which fall the air interpofed
between the two being comprefled, that next the extremities
of the two clouds is {queezed out, and leaves room for the
extremity of the upper cloud to clofe tight upon the under ;
thus a great quantity of air is enclofed, which, at length
efcaping through fome winding irregular vent or paflage, oc-
cafions that noife which we call thunder.

But this could only reach to the phenomena of thunder
heard without lightning ; and, therefore, recourfe has been
had to another Blatios. It has been faid, that thunder is
not occafioned by the falling of clouds, but by the kindlin
of fulphurous exhalations, in the fame manner as the noi
of aurum fulminans,

“ There are fulphurous exhalations,”’ fays fir Ifaac New-
ton, always afcending into the air when the earth is dry ;
there they ferment with the nitrous acids, and fometimes
taking fire, generate thunder, lightning, ac?

That, befides the vapours raifed from water, &c. there
are alfo exhalations carried off from fulphur, bitumen, yola-
tile falts, &c. is paft all doubt; the vaft quantity of ful-
phurous and bituminous matter all over the furface of the
earth, and the volatile falts of plants and animals, afford
fuch an ample ftock of them, that it is no wonder the air
fhould be filled with fuch particles, raifed higher or lower,
according to their greater or lefs degree of fubtlety and aéti-
vity ; and more copioufly fpread in this or that quarter, ac-
cording to the direétion of the winds.

Now, the effets of thunder are fo like thofe of fired
gunpowder, that Dr. Wallis thinks we need not feruple to
aferibe them to the fame caufe ; and the principal ingre-
dients in gunpowder, we know, are nitre and fulphur ;
charcoal only ferving to keep the parts feparate, for their
better kindling.

Hence, if we conceive in the air a convenient mixture of
nitrous and fulphurous particles, from the fources above men-
tioned ; and thofe, by any caufe, to be fet on fire, fuch
explofion may well follow ; and with fuch noife and light,
the two phenomena of thunder, as in the firing of gun-
powder ; and being once kindled, it will run from place to
place, this way or that, as the exhalations happen to lead it ;
much as is found in a train of gunpowder.

This explofion, if high in the air, and remote from us,
will do no mifchief; but if near us, may deftroy trees,
animals, &e. as gunpowder would do in the like cireum-
ftances.

This nearnefs, or diftance, may be eftimated by the in-

terval

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terval of time between the flafh and the noife. Drs Wallis
obferves, that, ordinarily, the difference between thie two is
about feven feconds, which, at the rate of 1142 feet in a fe-
cond of time, gives the diftance about a mile and ahalf; but
fometimes it comes in a fecond or two, which argues the ex-
plofion very near us, and even among us. And in fuch
cafes, the doctor affures us, he has more than once foretold
the mifchiefs that happened.

Upon the whole, that there is in lightning a fulphurous
vapour has been argued from the {mell of fulphur which at-
tends it, and from the fultry heat in the air which ufually
precedes it ; and that there is a nitrous vapour along with it,
the fame writer concludes hence, that we know of no other
body fo liable to a fudden and violent explofion. And as to
the kindling of thefe materials, we know that a mixture of
fulphur and fteel-filings, with a little water, will of itfelf
break forth into actual flame. Nothing, therefore, is want-
ing to the explofion but fome chalybeate or vitriolic vapour ;
and, among the various effluvia from the earth, the doctor
does not doubt but there muft be fome of that kind ; but, in
proof of what he leaves asa probability, the following facts
have been alleged.

In hiftory, we meet with inftances of its raining iron in
Italy, and iron-ftones in Germany. Jul. Scaliger tells us,
he had by hima piece of iron rained in Savoy. Cardan re-
ports 1200 ftones to have fallen from heaven, fome of them
weighing 30, fome 40, and one 120 pounds, all very hard,
and of the colour of iron.

The matter of fa& is fo well attefted, that Dr. Lifter,
in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, builds a whole theory
of thunder and lightning on it; maintaining that they
both owe their matter to the vapour or exhalation of the
_pyrites.

The noife of thunder, and the flame of lightning, are
eafily made by art. If a mixture of oil or fpirit of vitriol
be made with water, and fome filings of fteel added to it,
there will immediately arife a thick {moke or vapour out of
the mouth of the veflel ; and if a lighted candle be applied
to this, it will take fire, and the flame immediately defcend
into the veffel, and this will be burit to pieces with a noife
like that of a cannon.

This is fo far analogous to thunder and lightning, that a
great explofion and fire are occafioned by it ; but in this
they differ, that this matter when once fired is deftroyed,
and can give no more explofions ; whereas, in the heavens,
one elap of thunder ufually follows another, and there is
a continued fucceffion of them for a long time. M. Hom-
berg explained this by the lightnefs of the air above us in
comparifon of that here, which therefore would not fuffer
allthe matter fo kindled to be diffipated at once, but kept it
for feveral returns.

Ever fince the year 1752, in which the identity of the
matter of lihtning, and of the eleGtric fluid, has been afcer-
tained, philofophers have. generally agreed in confidering
thunder as a concuffion produced in the air by an eleétrical
explofion. For the illuftration and proof of this theory, fee
Licurnine. See alfo Erecrriciry.

We fhall here obferve, that Mr. Henry Eeles, in a letter
written in 1751, and read before the Royal Society in 1752,
confiders the ele&trical fire as the caufe of thunder, and en-
deavours to account for it on this hypothefis ; and he tells us,
that he did not know of any perfon’s having made the fame
conjeGture. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii. p. 524, &c.

That rattling in the noife of thunder, which makes it feem
as if it paffed through arches, or were broken varioufly, is
probably owing to the found being excited among clouds

THU

hanging over one another, and the agitated air paffling irre-
gularly between them.

See this phenomenon particularly accounted for under
Licurnine.

Tuunner-Bolt. If what we call lightning aéts with ex-
traordinary violence, and breaks or fhatters any thing, it is
called a thunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for fuch
effects, fuppofe to bea hard body, and even a ftone.

But that we need not to have recourfe to a hard folid body

to account for the effects commonly attributed to the thunder-
bolt, will be evident to any one, who confiders thofe of the
pulvis fulminans, and of gunpowder: but more efpecially
the aftonifhing powers of eleétricity, even when colleéted
and employed by human art, and much more when direéted
and exercifed in the courfe of nature.
_ When we confider the known effeéts of eletrical explo-
fions, and thofe produced by lightning, we fhall be at no
lofs to account for the extraordinary operation vulgarly
afcribed to thunderbolts. As {tones and bricks ftruck by
lightning are often found in a vitrified ftate, we may reafon-
ably fuppofe, with fignior Beccaria, that fome ftones in the
earth, having. been ftruck in this manner, firft gave occa-
fion to the vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt.

Places ftruck witly thunderbolts were held facred among
ne ancients. Nigidius has a curious treatife on the thunder-
bolt.

The ancient painters and poets have armed Jupiter with a
fort of flaming dart, called a thunderbolt. Thus, it is faid,
he became matter both of gods and men. :

Thefe thunderbolts are forged for Jupiter, according to
the poets, by the Cyclopes.

The thunderbolt, in antiquity, reprefented fovereienty,
and a power equal to the gods; on this account, Apelles
painted Alexander, in the temple of Diana of Ephefus, hold-
ing a thunderbolt in his hand: and on medals, the thunder-
bolt is fometimes found to accompany the emperor’s heads, as
that of Auguttus. :

Appian informs us, that the thunderbolt was the principal
divinity of Seleucia; adding, that it was adored, even in his
time, with various hymns and ceremonies.

Tuunver-Clouds, in Phyfiology, are thofe clouds which *
are ina ftate fit for producing lightning and thunder. From
fignior Beccaria’s exaét and circumftantial account of the ex-
ternal appearances of thunder-clouds, we fhall extra the
following particulars.

The firft appearance of athunder-ftorm, (which generally
happens when there is little or no wind), is one denfe cloud,
or more, increafing very falt in fize, and rifing into the higher
regions of the air. The lower furface is black, and nearly
level ; but the upper finely arched, and well defined. Many
of thefe clouds often feem piled upon one another, all arched
in the fame manner ; but they keep continually uniting, {well-
ing, and extending their arches.

At the time of. the rifing of this cloud, the atmofphere is
generally full of a great number of feparate clouds, motion-
lefs, and of odd and whimfical fhapes. All thefe, upon the
appearance of the thunder-cloud, draw towards it, and be-
come more uniform in their fhapés as they approach, till,
coming very near the thunder-cloud, their limbs mutually
{tretch towards one another ; they immediately coalefce, and
together make one uniform mafs. Thefe he calls ad/cititious
clouds, from their coming in, to enlarge the fize of the
thunder-cloud.

But fometimes the thunder-cloud will fwell, and increafe
very fa{t, without the conjunction of any ad{fcititious clouds ;
the vapours in the dumrdipiare forming themfelves into clouds

4F 2 wherever

THD

wherever it pafles. Some of the adfcititious clouds appear
like white fringes at the fkirts of the thunder-cloud, or under
the body of it, but they keep continually growing darker
and darker, as they approach to unite with it. :

When the thunder-cloud is grown to a great fize, its lower
furface is often ragged, particular parts being detached to-
wards the earth, but ftill conneéted with the reft. Some-
times the lower furface fwells into various large protube-
rances, bending uniformly toward the earth. And fome-
times one whole fide of the cloud will have an inclination to
the earth, and the extremity of it will nearly touch the
earth. When the eye is under the thunder-cloud, after it is
grown larger, and well formed, it is feen to fink lower, and
to darken prodigioufly ; at the fame time that a number of
{mall ad{cititious clouds (the origin of which can never be
perceived) are feen in a rapid motion, driving about in very
uncertain dire¢tions under it. While thefe clouds are agitated
with the moft rapid motions, the rain generally falls in the
greateft plenty, and if the agitation be exceedingly great, it
commonly hails.

While the thunder-cloud is fwelling, and extending its
branches over a large traét of country, the lightning is feen
to dart from one part of it to another, and often to illu-
minate its whole mafs. When the cloud has acquired a fuf-
ficient extent, the lightning {trikes between the cloud, and
the earth, in two oppofite places, the path of the lightning
lying through the whole body of the cloud and its branches.
The longer this lightning continues, the rarer does the cloud
grow, and the lefs dark is its appearance ; till, at length, it
breaks in different places, and fhews a clear fky. When the
thunder-cloud is thus difperfed, thofe parts which occupy
the upper regions of the atmofphere are equally {pread, and
very thin ; and thofe that are underneath are black, but thin
too ; and they vanifh gradually, without being driven away
by any wind. ~

Thefe thunder-clouds were fometimes in a pofitive as well
as negative ftate of eleétricity. The eleétricity continued
longer of the fame kind, in proportion as the thunder-cloud
was fimple and uniform in its dire&tion; but when the light-
ning changed its place, there commonly happened a change
in the ele€tricity of the apparatus over which the clouds
pafled. It would change fuddenly after a very violent flafh
of lightning, but the change would be gradual when the
lightning was moderate, and the prices of the thunder-
cloud flow. Beccar. Lettere dell’ Elletricifmo, p. 107; or
Prieftley’s Hift. Eleétr. vol. i. p. 397, &c. See Licur-
NING.

Tuunpver-Hou/e, in Lleéricity, is an inftrument invented
by Dr. James Lind of Edinburgh, for illuftrating the man-
ner by which buildings receive damage from lightning, and
to evince the utility of metallic conductors in preferving
them from it.

A (Plate XV. Eledricity, fig. 2.) is a board about three
quarters of an inch thick, and fhaped like the gable-end of
a houfe. This board is fixed perpendicularly upon the bot-
tom board B, upon which the perpendicular glafs pillar
C D 1s alfo fixed in a hole about eight inches diftant from
the bafis of the board A. A fquare hole 1 LM K, about
a quarter of an inch deep, and nearly an inch wide, is made
in the board A, and is filled with a fquare piece of wood,
nearly of the fame dimenfions. It is nearly of the fame di-
menfions, becaufe it muft go fo eafily into the hole, that it
may drop off, by the leaft fhaking of the inftrument. A
wire, L K, is faftened diagonally to this {quare piece of wood.
Another wire, I H, of the fame thicknefs, having a brafs ball,
H, ferewed on its pointed extremity, is faitened upon the

FHU

board A: fo alfo is the wire MN, which is fhaped in #
ring at O. From the upper extremity of the glafs pillar
CD, a crooked wire proceeds, having a {pring focket F,
through which a double knobbed wire flips perpendicularly,
the lower knob, G, of which falls juft above the knob H.
The glafs pillar D C muft not be made very faft into the
bottom board ; but it muft be fixed fo that it may be prett
eafily moved round its own axis, by which means the brake
ball G may be ‘brought nearer or farther from the ball H,
without touching the part EF G. Now when the fquare
piece of wood LMI K (which may reprefent the fhutter
of a window or the like) is fixed into the hole fo that the
wire L K ftands in the dotted reprefentation I M, then the
metallic communication from H to O is complete, and the’
inftrument reprefents a houfe furnifhed with a proper me-
tallic conduétor; but if the fquare piece of wood LMI K
is fixed fo that the wire L K ftands in the direétion L K, as
reprefented in the figure, then the metallic conduétor H O,.
from the top of the houfe to its bottom, is interrupted at
IM, in which cafe the houfe is not properly fecured.

Fix the piece of wood L MI K, fo that its wire may be”
as reprefented in the figure, in which cafe the metallic con-
duétor H.O is difcontinued. Let the ball G be fixed at
about half an inch perpendicular diftance from the ball H,
then, by turning the glafs pillar DC, remove the former
ball from the latter; by a wire or chain conneét the wire
E F with the wire Q of the jar P, and let another wire or
chain, faftened to the hook O, touch the outfide coating of
the jar. Conne& the wire Q with the prime conduétor, and
charge the jar; then, by turning the glafs pillar DC, let
the ball G come gradually near the ball H, and when they
are arrived fufficiently near one another, you will obferve,
that the jar explodes, and the piece of wood LMIK is
pufhed out of the hole to a confiderable diftance from the
thunder-houfe. Now the ball G, in this experiment, repre-
fents an eleétrified cloud, which, when it is arrived fuf-
ficiently near the top of the houfe A, the eletricity ftrikes
it, and as this houfe is not fecured with a proper conductor,
the explofion breaks part of it, i. e. knocks off the piece of
wood I M.

Repeat the experiment with only this variation, wiz. that
this piece of wood I M is fituated fo that the wire L K may
ftand in the fituation [M; in which cafe the conduétor
H O is not difcontinued ; and you will obferve that the ex-
plofion will have no effect upon the piece of wood LM,
this remaining in the hole unmoved; which fhews the ufe-
fulnefs of the metallic conductor.

Farther, unfcrew the brafs ball H from the wire HI, fo
that this may remain pointed, and with this difference only
in the apparatus repeat both of the above experiments, and
you will find that the piece of wood I M is in neither cafe
moved from its place, nor any explofion will be heard, which
not only demonftrates the preference of conduétors with
pointed terminations to thofe with blunted ones, but alfo
fhews that a houfe furnifhed with fharp terminations, al-
though not furnifhed with a ale conduter, is alfo fuf-
ficiently guarded againft the effects of lightning.

Mr. Henly, having conneéted a jar containing 509 fquare .
inches of coated akee with his prime conduétor, obferved
that if it was fo charged as to raife the index of his eleétro-
meter to 60°, by bringing the ball on the wire of the thun-
der-houfe, to the diftance of half an inch from that conneé&ted
with the prime conduétor, the jar would be difcharged, and
the piece in the thunder-houfe thrown out to a confiderable
diftance. Ufing a pointed wire for a condudtor to the
thunder-houfe, inftead of the knob, the charge bpina the

ame

fHU

fame as before, the jar was difcharged filently, though fud-
denly ; and the piece was not thrown out of the thunder-
houfe. In another experiment having made a double circuit
to the thunder-houfe, the firft by the knob, the fecond by
a fharp-pointed wire, at one and one-fourth of an inch dif-
tance from each other, but of exaétly the fame height (as in
Jjig- 3-) the charge being the fame; although the eb was
brought firft under that conneéted with the prime conduétor,
which was raifed half an inch above it, and followed by the
point, yet no explofion could fall upon the knob ; the point
drew off the whole charge filently, and the piece in the
thunder-honfe remained unmoved. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiv.
part i. p. 136. See Points, in EleGricity.

TuunveEr-Stone, in Natural Hiffory, the fame with that
called by authors brontia.

THUNDER-Storm. See THunpER-Clouds.

Tuunver Bay, in Geography, a bay in lake Huron,
about nine miles long, and nearly as many broad. The In-
dians who refide near, and all European travellers who have
paffed this bay, agree to call it by the prefent name, on ac-
count of the continual thunder they obferve. N. lat. 44°
5o!. W. long. 83° 30!—Alfo, a bay on the N. part of
lake Superior. ,

THUNDERING Lecion, Legion Fulminans, was a
legion in the Roman army, confifting of Chriftian foldiers,
who in the expedition of the emperor Marcus Aurelius An-
toninus againit the Sarmate, Quadi, and Marcomanni,
A.D. 174, are faid to have faved the whole army, then

.ready to perifh with thirft, by procuring, with their prayers,
a yery plentiful fhower on them; and at the fame time a
furious hail, mixed with lightning and thunderbolts, on the
enemy, and thus he obtained a decifive victory.

This is the account commonly given by ecclefiaftical hif-

torians; and the whole ftory is engraven in bas-relievos on ,

the Antonine column. And hence arofe the denomination
thunderers: though fome fay, that the legion thofe Chrif-
tians were of was called the thundering legion before.

This deliverance has been thought by many to have been
miraculous, owing to the prayers of the Chriftians who
were in the Roman army; and it has been fuppofed, that
the emperor wrote a letter to the fenate on this occafion,
which was very favourable to the Chriftians ; others, how-
ever, have thought, that the Chriftians, by a pious fort of
miftake, attributed this unexpeéted and feafonable fhower,
which faved the Roman army, toa miraculous interpofition ;
and this opinion, fays Mofheim, is indeed fupported by the
weightieit reafon as well as by the moft refpeétable authori-
ties ; and the letter of Marcus Antoninus is allowed, even by
the defenders of the miracle of the thundering legion, to
have in it manifeft tokens of {purioufnefs, to be the work of
a man unfkilful in Roman affairs, and who probably lived in
the feventh century. Mofheim fums up the arguments on
this fubje& in the following manner: it is certain, he fays,
that the Roman army enclofed by the enemy, and reduced
to the moft deplorable and even defperate condition by the
thirft under which they languifhed in a parched defart, was
revived by a fudden and unexpected rain. It is alfo certain,
that both the Heathens and the Chriftians looked upon this
event as extraordinary and miraculous ; the former attribut-
ing it to Jupiter, Mercury, or the power of magic; the
latter to Chrift, interpofing, thus unexpetedly, in confe-
quence of their prayers. It is ftill farther beyond all dqubt,
that a confiderable number of Chriftians ferved, at this time,
in the Roman army, and it is extremely probable, that in
fuch trying circumftances of calamity and diftrefs, they em-
plored the merciful interpofition and fuccours of their God
and Saviour. And as the Chriftians of the time looked

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upon all extraordinary events as miracles, and afcribed to
their prayers all the uncommon and fingular occurrences of
an advantageous nature that happened to the Roman empire,
it will not appear furprifing, that upon the prefent occafion
they attributed the deliverance of Antoninus and his army
to a miraculous interpofition which they had obtained from
above.’ But, on the other hand, it muit be carefully ob-
ferved, that it is an invariable maxim univerfally adopted by
the wife and judicious, that no events are to be efteemed mi-
raculous, which may be rationally attributed to natural
caufes, and accounted for by a recourfe to the ordinary dif-
penfations of providence ; and as the unexpected fhower,
which reftored the expiring force of the Romans, may be
eafily explained without rifing beyond the ufual and ordinary
courfe of nature, the conclufion 1s manifeft ; nor can it be
doubtful in what light we are to confider that remarkable
event. Eccl. Hift. vol. i. 8vo. edit.

Mr. Moyle and Mr. King had a curious and interefting
controverfy on the fubjeét of the thundering legion. The
learned Dr. Lardner has colleéted into one view every thing
relating to it of importance, in his Colle@tion of Jewifh and
Heathen Teftimonies, vol. ii. ch. xy. fe&. iii. p. 221, &c.

THUNGEN, in Geography. See TrenGEN.

THUNOE, a {mall ifland of Denmark, between the
coaft of Jutland, and the ifland of Samfoe. N. lat. 55° 58/.
E. long. 10° 27/.

THUNUDROMODM, in Ancient Geography, a town,
with the title of a Roman colony, in Africa, in New -
Numidia, according to Ptolemy. It is named Tynidrumenfe
Oppidum by Pliny.

THUNUSDA, a town of Africa Propria, according to
Ptolemy, denominated by Pliny Thunufidenfe Oppidum.

THUP£, or Tuuppa, a town of Africa, in the interior
of Libya, upon the fouthern banks of the Niger. Ptol.

THUPPA, a town of Africa, in the interior of Libya,
upon the northern bank of the river Gira.

THUR, in Geography, ariver of Switzerland, which rifes
in the fouth part of the county of Toggenburg, and runs
into the Rhine, 7 miles S.S.W. of Schaff haufen.

THURE, a town of France, in the department of the
Vienne ; 4 miles W. of Chatellerault.

THUREN, a river of France, which rifes in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, pafles by Thann, &c. and joins
the Ill at Enfifheim.

THURGAU, a country of Switzerland, with the title
of landgravate ; bounded on the north by Swabia and the
lake of Conftance, on the eaft by the lake of Conttance,
on the fouth by the territories of St. Gall, and on the weft
by the cantons of Zurich and Schaffhaufen. It receives its
name from the river Thur, and, in its moft extenfive fenfe,
comprehends all the extent of country on both fides of that
river. Though fomewhat mountainous towards the fouth,
yet it affords rich paftures ; and its other parts, as approach-
ing nearer to levels, produce plenty of grain, with vegetables
and fruits of all kinds, as alfo wine. The country is popu-
lous, and well cultivated, containing fix towns, with feveral
handfome burghs, a great number of feats, and upwards of
170 villages. About one-third of the inhabitants confifts of
Roman Catholics, and in church affairs are fubjeét to the bifhop
of Conitance. The other two-thirds, ever fince the year 1543,
have been Calvinifts. The Thurgau is a very ancient land-
gravate, which, on the extinétion of the counts of Old or
Hohen Frauenfelden, devolved to thofe of Kiburg, and, on
their failure, to the counts of Habfburg, with whom it came
to the houfe of Auftria, which continued poffeffed of it till
1460, in which year the Switzers, being at war with the
archduke Sigifmund, wrefted this country from him, =

yy,

THU

by the peace concluded at Conftance in the following year,
was confirmed to them. The cantons to which the terri-
torial fovereignty of this country belongs, are the eight old
cantons of Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Schweitz, Underwalden,
Zug, and Glaris; but it was not till the peace of Arau, that
the fecond was admitted by the others as a co-fovereign.
‘Thefe eight every two years alternately appoint a landvogt
over it, who refides at Frauenfeld ; and fince the year 1449,
the cantons of Friburg and Soleure have alfo obtained a feat
in its criminal court.

THURGOLAND, a townfhip of Yorkfhire, in the
Weft Riding ; 4 miles S.W. of Barnefley.

THURIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Meffenia,
on the river Aris, S.W. of Alagonia. It had a temple
dedicated to the goddefs Aftarte, a Syrian divinity, fup-
pofed to be the fame with Venus.—ALfo, an ifland on the
fEgean fea, near Naxos, according to Plutarch.

THURIBULUM, among the Romans, a cenfer, or
veffel, in which incenfe was burnt at facrifices.

THURIFICATI, in Church Hiflory, a defignation
given to thofe who, to avoid the perfecution of the Roman
emperors, offered frankincenfe to the heathen gods.

THURII Monres, in Ancient Geography, mountains of
Italy, in Magna Grecia.

THURINGII, Tuurinetans, a people of Germany,
fuppofed by fome authors to have been a part of the
Vandals. They have been fcarcely known in hiftory fince
the fall of the Roman empire. Towards the end of the fifth
or commencement of the fixth century, Thuringia had a king,
or at leaft a warlike chief.

THURINGIA, in Geography, a circle of Saxony,
which forms the N. part of the landgravate of that name.
The country is well watered, yields good pafturage, and
abundance of corn, particularly wheat, which is excellent, as
alfo fine timber-wood, faffower, anife, fennel, and wine ; and
has alfo a confiderable breed of horfes, horned cattle, and
fheep. Of thefe natural productions of the country, a great
part is exported. Thuringia contains in it 60 towns, 674
villages, and 300 noble eftates. The modern Thuringia,
which lies nearly between the Saale and the Werra, is but a
part of the ancient Thuringia, a country formerly comprized
under that name, extending itfelf much farther every way.
In the fixth century, the Franks and Saxons fubjected the
Thuringians to their dominions, whofe country from that
time forwards became divided into the North and South.
North Thuringia, towards the N., extends itfelf beyond
Harzwalde, quite to the river Elbe, and belonged to the
Saxons. It was united with the duchy of Saxony, loft its
name, and was at length annexed to Eaftphalia, or to the
eaftern part of the county of Saxony. South Thuringia
belonged to the Franks, and comprized in it the modern
Thuringia, together with a large fhare of the modern
Franconia, Hele, &e. ‘Till the eleventh century, it ftood
under the emperors and kings, and befides the counts, we
find alfo fome dukes mentioned, to whom the German kings
entrufted the government of this country. Ever fince the
thirteenth century, the marggraves of Meiffen, who after-
wards became eleétors of Saxony, have been in pofleflion of
the landgravate of Thuringia, which was at one time divided
among feparate lines, but returned again by the extin¢tion
of the latter to that of Meiffen. It has been ceded to
Pruffia by the king of Saxony.

THURIS, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in the
interior of Arabia Felix. Ptol.

THURIUM, a town which fucceeded the ancient
Sybaris ; which fee. ;

THURLES, in Geography, a poft-town of the county

THU

of Tipperary, Ireland, fituate on the river Suire, which
divides it nearly into two equal parts. ‘There was formerly
a caftle belonging to the knights of St. John of Jerufalem,
and there are {till fome ruins of a monaftery. Thurles is
70 miles S.W. from Dublin.

THURLMERE, a lake of England, in the county of
Cumberland, from whence a river runs to the Derwent; 4
miles §.E. of Kefwick.

THURLOE, Joun, in Biography, fecretary of ftate to
the Proteétorate, was the fon of Thomas Thurloe, rector of
Abbot’s Roding, in Effex, where he was born in 1616. ° He
was brought up to the law, and in 1644-5, by the intereft
of Oliver St. John, was appointed one of the fecretaries to
the parliamentary commiffioners at the treaty of Uxbridge.
Advancing through other offices, he went as fecretary to
lord chief juftice St. John, and Mr. Strickland, im their
embafly to the States-General. In 1652 he rofe to the
office of fecretary to the council of itate ; and when Crom<
well, in 1653, affumed the protectorate, he was nominated
his fecretary, on whom he repofed peculiar confidence. In
1655 he was entrufted with the management of the poft-
office ; and in 1656 he reprefented the ifle of Ely in parlia-
ment. On the death of Cromwell he figned the order for
proclaiming Richard, and in the following’ parliament was
returned member for the univerfity of Cambridge. He re-
tained his office of fecretary under Richard, and alfo under
the parliament that depofed him. On the reftoration, he
was accufed of high treafon and examined, but foon fet at
liberty. He then retired to his feat in Oxfordfhire, and
vilited London, at his chambers in Lincoln’s Inn, in term-
time. Charles IT. often invited him to take a part in his
adminiftration: but he declined it, alleging that perhaps he
fhould not be able to ferve the king, as he had done the pro-
tector, in conneétion with men of different charafters and
principles ; the protector, as he told his majefty, was ufed
to feek out men for places, and not places for men.”
The abilities of Thurloe for public life were diftinguifhed,
and his charaéter in private life no lefs amiable. He died in
Lincoln’s Inn, where he was matter of the bench, in 1667-8,
and was interred in the chapel. His ftate papers formed
a valuable hiftorical colleétion, and were publifhed by
Dr. Birch, in 7 vols. fol. 1742. Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

THURLOW, in Geography, a townthip of Upper Canada.

Tuurtow’s J/land, a narrow ifland in the Pacific ocean,
near the coaft of North America, about 24 miles in length
from E. toW. N. lat. 50° 24/.. 'E. long. 233° 35!.

THURMAN, a poft-townfhip of the United States, in
the {tate of New York, and county of Wafhington, ereéted
in 1792 from Queenfbury, and then comprifing a great ex-
tent of territory, which has been fince fubdivided into other
towns. Thurman is bounded N. by Chefter and Johnfburg,
E. by Caldwell and Bolton, S. by Saratoga county, and
W. by Montgomery county. The firft fettlements com-_
menced about 1786, and in 1810 there were about 200
families, moftly Scots, and the reft' from the eaftern ftates.
It has one Prefbyterian and one Methodiit meeting-houfe,
and a pretty competent number of common fchool-houfes
and {chools. The whole townfhip is well watered, and.
Crain’s mountain in the W. part of it is rich in mineral
treafures. Much of this weftern part is {till unfettled.

THURN, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 5 miles S. of
Windifch Gratz.

Tuurn Am Hardt, a town of the duchy of Carniola; 2
miles S. of Gurckfeld.

THURNALU, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach; 5 miles $.S.W. of Culmbach. N. lat. 50° 2 -

E. long. 11° 26’.
THUR-

THU

THURNEISSER, Leonarp, in Biography, a man of
great temporary celebrity in chemiltry and the occult
{ciences, was born at Bafle in the year 1530. Having im-
prudently, in 1547, when a boy, married a widow, who proved
unfaithful ; and having involved himfelf in debt, he found
himfclf under a neceflity of leaving both his wife and his
native place. Accordingly, in 1548 he went to Strafburg,
and from thence he proceeded to Conttance, having, by dili-

nt application to.his trade of a goldfmith, amaffed a con-
iderable {um of money. He employed himfelf in the con-
ftruétion of mathematical inftruments, and in a variety of
metallurgic operations with fuch reputation, that he was
entrufted with the direGtion of the {melting works at
Eberfwold in the Tyrol. During his abode at Conftance,
he married the daughter of a goldfmith by whom he had
been employed, and in 1558 retired with her to Tarenz
in the Upper Innthal, where he formed metallurgic eftablifh-
ments on his own account, and conftruéted furnaces, toge-
ther with a manufactory for the preparation of fulphur.
Here he was vifited by feveral perfons of eminence, and
became known to the emperor Ferdinand ; and patronifed
by the emperor’s fon, the archduke Ferdinand, he travelled,
by his confent, in 1560, to Scotland and the Orkney iflands,
and in 1561 to Portugal and Spain, and alfo to fome parts
of Africa and Afia.. On the fummit of mount Sinai he
received the order of St. Catharine ; and in his way home he
vifited Candia, Greece, Italy,°-and Hungary. When he
arrived in the Tyrol, he found his eftablifhments in great
confufion; but he was enabled by the government of
Infpruck to revive and fupport them. He was then deputed
by the archduke to examine the mines in Hungary and
Bohemia; but notwithitanding this high patronage, he in-
volved himfelf in debt, and by his pride and extravagance
forfeited the favour of his patrons. In 1569 he obtained
leave to vifit Lower Germany, for the purpofe of making
fome obfervations in natural hiftory, and of fuperintending
the printing of fome of his works. During the leifure
afforded by fome of his fea-voyages, he had compofed, in
German verfe, a work intitled “* Archidoxia,’’ or an account
of the influence which the planets have on the human body,
and on all the employments of man ; together with a fecret
introdu@tion to alchemy. He had prepared alfo another
work, called the “ Quinteffence,’’ in which he pointed out
the connection between medicine and alchemy, and gave
inftru@tions how to extraét from all fubftances their
quinteffence or fubtile parts. He pretended alfo to have
made fome other curious difcoveries, which we cannot detail.
At Munfter he publifhed, in 1569, the firft edition of his
« Archidoxia,” in 4to.; and his “ Quinteffence’? was
printed there, alfoin 4to.,in 1570. Thefe works were after-
wards enlarged and publifhed in folio. Thurneiffer, quar-
relling with the bifhop, left Munfter and removed to Frank-
fort on the Oder, to print his “ Pifon,’”? or Defcription of
Rivers, by which, together with his calendar and book on
plants, he acquired the greateft fhare of his reputation.
Having cured the margravine of Brandenburg of a danger-
ous illnefs, the margrave appointed him his phyfician, and
defrayed the expence of bringing his wife and family from
Conftance. In 1572 he publifhed his work ‘¢ On Urine,”
in which he afferts, that by examining the urine of Sigif-
mond I. of Poland, he had difcovered the nature of his dif-
eafe, and prediéted his death, with the day on which it
would happen. Under the patronage of the margrave of
Brandenburg he went on profperoutly with his laboratory
and printing-prefs ; and indulged in the moft expenfive and
fplendid mode of drefs and living. His vifitors were nume-
rous, and of the firft rank; and among his correfpondents

THU

were the emperor Maximilian, and Elizabeth queen of
England. He was confulted not only in all kinds of dif-
eafes, but on witchcraft, magic, and other fuch matters.
His printing-prefs was in high eftimation. By printing,
and the fale of his MSS. and prefcriptions, he acquired great
wealth. For the MSS. the elector, John Gruge, gave him
gooo dollars ; and there was formerly in the king’s library at
Berlin, a MS. entitled «‘ De Tranfmutatione Veneris in So-
lem,” for which an annual penfion of 600 dollars was fettled
on him and his children. He was the firft perfon who formed
a colleétion of natural curiofities in the Marche of Branden-
burg. He had alfo a garden filled with plants for the ftudy
of botany, and a menagerie, containing a colleétion of various
animals from all parts of the world. In 1575 he loft his
fecond wife, who arranged all his affairs with great pru-
dence ; and this was the era of his downfall. From opulence
he was reduced to poverty. His reputation as a phyfician
declined. Dr. Hoffman of Francfort, in his oration “ De
Barbarie Imminente,’’ was formidable to his credit, and he
contrived means to prevent its being printed till the year
1578. Thurneifier, fearing utterly to lofe his charaéter,
prepared for his departure from Berlin, and retired to
Bafle, where, in 1580, he married a third wife. Withdrawing
from domettic difquiet into Italy, he is faid to have con-
verted, in the prefence of the grand duke, Francefco de
Medici, one half of aniron nail into gold. This fingular man
died in 1595, or 1596, in a monattery at Cologne, after re-
queiting that his bedy might be interred clofe to that of
Albert the Great. A lift of his works is given by Haller
in his Bibliotheca. Gen. Biog.

THUROTZ, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which
runs into the Waag, 12 miles N. of St. Martin. It gives
name to a county. :

THURROCK GRAYS, or Great Tuurrock, a
market-town in the hundred of Chafford, and county of Effex,
England ; is fituated 22 miles S.S.W. from Chelmsford,
and 24 miles E. by S. from London. It acquired the ap-
pellation of Grays from the noble family of that name, who
poffeffed the manor for upwards of three centuries, from the
year 1194, when it was granted to them by king Richard I.
The town confifts principally of one irregular bia on the
banks of a {mall creek from the Thames, navigable for hoys
and veffels of fmall burthen. A weekly market is held on
Thurfdays, chiefly for the fale of corn, and is much fre-
quented: here is alfo an annual fair. The church is built
in the form of a crofs, with a tower on the north fide.
By the return under the population aét of the year 1811,
this parifh was ftated to contain 214 houfes, and 1055 in-
habitants.

In the adjacent parifhes of Chadwell and Little Thurrock
are various caverns, or holes, of unequal depths and dimen-
fions, formed in the chalk, which here conftitutes the upper
ftratum: they appear to open from the top by a narrow
circular paflage, which near the bottom begins to fpread,
and communicates with fubterranean apartments of dif-
ferent forms. Dr. Derham: meafured fix of thefe caverns,
and reports them to be of various depths, from fifty to eighty
feet. ‘The origin of thefe excavations is uncertain; the
opinion of fome modern writers, that they were the gra-
naries of the Britons, feems by far the moft rational fuppo-
fition. They are alfo called Dane Holes, and traditionally
reported to have been ufed as receptacles or hiding-places
for plunder during the frequent incurfions of the Danes into
this ifland.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Effex ;
by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftians’ week, but
the fixth of that of the Jews. See THor and Werk,

‘ THURSDAY,

THU

Tuurspay, Holy. See Hoty.

Tuourspay, Maunday. See Maunvay Thurfday.

THURSIO, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of fifh mentioned
by Pliny, lib. ix. cap.g: It is thought by fome to be the
phocena, or porpefs ; and by others the fturgeon.

THURSO, or Tuorsan, in Geography, a market-town
ia the fhire of Caithnefs, Scotland, is fituated on the northern
fide of the coaft, at the extremity of a fpacious bay, on the
eftuary of ‘the river Thurfo, at the diftance of 279 miles N.
feom Edinburgh. The town is irregularly built. A new
town, ona regular plan, has been lately commenced at
Thurfo, in Loiehuaicn of which, the inclofed lands let for
five guineas per acre per annum. Here is a fine bay or
harbour, which is progreffively much improved in conve-
nience and fecurity. Eight veffels belong to the town, and
are chiefly employed in conveying falmon to London.
Although the cuftoms of this port are very inconfiderable,
yet the Pillows officers are regularly ftationed here ; a col-
le&tor, comptroller, land-furveyor, land-waiter, two efta-
blifhed tidefmen, and one extraordinary tidefman. Thurfo
is a borough of barony, holding of fir John Sinclair as im-
mediate fuperior. The charter of ereétion was granted by
Charles I. in 1633, in favour of John Matter, of Berriedale,
by which it was entitled “to all the privileges, immunities,
and jurifdiGtions, belonging to a free borough of barony in
Scotland.’”’ It is governed by two baillies and twelve coun-
fellors, who are appointed by the fuperior, and hold their
offices during his pleafure. A well-fupplied market is held
on Fridays ; and here are two annual fairs, one of which
continues for ten days. The principal manufaéture of the
town is coarfe linen cloth; in the neighbourhood are a
bleach-field and a tannery, both of which are profperous.
In the population return of the year 1811, the town and
parifh of Thurfo were eftimated to contain 592 houfes, in-
habited by 3462 perfons. ‘The parifh extends about three
miles from the town in every direétion, except to the north-
welt, where it is bounded by the fea. The rocks that
bound the coaft exhibit various fcenes of natural grandeur.
The Clett is an infulated rock about 160 yards long and 80
broad ; it is elevated about 400 feet above the furface of
the fea; and during the {pring feafon, is frequented by in-
numerable flocks of fea-fowls.

Thurfo Eatt, anciently called Thurfo Caftle, once the refi-
dence of the earls of Caithnefs, is now the feat of fir John
Sinclair, bart. a native of Thurfo ; a gentleman whofe exer-
tions will ever be revered by men of {cience for «The Sta-
tiftical Account of Scotland.’ In the park are the ruins
of a {mall chapel, where earl Harold the younger was buried,
and where a neat modern monument has been ereéted by
the above-mentioned baronet.— Beauties of Scotland, vol. v.
Carlifle’s Topographical Diétionary of Scotland, vol. ii.

Tuurso, a river of Caithnefs, which runs into the fea, at
the town of Thurfo.

THURUS, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a creature
defcribed by Gefner, and fome others, as a diftin& {pecies of
wild bull; but the accounts of it feem either fabulous or
miftaken defcriptions of the wild bull.

THURY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonne; 10 miles S.E. of St. Fargeau.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Oile suey
miles S.E. of Crefpy.

THUS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Khoraffan ;
200 miles N.N.W. of Herat.

Tuus, a river of Perfia, which rifes near Mefghid, in
pe and runs into the Cafpian fea, 40 miles N.W. of

aweh.

Tuus, See FRANKINCENSE.

TIBNW:

Tuvus Judzorum, called alfo cafcarilla and cortex elen-
therie, in the Materia Medica, is the bark probably of the-
fhrub defcribed by Catéfby, under the name of ricinoides
eleagni folio or ilathera, the croton cafcarilla of Linnzus,,

which grows plentifully in moft of the Bahama iflands 5_

thence it is brought to us in curled pieces, or rolled up into
fhort quills, about an inch wide; covered on the outfide-
with a rough whitifh matter; and brownifh within ; and
exhibiting, when broken, a fmooth clofe blackifh-brown
furface. The bark, freed from the outer coat, has a light
agreeable {mell, and a moderately bitter tafte, accompanied
with a confiderable aromatic warmth. It is eafily inflam-
mable, and yields, whilft burning, a fragrant {mell, fome-
what refembling that of mufk. Stiffer was the firft who
employed this bark as a medicine in Europe ; who relates
that a tin€ture of it in alkalized vinous fpirits, or in dulci-
fied alkaline {pirits, proved carminative-and diuretic, and did
fervice in arthritic and fcorbutic cafes. In 1694 and 1695,
it was employed by Apinus in an epidemic fever of the in-
termittent kind. ‘The gentlemen of the French’ Academy
found this bark of excellent fervice againft an epidemic
dyfentery in 1719, when the ipecacuanha proved ineffectual.
At prefent it is of great efteem among the Germans, as a
warm ftomachic and corroborant, in flatulent colics, in-

ternal hemorrhages, dyfenteries, the diarrhoea of acute.
fevers, and, mixed with the Peruvian bark, in common in-.

termittents.—Among us it* has been lately received into
practice ; but its ufe, fays Dr. Lewis, is not yet become fo
general as it well deferves to be. Its virtues are partially
extraéted by water, and totally by reétified fpirits. Lewis’s
Mat. Med.

Tuus, in Sea Language, the order by which the pilot di-
reéts the helm{man to keep the fhip in her prefent fituation
when failing with a feant wind, fo that fhe may not approach
too near the direétion of the wind, and thereby fhiver her
fails, nor fall to leeward, and run farther out of her courfe.
Falconer. See STEERING.

THUSCUS Vicus, in Ancient Geography, the name of
one of the feven mountains of Rome, called alfo Ccelius Mons,

THUTHOA, a river of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,,
which difcharges itfelf into the Ladon.

THUYA, in Botany. See Tuugsa. e

THWAITE, in Ichthyology. See SHAap. 5

THWART, in a boat, the feat or bench of a boat on

which the rowers fit to manage the oars. Hence thoughts,
(which fee, ) is ufed in the fame fenfe.
Tuwart the Haw/fe, in Sea Language. See ATHWART.

Tuwarr Ships, acrofs the fhips. See ATHWART. _

Tuwart the Way, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Straits of Sunda. S. lat. 5° s5!. E. long. 105° 43/.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland in a bay on the coaft of New Guinea,
S. lat. 2° 15!. E. long. 136° 54!.

THWARTER, Trems.ina, or Leaping-Til, a difeafe _

in fheep, of the fhaking, jumping, and conyulfive kind.
Thefe different terms, fine of which were formerly par-
ticularly ufed in one part and another in another, efpecially
in the northern diftri&ts of the kingdom, are now faid to be
had recourfe to indifferently, and applied indifcriminately to
all difeafes which, on a dry foil, proceed from a weak and
enfeebled ftate of body and barren feafons. Under this
threefold name, fome fay they have feen fheep fuffering b
difeafes, which at leaft had much refemblance to thofe ue
feveral other forts, as the apopleétic, paralytic, rheumatic,
&e.; and that even when an old fheep falls down, and
dies of weaknefs and exhaultion, the manner of its death
differing fomewhat from that of the hog-fheep, it is frequently
aforibed by fhepherds to the thwarter or trembling-ill.

10 There

HW

There is, on the whole, fo much contrariety of opinion,
and diverfity in the defcriptions of the difeate, its caufes,
and the means of cure, that the writer of a paper on fome
of the difeafes of fheep, in the third volume of the “ Tranf-
aétions of the Highland Society of Scotland,’’ has divided
and confidered it under two diftin& f{pecies.

The rf variety, it is faid, is much more rare than for-
merly, and is fearcely known in the Highlands of the above
country. It appears moftly in the fpring and _harvelt
feafons. It affects fheep of all ages and kinds, but never
when in good condition, exifting chiefly on dry farms, which
have a northern expofure, and which are evidently over-
ftocked ; but on thefe only when the fpring is fevere and

_ dry, or when early April erafs has been cut down by frofts,

and the fheep can find no fucculent food or any thing green.
‘Its produétion is favoured by a long continuance of eafterly
winds ; and in cold weather, ewes are fometimes attacked by
it, even after they are fleeced. In thefe circumftances they
become extremely emaciated, efpecially when heavy with
lamb in many of them, or giving fuck; and when at this
time they get an overitretch in running or leaping, or even

an hafty ftart, or crufh in the fold, numbers fall a prey to

this diforder.

The appearances are, that fome fheep, it is faid, will fall
down and die in two or three minutes ; others will lofe the
power of one fide, and lie fprawling until they die of hunger ;
others again will lie fhivering, and very fick at times, until
death alfo comes on; and fome will goa long time quite
dame, until they are likewife quite exhaufted. Others defcribe
it as of two kinds ; in one, fometimes feizing the whole fyitem,
when there is a general trembling over the whole body, and
in the other, fometimes affeCting the legs only, when the
animal immediately falls down, and the fhaking, which is
uninterrupted, is confined to the legs. Some fay that the
animal gradually lofes the power of its legs and body, until
it becomes quite weak, always lying at laft upon one fide.
‘Thofe fheep which die of it in fpring, are lean and ufelefs ;
but the mutton of fat hog-fheep carried off by it in the
autumn is not uneatable. It is fometimes extremely fatal.
In one inftance, out of a fiock of forty {core, feventeen
{core were, it is ftated, loft in one fpring. It was formerly
thought to be contagious, and although this can fcarcely be
the cafe, it is certainly moft deftruétive when it firft comes
among a flock ; and when fheep are brought from a clean
ae to one infected with it, great numbers of them are

ure ef dying. Thofe which furvive it one feafon, are fure
to relapfe the next f{pring.

Udder-locking fhould be entirely laid afide, as in one in-
ftance, one-twentieth of a large parcel of ewes is faid to
have died of the difeafe, in the courfe of a week after they
had been udder-locked. See Unprr-Locking.

_ It is alfo faid to be ufeful during the early {pring months
to provide them with fufficient food and fhelter; and to
avoid overftocking, if the early grafs has been blighted, to
patture them in a rich park or other ground, on water-
meadow, or on mofs and early rye-grafs.

The /econd variety of the difeafe is, it is remarked, chiefly
confined, in the above part of the kingdom, to the flocks in
the fouth of it, more efpecially about the banks of the river
Tweed, and of thofe which difcharge themfelves into it.
It is faid to be a complaint almoft unknown to the farmers
on the Pentland range, and to the north of the Forth.
In thofe places where it prevails, it is fometimes peculiarly
fatal, and a farmer often lofes more of the flock by it alone,
than all the other difeafes put together.

The appearances when it firft comes on, which is gene-
rally during the, fummer or harveit months, are, that the

Vou. XXXV.

TH W

animal turns fomewhat ftupid and neglects its food, dozes
round, in fome meafure, as in the fturdy, and frequently
leaps up, as if to clear any buth or dike before it; at times,
it will eat voracioufly, and again refufe all fuftenance for a
confiderable time. _ It continues frequently leaping during
the day, and the neck is often ftiff, and turned on one fide 3
convulfions take place in the limbs which caufe the animal to
fall down, make curious contortions, and at times run to a
little diftance ; the body fometimes partakes:of thefe, when
the fheep becomes totally incapable of motion, and dies from
want of food, which the jaws will not open to admit, being
clofely wedged together. In this ftate, it is unable to fol-
low the flock, and the wool claps to the body. It lies for a
long time motionlefs, and at length dies. After lying

motionlefs for a confiderable time, in thofe cafes where

the difeafe is not fo violent, and the fpafm of the jaw not

fo fevere, it gradually relaxes, and the fheep will eat the

whole of the food within reach quite bare, although the

power of the limbs is totally gone, leaving the earth quite

red and naked all round them. If the fhepherd be at-

tentive, and lifts them from place to-place, and the feafon be

pretty well advanced, they often flowly recoyer, and are

again reftored to the ufe of their limbs. When they lie in

this ina¢tive ftate, if the weather be warm, maggots are very °
an to breed in them ; and if not attended to, foon deftroy
them.

The difeafe moftly appears at the periods ftated above,
efpecially during hot and fultry weather, and arifes either
from the fheep being put into violent motion by dogs, or
overheated by the fun ; in which cafes, in a few hours after-
wards, it makes its appearance by the {tiff neck, or fome of
the other figns coming on. When the fheep are expofed
to fatigue, it will ee place, if the weather be warm,
independent of violent motion. They are commonly the
fatteft of the flock that are cut off by it. It not unfre-
quently arifes from the braxy, of which it is moftly a fa-
vourable fign. Itis never fevere, however, when it is the
confequence of that difeafe, and the ftiff neck never accom-
panies it.

In regard to the means of cure in the frf fort, they
are various. When the fheep fall down fuddenly, and
are threatened with immediate death, bleeding, by cutting
the tail, or opening a.vein on the infide of the fore-thigh,
will fometimes give inftantaneous relief.’ In all the other
cafes it is proper to take them home and feed them with
ftrengthening food; and if at this time they be attacked
with a temporary fcouring, they moftly recover very faft, and
foon acquire their former vigour. It is faid that fome few
means of cure are occafionally tried, but it is believed with
little fuccefs. Dipping in cold water is not unfrequently
practifed ; whifky and gunpowder are fometimes poured
down their throats; and balls of muftard and other hot
pungent medicines are often adminiftered. Others recom-
mend bringing them into the houfe, giving them a mixture
of equal quantities of fallad oil and fpirits, with a little
finely powdered ginger, and at the fame time rubbing into
the back a little black foap broken in warm water, and
feeding them on hay, the produce of dry walks or other
grounds.

The giving of the fheep a decoétion of the dewcup and
healing leaf boiled in butter-milk, is faid to have been uni-
formly fuccefsful in treating fheep affected with this diforder
during the fummer and autumn. -

In the removal of the /econd kind of the difeafe, as it
arifes from the brain being oppreffed, by too much bload
being fent to it by the quickened circulation, the firft thing
to be attended to on its appearance is copious blood-letting,

4G which

Tin

which will be more effectual if taken from the veins of the
neck, or from a vein on the outfide of the eye, moftly well
known to fhepherds. It may even be taken from the tail, or
fore-leg ; but opening of the veins of the head is gener-
ally confidered as the moft proper and beneficial in this
{pecies of the complaint. As there is too great a deter-
mination of blood to the head, it will be attended with ad-
vantage to make a determination to the bowels, by ftimu-
lating them by means of purgatives, fuch as thofe of com-
mon falts, one ounce or more; calomel, from ten grains to half
a drachm ; or, what is fuppofed more proper, as it alfo acts
upon the kidneys and fkin, a dofe of half an ounce or more
of nitre. Thefe remedies are to be perfevered in, until all
marks of the difeafe difappear. But if the fheep be too far
gone in the diforder, and has loft all motion, it fhould be
killed for the fake of the carcafe, which in this fpecies of
the difeafe is not affected, or at leaft but very flightly.

In the managing of the cure, much nice attention is ne-
ceflary in both kinds of this difeafe.

THY, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia ;
7 miles N. of Marienburg.

THYAMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelo-

onnefus, in Sicyonia. Xenophon.

THYAMIS, a town of Arachofia, founded by Semi-
ramis.—Alfo, a promontory of Epirus, between Thefpro-
tia and Ceftrinia.

THYARIS,a river of Afia,in Phrygia Salutaris, which’

paffed through the northern part of this province, and dif-
charged itfelf into the Sangara.

THYATIRA, Axuisar, a town of Afia Minor, in
Lydia. According to Steph. Byz. it was very ancient,
and called Pelope, Pelopea, or Pelopia, and afterwards Semi-
ramis. According to Pliny it was alfo denominated Evippa.
It derived its name of Thyatira, from the Greek word fignify-
ing daughter, from Seleucus Nicanor, who received the news,
as it is faid, at this town of the birth of a daughter. From
an infcription found in this city, it appears that Adrian had
a temple in it ; and medals have been found here that were
ftruck in honour of Adrian. Strabo fays that the town of
‘Thyatira was confidered by fome authors as the laft of the
diftri& of Myfia, and that it was a colony of Macedonians.
After Scipio had defeated Antiochus near Magnefia of
Sipyla, the town of Thyatira fent ambaffadors to the Ro-
mans, to render them homage. Thyatira was taken by
Ariftonicus, in the year 130 B.C.; but this prince having
been taken prifoner in the fame year by the conful Perpenna,
this town reverted to the dominion of the Romans. ‘Thya-
tira was much diftinguifhed by the benefactions of the empe-
ror Caracalla; and it appears by a medal of this town, that
under the reign of this prince it took the name of Neocorus.
This place was one of the feven churches of Afia, mentioned
inthe book of Revelations ; fo that the Chriftian religion was
introduced here by the apoftles and their immediate difci-
ples; but whether the church was founded by St. Paul or
St. John, or by either of them, does not appear.

The inhabitants of Thyatira had a particular veneration
for Diana. This appears from many infcriptions found in
the town, on one of which this goddefs bears the title of
«© Diana Montana.”? The town was fituated at the fouthern
foot of a chain of mountains, on the route from Pergamus
to Sardis, and it was watered by a ftream of the river Caicus.
The town fuffered much by an earthquake in the reign of
Tiberius. See AKnisar.

THYIA, Ou-, in Antiquity, a feftival in honour of Bac-
chus, celebrated by the Eleans.

“THYITES Lapis, inthe Materia Medica of the An-
cients, the name of an indurated clay, approaching to the

@-HY

nature of a ftone. It was found in Egypt, and ufed in dif-
temperatures of the eyes. .

This fubftance has been very much mifunderftood by
late writers, and by moft of them fuppofed to be loft at this
time ; but this was wholly owing to their miftaking the clafs
of bodies among which they were to look for it: fome ima-
gining it to have been a fpecies of green marble ; and others
the turquoife-ftone, that Diofcorides meant by this name.
It is very plain, however, that it was no other than an indu-
rated clay of the morochthus kind, and no more a {tone than
that fubitance, that being alfo frequently called Japis mo-
rochthus.

It is of afmooth, even, and regular texture, very heavy,
of a fhining furface, and of a pale green, without the ad-
mixture of any other colour. It does not at all adhere to
the tongue, nor ftain the fingers in handling; but drawn
along a rough furface, leaves a flender white line. It melts
flowly in the mouth, and is of a fharp, acrid, and difagree-
able tafte ; and when rubbed down with water on a marble,
it melts into a milky liquor of a pure white, not the leaft
greennefs being fenfible in it. It is found at prefent in the
great mine at Goffelar in Saxony, and feems to owe its co-
lour to particles of copper, to which alfo it owes the virtues
attributed to it by Diofcorides, aéting as a weak kind of
verdigris. Hill.

THYLACION, a word ufed by the ancient medical
writers, to exprefs the bag formed by the membranes of
the foetus at the orifice of the pudenda, before the birth.

THYLLA, ©vaaz, in Antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Venus.

THYMALLUS, in Ichthyology. See Grayuine, and
Saumo Thymallus.

THYMATERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Libya, two days’ journey beyond the columns of
Hercules, according to the Periplus of Hannon: it is the
Thymateria of Steph. Byz. ;

THYMBRA, atown of Afia Minor, in the Troade, ac-
cording to Steph. Byz. who fays that it was founded by
Dardanus, who gave it its name after that of his friend
Thymbros. ‘Apollo had a temple here under the appellation

of Thymbrian. Strabo fays that a ftream called Tym-—

brius traverfed its canton, and that this ftream difcharged
itfelf into the Scamander, before the temple of Apollo.
Servius fays that Achilles was wounded here by Paris ; and
this circumftance gave occafion to the report that the wound
was inflicted by Apollo.

Tuymsra, or 7ymbra, a mountain of Afia, in Phrygia.

Tuymsra, in Botany, a name borrowed from Die /
rides, whofe real $uu@ec, however, is a {pecies of Satu-
REIA ; fee that article, n. 3. Linnzus therefore has adoptéd
the above name for another Greek genus, nearly akin to the
original plant—Linn. Gen. 288. Schreb. 385. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 46. Mart. Mill. Di@. v.4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 375. Sm. Prod. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 398.
Juff. 115. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 512.—Clafs and order, Di-
dynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn.
Labiate, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, nearly cy.
lindrical, with a longitudinal hairy keel at each fide, the ori-
fice two-lipped ; upper lip broadeft, cut half way down into
three equal converging fegments ; lower in two deep narrower
fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringent ; tube nearly cylin-
drical ; upper lip flat, erect, cloven, obtufe ; lower in three,
nearly equal, flat lobes. Svam. Filaments four, thread-
fhaped, approaching each other in pairs, two of them fhorter
than the reft ; anthers of two divaricated lobes, under the
upper lip of the corolla. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, te

cleft ;

TH.Y

cleft ; ftyle thread-fhaped, cloven a little way down ; ftig-
mas two, acute, Peric. none, except the unaltered calyx.
Seeds four.

Eff. Ch. Calyx nearly cylindrical, two-lipped, marked
on each fide with a hairy prominent line. Style cloven.

1. Th. /picata. Spike-flowered Thymbra. Linn. Sp. Pl.
795- Willd. nv 1. Ait. n.r. Sm. Fi. Gree. Sibth.
t. 546, unpublifhed. (Th. fpicata verior hifpanica ; Barrel.
Ic. t. 1230. Thymum majus longifolium, &c.; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 116. f. 5.)—Flowers fpiked. Leaves lanceolate.—Na-
tive of the Levant, on dry hills. Dr. Sibthorp met with
the plant in Crete, Afia Minor, and Greece, and conceived
it to be the ucowzo; opso:, or Mountain Hyflop, of Diofco-
rides, which is extremely probable. The /fem is fhrubby,
very bufhy, about a foot high, with numerous, upright,
fimple, leafy, purplifh, quadrangular branches, whofe op-
pofite fides are often denfely downy, in an alternate manner
between the different pairs of leaves, the pubefcence recurved.
Leaves oppofite, feffile, crowded, fpreading, acute, entire,
about an inch long, {mooth on each fide, befprinkled with
refinous dots, and fringed at the margin with copious white
hairs. They are accompanied by axillary tufts of fmaller
and narrower leaves. flowers of a fine reddifh purple, in
folitary, terminal, denfe, leafy, whorled /pikes, from two to
four inches long. Calyx reddifh, abounding in effential oil,
fmooth and naked, without ribs, except the lateral line at
each fide, which is fringed, as well as the teeth, with
ftrong white hairs. Braéieas lanceolate, fringed, purplith.
Tube of the corolla twice the length of the calyx, fomewhat
downy ; lower lip deflexed, in three obtufe equal fegments,
hairy about the throat. The whole herb has the warm pun-
gent flavour of Thyme, and the afpeét of Hyflop.

2. Th. verticillata. Whorl-flowered Thymbra. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 796. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (Hyffopus mon-
tana; Dalech. Hift. 934; not 394, as. Willdenow, copy-
ing Linneus’s typographical error, has it.) — Flowers
whorled. Leaves linear-lanceolate.—Native of the fouth
ef Europe.. The fem is fhrubby, but more flender than
the laft, hairy in the fame manner, but more univerfally.
Leaves much narrower, dotted and fringed in the fame
manner. Flowers axillary, from top to bottom of each
branch ; thofe of the principal one fix in each whorl; thofe
of the lateral branches only two. In ftruéture, fize and co-
lour they agree with the foregoing, only the calyx has fome
appearance in the dried fpecimen of being more ribbed. Its
lateral keels, as well as the teeth, are ftrongly fringed. Ne-
verthelefs, the general hue and afpeét of thefe two plants are
fo much alike, that there feems great reafon for Linnzus’s
fufpicion of their being varieties of each other. At the
back of the original fpecimen of this laft is the following
fynonym. ‘Tragoriganum creticum, majore craffiore afpe-
riori folio ; Brot. Alpin. Exot. 79. So confufed is this
old author, that one can hardly tell which of his plates his
loofe defcriptions refer to; but our plant certainly agrees
better with his Thymbra, t. 80, than with his Tragoriganum,
t. 78, though the above fynonym feems to indicate the
latter.

3- Th. ciliata. Capitate-flowered Thymbra. Desfont.
Atlant. v. 2. 10. t.122. Willd. n. 3.—Flowers capitate.
Leaves linear. Braéteas ovate.—Found by Desfontaines, on
dry hills and uncultivated {pots, near Mafcar, in Algiers. A
fmall bufhy /brub, from eight to twelve inches high, agree-
ing much in habit with the two preceding fpecies ; but the
feaves are linear ; while the braGeas are broader and more
ovate, as well as the /pikes much fhorter, than in the TA.
ee The saves are equally fringed in all. Nothing is

aid, or exprefled in the figure, of any hairy lateral lines on

THY

the calyx, the moft important character of Thymbra. Having
feen no.{pecimen of this fpecies, we cannot judge with cer-
tainty refpecting its genus, nor whether it might not rather
be referred to SATUREIA, fee that article ; but we cannot fa-
tisfa€torily affent to the opinion of its learned difcoverer,
that thefe genera are not fufficiently diftn@. The calyx in
the natural order to which they belong affords, in many in-
{tances, clear, though nice, generic differences. At the fame
time we admit that Linneus is incorreét in making a femi-
bifid ftyle, by which mutt be underftood a ftyle cloven half
way down, one of the eflential marks of a Thymbra.

Tuymsra, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the under
fhrubby, exotic kind, among which the {pecies cultivated are
the {piked thymbra (T. fpicata) ; and the whorled thymbra
(T. verticillata).

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, flips, and cuttings. The feeds fhould be fown in the
early {pring in a warm border, and fheltered from bad wea-
ther by glaffes; or, which is better, in pots filled with
light mould, and placed ina mild hot-bed : when the plants
have attained fome growth, they fhould be fet out or removed
into feparate pots.

The flips and cuttings fhould be planted out in the {pring
and fummer, and when well rooted, removed where they are
to grow: they alfo fometimes fucceed by bottom offsets,
planted out as above. ‘

They afford variety among other potted greenhoufe
plants ; and require the proteétion of fuch houfes during the
winter feafon, in this climate, in almoft all fituations and
places.

THYMBR EUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a moun-
tain of Afia Minor, in the Troade ; from which, according
to Feftus, Apollo was denominated Thymbrian.

THYMBRIA3.a place of Ionia, four ftadia E.S.E. of
Myus. The cavern Charonium was near T'ymbria, which was
thought to be one of the mouths of Hell, becaufe from it
iffued peftilential vapours.

THYMBRIUM, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, at the
diftance of twelve parafangas from Cayftropedium. At this
place was a fountain, called the fountain of Midas, king of
Phrygia.

THYME, in Botany. See Tuymus.

In the Materia Medica, the common garden thyme is a
moderately warm pungent aromatic. ‘To water it imparts by
infufion its agreeable {mell, with a weak talte and yellowifh or
brown colour ; in diftillation, it gives over an effential oil, in
the quantity of about an ounce from thirty pounds of the
herb in flower, of a gold yellow colour if diftilled by a
gentle fire, of a deep brownith-red if by a {trong one, of a
penetrating fmell like that of the thyme itfelf, but lefs grate-
ful, and in tafte exceedingly hot and fiery: the remaining
decoGtion, infpiffated, leaves a bitterifh, roughtf{h, fubfaline
extract. The active matter, which by water is only par-
tially diffolved, is by reGtified {pirit diffolved completely,
though the tinCture difcovers lefs of the fmell of thyme than
the watery infufion ; and the fpirit brings over, in diftillation,
apart of its flavour, leaving an extraét of a weak {mell, and
of a penetrating camphorated pungency. Murray has ob-
ferved, that this plant feems a¢tually to contain a {pecies of
camphor.

The virtues of thyme, according to Bergius, are refolvent,
emmenagogue, diuretic, tonic, and ftomachic. As agreeing,
fays Woodville, in common with the natural order of verti-
cillate, its aromatic qualities may be found equally ufeful in
fome of thofe complaints for which lavender, fage, rofemary,
&c. are ufually employed.

The ferpyllum, or mother of thyme, is an elegant aromatic

4G2 plant,

sev (ie

plant, fimilar to the preceding fpecies, but milder, and in fla-
your rather more grateful ; its effential oil is both in {maller
quantity and lefs acrid, and its fpirituous extraét comes
creatly fhort of the penetrating warmth and pungency of
-that of the others, fo that it is lefs medicinal than the other
- fpecies. It is faid to afford an agreeable diftilled water,
more durable, but lefs aétive and penetrate than pepper-
mint. (Lewis.) This has been much extolled as a nervous
fimple. An infufion of it has been faid to do wonders in
tumours, lownefs of fpirits, and head-aches: and it has
been much commended for the cure of the night-mare.

The Jemon-thyme, which is a variety of the laft, is lefs
pungent than the firft fort, but more fo than the fecond, and
much more grateful than either. Diftilled with water, it
yields a larger quantity than the other forts, of a yellowith
very fragrant oil of the lemon-flavour, ‘containing nearly all
the nett parts of the plant. It gives over alfo, with
reGtified f{pirit, its finer odorous matter. Lewis.

"PuyMeE, Cat. See Teucrium Marum.

Tuyme, Maftich. See Tuymus Maftichina.

THYMELA, in Botany, front Syu0-, thyme, and Aue,
an olive, (the firft alluding to the leaf, and the latter to the
fhape and oilinefs of the fruit,) is an ancient Greek name,
found in Diofcorides, book 4. chap. 173. His Sunerci, there
deferibed, is thought to be the Daphne Gnidium of Lin-
neus; and mutt be at leaft one of that natural order, and,
probably, genus. Hence the name has been applied by
many botanifts, amongft which were the Bauhins and Tour-
nefort, to what Linnzus called Dapune; fee that article.
This latter appellation was preferred by him and his {chool,
becaufe a name compofed of another, already eftablifhed, is
contrary to a very found law of the Philofophia Botanica ;
and in the prefent inftance the word is compounded of two
other generic names, though one of them has been made
Latin in Ola. The French however {till hanker after Thy-
melea, as appears by Juffieu’s choofing it for the title of one
of his Orders. See THyMELHz.

THYMELZA, the twenty-fifth of Juffieu’s Natural
Orders, or the fecond of his fixth clafs, thus named from
an ancient fynonym of the genus Daphne, which makes a
principal figure herein. (See Dapune and TuyMEL#®A.)
This order is analogous to the Veprecule of Linneus. For
the detailed charaéters of Juffieu’s fixth clafs, fee Launt.
The order of Thymelee is defined as follows.

Calyx of one leaf, tubular, inferior. Corolla none; but
in fome inftances there are petal-like fcales, originating
from the mouth of the calyx, which have the appearance of
a polypetalous corolla. Stamens definite, inferted into the
calyx, and for the moft part double the number of its feg-
ments, fome being oppofite, others: alternate therewith.
Germen {uperior, fimple; ftyle folitary ; flizma moftly un-
divided. Seed folitary, fuperior, either naked, or pulpy,
or clothed with the calyx. LZmbryo dettitute of albumen ;
its radicle fuperior. Stem moftly fhrubby. Leaves generally
alternate.

We may add to thefe charaéters of Juffieu the remarkable
filky appearance of the inner bark, when a twig is broken.
Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 358, obferves that the
general number of /famens is eight, fometimes four, rarely
but two ; in the latter cafes always oppofite to the fegments
of the calyx, which are occafionally five, fometimes, not
always, with ten /lamens. The fame writer informs us there
is fometimes a flight portion of albumen. The /eaves are en-
tire, deftitute of /fipulas. Flowers capitate or {piked, ter-
minal or axillary, fometimes folitary.

The genera, as they ftand in Juflieu, are Dirca; Lagetta,
Lamarck Wluftr. t. 28953 Cansjera, Juff. appends 448 ;

ia

Daphne; Pafferina; Stellera; Struthiola; Lachnea; Dais 3
Gnidia; Neéandra of Bergius, included under Gnidia by
Linnzus ; and Qui/gualis. To thefe is to be added the
great diandrous genus of Pimelea, of which Mr. Brown de-
fines thirty-four New Holland fpecies. :

The order under confideration is one of thofe which has
moft excited the queftion of what is a calyx? and what a
corolla? and is appealed to equally by thofe who maintain
different theories on this intricate fubje@. It feems to us
that the Thymelee combine both thofe*parts in one, the co-
loured infide of their calyx having exactly the nature of a
corolla; which is confirmed by the remark of Juffieu, that
the tube of Daphne Mezereum is double, formed of two
layers. The appendages, in the form of fcales, or glands,
found in Gnidia and Struthicla, ave more evidently petals, and
would doubtlefs be univerfally taken for fuch, did not ana-
logy and theory caft a doubt over the fubje&t. At any rate
it is fafe to fay that Daphne has a coloured calyx, as well as
mokt of its allies ; juft like Polygonum, in the generally co-
lourlefs order of Holeracee, or Atriplices.

TuyMEL#£x Radix, in the Materia Medica, the dried
root of the thymelza foliis lini of Tournefort and other
authors. .

It is a light root of different fizes, of a reddifh colour
without, and greyifh within, woody, and full of fibres, and

taftes {weet at firit, but is hot as fire when it has been held

a little time in the mouth. It lofes however both this fiery
tafte, and its acrid quality, in long keeping, and with them
its virtues. ‘

It is to be chofen new, well fed, and not worm-eaten.
The fruit of this plant is the granum cnidium of the fhops.
They are both of an acrid quality, and are not in ufe in the
fhops at. prefent.

THYMELE, in Biosraphy, a celebrated female Grecian,
who invented theatrical dances. It is fuppofed that the
Greeks called their comedians Thymelici from her name.

TuyYMELE, in the Ancient Theatre, a kind of pulpit, where
the fingers, called shymelici, performed.

THYMELICI, among the Romans, were muficians,
who fung in the interludes, or who danced and kept time’
with their geftures. The place where they performed was
called thymelce, whence Juvenal, vi. 66. .

« Attendit thymele, thymele nunc ruitica difcat.”

THYMIAMA, Svpieusx, in Antiquity, an offering of in-
cenfe to God.

Tuymiama, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
fome authors have called the cafcarilla bark ; called by fome
cortex thuris, or Indian bark. (See Tuus Judeorum.) The
cortex thymiamatis of the German fhops is a bark, in {mall
brownifh-grey pieces, intermixed with bits of leaves, brought
from Syria, Cilicia, &c. and fuppofed to be the produce of
the liquid ftorax-tree. It has an agreeable balfamic fmell,
approaching to that of liquid itorax, and a fubacid bitterifh
taite accompanied with fome flight aftringency. Cartheufer
and Hoffman report, that it affords an excellent fumigation -
for eedemas, rheumatifms, and catarrhs; and that the fpi-
rituous tin@ture and extraét, and the diftilled fpirit, are
ufeful anodynes or.anti{pafmodics in convulfive coughs and
other diforders. It is rarely met with in this country.
Lewis.

THYMIAMATA, a kind of fumigations among the
ancients, the ingredients of which were fo various, that it
appears they always confulted utility as well as pleafure, in
their compofition of them.

We find the gum ammoniacum of the ancients, which
had the fmell of caftor, ufed in them: whence it is ee

that

ey

that the ancients ufed falutiferous as well as fweet-feented

things in thefe fumigations. Galbanum has a worfe {mell

than ammoniacum, and yet this alfo we find, together with

the myrrh, and other gums, is made an ingredient in the

oldeft prefcriptions of this kind.—And Pliny mentions the

ammoniacum with the fchananth, and other fweets, ufed
’ for this purpofe.

THYMIATUM, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Africa, in Libya, on the coaft of the Atlantic, according
to the Periplus of Hannon.

THYMIC, in Anatomy, arteries, veins, &c. belonging
to the thymus ; fee that article.

THYMIUM, a wart or excrefcence on the fkin.

THYMNIAS, in Ancient Geography, a gulf placed by
Pliny on the coaft of the Doride, a province of Afia Minor.
Here was a promontory of the fame name.

THYMOXALME, in the Materia Medica of the An-
cients, was a compofition ufed externally in the gout, and
many diforders of the limbs, and was given inwardly in dif-
temperatures of the ftomach, a quarter of a pint for a dofe.
It operated as a purge, and was prepared in the following
manner: take two ounces of bruifed thyme, as much falt,
a little meal, rue, and pennyroyal.—Thefe were to be put
into a pot, and three pints of water and fourteen ounces of
vinegar are to be poured upon them; after which they are to
be covered with a coarfe cloth, and fet in the fun for fome
time. Diofcorides, lib. v. cap. 24.

THYMUS, in Anatomy, a glandular body, occupying
the upper and anterior part of the cheft, and neighbouring
portion of the neck, very large in the feetus, and diminifhed
or nearly difappearing in the adult. The name is Greek,
-Suuo:, which Pollux defines “caro fimilis tonfille, prope
cordis caput ;’’ p. 258. The gland confifts of two lobes, a
right and left, which are elongated and conical, being
broader below and narrow above: they are joined by cellu-
lar fubftance, which can eafily be deftroyed by diffeétion, in
their inferior two-thirds, but above they are feparated by
the intervention of the trachea. The thymus, indeed, may
be defcribed as forming two elongated horns above, of which
the right is fometimes longer than the left : it alfo forms two
horns below; but they are fhorter, thicker, and more ob-
tufe. The principal body of the gland occupies the cavity
of the mediaftinum, or the interval between the right and
left pleure, behind the upper part of the fternum. Here it
is covered in front by that borte, on the fides by the pleure,
-and it refts behind on the front of the pericardium, of the
aorta at its origin, and of the left fubclavian vein. The in-
ferior cornua reach to about the middle of the pericardium ;
and fometimes nearly to the diaphragm: the fuperior run
into the neck, on each fide of the trachea, between that tube
and the carotid, and reach the thyroid gland, or nearly fo.

The thymus is large in the foetus; nearly equal to the
heart or one of the lungs. In a foetus of fix months, this
gland was to the kidney as 4 to 6. It not only does not in-
creafe after birth, but it becomes lefs, contains lefs fluid, is
harder, and is nearly loft in the furrounding fat. In the
mature foetus it weighed 160 and 180 grains; at twenty-
eight years, 90 grains. In a calf it was 16 ounces; in a
_full-grown cow, g ounces.

In ftru€ture it refembles the conglomerate glands: that
is, it is compofed of innumerable {mall portions, united by
cellular fubftance. By maceration thefe may be feparated
into fmaller and fmaller lobules. It is however fofter than
the pancreas or falivary glands, and of a darker colour.
When cut into, a copious whitifh fluid may be {queezed out
from all parts of its texture. If air be impelled into it, the
whole is reduced into a fpongy kind of fubftance.

8

ahs 2 i's

No excretory du& has been difcovered in the thymus 3
although anatomifts have fancied that they had difcovered
pafiages from it to the efophagus, trachea, pericardium, &c.

It has feveral arteries and veins: the former principally
from the thyroid and mammary. The veins join the left fub-
clavian, or the jugular, and the internal mammary.

The nerves, if it has any, are extremely {mall twigs from
the phrenic. Its abforbing veilels, which no doubt exitft,
are not much known.

It'is of confiderable fize, even in the adult, in fome ani-
mals, as the rat: the fame may be obferved of the Arétic
bear. It is large in fetaceous animals.

We know nothing of its office, nor why it is fo large in
the foetus. There is not even.a probable conjeéture on the
fubject.

Tuymus, a warty excrefcence, efpecially about the anus
or pudenda.

THYMUS, in Botany, Thyme ; duos of the Greeks, whe-
ther fo called from $yx0-, courage, in allufion to its cordial
qualities ; or from $vw, to glow or burn ; or to facrifice, becaufe
it may have been ufed in facrifick garlands ; we mutt leave to
every one’s opinion. The lait explanation appears the leaft
fatisfactory.—Linn. Gen. 297. Schreb. 394. . Willd. Sp.
Pl.v. 3. 138. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
Vv. 3.413. Sm. Fl. Brit. 639. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1.
419. Purfh 413. Juff. 115. Tourn. t. 93. Lamarck Iluftr.
t. 512.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. — Nat.
Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, per-
manent, divided nearly half way down into two lips, the
mouth clofed with converging hairs; upper lip broadeft, .
flat, ere€t, with three teeth ; lower of two equal awl-fhaped
fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringent ; tube the length of
the calyx, with a fmali throat ; upper lip rather the fhorteft,
flat, erect, emarginate, obtufe ; lower longer and broader,
{preading, in three obtufe lobes, of which the middle one is the
broadeft. Sam. Filaments four, incurved, two longer than
the reft ; anthers fmall, two-lobed. Pi/?. Germen fuperior,
deeply four-cleft; ftyle thread.fhaped; {tigma divided,
acute. Peric. none, the feeds being concealed in the calyx,
whofe orifice is contraéted and hairy. Seeds four, {mall,
roundifh.

Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped, its mouth clofed with hair.
Upper lip of the corolla flat, emarginate. ‘

The trifling genera of old authors, made out of the pre-
fent, though indicated by Linnzus, are not worth confi-
dering. It is more defirable to define the limits of Thymus
itfelf, which run very clofe upon thofe of Mrxissa ; fee that
article, at the end of which this fubjeé is difcuffed. The
number of {peeies in Syit. Veg. ed. 14. are eleven ; Will-
denow has 22. We fhall find fome things among them to
correct, and feveral new fpecies to add. The habit of the
whole is more or lefs fhrubby, but their ftature humble, with
{preading or diffufe branches. Root woody, generally pe-
rennial.. Branches {quare. Leaves oppofite, moitly entire.
Flowers either whorled or capitate, purple or lilac, fometimes
nearly white ; never really blue, fearlet or yellow. Whole
plant abounding with pungent aromatic effential oil. This
genus is almoit entirely European, and inhabits dry hilly
fituations, in the warmer or more temperate climes.

1. Th. Serpyllum. Wild Thyme, or Mother of Thyme.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 825. Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit.n. 1. Engl.
Bot. t. 1514. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 47. Woodv. Med.
Bot.‘t. rio. (Serpyllum; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t.42. S.
vulgare; Ger. Em. 570. Dod.Pempt.277. Vaill. Parif.
t, 32. f. 9, as well as the varieties 6, 7 and 8.)

8. Sere

THYMUS.

@. Serpyllum citratum ; Ger. Em. 571. Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t. 41. Lemon Thyme.
y+ Thymus lanuginofus ; Willd. n. 2. (Th. Serpyllum
5;/ Linn. Sp. Pl. 825. Th. pannonicus ; Allion. Pedem.
vy. 1.20. Th. n. 236. Hall. Hift. v. 1. 103. Serpyllum
montanum hirfutum ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 42.) Hoary
Mother of Thyme.
Flowers capitate. Stems decumbent, creeping. Leaves
flat, ovate, obtufe; fringed at the bafe.—Native of dry
heaths and hillocks, as well as alpine paftures, throughout
Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering all fummer
long. Its entangled branches form an elaftic perennial turf,
exhaling a warm aromatic odour when trodden upon, which
varies in degree, and, in the well-known variety 8, affumes
the grateful flavour of lemon-peel. The hoary or woolly
variety we believe to be no more fpecifically diftiné, not-
withftanding Willdenow’s remark, of its being unchanged
by culture ; for he does not mention having raifed it from
feed. The ffems of Th. Serpyllum are wiry and flender,
always wavy, never ftraight ; their branches leafy and downy,
afcending, each terminating in a little round head of numer-
ous purple flowers, whofe palate is variegated with white and
crimfon. Leaves dotted, ftrongly fringed at the bafe, as are
their footfalks throughout. Stipulas none. Bees frequent
the flowers in great numbers. Hairy fwellings, caufed by
aa infect, are common on the young fhoots. The /éeds are
rarely perfected.

2. Th. /evigatus. Smooth Arabian Thyme. Vahl.
Symb. v. 2. 65. Willd. n. 3. (Th. Serpyllum; Forflc.
fEgypt.-Arab. 107.)—‘* Flowers capitate. Stems pro-
cumbent. Leaves linear, obtufe, feffile ; contracted at the
bafe.””—Found by Forfkall, on mount Chadra, in Arabia
Felix. Stems fhrubby, thread-fhaped ; {mooth in the lower
part, villous above, grey, with jointed annulated dranches.
Leaves half as long as the nail, very fmooth, without ribs,
dotted on both fides ; fringed at the bafe. Head of flowers
feffile, terminal, hemifpherical, furrounded with numerous
larger leaves. Calyx marked with elevated hairy lines ; its
teeth awl-fhaped, fringed. Corolla rather hairy. Vabl.

3- Th. montana. Smooth Mountain Thyme. Waldtt.
et Kitaib. Hungar. y. 1.72. t.71. Willd. n. 13, excluding
the reft of the fynonyms, which belong to our Th. Serpyllum,
var. y. Ait. n. 7.—Flowers in elongated heads. Stem
ereét, branched. Leaves ovate, obtufe, flat, {mooth and
naked, entire.—Native of the Carpathian mountains. We
received it from the Cambridge garden, in 1803. The root
is perennial, with many long branching fibres. Stem a {pan
high, bufhy ; the angles downy, with fine recurved hairs.
Leaves talked, broadly ovate, {lightly revolute ; very {mooth
and even above ; deftitute of fringe at the bafe. nflore/cence
like TA. Serpyllum, but rather more elongated, or fpiked,
and the flowers {maller, with a much lefs hairy, though not
fmooth, calyx, the hairs of whofe orifice are {carcely promi-
nent at all, by no means fo confpicuous as in the Serpyllum.

4- Th. nummularius. Money-wort Thyme. Marfch. a
Bieberft. Taur. v. 2. 58.—Flowers capitate. Stems de-
cumbent, creeping, hairy. Leaves roundifh-ovate, flat, ob-
tufe; fomewhat Fiaaed at the bafe and midrib.—Native of
mount Caucafus. We received wild fpecimens from Dr.
Fifcher. This has a very different afpeét from Th. Serpyl-
dum, on account of its almoft orbicular /eaves, and the he-
mifpherical leafy heads of flowers. Every part moreover is
three or four times the fize of that common fpecies. ‘The
joints of the /fem are remarkably villous in their upper part,
efpecially near the fowers. Sometimes, it is faid, the whole
plant is denfely hairy.

5. Th. Marfchallianus. Bufhy Taurizn Thyme.

4

Willd.

n. 8. Marfch. a Bieberft. Taur. v. 2. 59.—Flowers in
elongated heads. Stem fhrubby ; its flowering branches ere.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, bluntifh, flat, fomewhat triple-
ribbed ; fringed at the bafe. Frequent in dry grafly hilly
places, about mount Caucafus, flowering from May to Au-
guft. This feems by the defcription more akin to Th. Ser-
pyllum than to Th. Zygis, for which latter it was taken by
Pallas. The /fem is procumbent, fending up numerous
fimple flowering-branches, fix inches high, downy in the
upper part. Leaves eight lines long, one and a half broad,
on very fhort ftalks. Calyx hairy, ftriated. It varies with
leaves but half as broad.

6. Th. vulgaris. Common Garden Thyme. Linn. Sp. Pl.
825. Willd. n. 4. Ait.n. 2. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 109.
(Thymum durius; Ger. Em. 573.)—Stem fhrubby, much
branched, ere&t. Leaves ovate, revolute. Whorls crowded
inte leafy fpikes——Found on {tony hills in Spain, Portu-
gal, the fouth of France, Greece, and the Archipelago.
Common in gardens, flowering during fummer. The
Jftem is bufhy, woody and rigid. Leaves a quarter of an
inch long, various in breadth, downy, of a greyifh hue,
numerous, with little axillary tufts of fmaller ones.
Flowers {mall, light purple, in hairy heads, or fhort {pikes,
with two or three remote whorls beneath. Calyx-teeth
ftrongly fringed. This has ufually a warm pungent fla-
vour, like Winter Savory; but there is a fweet-fcented
variety, called Frankincenfe-Thyme, differing in no other
re{pect from the common fort, which is commonly cul-
tivated in Norfolk, and highly grateful to moft people.
The 6vyo; of Diofcorides is not, as Bauhin fuppofed, this
plant, but Satureja capitata.

7. Th. lanceolatus. Lanceolate Thyme. Desfont. At-
lant. v. 2. 30. t. 128. Willd. n..5. Prodr. Fl. Grec.
n. 1396.—Stem fhrubby, ere. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
obtufe, entire, downy, flat. Whorls crowded into a denfe
{pike.—Found by profeffor Desfontaines, flowering in the
early {pring, on mount Atlas, and by profeffor Sibthorp in
hilly places in Greece. Root creeping, woody. Stems nu-
merous, fimple or branched, about fix inches high, downy.
Leaves near an inch long, and one-third as broad, rather
crowded ; yeiny and dotted beneath. Spikes two inches
long, interfperfed with lanceolate braéteas. Calyx downy.
Corolla purple, glandular, about the fize of the laft.

8. Th. numidicus. Numidian Thyme. Desfont. At-
lant. v. 2. 29. Willd. n. 6.— Stem fomewhat fhrubby,
erect. Leaves linear, fpreading, fmooth ; ribbed beneath.
Flowers capitate. Braéteas ovato-lanceolate, fringed. Ca-
lyx hairy.’’—Native of Barbary near La Calle. A little
buthy /2rué, four inches high, with flender upright branches,
downy in the upper part. Leaves entire, with axillary tufts.
Flowers in oblong heads. Calyx villous, ftriated. Corolla
{mall, rofe-coloured. Allied to Th. Zygis, but the leaves
are quite {mooth, not fringed ; and the éraéeas broader at

the bafe. Desfontaines.
9. Th. Zygis. White Spanifh Thyme. Linn. Sp. Pl.

826. Mant. 413. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fi.
Grec. Sibth. t. 574, unpublifhed. (Thymum angufto
longioreque folio; Barrel. Ic. t. 777. Serpillum fylveftre,
Zygis Diofcoridis ; Cluf. Hilt. v. 1. 358. S.creticum; Ger.
Em. 571-)—Stem fhrubby, afcending. Leaves linear-lan-
ceolate, obtufe, revolute ; tapering and fringed at the bafe.
Whorls crowded into leafy fpikes.—Native of Spain and the
Levant. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on hills about Athens
and Conftantinople. Mr. Malcolm is faid in Hort. Kew.
to have had the plant in his garden in 1771. Linnzus cul-
tivated it at Upfal. The root is woody and perennial. Stems
numerous, from four to fix inches long, leafy, round, finely

downy,

\

THYMUS.

dewny, reddifh, flightly branched, {preading on the ground
before flowering, then afcending. Leaves three-quarters of an
inch long, numerous, crowded, f{preading, very minutely and
denfely downy, copioufly dotted ; ribbed and rather paler be-
neath ; tapering into a fhort, broad, downy footfall, coarfely
en ay like the bafe of the leaf itfelf. Flowers in leafy
heads, often with an axillary whorl below. Calyx clothed
with recurved hairs; all its teeth tapering and parallel,
ftrongly fringed. Corolla white, with red dots on the pa-
late. Anthers reddifh, prominent. Profeffor Sibthorp
adopted the opinion of the old authors, that this might
perhaps be the eprrvaos Guys; of Diofcorides. Its appellation
in modern Greek is cuoie, which, if we miftake not, means
“ the delight of bees.”

to. Th. Acinos. Bafil Thyme. Linn. Sp. Pl. 826.
Willd. n. 10. Fi. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t.411. Curt.
Lond. fafe. 1. t. 43. (Acinos; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 43.
f.2. Ocymum fylveitre; Ger. Em. 675.)—Flowers on
fimple footftalks, about fix in a whorl. Stem herbaceous,
afeending, branched. Leaves acute, ferrated. Calyx gib-
bous at the bafe. Native of dry gravelly or chalky paf-
tures, fallow fields, &c. throughout Europe, nor rare in
England, flowering from July to September. The roof is
annual, of a few flender fibres. Svems clothed with re-
curved hairs, reddifh, lax and fpreading, hardly a {pan long ;
thew flowery ultimate branches erect. Leaves on {hort foot-
ftalks, {mall, ovate, varying to roundifh or oblong, but al-
ways acute, more or lefs deeply and copioufly ferrated, rarely
quite entire, veiny, hairy ; the upper ones tapering much at
the bafe. Flowers light violet; their palate white, with
dark purple fpots. Stamens fhort. Calyx deeply furrowed,
hairy, fringed, {welling underneath, as is the cafe, more or
lefs, with all the fpecies to which’ this is allied. The herb
is rather flightly aromatic, not pungently fo.

11. Th. fuaveolens. Penny-royal-fcented Thyme. Prodr.
Fl. Grec. n. 1400. (Clinopodium minus anguftifolium,
pulegii odore, romanum ; Bocc. Muf. v. 1. 50—54. t. 45,
A.)— Flowers whorled. Leaves. lanceolate-elliptical,
pointed, fomewhat ferrated, hairy. Stems fhrubby.—Na-
tive of Italy and Greece. The /fem isa foot high, bufhy ;
the branches leafy, rough, with recurved hairs. Leaves
with their fa/és about an inch long, rigid, ribbed, briftly,
often quite entire. Flowers fix or eight in a whorl, on fimple
ftalks. Calyx like the laft, but longer and more flender.
The whole plant fmells powerfully of Penny-royal, even
after having been dried thirty years. On this fubje& Boc-
cone has treated us with a long difquifition, quite in the
Italian ftyle, in which the faéts are better than the philofo-
phy, though fome of thofe want confirmation. He attri-
butes the above {cent to particles of fulphur and bitumen
communicated by the foil.

12. Th. patavinus. Marjoram-leaved Thyme. Jacq.
Obf. fafe. 4. 7.t. 87. Willd. n. 11. Ait. n.5. (Clino-
podium perenne, pulegii odore, majoranz folio, patavinum ;
Boce. Muf. v. 1. 60. t. 45, B.)—Flowers whorled. Leaves
ovate, with copious fhallow ferratures, flightly hairy.
Stems fhrubby.—Native probably of the fouth of Europe,
though no botanift who has defcribed this fpecies feems to
have known it but from gardens. Hence even its name ori-
ginated, which is therefore liable to great exception. Will-
denow appears to have feen no fpecimen. The fpecific cha-
raéter taken by him from the firft edition of Hort. Kew. of
“the inflated throat of the corolla, extending beyond the
calyx,” is not in the leaft degree peculiar. Neverthelefs, au-
thentic fpecimens of the plant prove it diftin& from the fore-
going and the following, in the broad-ovate, almoft heart-
fhaped, figure of the rather flefhy /eaves, their even furface,

and numerous, minute, fhallow ferratures. They much re-
femble fome kinds of Ocymum, and like thofe are fometimes
concave.

13- Th. alpinus. Alpine Thyme. Linn. Sp. Pl. 826.
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 6. Jacq. Auftr. t.g7. (Clinopo-
dium montanum; Bauh. Pin. 225. Bocc. Muf. v. 1.
t. 45, C. C. auitriacum; Cluf. Pann. 622, 623. Hitt.
Vv. 1.353. Ger. Em. 676.)—Flowers on fimple footftalks,
about fix inawhorl. Stem herbaceous, afcending, branched
at the bottom. Leaves ovate or roundifh, bluntifh, coarfely
ferrated. Calyx gibbous at the bafe.—Native of the lofty
mountains of Auitria, Switzerland, Italy, and Crete, as
well as of the Bithynian Olympus. Nothing is more dif-
ficult than to define the difference between this and our
Th. Acinos, except that the alpinus is in every part larger
and more handfome, with a ftrong refinous feent. The root
is either biennial, or perennial, we are not certain which.
The /eaves are too entire in the cut of Clufius and Gerarde.

14. Th. exiguus. Small Cyprian Thyme. Sm. Prodr,
Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 1402. Fl. Gree. t. 575, unpublifhed.
—Flowers very few ina whorl. Leaves rhomboid, pointed,
oblique, nearly entire. Stems branched at the bafe. Tube
of the corolla thread-fhaped.—Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp
in hilly fituations in the ifle of Cyprus. The roof is annual,
fimple, fibrous. S¥em two or three inches high, ereét, with
fimple leafy hairy éranches from the bottom. Leaves one-
third of an inch long, fmoothifh, on long hairy ftalks.
Flowers either two or four in each whorl, on thick ftalks.
Calyx flender, furrowed, hairy. Corolla with a very flender
white tube, enclofing the /Zamens, and fhort, rounded, pale-
purple fegments in the limb.

15. Th. pulegicides. Penny-royal-leaved Thyme. Linn,
Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 592. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 1397.
(Cunila thymoides ; Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 2. 31. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 1. 123. Acinos thymi folio annuus, floribus inex-
panfis; Morif. feet. 11. t. 19. £.6. )—Whorlsmany-flowered,
crowded into long, denfe leafy fpikes. Leaves ovate, ob-
tufe, entire. - Stem herbaceous, branched, with four hairy
angles.—Native of the fouth of France, and of hills in
Greece.— Root fibrous, marked as annual by Linneus, but
the items have a fhrubby appearance. They are a {pan
high, with oppofite branches, leafy, their angles denfely
clothed with recurved hairs. Leaves ftalked, from a
quarter to half an inch long, deflexed, dotted, fmooth, ex-
cept a few occafional coarfe marginal hairs. Flowers on
longifh, cylindrical, denfely downy ftalks, ten or twelve in
each whorl. Calyx ftrongly furrowed, hairy, with a broad
upper lip, and two long, narrow, fringed teeth in the lower
one; the orifice denfely hairy. Corolla {mall; its limb
feems to refemble the lait-defcribed. Sometimes the fem is
clothed with whorls of fowers almoft from the bottom to
the top, and the upper /eaves are larger than the lower.
The odour of the plant is that of Thyme, not of Penny-
royal.

16. Th. graveolens. Strong-fcented Greek Thyme. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 1403. Fl. Graec. t. 576, un-
publifhed.—Whorls barely fix-flowered. Leaves ovate,
rhomboid, obtufe, revolute, fomewhat ferrated. Stems
much branched, fhrubby.—Gathered on mount Parnaffus,
by Dr. Sibthorp, who fufpected it might be the Tpzvopwyavos
of Diofcorides, and from whofe manufcripts we have adopted
the fpecific name. The ftrong, woody, branching — root
bears a tuft of numerous afcending, branched, leafy, reddifh,
downy /fems, about fix inches high. Leaves dark green,
paler beneath, {mooth, a quarter of an inch long, on foot-
flalks of nearly their own length. Flowers on fimple ftalks,
with a pair of imall oval dradeas at the bafe of each ftalk,

ufually

THYMUS.

ufnally three or four in a whorl, fometimes five or fix.
Calyx with a fhortifh furrowed tube, very gibbous at the
bafe beneath; its upper lip broad; lower of two awl-
fhaped fringed teeth; both tinged with red. Corolla of a
purplith crimfon, large and handfome, downy in the mouth,
as well-as at the back, which latter is the cafe with Acinos,
alpinus, and all of the fame tribe.

17. Th. marginatus. Thick-edged Thyme. Sm. in
Dickf. Dr. Pl. -n.'71. ce Piperella; Allion. Pedem.
v. I. 21. t. 37. f. 3, excluding the fynonyms.) — Stalks
many-flowered, lateral and terminal. Leaves ovate, nearly
{mooth, ribbed, entire, with a thick cartilaginous margin.
Calyx-teeth nearly equal. Stems fhrubby, afcending.—On
the rocks of the maritime alps of Piedmont very abundantly.
Allioni. Of more humble ftature than the laft, with many
round, flender, downy, purplifh, afcending /lems, about a
finger’s length, branched at the bafe only. Leaves nearly
feffile, inclining to heart-fhaped, covered with refinous dots,
fometimes flightly downy, remarkable for their thick,
{mooth, pale margin. F/ower-/talks chiefly axillary, about
as long as the leaves, fomewhat corymbofe, downy, bearing
feveral {mall ovate bradeas, and three or four flowers.
Calyx cylindrical, furrowed ; all its fegments awl-fhaped,
and not very unequal, none of them fringed. Corolla with
a flender hairy tube, twice as long as the calyx, and a fhort
rounded limb. The whole plant is warm and pungent,
highly aromatic. It is very diftin& from the following.

18. Th. Piperella. Pepper Thyme. Linn. Syft. Nat.
ed. 12. v. 2. 400. Willd. n. 14, excluding the fynonym
of Allioni, and poffibly thofe of Vahl and Forfkall. (Marum
hifpanicum nigrum, flore purpureo, Piperella hifp; Barrel.
Ic. t. 694. Bocce. Muf. 166. t. 117.) — Stalks many-
flowered, lateral. Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped,
obtufe, entire, fmooth, ftrongly ribbed, copioufly dotted.
Upper lip of the calyx very broad ; lower fringed.—Native
of Spain. The rootis perennial. Stems apparently trailing,
a {pan long, branched, bluntly quadrangular, finely downy.
Leaves varying in fize, but f{carcely more than a quarter of
an inch long at the moft, thick, flat, without any cartila-
ginous edges, their ribs numerous, parallel and ftrong.
Footftalks fhort, downy. Flowers in axillary, corymbofe,
downy, leafy tufts, with ovate braéeas. Upper lip of
the calyx remarkably broad, and rather the longeft, covered
with refinous dots ; lower ftrongly fringed. Corolla a little
longer than the calyx, pale, dotted with refinous points.
The odour of the plant is moft like Th. Serpyllum. Vahl
{peaks of a border to the /eaves, which induces a fufpicion
that he took our marginatus for Piperella.

19. Th. Brownet. Jamaica Thyme. Swartz. Prodr. 89.
Ind. Oce. torr. Willd. n.15. (Th. n.1; Browne Jam.
259-)— Stalks axillary, thread-fhaped, fingle-flowered.
Leaves orbicular-heart-fhaped, crenate, fmooth. Calyx-
teeth ovato-lanceolate, nearly equal. Stem herbaceous,
procumbent.—Native of moift grafly places, near rivulets,
in Jamaica and Hifpaniola, flowering all fummer. The
root is annual, fibrous. Stems a foot long, creeping, flender,
quadrangular, fmooth, often purple, with fhort leafy
branches. Leaves about half an inch long, not unlike fome
of our annual Veronice, paler beneath, on flender ftalks.
Flowers purplifh-white, {mall, on long, very flender, folitary
ftalks. Calyx cylindrical, fmooth, ftrongly furrowed, with
broad pointlefs teeth. Swartz fays it has a very ftrong
fmell, like Mentha arvenfis.

20. 208 ana Minorca Thyme. Ait. n. 8. Willd.
n. 16. — Stalks axillary, thread-fhaped, fingle-flowered.
Leaves heart-fhaped, bluntly pointed, entixe, with a. thick
cartilagmous margin, Stems thread-fhaped, decumbent.—

Native of the Balearic iflands. Introduced into our green-,
houfes in 1770, by Mr. Malcolm. The ropt is perennial,
woody. Stems from four to fix inches long, trailing, pur-
plith, flightly branched. Leaves ftalked, agreeing with
thofe of n. 17. in their tumid margin, but not half fo large,
and more pointed. , Flowers very {mall. Calyx ovate,
furrowed ;_ its three upper teeth broadeft and fhorteft; lower
ones fringed.

21. Th. incanus. Hoary Calamint Thyme. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 1405. Fl. Gree. t. 577, unpublifhed.”
(Calamintha orientalis annua, ocymi folio, fore minimo ;
Tour. Cor. 12, by the charaéter. )—Whorls fimply ftalked,
of about fix flowers.: Leaves roundifh, entire, clothed with
hoary down. Beard of the calyx concealed. Stems pro-
cumbent.—Common in the iflands of the Archipelago, and
about Athens. The root is woody, and but for phe
fort’s fynonym, we fhould judge it perennial. Stems’ her-
baceous, numerous, diffufe, a foot long, with oppofite leafy —
branches, clothed, like every part of the herbage, with fine,
foft, grey pubefcence. Leaves italked, convex, ribbed,
rounded and blunt, half an inch in diameter. Flowers
{carcely projecting beyond the leaves, on fimple hairy ftalks.
Calyx ovate, tumid, ribbed ; with lips of equal length ; the
upper broad, abrupt, three-toothed: converging hairs of
the throat concealed in the tube. Upper lip of the corolla
pink, hairy ; lower white ; palate dotted with red. :

22. Th. grandiflorus. Large-flowered Calamint Thyme.
Sims in Curt. Mag. t.997. (Th. carolinianus ; Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 9. Calamintha grandiflora; Purfh 414.),
—Whorls fimply ftalked, of about ten flowers. Leaves
ovate, ferrated, nearly {mooth. Beard of the calyx con-
cealed. Stems ereét, fhrubby.—On the banks of the river
Savannah, in Georgia and Carolina, flowering in July and
Auguft. Pur/b, Cultivated by John. Walker, efq. at
Southgate, about 1804, The rootis perennial. Stems bufhy, —
with oppofite branches, a foot or more in height. Leaves
ftalked, deflexed, above an inch long, green, fomewhat
downy to the touch only. Flowers large, pale purple, with
a vaulted upper lip, and a dotted palate. Upper lip of the
calyx very broad. :

23. Th. Calamintha. Common Calamint Thyme.
Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 1676. (Melifla Calamintha ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 827. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 147. Calamintha;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 46. f. 2. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 76.
C. vulgaris officinarum ; Ger. Em. 687. )—Whorls ftalked,
many-flowered, forked. Leaves hairy, with fhallow ferra-
tures. Beard of the calyx concealed. Stem ereé&t.—
Native of dry banks, and the borders of fields, efpecially on
a gravelly foil, in England and the more fouthern parts of
Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. The whole herb
has a peculiarly eect and grateful fragrance. The root is
perennial. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, hairy, with
many oppofite branches. Leaves broad, ovate, bluntifh, on
long ftalks. Flowers copious, pale lilac, the whorls be-
coming leaflefs in the upper part of the branches. Braéleas
briftle-fhaped, fringed. Calyx ovate, furrowed, briftly ; its
broad upper lip deeply three-cleft ; lower fringed.

24. Th. Mepeta. Leffler Calamint Thyme. Fl. Brit.
n. 4 Engl. Bot. t. 1414. (Melifla Nepeta; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 828. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.147. Curt. Lond. fafe. 6.
t. 40. Calamintha odore pulegii ; Ger. Em. 687. C. folio
incano; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 47.)—Whaorls ftalked, many-
flowered, forked, longer than the leaves. Leaves ferrated.
Beard of the calyx prominent. Stem ereét.—Native of
chalky banks, and the borders of fields, plentifully in
England, and throughout the fouth of Europe; very
common in Greece and the Archipelago, flawering in

Augutt,

Fl.

THYMUS.

Augul. The habit of this fpecies is like the laft, but
with fmaller /eaves, more confpicuous longer-{talked flowers,
and lefs upright ffems. Its {cent is different, and much
ftronger, refembling Penny-royal.

25. Th. cephalotus. Great-headed Portugal Thyme. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 826. Willd. n.17. Ait. n. 9g. WahlSymb. v. 3. 77.
« Hoffm. et Link Lufit. v. 1. 127. t. 13.” (Tragori-

_ganum ditamni capite, hifpanicum; Barrél. Ic. t. 788.
Bocce. Muf. 50. t. 43-)—* Heads of flowers with loofely
imbricated, large, coloured bratteas, deititute of dots.
Leaves linear, entire.—Native of Spain and Portugal. A
fhrubby bufhy plant, with purplith /fems, and downy branches.
Leaves fringed at the bafe. Flowers concealed by the

_ large purplith drageas, forming an ovate head. Upper lip

- of the calyx rather the largeit ; lower fringed. We have

feen no fpecimen, either of this or the next.

26. Th. /friatus. Striated Neapolitan Thyme. Vahl.
Symb. v. 3. 78. Willd. n. 18.—** Heads of flowers with
clofely imbricated, ovate, ftriated, dotted brateas. Leaves
linear-lanceolate, ferrated, dotted in the margin.’’—Found
by Cyrillo, in the kingdom of Naples. The ems are fhorter
and more upright than the foregoing ; not branched in their
upper part. Leaves broader, erect; ftriated at the back.
Heads {maller, with {maller green braéeas. Vahl.

27. Th. villofus. Hairy Thyme. Linn. Sp. Pl. 827.
Willd. n. 19. Ait.n.1o. Hoffm. et Link Lufit. v. 1.
128.t. 14.” Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 578, unpublifhed.—
Heads of flowers with imbricated, fringed, lanceolate,
ternate, keeled braéteas. Leaves lanceolate, hairy, aeute.
Stems trailing.—Native of Portugal, Cyprus, and the
Archipelago. The {trong woody root fends out numerous,
decumbent, branched, fhrubby /fems, which compofe ample
tufts, taking root as they {pread, with fhort, fimple, afcend-
ing flowering branches. Leaves cluttered, nearly awl-fhaped,
dark green, fringed with coarfe white hairs. Braéeas and
calyx tinged with a violet purple ; the upper lip of the latter
oval, with three fharp teeth. Corolla rofe-coloured, with a
flender hairy tube, twice the length of the calyx. Stamens

rominent.

28. Th. Maftichina. Mattick Thyme. Linn. Sp. Pl.
827. Willd. n.20. Ait. n. 11. (Marum; Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t.40. Ger. Em. 670.)—Whorls ftalked, many-flow-
ered, crowded into round heads. Leaves ovate, obtufe,
entire. Calyx-teeth awl-fhaped, taper-pointed, all fringed,
nearly uniform. — Native of ftony ground in Spain and
Greece. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on mount Hymettus,
near Athens, fo famous for honey. This plant has been
treafured up in many a ruttic garden, or cottage window,
ever fince the days of old Gerarde ; but will fcarcely bear
our winters unprotected, for any length of time. It flowers
throughout the latter part of f{ummer. The figure of Ri-
vinus is cited by miftake, in the ufually accurate Hort.

Kew. for Teucrium Marum. The /lem of the prefent f{pecies:

is fhrubby, twelve or eighteen inches high, erect, and bufhy,
with many roundifh, downy, leafy branches. Leaves nu-
merous, ftalked, about the fize and fhape of Th. Serpyllum,
but thicker, finely downy, and not fringed at the bafe ;
mott hoary beneath. Flowers white, {mall, confpicuous for
the long flender teeth of the calyx, which are pectinated
with abundance of long briftly hairs. The tube is, clofed
with copious white hairs, nor can we fee any foundation
for Linneus’s doubts, whether this plant fhould be referred
to Thymus or Satureja, except the calyx-teeth being nearly
equal, which is the cafe, more or lefs, with fome of the
foregoing. The odour of Tb. Maflichina is pleafantly aro-
matic, not very pungent.
VoL. XXXYV.

29. Th. Tragoriganum. Goat’s Thyme. Linn. Mant. 84.
Willd. n. 21. Ait. n.13. Turr. Farfet. 11. ('Tragori-
ganum majus ; Alpin. Exot. 79. t. 78. T’. feeunda, altera
{pecies ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 355.;° T. cretenfe; Ger, Em.
668. )—** Stem fomewhat fhrubby, ereét. Flowers whorled.
Leaves hifpid, pointed.’’—Native of hills in Crete ; as well
of Cyprus and Beeotia, according to Dr. Sibthorp’s manu-
{cripts, though his herbarium contains no {pecimen. Neither
does that of Linnzus, whofe fpecific chara@ter we are
obliged to copy. He deferibes it as a fweet-fcented plant,
with hairy fems, a foot high ; /eaves rather rigid, pointed
at each end. -The root appears to be woody and perennial.
Whorls numerous, denfe, of many flowers.

For Tb. virginicus, Willd. n.22, fee PycnNaNTHEMUM,
n.5- The fame author has a Th. inodorus, n. 9, adopted
from Desfont. Atlant. v.2. 30. t.129. A fpecimen ap-
parently anfwering to this, gathered by Thunberg at the
Cape of Good Hope, is preferved in the Linnzan herbarium,
with a note at the back adverting to the fingularity of a
plant of the Didynamia Gymnofpermia having alternate
leaves ; and it is named Satureja alternifolia. We do not
find that either Linnezus or Thunberg ever publifhed this
plant ; poffibly becaufe of the uncertainty of its genus; or
it may be among thofe which the latter has referred in his
Prodromus to Selago, feveral of which we have no means of
determining. Whether the plant of Desfontaines be the
fame or no, we dare not, without examination, confider it as
a Thymus, though he defcribes the calyx as clofed with hairs,
which is certainly not the cafe with Thunberg’s {pecimen.

Tuymus, in Gardening, contains plants of the low, aro-
matic, perennial kind ; among which the fpecies cultivated are,
the wild thyme (T. ferpillum); the garden thyme (T.
vulgaris) ; the maftick thyme (T. matftichina); and the
Virginian or favory thyme (T. virginicus). A

In the firft fort there are feveral varieties ; as the-broad-
leaved, the narrow-leaved, the variegated-leaved, the filver-
{triped-leaved, the citron-fcented or lemon thyme, and the
great purple-flowered.

And in the common fert there are different varieties ; as
the broad-leaved, the narrow-leaved, and the variegated or
itriped-leaved thyme.

Method of Culture —Thefe plants may be eafily raifed
from feed, by flipping the roots and branches, and by cut-
tings ; but the feed method is feldom praétifed, except with
the fecond fort, or garden thyme. The feed fhould be
fown in the early {pring on light, rich, dry ground, which
fhould be properly dug over, and the furface be made mo-
derately fmooth with the fpade. As the feed is {fmall, it
fhould not be fown too thick, or be covered too deep : the
feed is beft fown while the ground is frefh ftirred, either
broad-caft on the furface, raking it in lightly, or in flat
fhallow drills, earthed over thinly : the plants appear in two
or three weeks. It is neceflary to be careful to keep them
well weeded, giving occafional light waterings in dry
weather ; and by June they will require thinning, efpecially
if the plants are to grow ftocky, and with bufhy full heads ;
in which cafe they fhould be fet out to fix or eight inches
diftance ; when thofe thinned out may be planted in another
place, in rows fix or eight inches afunder, giving water till
frefh rooted, keeping the whole clean from weeds by occa-
fional hoeing ‘between them in dry days, which will alfo ftir
the furface of the earth, and much improve the growth of
the plants: they will be in perfeétion for ufe in fummer, or
early in autumn.

Sometimes the market kitchen-gardeners raife large quan-
tities in beds, for daily fupply, leaving the whole thick :

4H when

THY

when of proper growth they pull them clean up, root and
top together, from time to time, as wanted, and tie them in
bunches for fale. f

But it is always proper to thin out, or tranfplant a quantity
in fingle bunches, to grow ftocky and bufhy for occafional
fupplies. ’

Some think the common thyme beft cultivated for kitchen
ufe in beds or borders, in rows at leaft half a foot apart,
employing for the purpofe either the young feedling plants,
which are fit to fet out, or the root flips of old plants, each
of which foon increafe into plants of bufhy growths proper
for being cropped for the above ufe. It may alfo often be
well cultivated as an edging to herbary and other compart-
ments; in both of which methods the plants multiply ex-
ceedingly faft by offsets, and are abiding, furnifhing the
means of great future increafe. Some fhould, however,
always be annually raifed from feed in the above manner, as
fuch plants poflefs a ftronger aromatic quality than thofe
from old ones.

When it is intended to increafe any particular varieties,
and continue them the fame with certainty, it can only be ef-
feéted by flips and cuttings.

In refpeét to the offsets and flips, all the forts multiply
by offsets of the root and flips of the branches: the rooted
flips are the moft expeditious method, as the old plants in-
creafe into many offset ftems rifing from the root, each fur-
nifhed with fibres ; and by taking up the old plants in the
{pring, &c. and flipping or dividing them into feparate parts,
not too fmall, with roots to each, and planting them in beds
of good earth, in rows half a foot afunder, giving water di-
rectly, and repeating it occafionally in dry weather till they
have taken root, and begin to fhoot at top; they foon grow
freely, and form.good bufhy plants in two or three
months.

The ftrong flips of the branéhes without roots, fucceed
when planted any time in the early {pring feafon in a fhady
border, in rows four or five inches diltant, giving due water-
ings; and become good plants by autumn, when they may
be planted out where they are to remain.

The cuttings of the young branches grow readily, the
fame as the flips, when planted at the fame feafon in a fhady
place, and well watered.

The common thyme is in univerfal ufe as a pot-herb for
various culinary purpofes; it may alfo be employed in af-
femblage with other fmall plants, to embellifh the fronts of
flower-borders, fhrubbery clumps, {mall and floping banks,
&e. placing the plants detached or fingly, to form little
bufhy tufts, and in which the variegated forts, and the filver
thyme and lemon thyme particularly, form a very agreeable
variety. ‘The lemon thyme is alfo in much eftimation for its
peculiar odoriferous {mell. Some of each of thefe forts may
alfo be potted, in order to be moved occafionally to any’ par-
ticular places as may be required, and under occafional
fhelter in fevere winters, to preferve the plants more effec-
tually in a lively ftate ; likewife fome of the maitick thyme.
Spanifh and Portugal thymes are alfo fometimes potted for
the fame purpofe, and to place under the protection of a
garden frame or greenhoufe in winter, to continue them in
a more frefh and lively growth; and fometimes fome of the
{maller thymes are fown or planted for edgings to particular
beds or borders for variety, fuch as the lemon thyme, filver-
leaved and variegated forts; alfo occafionally the common
thyme ; and all kept low, clofe and regular, by clipping
them at the fides and tops annually in the fummer feafon.

All the feveral forts and varieties poffefs an aromatic
quality, which principally refides in the leaves, whence it is

s tani: Nig

imparted and affords a fine agreeable fragrance. But the
firft three kinds are by much the moft noted and valued in
kitchen gardens, and more efpecially the common thyme,
which is fo very ufeful as a culinary herb,

In gathering this for ufe, in common gardens, it fhould
in general only be cut or flipped as it is wanted, in {mall
quantities at a time, and then not ftumped off in too clofe a
manner ; but the mode purfued by market gardeners is quite
different, as has been already feen.

THYNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Thrace, ac-
cording to Strabo. Among the Thraces of Afia, men-
tioned by Herodotus, we are to include the Bithynians and
Thynians. Thefe people were originally of Europe, and
were driven from thence by the Teucrians and Myfians.
They were alfo called Strymonians: and upon pafling into
Afia, they took the name of Bithynians. The Thynians
were originally Thracians; inhabiting the environs of
Salmydeflus and Apollonia: and upon their removal to
Afia, they occupied the fea-coaft, and fome part of the ad-
jacent territory. Thefe people had acquired the art of en-
graving precious {tones : accordingly we find the following
verfe of Meczenas upon the death of Horace, preferyed by
Hfidore in his Origines : #

“ Nec percandida margarita quero
Nec quos Thynica lima perpolivit,
Amellos, nec jafpios lapillos.””

THYNIA, a country of Afia, in Bithynia. Pliny.

THYNIAS, an ifland of the Euxine fea, oppofite to

Bithynia, according to Pliny, but on the coaft of Bithynia,
according to Strabo. ;
THYNNIA, Suma, in Antiquity, a facrifice offered te
Neptune by the fifhermen, after a plentiful draught.
The word comes from Su»o:, a tunny, that being the fa-
crifice offered. ;

THYNNUS, in Entomology, a genus of the Hymenop- -

tera order of infeéts: the chara¢ters of which are, that the

mouth is horny ; the mandible bent, with a fhort jaw,

ftraight ; the lip larger than the jaws, with the apex membra-

naceous ; trifid ; the intermediate fringes emarginate ; the

tongue very fhort or folded; the four palpi filiform and

equal ; the antenne filiform. Gmelin enumerates three .
Species. *

Denratus. With black abdomen ;, the fecond, third,
and fourth fegments marked with two white points.
in New Holland.

EmarcinaAtus. With black abdomen, the fegments
having a yellow interrupted band ; the feutellum emargi-
nate. Found in New Holland.

InreGer. Black, with the fegments of the abdomen
villofe-cinereous at the margin, and the anus entire. Found
in New Holland.

Tuynnus, in Ichthyology. See Tunny, and Scomper, of
which it is fpecies.

THYOS, ves, in Antiquity, an offering of fruits, leaves,
or acorns, which were the only facrifices at firft in ufe.

THYRALI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in
Japygia, who inhabited the middle of the ifthmus, between
Tarentum and Brundufium, according to Strabo.

THYREA, a town of the Argolide, upon an eminence,
in that part which adjoined Laconia, that is, on the weftern
coaft of the Argolic gulf. The country in which it was
fituated bore the name of Cynuria or Cynouria.—Alfo, a
town of Greece, in the Phocide, where, according to Pau-
fanias, Phocus, the fon of Harmythion, placed a colony.—

0,

.

Found

Tey

Alfo, a place fituated on the coaft of the Peloponnefus.
According to Herodotus, the inhabitants of Hermione gave
it to thofe of Samos.

THYREUM, a {mall town of Arcadia, S. of Megalo-

olis. It was deferted in the time of Paufanias.

THYRIDES, a town of Laconia, S.E. of Meiffa.
Near this place were the ruins of the town of Hippola, in
the midft of which was feen, in the time of Paufanias, a
chapel of Minerva Hippolaitis——Alfo, the name of the
fummit of Tznarus, in the Peloponnefus ; 30 ftadia from the
promontory Tznarum. Pliny gives the name of Thyrides
to three iflands of the gulf Afinzus.

THYROID, in Anatomy, thyroideus, or more properly
thyreoideus, from Sug<o::4n<, compounded of Sup:o:, a /bield, and
«30:, form; a name given to one of the cartilages of the
larynx (fee Larynx), to a gland fituated near that carti-
lage (fee Larynx), and to the arteries and veins of the
gland. See Artery and VeIN.

Tuyroip Gland, Difeafed. See BRoNCHOCELE.

Tuyroip Gland, Extirpation of. It cannot be doubted
that this operation is one of the moft difficult and danger-
ous in the practice of furgery ; and it ought never to be
undertaken, except under the moft urgert circumftances, and
by operators of confummate fkill and judgment. Were a
furgeon, fuperficially acquainted with anatomy, and little
accuftomed to attempts of fo bold a kind, to undertake the
operation of cutting away a difeafed thyroid gland, he
would run the utmoft rifk of feeing the patient bleed to
death under his hands.

The following is a memorable inftance of the fuccefsful
performance of this operation. In the year 1784, J. Hyons,
twenty years of age, experienced an acute pain at the mid-
dle and anterior part of the neck, in confequence of a
violent extenfion of the head. This pain, which was only
momentary, was followed by fome difficulty of motion.
About three months afterwards, a fmall, hard, indolent
tumour appeared on the right fide of the trachea. The
fwelling was unattended with pain, or alteration in the
colour of the integuments. The tumour feemed to be raifed
by a pulfatory ation, which tended to prove the exiftence
of a large artery underneath, and, in fa&, its bafe was
fituated on the general courfe of the carotid artery. The
patient feeling no inconvenience, neglected it until June
1788. At this time it was an inch in diameter. Its pro-
grefs, which in the firft inftance was flow, now augmented
with proportionable rapidity. Internal remedies and topi-
cal applications had no effe& in preventing its increafe.
A fluétuation in its centre was foon evident: an incifion
was then made into this part, and a quantity of yellow fe-
rofity difcharged. Three months after this operation,
which was not of the leaft fervice, recourfe was had to
eauftics, which were repeatedly applied without any ad-
vantage. Onthe zothof March 1791, the prefented herfelf
for admiffion at the Hotel-Dieu. At this period the tu-
mour was two inches in diameter, round, hard, and at-
tached to the right and middle part of the trachea, and it
pufhed outwards the fterno-maftoideus mufele. Independ-
ently of its being fenfibly raifed by each pulfation of the ar-
teries, it obeyed the motions of deglutition, and in a flight
degree impeded the paffage of the folid aliment. The pa-
tient, earne!tly defiring to get rid of fo inconvenient a de-
formity, determined to fubmit to its extirpation, which ap-
peared her only refource. The danger, the length of time,

_ and the pain neceffarily annexed to the operation, were not
concealed from her. The operation, after a few days pre-
vious preparation, was performed in the amphitheatre by
Default in the following manner: the patient being laid on

fey

her back, a little inclined on the left fide, with the head and
neck more raifed than the reft of the body, the furgeon
made a longitudinal incifion through the middle of the
tumour, beginning one inch above, and finifhing one inch
below, to allow room to finifh the operation with eafe: in
the firft feGion he cut down as far as the gland, dividing
the integuments, the platy{ma-myoidesy and fome fibres of
the fterno-hyoideii and iterno-thyroideii mufcles ; an affift-
ant, with the view of fixing the tumour, drew towards the
left the infide edge of the wound made by the incifion,
whilft the furgeon detached it from the fterno-maftoideus
mufcle. In diffe€ting the cellular fubftance which united
the parts, two {mall arteries were divided, which were raifed
by a pair of diffecting forceps and fecured by ligatures.
The external furface of the tumour being thus difengaged,
the internal part was detached in the fame way. The
tumour was drawn outwards by means of a hook, that it
might be feparated with more eafe from the anterior part
and from the fide of the trachea. In the courfe of this dif-
fe&tion, the branches of the thyroid arteries were fuccef-
fively tied, as faft as they were divided. The affiftant, to
whom the hook was confided, direéted the cland from
within and forwards, whilft the furgeon finifhed the diffee-
tion outwards and from above downwards. This part of
the operation was the moft minute and difficult: it was ne-
ceflary by means of a fponge continually to wipe away the
blood, which neceffarily prevented the parts from being
eafily diftinguifhed, and obliged the furgeon to divide but a
little at a time, and previoufly to feel with his finger thofe
parts he was about to incife. By this cautious diffetion of
parts, the fuperior and inferior thyroid arteries were laid
bare, and afterwards fecured by ligature by means of a
blunt crooked needle. They were afterwards tranfverfely
divided, and the remaining part of the tumour detached
from the trachea, to which it ftrongly adhered. The wound
refulting from this operation was near three inches in depth :
it was outwardly bounded by the fterno-maftoideus mufcle,
and inwardly by the trachea and ofophagus ; pofteriorly
by the carotid artery, and by the nerves of the eighth pair,
which were expofed at the bottom of the wound. After
the wound was well wafhed with warm water, and cleared
from the blood, it was filled with coarfe lint, powdered with.
colophony ; fquare compreffes, fecured by a bandage mo-
derately tight, formed the reft of the drefling. The extir-
pated tumour was five inches in circumference ; and on ex-
amination was found to differ in no particular from fchirrous
glands, except that in the centre there was a cartilaginous
nucleus. he patient fupported this long, difficult, and
painful operation with uncommon firmnefs: fhe paffed the
reft of the day without experiencing any other fymptom
than a flight fhivering, generally confequent to large wounds.
The following night fhe complained of a fenfe of heat in
the neck, and fome difficulty in deglutition. The next day
a little eafe was obtained by moiftening the dreffing with a
decoétion of marfhmallows. A weak drink of the herb
dog’s-tooth, acidulated with oxymel, was prefcribed. On
the third day the fever was very moderate, but the difficulty
in {wallowing had confiderably increafed at this period ; the
comprefles and the external lint were removed, and frefh
applied. On the fourth, the fever ceafed, and deglutition
became lefs painful. Suppuration now became eftablifhed.
The next day all the lint was detached, and the whole of
the dreflings renewed. The wound was in a good ftate : it
was dreffed with foft lint and compreffes moiftened with an
emollient decoétion ; a praétice which was continued for
the following days. No particular circumftance occurred
during the cure. The wound followed the ordinary pro-

4H 2 grefs,

cay

grefs, and was cicatrized at the end of a month. -The
patient left the hofpital, perfectly cured, the 34th day
after the operation. See Default’s Parifian Chirurgical
Journal, vol. ii. p. 292296.

To the preceding cafe, the editor of the above work has
annexed the few Siang reflections.

The extirpation of the thyroid ao is an operation ex-
tremely difficult, and certainly highly dangerous, when per-
formed by an operator but moderately exercifed in the prac-
tice of his profeffion. The number and fize of the arteries
neceflary to divide, the proximity of the trachea, cefophagus,
and carotid, near which the knife muft neceffarily pafs, are
the principal dangers that the operator fhould avoid. Thefe
are the circum{tances which have deterred the majority of
practitioners from performing it, particularly thofe who
from long eftablifhed prejudice have been deterred from ufing
ligatures in cafes of wounded arterfes. Examples of this
operation are very rare. The firft time that Gooch under-
took to perform it, he was deterred from finifhing it by the
hemorrhage, and his patient died on the eighth day. The
fecond time he fucceeded better, but was incapable of fe-
curing thé veffels, and fucceeded in {topping the hemorrhage,
which would otherwife have been mortal, by caufing the
parts to be compreffed by the hand of an affiftant for the
{pace of eight days. Gooch’s' Med. and Chir. Obf. p. 130.
Bell’s Syftem of Surgery, vol. v. p. 525. And La Bib.
Chir. de Richter, 1. 2. 4¢ partie, p. 128.

A. F. Vogel and Theden have praétifed the fame oper-
ation with the moft complete fuccefs. All danger from the
hemorrhage, or inconvenience arifing from the difcharge of
blood, may be obviated by pinching up the {mall veffels,
tying them as faft as they are divided, and by difcovering
and tying the large veflels previous to their divifion ; other
parts that cannot be wounded without danger, are to be
avoided by difleGting flowly and a little at atime, and feel-
ing with the finger every part previous to its divifion with
the biftoury.

THYRO-ARYTENOFDEUS, a mufcle of thelarynx.
See Larynx.

THYRO-EPIGLOTTICUS, a fuppofed mufcle of
the larynx. See Larynx.

THYRO-HYOIDEUS, a mufcle paffing between the
os hyoides and the thyroid cartilage. See Larynx.

THYRO-PHARYNGEUS, a portion of the inferior
conftri€tor of the pharynx. See DrGLuririon.

THYROIDE Glandule Mu/fculus. See the defcrip-
tion of the thyroid gland in the article Larynx.

THYRRZUM Vivvo, a fort of wine among the an-
cients, remarkable for its thicknefs and dark colour; it was
{weet and lufcious, and not aftringent.

THYRREUS Lapis, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a
foffil, which the writers of the middle ages have called /yrus.

It has many virtues afcribed to it; but all the accounts
we have of its real properties are from Pliny, who obferves,
that it fwam upon the water while whole ; but when broken
into {mall pieces, thefe funk to the bottom. It feems to
have been a fort of bitumen of a fpongy ftructure.

THYRSINE, in Botany, probably from its denfe cluf-
ter-like appearance, a name given by Gleditfch to the Cy-
TINUS, (fee that article, ) in a treatife publifhed in his Phyfic.
Botan. Oecon. Abhandlungen, v. 1. 199. t. 2. He is
cited in Schreb. Gen. 609, and Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 589.

THYRSUS, @veco;, in Antiquity, the {ceptre which the
ancient poets put in the hands of Bacchus, and with which
they furnifhed the Mznades in their Bacchanalia.

The thyrfus was originally a lance or fpear, wrapped
up in vine leaves; with which Bacchus is faid to have

at /oY

armed himfelf and his foldiers in his Indian wars, to amufe
and deceive the unpractifed Indians, and make them fufpeé
no hoftilities. 2 ,

Hence it was afterwards borne in the feaft and facrifices
of that god; and as the Satyrs, who were Bacchus’s fol-
diers, were ri hae to have fought with it, it became a
cuftom to reprefent them therewith. .

Tuyrsus, Oriflagni, in Ancient Geography, a river of
the ifle of Sardinia, which ran from N. to S. and dif-
charged itfelf towards the W. into the fea.

Tuyrsus, in Botany, a Bunch, is a mode of inflo-
refcence, nearly allied to a Racemus, or Clutter, except
in being compound, in which it agrees with a Panicle.
Its form is more or lefs oyate, and the difpofition of the
branches and fubdivifions is either oppofite or alternate ;
the ultimate one fometimes obfcurely umbellate. Exam-
ples are found in the Lilac, Syringa vulgaris, and a
bunch of Grapes, Vitis vinifera; as well as in the herba-
ceous plants Tu/filago hybrida and Petafites. Hence it
appears that a Thyr/us is nothing more than a denfe or
clofe Panicle; and in the examples lait cited, this mode
of inflorefcence actually becomes a loofe panicle, as the
plant perfe@ts feed. See PanicuLa and INFLORESCENCE.

THYSANOTUS, Gucavwros, fringed, a very defcriptiye
name of Mr. Brown’s, which he complains of Mr. Salif-
bury for having knowingly fupprefled—Brown Prodr,
Nov. Holl. v. 1. 282. (Chlamyfporum; Salif. Parad.
103. )—Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Coronaria, Linn. A/phodeli, Jui. ag

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. inferior, of one petal, in fix
deep, fpreading, permanent fegments; the three inner
ones broadeft, fringed at the edges with jointed hairs ; the
three outermoft externally of the texture of a calyx,
Stam. Filaments fix, awl-fhaped, fmooth, much fhorter
than the calyx, inferted into its bafe; anthers linear, in-
cumbent, attached by the finus at their bafe, a little un-

‘equal at the end, the three outer ones generally elongated

and reclining. Piff. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle
thread-fhaped, declining, about the length of the fta-
mens; ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule oval, of three ‘cells
and three valves, with a partition from the centre of each,
enveloped in the withered corolla. Sveds two in each cell,
one ereét, the other pendulous, roundifh, fomewhat ftalked,
metas into a cup-fhaped white appendage ; albumen denfe,
efhy.

Obf. A few fpecies have only three ftamens. Py

Eff. Ch. Corolla in fix deep fegments; the three in-
nermoft broadeft, fringed; permanent. Stamens fmooth.
Capfule fuperior, of three cells and three valves. Seeds in
pairs, with cup-fhaped appendages.

A rather numerous. genus of perennial herbaceous plants,
natives of different parts of New Holland. The root is
either fibrous, or confifts of cluftered flefhy bulbs. Stem
generally branched and leafy. Leaves linear, narrow, often
channelled, fometimes thread-fhaped, or fhortened. Flowers
terminal, umbellate ; rarely feattered; their ftalks jointed
in the middle. Corolla blue within; three, at leaft, of its
fegments green at the back. -Anthers purple; the outer
ones fometimes whitifh, which in the triandrous f{pecies
are wanting. Seeds black. The permanent corolla, and
{mooth filaments, principally diftinguifh this genus from
Mr. Brown’s Arthropodium, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 276,
by which it is related to the Linnzan Anthericum. The
learned author whom we follow defines twenty-one f{pecies,
of which he feems doubtful whether any one has ever been
introduced into the Englifh gardens, at leaft fo as to bear
flowers ; for he thinks the figure in Parad. Lond. was oe

rom

eee ee

© LAY

from a dried fpecimen. On this fubject we have no parti-
cular information. Several drawings of this genus and its
allies, made in New Holland, have pafled under our in-
fpeétion, and difplay a degree of elegance which renders
the plants highly defirable.

Of the twenty-one fpecies, feventeen are hexandrous, four
triandrous.

Se. 1. ee

Th. tuberofus. uberous Fringe-bloffom. Br. n. 1.—
s¢ Bulbs fafciculated, ftalked. Radical leaves channelled,
lax, fmooth, rather fhorter than the round, imooth, pa-
nicled ftem. Umbels of two or three fowers. Anthers
unequal.””—Gathered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon,
New South Wales.

Th. junceus. - Rufh-leaved Fringe-bloflom. Br. n. g.
(Chlamyfporum juncifolium ; Salif. Parad. t. 103. )—* Root
fibrous. Stems branched, diffufe, round, {triated ; branches
flightly angular. Radical leaves fhort; thofe of the item
ftraight, flightly fpreading. Umbels of few flowers.
Anthers unequal.’’—Native likewife of Port Jackfon,
from whence we have received fpecimens by favour of
Dr. White. The /fems are about a foot long, diffufe, ac-
cording to Mr. Brown, fmooth, flender, rufhy, alternately
branched.— Flowers about an inch- in diameter, their inner
fegments obtufe, delicately fringed. They are faid to be
very tranfient.

Th. dichotomus. Forked Fringe-bloflom. Br. n. 14.
(Ornithogalum dichotomum ; Labillard. Noy. Holl. v. 1.
83. t. 109.)—Root fibrous. Radical leaves hifpid. Stem
round, ftriated, with numerous rather {preading branches ;
forked above. Flowers folitary. Anthers unequal. —
Gathered in Lewin’s land by M. Labillardiere, from
whom we have a fpecimen. The /fem is 15 or 18 inches
high, repeatedly divided from the bottom, fo as to be
alfnoft corymbofe at the top, roughifh to the touch, flightly
leafy. Radical leaves numerous, about four inches long,
ere€t, linear, obtufe, entire, channelled, rough with fhort,
rigid, pale, prominent hairs; fheathing at the bafe: thofe
of the ftem folitary under each branch, {hort, awl-fhaped,
ftriated, clafping the ftem with a dilated, membranous
margin in the lower part. FYowers terminal, two or three
to each branch, but it appears to us that the individual
ones are folitary. Three inner fegments purple on the
infide, with a fringe of the fame colour ; their outfide, like
the whole of the outer ones, green. Anthers but flightly,
if at all, unequal. Valves of the cap/ule beaked.

Sect. 2. Stamens three.

Th. triandrus. 'Triandrous Fringe-blofiom. . Br. n. 18.
(Ornithogalum triandrum ; Labill. Noy. Holl. v. 1. 84.
t. 110. )—** Root fibrous. Leaves linear, fringed, the length
of the fmooth unbranched common flower-{talk. Umbel
many-flowered. Lower joint of each partial ftalk feveral
times longer than the bra¢teas.—Gathered by Labillardiere,
in Lewin’s land.. Sta/ks one or more, compreffed, a {pan
high, as well as the numerous, all radical, leaves. Umbel
of about nine flowers ; its /lalks jointed below the middle.
Stamens but three, oppofite to the three fringed fegments
of the corolla, which are purple on the infide.

THYSANUS, from Suswo:, a fringe, becaufe of the
fringed tunic of the feed.—Loureir. Cochinch. 284.—Clafs
ant order, Decandria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Terebintacee,
Juff.?

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five coloured, per-

~ manent, lanceolate, concave, hairy, fpreading leaves. Cor.
bell-fhaped, of five fpreading oblong ils the fize of
the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, fhort, reflexed; anthers
coundifh, ereét, of two cells. Pi. Germen fuperior,

THY

quadrangular ; ftyles four, thread-fhaped, inferted laterally
into the four angles of the germen; ftigmas flightly
cloyen. . Peric. Drupas four, oblong, gibbous, recurved
at the point, with a woolly coat, burtting laterally.. Seeds.
Nuts folitary, oblong-ovate, fmooth, naked at the top,
enveloped in their lower part with a flethy, fringed, red
tunic. :

Eff. Ch. Petals five. Drupas four, gibbous. Nuts
with a fringed tunic.
1. Th. Palala. Deei Khé of the Cochinchinefe.—

Native of the woods of Cochinchina. A large, woody,
nearly ereét, branching /brub, without thorns. Leaves
pinnate, of about ten pair of oblong, entire, {mooth
leaflets. Svalks axillary, many-flowered. Calyx red. Co-
rolla white. Wing, or tunic, of the nuts red. ;

Such is the defcription of Loureiro, who quotes, with
a mark of doubt, Palala fecunda; Rumph. Amboin. v. 2.
26. t.6. But that is a Myriftica, and has fimple leaves.
Yet hence the fpecific name appears to be taken. He
more juftly indicates the affinity of his plant to Smmaba;
Aubl. Guian. goo. t. 153, of which we propofe to treat
hereafter in its proper place, under Schreber?s name of
ZWINGERA.

We prefume Loureiro’s Thyfanus to be very nearly
related to Cnestis of Juffieu and Willdenow; fee that
article. The number of germens may be very variable or
uncertain. What the author terms a drupa, appears,
from its burfting laterally, to be a true follicle, as is the
feed-veflel of Cneflis. Whether the feed of the latter
has any thing analogous to the fringed tunic, does not
appear.

THYSDRUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, and one of thofe which, according to Ptolemy, lay
to the S. of Adrumetum.

THYSIUS, (Tuys,) Anvony, in Biography, a philolo-
gift, was born at Leyden in 1603, and became profeffor of
eloquence and poetry in the univerfity of his native city,
and public hbrarian. Befides two or three works of his
own, he*was the editor of feveral editions of claflics called
*¢ Variorum ;?? of which were ‘ Valerius Paterculus,’’
“¢ Salluft,”’ « Valerius Maximus,” ‘¢ Seneca the Trage-
dian,”’ ‘* Laétantius,’’ and “ Aulus Gellius.’? He died in
1670. oe
THYSSAGETA, in Ancient Geography, a people who
inhabited the territory near the Sarmate, where was the
fource of the river Tanais. Ammianus Marcellinus fays
that thefe people had their abode in large forefts, and lived
by the chace. Their wives and children they had, he fays,
incommon. Herodotus fays they were a numerous nation,
and governed by their own laws. Hardouin, in his notes
on Pliny, fays that they inhabited the banks of the Tanais,
towards that bend of the river, where it moft nearly ap-
proaches the Wolga, and which is now the territory of
Acttrachan.

THYSSELINUM, in Botany, a name adopted by
Lobel in his Scones, 711, for the Selinum fylveftre of Lin-
neus. Lobel cites Pliny, but the name in that author is
Thyffelium. The plant to which it belonged was ‘ not un-
like parfley, dpium ; its root when chewed purged humours
from the head.”? Rivinus, Pentap. Irr. t. 19 and 20, has
the Linnean Selinum /ylveftre and palu/tre under the generic
name of Thy/félinum, as has 'Tournetort likewife, in_ his
Inflitutiones, 319. The latter diftinguifhes his genus from
Oreofelinum folely by its milky juice. As this juice is
highly acrid, thefe authors fhould feem to confider the
word as derived from $v», to burn, and cau, par/ley.
Linneus omitted the firft fyllable as, in his opinion, fuper-

fluous,

TEA

fluous, and even Haller follows his example.
LINUM.

THYSSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
on and about mount Athos. Pliny and Thucydides.

THYSTIUM, or Tuyrtivm, atown of Etolia. Suidas.

TIABA, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria. Strabo.

'FIAGAR, a town in the interior of Arabia Felix, be-
tween Inaphaand Appa. Ptolemy.

Tracar, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 50 miles W.S.W. of Pondicherry. N, lat.
11° 42', E. long. 79° 12%.

TIAGNANUCO, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
La Paz. This is a town of great antiquity, and is {aid to
have received its name from one of the Incas. In it are
fome ftatues, and a coloffal pyramid, with a variety of hu-
man figures cut out of ftone, which, though decayed by time,
appear to have belonged to fome gigantic nation ; 36 miles
N,W. of La Paz.

See Sz-

TIAGURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, °

on this fide of the Ganges, and E, of the river Nomadus.
Ptolemy.

TIANG-POTAO, in Geography, an ifland of Corea,
about thirty miles in circumference, in the Hoang-hai. N.
lat. 37° 20'. E. long. 124° 52!.

TIANO. See THEANo.

Trano, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near the coaft of
Lapland. N. lat. 68° 42!.

TIANTEGNIES, a town of France, in the department
of Jemappe ; 6 miles S.W. of Tournay.

TIANTONG, a town of Upper Siam, on the Mecon ;
60 miles N. W. of Porfelouc.

TIAOYU-SU, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea, belong-
ing: to thofe called Lieou-kieou. N. lat. 25°55/. E.long.

1a gals

IARA, Tixex, an ornament, or habit, with which the
ancient Perfians covered their heads ; and which the Arme-
nians and kings of Pontus wear on medals: thefe laft, be-
caufe defcended from the Perfians.

Latin authors call it indifferently tiara and cidaris.

Strabo fays, the tiara was in form of a tower; and the
fcholiaft on Ariftophanes’s comedy, Axawevn-, aét i. {cene 2.
affirms that it was adorned with peacocks’ feathers. Some
moderns, however, fancy the {choliaft is here {peaking of the
cafque which the ancient Perfians wore in war, rather than
of the habit which they wore on the head in the city.

The kings of Perfia alone had the right of wearing the
tiara ftraight and ereét ; the priefts and great lords wore it
depreffed, or turned down on the fore-fide. Xenophon, in
his Cyropedia, fays that the tiara was fometimes encom-
paffed with the diadem, at leaft in ceremonials ; and had fre-
quently the figure of a half-moon embroidered on it : others
are of opinion, that the diadem was in figure of a moon ; and
that it was hence the fiara was called /unata. Laiftly,
others think that the tiara itfelf was made fometimes in form
of a half-moon. From what we have faid, it appears that
there were different forms of tiaras; and, in effeét, Pafcha-
lius, De Coronis, diftinguithes no lefs than five different kinds,
See Diapem.

The tiara was alfo an ornament belonging to the Jewifh
priefts. Exod. xxviii. 40. xxxix. 26.

Tiara is alfo the name of the pope’s triple crown ; an-
ciently called regnum.

The tiara and keys are the badges of the papal dignity ;
the tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his jurifdiétion :
for as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are reprefented with
the tiara alone, without the keys. ;

The ancient tiara of the popes was a round high cap.

9

TIA

Boniface VIII. firft encompaffed it with a crown. Bene-
di& XII. added a fecond crown; and John XXIII. a
third.

TIARANTUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Scythia,
which ran into the Danube ; now the A/ut.

TIARE, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade. Pliny.

TIARELLA, in Botany, the diminutive of cizego, x
Perfian diadem, or ornament for the head. This name alludes
to the form of the feed-veffel, and was contrived by Lin.
nzus to preferve an analogy with Mire.ta, {ee that article,
to which the prefent genus is next akin.—Linn. Gen. 223.
Schreb. 301. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.659. Mart. Mill. Dig.
v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.72. Purfh 659. Juffl. 309.
Lamarck [lluftr. t. 373.—Clafs and order, Decandria Di-
rynia. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn. Saxifrage, Jul,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leat, in five deep,
ovate, acute, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, oblong,
their claws inferted into the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten,
capillary, longer than the corolla, inferted into the calyx ;
anthers incumbent, orbicular. Ps/?. Germen fuperior, cloven,
terminating in two very fhort ftyles ; ftigmas fimple. Peric
Capfule oblong, fomewhat comprefled, of one cell and two
flattifh valves, one of them twice as long as the other.
Seeds numerous, ovate, polifhed. :

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five, un-
divided, inferted into the calyx. Capfule of one cell, with
two unequal valves.

Obf. The undivided petals, and the inequality of length
in the two valves of the capfule, diftinguifh this genus from
Mitella.

1. T. cordifolia. Heart-leaved Tiarella. Linn. Sp. Pl. 580.
Willd. n.1. Ait.n.1. Purfhn.1. Lamarck as above.
(Cortufa americana, flore f{picato, petalis integris; Herm.
Parad. 129, without a figure. )— Leaves heart-fhaped, acutely
lobed, with pointed teeth. Clufter fimple, ovate.—Native
of the fhady woods of Canada, and the high mountains of
New York and Pennfylvania, flowering in April and May.
esa It is hardy in our gardens, flowering at the fame
feafon, but chiefly preferved in the more curious colle@tions
only. The root is tuberous, with many blackifh fibres,
perennial. Leaves feveral, all radical, light green, hairy,
elegantly lobed and veined, acute, about an inch and half
in diameter, on ere&, fimple, hairy foof/falks, thrice as much
inlength. Flower-/falk radical, mottly folitary, unbranched,
hairy, taller than the leaves, bearing afimple downy clufter,
an inch long, of about twenty fmall, delicate, white fowers,
which is fubfequently elongated as the fruit ripens. The
capfules then become deflexed, two-lipped, ribbed, fmooth,
and fhining. It is wonderful that every author fhould per-
fift in quoting, after Linnzeus, the plate of Hermann’s Para-
difus, which is evidently Heuchera americana, and is men-
tioned under the name of Cortufa americana, flore fquallidé
purpureo, in the text of the fame work, p. 131 ; where alfo
this figure is referred to. ‘The editor, having committed a
double blunder, in the title of the plate and its reference,
130 inftead of 131, is in fome meafure refponfible for the
miftake ; which however the compound panicle, and clofed
calyx, ought to have fooner correéed.

2. T. Menziefii. Slender-fpiked Tiarella. Purfh n. 2.—
«« Leaves ovate-heartfhaped, acute, toothed, with fhallow
lobes ; thofe of the ftem alternate, remote. Clufter thread-
fhaped, fomewhat fpiked. Calyx tubular.””—Gathered b
Mr. Menzies, on the north-weft coalt of America. Perennial.
More than a foot high, with five or fix alternate /eaves on
the /fem. pe

3. T. trifoliata. Three-leaved Tiarella. Linn. Sp. Pl. 580.
Willd. n. 2. Purfhn.3. (Mitella foliis ternatis ; ae

m,

ieee

Meee

FIA
Am. Acad. v. 2. 351.)—Leaves ternate, lobed and toothed.
Stem leafy. Cluiter compound.—Gathered by Mr. Men-
zies on the nortl-weit coaft of America, where it is frequent

in woods. Linnzus faw it only in the colleGtion of plants
from Kamfchatka, fubmitted to his infpection by Demidoff,

cand defcribed in the 2d volume of the Amenitates Academice ;

for there is no {pecimen in his own herbarium. The root is
tuberous, and fomewhat creeping, perennial. S¥ems above
a foot high, ere@, fimple, leafy, fmooth and flender. Leaves
all ternate, lightly hairy, paler beneath ; the leaflets fome-
what rhomboid, acute, more or lefs deeply lobed, and irre-
paar notched, an inch or an inch and half in length; the
ateral ones often deeply divided; fo that they much re-
femble fome of the more delicate fpecies of Rubus. The
radical leaves have long flender foot/falks ; thofe on the ftem
fhort ones. C/u/fer many-flowered, from three to fix inches
long, alternately branched ; the branches corymbofe, each
bearing from three to fix or feven very {mall greenifh-white
s. The bafe of the calyx is concave, or flightly bell-
fhaped. Cap/ule half an inch long, each valve tipped with
a permanent, elongated, capillary /fyle.
4. T. biternata. Compound-leaved Tiarella. Venten.
Malmaif. t. 54. Purfh n. 4.—Leaves twice ternate, lobed
and toothed. Stem leafy. Panicle compound, divaricated ; its
branches fomewhat {piked.— Found onthe mountains of South
Carolina, flowering in May. Root perennial. Stem a yard high.
The appearance of the plant is juftly compared by Ventenat
to Spirea Aruncus. The leaves confift of nine large ovate
leaflets, lightly hairy, partly lobed, and all ftrongly toothed,
or notched. F/owars very {mall, yellowifh-white, almoit
feffile, difpofed in numerous long cluffers, forming a large,
fpreading, repeatedly branched panicle. ‘The feta/s in Ven-
tenat’s figure are narrow, elliptic-lanceolate. Purfh fays
they are Reineacs wanting. The appearance of the cap/ule
in that figure is very different from the other {pecies, and
the valves are of equal length. This plant is faid to have
proved biennial in the garden of Malmaifon; but it may
ftill be perennial in its native country. We have feen no
f{pecimen, nor has this curious {pecies, any more than the
laft, yet found its way into the Englifh gardens.
TIARINI, Aressanpro, in Biography, an hiftorical
painter, who was born at Bologna in 1577. He was firft a
difciple of Profpero Fontana, but on the death of that matter,
he received inftruétions from Bartolomio Cefi, from whom,
being obliged to leave Bologna on account of a quarrel, he
went td ftudy under Paffignano at Florence. After fome
time, about feven years, as the influence of the circumftance
which had driven him from his native city fubfided, he ven-

_ tured to return there, and became a pupil of the Caracci ;

and he principally attached himfelf to Ludovico, more for
the improvement of his ftyle, than for practice.

_ He had, during his refidence at Florence, acquired con-
fiderable fame, and painted feveral pictures for churches and
convents in places within and round about that city. On
his return to Bologna, his talents acquired him confiderable
employment there, and many of his principal works {till
adorn its public edifices. Ferdinand, duke of Mantua, in-
vited him to take up his refidence with him ; fat to him for
his portrait, as did all the princes of his family, and many of
the nobles of his court.

The colouring adopted by Tiarini in his beft time is clear
and rich; his defign tafteful and agreeable, though of a ferious
eait ; and his expreffion juft and natural: and there are not
many artifts who have have done more credit to the Bolognefe
fchool. He died in 1668, at the advanced age of oI.

TIARIULIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hif-

TIB

pania Citerior, in the interior of the country of the Iler-
caons. Ptol.

TIARP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weitman:-
land ; 25 miles N. of Upfal.

TIASSE, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelopoa-
nefus, in Laconia, which ran between Sparta and Amycla.
Paufanais.

TIASUM, a town of Dacia, in the vicinity of Nanti-
dava and Zugma. Prtol. :

TIAUSPA, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges,
W. of this river and near it. Prtol.

TIB, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Chufiftan, or
Kuzittan ; 60 miles N.W. of Shufter.

TIBAENS, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Entre Duero e Minho ; 4 miles W. of Braga.

TIBALDI, Petrecrro, in Biograph , was born at Bo-
logna in 1527. He was the pupil of Bagnacavallo, and
copied with much attention the works of Vafari, in the
refectory of S. Michele in Bofco. At the age of twenty he
went to Rome, chiefly to ftudy the works of Michael An-
gelo. The pi€tures he produced at Rome obtained for him
the patronage of the cardinal Poggi, who employed him in
ornamenting his Vigna, near the Porto del Popolo, with
works in frefco, and then fent him back to Bologna, to affift
in the completion of his palace there (now the Academical
Inititute), both as architect and painter ; and in both cha-
raéters it remains as the principal teftimonial of his powers
remaining in Italy. He alfo conftruéted and adorned a
chapel for his patron in the church of S. Giacopo Maggiore.
One of the paintings he executed there was the Preaching of
St. John, and another, the Laft Judgment ; where, in the opi-
nion of the Caracci, he almoft equalled the majefty of Mi-
chael Angelo, and it was preferred by them to all the other
works of Pellegrino, and ferved them and their fcholars as a
model of ftudy.

From Bologna, the cardinal fent him to Loretto, to fuper-
tend the ereGtion of a chapel in the church of La Madonna,
which he alfo ornamented with ftuccoes and paintings of the
Nativity, the Prefentation in the Temple, the Transfiguration,
and the Decollation of St. John. From thence he went to
Ancona, where he wrought in the churches of S. Agoftino
and Ciriaco ; and in the great hall of the merchants he painted
one of his moft celebrated pi€tures, the fubje&t of which is
Hercules overthrowing monfters: He alfo fuperintended,
as military archite€t, the fortifications of the place, about
the year 1560; and two years afterwards vifited jPavia,
where he conftruéted the palace of the Sapienza; he then
went to Milan, and there built the temple of S. Fidele,
and before the year 1570 was eleéted archite& of the
cathedral.

Here he difencumbered the dome of numerous Gothic
monuments, fepulchral urns and trophies, and embellifhed
it in their ftead with various chapels and a majeftic choir.
He foon after received a commiffion from Philip IT. to pre-
pare defigns and plans for adorning the Efcurial, both archi-
tectural and pi@torial. He followed them to Spain himfelf
in 1586. There he fuperintended the work for nine years,
painting a great number of pi€tures, particularly fome in
frefco in the lower cloiiter, whence he expunged the unfuc-
cefsful produétions of F. Zucchero. The fubje&ts were
from fcripture, of the Purification; the Flightunto Egypt;
the Murder of the Innocents; Chrift tempted in the Wil-
dernefs ; the Eleétion of the Apoftles ; the Refurreétion of
Lazarus ; the Expulfion of the Money Changers from the
Temple; and the RefurreGtion of our Saviour. Befides

thefe, he painted during his refidence in Spain feveral pic-
tures

Tis

tures for other places, particularly for the great church at
Madrid, where there are five pictures by him. But his moft
renowned work, and which moft contributed to eftablifh his
fame in Spain, was the cieling of the library of the Efcurial,
where he appears to have rivalled the compofition of the
{chool of Athens by Raphael; with beautiful groups of
children and figures fupporting the cornices and feftoons in
great varieties, and forefhortenings worthy of an imitator of
the ftyle of Michael Angelo. For the extraordinary talents
which he exhibited in thefe great works, Philip loaded him
with riches and honours, and even gave him patents of no-
bility, creating him marquis of Valdelfa ; a diitriét in which
his ther and his uncle had laboured in the humble capacity
of mafons. He lived to an advanced age, but the exatt
year of his death is not known, though it is thought to
have been about 1600.

Pellegrini Tibaldi is confidered, and with fufficient’ evi-
dence from his works, as the greateft defigner of the Bo-
lognefe and Lombard fchools. He approaches the line of
Michael Angelo nearer than all the reft of his imitators ;
but as he had decidedly adopted the technic without always
penetrating the moral principles of his model, the manner
of the maiter frequently became the ftyle of the pupil;
though it cannot be denied that he often united energy of
attitude and grandeur of line, with fublimity of conception
and dignity of motive. Of thefe he has given no where
more fignal proofs than in the cielings and the compart-
ments of the Academical Inftitute at Bologna. They repre-
fent various feenes from the Odyffey ; among them, Poly-
pheme waking under the pangs of the fiery point, though
painted with a fentiment of original expreflion, is evidently
imitated from the newly created figure of Adam in the Sif-
tina; but the fame Cyclops groping at the entrance of his
cave to prevent the efcape of Ulyfles and his affociates, is
in conception of the whole, and in the detail of the parts,
an original invention; a form, than which Michael Angelo
himfelf never conceived one of greater energy, with ex-
preffion, attitude, and limbs more in unifon. With this may
be placed that wonder of forefhortening, excentricity, and
rotundity, the figure of Elpenor, on one of the architraves
of the Salotto, reprefented in the moment when, yet dream-
ing, he leaves his hold, and is precipitated from the roof.
The air of originality which this figure in every view pre-
fents, and the elegance with which the imitator has reverfed
the figure in the Laft Judgment of Michael Angelo, from
which he borrowed the principal limbs of his own, place
him on a level with the inventor.

It was, however, lefs for the powers exerted by Pellegrino,
in the decorations of the Inftitute, than for the eclectic
principle which they difcovered in his fubfequent works, that
the Caracci gave him the epithet of Michel Angelo riformato,
and commended

« Del Tibaldo il decoro e il fondamento.”’

The compofitions of the chapel Poggi, in St. Giacomo,
where the imitation of Michael Angelo is blended with that
of Raphael, Corregio, and D, da Volterra, contain the ru-
diments of their own fyftem.

Pellegrino Tibaldi is more known by his works in frefco
than by his pictures in oil, which are extremely fearce : one
of the earlieftis the Nativity, already mentioned, in the Palace
Borghefe, of which the cartoon ftill exifls in a private col-
leGtion of drawings. It is painted in a fober unaffected
tone, and confidered as the work of an artift jealous of his
line, with great mellownefs of touch. ‘The figures of this
are confiderably lefs than the fize of life ; but there are pic-

5

TIL

tures of his to be met with of diminutive dimenfions, with all
the finifh of miniatures, though rich in figures, touched with

eat {pirit and equal vivacity of colour: they are generally
et off by backgrounds drawn from his favourite branch of
art, architecture. Fufeli’s Pilkington.

TIBARANIA, or Trpar@nia, in Ancient Geography.
a country of Afia, in Pontus, in the vicinity of Cappadocia,
and adjoining the country of the Chalybes. Steph. Byz.

TIBERIA, a town of Thrace, founded by the emperor
Tiberius, whence its name.

TIBERIACUM, atown of Italy, near Ravenna.—Alfo,
a town of Lower Germany, upon the route from Colonia
Trajana to Colonia Agrippina, between this latter place and
Juliacum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

TIBERIADES Waren, the water of a hot {pring
near Tiberiades in Egypt.

Dr. Perry, when on the fpot, tried fome experiments on
this water, which give us a much better idea of its nature
than we have from any other accounts of it. Half a drachm
of oil of tartar being mixed with an ounce and half of the
water, it becomes turbid and muddy; and after twelve
hours, three parts of the whole appear like white wool, only
leaving a {mall portion of clear water at the top. The
white woolly matter dried, produced only a {mall quantity
of yellow ochre.

Spirit of vitriol added to the water in the fame quantity,
affords a large un¢étuous fediment of a white colour. A fo-
lution of fublimate being mixed in the fame quantity, it
became turbid and yellowifh, and yielded an earthy fediment
in {mall quantity ; whence it feems evident, that it contains
a fal murale. Saccharum faturni being added in the fame
quantity, the water depofited a lateritious fediment in a {mall
quantity. Mixt with fpirit of fal ammoniac, it turns to a
blueifh-green turbid liquor, and finally yields a woolly fedi-
ment. Sugar of violets mixed with it, turned it to a yel-
low colour ; and the ferapings of galls mixed with it, turned
it to i deep purple ; and on fhaking, this became as black
as Ink.

It appears from thefe experiments, that the water con-
tains a good deal of a grofs fixed vitriolic falt, fome alum,
anda fal murale. It is too falt and naufeous for internal
ufe ; but it muft be of ufe as a bath in all cutaneous foul-
nefles, efpecially in fcorbutic and leprous cafes; for it will
powerfully deterge, fcour, and cleanfe the excretory pores,
and it may be, by its weight and {timulus, reftore them to
their natural {tate and tone, and reftore the true ftate of the
vitiated folids in general. Phil. Tranf. N° 462. p. 52.

TIBERIANI Campt, in Ancient Geography, fields of
Italy, in the vicinity of Rome, which took their name from
the emperor Tiberius, who fixed them at 25 acres.

TIBERIAS, a town of Paleftine, the capital of Gali-
lee, was fituated in a plain, near the lake of Gennefareth,
which from this city was alfo called the lake or fea of Ti-
berias. This city is very famous, and often mentioned by
Jewith writers, becaufe, after the taking of Jerufalem, there
was at Tiberias a fucceflion of Hebrew judges and doétors
till the fourth century. It was a bifhop’s fee in this cen-
tury. Epiphanius fays that a Hebrew tranflation of St.
John, and the Aéts of the Apoftles, was kept in this
city. It was diftant about 90 miles from Jerufalem. See
TABARIA.

TIBERINA Insu a, the ifle of Tiber, fituated in the
city of Rome; called by Suetonius the ifle of A®feulapius.
Plutarch fays that this ifland was called at Rome the facred
ifle and the ifle of two bridges, becaufe in confecrating to
Mars a field which belonged to the Tarquins, they threw into

: the

mi B

the river the corn and alfo the trees which grew in this field.
Thefe materials, united with the mud brought down by the
river, formed an ifland, on which were built feveral temples
and porticoes.

Tiserina Regio, acountry of Afia, in Cappadocia, where
was a place named Ariarzus.

' TIBERIOPOLIS, a town of Afia, in Phrygia Major.
Ptol.—Alfo, a town of Bulgaria, upon the coaft of the
Euxine fea.

TIBERIS, or Trser, a river of Italy, which had its
fource in the Apennines, towards a place called Tifernum
Tibarinum. Its courfe was firft towards the S. paffing by
Perufia, as far as Tuder, where it turned towards the S.W.
as far as the Volfinii. Having received the Clanis, it turned
towards the S.E., received the Nar at Hortanum, and con-
tinued in this direCtion as far as a point that lies between
Capena and Cures. Affuming a dire&tion towards the S.,
it paffed to Rome, and then proceeded towards the S.W.
to the fea before Oftia, i. e. the mouths, of which it has
many. ‘This river was inconfiderable till it reached Flor-
tanum ; but afterwards it was augmented by the Nar, the
Walinus, and the Anio, fo that at Rome it was large and
deep. ‘The ancients, by way of enhancing its celebrity, re-
preient it as receiving twenty other rivers; but under this
general denomination they muft comprehend {everal {mall
treams. It was called by various names.

TIBERIUS Crauptus Nero, in Biography, a Roman
emperor, fo called after his father, his mother’s name being
Livia Drufilla, was born in the year B.C. 42. He was at
an early age fo well inftru€ted in Greek and Roman litera-
ture, as to be able, when nine years old, to pronounce a fu-
neral oration for his father, which gained great applaufe.
His temper was naturally referved and gloomy, and yet,
with the advice of his mother Livia, who was married to
Auguitus, he conducted the ufual {pe€tacles with a magni-
ficence which gaye fatisfaftion to the Roman people. His
firft appearance in a military charafter was as a tribune in
the Cantabrian war; he next fuftained the office of com-
mander-in-chief in placing Tigranes on the Armenian throne,
and on his return was made pretor. He was afterwards
fent to join his brother Drufus, and gained a decifive vitory
over the Rhetians and Vindelicians. He became conful in
the twenty-eighth year of his age, and thus rapidly ad-
vanced to the rank which, as the emperor’s ftep-fon, he was
likely to obtain, and his elevation was accelerated by the
death of Agrippa, B.C. 22. Previoufly to his being ad-
mitted into a partnerfhip of the empire, Auguftus obliged
him to divorce his wife Vifpania, the daughter of Agrippa,
and the obje&t of his choice and affeGtion, and to marry his
‘own daughter Julia, of doubtful reputation.

The next obje& of his military career was the reduction of
the Pannonians, in confequence of which he was honoured
with triumphal ornaments. From his fuccefsful profecution
of the war in this part of the empire he was {uddenly called to
attend his brother Drufus in his laft moments : and he after-
wards accompanied his remains on foot in a funeral pro-
ceffion to Italy. After his vi€tories had been celebrated by
an ovation, he was deputed to make peace in Germany, and
being a fecond time made conful, B.C. 7, he triumphed
on the day when he took poffeffion of his dignity. At the
expiration of the year, Auguftus conferred upon him the
tribunitial power for five years. At this time Caius, one
of the emperor’s adoptive fons, though under age, was
raifed to the pontificate, and introduced into the fenate.
Jealous of Caius as a rival, and difgufted by the open gallan-
tries of his wife Julia, he refolved to afk permiffion to with-
draw from public bufinefs, and to live in retiremest at the

Vou. XXXV.

TIB

ifland of Rhodes. Accordingly he failed for Rhodes. His
wife’s conduct became fo notorious, that fhe was banifhed
by her father to the ifle of Pandataria, and divorced from
her hufband. Having obtained leave of the emperor, though
relu€tantly granted, to return from Rhodes to Rome, he
lived privately till the death of the two Czfars, Caius and
Lucius, opened to him new profpeéts. The emperor,
whofe declining age needed an affociate, adopted Tiberius
A.D. 4, renewing his tribunitian power, and then placing
him next to himfelf in the empire. Having brought the
war againft the Pannonians and Dalmatians, as much by
policy as by force, to an honourable termination, he obtained
a triumph, A.D. 9; and asa recompence of other fervices,
his tribunitian authority was prolonged: but the emperor
terminating his life at Nola, Tiberius, without oppofition,
fucceeded to the empire, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
Paft experience had taught him the art of diffimulation,
and this art he praétifed during the progrefs of his
reign. Although he was very jealous of his authority, he
was moderate in the exercife of it, and always paid great
deference to the fenate, and refpe& to the confuls. He was
zealous in the adminiftration of juftice, and avoided op-
preflive impofts even in the moft diftant provinces, for which
he-had the’lefs occafion, as he was not avaricious of money ;
a virtue which, as Tacitus fays, he retained, when he had
renounced all others. To which we may add, that he was
munificent in his relief of public calamity and private dif-
trefs. Thefe qualities, combined with his found fenfe, ren-
dered the earlier part of his reign as profperous as perhaps
any in the annals of the empire.
\ The popularity of Germanicus rendered Tiberius jealous,
and vigilant of his condu&t; and in order to reftrain his au-
thority, he employed Pifo, a man of ancient family and im-
perious fpirit, as his fubordinate agent for this purpofe.
Germanicus, however, died of a lingering difeafe, and Pifo
was fufpeGted, if not accufed, of having given him poifon.
Pifo was impeached in the fenate for his condu€ towards
Germanicus. In the courfe of his trial, Tiberius aéted
with apparent impartiality ; but the accufed, defpairing of
an acquittal, put an end to his own life. Tiberius, in the
feventh year of his reign, withdrew from Rome to Cam-
pania, in order to A ED Drufus, who was then conful,
to the exercife of the fupreme power. rae inane:
feveral inftances, in which he manifefted a moderate exercife
of power, a ftern unfeeling tyranny was becoming the
fettled charaéter of his reign, to which his growing con-
fidence in the deteftable Sejanus very much contributed.
The death of Drufus, A.D. 23, occafioned by poifon, ad-
miniftered in confequence of the fedu€tion of his wife, was
borne by his father Tiberius with a degree of felf-poffeffion,
which was imputed to want of natural affeGtion. After this
event he appeared in the fenate: and the two elder fons of
Germanicus were prefented to him. Taking them by the
hand, and delivering a fpeech which melted the whole af-
fembly into tears, he recommended thefe orphans, who had
loft both their uncle and father, to the guardianfhip of the
fenate. Two years after the death mS Drufus, Fiiberins
took an opportunity, which a propofal for ereGting a temple
to him and his mother afforded him, of giving his fentiments
on that deification which difgraced the reigns of the Romaa
emperors. Recognizing himfelf as a mere mortal, fubje&
to all the infirmities of the human condition, and fufficiently
honoured in holding the firft place among men, he was de-
firous that pofterity fhould know his fentiments on the fub-
je&t, and that he wifhed for no other honours paid to his
memory than to be thought to have worthily performed the
duties of his flation, . The whole {peech, replete with wif-
41 dom

BS Mis og

dom and good fenfe, is reported by Tacitus. His hes
of retiring from the capital, encouraged for felfifh purpofes
by Sejanus, was put into execution ‘AD. 26. Accordingly
he withdrew into the ifle of Caprex, near the bay of Naples.
Here he paffed his remaining years, immerfed in grofs and
infamous debauchery, hating mankind, fearcely known to
exift but by his cruelties, and rendering himfelf, in dire
oppofition to his own maxims, “let them hate, provided
they efteem me,” no lefs contemptible than odious. It
ought to be mentioned, however, that in a conflagration
which confumed a large quarter of Rome, he difplayed a
very laudable and {pontaneous munificence. For an account
of his conneétion with Sejanus, and of the effects and ter-
mination of that conneétion, we refer to the article SesANUS.
The latter part of Tiberius’s reign was marked by fervility
on one hand, and defpotic ferocity on the other ; and it ap-
pears by one of his letters to the fenate, that he fuffered as
much mifery from the anguifh of felf-reproach and tumult
of mind as he infli&ed: ‘* What I fhall write to you, con-
{cript fathers, or what J fhall not write, or why I fhould
write at all at this time, may the gods and goddeffes plague
me more than I feel daily that they are doing, if I can tell!”?
What mental torture it muft have been, fays Tacitus, that
could have extorted fuch a confeffion. Some few occafional
aéts of wifdom and munificence brightened in a faint de-
gree the black piéture that was exhibited by his general
conduct. Towards the clofe of life, and at an advanced
ayes the appointment of a fucceflor engaged his attention.

e had two alternatives; the one was the nomination of
Caius, his grandfon, the fon of Germanicus, who was his
adopted fon ; and the other, the appointment of Gemellus,
the fon of Drufus, who was his fon by nature. The former
was of mature age, being now twenty-five, and poflefled of
popular favour. The diffimulation of this afpirant to the
empire had not eluded the penetration of Tiberius. See
CaLicuLa.

Tiberius, leaving Caprez, frequently changed his abode,
and at laft ftopped at a country-houfe, which had belonged
to Lucullus, near the promontory of Mifenum. There,
on March 16th, A.D. 37, he funk into a ftate, in which he
appeared dead ; upon which Caius, with indecorous preci-
pitance, proceeded with a numerous efcort to feize pofleffion
of the empire ; but his revival threw them all into confufion.
At this initant Macro, the pretorian prefe&t, caufed him to
be fuffocated with pillows. He died in the feventy-eighth
year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign, univerfally
execrated ; and his predominant vices were fuch, that they
have almoft effaced the records of his laudable qualities.
Tacitus. Suetonius. Crevier.

Tisertus ConsTANTINE, emperor of the Eaft, was a
Thracian by birth, and by office captain of the guards to
Juftin II. By the recommendation of the emprefs Sophia,
he was raifed to the rank of Cefar A.D. 574, and in 578,
when Juftin died, fucceeded to the imperial throne. Sophia,
attached to his perfon, had flattered herfelf with the hope
of his being her fecond hufband; but on his acceflion to
the empire, it appeared that he had been previoufly married
to Anaftafia, who was proclaimed Auguita. Sophia, thus
difappointed, concurred in a confpiracy for raifing to the
purple Juftinian, commander of the eaftern army ; but the
plot being difcovered, Sophia was punifhed by lofing the
greateft part of her allowance. The government of Ti-
berius has been favourably reprefented. He was temperate,
juft, and humane ; economical in the difburfement of the re-
venue, yet liberal and beneficent, and ready to remit the
dues of taxation to fufferers under public calamity. The
principal events of his reign were two victories over the Per-

6

Tris

fians. Soon after the fecond viétory, Tiberius fell into a
difeafe, during which he declared Maurice, who had married
his daughter Conftantia, and who had been nominated Czfar,
his fucceflor ; and after a reign of four years, he clofed his
life in 582, with the general regret of tis fubjeéts. Anc.
Un. Hift. Gibbon’s, Rom. Emp.

TIBESTI, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
route from Fezzan to Bornou, inhabited by the people
called Tibbo — fee); 150 miles S.E. of Mourzouk.
The vales of Tibefti are fertile in corn, and pafturage for
cattle, of which they have numerous herds; and they are
particularly celebrated for their breed of camels, which are
efteemed the beft in Africa. For this fertility they are in-
debted to the water of the innumerable f{prings, that amply
compenfate for the want of rain, which feldom, if ever,
falls within the limits of Tibefti. Among the natives of
Tibeiti, different religions are profeffed ; for fome of them
are Mahometans, and others continue attached to their an-
cient fyftem of idolatry. From the plain, which lies to the
W. of the defert of Tibeiti, a part of the mountains of
Tibefti take their rife. Thefe vaft hills, the range of
which is very extenfive, are varioufly peopled: but fuch of
them as are croffed on the route from Fezzan to the city
of Bornou, are inhabited by a mixture of Muffulmen and
idolaters, who employ themfelves in breeding camels and
afles, and other cattle, particularly horfes of a {mall fize.

TIBET. See Tuiser.

TIBI, a town of Arabia, in the country of Oman;
8 miles N. of Kalhat.

TIBIA, in Anatomy, the large bone of the leg. See
EXTREMITIES. ( :

Tisia, Fradures of the. See FRACTURE.

Tista Biceps. See Biceps.

Tisia, in Mufic, was originally a flute, made of the
fhank or fhin-bone of an animal ; and when the art of bor-

ing flutes was difcovered, they were made of box-tree,.

laurel, brafs, filver, and even of gold. See FLuTE.

Tisia 4rticularis. See BAGPIPE.

Dr. Burney (Hift. Muf. yol.i. p. 521.) apprehends
that the union of this inftrument with the fyrinx fuggelted
the firft idea of an organ.

Tisia Pares et Impares, in the Dramatic Mufic of the
Ancients. It has been long doubted, whether pares and
impares meant double and fingle flutes, or equal and un-
equal in point of length and fize. But though in pre-
ferring either of thefe acceptations, fome fenfe and mean-
ing is acquired, yet we fhould incline to the latter. For in
none of the reprefentations in ancient painting or feulpture,
which we have yet feen, does it appear that the tibicen, either
at facrifices or in the theatre, plays on a fingle flute, am
we as often fee double flutes of different lengths in his hands,
as of the fame length ; and as harmony, or mufic in different
parts, does not appear to have been prattifed by the an-
cients, the flutes of egua/ length may naturally be fuppofed
to imply unifons; and unequal, fuch as are o€taves to each
other.

TIBIALIA, among the Romans, a kind of fwaths
with which they ufed to cover their legs.

TIBIALIS, in Anatomy, a name applied to various
organs fituated in the neighbourhood of the tibia. There
is an anterior and a potterior tibial artery, an anterior and
pofterior tibial nerve (fee ArTERy and Nerve), and the
two following mufcles,

TisiaLis Anticus, jambier antérieur, tibio-fus-tarfien ;
an elongated mufcle, flattened at the fides, placed on the
front of the leg, and extending from the upper end of the
tibia to the firft cuneiform bone. It is covered in front ~

the

q|
|

j

TIS

the aponeurofis of the leg, to which it adheres clofely at
the upper part: the anterior furface of the mufcle forms
the convexity on the outfide of the tibia, which is more
confiderable in ftrong mufcular fubjects. The inner flat
furface correfponds to the outer or concave furface of the
tibia, and is attached to its upper half: the outer furface
correfponds above to the extenfor longus digitorum pedis,
below, to the extenfor longus pollicis pedis: the anterior
tibial veffels and nerve being interpofed. The pofterior
edge of the mufcle is attached to the upper three-fourths
of the interoffeous ligament, then it lies on the front of the
tibia, on the ankle joints, and on the upper and inner part
of the tarfus. The upper extremity of the mufcle is fixed
to the front of the external tuberofity of the tibia ; thence it
defcends parallel to the tibia, firft increafing in fize, then
diminifhing again, and ending about the lower third of the
leg in a thick and flat tendon, which defcends over the
front of the tibia, and of the ankle, confined by the fupe-
rior annular ligament of the tarfus. (See Fascra.) Hav-
ing paffed this ligament, the tendon paffes forwards on the
foot, then turns obliquely inwards, becoming a little
broader, over the convexity of the firft cuneiform bone,
and divides into two portions. The pofterior, which is the
largeft, is fixed to the inner and front part of the bafis of
that bone; the anterior and fmaller is attached to the pof-
terior extremity of the firft metatarfal bone.

The lower part of the tibialis anticus confifts of a ftrong
tendon, which enters the fubftance of the mufcle, and ex-
pands into an aponeurofis reaching nearly to the upper end
of the mufcle. The flefhy fibres arife from the fafcia of
the leg, from the external furface of the tibia, from the
interoffeous ligament, and from an aponeurotic feptum be-
tween it and the extenfor longus digitorum. They pafs
obliquely to both furfaces of the tendon, like the barbs on
the fhaft of a feather, and are continued much lower on its
pofterior than on the anterior furface.

It bends the foot on the leg, and turns the point inwards :
it elevates at the fame time the whole internal edge of the
foot. It brings the leg forwards on the foot, and maintains
it in that pofition.

Treratis Poflicus, jambier poftérieur, tibio-fous-tartien,
is a long narrow mufcle, thicker above than below,
placed at the back of the leg, under the calf, and extend-
ing from the upper part of the tibia and fibula to the os
naviculare. It is covered behind by the foleus, by the
flexor longus digitorum and pollicis pedis. In front it is
attached to nearly the whole pofterior furface of the inter-
offeous ligament, and above, to the pofterior furface of the
tibia. On the outfide it is fixed to the fibula. Its upper

"extremity is divided into two portions, an external and {maller
attached to the fibula, an internal larger to the tibia and in-
teroffeous ligament ; they are feparated by an interval, through
which the anterior tibial artery paffles. The mufcle de-
fcends parallel to the bones of the leg, and arcuated be-
tween them, becoming larger to its middle, from which it
again diminifhes; towards the lower part of the leg it
forms a {trong tendon, which runs in a groove hollowed in
the external malleolus, and furrounded by a fibrous fheath,
which feparates it from the flexor longus digitorum. In
this groove the tendon becomes broader: it paffes below
the head of the aftragalus, {welling into a hard and nearly
bony fubftance, and is attached to the lower and inner part
of the os naviculare, and to the bafis of the firft cuneiform
bone. ‘The inferior tendon afcends into the mufcle, ex-
panding into an aponeurofis, in which the flefhy fibres are
inferted obliquely on all fides from the fibula, the tibia, the
interoffeous ligament, and the aponeurofis, which covers it

piper.

Na Bs 3

from the flexor longus digitorum. It extends the foot on
the leg, turning the fole and point a little inwards. It
ee licoen the leg backwards on the foot, when that is
xed.

TIBICEN, in Ancient Mufic, a flute-player.

Tisicen, in Ichthyology, a tith of the trigla kind, called
by many authors Jyra, or the harp-fi/h; and in fome parts
of England, the piper.

The head of this fifth runs out intotwo broad horns,
which are ferrated, or befet with a fort of teeth, or {mall
{pines, all along their edges, which is its principal diftine-
tion from the hirundo or {wallow-fifh. Above the gill-fins
it has on each fide a long and fharp fpine. The forehead
is elevated into a fort of eye-brows over the eyes: and at
the angles of thefe there are {mall and fhort fpines, which
are long and crooked. The fide lines feel but very little
rough to the touch, and the forehead between the eyes is
not hollowed. The whole head is covered with a bony
cruft, which runs into two horns or fpines behind. It has
three fingers or filaments on each fide; from the roots of
the gill-fins ; and its jaws are rough like files, but have no
diftin& teeth. The tail-fin, and the middle of the back,
in this fifh, are red. It is caught in the Mediterranea,
and in fome other feas. In our county of Cornwall it is
not unfrequently caught about the fhores, and from the
noife it makes, when taken out of the water, is called the
Ray and Willughby.

TIBIGENSE Oppivum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa Propria, according to Pliny ; called Thigiba by
Ptolemy.

TIBIGI, in Geography, one of the rivers of the Brazils,
which flow into the Parana, rich in diamonds, as the few
families that live in its vicinity have reafon to remember
with gratitude. Weft of this river and of Corritiva, it is
dangerous to land, fince in that direétion are found the An-
thropophagi, who were driven from thefe boundaries at a
be rie period. The country to the N. abounds with
wood.

TIBILIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Africa, dif-
tant 10 leagues S.W. from Hippo Regius, and 16 miles E.
of Cirta; where are many ruins.

TIBISCA, atown of Lower Mefia. Ptol.

TIBISCUM, one of the moft confiderable towns of
Dacia. Ptol.

TIBISCUS, a river of Dacia, which ran into the
Danube.

TIBISIS, a large river, which rofe in mount Hemus,
ne purfuing a north courfe, difcharged itfelf igto the

er.

TIBIUM, a mountain of Afia, in Phrygia.

TIBOELALE, in Geography, a town on the S. coaft
of the ifland of Ceram. S, lat. 3° 19'. E. long. 128° 45.

TIBOUCHINA, in Botany, an unexplained barbarous
name, Aubl. Guian. 445. t.177. Juff. 329. The thrub
which bears it is fufpe€ted by Schreber to be a fpecies of
Mevastoma. (See that article.) We fee no reafon to
queftion this, though Aublet defcribes the fruit as a dry
capiule; for the known Melaffoma differ greatly in the
degree of pulp in their berries, efpecially according to the
period at which they are examined.

TIBOULEN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Medi-
terranean, near the coaft of France. N. lat. 43° 15’. E.
long. 6° 24!.

TIBOURBOU, in Botany, the Caribbean name of a
fine tree of Guiana and Cayenne, called peiba Tibour-
dou in Aubl. Guian. 538. t. 213. See Avsurria and

SLOANEA. ;
412 TIBRA.

as

TIBRACANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the interior of Media. Ptol.

TIBULA, or TrsuLz, a town fituated on the northern
coaft of the ifland of Sardinia. Ptol. Iter. Anton.

TIBULLUS, Atsius, in Biography, a Roman poet
of the Auguftan age, of the equeitrian rank, whofe native
place and time of birth are not afcertained. His patri-
mony was much impaired, either by his own prodigality,
or by the devaftation of feveral wars; but yet he does
not feem to have been diftinguifhed by any tokens of the
liberality of Auguftus and Maecenas, the munificent patrons
of literature at the period in which he lived ; nor does he
mention their names in any of his poems. M. Valerius
Meffala Corvinus, upon whom he compofed a panegyric,
was his particular friend and patron, whom he accompanied
in his expeditions to Afia; but he preferred peace and re-
tirement in the fociety of one of thofe objects of his affec-
tion whom he has celebrated in his elegies. Horace, with
whom he was intimate, has addreffed to him an ode and an
epiitle, complimenting him as a candid judge of his writings,
and defcribing him as poffeffed of every worldly advantage.
It has been inferred, from an epigram of Domitius Marfus,
that he died about the fame time with Virgil, B.C. 19, in
the flower of his age. Ovid jamented his death in a beau-
tiful elegy, reprefenting his mother and fifter as mourners
at his funeral, and {peaking of him as a poet of the highefl
reputation. , we

The poems of Tibullus are elegies comprifed in three
books, and ‘a panegyric of Meffala. His fame is founded
on his elegies, which are defcribed by one of his biogra-
phers as occupying, by the teftimony of ancient and modern
critics, the firft clafs of fuch compofitions with regard to
“ the appropriate qualities of elegance, tendernefs, and that
beautiful fimplicity, which is the character of real feeling.”
Their principal fubjeéts are ‘ love and rural life.” With
his defcription of a paffion which is illicit, he has blended
«¢ more touches of a pure, and what may be termed a con-
jugal affection, than almoft any other Roman poet. His
language is a true example of what the Latins call ter/e,
or neat and polifhed. He is eafy and natural, with {carcely
any mixture of learned allufion or figure.”’ His works are

ufually printed with thofe of Catullus and Propertius ; but_

of the feparate editions, the moft efteemed are thofe of
Brookhufius, Amft. 1708, gto. ; of Vulpius, Patav. 1749,
4to.; -and of Heyne, Lipf. 1755, 1777, 8vo. Gen.
Biog. ‘

TIBUR, Tivot, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, mear the Anio, N.E. of Rome, in the country of
the Sabines. Pliny refers its origin to the age which pre-
ceded the fiege of. Troy, and fays that its founder was
Tiburnus, one of the fons of Amphiariis, affifted by his
two brothers, Catille and Corax. This Tiburnus was re-
garded after his death as a god ; and was worfhipped in a
wood confecrated to him, and where a temple was erected
to his honour. But Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis pretends
that it was built by the Siculi, before this epocha. For
its fituation, and fome other circumftances attending it, we
refer to the article Trvott.

Horace has defcribed in a few lines the beauties which
he admired in contemplating this ancient city, Od. 7. lib. i.
“« Nothing,”’ fays the poet, ‘ {truck me fo much as the houfe
of the celiac Albunea, the lofty cafcade of the Anio,
the facred wood of Tiburnus, and the gardens irrigated by
unintermitting fupplies of water.’ ‘The “ domus Albunee
refonantis’? of the poet was the folfatara or fulphureous
abyfs of the place, probably the crater of fome ancient
volition which perpetually difcharged a kind of gas or

41.

mephitic vapour, that was thought to poflefs a fanative
quality, and to be a remedy for many diforders. Many
perfons reforted hither for relief ; and Suetonius informs us,
that Auguftus alfo came for the benefit of the baths:
which the place afforded. Thefe benefits were afcribed to
imaginary deities, who were thought to prefide over this
privileged fpot. Accordingly, a monument has been dif-
covered, which indicated that Hygeia, the goddefs of
health, was worfhipped here. The vapour pofleffed alfo a
kind of infpiring quality, fo that here was a temple of the
Mufes ; and alfo, befides various other monuments, a temple
in which was an oracle. Virgil informs us how this oracle ’
was confulted. The ‘ preceps Anio’’ of Horace refers to
the cafcade of this river. The gardens and vineyards have
to this day retained their celebrity ; the wine of this canton
being held in high eftimation.

Tibur was alfo famous for its temple of Hercules, which
had its college of priefts and curator ; a beautiful portico,
where, according to Suetonius, Auguftus adminiftered juf-
tice when he refided here ; and an excellent library of which
Aulus Gellius fpeaks in his ‘* No&es Attice.’? Tibur
had alfo a temple of the Sibyl, much admired for its ele-
gance. ‘his place was alfo famous for other monuments,
now in ruins. ‘Towards the end of the Roman republic,
the adjoining territory was felected for fuperb buildings and
houfes of various kinds, all diftinguifhed by their magni-
ficence and beauty. Of thefe, the Tiburnus of Adrian was
the moft celebrated.

TIBURO, in Ichthyology, a fifh very badly and falfely
defcribed by feveral authors, and proving, on a ftri& in-
quiry, to be no other than the lamia or white fhark.

The tiburo of Linnzus is a fpecies of fqualus, with a
very broad and heart-fhaped head, found in the American
feas. Linnzus queries, whether it is not a variety of the
zygena, or hammer-headed fhark.

TIBURON, in Geography, a town and bay on the §.W.
coaft of Hifpaniola, near Cape Tiburon.—Alfo, a {mall
ifland in the Pacific ocean, difcovered by Magellan in 1520.
It is varioufly laid down in maps. S. lat. 9°, 13°, 14°, 15°,
and 17°. ‘

TIBURONES, or Main Cape Reef, two fmall iflands,
furrounded with rocks, near the coaft of Honduras. N. lat-
15°10!. W. long. 82° 8.

TICADEE, a town of Hindooftan, in the-circar of
Ruttunpour ; 15 miles N. of Dumdah. :

TICAL, in Commerce, a weight for gold and filver, and
alfo a money of account in certain parts of the Eaft Indies,
particularly at Pegu and Siam. At Pegu, the weight of
filver, under this denomination, is divided into 16 toques er
touch. Gold and filver are here weighed by the tical, and
their finenefs is expreffed by the parts called touch. The
tical weighs 43 pagodas, or 237% Englifh grains. The
commercial weights are the vis of 100 ticals or tuals, and
the candy of 100 vis. From the above weight of the tical,
the candy fhould weigh 5084 lbs. ; femeelal the Englifh
reckon it at 6 maunds 28 feers of the Bengal factory, or
500 lbs. avoirdupois.

At Siam, the accounts are kept in catties, tales, ticals or
tuals, miams, fouangs, and cowries. The catty is = 20
tales, the tale = 4 ticals = 16 miams = 32 fouangs; and
the fouang is = 800 cowries. The coins are gold ticals,
which pats for ten filver ticals; filver ticals, miams, fouangs,
and fompeias, the latter being the fourth part of a fouang.
The filver tical weighs 2254 Englith grains, and being from
11 oz. 4 dwt. to 11 0z. 12 dwt. fine, is worth from 29d.
to 30d. fterling; but thefe coins are often adulterated ;
2 ticals pafs commonly for 1 Spanifh dollar, and 23 ticals for

1 Dutch
4

2re

3 Dutch ducatoon. The finenefs of gold and filver is ex-
prefled by toques or touch, the Hii being divided into
roo parts. The pecul, or weight for heavy goods, is =
50 catties, and the catty = 20 tales = 80 ticals. The
Siam pecul weighs 129 lbs. avoirdupois, and the catty,

1 oz. 44 dwt. avoirdupois.

TICANONA, Tacona, Jeanona or Jeatona, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Egypt, between Cene and Oxyryn-
chon. Itin. Anton.

TICAO, in Geography, one of the Philippine iflands,
about 25 miles long, and from 3 to°8 broad. N. lat. 12° 39/.
E. long. 123° 34.

TICENA, in Ancient Geography, atownof Africa Propria,
S. of Carthage, between the rivers Bagradas and Triton,
Ptol. :

TICENGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Upper Po; 6 miles E. of Crema.

TICHASA, Tr-Gewss, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa Propria, S. of Carthage, between the rivers
Bagradas and Triton, 12 leagues S.W. of Capfa: in which
are fome veltiges of the Romans. Ptol.

TICHENBRAY, in Geography. See TincuEpray.

TICHFIELD, a village of England, in the county of
Hants, fituated on a river which runs into the Southampton
Water. Here Charles I. concealed himfelf, when he fled
from Hampton-Court, in the year 1674, at a feat of the earl
of Southampton. This feat had been an abbey, and is faid
to be the place where the marriage of Henry VI. with
Margaret of Anjou was folemnized; 8 miles N.W. of
Gofport.—Alfo, a town of Jamaica, on the N. coaft; 22
miles N.E. of Kingfton, N. lat. 18° 12’. W. long.
76° 10!.

TICHIS, in Ancient Geography, a river which flowed
from the Pyrenees, now Zech, in the department of the
Eaftern Pyrenees. :

TICHIUM, a town of Greece, in Etolia. Thucydides.

TICHOS, or Ticuus, a fortrefs of Achaia, in the
eaftern part to the S. of the promontory Araxum.

TICINDLO, or Naviglio Grande, in Geography, 2 canal
made from the river Tefino to the city of Milan, by order
of Francis I. king of France.

TICINUM, Pavia, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Tranfpadane Gaul to the S.W. upon the river Ticinus, or
near it. After the fecond Punic war, it attained the rank
of municipal. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, deftroyed it,
and it was rebuilt under the name of Papia, whence the
name Pavia.

TICINUS, Testy, a river of Tranfpadane Gaul, which
commenced in the country of the Lepontii, traverfed the
lake Verbanus, and difcharged itfelf into the Po, near
Ticinum. It is celebrated for a battle of the fame name,
between the Romans, conducted by Cornelius Scipio, the
father of Scipio Africanus, and the Carthaginians, con-
du@ed by Hannibal, in the year of Rome 535, in which

. the Romans were defeated.

TICK, in Natural Hiffory, a nafty little animal of a livid
colour, with a blunt and roundifh tail, elevated antenne, a
globofe-ovate form, and full of blood; which infefts cows,
iwine, goats, fheep, and dogs. The tick or ricinus is, in
the Linnean fyftem, a fpecies of acarus in the aptera order
of infedts.

In order to deftroy and remove thefe noxious vermin,
which fpread very rapidly in fheep, it has been recommended
to feparate the wool, and to wath the difeafed fpots two
or three times, or oftener, if neceflary, with a liquid pre-
paration, confitting of one ounce of cream of tartar, anda

ae

quarter of a pound of bay-falt, each finely powdered and
fifted, and one ounce of corrofive fublimate, reduced into the
fame itate; the whole being well diffolved and mixed toge-
ther in two quarts of foft water: or four pounds of foft
foap, and two pounds of arfenic, may be fteeped and dif-
folved in thirty gallons of water, and the animals be im-
merfed in the infufion or folution, the heads of them being
carefully kept above water, and the fheep being fheltered
from rain for one or two days afterwards. The wool mutt
be clofely preffed, and the liquor that runs off be caught in
a tub, or other veffel, for future ufe. The proportion above
fpecified, is fufficient to bathe or wath forty lambs, or the
{ame number of {mall fheep ; and fometimes many more.

But the preparation which is in ufe at Holkham-Hall, in
the county of Norfolk, for this purpofe, confifts of two
pounds of tobacco, two pounds and a half of foft foap, and
one pound of the white calx of mercury, well reduced into
powder ; the whole being boiled in eight gallons of water
for an hour. This is a quantity fufficient for dreffing fixty
fheep, being applied by parting the wool down the fhoulders
and breaft, and twice on each of the fides of the fheep, then
pouring it in very carefully fo.as to prevent its being wafted.
{t is faid to be very effetuai not only in deftroying the
vermin, but in removing the feabby fores that are pro-
duced.

It is ftated in a paper in the third volume of the “ Tran-
factions of the Highland Society of Scotland,’’ that the
tick, or acarus reduvius, is a diftin& {pecies or fort of vermin
of this kind from that of the kid, or hippobofca ovina, the
former of which haraffes the lambs and trembling fheep in
the {pring feafon, while the latter molefts all forts and ages,
but particularly hogs or young fheep, and chiefly fuch as
are ina lean ftate. The former always adheres clofe to
the bare {pots of the fhoulders, thighs, or ears, drainin
and drawing away the blood from them; and for the an
part drops off about midfummer: but. the latter har-
bours in the wool, bites the fheep, and fucks their blood.
Smearing with tar, it is faid, expels it from the fkin, and it
foon afterwards drops from the wool. Tobacco-juice is
fatal to it almoft inftantaneoufly, and mercurial ointment
deftroys it. The former, or tick; is removed by the fame
remedies as the kid, and it is wholly prevented by having
the young fheep in good condition. This diftin@ion, in
fome cafes, may be of confiderable ufe to the fheep-farmer
in the deftru€tion and removal of fuch hurtful vermin.

Tick, in the Manege, a habit that fome horfes take of
prefling their teeth againft the manger, or all along the
halter or collar, as if they would bite it. i

Tick-Bean, or Ticks, in Agriculture, a term commonly
applied to the {mall bean employed in the feeding of horfes
and other animals’; of which there are feveral kinds, as the
common ticks, the large flat ticks, the fmall or Effex ticks,
and the French ticks. The firft is a fort which is {mall and
very commonly cultivated, but moft generally by the farmers
of Kent, where they are ufed for the fattening of hogs, and
as food for horfes, efpecially thofe of the team kind. The
fecond is a larger fort than the common, and ripens fome-
what more early. They are very productive in fome cafes ;
but from being larger in fize, they of courfe are lefs heavy,
and confequently of rather lefs value the quarter or any
other meafure. They are fometimes called May beans.
The Effex ticks are a much fmaller fort than the common,
and of a rounder fhape or form. They ripen a few days
later, and are not fo produttive, but are more valuable, as
being heavier in proportion. The laft fort, or {mall French
ticks, are a ftill lefs kind, being only about as large a3 a
middling-fized pea, and nearly cireular, They ripen aH

than

Tic

than any of the other forts, but are the moft valuable when
dry, on account of their great weight. arene

Ticks are an important article of cultivation in moft
places, where the land is fuited to their growth; and though
they have been for a long time, and are at prefent, almoft
wholly confined to the counties of Effex and Kent, they
may be raifed in many other diftriéts with equal fuccefs and
advantage. ‘ ;

TICKARRY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 15 miles N.W. of Gaya. N. lat. 24° 58’. E.
long. 85°.

PICKELL, Tuomas, in Biography, an Englith poet,
was the fon of a clergyman in Cumberland, and born at
Bridekirk, near Carlifle, in the year 1686. He was ad-
mitted at Queen’s college, Oxford, in 1701; and in 1707 he
publifhed a poem, entitled “ Oxford,” and infcribed it to
lord Lonfdale, expreffing his gratitude to that univerlity.
In 1708 he took his degree of M.A., and two years after
was eleéted a fellow of his college, under a difpenfation
from the crown againft the ftatute which required him to be
in orders. With a view of advancement by the exercife of his
literacy talents, he came to the metropolis, and ingratiated
himfelf with Addifon by an elegant copy of verfes in praife
of his opera of Rofamond. He contributed to the periodi-
cal publications of the “ Spe€tator’”? and “ Guardian,”’ in
the latter of which, all the papers on paftoral poetry, except
one by Pope, are afcribed to him. During the negotiations
which terminated in the peace of Utrecht, he publifhed a
very popular poem, entitled “ The Profpeé& of Peace,’’
which was highly commended by Addifon, in return for
which commendation he wrote his lines on the ‘* Cato”’ of
that author. On the acceffion of the Hanover family, to
which he was attached, he prefented George I. on his arrival
with a piece called “ The Royal Progrefs ;”” and he ferved
the caufe ftill more effectually by two fatirical poems on the
Jacobite party, viz. “ An Imitation of the Prophecy of
Nereus,” and “ An Epiftle from a Lady in England to a
Gentleman at Avignon.?? Tickell accompanied Addifon
to Ireland, and was there initiated in public bufinefs with a
view to future preferment. On occafion of Pope’s pub-
lication of the firft volume of his tranflation of Homer’s
Iliad, Tickell publifhed a tranflation of the firft book of
that poem, which was patronifed by Addifon, fo as to occa-
fion an interruption of his friendfhip with Pope. When
Addifon was made fecretary of ftate, Tickell was under-
fecretary, and continued in office under his fucceflor Craggs.
On the death of Addifon, Tickell was entrufted with the
charge of publifhing his works, to which he prefixed a
valuable life of the author. In 1725 he was appointed to
the lucrative poft of feeretary to the lords-juftices of Ireland,
and retained it till his death, which happened at Bath in
1740. ‘Tickell had been married and left a family.

Tickell is ranked by his biographers among Englifh poets
of the fecond order ; equalled by few of his contemporaries
in eloquence of diétion and harmony of verfification, and
without lofty flights maintaining a decent elevation by a
cultured {tyle, and by juft and ingenious thoughts. His
funeral poem on Addifon is pronounced by Dr. Johnfon to
be more fublime and elegant than any that is to be found in
the whole compafs of Englifh literature. His “ Ode to
the Earl of Sunderland,’ and his ‘* Colin and Lucy,” are
highly commended.

Richard 'Tickell, efq. a grandfon of this poet, who was a
commiflioner of the ftamp-office, has been known to the
literary world by his “© Wreath.of Fafhion,” and efpecially
by an effufion of political art and fatire, entitled “« Anti-
cipations of the Debates of the Houfe of Commons,” 1778.

BLE

He died at Hampton Court in 1793.
fon’s Lives of the Poets. Gen. Biog.

TICKELY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Cicacole; 30 miles N.E. of Cicacole. N. lat.
18° 36’. E. long. 84° 34!.

TICKERA, a pafte which is prepared in Fezzan from
dates and the meal of Indian corn, and which, whenever they
travel, is in great requeft among the people of Fezzan.

TICKEREE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 48 miles N.E. of Manickpour.

TICKHILL, a market-town in the lower divifion of the
wapentake of Strafford-and-Tickhill, in the Weft Riding
of the county of York, England; is 4 miles W. from
Bawtry, 7 miles S. from Doncafter, and 154 miles N. b
W. from London. The houfes are placed in a valley, Be
cover a large {pace of ground. Some of them are of brick,
and others of {tone: a few of them are refpeGtable, but the
more numerous have only a mean appearance. A market
is held on Fridays, but is nearly fallen into difufe. A fair
is kept annually for horfes, horned cattle, and fheep. The

Johnfon and Ander-

population return of the year 1811, ftates that Tickhill.

contained 1508 inhabitants, who occupied 279 houfes. The
objects moft worthy of attention are the church, and the re-
mains of an ancient caftle. The former is a {pacious edifice,
with a lofty and beautiful tower, and from its architecture
feems to have been built in the reign of Henry III. The
caftle, of which nothing now remains but the lofty mound
on which the keep formerly ftood, with a ditch and part
of the walls furrounding the fortrefs, is fituated on the fouth
fide of the town. An ancient gateway, forming the en-
trance on the weftern fide, is the moft curious part of the
ruins. Part of thefe, with modern repairs and additions, is
the feat of the honourable Frederick Lumley. A great
part of the ground within the walls is converted into gardens
and fhrubberies. The fteep declivity of the mound is
formed into winding walks, leading by a gentle afcent to
the fummit.

The hiftory of Tickhill prior to the Norman conquett is
wholly unknown. It appears to have been one of the forty-
nine manors given by the Conqueror to Roger de Bufli, whe
probably ereéted and refided in the caftle. It was after-
wards fucceflively held by feveral noblemen, till Richard II.
aes it to his uncle, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter,

rom whom it paffed to the crown by the fucceflion of
Henry IV. In the year 1644 the caftle was regarded as a
very ltrong fortrefs, and was garrifoned for Charles I. ; but
being furrendered to the parliament, an order was iffued that
it fhould be difmantled and rendered untenable. The cir-
cular keep was in confequence demolifhed, but the founda-
tions may itill be traced by opening the ground. A royal
free chapel or collegiate church was ome in the caftle by
queen Eleanor, wife of Henry II. It was given by king
John to the prebends of the cathedral church of Rouen in
Normandy. It was afterwards granted to the prior and
convent of Lenton, Nottinghamfhire; and in 1504 to the
abbot and convent of St. Peter, Weftminfter. After
the diflolution it was given by Edward VI. to Francis, earl
of Shrew(fbury.

About two miles and a half from Tickhill is Sandbeck,
the feat of the earl of Scarborough. The manfion, built
by the late earl, is a large and commodious edifice, feated in
a {pacious park, which abounds with foreft trees; and is
adorned with an extenfive lake. Near the weftern verge of
the park, are the venerable and picturefque ruins of Roche
abbey, which was founded in the year 1147, for monks of
the Ciftercian order. Here is a famous quarry, from which

the

|

TIC

the ftone for building the abbey, and for many other public
edifices, was peice

About five miles nearly S. from Tickhill is Walding
Well, the feat of fir Thomas White, bart. The houfe is a
modern edifice, fituated in a well-wooded park of confider-
able extent, and ftands partly in Yorkfhire and partly in
Nottinghamfhire ; a fimall rivulet, which runs under a part
of the out-buildings, forming the boundary between the
two counties. In the park was formerly a priory of nuns,
called St. Mary in the Park, founded by Ralph de Cheurol-
court. This religious houfe appears to have ftood within
the limits of Nottinghamfhire.—Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xvi. Yorkthire; by J. Bigland.

TICKING, or Ticuine, in Hufbandry, denotes the
a&t of fetting up turfs in fuch a manner as that they may
be dried by the fun, and fit for being burnt into afhes on
the land.

TICKLE Hargour, in Geography, a harbour on the E.
caait of Newfoundland.

TICKLE me Quickly, a bay on the caaft of Darien, near the
Samballas.

TICKLISH, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be
ticklifh that is too tender upon the fpur, and too fenfible,
that does not freely fly the fpurs, but in fome meafure
refifts them, throwing himfelf up when they come near and
prick his fkin. A ticklifh horfe has fomewhat of the
ramingues, i. ¢. the kickers again{t the fpurs ; but with this
difference, that the latter put back, leap, and kick, and yerk
’ out behind, in difobeying the fpurs; whereas a ticklifh

horfe only refifts for fome time, and afterwards obeys, and

oes much better, through the fear of a vigorous ham, when
he finds the horfeman ftretch his leg, than he does upon
being actually pricked.

TICKSAH, in Geography, a river of America, in the
Miffiffippi territory, which rifes 10 miles N.E. of the forks
of the Amite, and when it enters Weft Florida, is a creek
of trivial fize; it then becomes gradually augmented by
feveral creeks, and after a S. courfe of o miles, falls into lake
Maurepas, 4 miles N.E. of the mouth of Amite. Three miles
above its mouth the Tickfah receives from the E. the united

- ftreams of the Notalbany and Pontchatoola, upon the latter
of which ftands Springfield, on the road from Madifonville
to Natchez. Springfield is one of the landing places of
travellers, who pafs in {chooners from New Orleans to
Natchez. The above-mentioned Amite rifes within the

Miffiffipi territory, about 20 miles N. of the town of

Liberty, in Amite county. The two ftreams that contti-

tute the Amite, remain feparate in their courfe through the

Miffiffipi territory, but unite immediately on entering Weft

Florida, and then it joins the Iberville, and falls after a whole

courfe of 100 miles into the lake Maurepas. Below the

jun@tiion of Amite and Iberville, the united ftreams form

a fine navigable river, admitting veflels of fix feet draught.

TICKSEED Sun-rtower. See Coreopsis, and SuN-
FLOWER. .

TICOLEA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 7 miles N. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26°55’. E. long.
84° 38'.

TICOLOOSA, a town of the United States of America,
in Tenneffee ; 38 miles S. of Knoxville.

TICONDEROGA, a townfhip of Effex county, in
the ftate of New York, ereéted in 1804.
by Crown Point, E. on lake Champlain, S. by Wafhington
county, W. by Scroon, and includes the N. end of lake
George. Mount Defiance is in the S. part of this town-
Ship. In 1810 it had about two hundred families, and
thirty-five fenatorial ele€tors: feven faw-mills, three grain-

It is bounded N. -

rip

mills, three forges, three carding-engines, and fome other
machines, and three febvoal-houlee. Here is alfo a broom
machine, in which, by means of machinery moved with water,
one man makes a hundred brooms a day. The inhabitants
are moftly farmers.

In this townfhip ftands the fortrefs of Ticonderoga, now
a heap of ruins. It was built by the French in 1756, on
a point of land formed by the junétion of lake George
creek with lake Champlain, in N. lat. 43° 50', and 34’ E.
long. from New York. It was, both by nature and art, a
place of great ftrength. On three fides it is furrounded by
water, and about half the other fide is occupied by a deep
{wamp, and the line of defence was completed by the
French with the ereétion of a breaft-work nine feet high,
on the only aflailable ground. In 1758, general Abercrombie
with the Britifh army unfuccefsfully affailed this fortrefs,
and with the lofs, as it is faid, of 1941 men; but in July of
the following year it was furrendered to general Amherft.
It was the firft fortrefs carried by the arms of America, in
their conteft for independence ; being taken by furprife by
general Allen, May 10, 1775, and retained till July 1777,
when it was evacuated at the approach of general Burgoyne
with the Britifh army. This fort is never likely to be re-
built ; for the fituation is very infecure, being commanded
by the lofty hill called Mount Defiance. Mount Independ-
ence lies on the E. fide of the lake, about two miles S.E. of
the fort, between which two places there is a well-regulated
ferry. The population of the townfhip, in 1810, confifted
of 985 perfons.

TICOO, a town on the W. coaft of Sumatra, near the
Line. E. long. 99° 21!.

Ticoo Jflands, a clutter of fmall iflands near the W.
coaft of Sumatra. S. lat. 0°? 6. E. long. g9° 13).

TICORANTE, a town of the ifland of Teneriffe.

TICOREA, in Botany, a name of Aublet’s.
OzopHyLLuM.

TICOS, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific

See

ocean, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Lugon. N. lat.
14° 10. E. long. 124°.

TICOUL Horvy, a town of Corea; 450 miles E.N.E.
of Peking.

TICOUR, a town of France, in the department of the
Mofelle ; 6 miles N.W. of Morhange.

TICSAN, a town of Peru, in the jurifdiGtion of
Cuenga.

TICUARIN, the name of the ifland of Goa, before the
city was built.

TICUNAS, Poifon of, is an aétive poifon prepared by
the native Indians, on the borders of the river of the Ama-
zons, in three or four degrees of fouth latitude, which,
together with that of Lamas, Pevas, and Yameos, is ex-
tra¢ted by fire from plants, called by the French lianes,
and ufed in poifoniag their arrows. See an account of
the nature and effeéts of thefe poifons by M. Heriffant,
in Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii. art. 12. and by M. Fontana,
in Phil. Tranf. vol. lxx. part i. Append. art. 2.; and
alfo Fontana fur les Poifons, &c. Florence, 4to. See alfo
Poison.

TIDE, or Tint, in Geography, a river of England,
which paffes by St. Germains, and runs into the Hamoaze
below Saltafh.

Ting, the fame with time, or feafon. The word is
originally Saxon, tid; which fignifies the fame.

Tipz, among Miners, denotes the fpace of twelve
hours.

Tine, Shrove. See SHROVE.

Tive, Twelfth. See TweLeTH
Tipe-

TIDES.

Tar, Whitfun. See Wurrsun-Tide.

TIDES, two periodical motions of the waters of the fea;
called alfo the fux and reflux, or the ebb and flow. r

When the motion of the water is againit the wind, it is
called a windward-tide ; when wind and tide go in the fame
direétion, /eeward-tide: when it runs very ftrong, it is called
a tide-gate. : d

To tide it over or up into any place, is to go in with the tide,
either ebb or flood, as long as that lafts; then to ftay at
anchor all the time of contrary tide; and thus to fet in
again with the return of the next tide.

It is faid to fow-tide and half-tide, allowing fix hours to
a tide, when the tide runs three hours in the offing longer
than it does by the fhore; but, by /Jonger, they do not
mean its running more hours; but that, if»it be high
water a-fhore at twelve, it will not be fo in the offing till
three. An hour and a half longer make tide and quarter-
tide, three-fourths of an hour longer make tide and half-
quarter tide, &c.

When the moon is in the firft and third quarter, 7. e.
when fhe is new and full, the tides are high and fwift, and
are called /pring-tides: when fhe is in the fecond and laft
quarter, the tides are lower and flower, and called neap-
tides. Sieh

Tiwes, Phenomena of the. The fea is obferved to flow,
for certain hours, from fouth towards north ; in which mo-
tion, or flux, which lafts about fix hours, the fea gradually
fwells: fo that, entering the mouths of rivers, it drives
back the river-waters toward their heads, or {prings.

After a continual flux of fix hours, the fea feems to reft
for about a quarter of an hour; after which it begins to
ebb or retire back again from north to fouth, for fix hours
more; in which time, the water finking, the rivers refume
their natural courfe. Then, after a ening paufe of a
quarter of an kour, the fea again begins to flow, as before ;
and thus alternately.

Thus does the fea ebb twice a day, and flow as often ;
but not in the fame hours. The period of a flux and re-
flux is 12 hours 50% minutes; fo that the tides return
later and later each day by 50% minutes, which is the ex-
cefs of a lunar day above a folar one, fince 284 lunar days
are nearly equal 294 folar ones. So that the fea flows as
often as the moon paffes the meridian, both the arc above,
and that below the horizon ; and ebbs as often as fhe paffes
the horizon, both the eaftern and weftern point of it.

This farther agreement we obferve between the moon
and the fea, that the tides, though conftant, are not equal ;
but are greateft, when the moon is in conjunction or op-
pofition to the fun, or at the time of new and full moon;
and leaft, when in quadrature to it. This increafe and di-
minution conftitute the /pring and neap tides: the augmenta-
tion becomes alfo ftill more obfervable when the moon is in
its perigee, or neareft the earth. The loweft as well as the
eee water is at the time of the fpring-tides: the neap-
tides neither rife fo high nor fall fo low.

Laltly, thofe tides are the greateft, which happen in the
new and full moon, and the time of the equinoxes, while
the moon is in its perigee. Thefe tides are often ftill more
increafed by the equinoétial winds, which are fometimes fo
powerful as to produce a greater tide before or after the
equinox than that which happens in the ufual courfe, at the
time of the equinox,itfelf.

Add, that the fame things are obferved throughout moft
of the coafts of Europe ; only that the tides are fo much
the lefs, and happen the’ later, as the coafts are the more
northerly.

Thefe phenomena of the tides are admirably accounted

for, from the principle of gravitation. All we require to
their folution is, that the earth and moon, and every particle
of them, mutually gravitate towards each other: the rea-
fonablenefs of which aflumption, fee under the article
Gravity.

Indeed the fagacious Kepler, long ago, conjectured this to
be the caufe of the tides: “ If,’’ fays he, ‘¢ the earth ceafed
to attra& its waters towards itfelf, all the water in the
ocean would rife and flow into the moon: the {phere of the
moon’s attra¢tion extends to our earth, and draws up the ,
water.”” Thus thought Kepler, in his Introd. ad Theor.
Mart. ‘This furmife, for it was then no more, is now
abundantly verified in the following theory, firft amply de-
duced by Dr. Halley from the Newtonian principles.

However, we may obferve with M. de la Lande (Aftro=
nomie, vol. iv. Paris, 1781.) that feveral of the ancients,
and among others, Pliny, Ptolemy, and Macrobius, were
acquainted with the influence of the fun and moon upon
the tides. And Pliny fays exprefsly, that the caufe of
the ebb and flow is in the fun, which attraéts the waters of
the ocean; and adds, that the waters rife in proportion to
the proximity of the moon to the earth. ‘

Tinss, Theory of the.—1. It is obvious, that if the earth
were entirely fluid, and quiefcent, its particles, by their
mutual gravity towards each other, would form themfelves
into the figure of an exaét fphere. af :

Suppofe, then, that fome power aéts on all the particles
of this earth with an equal force, and in parallel directions,
the whole mafs will be moved by fuch a power, but its
figure will fuffer no alteration by it; becaufe all the par-
ticles, being equally moved by this power in parallel lines,
they will ftill keep the fame fituation with sebneet to each
other, and ftill form a {phere, whofe centre will have the
fame motion as each particle. Upon this fuppofition, if the
motion of the earth round the common centre of gravity
of the earth and moon were deftroyed, and the e were
left to the influence of its gravitation toward the moon,
the earth falling toward the moon would ftill retain its
{pherical figure ; all the parts being equally carried on, and
retaining therefore the fame fituation with refpeét to each
other. . But the effe&ts of the moon’s action, as well as the
aétion itfelf, on different parts of the earth, are unequal,
at all places within the angular diftance of 794° from the
line pafling through the attraéting body, either in the
nearer or in the remoter hemifphere; thofe parts, by the
general law of gravity, being moft attraéted which are
neareft the moon, and thofe being leaft attraéted which are
fartheft from the moon ; while the parts that are at a middle
diftance, are attraéted by a mean degree of force; befides,
all the parts are not aéted on in parallel lines, but in lines
dire&ted towards the centre of the moon; and on thefe
accounts the fpherical figure of the earth muft fuffer fome —
change from the moon’s a¢tion.

Suppofing the earth to fall towards the moon, and’ ab-
{traéting from the mutual gravitation of its parts towards
each other, and alfo from their cohefion ; it will eafily ap-
pear, that the parts neareft the moon would fall with the
{wifteft motion, being moft attracted, and that they would
leave the centre or greater bulk of the earth behind them
in their fall, while the more remote parts would fall with
the floweft motion, being lefs attracted than the reft, and
be left a little behind the bulk of the earth, fo as to be
found at a greater diftance from the centre of the earth
than at the beginning of the motion. Whence it is mani-
felt, that the earth would foon lofe its fpherical figure, and
form itfelf into an oblong elliptic fpheroid, whofe longeft
diameter would point at the centre of the moon, i

TIDES.

If the particles of the earth did not gravitate toward
each other, but toward the moon only, the diftances be-
twixt the parts of the earth that are fuppofed to be neareft
the moon, and the central parts, would continually increafe,
becaufe of their greater celerity in falling ; and the diftance
betwixt the central parts, and the parts that are fartheft
from the moon, would increafe continually at the fame
time ; thefe being left behind by the central parts, which
they would follow, but with a lefs velocity. Thus the
figure of the earth would become more and more oblong,
that diameter of it which pointed toward the moon conti-
nually increafing.

- But there is another reafon why the earth would foon
affume an oblong fpheroidal form, if its parts were allowed
to fall freely by their gravity towards the moon’s centre ;
for the lateral parts of the earth, or thofe which are at the
diftance of a quarter of a circle from the point which is
dire@ly below the moon, and the central parts defcending
with equal velocities toward the fame point, viz. the centre
of the moon, in approaching to it, would manifeftly ap-
proach, at the fame time, to each other ; and their diftance
becoming lefs, the diameters of the earth pafling through
them would be diminifhed, fo that the diameters of the
earth that point toward the moon would increafe, and thofe
diameters of the earth that are perpendicular to the line
joining the centres of the earth and moon, would decreafe
at the fame time, and render the figure of the earth {till
more oblong for this reafon.

Let us now allow the parts of the earth to gravitate to-
wards its centre; and, as this gravitation far exceeds the
ation of the moon, and much more exceeds the differences
of- her aétions on different parts of the earth, the effe@ re-
fulting from the inequalities of thefe aGtions of the moon,
will be only a fmall diminution of the gravity of thofe parts
of the earth which it endeavoured in the former fuppofition
to feparate from its centre, and a {mall addition to the
gravity of thofe parts which it endeavoured to bring nearer
to its centre ; that is, thofe parts of the earth which are
neareft to the moon, and thofe which are fartheft from her,
will have their gravity toward the earth fomewhat abated ;
whereas the lateral parts will have their gravity increafed ;
fo that if the earth be fuppofed fluid, the columns from
the centre to the neareft, and to the fartheft parts muf
rife, till, by their greater height, they be able to balance
the other columns, whofe gravity is either not fo much
diminifhed, or is increafed by the inequalities of the action
of the moon. And thus the figure of the earth mutt ftill
be an oblong fpheroid.

Let us now confider the earth, inftead of falling toward
the moon by its gravity, as projected in any dire@tion, fo as
to move round the centre of gravity of the earth and
moon ; it is manifeft, that the gravity of each particle to-
ward the moon will endeavour to bring it as far from the
tangent, in any {mall moment of time, as if the earth were
allowed to fall freely toward the moon; in the fame man-
ner as any projectile, at our earth, falls from the line of
projetion as far as it would fall by its gravity in the per-
pendicular in the fame time. Confequently the parts of the
earth neareft to the moon will endeavour to fall fartheft
from the tangent, and thofe fartheft from the moon will en-
deavour to fall leaft from the tangent, of all parts of the
earth ; and the figure of the earth, therefore, will be the
fame as if the earth fell freely toward the moon ; that is,
the earth will ftill affeét a {pheroidal form, having its longeft
diameter direCted toward the moon.

In order to underftand this theory, it muft be carefully
confidered, that it is net the aétion of the moon, but the

Vor. XXXV.

inequalities in that action, that produce any yariation from
the {pherical figure; and that if this aGtion were the fame
in all the particles as in the central parts, and operating in
the fame direétion, no fuch change would enfue.

For the farther illuftration of the preceding obfervations,
we mutt perceive that the waters at Z (Plate I. Geography,
Jig- 10.) on the fide of the earth ABCDEFGH, next
to the moon M, are more attraéted than the central parts
of the earth, O, by the moon, and the central parts are more
attra¢ted by her than the waters on the oppolite fide of the
earth at 2; and therefore the diftance between the earth’s
centre and the waters on its furface, under and oppolite to
the moon, will be increafed. For let H, O, and D be three
bodies, all equally attracted by the body M, and they will
all move equally faft toward it, their mutual diftances from
each other continuing the fame. If the attraétion of M is
unequal, then that body which is moft ftrongly attraéted
will move fafteit, and this will increafe its diftance from the
other body. Confequently, by the law of gravitation, M
will attraé&t H more ftrongly than it does O, by which the
diftance between H and O will be increafed ; and a fpec-
tator in O will perceive H rifing higher toward Z. In like
manner O, being more ftrongly attraéted than D, will move
farther toward M than D does; and therefore the diftance
between O and D will be increafed ; and a fpeGtator in O,
not perceiving his own motion, will fee D receding farther
from him towards z ; all effe€ls and appearances being the
fame, whether D recedes from O, or O from D.

Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as A, B, C, D,
E, F,G, H, placed round O, fo as to form a flexible or
fluid ring ; then, as the whole is attracted toward M, the
parts at H and D will have their diftance from O increafed ;
whilft the parts at B and F, being nearly at the fame dif-
tance from M as O is, will not.recede from one another ;
but rather, by the oblique attraction of M, they will ap-
proach nearer to OQ. Hence the fluid ring will form itfelf
into an ellipfe Z 1 B L 2 K FN Z, whofe longer axis 2 OZ
produced, will pafs through M, and its fhorter axis, BO F,
will terminate in B and F. Let the ring be filled with fluid
particles, fo as to form a {phere round O; then, as the
whole moves toward M, the fluid {phere, being lengthened
at Z and x, will aflume an oblong or oval form. If M is
the moon, O the earth’s centre, ABCDEFGH the fea
covering the earth’s furface, it is evident that, whilft the
earth by its gravity falls towards the moon, the water di-
re€tly below her at H will fwell, and gradually rife toward
her ; and alfo the water at D will recede from the centre,
(or, ftri@tly fpeaking, the centre recedes from D,) and rife
on the oppofite fide of the earth ; whilft the water at B and
F is depreffed, and falls below the former level. Hence,
as the earth turns’ round its axis from the moon to the
moon again in about 243 hours, this oval of water muft fhift
with it ; and thus there will be two tides of flood and two
of ebb in that time.

Some perfons have found a difficulty in conceiving how,
agreeably to the principles above itated, the earth can fall
towards the moon by the power of gravity, when the moon
is full, or in oppofition to the fun; fince the earth revolves
about the fun, and muft continually fall towards it; and if
the earth is conftantly falling towards the moon, they mutt
at laft come together. In order to obviate this difficulty,
it has been fuggefted, that it is not the centre of the earth
that defcribes the annual orbit round the fun, but the com-
mon centre of gravity of the earth and moon, the diftance of
which from the earth’s centre, dividing 240,000 miles, the
moon’s diftance from the earth, by 40, the excefs of the
earth’s weight above that of the moon, is 6000 miles; and

4K that

TIDES.

that whilft the earth is moving round the fun, it alfo de-
feribes a circle round that centre of gravity, going as many
times round it in one revolution about the fun as there are
luaations or courfes of the moon round the fun in a year ;
and therefore the earth is conftantly falling towards the
moon from a tangent to the circle which it efcribes round
the faid common centre of gravity. Let M (fg. 11.) be
the moon, T W part of the moon’s orbit, and C the centre
of gravity of the earth and moon : whilft the moon goes
round her orbit, the centre of the earth defcribes the circle
dge round C, to which circle gué isatangent ; and, shere-
fore, when the moon has gone from M a little beyond W,
the earth has moved from ¢g to e, and in that time has fallen
towards the moon, from the tangent at a to e, and fo on
round the whole circle.

From the above reafoning it appears, that the parts of
the earth directly under the moon, or that have the moon
in their zenith, and alfo thofe in the nadir, or places dia-
metrically oppofite to each other, will have the flood, or
high water at the fame time.

Moreover, thofe parts of the earth, where the moon ap-
pears in the horizon, or go° diftant from the zenith and nadir,
will have the ebbs, or loweft waters.

It is evident that, by the motion of the earth on its axis,
the moft elevated part of the water is carried beyond the
moon in the direétion of the rotation. The water continues
to rife after it has pafled dire€tly under the moon, seus
the immediate a€tion of the moon there begins to decreafe,
and comes not to its greateit elevation till it has got half a
quadrant farther. It continues alfo to defcend after it has
paffed at go° diftance from the point below the moon, though
the force which the moon adds to its gravity begins to decreafe
there. For ftill the aétion of the moon adds to its gravity, and
makes it defcend till it has got half a quadrant farther ; the

reateft elevation, therefore, is not inthe points which are ina
fine with the centres of the earth and moon, but about half a
quadrant to the eaft of thefe points in the direétion of the
motion of rotation. Thus in open feas, where the water
flows freely, the moon, M, (fi. 10.) is generally paft the
north and fouth meridian, as at p, when the high water is
at Z and at n: the reafon of which is plain, becaufe the
moon aéts with fome force after fhe has paft the meridian,
and thereby adds to the libratory or waving motion, which
the water acquired when fhe was in the meridian ; and, there-
fore, the time of high water is not precifely at the time of her
coming to the meridian, but fome time after.

Behides, the tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance
of the moon from the meridian at the fame places ; but are
varioufly affected by the ation of the fun, which brings them
on fooner when the moon is in her firft and third quarters,
and keeps them back later when fhe is in her fecond and
fourth; becaufe, in the former cafe, the tide raifed by the
fun alone, would be earlier than the tide raifed by the moon,
and in the latter cafe later.

For the further illuftration of the principle upon which
lunar tides depend, we fhall fuppofe, with Dr. Young, that
the earth were wholly fluid, and the fame part of its oe
were always turned towards the moon ; in whith cafe, the
pole of the fpheroid being immediately under the moon, the
lunar tide would remain ftationary ; the greateft elevation
being at the points neareft to the moon and fartheft from
hegy and the greateft depreffion in the circle equally diftant
from thefe points; the elevation, however, being twice as
great as the depreffion, on account of the fmaller furface to
which it is confined. The a&ual height of this elevation
would probably be about 4o inches, and the depreffion 20,
making together a tide of five feet. If alfo the waters were

i2

capable of affuming inftantly fuch a form as the equilibrium
would require, the fummit of a fpheroid equally elevated

would ftill be direGted towards the moon, notwithftanding

the earth’s rotation. This may be called the primitive tide
of the ocean: but on account of the perpetual change of
place which is required for the accommodation of the fur-
face to a fimilar pofition with refpe€t to the moon, as the
earth revolves, the form muft be materially different from
that of fuch a f{pheroid of equilibrium. The force employed-
in producing this accommodation, may be eftimated by
confidering the aCtual furface of the fea as that of a wave
moving on the {pheroid of equilibrium, and producing in the
water a fufficient velocity to preferve the aétual form. We
may deduce, fays Dr. Young, from this mode of confidering
the fubjeét, a theory of the tides which appears to be more
fimple and fatisfa¢tory than any which has yet been publifh-
ed: and by comparing the tides of narrower feas and lakes
with the motions of pendulums fufpended on vibrating cen-
tres, we may extend the theory to all poflible cafes. -

If the centre of a pendulum be made to vibrate, the vibra~
tions of the pendulum itfelf, when they have arrived at a ftate
of permanence, will be performed in the fame time with
thole of the centre ; but the motion of the pendulum will be
either in the fame dire€tion with that of the centre, or ina
contrary diré€tion, accordingly as the time of this foreed
vibration is longer or fhorter than that of the natural vibra-
tion of the pendulum ; and in the fame manner it maybe
fhewn that the tides, either of an open ocean or of a con-
fined lake, may be either direét or inverted with refpe& to
the primitive tide, which would be produced, if the waters
always affumed the form of the fpheroid of equilibrium, ac-
cording to the depth of the ocean, and to the breadth as well
as the depth of the lake. In the cafe of a dire& tide, the
time of the paflage of the luminary over the meridian muft
coincide with that of high water, and in the cafe of an inverted
tide with that of low water.

In order that the lunar tides of an open ocean may be
direct, or fynchronous, its depth muft be greater than 13
miles, and for the folar tides than 14. The lefs the depth
exceeded thefe limits, the greater the tides would be, and
in all cafes they would be greater than the primitive tides.
But in faé& the height of the tides in the open ocean is
always far fhort of that which would be produced in this
manner ; it is therefore improbable that the tides are ever
dire& in the open ocean, and that the depth of the fea is fo
great as 13 miles. ’

‘In order that the height of the inverted or remote lunar
tides may be five feet, or equal to that of the primitive tides,.
the depth of the open fea muft be 6} miles ; and if the height
is only two feet, which is perhaps not far from the truth, the
depth muft be 3 miles.

The tides of a lake or narrow fea differ materially from
thofe of the open ocean, fince the height of the water
{carcely undergoes any variation in the middle of the lake ;
it muft always be high water “at the eaftern extremity when
it is low water at the weftern: and this muft happen at the
time when the places of high and low water, with refpe& to
the primitive tides, are equally diftant from the middle of
the lake.

The tides may be dire&t in a lake 100 fathoms deep and
lefs than 8° wide ; but if it be much wider, they muft be
inverted. Suppofing the depth a mile, they will be direé&
when the breadth is lefs than 25°; but if a fea, like the
Atlantic, were 50 or 60 degrees wide, it mutt be at leaft
four miles deep, in order that the time of high water might
coincide with that of the moon’s fouthing.

Hitherto we have confidered the motion of the oe as

ree

ae

TIDES.

free from all refiftance ; but where the tides are direct, they
muft be retarded by the effeé&t of~a refiftance of any kind ;
and where they are inverted, they muft be accelerated ; a
fmall refiftance producing, in both cafes, a confiderable
difference in the time of high water.

Where a confiderable tide is obferved in the middle of a
limited portion of the fea, it muft be derived from the effect
of the elevation or depreffion of the ocean in its neighbour-
hood ; and fuch derivative tides are probably combined
in almoit all cafes with the ofcillations belonging to each
particular branch of the fea.

Lunar tides, the rife and progrefs of which are f{cientifi-
cally traced by Dr. Young, are fubject, independently of the
influence of the fun, to a variety of modifications, fome of
which we fhall fpecify in the fequel of this article.

2. We have hitherto taken notice only of the aétion of
the moon in producing tides ; but it is manifeft that, for
the fame reafons, the inequality of the fun’s action on dif-
ferent parts of the earth would produce a like effect,” and
that this alone would caufe a like variation from the exaé&
{pherical figure of a fluid earth. So that, ‘in reality, there
are two tides every natural day from the a¢tion of the fun,
as there are in the lunar day from that of the moon, fubject
to the fame laws ; and the lunar tide, as we have obferved,
is fomewhat changed by the aétion of the fun, and the
change varies every day on account of the inequality between
the natural and the lunar day. Indeed, the effect of the fun
in producing tides, becaufe of his immenfe diftance, mult be
confiderably lefs than that of the moon, though the gravity
toward the fun be much greater, the folar tide being, as
Dr. Young itates it, only about two-fifths of the lunar.
For it is not the action of the fun or that of the moon, but
the inequalities in the aétions of each, which have any effect.
The fun’s diftance is fo great, that the diameter of the earth
is as a point compared to it, and the difference between the
ation of the fun on the neareft, and that on the fartheft
parts, becomes, on this account, vaitly lefs than it would be
if the fun were as near as the moon.

However, the immenfe bulk of the fun makes the effeét
full fenfible, even at fo great a diftance ; and, therefore,
though the a€tion of the moon has the greateft fhare in pro-
ducing the tides, the action of the fun adds fenfibly to it
when they confpire together, as in the change and full of
the moon, when they are nearly in the fame line with the
centre of the earth, and therefore unite their forces. Thus,
in conjunction, or when the fun and moon are on the fame
fide of the earth, they both confpire to raife the water in
the zenith, and confequently in the nadir ; and when they
are in oppofition, that is, when the earth is between them,
whilft one makes high water in the zenith and nadir, the
other does the fame in the nadir and zenith. Confequently,
in the fyzygies, or at new and full moon, the tides are the
greateft, and are what we call the /pring-tides. Moreover,
the aétion of the fun diminifhes the effect of the moon’s
aGtion in the firft and laft quarters, becaufe the one raifes the
water in that cafe where the other depreffes it ; and there-
fore, in the quadratures the tides are the leaft, and are called
neap-tides.

ffs the lunar tide 1s much larger than the folar tide, the
former mutt always determine the time of high and low water,
which, in the fpring and neap-tides, remains unaltered by the
effect of the fun ; fo that in the neap-tides'the a¢tual time of
low water is that of the folar high water; but at the inter-
mediate times, the lunar high water is more or lefs accelerated
er retarded. he progreis of this alteration may eafily be
traced by means of a fimple conftruétion. If we make a

triangle, of which two of the fides are two feet and five feet
in length, the external angle which they form being equal
to twice the diftance of the luminaries, ‘the third fide will
fhew precifely the magnitude of the compound tide, and the
halves of the two angles oppofite to the firft two fides the
acceleration, or retardation, of the times of high water be-
longing to the feparate tides re{pedtively. Hence it appears
that the greateft deviation of the joint tide from the lunar
tide amounts to 11° 48! in longitude, and the time corre-
{ponding to 47 minutes, fuppofing the proportion of the
forces to remain always the fame; but in fagt the forces in-
creafe in proportion as the cubes of the diitances of their
re{pective luminaries diminifh, as well as from other caufes :
and in order to determine their joint effects, the lengths of
the fides of the triangle muft be varied accordingly, In
fome ports, from a combination of circumftances in the
channel, by which the tides reach them, or in the feas, in
which they originate, the influence of the fun and moon may
acquire a proportion fomewhat different from that which
naturally belongs to them: thus at Breft, the influence of
the moon appears to be three times as great as that of the
fun ; when it is ufually only twice and a half as great.

Sir Ifaac Newton has calcalated the effeéts of the fun and
moon refpectively upon the tides from their attra@ive
powers. The augmentation of the gravity of the lateral
parts of the earth, produced by the aétion of the fun, is a
fimilar effeé&t to an augmentation, eftimated by him on
another occafion, that is made to the gravity of the moon
toward the earth by the fame a€tion, when the moon is in
the quarters ; only the addition made to the gravity of the
lateral parts is about 601 times lefs, becaufe their diftance
from the earth’s centre is fo many times lefs than the diftanee
of the moon from it. The gravity of thofe parts of the
earth that are direétly beneath the fun, and of thofe oppofite
to it, is diminifhed by a double quantity of what is added to
the lateral parts ; and as the diminution of gravity of the
one, and augmentation of gravity of the other, confpire
together in raifing the water under the fun, and the parts
oppofite to it, above its height in the lateral parts; the
whole force that produces this effe&t is to be confidered
as triple of what is added to the gravity of the lateral
parts; and is thence found to be to the gravity of the
particles as 1 to 12868200, and to the centrifugal force at
the equator as 1 to 44527. The elevation of the waters
by this force is confidered by Newton as an effe@ fimilar
to the elevation of the equatorial parts above the polar
parts of the earth, arifing from the centrifugal force at the
equator ; and, being 44527 times lefs, is found to be 1 foot
and 1154, inches, Paris meafure. This is the elevation
arifing from the aétion of the fun upon the water.

Mr. Maclaurin makes this elevation to be 1 foot 10 or
inches, of the fame meafure, which differs from the above
eftimate by the ;th part of an inch ; and the greateft ele-
vation, when the fun is in the equinoétial, 1 foot r14!,
inches.

In order to find the force of the moon upon the water,
Newton compares the {pring-tides, at the mouth of the
river Avon, below Briftol, with the neap-tides there, and
finds their proportion to be that of 9 to 5; whence, after
feveral neceflary corrections, he concludes, that the force
of the moon is to that of the fun, in raifing the waters of
the ocean, as 4.4815 to 1; fo that the force of the moon
is able, of itfelf, to produce an elevation of 8 feet and 75%,
inches, and the fun and moon together may produce an
elevation of about 1o+ feet, in their mean diftances from
the earth, and an elevation of about 12 feet, when the

4K 2 moon

TIDES.

moon is neareft the earth. ‘The height to which the water
is found to rife, upon coafts of the open and deep ocean, is
agreeable enough to this computation.

Dr. Horfley eftimates the force of the moon to that of
the fun as 5.0469 to 1. Newton Princip. lib. iii. feét. iii.
prop. 36, 37, apud Newt. Op. Ed. Horfley, vol. ili. p. 104.
&c. and Maclaurin’s Diff. de Caufa Phyfica Fluxus &
Refluxus Maris, apud Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. Comment.
le Seur & Jacquier, tom. iii. p. 272. i

3. It muft be obferved that the {pring-tides do not
happen precifely at new and full moon, nor the neap-tides
at the quarters, but a day or two after, (at leaft two, and
commonly three tides after,) becaufe, as in other cafes, fo
in this, the effect is not greateft or leaft when the immediate
influence of the caufe is greateft or leaft. As, e¢. g. the
greateft heat is not on the folftitial day, when the immediate
aétion of the fun is greateft, but fome time after.

That this may be more clearly underftood, let it be con-
fidered, that though the aétions of the fun and moon were
to ceafe this moment, yet the tides would continue to have
their courfe for fome time ; for the water, where it is now
higheft, would fubfide, and flow down on the parts that are
lower, till, by the motion of defcent, being there accumu-
lated to too great a height, it would neceffarily return again
to its firft place, though in a lefs meature, being retarded
by the refiftance arifing from the attraétion of its parts.
Thus it would for fome time continue in an agitation like to
that in which it is at prefent. The waves of the fea, that
continue after a ftorm ceafes, and every motion almoft of a
fluid, may illuftrate this.

The refiftance of fluids, in general, fays Dr. Young, is
as the {quare of the velocity, confequently it muft be much
greater for the lunar than for the’ folar tide, in proportion
to the magnitude of the force ; and the acceleration of the
lunar tide produced by this caufe muft be greater than that
of the folar: hence it may happen, that when the lunar tide
occurs two or three hours after the tranfit of the moon, the
folar tide may be three or four hours after that of the fun,
{o as to be about an hour later, at the times of conjunction
and oppofition, and the tides will be higheft when the moon
paffes the meridian about an hour after the fun; while at
the precife time of the new and full moon, the lunar tide
will be retarded about a quarter of an hour by the effe& of
the folar tide.

4. The different diftances of the moon from the earth
produce a fenfible variation in the tides. When the moon
approaches the earth, her aétion on every part increafes,
and the differences of that a¢tion on which the tides depend,
increafe. For her aétion increafes as the {quares of the
diftances decreafe ; and though the differences of the dif-
tances themfelves be equal, yet there is a greater difpropor-
tion betwixt the {quares of lefs, than the Care of greater
quantities ; e.g. 3 exceeds 2, as much as 2 exceeds 1; but
the {quare of 2 is quadruple of the fquare of 1, whilft the
{quare of 3 (viz. 9) is little more than double the fquare
of 2 (viz. 4).

Thus it appears, that by the moon’s approach, her aétion
on the neareft parts increafes more quickly ‘than her ac-
tion on the remote parts ; and the tides, therefore, increafe
in a higher proportion as the diftances of the moon decreafe.
Sir Ifaac Newton fhews, that the tides increafe in propor-
tion as the cubes of the diftances decreafe, fo that the moon,
at half her prefent diftance, would produce a tide eight times
greater.

The moon deferibes an ellipfe about the earth, and in her
neareft diftance produces a tide fenfibly greater than at her

7

greateft diftance from the earth: and hence it is, that two

eat {pring-tides never fucceed each other immediately ;
fe if the moon be at her neareft diftance from the earth
at the change, fhe muft be at her greateft diftance at the
full, having, in the intervening time, finifhed half a revolu-
tion ; and, therefore, the {pring-tide then will be much lefs
than the tide at the change was: and for the fame reafon,
if a great {pring-tide happens at the time of full moon, the
tide at the enfuing change will be lefs.

5- The fpring-tides are greateft about the time of the
equinoxes, 7. e. about the cra end of March and Sep-
tember, and leaft about the time of the foliftices, i. ¢. to-
ward the end of June and December; and the neap-tides
are leaft at the equinoxes and greateft at the folftices ; fo
that the difference betwixt the aa and the neap-tides is
much lefs confiderable at the folftitial than at the equinoc-
tial feafons. In order to illuftrate and evince the truth of
this obfervation, it is manifeft, that if either the fun or moon
were in the pole, they could have no effeét on the tides, for
their a&tion would raife all the water at the equator to the .
fame height, and any place of the earth, in defcribing its
parallel to the equator, would not meet, in its courfe, with
any part of the water more clevated than another, fo that
there could be no tide in any place.

The effet of the fun or moon is greateft when in the
equinoétial; for then the axis of the f{pheroidal figure,
arifing from their action, moves in the greateft circle, and
the water is put into the greateft-agitation ; and hence it is
that the {pring-tides produced, when the fun and moon are
both in the equinoétial, are the greateft of any, and the
neap-tides are the leaft of any, about that time.

But the tides produced when the fun is in either of the
tropics, and the moon in either of her quarters, are greater
than thofe produced when the fun is in the equinoétial, and
the moon in her quarters, becaufe, in the firft cafe, the moon
is in the equino@tial, and in the latter cafe, the moon is in
one of the tropics ; and the tide depends more on the aétion
of the moon than that of the fun, and is, therefore, greateft
when the moon’s action is greateft.

However, it is neceflary to obferve, 6. That, becaufe
the fun is nearer the earth in winter than in fummer, i. e
in February and OGober than in March and September,
the greateft {pring-tides are after the autumnal, and before
the vernal equinox.

7. Since the greateft of the two tides happening in every
diurnal revolution of the moon, or lunar day, # e, about
24" 50™, is that in which the moon is neareft the zenith, or
nadir ; for this reafon, while the fun is in the northern figns,
the greater of the two diurnal tides in our climates, is that
arifing from the moon above the horizon: when the fun is
in the fouthern figns, the greateft is that arifing from the
moon below the horizon.

In proof of this obfervation, let it be confidered, that
when the moon declines from the equator toward either
pole, one of the greateft elevations of the water follows
the moon, and defcribes nearly the parallel on the earth’s
furface which is under that which the moon, on account of
the diurnal motion, feems to defcribe ; and the oppofite
greateft elevation, being antipodal to that, muft deferibe a
parallel as far on the other fide of the equator; fo that
while the one moves on the north fide of the equator, the
other moves on the fouth fide of it, at the fame diftance.
Now the greateft eleyation which moves on the fame fide of
the equator, with any place, will come nearer to it than the
oppofite elevation, which moves in a parallel on the other
fide of the equator ; and, therefore, if a place is on the wx

ide

TIDES.

fide of the equator with the moon, the day-tide, or that which
is produced while the moon is above the horizon of the
place, will exceed the night-tide, or that which is produced
while the moon is under the horizon of the place. It is the
contrary if the moon is on one fide, and the place on the
other fide of the equator; for then the elevation which is
oppofite to the moon, moves on the fame fide of the equator
with the place,. and, therefore, will come nearer to it
than the other elevation. The difference will be greateft
when the fun and moon both defcribe the tropics ; becaufe
the two elevations in that cafe defcribe the oppofite tropics,
which are the fartheft from each other of any two parallel
circles they can defcribe. Thus it is found, by obfervation,
that the evening tides in the fummer exceed the morning
tides, and the morning tides in winter exceed the evening
tides. The difference is found at Briftol to amount to
fifteen inches, and at Plymouth to one foot. It would be
ftill greater, but that a fluid always retains an imprefled
motion for fome time; fo that the preceding tides affec&
always thofe that follow them. Upon the whole, while the
moon has north declination, the greateft tides in the northern
hemifphere are when fhe is above the horizon, and the re-
verfe while her declination is fouth.

To illuftrate this matter by figures; let NES Q (fg. 12,
13, 14.) be the.earth, NCS its axis, EQ the equator,
T @ the tropic of Cancer, ¢ ve the tropic of Capricorn,
ah the arGic circle, cd the antar&tic, N the north pole,
S the fouth pole, M the moon, F and G the two eminences
of water, whofe loweft parts are at a and d (fig. 12.), at
Nand S { jig. 13.), and at 4 and ¢ (fig. 14.), always go°
from the higheft.

Now, when the moon is in her greateft north declination
at M (fig. 12.), the higheft elevation, G, under her is on
the tropic of Cancer, IT’ 3, and the oppofite elevation, F,
on the tropic of Capricorn, ¢ vf; and thefe two elevations
defcribe the tropics by the earth’s diurnal rotation. All
places in the northern hemifphere, ENQ, have the
higheft tides when they come into’ the pofition 4% Q,
under the moon; and the loweft tides when the earth’s
diurnal rotation carries them into, the pofition aT E, on the
fide oppofite to the moon: the reverfe happens at the
fame time in the fouthern hemifphere E S Q, as is evident
to fight. “The axis of the tides aCd has now its poles
@ and d (being always go° from the higheft elevations) in
the arétic and antarGtic circles; and, therefore, it is plain,
that at thefe circles there is but one tide of flood, and one
of ebb, in the lunar day. For when the point 2 revolves
_ half round to 4 in twelve lunar hours, it has a tide of flood ;
but when it comes to the fame point a again in twelve
hours more, it has the loweft ebb. In feven days after-
ward, the moen M (fg. 13.) comes to the equinoGial
cirele, and is over the equator E Q, when both elevations
deferibe thé equator; and in both hemifpheres, at equal
diftances from the equator, the tides are equally high in
both parts of the lunar day. All the phenomena being
reverfed, when the moon has fouth declination, to what they
were when her declination was north, require no farther
defcription, fig. 14.

From what has been faid it appears, that as the tides are
governed by the moon, they muft turn on the axis of the
meon’s orbit, which is inclined 234 degrees to the earth’s
axis ata mean ftate; and, therefore, the poles of the tides
muft be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth, or in
eppefite points of the polar circles, going round thefe
cireles in every lunar day. It is true that, according to
jig. 14, when the moon is vertical to the equator EC Q,
the poles of the tides feem to fall in with the poles of the

world N and S; but when we confider that FG H is
under the moon’s orbit, it will appear that when the moon
is over H, in the tropic of Capricorn, the north pole of
the tides (which can be no more than go° from under the
moon) mutt be at C in the artic circle, not at P, the north
pole of the earth ; and as the moon afcends from H to G
in her orbit, the north pole of the tides muft {hift from
¢ to a in the arétic circle, and the fouth pole as much in

‘the antarétic.

It is not to be doubted, but that the earth’s quick rota-
tion brings the poles of the tides nearer to the poles of the
world than they would be if the earth were at reft, and the
moon revolved about it only once a month; for, otherwife,
the tides would be more unequal in their heights, and times
of their returns, than we find they are. But how near the
earth’s rotation may bring the poles of its axis and thofe of
the tides together, or how far the preceding tides may
affe&t thofe which follow, fo as to make them keep up
nearly to the fame heights, and times of ebbing and flowing,
is a problem more fit to be folved by obfervation than by
theory.

Thofe who have opportunity to make obfervations, and
choofe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are really
affected in the above manner by the different pofitions of the
moon, efpecially as to the unequal times of their returns,
may take this general rule for knowing when they ought
to be fo affeGted. When the earth’s axis inclines to the
moon, the northern tides, if not retarded in their paflage
through fhoals and channels, nor affeéted by the winds,
ought to be greateft when the moon is above the horizon,
leaft when fhe is below it ; and quite the reverfe when the
earth’s axis declines from her; but in both cafes at equal
intervals of time. When the earth’s axis inclines fideways
to the moon, both tides are equally high, but they happen
at unequal intervals of time. In every lunation the earth’s
axis inclines once to the moon, once from her, and twice
fideways to her, as it does to the fun every year; becaufe
the moon goes round the ecliptic every month, and the fun
but once in a year. In fummer, the earth’s axis inclines
towards the moon when new ; and, therefore, the day-tides
in the north ought to be higheft, and night-tides lowelt
about the change : at the full the reverfe. At the quarters
they ought to be equally high, but unequal in their returns ;
becaufe the earth’s axis then inclines fidewife to the moon.
In winter the phenomena are the fame at full moon as in
fummer at new. In autumn the earth’s axis inclines fide-
wife to the moon when new and full; therefore the tides
ought to be equally high and unequal in their returns at
thefe times. At the firft quarter the tides of flood fhould
be leaft when the moon is above the horizon, greateft when
fhe is below it, arid the reverfe at her third quarter. In
{pring, the phenomena of the firft quarter anfwer to thofe
of the third quarter in autumn, and vice ver/é. The nearer
any time is to either of thefe feafons, the more the tides
partake of the phenomena of thefe feafons; and in the
middle between any two of them, the tides are at 2 mean
ftate between thofe of both. d

8. Such would the tides regularly be, if the earth were
all over covered with fea very deep, fo that the water might
follow the influence of the fun and moon; but, by reafon of
the fhoalnefs of fome places, and the narrownefs of the
ftreights in others, by which the tides are propagated, there
arifes a great diverfity in the effet, not to be accounted for,
without an exaét knowledge of all the circumftances of the
places; fuch as the pofition of the land, and the breadth
and depth of the channels, direétion of the winds, &c. For
a very flow and imperceptible motion of the whole body of

water,

TIDES.

water, where it is (for example) two miles deep, will fuffice
to raife its furface ten or twelve feet in a tide’s time ; where-
as, if the fame quantity of water were to be conveyed
through a channel forty fathoms deep, it would require a very
great ftream to effeét it in fo large inlets as are the channel of
England and the German ocean ; whence the tide is found
to fee ftrongeft in thofe places where the fea grows narrowett,
the fame quantity of water being, in that cafe, to pafs
through a {maller paflage.

This is moft evident in the ftreights between Portland
and Cape la Hogue in Normandy, where the tide runs like a
fluice ; and would be yet more between Dover and Calais, if
the tide, coming round the ifland, did not check it.

This force, being once impreffed upon the water, conti-
nues to carry it above the level of the ordinary height of the
ocean, particularly where the water meets a direét obftacle,
as it does in St. Maloes; and where it enters into a long
chaanel, which running far into the land, grows very
flraight at its extremity, as it does into the Severn fea at
Chepftow, where the tide rifes to 40 feet, and Briftol, where
its height is 30 feet. At Breft, the height of the tides is
about 20 feet ; at St. Maloes, 50; at Annapolis, in the bay
of Fundy, as much fometimes as 100 feet. In the Medi-
terranean, the tides are generally inconfiderable; never-
thelefs they are perceptible: at Naples, they fometimes
rife to a foot; at Venice, to more than two feet; and
in the Euripus, for a certain number of days in each luna-
tion, they are very diftinétly obfervable from the cur-
rents which they occafion. In the Weft Indies, and alfo
in the gulf of Mexico, the tides are lefs obfervable than in
the neighbouring feas, perhaps on account of fome combina-
tions derived from the variations of the depth of the rivers,
and from the different channels by which they are propa-
gated.

The fhoalnefs of the fea, and the intercurrent continents,
are the reafons that in the open ocean the tides rife but to
very {mall heights in proportion to what they do in wide-
mouthed rivers, opening in the direétion of the ftream of the
tide ; and that high-water is not at the time of the moon’s
appulfe to the meridian, but always fome hours after it, as it
is obferved upon all the weftern coalts of Europe and Africa,
from Ireland to the Cape of Good Hope; in all which a
fouth-weft moon makes high water ; and the fame is reported
to hold in the weft of America.

So that tides happen to different places at all diftances of
the moon from the meridian, and confequently at all hours of
the lugar day.

It is to be confidered that, in order to allow the tides their
full motion, the ocean, in which they are produced, ought
to be extended from eaft to weft go° at lealt. Becaufe the
places, where the moon rifes moft, and moft depreffes the
water, are at that diftance from each other. Hence it ap-
pears, that it is only in the great oceans that {uch tides can
be produced, and why in the larger Pacific ocean they ex-
ceed thofe in the Atlantic ocean. Hence alfo it is obvious,
why the tides are not fo great in the torrid zone, between
Africa and America, where the ocean is narrower, as in the
temperate zones on either fide ; and we may hence alfo un-
deritand, why the tides are fo {mall in iflands that are very
far diftant from the fhores. It is manifeft, that, in the At-
lantic ocean, the water cannot rife on one fhore but by de-
{cending on the other; fo that, at the intermediate diftant
iflands, it muft continue at a mean height betwixt its ele-
_ vation on one and on the other fhore. But when tides pafs
over fhoals, and through ftreights into bays of the fea, their
motion becomes mor¢ yarious, and their height depends on
many circumftances. ;

The tide entering the Atlantic appears, fays Dr. Young, to
advance northwards at the rate of about 500 miles an hour,
correfponding to a depth of about three miles, fo as to reach
Sierra Leone at the eighth hour after the moon’s fouthing ;
this part of Africa being not very remote from the meridian
of the middle of the South Atlantic ocean, and having little
fhare in the primitive tides of that ocean. The fouthern
tide feems then to pafs by Cape Blanco and Cape Bojador; to
arrive at Gibraltar at the thirteenth hour, and to unite its
effe&s with thofe of other tides at various parts of the
coaits of Europe.

We may therefore confider the Atlantic as a detached fea,
about 3500 miles broad, and three mules deep ; and a fea of
thefe dimenfions is fufceptible of tides confiderably larger
than thofe of the ocean, but how much larger we cannot
determine without more accurate meafures. Thefe tides
would happen on the European coafts, if there were no re-
fiftance, a little lefs than five hours after the moon’s fouth-
ing, and on the coaft of America, a little more than feven
hours after ; but the refiftance oppofed to the motion of the
fea may eafily accelerate the time of high-water in both
cafes about two hours, fo that it may be a little before the
third hour on the weftern coafts of Europe and of Africa,
and before the fifth on the moft expofed parts of the eaftern
coaft of America; and in the whole of the Atlantic, this
tide may be combined more or lefs both with the general
fouthern tide, and with the partial effeéts of local elevations
or depreffions of the bottom of the fea, which may caufe
uregularities of various kinds. The fouthern tide is, how-
ever, probably lefs confiderable than has fometimes been fup-
pofed, for, in the latitudes in which it muft originate, he
extent of the elevation can only be half as great as at the
equator ; and the iflands of Kerguelen’s land and South
Georgia, in the latitudes of about 50° and 55°, have their
tides delayed till the tenth and eleventh hours, apparently
becaufe they received them principally from diftant parts of
the ocean, which are nearer to the equator.

On the wettern coafts of Europe, from Ireland to Cadiz ;
on thofe of Africa, from Cape Coait to the Cape of Good
Hope ; and on the coait of America, from California to the
{treights of Magellan, as well as in the neighbouring iflands ;
it is ufually Jighevatee at fome time between two and four
hours after the moon’s fouthing; on the eaftern coait of
South America, between four and fix; on that of North
America, between feven and eleven ; and on the eaftern coafts
of Afia and New Holland, between four and eight. The
Society Iflands are perhaps too near the middle of the Pa-
cific ocean to partake of the effects of its primitive tide, and
their tide, being fecondary, is probably for this reafon a few
hours later. At the Almirantes, near the eaftern coaft of
Africa, the tide is at the fixth hour ; but there feem to be
{ome irregularities in the tides of the neighbouring iflands.

The progrefs of a tide may be very diftinétly traced from
its fource in the ocean into the narrow and fhallow branches
of the fea which conftitute our channels. Thus the tide is an
hour or two later at the Scilly Iflands than in the Atlantic,
at Plymouth three, at Cork, Briftol, and Weymouth four,
at Caen and Havre fix, at Dublin and Brighthelmftone
feven, at Boulogne and Liverpool eight, at Dover near nine
at the Nore eleven, and at London-bridge twelve and a half.
Another portion appears to proceed round Ireland and Scot-
land into the North fea; it arrives from the Atlantic at Lon-
donderry in about three hours, at the Orkneys in fix, at Aber-
deen in eleven, at Leith in fourteen, at Loeftoffe in twenty, and
at the Nore in about twenty-four, fo as to meet there the fub-
fequent tide coming from the fouth. From the time o¢cu-
pied by the tide in travelling from the mouth of the Englifh”

: Channel

TIDES.

Channel to Boulogne, at the rate of about fifty mifes an hour,
we may calculate that the mean depth of the channel is
about twenty-eight fathoms, independently of the magni-
tude of the refiltances of various kinds to be overcome,
which require us to fuppofe the depth from thirty to forty
fathoms. In the great river of Amazons, the effets of the
tides are ftill fenfible at the ftreights of Pauxis, 500 miles
from the fea, after an interval of feveral days {pent in their
paffage up: for the flower progrefiiye motion of the water
no more impedes the progrefs of a wave againft the ftream,
than the velocity of the wind prevents the tranfmiffion of
found in a contrary dire€tion.

Dr. Young obferves, that fcarcely a fingle inftance oc-
curs that favours the fuppofition of high water in the open
fea being within an hour of the moon’s fouthing, as it mult
be if the depth were very great ; fo that neither the height
of the tide, nor the time of high-water, will allow us to
fuppofe the fea any where quite fo deep as four miles.

The tide that is produced on the weftern coafts of Europe,
in the Atlantic, correfponds to the fituation of the moon
already defcribed. Thus it is high-water on the coafts of
Spain, Portucal, and the weit of Ireland, about the third
hour after the moon has paffed the meridian; from thence it
flows into the adjacent channels, as it finds the eafieft paflage.
One current from it, e.g. runs up by the fouth of Eng-
land, another comes in by the north of Scotland; they take
a confiderable time to move all this way, and it is high-water
fooner in the places to which they firft come, and it begins
to fall at thofe places, while they are {till going on to others
that are farther in their courfe: As they return, they are
not able to raife the tide, becaufe the water runs fafter off

than it returns, till, by a new tide propagated-from the open’

ocean, the return of the current is ftopped, and the water
beginsto rife again. The tide, propagated by the moon in
the German ocean, when fhe is three hours paft the meridian,
takes about twelve hours to come from thence to London-
bridge ; fo that when it is high-water there, a new tide is
already come to its height in the ocean; and, in fome inter-
mediate place, it muft be low water at the fame time.

Confequently, when the moon has north declination, and
we fhould expe& the tide at London to be the greateit
when the moon is above the horizon, we find itis lealt 3 and
the contrary when fhe has fouth declination.

At feveral places it is high-water three hours before the
moon comes to the meridian; but that tide which the moon
puthes, as it were, before her, is only the tide oppofite to
that which was raifed by her when fhe was nine hours paft
the oppofite meridian.

It would be endlefs to recount all the particular folutions
which are eafy corollaries from this doétrine :-as why the
lakes and feas, fuch as the Cafpian fea and the Mediterranean

fea, the Black fea and Baltic, have either {mall or no very -

fenfible tides: for lakes are’ generally fo fmall, that when the
moon is vertical fhe attra€ts every part of them alike, and
therefore no part of the water can be raifed higher than an-
other: and having no communicatioa with the ocean, it can
neither increafe nor diminifh their water, in order to rife and
fall; and feas that communicate by fuch narrow inlets, and
are of fo immenfe an extent, cannot, in a few hours time,
receive and empty water enough to raife or fink their furface
any thing fenfibly.

To demonftrate the excellency of this doétrine, the exam-
ple of the tides in the port of Battha, in the kingdom of
Tonquin, in the Eaft Indies, 20° 50! N. lat. which are fo
extraordinary and different from all others we have yet
heard of, may fuffice.

The day in which the moon paffes the equino€tial, the

the continent and Borneo.

water itagnates there without any motion ; as the moon re«
moves from the equinotial, the water begins to rife and fall
once a day ; and it is high-water at the fetting of the moon,
and low-water at her rifing. This daily tide increafes for
about feven or eight days, and then decreafes for as many
days by the fame degrees, till this motion ceafes, when the
moon has returned to the equinoétial. When fhe has
pafled the equinoGial, and declines toward the fouth
pole, the water rifes and falls again as before; but it is
high-water now at the rifing, and low-water at the fetting
of the moon.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in order to account for this extraordi-
nary tide, confiders that there are two inlets to this port of
Batfha, one from the Chinefe ocean, betwixt the continent
and the Manillas, the other from the Indian ocean, betwixt
This leads him to propofe, as a
folution of this phenomenon, that a tide may arrive at Batfha,
through one of thefe inlets, at the third hour of the moon,
and another through the other inlet fix hours after, at the
ninth hour of the moon. © For, while thefe tides are equal,
the one flowing in as the other ebbs out, the water muft
ftagnate ; now they are equal when the moon is in the equi-
noctial ; but as foon as the moon begins to decline on the
fame fide of the equator with Battha, it has been fhewn that
the diurnal tide muft exceed the no@urnal, fo that two
greater and two leffer tides muit arrive at Batfha by turns.
The difference of thefe will produce an agitation of the
water, which will rife to its greateft height at the mean time
betwixt thé two greateft tides, and fall loweft at a mean
time betwixt the two leaft tides; fo that it will be high-
water about the fixth hour at the fetting of the moon, and
low-water at her rifing. When the moon has got to the
other fide of the equinoGtial, the no&turnal tide will exceed
the diurnal ; and, therefore, the high-water will be at the
rifing, and low-water at the fetting of the moon.

The fame principles will ferve to account for other extra-
ordinary tides, which, we are told, are obferved in places
whofe fituation expofes them to fuch irregularities : and, as
fome think, for particular currents and winds. See Cur-
RENT and WInps.

When the time of high-water at any place is, in general,
mentioned, it is to be underftood on the days of the fyzy-
gies, or days of new and full moon; when the fun and moon
pafs the meridian of the place at the fame time. Amon
pilots, it is cuftomary to reckon the time of flood, or high-
water, by the point of the compafs the moon bears on,
allowing three quarters of an hour for each point, at that
time ; thus, onthe full and change days, in places where it
is flood at noon, the tide is faid to flow N. and S., or
at 12 o’clock ; in other places, on the fame days, where
the moon bears 1, 2, 3, 4, or more points to the E. or
W.. of the meridian, when it is high-water, the tide is faid
to flow on fuch point ; thus, if the moon bears S.E. at flood,
it is faid to flow S.E. and N.W. or three hours before the
meridian, that is, at 9 o’clock ; if it bears S.W. it flows
S.W. and N.E. or at three hours after the meridian; and
in like manner for other points of the moon’s bearing.

The times of high-water in any place fail about the fame
hours after a period of about fifteen days, or between one
fpring-tide and another ; but during that period, the times of
high-water fall each day later by about forty-eight minutes,

From the obfervations of many perfons there have been
colleéted the times when it is high-water on the days of the
new and full moon, on moft of the fea-coafts of Europe,
and many other places ; which are ufually put in a table
againft the names of the placés; a {pecimen of which is
fubjoined.

A TaBLe

TIDES.

A Taser of the Times of High-Water on the Days of the New and Full Moon, on moft of the
Sea-Coafts of Europe.

Names of Places. Countries. 3 High-Water.

_
*~

Abbrevrak - - - - | France - - { Englifa Channel 2 z 4 30
Aberdeen - - - - | Scotland - - | German Ocean & = Oo 45
Aldborough ~ - | England - - Ditto - = 5 9 45
Alderney, Ifle ey - - | Ditto - - | Englifh Claud = - 12 Oo
Amazons, River (Mouth) - | Amazon - - | Atlantic Ocean = 3 6: 0
Ameyland, Ifle of - - | Dutchland - - | German Ocean - = - 7 30
Amfterdam - - - | Ditto - - | Ditto . = 5 = LE 6)
Andrews, St. - - - | Scotland - - | Ditto = = ~ = 26s
Anholt, Ifleof - - - | Denmark - - | Sound - - = ~ On wo
Antwerp - = - - | Flanders’ - - | River Schelde - a E 6 0
Archangel - - - - | Roffia - - | White Sea = : £ Ores
Arran, Ifleof - - - | Ireland = - | St. George’s Channel - it $6
Afhley, River - - - | Carolina - - | Atlantic Ocean 2 = © 45
Auguftine, St. - - - | Florida - - | Ditta - z = : 4 30
Baltimore - a= B - | Ireland - - | Weftern Ocean : = 4 30
Barfleur, Cape - - - | France - - | Englifh Spaanet - - 7 30
Bas, Ifle de - - - | Ditto - - | Ditto = 2 = 3 45
Bayonne -- - - - | Ditto =, =) bay Ob Dilcay =h~ Sue 3 30
Beachy-Head =p - | England - - | Englifh Channel Si ast ys °o Oo
ae noe? - - - | Labrador - - | Hudfon’s Bay. - 2 = 12 0
Belfaft - - - - | Ireland - - | Irifh Sea - = = = 10 Oo
Belleifle - - - | France - - | Bay of Bifcay - = - 3 30
Bermudas, Ifland A: - - | Bahama Ifles - | Atlantic Ocean = 3 7.0
Berwick - - - - | England - - | German Ocean - = - 2 30
Bic, Ifle du - - - | Acadia - - River St. Lawrence - - a vi
Blackney - - - - | England - - | German Ocean = = 6 ae
Blanchart-Race_ - - - | Franee - - | Englifh Channel = - of ig
Blanco, Cape - - - | Negroland - - | Atlantic Ocean = e 9 45
Suledor, Cape - - - | Ditto - - - | Ditto ° = = °.OUOo8
Boulogne - - = - | France - - | Englifh Chae 3 3 10 30
Bourdeaux - - - = | Ditto - + | Bayof Bifeay- - = - 3 0
Breefound - - - - | Dutchland - - | GermanOcean- - = - 4 30
Bremen - - - - | Germany - - | River Wefer - - + 6 0
Breft - - - - - | France - - | Bay of Bifcay - es = 3 45
Bridlington Bay - - «+ |. England - - | GermanQOcean- .- - Ewe

rl - « - - Ducchland 2 - | Ditto = = = I 30
Briftol - - - - | England - - | St. George’s Channel - 6 45
Buchannefs - = = - | Scotland - - | German Ocean - ~ ~ 3.0
Button’s Ifles - - - | North Britain - | Hudfon’s Straits - - 6 50
Cadiz - - - - - } Spain - - | Atlantic Ocean - - 4 30
Caen - Sy eae eget bance - = | Englifh Channel radas 9 Oo
Caithnefs Point - - - } Scotland - - | Weitern Ocean - = 9 Oo
Calais - - . : - | France 4 - | Englifh Channel 5 & 11 30
Caldy, Ifle of = = - | England - =, | Ste yee e’s Channel = 5 Rie
Camfer - - - .« | Dutchland - - | German Ocean - = - I 30
Canaria, Ifle of - E = |) Canaries’ = - | Atlantic Ocean = = 3 °
Cantin, Cape - - = | Barba = oe Gomme = Soe a On”)
Cafkets ~ ~ ae - | Guernfey - - | Englith Phajaek = = 8 15
Charles, Ifleof - - - | Labrador - - | Hudfon’s Straits - - 10) ir
Charles-Town = - - } Carolina - - | Afhley River - - — - 370
Chigneé&tow - - - | Nova Scotia - | Bay of Fundy - -~ - © 45
Cherbourg - - | France - - | Englith Channel - - 7, 30
Churchill, Cape fod River - | North Wales - | Hudfon’s Bay - - - 4° 20
Clear, Cape - s - | Ireland = - | Weftern Ocean - ! 4 30
Conearneau - - - - | France - - | Bay of Bifcay - = 2 3 0

Names of Places. Countries. Coaft. High-Water.

H. M

Conquet - - - - | France - - | Englifh Channel = = 2 15
Coquet, Ifle of - . - | England - - | German Ocean - - 3 0
Corke - * - - | Ireland = - | St. George’s Channel. - 6 30
Corfe, Cape - - - | Guinea - - | Ethiopian Sea - = > 3 30
Cromer - = - - | England - - | German Ocean = = P50
Dartmouth - - - - | Ditto - - | Englifh Channel - = 6 30
David’s Head, St. - - | Wales - = St. George’s Channel - 6 Oo
Dieppe - - - - | France - - | Englifh Channel - - 10 30
Dort - - - - - | Dutchland - - | German Ocean - - 3 yO
Dover - - = - | England - - | Englith Channel = = II 30
Downs = - - - | Ditto - - German Ocean = = 1 ng
Dublin - = < - | Ireland = - | Irth Sea - > = = 9 15
Dunbar - = - - | Scotland - - | German Ocean 2 = 2 30
Dundee - - - - | Ditto = - | Ditto : - - z) 4g
Dungarvan - - = - | Ireland = - | Atlantic Seen = > 4 30
Dungenefs - — - - = | England - - | Englifh Channel - = 9 45
Dunkirk - = - - | France = - | German Ocean = 3 °°.) (OO
Dunnofe - - = - | Ifleof Wight - | Englifh Channel = = 9 45
Edinburgh - - - - | Scotland - - | German Ocean - = 4 30
Edyftone - - - | England - - | Englifh Channel = +a 3 51930
Elbe, River (Mouth) - - | Germany - - | German Ocean - . °o oO
Embden - - - | Ditto - - | Ditto ? - - = 6 xO
Enchuyfen - =! == - | Dutchland - - | Zuyder Sea - - - Ohio
Eftaples = - - - - | France - - | Englifh Channel - - rg een)
Falmouth - - - | England - - | Ditto - - = _ 5 30
Flamborough- Ficad - - | Ditto = - | German Ocean = = 4 0
Florida, Cape - - = | Florida - - | Gulf of Mexico - - 7 30
Fluhhing—- - - = | Dutchland - - | German Ocean =f, Shs O 45
Fly, Tie of - = = - | Ditto - - | Ditto = = - - | 7 30
Foreland, North - a - | England - - | Ditto = = othit 9 45
Faind, South - = - | Ditto = - | Englith Channel, - = 9 45
Foulnefs - - - - | Ditto - - | German Ocean - - 6 45
Foye - = - - - | Ditto - - Englifh Channel - = Poe oy
Garonne, River - - ~~ |- France - «= | Bayof Bifeay- .- - ZO
Gafpey Bay - .-) -=s5|/Acadia -- -+| Gulf of St. Lawrence - - I 30
Gibraltar - . - = | Spain . - | Mediterranean Sea - - ee)
Good Hope, Cape of - - | Cafiers = - | Indian Ocean - : = Zo
Granville - - - - | France - | Englifh Channel ~ : FRc
Graveline - - - - | Ditto - - | Ditto - = = = onto
Gravefend - : - | England - - | River Thames - - = I 30
Groine, or Cape Corunna - | Spain - - | Bay of Bifcay - +, gn 3 250
Guernfey, Ifland of — - - | England - - | Englith Channel = = I 30
Haarlem - - - - | Dutchland. - - | German Ocean =i l-s 9 0
Halifax - - - - | Nova Scotia - | Weftern Ocean silvhe 7 30
Hamburgh - = - - | Germany - - | River Elbe - - - 6' 10
Hastleppol-| .- --- fean}(Hagland< j- -»=>s| Dittorm-. <2.-<) --= 3| 0
_ | Harwich — - - - - | Ditto - - | Ditto .- ay |ole TLOy
Havre de Grace - - - | France - - | Enghth Channel - -- pepe
Henry, Cape - - - | Virginia - - | Atlantic Ocean ait nie I maly
Holyhead - - - - | Wales = - | Irith Sea - - - = I 30
Honfleur - - - - | France - - | River Seine - - - 9 oO
Hull - | England - - | River Humber - - = 6 o
Fictabes, Rivet (Entrance) - | Ditto - - | German Ocean = = 5 3
Ice Cove - sf - | North Main - | Hudfon’s Straits - - 10 Oo
John’s, Fort St. - - Newfoundland - | Atlantic Ocean - - 6 <0
John de Luz, St. - .« | France -. = | Bayof Bifeay - - - 3 30
Julian, Port St. - - - | Patagonia - - | South Atlantic Ocean - 4 45
Kentifh Knock, - - - | England - - | German Ocean - = oN,
Kilduin, Ifle of - - - | Lapland - - | Northern Ocean - - | 7 30
Kinfale SN) S= eer? Cte ierelggdia i= ~ 9b} -AtlanticfOcean = bie) :|n tee Sead
Land’s-End- - -- - | England - ~ ~- | St. George’s Channel = bgt gehgzo
Leith - - - - - | Scotland - - | German Ocean - - | 4 3°

VoL. XXXV. 4L

Names of Places.

Leoftoffe -

Lewes, Ifle of, North Port

Lime - - -
Lifbon -
Liverpool -
Lizard -
London -
Lendon, New
Long Hand
Longfand-Head
Louis, Port
Lundy, Ifle of
Lynn - -
Metace Ifland of
Maes, River (Mouth)
Maloes, St.

Man, Ifle of (weft end

Margate - -
Milford - -
Mount’s Bay -
Nantes - -
Naze - - -
Needles - -
Newcaitle - -
North Gape -
Orfordnefs - -
Orkney Hess (limits ).
Oftend -
Placentia -
Plymouth = -
Portland -
Portfmouth -
Quebec -
Rhee, Hie of
Rochefort -
Rochelle -
Rochefter -
Rotterdam -
Rouen -

ye
Sandwich
Scarborough-Head
Scilly Iles - -
Seine, River -
Senegal, River | -
Severn, River =
Sheernefs -

UT ABO ae AD Bs i SR ee Te nS he Ee TR ik eh Ue oe te, TN) hie tt ee EG Ge a) we Ve

Shetland Ifland (limits)

Shoreham - -
Sierra Leona
Sky, Ifle of
Southampton
Spurn -
Start-Point -
Stockton -
Strongford Bay
Sunderland -
Swin - -
Tamarin-Town — -

Tees, River (Mouth)

Soke 8 OB ee we ee Rr Ae ee ee eR et TR Se ee) So ae ee ee eh

ji cet ea @ » @ *

. England

TIDES.

Countries.

England -
Scotland -
England -
Portu: -
England -
Ditto -
Ditto =
New England
Ditto -
England
France

England
Ditto

Canaries
Dutchland
France

England
Ditto

Wales

England
France

Norway
England
Ditto

Flanders

Viel Te 1 fa” S Le Te TE Ne Tees tt Tee tee pete

Lapland »
England
Scotland
Flanders
Neisfonnilland
England -
Ditto
Ditto
Canada
France
Ditto
Ditto
England
Dutchland
France
England
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
France
Negroland
England
Ditto
Scotland
England
Guinea
Ditto
England
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Treland
England
Ditto
Socotora
England

eg it ars

Ree eet) ei Ke ee 8. Sees Re See Wl Gs uc

VRIES LOS VTS Ui Oe) ad ARR eh CL Jee he UO [ear Ty Be Pa Th LCE rea Ye) oie joi feel Day Pa lat ae eer ej CM Meaty. ee Ree) hon -ne"1h Veeerbeinet re ramere

German Ocean
Weftern Ocean
Enghfh Channel
River Tagus -
Irifh Sea - =
Englifh Channel
River Thames -
Weltern Ocean
Ditto ~

German ican

Bay of Bifcay -

St. George’s Channel
German Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
German Ocean
Englifh Channel
Trith Sea - =
Englifh Channel

St. George’s Channel
Englifh Channel

Bay of Bifcay -
Wettern Ocean
Englifh Channel
German Ocean -
Ditto = ~
River Thames -
Northern Ocean
German Ocean
Weltern Ocean
German Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Englifh a aie
Ditto =

Ditto = =
River St. Lawrence
Bay of Bifcay -
Ditto = =
Ditto - =
River Medway -
German Ocean
River Seine =
Englifh Channel
Downs - =
German Ocean

St. George’s Channel
Englifh Channel =
Atlantic Ocean =
St. George’s Channel
River Thames. -
Wettern Ocean
Englifh Channel
Atlantic Ocean
Ditto =

Englith acne)
German Ocean
Englifh Channel
German Ocean

Irifh Sea - =
German Ocean -
Entrance of the Thames
Indian Ocean - - =
German Ocean =

NRO ROBY RO DAH DW ANW OW HWAT HH NAT QO =

=

~ al

-~

—_

-_ _— - -_ _ —
AHO OWhWI GE DRO KWON O

“

WMO ePwom anon DOWD QAOOwWw

~

High-Water.

TIDES.

Names of Places. Countries.
Teneriffe, Ifiand of = Canaries -
Texel, Ifland of - . Dutchland -
Thames, River (Mouth) England -
Tinmouth - = = Ditto -
Topfham - - - Ditto -
Torbay - - - Ditto -
Tory, Iandof -~ - Ireland -
Valery, St. - - - France -
Vannes - - - Ditto -
Uthant, [fle of - - Ditto =
Waterford - - : Treland -
Weymouth - - - England -
Whitby - - = Ditto <
Wight, Ifle of, North, South, Ditto

Eaft, and Weft End = 3
Winchelfea - - - - } Ditto ~
Wintertonnefs ~ . - | Ditto :
Yarmouth - = = - | Ditto e
York Fort - - - - New Wales
York, New - - - - | United States
Youghall — - = - - | Ireland =

Wettern Ocean :
Englifh Channel -

Coatt, High-Water,
|

He M.

- | Atlantic Ocean F3 = }

- | German Ocean - - 30

- | Ditto - - - - 30

- { Ditto - - . = °

id Englifh Channel = = °

- | Ditto - -

_

PWOWODO 0 FC WIARW OMM AW ww F
uw
°

- {| Bay of Bifcay -
- {| Englifh Channel
- | St. George’s Channel
- | Englifh Channel z

- German Ocean a

°
- | Englifh Channel 2 u °
- Ditto = s * =
é German Ocean - s =
= Ditto = > = =

- Hudfon’s Bay - Z E
- Atlantic Ocean = 2
= St. George’s Channel -

The following times ferve for coafts of confiderable ex-
tent, and nearly for the places on thofe coafts; o/z. “Fin-
mark, or N.N.W. coaft of Lapland, 15 30™; Jutland ifles,
o o™; Friefland coaft, 75 30"; Zealand coaft, 1 30™;
Flanders coaft, o& o™; Picardy and Normandy coatts,
10 30"; Bifcay, Gallician, and Portugal coafts, 3" o™;
Irifh weft coaft, 3" 0™; Irith fouth coaft, 55 15™ ; Africa
weit coaft, 3 o™; America weit coaft, 35 0™; America
eait coaft, 45 30™.

The ufe ud the preceding table is to find the time of
high-water at any of the places contained in it: for this
purpofe, find the time of the moon’s fouthing on a given
day (fee Moon) ; and then add the time which the moon has
paffed the meridian on the full. and change days, to make
high-water at that place ; and the fum fhews the time of
high-water on the given day.

See on the fubjeét of this article, Newton Princ. Math.
lib. ii. prop. 24. and De Syftem. Mundi, fe&. 38-54.
Apud Opera Ed. Horfley, tom. iii. p. 25, &c. p. 203,
&c. Maclaurin’s Account of fir I. Newton’s Difcoveries,
book iv. ch. 7. Fergnfon’s Aftron. ch. xvii. Robert-
fon’s Navig. book vi. feét. vii. viii. ix. Young’s Lec-
tures.

Tipe-Dial, the name of an inftrument contrived by Mr.
Fergufon, for exhibiting and determining the ftate of the
tides. It is reprefented in Plate IV. Dialling, fig. 36.
and the external parts of it confift of 1. An eight-fided
box, on the top of which, at the corners, are fhewn the
phafes of the moon at the oétants, quarters, and full.
Within thefe is a circle of 29% equal parts, which are the
days of the moon’s age reckoned from the fun at new
moon, round to the fun again. Within this circle is one of
twenty-four hours, divided into their halves and quarters.
2. A moving dlliptical plate, painted blue, to fhew the
rifing of the tides under and oppolite to the moon, with the
words high-water, tide-falling, low-water, tide-rifing, marked
upon it. To one end of this plate is fixed the moon M by
the wire W, which goes along with it. 3. Above this
elliptical plate is a round one, with the points of the com-
pafs upon it, and alfo the names of above two hundred

places in the large machine (but only thirty-two in the
figure, to avoid confufion) fet over thofe points on which
the moon bears when fhe raifes the tides to the greateit
heights at thefe places, twice in every lunar day; and to
the north and fouth points of this plate are fixed two in-
dices I and K, which fhew the times of high-water, in the
hour-circle, at all thefe places. 4. Below the elliptical plate
are four fmall plates, two of which proje& out from below
its ends at new and full moon; and fo, by lengthening the
ellipfe, fhew the {pring-tides : the other two oF thefe imall
plates appear at low-water when the moon is in her quadra-
tures, or at the fides of the elliptic plate, to fhew the neap-
tides. When any two of thefe fmall plates appear, the
other two are hid; and when the moon is in her o¢tants,
they all difappear. Within the box are a few wheels for
performing thefe motions by the handle H. Turn the
handle till the moon, M, comes to any given day of her age
im the circle of 29% equal parts, and the moon’s wire W will
interfe& the time of her coming to the meridian on that
day, in the hour-circle: the XII under the fun being mid-
day, and the oppofite XII mid-night: then looking for
the name of any given place on be round plate (which
makes 294 rotations, whilft the moon M makes only one
revolution from the fun to the fun again) turn the handle
till that place comes to-the word Aigh-water under the
moon, and the index which falls among the forenoon hours
will fhew the time of high-water at that place in the fore-
noon of the given day : then turn the plate half round, till
the fame place comes to the oppofite high-water mark, and
the index will fhew the time of high-water in the afternoon
at that place. And thus, as all the different places come
fucceffively under and oppofite to the moon, the indices
fhew the times of high-water at them in both parts of the
day ; and when the fame places come to the low-water
marks, the indices fhew the times of low-water. For about
three days before and after the times of new and full moon,
the two {mall plates come out a little way from below the
high-water marks on the elliptical plate, to fhew that the
tides rife ftill bighes about thefe times: about the quarters,
the other two plates come out a little from under the low-

yi Cay? water

2.2
water marks toward the fun, and on the oppofite fide, fhew-
ing that the tides of flood rife not then fo high, nor do the
tides of ebb fall fo low, as at other times. For the defcrip-
tion of the infide work of this machine, and the method of
conftruéting it, fee Fergufon’s Aftron. p. 297.

Tipe-Gage. See Gace. |

Tiwe-Gates are the lower gates of a lock open to a tide-
way : thefe are alfo placed at the mouths of drains.

Tipe-Mill, in Rural Economy and Agriculture, an ufeful
fort of mill, the moving power of which is formed by run-
ning a dam acrofs an inlet where tide-water comes in, fo
as to leave a narrow paflage open for placing it in on one
fide. It alfo fignifies a mull for raifing and clearing lands
from tide-water in fen fituations, and where injury 1s
done by the overflowing of the tides. See WATERING of
Land. :

Tide-mills may moftly be formed without producing any
obftruétion or hindrance to agriculture.

Trive-Waiters, or Tide-Men, certain officers belonging
to the cuftom-houfe, appointed to watch or attend on
fhips coming from abroad, to fee that nothing be landed till
the cuftoms be paid.

They are thus called, becaufe they go aboard the fhips at
their arrival in the mouth of the Thames, and come up with
the tide.

TIDENSDORF, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the province of Ermeland ; 4 miles S. of Frauenburg.

TIDER, or Ner, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coaft of Africa. N, lat. 19° 30!.

TIDESWELL, a {mall market-town in the hundred of
High Peak, and county of Derby, England ; is fituated in
a valley among bleak hills, 32 miles N.N.W. from the
county-town, and 160 miles N,W. by N. from London.
The town is reported to have received its name from an
ebbing and flowing well, now hardly remembered, as it has
Jong ceafed to how. The church, which was ereéted in
the fourteenth century, is a handfome edifice of the con-
ventual form, with a neat tower at the weit end, terminated
by eight pinnacles ; thofe at the angles rifing from o¢ta-
gonal bafes, and being much higher than the intermediate
ones. In the Biante is a {mall ftone commemorative of
John Foljambe, who died in 1358, and is faid to have con-
tributed much towards the building of the church. A
raifed tomb perpetuates the name of Sampfon Meurill, who
died in 1462, and who, in the courfe of two years, was en-
gaged in eleven battles in France. Among other monu-
ments of ancient date, is one to the memory of a native of
this town, Robert Purfglove, prior of Gifburn priory, who
obtained a penfion from Henry VIII. for his obfequious
compliance with that monarch’s wifhes, in not only fur-
rendering his own houfe, but alfo acting as a commif-
fioner to procure the furrender of others. In queen Mary’s
reign he was appointed archdeacon of Nottingham, and
fuffragan bifhop of Hull; but on the acceffion of Eliza-
beth, he was deprived of all his fpiritualities, and retired to
Tidefwell, where, having founded a grammar-fchool, and an
hofpital for twelve poor people, he died in 1579. By the
population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of this
parifh are flated to be 1219, who are chiefly fupported by
the mining bufinefs ; the number of houfes, which are moftly
{cattered on the oppofite banks of a rivulet, was eftimated
at 283. A weekly market is held on Wednefdays; and
here are three annual fairs,

In the vicinity of Tidefwell is the fequeftered retreat of
Monfal-Dale, peculiarly eminent for picturefque beauty.
Near the head of the Dale, the rocks jut out on the fouth

TIE

fide, like the immenfe towers of a ftrong fortrefs. Lower
down, the crags foften into verdure, the dale expands, and
the eye dwells enraptured on the rich profpe& that prefents
itfelf. The back-ground is formed by a fteep precipice,
variegated by fhort herbage and brufhwood, with occa-
fionally a ftarting rock breaking its continuity of furface.
On the fummit of an eminence called the Great Finn, was 2
large barrow, about 160 feet in circumference, chiefly com-
pofed of broken maffes of limeftone, to obtain which the
barrow was deftroyed about the year 1795. Within this
tumulus various fkeletons were difcovered, two of them of
gigantic fize, with feveral urns, and other ancient memo-
rials ; among which were two arrow-heads of flint, whence
the barrow is fuppofed to have been of very remote anti-
quity ; for, as the learned author of “ Nenia Britannica’’
obferves, ‘ flint arrow-heads are evidences of a people not
in the ufe of malleable metal; and: it therefore implies,
wherever thefe arms are found in barrows, they are incon-
teftibly the relics of a primitive barbarous people, and pre-
ceding the era of thofe barrows in which brafs or iron arms
are found.” It is worthy of note, that, excepting on the
fide next the precipice, the fummit of the Great Finn is
furrounded by a double ditch, with a vallum to each: the
diftance between the banks is 160 yards.

Near the hamlet of Wormhill, in this parifh, is a romantic
and deep glen or dale, where the river Wye flows beneath
a {tupendous mafs of rock, called Chee-Tor. This mafs of
freeftone rifes about 300 feet above the level of the river, |
and conititutes a moft impofing and fingular feature. Ata
fmall hamlet called Tuntted, in the liberty of Wormhill,
was born James Brindley, juftly famed for his fuccefsful
efforts in planning and executing canals. See BrrspLeY.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii, Derbyfhire ; by
J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. Davies’s Hiftorical and
Defcriptive Account of Derbythire, 8vo. 1811.

TIDEWA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 6z
miles N.E. of Uddevalla.

TIDLA, a river of Sweden, which runs into the
Wenner lake, near Marieftadt, in the province of Weft
Gothland. j

TIDON, a town on the ealt coaft of the ifland of Cefebes,
in the bay of Gunong Tellu. N. lat. 0° 3!. E. long.
120° 38!.

TIDOR, or Tipore, an ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, and one of thofe called Moluccas, fituated near the
welt coaft of the ifland of Gilolo, between Ternate and
Timor ; about ten leagues in circumference, and fo called
from its capital, though named Tadura, or Daco, by the
natives. It abounds in fpices, efpecially cloves. The
Dutch have feveral forts, but the ifland is governed by a
king, who poffeffes likewife fome territory on the ifland of
Gilolo; 15 miles S.E. of Ternate. N. lat. 0° 42’.
E. long. 127° 19.

TIDSI, a river of Morocco, which difcharges itfelf into
the ocean a few miles S. of the Tegrewelt, or Cape
Offam.

TIEBAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Navarre ;
5 miles S.E. of Pamplona.

TIEDEMAN, Dievericu, in Biography, a philofo-
phical writer, was born April 1748, at Bremervorde, in the
duchy of Bremen, and educated in the fchool of his native
place in the Greek and Latin languages, in which he made
very confiderable proficiency. evoting himfelf to the
church, he removed to the {chool of Verden, and from
thence to the Atheneum at Bremen, where he formed an
intimate friendfhip with Meiners, afterwards profeflor at

Gottingen,

TILE

Gottingen. In 1767 he fettled at Gottingen, and here he
renounced the ftudy of theology, becaufe he difapproved
the fyftem there taught, and applied to mathematics, claf-
fical literature, and philofophy. In the winter of 1769 he
fixed his refidence in Livonia, as tutor to a nobleman of that
country ; and whilft he was there, he publifhed at Riga, in
1772, his “ Effay on the Origin of Language.’’ After
vifiting his native place in the following year, he went to
Gottingen, and formed an acquaintance with the celebrated
Heyne, who wrote a preface to his “ Syftem of the Stoic
Philofophy,’’ and perfuaded him to publifh it. By the
recommendation of this learned friend, he was appointed
profeffor of ancient literature in the Caroline college at
Caffel, of which office he took poffeffion in 1766. His in-
tervals of leifure were employed in the ftudy of philofophy
and its hiftory ; and alfo in preparing for the prefs his
¢[nveltigation of Man,¥? “ The Firlt Philofophers of
Greece, &c.’’ and his “ Spirit of Speculative Philofophy.”’
Upon the diffolution of the Caroline college in 1786, he oc-
cupied the chair of philofophy at Marpurg, and his lectures
were very popular. He was an oppofer of Kant’s philo-
fophy : and he indulged himfelf in ridiculing the extrava-

nt pretenfions or pious arrogance of the founders of
eéts. Although his conftitution was robuft, he was car-
ried off by a fever and inflammation of the lungs, in May
1804, at the age of 55. As a literary character, he was
intimately converfant with the literature of Greece and
Rome, and with all the fyftems of ancient and modern phi-
lofophy, as well as the manners and cuftoms of ancient and
amodern times. His extenfive erudition appears in his
«¢ Argumenta Platonis,”” annexed to the edition of Plato,
printed at Deux-Ponts ; in his prize eflay, entitled ‘* Difpu-
tatio de Queitione que fuerit magicarum artium origo,’’
and in various other differtations. In philofophy he was
in early life a dogmatift, and in the latter period of his life
inclined to fcepticifm. His works, which, befides thofe
already mentioned, were numerous, and relate chiefly to the
hiftory of philofophy, and its different fy{ftems, afford ample
evidence of his affiduity and labour. Monthly Magazine.
Gen. Biog.

TIEFENSEE, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, on a
lake of the fame name ; 20 miles S. of Brandenburg.

TIEFF, atown of Pruffia, in the province of Barten-
land; 7 miles S.E. of Angerburg.

TIEFFENAW, a town of Pruffian Pomerelia; 15
miles S. of Marienburg.

TIELLEN-HEAD, a cape of the county of Donegal,
on the weft coaft of Ireland. N.. lat. 54° a1’. W.
Jong. 8° 4o!.

, TIEM, a townof Afia, in the kingdom of Laos, on the
Mecom ; go miles S.S.E. of Lantchan.

TIEN, or Lien, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-tong ; g6o miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 24° sol.
E. long. 111° 49'.—Alfo, a town of Corea; 25 miles
N.N.E. of King-ki-tao——Alfo, a city of China, of the
fecond rank, in Quang-fi, on the north fide of the Pofoi:
1120 miles S.S.W. of Reking. N. lat. 23° 46. E. long.
106° i9/.

TIEN-CHAN, a town of Corea; 53 miles W.N.W. of
Han-tcheou.

TIENEN. See Tirtemont.

TIENGEN, or Tuiencen, or Thungen, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Klettgau, on the Wutach,
formerly, with its diitrict, conftituting a lordfhip ; 29 miles
E. of Balo. N. lat. 47° 42'. EE. long. 8° 17’.

TIENHOVEN, a town of Holland, on the Leck ;

TIE

6 miles S. of Schoonhoven.—Alfo, a town of Utrecht ;
7 miles N. of Utrecht.

TIEN-SING, a great port of China, on the river Pei-ho.
Its Chinefe name literally fignifies ‘heavenly fpot ;’’ and in
the time of Marco Paolo, when it is fuppofed to have been
much larger than at prefent, it was called “ Citta Celefte :”’
and it is faid to have a claim on this appellation from its
fituation in a genial climate, fertile foil, dry air, and ferene
fky. It is the general emporium for the northern pro-
vinces of China, and is built at the confluence of two rivers,
from which it rifes in a gentle flope. The palace of the
governor ftands on a projecting point, commanding a broad
bafon, or expanfe of water, produced by the union of
the rivers, and almoft covered with veffels of different
fizes. Thefe two rivers are the Pei-ho and the Yun-
leang-ho, or grain-bearing river, from the quantities of
wheat conveyed upon it from the province of Shan-fee,
and fent up by the Pei-ho to the neighbourhood of Peking.
Over thefe rivers, where they unite, is a bridge of boats :
and along the quays were fome temples and other handfome
edifices, but the reft confifted chiefly of thops for the retail
of goods, and alfo warehoufes, together with yards, and
magazines for maritime ftores. The houfes at Tien-fing
are chiefly built of brick, of a leaden-blue colour. Few
are red: the pooreft are pale brown. Many of the houfes
are two ftories high.

TIEN-TCHA, or New Gibraltar, a mountain of Cochin-
china, which forms the harbour of Turon ; which fee.

pIENTORC: a town of Siam; 350 miles N.N.W. of
Juthia.

TIEN-TSANG, a town of Thibet; 268 miles E.S.E.
of Hami.

TIEPOLO, Grovannr Barisra, in Biography, was
one of the laft of the eminent Venetian painters. He was
born at Venice in 1697, and was a {cholar of G. Lazza-
rini; but he afterwards ftudied the works of P. Veronefe.
He poffeffed a quick invention, and great freedom of hand,
and was admirably qualified for the execution of large
frefco works upon ceilings, &c.; where great facility of
handling, and richnefs of colouring, will often apologize
for the want of higher qualities, particularly in allegoric
or grotefque fubjeéts. Tiepolo was employed in many of
the palaces in Italy, but mott honoured by the employment
he received from the king of Spain, who engaged him to
adorn his palace at Madrid. We died at Madrid in 1770,
at the age of 73. He etched many of his own defigns
with great neatnefs and tafte.

TIER, in Sea Language, the name of the feveral ranges
of guns mounted on one fide of a fhip’s deck ; which, ac-
cording as they are placed on the lower, middle, or upper
decks, are called ‘the lower, middle, or upper tier.

Tier of the Cable, denotes a range of the fakes or wind-
ings of the cable, which are laid within one another in an
horizontal pofition, fo as that the laft becomes the inner-
mott.

Tier Cable, is the hollow {pace in the middle of a cable,
when it is coiled.

Tier, in Organ-Building, is ufed to diftinguifh the differ-
ent ranks or ranges of pipes (as a tier of guns in men of
war) in the front of the inftrument, and even in the interior of
the cafe, when the compound ftops have feveral ranks of
pipes, as the fefquialter, furniture, and cornet.

TIERBY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Halland; 6 miles S.E. of Helmftadt.

TIERCE’, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire; 3 miles S. of Chateauneuf.

Vierce, or Teirce, in Commerce, a meafure of liquid

I things,

TIE
things, as wine, oil, &c. containing the third part of a pipe,
or forty-two gallons. See Mrasure. .

The tierce is alfo a weight by which provifions are fold
in Ireland. The tierces, barrels, and firkins are not tared,
but the pieces in each cafk mutt be of the following weight
and number :

Ibs. Ibs.
Beef. —Navy 304 per tierce, being 38 pieces of 8 each.

India 336 ditto ey. - 8

Mefs “304 ditto = 138 - 8

Ditto 200 ferbarrel - 25 . 8

: Ditto 100 pgerfirkin - 25 - 4
Pork.—India 318 pertierce - 53 - 6
Navy 320 ditto - 80 - 4

Army 208 ferbarrel - 52 - 4

Mefs 200 ditto = 50 - 4

Ditto 100 perfirkin - 25 - 4

Trerce, in Mufic, a3d. The higheft ftop in an organ,
called the tierce, 1s 2 major 3d above the 15th, every found
being a 17th above the diapafon. See Turrp.

Trerce de Picardie, in French Mufic, and indeed all choral
mufic of old matters in a minor key, is terminated with a fharp
3d, which the French now call ferce de Picardie, on ac-
count of the great number of cathedrals in that province,
where it continues ftill in ufe. .

Padre Martini (Saggio di Contrap. parte prima, 23.)
recommends the terminating minor movements with a fharp
3d; a prattice which Rouffeau (Dic. de Muf.) cen-
fures as Gothic, and a proof of bad tafte. If the firft of
thefe excellent writers wifhed only to preferve its ufe in the
church, and the fecond to banifh it elfewhere, they were
both right, however their opinions may feem to clafh. The
learned author of the Saggio di Contrappunto, who was
fo perfe@tly acquainted with all the beauties and effects of
choral mufic, is certainly more to be relied on in whatever
concerns it, than the animated author of the Dictionnaire
de Mufique ; who, with the moft refined tafte and exalted
views with refpe&t to dramatic compofitions, had neither
time nor opportunity fufficiently to explore the myfteries of
canto fermo, or to become a very profound Pena i
For our own part, though we never wifh to hear a fong or
glee in a minor key, and with a fharp 3d; yet there is
fomething fo folemn and grateful in thefe terminations of
ecclefiaftical compofitions, that we fhould be very forry if
the praétice were not continued. And if we confider the
relation and compofition of the feveral ftops in an organ, we
fhall find, that as every fingle key in the chorus of that in-
{trument has a complete chord with a fharp 3d to it, when
we dwell on a chord with a flat 3d, while the tierce,
cornet, fe{quialter; and fometimes the furniture, are found-
ing the fharp 3d, it affords an additional reafon for the
origin and continuance of the practice, befides the peculiar
properties of tonal modulation.

Trerce, in Gaming,’ a fequence of three cards of the
fame colour.

Tisrce, in Fencing. See Guarp and Turust.

Tierce Order. See Tuirp Order.

Tierce Point. See Turn Point.

TIERCED, Tierce, in Heraldry, enotes the fhield to
be divided by any of the partition lines, party, coupy,
tranchy, or tailly, into three equal parts, of different co-
lours or metals.

If the chief and bafe be of the fame colour when di-
vided by a feffe, they blazon it by exprefling the colour,
and mentioning the feffe ; otherwife, they fay, it is tierce

TRE

fs and mention each of the colours, or tierce in pale, if
ivided in pale.

TIERCEL, in Falconry, a name given to a male hawk,
as being a third part lefs in fize than the female.

TIERCELET. See Tasset.

TIERDILL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Vifiapour ; 20 miles W. of Galgala.

TIERPIED, a town of France, in the department of
the Channel; 3 miles E. of Avranches.

TIERRA. See Terra.

Tierra Bomba, a {mall ifland near the coaft of South
America, at the entrance of the harbour of C ena;
where, in 1741, the Englifh ere&ted a battery.

TIERY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-

mn
fo

_ land ; 30 miles N. of Upfal.

TIES, aboard a fhip, are thofe ropes by which the yards
hang ; and when the haliards are’ ftrained to hoife the yards,
thefe ties carry them up.

TIESSERBACH, in Geography, a river of Wurtem-
berg, which runsinto the Neckar, near Nurtingen.

TIETAR, ariver of Spain, which runs into the Tagus,
near Talavan, in Eftremadura.

TIE-TCHEOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of Kokonor; 688 miles S.E. of Hami. N. lat.
33° 56'. E. long. 102° 54!

TIETE, or Annemet, a river of Brafil, which runs
into the Parana. ;

TIFACOUM, a word ufed by fome of the chemical
writers to exprefs quickfilver.

TIFATA Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Italy, in Campania, near Capua. The table of Peutinger
has placed here two temples, one defignated by the words
« Ad Dianam,”’ the other by thofe of “* Jovis Tifationus.”?

Tirara, a town of Italy, in Latium. Pliny.

TIFATUM, a word ufed by fome of the chemical
writers to exprefs fulphur. ‘

TIFER, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
3 miles S. of Cilley.

TIFERNUM, or Tirernus, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Italy, in Samnium. :

* Spee Metaurum, a town of Italy, in Samnium.

Ivy.

TireRnumM Tiberinum, or Tifernum of the Tiber, Citta di
Caflello, «town of Italy, in Umbria, to the N.W. towards
the banks of the river Tiber. It was municipal. .

TIFESELT, in Geography, a town of Fez; 12 miles
N.E. of Sallee. ;

TIFFAUGES, a town of France, in the department
of the Vendée; 9 miles £. of Montaigu.

TIFFE de Mer, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
count Marfigli to a fpecies of fea-plant, as he fuppofes it to
be, commonly but erroneoufly reckoned among the {punges,
and called by authors a branched fpunge. This author has
called it by this name from its refemblance to the heads of the
typha paluftris, or cat’s tail, when ripe in the month of Sep-
tember.

The fpunges muit be of a lax and cavernous texture 5
but this fubftance is fmooth and firm, and has no inequalities .
on its furface, excepting a few fhort hairs, which give it a
velvety look, when firft taken out of the water. It is a
very elegant and beautiful fubftance ; it grows to two feet
in height, and is very elegantly branched ; it grows on
rocks and ftones, and, when firft taken out of the fea, is
full of a vifcous water, as yellow as the yolk of an egg 5
but when this water is prefled out, and the fubftance dries,
it lofes its yellow, and becomes of a dufky-brown colour: it
is very tough and firm while in the water, but when dry it

ufually

Doi‘

ufually breaks of itfelf into little pieces, and may be crum-
bled to powder between the fingers. This is a very ftrong
proof, among others, of its not being of the nature of the

unge.

P When viewed by the microfcope, the whole furface is
found to be covered with extremely fine and flender hairs ;
and, among thefe, there is an infinity of little apertures,
through which the fea-water makes its way.

When a branch of it is cut tranfverfely, there are feen a
number of long and fine canals, by means of which the water,
received at thefe fuperficial apertures, is conveyed to its
whole fubftance. Marfig. Hift. de la Mer, p. 82.

Subftances of this kind are now known to be of animal
and not of vegetable origin. See Corat.

TIFFENETH, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, inthe
province of Natangen; 10 miles S. of Brandenburg.

TIFFESCH, or Tiras, anciently Theveffe, a town of
Algiers; 40 miles S. of Bona. N. lat. 36° 20'. E. long.

° Aol

40!.

TIFLISBERG, a mountain of Switzerland, between
the. cantons of Uri and Unterwalden.

TIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in Mau-
ritania Czefariana, near the coait of the Atlantic. Strabo.

Tica, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the north-weft coaft of the ifland of Borneo.
N. lat. 6% 25!.. E. long. 112° 14!.

TIGAON, an ifland in the Indian fea, near the north-
weit coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 6°10! E.
long. 128° 48!.

~TIGARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
the interior of Mauritania Cefariana. Prtol.
* TIGAREA, in Botany, a barbarous or arbitrary name,
of which its publifher Aublet has given no explanation.—
Aubl. Guian. 917. Juff. 339. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 826.—
Schreber admitted the genus, under the name of Réinium,
in his Gen. 701, but in his Addenda to that work, 833, re-
duced itto Terraéenra ; fee that article. Mr. Purfh, how-
ever, has. reftored the genus and the name, in his Flora
America Septentrionalis, 333, where he has, not without fome
doubt, referred hither a very curious new fhrub, found in the
meadows of the Rocky-mountains, and on the Columbia
river, by the name of T. tridentata, t. 15. ‘This has crowded,
wedge-fhaped, hoary, three-toothed /eaves, and folitary, ter-
=i edo flowers, the fize of hawthorn-bloffoms. That
it is very diftin& in genus from Aublet’s Tigarea we have no
doubt, being very nearly akin to the Rubus japonicus of
Linneus, Corchorus japonicus of Thunberg, as has lately
been pointed out by M. De Candolle, in a paper read be-
fore the Linnean Society. Butit feems tous that the genus
of neither of thefe fhrubs can as yet be determined, for want
of perfe& fruit.

TIGAUDA, in Ancient Geography, a municipal town
of Africa, in Mauritania Cefariana, upon the route from
Rufucurrum to Cala, between Caftellum Tingitanum ‘and
Oppidum Novum. Anton. Itin.

TIGE, in Archite@ure, a French term for the fhaft or
fuft of a column, comprehended between the aftragal and
the capital.

TIGEGUACU, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall Bra-
filian bird, of the fize of afparrow, and with a ridged and
triangular bill, in which it refembles the rectiblaielte 3 its
eyes are of a fine blue, and its lees and feet yellow ; it is all
over of a deep black, but that it has a large blood-red {pot
on the top of itshead ; its tailis fhort and black.

TIGELLIUS, in Biography, a mufician, born in Sar-
dinia, grandfon of Phamea, a mufician in great favour at
Rome in the time of Julius Czfar. Horace has handed him

9

Die

down to pofterity as a mercilefs fpendthrift, aidan egregious
coxcomb. ;

“© Ambubajarum collegia Pharmacopolz
Mendici, Mimz, Balatrones, hoc genus omne
Meftum, ac folicitum eft cantoris morte Tigelli :
Quippe benignus erat.”?—Sat. lib. a. 2.

Tigellius was not only much in favour with Julius Cefar,
but afterwards with Cleopatra and Auguitus: he was an
able mufician, an ingenious buffoon, and fubtle courtier.
What Horace has faid of his caprice, has often been applied,
and we fear will ever continue to be applied, to muficians of
a fimilar difpofition.

«© Omnibus hoc vitium ut cantoribus, inter amicos
Ut nunquam mducant animum cantare rogati ;
Injuffi nunquam defiftant.’’—Sat. lib. i. 3.

TIGENHAGEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffian
Pomerelia; 12/miles N. of Marienburg.

TIGENWIT, a town of Africa, in Negroland; 45
miles N. of Arguin.

TIGER, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh Main, near the
coaft of Darien. N. lat. 8° 35'.. W. long. 77° jo!.

Ticer, Tigris, in the Linnean fyftem of Zoology, is a
fpecies of cat, or Fruits Tigris ; which fee.

The tiger (formed of 993, fagitta, a dart, whence “\9.>))
has its name from its fuppofed fwiftnefs. See the article
Feis Tigris.

Ticer, American. See Fevis Onca.

Ticer-Cat. See Frxis: Capenfts.

Ticer, Hunting, or Leopard. See Frxis Leopardus.

Ticer, Man. See ManTEGar.

Ticer-Shell, a name given to the red voluta, with large
white fpots.

In the Linnzan fyftem, the tiger-fhell is a fpecies of the
cyprea. See SHELLS.

TIGGREE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbul; 17 miles S. of Nidjibabad.

TIGH, in our Old Writers, a clofe or inclofure men-
tioned in ancient charters, and is ftill ufed in Kent in the
fame fenfe.

TIGHMAN’s Istanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland in
the Chefapeak. N. lat. 38° 48!. E. long. 76° 21/.

TIGHT, in Sea Language, expreffes the quality by
which a veffel refifts the penetration of any fluid, whether
compreffing its furface, or contained within it. Hence a
fhip is faid to be tight, when her planks are fo compact aad
folid, as to prevent the entrance of the water in which fheis
immerfed ; and a c2fk is called tight, when the ftaves are fo
clofe, that none of the liquid contained in it can iffue through
or between them. In both fenfes, tight is oppofed to leaky.
Falconer.

TIGILLUM, a word ufed by fome chemifts to exprefs
the tile with which they cover the mouth of their crucibles ;
and, by others, for the crucible itfelf.

TIGILSKOI, in Geography, a town of Kamtfchatka ;
80 miles W. of Ukinfkoi. N. lat. 57° 20'. E. long.
157° 44!

TIGINE. See Benver. :

TIGIS Hersa, in Ancient Geography, atown of Africa,
in the interior of Mauritania Cefariana, near a river, and S.
of Tcofium. In the Itin. of Anton. it is: marked on the
route from Rufucurrum to Scaldx.

TIGLIUM, in Botany. See Puvet Nucki, &c. f

TIGNALE, in Geography, a town ofthe ifland of Cor-
fica; 30 miles S.E. of Corte.

TIGNARES,

TIG

TIGNARES, a town of Brafil, and chief place in the
captainfhip of Rio Grande.

TIGNES, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc; 3 miles S.E. of St. Maurice.

TIGRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Me-
fia, on the route from Viminiacum to Nicomedia, between
Exantapriftis and Appiaria. Anton. Itin.

TIGRAH, in Gerer spl, a town of Hindooftan, in Ba-
har; 40 miles E.S.E. of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 28’. E.
long. 86° 7. r :

TIGRANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the interior of Media. Prtol.

TIGRANAAMA, atown of Afia,in the Greater Ar-
menia, and one of thofe which were fituated to the E. of
the fources of the Tigris. Ptol.

TIGRANES, the Great, in Biography, king of Ar-
menia, after having been delivered by his father as a hoftage
to the Parthians, was liberated and affumed the crown about
the year B.C. 93. Having formed an alliance with Mithri-
dates, king of Pontus, againit the Romans, he married
Cleopatra, daughter of that prince; and, agreeably to the
terms of his alliance, he reduced Cappadocia, and caufed
Ariarathes, the fon of Mithridates, to occupy the throne
inftead of Ariobarzanes, who was fupported by the Romans.
Soon after this event, Tigranes was offered the crown of
Syria, and accepted it B.C. 83; and when he had taken
poffeffion of the kingdom, governed it for many years by a
lieutenant. He then invaded Leffler Armenia, and com-
pletely ruined it in the courfe of one campaign. Having
made various other conquefts, he founded the city of Ti-
granocerta, on the fpotin Armenia where he had received
the crown. He afterwards joined Mithridates, his father-in-
law, in a war againft the Romans; but when Mithridates,
after having been defeated by Lucullus, took refuge in Ar-
menia, he was coldly received by Tigranes, who granted him
a caftle for his refidence, with a royal allowance. By a
feries of fubfequent adventures, which proved fuccefsful,
Tigranes was fo elated, that he affumed the title of king
of kings, and exacted from all who approached him
tokens of the moit humiliating reverence. A change how-
ever in his fituation was rapidly approaching ; for Lu-
cullus, the Roman general, having reduced the kingdom
of Pontus, availed himfelf of a preconcerted circumiftance
for marching in a hoftile manner into Armenia, and laid
fiege to Tigranocerta. Tigranes advanced to its relief;
but meeting with Lucullus at the head of a {mall army,
an engagement enfued, the refult of which was the pu-
fillanimous flight of Tigranes, and the difperfion of his
numerous army; and though he received confiderable
fuccour from Mithridates, and levied frefh troops, he
could not prevent the furrender of Tigranocerta to Lu-
cullus ; and this furrender was followed by a fignal defeat
of the united forces of Mithridates and Tigranes; upon
which the latter prince withdrew to the remoteift part of his
dominions. When Pompey fucceeded Lucullus in the com-
mand of the Roman army, Mithridates and Tigranes,
availing themfelves of an interval of inaGtion, recovered Ar-
menia and a great partof Pontus; but their fuccefs was in-
terrupted by the rebellion of the fon of Tigranes, who took
up arms againft his father; but being defeated, he fought
refuge in Parthia, and perfuaded Phraates, the fovereign of
that country, to declare war againft the Armenians. Phraates,
with a numerous army under his command, compelled Ti-
granes to withdraw to the mountains, and befieged his ca-
pital Artaxata. The younger Tigranes being left in com-
mand of the Parthian army, was defeated by his father, who
raifed the fiege of Artaxata. Tigranes afterwards joined

TIG

the Romans, and condu&ed Pompey into Armenia againft
his father. Unable to refift this invafion, he determined to
furrender himfelf to Pompey, and to confide in his gene-
rofity. Upon being introduced to the prefence of the Ro-
man general, he took off his diadem, and proitrated himfelf
at Pompey’s feet. Pompey raifed him, and replaced the
royal diadem ; and in compromifing the difpute between
the father and fon, reftored to the former the kingdom of
Armenia, and the greateit part of Mefopotamia, but im-
pofed upon him a fine of 6000 talents for making war upon
the Roman people. He was alfo obliged to refign the crown
of Syria, which he had held for eighteen years, and likewife
the provinces of Cappadocia and Cilicia. From this time
Tigranes was received as a friend and ally of the Roman
people, and by maintaining their friendfhip, he was enabled
to retain his dominions in peace to the end of his life, which
terminated in the eighty-fifth year of his age. Anc. Un.
Hift.

TIGRANOCERTA, Seren, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in Greater Armenia, at fome diftance to the
left of the Tigris, on the river Nicephorius, and N.W. of
its mouth inthe Tigris. This town was built by Tigranes,
in the time of the Mithridatic war. According to Plutarch,
it was large, handfome, populous, powerful, and rich.
Tacitus reports that Tigranocerta was fituated on an emi-
nence, nearly furrounded by the Nicephorius, and that it
was well fortified and garrifoned.

TIGRE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
at the entrance into Amapalla bay. N. lat. 13° 10!. -W.
long. 88° 44!. t

Ticrt, a province of Abyffinia, about 200 miles in
length, and 120 in breadth. What in a fpecial mannet
makes the riches of 'Tigré, is, that it lies neareft the market,
which is Arabia ; and all the merchandize deftined to crofs
the Red fea muit pafs through this province, fo that the
governor has the choice of all commodities wherewith to
make his market. The ftrongeft male, the moft beautiful
female, the pureft gold, the largeft teeth of ivory, all muft
pafs through his hand.

TIGRIDIA, in Botany, the Flos Tigridis of old authors,
fo called from its beautifully {potted corolla, refembling the
fkin of a tiger, or rather of a leopard or lynx. This fine
Mexican plant, being known to fyftematic botanifts from
early engravings only, did not find a place in their nets ve
ments, till Mutis fent a drawing of it to Linnzus, ler
the name of Pavonia, in honour of one of his ableit pupils,
Pavon, as appears by his letters ; and not, as fome have fup-
pofed, becaufe of any refemblance in the {pots of the flower
toa peacock’s tail. Being judged a Ferraria, it was re-
ferred to that genus in the Supplementum ; but Juffieu, and
after him Mr. Gawler, has reftored the genus of Mutis,
under the above name, there being another Pavonra, which
the reader may fee in its proper place.—Juff. Gen. 57-
Gawler, (now Ker Bellenden,) in Sims and Kon. Ann. of
Bot. v. 1. 246. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.237. (Ferraria;
Lamarck [lluftr. t. 569.)—Clafs and order, Monadelphia
Triandria. Nat. Ord. £nfate, Linn. Gawler. Jrides,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Sheath two-edged, of two compreffed
pointed valves ; partial ones {maller, two-ranked, alternate,
fingle-flowered. Perianth none. Cor. fuperior, re 5 of
fix petals ; the three outermoit ovate-oblong, acute, con-
cave at the bafe; flightly contraéted towards the middle:
three innermoft much fmaller, oblong-fiddle-fhaped, pointed,
convex, recurved, haftate at the bafe. Stam. Filaments
three, firmly united into a triangular, abrupt, erect column,
longer than the inner petals ; anthers feflile at the top - the

column,

ss ag ce s —

or =

Bower rw saesow

a

a ee eRe

TIG

column, “ereét, linear-oblong, acute, converging at the
points, burfting externally. Pi/?. Germen oblong, abrupt,
with three rounded angles; ityle thread-fhaped, rather
longer than the column of the ftamens ; ftigmas three, flen-
der, acute, deeply divided. Peric. Capfule oblong, bluntly
triangular, abrupt and fcarred at the top, of three cells and
three valves, the partitions from the centre of each valve.
Seeds numerous, nearly globofe, ranged in a double row in
each cell, fomewhat angular from mutual preffure.

Eff. Ch. Common Sheath of two leaves. Calyx none.
Petals fix; the three inner ones fmalleft, fiddle-fhaped,
pointed. Stigmas linear, deeply cloven. Capfule of three
cells, inferior.

1. T. Pavonia. Mexican Tiger-flower. Redout. Liliac.
t. 5. Gawlern.1. Ait. n.1. (Ferraria pavonia ; Linn.
Suppl. 407. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 581. Cavan. Diff. 342.
t. 189. f. r Andr. Repof.t.178. F. Tigridia; Curt.
Mag. t. 532. Ocoloxochitl, feu Flore Tigris; Hernand.
. Mex. 276. Tigridis flos; Dodon. Pempt. 693. Ger. Em.

122. )—Native of Mexico and Peru. Said to have been
firft troduced into the gardens of this country, about the
‘year 1796, by Ellis Hodgfon, efq. of Everton, near Li-
verpool, who liberally communicated it to the nurferymen
about London, fo that now few ornamental flowers are more
eafily obtainable. If treated as a greenhoufe plant, like the
Cape bulbs, the Tigridia flowers in {fpring, ripening abun-
dance of feeds. If planted in the open ground in March
or April, the more dry or fandy the foil the better, it will
bloffom in fucceffion through the autumn, at the end of
which the bulbs fhould be taken up, carefully dried, freed
from their very fucculent fibres, and preferved from froft till
the following fpring. Though each flower lafts but one
day, as every plant bears feveral, a plentiful fucceffion may
readily be had. The root is an ovate bulb, which is eatable
when roafted, tafting like a chefnut ; from its bafe are fent
dewn feveral long, ‘perpendicular, tapering, very juicy,
downy fibres. Stem two or three feet high, ere&t, round,
leafy, fomewhat branched. Leaves feveral, ere&, fword-
fhaped, many-ribbed, plaited, fmooth, a foot long. Flower
inodorous, three or four inches broad, fo fplendidly varie-
gated with fearlet, crimfon, purple and yellow, that no de-
cription can do it juitice. The ends of the larger petals are
fearlet ; their middle yellow ; their bafe, like the whole fur-
face of the fmaller ones, richly fpotted. Stamens and piftil
red. It increafes by bulbous offsets, as well as by feeds.

TIGRINI, Orazio, in Biography, acanon of Arezzo,
who publifhed at Venice, in 1588, a Mufical Compendium ;
« Compendio della Mufica,”” which he dedicated to Zarlino,
from whom he received a letter of thanks for the laurel-crown
with which he had bound his brows ; which letter is prefixed
to the work, with complimentary verfes innumerable from
other friends. This Compendium is not only well digefted
by the author, but rendered more clear and pleafant in the

perufal, by the printer, who has made ufe of large Roman
types, inftead of Italic, in which moft of the books that
were publifhed in Italy, before the prefent century, were
printed. This author is the firft, in our recollection, who
has cenfured the impropriety and abfurdity of compofing
mufic for the church upon the fubjeét of old and vulgar
ballad'tunes. The cadences which he has given in three,
four, five, and fix parts, and which are good examples of ec-
clefiaftical counterpoint, have been almoft all ufed by Mor-
ley, without oncementioning Tigrini’s name, either in the text
or catalogue of authors whom he has cited. Zarlino, who had
adopted the four new ecclefiaftical tones propofed by Gla-
reanus, was followed by Tigrini, with whom they feem to
have ftopped: as no more than the eight ancient tones ap-
Voi. XXXV.

Fic

pear afterwards to have been acknowledged by orthodox ec-
clefiaftical compofers; and Zarlino himfelf, in the laft edi-
tions of his works, relinquifhed the idea of twelve modes : as
no new harmony or modulation was furnifhed by the addi-
tional four to the contrapuntift, without violating the ancient
rules of canto-fermo, which confine all its melody to the dif-
ferent fpecies of o€tave. It appears from this Compendium,
that contrapunto alla mente, or extemporary difcant upon
a plain-fong, was ftill praétifed in the churches of Italy.

TIGRIS, in Ancient and Modern Geography, a large river
of Afia, which has its fource in the mountains of Greater Ar-
menia, about 15 miles S. of the fources of the Euphrates,
and purfues nearly a regular courfe S.E., until its junétion
with that river at Korna, 50 miles above Baffora. Formerly
thefe rivers difcharged themfelves feparately into the Perfian
gulf ; but they now fall into the fea by a common canal,
about 7o miles S. of Baffora. In the time of Pliny their
feparate beds might be feen. According to the fame author,
it was named “ Deglito,” from its fource to mount Taurus,
which it traverfed; and from the place of its difcharge on the
other fide of the mountain, to the fea or Perfian gulf, it was
called Tigris. This author fays that it paffed through the
lake of Arethufa, without mixing its waters with thofe
of the lake. Strabo and Arrian denominated the mouth of
the Biers “ Pafitigris,”” and Pliny gives this name to that
part of the river which feparated into two arms, that, after
enclofing an ifland, joined again, and fell into the fame bed.
Mofes (Gen. ii. 14.) calls this river, as it has been fuppofed,
Hiddekel. The cavern of mount Taurus, through which it
is faid to have paffed, was called “‘ Zoroanda ;” and as a proof
that it was the fame river which entered the cavern and
paffed out of it, any fubftance thrown into the river on one
fide of the mountain was difcharged by it on the other.

The ancient Perfians called this river “ Teer,” the arrow,
from the rapidity of its current ; and it isnow called * De-
gila,”” and “ Shat-Bagdad,” the river of Bagdad. The
united rivers of the Tigris and Euphrates are denominated
“€ Shat-ul-Arab ;?? which fee.

The Tigris, though a far lefs noble ftream than the Eu-
phrates, is one of the moft celebrated rivers in hiftory ; and
many famous cities have, at different periods, decorated its
banks ; among which we may reckon, in ancient times,
thofe of Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctefiphon; and in fubfequent
periods, thofe of Bagdad, Moful, Diarbekir, &c.

This river is navigable for boats of twenty or thirty tons
burthen as far as the mouth of the Odorneh, but no farther ;
and the commerce of Moful is confequently carried on by
rafts, fupported by inflated fheep-fkins. The rafts are
floated down the river, and when arrived at Bagdad, the
wood of which they are compofed is fold without a lofs, and
the fkins conveyed back to Moful by camels. The Ti-
gris is, on an average, between Bagdad and Korna, about
200 yards wide. The banks are iteep, and, for the moit
part, overgrown with brufh-wood, the haunt of lions and
other wild beaits. The Tigris rifes twice in the year ; the
firft and great rife is in April, and is caufed by the melting
of the fnows in the mountains of Armenia ; and the other is
in November, produced by the periodical rains. A boat,
with a fair wind, will fometimes pafs from Bagdad to Bafiora
in fix days, but the common paflage is from eight to ten.

The banks of the Tigris, from Tauka-Kelirato Korna,
cannot boaft of a finglevillage, or even habitation, with the
exception of Koot, a miferable place, containing 40 or 50
mud-huts. The city of Wafith, repeatedly mentioned in
the Arabian hiftories, is no longer a place of any conie-
quence ; it ftandson the banks oF the Hye, or great canal.
From Korna to the neighbourhood of Baffora, Baffara or

4M Batra,

Fig

Bafra, there is little or no cultivation ; but from thence the
country bordering on the banks of the river is covered with
plantations of date-trees, which continue, without interrup-
tion, almoft to the mouth of the Shat-ul-Arab.

Ticris Fons, a fountain of Afia, in the mountains S. of
Maxoene, which formed a ftream that ran towards the S.E.
and difcharged itfelf into the lake Arethufa.

Ticris, in Geography, a river of China, between Canton
and the fea, fo called by Europeans.

Ticris, in Zoology. See Fexis Tigris.

TIGUAZALPA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Nicaragua, on a river which runs into
Amapalla bay ; 80 miles N. of Leon. N. lat. 13° 50’. W.
long. 87° 36'.

TIGUILLACA, atown of Peru, in the diocefe of La
Paz; 10 miles N. of Puno.

TIGURINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
who eftablifhed themfelves in a canton of the Helvetians, and
who joined the Cimbri when they made an attempt to pafs
into Italy.

TIGURINUS Pacus, one of the four cantons which
compofed the Helvetic confederacy ; fuppofed to be Zu-
rich.

TIGUTIA, a place of Italy, in Liguria, N.E. of
Monilia.

TIGY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loiret; 12 miles S.E. of Orleans.

TIHAN, a town of Hungary ; 20 miles S.W. of Stul-
weifenburg.

TIHOE, a bay on the S. coaft of the ifland of Bouro.
S. lat. 3°44. E. long. 126° 277.

TIHOL, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by the people
of the Philippine iflands to a {pecies of crane very frequent
among them, and remarkable for its fize, being taller than
a man when it ftands ereét, and holds up its neck. They
call it alfo fometimes fipul.

TIIB, Ex, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Chufiftan, on the Ahuaz river; 70 miles N.W. of
Tolar.

TIJEGUACU-PAROARA, in Ornithology, the name
of a Brafilian bird, of the fize of a lark; it has a fhort and
thick beak, brown above and whitifh below; iis head,
throat, fides, and the lower part of its neck, are of a fine
yellow, variegated with red in the female, and all over of a
perfe&t blood-red in the male ; the upper part of the neck,
and the whole back, are grey, with a mixture of brown ;
the wings are brown, tipped with white; the tail is of the
fame ae and the fides of the neck, the breaft, belly,
and thighs, are white. . Marggrave’s Hift. Brafil.

TIJEPIRANGA, the name of a Brafilian bird of the
fparrow kind. It is a little larger than the lark ; its whole
body, neck, and head, are.of a very fine red or blood colour,
and its wings and tail black.

There is another fpecies alfo of this bird, which is of the
fize of a fparrow, and is of a blueifh-grey on the back,
white on the belly, and of a fea-green on the wings; the
legs of this are of a pale grey. Marggrave’s Hilt. Brafil.

TIJOLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Grenada; 5 miles S.W. of Purchena.

TIJOUCA, a cultivated valley of the Brazils, in the
vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, fituated, as it were, in the bot-
tom of a funnel, being furrounded on all fides by mountains,
excepting to the fouthward, where a {mall opening admits
an arm of the fea. The valley is watered by a clear ftream,
precipitated down a fteep and broad rock of granite, form-
ing a magnificent cafcade. The foil requires little labour
of cnltivation ; indigo, manioc, coffee, cacdo or chocolate

10

TUL

trees, fugar-canes, plantains, and orange and lime-trees grow-
ing promifcuoufly, and fome fpontaneoufly, in the fpace of
twenty fquare yards. Coffee and indigo claim the chief at-
tention. The temperature of the valley is very hot, on ac-
count of its confined fituation and the refleétion of the
mountains. Fahrenheit’s thermometer in the fhade about
four in the afternoon ftood at 88°. Staunton’s Emb. to
China, vol. 1.

TIIZ, or Tiz, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mecran, at the mouth of the Kurene; 75 miles S. of
Kidge. N. lat. 25° 25/.. E. long. 60° 24’.

TIKAX, a town of Mexico, in Yucatan; 68 miles S.
of Merida.

TIKE, the Zetland name for an otter, of which there
are many to be found about that ifland. . Phil. Tranf,
N°. 473. fe&. 8.

Tike is alfo ufed for a {mall bullock or heifer, for a par-
ticular fort of worm, and in Scotland for a dog.

TIKIOB, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Zealand ; 4 miles S.W. of Helfingoer.

TIKITHOCKTHOCK, a fettlement on the E. coaft
of Labrador. N. lat. 56° 15'. W. long. 60 s5!.

TIKOO, a town of Bengal; 30 miles S.W. of Ram-

ur. N. lat. 23°29’. W. long. 84° 55!.
TIKOTSCHIN, a town hake duchy of Warfaw; 24.
miles N. of Bilefk.

TIL, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeitzan ;
60 miles N.W. of Tauris.

TILA Nav1, one of the Lipari iflands ; 6 miles $.S.W.
of Stromboli.

TILAMUNGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore ; 5 miles S. of Ouffoor.

TILBORG, a town of Brabant, celebrated for its ma-
nufature of cloth; 10 miles S. of Bois-le-Duc.

TILBURREAH, a town of Bengal; 30 miles N.N.E.
of Doefa.

TILBURY, a townfhip of Upper Canada, near lake
St. Clair. . a

Tirzury, Wef, a village and parifh in the hundred of
Barftable, and county of Effex, England; is fituated 24
miles S. by W. from Chelmsford, and 27 E. by S. from
London. It appears to have been an epifcopal feat of
Cedda, bifhop of the Eait Saxons, who in the 7th cen-
tury propagated the Chriftian religion in this county, and
built churches in feveral places, but * efpecially,”” as Bede
reports, “in the city, which, in the language of the Saxons,
is called Ythanceftre ; and alfo in that which is named Til-
laburgh (the firit of which places is on the banks of the river
Pant, the other on the banks of the Thames), where gather-
ing a flock of fervants of Chrift, he taught them to obferve
the difcipline of a regular life, as far as thofe rude people
were then capable.’”? Ythanceftre is fuppofed to have ftood
at the mouth of the river Pant, or Blackwater, but has been
entirely engulphed by the fea. ‘Tilbury is now only a {mall
village, containing, as the return of the year. 1811 itates, 44.
houfes and 117 inhabitants. A medicinal{pring was difcovered
here in the year 1727, of greateflicacy in cafes of hemorrhage,
{curvy, and {ome other diforders. (See Titpury-Water.)
The marfhes in this, and the contiguous parifhes, are chiefly
rented by the grazing butchers of London, who generally
{tock them with Lincolnfhire and Leicefterfhire wethers,
which are fent hither about Michaelmas, and feed till Chriit-
mas, when they are conveyed to the metropolis for fale.

On the banks of the Thames, in this parifh, is Til-
bury-Fort, originally built as a kind of block-houfe by
Henry VIII., but enlarged into a regular fortification by
Charles II., after the Dutch had failed up the river in the

year

ek,

year 1667, and burnt three Englifh men of war at Chatham.
Various additions have been fince made; and it is now
Rrongly garrifoned, and defended by a great number of
guns. Some traces of the camp formed here to oppofe the
threatened invafion of the Spanifh armada, in the time of
Elizabeth, are yet vifible.—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. v. Effex ; by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

Tinsury-Water, in Medicine, is an acidulous or faline
water, iffuing from a fpring fituated near a farm-houfe at
Weit Tilbury, near Tilbury-Fort, in Effex. This water is
of a ftraw-colour, foft and fmooth to the talte, but leaving,
after agitation in the mouth, a {mall degree of roughnefs on
the tongue; it throws up a fcum variegated with feveral
colours, which feels greafy ; and effervefces with fpirit of
vitriol ; it mixes fmooth with milk, but curdles with foap ;
when boiled, it turns milky, but is fined by a fourth part
of mountain-wine, and by acids ; it operates chiefly by urine,
though it is fomewhat purgative, and increafes per{piration.
This water is efteemed for removing glandular obftructions,
and hence is alfo recommended in feurvies and cutaneous
difeafes ; it is good in bloody fluxes, purgings, and the
like: in diforders of the ftomach arifing from acidity, in
the gravel, fluor albus, and immoderate flux of the menfes.
As a diuretic, it is beneficial in dropfical complaints. It
gently warms the ftomach, ftrengthens the appetite, and
promotes digeftion. The ufual act is a quart a-day. This
water is fuppofed to owe its virtue to a native alkaline falt,
which may be obtained from it by evaporation, and to its
fixed air, which, however, being very volatile, foon exhales
when the water is heated or ftands for fome time expofed.
Elliot’s Account of Mineral Waters, &c. p. 220.

TILCARA, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Tucuman ; 32 miles N.N.W. of St. Sal-
yador de Jugui.

TILDIZ Dacut, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey; 10
miles S. of Tocat. f

TILE. See Tyte.

Tizes, Draining, in Agriculture, fuch as are made of par-
ticular forms and dimenfions, for the purpofe of draining
and taking away the water that ftagnates in or upon land.
They are faid to conftitute a very neat and convenient, as
well as cheap and beneficial material for this ufe in a great
many cafes, efpecially as they are exempt from the common
duties on ordinary tiles and bricks. They have the ad-
vantage too of being capable of being laid with much faci-
lity and difpatch, and of requiring lefs cutting than in the
methods ufually had recourfe to in the common prattice of
freeing land from wetnefs. They are made and employed
in-fome diftriéts, as Chefhire, &c. with complete fuccefs and
much utility.

Tire-Earth, that fort of earthy material of the ftrong
clayey kind which is ufed in the making of tiles. It is alfo
a term in farming which is fometimes employed to fignify a
ftrong, ftiff, ftubborn fort of land or foil that cannot be
brought into cultivation, and be managed without very
great labour, trouble, and expence, but which, when once
reduced and got into order, is, in fome cafes, very produc-
tive and lafting in its returns.

Vait ftrength of men and teams is often requifite in
working fuch lands as farms, as they cannot be effectually
improved and got into a proper ftate, except by the appli-
cation and incorporation of large quantities of different
proper rich earthy and other fuitable fubftances.

The farmer fhould always calculate well before engaging
farms confifting greatly of this fort of land or foil.

The general opinion among the moft attentive and dili-
gent farmers in the county of Effex is, that even the

EWG

pafture lands upon the wet, cold, tile-earth bottoms, fhould
be kept under the plough two or three years in twenty, in
order to render them in the moft fuitable and productive
{tate.

Tire, or Tye, in Affaying, a {mall flat piece of dried
earth, ufed to cover the veflels in which metals are in fufion.

Thefe are made of a mixture of clay and fand, or powder
of flints, or broken crucibles, made into a pafte, and {pread
thin with a rolling-pin, on a table or flat {tone. From thefe
cakes or plates, pieces are to be cut with a knife, to the
fhape and fize of the mouths of the veffels to be clofed. It
is beft then to pare away the borders of the under furface
of the piece thus cut off, that this furface may immediately
touch all the way the edge of the mouth of the veffel, leav-
ing a prominent rim, by which means the tile fits clofe upon
the veflel, and is not fo eafily difplaced by accidents, as 2
touch of the poker, or of the coals put on to mend the fire,
as it otherwife would be. Finally, put on the middle of
the outer furface a fmall bit of the fame matter, which
ferves as a kind of handle, by means of which it may be
conveniently managed by the tongs, and eafily taken off and
put on again at pleafure. Cramer, Art. Aff. p. 66.

TILENUS, Dantet, in Biography, a doftor and pro-
feffor of theology at Sedan, in France, was born in Silefia,
in 1563, and was the firft foreigner who wrote againft Ar-
minius, though he afterwards changed his opinion and fup-
ported the doétrine of that theologian. He alfo took part
in a violent controverfy with Du Moulin. A reconciliation
was attempted between the difputants, in which the eleétor
palatine, the duke de Bouillac, and king James I. of Eng-
land, interpofed ; and a national fynod of the French churches
was held for this purpofe at Tonneins in 1614. The attempt
to produce a pacification failed ; and Tilenus was deprived
of his profefforfhip in 1619 or 1620. He then removed to
Paris, and afterwards maintained for five days, at Orleans,
a difputation with John Cameron on grace and free-will.
In a letter addreffed to the people of Scotland, he accufed
the Prefbyterians of introducing too many changes in the
form of their religion, and praifed the people of England
for admiring epifcopacy. King James I. caufed this me
to be printed, and invited the author to England, with an
offer of a penfion. Tilenus accepted the offer; but return-
ing to France in order to arrange his affairs, an outcry was
in the meanwhile raifed againft him in England, and he
therefore determined to remain at Paris, where he died in
1633. He was the author of many works in Latin and
French, which it is needlefs to recite. Gen. Biog.

TILGUN, in Geography, a town of Afiatie Turkey, in
Caramania; 36 miles E.N.E. of Akthehr.

TILHARA,,a town of Hindooftan, in Rohileund; 30
miles S.S.E. of Bereilly.

TILIA, in Botany, the Lime-tree, or Linden-tree, an
ancient Latin name, whofe origin may perhaps be found in
the Greek xiacx, the Ekn; but on this fubje&t nothing cer-
tain, nor indeed very plaufible, has been made out by ety-
mologifts.—Linn. Gen. 267. Schreb. 355. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 2. 1161. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 3. 299. _Venten. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 1,
207. Sm. Fl. Brit. 571. Prodr. Fl, Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 362.
Purfh 362. Juff. 292. ‘Tourn. t. 381. Lamarck Illuftr,
t. 467. Gertn. t. 113.—Clafs and order, Polyandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Tiliacee, Sulf.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, concave, coloured, deciduous fegments, about as large
as the corolla. Cor. Petals five, alternate with the calyx,
oblong, obtufe, crenate at the fummit. Ne@iary a fale at
the bafe of each petal, not univerfal. Stam. Filaments nu-

4M 2 merous,

TEA.

merous, thread-fhaped, the length of the corolla; anthers
of two nearly orbicular divaricated lobes, burfting outwards. ©
Piff. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the ftamens; ftigma obtufe, with five angles.
Peric. Capfule globofe, angular, coriaceous or membranous,
burfting tardily at the bafe, of five valves and five cells.
Seeds folitary, roundifh.

Obf. Two or three of the cells are generally abortive
and obliterated. The neétary feems confined to the Ame-
rican fpecies. ‘

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments, deciduous. Pe-
tals five. Capfule fuperior, roundifh, angular, of five cells,
and five valves.

An important genus, of ufeful, as well as ornamental,
hardy deciduous trees. The bark ferves for cordage, and
for thofe very ferviceable mats, manufactured in Ruffia, fo
well known to our gardeners, and fo ufeful for packing.
The {mooth, foft, white, clofe-grained wood is efteemed by
carvers, and was preferred by the inimitable Gibbons, for
thofe feftoons of flowers, fruit, dead game, &c. with which
his free and expeditious hand adorned moft of the great
houfes in England. The leaves are fometimes given to
cattle in feafons of fearcity in the North. The whole plant
abounds with mucilage, and the fap is reported to afford
fome fugar. Nothing is more delicioufly fragrant than the’
flowers of the whole genus, which bees frequent in great
numbers, as they yield plenty of honey.

SeGtion 1. Flowers without the fcaly neGaries.
{pecies.

1. T. europea. Common Smooth Lime-tree. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 733. Willd. n.1. Ait.n.1. Fl. Brit. n.1. Engl.
Bot. t. 610. Fl. Dan. t. 553. (TT. platyphyllos; Scop.
Carn. v. 1. 373? Venten. n.2. ‘T.. vulgaris platyphyllos ;
Bauh. Hift. v. 1. p. 2. 133. Raii Syn. ed. 2. 316. T. foe-
mina; Ger. Em. 1483.)—Ne@taries none. Capfule coria-
ceous. Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided ; fmooth and fome-
what glaucous beneath, with the branching of their veins
woolly. Branches and foot{talks fmooth.—Native of woods
and the borders of meadows, or the flopes of hills, in various
parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering early
in July. A tall upright ree, with fmooth, {preading, round
branches, green when tender, afterwards brown. Leaves
alternate, on longifh ftalks, pointed, fharply ferrated, almoft
orbicular, about three inches in diameter, entire at the bafe,
and their fides rather unequal or oblique in that part: their
upper furface of a full bright green, quite fmooth: under
paler, fomewhat glaucous, with a yellowifh prominent mid-
rib, and feveral other ribs, either oppofite from the central
one, or radiating from the bafe, fubdivided, connected by
parallel anivests veins, all {mooth as well as the furface of
the leaf, except at the bafe of each fide-rib, where is a
{mall, depreffed, axillary, fringe-like tuft of hairs. Stipulas
none. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary, fhorter than the leaves,
fmooth, flender, each bearing an irregular umbel or cyme of
yellowifh flowers, and very remarkable for a large, folitary,
oblong, obtufe, entire, veiny bragea, of a pale greenifh hue,
and {mooth furface, united firmly to the ftalk, and falling
off with it. ‘The germen is very woolly. Cap/ule obovate,
or angular, efpecially when it ripens more than one feed,
which is not often the cafe. The flowers are delightfully
fragrant, efpecially at night. This is the kind of Lime
molt ufually planted for avenues, nor can any thing be more
defirable for that purpofe. It appears to have taken place
of our more ancient elms in king William’s time, when alfo
it was equally popular in France. The branches naturally
feather down to the ground, but will bear clipping without
injury. The /eaves fall perhaps the firft of all our native

European

trees, efpecially in the {quares of London, where the Lime
neverthelefs bears the {moky atmofphere tolerably well.
Whether the 7. ulmifolia, femine hexagono of Merrett, men-
tioned by Dillenius in his edition of Ray’s Synopfis, 473, be
a variety of this, with more perfe& fruit, or of any other
{pecies, we have no means of determining.

2. T. corallina. Red-twigged Downy Lime-tree. (T.
europea 8; Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 229. ed. 2..n. 1.
y; Fl. Brit. n. 1. T. grandifolia; Ehrh. Arb. n. 8. T.
foliis mollitér hirfutis, viminibus rubris, fructu tetragono ;
Raii Syn. ed. 2. 316.)—-Neétaries none. Capfule coria-
ceous. Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided; downy beneath,
with the branching of their veins woolly. Branches and
footftalks downy.— Native of various parts of Europe.
Plentiful in Stoken-church woods, Oxfordfhire, where it
was firft noticed by Bobart, and where its fhining red:
twigs are very confpicuous. This charaéter, however, is
not invariable. We have the fame f{pecies in Norfolk with
brown twigs, and it feems to be often planted indifferently
with the former. They have not yet been feparated as
fpecies, nor did Ehrhart, in publifhing the prefent under the
appellation of grandifelia, mean any thing further than to
diftinguifh it, in common with the foregoing, from his par-
vifolia, hereafter defcribed. We therefore prefer an older
and lefs ambiguous name. Profeffor Mertens, who has
{tudied thefe trees in Germany, obferyes that corallina
flowers a fortnight earlier than europea. As to their fpecific
difference, it appears chiefly to depend on the fine foft
hairs, which clothe the backs of the /eaves, and efpecially
cover their ribs, fringing their minuteft veins in a delicate
and regular manner. ‘Thefe hairs are condenfed into little
axillary tufts, at the origin of each principal vein. In the
inflorefcence or flowers we perceive no material difference.
The cap/ule has four or five angles. The famous old Lime
in the church-yard of Zedlitz near Guttenberg, in Bohemia,
which is faid to have borne hooded deaves, fince a parcel of
monks were hanged upon it, proves, by an authentic fpe-
cimen fent us by profeflor Jacquin, to be this fpecies,
not the foregoing. ;

3. T. parvifolia. Small-leaved Lime-tree. Ehrh. Arb.
n.36. Pl. Off.n.125. Sm. Engl. Bot. t.1705. Ait. n.2.
“ Schkuhr Handb. v. 2. 72. t. 141.” (T. microphylla ;
Venten. n. 1. Sav. Etrufc. v. 1. 152. T. europea 6;
Fl. Brit. n. 1. T. ulmifolia; Scop. Carn. v. 1. 374. T.
fylveftris; Trag. Hift. 1111. T. folio minore; Bauh.
Hift. v. 1. p. 2.137. Raii Syn. ed. 2. 316. T. bohemica,
&c.; Till. Pif. 165. t. 49. £. 3.)—Ne@aries none. Cap-
fule roundifh, very thin. Leaves heart-fhaped, fharply fer-
rated, fomewhat lebed; {mooth and glaucous beneath,
with denfe, axillary or {cattered, tufts of hair.—Native of
Germany, Carniola, Switzerland, Italy, France, and
England. Ray fays it frequently occurs in Effex and
Suffex, as well as Lincolnfhire and elfewhere. It flowers a
month later than even the firft fpecies, not being in full
perfection before Auguft. The /eaves are but about half
the fize of either of the foregoing, their ferratures fharper,
tufts of axillary hair larger, and often accompanied by large
hairy blotches. Joot/talks flender, and often of a me
proportion, quite {mooth. # lowers fmaller, {melling like
a Honeyfuckle. Cap/ule {mall, roundifh, fcarcely angular,
rarely perfecting more than one feed, its coat ‘thin and
tender compared with either of the former {pecies, on
which circumftance M. Ventenat chiefly founded its dif-
tinGtive chara&ter. We do not find that part fo unlike
them in firmnefs, as in thicknefs; but we have no doubt of
the fpecies being perfe&tly diftin@. By planting this in-
termixed with the others about houfes, in avenues, &e. a

longer

TILIA.

longer fucceflion of fragrance from their blofioms might be
obtained.

Se&.2. Flowers with fcaly neGaries. American fpe-
cies.

. T. americana. Broad-leaved Lime-tree. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 733. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n.3. (T. glabra; Venten.
n.3- ‘ Mem. de l’Inftit. v. 4. 9. t.2.’? Purfhn. 1.

T. canadenfis ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 306. )—Nec-
taries prefent. Leaves orbicular-heartfhaped, abrupt with
a point, fharply ferrated; their veins minutely hairy be-
neath. Petals abrupt, crenate. Capfule ovate, fomewhat
ribbed. In the woods of Canada and the northern United
States, and on the mountains, as far as South Carolina,
flowering in May and June. It is known by the name of
Lime-tree or Line-tree, Bafs-wood, or Spoon-wood, and is
both ufeful and ornamental. Pur/b. » Kalm firft made the
plant known to Linnzus, and it was fuppofed by them to
be the only American fpecies of Tilia. The flem is faid to be
eighty feet high. The branches are brown, {mooth. Leaves
larger than any of our European fpecies, and of a more
orbicular or rather elliptical form, abrupt rather than heart-
fhaped at their bafe ; of a fine green above, turning red in
autumn ; much paler beneath ; finely veined and fmooth on
both fides, except that all their veins are minutely hairy
(not fringed like T. corallina) beneath, and even the fmaller
ones, as well as the larger, are furnifhed with little axillary
hairy tufts. FYowers corymbofe ; their common {talk about
twice the length of the footftalks. Perals, according to
Ventenat, abrupt, and toothed towards the end. We have
not examined the flowers.

5- T. laxiflora. Panicled Lime-tree. Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. v. 1. 306. Purfh n. 2.—** Leaves heart-fhaped,
taper-pointed, fparingly toothed, membranous, {mooth.
Panicles loofe. Petals emarginate, fhorter than the ftyle.
Capfule globofe.”’—Near the fea-coaft, from Maryland to
Georgia, flowering in’ May and June. A very, diftin®
fpecies, though generally confounded with the foregoing
one. Purfh.

6. T. pubefcens. Hoary Lime-tree. Ait. n. 4. Willd.
n.3. WVenten. n. 4. ‘ Mem. de lInft. v. 4. ro. t. 3.”
Purfh n. 3.— Nediaries prefent. Leaves heart-fhaped,
pointed, coarfely ferrated ; abrupt and unequal at the bafe ;
downy beneath. Panicles forked, compound. Petals
acute.—In clofe copfes, and on the banks of rivers, from
Virginia to Georgia, flowering from May to July. Pur/h.
Its thinner-leaved variety was long ago brought from Loui-
fiana to the Paris gardens, and Juffieu gave it the name of
multiflora, which is very apt, but has never been publifhed
till lately. Catefby is reported to have introduced this fpe-
cies into England before the year 1726. If our memory
does not deceive us, it is to be met with at Bulftrode, and
in other old plantations, and the flowers are more highly
fragrant than any others of the genus. Its growth is faid
not to be fo lofty as that of T. americana. ‘The leaves are
{maller, obliquely heart-fhaped, with very broad and pointed
ferratures ; their under fide extremely foft to the touch, but
not white, though paler than the upper, and fomewhat
hoary. ‘There are fearcely any axillary tufts of hair to the
veins, except on the older denudated leaves. Flower-/talks
twice as long as the footfalks, branched at the top into a
forked, f{preading, downy panicle of numerous flowers.
The petals are rather pointed, as Ventenat defcribés them ;
and not emarginate, as in his and Purfh’s fpecific definition.
We readily concur with thefe authors, that the Louifiana
tree, called multiflora, is a mere variety, and but a flight
one. Our defcription of the inflorefcence and flowers is
taken from this variety. It is hardly neceflary to mention

that all thefe American Lime-trees bear the fame peculiar
fort of draéea as thofe of Europe.

7. T. alba. White Lime-tree. Ait. n. 5. Willd. n. 4.
«« Waldit. et Kitaib. Hung. t.3.”? Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
vy. 3. 18. t. 283. (T. rotundifolia; Venten. n.5. ‘* Mem.
de VInft. v. 4. 12. t. 4.’’?)—-Ne@taries prefent. Leaves
deeply heart-fhaped,, obfcurely lobed, fharply ferrated ;
downy and white beneath.—Native of woods in Hungary.
Willdenow. Found by Bruguiére and Olivier near Conftan-
tinople. Ventenat. It was erroneoufly reported by our gar-
deners to come from America, as every new plant, at one
period, was fuppofed to do. More recently, every noyelty
has been attributed to Botany Bay.—This is a hardy tree in
England, but does not flourifh fo well as any of the pre-
ceding. The deep, and more even, heart-fhaped figure of
the aves, and their fnow-white under furface, readily cha-
racterize this fpecies. Its light-yellow, cymofe or panicled
jlowers are {aid to have the {cent of a jonquill.

8. T. heterophylla. Various-leaved. Lime-tree. Venten.
n. 6. “ Mem. de l’Inft. v. 4. 16. t.5.?? Purfhn.4. (T.
alba; Sm. Inf. of Georgia, v. 1. 21. t. 11?)— Leaves
ovate, fharply ferrated; white and downy beneath; either
heart-fhaped, or obliquely, or equally, abrupt, at the bafe.
Capfule globofe, obf{curely ribbed.’’—On the banks of the
Ohio and Miffiffippi, flowering in June. A very hand-
fome and defirable ornamental tree. Pur/h. Wentenat fays
it is diftinguifhed from the laft by many chara&ters. ‘The
young branches, and buds, are {mooth, of a purple colour
inclining to black. Leaves delicately ferrated, pointed, with
tufts of reddifh axillary hairs to the veins. lower-/lalks
almoft as long as the leaves, being thrice the length of T.
alba. We have feen no fpecimen of this fpecies, but it has
probably been introduced into the gardens by fome of our
collectors from America. It is extremely likely to be the
Warhew of Mr. Abbot, in our Infeéts of Georgia, t. 11.5
which from the above-mentioned error of the gardeners re-
{peGting T. ala, we fuppofed could be no other than that
{pecies, now known not to grow in America. The War-
hew is faid to be very like the European Lime-tree, except
being always a low bufh or fhrub. Mr. Abbot’s figure
anfwers fo well to Ventenat’s and Purfh’s definitions, as to
leave fearcely a doubt on the fubje&t, except only that the
latter {peaks of T. heterophylla as an ornamental tree. It
may attain a greater fize in one part of the country than in
another.

We feel much regret in rejeCting our late efteemed cor-
refpondent M. Ventenat’s fuppofed improvements in the
nomenclature of the f{pecies of Tilia. But befides their ap-
pearing to us uniformly for the worie, as ufual in all fuch
alterations that ever came in our way, we greatly prefer efta-
blifhed names ; which though occafionally erroneous or am-
biguous, have generally acquired aflociations that compen-
fate for any defects.

Tinia, in Gardening, contains plants of the ornamen-
tal tree kind, among which the {pecies moftly cultivated are,
the European lime-tree (T. europea); the broad-leaved
American lime-tree (T. americana) ; the pubefcent Ca-
rolina lime-tree ('T. pubefcens) ; and the white lime-tree
(T. alba).

The firft fort, though little ufed, is a handfome tree, hav-
ing a {mooth taper ftraight trunk, and the branches forming
a beautiful cone. The foliage alfo is fmooth and elegant :
it grows to a very large fize, and affords good fhade: it
makes a fine detached obje& in parks and open lawns,
planted fingly: the branches are fo tough as feldom to be
broken by the winds, and the flowers have a delightful fra-
grance : the wood is foft, but capable of being turned into

light

ie HM &

light bowls and difhes, &c. There are feveral varieties of
it, as the narrow-leaved, the broad-leaved, the elm-leaved,
the red-twigged, the fmooth fmall-leaved, the {mooth
large-leaved, the foft hairy-leaved, the wrinkled-leaved,
and the ftriped-leaved.

Culture.—Thefe trees may be increafed by feeds, layers,
and cuttings. The feed, when ripe in the autumn, fhould
be beaten down, keeping the green-twigged and red-
twigged forts feparate; and be fown foon after, or pre-
ferved dry and found till fpring; fowing it in a bed or
border of common earth; previoufly digging the ground,
and dividing it into four-feet wide beds; drawing the earth
off the furface evenly, about an inch deep, into the alleys ;
then fowing the feeds thinly, touching them lightly down
into the earth with the back of the fpade, direétly earthing
them over to the above depth.

When they come up in the {pring, the beds fhould be
kept clean from weeds, giving moderate waterings in dry
weather, to forward the hints in growth as much as poflible,
in order to be fit for planting out in nurfery-rows by the au-
tumn or fpring following ; though, if they have fhot rather
weakly, they fhould ftand another year, then be planted out
in rows two feet and a half aftnder, by eighteen inches dif-
tance in the lines, to remain three or four years or more to
acquire a proper fize for the purpofes intended, trimming
off the large fide-branches from the lower part of the ftem
occafionally, to encourage their afpiring more expeditioufly
at top, which fhould be fuffered to remain entire: thefe
trees, when raifed from feed, generally aflume a more hand-
fome and expeditious growth than fuch as are raifed from
layers and cuttings. When they are from about five or fix
to eight or ten et high, they are of proper fize for final
planting out; though, when defigned as foreft-trees for
timber, it is advifable to plant them finally while they are
young, as not more than from three or four to five or fix
feet high.

They are all raifed readily by the layer method ; and for
this purpofe proper {tools muft be prepared, and the young
fhoots of a year or two old are the proper parts for being
laid down, which fhould be performed in autumn or winter,
by flit-laying, fhortening the tops of each layer within a
little of the ground: they are moftly rooted by the autumn
following, and fit to plant out in nurfery-rows, being then
mana at as the feedlings.

When cuttings are employed, the ftrong young fhoots of
the year fhould be chofen in autumn or fpring, and planted
in a moift good foil; or any f{carce forts may be planted
feveral together in pots, and plunged in a hot-bed, as they
more readily {trike root in that way.

Thefe two laft methods are the proper ones for raifing
the varieties with certainty.

Thefe trees are of a quick handfome growth, and fucceed
in almoft any foil and expofure. They are fome of them
employed for their fine appearance, others for the exquifitely
{weet fmell of their flowers, and moft of them for the ufe
of their wood. The plants of them are alfo occafionally made
ufe of in forming hedges in particular fituations, but they
are not by any means well calculated for this purpofe.

As timber trees, their wood is found highly valuable on
account of its foftnefs, ightnefs, and toughnefs, for the mak-
ing of various forts of houfehold utenfils, as bowls, bafons,
&c. as well as for different purpofes in the bufinefs of carv-
ing, gilding, turning, fpinning, &c.

All thefe trees afford ornament and variety among other
deciduous trees in the fhrubbery, plantations, &c.

TILIACEA, in Botany, a natural order of plants, the
feventy-ninth in Juffieu’s fy{tem, or the nineteenth of his thir-

TIL

teenth clafs, of which Tilia, the Lime-tree, is an example.
See Gerania for the full chara&ers of this thirteenth
clafs. Thofe of the order in queftion are thus given.

Calyx either of many leaves, or in many deep fegments-
Petals definite, diftinG, ee in Sloanea,) alternate with
the fegments or leaves of the calyx, and for the molt part
agreeing with them in number. Stamens generally indefinite
in number, and diftinét. Germen timple. Style frequently
folitary, rarely either multiplied, or wanting. Stigma either
fimple or divided. Fruit in fome inftances pulpy, in others
capfular, moftly with feveral cells, having one or many
feeds in each, the partitions from the centre of each valve.
Corculum of the feed flat, furrounded by a flefhy albumen. ~
Stem arboreous or fhrubby ; rarely herbaceous. Leaves al-
ternate, fimple, accompanied by {tipulas.

Section 1. Stamens definite in number, more or lefs com=
bined in their lower part, or at the very bafe. Thefe are
termed by Juflieu “ doubtful Tiliacee.’’? They confiit of.
Waltheria, Hermannia, and Mahernia. ;

Seét. 2. Stamens diftin@, mofily indefinite.
cells. Genuine Tiliacea.

Antichorus ; Corchorus; Heliocarpus ; Triumfetta; Spar-'
mannia; Sloanea; Apeiba of Aublet, which is Aubletia of
Schreber ; Muntingia; Flacourtia of L’Heritier; Oncoba
of Forfkall, Lamarck Illuftr. t.471; Stuartia; Grewia;
and Tilia. Ppt

Se. 3. Stamens diftinG, indefinite. Fruit of one cell.
Genera allied to Tiliacee.

Bixa; Laetia; and Banara of Aublet and Schreber.

The author hints that this order might poflibly, with pro:
priety, receive a reinforcement of feveral polypetalous poly-
androus genera, at prefent not well underftood, and there-
fore annexed to other orders, among fubjeéts that remain in
doubt. He names Soramia of Aublet (fee Maprra) ; Ca-
linea of the fame (fee Doxiocarrus) ; Cleyera of Thun-
berg (fee Ternsvrormia) ; Vadlea of Linneus ; Dicera
of Forfter (fee ELaocarpus) ; Caraipa, Mabhurea (fee
BonnetiA), Houmiria (fee Myropenprum), Vantanea’
(fee Lemniscra), all of Aublet; and 7yilix of Linneus.
The reader will be able to form his own opinion on thefe”
matters, by turning to thefe articles in their proper places,
many of the genera and their affinities having become better
known fince the publication of Juffieu’s work.

The charaéters of his Tiliacee are hardly to be diftinguifhed
from thofe of his next order Cifli, the principal difference’
confifting in the ftraight corculum, and more copious albumen,
of the former.

TILLABARUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa Propria, upon the route from Tacapz to the Greater
Leptis, between Thebelamum and Adaugmagdum. Anton.
Itin.

TILLAA, in Botany, wasdedicated by Micheli (followed
by Linnzus) to the honour of his friend and fellow-labourer
Michael Angelo Tilli, who publifhed a f{plendid and rich
catalogue of the garden of Pifa, of which he had the care,
in 1723. He was a’ member of the Royal Society of —
London, as well as of the Botanical Society of Florence,
and correfponded with the chief botanifts of his time, in
England, Holland, and elfewhere. He travelled to Con-
{tantinople and Tunis.—Linn. Gen. 68. Schreb. 93- Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1.720. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 1. 282. Sm. Fl. Brit. 201. Mich. Nov: Gen, 22.
t.20. Jufl. 307. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 90. Gaertn. t. 112.
—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Sue~
culente, Linn. Sempervive, Juff. a

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, in four deep, flat,
ovate, large fegments. Cor. Petals four, ovate, acute, flat,

rather

Fruit of many

hd BB

vather fmaller than the calyx. Stam. Filaments four,
fimple, fhorter than the corolla; anthers {mall, roundith.
Pif, Germens four ; ftyle fimple ; {tigmas obtufe. Peric.
Capfules four, oblong, pointed, reflexed, the length of the
calyx, buriting longitudinally along the upper edge into
two valves, with one cell. Seeds two, or many more, in
each cell, ovate.

Obi. 7. mu/fcofa has the parts of fruCtification ufually in
threes, not fours. Gertner difcovered its flowers to be
fometimes even five-cleft. He juftly remarks, that fuch
differences of number are in this natural order of little
importance, and that Ti//ea differs from Craffula in nothing
but the want of ne¢tariferous feales below the germens.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in three, four, or five fegments. Petals
as many. Nedtaries none. Capfules three, four, or five,
burfting inwards. Seeds feveral in each capfule.

1. T. aquatica. Water Swedifh Tillea. Linn. Sp. Pl.
186. Fl. Suec. 54. Willd. n. 1. Ehrh. Phytoph. n. 14.
Schkubr in Uft. Anna!. fafe. 12. 6. t. 1.—Stem ere.
Leaves linear, acute. Flowers nearly feffile—Native of
watery places in Lulean Lapland; as well as near Upfal,
where water has itagnated, in hilly fpots. Linneus. A
delicate, {mooth, annual plant, two or three inches high,
fomewhat like Montia fontana, but much more flender,
growing in denfe tufts, fimple or branched. Leaves op-
pofite, ftalked, narrow, acute, entire, a third of an
inch long. #Yowers either axillary and lateral, or in the
forks of the ftem, folitary, fmall, white, on very fhort
ftalks. The whole herb is fucculent and pellucid.

2. T. profrata. Proftrate German Tillea. Schkuhr in
Uit. Annal. fafe. 12. 6. Willd. n.2. (T. aquatica;
Schkuhr in Uit. Annal. fafe. 2. 21. t. 3.) Stem proftrate.
Leaves lanceolate. Flowers on fhort ftalks.—Native of moift
ground in Germany. Annual, differing from the foregoing
in haying many prottrate /lems from one roof, broader leaves,
which are nearly cylindrical, and rather longer fower-ftalks.
Seeds eight in each capfule. Schkuhbr.

3. T. Vaillantiit. Stalked French Tillea. Willd. n. 3.

Sedum minimum annuum, flore rofeo tetrapetalo ; Vaill.

arif. 182. t. 10. f. 2.)—Stem ereét, much branched.
Leaves ovate, clafping the ftem, fhorter than the flower-
ftalks.—Native of France. Obferved by Vaillant, in the
foreft of Fontainebleau, where water has ftagnated in winter,
flowering from May to Augult. Root annual, of a few
{mall tufted white fibres. Stem an inch or two high, -re-
peatedly branched, fcarcely forked, purplifh. Leaves in
pairs crofling each other, very thick, pointed, gibbous
underneath, dark green, about two lines long. Petals four,
rofe-coloured, with a dark-coloured mic-rib. Seeds nume-
rous, black, very minute.—The broader thicker /eaves, and
the much longer flower-/falks, render this very diftinét, as
Willdenow obferves, from 7. aquatica.

4. T. peduncularis. Long-talked Brazil Tillea.—Stem
ere€t. Leaves lanceolate, acute. Flower-{talks often twice
the length of the leaves. Capfules abrupt.—Gathered by
Commerfon, in marfhy fpots that had been overflowed, at
Monte Video. This grows in tufts, and has very much the
habit of T. aquatica, for which poffibly it may have been
taken. ‘There appears neverthelefs much difference between
them. ‘The whole er, in the prefent inftance is red, and
the flowers rofe-coloured, growing on long /falks, which,
though indeed variable, are never lefs than half the length
of the leaves, and often twice their length. The fhape of
the /eaves agrees with aquatica; but the cap/ules when ex-
panded are more abrupt, and even inverfely heart-fhaped.

5. TL. mufeafa. Moffy Tillea. Linn. Sp. Pl. 186.
Willd. n. 8. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t.116. Rofe’s

ig

Elem. append. 448. t.2. f. 2. (TT. mufcofa annua per-
foliata, flore albo; Mich. Gen. 22. t. 20. Sempervivum
omnium minimum repens mufcofum, polygoni facie ; Bocce.
Muf. 36. t.22. Polygonum mufcofum minimum; Bocc.
Sic. 56. t. 29.)

@. Craffula mufcofa; Linn. Sp. Pl. 405. Am. Acad.
v. 6. 86. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1557. Thunb. Prodr. 54.
See CrassuLa, n. 40. (Ficoides africana annua minima
mufcofa; Herm. Parad. 170.

Stems procumbent, branched. Leaves obtufe. Flowers
moitly three-cleft. Calyx and petals taper-pointed. —
Native of fandy barren ground in the more temperate parts
of Europe, flowering in fummer. Abundant on fandy
heaths near Norwich, Bury, Brandon, &c. The variety 8
is brought from Africa, from Lima, and even from New
South Wales. We can find no difference in the dried
{pecimens, except their being larger than our’s, with fome-
what of a glaucous hue, and the fowers partly talked, more
numerous, and all, as far as can be examined, five-cleft and
pentandrous, juft like Gertner’s plate of T. mufcofa. The
Britifh fpecimens of the mu/fcofa are from one to two inches
high, ftrongly tinged with a blood-red, afcending, branchéd,
with a fibrous annual root. Leaves elliptical, thick, obtufe,
fomewhat channelled above; clafping their ftem at their
bafe. Flowers moftly three-cleft, {efile ; their petals white,
with a taper red point, lefs than the calyx. Seeds only two
in each capfule.

We fcruple to retain in this genus four other fpecies
admitted by Willdenow. The firft is T. capenfis, Linn.
Suppl. 129. Willd. n. 43; evidently, as Thunberg calls
it, a Craffula, by its purple triangular neétaries, though,
on account of its four-cleft fowers, made a Tillea by Lin-
neus and Willdenow.

T. perfoliata, Linn. Suppl. 129. Willd. n.5; T. um-
bellata, Willd. n. 6; and 7. decumbens, Willd. n.7; all
referred to Craffula by Thunberg, have none of them fallen
under our infpeétion; but as Willdenow avows having
been guided by number, we have no {cruple in removing
them hence.

So alfo Craffula mofchata, Fortt. Magell. 16; gathered
by that author, as well as by Commerfon, Menzies, Banks,
and Solander, at Staten land, is moft certainly a ey la
becaufe of its neGtaries ; though, on account of its four-
cleft flowers, it has been taken by fome great botanifts for
a Tillea.

‘TILLAGE, in Agriculture, the practice of tilling or
cultivating land, efpecially of the arable kind, or the means
of bringing it into a ftate of preparation for the growth
of different forts of arable crops. —

Of all the arts, fays Vattel, tillage, or agriculture, is the
moft ufeful and neceffary. It is the nurfing-father of the
ftate. It forms the fureft refource and the moft folid funds
of riches and commerce, for people who enjoy a happy
climate. This obje&, therefore, deferves the utmoft atten-
tion of government : and it ought carefully to avoid every
thing capable of difcouraging the hufbandman, or of divert-
ing him from the labours of agriculture. Thofe taxes,
thofe exceffive and ill-proportioned impofitions, the burthen
of which falls almoft entirely on the cultivators ; and the
vexations they fuffer from the commiflioners who levy them,
take from the unhappy peafant the means of cultivating the
earth, and depopulate the country. Spain is the moft fer-
tile and the wortt cultivated country in Europe. The church
pofleffes too much land, and the undertakers of the royal
magazines, who are authorized to purchafe, at a low price,
all the corn they find in the poffeffion of a peafant,
above what is neceflary for the fubfiftence of himtelf —

nis

TILLAGE.

his family, fo greatly difcourage the hufbandman, that he
fows no more corn than is neceffary for the fupport of his
own howfehold. Whence frequently arifes the greateft
fearcity in a country capable of feeding its neighbours.

Another abufe injurious to agriculture is, the contempt
caft upon the hufbandman. The inhabitants of cities, even
the moft fervile artifts, and the moft lazy citizens, confider
him that cultivates the earth with a difdainful eye; they
humble and difcourage him.. They dare to defpife a pro-
feffion that feeds the human race ; the natural employment
of man. A little infignificant mechanic places far beneath
him the beloved employment of the firft confuls and dic-
tators of Rome. China has wifely prevented this abufe ;
agriculture is there held in honour, and to preferve this
happy manner of thinking, every year, on a folemn day, the
emperor himfelf, followed by his whole court, fets his hand
to the plough, and fows a {mall piece of land. Hence
China is the beft cultivated country in the world: it nou-
rifhes an innumerable multitude of people, that at firft
appears to the traveller too great for the {pace they poffefs.
Befides, the cultivation of the foil is an obligation impofed
by nature on mankind.

The motft proper forts of foils for the purpofes of tillage-
cultivation, are all thofe of the more dry and friable kinds,
whether the depth of earth or mould, or what is often
termed ftaple in them, be only flight or confiderable ; as
under different circumftances thefe differences fit them for
the produétion of different forts of crops, the methods of
cultivation in which are fully explained under their different
proper heads.

In this view, all the various denominations of light foils,
fuch, for inftance, as gravels, fands, light chalks, and thin
loamy lands, are well adapted, in moft cafes, to the pur-
pofes of tillage, from their being, in general, pretty well
fuited to the various forts of grain, as well as to the raifing
of fuch green and root-crops as are neceflary in the fup-
port and management of different kinds of live-ftock. The
more deep, loamy, chalky, and gravelly forts of land, where
they can be kept fufficiently dry, and in a proper ftate,
during the winter feafon, may likewife, in many cafes, be
well employed in tillage-cultivation, and efpecially when
they do not produce and afford an abundant and ufeful
fort of herbage for the keeping of animals, or other ufes.
All the lands of the fward-kind, or in the ftate of grafs,
which are liable to be infefted with the mofs-plant, or to
become over-run with a moffy covering, may, in common
too, be managed under the tillage-fyftem with much advan-
tage, and better than in fuch a fate of grafs.

In fome cafes, lands may be fuited to convertible tillage,
or alternately that of grain and grafs, with vaft benefit to the
farmer. It has been remarked on this fort of tillage by a
late writer, that land may in this way often be turned to
better account by ploughing and tilling it eight or ten
years, and then laying it down to grafs, in order to take
up another part or portion, than by the common method,
but efpecially where the land is fubje@ to ant-hills; as the
paring and burning deftroys all fuch hills, and fuch land
is {ure to bring abundant crops of corn. And that there
are very few fituations that have dry land and foil fit for the
plough, but what would bring more profit under tillage
than by lying in the ftate of old grafs; for when fuch
good land as this is well laid down to grafs, with plenty
of ne proper feeds, after a courfe of tillage, an acre of it
will keep as much ftock as four acres would which were
produced in the natural way, and this is what makes its
great value. Such tillage-land as this, it is faid, is worth
more money than the fineft grafs-land in the kingdom ; as,

8

on the fine marfhes fo much boafted of, the earlieft of the
fummer-ftock comes to market at the very time when all
forts of vegetables are in plenty, fuch as peas, beans, and
many others, and when meat confequently is fure to fall in
price ; and great numbers of grafs-fed beafts, or cattle and
fheep, come together. Befides, the very beft grafs-lands
fend only two fheep in the two early months of April
and May from an acre ; but the beft tillage-land will fend
ten from an acre, and have them ready any time in the
winter, when meat is the deareft. Thus, it is contended
that ten acres of turnips will fend one hundred fheep in the
deareft time to the market, but that it will take fifty acres
of the beft land in grafs, to fend the fame number to the
market.

It is therefore concluded that, in this way, the tillaee-
farmer fends three hundred acres of corn to market, and as
many fat fheep befides, acre for acre, as the belt grazing-
land ; and that by till other improved methods of manage-
ment, as that of the culture of flax for the ufe of the feed
in fattening live-ftock, and fome others of a fimilar deferip-
tion, the tillage-farmer may derive greater profit than by
the turnip praétice, from the large quantity of winter-
fattened animals, and the vaft fupply of dung or manure
which is thus raifed and provided.

Although the neceflity of good tillage in the preparation
of land for cropping be now pretty well underftood by the
practical farmer, and has been inculcated occafionally under
different heads in the prefent work, it requires to be well
explained in fome of its proceffes. It has indeed been ob-
ferved in the Agricultural Survey of the County of Here-
ford, after noticing that the Romans were convinced of the
good effe&ts of this fort of preparation, as Pliny has re-
marked the advantages of frequent ploughing and turning
over the foil in Tufcany ; and that, in this country, Evelyn
fuggefted its power of fo altering a foil from its former
nature, as to render the hardeft and harfheft as well as moft
uncivil clay obfequious to the hufbandman ; that tillage alfo
deftroys weeds, and reduces the earth to fmall particles,
rendering it fufficiently loofe and porous to admit of the
eafy growth and extenfion of the roots and fibres of the
grain to be cultivated in or upon it. And that the fpade is
well adapted to thefe purpofes, becaufe it moves the ground
eight or ten inches deep, turns it upfide down, and covers
the weeds with a quantity of earth, under which they rot,
and contribute towards its fertilization and improvement ;
and that this mode is founded on the juft idea or notion of
the Flemings, that a farm fhould refemble a len as
nearly as poffible. But that as the fpade method is much
too tedious and laborious, as well as too expenfive, to he
practifed on the larger fcale of a farm, the plough is there-
fore fubftituted, as cheaper and more expeditious, but that,
in general, it does not ftir the earth fo deeply, and often
moves it in large bodies or mafles, without fufficiently
breaking it into pieces. Tn order to remedy this incon-
venience, the celebrated Mr. Tull, it is faid, recommended
a plough of his own invention, which had four cou
inftead of one, and thus divided the earth raifed by the
fhares into feveral narrow flips; but the refiftance occa-
fioned by the additional coulters was found to require a
greater ftrength in horfes than the profits of the experiment
and work would warrant. It was, however, afterwards af-
certained by a diftinguifhed foreigner, M. de Chateauvieux,
that the breadth of the furrow fhould be proportioned to
the ftiffnefs of the foil or land; and that thus the refiftance
may be regulated on all kinds of land or foil. But the
operation of repeated crofs-ploughing, and the ufe of other
tools, as now generally practifed, aided as they are by full

expofure

TILLAGE.

expofure to froft, rain, &c. fo effeétually break down the
hardeft foils, that other meafures are, it is thought, ren-
dered lefs neceffary. Since the above was written, how-
ever, many ufeful inftruments have been formed, by which
tillage-cultivation is not only rendered more effective, but
more eafy and expeditious, as may be feen by the defcrip-
tions which have been given of them under their different
proper heads. See Drac, Scaririer, SCUFFLER, SPIKE-
Roller, &c.

M. Duhamel has fince too obferved in his ‘* Elements of
Agriculture,”’ that fome believe it is more advantageous to
increafe the fertility of land by frequent ploughing and
other means than by manure; becaufe, in general, only a
certain quantity of manure can be procured ; as twenty acres
of land will, in common cafes, fcarcely produce as much
manure as is neceflary for five ; whereas the particles of the
earth may be divided and fubdivided almoft to infinity.
The aids, therefore, which are derived from manure, mutt,
it is f{uppofed, be limited, whilft no bounds can be fet to the
benefits that may accrue from ploughing or breaking down
and reducing the parts of the foil. ‘This appears, the writer
thinks, to be over-rating the advantages of breaking the foil
down in other ways; but, it is certain, that when the
particles of land or foil adhere fo clofely together as to im-
pede the extenfion of the roots of plants, in fearch of the
food and nourifhment they require, the plants themfelves
cannot grow with proper vigour, or yield a proper pro-
duce. This is therefore to be corrected by frequent plough-
ings, &c. And that, laftly, repeated ploughings and other
fuch means enable the land to receive and retain all the
benefits to be derived from the floating vapours and dews
of the atmofphere, which falling on hard ee where it
cannot readily penetrate, is quickly exhaled by the next
day’s fun and wind.

Notwithftanding thefe remarks, it may, however, be no-
ticed, that no tillage or breaking down of the parts of the
foil, though ever fo complete and effectual, can wholly fup-
‘ply the place of manure, although it may greatly contribute,
in different inftances, to affift its fertility.

Thefe are fome of the more general and particular ways
in which tillage becomes fo effential and effectual in pro-
moting the fertility and improvement of land; but there
are a bie others, the procefles of which may be feen under
their proper heads.

In the tillage-cultivation for moft forts of crops of the

ain or corn kinds, as well as fome others, it becomes ef-
Fntially neceflary that the foil fhould be reduced to a very
confiderable degree of finenefs, or what is frequently termed
tilth by writers on hufbandry ; as, where this is not the cafe,
they can neither be fo well provided with food or nourifh-
ment, nor be kept fo perfectly and fo fufficiently clean and
free from weedy matters. There are other reafons too that
require, at leaft, the more fuperficial parts of the foils to be
in a fine condition of tillage for the receiving of fuch crops,
which are thofe of the young tender roots of the new rifing
plants being thereby rendered more capable of fixing them-
felves perfe&tly in the mould which is produced, and of their
drawing from it 4 more regular fupply of food, in confe-
quence of the more equal diffufion of moifture and other
fubftances through it, which muft neceflarily take place.
Befides, it is favourable in other ways, as by fuch tillage
the feed-corn is not only more capable of being perfectly
but equally covered, in confequence of which the vegetation
and growth of the young plants of it are more equal and
expeditious.

But befides the ftate and condition of the foil or land in
regard to tilth, it fhould be in a fuitable fituation in refpect

Vou, XXXV,

to drynefs ; as where there is too great a degree of meilture
ia it, the tillage can neither be performed in a proper man-
ner, nor the feed-corn be put in without the danger of fuf-
taining injury by becoming rotten before the vegetative pro-
cefs takes place, as not unfrequently happens to pea and
other garden crops, when put into the foil during the moift
winter months : and where, on the contrary, the land is in
too dry a ftate, the tillage is improper to be effeted, as
caufing too much exhalation, by which the feed-corn, when
put in at fuch periods, may be much injured by the want of
that moifture which is neceflary for perfeét vegetation.
Under the laft circumftance too, it may be more fable to
be deftroyed by worms, grubs, and other infeéts. On
thefe accounts the arable farmer fhould, of courfe, be
equally attentive to the tillage preparation of the foil, and
the condition in which it may be cropped to the greateft
advantage, and with the greateft chance of fuccefs.

The writer of the “ Elements of Agricultural Chemiftry”?
ftates, that in all cafes of tillage, the eds fhould be put in
fo as to be fully expofed to the influence of the air. And
that one caufe of the unproduétivenefs of cold clayey ad-
hefive foils is, that the feed becomes coated with matter
impermeable to air. All immediate tillage, for putting in
crops, fhould confequently be performed as much as pof-
fible in fuitably dry weather on fuch forts of land.

In fandy foils, he fays, the earth is always fuficiently pene-
trable by the atmofphere ; but in clayey foils there can
{carcely be too great a mechanical divifion of the parts in
the procefs of tillage. :

In general, the beft and moft effe€tual method of break-
ing down and bringing land into the ftate of proper tillage,
is by the ufe of the plough and different other implements
of the harrow kind, fuch as thofe which have been noticed
above, fuited to the intention of the cultivator, and the pe-
culiar nature of the land or foil. The tillage with the
plough fhould conftantly be performed according to the
nature of the foil, and that of the crop which is to be fown
or fet, and the operations which are afterwards to be executed
upon it. But to whatever depth this may be proper to be
done, it is of much confequence to have it performed in an
exact and effectual manner ; as on this not unfrequently de-
pends the difference between a good and bad crop, as well
as that between the animals employed in the labour moving
with eafe and with difficulty. ‘The repetitions in the tillage
of this fort muft be conftantly regulated by the quality and
circumftances of the land and the defigns of the farmer, as
fome forts and cafes of land require much more tillage than
others. This point is moft decidedly evinced in the Agri-
cultural Survey of the County of Gloucefter. On the ©
Cotfwolds, it is the praétice, the writer remarks, to fow
their crops on on¢ ploughing, experience having proved that
frequent ploughings or tillage on thefe light foils, weaken
the ftaple of the land, and are produdtive of injury.

On the {trong lands or foils of the county of Effex, the
mott intelligent and fuccefsful pratical farmers, it is faid,
are thofe who are the moft careful in the repetition of tillage
of the plough kind, to which they conftantly attribute
great powers and effets. The ftrong heavy lands have it
eight or more times in many cafes, even for barley or oats ;
and on thofe which are lefs fo, the general fyftem of tillage
is mottly four or five times for the different fallow crops.
In this laft intention, it is not unufual to commence the firft
tillage ploughing towards November, continuing it nearly
or quite to the end of March, after barley fowing ; and if
at the firft period of fuch tillage the ridges be laid a little
round, fo as to be water-fhot, and after that well water-fur-
rowed, the tillage is greatly promoted. The land is moitly

4N firlt

TILLAGE.

firit broken up into ridges of eight or twelve nine-inch fur-
rows ; then croffed, and the tillage given in different ways
very often during the fummer feafon, carefully*turning up
and expofing every time a different furface, as much as pof-
fible, to the fun and air: before harveft it is got up on four-
furrow ridges, when, after that feafon is over, it has again
immediately another tillage ploughing ; and if the weather be
fuitable, it is done twice, leaying it upon the ridge for the
enfuing winter: the later the lait tillage furrow is given the
better, in this diftriét, for preventing the black grafs-weed

etting up ; after which the whole is well water-furrowed
taking off any water that may be upon it: by thefe
means the land is much earlier got upon in the {pring
feafon than could otherwife be done, and in confequence,
when the tillage for barley is performed, fuch fff tenacious
lands break down into the fineft tilth it is almoft poffible to
conceive.

In executing the work of tillage on ridges for wheat, or
any other fort of crop, great attention is here beftowed on
turning the furrows well, drawing them ftraight, making
them alike in fize, and lapping them with fuch regularity
on to each other, that the harrow tools cannot fail to lay
hold of them all with facility ; the fhutting-up furrow more
efpecially is drawn with perfect {traightnefs, exaCtly turned,
{wept out with cleannefs, and at the fame time the {pace
between the ridges not left in too wide a ftate.

But notwithitanding this great and frequent tillage, in
fome places they do not venture in the feed on the autumnal
furrow, but give a {pring plough tillage, though perhaps
fome other tool of the tillage kind might anfwer better in
many cafes, and be far more expeditious.

The mot proper and fuitable depths of tillage for differ-
ent forts of foils, have probably not yet been well afcer-
tained ; but fuch as have a good ftrong ftaple, require much
more deep tillage than thofe of the light kind... Whether
flat-work tillage, as praétifed in Norfolk, or that of feather-
edged, as employed in Effex, has the advantage, is not pro-
perly decided, but probably each may have a fuperiority on
different forts of land: the great point of importance is that
of allowing the covering of the feed well.

The plan of tillage given below has been advifed in the
Correéted Agricultural Survey of the County of Salop, for
the lighter forts of friable lands, on a farm of four hundred
acres: firft, the wheat {tubble is to be harrowed by drawing
the harrows one way, which lays the ftubble ; and by re-
turning back along. the fame ftroke, they draw the greater
part of that which was gathered by the harrows; anda
proper perfon following them with a fork, unloads them,
and lays the ftubble in heaps, to be difpofed of as directed
below.

This ftubble ground has the tillage of ploughing from the
middle of November to the end of the following month ;

about the beginning of March it has that of en em
ing given it, and when dry, well harrowed ; and when the
weather is fuitable, much of the couch-grafs is got out of
it and burnt; but when not fo, it is, in this way, checked
in its growth during the feed-time, and the bufinefs is more
eafily performed ; which is to be done in the month of Ma
and the two fucceeding ones, in which the fallow lands have
the tillage of three ploughings and fufficient harrowings to
prepare them for turnips, for which eight cubic yards of
reduced dung, or feventy-two buthels PEWS are laid
upon the acre; which are ploughed in at the laft tillage-
furrow, though fooner, it is thought, would be better, if
the dung be reduced enough by that time, or the land be fo
clean as not to require much harrowing. Turnip-feed, one
pound to the acre, is then fown from the 7th of June to the
10

14th of the following month, the plant being twice hoed ;
the average produce is from 2/. to 2/. 155.

As the fame land becomes cleared of its crop of turnips,
it has the tillage of ploughing and harrowing, preparatively
for a crop of barley: and being again tilled, by being
ploughed up in butts or lands five yards in width, from the
latter end of March to the latter ie the following month,
is fowed with three and a half ftatute bufhels of barley,
fourteen pounds of common red clover-feed, and one peck
of fine rye-grafs-feed to each acre: the average produce is
about forty bufhels, of the ftatute kind, of barley to the
acre.

The young clover which is not eaten between December
and May, in the part which is mowed, on an average pro-
duces about two waggon-loads, or a ton and a half to the
acre. In the fucceeding month of October, it is ploughed
in the tillage of nine-inch furrows and fix inches deep, and
fowed with two and a half bufhels of wheat: the produce
about feyenteen bufhels the acre. :

The turnip-crop is generally difpofed of fomewhat in this
manner : firit, by drawing home thofe under the hedges, at
the beginning of November, and fome of the largeit over
the reft of the field, taking all up where the horfes and carts
are to pafs. When the tops and fmall roots are cut off, they
carry them home, and place them in heaps of about twelve
cart-loads each, in the form of the cone of a wheat-rick,
covering them a foot thick with ftraw and thatch. Thefe
ferve as a refource in time of froft and fnow, for the beafts
that are ftall-fed, of which there are generally twenty yearly ;
and a man and boy, with one horfe and cart, oe them ;
leaving ultimately in the fields as many turnips to be eaten
off upon the land by fheep, as to enfure fertility enough for
the crops of barley, &c. as the barley, being too rank, com-
monly fpoils the young clover growing withit. Another
advantage in this plan of tillage, which is obtained by itall-
feeding with turnips, is the making a large quantity of
ftraw into manure at home ; which is the beit ie that can’
be made of it, as ftraw-food is not an improver of cattle-
ftock.

This method of tillage or cultivation for dry lands, 1s
recommended to thofe who have been in the praétice or cuf-
tom of long tillages, and without the ufe of general turnip-
ing, to be continued for fo long as two courfes of tillage,
that is, eight years ; by which time their land will be clean,
and more fit for what is conceived to be a more beneficial
mode of hufbandry, and which mode is now, it is faid, pur-
fued ; namely, firft turnips, managed and manured for as
above; fecond, barley; third, peafe, in rows one foot
afunder, hand-hoed and weeded; fourth, barley, with ten
pounds of common clover, four poundsof white Dutch clover-
feed, two pounds of trefoil-feed, and one peck of fine rye-
grafs-feed, eight cubic yards of rotten dung, or feventy-two
bufhels of ftone-lime laid upon the young clover in Noyem-
ber ; fifth year, mow or graze the land; the fixth, graze
until OGober; and the feventh, give a plough tillage, and
fow with wheat as before ; the it mucked for turnips, and
lime or compoft of lime, aad earth or mud, &c. laid on the
young clover in the autumn. This is believed to be a more
profitable courfe of tillage, after land has been got into
order, than that which was previoully praétifed, affording
a greater change, and thereby obviating the failure both of
turnips and clover, and occafioning more grafs-land, which
for many years has there exceeded the tillage in point of

rofit.
‘ As an improvement of wheat-lands, or mixed foils upon
clay, the mode of tillage directed below is adyifed to be
practifed. ‘
The

TILLAGE.

The turf or other land being well ploughed or tilled, and
laid dry before Chriftmas, in the following month of April
fow the land with four and a half {tatute buthels of oats,
plough and lay it dry in the autumn, and in the month of May
and the two following ones, give it three good tillage plough-
ings and harrowings, with {ome rollings, &c. fo as to reduce
it well; being thus drawn up and laid dry, it may continue
in that {tate to the middle of September ; though made both
fine and clean, it fometimes gets an adhefive and binding
quality, and confequently works lumpy, and therefore has
the texture and quality which the farmer, by miftake, 1s
afraid of lofing by making his land clean. It is, however, it
is faid, in the three above months, when the fun is powerful,
that land is to be cleaned by tillage : a ploughing in Auguit
is feldom of much worth.

If manured with lime, lay eighty bufhels upon the acre ;
if with dung, ten cubical yards to each acre, either ploughed
under at the July tillage ploughing, or before. From the
zoth of September to the roth of the fucceeding month,
fow whieat nine ftatute pecks to the acre, after having
foaked the fame not more than eight hours in mild brine,
and dried it with lime, to prevent the fmut. The next au-
tumn plough the corn ftubble, and at the end of March plant
beans or peafe in rows one foot afunder, hand-hoe and weed
them. Plough in the autumn, and fow oats in the fpring,
and lay down with ten pounds of red clover-feed, four pounds
of white Dutch clover-feed, and one peck of rye-grafs-feed
to each acre. Manure the land in feeds in the autumn, and
let it lie in fward two or three years, as it may be required.
At the next breaking up, plant the land with beans, hand-
hoe and weed them; the enfuing autumn fow it with wheat,
then with beans in rows, hand-hoe and weed that crop ; then
put in oats and lay down with feeds, as before. In lieu of
one of the hoeing crops, if the land be not too wet, pota-
toes may be planted, which would be found very profitable
to the wheat-land farmer ; being very ufeful food for feed-
ing or milking cows in the winter feafon. The farmer
fhould fallow for the firft crop in one tillage, and hoe the
next, and fo proceed alternately ; the fummer fun to wheat-
lands being certainly ufeful, and alfo the manuring with dung
or lime in an alternate manner. Where marle is to be pro-
cured at convenient diftances, nothing turns to more profit ;
upon open foils, with either clay or dry bottoms, marle laid
upon the {ward in the autumn, and to lie one year, is com-
monly the beft practice, efpecially if the marle be not per-
fe@ly good. Lime is fure to pay well the next tillage
courle.

On this mode of tillage it is, however, remarked, that good
farmers, on light foils, will entertain the plan here preferibed
with fome caution, and that their apprehenfions of a crop of
couch will often outweigh their hopes of a crop of clover.
That peafe are precarious ; one week’s hot weather whilit
in blow is often fatal to the crop.

It is added too, on the authority of Mr. Harries, after
noticing the infufficiency of fome fallow tillage lands, that
there are many a¢tive farmers who begin the tillage on their
fallows in January, and by repeated ploughings, harrowings,
and rollings, bring them into very good order for wheat.
Others graze the fecond year’s clover until about the middle

of the Fone! and fometimes mow it at that time : if the
foil be dry and the fummer favourable, they bring it into
very good tillage order by feed-time. It would, however,
it is thought, be better tillage hufbandry to raife a crop of
turnips on fuch lands, after wheat or barley. If this was
done, at leaft in every courfe of tillage,a good crop of wheat
would be grown upon clover lays, upon one tillage plough-
ing, at a lightexpence. It is frequently his cuftom to break

up his clover lays of the firft or fecond year, if they are
tolerably clean, upon one ploughing, putting upon the
plough a cutting tool or inftrument, which is there termed
a fay or flay, that cuts or pares off the furface turf, and lays
it in the bottom of the furrow. Lately, a clover lay was
worked with this inftrument upon the plough, and after the
feed was harrowed in, fearcely any of the furface turfy
matter came upon the ploughed furface, the field looking as
well, and appearing as clean, as though it had been fown
upon fallow tillage.

Some, however, on hollow lands, do not approve of this
{kimming or paring tillage ; as flicing the furface of fuch
foils they confider much worfe than turning it over in the
ordinary manner, and letting the furface vegetable matters
be laid into the furrows in a fort of diagonal pofition,
though fome of them fhould even appear out in the feams.
The notion is notwithitanding probably erroneous, as fuch
furface produce is always, in fome way or other, to be rotted
and got rid of, as in every mode of tillage it is ploughed in
or under, and the main point is how to get the moft {peedily
and completely quit of it, and to render it the moft ufeful
to the crop which is to be put in. Thefe are certainly, the
beft and moft fully accomplifhed by taking it wholly off by
fuch a cutting apparatus, and placing it at the bottoms of the
furrows, which mutt alfo leffen the hollownefs of the land
at the fame time.

In the breaking-up tillage of old grafs-lands, it muft be
executed in a manner fuitable to the nature, ftate, and quality
of the foil, whatever that may be, reducing and breaking the
turfy fward well and carefully down, and clearing it effec-
tually from infects and vermin of all forts by proper crops,
fuch as thofe of the pea, bean, teafel, and other fimilar kinds,
before the introduétion of thofe of the grain fort. In this
way, the lands will not only be the beft wrought into a pro-
per ftate of tillage, but the corn-crops the moft effectually
fecured from the danger of worms, grubs, and other noxious
vermin.

It has been remarked by the writer of the Correéted Agri-
cultural Survey of the County of Norfolk, that for the lait four
or five-and-thirty years that he has examined Welt Norfolk
with the eye of a farmer, the change in the tillage fyftem,
which has taken place in that vatt arable diftriét, has not been
great. At the early part of that period, the tillage courfe
was, it is faid, firft, turnips ; fecond, barley ; third, graffes
for two, or, in a few cafes, three years ; fourth, white corn :
on the better foils, wheat ; on others rye, &c. The only
material change that has occurred, has been, it is thought, in
the graffes: the variation, which, it is believed, firft took
place from forty to fifty years ago, was fhortening the
duration from three years to two ; in both cafes giving what
may be called a fort of baftard fallow the laft year, by means
of a half-ploughing, foon after the middle of the fummer.
Above thirty years ago, the writer, it is faid, eontended,
both in print and in converfation, again{t it, but was held
cheap for entertaining any doubts of the propriety of the
practice. He has lived, however, it is obferved, to fee this
change alfo in a great meafure take place amongft the beft
farmers, who now give only one ploughing for the winter
corn, whether wheat or tares; or in the {pring for peafe.
Thatit is an improvement cannot be queftioned, it is thought.
The argument for it, founded on the invention of the drill-
roller, and on the introduétion of the drill-plough, is good,
it is faid, but not fingular, as the practice of dibbling is like-
wife far more adapted to a whole than to a broken furrow 5
and for broad-caft common fowing, if we are able to cover
the feed by harrowing on ftiff foils, once ploughed, afluredly
the fame praétice might be better followed on fand. ‘The

4N2 other

fe iD

other reafon for the former fyftem, fpear-grafs getting
a-head in a layer, is quite inadmiffible, it is sag 3as he mu
entirely agree with Mr, Overman, a large tillage cultivator
in that diftri€t, that no weeds, the feeds of which are not
carried by the wind, will be found in a layer, if they were
not /eft there.

It is contended likewife, that the variations which have
taken place in the tillage crops put in upon layers, are neither
great, nor are they peculiar to the above county ; the prin-
cipal one is that of taking peafe on the flag, and then the
wheat, and others, an admirable fyftem, which, it is faid,
has long been praétifed by good farmers in Suffolk, and, it
is believed, {till earlier in Kent. That Mr. Purdis’s mode
of fubftituting tares holds on the fame principle. Confider-
ing the very great ufe and value of white pea-ttraw, well got,
as fheep food, which is no where better underftood than in
Kent, it is thought there is no tillage hufbandry better
adapted to a fheep-farm, than this of peafe or tares pre-
ceding the wheat crop.

But it is thought that a very great and important change
has taken place in the application of tillage crops to fheep
inftead of bullocks and cows. Formerly the farmers con-
fumed much of their ftraw by cattle ; now the beft of them
have it all trod into manure. Sheep are the main grazing
{tock, and no more cattle kept than for treading, not eating
ftraw while feeding on oil-cake and other fuch food. This
is, it is contended, a very important change, which has had
confiderable effeét, and which has depended not a little on
the introduétion of South Down fheep. Yet ftill, it is con-
ceived, that the grand objeét in the whole tillage fyftem,
is the fingular fteadinefs with which the farmers of Weft
Norfolk have adhered to the well-grounded antipathy to the
taking of two crops of white corn in fucceflion: this is
talked of elfewhere, it is faid, but no where fo fteadily ad-
hered to as in this diftrié.
which has preferved the effe& of their marle on thin-fkinned
lands of the wheat kind in fuch a manner, that the diftri€
continues highly produétive, under an almoft regularly in-
creafing rent for more than fixty years, or three leafes of
twenty-one years each ; and by means of which great tracts
have been marled a fecond, and even a third time with much
advantage. This tillage fy{tem, it is fuppofed, has been that
to which the title of Norfolk hufbandry has been long, and
is now peculiarly appropriated ; and by no means that of
the management of the very rich diftriét of Eaft Norfolk,
where the foil is naturally among the fineft in the kingdom,
and confequently where the merit of the farmer mutt be of
an inferior {tamp; barley there, it is faid, very generally
follows wheat ; an incorre¢t tillage hufbandry, deferving no
praife, but condemnation. The celebrity of the county in
general was not heard of, it is faid, until the vaft improve-
ments of heaths, waftes, fheep-walks, and warrens, by enclo-
fure, and marling took place in confequence of the exertions
of Mr. Allen, of Lyng-Houfe, lord Townfhend, and Mr.
Morley, who were in the firlt thirty years of the preced-
ing century. They were happily, it is faid, imitated by
many others; an excellent fyitem of tillage management
introduced, and {uch improvements wrought, that eftates and
lands which were heretofore too infignificant to be known,
became objeéts of public attention in the capital. The fame
of Norfolk, it is remarked, gradually expanded, and the
hufbandry of the county was celebrated before Eait Norfolk
was heard of beyond the converfation of Norwich and Yar-
mouth. It is, however, afferted, that without a continuance
of cautious tillage management and perfevering exertions,
Welt Norfolk would even again become the refidence of
poverty and rabbits. But let the meadows be improved ;

It is this maxim, it is faid,

si his Ge

irrigation be praétifed wherever it is applicable ; the remain-
ing waftes cultivated; and this diftri@ will, it is maintained,
become a garden. Such are the utility and importance of
good tillage and other fy{tems in the cultivation and improve-
ment of land. t

In concluding, it may be ftated from the Corre&ted Agri-
cultural Report of the County of Hereford, that the im-
portance of the tillage farmer cannot be difputed ; and yet
that perhaps no branch of the art of hufbandry is clogged
with fo many obftacles and impediments to its improvement
and fuccefs. The advantages of the grazing fyftem over
that of tillage-cultivation, hold out a great inducement to
the farmer to convert his tillage land into pafture, the imme-
diate effect of which muft be felt in the reduced quantity
and increafed price of grain of every defcription. And un-
fortunately, this is not the only obftacle or hindrance to the
tillage farmer ; the tax on horfes ufed in agriculture operates
alfo againft the proper tillage culture of the ground. It
was probably fuppofed, it is faid, by the framers of this
duty, that the number of horfes would thus be diminifhed,
and that of oxen increafed; but it fhould be recollected
that oxen, valuable as they fometimes are as auxiliaries, can
never be made the /ub/fitute of horfes for tillage ; their con-
ftitution and habits will not admit of it ; and the fhoe with
which they are occafionally furnifhed, affords but an im-
perfe& proteétion to the foot on hard lands or ftony
roads. See Tram.
No check, but every encouragement, fhould certainly be
given to tillage, or the means of raifing and providing the
bread-corn for the increafing population of the country. See
SuppLy and Confumption.

TitvaGe Farm, that fort of farm which is, for the moft
part, cultivated under the arable or tillage fyitem, or that
by means of the plough. See Farm.

TILLANDSIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linnzus,
in memory of an early Swedifh botanift, Dr. Elias Til-lands,
profeffor of phyfic at Abo, who died in 1692, aged 52,
after having publifhed in 1683 an o¢tavo alphabetical cata—
logue, in fein and Swedifh, of the wild, as well as culti-
vated, plants of the neighbourhood of his refidence. ‘This.
little volume was accompanied, or foon followed, by another,
confifting of rude, but often expreflive, wooden cuts, of 158:
plants, mentioned in the foregoing catalogue. It is a defe&
in thefe cuts that they are not always original; an inftance
of which occurred to the writer of the prefent article, while
preparing a critical differtation on fome Britifh fpecies of
Hieracium, fee Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 232. The Pilofélla,
t. 14. of Tillands proving a copy of ‘Tabernemontanus,
rendered his work of no authority in an important point ;
though fuch a defeét was not previoufly known, even to his
learned countryman the late Mr. Dryander; and the book
funk immediately in his eftimation, except as a rarity.—A.
curious reafon for the name of Tillandfia, as applied to the
genus of which we are about to {peak, is given by Linnzus
himfelf, in his Prele@iones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum,
publifhed by Gifeke, p. 291. “ Tillandfie cannot bear
water, and therefore I have given this name to the genus,
from a profeffor at Abo, who in his youth having an unpro-
pitious ig from Stockholm to that place, no fooner fet
his foot on fhore, than he vowed never again to venture him-
felf upon the fea. He changed his original name to Til-
lands, which means on, or By, land; and when he had fubfe-
quently occafion to return to Sweden, he preferred a cir-
cuitous journey of 200 Swedifh miles through Lapland, to
avoid going eight miles by fea.”” This circumftance is alfo
alltiaad toin the Tour in Lapland, publifhed from the journal
of Linneus in 1811, v. 1.43. One of the moft invidious

cenfors

TILLANDSIA.

cenfors of this great botanift has declared that he would
excufe a thoufand of his faults for the fake of the above
name alone.”—Linn. Gen. 158. Schreb. 212. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. rr. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 2. 202. Purfh 217. Juffl. 50. Lamarck Di&.
v. 1. 616. v. 7. 666. Illuftr. t.224. (Caraguata; Plum.
Gen. 10. t. 33. Renalmia; ibid. 37. t. 38.)—Clafs and
order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Coronarie, Linn.
Bromeliz, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, oblong,
erect, permanent, in three oblong-lanceolate, pointed feg-
ments. Cor. of one petal, tubular; tube long, inflated ;
limb fmall, ereét, in three obtufe fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments fix, linear, inferted into the tube of the corolla, and of
the fame length; anthers acute, incumbent, in the throat of
the tube. if. Germen fuperior, oblong, tapering at each
end ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; itigma
three-cleft, obtufe. Peric. Capfule elongated, bluntly trian-
gular, pointed, fcarcely feparated into more than one cell,
of three valves. Seeds feveral, cylindrical, each fupported
on a long italk of aggregate fibres, becoming a feathery
wing.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, three-cleft, permanent. Corolla
tubular, three-cleft. Capfule with three valves. Seeds on
a feathery wing.

1. T. utriculata. Bottle Tillandfia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 409.
Willd. n.1. Ait.n.1. (Vifcum caryophylloidesmaximum,
flore tripetalo pallidé luteo, femine filamentofo; Sloane
Jam. vy. ¥. 188.)—Leaves linear, channelled, recurved ;
dilated and inflated at the bafe. Stem clofely panicled.—
Found on the branches of large trees in Jamaica, where it is
known by the name of Wild Pine. Sloane obferves that the
long, tough, fmooth fibres of the root, which is perennial, do
not infinuate themfelves into the bark or wood, to draw
- nourifhment from thence, but merely grafp the branch,
fixing themfelves firmly to the bark for fupport. Stem
folitary, round, {mooth, leafy, three or four feet high.
Leaves numerous, often a yard long, channelled, entire,
_ tapering to a very flender point, recurved, itriated; paler
beneath, and clothed with extremely minute chaffy fcales
like powder; the radical ones greatly enlarged and tumid
at the bafe, where they form a fort of oval hollow veffel,
which holds a quantity of water, colleéted during the wet
feafon, from the rain trickling down the channels of the
leaves. In this it is faid that {mall aquatic animals fome-
times take refuge, while birds, and even men, are reported
to have hence derived a welcome fupply of drmk. The
water feems deftined to fupport the plant during drought,
when it could otherwife obtain nothing by its roots ; but
this flender ftock is enough to preferve life, and indeed a
confiderable degree of luxuriance. The flowers are of a
pale greenifh-yellow, with purple anthers, and compofe a
clofe branched panicle. The long branching down which
accompanies each /eed, and is inferted into its bafe, carries it
te a diftance, and readily clings to the rough barks of trees,
where the /eed {peedily vegetates. When the /fem is
wounded, a clear white mucilaginous gum exudes. Sloane.

2. T. ferrata. Serrated Tillandfia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 409.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n.2. (Caraguata clavata et f{picata,
foliis ferratis; Plum. Ic. 63. t. 75. f. 1.)—Leaves flat,
fmocth, with ftrong fpinous ferratures ; entire towards the
bafe. Spike compound. Braéteas with fpinous teeth.—
Native of Jamaica. Brought to Kew, with the foregoing,
by captain Bligh, in 1793. This is a large ftout perennial
plant, with the afpe&t of an Aloe, but not fo fucculent.
The aves are two or three feet long, and two inches broad,
their upper part efpecially bordered with hooked {pines ;

S

their under fide curioufly and minutely dotted between’the
numerous fine ribs. Stem and compound Spike befet with
broad, ovate, pointed draceas, whofe {pines are more direét
and tooth-like; the under fide ribbed and dotted in the
manner of the leaves.

3- T. lingulata. Tongue-leaved Tillandfia. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 409. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n.3. Jacq. Amer. g2. t. 62:
(Caraguata latifolia clavata; Plum. Ic. 63. t. 74. Vifcum
caryophylloides maximum, capitulis in fummitate conglo-
meratis ; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 189. t. 120.)—Leaves flat,
fomewhat tongue-fhaped, fmooth, entire, as well as the
crowded braéteas.—Native of old trees in the vaft forefts of
Martinico, as well as of Jamaica, where it is faid to colle@
water, like the firft fpecies. In fize it agrees with the
fecond, but the entire eaves, and the clofe leafy head or
{pike of flowers, abundantly diftinguifh that before us.
Jacquin fays the fowers are yellow, inodorous, three inches

long.

4- T. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Tillandfia. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 410. Willd. n. 4. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 591.
(Renalmia fpicd multiplici, anguftifolia, flore ceruleo ;
Plum. Ic. 234. t. 238. £2. Vifcum caryophylloides minus,
foliorum imis viridibus apicibus fubrubicundis, flore tripe-
talo purpureo, femine filamentofo ; Sloane Jam. y. 1. Igo
t. 122. f. 1.)— Leaves linear-thread-fhaped, channelled,
erect, taper-pointed. Spikes alternate, imbricated. Flowers
two-ranked.—Parafitical, like all the foregoing, on the
branches of trees in the Weft Indies. The ffem is a foot
high, fimple, entirely concealed by the broad fheaths of the
leaves which clothe it. The radical /eaves are very nume-
rous, above a {pan long, very flender, refembling thofe of
fome long-leaved kinds of Pinus, but more tapering and
channelled ; moderately dilated, fheathing, downy and ruity,
at the bafe. Thofe of the ftem are much fhorter, and
almoit fetaceous, though their bafe is ftill broader. Spikes
three or four, alternate, feffile, imperfe@ly two-ranked, lan-
eeolate, an inch long, proceeding from broad fheathing
braéeas. Flowers imbricated in two rows, blue. Linneus
quotes by miltake a fynonym of Jacquin, belonging to the
following.

5. T. flexuofa. Zigzag Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
590. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 4. (T. tenuifolia; Jacq.
Amer. 92. t. 63.)—Leaves linear-lanceolate, channelled, re-
curved. Spikes lax, zigzag. Flowers two-ranked, diftant.
—On trees near the fea in Jamaica, as well as near Cartha-
gena in South America. Extremely unlike the laft. The
‘eaves are very broad and concave in their lower part, con-
voluted about the bafe of the ftem, green, elegantly marked
with broad, whitifh, minutely fcaly, tranfverfe ftripes; their
points recurved in all directions. | Stem twice as tall as the
leaves, being two of three feet high, moftly fubdivided in the
upper part, invefted with clofe red fheaths, and terminating
in two or three long, lax, zigzag /pikes, with triangular
ftalks. Flowers about an inch or more afunder. Calyx
coloured, near an inch long. Corolla {till longer, with
reflexed fegments, at firft blue, then red, as we prefume
from Dr. Swartz’s defcription and the analogy of 7. frida
hereafter defcribed. Cap/ule long, of three cells, the valves
black and fhining on the infide.

6. T. fetacea. Setaceous Tillandfia. Swartz-Ind. Occ.
593. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves linear-thread-fhaped, recurved,
nearly fmooth. Spike fimple, with two-ranked imbricated
fheaths.—Found on trees in Jamaica. Stem a foot or more
in height, round, nearly upright, clothed with alternate,
broad, briftle-pointed fheaths. Radical aver nearly equal
in length to the-ftem, numerous, fheathing at the bafe,
greyifh, rigid, fomewhat mealy as it were, with very ae

cales.

TILLANDSIA.

{cales. Spike terminal, folitary, ovato-lanceolate. Flowers
alternate. Moft like 7. keegan n. 4, but differing in its
recurved Jeaves, and fimple folitary /pike..

4. T. paniculata. Panicled Tillandfia. Linn. Sp. Pi.
41o. Willd. n.7. Lamarck v. 1. n, 6. (Renalmia ra-
mofiffima, floribus variegatis et circinatis; Plum. Ic. 233.
t. 237-)—Radical leaves very fhort, lanceolate. Stem
panicled, twice-compound. Spikes erect. Segments of
the corolla linear, fpiral—Native of South America. We
know nothing of this fpecies but from Plumier, whofe figure
reprefents numerous, crowded, ere&, concave radical leaves,
and a jfem alternately branched from the very bottom,
with two-ranked reclining branches, laden with afcend-
ing /pikes. A copy, in our pofleffion, of his original
drawing fhews the flowers to be four inches long. —
We have no good authority for Browne’s fynonym, cited
by authors, nor does it, if correct, throw any light upon this
very obfcure fpecies. Lamarck informs us, from Plumier’s
manufcripts, that the fem is fometimes taller than a man ;
that the calyx is {potted with green and purple; corolla of
a violet blue, dotted with purple, its long narrow fegments
becoming fpiral as they expand. This is the circumftance
to which Plumier’s definition alludes. His greatly reduced
plate is not fufficiently exa& to explain it, and Linnzus in-
accurately copied folits for floribus, in which Willdenow, of
courfe, follows him without the leaft enquiry.

8. T. fa/ciculata. Fafciculated Tillandfia. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 586. Willd. n. 8.—* Leaves lanceolate-awlfhaped,
ereét, ftraight. Spikes lateral, two-ranked, imbricated.”
—Found on trees in Jamaica, in thickets near the fea-fhore.
Stem one or two feet high, leafy, fimple. Radical /eaves
broad, concave, and fheathing, at the bafe ; lanceolate and
tapering upward, very flightly recurved; downy exter-
nally ; thofe of the ftem fhorter, fomewhat imbricated, ovate,
with long awl-fhaped points. Spikes alternate, lateral and
terminal, two-edged, an inch broad, with imbricated ovate
braéeas, membranous at the margin. Flowers folitary.
Capfule an inch long. Swartz. Lamarck’s T. clavata,
cited by Willdenow with a mark of doubt, belongs to
T. monoflachya, n. 11, as evidently appears from Plumier’s
fynonym, the figure belonging to which thefe writers over-
looked.

g. T. nutans. Nodding Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
588. Willd. n.g. Ait. n. 5.— Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
membranous. Stem nearly naked. Spikes fubdivided,
drooping. Flowers feparate, ovate.’,—Native of branches
of trees on hills in Jamaica. Plant from one to two feet
high. Leaves all radical, tumid at the bafe, ftriated length-
wife, {mooth, much fhorter than’ the /fem, which is round,
clothed with membranous {triated fheathing fcales. Spikes
alternate, rather diftant, drooping, with angular /lalks.
Flowers diftinét, near each other, but not imbricated.
Corolla white. Capfule roundifh-ovate. Swartz.

to. T. polyflachya. Many-fpiked Tillandfia. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 410. Willd. n. 10. Scie {pica multiplici, flore
albo; Plum. Gen. 37; alfo as Linneus fuppofed, R. alia,
{pica multiplici, anguftifolia; ibid. 37. Vifeum caryo-
phylloides anguttifolium, floribus ceruleis; Catefb. Carol.
v. 2. 8g. t. 89? )—“ Stalk bearing imbricated lateral {pikes.”’
—Native of South America. We can make out nothing
further of this {pecies, nor how Linneus came to a know-
ledges of it, there being no fpecimen in his herbarium,
Swartz however appears to be acquainted with the plant ;
fee his remarks under n. 13. and 14.

11. T. monoflachya. Single-fpiked Tillandfia, Linn.
Sp. Pl. 410. Willd.n. 11. (T. clavata; Lamarck Dia.
y. 1. m4. Renalmia clavata, floribus niveis; Plum. Ie,

233. t. 238. f. 1. R. non ramofa fquamata, et floribus ni-
veis; Plum. Gen. 37.)—Leaves radical, linear, channelled,
recurved ; broad and fheathing at the bafe. Stem fimple,
clothed with imbricated feales. Spike fimple. BraCeas
ovate, concaye.—Native of the Weft Indies. Plumier ga-
thered it on old trees in Hifpaniola. The numerous radical
leaves {pread widely in every direétion, being about a foot
long, and two inches broad, fo much recurved that their
points touch the branch on which the plant is fixed. Stem
from fifteen to eighteen inches high, ereét, round, firm, quite
fimple, as well as its fpike. Braédeas white, flreaked or
dotted with red. Corolla {now-white; its limb in three
deep oyate fegments. :

12. T. pruinofa. Frofted Broad-leaved Tillandfia. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 594. Willd. n. 12.Leaves lanceolate, taper- -
pointed, recurved, clothed with fhaggy fcales. Spike
fimple, with imbricated, pointlefs, downy bra¢teas.—Found
on the arms and items of aged trees in Jamaica, as well as
in Brafil. Stem afoot or more in height, fimple, leafy. Ra-
dical leaves a foot long, fpreading varioufly, near an inch
broad at the bottom, but foon contraéted into a long taper
point, flat, denfely clothed all over with fhaggy, tern,
peltate, fhining fcales, the marginal ones flat, inbricated, and
much dilated ; /fem-leaves much fhorter and narrower. Spike
terminal, folitary, fimple, an inch long, ovate. Braéieas
ovate, bluntifh, concave. Corolla blue, longer than the
braéteas. Capfule oblong, triangular, {mooth, y

13. T. canefcens. Hoary Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Oce.

Willd. n. 13.—* Radical leaves linear, ereét, hoary,
as tall as the ftem. Spikes about three, terminal.’’—Native
of Jamaica, on trees near the fea-fhore. Perennial, about
a foot high, with fhort, fimple, curling, fibrous roots.
Stem fimple, leafy. Radical leaves imbricated, linear, rigid,
whitifh or hoary ; with very broad, ovate, concaye, tumid,
membranous, fheathing bales; /fem-leaves tapering, acute,
with more lax fheaths. Spikes ulually three, crowded at the
top of the ftem, feffile, ovate, acute, flattifh. Bradeas
two-ranked, imbricated, ovato-lanceolate, {mooth. Corolla
red, with long fegments. Nearly related to T. poly/tachya,
but that fpecies is taller, with recurved, zigzag, {mooth
leaves, and numerous, feattered, lanceolate pier Swartz.

14. T. anguftifolia. Narrow and long-leaved Tillandfia.
Swartz Ind. Occ. 596. Willd. n. 14.—** Leaves linear-
lanceolate, nearly ereét, {niooth, taller than the ftem. Spikes
fomewhat eluftered.”,—Found on the trunks and branches
of trees, in Jamaica and Hifpaniola. Perenmial. Stem
two feet high, nearly upright, fimple, leafy. Leaves all:
imbricated, broad and fheathing at the bafe, lanceolate,
narrow towards the end, ftraight, ftriated; the fheaths of
the radical ones broadeft, and rather inflated. Spikes nu-
merous, fcattered, fomewhat cluftered, alternate, feparated
by leafy fheaths, imperfe€tly imbricated, compreffed, lan-
ceolate, many-flowered, an inch and half long. Flowers
two-ranked. Braéieas imbricated, equitant, ovate, pointed,
keeled, ftriated, fmooth. Cap/ules elongated, pointed, tri-
angular, fmooth, extending beyond the braégeas. Thi
likewife is cautioufly to be diftinguifhed from 7. polyflachya,
by having more upright aves, longer than the /lem, and the
Jpikes {eparated by leafy /heaths. Swartz. Nothing 1s men-
tioned refpecting the colour of the Aowers.

15. I. fri@a. Frofted Stiff-leaved Tillandfia. Gawler
in Curt. Mag. t. 1529. Ait. Epit. 375. Banks Ic. Ined.
—Leaves chiefly radical, linear-lanceolate, channelled, re-
curved, minutely fcaly at the back. Stem fimple. Spike
folitary. Braéteas ovate, concave, imbricated, glaucous,
fmooth.—Found by Dr. Solander, on trees near Rio Janeiro,
in Brafil. Said to have been introduced into the eee

oves,

TILLANDSIA.

ftoves, by lady Neale, about the year 1799. The root is
fomewhat tuberous, with many tough fmooth fibres. Stem
about fix inches high, furrounded, and almoft concealed, by
the denfe tuft of very numerous radical /eaves, which are
fometimes all curved to one fide, five or fix inches long, pale
green, frofted, as it were, with hoary fcaly pubefcence,
thickeit towards the bafe. Spike three inches long, fimple,
many-flowered, with beautiful large white draéeas, tinged
and tipped with rofe-colour ; the lower ones ending in leafy
points. Calyx of the colour of the braéeas, but hardly fo
long. Corolla with obtufe, emarginate, conyolute feg-
ments, at firit of arich deep blue, but finally changing to a
deep red. Cap/ule dark brown, an inchlong. This 1s, no
doubt, very different from 7. manoffachya, though Linneus’s
account of that fpecies may be, as juitly hinted in the Bot.
Mag., incomplete. TZ. /lri@a flowers in November. It is
faid to live and bloffom when fufpended by a thread in a warm
room. Few plants are more elegant or fingular.

16. T. recurvata. Recurved-leaved Tillandfia. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 410. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 6. Purfh n. 1. Swartz
Obf. 121. (Vifcum caryophylloides minus, foliis pruine
initar candicantibus, flore tripetalo purpuree, femine fila-
mentofo ; Sloane Jam. y. 1. 190. t. 121. f. 1.) Leaves ra-
dical, awl-fhaped, fcaly, recurved. Stalks naked, two-
flowered.— Native of the trunks of old rotten trees, in Ja-
maica and the Brafils, as well as in Florida and Georgia,
growing in denfe tufts. The /fems are very fhort, clothed
with crowded, fpreading, recurved, fheathing /eaves, two or
three inches long, downy,with minute hoary {cales. Svalks
terminal, folitary, four inches high, flender, round, naked
and fmooth, each bearing at the top two upright flowers,
enveloped in a pair of fheathing, furrowed, dotted bradeas.
Segments of the corolla blue, obtufe, fcarcely extending be-
yond the calyx. Anthers yellow. Cap/ule an inch long,
flender, brown and fhining, enyeloped in the pale fegments
of the permanent calyx, which are as long, and nearly as
broad, as the valves.—Sloane fays it draws its nourifhment
from rain water, falling into the cavity made by the
leaves.

17. T. uf/neoides. Long-mofs Tillandfia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
41x. Willd. n. 16. Purfhn.2. (Vifcum caryophylloides
tenuiffimum, e ramulis arborum mujici in modum dependens,
foliis pruine inftar candicantibus, flore tripetalo, femine fila-
mentofo ; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 191. t. 122. f.2, 3. Cufcuta
ramis arborum innafcens, &c.; Pluk. Phyt. t. 26. f. 5;
alfo f. py eee much branched, thread-fhaped, twiited,
minutely {caly, as well as the awl-fhaped channelled leaves. —
Native of fhady woods from Virginia to Florida, as alfo of
the Weft Indies and the Brafils, flowering in July. The
long wiry contorted /lems creep over the {lems and branches
of old trees, and even along a rope or hair line, if put in their
way, the roots {carcely fixing themfelves, or deriving any fuf-
tenance, from either. The flowers are, according to Mr.
Purfh, of a yellowifh-green. When the hoary fhaggy coat
of the plant is feparated by beating or rubbing, the remains
_ of the ftems look like a mafs of curlmg black horfe-hair, and
ferve, like that, to ftuff mattreffes, &c.. In this denudated
ftate the ftems are reprefented, along with the periect plant,
by Sloane as well as Plukenet.

M. Poiret, in Lamarck Did. v. 7. 666—673, has greatly
enriched this genus, not only with all the {pecies publithed by
Dr. Swartz, and which we likewife have adopted, but alfo
with ten befides, adopted from the Flora Peruviana of Ruiz
and Payon. That our work may not be incomplete, we fhall
briefly mention thefe in the orderin which M. Poiret has ar-
ranged them, trufting to him for the references, which we
have not the means of confulting. He introduces them all,

except the laft, between the anguftifolia, our n. 14, and ré-
curvata, 1. 16.

18. T. tetrantha. Four-flowered 'illandfia. Poiret
n. 9. Fl. Peruv. y. 3. 39. t. 265.—Leaves radical, lan-
ceolate, imbricated ; recurved at the point. Stem ereé&.
Stalks reflexed, four-flowered.—Grows ‘on trees and rocks
in the forefts of the Andes, flowering in July and Augutt.
—Root of many fibres. Leaves radical, large, {potted with
red. Stems folitary, rather longer than the leaves, zigzag,
clothed with oyal, pointed, clofe, fcaly braéeas, of a
purplith rofe-colour ; the upper ones {preading almoft hori-
zontally, each of the latter bearing an axillary fa/é, fup-
porting four, nearly feffile, fowers. Calyx yellow, coria-
ceous. Corolla violet.

19. T. maculata. Spotted-leaved Tillandfia. Poiret
n.10. Fl. Peruy. v. 3. 40. t. 267.—Leaves radical, Jan-
ceolate-{word-fhaped, fhining ; revolute at the point. Pa-
nicle alternately branched. Spikes nearly fimple, many-
flowered.—Native of rocks and trees, in the middle of the
great forefts of the Andes, flowering from July to Septem-
ber. The /eaves are channelled, polifhed on both fides, co-
vered with red or purplifh {pots. Every part of the plant
is often red. Svems three feet high, fimple, jointed, with
an oval fcale, or braéea, at each joint. Panicle terminal,
eighteen inches long, red, compofed of alternate, nearly
fimple, /pikes, furmfhed with numerous, oval-lanceolate,
pointed bradeas, reddifh as well as the calyx. Corolla violet,

mall.

20. T. rubra. Red Tillandfia. Poiret n. 11. FI.
Peruv. v. 3. 40. t. 266.—Leaves radical, fword-fhaped,
fomewhat pointed. Panicle fimple, {pikes undivided.—Na-
tive of rocks in Peru, flowering in March and April. The
leaves are about two feet long, f{preading or recurved ; of a
fhining green above ; filvery white beneath. Stems folitary,
ere, two or three feet high ; clothed with fheathing feales
below ; terminating in a ftraight reddith panicle, compofed
of many fimple, alternate, oblong, lanceolate, divaricating
Spikes. Braéeas red, pointed, keeled, an inch in length.
flowers imbricated, feflile. Calyx yellowifh-red. Corolla
{mall, violet, with reflexed fegments.

21. T. parviflora. . Small-flowered Tillandfia. Poiret
n.12. Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 41. t. 269.—Leaves radical, awl-
fhaped, greatly dilated at the bafe. Panicle fimple. Spikes
from three to feven. Flowers two-ranked.—On rocks in the
forelts of the Andes, flowering from Auguit to Odtober.
Leaves very numerous, from fix to nine inches long, chan-
nelled, fpreading, whitifh, clothed with a multitude of mealy
{cales. Stems a foot high, flender, fimple, purplifh, with
diftant, awl-fhaped, channelled, whitith, fhort /fem-leaves, and
oval whitifh dradeas. Flowers {mall, white, alternate, on
zigzag partial talks. Cap/ule almoft eight times as long as
the calyx.

22. 'T. biflora. Two-flowered Tillandfia. Poiret n. 13.
Fl, Peruy. v. 3. 41. t. 268.—Leaves fword-fhaped, acute.
Stem racemofe. Flowers in pairs.—Found on the Andes,
flowering in Auguft and September. ‘This fpecies is often
proliferous.. Leaves nearly equal, ftraight, {preading,
itriated. Stems folitary, fimple, eighteen inches high, covered
with lanceolate fealy /heaths, or /lem-leaves, and terminating
in a fimple c/uffer, fix incheslong. Flowers on fhort ftalks,
in alternate pairs, furnifhed with elongated, lanceolate,
{triated draéeas, recurved and pale green at their extremity.
Capfules yellowifh, an inch long.

23. ‘T. purpurea. Rofe-coloured Tillandfia. Poiret
n, 14. Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 41. t. 270.—Leaves fword-fhaped,
tapering, channelled, recurved, clothed with mealy f{eales.
Panicle of many fpikes. Flowers two-ranked.—Fr pad ia

ttle

HEL

little hills about Lima, and in other fandy or ftony fituations”

in Peru, flowering in June and July. The perennial root
throws out many proftrate trailing /hoots. Leaves {preading,
fix to nine inches long, whitifh. Stems folitary, a foot high,
fimple, clothed with long awl-fhaped /heaths. Panicle rofe-
coloured, of from five to nine alternate /pikes, with oval, con-
cave, whitifh bra@eas. Flowers feffile, with rofe-coloured
brafeas and calyx. Corolla dark purple, with a white tube.
Capfule pale ; deep purple within.

24. 'T. heptantha. Seven-flowered Tillandfia. Fl. Peruy.
y.3.21. (T. heptandra; Poiret. n. 15.)—Leaves radical,
fword-fhaped, tapering, very acute. Spike folitary, fimple,
of about feven flowers.—Native of rocks and trees, among
precipiccs, in Peru, flowering from June to Auguft. Leaves
whitifh, and rather downy. Stem near a foot high, quite
fimple, fealy. Flowers feffile, in two ranks, with lanceolate
violet-coloured bradeas. Corolla white, tipped with violet.
We prefume that M. Poiret has erred in his {pecific name.

25. T. fefiliflora. Seffile-flowered Tillandfia. Poiret n. 16.
Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 42. t. 271.—Leaves radical, tongue-fhaped,
flat, obtafe. Spike folitary, fimple.—Native of Peru,
flowering in November and December. Root biennial.
Plant {mooth. eaves eight or nine inches long, and an
inch broad; the outer ones gradually fmaller. Stems flender,
a foot high, jointed, clothed with obtufe /heaths. Spike fix
inches in length. Flowers alternate, folitary, each with an
oval, concave, acute braéea. Corolla of a violet purple on
the infide.

26. T. capillaris. Capillary Tillandfia. Poiret n. 17.
Fl. Peruv, v. 3. 42. t. 271. f. C.— Leaves linear-awlfhaped.
Stem forked. Stalks axillary, moftly fingle-flowered, ca-
pillary, fmooth, thrice as long as the leaves\—On rocks,
walls, and. trees, in Peru, flowering in November and De-
cember. This fpecies is faid to be related in many refpeéts
to the T. recurvata, n. 16, but differs in having forked /fems ;
more numerous and broader /eaves, contraéted at their bafe,
and not recurved; capillary flower-ftalks; and folitary
bradeas to each flower. (We would obferve that the laft
charaéter is found in the recurvata.) The plant forms
denfe, leafy, whitifh, tufts, the /eaves being clothed with
very minute mealy fcales. Stems about fix inches high,
forked feveral times, furnifhed with two-ranked, crowded,
imbricated, reflexed, linear-awlfhaped /eaves, ftriated at
their bafe, and half clafping the ftem. Stalés ftraight, bear-
ing one or two flowers, with a folitary, ribbed, fmooth
braéea, and a leaf at their bafe. Calyx fcariofe, deep
violet. Corolla white, hardly longer than the calyx. _Anthers
yellow. Cap/fules linear, twice the length of the calyx,
dark violet within.

27. T. wirefcens. Greenifh Tillandfia. Poiret n. 20.
Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 43. t. 270. f. B.—Leaves linear-awlfhaped.
Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered, the length of the leaves,
with a folitary convoluted bra¢tea.—Native of rocks in
Peru, flowering in December and January.—A {mall {pecies,
forming denfe, proliferous, whitifh, warty tufts. Leaves
imbricated in two rows, reflexed at the point, ftriated at
the bafe. Flowers pale yellow. Cap/ule green, twice the
length of the calyx ; internally dark-purple.

ILLANJONG, in Geography, one of the Nicobar
iflands, in the Indian fea. N. lat. 8° 40!. E. long. 94° 9’.

TILLE, La, a river of France, which runs into the
Sane, about 3 miles below Auxonne.

TiLvf, a town of France, in the department of the Oife ;
3 miles N. of Beauvais.

TILLEE, a town of Bengal; 28 miles N.W. of
Dacca.

TILLEMANS, Peter, in Biography, was born at

ZI

Antwerp in 1684, and vifited England in 1708, where he
attraGed attention by his excellent copies from the piétures
of Bourgognone and Teniers, of whofe works he preferved
the freedom and fpirit. He alfo painted landfcapes with
{mall figures, views of gentlemen’s feats, fea-ports, &c. and
met with very confiderable employment. The duke of De-
vonfhire favoured him, and for him he painted a piéture of
Chatfworth, which gained him confiderable eclat. He
died here in 1734.

TILLEMONT, Lovts Sesastian te NaIn DE, a
French eccle‘iaftical writer, was born at Paris in 1637 ;
and in the fchool of the Port-Royal, into which he was
admitted at the age of ten, he difcovered promifing talents
and a pious difpofition. From early life he devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of ecclefiaftical antiquity, and made colle@tions,
principally relating to the firft fix centuries, with a view of
compofing a hiftory of the church. Modeft and diffident,
as well as learned, he deferred taking priefts’ orders till his
4oth year ; and having done this, he declined all preferment,
and retired firft to Port-Royal-des-Champs, ‘and then to
Tillemont, near Vincennes, profecuting his literary labours,
and keeping in view his main obje€t: he fubje€ted himfelf
at the fame time to very rigid penitentiary difcipline. His
aufterities and intenfe application debilitated his conftitution
to fuch a degree, that he died in 1698, at the age of 61
years.

The plan of his great work comprehended two parts,
viz. the fecular and the ecclefiaftical hiftory of the period
of which he propofed to treat. Accordingly the firft part,
entitled ‘* Memoires pour fervir a l’Hiftoire Ecclefiaftique
des fix premiers Siécles,’’ was comprifed in 16 vols. 4to.
of which four volumes were publifhed in his life-time,
and twelve more after his death. The other part, entitled
“« L’Hiftoire des Empéreurs et des autres Princes qui ont
regné durant les fix premiers Siécles de l’Eglife,” confilts
of 6 vols. 4to. the laft being left in MS. and not publifhed
till 1738, finifhing with the emperor Anaftafius. Dupin,
though he difapproves the method of Tillemont, obferves,
that great inftruction may be derived from his hiftory, efpe-
cially with refpeé to critical and chronological matters.
His ftyle merits no commendation. Gibbon, who often
quotes his Hiftory of the Emperors, and praifes his ferupulous
accuracy, finds frequent occafion to cenfure his bigotry,
and remarks, that ‘‘ he never difmiffes a virtuous emperor
without pronouncing his damnation.”? Moreri. Gen. Biog.

TILLENENSEE, in Geography, a lake of Pruffia, 8
miles W. of Lick. ;

TILLER, or Ti1rar, in Hufbandry, a little young tree,
left to grow till it be fellable.

Tixter is alfo a term ufed by farmers to fignify, that
the produce of the grain branches out into feveral ftalks ;
in which fenfe it denotes the fame thing with the Latin
word fruticare.

It has been fuggefted by the writer of the ‘ Elements
of Agricultural Chemiftry.” that in the tillering of corn,
that is, the produétion of new ftalks round the original
plume, there is every reafon to believe that oxygen muft be
abforbed ; for the ftalk at which the tillering takes place,
always contains fugar, and. the fhoots arife from a part
which is deprived of light. The drill-hufbandry is there-
fore fuppofed to favour this procefs; as loofe earth is
thrown by the hoeing round the ftalks; and they are pre-
ferved from light, and yet fupplied with oxygen. The
writer has counted from forty to one hundred and twenty
ftalks produced from a grain of wheat, in a moderately
good crop of the drilled kind. And we are informed,
it is faid, by fir Kenelm Digby, in 1660, that there was

in

|

BEL

in the poffeffion of the fathers of the Chriflian doctrine at
Paris, a plant of barley, which they, at that time, kept by
them as a curiofity, and which confifted of two hundred and
forty-nine {talks {pringing from one root, or grain; and in
which they counted above eighteen thoufand grains, or
feeds of barley.

It is noticed, too, that the great increafe which takes
place in the tranfplantation of wheat, depends upon the
circumftance, that each layer thrown out in tillering may
be removed, and treated as a diftin& plant.

The following ftatement is given in the fifty-eighth vo-
lume of the Db fochied Tranfations, at p. 203: Mr. C.
Miller of Cambridge fowed fome wheat on the 2d of June,
1766 ; and on the 8th of Auguft, a plant was taken and
feparated into eighteen parts, and replanted; thefe plants
were again taken up, and divided in the months of Septem-
ber and Otober, and planted out feparately to ftand the
winter, which divifion produced fixty-feven plants. They
were again taken up in March and April, and produced five
hundred plants: the number of ears thus formed from one
grain of wheat was twenty-one thoufand one hundred and
nine, which gave three pecks and three-quarters of corn,
that weighed 47lbs. 7 0z. ; and that were eftimated at five
hundred and feventy-fix thoufand eight hundred and forty

rains.

There is a number of fats and cafes of the vaft increafe
of grain crops by tillering, fcattered through the writings
on agriculture and hufbandry, which clearly fhew the great
utility and importance of it in the raifing of {uch crops.

Titier of a Ship, a long piece of timber (which

fhould be ftraight-grained and free from knots) fitted into
the head of the rudder as a lever, to turn it from one fide
to the other, in order to fteer the fhip. This term, or hich,
is ufed for the handle of a boat’s rudder.
_ Titter-Rope, a kind of tackle, communicating with the
fhip’s fide, and ufually compofed of untarred rope-yarn for
the purpofe of Fe esng more readily through the blocks
or pullies : this tackle ferves to guide and alfift the opera-
tions of the tiller, and in all large veffels is wound about a
wheel, which aéts upon it with the powers of a crane or
windlafs.

TILLERING, in Agriculture. See TrnueEr.

TILLEWALL, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Oberland ; 5 miles N.E. of Eylau.

TILLIE'RES, a town of France, in the department of
the Eure; 6miles N.E. of Verneuil.

TILLING, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-
land; 23 miles S.E. of Upfal.

TILLIUM, or Tizium, in Ancient Geography, a town
on the weftern coaft of the ifle of Sardinia, between the

sremontory Gorditanum and port Nympheus. Prtol.

TILLONGCHOOL, or Karcuat, in Geography, one
of the Nicobar iflands, of a triangular form, about 36 miles
in circumference. N. lat. 7° 58’. E. long. 93° 50’.

TILLOT, Leg, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges ; 12 miles S.E. of Plombieres. ’

TILLOTSON, Jonn, in Biography, a celebrated Englifh
prelate, defcended from an ancient family in Chefhire, was
the fon of Robert Tillotfon, a.clothier at Sowerby, in the
parifh of Halifax, Yorkfhire, where he was born in the

ear 1630. Having been brought up in the principles of
bie father, who was a Calviniftic puritan, and difcovering
an inelination to literature, he was entered in his 17th year
a penfioner of Clare-Hall, Cambridge. In 1651 he was
elected fellow of his college, and took pupils, to whofe
moral and religious inftrugtion he was duly attentive. At
this time, he was in his fentiments Calviniftic, heard fuch

VoL. XXXV.

BEL

preachers, and ufed extemporaneous prayer. His views of
theology were enlarged foon after he left college in 1656,
by the perufal of Chillingworth’s ‘ Religion of Proteftants.””
But retaining his attachment to the Prefbyterian form of
church government, he was received into the family of
Edmund Prideaux, attorney-general tothe Proteétor, as chap-
lain and tutor to his fon, He attended the Savoy conference
in July 1661, and preached a fermon (the firft which he
preached) at their morning exercife in Cripplegate, in the
month of September. Under the A& of Uniformity in 1662,
to which he fubmitted, he became curate at Chefhunt, in
Hertfordfhire. In London he was much admired as a
preacher, and was chofen minifter by one of the parifhes,
but declined accepting the office, becaufe the vacancy had
been occafioned by the refufal of Mr. Edm. Calamy to
comply with the Bartholomew A&. From a re@ory in
Suffolk, to which he was prefented, he removed to the office
of preacher to the fociety at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1664 he .
married the daughter of Dr. French, canon of Chriftchurch,
by a fifter of Oliver Cromwell ; and in 1665 he was ap-
pointed le€turer to the parifh of St. Laurence Jewry. His
reputation as a preacher was very confiderably increafed at
this time by his printed fermon, “* On the Wifdom of being
religious.”” His controverfy on popery commenced with
the publication of his Rule of Faith,”? in anfwer to a book
written by a convert to the Romifh church. The part he
took in a fcheme for comprehending diffenters under the
eftablifhment, evinced his refpe& for that defcription of
Chriftians and Proteftants. (See Comprenension.) In
1666 he took his degree of D.D., and in 1669 he was
made a king’s chaplain, and was prefented to a prebend
of Canterbury. When king Charles, in 1672, iffued a de-
claration for liberty of confcience, with a view of favouring
the Roman Catholics, the bifhops took the alarm, and
recommended to the clergy to preach againft popery.
The king was difpleafed, and Tillotfon, at a meeting of the
clergy convoked by the bifhop of London, fuggefted the
following apology for their conduét: ‘ That fince his ma-
jefty profeffed the Proteftant religion, it would be an une
precedented thing that he fhould Pate his clergy to preach
in defence of a faith which they believed, and which he
declared to be his own.’’ Soon after this he preached
a fermon at Whitehall on the hazard of falvation in the
church of Rome; and yet, offenfive as this fermon mutt
have been, he was advanced, in 1672, to the deanery of
Canterbury, which was followed, in 1673, by a prefentation
to a prebend of St. Paul’s. At this time he publifhed
Dr. Wilkins’s “ Principles of Natural Religion,’ with a
recommendatory preface ; and the author, who died in his
houfe, committed to him the difpofal of his papers. A
fimilar truft was repofed in him by Dr. Barrow. His
dread of popery induced him, in 1680, to preach before the
king a fermon, afterwards publifhed by the royal command,
andentitled ‘“ The Proteftant Religion vindicated from the
Charge of Singularity and Novelty.’? In this fermon a
paragraph was introduced which incurred the charge of
intolerance. ‘ I cannot think,’’ fays he, “ till I be better
informed, which I am always ready to be, that any pretence
of confcience warrants any man that is not extraordinarily
commiffioned, as the apoftles and firft preachers of the
gofpel were, and cannot juftify that commiffion by miracles,
as they did, to affront the eftablifhed religion of a nation,
though it be falfe, and openly to draw men off from the
profeflion of it, in contempt of the magiftrate and the law.
All that perfons of a different religion can in fuch a cafe
reafonably pretend to is, to enjoy the private liberty and
exercife of their own confcience and religion, for which

40 they

TILLOTSON.

they ought to be very thankful, and to forbear the open
making of profelytes to their own religion, (though they
be never fo fure that they are in the right,) till they have
either an extraordinary commiffion from God to that pur-
pofe, or the providence of God make way for it by the
permiffion of the magiftrate.”” The king flept while the
preacher delivered the fermon, but a nobleman at the clofe
of it faid to him, “ It is a pity your majefty was afleep, for
we have had the rareft piece of Hobbifm that ever you
heard in your life,” to which Charles replied, ‘* Oddsfith,
then he fhall print it,’? which was the caufe of the order.
The paragraph was unworthy of Dr. Tillotfon, and gave
very general offence, both to the eftablifhed clergy
and Prefbyterians. ‘Tillotfon was an ardent promoter of
the Bill of Exclufion, nor would he concur in the addrefs
of the London clergy to the king on his declaration that
he could not confent to fuch a bill. In 1682 he took oc-
cafion to vindicate the charaéter of Dr. Wilkins from the
afperfion of Anthony Wood, by a preface to a volume of
fermons, which he publifhed from the doftor’s MSS. He
was alfo the editor, in 1683, of Dr. Barrow’s fermons, in
3 vols. fol. It has been regretted as an inconfiftency in
the charaéter of Tillotfon, that when in company with
Burnet he attended lord Ruffel preparatory to his execution,
they fhould urge this martyr to liberty to acknowledge the
abfolute unlawfulnefs of refiftance, though they were foon
after decided friends to the revolution. By a “ Difcourfe
againft ‘Tranfubftantiation,” and another “ eae Pur-
gatory,’’ he commenced a prolonged controverfy with the
Papilts. In 1685 he avowed himfelf a warm advocate for
affording charitable relief to the French refugees, on the
repeal of the edi€&t of Nantes; and in reply to Dr. Beve-
ridge, the prebendary of Canterbury, who objected te read-
ing a brief for this purpofe, as contrary to the rubric, he
remonttrated, by faying, ‘* Do&tor, Doétor, charity is above
rubrics.”? After the fitietient of the prince of Orange at
St. James’s, he was inftrumental in perfuading the princefs
Anne, ‘who confulted him, to acquiefce in giving up her
claim to the crown during the life of William, in cafe of
her fifter’s dying before him. After the revolution, no
obftacle remained to the full gratification of his defires of
advancement, which, however, he profeffed to be very
limited. In 1689 he was appointed clerk of the clofet
to the king, and permitted to exchange the deanery of
Canterbury for that of St. Paul’s. During archbifhop San-
croft’s fufpenfion for refufing to take the oaths to the new
government, Dr. Tillotfon was appointed to exercife the
archiepifcopal jurif{dition ; and it was then determined that
he fhould have poffeffion of the fee. His whole condué& at
this time evinced his attachment to the principles of toleration
and civil liberty ; and he was aétive in his endeavours for
promoting a comprehenfion, though they ultimately proved
unfuccefsful. He alfo failed in introducing a new book of
Homilies; and in a fermon preached before the queen,
again{t the abfolute eternity of hell torments, he excited the
refentment and oppofition of the orthodox party. After
fome reluctance on his part, he was confecrated to the arch-
bifhopric of Canterbury in May 1691, and alfo in a little
while fworn a member of the privy-council. From this
time he became very obnoxious to the high-church zealots,
who attacked him in a variety of ways. Among other
charges againft him, one was his attachment to Socinian
principles, which feems to have had no other foundation than
his rational defence of Chriftianity, and his friendfhip and
intercourfe with Locke, Limborch, and Le Clerc; and for
repelling which, he caufed to be republifhed, in 1693, four
of his mbit “ On the Divinity and Incarnation of our
8

Saviour.”’—“ If this be Socinianifm, for a man to inquire
into the grounds and reafons of the Chriftian religion, and
to endeavour to give a rational account of it,” fd he in
one of his pofthumous fermons, alluding to this charge,
and alfo to the charaGter of Chillingworth, “I know no
way but that all confiderate inquifitive men, that are above
fancy and enthufiafm, muft be either Socinians or Atheifts.’”
Dr. Jortin, in reference to this unfounded accufation, ob-
ferves, “ Tillotfon had made fome conceffions concerning
the Socinians, which never were, nor ever will be, forgiven
him, and had broken an ancient and fundamental male of
theological controverfy : ‘ Allow not an adve to have
either common fenfe, or common honefty.’ ?? After an
examination of bifhop Burnet’s expofition of the thirty-nine
articles, which he fent him in MS., he concludes his
eulogy on the bifhop’s prudence and ability with obferving,
“The account given of Athanafius’s creed feems to be no-
wife fatisfaGtory ; I with we were well rid of it.”? The
archbifhop’s affiduity and zeal in the duties of his exalted
ftation were highly exemplary and laudable ; and yet they
were not fufficient to filence the clamours of his enemies.
At length the period of his ufefulnefs terminated, in confe-
quence of a paralytic ftroke, which feized him, November
1694, in the chapel of Whitehall, and which, on the fifth day,
proved fatal, in the 65th year of his age. His funeral, at
the church of St. Laurence Jewry, was attended by many
perfons of rank. He left a widow, but no children; and
as he took no pains to accumulate property, his debts could
not have been paid, if the king had not remitted his firft-
fruits ; and the copy-right of his fermons was the only pro-
vifion which he left for his widow, to which a penfion, fet-
tled upon her by the crown, was added.

“ The temper and charatter of Dr. Tillotfon,” fays one
of his biographers, ‘ were intitled to every encomium.
He was humble, open, and fincere, of kind and tender
affection, extremely bountiful in his charities, and forgiving
of injuries, in which laft virtue he was feverely tried. His
public principles bore the ftamp of his difpofition; they
were philanthropical, tolerant, and liberal; and if he re-
tained fome predileétions for the feét in which he had been
educated, the chief profeffional fault with which he has been
charged, candour will make due allowance for the effeé&t of
early habit. In fome points he was, perhaps, too compliant,
and was led into fome inconfiftencies ; but the times were
difficult, and his intentions feem to have been always pure.
As a writer, he is principally remembered for his fermons,
which have long maintained a place amongft the moft popular
compofitions oe that clafs in the Englifh language.. A folio
volume, comprifing his ‘ Rule of Faith,” and fermons,
was printed in his life-time ; and after his death two more
folio volumes of fermons were publifhed by his chaplain,
Dr. Barker. Abroad, as well as at home, his works have
been held in high eftimation. The charaéter given of them
by Le Clerc, in his Bibliotheque Choifie,” is as follows :
“The archbifhop’s merit was beyond any commendation
he could give. It confifted in the union of extraordinary
clearnefs of head, great penetration, an exquifite talent of
reafoning, a profound knowledge of genuine theology,
folid piety, a moft fingular perfpicuity, and unaffected at
gance of ftyle; with every other quality that could be
defired in a man of his order ; and whereas compofitions of
this kind are commonly mere rhetorical and popular decla-
mation, better to be heard from the pulpit than read in
print, his are for the moft part exa& differtations, capable
of bearing the teft of the moft rigorous examination.’””
Addifon confidered the fermons of Tillotfon as a ftandard
of purity of the Englifh language. Dryden aan

at

ofa ae

that if he had any talent for Englifh profe, it was derived
from frequent perufal of Tillotfon’s writings. Mr. Mel-
moth, however, in his ‘ Fitzorbone’s Letters,’’ expreffes a
very different, and in our judgment a lefs juft, or to fay the
leaft of it, a lefs candid opinion. He fpeaks of “ his words
as frequently ill chofen, and almoft always ill placed ; his
periods as tedious and unharmonious ; and his metaphors
as generally mean, and often ridiculous.” Notwithftand-
ing thefe reflections, Tillotfon’s fermons, though furpafled by
the correétnefs and elegance of modern compofitions in this
department, and lefs perufed than formerly, will not ceafe
to be regarded as a valuable part of Englifh literature.
Birch’s Life of Archbifhop Tillotfon. Biog. Brit. Gen.
Biog.

TILLS, in Agriculture, aterm fignifying tares or vetches
in many places, in both the northern and fouthern parts of
the kingdom.

TILLURAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 21
miles E.N.E. of Purneah.—Alfo, a town of Hindoottan, in
Bahar ; 22 miles S. of Patna. N. lat. 25° 14’. E. long.
85° 22!.

TILLY, atown of Canada, on the St. Laurence; 10
miles S.W. of Quebec.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Meufe; g miles S. of Verdun.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Eure; 7 miles
S.E. of Grand Andelys.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of, the Sambre and Meufe; 6 miles W. of
Gemblours.

Titty Ja Campagne, a town of France, in the department
of the Calvados; 4 miles S.S.E. of Caen.

Titty Verolle, a town of France, in the department of
the Calvados ; 9 miles W. of Caen.

Titty Land, in Agriculture, that fort which is, for the
moit part, conitituted and compofed of materials of the till
kind.

Thefe kinds of land, in their original ftates, are in gene-
ral of a very barren and unproduétive nature ; but when they
have been fully turned over by the plough or other means,
well and effectually wrought and reduced by other proper
tools, and their parts completely divided and expofed to the
alternate action of different agents, fuch as thofe of froft
and thaw, of drought, dews, and rain, with the many other
improving effeéts of the atmof{phere which furrounds them ;
and withal ftimulated, feparated in their parts, and enriched
by calcareous and other fuitable manures and fab{tances,
they become, in various initances, of a far lefs ftrong and
itubborn nature, and greatly more difpofed to the raifing of
good and plentiful crops upon them. They are commonly
much ameliorated and improved at firft by growing beans,
tares, and rape in fucceflion with wheat and other fuitable
forts of grain, having the green crops fo managed as to
ftand as clofe, thick, and {mothering as poflible on the land.
See Lanp and Sot.

TILMUS, zApos, a term ufed by fome of the medical
writers to exprefs the effet of a fort of delirium, in which
people pull the bed-cloaths, or pick out threads from the
fheets. This is ufually efteemed a dangerous fymptom.

TILNOR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 60 miles
N.N.W. of Midnapour.

TILO-GRAMMUM, Ouci1, or Ongli, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of India, fituated, according to Ptolemy,
to the right of the moft weftern arm of the Ganges, about
22° lat.

sILOTAMA, a nymph celebrated for her beauty in
the mythological and amatory poems of the Hindoos. She
appears to have been one of that numerous clafs of females,
who, under the name of Upfara, arofe from the churned

ea

ocean, as deferibed under our article KuRMAVATARA: a
fable as prolific of poetical incident, and as often referred
to, as any in the whole range of invention. The chief of
thefe Upfaras, or water-nymphs, was Rhemba, of whom
{ome mention is made under her name in this work. They
are defcribed in numerous Hindoo poems with all the warmth
and fancy that may be predicated of “ youthful poets when
they love ;”? and in terms too glowing for readers beyond
the tropics. Under the name of another of thefe beauteous
damfels, Menaxa, we have faid fomething of them. See
alfo Upsara.

The name of the elegant nymph, the fubjeét of this ar-
ticle, occurs in an infeription on a copper-plate found in the
Deccan, bearing date A.D. 1359. ‘The infcription is given
in the 9th volume of the Afiatic Refearches, and records a
grant for pious purpofes. After much adulation of the
mother of the royal donor, it is faid that “ by the charms
of her graceful gaiety fhe ob{eured Tilotama.”?

TILOUTTAH,, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bahar; 10 miles S.S.E. of Saferam. N. lat. 24° 48!.
E. long. 84° 15/.

TILOX, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on the
northern coaft of the ifland of Corfica, between the mouth
of the river Valerius and Cefie Littus.

TILPHOSS UM, a {mall country of Greece, in
Theffaly.

TILSIT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the Lithu-
anian department, large, rich, and commercial. It obtained
the privileges of a city in the year 1552, though the caftle is
{aid to have been ftanding fo early as 1289. The river Memel,
which runs along the N. fide of the town, opens to it a very
advantageous trade with Konigfberg, in corn, linfeed, butter,
and other provifions. ‘Tilfit, properly fo called, confifts of
two long ftreets, of a proportionate breadth, which are
called the German-ftreet and the High-ftreet, contiguous to
which are the fuburbs called the “ Liberty.”” The number
of houfes in this city is about 600, and the inhabitants
amount to 7000 fouls. The ecclefiaftical buildings are an
evangelieal or Lutheran German church, a Lithuanian
church, and a Calvinift or reformed church. Without the
town is a Lutheran chapel, and about an Englifh mile from
it a Roman Catholic chapel. The flat country about Tilfit,
which is about 16 miles in length, and as many in breadth,
is one of the moft fertile {pots in the whole kingdom: the
inhabitants of it breed great numbers of horned cattle, and
furnifh not only Pruffia, but likewife other provinces, with
excellent butter and cheefe ; and the fifheries in this place
are alfo confiderable. The horfes are large and ftrong, but
clumfy. Barley is almoft the only grain fown in thefe parts,
which afford little or no wood. . The marfh-land is, in {pring,
expofed to inundations by the overflowing of the rivers,
which often do great damage. In 1807, it was taken by
the French; foon after which a peace was made between
France, Ruffia, and Pruffia, called the “ Peace of Tilfit;
50 miles N.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 55° 8. E. long,
2204 S\e

TILT. See TourNAMENT.

Tit, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying the arched or
other covering of a cart, waggon, or other carriage.

The hoops for fupporting the tilts in thefe cafes, may be
faftened upon the fides of the carriage-frames, after being
properly prepared and bent in a fort of half-cireular man-
ner, in feveral different ways, but the faftening by means
of fcrews is probably the beft, where they are to remain
fixed.

Titt-Boat, a boat covered with a tilt, i. 2 a cloth, or
tarpawling, fuftained by bails or hoops oyer the ftern, for

402 the

TD de

the fheltering of paffengers. Such are fome of thofe which
earry paflengers between London and Gravefend.

Titt-Hammer, is a large and heavy hammer, adapted to
be put in rapid motion by the power of a water-wheel or
fteam-engine.

The tilt-hammer is diftinguifhed from the lift-hammer,
or forge-hammer, by the manner in which it is lifted up
by the cogs of a wheel which is turned by the mill.

The forge-hammer is mounted on a centre of motion at
the extremity of the haft or helve of the hammer oppofite
to the head of the hammer, and the cogs of the wheel ope-
rate beneath the helve near the head, to lift or tofs up the
hammer againft a ftrong wooden {pring called the rabbit,
which is firmly fixed over the head of the hammer. This
fpring refle&ts the hammer down upon the anvil with greater
force and {martnefs than the hammer would defcend by the
ation of gravity alone. A lift forge-hammer is defcribed
under the article Iron. See Plate 1V. [ron Manufadure.

The tilt-hammer is poifed on pivots or a centre of motion,
which is about the middle of the length of the helve, or
fometimes at two-thirds from the head. The cogs of the
wheel are made to act on the tail of the helve beyond the
centre of motion, and they prefs down the end of the tail,
and thus caufe a correfpondent elevation of the head of the
hammer. Sometimes the {pring is placed over the head of
the hammer, the fame as a hft-hammer; but more commonly,
the tail of the hammer is made to ftrike againft a fixed floor ;
and when the head of the hammer is thrown up fuddenly,
the momentum given to it caufes the head to rife up after
the tail ftrikes the floor, and thus bends the helve, which by
its elafticity caufes the head of the hammer to defcend
{martly upon the anvil.

The zi/t-mills in the neighbourhood of Sheffield are very
fimple: they are worked by a {mall water-wheel, upon the
axis of which is a wheel with a great number of cogs, fixed
in its circumference. Thefe fucceflively deprefs the tail of
the hammer, and raife its head: the hammer falls by its own
weight, aided by the fpring of the helve, upon the hot
metal. The fize of the water-wheel, and the number of
cogs in the wheel, are adapted to produce from three hundred
to four hundred ftrokes per minute.

This great number requires the water-wheel to move with
a velocity which is inconfiftent with the beft mode of apply-
ing the fall of water, becaufe it is well known that water,
as well as any other heavy body, can only defcend with a
certain fpeed. If, therefore, the floats of the wheel are re-
quired to turn with a great rapidity, it is evident the pro-
portion of work the wheel will perform, will be but {mall in
proportion to the quantity of water expended. For this
reafon, it is found to be a great improvement in tilt-mills to
add cog-wheels which will give the hammers a fufficient
velocity, while the water-wheel turns at fuch a rate as is found
to produce the greateft power from a given quantity of
water.

A capital mill of this kind is delineated in Plate VIII.
Tron Manufadure. Yt was made at the Carron iron-works
in Scotland, after defigns of the celebrated Mr. Smeaton.
It is adapted for forging iron into bars, and has three tilt-
hammers of different powers for different kinds of work.
Thefe hammers are not made to ftrike fo quick as is ufual
in the Sheffield mills for the tilting and drawing out fteel
bars; but by giving a greater number of cogs to the wheels,
thé requifite rapidity may be obtained without increafing the
fpeed of the water-wheel. A capital mill was built at Shef-
field about fix years ago, which is on Mr. Smeaton’s plan,
except in the proportions of the wheels, and its performance
is fuperior to any of the other tilt-mills. ‘

Ti

A A, in the plan fig. 1. are the walls of the building ;
BB the great water-wheel, which is of the kind called a
breaft-wheel. (See Warer-Wheel.) It is 18 feet diameter
and 5 feet broad. The total defcent of the water which ac-
tuates it is 7 feet 2 inches, and it falls upon the float-boards
rather below the centre of the wheel, being retained againit
the floats by what is called the breafting, that is, a {weep or
curved wall of mafonry, which is accurately adapted to the
float-boards of the wheel, and as clofe to them as is poffible,
to avoid touching. :

The axis c of the water-wheel is carried through the
wall A, and on the extreme end of it is a large iron 1
D, of go wooden teeth, 9 feet 6 inches diameter. This
turns a pinion E of 3o teeth, and 3 feet z inches diame-
ter. The pinion is fixed on one end of a caft-iron axis
GG, which is made very large, for ftrength, and hollow
within, like a pipe. —The gudgeons é and G are fixed inte it
at each end, and upon thefe gudgeons it revolves. F Fis a
caft-iron fly-wheel, fixed on the axis clofe to the Pinion 5 it
is 12 feet diameter, and the rim 6 inches by 5. The
weight is very confiderable, and gives it a momentum to
regulate the motion of the whole mill, and equalize all irre-
gularities which arife from the fucceffive aGtions of the mill
to raife the three hammers, L, M, and N.

Each hammer has a feparate cog-wheel, K, I, and H, to
give it motion, which is effected by the cogs of thefe wheels
aéting upon the tails of the hammers and preffing them down.
This is explained by the elevation fig. 2. where e is the iron
head of the hammer, f its centre of motion, and d the tail
or extreme end, upon which the cogs of the wheel aét, and
which is plated with iron on the upper fide, to prevent it
from wearing.

P is the anvil-block, which mutt be placed on a very firm
foundation, to refift the inceffant fhocks to which it is fub-
jected: the centre, f, or axis of the hammer, is fupported
in a caft-iron frame, g 4, called the hirft. When the cogs
of the wheel ftrike the tail of the hammer fuddenly down,
and raife the head, the lower fide of the tail of the hammer
ftrikes upon a fupport 2, which aéts to ftop the afcent of
the head of the hammer e, when it arrives at the defired
height ; but as the hammer is thrown up with a confiderable
velocity as well as force, the effort of the head e to con-
tinue its motion, after the tail ftrikes the ftop m, a&s to
bend'the helve L of the hammer, and the elafticity of the
helve recoils the hammer down upon the anvil with a re-
doubled force and velocity to that which it would acquire
from the aétion of gravity alone. _

To obtain this aétion of recoil, the hirft g5 muft be
held down as firmly as poflible; and for this Puree, four
{trong iron bolts are carried down from the four angles of
the bottom plate 4, and made falt to the folid bafis of ftone
RR, upon which the whole refts: upon this bafis are
placed four layers of timbers, i, 4, 7, m, which are laid’ one
upon another, and the timbers of each layer are kaid crofs-
ways over the others. Each layer confifts of feveral pieces
laid fide by fide, and they are flightly treenailed together,
to form a platform. Each platform is rather lefs than that
upon which it refts, fo as to form a pillar of folid timber ;
on the top of which the hirft-frame gh is placed, and
firmly held down by the four bolts, which defcend: Were
all the platforms, and have fecure faftenings in the folid
mafonry beneath.

The ftop n is fupported py a fimilar pillar, but fmaller,
and compofed of three layers: the upper piece 2, whieh is
feen croflways in fig. 2, is about three feet long, and the
under fide is hollowed, fo that the piece bears only upon
the two ends, leaving a vacancy beneath it, which occ’ ions

it

ae

it to bend or fpring every time the tail d of the hammer
{trikes upon it, and this aids the recoiling aétion very
much.

The axis on which the hammer moves is formed by a
ring of caft-iron, through which the helve of the hammer
is put, and held fait by weap round it. The ring has
a projecting trunnion on each fide, ending in an obtufe
conical point, which is received in a focket firmly fixed in
the hirft-frame g4 by {crews and wedges, one of which is
feen at r. Thefe two fockets are thus capable of adjuit-
ment, fo as to make the hammer face fall flat upon the
anvil. The three wheels K, I, H, are of different fizes and
numbers of cogs to produce that velocity in each hammer
which is beft adapted for the work it is to perform: thus,
the wheel K for the great hammer has eight cogs, and there-
fore produces eight blows of the hammer for each revolu-
tion of the fly-wheel ; the wheel I for the middle hammer
has twelve cogs; and the wheel H for the {mall hammer
fixteen; the latter will therefore make two ftrokes for every
one of the great hammer. In fixing the three wheels upon
the great fhaft GH, care is taken that they fhall produce
the blows of the different hammers in-a regular fucceffion,
and equalize as much as poffible the force which the water-
wheel muit exert. The wheels are fixed upon the fhaft
by means of a wedging of hard wood, driven in all round;
the wood, being capable of yielding a little to the fhocks
occafioned by the cogs meeting the tails of the hammers,
renders the concuflions lefs violent.

The following are the principal dimenfions :

‘The head of the great hammer, P, weighs 34 cwt., and it
is intended to make 150 blows fer minute: it is lifted 17
inches from the anvil at every blow.

The middle hammer, M, is 2cwt., and makes 225 blows

r minute: it is lifted 14 inches each time.

The {mall hammer, N, weighs 13 cwt., and makes 300
blows fer minute: it is lifted only 12 inches.

To produce thefe velocities, the great axis G muft make
183 turns fer minute ; and the cog-wheels E and D, being
in the proportion of one to three, the water-wheel mutt
make 64 revolutions per minute; the water-wheel being
18 feet diameter, its circumference will be 18 x 3.1416 =
56.54, or 565 feet : this multiplied by 6.25 is about 353 feet
motion fer minute, or divided by 60 = 5.9 feet motion per
fecond for the circumference of the water-wheel.

The tilt-mills employed in the manufacture of fteel, do
not have the great hammer P, but the largeft they ufe is
about the fize of that at M, and is adapted for welding
faggots of fteel to make fhear fteel: the other two hammers
are about the fize of N, and are made to work much
quicker, viz. from 350 to 400 blows fer minute. This is
very eafily accomplifhed by making the wheels E and F as
I to 4, inftead of 1 to 3, ag fhewn in the drawing.

TILTH, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify the con-
dition of the earth or foil after the land has been ploughed
and broken down by the harrow or other tool of the fame
kind ; or the ftate and circumftances of the ground in regard
to tillage, or heart, as relating to manure. Thus we have a
good and dad tilth, as well as land in and out of tilth, in
works on agriculture.

TILTIL, in Geography, a town of Chili; 30 miles S.E.
of Valparayfo.

TILTING of Steel, the procefs by which bliftered fteel,
or fteel in the raw ftate, ts rendered du@tile and fit for the
purpofes of yarious manufactures. Tilting confifts in ham-
mering or forging the fteel by a large hammer called a ti/t,
See Titt-Hammer.

Steel is formed by two proceffes: one in which it is
made at once from pig or erude iron in the finery, nearly in

10

YP 2

the fame manner as making bar-iron: this is called natural
fteel. In the fecond procefs, malleable iron, in bars, is im-
bedded in charcoal or other carbonaceous matter, and ex-
pefed to a confiderable heat, till the carbon is thought to
have penetrated fufficiently into the iron to have changed it
into fteel. This is called converting the iron by cement-
ation with charcoal ; and the furnace in which the operation
is performed is called a converting furnace.

The object of this procefs of cementation, is to impreg-
nate the iron with a certain quantity of carbon, to be derived
from the charcoal: like many other fimple operations, it
requires great care and nicety to perform it properly, when
put in prattice on a large feale. The iron muft be expofed
to the action of an intenfe heat in contaét with carbon (but
defended from the accefs of oxygen), until the iron imbibes
a portion of carbon and becomes fteel_

The quantity of carbon which muft be combined with
iron to produce fteel, admits of confiderable latitude, and
the qualities of the {teel vary in the fame proportion: with
too little carbon, fteel will be foft ; and not fufficiently hard
when it has been fuddenly cooled by plunging in water. It
has a rough and fomewhat fibrous fraéture, and in general
may be faid to poflefs many of the qualities of malleable
iron. On the other hand, in proportion as the quantity of
carbon is diminifhed, an over-cemented fteel, containing an
excefs of carbon, is brittle, eafily fufible, exceffively hard
after being fuddenly cooled, and is liable to crack on the
fudden change of temperature from hot to cold. All thefe
properties are an approach to crude iron.

The received opinion refpecting fteel and the belt caift-
iron is, that they have the fame conftituent parts, but in dif-
ferent proportions ; the former containing a {maller propor-
tion of carbon than the latter. All the crude or caft-iron of
commerce contains oxygen in greater or lefs proportion, but
the beft fteel is fuppofed to be nearly free from this. Mr.
David Mufhet, whofe great practical and theoretical know-
ledge entitles his opinion to the greateft refpe&, fuppofes
that the carbon contained in caft-iron and in fteel, exifts in
very different ftates; and that fteel is a combination of iron
with pure carbon, fimilar to the diamond, but that crude
iron, is iron containing the oxyd of carbon, which is char-
coal. ‘This opinion he founded upon the refult of a yery
numerous feries of experiments, many of which he com-
municated to the Philofophical Magazine, vol. xiii. He
found that a piece of Swedifh bar-iron, weighing 885
grains, introduced into a Stourbridge clay ceeaBte® and half
its weight (442 grains) of charcoal well prepared ; a clay
cover, fitting exaCtly, being placed on, and the whole ex-
pofed to a moderate heat for half an hour ; that the refult was,
a perfeé& button of fuper-carbonated crude iron, weighing
928 grains, which therefore had ee oth on its original
weight ; while the charcoal, which remained in the crucible
in an intenfely black ftate, weighed 290 grains, having loft
34.4 per cent. of its original weight.

Ina fecond experiment, made in a fimilar manner, but with

I

only a quarter of the charcoal, theiron gained of its ori-

19 1%
ginal weight, and the lofs in charcoal was 45 per cent.: the
metal was richly carbonated. When one-fixth of charcoal was
ufed, the iron produced, refembled the produce of No.1. and
2. of the crude iron of commerce ; its weight was increafed

ae and 57 per cent. of the charcoal difappeared in the
=

procefs.
I
22 t's ot
original

With one-eighth of charcoal, the iron gained of its

TILTING

original weight ; and the weight of the charcoal which difap-
peared was 6732, per cent. The metallic button was very
highly carbonated, and apparently formed an entire mafs of
carburet.

One-ninth of charcoal produced a fuper-carbonated but-
ton of crude iron, rather inferior to the preceding in point
of carbonization: its furface was fmooth, and of a dull
lead-colour, entirely free from the ufual fhining fpecks of
carburet, which very rich crude iron contains upon its fur-
face. It had gained equal to ,',th in weight by the fufion ;
and the lofs in charcoal was 80 per cent.

Wher treated in the fame manner with +4,th of its weight
of charcoal, the iron gained weight equal to 7 parts: and
83.5 per cent. of the charcoal difappeared in the procefs.
The metallic button poffeffed an uniformly {mooth furface,
partially covered with carburet.

One-fifteenth part of charcoal, expofed with the iron to a
heat fufficient to melt it, was all loft ; the metal gained ~!,th
in weight, which was exaétly half the weight of charcoal loft.
The furface of the button was not carbonated, as the fore-
going experiments: the colour was blueifh-black, {mooth in
the centre, but a little oxydated towards the edges. The
fra€ture was that of clofe dark-grey crude iron; the cryftals
much clofer and more minute than in the preceding experi-
ments. Its quality was fuch as manufacturers term No. 2.
grey melting pig-iron.

When only ,*,th part of charcoal was employed, none of
which remained after the fufion, the iron gained .*, parts in
weight : a {mall portion of amber-coloured glafs was found
round the edges of the button. The fracture of the metal
was {mooth filvery-white, occafionally ftudded with car-
bonaceous fpecks in form of {mall grains: it exactly re-
fembled mottled pig-iron.

With +,th part of charcoal, the metal gained ;4 parts in
weight, the whole of the charcoal difappearing. The upper
furface of the button was fmooth, but the under confider-
ably pitted. The concaves were chequered with the rude
cryftallization peculiar to caft-iron. Its fracture was bright
filvery-white, deftitute of grain, and exhibiting a very perfect
ftreaky cryftallization flightly radiated: its refemblance
was ftrikingly fimilar to that of highly-blown crude iron,
prepared in the finery for making malleable iron.

A piece of Swedifh iron was placed in ,',th its weight
of charcoal : the fufion of the mixture produced a metallic
button weighing +3, parts more than the iron employed,
which increafe is not quite a quarter of the lofs in charcoal,
which wholly difappeared in the experiment. The upper
furface of the button was fmooth without configuration,
but the under furface was uneven, and covered with minute
but perfe& cryftallization : its fra€ture was blueifh filvery-
white, compofed of flat dazzling cryftals, proceeding in lines
from a centre to the edges of the button. Here it was
evident, that from the {mall proportion of carbon combined
with the iron, it was found to aflume the earlieft ftage of
granulation approaching to the ftate of fteel. The fallianc
concretions obfervable in the furface of the button were too
indiftin& and flat for fteel capable of bearing the hammer.

When the proportion of the charcoal was reduced to
ith of the iron, its confequent increafe was but ~Z,th
part, The upper furface of the button was {mooth, with
a faint impreffion of a chequered cryftallization : the under
furface poffeffed fome large pits fimilarly though more per-
feétly cryftallized ; the fracture was one fhade of blue
beyond the laftexperiment, A regular granulated furface,
compofed of flat oblong cryftals, was obfervable, ftill too
indiftin@& and too much on edge for workable fteel.

With only ith of the weight of charcoal, the button
was deficient ,4,th part of its weight originally ufed, yet

OF STEEL.

the whole of the charcoal was loft. The furfaces of this
button were uniformly fmooth; the fraéture denfe, and
difplaying a grain peculiar to highly faturated bliftered
fteel. When put under the hammer with a low red heat, it
withftood a few blows, but afterwards parted. .

Charcoal 4: the metallic button weighed ran lefs than
TO

the iron employed. Its furface was wavy and cryitallized :
the under furface was rough, and contained one large pit ac-
curately cryitallized: the frature was regularly g1 ulated,
{mall but diftin, and of alight blueifh colour. The cryftals,
though diftin@, were not fo prominent as thofe of eafy draw-
ing caft-fteel ; it however hammered with the ufual degree of
caution neceflary in the working of caft-iteel. The bar of
fteel formed from the button was very proper for file-emaking,
and other purpofes requiring highly converted fteel.

The proportion was reduced to +}9th part the weight

of iron: the produce was —. lefs than the original weight
Tw

of iron. The furface of the button was fmooth, without
cryftals: the under furface rough, and pofleffed of one
large pit in the centre, faintly marked with the ufual cryf-
talline appearance. The frature prefented regular light-
blue grains, diftin& and more prominent than-in the laft ex-
periment. One half of this button was drawn into a neat
{quare bar, and proved excellent fteel. One end of it, being
loofe and fhaled, welded tolerably well, and hardened after-
wards with alow heat. From its quality, it feemed adapted
for manufaéturing penknives, razors, &c. pofleffing neither
the extremes of hardnefs nor foftnefs.

Mr. Muthet continued this feries of experiments till the
proportion of charcoal became fo fmall as 45th part; and
he gives the following conclufions, deduced from the refults,

Parts by

Weight,
Iron femi-fteelified is made with charcoal ae
Soft cait-fteel, capable of welding, with = - ae
Caft-fteel for common purpofes, with - ty
Caft-fteel requiring more hardnefs, with — - peas

Steel capable of ftanding a few blows but quite i ?
unfit for drawing, - - - =
The firft approach to a fteely main |

1
fracture, is from Fone
White caft-iron = - - - - - as
Mottled crude iron - - - - xo
Carbonated crude iron - - - rr
Super-carbonated crude iron - - ‘y'p> OF

when any greater quantity is combined with it.

In the above experiments it will be feen, that when more
than ,',th part of charcoal is employed, the weight of the
produce is increafed ; but when lefs than sth part is ufed,
a lofs is experienced proportioned to the diminution of the
carbon. The increafe of weight in the iron is by no means
equal to the lofs in the charcoal, never exceeding the half
thereof ; but this is accounted for in other experiments made
by Mr. Mufhet, where charcoal was found to be tranfmitted
through clofe crucibles in a high degree of heat.

The French chemifts made a dire&t experiment to prove
that the diamond is really carbon in a cryftallized ftate. By
inclofing a {mall diamond in a piece of malleable iron, and
melting this in a clofe crucible, it was found to be con-
verted into fteel, and the diamond had difappeared.

The manufa€ture of natural flee is carried on in Germany,
and Swedenborgius gives us the following account of the
method ufed in Dalecarlia for making fteel from caft-iron.

The

TILTING

The ore from which the crude iron to be converted into fteel
is obtained, is of a good kind ; it is black, friable, and com-
pofed of many {mall grains: it produces very tough iron.
The converfion into iteel is made upon a forge-hearth,
fomething fmaller than that commonly ufed for converting
cait-iron into malleable iron : the fides and bottom are made
of caft-iron ; the tuire is placed with very little inclination
on one of the fide-plates; the breadth of the fire-place is
fourteen inches, its length is greater ; the lower part of the
tuire is fix inches and a half above the bottom: in the inte-
rior part of the fire-place, there is an oblong opening for
the flowing of the fuperfluous fcoria.

The workmen firft put fcoria on the bottom, then char-
coal and powder of charcoal, and upon thefe the caft-iron,
run or cut into {mall pieces. They cover the iron with more
charcoal, and excite the fire. When the pieces of iron are of
a red white, and before they begin to melt, they ftop the
bellows, and carry the mafs under a large hammer, where
they break it into pieces of three or four pounds each :
the pieces are again brought to the hearth, and laid within
reach of the workman, who plunges fome of them into the
fire and covers them with coal. The bellows are made to
blow flowly till the iron is liquefied, when the fire is increafed;
and when the fufion has been long enough continued, the
{coria is allowed to flow out, and at that time the iron
hardens. The workman adds more of the piece of crude
iron, which he treats in the fame manner, and fo on a third
and fourth time, till he obtains a. mafs of fteel of about a
hundred pounds, which is generally done in about four
hours. This mafs is carried to the hammer, where it is
forged and cut into four pieces, which are further beat into
{quare bars four or five feet long. When the fteel is thus
forged, it is thrown into water, that it may be eafily broken,
for it is yet crude and coarfe-grained. The fteel is then
broken in pieces, and carried to another hearth, fimilar
to the former. Thefe pieces are laid regularly in the
fire-place, firft two parallel, upon which feven or eight
others are placed acrofs; then a third row acrofs the fe-
cond in fuch a manner, that there is a {pace left between
thofe of the fame row: the whole is then covered with
charcoal, and the fire is excited. In about half or
three quarters of an hour the pieces are made hot enough,
and are then taken from the fire one by one, to the
hammer, to be forged into little bars from half a foot to
two feet long, and while hot, are thrown into water to
be hardened. Of thefe pieces, fixteen or twenty are put
together, fo as to make a bundle, which is heated and
welded, and afterwards forged into bars four inches
thick, which are then broken into pieces of convenient
length for ufe.

Converting of Steel by Cementation with Charcoal_—The

uality of fteel is intimately conneéted with that of the iron
fas which it is converted, and the iron made in Sweden is
efteemed the beft for the purpofes of cementation. This
procefs is almoft wholly in the hands of the Englifh, who
pay a higher price for the iron, and by that means fecure
nearly ail the iron of Roflagia, which is the beft iron of
Sweden.

The beft marks of Swedifh iron are: that called the hoop
L, which is denoted by a circle, with an L in the centre ;

thus, ©: the GL; thus, G): the double bullets;

thus, The iron of thefe three marks bears nearly the

fame price, which is fometimes as high as 4o/. per ton.

There are alfo the Swedifh marks ; as P L, PL): the hoop

OF STEEL.

S, @): and the gridiron, 3; which are worth a
few pounds ger ton lefs than the former
38/., when the beft marks are 4o/.

The Ruffian marks are, firft, that called the CC ND : the

mark is fix Ruffian letters, CH EHP B, worth about
37/. per ton, when the others are at 4o/.: and the P § I,
which is marked by the Ruffian letters P S I, is fo inferior,
as to fell for only 26/. or 27/.
_ It is to be lamented that, in the prefent ftate of our
iron _manufaéture, we are unable to produce malleable
iron which is equally fit for converting into fteel with
the Ruffian and Swedifh iron. The general opinion upon
this deficiency is, that it arifes from fome fuperiority
in the foreign ores of iron, but more immediately from
the circumftance of their ufing charcoal of wood inftead
of the coke of pit-coal in Packing or reyiving them ;
and fome of our manufa@urers do not hefitate to affert,
that they can make iron with charcoal equal to the foreign
in quality ; but that in refpe& to price, the circumftances
of this country will not allow them to cope with thofe
countries, where the deftru€tion of wood is in fome mea-
fure confidered as beneficial, by clearing the land for the
operations of hufbandry.

The Swedifh and Ruffian iron is imported into this
country by iron merchants in immenfe quantities to-
gether, this trade being in the hands of a few in-
dividuals: by them it is retailed in fmaller portions to
the converters, whofe furnaces are chiefly about Sheffield
and at Newcaftle, who, after cementation, difpofe of the
greater part of it to the manufadturers of fteel goods in
the ftate of bliftered bars. Its value is eftimated by the
Swedifh or Ruffian marks of iron, which {till remain upon
the bars. The manufacturers fend their bars to the tilt-
mills, where they are made into common fteel and {hear or
German iteel, or they melt it to form caft-fteel.

The converfion of iron into fteel is performed in a fur-
nace, hence called a converting furnace. The external build-
ing is a large and tall cone, fimilar to a glafs-houfe, within
which, one or two large crucibles, called pots, are placed,
and furrounded by flues in a manner beft calculated to come
municate a conftant and regular heat to every part of them.
In thefe pots the iron bars are placed, being ftratified in
pulverized charcoal, and the pots are covered over with
{and to exclude the external air.

A more perfe& idea of the converting furnace will be
had by referring to Plate VII. of fron Manufa@ure, which
contains a horizontal plan and two vertical feétions of one of
the furnaces ufed in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, with two
pots for containing the iron. In all the figures, the fame
letters of reference denote the fame parts. C C is the exter-
nal cone, built of brick or {tone work ; its diameter at the
bafe varies in different furnaces, according to the fize of the
pots it contains: its extreme height from the ground to its
vertex should not be lefs than forty or fifty feet to caufe a
proper draught. To create a fufficient heat for the procefs,
the top of the cone ufually terminates with a eylindric
chimney of fome feet in height. The conical form of the
external building is by no means effential; any form will
operate in the fame manner, if it is of a proper height : fome
are in praétice built nearly in the fhape of the {mall end of
an egg, with a round chimney upon the top. The lower

art of the cone is built fquare or o¢tangular, as is the plan
of fig. 3. ‘The fides are carried up until they meet the
cone, giving the furnace the appearance of a cone cut to a
f{quare or o¢tangular prifm at its bafe, and exhibiting the
parabola where every fide interfects the cone.

The conical building contains within it a {maller fn

called

3 viz. from 34/. to

TILTING OF STEEL.

called the vault, built of fire-brick or ftone, which will with-
ftand the aétion of a moft intenfe heat, without cracking or
vitrification. D D in the feGtion is the dome of the vault,
and E E its upright fides, the fpace between which, and the
wall of the external building, is filled up with rubbifh and
fand. The vault, as is fhewn in the plan, is always four-fided,
that it may contain the pots which receive the iron bars to be
converted. A B reprefent the two pots, built of fire-ftone,
each ten feet long, three feet deep, and two feet nine inches
wide; the fpace Dearest them is twelve inches wide; and
dire@tly beneath it is the fire-grate. The pots are fupported
by a number of detached courfes of fire-brick, as fhewn at
ee (fig. I-) which leave {paces between them, called flues, to
condué& the flame under the pots: in the fame manner, the
fides of the pots are fupported from the vertical walls of the
vault, and from each other, by a few detached ftones,
(f, fg. 1+) placed fo that they may intercept as little as
poflible of the heat from the contents of the pots. The adja-
cent fides of the pots are {upported from one another by {mall
piers of {ftone-work, which are alfo perforated, as fhewn at
d ( fig. 2.) to give paflage to the flame. _The bottoms of the
pots are built of a double courfe of brick-work, about fix
inches thick; the fides neareft together are built of a fingle
courfe of ftone, about five inches in thicknefs; and the other
parts of the pots are fingle courfes about three inches, the
fides not requiring fo much ftrength, becaufe they have lefs
heat and preffure to reiilt.

The vault has ten flues or fhort chimneys, F F, rifing from
it; two on each fide, to carry off the {moke into the great
cone, fhewn in the plan 3, communicating with each fide,
and two at each end. :

In the front of the furnace, at H, an aperture is made
through the external building, and another correfponding in
the wall of the vault: thefe openings form the door, at
which a man enters the vault to put in or take out the iron :
but when the furnace is lighted, thefe doors are clofed by
fire-bricks luted with fire-clay. Each pot has alfo {mall open-
ings in its end, through which the ends of two or three of
the bars are left projeGting in fuch a manner, that by only
removing one loofe brick from the external tore the
bars can be drawn out without difturbing the procefs, to
examine the progrefs of the converfion from time to time :
thefe are called the tap-holes; they fhould be placed in the
centre of the pots, that a fair and equable judgment may
be formed from their refult of the reft of its contents.

ab, in the elevation, is the fire-grate, formed of bars laid
over the afh-pit I, which muft have a free communication
with the open air, that it may convey a current of frefh air
to fupply the combuftion. The afh-pit fhould alfo have fteps
down to it, that the attendant to the furnace may get down
to examine by the light, whether the fire upon the whole
jength of the grate is equally fierce; and if any part appear
dull, he ufes a long iron hook to thruft up between the bars
and open a paflage for the air. The fire-place is open at both
ends, and has no doors. The fire-grate is laid nearly on a level
with the floor of the warehoufe, before the furnace, and the
fireman always keeps a heap of coals piled up before the
apertures at its ends, fo as to clofe the opening. This forms
a very fimple and effeCtive door; and when the furnace re-
quires a frefh fupply of fuel, a portion of the heap of coals
is fhoved in by a fort of hoe, and the heap renewed, to fto
any air from entering into the furnace, except that which has
paffed upwards through the ignited fuel, and by that means
contributed to the combuftion.

The fire-{tones that eompofe all thofe parts of the fur-
nace which are expofed to the aCtion of the heat, are firft
hewn nearly to fize, and finifhed by grinding two furfaces
together, rf that they make very perfe& and clofe joints:

when laid together, they are cemented with well-tempered
fire-clay, mixed up very thin with water. The fire-clay which
anfwers beft for this purpofe, is that brought from Stour-
bridge, in Staffordfhire, and is the fame of which the cele-
brated Stourbridge crucibles are compofed ; but very good
fire-clay for the purpofe is procured from Birkin-lane, near
Chefterfield. When the furnace has been once burnt, this
clay becomes equally hard with the ftone, and is lefs liable to
fly or vitrify in an intenfe heat, than any other known cement.
The procefs of charging the furnace with iron for con-
verfion is conduéted as follows. The bars of iron are firft
cut to the length of the pot’; and for this purpofe an anyil is
placed at fuch a diftance from the wall of the building, that
the diftance from the edge of a cold chiffel wedged into the
eye of the anvil, to the wall, will be juft the iength of the
pots. One workman places the end of a bar againit the wall,
and lays the other end acrofs the edge of the chiffel, whilft
another with a fledge-hammer ftrikes upon the bar till it is
cut half through; then it is turned the other fide upwards,
and the end cut completely off. By this gauge thifbaks are
all cut to one length, and 2 man enters through the door in
the vault, to difpofe of them in the pots: he is provided with
a bafket of fine pulverized charcoal, a fieve, anda fhovel. An
iron plate is put into the furnace, and lays over the {pace
between the two pots to form the floor, upon which the man
ftands while, at work. He commences his operations by
fifting a layer of charcoal over the bottom of the pot, about
half an inch thick, and he is careful in ufing the fieve to lay the
charcoal of an even thicknefs in every part; but if it fhould
not be carefully done, he levels it with the fhovel. The work-
man on the outfide now introduces the bars into the furnace
through a hole, made by taking out a brick in the wall, juft
over the end of one of the pots, and the workman within.
depofits them upon the ftratum of charcoal in the bottom of
the pot, arranging them parallel to each other, and leaving an
interval of about an inch between each bar. When the
bottom of the pot is in this manner covered with iron bars,
charcoal is again fifted upon them, and levelled with the’
fhovel, to fill up the intermediate fpaces between the bars,
and to cover them about an inch thick; another layer of
bars is then introduced into the furnace, placed upon the
charcoal, and in its turn covered over with a itratum of char-
coal ; and in this manner the pot is filled to within two inches
of the top. A layer of the fand which is found in the
bottom of grindftone troughs, is then fpread three or four
inches thick upon the whole, to cover the pots up clofe, and
prevent the accefs of the common air and flame. In placin
the fucceffive layers of bars in the pot, it is proper that eac
fhould be laid over the {pace between two of the bars in the
layer beneath, becaufe each bar will then be furrounded by”
a greater thicknefs of charcoal, than it would if they were
laid dire€tly over each other. Two or three of the bars
fhould be left fomewhat longer than the reft, and their_ends
fhould projeé& through the trial-holes in the ends of the pots,
and {and rammed round them in the holes to keep out the air.
The pots being both filled and covered up with the fand
and rammed down, the holes for introducing the bars are
clofed by abrick or fire-{tone, and luted with fire-clay. The
apertures through the outer wall oppofite the ends of the
trial-holes are alfo ftopped and luted. The iron plate upon
which the man ftood is now removed, and the doors in the
vault clofed up by bricks fet with fire-clay ; next, the opening
in the external building is fhut up, and the furnace is Chea
ready for lighting. —
The furnace is kindled by lighted wood placed on the
fire-grate, then a few coals are thrown in, and when well
lighted, the quantity is increafed; the heat thus generated
rarefies the air contained in the vault and in the great cone ;
an

TILTING: OF STEEL.

and being thus rendered of lefs {pecific gravity than the ex-
ternal air, it rifes up in the cone, and a frefh fupply ruthes
in through the bars of the grate, to reftore the equilibrium.
By going through the fire, this air parts with its oxygen,
and excites the combuftion, and becoming heated, rifes up
the chimney, and caufes a very ftrong draught of air to
enter the fire.

At firft kindling, the fuel is fupplied in {mall quantities,
that the heat in the furnace may be gradually increafed, and
not endanger the cracking of the ftones: in a few hours time
the quantity of fuel is increafed, fo as to: produce the full
heat, which is to be maintained as equally as poffible through-
out the whole procefs. The fuel, which is pit-coal, is intro-
duced at both ends of the grate, through {mall arches in the
wall, which are in a line and en a level with the fire-grate,
a quantity of coals being always left before the end of the
arch to ftop it up, and prevent any air getting into the
furnace, without paffing through the grate. Part of thefe
coals is forced into the furnace, as before mentioned, when
it requires a fupply of fuel, which is generally at intervals
of about half an hour each. The fireman frequently ex-
amines the appearance of the under fide of the fire-grate,
and judges from it the ftate of the fire: heimproves it where
neceflary, as before defcribed, by thrufting a hook up
between the bars to make way for the air.

The flame arifing from the ignited fuel upon the grate
partly proceéds upwards between the pots, and heats them
by that means ; it then ftrikes the roof of the vault, and is
reverberated down upon the pots, and efcapes through the
fix flues or chimnies in the vault. The draught alfo draws
the flame from the grate under the pots, and round the out-
fide andends. The principal obje& in this ftage of the pro-
cefs, is to maintain the fame degree of heat in every part of
the pot, that every bar may be equally converted in the fame
{pace of time. The roof of the vault muft be built of very
good ftene (none being better than from Roches quarry, in
Afhover), to withftand the great heat exerted upon it: it
is cuftomary to build them very thin, and cover the outfide
with a {mall thicknefs of dry fand to keep them tight, in cafe
of a ftone cracking. P

In this way the fire is kept yp in as equable a manner
as poffible, until the iron is fuppofed to have imbibed a
fufficient portion of carbon from the charcoal to render it
fit for its intended purpofe : in this circumftance, the manu-
fa€turer regulates his judgment by his experience of former
proceffes. About the time that he fuppofes the converfion
to be fufficiently advanced, one of the trial-bars is drawn out
from the pot, and by comparing the fize of the blifters raifed
upon its furface with another bar which is known to be fuffi-
ciently carbonated, an idea is formed of the ftate of the furnace,
and accordingly the fire is, at the proper time, difcontinued,
and the furnace is fuffered to cool. Some manufacturers pro-
ceed to make experiment of the trial-bar by hardening and
tempering it, fo as to prove to a certainty the degree of its
converfion, the blifters being found in fome degree fallacious ;
for their fize depends as much upon the degree of heat to
which the bar has been expofed, as upon its carbonization,
and fhew the rapidity with which the converfion has been car-
ried on, rather than its a€tual ftate.

The time which the iron is required to be in the procefs
of cementation depends upon a variety of concurring cir-
cumftances. 1. The degree of carbonization requiredto form
a fteel of the proper quality ; this varies with the ufe the fteel
is to be applied to. 2. The heat it is fubjeGted to. 3. The
nature of the iron employed in the procefs. The combinations
of thefe circumftances are fo numerous, that nothing but long
experience can determine the proper duration of the procefs.

Voit. XXXV.

_In general terms it may be obferved, that a fhort period
will produce a fteel very foft and tenacious, which, when
properly treated, wil poflefs elafticity as its moft f{triking
property, and is therefore very proper for fprinigs, wire-
drawing, and other purpofes requiring ductility, but without
the hardnefs requifite for edge-tools. The period of cement-
ation for fuch fteel varies in different manufaCtories, from
four to fix days and nights.

Steel which requires more hardnefs, but at the fame time
fufficient tenacity to refift fudden fhocks, fuch asthe edge-tools
for working wood are fubjeét to, muft be cemented a longer
time. This, which is moftly tilted into fhear feel, is cemented
fix, feven, or eight days, according to the heat and the qua-
lity of iron employed. The ftcel employed for fabricating
tools for cutting metals and hard fub{tances being but fmall
in demand compared with the others, is not cemented a
longer time, but is returned into the furnace at the next
charge, along with a charge of iron, and cemented again
with frefh charcoal : this is termed double converted fteel.
But for fome few purpofes, fuch as the: turning and boring
of caft-iron, the fteel is conyerted three times : in this ftate it
becomes fo hard and brittle as to be totally unfit for any
purpofe requiring tenacity, or for any cutting edge which is
lefs than an angle of 70 degrees, or it would be continually
breaking.

The heat which is requifite for the procefs, muft be as
great as to give the iron nearly a welding heat, but if car-
ried farther, will endanger melting the bars when the precefs
has proceeded fome time ; an accident which has frequently
occurred through the inattention of the fireman. It is ob-
ferved by manufa€turers, that the carbonization proceeds
quicker when the heat is greateft, and for this reafon the
duration of the procefs varies in different furnaces, in fome
meafure from their conftruétion, in urging a greater heat,
and this depends chiefly upon the height of the chimney,
and the draught it occafions.

When the converfion is fuppofed to be complete, the fur-
nace is fuffered to cool, until a man can conveniently enter
the furnace, to take out the bars and remaining charcoal, and
prepare the furnace for a new charge. The bars which are
brought out are (from being covered with blifters upon the
furface) termed bliftered fteel.

On examination of the fra&ture of a bliftered bar, it is
found full of internal cracks, which are generally parallel to
the flat fide of the bar : fome of them are larger than others,
and extend the parts of the bar fufficiently to raife numerous
protuberances or blifters upon its furface. Thefe cracks have
every appearance of being opened by the expanfive force of
fome gas generated in the iron during the procefs, but what
the nature of this’ gas is, ftill remains to be inveftigated. It
feems to arife from the body of the iron itfelf, by the crack
being within the folid fubftance of the bar. The fracture
of the bliftered fteel is exceedingly irregular, of a white
colour, like frefted filver, and appears like an irregular cry{-
tallization ; but the facets exhibited are larger in proportion as
the cementation has been longer continued, and from this
reafon they are larger towards the furface of the bar than
in its centre.

The furnace above defcribed is of that kind which is
efteemed the beft for the procefs, and is moft generally em-
ployed in and about the neighbourhood of Shefiield in York-
fhire, where the manufaéture of fteel is carried on ina larger
feale than in any other part of England. ‘The furnaces ufed
at Newcaftle, which is another feat of this trade, are very
frmilar.

The charge confifts of twelve tons, each pot containing
fix tons of iron; andit is neceflary that all the bars converted

Ae at

TILTING OF STEEL.

at one procefs be of the fame fize, or the {maller ones would
be thoroughly converted before the others had taken up a
fufficient dofe of carbon. This large quantity of a fingle
article is more than the trade of fome manufacturers will
difpofe of, they therefore employ {maller furnaces, which con-
tain only eight tons, and fuch are generally conftruéted but
with one pot ten feet in length, three feet broad, and two feet
deep : the fire-place is directly beneath the pot, twenty inches
wide, and flues are carried round it on both fides and ends :
the vault and chimney of fuch a furnace are the fame as the
double pot. It is found by experience that the fmall fur-
naces confume fomewhat more fuel in proportion to the
quantity of iron they convert, than the large ones, becaufe
the heat loft in the beginning and end of the procefs, and that
tranfmitted through the walls of the building, is the fame in
both inftances.

Mr. Daniel Little of America, in 1785, recommended a
new fubftance to be ufed in the cementation of fteel inftead
of charcoal: it isthe marine plant known by the name of roek-
weed, or rockware, and is found in great plenty on rocky
fhores in America. It was to be prepared by firft mowing it
from the rocks by the feythe or fickle, and fpreading it out on
dry land till the rains have wafhed off the greater part of the
fea-falt ; it was then to be dried and pulverized, and may be
ufed as any other cement for making of fteel. He fays that he
difcovered this property in an experiment where a {mall piece
of iron was put into a crucible, and filled with the powdered
plant as a cement; after it had been expofed to little more
than a cherry heat for five or fix hours, it was converted
into fteel.

All cemented fteel in its raw ftate, after it is taken from
the converting furnace, is called bliftered fteel; becaufe the
furfaces of the bars are covered with blifters, and on break-
ing a bar it is found to be full of cavities withinfide, which
feem to have been opened by fome gas generated in the iron
when in the procefs of cementation, and to have raifed the
furface into blifters, which are hollow within. In this ftate
the fteel is not fit for any purpofe, becaufe of thefe numerous
cavities, and from the great difpofition it has to break with
the moft irregular and rugged fraéture imaginable. To render
it found and tenacious, it muft be well hammered while at a
moderate heat, which operation is termed tilting the fleel,
becaufe it is done under the tilt-hammer, worked by ma-
chinery. There are many reafons why the hammering of
{teel cannot be fufficiently performed by hand: the principal
are, that the expence of labour would be too great to anfwer,
and that a man could not ftrike hard and quick enough, to
complete the operation at one heat of the fteel : if more than
one heat is taken, the fteel will not receive fo much advan-
tage from the hammering, becaufe when it is heated, its
pores are opened ; and if fuffered to cool without hammering,
the grain of the fteel will be found confiderably coarfer ;
therefore, every time it is heated, the good effeéts of the pre-
vious hammering arein a great meafure loft. Tilt-hammers
are worked by water-wheels or {team-engines, according to
the local fituation of the manufactory. (See adefcription in
the article Trrt-Hammer, Plate VIII. [ron Manufaéture. )
The fame axis is made to actuate three or four tilt-hammers
placed fide by fide, and the hammers are not all of equal
lengths, each one being fhorter than the next: by this ar-
rangement, when they are all working i aie the work-
man of one tilt does not incommode thofe employed at the
other two, The anvils of the hammers are nearly on a level,
or at moft only a few inches above the furface of the ground ;
and the workman fits in a pit or fofle, dug for the purpofe,
in a direction perpendicular to the helve of the tilt, upon a
feat which is fufpended from the roof of the building by two

Il

iron rods: by this means he can with the greateft eafe advance
to or from the hammer, by juft touching the ground with
his foot, and pufhing himfelf backwards or forwards as he ©
fits in the fwing. The three feats are in parallel direétions,
but fufficiently diftant from each other, in confequence of
the different lengths of the hammers, to allow the workmen
to perform their bufinefs. Ata convenient diftance from
each tilt, is placed the forge for heating the fteel. The two
forges for the {mall hammers are placed together under the
fame dome, while the other forge is by itfelf near the great
hammer. The bellows for ietauees are worked by a fmall
crank on the end of the gudgeon of the fhaft; they are
placed over-head in the oe of the building, and a copper
pipe conveys the air to the tue iron. The forges are tke
thofe ufed by {miths, except that they have a {mall cover
built of fire-brick over the hearth: the cover is fquare within,
about eight inches wide, eight high, and eighteen inches or
two feet long. It is open in front, to introduce the bars. The
coals are placed on the hearth, as fmiths ufually do, and the
brick cover aéts, to reverberate the flame down upon the fteel,
and give a very regular heat. Each workman at the tilt is
attended by two boys, who heat the fteel at the forge, and
convey it to the workman, that he may lofe no time: ano-
ther boy attends each tilt to take away the finifhed rods and
cut them to length, and then to ftraighten them.

The operations of the tilt are conducted in the following
manner: Suppofe a piece of {teel has been heated by one of
the boys, and brought to the man at the hammer, he places
it upon the anvil, at a part neareft to the centre of the ham-
mer, where its furface is reduced to a round edge, about
an inch wide; the face of the hammer is made round, to
correfpond with the anvil, and from its fimilarity to the edge
of a {mith’s hammer, may be called the pen of the hammer
and anvil. The machine is always in rapid motion, and be-
tween every ftroke that the hammer makes, he moyes the
bar forwards on the anvil, that it may be {truck by the ed
of the hammer in a frefh place. If the bar is flat, as blif-
tered fteel ufually is, it is firft hammered in this manner’
upon its edge, to reduce it to afquare, and at the fame time
draw it out in length. When it has been hammered thus all
its length, the furface becomes indented on both fides by
the edges of the hammer, the anvil being bounded by:
waving lines. This firft operation is called notching down.
The tilter then removes the bar beneath the flat face of the
hammer, and the rod is flattened at every ftroke, and all the
indentation removed ; when he gradually recedes from the
hammer, drawing the rod along, and flattening it all the way.
When the end of the rod comes under the hammer, he turns
the other face of the rod upwards, and advancing to the
hammer, puthes the rod forwards under it: in this manner
he proceeds, flattening it on one fide or the other, until he
brings it to the proper fize, which he tries | a gauge. The
moment it is finifhed, the boy brings another piece of hot
{teel, which he places under the hammer, and then the other
boy takes away the finifhed rod from the tilter, who takes
the frefh piece: in doing this, they are careful that the hot
piece of fteel is placed under the hammer before the other is
taken away, that the faces of the hammer and anvil may not
{trike together, when there would be danger of breaking
them, as they are both made of caft-iron : the fecond piece
is tilted in the fame manner as before, and when finifhed, is
changed for another.

The perfeétion of tilting {teel, depends upon drawing out a
rod perfe&tly ftraight to the fame fize in every part of its
length. Many workmen, particularly at Sheffield, have ac-
quired fuch fkill and dexterity in the management of the rod.
while under the tilt, that their work is as ftraight and even,

as

ik

as though it had been drawn through a tteel-plate, in the
fame manner as wire, and all its angles perfeétly fquare : its
furface is of a black polifh, and as {mooth as though it had
been filed. All artifts ufe the {quare fteel rods for making
their tools; and the ftraightnefs and regularity of the rods
are fuch, that a perfon who has not been an eye-witnefs of the
operation, would {carcely believe it poffible to produce fuch
accurate work from the blowsof ahammer. The points to
be attended to by a tilter are, that in notching down the bar
to draw it out to length and fize, he caufes the blows to fall
exaétly at equal diftances from each other, unlefs (which fel-
dom happens) the bar fhould have any part thicker than the
reft ; the ftrokes muft then be a little nearer together in that
place, to reduce it all to one fize. Afterwards, to flatten the
bar, he mutt be careful to place the bar truly flat upon the an-
vil, and hold it in the fame place, whilft he draws the bar un-
der the hammer, and that he moves himfelf with a perfectly
equable motion, that every part of the bar may be alike fub-
jected to the aGtion of the hammer : the furface will then be
true, and free from undulations. Another circumftance to
be attended to is, when he turns the bar upon the anvil to
hammer the adjacent fides, that he makes them truly {quare
to the former fides. Thefe things muft all be done in fo little
time, that it requires long practice and experience to perform
them well. Beginners are always apt, when they place their
feet on the ground, to move themfelves too quick juft at that
time, which caufes the bar to be thicker at that place.

The different methods of conduéting the operation of
tilting, give the fteel different qualities, which are diftin-

jifhed into 1. Common fteel ; 2. Shear or Newcattle fteel,
alfo called German fteel ; and 3. Tilted caft fteel.

Common flecl is made by tilting bars of bliftered fteel, and
drawing them out into rods of any fize. The bliftered bars
are of various fizes, but in general about an inch and a half
broad by half an inch thick. If thefe are to be drawn into
rods half an inch {quare, they are broken into convenient
lengths to handle, and one end of each piece is heated to a
good welding heat by the boy who attends the forge, who
puts three or four in the fire together, and, according to
their fize, he learns by experience at what time he muft put
every one into the fire, that it may acquire the proper degree
of heat by the time that the tilter fhall have juft finifhed the
other bars.

The tilter firft begins by notching down the narrow
edge of the bar, holding the other end of it in his hand,
and notches down fuch a length of it as experience teaches
him will be fufficient to form a rod of the lengthand fize re-
quired. The notching on the edge of the bar rather increafes
its thicknefs, while it diminifhes its breadth, and brings it
nearly to the fquare figure of a rod: he then flattens it, and
begins again to notch it down upon the broad fide ; after-
wards he again flattens it ; then proceeds to notch it upon the
edge, and afterwards to flatten it once or twice on both
fides, and the rod is finifhed.

When a fkilful tilter has been fome hours at work upon
reds of one fize, he judges by fight when the rod is of the
proper fize ; but on firft beginning he tries it by a gauge,
and flattens it repeatedly, if neceflary, the boy bringing a
piece of hot iteel to place under the hammer while he is
gauging, and which is drawn out in its turn. When the
tilting is completely finifhed, the fteel rod is taken away by
another boy, who, with a pair of fhears, cuts off the rod
from the bliftered bar from which it wasdrawn out. He
places the rod on a flat caft-iron table, and fets it truly
ftraight by a hammer, then ftamps the bar with a mark of
the quality of the fteel, and it is finifhed.

All thefe operations are performed in fo fhort a time, that

TIM

the rod ftill retains a red heat ; but this will excite lefs fur-
prize when it is confidered that the hammer ftrikes four
hundred blows fer minute, and falls with great weight, fo
that it foon completes the work, and it is very probable that
the great percuflion it exerts upon the fteel in fome meafure
preferves the heat. It is well known that black{miths are in
the conftant habit of lighting a match to kindle their fire,
by only hammering a fmall piece of iron quickly, and turn-
ing it about under the hammer, and in a fhort time it acquires
fufficient heat to inflame the fulphur of the match. This heat
moft probably arifes from the fri€tion which the hammer
caufes amongit the particles of the iron, by rubbing them vio-
lently cee one another ; and the fmiths obferve, that the
iron will not become red-hot if it is always ftruck upon
the fame fide ; butit muft be turned round, that a new fur-
face may be continually expofed to the ation of the
hammer.

Shear fteelis fo called, becaufe the fhears for dreffing woollen
cloth are made of it. It is alfo called Newcattle fteel, be-
caufe formerly made there ; and German fteel, becaufe the
natural fteel in Germany is treated in the fame way ; it is
likewife called faggotted feel. To make fhear fteel, the bars
of bliitered fteel are broken into lengths of about eighteen
inches ; then four or more of thefe are laid together with one
of double the length, and all four are tied together with
pieces of {mall ftedl: this is called a faggot, and is placed in
the forge, to be heated to a good welding heat ; itis then
taken to the tilt, and notched down on both fides, to weld
all the bars together, and clofe up the internal flaws. The
workman holds the faggot by the end of the long bar as a
handle : the operation of welding takes but a few feconds,
and a {mall rod is then drawn out from a piece of the end, in
the fame manner as drawing out common tteel.

Caft fteel is prepared by melting fragments of bliftered
fteel, and cafting them into an ingot. (See Srrex.) ‘The
ingot is then drawn out under the tilt into the required fize,
sie manner of doing this is the fame as for common

eel.

It is the cuftom of the manufaéturers of cutlery and fteel
oe to purchafe fteel from the converting furnaces in the
{tate of bliftered bars, which they fend to the tilt-mills to be
drawn out to the fize they require for their ufe: this is done
at regular prices. In tilting fteel, a trifling lofs is fuftained
by the metal oxydating upon the furface, and throwing off
black feales. The manufaéturers are in the habit of allow-
ing 4.6 to 8 lbs. per hundred weight for fuch lofs: this la-
titude is given, becaufe in drawing the bars out into rods of
a {mall fize, the wafte muft neceflarily be greater ; the metal
being much longer expofed to oxydation, and the furface
throwing off more {cales.

TILUTHA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Afia,
in the Euphrates, about 33° 55! lat.

TILWARAH,, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Gurry Mundella; 5 miles S. of Gurrah.

TIM, a town of Rouffia, in the government of Kurfk ;
44 miles E. of Kurfk. N. lat. 51° go’. E. long. 37° 34!

TIMA, Tuima, Taima, Alablao, or Al Ablak, a town
of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed; 180 miles N.N.E.
of Medina.

TIMACUM, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by
Ptolemy in Upper Meefia, at a diitance from the Danube.

TIM EA, a town of Afia, in the interior of Bithynia.
Ptol.

TIMZUS, the Locrian, in Biography, was a philofo-
pher of the Italic fchool, and flourifhed in the time of
Plato, who derived from him principally the doétrine of
Pythagoras, and whofe book, entitled ‘ Timagus,’’ was

' 4P2 founded

TIM

founded on his book ‘ On the Nature of Things.”? Pro-
clus preferved a {mall treatife of Timzus ‘‘ On the Soul of
the World,’’ and it is prefixed to fome editions of Plato’s
Timzus. In this treatife, chiefly Pythagorean, he differs
from Pythagoras in the following particulars: viz. that,
inftead of one whole, or monad, he fuppofes two inde-
pendent caufes of nature, God and Mind, the fource of
intelligent nature, and Neceflity or Matter, the original of
bodies ; and that he explains the caufe of the formation of
the world, from the external ation of God upon matter,
after the pattern or ideas exifting in his own mind. Upon
a comparifon of this piece with Plato’s Timzus, it will be
found that the Athenian philofopher has obicured the
fimple do€trine of the Locrian with fancies drawn from his
own imagination, or from the Egyptian fchools.

In the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus there was a Sicilian,
named Timzus, who was a celebrated hiftorian ; but none
of his writings are extant. He died at the age of 96,
B.C. 262. Brucker by Enfield, vol. i.

TIMAGENUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Arabic gulf. Ptol.

TIMANA, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Popayan ; 80 miles E. of Popayan. N.
lat. 2° 12!. E. long. 74° 46).

TIMANTHES, in Biography, a famous Grecian painter,
was, as it is faid, a native of Cythnos, one of the iflands
called Cyclades, or of Sicyon, and flourifhed about the
year B.C. 400. The mind of this artift is fuppofed to
have furpaffed his art, in the exercife of which he difplayed
great flll, fo that in his performances, fomething was to
be underftood, which he did not exprefs. As an inftance
of this, we are referred to his pitture of Iphigenia about to
be facrificed, in which, having exhaufted every variety of
the expreffion of grief in the other fpeétators, he has
thrown a veil over the face of her father, thus intimating
that his anguif furpaffed all external tokens. In his
Sleeping Cyclops, exhibited in a {mall tablet, he has intro-
duced Satyrs meafuring his thumb with a thyrfus, in order
to give an idea of the magnitude of the principal figure.
At Samos he was a competitor with the famous Parrhafius
in a piece, of which the fubje& was the judgement for the
arms of Achilles, between Ajax and Ulyfles; on this oc-
cafion the prize was awarded to Timanthes. In the temple
of Peace at Rome a hero of admirable workmanfhip by the
fame artift was preferved. Pliny Nat. Hift.

TIMAR, a traé& or portion of land, which the grand
fignior grants to a perfon on condition of ferving him in war,
on horfeback.

Some define the timar a portion of land affigned to a
{pahi, or other perfon fit to ferve on horfeback, to enjoy,
during life, for his fubfiftence.

Meninfki defcribes it as a ftipend or revenue, granted to
old foldiers who have deferved well, in lands, and poffeffions
of caftles, towns, villages, fields, or in tithes, and other
fruits and incomes; fometimes with the prefecture, jurif-
diction, or fignory of the faid places.

The timar is a kind of fief granted for life. The whole
Ottoman empire is divided into fangiackies, or banneries,
under which all fuch as hold timars, who are called tima-
riots, ave bound to lift themfelves when fummoned upon
any expedition. Timars may be refigned as benefices
among us, only obtaining the confent of the beglerbey, or
governor of the province. Indeed, for timars of above
2000 afpers per annum, called zaim, the grand vizier alone
grants difpenfations.

TIMARIOTS, thofe who enjoy lands on the footing
and tenure of timars. See Tumar.

TIM

The timariots are obliged to ferve in war, perfonaliy,
with as many men and horfes for fervice as their timar, by
the eftimate made of it, contains 2500 afpers, or about 6/.
fterling ; and to maintain them conftantly mounted and
armed after their manner, to be ready to march at all
hours when commanded, and that on pain of death; no-
thing, not even ficknefs itfelf, being allowed to excufe
them.

Befides this fervice, they likewife pay an acknowledg-
ment of one-tenth of their revenue. If they have any
children of age to bear arms, and fit for the fervice after
their deceafe, or, in defeét of this, if they have any rela-
tions that have the leaft intereft, the timar is ufed to be con-
tinued to them on the fame conditions, otherwife it is tranf-
ferred to others. sn

If the revenue thus held of the grand fignior exceed
15,c00 afpers, or 36/. fterling, they who hold it are not
called timariots, but fubafi, or xaims: thefe always have the
adminiftration of juitice in the place, under the fangiac of
the province. :

The timariots have different appointments, from 4000
or 5000 afpers, equal to about 12/. fterling, to 20,000
afpers: but unlefs their timar exceed 8000 afpers, they are
never obliged to march, except when the grand fignior
goes to the army in perfon, on which occafion none are
exempted. ¢

The origin of the timariots is referred to the firft fultans,
who, being mafters of the fiefs or lands of the empire,
erected them into baronies or commanderies, to reward the
fervices of their braveft foldiers ; and efpecially to raife and
keep on foot a number of troops without difburfing any
money.

But it was Solyman II. that firft eftablifhed the order and
difcipline among thefe barons, or knights of the empire ;
and by his order it was, that the number of horfemen each
fhould maintain was regulated.

This body has heretofore been not only exceedingly
powerful, but great and illuftrious throughout all the em-
pire; but avarice, the ordinary fault of the Orientals, has
occafioned their declenfion of late years.

The viceroys and governors of provinces manage their
matters fo at court, that timars, even out of their jurif-
diétion, are given to their domeftics, or to fuch as will give
them the moft money for them.

There are two kinds of timariots, the one appointed by
the Porte, the other by the viceroy of the country; but
the revenues of both are lefs than thofe of the zaims, and
their equipage and tents lefs in proportion.

Thofe who have their patents from the court, have from
5000 or 6000 afpers to 19,999 afpers per annum; if they
have one afper more, they become zaims. Thofe who re-
ceive their patents from the viceroys, have from 3000 to
6000 aflpers per annum. ' b-

This cavalry is better difciplined than that properly
called the ta Pee the f{pahis be the neateft; and
brifkeft. Thefe laft only fight in platoons; whereas the
zaims and timariots are divided into regiments, and com-
manded by colonels, under the dire¢tion of bafhaws. ‘The
bafhaw of Aleppo, when in the army, is colonel-general of
this militia. iT

TIMARISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan; 15 miles E. of Pafa.

TIMAVO, a river of Carniola, which runs into the gulf
of Trieite, near Duino. ‘ i

TIMAVUS, in Ancient Geography, a fountain, lake,
river, and port of Venetia. ;

TIMBANG, in Commerce, a meafure at Batavia for rice,

Peppers

thow

TIM

pepper, and other dry goods. It is reckoned at ten facks,
or five pikuls : another meafure is called kulack, and weighs
7% cattis : 7 kulacks make one timbang, liquid meafure.

TIMBER, in Geography, a river of Pruffian Lithuania,
which runs into the Nemouin; 4 miles N.E. of Wipe.—
Alfo, a town of Pruffian Lithuania, 6 miles W.. of In-
fterburg.

Timser, or Timber-Trees, in Rural Economy, that fort of
wood produce which is ufeful and proper for the purpofes
of building, the conftru€tion of tools, implements, carri-
ages, &xc.; or fuch large trees of different forts as have
reached their full or fuitable ftates of growth, and are in
fituations fit for being cut. down for ufe. The. various
kinds of trees which are the moft ufeful and important in
this intention, have been noticed and confidered in {peaking
of the nature of common and other plantations and plant-
ing; but they are chiefly the different forts of pines, the
larch, ‘the birch, the common afh, the mountain-afh, the
beech, the fycamore, the elm, the oak, the horfe and
common chefnuts, the alder, and the poplar. However,
in general, the oak, the afh, the elm, the larch, and the
Scotch pine, are by much the moft ufeful and valuable for
all the different ufes of this nature.

We thall here mention from Evelyn’s Sylva, &c. fome
of thofe kinds of timber that are moft ferviceable, and give
a brief view of the ufes to which they are applied, referring
to their feveral denominations and other collateral articles
for a further detail.

1, Oak, the ufes of which need no enumeration ; to en-
dure all feafons and weathers, there is no wood like it:
hence. its ufe in pales, fhingles, pofts, rails, boards, &c.
For water-works, it is fecond to none ; and where it lies ex-
pofed both to air and water, there is none equal to it.

2. Elm: this, felled between November and February,
is all {pine or heart, and no fap; and is of fingular ufe in
places where it either is always wet, or always dry: its
toughnefs likewife makes it of ufe to wheelwrights, mill-
wrights, &c.; nor muft it be omitted, that its not being
liable to break and fly in chips, makes it fit for dreffers and
planks to chop on.

3. Beech: its chief ufe isin turnery, joinery, upholftery,
and the like, as being of a clean, white, fine grain, not
apt to bend. nor flit: it has been fometimes, efpecially of
late, ufed for building-timber, and if it lie conftantly wet,
is judged to outlaft oak.

4. Afb: its ule is almoft univerfal ; it is good for build-
ing, or other occafions where it may lie dry: it ferves the
carpenter, cooper, turner, eth Si wheelwright,
gardener ; as alfo it is ufed at fea for oars, hand{pikes, &c.

5. Fir, commonly known by the name of deal, is of late
much ufed in building, efpecially within doors, for ftairs,
floors, wainfcot, and moft works of ornament.

6. Walnut-tree: this is of univerfal ufe, excepting for
the outfides of buildings; none is better for the joiner’s ufe,
it being of a more curious brown colour than beech, and
lefs fubje&t to worms.

7- Chefnut-tree, next to oak, is the timber moft fought
for by jomers and carpenters. It is very nye :

8. Service-tree, ufed in joinery, as being of a delicate

rain, and fit for curiofities: it alfo yields beams of con-
fiderable fize, proper for building. aon

g- Poplar, abel: this and a/pen, differing very little from
one another, are-much ufed of late inftead of fir: they look
as well, and are tougher and harder.

10. Alder, much ufed for fewers or pipes to convey
water: when kept always wet, it grows hard like a ftone ;

9

LiM

but where fometimes wet, and fometimes dry, it . rots
prefently.

The ufes of timber are fo many, and fo great, that the
procuring of a fufficient fupply of it extremely well de-
feryes the care of every ftate; as it muft be a great dif-
advantage to it to be obliged to have recourfe to its neigh-
bours, and purchafe, at a very confiderable and continually
renewed expence, what might, by an eafy, economy, be
fufficiently fupplied at home.

This economy, however, muft be applied in time; for
our natural indolence, our love to reap the advantages of
every thing ourfelves, and our little care for potterity, give
great room to fear fucceeding ages will want wood, both
for private and public exigencies, All our arts fhould
besemployed on this fubje&, with two views, the one
to preferve and cherifh our growing wood, the other to
renew the trees which have been, and are continually cut
down.

The quantity of acorns which the oak bears, has made
many people fuppofe, that Nature has taken care for a re-
newal.for us; and that of this vatt quantity of feed, which
annually fall, there will be always an over-fufficient fupply
of young trees, which will grow up in the place, of the
old ones: but experience proves, that this is by no means
the cafe. The greater number of thefe fallen acorns. is
devoured by many different animals, for whofe nourifhment
Nature has provided that abundance of them : and of thofe
which efeape this fate, we are to confider how few can
come to good, from the natural accidents they are unavoid-
ably expofed to; they fall on a covered ground, where
dead leaves, and decayed parts of branches of trees, ufually
prevent their touching the earth; into which they are to
fhoot; or, if they can fhoot here, it is merely from the
furface, where they are, in their flow growth, liable, whiie
very tender, to all the inclemencies' of frofts; and add to
this, that it is very difficult for fuch tender plants as the
young feedlings of thefe to find room) for growth or
nourifhment among the eyery-way {preading roots of other
trees ; and the continual fhade and want of free air, muit
render them very weakly and irregular in their growth,
eyen fuppofing them to get over all the other difficulties.

It is very certain, that timber-trees of oak are frequently
met with among the underwood of foreits ; but we fhall
always find this to be the cafe, not in the clofe places, but
in certain fpots, where there has been.a vacancy or opening ;
and that ufually, where there are not, nor have at any time
been, oaks in the neighbourhood of the fpot. The aeorns
that fall from the oaks ufually come to nothing from the
before-mentioned accidents; and thefe trees which grow at
diftances, are owing to the acorns brought thither by birds,
and accidentally dropped there.. _This is an inftance fami-
liarly verified, by obferving, that there are frequently little
bufhes near woods, which, though of white-thorn or other
trees, are ufually furrounded and ornamented with young
oaks; the jays and the like granivorous birds are the au-
thors of this crop; for bringing the acorns from the ad-
joining woods, to eat under thefe bufhes, they drop many
by the way, which they do not trouble themfelves to look
for on the ground, and which having here a freer ground to
ftrike root into, and an open air to grow in, feldom fail of
coming to good, unlefs deftroyed when young.

In order to the prefervation of our growing timber-trees,
it would be a very ufeful law, that all who cut down any
number of oaks, fhould alfo leave a number in good con-
dition for after-cutting ; and, that no timber fhould be cut

down, but at a proper age, in regard to the nature of the
foil ;

TIMBER.

foil; fince it is certain, that trees grow to their perfection
at very different periods of time, in proportion to the depth
of foil they have to grow in; and that as it is, on the one
hand, not for the intereft of the {tate to fuffer trees to be
cut till at their perfection for fize and foundnefs, fo after
they are arrived at their perfection, it is equally certain that
they gradually decay.

The quality of the foil the tree ftands in may be neceflary
to be obferved to this purpofe ; but the quantity or depth
of it is the great fubje¢t of enquiry; and a great number
of obfervations has proved, that the proper feafon for cut-
ting oaks, in a foil of two feet and a half deep, is at fifty

ears old; thofe which ftand in a foil of three feet and a
half deep, fhould not be cut down before feventy years ;
and thofe which ftand in a foil of four feet and a half deep,
or more than that, will increafe in goodnefs and in fize
till they are a hundred years old; and obfervation has
proved, that after thefe feveral periods, the trees begin to
decay.

This feems the beft rule to eftablifh, in regard to the
common foils; but thofe which grow in a lighter or more
fandy foil, may have their periods changed from thefe to
forty, to fixty, and to eighty years at the greateft depth ;
and after thefe times it is always beft to fell the wood meant
for public fervice, whether then wanted or not, fince it is
much better to keep it in public magazines, than to leave it
to be daily decaying.

Heaths, and other uncultivated places, where there is no
regular growth of wood, but where fern and ufelefs plants
alone feem to flourifh, ufually afford alfo fome ftraggling
trees of the oak. Thefe probably have had their origin
from acorns dropped by birds ; but they feldom grow tall
or regular; fince, not having been defended from the in-
juries of cattle, they are ufually browfed on, and ftunted
while young, and fo become crooked and fhort-trunked,
or pollard-trees. Thefe, though not of fuch value as the
more regular oaks, yet deferve care, both with refpeé&t to
their prefervation and felling ; fince they afford a number of
trees naturally bent, and formed for many parts of fhip-
building.

The little care ufually taken of thefe trees, though on
this occafion of great value, feems to threaten a general lofs
of them; but as trees, thus naturally crooked and bent,
are of value, it is a laudable attempt to try at the finding
of a regular method of produeing Teh and this is eafily
pratticable, by following the fame methods by which thefe
wild ones become fo. They wholly owe their figure to the
cattle’s biting off their tops while young, and afterwards
biting off again the tops of the fhoots from the firft wound.
In this manner, if a number of young trees, fet apart for
the experiment, have their tops cut off at two, four, fix,
eight, ten, and twelve feet from the ground, and four years
srwiieds the fhoots from thefe ftunted tops are again cut
in the fame manner, the trees will be found afterwards to
grow up in all the irregularly crooked figures that can be
conceived, and by this means a fupply of naturally crooked
wood may be raifed for all the occafions of fhip-building,
with infinitely greater eafe, and more certainty, than by the
method propofed by fome, of bending them down with
weights tied to their tops while young. See Growth of
Crooked TIMBER.

As to the fupply of young wood in the place of what is
cut down, there are fome circumftances which have not had
the attention paid to them which they deferve. The {prin
frofts, which come on at a time when the fhoots, by Chick
nature is to raife the fupply for what is cut down, are jutt

preparing to grow, are of prodigious injury, and do not
lefs mifchief to thefe than to the young fhoots of garden
plants, though the diftant hope of the fucceffion of the pro-
prietor, and ufually alfo the diftance of the place, and want
of repeated obfervations, occafion its not being perceived.
This, however, may in a great meafure be guarded againtt.
Frequent experiments and repeated obfervations prove, that
the mifchief done by thefe frofts affe& in a much ter
degree thofe fhoots which are expofed to the fouth, than
thofe which face the north: and that it is greatly more
powerful againft fuch as are wholly expofed to the wind,
than againft fuch as are fheltered. Thefe known cireum-
ftances may give the hint to a method of faving, at leaft, a
great part of the wood to be felled from this deftruétion, to
its renewal, by the making it a rule to begin cutting down
on the north fide; and, as the whole felling is a work of
fome years, the ftanding wood of every feta will defend
the young fhoots of the newly-cut ftumps the following
{pring, not only from the fouth expofure, but will thelter
them alfo from the wind.

Many prudent managers have made fine eftates of their
coppice-woods, by regularly felling a certain portion eve’
year, and providing for a renewal oF the firft cutting, again
the felling of the laft portion, by proportioning the time of
growth to the quantity to be cut every year; and there is
great intereft to be made of a true knowledge of the growth
of wood in this manner. Whoever obferves the growth of
young trees, will find that the fecond year’s growtk is much
more confiderable than that of the firft ; the third year is
more than that of the fecond, and fo on for many years; the
yearly growths of young wood greatly increafing every fea-
fon up to acertain time or age of the tree, after which the
increafe in bulk, by growth, becomes gradually lefs. The
eet advantage to be made of coppice-wood, would be by

nowing this interefting period, and feizing on it, always to
cut down the trees juft at that time when they arrived at the
end of their quick growth, and fo fetting nature to work
with new fhoots, to employ the fame on enriching again the
owner. Regular obfervation and experiment alone can afcer-
tain this happy period ; but any man who has much coppice-
wood upon his eftate, may affure himfelf of it, by cutting a
given quantity every year, for ten years fucceflively, and
then carefully reviewing the differenees of the yearly pro-
duce. Memoirs Acad. Scienc. Ann. 1739.

On the bufinefs of raifing and growing good timber, or
trees of that fort, Mr. Loudon has thrown out fome inter-
efting, ingenious, and philofophical hints and fuggeitions, as
well as ftated fome ftrong fa¢ts in confirmation of them, in
his work on forming and improving country refidences.
It is confidered as remarkable, that the matter has never
particularly engaged*he attention of thofe who have been
employed in defcribing the methods of rearing trees. The
effects of culture on other vegetables is fo great, it is faid,
as always to change their appearance, and not unfrequently
to alter, in a confiderable degree, their mature. The com-
mon culinary vegetables, and cultivated graffes, affume fo
different an appearance in our fields and gardens from what
they do in a ftate of wild nature, that even a perfon accuf-
tomed to the nature of plants might eafily be deceived in
regard to the fpeciesor kind. The fame general laws oper-
ate upon the whole kingdom of vegetables; and thence it
is thought plain, that the effects of culture upon trees,
though different in degree, muft be analogous in their nature.
It is true, it is faid, that as yet we are poffeffed of no great
number of either experiments or obfervations, to enable
us to determine with minute accuracy the precife = 4

°

TIMBER.

of thefe effets ; but ftill a perfon praGtically converfant with
the fubjeé&t, who fhall pay attention to what he may notice
to be taking place in different parts of the country, and
who poffeffes a fufficient knowledge of the vegetable king-
dom and phyfiology to reafon a analogy, may, it is
thought, deduce fuch general confequences, as will fuggeft
important practical rules and regulations.

It may be proper, it is faid, to remark, that by culture
is not meant merely the operations upon the foil, or on even
the form of the particular tree ; but every thing that tends
to remove it from its natural {tate in order to accelerate vege-
tation. It is confidered too, that a tree is in a natural State
whenever it has fprung up fortuitoufly, and propagates itfelf
without aid from man: whether it be in crowded foretts,
‘woody waites, or in feattered groups on hills or commons.
Some trees and other vegetables may be faid to be natural-
ized to fituations which, but for art, they probably never
would have grown upon. Thus, for inftance, mountain
plants are fometimes found common in plains, and even
meadows ; and alpine trees which diffeminate themfelves in
level and warmer parts of the country: but then the perfon
who is converfant with fuch matters, by comparing the effects
of thefe different fituations on the vegetable, always knows
to fele& as general nature that which perfects all the parts,
and where the foil and fituation are beft fuited for the repro-
duétion of the fpecies or fort, and the prolongation of indi-
vidual life. Thefe rules are, it is faid, founded in nature.
For example ; no perfon, judging from them, could miftake
a warm Englifh common as the natural foil and fituation of
Scotch firs, though they not unfrequently diffeminate them-
felves there. It is, indeed, well known to every one in the
leaft converfant with the vegetable economy, that in all her-
baceous vegetables, and even fhrubs of confiderable fize, the
effe& of removal to an improved foil, climate, and fituation,
is to expand the parts of the whole vegetable: that the
effe& of removing or cutting off part of the vegetable above
ground is to expand thofe parts which remain: that the
effet of removing any of the parts under ground, or of
removing the whole vegetable into a colder climate and lefs
congenial foil and fituation, is to contraé& or confolidate
the whole. This, were it neceffary, could, it is faid, be
luftrated in a thoufand inftances from the commoneft vege-
tables: but for the prefent purpofe, it is only neceflary to
notice further, that this takes place more or lefs in a degree
corre{ponding with therapidity of the growth of the vegetable,
and its duration. Thus, all the annual grafles are much far-
ther removed from a ftate of nature by culture than the per-
ennial ones. So are the annual garden yegetables, as cab-
bages, legumes, and {pinach, in oppofition to ftrawberries,
afparagus, and many others. Quick growing trees or fhrubs,
as willows, rafpberries, and fome others, are alfo much eafier
removed from their natural ftate, than fuch as oaks, thorns,
hollies, and heaths, which grow much flower. If thefe
remarks and conclufions be juft and well-founded, which, it
is fuppofed, none will deny, it muft follow that the fame
general effe€ts take place more or lefs on all trees; that
when they are removed into acolder climate, or have part of
their roots cut off, it will in fome degree contra& the fibre
of the wood, and render it a of more folid and hard texture ;
and that when they are removed into a warmer climate, have
moft of their branches taken off, or are placed in a better
Jlate, it mutt, by accelerating their growth, it is thought,
tend to expand the fibre of the wood, and of courfe render
the wood fofter and more liable to fuffer by the ation of
the common elements, when the tree is cut down and applied
to ufe. That this does really take place, will, it is faid, be
gathered from the detached faéts ftated below, which have

come to the writer’s knowledge, and to which every prac-
tical unprejudiced perfon, who has yifited different parts
of the kingdom, will, it is thought, be able to add many
others from his particular obfervation, attention, and exa-
mination.

Firtt, that every hedger and forefter knows, that furze and
thorns, which have been cultivated in fields or hedges, are
of a much fofter or wider grain, and are much eafier cut over
with the hedge-bill, than fuch as {pring up from feed in a
wild fcenery, and never undergo any fort of pruning or cut-
ting in, nor any kind of culture in any way. They know
too, that in a common to be cleared of furze or thorns, or
in ahedge to be cut over, there are fome parts which require
a much flighter flroke of the hedge-bill than others ; and
that thofe parts eafieft to cut, are uniformly thofe where the
plants have grown the quickett :—gardeners experience the
fame thing in pruning or cutting over fruit-trees or fhrubs.
Thus the difference between the texture of the cultivated and
the wild rafpberry is, it is faid, itriking, though the {tem of
the one is nearly double the thicknefs of that of the other.
In all the other of thefe cafes, the ftems of both are fup-
poled alike in diameter and cleannefs, or abfence of knots ;
though the fame thing would, it is thought, take place in
a confiderable degree, even if the ftem of the cultivated or
quick growing one were thicker than that of the other in
the wild ftate. Suppofing that there were no other proofs,
this, it is contended, clearly fhews that cultivation, or what-
ever tends to increafe the growth of a tree, tends likewife to
expand the vegetable fibre. But there are other concurring
proofs, it is faid, which demonftrate this, and at the fame
time fhew, what few, it is fuppofed, will doubt, that when
the vegetable fibre is expanded, or when the annual ringlets
or circles of wood, produced by a tree, are foft and larger
than the general annual increafe of fuch tree, the timber
mutt be lefs hard, and more permeable by air, water, heat,
and other matters, and, of courfe, inferior for all the pur-
pofes of timber.

Secondly, that it is well known that the common oak in
Italy, where it grows fafter than in this country, is com-
paratively of hort duration. And that the oak which grows
on the mountains of the Highlands of Scotland is much
harder and clofer than any produced in England, though on
thefe mountains it feldom attains one-tenth part of the fize
of Englifh trees. Every country carpenter in Scotland
knows, it is faid, the extreme difference between the dura-
tion of Highland and Englifh oak for {pokes of wheels.
Many hedge-carpenters in both parts of the country know
the relative duration of tranfplanted or plantation oaks, that
is, the young oaks which are thinned out from thrivin
plantations ss fort, and thofe from natural forefts, when
employed as pofts for railing. From different obfervations
which the writer has made in Monmouthfhire and Hereford-
fhire, the duration of the oak in thefe counties, it is thought,
is much inferior to what it is in Cumberland and Yorkfhire :
it is thought no exaggeration, whenit is faid that the differ-
ence is aseightto ten. Some timber dealers are known by
the writer, who, in purchafing it, pay attention to the differ-
ence of foil and fituation even in the fame woods. When
they can find oak in expofed fituations and on deep clay foil,
and afh on rocky fteeps, they always give them the preference
in their purchafes as timber.

Thirdly ; that a known faét is ftated by the writer which
is faid to be of fuch importance, that it is trufted, if it does
not fatisfy every unprejudiced perfon in re{pe& to the truth
of the general principles which are wifhed to be here laid
down and explained, it will at leaft arreft the attention of all

thofe who are interefted in the quality as well as mere balk
o

TIMBER.

of timber : and this, it is thought, may lead to more extenfive
obfervations, and perhaps more favourable conclufions relative
to it.

The plantations of the timber kind which were made at
Kinnaird caftle in the years 1770—1796, are, it is faid, well
known in the north of Scotland. ‘They were chiefly of
deciduous trees, among which were generally introduced
larches for fhelter. Thefe larches, in fome places, grow with
aftonifhing rapidity. On many flopes, where the furface-foil
was good though not deep, and the fub-foil a fandy gravel,
they advanced upwards of five feet a year for the firft fix or
eight years after being put in. As they overtopped and
crowded the deciduous trees, they were gradually felled ;
and as much had been faid about the durability of larch-
wood, the firft trees that were cut down were fawn up, and
applied to a purpofe which was perhaps, it is thought, one
of the beft tefts of their durable properties. This purpofe
was the foot-paths of peach-houfes and vineries, where they
were expofed to alternate drought and moifture, heat and
cold, and where common deal and other kinds of wood had
repeatedly failed. The larch deal of thefe trees was, it is
ftated, applied in the fame way as the others, and in lefs
than two years was completely rotten and deftroyed !

It may, it is conceived, be alleged by fome, that this
could only hold true in regard to the /ap, or laft formed
wood: but the heart, or red central wood which was pre-
fent, though it lafted longer, did not, it is affirmed, endure
three years! The vaft number of thefe trees annually taken
down, were afterwards, it is faid, chiefly made ufe of as
fuel; and though this wood had been afferted not to flame,
or be confumed without the afliftance of other wood, it did
not, in this cafe, ame violently, but it burned by itfelf with-
Out care or attention, and unaflifted from other timber-wood,
producing numerous fires for labourer’s ufes. In rendering
it fit for this purpofe too, the workmen found it extremely
brittle, a tree a foot in diameter being often broken with
the greateft eafe, by means of two or three blows given with
the back of the hatchet. The tops and fide-branches of
them were likewife remarkably light and brittle, as are known
to many perfons in that part of the country as well as this.
See Truper, Crooked Growth of.

Thefe facts are faid to deferve a very ferious attention,
and to lead to very important conclufions, in refpeét to the
cultivation and growth of this tree as timber in this country.
They are not Sheary ones; for though, as yet, fufficient
time has not elapfed for a fair trial of this wood in differ-
ent foils and fituations, yet fome have found it much lefs
durable than others ; and that an attentive, nice obferver
will, it is thought, perceive larch-trees in fome rich warm
fituations in a decaying ftate, and others growing fo rapidly,
or fo much fide-lopped or pruned, as to fuggeft doubts,
whether their duration will be much longer than thofe of
the above caftle.

And, fourthly, that in Scotland, the difference of dura-
bility between common fir-wood which has been of flow
growth, and that which has been forced, as it is termed,
either by fhelter, advantageous foil, fituation, or climate, or
by lopping off the fide-branches, is known to every car-
penter in the more northern parts of it, efpecially in the
diftri&ts of Perth, Stirling, and Argyle. There, it is faid,
they diftinguifh the wood cut as timber in the native foretts,
from that obtained in plantations, by calling the former
highland-fir, and the latter park-fir. The highland-fir is
moft efteemed, on account of its greater durability, being
frequently found undecayed in ancient buildings when other
forts are entirely wafted. Thefe circumftances are ftrongly
fupported, it is thought, by Mr. Lambert, who, in fpeak-

ing of the genus Pinus, has faid, that ‘this ftriking differ-
ence between the highland and park fir, is probably to be
attributed to the mountainous and rocky fituations in which
the native timber is found, and where, the trees being of
flower growth, the wood is confequently of a harder tex-
ture.’ The fame writer is of opinion too, it is faid, that
few f{pecies of pines will endure more than forty years in
the foils in which they are commonly fet out or planted in
England. | Indeed, there are many proofs of this, it is
thought, from Croom, Kew, and other places; though
there are fome excellent fir-trees at Langhangles, where
the foil is deep and cold, that are much older than that
period. The greater durability of the former fort of fir-
timber may be daily feen, it is faid, in the {till more
northern diftridts of Aberdeen, Bamff, and fome others,

during the removal of old farm-houfes aud cottages; as

wherever a piece of the highland-fir appears, it is always of
a much deeper yellow than the park or low country firs
At Gogar, it is faid, fome large fir-trees were taken down
im 1795: they grew upon a deep cold loam; the wood was
fawn up, and was found of excellent quality as timber.
About a mile from this, at Lenny Park, a dry bank is
covered with firttrees of greatef age than thofe of the
former fituation; fome of them have been taken down at
different periods before and fince that time, and have uni-
formly been found of inferior quality as timber-wood. In
1804, too, a number of fir-trees were taken’ down from the
rocky banks of the Almond, between Craigie Hall and
Cramond Houfe ; and they were found of excellent quality in
their wood. While at Bevelaw, there are extenfive plant-
ations of fir-trees, which have been often thinned ; but the trees
have grown fo faft, and been fo much cut or pruned in the
branches, that they never laft long, it is faid, as paling.
All thefe cafes have either come under the writer’s own par-
ticular notice, or that of a relation of his, who is highly in-
terefted in the value of park-fir, and, of courfe, has paid a
more than common attention to the matter. A at
number of other inftances might, it is faid, be here added,
but it is unneceflary : and the comparifon of the wood’ of
the common crak, the father of the orchard, with that of
the cultivated apple, is in fupport of the fame. Any perfon
who will take the trouble to examine the fir-woods at
Gordon Caftle, and contraft them with others in the count
of Perth, and thofe in England, will, it is thought, unquef-
tionably come to thefe conclufions: that flow growth is ef-
fentially neceflary to the durability of fir-timber ; and that
wherever’ the accumulation of wood has been accelerated by
culture of the foil, improvement of the climate, or by cut-
ting and pruning, it 1s injured in quality im proportion to
the ratio in which thefe agents have been employed. It is
not faid, that no branches fhould ever be cut from fir-trees,
but that it is certain that judgment mutt dire& to cut off,
in general only, fuch as indicate that they are no longer of
much ufe, which is eafily difcovered by marks of approach-
ing decay. :

Much of the above principles, reafonings, and conclufions,
is probably, in fome meafure, equally applicable to other
forts of timber.

In the raifing and growth of timber of the fir or Scots
pine kind, it is found not well fuited to very elevated fitu-
ations, as the fharpnefs and keennefs of fuch expofures
bring it too quickly into a ftate of decay and death. The
writer of an agricultural furvey of one of the more north-
ern diftricts of Scotland has remarked, that there is a kind
of laminated clay, much difpofed to diffolve with water,
which is not favourable to the growth of this, or any of the
pine tribe, It fucceeds very well, it is faid, sesiin

mo

wt

«
'

TIMBER.

moit parts of the clay ground of that traét, if care be taken
to prevent ftagnant water. It does exceedingly well too on
land covering the freeftone rock ; but that the beit timber
of this fort is produced on hard dry gravelly foils. But
that the Siberian pine, and fome others of a fimilar nature,
have been introduced with very little fuccefs. The fhort
intervals of mild weather which happen in the beginning of
the f{pring, excite them to vegetate too early, and the next
cold blaft deftroys the young buds. The New England
pine thrives in a tolerable foil, until from twelve to twenty
years of age, in proportion to the nature of the expofure,
after which it generally begins to decay. And that the
f{pruce is likewife unfit to weather the {torm on the greatett
heights. It fucceeds on the hard dry rock where the Scots
pine dies, but frequently decays at the end of eighteen or
twenty years, on ftiff wet clay. Its moft favourite foil for
timber is that which is dry and gravelly. The filver fir
thrives in clay foils, where the fpruce fails; nor is it averfe
either to the hard rock or gravelly foil, which probably af-
fords the beft timber ; but it makes little or no progrefs on
any foil that is very poor. It unfortunately too frequently
fuffers feverely from the frofty mildews of the fpring, efpe-
cially in its youth, or more early {tate of growth. How-
ever, the /arix or larch is now found to be the moft hardy
alpine plant. In moift places, it makes greater progrefs than
almoft any other timber-tree, and there is fcarcely any foil,
that is not drowned with water, on which it will not fuc-
ceed. It fuffers moft in too luxurious fituations, where its
foft fhoots, unable to keep ereét, bend away from the flight-
eft gale, and its timber produce is probably the worft. It
is liable while young, in fome fituations, to be much in-
jured or wholly deftroyed by early {pring froits taking place
after mild weather has brought on its vegetation, and is occa-
fionally feized with difeafe, and dies when placed on miry
clay.

it is fuggefted that the birch is next to the larch in the
progrefs of its growth, and equal to it in ability to ftand the
blatt in alpine fituations ; and that it is fuperior to it in the
plain. But in whatever fituation it is placed, it delights
mott in a light foil and dry bottom, probably producing in
fuch the beft timber-wood. It, however, thrives in moift
foils, with very moderate draining.

The afh alfo, when it enjoys a fufficient depth of good
foil, is capable of braving the ftorm, and pufhing up its
head in the moft expofed fituations; however, in a thin
foil, covering a ftiff argillaceous bottom, it can make no
progrefs. It notwithitanding thrives well in fome marfhy
foils, where the banks are fteep, fo that the water gets away
without ftagnating. On dry rocky fteeps, the timber is
probably the beit. It forms perhaps the moft important
wood in the country as timber, being ufeful in all its ages
and ftates, and fit for moft purpofes.

The mountain-afh is ikewife a hardy native, which grows
freely in almoft all foils and expofures ; but its favourite
fituation feems to be in hanging banks, among woods and
coppices, where the timber-wood is perhaps the beft. This
and the gean-tree, or wild cherry, raife and propagate them-
felves much when left at liberty, by putting up or out
fuckers from their roots.

The beech is faid to come near to the afh in capability of
braving the ftorm, and has much the advantage of it in
thriving in poor or {tiff foils; but there are fome barren
argillaceous bottoms too much even for the beech; and it
is moft fuccefsful, and affords the beft timber, in friable
foils. Its fhoots, while young, are foon affected by froft,
but the tree {peedily recovers.

The fycamore and elm require a light foil, and a dry,

Vou. XXXV.

open under-ftratum : and when this is the cafe, the timber
is the beft, and the trees thrive in a fituation pretty much
expofed. They form good timber too on fome foils of a
heavier nature.

In regard to the oak, it is lefs patient of the blaft than
moit of the timber-trees of the foreit. Being late in put-
ting forth its leaves, it continues to grow till the feafon is
far advanced ; and the immature wood of its late fhoots,
unable to refift the piercing effe&ts of the cold wind in ex-
pofed fituations, withers before the next {pring ; fo that,
like Penelope’s web, the progrefs of one feafon is undone
in the following. The moit favourable fituations for the
oak, as timber or otherwife, are therefore hollows or hang-
ing flopes, where the fharp cutting winds are broken by the
neighbouring heights. In fuch fituations, if ftagnant
motiture be avoided, it will thrive in the ftiffelt foils, and
with its {trong roots penetrate the deepeft bottoms, afford-
ing good timber. Though the growth of this tree be flow
in infancy, when it is placed in a favourable fituation, it wlll
make a progrefs in the courfe of fifty years, little inferior
to many other kinds, and at length arrive at a great fize of
timber. See thefe timber-trees.

It has been found that the horfe chefnut-tree thrives well:
on the lower grounds, and deep foils only. The fweet
chefnut, which quickly becomes a timber-tree in diftri@s
more northern than this, does not fucceed here. Its feafons
of growth are too early, or too late, for the climate. In its
firit, it bears fome refemblance to the Siberian pine, &c. ;
in its laft, to the oak; its early growths being almoft
as early as the former, and its later being nearly as late ag
thofe of the latter, and ftill more foft and fufceptible of the
cold. Hence its fhoots are alternately put forth and de-
ftroyed, and it generally becomes a low, ftunted, fhrubby
tree. But this, it is faid, does not feem to have always been
the cafe. The fate of the common walnut, which may be
confidered almoft as much a timber as a fruit-tree, is nearly
the fame with that of the {weet chefnut. It probably af-
fords the beit timber on dry friable foils of fome depth.

The poplar and moit of that tribe delight moft in water-
formed foils, but are commonly averfe to marfh, and, when
happily fituated, make quicker progrefs than almoft any
other forts of trees, producing much light ufeful timber.
See CHEsnuT, WALNuT, and Poprar.

Management of Timber.—The rules and regulations for
the management of fir and other timber-trees, which are
given below, deferve attention. Mr. Salmon, of Woburn,
in Bedfordfhire, who is in favour of much lopping or cut-
ting of the fide-branches of fir-timber, remarks, in a late
volume of the Tranfactions of the Society of Arts, &c.
that confidering* the purpofes that this fort of timber is
commonly applied to, it muft occur that clearnefs of knots,
ftraightnefs, length, and equality of fize of the trunk, con-
ftitute its perfection, and that, if deficient in all thefe, it is of
no value but for the fire. Next to thefe confiderations, and
the profpeét of an improved knowledge of raifing and cul-
tivating this kind of timber-wood, it may, it is faid, be a
fair queftion, if our own country be not capable of pro-
ducing this timber little or not at all inferior to foreign fir?
In this country at prefent, fir appears, it is thought, not for
any length of time to have been confidered much otherwife
than as ornamental. For this purpofe they ferve only for a
certain time, which, when paft, it has been their fate to be
cut down long before having attained maturity. But from
the great extent of ground now covered with this fort of
timber-tree, it is to he hoped, it is faid, that another centw
may obtain to Englifh fir fome of the charaéter of the oa
of the fame country : towards fuch an end, if attainable,

4Q every

TIMBER.

eyery means fhould, it is faid, be ufed, and towards which
nothing appears more likely to fucceed, than a well-
grounded general practical mode of management, from the
time of the trees being put out, to their greateft imaginable
age of improvement. ‘hat a knowledge of fuch may by
perfeverance be gained, is not, it is faid, much to be doubted,
as from different {pecimens there appears great reafon to
conclude, that early and proper fide-lopping the branches,
and thinning out the young trees, will form a confiderable
feature in the plan and {yftem to be adopted and purfued.

The fubfequent plan and rules for the general manage-
ment in thefe cafes, are given as the partial refult of practi-
cal experience, but of only a few years’ obfervations. :

In the raifing of this fort of timber, from every authority
and obfervation, there can be no doubt, it is thought, that
all firs fhould be fet out or planted thick or near together, as
not more than four or five feet apart. That where firs of the
fame kind are put out together, there is lefs lofs of plants, too,
from one fort not overgrowing and deftroying the others 5
confequently, that it appears advifeable that all the different
forts fhould be fet out feparately by themfelves. If any
admixture at all be admitted, the Scotch fir and larch may,
perhaps, beft fuceeed together ; but this is not certain, and
they will unqueftionably be beft feparate on two accounts ;
firft, becaufe they are not fo likely to injure each other ;
and, fecondly, becaufe the larch may be put into the foil
beft fuited for it, and the Scotch fir the fame. And that in
raifing any particular fort extenfively, it may be right to
have a few of the fpruce fort, or others, on the out or
expofed fides, to prevent mifchief from fudden guits or
blafts of wind: but if the fituation be not liable to fuch
gufts, the fpruce had better be omitted, being mechanical
agents only, and, by excluding the fun and air, act againit
the operations of nature. However, in thefe hints, orna-
ment is not, it is faid, confidered, but only timber : if the
former be wanted, and profit alfo, then the fpruce, the
larch, the filver, and fome other forts, may be combined.

It is contended, that from fome years’ obfervations on cut-
tingout and fide-lopping the branches, and the effects thereof,
it appears certain that fir-trees, whenever they arrive at a
certain age, fhould be cut or lopped to a certain height 5
and that for regulating thereof, the fimple rule given below
is recommended: the cutting-in to commence when the
trees are fix years old, or when there is difcernible five tier
of boughs and the fhoot ; the three lower tier of boughs
are then to be taken off. After the firft lopping or cutting-
in, the trees to be let alone for four or five years, and then,
and at every fucceeding four or five years, the cuttings-in to
be repeated, till the ftemof the tree be clearto forty feet high,
after which, as to fuch fide-lopping, it may be left to nature.
The rule for the height of thinning and cutting-in, after the
firft time, to be half the extreme height of the tree, until
they attain twenty years’ growth, and after that time, half
the height of the tree, and as many feet more as it is mches
in diameter at four feet from the ground. This cutting-
out and retrenching the branches of fuch trees is known,
from repeated obfervations, it is faid, not to be exceffive ;
and that the rule is calculated to check the too tapering
top, and for ftrengthening the flender bottom, by carrying
the cutting and retrenching to a greater proportionate
degree, in a ratio compounded of the height and bottom
bulk ; and by this rule, too, it may be obferved, that the trees
will be at top clothed with fomewhat lefs than half their
branches. ‘The proper time for fuch cutting-in is, it is
faid, between September and April, and the tool to be
employed in the bufinefs, the faw.

It is noticed, that orderly thinning the trees at certain

5

periods, when for timber, is the next effential to that of
cutting in and lopping their fide-branches ; and that for this
purpofe, obfervations have been made on the moft orderly
and thriving colleétions of this fort of trees, and the fubfe-
quent fimple rule is laid down: keep the diitance of the
trees from each other equal to one-fifth of their height. In
the application of this rule to this purpofe, it is evident
that each individual tree can never be made to comply, for
the original diftance (even if fet out in the moft regular
order) will allow only for certain modifications, by taking
out every other tree, and fo on; but even if the obtaining
fuch equal diftance were practicable, experience would thew,
it is thought, that another way fhould be preferred, of
which the eye mutt be the judge, by taking out fuch trees
as are leaft thriving, ftand neareft to other good trees, &c.
&c. at the fame time keeping in view the rule laid down =
the direGtions and rules for which, given below, may
eafily be proved, by meafuring a chain {quare, or any
quantity of the land, and counting the trees thereon ; then,
by trying the height of two or three trees in that quarter, and
taking one-fifth of fuch for the diftance, it would be readily
feen how many trees for timber fhould be contained in the
piece meafured : or the practice may be more fimply regu-
lated, it is faid, by taking the diftance of eight or ten fuch
trees added together, the average of which fhould be equal
to a fifth of the height of the trees. In thefe rules and
direétions there is nothing impratticable or complicated, it
is thought.

The writer ftates, too, that he has for years known the
expence and produce of this fide-trimming alone, and finds
that in Bedfordfhire the produce of it doubly repays the
charge or coft; and that although fome experimentalifts
may differ from him, or time may fhew fome reafon for
fomewhat deviating from his rule, it is prefumed all will
agree that fome fimple plan is advifeable, inftead of havin
timber colleétions and woods mifmanaged, to the great lois
of the community and their proprietors. If fuch a plan of
proceeding, as is here propofed, be generally promulgated,
if not perfect, it will moft likely, it is thought, in time become
fo, and thereby have its advantage ; and in order to promote
this, thefe concluding remarks are given: in the common
courfe of gardening, it is underftood that cutting and trim-
ming invigorate the tree ; that taking off the fide-branches
makes the upright ones fhoot the ftronger; and by cutting
out the dead and decayed wood, the tree is kept alive :
fome of this doétrine will, it is fuppofed, certainly apply to
the tribe of firs; it will certainly, too, fubjftitute clean
timber-wood for knots: and of all this treatment, from
their particular ufes, they of all other trees ftand in moft
need, and will be the moft improved by it. And that
fhould it be admitted that the like treatment would on the
fir, as well as other trees, produce the like effe&t, it would
lead to a well-grounded expeétation that, as well as pro-
ducing clearnefs from knots, ftraightnefs, and length, the
fame operation would advance the quality nearer to that of
foreign fir ; for it may be traced, that where trees are tall
and clear of boughs or knots, the whole fubftance of the
wood is better and of finer grain, and that it appears likely
that fuch will always be the cafe; the reafon of which
may probably, it is thought, be inferred from the fap
having farther to rife and defcend, and having no boughs
to divert or delay it, the circulation muft be more free and
rapid, moft increafe be left in the neighbourhood of the
boughs at the top of the tree, and leaft on the fides at the
lower part, confequently adding to the length of the head,
and rendering more fine each annual increafe to the body ;
thereby producing a clofe-grained, clean, long, and cr ar

eafy-

TIMBER.

eafy-tapering ufeful piece of timber, initead: of a coarfe-
ined, fhort, fudden-tapering trunk, with a quantity of
boughs and knots.

The foregoing rules, directions, and obfervations, are
meant, it is faid, to apply to fir-timber only, but to a
certain extent they may be applied to other timber ; though
by no means in the fame degree or age. But if had recourfe
to as far as the firft fourteen years of their growth, and
then fuch cutting and fide-lopping be altogether omitted,
and the thinning out very much increafed, any colleétion
of fuch timber-trees would, it is thought, be rendered much
more valuable than if left to nature.

The firft of the above writers has, however, already ftated,
that the general effe€ts of fide-cutting or lopping the
branches of fir, and probably fome other timber-trees, are
of a correfponding nature with that of culture; that is, to
increafe the quantity of timber produce. And that the
particular manner in which it does this, is by direCting the
greater part of the fap, which commonly {fpreads itfelf in
the fide-branches, into the main ftem. This muft, of courfe,
neceflarily enlarge that {tem in a more than ordinary degree,
by increafing the annual layers or circles of wood.

Now if the tree happen to be in a worfe foil and climate
than thofe which are natural to it, this will, it is fuppofed,
be of fome advantage, as the extra increafe of timber will fill
be of a quality not inferior to what would take place in its
natural {tate ; or, in other words, it will agree with that
ftate of quality and quantity of timber which the nature of
the fpecies, or fort of tree, admits of being produced. But
if the tree be in its natural ftate, the annual increafed pro-
duce of timber occafioned by this cutting or lopping the
fide-branches, muft neceffarily injure its quality, in a degree
correfponding with the increafed quantity. And if the
tree be in a better climate and foil than that which is natural
to it, and at the fame time the annual increafe of wood be
promoted by fuch cutting means, it is evident, it is faid,
that fuch wood muft be of a very indifferent quality from
that produced in its natural ftate.

Confequently, although it might, in fome degree, it is
fuppofed, be fhewn from vegetable anatomy, and the ana-
logy of what takes place in herbaceous vegetables, it is
preferred to deduce, from the faéts ftated above, this propo-
fition: that whatever fends to increafe the wood in a greater
degree than what is natural to the {pecies or kind when in
its natural ftate, mutt injure the quality of timber. Cutting
or lopping the fide-branches tends to increafe this in a con-
fiderable degree ; and, therefore, it muft, it is thought, be
a pernicious pra¢tice, in fo far as it is ufed in thefe cafes.

It has been fhewn, it is faid, ina very ftriking manner
by Mr. Knight, that timber is produced, or rather that the
alburnum, or fap-wood, is rendered ligneous, by the motion
of the tree during the defcent of the true fap. It is fuffi-
ciently known, too, to all who have attended to the phy-
fiology of vegetables, and greatly confirmed by fome expe-
riments not long ago communicated to the Royal Society
by the fame writer, that the folid texture of the wood
greatly depends upon the quantity of fap, which mutt
neceflarily defcend, and likewife on the flownefs of its
defcent. Now both thefe requifites are, it is contended,
materially increafed by fide-fhoots or branches, which retain
a large quantity of fap, and by their junGion with the item
occafion a contraétion and twifted direGtion of the veffels,
that obftructs the progrefs of this juice. That this is true
in fa&, is well known to thofe accuftomed to make wine
from maple or birch trees, as in this bufinefs it is found
that thofe trees which have the feweft fide-branches, bleed
more freely than the others, but during a’much fhorter

{pace of time. Thefe hints, confequently, afford additional
evidence againft the practice of cutting or lopping the fide-
branches of timber-trees, and efpecially againft that of
ufing it for fir-trees, which, as the above writer juftly re-
marks, it is faid, have larger veflels than moft others, and
therefore, when in an improved foil and climate, fide-branches
for the above purpofes are effentially neceflary, if folid,
refinous, and durable timber be the obje& in view.

The following conclufions may, of courfe, it is thought,
be drawn in refpeét to the management of timber-trees from
the above faéts and remarks. Firft, that timber-trees fhould
be fet out in foils, fituations, and climates, as much as pol-
fible analogous to thofe of their natural ftate: and that it
is chiefly in this fate, or where there are fome defeéts in
regard to them, that fuch cutting or lopping and culture
canbe exercifed with advantage. Secondly, that in pro-
portion to the fuperiority of the foil, &c. in which trees are
put, over the natural foil of fuch trees ; in the fame propor-
tion lopping and cultivating the foil ought to be avoided,
and thinning encouraged. Thirdly, that particular regard
fhould be had to the foil and fituation, where either larches
or any of the pine tribe are placed out to remain finally for
produce as timber: for as the roots of thefe chiefly run
along the furface, and as in them the great current of the
fap is principally confined to one channel, that is, the trunk,
that tribe of trees is, of courfe, peculiarly liable to change
when fubjected to unnatural ageney of thefe kinds. Fourthly,
that the only way in which oak-timber of /afe quality ean
be raifed and provided for the navy of this country, is by
inclofing, preferving from cattle, and properly mana ing,
thofe royal forefts where oak is the natural produce B the
foil. The-negle& of this advice, there is reafon to fear, it
is faid, may at fome future day be regretted. For park-
oak, as has been feen, is by no means unfrequently much
inferior to that of the foreft kind in durability. And that,
laitly, as the praétice advifed tends to render trees charac-
teriftical of their peculiar fpecies or kind, it muft confe-
quently be the moft agreeable to ornament too, or the
principles of natural tafte.

The neceflity of confidering, thus fully, this branch of
the management of timber-trees is, becaufe the matter feems,
it is faid, to have been almoit entirely overlooked by prac-
tical men, who appear, in general, to think culture and
lopping, or cutting-in, of no other utility than to increafe
the produce in the quantity of timber. Though they are
not, however, to be difcarded in many other views, yet if
folid and durable timber be the objet, they ought, it is
thought, to be had recourfe to with caution, and in a dif-
criminate manner. As a contrary plan of proceeding has
been attempted to be enforced by fome, as has been feen, it
is thought neceflary to aroufe the attention of the country
to the raifing and improved management of the important
article of timber, efpecially as the confequences of that plan
are fuppofed to be more dangerous, as they cannot eafily
difcover themfelves until it be too late to apply a remedy.

In the management of timber-trees of the deciduous kinds,
the lopping, cutting-in, and thinning, fhould be praétifed, in
fome meafure, on the fame alaaeples as the above, but ac-
cording to the particular nature, circumftances, and habits
of growth of the different forts ; being conftantly executed
in fuch a manner, as to prevent any injury or inconvenience
arifing by the too extenfive growth of the lateral fhoots or
branches, thefe being too few in number for the proper re-
tention of the fap; and without the trees being left at too
great a diftance, and too naked and expofed. The trees for
timher too are always to be kept clear of all foul wood, and
any branches to be removed, taken off in a clean, careful, up-

4Q2 ward

TIMBER.

ward direétion, as where the parts are left in any way rug-
ged or uneven, they are lable to catch and detain the wet
and moifture, and conduét it to the hearts of the trees, by
which they are not only greatly hurt in their growths, but
often much fpoiled as timber-wood. Thethinning of the trees
for timber fhould be performed at different fuitable periods,
- fo as to prevent too much crowding, and afford proper
room for the full growth and increafe of their wood, on the
principles laid down above. See PRUNING and THINNING.

Sir Humphrey Davy has remarked in a late work, that
trees poffeffing the firmeft and the leaft porous heart-wood,
are the fengelh in duration. That, in general, the quantity
of charcoal afforded by woods, offers a tolerably accurate in-
dication of their durability : thofe moft abundant in_char-
coal and earthy matter are moft permanent ; and thofe that
contain the largeft proportion of gafeous elementsare the moft
deftrutible. That, amongft our own trees, the chefnut
and the oak are pre-eminent as to durability ; and the chefnut
affords rather more carbonaceous matter than the oak. That,
in old Gothic buildings, thefe woods have been fometimes
miftaken one for the other; but they may be eafily known
by this circumftance, that the pores in the alburnum of the
oak are much larger and more thickly fet, and are eafily dif-
tinguifhed : whil{t the pores in the chefnut require glafles to
be feen diftinétly. That, in confequence of the flow decay
of the heart-wood of the oak and the chefnut, thefe trees,
under favourable circumftances, attain an age, it is faid,
which cannot be much fhort of a thoufand years. The
beech, the afh, and the fycamore, moft likely, never live
half fo long.

It is noticed too, that the oak and chefnut decay much
fooner in a moift fituation than in a dry fandy foil ; and
that their timber is lefs firm. The fap-veflels, in fuch cafes,
are more expanded, though lefs nourifhing matter is carried
into them; and the general texture of the formations of
wood neceffarily lefs firm. Such wood, it is faid, fplits
more eafily, and is more liable to be affeéted by variations in
the ftate of the atmofphere.

The fame trees, in general, are likewife much longer
lived in the northern than in the fouthern climates. The
reafon of which feems to be, it is thought, that all fermenta-
tion and decompofition are checked by cold; and that at
very low temperatures, both animal and vegetable matters
altogether refift putrefaétion : and in the northern winter,
not only vegetable life, but likewife vegetable decay mutt
be at a ftand.

The antiputrefcent quality of cold climates is, it is faid,
fully illuftrated in the inftances of the rhinoceros and mam-
moth lately found in Siberia entire, beneath the frozen foil,
in which they moft probably have exifted from the time of
the deluge.

Trees that grow in fituations much expofed to winds, have
harder and firmer wood than fuch as are confiderably fhel-
tered. The denfe fap is determined, by the agitation of the
{maller branches, to the trunk and large branches ; where
the new alburnum formed is confequently thick and firm :
fuch trees abound in the crooked limbs fitted for forming
knee-timber, which is neceflary for joining the decks and
the fides of fhips. The gales in elevated fituations gradually
att fo as to give the tree the form beft calculated to refilt
their effets. And the mountain oak rifes robuft and
fturdy ; fixed firmly in the foil, and able to oppofe the full
force of the tempett.

Different {tates of timber are chofen for different ufes,
but the above writer remarks, that fhip-builders prefer for
their purpofes that kind of oak-timber afforded by trees
that have had their bark {tripped off in the fpring, and

2

which have been cut in the autunin or winter following,
The reafon of the fuperiority of this timber is, it is thought,
that the concrete fap is expanded in the {pring in the {prout-
ing of the leaf; and the circulation being deftroyed, it is
not formed anew: and the wood, having its pores free from
faccharine matter, is lefs liable to undergo fermentation from
the action of moifture and air.

It muft, however, be confidered as very extraordinary,
that in a country where the navy is a matter of fuch vait im-
portance, and in diftri¢ts where the oak, or other forts of
timber-wood ufeful for the fame purpofe, may be faid to
be almofl the ftaple articles, no complete or fatisfatory
trials fhould have yet ever been made of the means of in-
creafing the duration of fuch timber, which are moftly fo
readily practicable, and fo very material in their confequences.

Felling of Timber.—The proper periods or times of cutting
down, or making falls of timber, as they are often called,
mutt evidently, in fome meafure, depend upon and be regu-
lated by the nature and the differences in the circumitances
of the growths of the fame or different kinds of trees. But
as in them, as well as other living matters, there feem to be
three flages of growth ; as that of their early rifing, their
middle mature ftate, and that of their decline or decay ; they
may ferve as more fatisfaGtory guides in the bufinefs. In
the firft, the growth is moftly foft and rapid ; in the fecond,
it beeomes firm, ftrong, and perfect ; and in the lait, it be-
gins to become weak and unfound. Mr. Loudon has con-
fidered the beginning of the middlemoft of thefe ftages as
the moft profitable period or feafon for felling of timber; as
after that time, though the tree may appear found and
healthy, its annual increafe is fo little, that the cutting it
down and replacing it may be more beneficial than letting
it remain. ‘The number of years that a tree may ftand be-
fore it arrives at fuch a ftate, mutt, it is faid, vary in dif-
ferent foils, fituations, and expofures ; but the period itfelf
may readily and without difficulty be afcertained,—by the
annual fhoots, the {tate of the bark, and by taking the
circumference of the tree at the fame place for two or three
fucceffive feafons, and comparing the difference. In the view
of profit from timber produce, it is of material confequence,
it is faid, to cut down fuch colleGtions of trees at maturity,
or in their vigour and perfection, which, fome fuppofe, for
the oak, where the foil is natural, is from about the age of
fifty to fixty or feventy years’ growth. Many trees will itand
a half, others a whole century after they are full grown,
appear quite healthy, and, at the fame time, make little or
no increafe of timber. ‘There are particular cafes too, de-
pending on the nature aud ftate of the markets, in which it
may even be more profitable to cut timber before it is ar-
rived at a full growth than afterwards.

It may be difficult, it is thought, to fay when timber,
which is principally planted for ornament, fhould be cut
down. A tree, when young and frefh, is beautiful ; when
middle-aged, it is more or lels picturefque ; when in old age,
ftrikingly fo, with a degree of grandeur; and its greateit
height of piéturefquenefs and fublimity, is when decayin
under the preffure of age. Hence it is conceived, that. if
ornament, or expreffion, which is a more appropriate term,
were the fole objeét in view, trees need almoit never be cut
down. But mott perfons have a feeling of what is beautiful ;
and though all may be ftruck with grandeur or fublimity,
few Berets much enthufiafm as to facrifice the profit of va-
luable timber, for the pleafure of enjoying either of thofe
characters. ;

The time and manner of cutting underwood and under-
growth will be feen under thefe heads.

There are perfons in this country, who, nnqnepioneey

rom

TIMBER.

from negle¢&t and mifmanagement of their timber, are now, it
is faid, lofing annually very handfome incomes. The lofs of
price which generally follows the refufal of a good or high
offer, the certain lofs of intereft, the decay of timber, and the
injuries arifing from the incumbrance of full-grown trees, are
irretrievable loffes, which thofe who have the care and ma-
nagement of timber fhould ftudioufly endeavour to avoid.
But while the difadvantages of fuffering timber to ftand until
it be overgrown are thus held out, it is far from proper or
advifeable to propofe or favour the premature felling of it.

The feafon of the year for this work ufually commences
about the end of April; becaufe the fap then rifes, which
makes the bark run freely, as it is technically termed ; that
is, it ripe off the trees freely ; fo that where a quantity of
timber for ordinary ufes is to be felled, the ftatute 1 Jac. I.
€. 22. formerly required it to be done between the rit of
April and the laft of June, for the advantage of tanning :
but this a was repealed by 48 Geo. III.

However, the opinions and praétices of. authors are very
different as to the beft feafon for felling timber: Vitruvius
recommends an autumnal fall; others advife December and
January : Cato was of opinion, that trees fhould have borne
their fruit before felled; at leaft, that their fruit fhould be
firft ripe ; which coincides with the fentiments of Vitruvius.

In effe&t, though timber unbarked be mott obnoxious to
worms, yet we find the wild oak, and many other kinds, if
felled too late, when the fap begins to be full, to be very
fubjeét to worms; whereas about mid-winter, it neither
calts, rifts, nor twines. If trees were felled at a more early
feafon than April, it is faid that the timber would be better
feafoned.

It is, indeed, the common opinion, that timber which
is felled in winter, is ftronger, and more lafting, as being
more firm and clofe, than that which is felled in fummer.
But M. Leeuwenhoeck apprehends that there is no differ-
ence, except in the bark, and outermoit ring of the wood,
which in the fummer are fofter, and more eafily pierced by
the worm: wood confilting of hollow pipes, which, both
in fummer and winter, are full of moilture, and do not fhrink
in winter ; and therefore the wood cannot be clofer at one
time than another, for if otherwife, it would be full of cracks
and clefts. The unexpected and fudden rotting of fome
timber, he conceives to proceed from fome inward decay in
the tree before it was felled: having obferved all trees to be-
gin to decay at firft in the midft or heart of the tree. Phil.
Tranf. N° 213. or Abr. vol. i. p. 592.

The ancients had a great regard to the age of the moon
in the felling of their timber. If their rules avail aught,
they are thefe: fell timber in the wane, or four days after
new moon; fome fay, let it be the laft quarter. Pliny
orders it to be in the very article of the change, which hap-
pening on the laft day of the winter fol{tice, the timber, fays
he, will be immortal: Columella fays, from the twentieth
to the twenty-eighth day: Cato, four days after the full:
Vegetius, from the fifteenth to the twenty-fifth, for fhip-
timber ; but never in the increafe, trees then moft abound-
ing with moifture, the only fource of putrefaétion.

Some even have a regard to the temper and time of the
day ; the wind to be low, neither eaft nor weit, neither in
froft, wet, nor dewy weather, and finally, never in the fore-
noon.

Laftly, fome regard is had to the fpecies : fir is bet felled
when it begins to {pring, both as it then quits its coat beit,
and as the wood, according to Theophraftus, is by that
means rendered wonderfully durable in water. Elm, fays
Mr. Worlidge, is to be felled between November and Ja-

nuary, in which cafe it will be all heart, at leaft the fap will
be very inconfiderable: this, he adds, is alfo the only good
feafon for felling afh. Some authors add farther, that in
felling timber, care fhould be taken, firft, only to cut it
into the heart, and fo to let it ftand till dry ; by which
means the moifture is evacuated in drops, which would
otherwife occafion putrefaction.

M. de Buffon obferves, as a circumftance which greatly
increafes the ftrength and folidity of timber, that the trees
intended to be felled for fervice, fhould firft be {tripped
round of their bark, and fuffered to ftand and die upon the
{pot before the cutting. The fappy part, or blea of the
oak, becomes by this management as hard and firm as the
heart, and the real ftrength and denfity of the wood has
been proved by many experiments to be greatly increafed
by it: nor is this praétice detrimental to the proprietor, be-
caufe the remaining ftumps of thefe trees fend up their young
fhoots as vigoroufly, as if they had been cut down in their
natural condition. Mem. de l’Acad. Sc. Par. 1739.

When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the firft thing
to be taken care of is a fkilful difbranching fuch limbs as may
injure it in its fall. In felling the tree, it fhould always be
cut as clofe to the ground as poffible, unlefs it is intended
to be «grubbed up ; and this will be of advantage both to
the timber and the wood ; for timber is never fo much va-
lued, if it be known to grow out of old ftocks.

There are feveral different modes made ufe of in felling or
taking down timber, and they mutt neceflarily be fomewhat
various, according to the nature, extent, and kind, of which
the collection may be, as well as in the methods of perform-
ing the work: thus, in groves of the deciduous timber kind,
the trees are moftly beft felled by gradually taking or
thinning them out as they arrive at maturity ; which, where
they are to be continued, fhould be cut over by the furface
of the ground, and the {tools be each feparately well fenced
in, that by defending them from cattle, new trees may be
produced ; but when not defigned to be continued, they
may at once be rooted out. Groves of the fir or pine fort,
or any fingle fir-tree of any kind, fhould at once be taken
out by the roots. In woods, any timber-trees that may be
cut down, fhould have their places as nearly as poflible fup-
plied by fapplings, or any other proper forts of young timber-
trees. However, previous to the work of felling, the trees
fhould be marked by a proper perfon ; in performing which,
in a fall of timber, regard is to be had to the relative {tate of
{tanding in the trees. In clofe timber-woods, the whole or
nearly the whole may be marked and taken down; as if
fome which appear flourifhing be left ftanding, they will not
only be liable and in danger of being hurt in taking the
others down ; byt, in confequence of their fituation in regard
to expofure being changed, will no longer continue to
flourifh. As their atmofphere is not only thus altered, and
rendered too cool, perhaps, for their acquired habit, by the
remoyal of the adjoining trees ; but they thereby get room
to throw out fide-fhoots from their ftems ; in confequence of
which their tops die, and their growth is irrevocably ftinted.
While, on the contrary, in open woods of the fame kind,
thin hedge-rows, and other open fpaces, fuch timber-trees
only as are ripe for the axe, or are {uitable for the intended
purpofe, fhould be marked: the youthful growing trees
being left to be benefited moit probably by an increafe of
air and head room, in an atmofphere and expofure to which
they are habituated and accuftomed. On eftates that are
timbered, it is direéted that they fhould be frequently gone
over by proper perfons, who, let the price and demand for
timber be what they may, fhould mark every tree which

wears

TIMBER.

wears the appearance of decay. Where the demand is brifk
and the price high, he fhould go two fteps further, and mark
not only fuch as are full grown, but fuch alfo as are near
perfeétion; for the intereft of the money, the difincum-
brance of the approaching young timbers, and the com-
parative advantages of a good market, are not to be bartered
for any increafe of timber which can reafonably be ex-
pected from trees in the laft ftage of their growth.

In the work of felling timber, three diftinét methods are
praétifed and had recourfe to in different cafes; as, firft, that
of cutting the trees above ground; fevering them from
their roots, by means of the axe or the faw; leaving what
are termed ffools, to occupy the fpots where they ftood.
Second, that of cutting them, within the ground, with the
axe and mattock ; but leaving the principal parts of the
roots in the foil. And third, that of grubbing them up by
the roots, by the ufe of the fpade and mattock; thus throw-
ing them down with the butts and large roots adhering to
the items. The preference to be given to one or other of the
two firlt modes of taking down timber-trees, refts, it is faid,
chiefly on the nature of the future application of the land
upon which they grow. If it be intended to remain in the
ftate of woodland, the firft method, or the fecond, if too
much of the main roots be not cut away, is the beft and
mott eligible. But if the land is to be cleared for the pur-
pofes of agriculture, where fufficient hands can be had for
difpatching the bufinefs, the fecond is, by far, the beit.
The lait is improper in moft cafes.

The writer of the rural economy of the midland
diftriéts ftates, that there the methods of /focking, axe-
grubbing, and axe-falling are practifed. That the firft is a
kind of partial grubbing, in which the roots are cut through
a foot or more from the ftem; and, again, a foot or more
from the inner cutting; taking up a fhort length of the
thickeit part of the roots, and digging a trench round the
tree, wide enough to come at the downward roots. ‘That
the fecond, or axe-grubbing, is fomewhat fimilar to the mode
of grub-felling defcribed below, except that the end of the
butt is left larger in thefe places than in that cafe. And
that the third, or axe-falling, is the common method of
Yorkfhire, and other places, of cutting off above ground,
with the axe ; a method which is feldom praétifed, except
in fome few cafes where another crop of timber, or of
coppice-wood, is defigned to be taken. Stocking is the
prevailing mode ;—the charge for taking down varying with
the fize of the tree : for a tree of two feet in diameter, it is
about a fhilling ; and about four-pence more for cutting off
the butt; the ftocking and butting being, for the moft part,
let together. Other modes, too, are prattifed in other dif-
tri€ts in performing the bufinefs ; as that of fawing the trees
off in an horizontal manner clofe by the furface of the
ground, by means of a long faw with one or both handles
fixed on the upper fide, the trees being firft dipped in by
the axe on the falling fide.

The method of falling timber praétifed in the county of
Norfolk, is faid, by the fame writer, to be uniform, and
perhaps peculiar to the county. It is very aptly called
grub-felling ; the operation partaking both of grubbing and
of felling with the axe, in the common way above ground ;
a method which is wafteful of timber. The woodman of
this diftri€t, therefore, fells below the furfaee of the ground,
by cutting off the horizontal roots clofe to the ftem, which,
inftead of fhortening, he, in effe&t, lengthens, by adding to
it a conical point, cut out of the crown of the root ; fo that
by this way of proceeding, a greater length of timber is
obtained, than by firft grubbing and afterwards cutting off

the butt with a faw. Grub-felling is, it is thought, with-
out doubt, the moft Sera way of taking down hedge-row
timber ; and this, it is fuppofed, accounts for its being the
eftablifhed praétice in the above county. .

The difpofal of timber, which often takes place before it
is cut down, is to be regulated by the occa/ion of it, as arifing
from the /late of the timber, or other caufes and circum-
ftances. It is, however, feldom proper and beneficial to
fell and cut it down before its moft profitable ftate of
growth is reached ; though this principle may fometimes be
fet afide by particular circumftances, as the nature of a
market ; the value of the land it encumbers by its growth,
being greater than its annual increafe ; the intereft of the
money it is worth, with that of the growth from the fteols,
being greater than the increafe of the ftanding timber, &c.
It is confequently rarely advantageous to fuffer timber to
remain upon its roots, after it has attained its full growth ;
—as, in this cafe, the whole of the intereft is loft, it is faid,
to the owner; while the ufe of one of the moft valuable
articles of the produce of the country is loft to it and the
whole community. .

In {peaking of oak-timber, the late bifhop of Landaff has
given fome miefal and interefting remarks in regard to the
difpofal of it, in the introduction to the Agricultural
Report of the State of the County of Weftmoreland. Where
profit is confidered, it is faid every tree fhould be cut down
and fold, when the annual increafe in value of the tree by its

rowth, is lefs than the annual intereft of the money it would
ell for. This being admitted, it is only necefflary to inquire
into the annual increafe in the value of oaks of different ages.
After different ftatements, thirty-fix fhillings each are fixed
upon as the price of trees that fhould be cut down and fold ;
as, if they be cut down before they arrive at that value, or if
they be allowed to remain until they will fell for a much
higher price, the proprietor of the foil or land on which
they grow will be a lofer. It is noticed too, as being the
general opinion, that it is more profitable to fell and fell oak-
wood at fifty or fixty years’ growth, than to let it ftand for
navy timber to eighty or a hundred, owing to the low price
that is now paid for oak-trees of large dimenfions, either by
the Navy Board or the Eaft India Company. On this
account, it is advifed making a much greater increafe of
price than ordinary on timber of this fort of large fcantling, _
as in place of four or five pounds the load, if eight or nine ~
were given for trees containing each one hundred cubic feet
and upwards, every perfon in the kingdom, it is thought,
would have a reafonable motive for letting his timber ftand
until it became of a fize fit for the ufe of the navy; whereas,
according to the prefent eftablifhed price, it is every one’s
intereft to cut down and fell their trees before they arrive at
a proper fize to be ufeful as navy timber. This fuggeits,
too, the neceffity of attending to the royal forefts in a more
particular manner ; and may be an additional inducement ta
the trying the cultivation and growth of the larch in them
and training it for fhip-timber. See Tiser, Crooked
Growth of.

There are feveral different modes of difpofing of timber
according to the nature of it, the fituation, and the cuftoms
of the diftriéts to which it belongs; but the principal of
them are, firft, thofe of felling the trees ftanding; either by
audion, by receiving written propofals, or by bargain and
fale: fecond, cutting the trees down, and felling them in the
rough ; by any of the above modes: third, converting the
fallen trees ; that is, cutting them up into wares to which
they are beft adapted, or which are moft faleable in the par-
ticular fituation. On a large timbered eftate, the fitit mode

is,

TIMBER.

is, in common, the molt advifeable to be had recourfe to; in
which cafe, an accurate valuation of the marked trees is to
be made, before they are offered for fale: and, in the cafe
of oak timber-wood, it is moftly proper, and always fatif-
fa&tory, to have feparate valuations of the timber and the
bark.

In felling timber in the county of Norfolk, the prevailing
practice is, according to the writer of the rural economy
of that diftri@, to fell it ftanding, at fo much a ton when
fallen; meafuring the timber down to fix inches timber
girt ; the topwood and the bark (of oak) becoming the pro-
perty of the purchafer; who is ufually at the expence of
taking it down. And it is cuftomary there, too, for the
purchafer to difpofe of the bark (of oak), and fometimes the
topwood, by the fame admeafurement.

In the midland diftricts, after difpofing of and cutting out

the timber, the arms or boughs of the trees are cut up into
- pofts, rails, and cord-wood for charcoal; the /pray being
moftly made up into faggots.
_ The relative value of different forts of timber may be faid
to depend almoft wholly upon local circumiftances, as thofe
of contiguity and facility of being taken to the places
where they are the moft largely made ufe of, or where only
employed. Some forts are, however, every where valuable
on account of either their general application, or their
{carcity, fuch as the oak, the afh, the elm, the beech, and
the ftill more valuable larch, and others of the firft defcrip-
tion: and of the latter, the common chefnut, the yew, the
box, and the holly. The light produéts of different kinds,
afforded by fome timber-trees, are alfo of great ufe and value
in moft places.

Hunter, in his “‘ Evelyn’s Sylva,’’ has juftly remarked,
that every perfon who can meafure timber, thinks himfelf
qualified to value ftanding trees; but that fuch men are
often deceived in their eftimates. That it is the perfect
knowledge of the application of the different fhaped trees
that enables a man to be correé in fuch valuations. That
a foot of wood may be of little importance to one trade,
but of great value to another. This is the grand fecret, it
is thought, which enriches the purchafers of {tanding timber.

On the whole, the great and couftant demand for timber,
on account of the increafing fcarcity of it, fhould induce
the proprietors of Jands which are proper and fuitable for
it, to attend as much as poflible to the raifing and providing
of this great obje@ of rural economy, and national as well as
individual wealth.

Timer, Hardening of. See Harpenine of Timber, and
Sea/foning of TIMBER.

TimBer, Seafoning of, a term ufed to exprefs the pre-
paring of timber after it is felled, for cutting and working
up for ufe.

As foon as felled, it fhould be laid up in fome dry airy
place, but out of the reach of too much wind or fun, which,
when in excefs, will fubjeét it to crack and fly. It is not
to be fet upright, but laid along, one tree upon another, only
with fome fhort blocks between, to give it the better airing,
and prevent its becoming mouldy, which will rot the
furface, and produce mufhrooms on it. Some _ perfons
daub the trees all over with cow-dung, which occafions their
drying equally, and prevents their cracking, as they are

otherwife Yery apt to do.

Some recommend the burying of timber in the earth, as
the belt of all ways of feafoning it ; and others have found it
a fine prefervative to bury their timber under the wheat in
their granarics ; but this cannot be made a general practice.

In Norway, they feafon their deal planks, by laying them

in falt-water for three or four days, when new fawed, and
then drying them in the fun; this is found a great advan-
tage to them; but neither this, nor any thing elfe, can pre-
vent their fhrinking. And it has been recommended to lay
boards, planks, &c. in fome pool or runuing ftream for a
few days, to extraét the fap from them, and afterwards to
dry them in the fun or air; by this means, it is faid, they
will be preferved from chopping, cafting, or cleaving : but
againft fhrinking there is no remedy. Mr. Evelyn par-
ticularly recommends this method for fir. See HArpsNiING
of Timber.

The feafoning of timber by fire is the beft way of all, for
piles and other pieces that are to ftand under the earth, or
water. The Venetians firft found out this method, and the
way by which they do it is this: they put the piece to be
feafoned into a ftrong and violent flame ; in this they con-
tinually turn it round by means of an engine, and take it
out when it is every way covered with a black coaly crutt ;
by this means the internal part of the wood is fo hardened,
that neither earth nor water can damage it for a long time
afterwards. This method is praétifed in many places for
feafoning the pofts for paling of parks, &c. and has this
to recommend it, that in the very oldeft ruins we have ever
been acquainted with, there have been difcoyered many times
pieces of charcoal, all of which have been found uninjured,
though buried in the earth for ever fo many ages. This
method of charring timber is pra¢tifed in many parts of
England, and has been much recommended, both as to
economy and effet.

For this purpofe, all that is neceffary is to light a fire upon
the ground, which fhall be furrounded with a wall built with
loofe bricks or ftones, and then, when the pieces of timber are
laid acrofs the walls, to turn them round carefully fo as to
prefent every part to the aétion of the fire in fucceflion ;
and when the whole furface, to the depth of three quarters
of an inch or an inch, is converted to charcoal, they will be
fufficiently prepared. While burning, they fhould have a
temporary covering of boughs or other fuel to preferve
them from the aétion of the atmofphere, which would be
apt to convert part of the wood into afhes. See Parkes’s
Effays, vol. ii.. See alfo CHarRinG of Pofs.

An ingenious friend of the editor objects to this practice.
The opinion that paint is a prefervative of wood is almoft
univerfal. Neverthelefs, we fhall fhew it to be not only erro-
neous, but that in moft cafes the ufe of paint accelerates the
deftrution of every fpecies of wood to which it is applied.

The decay of wood is occafioned by internal, not external
moifture, and this only when it becomes ftagnant. As long
as there is a free circulation, no decay takes place. Stop
the circulation, and if there be any moifture whatever in the
wood, ftagnation commences, putrefcence enfues, and the
deftruétion will proceed with an activity in proportion to
the quantity and clofe confinement of the internal moifture.
When wood is thoroughly painted on every fide, it is evident
that the moifture within it is completely /ealed up, and
which neceffarily becoming ftagnant, the decompofition and
decay of the timber immediately commence. Hence it is
clear, that painting of wood, as above ftated, in every cafe,
except only when it is entirely free from moifture, or as it
is called thoroughly feafoned, mutt be as effectual a method as
any that can be deviled for accelerating its decay.

Wood that is painted only on one fide, will, ceteris pa-
ribus, laft as long again as that which is painted on both
fides. And that which is not painted at all will be moft
durable. Experiment will prove this to be the fa@, whether
the wood is expofed to the weather or not. a

TIMBER.

It is feldom that we meet with either a feaffold-pole or a
{caffold-board (fuch as are ufed by builders) that is rotten,
although they are of fir, and are alternately wet and dry,
and defcend from father to fon for feveral generations.
The reafon is, they are never painted.

Examine any old building, and it will be found that no
part of the wood or timber is in a found ftate, excepting
that which has efcaped the painter’s brufh. The wainfcot,
doors, windows, &c. will be found to be rotten, when the
floors and ftairs, although alternately wet and dry from
periodical wathing, are perfeétly found, becauje they have
never been painted.

It is a common praétice in London to cover the bafe-
ment floors with painted oil-cloth ; and it is aftonifhing to
fee how foon, in thefe cafes, the floors are retten, and which
is called the dry rot, but which is never once fufpected to
be the ftoppage of circulation by the ufe of the oil-cloth.
Were carpets fubftituted for the painted cloths, no fuch
effet would take place.

The dry rot in buildings, and particularly in the navy,
is comparatively a modern difeafe, and has very much in-
creafed fince the pernicious praétice of painting has become
fo general. The ancient city of Chefter, where fo much
timber was introduced into the outfides of the buildings,
and which is now black with age, but never painted, is a
flriking illuftration of this theory. The fame may be re-
marked of the villages at a diftance from the metropolis,
where the outfide wood-work of the buildings, fuch as
doors, windows, window-fhutters, weather-boarding, &c.
which have never been painted, are neverthelefs found, and
yet fome of them fo ancient as to defy all enquiry as to
their age. How different this from the gentlemen’s houfes
near London pr other great towns, where the gates, potts,
rails, and pallifadoes are kept conftantly well painted, but
are feldom found to laft longer than ten or a dozen years at
moft ! :

Paint indeed conceals from the eye the deftru€tion which
it occafions; and our readers will doubtlefs by this time
begin to fufpeét their former opinions of it to be erroneous.
We fhall therefore only mention two other inftances, which
came under our own obfervation, to fhew that wood never
ought to be painted, except for the purpofe of ornament.

A few years ago, fome old houfes were pulled down near
the Monument in London. Several of the principal timbers
were fo fcorched and burnt on the outfide, that an enquiry
took place as to the caufe of it; and it was clearly afcer-
tained, that the timbers in queftion muft have been preferved
from the ruins of the great fire of London in 1666, fo that
this wood muft now be much more than 150 years old; yet
the writer of this article Jately faw that fame fir-timber
fawed out into deals, and again ufed as new ftuff, being to
all appearance as found as ever. The only perceptible dif-
ference was in the colour, which was darker than deals ge-
nerally are.

The other inftance referred to is the late old Jewry chapel
in London. When that building was taken down, the pews,
which were of oak, and the feats, which were deal (but
never had been painted) were found to be in fo perfec a
ftate of foundnefs, that they were removed to the new build-
ing in Jewin-ftreet, and where there is no doubt they will
remain as long as the building itfelf, although thofe faid
deal feats are known to be confiderably more than one hun-
dred years old.

The moft effectual method of preferving timber from de-
cay is to char it; but when the purpofe to which it is to
be applied will not admit of that operation, the next beft

method is to wafh it over with charcoal and water, fimilar
to white-wafhing. Either of thefe methods will certainly
preferve it from the dry rot, charcoal being the greateft an-
tiputrefcent known, and no moifture within the influence of
its action will become putrid or decompofed, and we have
already fhewn that this muft take place before wood will
perifh. It may be further obferved, that vegetation can-
not take place where charcoal or charring is ufed, and
the dry rot is always accompanied with that fpecies of
vegetation called fungi, and this fungus never occurs till
decompolition or decay has begun.

When boarded floors are to be laid upon or very near the
ground, it fhould be ftrewed over with dry afhes, and the
joifts and underfide of the boards either charred or payed
over with charcoal-wafh, as before direéted. The fame
fhould be done with the fide of the wainfcot next the
walls,

As painting is indifpenfable from the fafhion of the times,
to doors, window-fhutters, wainfcot, &c. it would be well
to have them painted once over in the carpenter’s fhop when _
the ituff is perfe@tly dry, and finifhed afterward in the build-
ing for which they are prepared. ’

If the beft feafoned ftuff be put up unpainted in a new
building, the quantity of moifture it will imbibe from the
brick-work, plafter, &c. before it can be painted, will de-
feat all former care of well feafoning. tie

As to fafhes, mahogany is unqueftionably the cheapeft
article they can be made of ; for deal, when painted only a
few times, will have coft more than the difference o pe of
that very fuperior wood, both as to look and durability.
Air that is ftagnant is equally pernicious as ftagnant moif-
ture. When it is in that itate, it foon becomes decompofed,
and the hydrogen gas fixing upon wood, ropes, paper, and
other vegetable fubftances, quickly brings on their deftruc-
tion. Ventilation, and the ufe of charcoal, are the beft pre-
ventives.

The above hints will be fufficient to guide the intelligent
workman in all other cafes. :

Though it does not properly belong to this article, it
may not be amifs to mention, that thefe obfervations are
quite inapplicable to the prefervation of iron. Tron deca
from the effect of external moifture, and the aétion of

atmofphere upon its furface, which produces oxydation, —

and which is the fole caufe of its decay.
be prevented by painting.

Tinper, Preferving of. When boards, &c. are dried,
feafoned, and fixed in their places, care is to be taken to
defend and preferve them; to which the fmearing of them
with linfeed-oil, tar, or the like oleaginous matter, contri-
butes very much.

The ancients advife the {moke-drying of all inftruments
made of wood, by hanging them up in the chimnies where
wood-fires are ufed. The whole benefit arifing from this
feems to be, that the oil of the burnt wood enters, as it
afcends in the fmoke, into the pores of that which is pro-
pofed to be preferved. ‘

The Dutch preferve their gates, portcullices, draw-
bridges, fluices, &c. by coating them over with a mixture
of pitch and tar, on which they ftrew {mall pieces of cockle
and other fhells, beaten almoft to powder, and mixed with
fea-fand, which encrufts and arms them wonderfully againft
all affaults of wind and weather.

Timber felled before the fap is perfe&tly at reft, is very

This is only to”

fubje& to the worms ; to prevent or cure which, Mr. Eve- :

lyn gives us the following fecret, as moft approved: Put
common fulphur into a cucurbit, with as much aquafortis
as

¥

>

¢

.

é

¥

TIMBER.

as will cover it three fingers deep; diftil it to a drynefs,
and let it have two or three reétifications.

Lay the fulphur remaining at bottom on a marble, or
in a glafs, and, with the oil it diffolves into, anoint the
timber.

This, he adds, not only infallibly prevents or cures the
worminefs, but preferves all kinds of woods, and even many
ether things, as ropes, nets, and mafts, from putrefaction,
s5 in air, water, or fnow.
© For fuch as would go a fhorter way to work, two or
three anointings with linfeed-oil may do very well.

As to the chaps, or clefts, green timber is liable to after
working, and which is a very great defe&t in many fine
buildings, they are clofed by anointing, fuppling, and
foaking it with the fat of beef-broth, twice or thrice
repeated.— Some carpenters ufe greafe and faw-duit
mingled for the fame purpofe. But the former method
is excellent. Mortimer’s Hufbandry, vol. ii. p. 104.

TimsBer, Strength of. See StRENGTH of Materials, and
Beam.

TimsBer, Crooked, Growth of, the means of raifing and pro-
viding bent or twifted timber of different forts for the pur-
pofe of fhip-building and many other ufes. It has been
noticed by. Mr. Loudon, that the form of the larch tim-
ber-tree is unfuitable for fome of the purpofes of naval ar-
chite€ture ; and that to render it more proper and fuitable
for fuch ufes, cutting or pruning it has been advifed by
fome; and, what is itill lefs pra¢ticable, fhading it, by
others: but that when its mode of growth is well confidered,
it will be found that neither of thefe methods would prove
effeGtual. The former could not fucceed, it is fuppofed,
becaufe in the larch and fir-tribe one ftem conftantly takes
the lead ; and that in this {tem alone is contained the timber.
The latter, or fhade, might, it is thought, produce a crooked
enough ftem ; but that in regard to ftrength, or timber
produce, it would evidently be fo deficient, as to be totally
unfit for naval archite€ture. In confequence of which, he
has recommended the plan of bending the young trees as
preferable to every other praétice ; and as this mode may, at
fome future period, perhaps be deemed of public importance,
he has given a few remarks concerning the method that
fhould be adopted and employed in the bufinefs.

__ It is faid that, in the firft place, f{uppofing a timber plant-
tion or wood to be planted in regular rows, fifteen feet
apart, and the fame diftance in the row; and grown from
fifteen to twenty years; in bending or rendering the trees
crooked, begin with the firft row, and let every other tree
be bent down in different degrees, and tied to the interme-
diate ones which remain ere€t, or be faftened to the ground.
After the trees have had the growth of feven or eight years
longer in that fituation or pofition, they may be bent back-
wards, fo as to have fomewhat the form of the letter S,
the tops or leading fhoots rifing dire&tly upwards again from
upper bends, and the bent trees be either tied to them-
ves between the bent parts, to keep them in their proper
bent pofitions, or to the trees on the fides, or to any
of the trees which furround them, as may be found to be
moft convenient and neceflary. When the ropes have held
the trees in thefe fituations or pofitions for a few more
ears, they will have received, and retained, in fome mea-
ure, the above crooked appearance; which is a form that
will afford knee and other pieces, which are of great ufe in
fhip-building, and which always, it is faid, bear a higher
price than any other form of even oak-timber. Some trees
need, however, it is thought, only be bent gently on one
fide, and others a little more fo. This variation in the in-
elination of the trees, with thofe which fhould be left ere¢t,

VoL. XXXV.

would, it is fuppofed, ferve to produce and afford proper
fhelter for the whole timber plantations to which they might
belong, according to the ufes or purpofes for which they
are intended, or to the form which is moft in demand. This
plan is certainly thought worthy of a trial; and there is no
great reafon to doubt its fuccefs; for the praGtice of bend-
ing trees is not new ; as it was advifed by Evelyn, and prac-
tiled by the Romans in Virgil’s time.

It is probable, too, that fome other forts of timber-trees
may be grown in this way with advantage.

It is fuggefted, that in planting the larch for this, or any
other purpofe, a careful attention fhould be had to the
choice of a proper foil, as when the tree is in one which 1s
not too rich, it reaches a large fize, and foon arrives at ma-
turity ; and that it is obvious, that if the above method were
adopted, the timber would be fit for building the largeft
fhips fifty years after it was planted, and for building {maller
veffels much fooner. And that there is abundant evidence,
that it would grow to a fufficient fize for this ufe in all the
mountainous parts of the ifland; moreover, that the experi-
ments which have been made by Mr. Knight, on the fap and
wood of trees, as well as common obfervation, prove, that
the circumftance of bending, efpecially in an open, expofure,
would produce a much thicker trunk and a larger quantity
of timber, in a given time, than a ftraight tree. Thefe cir-
cumftances, in conneétion with the valuable qualities of this
tree as fhip-timber, and the growing fearcity of that article
in this country, lead the writer to fuggeft the propriety of
devoting fome extent of the national forefts to the cultiva-
tion and raifing of the larch as timber, either bent in dif-
ferent ways, or even allowed to take its natural form ; as the
firft coft of planting and fencing in, even for five hundred
acres, would not exceed 1000/., and the yearly expences
afterwards would be but a mere trifle. The culture of the
oak, and perhaps fome other timber-trees, fhould not,
however, be negleéted in the {malleft degree: but when it
is confidered that this tree takes two or three hundred years
to come to perfeétion, and the larch not above half a cen-
tury, refleéting at the fame time on the approaching fearcity
of oak-timber fit for the navy, thefe hints and remarks may
not, it is thought, be unworthy of the attenticn of the le-
giflature, or from other quarters. See Trmser and TREE.

The excellent properties of larch-timber, for the ufe of
the navy, have been noticed by many, as thofe of Paes
different dangerous effe€ts. Anderfon, in his Catalogue o
Trees, afferts, it is faid, that it does not fly in fplinters by the
impulfe of a ball in an engagement ; that no force of heat
makes it flame; but that when thrown into a ftrong fire it
confumes imperceptibly. How many accidents then, it is
afked, might be prevented by a greater ufe of this timber,
if applied in fhips? Many lives are loft by the fplinters of
oak in naval warfare: all thefe would be faved to the ftate
by having the planks of war-fhips made of it. Decks of
the fame materials would refift fire, either accidental or de-
figned ; for although burning materials in time will force
their way through a plank of larch, yet it never would
fpread to the adjoining plank. To be ina fhip on fire at
fea, is certainly, it is faid, the moft dreadful fituation in
which any perfon can be placed ; every exertion, therefore,
to prevent fuch calamity, is the duty of all well-wifhers of
their country. Befide thefe advantages arifing from the ufe
of the larch as timber, there is another of no {mall im-
portance to a warlike and commercial nation, the faying of
expence in fhip-building ; as by experience it is found that
it lafts longer than oak under water, and worms will not

touch it. Sailors are faid indeed to put larch chips among
their clothes; which are found by experienee to prevent
c 4R vermin,

TIMBER.

vermin, mould, &c. Confequently, in place of renewing
thips of war every twenty or thirty years, their exiftence
may, it is thought, be lengthened to thrice that time.
hissy other interefting circumftances and facts in fupport
of thefe ftatements may alfo be met with in Newton’s Vi-
truvius, which we have not room to admit in this place.

Timser, Age of she Growth of, the limit to the growth and
increafe of wood in trees of this fort. It has been remarked
by a late writer, that from the old alburnum of fuch trees
being gradually converted into heart-wood, and being con-
tinually prefled upon by the expanfive force of the new
fibres, it becomes harder, denfer, and at length lofes altoge-
ther its vafcular ftruéture ; and in a certain time obeying the
common laws of dead matter, decays, decompofes, and is
converted into aeriform and carbonic elements ; into thofe
principles from which it was originally formed. The decay
of the heart-wood would confequently feem to conftitute the

reat limit to the age and fize of timber or trees of that
ind. This is more liable to take place in fome cafes than
in others. The age of growth in timber-trees is however,
moftly afcertained by the rings or layers of which they are
formed.

In regard to the age of the growth of the oak, the
writer of the rural economy of the midland counties has
remarked, that there has been lately a fall of timber in the
woods there, including fome large timber-trees. That he
counted the rings of one which was found at the butt: the
number, as nants as he could afcertain it, was two hundred.
But thofe of the laft forty or fifty years’ growth were fo thin, he
could not count them with certainty ; though with fufficient
accuracy upon which to ground the calculations given below.
The girt of this tree, in the girting place, was nine feet,
the diameter of which was fomething more than thirty-
four inches. And the eftimated growth, in this part, was
thirty inches diameter during the firft hundred and fifty
years, and four inches (two inches thick) in the laft fifty
years. The length of the ftem was twenty-two feet. The
contents of the whole were one hundred and ten feet of timber.
Thofe of the firft hundred and fifty years’ growth, eighty-
five feet; leaving twenty-five feet for the growth of the laft
fifty years. It is therefore obferved, that although the in-
creafe of diameter had been comparatively {mall during the
laft fifty years, the increafe of timber had been nearly as
great as in the firft flages.

But fuppofing, it is faid, that this tree had been taken
down at one hundred and fifty years old, it would, at 25.
a foot, have produced 8/. 10s., the intereft of which would
have amounted, in the courfe of fifty years, to more than
20l.; befide the ufe of the land during that time : whereas
the tree, at that rate, is now worth only 11/7. Thefe calcu-
lations and inferences are not, however, it is faid, intended
to excite a fpirit of felling timber prematurely, or at too
early an age, a fpirit which is already too prevalent ; but
to endeavour to decide on the moft proper age of growth for
its being cut down; it being an incontrovertible fact, that,
in point of utility, public and private, the fault of fuffering
timber to ftand to too great an age, is infinitely greater than
that of cutting it down before it has attained its full
growth or age. In the latter cafe, it is faid, there is no
watte ; the intereft of money, and the fucceeding fhoots, or
the ufe of the land, ftand againft the lofs of growth of tim-
ber. But, in the former, the principal, intereft, after-
fhoot, and the ufe of the land, are all thrown away: fo that
the community, as well as the proprietors, are lofers by the
management. In the one cafe, cutting part before it be fit,
may fave other trees which are more fully grown; but, in
the. other, the whole is loft. Leaving, it is faid, the pre-

fervation and management of fhip-timber to thofe to whom
it properly belongs, it does not follow that, becaufe it is
wrong to fuffer timber to ftand to wafte, it is right to take
it down before it be of a proper age, or fufficiently grown,
for the purpofe of fhip-building. It is not over-grown, bu.
ftout-growing timber which is fit for that ufe. Timber is
feldom cut down prematurely, or at too early an age, but
by the neceffitous ; or by thofe who have only a temporary
poffeffion in their refpeétive eftates. And what argument

it is afked, can prevail with this clafs of proprietors?
Another clafs, and it is trufted by much the largeft, is com-
poled of thofe who, confidering their timber merely as a
profitable part of their feveral eftates, take it down when-
ever it becomes full-grown, and a fair opportunity oats,
And a third clafs of this fort of proprietors confifts of
thofe who, through falfe pride, falfe fear, or falfe economy,
fuffer their timber to ftand until it be over-grown: and
if the writer have any other motive for making known the
above minutes on the ages of timber-trees, than that of re-
cording faéts, it is the defire of placing in its proper light,
the improvident management of this clafs of timber pro-
prietors; and, at the fame time, to endeavour to form juft
ideas of a fubje€&t, which has not, hitherto, been brought
before the public; but which is pre-eminently entitled to
public notice and difcuffion.

It is additionally ftated, that this matter having been ren-
dered, in a confiderable degree, familiar to the writer by
many years’ obfervation and practice, he may here fet down
what appears to him the proper ages of growth for cutting
down the four following fpeeies or forts of timber,

1. Poplar, from thirty to fifty years old.

2. Elm, from fifty to a hundred.

3. Ath, from fifty to a hundred.

4. Oak, from one to two hundred. :

But it is faid that it very much depends on fituation,
and on the foil and fubfoil in which timber-trees are rooted.
On dry abforbent foils, the oak and the elm, at leat, are
obferved to go off much fooner than in cooler more reten~
tive fituations. And in a wood, on a dry loam, with a
rocky fubfoil, the oak was found going’ faft to decay at
two hundred years old; while in another, in a cooler fituation,
it was found, but unprofitable, at that age; and in a third,

perhaps a ftill cooler fpot, it was found, profitable, and wear-

ing every appearance of being in a fit ftate of growth for
being taken down at the age of a hundred and fifty years.
Thefe three woods were thofe of Merevale, Bagot-park,
and Statfold, in the midland diftri&ts of this country.

A full knowledge of the age of growth in timber-trees
is a matter of great utility and advantage to the proprietors
of wooded lands.

Timber, Marking of the putting of fuch marks upon
timber-trees, or large falls of timber, as may be neceflary to
diftinguifh them in eine, and which are of a proper age and
growth for being taken down. It is ufually performed by
means of an iaffmomnent of the compaffes kind, by which a
circle, with a number, or fome other particular fort of mark,
is formed on the tree. It is of great ufe and advantage in
felling and difpofing of timber, to have this bufinefs exe~
cuted in a careful and judicious manner. See Timber.

Timper, Mea/furing of. See Mensuration and Siip-
inG-Rule.

For ap the area of a board or plank, the rule is fimple
and ealy; which is that of multiplying the length by the
mean breadth. If the board is tapering, the breadths at the
two ends fhould be added together, and half the fum will be
the mean breadth. The method by the fliding-rule is too
obvious to need being mentioned.

TIMBER-

RO 9

x

TIMBER.

TimBer-Carriage, that fert of wheel-carriage which is
contrived and conftructed for the purpofe of conveying
heavy and other timber. Carriages for this ufe are formed
in a ftrong firm manner, but in different methods, according
to circumftances, and the nature of the timber to be drawn.
They are fometimes made with four wheels, but much more
frequently only with two.
too, but are more often conftruéted with a pole merely.

Thefe carriages, the writer of the rural economy of
Norfolk remarks, are in that diftri@, as in moft other
places, of two kinds; the four-wheeled fort of carriage, pro-
vincially “ @ drag;’’ and the pair of wheels, provincially
4 gill.” The laft is moft in ufe. The conftruétion of
the gill of this county is, it is faid, fimilar to that of the
timber-wheels of moit other counties; namely, a pair of
tall wheels, with a crooked axle-tree, furmounted by a
block ; to which axle is fixed a pair of fhafts, or fometimes
a fingle pole only. But it is noticed, that the method of
ufing them there, is different from that which has been ob-
ferved in other places ; where the only ufe they are put to
is to raife the butt-end of a large timber to be drawn a fhort
diftance ; the top-end being fuffered to drag behind upon
the ground, to the great injury of the turf, or the road
upon which it is drawn.

In the above county, however, a large ftick of timber,
or perhaps three or four {maller ones, are, it is obferved, en-
tirely flung to the axle; fo that, in drawing, no part of
them whatever touches the ground; the top-end or part
being. generally drawn foremoft, and the end towards the
horfes always the heaviett.

It is ftated, that the method of taking up a piece of tim-
ber is this: the horfes being taken off, the wheels are run,
by hand, aftride the timber to be flung, until the axle is
judged to be a few inches behind the balance-point : or,
which is better, a chain is firft put round the timber, and
the wheels run up to it. It is difficult to afcertain the exa&
place of fixing the chain by the eye; but neverthelefs, a
a accuftomed to fling timber in this manner, will, it is

id, come very near the truth. The chain hooked, and the
axle brought into its proper fituation, the fhafts, or pole,
_are thrown back in the ufual manner ; the chain carried over
the block, brought round the pole, its ends made faft, and
the fhafts or pole brought down again by the horfes; by

which means the timber is lifted from the ground, and

fufpended to the axle. If the required point of balance be
not hit upon at the firft trial, the fhafts are fuffered to rife

in, the chain is unhooked, and fhifted to its proper fitua-
tion: the fhafts being then again pulled down, are bound by
an iron trace, or {mall chain, clofe down to the timber ;
while another {mall chain or trace is faftened round the fore-
moft end to hook the horfes to; the team drawing by the
timber, and not by the pole or fhafts.

It is fuppofed, that the utility of having a fuper-balance
of weight forward is two-fold: if the piece were flung in
exaé& equilibrium, it would, upon the road, be in perpetual
vibration; thereby rendering the pull unfteady, and ex-
tremely inconvenient to the horfes: whereas, by throwing
the balance forward, the traces are commonly kept down
conftantly in their proper place, and the pull becomes uni-
form: if, however, too much weight were to be thrown
forward, the draught of the horfes would not raife the point
of the timber from the ground; the friction would, of
courfe, increafe the draught, and the road be at the fame
time hurt. It therefore follows, it is faid, that the proper
weight to be thrown forward is fuch as is enough to prevent
avibratton, but not fo much as to prevent the point from
being raifed from the road by the draught of the horfes

They have occafionally fhafts

upon level ground. And that the other advantage, by a
fuper-balance forward, is gained in going down a hill; in
which cafe, the draught not being wanted, the point, of
courfe, falls to the ground, and ferves as a pall to regulate
the motion of the carriage: if the fuper-balance alone be
not fufficient to check the too great rapidity of the motion,
the driver adds, it is faid, his own weight. Likewife, if,
in afcending a hill, the balance be loft; he, in like manner,
feats himfelf upon the fore-part of the load, thereby keeping
it down to its proper level,

It is added, that this method of conveying timber may,
it is poffible, be in ufe in other diftri@s; but the writer has
not feen it praétifed any where except in the above county :
and that it is known to be an excellent, but not a commor
mode of practice.

It is of great utility and convenience for timber proprie-
tors and dealers to be always provided with good carriages
of this fort.

Trser Hedge-Row, fuch trees of this kind as are raifed
and grown in the lines and rows of the hedges. It has been
long a difputed point among the writers on agriculture, and
which is not yet fully decided, whether it be admiffible or
not to have trees of this fort in the dire¢tions of the hedge-
rows: fome {trongly contending for its utility, on the
grounds of the fhelter, fhade, and timber afforded by the
practice ; while others as ftrongly oppofe it, on the feore of
the injury which it does to the crops and the hedges under-
neath the trees, as well as the obftru€tion which it affords
in working the land, when in the tillage ftate. However,
in many fituations and cafes, there can be no doubt of the
advantage of having timber-trees of the hedge-row kind,
when under proper and fuitable management.

It has been well obferved by an able writer on the means
of improving the rural objeéts and practices of the country,
that although a few trees growing in a hedge, when con-
fidered fingly, may have little fea, and be of no great
value or confequence ; yet that a number of hedge-rows, all
properly interfperfed with timber-trees, will completely
change the appearance of a hilly country or diftri&, improve
its climate, and yield a confiderable quantity of timber to
the owners of the lands. The confideration of the matter
mutt, of courfe, it is thought, be of great importance to
the landed intereft of fome parts of the ifland, efpecially
thofe in the more northern or mountainous diftri@s of the
kingdom. What is neceffary to be faid on this fubje@
here, may confequently be introduced under the heads of
the nature of the /ands where timber of the hedge-row kind
may be raifed and grown without injury to the farmer; and
the /pecies or fort of trees which is moit proper to be raifed
in fuch cafes. _In regard to the intere/? of the farmer, the
lands which are the moft evidently and fuitably adapted for
the growth of hedge-row timber-trees are all thofe which are
naked and much expofed, and which are kept for the moft
part under pafturage; and in fo far as the beauty of a
country or diftri&, the improvement of its climate, and the
health of its inhabitants, are concerned, the hedge-rows of
the rifing-grounds alone fhould be occupied by trees, ex-
cept a few in the vallies, by the fides of public roads or
rivers, to form fore-grounds to the reft of the country or

~diftrict ; and a few near houfes or villages to group with
them, and afford a richnefs to their appearance. In low
rich vallies between mountains, which are kept in perpetual
aration, the hedge-rows fhould not be taken up by timber-
trees of this fort. But acountry or diftri€@ wholly level,
as many of the counties and diftriéts in the fouthern parts of
the kingdom are, may fometimes have the hedge-rows par-
tially fet with trees, without doing any great injury to the
4R2 armer 5

TIMBER.

farmer; while, if properly managed, it may vary the
country, and improve its climate. In fuch levels, the
hedges fhould, however, be kept very low, and the trees
be trained ereét with fingle ftems, and few lateral arms or
boughs near the furface ; or, as is done in fome places, the
width of an ordinary ridge may be left on each fide of the
hedge, to be kept in perpetual pafture, which prevents the
corn from being fo much injured by the trees, and is a great
ornament toa ete This laft mode is, however, not with-
out its difadvantages, as jt is liable to diffeminate and fill
the adjoining tillage-lands with the feeds of noxious and
hurtful weeds. However, in cafes where the whole farm is
to be kept in perpetual pafture, the trees may often be al-
lowed to extend their branches, and the hedges may be
kept high or low, at pleafure. Moift or clayey foils fhould
never, when under perpetual aration, be fet with hedge-row
trees ; and indeed, before they are put into fuch rows any

where, or in any cafe, a full confideration and eftimate.

fhould, it is faid, be made of their effe&t on the annual rent
of the land, on their intrinfic value, on the climate, and on
the appearance of the country.

The writer of the Yorkfhire rural economy confiders
this an interefting fubjeét to the proprietors of inclofed
eftates. The old inclofed parts of that neighbourhood, when
feen at fome diftance, have, it is faid, the appearance of
woodlands ; the inclofures being moftly narrow, and full of
hedge-row timber. The age, on a par, is about 50 years.
In half a century more, the value of the timber of fome
parts of it, if fuffered to ftand, will probably be equal to
the value of the land; a circumftance, it is fuppofed, of no
{mall import to the owner. But the detriment to the oc-
cupier requires to be confidered. In this county, it feems,
it is faid, to be a general idea, founded perhaps on experi-
ence, that lofty heleearais are beneficial to grafs-land ; in-
creafing its produétivenefs by their warmth, and giving
fhelter and fhade to pafturing-ftock. The roots even of
the afh are confidered as inoffenfive to land in the ftate of
grafs ; in which ftate the grounds, thus loaded with hedges
and timber-trees, are almoft univerfally kept. Indeed it
would be impoflible, in their prefent ftate, to occupy them
as arable land. They are entire inclofures, every foot of
the areas of which muft neceflarily be occupied by afhen
roots; neverthelefs they give an ample fupply of hay and
palturage ; one to two tons of hay an acre: and, in many
of them, three acres will afford fufficient pafturage for two
cows of the largeft fize. The rent from thirty to forty
fhillings an acres Strong evidence this, it is faid, that the
roots of the afh are not very hurtful to grafs-land.

It is evident, however, it is thought, that the oak, when
fuffered to thruft its low {preading head into the inclofure,
is injurious to the herbage beneath it ; that the leaves of the
afh are very detrimental to after-grafs ; and that the hedges
are annually receiving irreparable damage: no general iat
of training up the trees with tall ftems having, it is be-
lieved, in any inftance, been adopted, fo as to prevent, in
any complete manner, fuch effeéts.

On thefe accounts it is concluded, that the advantages
i from the planting of timber-trees in the hedge-
rows of inclofed common fields, of a foil and lying in a
fituation adapted to grafs, are far fuperior to any Aedeait-
tages arifing therefrom, even where they have been fuffered
to grow in a ftate of almoft total negleé&t. And that land
which has lain open, and which has been kept in a ftate of
aration during a fucceflion of ages, is equally produétive of
grafs and trees. That it is generally good management to
let it lie in grafs for fome length of time, after inclofure.
Befides, that - the above neighbourhood, it is evident to

common obfervation, that trees flourifh with unufual vigour
in newly-inclofed lands of arable fields ; and that their injury
to grafs-land is inconfiderable, when compared with the
value of the timber which they produce. The low {pread-
ing heads of the oak, and the leaves of the afh, appear to
be the chief inconveniencies of thefe two forts of trees to
grafs-land. es Ce,

But as an alternacy of corn and grafs is, it is thought,
generally eligible on lands which our anceftors have made
choice of for comnion fields; and as the roots of the afh are
not only ob{truétions to the plough, but the general nature
of the plants is, in a fingular degree, inimical to corn; it is
confequently neceffary to eradicate the afh from the hedge-
rows, before the land be again broken up for arable; or to
preclude this tedious operation, in the firft inftance, by
planting oak in its ftead. It is conceived that the head
of the oak may be raifed to fuch a height, as not to be in-
jurious to grafs, nor to the hedge, while yet in a youthful
itate, even though it were fuffered to run up to its natural
height. ‘ogra

The roots of the fir tribe of trees afford equal obftruction
to the plough; they are, of courfe, equally objeétionable
in the hedge-rows of arable fields. 1S

It is fuggefted, in conclufion, that whenever the inclo~
{ures are broken up for corn, the hedges fhould, in common

ood management, be headed down, and kept in a dwarfifh
oe ; in which cafe, tall temmed oaks would be a valuable
fource of timber, without being, in almoft any degree, in-
jurious either to the hedges, or to the corn growing under
them. But the training of young oaks, and the general
management of hedge-row timber, cannot, with any deg
of prudence, be left to a mere occupier. When intended
as nurferies of timber, they fhould, it 1s conceived, be under
the immediate direGtion and management of a perfon proper
for the purpofe. See Porrarp and Fence.

The writer of the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture,
however, remarks, that the practice of planting timber-trees
at all in hedges is liable to obje&tions ; for if the tree be left
to take its natural growth, which is the beft mode of raifing
it for good timber, the lower fence is ruined by its fhade
and drippings ; or if they are cut up and fhreded into naked
poles, or pollarded for the fake of the lop or fire-wood, the
timber is injured, and the beauty of the tree deitroyed. A

better plan is, it isthought, to aflign certain {pots on eftates

for the purpofe of raifing timber-trees only. This would
eventnally be no watte oF land, becaufe the $8 or corn
growing near the hedges, which are filled with timber or
ruit-trees, is worth little or nothing. In the fmall inclo-
fures at the angles of a field, for inftance, the trees might
take their natural growth; and this would be more rapid,

in confequence of their being planted in clumps, and
tected. If, however, the old mode“ of planting in hedges
rows fhould be continued, the afh may be the beft for the
purpofe. The timber, in fome refpeéts, is fuperior to elm,
and, in various cafes, ufeful where that cannot be applied.
In durability it almoft rivals the oak, and its growth is im-
proved by being kept to a fingle ftem, the only mode of
treatment in which trees fhould be admitted into hedge-rows
at all, but which few other trees will bear. The oak and
beech particularly, when fo large as to become heart-wood,
appear to be greatly hurt by the lofs of their fide branches 5
the immediate effet of which is a retardation of growths
and it is faid, that the oak will not thrive for ten years after
this operation ; and of the elm, that it is injured, though
apparently fuffering lefs. It is, however, to be noticed,
that the fineft and foundett trees are thofe which have been
mott left to their natural growth. > .
: In

In what relates to the moft proper forts of trees for
putting in hedge-rows, in different cafes, it may be further
noticed, that when the foil is good and deep, according to
the firft of the above writers, the oak and Scotch elm may
be the moft fuitable ; in ftrong land, the ath; in poor foils,
the beech, fycamore, and birch; in cafes of moiit foils, as
meadows and fuch like places, the Lombardy poplar,
which, befides its timber produce, forms, when in rows, a

~clofe, ereét, narrow hedge, fifty or fixty feet high, in a few
_ years. Such hedges are, however, of no very great value,
_ whether the trees be cut low, or allowed to rife to their full
height. The oak and the above fort of elm profper better,
it is faid, in hedge-rows than in any other fituations ; their
roots have a free range in the adjoining inclofures, while
their tops fhoot out vigoroufly on every fide, thus often pro-
ducing excellent fhip-timber. More remarks of this nature
may be met with in Kent’s hints, and Marfhal’s work on
planting. The beech, it is thought, is peculiarly fuited
for thin foils and expofed fituations. When put out about
, ten or twelve feet afunder, it affords excellent fhelter, and,
at the fame time, a very confiderable quantity of timber.
The afh and the fycamore will rife and grow ere on the
_- moft expofed upland fituations, or near the fea. When

-¥ _ put out in good foils, they fhould generally be trained to

one ftem ; in which ftate, their timber produce is the moft
valuable and ufeful. The refinous tribe and the evergreen
‘forts of trees are, for the moft part, improper for being fet
out in hedge-rows. In the different cyder diftri@s or
counties in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, fruit-trees
are not unfrequently introduced into the hedge-rows ; the
practice of which might probably be advantageoufly had
recourfe to in many other diftri&ts and counties in the fame
part of the country, as well as in feveral more to the north.
In many different fituations they would be a valuable acqui-
fition, without doing any injury, or taking up the more
ufeful part of the land.
_ Ina great number of diftri€ts and places where hedge-
row. timber exifts, the fituation is often improper, and the
management wretchedly bad and negligent ; in confequence
of which, it has frequently become an injury to the farmer,
without yielding any advantage to the proprietor. Two
more glaring initances of this cannot, it is thought, be
given than in the tall naked elms, and pollarded oaks, which
prevail in many places in the fouthern parts of the ifland :
the former, by improper lopping and cutting, are worth
nothing ; and the latter, by being cut over at the height of
eight or ten feet, form ugly buthy-headed trees, which
do great injury and mifchief to the farmer, and yield no-
thing to the owner. In defence of fuch practices, it has
been faid, that fuel alone is the intended produce ; but cer-
tainly it would be much the beft method, in fuch cafes, it
is thought, to allot a {pace or portion by itfelf for the pur-
pofe of raifing fuel, and devote the hedge-rows to the more
important ufes of producing timber. ‘The fuel part of the
land might be’ rented by the farmer, and the hedge-rows
belong exclufively to the proprietor. Keeping each fort of
woody collection ftriGly charaéteriftic of its kind is, it is
thought, as beneficial in the raifing of trees, as the divifion
of labour is in political economy. There is a great num-
ber of fituations and places in the more northern parts of the
ifland, as well perhaps as in fome others, where hedge-row
timber might be cultivated to the advantage of both the
landlord and tenant, and the great ornament of the country.
Suppofe, it is faid, an eftate of two thoufand acres, divided
into fields of ten acres each, and the hedge-rows planted
with trees at fifteen feet apart ; this would be above the
rate of eight trees upon, the acre, or fixteen thoufand trees

TIMBER.

in the hedges only. At the end of thirty years, if well
managed, they would be worth from twenty to forty fhil-
lings each ; but fay only thirty fhillings each, this would be
fixteen thoufand pounds: a very confiderable fum, it is
faid, for a proprietor of only two thoufand acres to receive
every thirty years, above the annual rent of his eftate.

Thefe hints and obfervations place the utility and import-
ance of hedge-row planting, where it can be done with
propriety, in a ftriking point of view.

Timper-LnfpeGor, a term applied to a perfon who is ap-
pointed to infpeét and examine the ftates of timber-woods,
plantations, and forefts in any diftri@ or place. Ithas been
fuggefted by the writer of the corre€ted account of the ftate
of agriculture in the county of Devon, that, as it is evident
that the timber in that county is watting in a very alarming
manner, (andthe fame is the cafe in many other timber-wooded
diftriéts, ) it is neceflary that an ordinance fhould be made,
that in future no timber-tree fhould be cut down, or legally
expofed for fale, without having the mark of the timber-
infpector of the diftri& affixed to it, and a certificate ac-
companying it. This fort of officer fhould, it is thought,
be appointed and paid by government, and to whom annual
returns fhould be made of all matters and circumftances ap-
pertaining to his duty, which fhould alfo extend to the in-
{peétion and examination of all young timber-plantationis,
&c.: where it fhould be required that he fhould not only fee
that a certain number of young trees is planted for every
timber-tree that is cut down, but that the fame young trees
and plantations are well fenced in and prote&ed. That on
his obferving fuch timber woodland fences infufficient for
their fafety, and their owners perfiftingly unmindful of the
report he has made, he fhould be empowered to order and
direé&t the neceffary repairs to be done, and to be enabled to
recover the amount of fuch expence, by levying an imme-
diate diftrefs upon the moveables on the premifes of the
parties. ;

It would unquettionably be of great utility and advantage
in increafing the quantity, and improving the quality of
timber, to have fuch infpeétors in all timber-wooded diftri@s
of every defcription.

Timser-P/antation, that fort which is made fimply for the
purpofe of raifing and producing timber. Several points
and circumitances are neceflary to be attended to in the
performance of this bufinefs, in order to render fuch planta-
tions the moft expeditioufly and abundantly produétive, fuch
as the proper choice of foil, fituation, and expofure, as well
as proper fencing in, thinning, training, and pruning, all of
which are noticed and explained under their appropriate
heads. See Pranrarion, PLANTING, PruNING, THIN-
NING, TIMBER,, &c.

Timser-Repairs, fuch as are done by fome fort of
timber, to be cut down on eftates, &c. Rough timber is
mottly allowed for repairs to be done by tenants, and it is
commonly the cuftom of this country to permit the top-
wood of the trees to be taken-by them for their trouble
and expences in various ways with fuch timber. In fome
cafes, however, the contrary mode takes place, fuch top-
wood being charged to them at a moderate rate or price.
And, in all cafes, it is thought by the writer of the work on
«* Landed Property,”’ that the tenant fhould be charged for
the bark of oak-timber, which is now become fearce and of
great value, he being allowed for peeling and for carriage to
market, or other places.

It is advifed that the neat value of the bark and the top-
wood, where it is charged in thefe cafes of repairs, fhould
be made a fair eftimate of when the timber is marked, and
charged to tenants in a fum certain. By this means they be-

come,

TIM

come, it is thought, interefted in the peeling and harvefting
or fecuring of the bark: no wafte is confequently incurred
through their negle&t, or any unfair dealings rifked ; nor
is there any difputable account to be fettled, on the rent-
day, between them and the receivers.

In the view too of enabling the aéting managers, in fuch
cafes, to /ele#, in the beft and readieft manner, proper trees
for the feveral different forts of repairs that may, from time
to time, be required, —let, it is faid, the woodmen, or
thofe who have the immediate charge of the timber of
eftates, be direéted to note down, in going their rounds,
fuch trees as may be faulty, and are likely to go foon
to decay, or which are ftinted in their growth, or too
much crowded, and, in general, fuch as are proper to be
taken down for the different ufes of eftates: whether for
erecting or repairing buildings, or for gates or other pur-
pofes: in order that they may be able to lead or direét,
without lofs of time, the a&ting managers and the carpenters
or builders of eftates, with the eftimates, in their hands, of
the quantity and quality of the timber which is requifite to
the trees moft proper for any given purpofe: thus pre-
ferving the crop of /ale timber from unneceflary fpoil, by a
lefs difcriminate choice or method of proceeding.

Timser, Stick of, a term frequently applied to any large
boled or ftemmed tree of the timber kind: a fine, large,
perfe&t timber-tree. See Timper and TREE.

Timser-7rees, the wood of timber, before it be felled,
particularly that of oak, &c. See TREES.

For the raifing, planting, tranfplanting, pruning, &c. of
timber-trees, fee SEMINARY, Nursery, PruninG, and
TRANSPLANTING.

Timper-/Vood, a term fignifying that fort of wood which
is employed or defigned for the raifing and growth of tim-
ber, in contradiftinction to that of the under-wood or cop-
pice kinds, or fuch as has little or no brufh-wood or under-
growths init. There are but few cafes in which it is not
advantageous for timber-woods to be kept pretty elear and
free from moft forts of under-growths, efpecially where they
approach near the trees. See Woop.

Timper-Wood or Tree, Regifter of, the account which is
neceflary to be kept of the timber-wood or trees of that
kind, which are growing upon the different parts cf a tim-
bered eftate. ‘The writer of a late work on “‘ Landed Pro-
perty,”’ has advifed that it fhould confift of all that is met
with on the feveral divifions of an eftate ; fetting forth the
number of fuch trees in each of the different woods, groves,
hedge-rows, and all other places, with the feveral {pecies or
kinds, the number which is affixed to each, and the admea-
furement of each of them. Separate accounts, containing
thofe trees of each particular divifion, being entered and
kept ; for the fatisfaGtion and occafional ufe of the land-
manager and the woodward. Such lifts or regifters are
always of great utility and benefit to the proprietors of tim-
ber-wooded eftates, as afcertaining their nature, ftate, and
fituation in many different refpeds.

Timser-Lode, in our Old Writers, a fervice by which tenants
were to carry timber from the woods to the lord’s houfe.

Timer, Bearing of. See BEarina.

Timper-Work, Cafing of. See Casinc.

Timer or Timmer of Furs, as ermines, martens, fables, and
the like, denotes forty fkins ; of other fkins, fix fcore. Rutt.

“ Hee civitas (fc. Ceftrie) nunc reddebat de firma 4
libraset tres timbrias pellium martenarum.”’? LLL. Edw. Conf.

Timbers of Ermin, in Heraldry, denote the ranks or
rows of ermin in noblemen’s coats.

Timser, in Falconry. To timbtr, is to neftle, or make a
ncft, as birds of prey do,

tM.

Timser, Prick, in Botany. See SrinpLe-Tree.

Timeers, in Ship-Building, the ribs of a fhip, or the in-
curvated pieces of wood branching outward from the keel
in a vertical direétion, fo as to give ftrength, figure, and fo-
lidity to the whole fabric.

One timber in a fhip is compofed of feveral pieces united
into one frame, which accordingly is called by the artificers
a frame of timbers. The timbers whofe planes are perpen-
dicular to the keel, are called /guare-timbers ; and thofe
which are placed obliquely on the keel, as at the extremities
of a fhip, are called cant-timbers. The* foremoft of thofe
pieces on the fhip’s bow are called the knuckle-timbers ; and
the hindermoft on the quarter, the fa/hion-pieces. See SHIP-
BUILDING.

Trimser and Room, or Room and Space, is the diftance be-
twixt the moulding edges of two adjoining timbers, which
muft always contain the breadth of two timbers ; and fome-
times two or three inches between them.

TIMBO, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the Grain
Coaft. N. lat. 5° 28’. W.long. 9° 20!.

TIMBRE, or Timmer, in Heraldry, denotes the creft of
an armory, or whatever is placed atop of the efcutcheon, to
diftinguifh the degree of nobility, either ecclefiaftical or
fecular. ;

Such as the papal tiara, cardinal’s hat, the crofs, mitre,
coronet, mortier, and particularly the cafques or helmets,
which the ancients called more efpecially timbres, from their
refembling a kind of bell without a clapper, which the
French call timbre, or becaufe they refounded like thofe
timbres when ftruck. This is the opinion of Loifeau, who
derives the word from the Latin, fintinnabulum.

TIMBREL, Tabret, or Tambour de Ba/que, in Mufic,is
an inftrument of very high antiquity; having been in ufe
among the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. To the rim
were hung bells or pieces of metal.

TIME is a portion or part of infinite duration. It is
generally meafured by motion, and chiefly by the motions
of the heavenly bodies.

There is nothing perhaps of which the mind is lefs ca-
pable of forming a diftin& idea than time, unconneéted with
the motions of fenfible objeéts ; and yet, on account of this
connection, every one thinks it a fubjeét with which he is
familiarly acquainted, until an explanation is required.

The opinions of ancient philofophers on the fubjeé are
generally vague and contradiétory. Pythagoras and He-
raclitus maintained that time was a fubftance, but the Stoics
confidered it as unfubftantiated. Arriftotle and the Peripa-
ticians define time to be ‘a multitude of parts of motion,
which pafs and fucceed each other in a continual flux, and
have relations to each other, inafmuch as fome are anterior
and others pofterior.”” Archytas defined it to be “a con-
tinued and indivifible flux of noqws or inftants.””

The Epicureans confidered ‘time as merely an obje& of the
imagination, or an attribute given to things by the mind
while contemplating them either as enduring or ceafing ;
as poflefling a longer or fhorter exiftence, as enjoying fuch
exiftence, as having enjoyed it, or as being about te
enjoy it.’”

Lucretius, the great poet and philofopher of this fe&,
defines time as follows :

“ Tempus item per fe non eft, fed rebus ab ipfis
Confequitur fenfus, tranfa&tum quid fit in zvo ;
Tum, que res inftet, quid porro deinde fequatur :
Nec per fe quemquam tempus fentire fatendum eft
Semotum ab rerum motu, placidaque quiete.”?
Lib. i. 460.
8

“re

ae

Re oe ee eg

EO A Tage he LAIRD ST, ge aS

eet

TIME.

Thus tranflated’by Creech :

s¢ Time of itfelf is nothing, but from thought
Receives its rife, by labouring fancy wrought
From things confidered, whilft we think on fome
As prefent, fome as pait, or yet to come.
No thought can think on time, that’s {till confeft,
But thinks on things in motion or at reft.’’

The above opinion of Lucretius, though fanétioned by
many of the ancients, and even by fome of the moderns, does
not appear to have fatisfied philofophers in general. Cicero
fays (1 de Invent.) “difficile eft tempus definere.’? Thus

o St. Auftin (2 Confefl. 24.) obferves, “ fi nemo ex me
quzrat quid fit tempus, fcio ; fe querenti explicare velim,
nefcio.”’

Locke feems to have confidered time more profoundly
than perhaps any other philofopher. The following
are among his opinions on the fubje€t. Human Undertt.
vol. i. ch. 14.

© The anfwer of a great man to one who afked him what
time was, ‘fi non rogas intelligo,’ (which amounts to this ;
the more I fet myfelf to think of it, the lefs I underftand
it,) might perhaps perfuade one that time, which reveals all
things, is not itfelf to be difcovered. Duration, time, and
eternity, are, not without reafon, thought to have fomething
very abitrufe in their nature.

To underitand time and eternity aright, we ought with
attention to confider what idea it is we have of duration, and
how we came by it. Tis evident to one who will but ob-
ferve what pafles in his own mind, that there is a train of
ideas which conftantly fueceed one another in his under-
ftanding as long as he is awake. Refle&tioa on thefe ap-
pearances of feveral ideas, one after another in our minds, is
that which furnifhes us with the idea of fucceffion; and
the diftance between the appearance of any two ideas in

our minds, is that which we call duration (which fee).

Having thus got the idea of duration, the next thing na-
tural for the mind to do, is to get fome mea/ure of this com-
mon duration, whereby it might judge of its different
lengths, and confider the diftin& order wherein feveral
things exift : without which, a great part of our knowledge
would be confufed, and a great part of hiftory rendered
very ufelefs. This confideration of duration, as fet out by
certain periods, and marked by certain meafures or epochs,
is that, I think, which moft properly we call time.”

Nearly according tothe above our modern Encyclopedifts
define time ; viz. “a fucceflion of phenomena in the univerfe,
or a mode of duration marked by certain periods and mea-
fures, and principally by the motions or apparent revolutions
of the fun.”’ Others define time to be “the duration of a thing,
the exiftence of which’is not without beginning or end;
which diftinguifhes time from eternity.’’

Time is diftinguifhed into ab/olute and relative. '

Abfolute time is confidered in itfelf, without any relation to
bodies or their motions flowing uniformly. Re/ative time is the
fenfible meafure of any portion of duration by meansof motion.
As the equal and uniform flux of time does not affeé& our
fenfes ; and as there is nothing in this flux that can make
us know immediately time itfelf ; we mult, of neceflity, have
recourfe to fome motion, by which we can determine the quan-
tity of time, by comparing parts of time with thofe of {pace
that the moving body traverfes. Therefore, as we judge that
times are see when they flow whilft a body which 1s in an
uniform motion traverfes equal {paces ; fo likewife we judge
that times are equal, when they flow whilft the fun,
moon, and the other celeftial luminaries, complete their ordi

nary revolutions, which to our fenfes appear uniform. See
Morton.

But as the flowing of time cannot be accelerated nor
retarded ; as all bodies move fometimes quicker and fome-
times flower ; and as there is perhaps no perfe@ly uniform mo-
tion in nature, except the earth’s rotation on its axis, fome
authors are of opinion that abfolute time cannot be concluded
to be fomething really diftin& from motion : for fuppofing
for a moment the earth and the other planets have been with-
out motion ever fince the creation, does it thence follow that
the courfe of time would have been {topped or interrupted ?
Would not the duration of this ftate of reft have been equal
to the time which has elapfed fince the creation ?

Ass abfolute time is a quantity which flows in a uniform
manner, and which is.very fimple in its nature, mathemati-
cians reprefent it to'the imagination by the moft fimple fen-
fible magnitudes, particularly by right lines and by circles,
with which:abfolute time appears to have a great analogy in
re{pect of fucceffion, the fimilarity of parts, &c.

In faét, it is not abfolutely neceflary to meafure time by
motion ; for the conftant and periodical return of a thing
which happens or manifefts itfelf by intervals equally diftant
from each other, as, for inftance, the budding of a plant, &c.
may do the fame thing. It is faid there are people in Ame-
rica who reckon years by the arrival and departure of birds.

Time is ufually reprefented by the uniform motion of a
point that defcribes a right line. The point is the fucceflive
itate, prefent fucceflively at different places, and producing
by its fluxion a continual fucceffion, to which we attach the
idea of time. ‘The uniform motion of an object alfo mea-
fures time ; for when this motion takes place, the moving
body traverfes, for example, one foot in the fame time in
which it has traverfed a firft foot ; therefore, the duration
of things that co-exift with the moving body whilft it tra-
verfes one foot being taken as one, the duration of thofe
that will co-exift with its motion whilft it will be traverfing
two feet will be two, and fo on; fo that by this means time
becomes commenfurable, fince we can affign the reafon of
one duration to another duration that we had taken for
unity. Thus, in clocks, the hand moves uniformly in a
circle: the twelfth part of the circumference of this
circle is unity, and time is meafured by this unity, by fay-
ing two hours, three hours, &c. So likewife one year is
taken for one, becaufe the revolutions of the fun in the
ecliptic are equal, or nearly fo, to our fenfes ; and we make
ufe of it to meafure other durations in relation with this
unity. We know the attempts made by aftronomers to
find a uniform motion, to enable them to meafure time ex-
a@ly ; and this is what has been beft done by means of
pendulums. Sce,PEnpur.uM.

There is no meafure of time exactly corre. Every one
has his own meafure of time in the quieknefs or flownefs
with which his ideas fucceed each other; and from thefe
different degrees of quicknefs in different perfons, or in the
fame perfon at different times, arife thefe modes of fpeaking,
I have found the time very long, or very fhort; for time ap-
pears long to us, when the ideas fucceed each other flowly
in our mind, and vice verfa. The meafures of time are ar-
bitrary, and may vary among different people: the only
one that is univerfal is the prefent inftant; and yet fome
deny the exiftence of prefent time, as being conftantly on
the wing ; or, according to Horace, (Carmen XI.)

« Dum loquimur fugerit invida ztas.’’

Time is indeed an inexhauftible fubje& for figurative and
poetical allufions, and even for paradoxes. Thus, it is faid
Il to

TIME. 3

to owe its own immaterial being to the creation of material
order ; to have all its portions meafured by the periodical
motions of matter, and yet to be diftin& from, and inde-
pendent of, thofe motions for its exiftence, though it could
not exift until they exifted : alfo that it operates upon every
thing, yet touches nothing. Many other contradictory
properties might be mentioned, but fuch tend to darken
rather than to elucidate the fubje&. Some philofophers
have gone even fo far as to deny the exiftence of time ; for
if there be no prefent, there cannot be any future, and the
paft certainly has no exiftence.

We now come to confider the application of mathe-
matics to time, as connected with aftronomical computations,
where the fubjeét is accurately calculated, and rendered
fubfervient to the important purpofes of meafuring {pace,
by which the longitude is determined both in the heavens
and on earth.

Aftronomical time is diftinguifhed into folar or apparent
time, mean time, and fidereal time.

Apparent time, alfo called true folar and aftronomical time,
is regulated by the apparent motions of the fun. Mean or
mean folar time, alfo called equated time, is a mean or average
of apparent time: and fidereal time is fhewn by the diurnal
revolutions of the fixed ftars.

An apparent day is the interval between two fucceffive
tranfits of the fun’s centre over the fame meridian, which
interval is fubje& to continual variations, owing to the ec-
centricity of the earth’s orbit, and the obliquity of the
ecliptic to the equator.. Thefe variations are computed in a
table, for which fee Equation of Time.

A mean day is the interval that would be obferved be-
tween two fucceffive tranfits of the fun’s centre over the
fame meridian, if the earth’s orbit were circular, and the fun
always in the equinoétial. Thus the intervals or tranfits
would be all equal, fuch as are fhewn by a clock that goes
exa@tly 24 hours in a day, and 3654 5" 48™ 48° in a
year. A clock thus fet is faid to be adjufted to mean
time.

A fidereal day is the interval between two fucceffive tran-
fits of a ftar over the fame meridian ; which interval is uni-
form, becaufe all the fixed ftars make their revolutions in
equal times, owing to the uniformity of the earth’s diurnal
rotation on its axis. ¥

The fidereal day is fhorter than the mean folar day by
3™ 56%.55 fidereal time. This difference arifes from
the fun’s apparent annual motion from weft to eaft, which
leaves the ftar as it were behind. Thus, if the fun anda
{tar be obferved on any day to pafs the meridian at the fame
inftant, the next day, when the ftar returns to the meridian,
the fun will have advanced about a degree eafterly (his
daily portion of the ecliptic): and, as the earth’s diurnal
rotation on its axis is from weft to eaft, the ftar will come to
the meridian before the fun, infomuch that at the end of the
year it will have gained a day on the fun, that is, it will
have paffed the meridian 366 times, while the fun will have
pais it hut 365 times. Now as the fun appears to per-
‘orm his revolution of 360° in a year, fay, as 365% 5»
48™ 48° 1 360° :: 1%: 59! 8.3, which is the fae the
fun would defcribe in a day, if all the days were of an equal
length ; and this {pace reduced to time, = 3! 56".55 = the
excefs of a mean day above a /idereal day, in fidereal time, or
3! 55".91 in mean folar time.

It therefore appears that the earth defcribes about its axis
an are of 360° 59! 8".3 ina mean folar day, and an arc of
360° in a fidereal day ; therefore, as 360° 59! 8" : 360° ::
24": 23" 56! 4.09 = the length of a fidereal day in mean

folar time, or the interval between two fucceffive tranfits of —
a ftar over the fame meridian. / oa
Hence the following general rule for converting fidereal
to mean time, and the contrary : 5.
As 24" : 23 56! 4!.09 :: any portion of fidereal time —
to its equivalent in mean time. And as 23" 56! 4!.09 :
24" ;: any portion of mean time to its equivalent in fidereal -
time. Thus Tables I. and II. in our article CoRONOMETER
are computed. Yoel
From what has been faid, it is evident that apparent and —
mean time are the fame, with refpe@ to the length of the
hour, minute, and fecond of each, as well as of the year ;
but the hour, minute, and fecond of fidereal time are refpec- —
tively lefs in the above proportion. It is only the folar and os
mean days that differ, and this variation is marked by the
times of commencement. ‘Thus the apparent day always
begins when the fun’s centre is on the meridian ; but A i
mean day commences fometimes fooner and fometimes later,
as computed in the tables of the equation of time. See
Equation of Time. i
The redudion of time, that is, to turn apparent, mean, and —
fidereal time into cach other, may be performed by the fol, —
lowing theorems, taken from Kelly’s Spherics,p. 208, ed. 4.

Let A = apparent time. gt mangle.
M = mean time. Pak
S = fidereal time. :

A bale

E = the equation of time at apparent noon. —
e = the daily difference of the equation of time. —
R = the fun’s right afcenfion at apparent noon.

+ = the daily increafe of the fun’s right afcenfion.
N = the fun’s mean right afcenfion at mean noon,

i. e. the fidereal time at mean noon.
m = the redu@tion of fidereal time at the rate of —
3! 55".91 for 24 hours fidereal time.
s = the reduction of mean to fidereal time, at the —
rate of 3! 56!'.55 for 24 hours mean time.

And let + fignify that addition or fubtraétion which is to
be ufed according as the quantity under con~
fideration is increafing ordecreafing, =
Alfo let A! = M + E, as applied in cafe 2. aie

Pi
é

arery

Formule for the ReduGtion of Time.

TIME.

The foregoing fix cafes comprehend all the varieties that
occur in the redu€tion of time; and for their numerical il-
luftration, fee our article CoRoNoMETER.

For the application of time to the meafurement of {pace
and motion, fee LoncirupE and Lunar Odfervations.

Time, Civil, is aftronomical time accommodated to civil
ufes, and formed and diftinguifhed into years, months, days,
and hours, with their fubdivifions: the reckoning of the
hours as civil to twelve twice over, is meant to mark the
natural day.

Tix, in Heathen Mythology, was perfonified and deified.
Saturn was ufually the fymbol of it. Time was reprefented
with wings, to mark the rapidity with which it pafles,
and with a {fcythe, to fignify its ravages. It was divided
into feveral parts ; the century, the generation or {pace of
thirty years, the luftrum, the year, the feafons, the months,
the days, and the hours ; and each of thefe parts had its par-
ticular figure in men or women, according as their names
were mafculine or feminine ; their images were ufed in reli-
gious ceremonies.

Time, in Mufic, is an affeGion of found, by which we
denominate it Jong or /bort, with regard to its continuance in
the fame degree of tune.

Time and tune are the great properties of found, on
whofe difference or proportions mufic depends: each has its
feyeral charms: where the time or duration of the notes is
equal, the differences of tune alone are capable of entertain-
ing us with endlefs pleafure.

And of the power of time alone, 7. ¢. of the pleafures
arifing from the various meafures of long and fhort, fwift
and flow, we have an inftance in the drum, which has no dif-
ference of notes, as to tune.

Time, in mufic, is confidered either with refpe& to the
abfolute duration of the notes, i. e. the duration confidered in
every note by itfelf, and meafured by fome external notion
foreign to the mufic ; in refpe@t to which the compofition is
faid to be quick or flow : or it is confidered with refpeét to

‘the relative quantity or proportion of the notes compared

with one another. See Nore.

The figns or chara¢ters by which the time of notes is re-
prefented, are fhewn under the article CHARACTERS, in
Mufic, where the names, proportions, &c. are alfo ex-

effed.
gs femi-breve, for inftance, is marked to be equal to two
minims, a minim to two crotchets, a crotchet to two quavers,
and fo on, ftill in a duplicate ratio, i.e. in the ratio of 2: 1.
Now where the notes refpe&t each other thus, z. ¢. where
they are in this ratio, the mufic is faid to be in duple, i. e.
double or common time.

When the feveral notes are triple of each other, or in the
ratio 3 : 1, that is, when the femi-breve is equal to three
minims, the minim to three crotchets, &c. the mufic is faid
to be in ¢riple time. ;

To render this part as fimple as poflible, the proportions
already ftated among the notes are fixed and invariable: and
to exprefs the proportion of 3: 1, a point (.) is added to
the right fide of any note, which is deemed equivalent to
half of it; and by this means a pointed femi-breve, O. be-
comes equal to three minims, and fo of the reft.

From hence arife feveral other ratios conftituting new
kinds of triple time ; as 2 : 3 and3 : 4, &c.; but thefe, Mr.
Malcolm obferves, are of no real fervice, and are not per-
ceived without a painful attention. For the proportions of
the times of notes, to afford us pleafure, mutt be fuch as are
not difficultly perceived ; on which account the only ratios
fit for mufic, befide that of equality, are the double and

triple.
Vou, XXXV.

Tims, Common or Dupke, is of two {pecies: the firft,
when every bar or meafure is equal to a femi-breve, or its
value in any combination of notes of a lefs quantity.

The fecond, where every bar is equal to a minim, or its
value in lefs notes. The movements of this kind of mea-
fure are various, but there are three common diftin&tions ;
the firft /ow, fignified at the beginning by the mark C; the

fecond bri/k, fignified by

fied by D

But what that flow, brifk, and quick is, is very uncer-
tain, and only to be learned by praétice. The neareft mea-
fure we know of, is to make a quaver the length of the pulfe
of a good watch; then a crotchet will be equal to two
pulfes, a minim to four, and the whole meafure or femi-
breve to eight. This may be reputed the meafure of bri/e
time ; as for the /loqw, it is as leng again, and the quick is
only half as long.

Some niopat. to meafure it by imagining the bar as
actually divided into four crotchets, in the firft kind, and fo
make the whole as long as one may diftin@ly pronounce
thefe four words, one, two, three, four, all of equal length :
fo that the firft crotchet may be applied to one, the fecond to
two, &c. and for other notes proportionally: and this is
made the brifk movement of common time.

The whole meafure then of common time is equal to a
femi-breve, or a minim; but thefe are varioufly fubdivided
into notes of lefs quantities.

Now to keep the time equal, we make ufe of a motion of
the hand or foot, thus: knowing the true time of a crotchet,
we fhall fuppofe the meafure or bar aétually fubdivided into
four crotchets for the firft fpecies of common time ; then
the half meafure will be two crotchets; therefore the hand
or foot being up, if we put it down with the very beginning
of the firft note or crotchet, and then raife it with the third,
and then down to begin the next meafure; this is called
beating of time. a

By prattice, they get a habit of making this motion very
equal, and confequently of dividing the meafure or bar into
equal parts, up and down ; as alfo of taking all the notes in
the juit proportion, fo as to begin and end them precifely
with the beating. In the meafure of two crotchets, they
beat down the firft, and the fecond up. Some call each
half of the meafure in common time, a time; and fo they
call this the mode or meafure of tqwo times, or the dupla
meafure.

Again, fome mark the meafure of two crotchets with a
2 or 2, fignifying*it to be equal to two notes, of which four
make a femi-breve; and fome mark it 3 for quavers,
Malcolm’s Mufic, p. 385, &c.

Time, for Triple. See Triere-Time.

Trve-Tabl. See CHaracrers, Franco, and Pilate I*,

Time, in Fencing. ‘There are three kinds of time; that
of the {word, that of the foot, and that of the whole body.
All the times that are perceived out of their meafure, are
only to be confidered as appeals, or feints, to deceive and
amufe the enemy. See FENcING.

Time, in the Manege, is fometimes taken for the motion
of a horfe, that obferves meafure and juitnefs in performing
a manege ; and fometimes it fignifies the interval between
two of his motions. In the manege of a ftep and a leap,
the horfe makes by turns a corvet between two caprtoles ;
and in that cafe the corvet is one time that prepares the
horfe for the caprioles. +a

¢e

3; the third very quick, figni-

45

TIM

The times obferved in making a {top are nothing but fo
many falcades.

Time alfo fignifies the effect of one of the aids ; thus, we
fay, a good horfeman difpofes his horfe for the effects of the
heel, by beginning with one time of the legs, and never runs
precipitately upon his times. ; é

Time of fhewing Flowers, in Gardening, among florifts, the
period or feafon of exhibiting thofe of the finer kinds, either
on the fummer ftages for this purpofe, or in other places.
For fome forts of flowers, as thofe of the auricula and other
fimilar kinds, it is ufually from about the latter part of
April until about the beginning of May, in fituations near
the metropolis, in which length of period or feafon there
are commonly about four fuch fhows at different fuitable
intervals of time.

In other forts of fine flowers, the fhows are moftly fome-
what later, and do not laft any great length of time, as for
tulips, carnations, and fome other fimilar kinds ; and there
are ftill a few others which laft differently in regard to
time, or a great part of the fummer feafon. See SUMMER-

Stage.

TP sheiReaperss in a general fenfe, denote inftruments
adapted for meafuring time. See CHRONOMETER.

Time of Peace. See PEACE.

Time, in Chronology. See CHRONOLOGY.

Time, in Grammar. See Tense, Prosopy, and Measure.

Time, in Mechanics. See Motion.

Time, Periodical. See Periop. ¢

Time, Equation of. See Equation.

Time, Kipper. See Kipper.

Time, Unity of. See Unity.

TIMELFIOERD, in Geography, a bay of the North
fea, on the coaft of Norway ; 32 miles W. of Romfdal.

TIMEN-GUY, in Rigging, arope faftened at one end
to the fore-fhrouds, and nailed at the other end to the an-
chor-ftock, on the bow, to prevent the fore-fheet from en-

tangling. 2

"PIMENS, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Chriftianfand; 15 miles S. of Stavanger.

TIMERA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Me-
delpadia; 5 miles N. of Sundfwall.

TIMERY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic; 6
miles S. of Arcot.

TIMERYCOTTA, a town and fortrefs of Hindoo-
ftan, in Golconda; 54 miles S.E. of Hydrabad. N. lat.
15° 20!._E. long. 79° 26’.

TIMERYDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Ba-
ramaul ; 21 miles N.N.W. of Darempoury.

TIMESQUIT, or Timasquit, a town of Africa, in
the country of Darah; 80 miles W. of Tafilet.

TIMETHUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily,
the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy between Tynda-
rium and Agathyrium.

TIMICI, Abat-el-Wed, a place in Africa, S.E. of
Arfinaria, on the banks of one of the rivers which formed
the Carteimus; and in which are ruins.

TIMIRU, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba ;
20 miles W.S.W. of Villa del Principe.

TIMMER. See Timser and Timpre.

TIMMIA, in Botany, received that name from the cele-
brated Hedwig, in compliment to his correfpondent Mr.
Joachim Chriftian Timm, an apothecary and principal ma-
giftrate at Malchin, who publifhed /Yore Megapolitane Pro-
dromus, in 1788. This makes an o€tavo volume, containing
the names, characters, places of growth, &c. of the na-
tive plants of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, difpofed according to
the Linnean fyftem, with the abolition of the 2eth, 21ft,

10

Eo 1oM

22d, and 23d claffes, and a feparation of all the graffes and
grafs-like plants together, into a clafs by themfelves. The.
number of fpecies is 1200, of which 501 belong to the
Cryptogamia, the other claffes beng far fromrich. Neither
does the work contain any critical obfervations to compen-
fate for the inconvenience of the above changes.—Hedw.
Crypt. v. 1. 83. Sp. Mufc. 176. Schreb. Gen. 761. Timm.

Megapol. 234.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Mufci. Nat. —

Ord. Mu/fci.
Eff. Ch. Capfule ovate. Outer fringe of fixteen pointed
teeth: inner membranous, with jointed teeth combined at the

top. Male flowers on the fame plant, axillary, ftalked, bud- }

fhaped.

The known fpecies are two only. 7. megapolitana,
Hedw. Crypt. v. 1. 83. t. 31, found near Malchin, growing
in boggy ground among Carices, as wellas in North America =
and 7. auflriaca, Hedw. Sp. Mufec. 176. t. 42. f. r—7, na-
tive of Schneeberg, a celebrated Auftrian mountain. Both
have the habit of Bryum, or Mniuar; fee thofe articles.
We cannot confider Timmia as an admiffible genus, being
diftinguifhed from Bryum merely by the connexion of the
points of the inner fringe, like Pontra of Hedwig, which
the reader will find in its proper place. Under the head of
Frince of Mofes we have fuggefted the obje€tions to
founding genera on the differences of figure in inner
fringe, which are uncertain, variable, very Sfficult to obferve,
and lead to unnatural diftinétions. Charaéters derived from
the fituation of the male flowers are fubje& to ftill greater
difficulties and objections. A

TIMMISKAMAIN Lakg, in Geography, a lake of
North America, in Canada. This lake gives name to a tribe
of Indians near it. N. lat. 47° 30! W.long. 80° 40’.

TIMMS, atown of North Carolina ;. 15 miles $.S.E.
of Fayetteville. tise

TIMOAN, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, inhabited by
Malays: fhips may obtain wood and water; the anchorage
is good almoft all round the ifland ; but the inhabitants are
fully and infolent. N. lat. 2° 58. E. long. 104° ros 9

TIMOCHARIS, in Biography, an aftronomer of Alex-
andria, who flourifhed in the third century B.C. He ob-
ferved B.C. 294, on the gth of March, four hours before
midnight, a conjunction of the moon with the Spica Virginis,
the ftar being then, according to him, 8° W. from the equi-
noétial point.

TIMOK, in Geography, ariver of Servia, which rifes in
mount Hemus, and runs into the Danube, 6 miles N. of
Viddin.

TIMOLEON, in Biography, a diftinguifhed example of
patriotifm and attachment to liberty, was of noble parentage,
and anative of Corinth, His difcriminating chara&ter was
exhibited at an early age in the refeue of his brother Timo-
phanes at a moment of danger, when he was thrown from
his horfe in an engagement with the Argives, and furrounded
by the enemy. Timoleon flew to his aid, covered him with
his fhield, and after receiving many wounds, liberated his
brother. This fame brother, being placed by the Corin-
thians for the fafety of their city at the head of a ftanding
body. of mercenaries, affumed the fovereignty of the ftate ;
but Timoleon, dreading the fubverfion of the liberty of his

country by the ambition of his own brother, remonftrated —

againft his proceedings ; and, finding his own attempts for ~
reftraining him ineffeétual, engaged two friends to coneur
with him in his efforts ; but their united endeavours proving
of no avail, Timoleon is faid to have ftood by him weeping,
with his face covered, while his affaciates difpatched the ty-

the inner —

rant, Such is the account of Plutarch ; but Diodorus fays, —

that Timoleon killed his brother with his own hand. This
‘ ads

aa:

. of yalour and military fkill, totally defeated them.

“he refided.

© tM

a&, however, followed by the reproaches of his friends, and
by the imprecations of his mother, was the occafion of poig-
nant diftrefs to Timoleon; fo that he withdrew from ali

‘public affairs, and for fome years wandered about in the

molt difconfolate ftate, in the moft gloomy receffes of his

ounds, without ever approaching the city. After a re-
tirement of twenty years, the Syracufans applied to Corinth
for fuccour in a feafon of calamity, occafioned by domettic
tyrants, and by the hoftile preparations of the Carthaginians.
The Corinthians paffed a vote for granting the affiftance that

’ was requefted, and Timoleon, in preference to many others

who were propofed, was appointed their general. Timoleon
failed for Sicily in the year B.C. 344, witha fleet of about
ten fail, and arriving, by a ftratagem, in the port of Tauro-
menium, difembarked his army, confifting of no more than
one thoufandmen. Succefs and victory attended his arms ;
and having become mafter of Syracufe, he deftroyed its ci-
tadel as a neft of tyrants, and caufed to be ereéted in its
place a hall of judicature; thus intimating, that the ftate
was now to be governed by laws, andnot by arms. He alfo
colonized the city, which had been depopulated, by an import-
ation of Greeks, and by inviting all the fugitives to return.
Timoleon at the fame time extended his attention to the other
cities of Sicily, reducing thofe inhabitants who had ufurped
authority to the rank of private citizens, or fending them as

exiles to Corinth. He prepared likewife to refift the Car-

thaginians, who were fending a powerful army againft the
ifland ; and with a {mall force, but by extraordinary difplays
He
afterwards direéted his attention to the internal {tate of Si-
cily, and by the meafures whieh he adopted, fettled its in-
habitants in the unmolefted poffeffion of the advantages
which they enjoyed in a fertile foil and propitious climate.
The Sicilians acknowledged their obligations with gratitude
and refpe&t, and confidered Timoleon as the common father
of thenation. Having fixed his abode in Syracufe, he fent

_to Corinth for his wife and family, and lived as a private ci-

tizen, ref{peCted and efteemed for his virtues. Two dema-
gogues, however, contrived to difturb his tranquillity, and
brought charges againft him, which he thought unworthy

of refutation, and in reference to which he merely faid, ‘ he

could not fufficiently exprefs his gratitude to the gods for
allowing him to fee the time when the Syracufans enjoyed
the liberty of {peaking what they thought proper.”” Whilft
Greece was involved in the calamities of a civil war, and in
confii&s which terminated in the lofs of public liberty, Ti-
moleon was unmolefted and tranquil, in a country which he
had contributed to render happy. Fortunate in all his tranf-
aGions after he left Corinth, he afcribed his fucceffes to the
goddefs Fortune, and dedicated to her the houfe in which
It has been obferved, that in the fyftem of the
ancients, a regard to thefe nominal and fiCtitious deities did
net exclude their belief of a fuperintending providence :
“and a particular inftance occurs in the hiftory of Timoleon
“which would lead him to imagine that his life and its inci-
_dents were under a providential care and direftion. Soon
after his arrival in Sicily, two ftrangers were hired to affafii-
nate him: and whilft he was facrificing in the temple of
Adranum, where he then lived, thefe murderers mixed in
the throng, and were preparing to execute their commiffion.
At this inftant a man gave one of them a blow on the head
“with his fword, which laid him at his feet, and then fled to
‘the topof arock. The other, fuppofing their defign had
“peen difcovered, laid hold of the altar, and intreated Timo-
Jeon to {pare his life, on condition of his revealing the whole
plot. ‘he firft fugitive being brought down from the
‘rock, afferted that he had committed no crime, becaufe the

TIM

man whom he had ftruck had murdered his father in the city
of Leontium. Such an efcape would naturally imprefs a
mind lefs thoughtful than that of Timoleon.

At a late period Timoleon lott his fight, and this affiétion
he bore with perfe& refignation: and it was alleviated to
him by the affiduous attentions of the Syracufans. In his
old age he was revered by the Syracufans as a father in the
midft of his family: and at length terminated his life by a
flight difeafe, in the year B.C. 335. His funeral obfequies
were attended by a great number of people; and when the
body was placed on the pile, a herald made the following
proclamation : “The people of Syracufe inter Timoleon the
Corinthian, the fon of Timodemus, at the expence of two
hundred mine: they honour him, moreover, through all
time, with annual games, to be celebrated with mufic, horfe-
racing, and wreftling: as the man who deftroyed tyrants,
fubdued barbarians, repeopled great cities which lay defo-
late, and reftored to the Sicilians their laws and privileges.” A
monument was afterwards ereted to his memory in the mar-
ket-place, which being furrounded with porticoes and other
public buildings, was made a place of exercife for the
youth, and named the * Timoleontéum.’’ Plut. Vit. Timol.
Anc. Un. Hitt.

TIMON #e Philiafian, a difciple of Pyrrho, flourifhed
in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and lived to the age
of ninety years. At an early age he vifited Megara, er
the advantage of Stilpo’s inftruétions in dialeétics, and after-
wards removed to Elea, where he became a hearer of Pyrrho.
He firft profeffed philofophy at Chalcedon, and afterwards
at Athens, where he remained till his death. He took fo
little pains to invite difciples to his {chool, that it has been
faid of him, that asthe Scythians fhot flying, Timon gained
pupils by running from them. This indifference to his pro-
feffion was probably owing to his love of eafe and indulgence ;
for he was fond of rural retirement, and fo much addiéted
to wine, that he held a fuccefsful conteft with feveral
celebrated champions in drinking. This difpofition pro-
bably led him to embrace the indolent doétrine of feepticifm.
He feems to have treated the opinions and difputes of the
philofophers with contempt, for he wrote with farcaftic hu-
mour againft the whole budy. His poem, entitled “ Silh,”?
often quoted by the ancients, was a keen fatire, abounding
with bitter inveCtives againft men and doétrines. The
remaining fragments of this poem have been induftrioufly
colle&ted by Henry Stephens, in his “* Poefis Philofophica.”?
The public fucceffion of profeffors in the Pyrrhic fchool
terminated with Timon. Brucker by Enfield.

Timon, SAMUEL, a writer of hiftory, was born at Tir-
nau, in Hungary, and died at Caffovia, in 1736, at the age
of fixty-one years. In 1693 he entered among the Jefuits,
and being of feeble conftitution, declined the labours of the
fociety, and devoted himfelf to literary occupation, particu-
larly to the hiftory of his own country, in reference to which
he publifhed feveral works. Nouv. Dict. Hitt.

TIMONEER, Timonter, Fr., in Sea Language, the
helmfman, or perfon who manages the helm to direé& the
fhip’s courfe.

TIMONITIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in Paphlagonia, in the vicinity of Bithynia. Strabo and
Ptolemy.

TIMONVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Mofelle ; g miles W. of Morhange.

TIMOORGOODA, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Cicacole ; 10 miles S.W. of Cicacole.

TIMOPHEEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutfk, on the Ilim ; 32 miles N.W. or Vercholenfk.

TIMOR, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 120

482 miles

TIM

miles in length, and 33 in breadth. The Portuguefe were
the firft Europeans who formed any kind of fettlement on
this ifland, who fled to it as a place of refuge from their
enemies, the Dutch. But they were purfued by thofe im-
placable enemies, and in the year 1613 driven from Cupan,
or Coupang, a town fituated at the weft end of the ifland,
where the Dutch have ever fince poffefled and garrifoned a
fort which the Portuguefe had ereéted. The chief of the
natives, or king of the ifland, is by the Dutch called key-
Ser (soe). Some Portuguefe refide in the north part of
the ifland. The principal produétions are {anders or fandal
wood aud wax, which the Dutch receive in exchange for
coarfe linens or piece-goods ; but on the whole, the profit
arifing from the commerce is little more than fufficient to
defray the expences, and the fettlement in all probability is
continued merely to keep out other nations. S. lat. 7° 16!
to 10° 24'. E. long. 124° to 126° 21".

Timor Laut, or Laoet, fignifying in the Malacca language
fea, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 60 miles in cir-
cumference. _S. Tat. 7°25'. E. long. 132° 16!.

TIMOROSO, in the Jtalian Mujic, intimates that the
fong is to be played or fung in fuch a manner as to exprefs
an awe or dread, either to fhew refpeét, or to reprefent
fear. .
TIMOROUS, in the Manege. See Srartinc, SKiT-
TISH, &c.

TIMOTEDO pa Ursino, in Biography, whofe real name
was T’. della Vite, was born at Urbino in 1470. He re-
ceived his education as an artift under F. Francia, at Bo-
logna, but at the age of twenty-fix returned to his native
city, whence he foon after went to Rome to fee his country-
man, Raphael, and the great works in the Vatican which
had recently acquired for him fo much renown. Raphael
employed him in painting the Sibyls in the church of La
Pace, and was fatisfied of is ability in the performance : fo
much fo, that he allowed him to retain the Cartoons. After
this he returned to Urbino, and there executed feveral great
works for the cathedral and other public buildings. He
improved his ftyle, as it was natural he fhould, under the
tuition of his great mafter: and his latter produétions ex-
hibit much grace and vigour in their execution. His moft
efteemed works are, the Conception, in the church of the
Offervanti, at Urbino ; and Chrift appearing to Mary Mag-
dalen, in S. Angeli, at Cagli. He died in 1524, aged
fifty-four.

TIMOTHEUS, one of the moft celebrated poet-mufi-
cians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city of
Caria, 246 B.C. He was contemporary with Philip of
Macedon, and not only excelled in lyric and dithyram-
bic poetry, but in his performance upon the cithara.
Aceording to Paufanias, he perfected that inftrument
by the addition of four new ftrings to the feven which it
had before ; though Suidas fays it had nine before, and that
Timotheus only added two, the tenth and eleventh, to that
number.

It feems neceffary here to ftate the feveral claims made in
favour of different perfons who have been faid to have ex-
tended the limits of the Greek mufical fcale.

Many ancient and refpeétable writers tell us, that before
the time of Terpander, the Grecian lyre had only four
{trings ; and, if we may believe Suidas, it remained in this
ftate 856 years, from the time of Amphion, till Terpander
added to it three new ftrings, which extended the mufical
feale to a heptachord, or feventh, and fupplied the player
with ¢qwo conjoint tetrachords.

_ twas about 150 years after this period, that Pythagoras
is {aid to have added an eighth ftring to the lyre, in order

£iIM

to complete the oftave, which confifted of two disjuné
tetrachords.

Thefe dates of the feveral additions to the feale, at fuch
diftant periods, though perhaps not exa&t, may, however,
if near the truth, fhew the flow progrefs of human know-
ledge, and the contented ignorance of barbarous times.
But if we wonder at the mufic of Greece remaining fo many
ages in this circumferibed ftate, it may. be afked, why that
oe China and Perfia is not better now, though the inhabit-
ants of thofe countries have long been civilized, and accuf- —
tomed to luxuries and refinements.

Boethius gives a different hiftory of the feale, and tells us
that the fyftem did not long remain in fuch narrow limits as
atetrachord. Chorebus, the fon of Athis, or Atys, king
of Lydia, added a fifth firing, Hyagnis a fixth, Terpander
a feventh, and, at length, Lychaon of Samos, an eighth.
But all thefe accounts are irreconcileable with Homer’s
Hymn to Mercury, where the chelys, or teftudo, the in-
vention of which he afcribes to that god, is faid to have had
feven ftrings. There are many claimants among the mufi-
cians of ancient Greece, to the ftrings that were (
added to thefe, by which the fcale, in the time of Ariftoxe-
nus, was extended to two o€taves. Athenzus, more than
once, {peaks of the nine-ffringed inftrument; and Ion of
Chios, a tragic and lyric poet and philofopher, who firft re-
cited his pieces in the 82d Olympiad, 452 B.C. mentions,
in fome verfes quoted by Euclid, the ten-/tringed lyre; a
proof that the third conjoint tetrachord was added to the
{cale in his time, which was about fifty years after Pytha-
goras is fuppofed to have conftruéted the o€tachord.

The different cldimants among the Greeks to the fame
mufical difcoveries, only prove that mufic was cultivated in
different countries; and that the inhabitants of each coun-
try invented and improved their own inftruments, fome of
which happening to refemble thofe of other parts of Greece,
rendered it difficult for hiftorians to avoid attributing the
fame invention to different perfons. Thus the fingle flute
was given to Minerva, and to Marfyas; the fyrinx, or
fiftula, to Pan, and to Cybele ; and the lyre, or cithara, to
Mercury, Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. In-
deed, the mere addition of a ftring or two to an inftrument
without a neck, was fo obvious and eafy, that it is fearcely
poflible not to conceive many people to have done it at the
fame time.

With refpeét to the number of ftrings on the lyre of
Timotheus, the account of Paufanias and Suidas is confirmed
in the famous decree again{t him, for which fee SenaTus-
CONSULTUM.

It appears from Suidas, that the poetical and mufical
compofitions of Timotheus were very numerous, and of va-
rious kinds. He attributes to him victees nomes, or canti-
cles, in hexameters; thirty-fix proems, or preludes ;
eighteen dithyrambics ; twenty-one hymns; the in
praife of Diana; one panegyric ; three tragedies, the Per-
fians, Phinidas, and Laertes; to whieh muft be added a
fourth, mentioned by feveral ancient authors, called “ Niobe,”?
without forgetting the poem on “ The Birth of Baechus.??
Stephen of Byzantium makes him author of eighteen books
of nomes, or airs, for the cithara, to eight thoufand verfes,
and of a thoufand Igcose, or preludes, for the nomes
of the flute.

A mufician fo long eminent as Timotheus, muft have ex-
cited great defire in young ftudents to become his pupils ;
but, according to Bartholinus, he ufed to exa& a double

price from all fuch as had previoufly received inftru@tions from
any other mafter ; faying, that he would rather inftrué& thofe
who knew nothing, for baif price, than have the trouble of
unteaching

ing

2

TIM

unteaching fuch as had already acquired bad habits, and an
incorre¢t and vicious manner of playing.

Timotheus died in Macedonia, according to Suidas, at
the age of ninety-feven ; though the Marbles, much better
authority, fay at ninety ; and Stephen of Byzantium fixes
his death in the fourth year of the rosth Olympiad, two
years before the birth of Alexander the Great; whence it
appears that this Timotheus was not the famous player on
the flute fo much efteemed by that prince, who was ani-
mated to fuch a degree by his performance, as to feize his
arms ; and who employed him, as Athenzus informs us, to-
gether with the other great muficians of his time, at his
nuptials. However, by an inattention to dates, and by for-
getting that of thefe two muficians of the fame name, the
one was a Milefian, and the other a Theban, they have been

hitherto almoft always confounded.

TIMOTHY, a favourite difciple and companion of
St. Paul, was the fon of a Jewefs by a Greek father, at
Lyitra in Ifauria. He was the confidential affociate and
friend of St. Paul, and he addreffed to him two epittles.
(See Eristre.) According to the Roman martyrology, he
was ftoned to death at one of the feftivals of Diana at
Ephefus.

Timotuy Grafs, in Agriculture, the common name of a
on which is faid to be cultivated much in America. The
eeds are faid to have been carried from the ftate of Virginia,
by Mr. Timothy Hanfon, to that of North Carolina, where
it is much grown, and from which circumftance it probably
received its name. It is a fort of grafs which thrives
moft in low, damp, marfhy grounds; in fuch foils and fitua-
tions, it will_produce a fine turf in a fhort time. It is very
Iuxuriant, grows to a confiderable height, and has, in fome
fort, the appearance of wheat or rye, having a broad blade
or leaf.

It may be noticed, that all forts of cattle are faid to be
fond of it whilit in the green growing ftate, as well as in that
of hay.

Ite very productive, but coarfe, and flowers late. Almoft
all the agriculturalifts and travellers of America concur in
giving this grafs the higheft commendations, as being the
chief fupport of cattle wherever meadows are found. And
from the inquiries made by Mr. Strickland, at the requeft of
the Board of Agriculture, it appears to be extenfively cul-
tivated in the middle and northern ftates of the American
union; he has frequently feen extraordinary crops of it

owing as thickly as it could ftand on the ground, three or

our feet high, and in fome inftances as coarfe as wheat-

The produce per acre is - - -
Weight when dry of produce of fame {pace _
Weight loft by produce of fame fpace in drying
Weight of nutritive matter afforded by fame -
Weight of nutritive matter, loft by leaving the crop
ripe, exceeding one half of its value =

At the time the feed is ripe:
Produce per acre - - -
Weight when dry of produce of fame {pace -
Weight loft by produce of fame fpace in drying
Nutritive matter afforded by produce of fame {pace
Latter-math, produce ger acre - -
Affords of nutritive matter - - -

Sixty-four drachms of the ftraws, afford feven drachms of
nutritive matter. The nutritive powers of the ftraws
fimply, therefore, it is faid, exceed thofe of the leaves, in
proportion of 28 to 8; and the grafs at the time of flower-

‘\

ac i-M

itraw. In this ftate it is cut before maturity; and as the
hay in America is always well cured, however fucculent it
may be, at the time of cutting, horfes prefer it to every
other kind of hay, and thrive better upon it.

No other grafles approach it in produce ; and it is ftated
to be particularly ufeful when mixed with red clover, in
preventing it from falling too clofe to the ground. And
fince his return, by cultivating it in his garden he has afcer-
tained it to be the fame as the cat’s-tail grafs ; but he is
doubtful whether, if it were cultivated in the field, and
fhould grow with American luxuriance, an Englifh fun
would be able to cure it with American perfeGtion. It has,
however, been faid by Curtis, that it has no excellence that
we are acquainted with, which the meadow fox-tail grafs does
not poffefs in an equal degree. In the trials made by the
Rev. Mr. Young of keeping it clofely fed down by fheep,
upon a moiit loam with a clayey marle bottom, the fuccefs
was fufficiently encouraging to evince that it is deferving
of attention ; efpecially as its feeds may be eafily procured
in any quantity from America at the price of about one
guinea the bufhel; which, he obferves, is enough, in con-
Junction with that of other graffes, for four or five acres of
land. He thinks four pounds, the proportion for the acre
as fixed by Rocque, who firft introduced it into this country,
are much too little; and is of opinion, that timothy is
Ea, adapted to moift loams, efpecially thofe of the peaty

inds. :

It is faid to be common in the dairy paftures of Chehhire,
by the writer of the Agricultural Report of that county,
but that, although it hasbeen ftrongly recommended for
cultivation, it feems by no means to merit the high charac-
ter which was, at one time, given it. In moift lands or
foils it grows tolerably well; but in all cafes and kinds of
land, it is thought much inferior to the meadow fox-tail,
and the fmooth-ftalked meadow-grafs. In a paper in the
third volume of the “ Tranfaétions of the Highland Society
of Scotland,” the feed of this grafs is put down as ufeful in
a mixture for one crop of hay, to be fucceeded by patture,
in land of the clay kind. And that, in thefe circumftances,
late and coarfe as it is, it may be beneficial in fuch fort of
land, as it is in fome degree congenial to it. .

The experiments, however, lately made at Woburn Abbey,
under the direétion of his grace the duke of Bedford, the
refults of which are detailed in an appendix to a late work
on “ Agricultural Chemiftry,’’ place its comparative merits
in the ftrongeft and moft certain point of view. It is there
ftated, that, at the time of flowering, from a clayey loam :

Ounces. Lbs. oz. drs
- - 653400 0 = 40837 8 o ger acre.
5 ; aT 1O9S 2 O° Sony sya 8
- - 23481 9 Oo
> =f 25523 seit — 595) tas
till the feed at 2073 11) ©
- - 653400 0 = 40837 8 oO
- = 310365 © = 19397 13 ©
5 - 21439 II oO
- - 58703 14 = 3668 15 14
- - 152460. © = 19528 .12,\,0
- - A404. 05 — 297 12 6

ing, to that at the time the feed is ripe, as 10 to 23; and
the latter-math to the grafs of the flowering crop, as

8 to Io.
From the whole of thefe particulars, the comparative
merits

TIM

merits of this grafs will, it is fuppofed, appear to be very

reat; to which may be added the abundance of fine
false which it affords early in the fpring; in which
refpect it is inferior, it is faid, to the fertile meadow-grafs and
narrow-leaved meadow-grafs only. The value of the ftraws
at the time the feed is ripe, exceeds that of the grafs at the
time of flowering, as 28 to 10; a circumftance which in-
creafes its value, it is thought, above many others: for, by
this property, its valuable early foliage may be cropped, to
an advanced period of the feafon, without injury to the crop
of hay, which, in other graffes that fend forth their flower-
ing ftraws early in the feafon, would caufe a lofs of nearly
one-half of the value of the crop, as is clearly fhewn in
many inftances ; and this property of the ftraws too, makes
the plant peculiarly valuable for the purpofe of hay.

In the fmaller variety of this grafs, the produce fer acre
on the fame fort of land, at the time of ripening the feed ;
the weight when dry ; the lofs of weight in drying ; and
the nutritive matter afforded, are all very confiderably lefs
than in the above fort. In the latter-math produce on the
fame fpace, the quantity is the fame as in that, but the
nutritive matter afforded by it fomething lefs, as may be
feen in the work referred to above.

In the bulbous-ftalked fpecies, the produce of the acre
in the fame kind of land, at the time of flowering; the
- weight when dry ; that loft by the produce of the fame
{pace in drying; and the quantity of nutritive matter
afforded by it, are all ftated in the fame work to be greatly
lefs than in the firft kind. And that this grafs is inferior
in many refpects to that of the firft fort. That it is
fparingly found in meadows. And that from the number
of bulbs which grow out of the ftraws, a greater proportion
of nutritive matter might have been expected. ‘This feems
to prove, it is faid, that thefe bulbs, in this fort of grafs, do
not form fo valuable a part of the plant as the joints, which
are fo confpicuous in the firft fort, the nutritive powers of
which exceed thofe of this bulbous-ttalked fort, as 8
to 28.

The qualities and ufeful properties of timothy grafs are
thus well pointed out and determined. See PHiteum and
Grass.

TIMOU, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 225 miles
E.S.E. of Laffa. erabiy :

TIMOUR, or TaAmerLane, in Biography, a famous
Oriental conqueror, was born at the village of Sebzar, in the
territory of Cafh, 40 miles S. of Samarcand, in the year
1336. At the time of his birth, the Khans of Cafhgar,
with an army of Gete or Kalmucks, invaded Tranfoxiana.
In 1357, Timour, having lately loft his father, collected a
number of followers with a view of delivering his country ;
but being deferted by them, he retreated to the defert, and
his army was there farther diminifhed by an aétion with the

Getz. He then wandered with his wife and feven com-
panions, and oe arrefted, was kept two months in
prifon. Upon his liberation he {wam over the rapid ftream

of Oxus or Jihon, and for fome months led the life of a
vagrant. In procefs of time, and on return to his native
country, he was at the head of a confiderable force, which
enabled him to expel the Gete from Tranfoxiana. After
a civil war between him and his brother-in-law, the Emir
Houffein, who was defeated and put to death, ‘Timour, at
a general diet held in 1370, was feated on the throne of
Zagatai, at the city of Balk, and invefted with the high
title of Saheb Karan, or emperor of the Age; upon hich Re
repaired to Samarcand, which became the feat of his empire.
In confequence of this elevation, his ambition was direéted
to greater objects; and having reunited to Zagatai its

© 2M

former dependencies, Karizme and Kandahar, he fixed his —
views on the kingdoms of Iran or Perfia, which were then
occupied by various ufurpers. Having reduced to fub- —
miffion Ibrahim, the prince of Sherwan, and fecured the

conqueft of Fars or Perfia proper, by the defeat and death
Shah Manfour, its prince, and the extirpation of his m

progeny, he advanced from Shiraz to the Perfian gulf, and
exaéted from the rich city of Ormuz an annual tribute. —

He then proceeded as aconqueror through the whole courfe
of the Tigris and Euphrates from their fources to their
mouths, entered Edeffa, and reduced the Chriftians in the —
mountains of Georgia. Retaliating upon the Gete the in-
vafion of his country, he paffed the Sihon, and fubdued the
kingdom of Cafhgar. In his feveral expeditions he pene-
trated as far as 480 leagues to the N.E. of Samarcand, and
his emirs croffed the Irtifch into Siberia, another fcene of
his adventures and conquefts near Kipzak or Weftern
Tartary. Having entertained at his court Toétamifh, a
fugitive prince of that country, he fent him back with an
army which eftablifhed him in the Mogul empire of the
North. Toétamifh, however, after a reign of ten 5
unmindful of his obligations to his benefaétor, entered Per fi
with a mighty army, paffed the Sihon, burnt the palaces of
Timour, and reduced him to the neceffity of pag for
his capital and empire. But his triumph was of no long
duration; for To€tamifh was defeated, Kipzak was invade
and Toétamifh was again encountered and routed. ‘This
purfuit led Timour to the tributary provinces of Ruffia,
and a duke of the reigning family was made captive on the
ruins of Yeletz, his capital. Timour then marched fouth-
wards, and having pillaged, reduced to afhes the commercial
city of Azoph, and alfo thofe of Serai and Aftrachan.
Under the influence of that ambition which was his ruling
principle, he determined, in 1398, on the invafion of Hin-
dooftan, and taking advantage of the rebellion againit the
weak Sultan Mahmood, he led an army of 92 fquadrons,
each of 1000 horfe, and found great difficulty in traverfing
one of the {nowy ridges between the Jihon and the Indus.
Having croffed the Indus at Attock, he entered the Panjab,
and formed a junétion with one of his grand{ons. Wis Ball
reduced Moultan. He then advanced towards Dehli, and
having overthrown the army of Mahmood with its elephants,
took poffeffion of the capital, which he defolated by pillage
and maffacre. In this part of his march he manifefted his
religious zeal, by deftroying infidels and idolaters without
mercy, and having pafled the Ganges about 100 miles N.E..
of Dehli, he flaughtered a great number of the Guebres, or
fire-worfhippers. Whilft he was thus engaged, he received
intelligence of the difturbances that tae occurred on the
confines of Georgia and Anatolia, of the revolt of the Chrif-
tians, and of the ambitious projects of the Turkifh fultan
Bajazet. Having iffued orders to his commanders, he —
haftened back to Samarcand; and after a fhort interval of _
repofe, he proclaimed a feven years’ expedition to the
weftern parts of Afia. In the year 1400 he began with the —
Georgian Chriftians, and foon reduced them to the alter-
native of tribute or the Koran, and to prifoners he allowed
no other choice but death or abjuring their religion. Re-
turning from this warfare, he gave audience to the ambaf-
fadors of Bajazet, and after fome time {pent in mutual com-
plaints and menaces, Timour laid fiege to Siwas or Sebafte, —
on the borders of Anatolia, which he took and deftroyed,
burying alive with favage cruelty the Armenian garrifon of
4000 men. He then invaded Syria, and advanced towards
Aleppo, from which iffued a numerous and well-appointed
force to engage his army, the front of which was covered b:
a line of Indian elephants, carrying turrets filled with archers
and

ae

ii M

ard Greek fire. This formidable hoft threw the Syrians
into diforder, and they fled with precipitation into the city,
whither the enemy accompanied them. Timour foon be-
came mafter of this opulent capital. While the ftreets were
ftreaming with blood and re ounding with cries, the con-
queror held a theological conference with the do¢tors of the
law; protefting, towards the clofe of his harangue, that he
was not a man of blood, that he was not the aggreffor in any
of his wars, and that his enemies brought upon themfelves
the calamities they fuffered: at the fame time his foldiers
were piling up a certain tale of heads of the enemy, in con-
formity to his orders, which, according to his cuftom, were
afterwards piled up in columnsand pyramids. From Aleppo,
Timour proceeded to Balbeck, which he took, and then
advanced towards Damafcus. The fultan of Egypt had
made great preparations for the defence of the city, and alfo
for the affaffination of the invader; but the plot of ufing
poifoned daggers was difcovered. The fultan pretended
ubmiffion, and thus intended to put Timour off his guard ;
in the accomplifhment of this artifice, the camp of Timour

was fuddenly attacked by the Syrian army, and thrown

into diforder ; but as foon as order was reftored, the Syrians
were repulfed, and driven to the gates of Damafcus with
great flaughter. The fultan in the mean while had returned
to Egypt, and the city was left to make the beft poffible
terms with the conqueror. During a truce, the foldiers
broke into the city, maffacred a great part of the inhabitants,
and made captives of the reft, carried off a great quantity of
rich plunder, and the city was reduced to afhes. Bagdad
was the next place of importance to which Timour direGed
his views. Here Timour attended in perfon, and ordered a
blockade ; after 40 days’ defence on the part of the in-
habitants, a ftorm was commanded ; and the death of fome

_ of the affailants was revenged by a maflacre which produced

a pyramid of 90,000 heads. The city was completely
razed, with the exception of mofques, hofpitals, and colleges.
Fimour’s next object was the Ottoman empire. Having
confulted the court-aftrologers, and obtained a favourable
anfwer, he put himfelf at the head of an almoft innumerable
force, and moved from the Araxes through Armenia and
Anatolia, determining to carry the war to the heart of his
rival’s dominions. By his rapid advances, he invefted
Angora before Bajazet was apprized of his movement.
Upon receiving this intelligence, the Ottoman haftened to its
relief with a very large army. An engagement enfued, and
the conteft, which was very fanguinary, was at length
decided by the defeat and capture of the Turkifh emperor.
This battle was fought in July 1402. Bourfa, Nice, and
Smyrna were fucceflively captured with the fame circuin-
ftances of cruelty that marked the progrefs of Timour’s
arms.

Timour’s conquefts were extended from the Irtifch and
Volga to the Perfian gulf, and from the Ganges to the Ar-
chipelago ; and beyond thefe limits his name was a found of
terror. Several princes purchafed his favour by tribute, or
by extraordinary tokens of refpe&t. His want of fhipping
prevented his entrance into Europe. From his various expe-
ditions, Timour did not return to Samarcand until the fum-
mer. of 1404. In that capital, he difplayed his magnificence
and power in difpenfing rewards and punifhments, attending
to the complaints of his people, erecting palaces and tem-
ples, and giving audience to ambaffadors from Egypt,
Arabia, India, Tartary, Ruffia, and Spain. Although he
had profeffed fatisfaction with the extent of his empire, yet
he indulged a proje& of ambition of very great magnitude,
which was that of the conqueft of China. His preparations
for this grand expedition were proportioned to its magni-

TIN

tude: 200,000 veteran foldiers were muttered, and they
were furnifhed with means for conveying neceflaries over
the defarts which feparate Samarcand from Pekin. The
aged emperor mounted his horfe in the winter feafon, crofled
the Sihon on the ice, and advanced to the diftance of 300
miles from his capital; but at the camp of Otrar he was
feized with a fever, which fatigue, and the imprudent ufe of
iced water, foon rendered mortal. He was not unapprized
of his danger ; and having fummoned round him his em-
prefles and principal emirs, he declared his grandfon Me-
hemet Jehan Ghir his univerfal heir and fucceffor, and ex-
acted an oath of obedience to him. He thus expired April
ift, 1405, in the 7oth year of his age, and the 35th from
his elevation to the throne of Zagatai. He left 53_de-
{cendants, and his pofterity are to this day invefted with
the title of the Mogul emperors, although the power and
dominions have paffed into other hands.

His perfon and charater are defcribed by one of his bio-
graphers in the following terms: ‘* Timour was tall and cor-
pulent, with a wide forehead and large head, a pleafing
countenance, and fair complexion. He had broad fhoulders
and ftrong limbs, but was maimed in one hand and lame of
the right fide. His eyes were full of fire; his voice was
loud and commanding ; his conftitution hardy and vigorous; -
his underftanding found; and his mind firm and ftedfaft.
In converfation he was grave and modeft, and he prided
himfelf in an attachment to truth. He delighted in reading
hiftory, and in difeuffing topics of f{cience with the learned.
His religion was fierce and fanatical, and he actually had,
or affected to have, the fuperftitious reverence for omens,
prophecies, faints, and aftrologers, which is general in the
Eaft. He conduéted his government alone, without fa-
vourites or minifters, and its {pirit was abfolute and uncon-
trouled rule. It was his boaft to have introduced fecurity and
order throughout his wide dominions, and he challenged the
praife of a benefaétor to mankind ; but no conquefts have
been attended with greater deftru€tion of human lives, and
greater defolation of flourifhing cities and diftri@s, than his
were ; and his ambition prompted him to extend his authority
beyond the poffible limits of a fingle government. He was
not, however, a mere barbarian conqueror ; but, if his in-
ftitutions can be relied on as genuine, had enlarged ideas of
the adminiftration of a great empire.” The * Inititutions
of Timour’? have been made known in Europe by two
tranflations from a Perfian verfion: one in Englifh by major
Davy and profeffor White, Oxford, 1783; and the other
in French, by M. Langles, Paris, 1787. Mod. Univer.
Hitt. Gibbon’s Rom. Emp. Gen. Biog.

TIMOURKENG, or Fortre/s of Iron, in Geography,
a town of Thibet; 60 miles W.N.W. of Latac.

TIMPALU; a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. N. lat.o 16! E. long. 119° 4a’.

TIMPANO, Ital., a kettle-drum. See Tympanum
and TyMBALLES.

TIMPFE, or Tympre, in Coinage, an old filver coin
of Poland. The tympfe, or tympfen, was reckoned at
eighteen grofchen, and the florins were valued at thirty

rof{chen.

TIMURCOUGH, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;
54. miles W.N.W. of Lahdach. N. lat. 35° 12/. E. long.

Sit

TIMUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
deftroyed by an earthquake. :

TIMYRA, atown of Afia, in Iauria.

TIN, Stannum, Jupiter, a whitifh metal, fofter, lefs elaf-
tic, and lefs fonorous, than any other metal, excepting lead.
Inthe Chaldee language, 3{), tin, fignifies /lime, mud, or ahs

an

TIN.

and when the Phoenicians came into Cornwall, aad faw this
metal in its ancient flimy ftate, they called it “the mud ,”
and hence, fome have faid, the name fin, in Cornu-Britifh
lean, is derived. Some of the ancients called it plumbum
album, white lead, probably to a Sa it from common
lead ; not knowing that it was radically another metal.

This metal, denominated xxcctreeos by the Greeks, and
flannum by the Latins, feems to have been known from the

moft remote ages. It is mentioned by Mofes ; fee Numb.
xxxi. chap. 22. It was tranfported to the Eaft from
Spain and Britain by the Phcenicians, with which nations
they are faid to have carried on a lucrative commerce.
Homer mentions it ; and by Ariftotle, the epithet Kerzsx0v, or
Celtic, is applied to it, indicating plainly the country from
which it was procured. See Trn-T'rade of Britain. ;
Tisx-Stone, in Mineralogy, is the moft common ore of tin,
and is nearly a pure oxyd of that metal. The colour is brown,
which paffes from a blackifh-brown to black, and from a
red-brown to yellowifh and greenifh-white. It occurs cryf-
tallized and amorphous, and in grains and rolled pieces,
varying from the magnitude of a grain of fand to that of
anegg,orlarger. ‘The primitive form of the cryftal is a flat
oétohedron: the angles are 112° 10! and 67° 50’. The
figure of the cryftals is feldom perfeét ; fometimes a re&t-
angular prifm is interpofed between the pyramids that form
the o&ohedron. The edges and fummits of the cryftals are
frequently bevelled or truncated, from which a great variety
of fecondary forms is derived. The cryftals are alfo fre-
quently united, forming compound cryftals or macles:
indeed, fo numerous are the fecondary cryftals of tin, that
more than one hundred and eighty forms of fingle cryftals
have been obferved, befides the compound cryftals, of which
theré is a confiderable variety. The furface of the cryftals
is commonly fmooth and fplendent, but is fometimes
ftreaked. he ftru€ture is laminar, but the lamine are
rarely vifible. The fraéture is uneven and imperiogy con-
choidal, with a more or lefs fhining and refinous luftre.
When the laminar ftruéture is difplayed, the luttre is highly
{plendent. The cryftals are femi-tranfparent or opaque,
the darker colours being opaque, the lighter fometimes
nearly tranfparent; and the intermediate fhades are only
tranflucent, or tranflucent at the edges. The ftreak is a
eyifh-white. Tin-ftone is hard, fcarcely yielding to the
Fike, and giving {parks with fleel. It is brittle and heavy.
The fpecific gravity varies from 6.759 to 6.970.

Before the blowpipe it decrepitates, and becomes paler ;
when finely pounded and mixed with borax, it is reducible
on charcoal to the metallic ftate.

Tin-ftone contains the following conftituent parts, ac-
cording to Klaproth.

From Alternon. Schlackenwald.

Tin -

Oxygen - 21.50 24.50
Iron - - 0.25 0.50
Silex - 0.75

Some analyfes of tin-{tone give from two to three per cent.
of alumine. The tin-ftone of Cornwall, dreffed in a m4 com-
mon manner, is reckoned rich if it yield 65 per cent. of tin.
Tin-itone may be diftinguifhed from wolfram by its fupe-
rior hardnefs, as it gives {parks with fteel; but wolfram
yields eafily to the knife. The powder of tin-ftone is a
greyifh-white, that of wolfram a reddifh-brown. It is dif-
tinguifhed from dlende by its fuperior hardnefs, and its not
emitting afulphurous odour when pounded. By its greater
fpecific gravity and luftre, it may be diftinguifhed from
garnet; and from /chorl, by its colour, luftre, form, and higher
12

“9

Se, eee «

{pecific gravity. This ore occurs in veins and beds, and dif-
feminated in granite rocks. The veins interfeét rocks of
granite, gneifs, mica-flate, and flate: tin-ftone occurs alfo in
alluvial foil in the diftri€ts that contain tin-veins. See
STREAM-Zin. ‘
Wood-tin is a {pecies of tin-ftone, or oxyd of tin, found
with flream-tin in rolled pieces, which are wedge-fha or
reniform, and fometimes globular. The ftructure is di-
vergingly fibrous, with concentric lamin ; and from the
fuppofed refemblance to the tranfverfe feétion of fin ned
wood, it received its name. The colour is commonly hair-
brown or wood-brown, pafling into yellowith-grey. The
luftre is glimmering or filky. It is opaque, hard, and —
brittle : the {pecific gravity is 6.450. It is infufible before
the blowpipe, but is changed to a brownifh-red colour.
When ftrongly heated in a charcoal crucible, it yields about —
75 per cent. of metallic tin. The conftituent parts are, ac-
cording to Vauquelin,

Oxyd of tin - gt
Oxyd of iron - 9 cw
In Cornwall, this ore is almoft always found with ftream-
tin, and never in veins: it is faid, however, to have been re-
cently met with in cellular quartz, but in ete
pieces. Itisone of the moft common ores of tin in Mexico,
and occurs in veins that traverfe a porphyritic trap, and
alfo in alluvial depofitions. In fome wood-tin, there is
{mall, black, f{mooth globule, from which, as from a cen!
the fibres diverge: this has received the name of bird’ s-eye
tin. Wood-tin, in its flru@ure and mode of formation,
probably bears a near analogy to the kidney-fhaped hema-
tite iron-ore. oe
Bell-metal Ore, Tin Pyrites, or Sulphuret of Tin, is an ex-
tremely rare ore of this metal, being found only in Corn-
wall, at Huel rock, in a vein accompanied with fulphuret
of zinc and iron. Its colour is fteel-grey, pafling into yel-
lowifh-white : it has a metallic luftre, and uneven

fraGture: it yields eafily to the knife, and is brittle. The
{pecific gravity is 4.350. It fufes into a black flag before

the blowpipe, exhaling at the time a fulph

It communicates a velow or green colour to borax. —
conftituent parts differ in different fpecimens ; according to
Klaproth, they are as under :

odour.
The

Tin - . 34 26.50
Copper - - 36 30. 53
Tron - - 3 12.
Sulphur - 25 30.50
Earthy matter 2

100 99

Klaproth obferves, that the darker varieties of this ore are
confiderably poorer in tin than the lighter, but the propors
tion of iron increafes. ad i

Analyfis of the Ores of Tit.—The analyfes in the
were = es Klaproth in charcoal per in the Plow,
ing manner, in which the refults were always found to be
conftant. The ore was broken, and well Rive from the
matrix. One hundred grains were introduced into the
cavity of a charcoal erucible, clofing its orifice with a
{topper of charcoal. The charcoal crucible was then fitted
clofe into one of baked clay, and placed upon the forge-
hearth before the nozzle of the bellows. The contents in
the charcoal crucible were reduced to the metallic ftate by
expofing it to a ftrong blaft for half an hour. The button
af raetallic tin produced was a little blackifh on the fides,

and

and its furface coated with a greenifh cruft. From one
hundred grains of Bohemian tin-ftone, feyenty-two grains
and a half of tin were produced. Wood-tin and {tream-tin
___were treated in a fimilar manner. Brown tin-ftone, expofed
to a porcelain fire in a clay crucible, formed a clear denfe
glafs, greenifh-grey in, the middle, but of a bright yellow
onthe fides andtop. The interior of the veffel was glazed,
_ of a milk-white, and overlaid with many {mall groups of
_needle-fhaped cryftals of a light-brown colour. ‘he inner
_ furface of the lid was lined with fimilar cryftals.
Analyfis of Tin-Stone in the humid way.—To Klaproth we
are indebted for the difcovery of a fimple and effectual mode
f analyfing tin-{tone in the humid way. Boil 100 grains
of this ore, finely pounded, with a folution of 600 grains
of cauftic potafh. Evaporate to drynefs, and then ignite
the mafs moderately for half an hour. Add boiling water,
which diffolves the principal part of the mafs, and the re-
fidue muit again be ignited with fix times its weight of
eauitic potafs, and diflolved in water, as before. Add
this to the laft folution, and faturate the whole with mu-
Fiatic acid, which will throw down an oxyd of tin. Let
this be re-diffolved by an additional quantity of muriatic
acid, and precipitated again by carbonate of foda; when
lixiviated, and dried in a gentle heat, it acquires the form of
__ bright-yellowifh tranfparent lumps. This precipitate muft
i be finely powdered, and once more diffolved in muriatic acid,
' affifted by a gentle heat. The infoluble part confifts of
filex. Dilute the folution, whichis colourlefs, with from two
to three parts of water, and introduce a {tick of zinc, round
which the tin will collect in a metallic ftate in the form of
delicate dendritic amine. Scrape off the tin, wafh, dry,
and fufe it under a cover of tallow in a capfule placed on
charcoal. A button of fine metallic tin will remain at the
bottom, the weight of which, deducted from that of the ore,
indicates the proportion of oxygen.
Analyfis of Bell-metal Ore, or Tin Pyrites.—To two
_ drachms of finely powdered ore, add one ounce of muriatic
id, and half an ounce of nitric acid: this will diffolve the
greater portion of the metallic part without heat, but a
tle heat muft be applied to diflolye the whole. The
ulphur will float on the furface of the folution, and muft be
feparated by filtration. To the folution add carbonate of
potafs, which produces a greenifh precipitate ; let this be re-
diffolved in diluted muriatic acid, and introduce a cylinder of
| pure tin, the weight of which is to be previoufly afcer-
tained. By this means the copper will be feparated in a
_ metallic ftate. The cylinder of tin muit now be carefully
_ weighed, and the quantity which it has loft muft be noted,
and a cylinder of zinc muft be introduced into the fore-
_ going folution: this will feparate all the tin, which muft be
_ melted with tallow and weighed. Deduét the quantity of
_ tin which was loft by the cylinder, and the remainder will be
§ the quantity of tin from the ore, held in the folution.
q The fulphur feparated by the firft filtration muft be ig-
_ Rited, and the unconfumed refidue, diffolved in nitro-muriatic
acid, muft be added to the folution, in order to obtain the
whole of the contents. The undiffolved part will be the
filiceous matrix.
_ The copper may be brifkly digefted in nitric acid, which
will leave behind a minute portion of oxyd of tin, and af-
ertain the precife quantity of pure copper contained in the
ore.
_ The method of getting, preparing, &c. the tin in the
Cornifh mines, much the beft and moft confiderable in the
_ world, is given us in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions, Abr.
wol. ii. p. 569, &c. and more diftinctly and fully in Pryce’s
ineralogy.

eieVot, XXXV,

—

THN

The working of the tin-mines is very hard and difficult,
not only by reafon of the great depth which the veins de-
{cend to, even as low as fixty fathoms; but alfo becaufe
the rocks, through which paflages are frequently cut, are
extremely hard. Nor is the foft thaking earth found in the
tin-mines much lefs inconvenient to the workmen, both by
reafon of the fetid, malignant vapours it exhales, and of
the current of water often met with in them; ‘thefe dif-
advantages often render it impraéticable for the workmen to
hold it above four hours together.

The exiftence of native tin has been always doubted, and
till of late abfolutely denied by all mineralogifts, both ancient
and modern: however, Mr. Borlafe, in his Natural Hittory
of Cornwall, p. 185, fuggefted, that its exiftence was far
from being improbable ; but he afterwards difcovered three
f{pecimens of this metal, native or pure, of which he pre-
{ented an account to the Royal Society. Mr. Mendes da
Cofta made feveral experiments on one of thefe fpecimens,
with a view of proving that it was really tin; from which
he infers, that it is perfectly duétile and malleable ; and be-
ing bent between the teeth, gives the fame crackling noife as
tin always does: in an open fire it melts eafily, calcines on
the furface, and {mokes ; but forced in a ftronger fire with
borax, it detonates with {mall phofphorefcent fparks, which
is a REOper of pure tin ; and it is only corroded to a white
calx in {pirit of nitre, and oil of tartar per deliquium being
added to the folution, none of it was precipitated: whence
he concludes, that it was pure tin. Philof. Tranf. vol. lvi.
art. 7. 39. Native tin is alfo faid to have been found in
Saxony and Malacca.

The ores of tin may be generally claffed into fhoad or
fhode, ftream, and bal or mine tin. The fhoad is disjuné,
and {eattered to fome diftance from its parent lode, and is
pebbly or fmoothly angular, of various fizes, from half an
ounce to fome pounds weight. See SHoap. ;

Stream-tin ore is the fame as fhoad, but {maller fized, &c.
See SrREAM-Zin and STREAMING.

Bal or mine tin-ore often rifes very rich; and inftances
frequently occur, in which it has been difcovered in the
richeft and pureft ftate imaginable. This kind of rich ore
confifts of the blackeft grains or cryftals, and is ufually
found at a moderate depth, or within the day-fide of forty
fathoms.

When the tin-ore is raifed, or dug and drawn out of the
mime, and laid by the fhaft, it is firft Jpalled, 2s the procefs
is termed, which confifts in breaking it into fmaller frag~
ments, and feparating it from the worthlefs parts. When
the beft parts are forted, they are divided into heaps by a
hand-barrow, containing a fack and a half, or eighteen
gallons. Each of thefe fhares, called doles, being turned
over, equally levelléd and mixed, is then divided with a
fhovel into two equal parts; and after being bruifed by
large fledges to the fize of a hazel-nut, is equally levelled
and divided into four parts: the bruifing and divifions are
repeated at pleafure, till the quantity defigned for fampling
is well mixed, and made as fine as common fand. "To make
a rough guefs, or coarfe eflay, the fampler takes a handful
of it, and wafhes it on a fhovel, till the impure parts zre
carried off by the water, and the more folid and heavy par-
ticles, that are left behind, are bruifed with a fledge on the
fhovel, till the whole aflumes the appearance of mud. This
is again wafhed, and by a peculiar motion the metallic par-
ticles are collected together on the fore-part of the fhovel.
By repeating thefe bruifings, wafhings, and motions, it be-
comes clean black tin, fit for the {melting-furnace. This
is called a van, (probably from the French avant, foremof, )
as it is thrown upon the point of the fhovel by the dexterity

t

47 of

TIN.

of the fample trier. After the tin is thus cleaned, it is
dried ; and if there be as much black tin as will cover a
fhilling, or equal to the weight of a fhilling, it is called a
failling van, which is not rich ; but if the van will cover or
equal the weight of a crown-piece, it is good tin-ftuff, and
called a crown van. The hhilling van, the tinners fay, will
produce one hundred avoirdupois weight of block or white
tin; and the crown van will yield five hundred weight of
block tin, for every hundred facks in meafure of the refpec-
tive doles from which the fample or van was taken, and fo
in proportion, to the richeft tin-ftuff, called /cove, which
is reckoned at the rate of ten thoufand of white tin-metal
for every hundred facks. But a better judgment may be
formed from the meafure of a wine half-pint, than from a
handful, which is indeed accounted a half pint. When the
tin, thus meafured, is reduced clean, and to a proper fize,
by ufing a large fhovel, and taking off the fized tin on an-
other fhovel, the van is dried in a fhovel upon the fire, and
then weighed by pennyweights and grains; and for every
pennyweight and a half the van weighs, the produce will
be one hundred weight of black tin for every hundred facks
of tin-{tuff ; and for three peanyweights, two hundred weight,
&c. in the fame proportion ; and if it be tin worth ten for
twenty, or one for two, then the tin-ftuff is valued at five
hundred weight of block or white tin for every hundred
facks: if it be worth twelve for twenty, the ftuff is valued
at fix hundred weight of white tin a hundred; or if it be
worth only eight oe twenty, it is only valued at four hun-
dred weight of white tina hundred, &c. This d/ack tin is
rather oF a liver colour, though called black im contra-
diftinétion from white tin, or the metal produced from this
black ore: it is very heavy, and may in general be com-
puted to hold one-half clean metal, and fome of it will pro-
duce thirteen, or even fourteen parts in twenty ; whence
the mode of expreffing fo much white tin for twenty of
black tin, 7. ¢. eight Fis twenty, ten for twenty, twelve
for twenty, &c. Thus, if the van of one hundred facks
of tin-ftuff weighs fix pennyweights, being four hundred
weight of black tin at twelve for twenty, the white tin or
metal muft be two hundred weight one quarter fixteen
pounds.

In this method of fampling, the tinners form a near con-
jecture of the quantity of white tin which their doles of
tin-ftuff will produce at the fmelting-houfe, when it is
dreffed, and brought into black tin. But if the black tin
is combined with any bad mixture, as of mock-lead, copper,
or mundic, after the van is bruifed fine and wafhed, they
lay the fhovel over the fire, and burn the black tin, ftirring
it continually, till it has done fmoaking : they then wath
it again on the fhovel, and thus the heterogeneous matter,
becoming light by being burnt, is carried off by the water :
for when black tin is calcined or burnt, it {till retains its
fpecific gravity ; but copper, lead, and other crude mine-
rals, become much lighter by torrefaction, and are eafily
feparated from the tin by water. In the drefling and ma-
nagement of tin by ftamping, &c. there are obtained two
forts of black tin, viz. the crop and rough, or the crop
and leavings of tin. ‘The firft is the prime tin: immedi-
ately feparable from the bafer parts by its fuperior weight
and richnefs. The latter is that which is carried off, and
mixed with the lighter earthy parts, by being under fize,
and, therefore, more eafily carried off by the water.

The tin-{tuff, after this previous preparation and adjuft-
ment, is carried to the ftamping-mill, in order to be drefled
or pounded.

This operation of pounding in the ftamping-mill is effen-
tial to the complete feparation of the ore from the matrix,

through which it is diffeminated. If full of flime, it is

thrown into a pit, called a buddle, to wath away the earthy
matter, and render the flamping more free, without choak-
ing the grates. The ore is fhovelled into a kind of floping
canal of timber, called the pa/s, whence it flides by its own
weight, and the affiftance of a {mall ftream of water, into
the box where the lifters work: the lifters are raifed by a
water-wheel, and are armed at the bottom with large.
maffes of iron, weighing nearly two hundred weight each :
thefe pound or ftamp the ore fufficiently to enable it to
pafs through the holes of an iron grate fixed at one end
of the box. To affift its pulverization, a rill of water keeps
it conftantly wet, and it is carried by a fmall gutter into
the fire-pit, where it makes its firft depofition ; the lighter
particles running forward with the water into the middle
pit, then into a third, where what is called the /lime fettles.
(See Dreffing of Ores, and Buppie.) From thefe pits
the ore is carried to the deeve, which is a large vat containing
water; in which it is farther purified by. an operation
termed packing, and which confifts in beating the upper
part of the contents with mallets for fome minutes, by
which the lighter particles are kept fufpended, whilit the
tin-ore, from its great {pecific gravity, fubfides, The wafte
is fkimmed and laid by, to be again buddled, under the
name of the /Limpings. The tin is fifted through a copper-
bottom fieve into another keeve of water, by which the
gravelly watte {till remaining is feparated from the clean tin ;.
and the tin that runs through the fieve, if it requires no
farther buddling, may be cleaned by repeatedly toffing and
packing it as before. If it be necefflary to buddle it again
after it is fifted, let it be buddled and diftributed in t
parts, viz. the crop or pureft, the creafe or next in purity,
and the hind-creafe or tail, whichis the moft impure. The
crop is to be cleanfed by tofling, &c. and the creafe muit
be buddled again, and out of this muft be referved as much
as may be cleanfed by tofling and packing. The remainder
muft be cleanfed by an operation called dilkughing, from
dilleugh, to let go, or fend away. A dilleugher is a large —
fine hair-fieve, which the dreffer holds in a keeve one-third
full of water, into which the tin is thrown by a fhovelful
at a time, and which is fhook fo as to put the tin into mo-
tion: one fide of this dilleugher is dipped in water, and
raifed again in fuch a manner, that the wafte may run over,
which is laid afide to mix with the fkimpings, to make the
famples of low value, called the rough (or row) tin. This
ufually undergoes another operation, in which, by a rill of
water pafling over the buddle in which it is placed, it is.
farther cleanfed, and then dilleughed, fo as to be fit to mix
with the crop-tin. ’ x

Upon the fame mechanical principle of feparation, the
tinner is capable of eftimating the value of a fample of ore.
For this purpofe, the pounded tin-ore, or tin-ftuff, as it is
called, is placed on a fhovel and wafhed under a ftream, till
the impure earthy parts are carried off by the water from
its fides, when, by a particular and dexterous motion, not
eafily defcribed, all the metallic particles are colle&ted to-
gether on the fore-part of the fhovel: this operation is
called vanning, which we have already defcribed.

When the tin-ore is contaminated with the different pyri-
tous ores of copper, arfenic, and iron, it is firft roafted in”
a burning-houfe, and then wafhed in water, by which means
the tin, which is heavy, is eafily feparated. '

By this procefs, as at prefent conduéted in Cornwall, a
confiderable quantity of copper is loft; for being converted
into fulphate of copper, which is foluble in water, it is loft
by wafhing; whereas, if the roafted ore were fuffered to
remain in a clofe pit for a few days, and the water ae ;

0

*

<a?

;

TIN.

off into another pit, the copper might be feparated by iron
in a metallic ftate.

The leavings of tin, confifting of the flime and tails, 7. ¢.
of tin-mud and tin-gravel, are drefled by a particular kind
of apparatus, for the conftruétion and ufe of which, we
mutt refer to Pryce’s Min. Corn. p. 226, &c.

Each ftamping-mill, which has conftant work and water,
will employ one man and five boys ; and one hundred facks
are carried, ftamped, and drefled, in the {pace of a few
days, at the average rate of about four-pence per fack, or
one guinea and a half per hundred.

When the tin-ore is drefled, it is divided into as many
fhares as there are lords and proprietors. :

The next operation pertaining to tin-ore, or black tin,
is that of /melting it. ‘The Phcenicians, who traded to
Cornwall for tin in the earlier ages, probably conducted this
procefs by digging a hole in the ground, and {ftrewing the
ore on a charcoal fire, which perhaps was excited by a bel-
lows. But having no idea of confining the fire, and direct-
ing its force on the fubftance to be {melted, they made no
ufe of furnaces, either fimple or reverberatory. Charcoal
was long ufed in the operation of {melting, till at length
neceflity fuggefted the introduction of pit-coal; and in the
fecond year of queen Anne, a patent was granted for {melt-
ing black tin with foffile coal in iron furnaces. The inven-
tion of reverberatory-furnaces built with brick, ftone, fand,
lime, and clay, foon followed this difcovery ; the form of
which, being fimple, has admitted of little improvement to
the prefent time. The charge for one of the tin {melting-
furnaces is from five to fix hundred weight of black tin,
well mixed with a tenth or twelfth or eighth its weight of
culm, which is a fpecies of coal from South Wales, that is
very free from fulphur. The furnace is charged through a
hole in its fide with a fhovel, and the tin levelled over the
bottom with an iron rake or paddle. The apertures are
then clofed, and the fire raifed to a very great ftrength, in
which {tate it is left for four or five hours, when the door is
taken off, and the whole charge well ftirred together. The
ftate of the metal is examined, and more culm thrown in if
neceflary ; the furnace is again clofed, and the fire kept up
till the end of about fix hours from its receiving the charge ;
when it is again examined, and if proper, it is then tapped,
and the metal let out into a fixed bafon made of clay, and
large enough to hold fomewhat more than the metal of the
charge. The fcoria in the bottom of the furnace is raked
eut at the mouth into a fmall pit made for this purpofe,
where it generally forms itfelf into acake. When cold, it
is carried to the ftamping-mill, in order to feparate the
globules of melted tin diffeminated through the {coria or
flag. This, being broke by hammers to the fize of goofe-
eggs, is put into the firft ftamping-mill, and pafled through
{mall iron bars ; by which means the pillion (for fo all tin re-
covered out of the flags is called) of the larger fize is taken
out and preyented from wafte by too much ftamping. The
refufe of this firft {tamping is put into other ftamping-mills
of a fecond, third, or even fourth fize. Of the pillion, fe-
parated from the fcoria, all the rough or grainy parts are
confidered as metals, and refined accordingly, by being
{melted without any flux, and the produce of this melting
refined, with the tin firft tapped.

The tin in the bafon, or float (as it is called), as foon as
it comes down to a moderate heat, is laded out into the
moulds, in flabs or pigs of about three-fourths of a hundred
weight.

The method of {melting in Saxony and Bohemia, does
not differ greatly from that practifed in Cornwall. When
the ore las been roafted it is wafhed upon tables, to feparate

the oxyd of iron and the oxyd of copper, which are lighter
than tin-ore. At Alt-Saint-John, the oxyd of tin is:mixed
with the black oxyd of iron: this is feparated by a powerful
magnet, which is drawn over the table. That the powdered
oxyd of tin may not be blown away by the blaft of the
furnace, it is previoufly moiftened with water; but as the
flame always carries away a part of the ore, a chamber is
conftructed about the middle of the chimney, made of wood
lined with clay, where the powdered ore that has been driven
up by the flame is depofited.

The next procefs is that of refining. The furnace having,
by the fide of the fmall float now defcribed, a larger one
capable of holding twenty, or more blocks, is for this pur-
pofe fuffered to cool to a certain degree, and then charged
full with the flabs juft mentioned, the tap-hole being kept
open, fo that as the tin melts in this moderate fire, it makes
its exit through it into the float; where, while running out,
it is frequently ftirred and tofled by a ladleful at a time held
arm-high, letting it fall in a ftream into the mafs of metal,
when the feum which arifes is taken off. While the metal
already put into the furnace is melting, more is added, fo as
to be juit enough to fill the float with good tin: and this,
after being tofled and fkimmed as before, and fuffered to
cool to a proper temper, is carried in iron ladles to moulds
holding generally fomewhat above three hundred weight
(then denominated d/ock-tin), where they are marked as the
{melters chufe with their houfe mark, which may be a peli-
can, plume of feathers, flag, or horfe, by laying brafs or
iron ftamps, in the face of the blocl:s while the tin is ina
fluid ftate, and yet coal enough to fuftain the itamping iron.
The blocks are then ready to be weighed, numbered, and
fent to the neareft coinage town to be coined. The privi-
leged towns for coinage of tin, were anciently Lifkeard,
Loftwithiel, Truro, and Helfton: but foon after the Re-
ftoration, Penzance was added to the number; in which laft
place there is every quarter more tin coined than in the
towns of Lifkeard, Loitwithiel, and Helfton, for a whole
year. When the tin is brought to be cained, the affay-
matter’s deputy aflays it by cutting off with a chiffel and
hammer a piece of one of the lower corners of the block,
about a pound weight, partly by cutting and partly by
breaking, in order to prove the roughnefs and firmnefs of
the metal. If it is a pure good tin, the face of the block
is {tamped with the duchy feal, which ftamp is a permit for
the owner to fell, and at the fame time an affurance that
the tin fo marked has been examined and found merchant-
able. The ftamping of this impreffion by a hammer is coin-
ing the tin, and the man who does it is called the hammer-
man. The duchy feal is argent, a lion rampant gules,
crowned or, within a border garnifhed with bezants.

The drofly part remaining in the furnace is by an increaf-
ing fire wholly melted, which is then tapped into the fmall
float, where the tin fubfiding, and the drofs rifing to the
top, the latter is taken off, and the tin laded into fmall flabs,
as at firft, to be again refined. The tin that remains in and
about the fcoria and drofs of the laft tappings, &c. is re-
covered by repeated {meltings, till at laft, being almoft
entirely drained of that metal, they become what the work-
men generally call hard heads, and efteemed of no farther
value.

M. Groffe, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
of Paris, has delivered a method he had invented of fepa-
rating tin from lead or filver. Having tried an experiment
on the fcoria of metal, which contained with the tin a large
quantity of filver, it feemed to him that one great ftep to-
ward the feparation of the filver, was the patna of the
calcination of the tin, and with this view he tried a mixture

47 2 of

TIN.

‘of charcoal, faltpetre, and earth, which he put together
into the coppel with the fcoriz. It is eafy to fee that a de-
tonation would happen from this, and this muft greatly add
to the force of the fire, in ating upon the fcoriz, while the
erruginous matter well known to be contained in the char-
coal mixed itfelf with the tin, and muft greatly accelerate
its calcination, divide its parts, and give the fire a new a¢tion
over it. The confequence of this perfeétly anfwered ex-
pectation, and recovered a large quantity of filver from the
f{coriz, in which the tin had before held it firmly imbodied ;
repeated experiments proved the truth of this obfervation,
and it was found to be eafy by this means at any time to fe-
parate filver from tin, or to purify filver without lofs, by
means of lead in which tin has accidentally been imbodied.

The feorie in which tin is mixed with filver, are com-

ofed of tin half calcined, and run into an opaque vitrified
fubltance, which forms a fort of net-work, in which the
filver is confined in extremely fmall particles. If this is
thrown into aqua fortis, the whole is diffolved: but then it
requires a very ftrong fire to make the tin lofe its metallic
form ; finally, if the whole is finely powdered, and then
put into this menftruum, the filver only is taken up or
diffolved, the tin remaining untouched at the bottom of the
veffel.

The fame gentleman found alfo a method of feparating
tin from filver, by means of corrofive fublimate of. mer-
cury. To conceive the manner in which this feparation is
effeéted, a piece of fine tin need only be caft into a folution
cf fublimate ; in which cafe the acid of the fea-falt is feen
to leave the mercury in order to fix upon the tin.

And, according to the fame principle, if fublimate cor-
rofive be added to a mixture of tin and filver, the fame
effe& is produced, the acid affixes itfelf to the tin, and
makes with it a butyrum joviale or butter of tin, the mer-
cury becomes diffipated in the mean time by the ation of
the fire, and the filver remains pure and alone; but in this
experiment, if too much corrofive fublimate be added, there
is danger of lofing fome of the filver; fince the abundant
acid will prey upon and carry off a part of that metal,
making a fort of luna cornea which diffipates itfelf in the
air, or if the operation be performed in a clofe veffel, a
butyrum lunare.

Gold may alfo be purified from tin in this manner, and in
this there is no rifk of lofs, fince the acid which takes up
the tin has not the leaft power over that metal: in all thefe
procefles, however, the operator muft avoid the fumes iffu-
ing from the crucible, for they are very dangerous.

Thefe methods of feparating of tin from filver are very
certain and infallible, but they are too expenfive to be em-
ployed in common, and in larger works.

The feparating of tin from lead to be employed in the
refining of filver is a matter of great importance ; and this
may be done in the following manner: melt the lead, and
when ia fufion throw into it a quantity of filings of iron,
then increafe the fire to a confiderable degree, and the fur-
face of the metal will be covered with a fort of feum, which
is no other than the iron and tin. At this time there fhould
be alittle alkali falt thrown in, and by this means the fcorix
readily feparate themfelves, and the pure lead remains in
form of a regulus at the bottom. The fame method may
be ufed to feparate tin from filver in the larger way, but it
will be neceffary for this purpofe to add fome lead, fince
otherwife the fufion will be very flow and difficult, and the
tin will calcine without feparating from the filver. This is
a very eafy and very cheap method, and will obviate moft of
the mifchiefs which happen to the refiners, of which they
would have much lefs frequent reafon to complain, if they

nicely examined the lead they were to employ. But if gold
or filver be mixed with tin, the fhorteft method in {mall
quantities is to calcine the whole very brifkly, and in order
to complete the vitrification and feparation of the tin, to
caft in a little glafs of lead, which will immediately jain itfelf
with it and carry it off from the mafs.

It may feem fingular that iron being one of the hardeft
of the metals to melt, and tin being of all the eafieft, they
fhould fo readily and eafily unite in thefe experiments; but
this feems to be the refult of one of thofe natural and untx-
pected alliances which accident frequently difcovers to us in
bodies. ‘There is one conjeéture, however, that may be
worthy a place in this refearch, which is, that all tin-ore
contains a quantity of arfenic ; and it is well known that iron
very readily mixes with arfenic, and is employed to feparate
the arfenic from other ores, and a regulus may be formed of
arfenic andiron. It is eafy to fuppofe that tin is, in its me-
talline form, not wholly divefted of the arfenic it contained
when in the ore ; and if this be allowed, it is no wonder that
the two metals are eafily brought together by the mediation
of that principle. Memoirs Acad. Scienc. Par. 1737.

Mr. Cramer gives the praétical rules of feparating filver
from tin, thus: Divide one centner of tin into two equal parts ;
put each of thefe into a feparate teft, and add to each fixteen
centners of granulated lead, and one of copper; put the
whole under the muffle, and make a very ftrong fire ;
tin will be calcined immediately, and will {wim upon the lead.
Then diminifh the fire a little, till the afhes of the tin that.
{wim upon the furface do no longer fparkle : when you fee
this, add with a ladle two centners of glafs of lead to each
teft, in fuch a manner that it may be {pread wide over the
whole furface of the rejected calx ; the calx will then change
its form of powder into that of glafs ; then increafe the fire
to its higheft degree, ftir up the whole with an iron rod made
warm ; and when the {corification is perfe@ted, pour out the
glafs into a mould; the fcorie being feparated, put both
the regulufes into two coppels well heated ; and into a third
put fixteen centners of lead, and one of the fame copper
ufed in the procefs: examine all thefe beads after the cop-
pelling is over ; if the two firft weigh exaétly alike, it is a
proof the procefs has been well performed ; and fubtraéting
the weight of the bead, feparated from the third pan, from
the joint weight of the other two, the remainder is the
weight of the pure filver contained in the quantity of tin
which was examined. Cramer’s Art of Affaying, p. 228.

Tin is found in Europe, Afia, and America, but has not
hitherto been difcovered in the continent of Africa. This
metal is much lefs generally diffeminated than gold, filver,
iron, copper, or lead; but where it occurs, it is moft fre-
quently in large quantities. In Afia it is found on the coaft
of Sumatra, and in Siam and Pegu. It is principally im-
ported into our Indian poffeffions from Queda, Junkfeilon,
T'avai in Lower Siam, and the ifland of Banca. The tin-
mines of Banca are faid to be of great extent ; and Mr. Ell-
more informs us, that no lefs than from forty to fixty thou-
fand peculs of tin are furnifhed by thefe mines annually.
Tin is faid alfo to be found at a place five days’ journey from
Nankin in China. ‘The Indian tin was known to the ancients.
Diodorus Siculus mentions it among the produétions of
India. Tiin-ftone is found in Mexico in the ftate of ftream-
tin, and is procured from alluvial depofitions by wafhing.
It is alfo faid to occur in Chili. :

Tin-ore occurs in Saxony and Bohemia in beds, and dif-
feminated in granite rocks ; it is found alfo in veins in rocks
of granite, gneifs, and mica-flate. Alluvial depofitions of
tin are alfo met with in thefe diftri€ts. The mines fometimes

confift of a mafs of ore formed by the junétion of a ee
°

\

ET ome

7

of fmall veins which pafs through the rocks in different
‘dire@tions. Thefe veins alfo contain topazes. Brongniart
Traité Elementaire.

Tin is found near Monterey, in the province of Gallicia
in Spain, in veins which trayerfe granite and mica-flate.
This ore has recently been difcovered in {mall quantities in
grains and cryftals, in a rock of granite at Puy les Vignes, in
the vicinity of St. Leonhard, in the deparment of Haute-
Vienne in France. It occurs in veins with wolfram, arfenical
pyrites, and martial arfeniate of copper.

4 The moft confiderable repofitory of tin-ore in Europe is
« that of Cornwall. The greateft part of the tinconfumed in
'__ Europe is procured from thence ; and Camden even fuppofes
this abundance of tin in Cornwall and Devonfhire, to have
' given the original denomination Britain to the whole kingdom.
, In the Syriac language, varatanac, or Laratanac, fignifies /and
: of tins from which Bochart derives the name Britain. It oc-
: curs in Cornwall, both in veins and alluvial depofitions, in
carious parts of the county. Alluvial depofitions of this
ore are alfo met with on Dart-moor, in Devonfhire. The
veins which contain tin interfe& both granite and {late rocks ;
the latter are provincially called 4illas. Thefe veins vary in
width, and fometimes contain large mafles of theore. One
block was raifed from the mine called Polberrow, in St.
Agnes, which weighed more than twelve hundred pounds,
«and produced more than half that weight of pure metal.
Tin-itone generally occupies the upper part of veins, and is
fucceeded by copper-ore ; but there are inftances of tin occur-
ring at the depth of two hundred fathoms. Different mo-
difications of the forms of the cryftals are peculiar to certain
veins. Cryftals of tin-ftone are alfo diffeminated in fome of
the granite rocks in the vicinity of veins : the cryftals appear
* to occupy the place of mica. Where the tin-itone is difle-
minated in flate, it is generally in {mall ftrings or minute
veins. See Mine and Verxs.

The workmen diftinguifh feveral kinds of tin 5 as moor-

tin, which is the beit fort, a fool of which weighs eighty
pounds; and mine-tin, which is the next, the focl of it
weighing about fifty-two or fifty pounds. The tin got from
the foft, gravelly earth, they call pryan-tin, to diftinguifh it
from that obtained from the ftones, which is better by almott
half. See Srream-Zin Ore.

Grain-tin denotes the ore of tin that is fometimes dug very
rich in the form of grains or pebbles, or elfe in larger pieces,
compofed of many fuch diftiné grains, united in one mais,
always of a black or dark rofin colour, pointed like dia-

' _monds. Grain-tin is alfo ufed to-fignify the pureit and fineft

block or white tin, fmelted with charcoal in the blaft or

blowing-houfe furnace, which never had any brood or foreign

mixture in the mine: whereas the mine-tin is ufually cor-

rupted with fome portion of mundic, or other mineral, and

is always {melted with a bituminous fire, which communi-

‘cates a harfh fulphurous quality to the metal. Grain-tin

is peculiarly produced from ftream-work, and is worth

feveral fhillings per hundred more than mine-tin. See
STREAMING. ; ;

4 See on this article Macquer’s Chem. Dic. art. Jin; and

Pryce’s Mineralogia Cornubienfis, fol. 1778. }
There is a curiofity in the Cornifh mines, which is this :
that in digging at the depth of forty or fifty fathoms, they
% frequently meet with large timber, fill entire.

Childrey, in his Natural Hiftory, goes back as far as the

_ deluge to place them there ; but, without having recourfe

_ to fo great antiquity, they who believe that the mines, when

exhautfted of their ore, or mineral matter, renew and fill again

in courfe of time, will foon folve the difficulty, by fuppofing

TIN.

that, in the firft working of thefe mines, thefe timbers had
been let down to ferve as props and pillars.

But there are other people who will think this renewal of
the mines itfelf a difficulty as great as the former. However,
what the former author adds, viz. that in fome places in the
mines they likewife find pick-axes, &c. with wooden fhafts,
as alfo brafs nails, and that even a medal of Domitian has
been found in one, feems to countenance the opinion.

For the ufe of tin in the compofition of pewter, fee
Pewrer.

Tin-Trade of Britain. That tin was procured from
Britain in a very early age, appears probable from the con-
current teftimony of the moft ancient hiftorians. "The Phee-
nicians are faid by Strabo to have paffed the pillars of Her-
cules, now the ftraits of Gibraltar, about twelve hundred
years before Chrift. At what precife period they dif-
covered the Caffiterides, or Tin iflands, is unknown, nor is
their exact fituation determined ; but it is generally believed
that the Scilly iflands, and the weftern part of Britain, were
the places from whence thefe early navigators procured the
tin which they exported to other countries. The Pheni-
cians were extremely anxious to conceal from the reft of the
world the true fituation of the Caffiterides. Herodotus, who
wrote about four hundred and fifty years before Chrift,
could not learn where thefe iflands were fituated; but he
fuppofed that tin, like amber, was brought from the remoteft
parts of Europe. Strabo relates, that the captain ofa Pheeni-
cian veflel returning from Britain feeing himfelf purfued by
a Roman galley, chofe rather to run his veffel among the
rocks, that the Romans might experience the like fate, than
be the means of difcovering fo valuable a commerce to the
enemies of his country. ‘The captain having efcaped from
the wreck, claimed from his country compenfation for the
lofs of his veffel and the cargo ; and it is faid he was paid.
from the public treafury the amount of his claims. By thefe
precautions, the Phcenicians are faid to have enjoyed a pro-
fitable trade to thefe iflands for about three hundred years.
The fecret was at length difcovered, and the Greeks, Gauls,
and Romans, came in fucceffively for a fhare of this trade.
The Phocean Greeks eftablifhed a colony at Marfeilles five
hundred and forty years before Chrift ; and after the deftruc-
tionof Carthage, carried on this commerce : they endeavoured
to conceal from the Romans their knowledge of the Britifh
ifles; for on being queftioned by Scipio refpeéting the
fituation and extent of thofe ifles from whence the tin was
brought, they declared that they were entirely unknown to
them. The Pheenicians, in their voyage to Britain, are faid
to have failed from Cadiz to the harbour of the Artabici,
near Cape Finifterre, from whence, after four days’ fail, they
arrived in Britain. Strabo relates, that Publius Lucius
Craffus having made fruitlefs attempts to difcover whence
the tin was brought, at length fucceeded, and arrived in
Britain. It is uncertain when this Craffus lived, and even
who he was, there being two of this name ; the father, who
was proconful of Spain, and the fon, who had a command
under Cefar in Gaul.

Diodorus Siculus, who wrote during the time of Auguttus,
appears, from the quotation which we fhall fubfequently give,
to have been well acquainted with the tin-trade of Britain at
that period. There cannot be a doubt, that from the conquett
of Britain by the Romans, to the decline of their empire in the
Weit, they enjoyed the undifturbed poffeffion of the Britifh
tin-trade.

What the ancient method was of preparing tin for the fur-
nace we cannot learn, fays Dr. Borlafe. Polybius the hif-
torian is faid to have defcribed it; and that work is com-

mended

TIN.

mended by Strabo, but now loft. The fhort defcription of

the tin-trade given by Diodorus Siculus deferves particular
attention. ‘ Thefe men (the tinners) manufaéture the tin
by working the grounds which produce it with much fkill.
For though the land is rocky, it has foft veins running
through it, in which the tinners find the treafure, which they
extract, melt, and purify. Then fhaping it by moulds into a
cubical figure, they carry it off to a certain ifland lying near the
Britifh fhore, which they call Tétis ; for at the recefs of the
fea between the ifland and the main land, the paffage being
dry, the tinners embrace the opportunity, and carry the tin
over in carts to the [Gis or Port ; for it muft be obferved,
that the iflands which lie between the continent and Britain
have this peculiarity, that when the tide is full they are real
iflands, but when the fea retires they are fo many peninfule.
From this ifland the merchants bring the tin of the natives,
and export it into Gaul; and finally through Gaul, by a
journey of about thirty days, to the mouth of the Rhone :”
lib. 4. Pofidonius, as quoted by Strabo, fays the port to
which tin was brought in the fouth of France was Mar-
feilles.

To what ufes the nations of antiquity applied all the tin
which they obtained with fo much labour from Britain, 1s
not precifely known. The Pheenicians were celebrated for
their fill in the art of dyeing ; and the Tyrian purple, which
was either a bright crimfon or a fcarlet, was held in the
highett eftimation ; hence it has been conjectured, with much
probability, that the Phcenicians were acquainted with the ufe
of the folution of tin in the preparation of that colour. Inthe
modern art of dyeing fcarlet or crimfon, the folution of tin
in the nitro-muriatic acid is effentially neceffary to commu-
nicate thofe colours to woollen cloths or ftuffs, a practice
which is probably derived from the ancient manufactures of
the Eatt.

The mirrors of the civilized nations of antiquity were
made of a compofition of copper and tin. The moft ancient
account that we have of thefe mirrors is that in Exodus,
chap. xxxviti. 8. And he made the laver of brafs (a mix-
ture of copper and tin), and the foot of brafs of the mirrors
of the women.””? The Jewifh women probably received thefe
mirrors from the Egyptians when they left the country ;
for it was the cuftom of the Egyptians to carry a mirror in
their left hand, when they went to their temples. Cyril de
Ado.

Pliny fays that the be%& fpecula were anciently made at
Brundufium of copper and tin. The metallic mixture of
tin and copper, for rendering the latter metal white, is men-
tioned by Ariftotle. (De Mirab.) This compofition is ftill
in ufe for the fpecula of refleéting telefcopes. ‘at SprE-
cutum.) The ancients alfo made ufe of an alloy of tin
with copper and lead for pot-metal. In the time of Pliny,
pot-metal, ollaria temperatura, was made of two pounds of
lead, and an equal quantity of tin, mixed with one hundred
pounds of copper. From the fame writer we learn, that
the bronze of whichthe Romans made their ftatues, and the
plates on which they engraved their infcriptions, was com-
pofed of one hundred pounds of copper, mixed with twelve
pounds and 2 half of an alloy made of equal parts of lead
and tin. He informs us alfo that tin, plumbum aibum, was
employed in coating or tinning copper veffels, to render
them more wholefome ; and it appears that the Romans
not only ufed pure tin, but the fame mixture of tin and lead
which fome ee workmen ufe at this time in tinning of
veffels. A mixture of equal parts of tin and lead they
called argentarium ; a mixture of two parts of lead and one
of tin they called ¢ertiarium ; and with two parts of tin and

5

one of lead,’ they tinned whatever veffels they thought fit.
(Watfon’s Chemical Effays, vol. iv.) In the man

of arms, the ancients ufed an alloy of tin with copper, their © a

brafs being a compofition of thefe metals; but by what
method they were enabled to communicate to it the necef-
fary degree of hardnefs is unknown. :
What was the relative value of tin, compared with that
of gold and filver, as eftimated by the Pheenicians, the

Greeks, or the Romans, is uncertain.

The procefs of extraéting tin from its ores was probably
very imperfect, and remained fo in this country to the time
of Elizabeth, when Carew informs us that fir Francis Godol-
phin introduced great improvements in the tin-works.

The reverberatory-furnace appears, from Dr. Borlafe,
to have been introduced into Cornwall about the beginning
of the laft century ; and about the fame time the introduc-
tion of pit-coal became general, the wood of the country hav-
ing been nearly exhaufted. Sir Bevil Granvillehad previoufly
made many experiments for melting tin with pit-coal, but
without fuccefs, when the ore was {melted at the blowing-
houfes by large bellows worked by a water-wheel.

Whether the Pheenicians or the Greeks interefted them-
felves in the management of the tin-mines, or whether th
were fimply merchants purchafing and exporting the tin, is
uncertain. It appears, however, iy the paflage quoted from
Diodorus Siculus, that the veins of tin-ore were worked as
mines ; though it has been, and is ftill generally believed, that
ftream-tin was the only ore worked by the ancients. From
the teftimony of Strabo, Pliny, and others, the Romans not
only traded to Britain for tin, but improved the art of
mining in Cornwall. The Romans being the conquerors,
and the Britifh under them having probably little or no
property, they were the working miners, but under what
regulations is uncertain. The Saxons did not obtain pof-
feflion of Cornwall till the reign of Athelftan, and neither
they nor the Danes appear to have direéted their attention
to the mines. After the Norman conqueft, the working of
mines is faid to have yielded great profit. In the time of
king John, however, the right of working tin being as yet,
fays Borlafe, wholly in the king, as earl of Cornwall, the
property of the miners was precarious and unfettled, and
all the tin that was raifed was engroffed and managed by
the Jews. The ¢in-farm of Cornwail at this time amounted
to no more than one hundred marks, according to which,
valuation, the bifhop of Exeter received then, and {till
receives from the duke of Cornwall, the annual fum of
6]. 13s. 4d., fo low were the tin profits then in Cornwall ;
whereas in Devonfhire, the tin was then farmed at 1oo/.
yearly. King John, fenfible of the languifhing ftate of the
mines, granted the county of Cornwall fome privileges, and
is faid to have alfo granted a charter to the tinners.

In the time of Henry III. the tin-mines of Spain,
which had been worked by the Moors, were ftopped, and
Cornwall had all the trade of Europe for tin. In the
eighteenth year of Edward I., the Jews being banifhed the
kingdom, the mines were again negle&ted for want of proper
encouragement to labour, and fecurity to enjoy and difpofe
of the produéts. In confequence of a petition from fome
Cornith gentlemen to Edmund, earl of Cornwall, a charter
was obtained with more explicit grants ef privileges of
keeping courts of judicature, and managing and deciding
ftannary caufes. About this time, fays Borlafe, it appears
that the rights of bounding or dividing tin grounds into
feparate portions, for encouraging the ieatéh for tin, were
more regularly adjufted, and various laws introduced for
the protection of the miner. ;

it

TIN.

In the thirty-third year of Edward I. the above charter
feems to have been confirmed, and the tinners of Cornwall
were made a diftin& body from thofe of Devonfhire, before
which time the tinners of both counties were accuftomed to
meet on Hingfton-Hill every feventh or eighth year, to con-
cert the common intereft of both parties. Two coinages
of tin yearly were alfo granted by this charter, and the
tinners had the liberty of felling their own tin, unlefs the
king infifted on buying it himfelf. Other laws and regu-
lations for the encouragement and prote¢tion of the miners,
were paffed in the reigns of Edward III., Henry VIL.,
and Elizabeth. The mines having been much negleéted
during the reign of Mary, Elizabeth invited German miners
into the country, and great encouragement was given to
mining operations in Cornwall, and yarious parts of England.
The quantity of tin procured annually in the fucceeding
reigns of James I. and Charles, amounted to fixteen hundred
tons. During, and for fome time after the civil wars, the
tin-trade declined, but revived again in the reign of
George I., and has fince been increafing- For an account
of the annual products of the tin-mines of Cornwall and
Devonfhire, fee the article Mine.

All the tranfaétions connected with the tin-mines are
under the controul of the ftannary laws: courts are held
every fix months, and they decide by juries of fix perfons,
with a progreflive appeal to the lord warden and lords of
the duke of Cornwall’s council. By whatever method or
accident a vein is difcovered, permiflion of the proprietor
mutt be obtained before any operations can be commenced,
except in the cafe of fuch tin-mines as are anciently em-
bounded according to the provifion of the ftannary laws.
(See Srannary Courts.) The owner of the foil is
technically called the Jord, whofe fhare (which is called
his difh) is generally one-fixth or one-eighth of the ore.
The duke of Cornwall receives a duty of four fhillings

hundred weight of tin, which is taken when the tin
is aflayed and licenfed: this procefs is called the coinage,
from the French word coin, a corners A corner is chipped
off each block at the office, and if it be found fufh-
ciently pure, the blocks are ftamped with the arms of
the duke. The annual revenue of the tin is about
10,000/.; the average annual amount being about 3200
tons, and the value about 120/. per ton. The mode
of aflay is obvioufly rude and imperfect; and we have
heard that foreigners have recently complained that the
Britifh tin was not fo pure as that obtained from the
Eaft. But whatever be the purity of Britifh tin, there
can be no doubt that it is greatly adulterated on the con-
tinent. It is faid that every tin-founder in Holland has
Englifh ftamps, and be the quality of the tin what it may,
the infcription makes it pafs for Englifh. The metal with
which Britifh tin is adulterated on the continent is lead,
which being five times cheaper, and when mixed in {mall
quantities not eafily deteéted, the temptation for fuch
fraud is great. It is not true, as afferted by fome foreign
writers of refpe@tability, that Britifh tin is purpofely
alloyed with certain portions.of copper and lead before it
is exported from Cornwall. The ores of tin, in the tin-
mines of Cornwall, are fo intimately affociated with portions
of copper-ore, lead-ore, arfenical pyrites, and other metals,
of which a {mall mixture will remain in the block-tin, and
can only be feparated by fubfequent refining, that any confi-
derable portion of alloy may be deteéted by the increafe of
fpecific gravity. Grain-tin, which is the pureft tin of com-
merce, is {melted from the fineft ore by a charcoal fire :
the common block-tin is {melted with pit-coal or culm, as

before flated. Grain-tin is ufed for various purpotes in the
arte, where tin ef the puref quality is required.

Long as the tin-mines of Cornwall have been werkeds
they ftill continue to fupply in abundance this ufeful metal ;
but from the greater extent of the prefent works, and from
the circumitance of tin always occupying the upper part of
the vein, we may infer that the tin-mines of that county
will be exhaufted at no very diftant period. At prefent,
the principal part of the tin is obtained from the weftern
extremity of the county; but when the tin-mines in that
diftrict are worked out, we may confider the tin-trade of
Cornwall as nearly extin@. The granitic range of Dart-
moor, in Devonfhire, has been lefs explored than Cornwall ;
but there is reafon to believe that the metallic repofitories
of tin and copper which it contains will furnifh an ample
field for the induftry of future adventurers, and a failure in
the fupply from Cornwall would greatly enhance the price
of this metal, and give increafed {pirit to mining {peculations.

Tin, in Chemiffry and the Arts. The colour of tin is
white, like that of filver: it has a fenfible tafte, and when
rubbed, emits a peculiar {mell: its hardnefs is greater than
that of lead, and lefs than that of zinc : its {pecific gravity
is {tated by Briffon to be 7.291, and it is faid to become a
little greater by hammering : it is very malleable, and may
be beaten into very thin leaves. Tin-foil, as it is termed, is
ufually about ,,!;,th of an inchin thicknefs ; but this is by
no means the utmoft degree of thinnefs which it will bear.
Its ductility and tenacity are rather low : a tin wire, =1 ,th
of an inch in diameter, is ftated by Mufchenbroeck (as
quoted by Dr. Thomfon) to be capable of fupporting a
weight of 31lbs. only, without breaking. ‘Tin may be
eafily bent, and when bent, produces a peculiar cracklin
noife : it fufes at about 442° of Fahrenheit’s {cale, but val
bear a moft intenfe heat before it is volatilized. On being
expofed to the atmofphere, its furface becomes flightly tar-
nifhed, but it undergoes no other change. When kept
under cold water it undergoes no change; but red-hot tin,
expofed to the vapour - water, decompofes it, an oxyd
of tin is formed, and hydrogen gasis evolved. Expofed to
the aétion of the air ina melted ftate, it quickly becomes
covered witha greyifh powder, or oxyd; and if the heat is
very violent, it is {tated to take fire, and to burn with a
pale white light.

Tin unites with oxygen in two proportions, as has been
lately proved by Gay Luffac, in oppofition to Berzelius, who
concluded from his experiments that there were three oxyds
oftin. (See Annal. de Chimie et Phyf. vol. i. p. 40.) The
firft oxyd, or protoxyd, of tin, confifts of about

Tin - - 100.

Oxygen - - 13.6
The fecond, or peroxyd, of about

Tin - - 100.

Oxygen - - 27.2

This gives the weight of the atom 7.352. Dr. Thomfon is
inclined to confider it as 7.3753 but it perhaps will be
found hereafter either 7.25 or 7.5. The firlt of thefe
oxyds may be formed by diffolving tin in muriatic acid,
either by means of heat, or by adding occafionally a little
nitric acid; when diffolved, add to it a folution of potath ;
a white precipitate falls, which is partly taken up again ;
but the remainder, on ftanding, aflumes a dark grey colour,
and even a metallic luftre ; and on being heated to whitenefs,
is pure protoxyd of tin. The peroxyd may be formed by

boiling

TIN.

boiling the protoxyd in dilute nitric acid, drying by eva-
poration, and heating to rednefs.

Tin forms likewife two combinations with chlorine. When
tin is burnt in chlorine, a very volatile clear liquor is formed,
a non-condu@tor of eleétricity, and which, when mixed with
a little water, becomes a folid cryftalline fubftance, a true
muriate of tin, containing the peroxyd of tin. ‘This com-
pound has been called the /moking liquor of Libavius, from
its difcoverer, who formed it by diftilling together amalgam
of tin and corrofive fublimate. According to the experi-
ments of Dr. John Davy, it confifts of two atoms or pro-
portions of chlorine united to one of tin; or of about

Tin - -
Chlorine - -

100.
121.82

Prochloride of tin, fit defcribed by Dr. J. Davy, is a
grey, femi-tran{parent, cryftalline folid, and may be formed
by heating together amalgam of tin and calomel. Accord-
ing to the fame chemift, it confifts of one atom or propor-
tion of chlorine united to one of tin; or of about

Tin - -
Chlorine - -

Tin combines readily with fulphur and phofphorus, but
not with hydrogen, azote, carbon, or boron.

There are two fulphurets of tin; the firft may be formed
by fufing tin and fulphur together : it is of a blueifh colour,
and lamellated ftru€ture ; and from the experiments of Dr.
J. Davy, confifts of one proportion of tin united to one of
fulphur. The other fulphuret of tin.is made by heating to-
gether the peroxyd of tin and fulphur. It is of a beautiful
gold colour, and appears in fine flakes. It was formerly
called aurum mufivum, and various complicated proceffes
given for forming it. Pelletier and Proutt inveftigated its
nature, and concluded it to be a compound of oxyd of tin
and fulphur ; but Dr. Davy has fhewn that this is not the
cafe, and that it confifts merely of one proportion of me-
tallic tin united to one proportion of fulphur.

The phofphuret of tin may be formed by heating the two
fubftances together. Only one phofphuret is known: it
has a metallic appearance, and is fo foft that it may be cut
with a knife. When gently heated in the air, the phofpho-
rus takes fire. According to the experiments of fir H.
Davy, it contains about 17 per cent. of phofphorus, and
confifts therefore of one atom or proportion of phofphorus
united to one of tin.

Tin combines with moft of the metals, and fome of its
alloys are much employed.

Its alloys with ‘he metals of the fixed alkalies fpeedily
tarnifh in the air, and effervefce in water.

It readily unites with gold by fufion, and was formerly
fuppofed to have the property of rendering this metal brit-
tle ; but this has been more recently denied. Arn alloy of
1 gold and 1 of tin, was found by Mr. Hatchett to have a
pale whitifh colour, brittle when thick, but when cut thin,
capable of being bent eafily. Its fracture was fine-grained,
and of an earthy appearance. Mr. Alchorne found, that

old alloyed with no more than ,!,th of tin, retains its
dudiility fufficiently to be rolled and ftamped in the ufual
manner. But Mr. Tillet fhewed, that when heated to red-
nefs, the tin melts, and the alloy falls to pieces.

Its alloys with platina, according to Dr. Lewis, are brit-
de and dark-coloured, when the two metals are in equal pro-
portions. The alloys of tin and filver are very hard and
brittle. "The alloys, or rather amalgams, of tin and mer-

100.
60.72

cury differ in hardnefe, according to the proportions in

which the two metals are mixed : three parts of mercury and

one of tin form an amalgam which cryftallizes in cubes, or, _

according to Sage, in the form of brilliant fquare plates,”
thin towards the edges. Tin readily combines with copper,
and forms alloys exceedingly ufeful for a variety of pur—
pofes, as will be briefly noticed when we fpeak oP the ufes
of this metal. ‘Tin does not readily combine with iron,
but their union may be effected by fufing them together in
clofe vefiels : it combines with zinc by fufion, and the alloy
is harder than zinc, and ftronger than tin: with lead it rea~
dily unites in all proportions, and the lead by the addition’
becomes confiderably harder. ans

The oxyds of tin are capable of combining with the alka~
lies, and of forming with them peculiar compounds.

Salts of Tin.—Tin is oxydated and diffolved by many of
the acids, and forms falts, differing in their nature ac-
cording to the degree of oxydizement of the metal.

Nitrates of Tin.—Concentrated nitric acid (fpecifie gra-
vity 1.48) poured on tin, exerts but little ation apo ts -,
but if a little water be added, a violent a@tion is: exerted,
and peroxyd of tin is formed, which feparates in the form of a
white powder, this oxyd being apparently incapable of
combining with nitric acid: in this cafe, both the acid and
the water are decompofed, and nitrate of ammonia is formed ;
but if the acid be diluted, and care be taken to moderate its’
aGtion upon the metal, the water only is chiefly decompofed;
and the protoxyd of tin is formed, which combining
with the nitric acid, forms a folution of a yellow colour,
which is a real nitrate of tin. Still, however, a little ni-
trate of ammonia is formed, and the nitrate of tin itfelf is
not permanent, the metal continuing to pafs to the ftate of
peroxyd, and gradually feparating. The fame change is
produced by heating the folution, a precipitate being ee -
fited, which, however, is partly fubnitrate of tin. ald

Muriates of Tin.—We have already fpoken of the chlo-
rides, or compounds of tin with chlorine. Now if water
be added to thefe chlorides, they are converted into muriates
of tin. The mauriate of tin, in which the metal is in the
{tate of protoxyd, may be formed, however, by diffolving
tin in about four times its weight of muriatic acid: hydro-
gen efcapes, and the folution has a brownifh-yellow colour,
and yields, on evaporation, {mall needle-fhaped cryftals, fo-
luble in water, and fomewhat deliquefcent. Water poured
upon it in fmall quantity decdinpota it, and converts it into
a fubmuriate, which is precipitated, and a fuper-muriate,
which remains in folution. A fimilar effe& is produced by
the alkalies, when not added in excefs. This muriate of
tin, formed of the protoxyd, has a great tendency to com-
bine with oxygen, and to pafs into the ftate of muriates
with the peroxyd, and this property enables it to exert
many curious efforts upon other metallic falts. Thus, for
example, the red oxyd of mercury, the black oxyd of man-
ganefe, the white oxyd of antimony, the oxyds of zinc and
filver, are deprived of their oxygen by this falt, and reduced
to the metallic ftate. The muriate of tin with the peroxyd
of the metal may be formed as before mentioned. ‘It is ca-
pable of cryftallizing, and poffeffes properties quite different
from thofe of the muriate above deferibed. It is much
ufed by dyers, who generally form it by diffolving tin in
nitro-muriatic acid.

Sulphate of Tin.—Sulphuric acid, when cold, has little
aétion on tin, but affifted by a moderate heat, it attraés
oxygen from it; fulphurous acid gas is evolved, and a ful-
phate of tin is formed, which yields, when evaporated,
{mall needle-formed cryftals, It is probable there are two

‘ fulphates

TIN.

fulphates of tin, —_ their properties do not appear hi-
therto to have been diitinétly defined.

“The pho/phate, fluate, and borate of tin may be formed
by double decompofition, by adding folutions of their alka-
line falts toa folution of muriate of tin. They are all info-
luble compounds, and have been but imperfectly examined.
No carbonate of tin appears to exitt.

The other falts of tin are unimportant, and but little
known. The acetate has been moft inveftigated: it may be
formed by boiling tin in acetic acid. ‘The folution hasa
svhitifh colour, and yields cryftals by evaporation. There
appears, however, to be another acetate, (formed probably
with the peroxyd of the metal,) that does not cryttallize,
but is capable of exifting only, on evaporation, in the form
of a gummy mafs.

Ufes of Tin and its Compounds.—Tin and its compounds
are extenfively ufed in the arts. We fhall here briefly point
out fome of the more important operations in which they
are concerned, referring our readers for further particulars
to the different articles themfelves. An amalgam of tin and
mercury forms the metallic coat of glafs mirrors. For the
method of performing this operation, fee the article Sinver-
inc of Mirrors.

The compounds of tin with copper are very important.
Of this alloy cannons are made, alfo bell-metal, bronze, and the
mirrors ox fpecula of telefcopes. For thefe different purpofes,
the two metals are mixed in different proportions, which are
pointed out more particularly under their refpective articles.

Veffels of copper, efpecially for culinary purpofes, are
ufually covered with asthin coating of tin, to prevent
the copper from oxydating. (See the article Tivyine.)
Thin iron plates covered with this metal, farm what is
known by the name of fin-plate ; which fee.

The oxyd of tin, mixed with that of lead, forms pity,
which is much ufed in polifhing metals. See Purry and

SPECULUM. f
Tin alloyed with lead forms folder ; which fee.

Of the falts of tin, a folution of the muriate> or dyers’
liquor, a3 it is termed, is ufed as a mordant in dyeing {carlet.

ee the articles Dyrinc, Morpanrt, and Rep.

The folution of tin in aqua regia, added to the tinétures
of cochineal, of gum-lac, and of fome other red tinétures,
heightens the colour of thefe, and changes it from a crim-
fon or purple to a vivid reddifh-yellow, or fire-coloured
fearlet. The new fearlet, or Bow dye, is obtained in this man-
ner; and it is faid, that our moft beautiful and lafting-
coloured fine cloths owe their fuperlative excellence to the
retentivenefs given by our fine grain-tin ; infomuch, that
the Englith fuperfine broad-cloths, dyed in grain by the help
of this ingredient, are become famous in all markets of the
known world.

Mr. Pryce apprehends, that the purple dye of the Ty-
yians owed its reputation wholly, or in part, to the ufe of
eurtin in the compofition of their dye-ftuff, as the tin-trade
was folely under their own direCtion.

This colour, however, fucceeds only with wool and other
animal matters. Attempts have been made, but without
faccefs, to give this colour to thread, to cotton, and even
to filk, though this latter fubftance has many properties of
animal matters. The folution of tin made with marine acid
alone, or with vitriolic acid, does only give to red tinétures
a rimfon colour, as alum does. Vegetable acids, as vine-
gar and cream of tartar, are alfo capable of diffolving tin.
‘Tin or its compounds are not ufed in medicine, They do
not appear to be of a poifonous nature ; but the muriate of
tin, taken into the ftomach in confiderable quantity, {peedily
induces death, apparently merely from its corrofive qualities.

Vor. XXXV.

It was formerly recommended for its anthelmintic virtues ;
but it is poffible, fays Dr. Lewis, that thefe may procced
not fo much from the pure metal, as from a certain fub-
ftance of a different or arfenical nature, of which the pureft
forts of tin are found to participate.

The principal preparations of tin are as follow :

Tin, Butter of, is a name given by fome chemifts to a
combination of tin with the concentrated marine acid of cor-
rofive fublimate. It is procured by reducing thefe fub-
ftances into fmall parts, and mixing them together: this
mixture will, by degrees, be moiftened by attraGting the hu-
midity of the air, The decompofition of the corrofive fub-
limate by the tin is more {peedily effeGted by diftillation.

Tin, Cal: of, is the metal reduced into powder, either
by means of fire, or by being diffolved in an acid menftruum,
and precipitated with an alkali.

Tin, Ceru/s of. See Spanifh WHITE.

Tin, Diaphoretic of. See AntinEcTIcuM Poterii.

Tin, Flowers of, are a kind of white cofmetic, or paint
for the complexion, drawn from tin with fal ammoniac, by
means of fublimation.

Tin, Gold-coloured preparation of, is made by adding fix
ounces of mercury to twelve or melted tin, pulverizing the
cold mafs, mixing with it feven ounces of flowers of fulphur
and fix of fal ammoniac, and fubliming in a matrafs.

This preparation is called aurum mofaicum, and as a medi-
cine is little regarded, though formerly much efteemed
againft hyfterical and hypochondriacal complaints, malignant
fevers, and venereal diforders. Upon experiment, it appears
to be little more than calx of tin.

Tin, Salt of, Sal Jovis, is prepared from twelve ounces of
calx of tin, and four of aqua regia, diluted with twenty-four
of water: after digeftion for two days, the veflel is to be
fhaken, the more ponderous part of the calx fuffered to fet-
tle, the turbid liquor poured off, and evaporated almoft to
drynefs, and the mafs farther exficcated on brown paper;
to the remaining calx half the quantity of frefh menftruum
is to be added, and the procefs repeated. Dr. Lewis’s ex-
perience has not enabled him to pronounce on the virtues of
this falt, which is in taite very fharp and corrofive; he thinks
it needlefs to calcine the metal, as tin uncalcined diffolves
much more eafily and plentifully, and the folution is in bath
cafes the fame. According to Hoffmann, the folution of tin
is a ftrong purgative. Lewis’s Mat. Med.

Tin is alfo a .word ufed by fome of the chemical writers
to exprefs fulphur. ;

Tiy-Coping, in Rural Economy, a fort of covering of this
kind of metallic fubftance in the fheet form, which is not un-
frequently employed on the upper parts of the frames,
{tands, or ftaddles of corn-ftacks, for the purpofe of pre-
venting deftru€tive vermin from entering or getting into
them. It is a cheap, ready, convenient, and ufeful mate-
rial in this intention, in many cafes, which the arable farmer
fhould not be inattentive to in his ftack-yard.

Tiy-Floors, a contrivance ufed by our hufbandmen who
propagate hops, to dry them after the gathering. See
Oost.

It is thus done: Let a fquare brick room be built, with
a door on one fide, and along fire-place of a foot wide in the
middle, reaching almoft acrofs it; let holes be made at the
fides of this fire-place, to let out the heat into the room ;
and at the height of five feet above this, let a floor be made
of laths of an inch thick, laid lattice-wife. Let this be
coyered with great plates of double tin, taking care that the
joinings of the tin be well foldered, and lie upon the laths,
nor over the interftices, which may be about four inches
wide. Let a row of boards be fitted round the edge of

4U this

rere

this flocr, to keep the hops from falling off; then lay ona
covering of hops of a foot thick, and make a {mall fre of
charcoal in the mouth of the fire-place, and the hops will
dry very quickly and very regularly. They may be con-
tinually ftirred about while drying, and, when dry, a
part of the boarded edge of the kiln may be taken down,
and the dried parcel thruft out, and a frefh parcel laid on in
their place. A very {malt quantity of fuel is fufficient in
this way, and any fuel will do, for the fmoke never comes at
the hops. There is a very great improvement fill upon
this method of drying hops, ufed by fome people: this is
the making of a wooden cover, of the fize of the tin-floor ;
this is covered with plates of tin nailed on, and is fufpended
over the kiln in fuch a manner, that it may be let down at
pleafure, when the lower parts of the hops are dry. This
is to be let down within ten inches of their furface, and
there it aéts as a reverberatory, and drives back the heat on
the upper ones, fo that they are dried as foon as the lower
ones. Thus all the trouble of turning is faved, and the
hops are much better dried than in any other way. Mor-
timer’s Hufbandry, p. 186. See VENTILATOR.

Tin-Foil. See Fort, ForiatinG, and LooKING-GLAss.

Tin-Hatch, in Mining, a term ufed by the people of
Cornwall, to exprefs the opening into a tin-mine. They
alfo call it tin-/haft. :

They make feveral openings in the fides of the hills
where they expeét veins of oreto be. All thefe, except that
which opens on the head of the mine, are called effay-hatches ;
but that which does fo, is made their entrance afterwards,
and changes its name to that of the tin-hatch. See
Harcues and Swarr.

Tin-Hoop for Clg in Rural Economy, a light thin hoop
conftrué&ted of this fort of fheet metallic fubftance, that is
fometimes employed in cheefe-making, for holding and
keeping the curd together while it is breaking and being
crumbled down into the filling-vat, in order to prevent the
trouble of raifing and holding up the corners of the cloth
which is made ufe of in the bufinefs. It is ufually about
nine inches in breadth, and formed fo as exactly to fit the
top part of the cheefe-vat on which it refts when ufed.
Thefe hoops are fometimes made of other materials, as
wood, &c. and are ufeful in faving time and trouble.

Tin-Ore, called tin-fluff by the miners in Cornwall.
See Try-Stone.

M. Gellert dire&ts, that ores of tin fhould be affayed in
the following manner: Mix a quintal of tin-ore, wafhed,
pulverized, and twice roafted, with half a quintal of calcined
borax, and half a quintal of pulverized pitch ; thefe are to
be put into a crucible, moiftened with charcoal-duft and
-water, and the crucible placed in an air-furnace: after the
pitch is burnt,. give a violent fire during a quarter of an
hour, and then withdraw the crucible. If the ore be not
very well wafhed from the earthy matter, as it ought to be,
a larger quantity of borax is requifite, with fome powdered
glafs, by which the too quick fufion of the borax is re-
tarded, and the precipitation of the earthy matter is pre-
vented. If the ore contains iron, to the above mixture may
be added fome alkaline falt. See Moor-Stone. :

The method of aflaying tin-ore, fays Mr. Pryce, is very
eafy ; for in its form and fize of black tin (which is the ore
dreffed by ftamping, feveral wafhings, and calcination, if
mineralized with vitriolic, arfenical, or fulphureous pyrites )
ear part of the work is done, and little more remains than

ufion, which is accomplifhed by a red heat in the following
procefs: Take four or five ounces of black tin as emptied
from the facks, mix it well with about one-fifth part of its
weight of powdered culm; put the mixture in a black-lead

2 gh

crucible, on the wind furnace, and, in about twenty minutes,
the metal will be found precipitated to the bottom of the
crucible, the culm and fcoria floating on the tin.
furface of this matter there will be globules of tin; and
therefore the mixture fhould be ftirred with an iron rod, to
make them fall into the tin at the bottom. Clofe the fur-
nace, and let the whole remain in fufion from three to five
minutes. Keep in readinefs an iron or brafs mortar, and an
ingot-mould about fix inches long ; pour the tin into the
ingot, and empty the culm and fcoria into the mortar,
f{eraping off what remains in and about the crucible with a
fharp iron. As foon as cold, put them into another mortar,
and pulverize them gently, fo as to feparate the fcoria from
the largeft of the olsbiales of tin. Select the larger glo-
bules, and pulverize the remainder a fecond time ; then put
this ftuff, twice powdered, on a fhovel, and pafling it often
through water, in the fame manner as the lighter parts are
wafhed from ores in vanning, and the fmaller globules will
remain on the fhovel ; and thefe, with the larger (both to-
gether being generally called pillion-tin), being added to,
and weighed with the ingot, fhew the produce in metal of
the four or five ounces aflayed. See Macquer’s Chem. Di&. ;
and Pryce’s Min: Corn. p. 269.

Try-Plates, an article of manufaéture very common
among us, and vulgarly called tin. It is iron plated over
with tin. The French call it fer d/anc, white iron, as we
fometimes do in England. -It was once known under a
diftin& name, /attin, under which article the procefs of ma-
nufacturing it is defcribed. j

The procefs ufed for this purpofe near Caermarthen, in
South Wales, which is defcribed by Mr. Donovan, in his
“ Defcriptive Excurfions through South Wales in 1805,”
is as follows :

The iron-ore employed in this manufaGtory is the common
kind of the country, intermixed with a large portion of the
fine hematite from Ulverftone, in Lancafhire, which gives a
very fine metal. This too is fmelted with charcoal inftead
of coke, to produce a metal of the greateft purity and ex-
tenfibility, and clofenefs of texture, which qualities are par-
ticularly required in this manufa¢ture. The reduced ore is
{melted in the ufual manner, and caft into pigs, which are
then wrought by the hammer into long flat bars, that are
afterwards cut into pieces of about ten inches in length.
Thefe are then wrought into plates by being heated on
and paffed through a flatting-mill, which confifts of two large
cylinders of fteel, cafe-hardened and fecured in a frame of
iron. Thefe are placed contiguous to each other, but with
a certain interval of {pace, and revolve in a contrary direc-
tion, fo that when one end of the bar is thruft in the fpace
between the cylinders, the whole is drawn through and pro-
portionably extended and flattened in the paflage. The
diftance between the cylinders, which of courfe determines
the thicknefs of the plate, is maintained and regulated b
{crews which can be altered at pleafure. When the bar is
thus made into a plate of twice the thicknefs of the ordinary
plates, it is heated red-hot, cut in two by a pair of thears,
and one piece folded exaétly over the other, and both re-
pafled repeatedly through the cylinders till the folded plate
has extended to the fame length and breadth as the plate
was before cutting. It is then clipped round the edges, and
the two plates torn afunder (which requires fome little
force) after which they are each finifhed by pafling through
a finer rolling-prefs, fo as to take away every creafe or in-
equality in the plate, and thofe that are too rough to pafs
through this finer prefs are thrown afide.

The plates are then fteeped in a very weak acid liquor,
and when taken out are fcoured thoroughly with bran, fo as

to

On the -

dos

mera?

a a ae

Ee ed

TINCTURE.

to be quite bright and polifhed to enable the tin to adhere.
The tin is melted in deep reftangular crucibles, and kept
fluid by a moderate charcoal fire beneath. ‘To prevent its
calcination, a quantity of greafe prepared from linfeed-oil
and fuet is conftantly kept floating on the furface of the
tin, and renewed as it evaporates off, which gives an excef-
fively naufeous ftench. The plate is then taken up by one
corner by a pair of pincers, and dipped vertically into the
tin, and when withdrawn is found beautifully white and re-
fplendent with the coating of this metal that adheres to it.
This dipping is repeated three times for what is called _/ingle
tin-plate, and fix times for the double plate. The plates are
then only cleanfed and forted, and are fit for ufe.

We fhall here add, with regard to the hiftory of this ma-
nufacture, that in the year 1681, tin-plates were made in
England by one Andrew Yarranton, who was fent to Bohe-
mia to learn the manner of making them. But the manu-
faGure was difcontinued by his employers, and afterwards
fo much difregarded, as to be reckoned among the projects
called bubbles of the year 1720; however, it was revived,
and brought to fuch perfeétion about the year 1740, that
very little of it was imported from foreign parts ; our own
plates being of a finer glofs, or coat, than that made beyond
fea, the latter being hammered, and ours being drawn under
arolling-mill. And. Hift. Com. vol. ii. p. 175, 361.

The two principal wholefale houfes for this manufacture
in London, are thofe of Jones and Taylor in Tottenham-
Court Road, and Howard and Co., in Old-ftreet Road.

TINA, a name given by the old medical writers to a
bath made of a ftrong decodtion of many carminative ingre-
dients to be ufed in the colic.

_. Tra, in Geography. See Knrn.
~TINAGOB, atown on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Samar. N. lat. 12° 5’. E. long. 124° 30’.

TINALMO, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
LLucon. N. lat. 13° 38’. E. long. 122° 42!.

TINAMASAKI, a town of Japan, on the S. coait
of the ifland of Niphon. N. lat. 34° 12'. E.. long.
TOR Gt.

TINAPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of New
Bifcay ; 120 miles N.W. of Duranga.

TINARA, a town of Nubia, on the Nile ; 200 miles
S.S.W. of Syene.

TINCA, the Tench, in Ichthyology.
Tinca, and TENcH.

Tixca Marina, the fea-tench, a name given by fome au-
thors to the common ¢urdus, called in Englifi the wrafe,
and phycis. ;

TINCAL, is a name given to borax in the crude fate in
which it is brought from India, and before it is refined. It
confifts of {mall cryftals of a yellowifh colour, and it has a
greafy or unétuous touch. See Borax. ;

According to M. Cadet, it contains a larger quantity
of the peculiar vitrefcible earth of borax than the refined

“falt commonly fold does. See BAuRAc.

TINCAUSARIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of
Africa, in Cyrenaica, on the route from Carthage ta Alex-
andria, between Boreum and Atticis. Anton, Itin.

TINCHEBRAY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Orne ; 10 miles N. of Domfront.

TINCO, a town of Spain, in the province of Aiturias ;
20 miles N.W. of Oviedo.

TINCONTIUM, or Tixconcium, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Lyonnefe Gaul, between Avarican and
Deceida. Anton. IJtin,

TINCTOR, Joun, in Biography, born at Nivelle, in Bra-
pant, and flourifhed about the year 1474. He was a great

See Cyprinus

mufician, long in the fervice of Ferdinand of Aragon, king
of Naples and Sicily, who reigned from 1458 to 1504, and
{tyles himfelf his arch-deacon, chaplain, and cantor. Be-
fides feveral mufical traéts by this early writer on counter-
point, he was author of the firft mufical di€tionary. All
written mufic in counterpoint during the fifteenth cen-
tury was compofed for voices, at leaft we have never feen
any other ; and being intended for the church, was fet to
Latin words : fo that the firft terms ufed in the art, were
likewife in that language ; and thefe were fo numerous in
Tinétor’s time, that he colle&ted them, under the title of
“ Terminorum Mufice Diffinitorium,’’ and printed them
at Naples. This was doubtlefs not only the firft mufical
diGtionary that was ever compiled, but the firft book that
was printed on the fubje@t of mufic in general. The work
is fo fcarce, that we have never been able to find it, except
in his majefty’s ineftimable library. In this ‘* Diffinitorium,’*
we firft met with the precife definition of the four principal
parts in vocal counterpoint: cantus, altus, tenor, and bafe ;
which fee under their feveral heads.

Tinétor, in one of his traéts, gives to the Englifh the
invention of counterpoint. See Duns7aBLe.

Walther feems never to have heard of TinGtor’s “ Diffi-
nitorium ;”? but he gives the title of his three tracts: “ De
Arte ContrapunGi;” “ De Tonis;” and * De Origine
Mufice ;’? from Gefner’s Bibl. Univ.

TINCTORUM Rusia. See Mapper.

TINCTURE, Tixcrura, in Pharmacy and Chemiftry,
a feparation of the finer and more volatile parts of a mixed
body, made by means of a proper menftruum diffolying the
fame.

Tincture is more particularly ufed for an extra of
part of the fubftance of a body, efpecially its flavour and
colour, which are hereby communicated to the menftruum.

Tinctures, in the Materia Medica, are {pirituous folu-
tions of fuch of the proximate principles of vegetables and
animals, as are foluble in pure alcohol or in proof-fpirit ; and
they are {aid to have been invented about the end of the thir-
teenth century, by a profeffor of medicine at Montpelier, called
Arnold de Villa Nova. From vegetable matter fubmitted to
its action, alcohol takes up fugar, refin, extra¢tive, tannin,
cinchonin, camphor, volatile oils, feveral acids, and the nar-
cotic principle ; proof-fpirit alfo takes up the whole of
thefe partially, and is befides the proper menftruum for
gum-refins ; fo that alcohol, either in a concentrated or di-
luted form, is capable of feparating the greater part of the
aétive principles of yegetables from the ligneous inert fibres.
The tinétures obtained from animal fubitances are very few
in number, and the principles taken up by the fpirit are
analogous to thofe enumerated above, belonging to the ve~
getable kingdom. : °

Pure alcohol is required in very few inftances only for
the formation of tinétures, proof-fpirit being adequate
for almoft every purpofe. he dilution of the fpirit,
however, muft be varied according to the known princi-
ples of the fubftances to be fubmitted to its ation ; when
refin predominates, it muft neceffarily be more concentrated ;
when gum-refin or extra¢tive is the moft abundant contti-
tuent, proof-fpirit then muit be employed. In confe.
quence of the great affinity of water for alcohol, the addi-
tion of it to alcoholic tinétures feparates the refin, camphor,
and volatile oils they contain; hut water is generally mifci-
ble with tinétures made with proof-f{pirit, without produc-
ing any decompofition, ‘Tin¢tures are not liable to fuffer
f{pontaneous decompofiticn, as is the cafe with infufions and
decoétions ; and, independently of the lofs which takes place
from the evaporation of the {pirit and the volatile oils, if
the bottles containing tinctures be clofely corked, they may

4U 2 he

TINCTURE.

be kept for an indefinite length of time, and their virtues
remain unimpaired.

TinGtures are prepared by macerating the ingredients in
the [pirit in a temperature not exceeding 80°, at which
degree, by allowing the menftruum to remain on the in-
gredients for a fufficient length of time, all the principles
that can prove ufeful in the tin€ture are extra¢ted, and
the folvent faturated. The ingredients muft be dried and
reduced to a coarfe powder, and the maceration made in
clofe veffels, and affifted by frequent agitation. When
completely made, tinétures fhould not be allowed to re-
main upon the ingredients, but be filtered through bibu-
lous paper, and kept in this ftate in well-corked bottles.

The chief ufe of this clafs of preparations is to caufe
infufions and decoétions to which they are added, to fit
lighter upon the ftomach, or to unite with them fome
active principle, which the water is incapable of extract-
ing. Thomfon’s London Difpenfatory. _

A great’ variety of tinétures may be given to common
water, and many remarkable things occur in their changes
on the addition of common menitruums. Take a large
fpoonful of the fyrup of pomegranate-flowers, mix it with
five {poonfuls of water; the mixture will be of a very lively
and brilliant red: for a violet colour, take the fame quan-
tity of fyrup of violets and the fame of water. When
thefe tin€tures are thus prepared, have at hand a phial, in
which is a fmall portion of oil of tartar, which will only
look like water remaining after the wafhing of ‘the phial.
Pour the red or the violet tin@ure into this phial, and it
immediately becomes a fine grafs-green. Diffolve the
quantity of a walnut of crude fal ammoniac in a glafs of
water, pour all out except three or four drops at the
bottom, and pour into this glafs the fine red liquor, and
it immediately becomes black as ink. Jn order to change
the purple liquor red, only have a fmall quantity of fpirit
of vitriol in the bottom of a phial, and pour into this the
violet water ; it immediately on this becomes of a florid red.

Steep Brafil wood in common water, or in white wine,
twenty hours; the liquor will then look of the colour of
red wine: pour this into a glafs wafhed with vinegar, and it
becomes of a fine yellow, like fack. If this experiment
be made with white wine, the wood and the vinegar make
fo little alteration in it, that it may be drank afterwards,
and the whole procefs feems a way of turning red port
into fack. Into this liquor, when yellow, put a few drops
of a tinéture of bénjamin made in fpirit of wine, and it
immediately lofes its yellow colour and becomes white. Beat
fome galls to fine powder, and rub the powder on a towel ;
then put into a bafon of water, in which any perfon is
going to wafh their hands and face, a {mall piece of com-
mon green vitriol, or copperas: after the perfon ~has
wafhed, let them have this towel to wipé on, and the hands
and, face will be as black as if wafhed with the common
writing-ink ; the copperas in the water and the galls on the
towel making real ink where they mix. This does no latt-
ing injury to the fkin, but will come off again upon wafhing
with foap. Phil. Tranf. N° 238, p. 88.

We fhall here enumerate and defcribe the principal
tin&ures that occur in the materia medica.

Tincture of Acetate of Tron is prepared, according to
the Dub. Phar. by adding together two ounces of ace-
tate of kali and one ounce of fulphate of iron in a ftone-
ware mortar, till they unite in a foft mafs, and when dried
by a moderate heat, triturating it with two pints of rec-
tified fpirit of wine; and then digefting it for feven days in
a phial, clofely corked, and frequently agitated, and then
pouring the clear tinéture from the fzces.

Tincrure of Acetate of Iron with Alcohol, is prepared by

6

rubbing together fulphate of iron and acetate of alkali, of
each an ounce, and proceeding as in the fermer article, tri-
turating with two pints of alcohol; and digefting for
twenty-four hours. Thefe tin@ures have a peculiar odour,
a reddifh-brown colour, and a warm ftyptic tafte; and
poffefs the fame medical properties as the other prepar-
ations of iron. The dofe of either may be from T(x to
f3j, given in water or any other fuitable vehicle. Ty

Tincrore of Acetate of Zinc of the Dub. Ph., is ob-
tained by rubbing fulphate of zine and acetate of kali,
of each an ounce, and adding one pint of reétified fpirit
of wine, and then macerating for a week with occafio
agitation, and filtering through paper. r
aftringent, but requires to be diluted with water, before
it is ufed either as a collyrium or an injection. It may be
beneficially employed as an internal remedy in dyfpepfia and
other debilities of the ftomach. 6 Dd ger

Tincture of Aloes of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by
macerating of extra@t of fpiked aloes powdered, half an
ounce ; oF extra& of liquorice, an ounce and a half; of
water, a pint; and of reCtified fpirit, four fluid-ounces, in
a fand-bath until the extraéts are diffolved, and the
ftraining. :

The tin@ure of aloes of the Dub. Ph. is obtained by di-
gefting for feven days, half an ounce of focotorine ‘aloes
powdered, an ounce and a half of extract of liquorice dif-
folved in eight ounces of boiling water, and eight fluid-
ounces of proof-{pirit, and then ftraining. Ne

The tinéture of focotorine aloes of the Edinb. Ph. is formed
by digefting for {even days, with a gentle heat, in a clofe
veflel, often fhaken, half an ounce of focotorine aloes in
powder, an ounce and a half of extra of liquorice, four
ounces of alcohol, and a pound of water; and pouring off
the clear tinéture. _ Its dofe is from £3 fs to £5jfs. ‘

Tindure, ethereal, of aloes of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared
by digefting an ounce and a half of myrrh with a pound
of fulphuric ether with alcohol, for four days, in a clofed
bottle, and then adding one ounce of Enghth faffron cut,
and one and a half of focotorine aloes in powder ; digefting
again for four days, and pouring off the tin€&ture. This
is a warm ftomachic purgative, and is given with advantage
in dy{peptic affections, jaundice, gout, chlorofis, and other
cafes in which aloetics are proper ; in dofes of £3j or £3ij-as
a ftomachic, and in larger dofes as a brifk purge.

Tindure, compound, of aloes of the Lond. and Dub. Sg is
prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub. ),
of extraét of fpiked aloes powdered, and faffron, of each
three ounces, in two pints of tinéture of myrrh ; and
{training. 55

Tinéiure of aloes and myrrh of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared
by mixing a pound and a half of alcohol with half a pound
of water, and then adding two ounces of myrrh in powder ;
digefting for four days; and, laftly, adding of focotorine

aloes in powder an ounce and a half, and an ounce of Eng-

lith faffron cut; digefting again for three days, and pouring
off the clear tin@ture. This tinéture may be adininiftesel in
the fame cafes and dofes as the former ; and it is occaiionally
ufed as a local ftimulant to foul ulcers. Bribes
The tindure of aloes, formerly called tin@ura facra, and
hiera picra, was ordered to be made by digefting five ounces
of the powder, called Aiera picra, or a powder formed of
eight parts of aloes and two of canella alba, in five pints of
mountain wine ; or an ounce of aloes, with one drachm of
the leffer cardamom feeds, and the fame quantity of ginger,
in two pounds of the fame wine. Lewis. ps
Dr. Buchan direéts this tin@ture to be made by infufing
an ounce of focotorine aloes in powder, and two drachms
of Virginia fnake-root, and as much ginger, in a pint of
mountain

This tin@ture is

mine

3
oo
es
P.

_ effe€t when taken in fmall dofes as a laxative.

. for ufe.

_ dofe is from £3 fs to f3ij, or more.

TINCTURE.

mountain wine and half a pint of brandy, for a week, fre-
quently thaking the bottle, and {training off the tin@ure.
This, he fays, is a fafe and ufeful purge Fy perfons of a lan-
guid and phlegmatic habit ; but it is thought to have better
The dofe; as
a purge, is from one to two ounces.

“Tincture of Ambergris. See AMBERGRIS.

~ Trxcture of Ammoniated Iron. See Tron.

Tincture of Anguftura Bark. See ANGuUSTURA.

Tincture of Antimony ufed to be thus made: Take falt

of tartar, a pound; antimony, half a pound; reétified {pi-
of wine, a quart; reduce the antimony to powder, and

mix it with the falt by fufion over a ftrong fire. When it is
cold powder it, and pour on the fpirit of wine ; digeft them
together in a fand-heat, and then filtre off the clear tin€ture
The falt of tartar yields a tin€ture as well as anti-
mony. It is a diaphoretic and attenuant. See ANTIMONY.
* This tinure, on an empty ftomach, is faid to have fome-
times proved emetic.

~Tiyctura Antiphthifica. See Tinctrura Saturnina.

~ Tincture, Aromatic, may be prepared by infufing two
ounces of Jamaica pepper in two pints of brandy, without
heat, for a few days, and then ftraining off the tinture.
This will anfwer all the intentions of the more coftly pre-
parations of this kind.

- Tincrure of Affafetida. See Assarmripa.

‘Tinctura Aurantii, Tindure of Orange-peel, is obtained in
the Lond. and Dub. Ph., by macerating three ounces of
frefh orange-peel in two pints of proof-fpirit for fourteen
days (three days Dub.), and filtering. This is an ufeful
adjunét to infufions and decoétions in dyfpepfia, communi-
cating to them an agreeable flavour, and not decompofabie
by water. -

~Trycrure of Bark. See AnousturA and TincTuRE

_ of Cinchona.

~ Tincture of Benzoin, Compound, of the Lond. and Dub.
Ph., is prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven
days Dub.), three ounces of benzoin, two ounces of ftorax
balfam ftrained, one ounce of balfam of Tolu, and half an
ounce of fpiked aloes, in two pints of reCtified f{pirit, and
filtering.

The compound tindure of benzoin of the Edinb. Ph., or

Traumatic balfam, is obtained by digefting for feven days,

three ounces of benzoin in powder, two ounces of balfam of

Peru, half an ounce of hepatic aloes in powder, in two
pints of alcohol, and filtering through paper. ‘This tinc-
ture is a ftimulating expeCtorant, and fometimes prefcribed
in chronic catarrh and old afthmatic cafes; but chiefly ufed
as an external application to wounds and languid ulcers. Its
See BENZoIN.

Tincture of Calumba of the Lond. Ph., is had by mace-
rating for fourteen days of calumba (or Columbo) root
fliced, two ounces and a half, in two pints of prosf-fpirit,
and filtering. Tae:

~ The Edinb. tin@ure of calumba is obtained by digefting
for feven days, two ounces of calumba root in powder, in
two pounds of proof-f{pirit, and Sate through paper.
This is an ufeful addition to ftomachic infufions and decoc-
tions. See CoLumso. ;

_Tixcrure of Camphor, Compound, is ordered by the
Lond. Ph. to be prepared by macerating for fourteen days,
of camphor two fcruples, of hard opium powdered and acid
of benzoin, of each one drachm, in two pints of proof-
fpirit, and filtering. Py

The camphorated tindure of opium, or “ paregoric elixir,”
is obtained by digefting for ten days, of hard purified opium
in powder, and benzoic acid, of each a drachm, of camphor

two {cruples, of effential oil of anifeed a drachm, in twor
pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. ‘his is an ufeful
anodyne in chronic afthma, hooping-cough, and catarrh
after: the inflammatory fymptoms have abated, and contri-
butes to allay the frequent cough. The dofe is from fzj to
f3ij occafionally, ufing after it the inhaler, and fziij in cafes
where quiet, rather than fleep, is required. See CAmpnonr.

Tincture of Capficum of the Lond. Ph., is obtained by
macerating for fourteen days, an ounce of capficum berries
in two pints of proof-f{pirit, and filtering. The dofe in tym-
panitis, cynanche maligna, the low {lage of typhus, and fuch
cafes, is from f;fs to fz}; and a mixture of £3 vj with half
a pint of water will anfwer all the purpofes of the capfcum
gargle. See Capsicum.

Tixcrure of Cardamoms of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is
prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
three ounces of cardamom feeds hufked and bruifed, in two
pints of proof-{pirit, and filtering.

The tindure of cardamoms, or “ tin@tura amomi repentis,”
of the Edinb. Ph. is had by digefting for feven days, four
ounces of leffer cardamom feeds bruifed, in two pounds and
a half of proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper.

The compound tindure of cardamoms of the Lond. and
Dub. Ph. is prepared by macerating for fourteen days, car-
damom feeds (hufked Dub.), carraway feeds and cochineal,
of each, in powder, two drachms, cinnamon bark bruifed
half an ounce, ftoned raifins four ounces, in two pints of
proof-{pirit, and filtering. Thefe are agreeable additions to
ftomachic infufions.

Tincture of Cafcarilla. See CascaniLya.

Tincture of Caffa. See Cassa.

Tincture of Caffor of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is formed
by macerating for feven days, of caltor powdered two
ounces, in two pints of rectified fpirit (proof-{pirit Dub. )
and filteriag. The Edinb. Ph. direéts an ounce and a half
of Ruffian caftor powdered to be macerated for feven days
in one pound of alcohol, and then filtered. The dofe is
from xx to fzij. See Castor.

The compound tindure of caftor of the Edinb. Ph. is ob-
tained by digefting for feven days, one ounce of Ruffian
caftor powdered, half an ounce of affafcetida, in a pound of
ammoniated alcohol, and filtering through paper. This
is advantageoufly given in hyfteria, cramp of the ftomach,
and flatulent colic, to the extent of £31) for a dofe.

Tincture of Catechu of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is pre-
pared by macerating for fourteen (feven Dub.) days, three
ounces of extraé&t of catechu, and two ounces of cinnamon
bark bruifed, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering.

The tindure of catechu, formerly Japonic tinéure of Edinb.
Ph., is prepared by digefting for feven days, three ounces
of extract of catechu in powder, two ounces of cinnamon
bark bruifed, in two pounds and a half of proof-fpirit, and
filtering through paper. This tincture is a folution of tan-
nin, extractive matter, and the oil of cinnamon. The dofe,
in cafes where aftringents are required, is from £3} to fziij,
taken in water or wine, or cretaceous mixture.

Tincture of Cinchona of the Lond. Ph., is obtained by
macerating for fourteen days, féven ounces of lance-leaved
cinchona bark in powder, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and
filtering.

The tinure of cinchona of the Edinb. and Dub. Ph. is had
by digefting for feven days, four ounces of cinchona bark
in powder, in two pounds and a half (two pints Dub.) of
proof-ipirit, and nltering through paper. The dofe is from
£3] to fAiv.

For the compound tindure of cinchona, fee SNAKE-ROOT-

This is the fame as the celebrated tincture of None

who

TINCTURE.

who gave it in intermittents and low nervous fevers, in di-
luted wine or other proper yehicle, with 10 or 15 drops of
elixir of vitriol (aromatic fulphuric acid, Edinb.) in dofes of
from £3} to £3iij, or more in intermittents. See CiNcHONA.

Tincture of Cinnamon of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is
obtained by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
three ounces of cinnamon bark bruifed (three ounces and a
half Dub.) in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The
dofe, as a fit adjunct to the chalk mixture and aftringent in-
fufions, is from f3j to f3iij.

The compound tinéure of cinnamon of the Lond. and Dub.
Ph., is prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven
days Dub.) fix drachms of cinnamon bark bruifed, three
drachms of cardamom feeds bruifed, long-pepper powdered
and ginger, of each two drachms, in two pints of proof-
fpirit, and filtering.

The compound tin@ure of cinnamon of Edinb. is formed by
digefting for feven days, cinnamon bark bruifed, lefler car-
damom feeds bruifed, of each one ounce, long-pepper in
powder two drachms, in two pounds and a half of proof-
{pirit, and filtering through paper. This is beneficially
ufed in flatulencies, atonic gout, languors, and debility, in
dofes of £3] or £3ij properly diluted.

Tinctura Croci, or Tindure of Saffron of the Edinb. and
Dub. Ph., is prepared by digefting for feven days, one
ounce of Englifh faffron cut in fhreds in fifteen ounces (a
pint Dub.) of proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. See
Crocus and SAFFRON.

Tincture of Fox-glove (Digitalis) of the Lond, Ph., is
obtained by macerating of fox-glove leaves dried (rejecting
the large ones) and reduced to a coarfe powder, two
ounces, in a pint of proof-{pirit, and filtering. The Dub.
Ph. direéts two ounces of fox-glove leaves (the larger ones
rejected) dried and coarfely powdered, in a pint of proof-
{pirit, and then to filter.

The tin@ure of fox-glove of Edinb. Ph. is had by digefting
for feven days, one ounce of fox-glove leaves dried, in eight
ounces of proof-{pirit, and filtermg through paper. The
dofe of this tinéture fhould be m™ at firit, and gradually
increafed.

Tincrure of Galbanum of the Dub. Ph., is formed by
digefting for feven days, two ounces of galbanum cut into
fmall pieces, in two pints of proof-{pirit, and then filtering.
Ufed as tinéture of aflafcetida, but lefs naufeous and lefs
powerful.

Tincture of Galls (Dub.) is prepared by macerating for
feven days, four ounces of galls in powder, in two pints
of proof-fpirit, and then filtering. The dofe, as an altrin-
gent, is from f3j to f3iij,

Tincture of Gentian, Compound, (Lond. and Dub.) is
obtained by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
two ounces of gentiap root cut, one ounce of orange-peel
dried, half an ounce of cardamom feeds bruifed, in two
pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering,

The penne tin@ure of gentian, commonly called ‘ fto-
machic tinéture,’”’ of Edinb. Ph,, is prepared by digefting
for feven days, two ounces of gentian root fliced and
bruifed, one ounce of orange-peel dried and bruifed, half
an ounce of canelia alba bruifed, half a drachm of cochi-
neal in powder, in two pints and a half of proof-{pirit,
and filtering through paper. This is an elegant ftomachic
bitter and cordial, but in dyf{pepfia the infufion is preferable,
See GENnTIAN,

Tiscrune of Gold, See Aurum Potabile, and Chemical
Hiffory of Gon.

Tixerure of Guaiac of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is pre-
pared by macerating for fourteen days (feyen days Dub.)

half a pound of guaiac powdered (four ounces Dub.), in
two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering.

The tin@ure of guaiac of the Edinb. Ph., is formed by di-
gefting for feven days, one pound of guaiac powdered, in
two pounds and a half of alcohol, and filtering through
paper. Adminiftered in the form of a draught, it muft be
triturated with yolk of egg or mucilage, that it may com-
bine with water. The dofe is from f3j to f31ij, in any con-
venient vehicle.

The ammoniated tin@ure of guaiacum of the Lond. and Dub.
Ph., is obtained by macerating for fourteen days (feven
days Edinb. and Dub.), four ounces of guaiac in powder,
in two pints of compound f{pirit of ammonia, and filtering.
The dofe is from f3j to f31j, triturated with any mucous
or vifcid matter. See Gualacum.

Tincture of Black Hellebore of the Lond. Ph., is ob-
tained by macerating for fourteen days, four ounces of the
root of black hellebore fliced, in two pints of proof-fpirit,
and filtering.

The tindure of black hellebore of the Edinb. and Dub. Ph.,
is prepared by digefting for feven days, four ounces of black
hellebore root bruifed (powdered Dub. ), half a drachm (two
{cruples Dub.) of cochineal in powder, in two pounds and
a half (two pints Dub.) of proof-{pirit, and filtering
through paper. This tincture was regarded by Dr. Mead
as a powerful emmenagogue, and is {till ordered in uterine
obftruétions, and in fome cutaneous affeétions. The dofe
is from xxx to f3j, in any appropriate vehicle. See
HELLEBORE.

Tincture of White Hellebore. See Trxctura Veratré
Albi.

Tincrure of Henbane of the Lond. Ph., is formed by
macerating for fourteen days, four ounces of the dried leaves.
of henbane in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The
Dub. Ph. direéts to digeft for feven days, two ounces and a
quarter of dried leaves of black henbane, in coarfe powder,
in a pint of proof-fpirit, and then ftraining.

The tindure of black henbane of the Edinb. Ph. is had by
digefting for feven days, one ounce of the dried leaves of
black henbane in eight ounces of proof-fpirit, and filtering
through paper. In a dofe of fj, it feldom fails of pro-
curing fleep and quiet, and does not affect the head or pro-
duce coftivenefs. In cafes of diarrhoea, a few drops of tinc-
ture of opium fhould be added to counteraét its tendency
to pafs off by the bowels.

Tincture of Hops of the Lond. Ph., is formed by ma-
cerating for fourteen days, five ounces of hops in two pints
of proof-f{pirit, and ftraining. This has been recommended
as a fubftitute for tincture of opium in gout and rheumatifm.
The dofe is from f5fs to f5ij, or more. See Hops.

Tixcrure of Jalap of the Lond. Ph., is made by mace-
rating for fourteen days, two ounces of jalap root powdered,
in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The Dub. Ph.
orders five ounces of jalap root in coarfe powder, to be
digefted for feven days in two pints of proof-fpirit, and
then filtered.

The tindure of jalap of the Edinb. Ph. is formed by digeft-
ing for feven days, three ounces of jalap root in powder, in
fifteen ounces of proof-f{pirit, and then filtering. See JALAp.

Tincture, Japonic. See Tincrure of Catechu.

Tincture of Kino is obtained by macerating for four.
teen days, three ounces of kino in powder, in two pints of
proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. In the Edinb.
and Dub. Ph. two ounces of kino (three ounces Dub.) are
digefted for two days in a pint and a half of proof-fpirit,
and filtered through paper. The dofe is from f5j to f5)j.

Trycrure of Lacca. See Lac.

TINCTURA

TINCTURE.

_ Tixctura Lytie, or Tindure of Blijlering Fly. See
Lyrrz.

Tixcrura Martis cum Spiritu Salis, amedicine thus pre-
pared: Take filings of iron, half a pound ; Glauber’s fpirit
_ of fea-falt, three pounds ; digeit all together without heat,

as long as the fpirit will work upon the filings; then, after
the feces have fubfided, pour off the clear liquor, evaporat-
ing it to one pound, and adding of reétified fpirit of wine
three pints.

Some combine the acid and inflammable fpirits firft, and
digeft three ounces of iron-filings in a quart of the dulcified
mee A few drops of this tinure are a fufficient

ofe.

This tin@ure is good in all the cafes in which the fal
martis is fo.

Tincrure of Martial Flowers. See Iron.

Tineture of Metals, called Lily of Paracelfus, may be
prepared by melting together in a crucible two parts of
martial regulus of antimony, one part of fine tin, and
one part of pure copper. The alloy thus compounded is
to be powdered, when cold, and mixed with thrice its
weight of purified nitre. The mixture is to be thrown,
at different times, into a red-hot crucible, where it deto-
nates, and is expofed to a violent fire, till the metals be
perfe&tly reduced to calces. The matter is to be taken
from the crucible, while red-hot, and immediately thrown
into a heated iron mortar, where it is quickly powdered.
The powder, while hot, is to be put into a matrafs, and
upon it fome rectified {pirit of wine is to be poured to a
height equal to the breadth of four fingers. The digeftion
ds continued during fome days, or till the {pirit of wine has
acquired a very deep yellowifh-red colour. The fpirit is to
be decanted and kept in a bottle.

This tinéture, although no part of the metals, reduced
by calcination almoit to the itate of pure earths, can be
diffolved by the fpirit of urine, has a fpirituous, fapona-
ceous, acrid, and alkaline character, and has been fuccefs-
fully ufed, when the fibres and veffels require to be excited
and animated, as in apoplexies, palfies, and dropfies. . It is
alfo capable of accelerating the motion of the blood, and
of increafing certain fecretions and excretions, particularly
fweat and urine. The dofe is from fix or twelve drops to
forty, or even more, and muft be adminiftered in fome

_ proper cordial. Macquer’s Dict. Chem.

Tincture of Muriate of Iron. See Iron.

Tincture of Mu/k of the Dub. Ph., is obtained by
digeiting for feven days, two drachms of mufk in powder, in
a pint of rectified fpirit, and then {training.

Tindture of mufk is direéted, in the Edinb. Ph. of 1783,
to be made by diffolving two drachms of mufk, in a pound
of rectified fpirit.

Tincture of Myrrh of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by
macerating for fourteen days, three ounces of myrrh bruifed,
in twenty-two fluid-ounces of reétified {pirit, and a pint and
a half of water, and filtering. The Edinb. Ph. direéts three
ounces of myrrh in powder to be digefted for feven days, in
twenty ounces of alcohol and ten ounces of water, and
filtered through paper. The Dub. Ph. orders three ounces
of myrth bruifed to be digefted for feven days, in a pint and
a half of proof-fpirit and half a pint of reétified fpirit, and
then ftrained. This tinéture is tonic and deobftruent ; it 1s
ufed now generally in gargles, combined with infufions of
rofes and acids; or applied to foul ulcers and exfoliating
bones, or diluted with water, as a wafh for the mouth when
the gums are fpongy. The dofe is from ffs to £3).

Tincture of Opium of the Lond. Ph., is formed by
macerating for fourteen days, two ounces and a half of

hard opium powdered, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and
itraining.

The tin@ure of opium of Edinb. Ph. or Thebaic tindure, or
liquid laudanum, is obtained by macerating for feven days,
two ounces of opium in two pounds of proof-fpirit, and
filtering through paper.

Tinédure of opium, or Thebaic tinéure of Dub. Ph. is pre~
pared by digeiting for feven days, ten drachms of purified
hard opium in coarfe powder, in a pint of proof-fpirit,
then {training. The ufual dofe is from mx to mlx. In
colica pictonum, f3j, given before purges, facilitates their
action, and renders the relief more {peedy ; and in tetanus,
f3vfs have been advantageoufly given in divided dofes, in
twenty-fix hours. The tin€ture externally applied allays
local pain, and affifts in relaxing the fpafm in lock-jaw and
fimilar affections.

The ammoniated tin@ure of opium of the Edinb. Ph. is
formed by digefting for feven days, in a clofe phial, three
drachms of benzoic acid, and the fame quantity of Englifh
faffron, cut in fhreds, two drachms of opium, half a drachm
of volatile oil of anifeed, in fixteen ounces of ammoniated
alcohol, and filtering through paper. This tin@ture is ufed
in hooping-coughs and f{paf{modic afthma. Each 3] con-
tains gr.j of opium. See Opium. ;

TINCTURE of Quaffia of the Dub. Ph., is obtained by di-
gefting for feven days, an ounce of chips of quaflia wood in
two pints of proof-fpirit.

Tincture of Rhubarb.

Tincture of Saffron. See Tixcrura Croci.

Tincture of Sena. See Sena.

Tixcrure of Salt of Tartar, is made by pouring fome
rectified {pirits of wine, to a height equal to the breadth of
three or four fingers, into a heated matrafs, that contains
fome hot falt of tartar, which has been previoufly fufed in
a crucible and powdered. The matrafs is to be clofed,
and the digeftion continued for feveral days with a gentle
heat, or till the fpirit of wine has acquired a fine reddith-
yellow colour.

This is effentially the fame as tin@ure of metals, their
medicinal qualities being the fame.

Tincrora Saturnina, the lead tin@ure, a name given in
the late London Difpenfatory to the tin@ure before called
tindura antiphthifica, becaufe it was ufed to check the im-
moderate {weats in hectic complaints.

It is made of fugar of lead and green vitriol, of each
two ounces, and of reétified fpirit a quart. The falts are
feparately to be reduced to powder, and then put into the
{pirit, then the whole is to ftand fome days without heat to
extract the tinéture, and afterwards filtered through paper.

Many perfons have found great perplexity in making this
tincture, it having at firft begun to fhew a good colour,
but afterwards loft it: this accident is owing to the heat
ufually employed in making the tinéture.

This tinéture is a powerful ftyptic, and is often ufed
with good fuccefs in heétic fevers, fpitting of blood, heat
of the kidnies, fimple gonorrhceas, fluor albus, and tabes
dorfalis.

It was firft recommended by Etmuller ; who, from its
effect, gave it the name of tindura antiphthifica, which our
College of Phyficians changed to that of tin@ura faturnina.
The Edinb. Ph. directed it to be made of three ounces of
the fugar and two of the vitriol, to a quart of fpirit, and
in the beft of the foreign ones. Mr. Boyle recommends it,
and our moft eminent phyficians formerly ufed it, notwith-
ftanding that fome authors confider it as a dangerous medi-
cine, on account of its principal ingredient, the /acoharum
Jaturni, which fome call a flow poifon. Whether it be fo

2 or

See RuuBars.

Tin :

or not when given ‘in fubftance, it is certain that there is a
great difference between a corrofive falt fo given, and a
tinéture made of the fame, in fpirit of wine, and given in
{mall dofes, as Dr. Mead obferves; who adds, that in flow
heétic fevers attended with a loofenefs, profufe fweats, and
a colliquation of the humours, he reckons two or three
drachms, given at different times, in cooling liquors, every
twenty-four hours, to be a convenient dofe. But the ufual
dofe was from fifteen to thirty drops in Briftol water, or
fome temperate or cool julep. :

Concerning the danger of faturnine preparations, when
applied to the purpofes of internal medicine, fee fir George
Baker’s Farther Obfervations on the Poifon of Lead, in
Med. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 446, &c. See alfo Corica Dam-
moniorum, LeAp, SACCHARUM Saturni, and VINEGAR of
Lead.

Tincture of Snake-root. See SNAKE-ROOT.

Tincture of Soot. See Soor.

Tincture of Squills. See Squivts.

Tincture of Spanifo Flies, or Tinfura Cantharides. See
Tinctura Lytte. :

Trxctura Styptica, a form of medicine made with very
little trouble and apparatus, and ferving to fupply the
place of that elaborate preparation the tinéture of Helve-
tius: it is ‘prefcribed in the late Lond. Ph., and is to be
made by mixing a drachm of calcined green vitriol with a
quart of French brandy tin€tured by the cafk: this is to
be fhook together, that the brandy may turn black, and then
ftrained off for ufe.

Tincture of Sulphur. See Sutpuur. -

Tincrura Thebaica. See Tincture of Opium.

Tincrure of the Balfam of Tolu of the Edinb. Ph., is
made by digefting an ounce and a half of the balfam in a
pound of alcohol in a gentle heat, till the balfam is diffolved,
and filtering through paper.

This tinéture pofleffes all the virtues of the balfam; and
in coughs, and other complaints of the breaft, a tea-{poonful
or two of it may be taken ina bit of loaf-fugar. »

But it is chiefly ufed for making the fyrup. An ounce
of the tinéture, properly mixed with two pounds of fimple
fyrup, will make what is commonly called the bal/amic /yrup.
See Syrup.

Tincture of Valerian of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is
prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
four ounces of valerian root in powder, in two pints of
proof-{pirit.

The ammoniated tin@ure of valerian of the Lond. Ph.
i3 obtained by macerating for fourteen days, four ounces of
valerian root in two pints of aromatic fpirit of ammonia,
aad filtering. The Dub. Ph. direéts two ounces of valerian
root in powder to be digefted for feven days in a pint of
{pirit of ammonia. It is beneficially employed in hyfteria
aud other nervous affections, in dofes of f3i, or f5ij, given
in milk, or fome other bland fluid.

Tincrura Veratri Albi, Tinure of White Hellebore, of
the Edinb. Ph., is made by digefting for feven days, eight
ounces of white hellebore-root bruifed, ina pound and a half
of proof-{pirit, and filtering through paper. Thistin€ture is
employed to excite vomiting in maniacal and apopleétic cafes,
and as an alterative in cutaneous eruptions. It is given in
dofes of nv to 1x; but its effects are fometimes very vio-
lent. ‘Thomfon’s Difpenfatory.

Tincrura Zingiberis, or Tin@ure of Ginger, of the Lond.
and Dub. Ph., is formed by macerating for fourteen days
(feven days Dub.) two ounces of ginger-root fliced, in
two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. This is ufeful as
a ftimulant and carminatiye, in atonic gout when it attacks

TiN ,

the ftomach, in flatulent colic, and as a corre&tor of griping
purgatives. ; t mt
Tincture is alfo applied by the Heralds to the colours
ufed in efcutcheons, or coats of arms; under which, wit
them, are likewife included the two metals, or and ar
becaufe often reprefented by yellow and white. S
Coxour. Fol oe 5
Tincture comprehends colours and furs. Os
The writers on heraldry have had great difputes, which
of thefe colours or tinftures are the moft honourable. All
agree in giving the pre-eminence to the metals gold and |
ver, that is, to the yellow and white colours: as to’
others, fome eftcem them more noble as they approach more
to light, that is, to whitenefs. Upton, on this account,
ranges them thus: azure or blue, gules or red, purpure or
purple, vert or green, fable or black : others wholly diffent
from this, and prefer thofe colours moft which can be fee
at the greateft diftance ; with thefe, fable or black is the
moft honourable or firft colour ; and they allege the imperial
black eagle, placed in a white field, as an inftance of this.
Leigh prefers the red to the blue, as the red has fome alliance
to gold, and the blue to filver ; the fable is generally pre-
ferred to green and purple, by thofe who give the red and
blue the firft places: it is in this efteem on account of its
{trong appearance; and green is preferred to purple, be-
caufe the latter is but of very late ufe in hapldee and is
called a new colour. ; ‘teat .
All the precedence given to tin€tures muft however be
confidered with this {pecial provifo, that there is no particu-
lar reafon for bearing them otherwife in the arms of king-
doms and families. In all coats of arms there fhould be
two colours or tinétures ; and it is the general rule that the
field fhould be of a nobler colour than the eer. ca
upon it: thus in the arms of Scotland the field is yellow,
and the lion placed upon it red ; and if the field confifts of
two different colours parted by fefs or by pale, then the no-
bleft colour muft always be in the beit place, as on the
upper part, or on the right hand of the fheld ; but all thefe
rules are to be underftood with this limitation, that there are
no other {pecial reafons in the family for the contrary. Nef-
bit’s Heraldry, p. 19.
The two metals, or and argent, and the four colours,
black, red, blue, and green, (fee Cotour,) are the feveral
tinctures, fays Edmondfon, of which the fields and all ‘
charges of arms ought in ftri€tnefs to be made 5 excepting,
however, fuch charges as are to be borne in their owr pro-
per or natural colour ; which bearings, not having in bla-
zon any particular technical or fixed terms, are all com-
prehended under the word proper. As to the tin@tures a,
tawny, and fanguine, thefe, being mixtures, are now feldom,
if ever, ufed, either for ficlds or charges, though they are
ranked among thofe, which, as fome whimfical heralds fay,
have myfttical fignifications, and reprefent the moral, politi
cal, and military virtues of thofe who originally bore their
arms fo coloured or tinétured. Some heralds, fays the
above-named writer, have blazoned the armorial colours in dif-
ferent terms, according to the rank and dignity of the perfon
whofe arms they are deferibing. Accordingly, the arms of
gentlemen, efquires, knights, and baronets, are to be bla-
zoned by tinétures ; thofe of nobles by precious ftones ; and
thofe of fovereign princes, kings, and emperors, by planets :
but this mode of blazoning would, he thinks, introduce into
the fcience of heraldry great\abfurdity and confufion, and
render blazons in fome cafes very ridiculous, atheacred
TINCULEN, or Tinzuren, in Geography, 2 town of
ane in the country of Darah; 120 miles S.W, of Ta-
et. Pas Y .

HIN >

EN
TINDAL, MarttHew, LL.D. in Biography, a re-

puted deift, was the fon of a clergyman, and born at Beer-
Ferres, in Devonfhire, about the year 1657. From Lin-
coln college, Oxford, into which he was admitted in 1672,
he was removed to Exeter college; and haying graduated
B.A., he was elected fellow of All-Souls college, and became
LL.D. in 1685. About this time, the reign of James II.,
he was befet by fome of the popifh emiffaries, who were then
ative and induftrious in making profelytes, and converted to
opery ; but, upon farther examination, he returned to the
urch of England in 1687. To the revolution he was ar-
tly attached ; and having been admitted an advocate, he

t as judge in the court of delegates, and had a pen-

m the crown of 200/. per annum. Tindal was both a

P and theological writer, and under the latter defcrip-
tion he publifhed “ A Letter to the Clergy of both Univer-
fities,’’ on the fubje& of the Trinity and the Athanafian creed,
with a view to fome alterations in the Liturgy, which were
fubjeé&ts of difcuffion. But the treatife that attraGed prin-
cipal notice appeared in 1706, and wasentitled “ The Rights
of the Chriitian Church afferted againft the Romifh and all
other Priefts who claim an independent Power over it ; with
a Preface, concerning the Government of the Church of
England, as by Law eitablifhed.”” This publication roufed
the animadverfions of the high-church clergy, and the venders
of it were legally indiéted. The favourable notice taken of
this work by Le Clerc, in his “¢ Bibliotheque Choifée,”’ gave
at offence to the lower houfe of convocation; and this
Soca body circulated a declaration, implicating the foreign
critic, and others of fimilar fentiments, which Le Clerc him-
felf, and many other perfons, thought to be unjuft and illibe-
ral. Tindalalfo publifhed a defence of his work, the fecond
edition of which, in two parts, was ordered by a vote of the
houfe of commons, to be burnt in the fame fire with Sache-
verel’s fermons, in the year 1710. Some time after, the
lower houfe of convocation, Atterbury being prolocutor, on
a reprefentation of the ftate of religion in the kingdom, ani-
madverted on the dangerous confequences of the doctrine of
neceflity. To which Tindal replied, by afferting the truth
and ufefulnefs of that doGtrine. Of the fubjects and tendency
of his political writings, it is nowneedlefs to give any account.
It will be fufficient to obferve that he was an advocate for
the Hanoverian fucceffion, and for the Whig miniftry of that
period. Hitherto Tindal had made no dire attack againft
religion ; but in 1730 he no longer difguifed his fentiments,
which were announced to the public im a treatife entitled
“ Chriftianity as old as the Creation, or the Gofpel a Re-
publication of the Religion of Nature.” He difclaims,
indeed, in words, oppofition to the divine authority of the
Chriftian religion, and denominates himfelf and his friends
« Chriftian Deifts ;’? but in reality it was his evident and
avowed purpofe to fhew, that there neither has been, nor can
be, any external revelation diftin@ from what he terms “the
internal revelation of the law of nature in the hearts of all
mankind.” Tindal was attacked by Dr. Waterland, who
treated him with a degree of contempt which called forth the
animadverfions of Dr. Middleton. The author, though de-
clining in health, wrote in his own defence, but concretions
of the gall-bladder, with which he had been long afflicted,
terminated his life in the year 1733. His remains were in-
terred in Clerkenwell church, agreeably to his own defire,
near thofe of Dr. Burnet, bifhop of Salifbury. A fecond
volume of his “ Chriftianity as old as the Creation” was left
in MS.; but the publication of it was prevented by Dr. Gib-
fon, bifhop of London. His firft work had given occafion
to fo many unanfwerable defences cf Chriftianity, that the

Voy. XXXV,

TIN

learned bifhop was unneceffarily alarmed, when he prevented
further difcuffion of this intereiting fubje@.

Tixpat, Nicnoias, the nephew of the former, was -
educated at Exeter college, Oxford, and had different pre-
ferments in the church. He died in 1774, at a very advanced
age, at Greenwich Hofpital, of which he was chaplain.
Among his literary undertakings, the moft confiderable was
a tranflation of Rapin’s Hiftory of England, with a conti-
nuation. Biog. Brit.

TINDALE. See Tynpate.

TINDEL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Zenhaga, on the fea-coaft ; 18 miles S.S.E. of
Cape Mirik.

TINDERCOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ;_15 miles E..of Tiagar.

TINDERO, atownof Sweden, inthe province of Me-
delpadia ; 12 miles N.E. of Sundfwall.

TINE, in Agriculture, a term applied to a tooth or fpike,
which is fet or placed in any kind of tool or implement, but
efpecially thofe of the harrow, drag, and other fimilar kinds.
Tines for this ufe fhould, for the moft part, be a little curved
or racked forward towards the points, as laying hold of the
ground better, and in a more perfe&t manner. Sometimes
tines are neceffary to be {teeled alittle in the points and front
edges, in order to prevent the wear of them, and render
ae more effective in tearing, cutting up, and dividing the
and.

Tine, or Tyne, in Geography, a river of England, which
rifes in two ftreams, one called the North Tyne, which rifes
on the borders of Scotland, in the north-weft part of the
county of Northumberland ; the other, which is called the
South Tyne, rifes about feven miles S. from Aldftone, in
Cumberland: both thefe ftreams unite near Hexham, from
whence the united ftream proceeds to Newcaftle, and from
thence to the German fea, at Tinemouth.

TINEA, ariver of France, which rifes in the Alps, and
runs into the Var, about 1z miles N. of Nice.

Tinea, in Medicine. See Porrico.

Tinea, in Natural Hiflory. See Motu, &c.

TINEH, in Geography, a town of Egypt, fituated he-
tween the fouth extremity of lake Menzaleh and the Mediterra-
nean, near the ancient Pelufium, and ona canal formerly called
the Pelufian or Bubaftic mouth of the Nile ; through which
Alexander paffed with his fleet from Gaza: this canal is now
choaked up with mud; 80 miles N.N.E. of Cairo. N. lat.
30° 48!. E. long. 38° 45'.—Alfo, a town of Africa, in
Tripoli, on a river which runs into the gulf of Sidra. N.
lat. 30° 5!. E. long. 19° 12!.

TINEHALY, a poft-town of the county of Wicklow,
Ireland ; 41 miles S. by W. from Dublin.

TINEMAN, in our O/d Writers, a petty officer in the
foreft, who had the no€&turnal care of vert and venifon, and
other employments in the forett.

TINEMAR, in Geography, a town of Ceylon; 10 miles
S.W. of Trinkamaly.

TINEMOUTH. See Tynemouru.

TINET, Trvxerrum, in our Old Writers, is ufed for
brufh-wood and thorns to make and repair hedges. In
Herefordthire, to tine a gap in a hedge, is to fill it up with
thorns, that cattle may not pafs through it.

TINETO, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the coatt
of Genoa, at the entrance of the gulf of Spezza. See
Tino.

TINEVELLY, or Paramcorra, a city of Hindoo.
ftan, and capital of a province of the fame name, in the Car.

4X natic 3

TiN

natic ; 74 miles S.S.W. of Madura. N. lat. 8° 42’. E.
long. 77° 46’.

TINEVELLY, a province of Hindooftan, bounded on the
N. by Madura, on the E. and S. by the gulf of Manara,
and on the W. by Travancore, from which it is feparated
by the Ghauts. The coatt of this {tate is called the Fifhing
Coaft, and has long been celebrated for its pearls. It was
formerly in poffeffion of the Portuguefe. The fifheries are
carried on by the natives, but the Dutch claim the fove-
reignty, and fend two or three frigates to proteét the boats,
which fometimes amount to hundreds. The revenues of the
country belong to the nabob of Arcot.

TINEWALLD, the parliament or annual convention of
the people of the Ifle of Man, of which this account ‘is
given: the governor and officers of that ifland do ufually
fummon the twenty-four keys, being the chief commons
of it, once every year, viz. upon Midfummer-day, at St.
John’s chapel, to the court kept there, called the tinewald-
court ; where, upona hill near the faid chapel, the nhabit-
ants of the ifland ftand round about the plain adjoining ; and
here the laws and ordinances, agreed upon in the chapel of St.
John, are publifhed and declared unto them. At this fo-
lemnity the lord of the ifland fits in a chair of ftate, with a
royal canopy over his head, and a {word held before him, at-
tended by the feveral degrees of the people, who fit on each
fide of him, &c.

TING, in Geography, a city of China, of the fecond
rank, in Pe-tche-li, near the river Tam ; 107 miles S.S.W.
of Peking. N. lat. 38° 32'. E.long. 114° 39/,

TINGAM, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of Au-
rungabad ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Aurungabad.

TINGAMOLLY, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Ruttunpour; 6 miles W. of Kyragur.

TINGANO, a river of Malacca, which runs into the
Chinefe fea, N. lat. 5° 27/. E. long. 103° 9!.

TINGAU, or Tincu, a town of Bavaria, late belonging
to the abbey of Kempten ; 7 miles N.E. of Kempten. ,

TING-CHAN, a town of the kingdom of Corea; 30
miles S.E. of Haimen.

TINGENTERA, Atciéctraz, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Spain, in Beetica, towards the S.W. It appears
to have been the fame town with that called by- Antonine
s¢ Portus Albus,”’ and * Julia Traduéta.”? It was the na-
tive place of Pomponius Mela.

TING-FAN, in Geography, a city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in Koei-tcheou; 992 miles S.S.W. of Peking.
N, lat. 26° 5'. E. long. 106° 4/.

TING-HAI, a city and walled town of Chufan, on the
coaft of China, fituated within a mile from the large open vil-
lage or fuburb, built along the fhore. The way from the one
to the other lies over a plain, interfeéted with rivulets and ca-
nals in various direétions, and cultivated like a garden. The
city walls are thirty feet high ; and along thefe, at the dif-
tance of every hundred yards, are {quare ftone towers. In
the parapets are embrafures, and the holes in ‘the merlons for
archery, without cannon. The gate is double, and within
it a guard-houfe, where military men were ftationed, and the
bows and arrows, pikes and matchlocks, were arranged in an
orderly manner. Of the towns of Europe, Ting-hai moft
refembled Venice, on a {maller fcale. The bridges are fteep,
and afcended by fteps, like the Rialto; the ftreets are like
alleys, or narrow paflages, and paved with {quare flat ftones.
The houfes are low, and moftly of one ftory. Attention to
ornament was chiefly beftowed on the roofs of the houfes ;
on the ridges of which were uncouth figures of animals, and
other decorations in ftone and in iron. The town was full of

11

ae Be |

fhops, containing, chiefly, articles of clothing, food, and
furniture, difplayed to full advantage. Even coffins were
exhibited to view in a variety of colours. The fmaller quad-
rupeds, including dogs, intended for food, as well as poul-
try, were expofed alive for fale, as were fifh in tubs of water,
and eels in fand. The number of places where tin-leaf, and
fticks of odoriferous wood were fold, for burning in their
temples, indicated no flight degree of fupertftitious difpofi-
tion in the people. Loole garments and trowfers were worn
by both fexes; but the men had hats of ftraw, or cane,
which covered the head, the hair, except one long lock, being
cut fhort or fhaved ; while the women had theirs cn
plaited and coiled, in a becoming manner, into a kno
the crown of the head. A¢tivity and labour univerfally
vailed. None afked alms, and none fhunned labour. Staun-
ton’s Embafly to China, vol. i.

TINGI, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Chinefe fea, near
the eaft coaft of Malacca. N. lat. 2° 23'. E. long.
104° 21!

TINGIA, a town of Peru, in the audience of Lima;
15 miles S.E. of Ica. |

TINGIS, Tanerer, a town of Africa, fituated upon
a ftrait between the promontory, the coafts, and the mouth
of the river Valon, according to Ptolemy, who furnamed
it Czfarea. Mela fays that it was a very’ ancient city,
founded by the giant Antzus. It gave name to Mauritania
Tingitana, of which it was the capital. Pliny fays that it
took the name of Juha’ Traduéta, when the emperor
Claudius fent thither a colony. Plutarch, in Sertorio, calls
it Tingena, and fays that a fon of Tinga by Hercules, called
Sophax, founded it, and gave it the name after that of his
mother. ;

TIN-GLASS, a name frequently given to the femi-metal
bifmuth.

TING-NGAN, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Quang-tong, on the river of Limou; 17
miles S. of Kiong-tcheou, in the ifland of Hai-nan.

TINGO, or Tenna, a river of Italy, which runs into
the Adriatic, 3 miles N. of Fermo.

TINGORAN, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea, near the
coaft of Malacca. N. lat. 4° 8!._ E. long. 103° 33/.

TINGORCALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal ;

40 miles W.S,W. of Calcutta. N. lat. 22° 9!. E. long.
87° 53!

TINGRACALLY, a town of Bengal ; 16 miles E. of
Mahmudpour.

TINGRECOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bara-
maul; 18 miles S.E. of Darampoury. ;

TINGRI, atown of Thibet. Here the Nepaulefe were
defeated by the troops of China in 1792; 22 miles $,W.
of Zuenga.

TING-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Fo-kien; 870 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 25° 48. E.
long. 116° 4. rat

TINGUIRICA, a river of Chili, which runs into the
Rahel ; 40 miles from its mouth.

TINGUZGALPA, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Nicaragua; 80 miles N.W. of Leon.

TINGWALL, a town of the ifland of Shetland; 4
miles W.N.W, of Lerwick. x il

TINGWALLA, an ifland of Sweden, in the north
part of the Wenner lake, on which the town of Carlftadt is
built. ;
TINIA, or Tengas, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, in Umbria, which, according to Silius Italicus, ran

into the Tiber. wie
into the Tibe TINIAN,

TiN
TINIAN, in Geography, one of the Ladrone iflands, in

the North Pacific ocean, about 42 miles in circumference,
firft difcovered by the crew of a Manilla fhip, which was
caft away here in the year 1638. The author of Anfon’s
Voyage gives a pleafing defcription of this ifland, as found
by the crew of the Centurion, in the year 1742. Com-
' modore Byron, who vifited it in the year 1765, and anchored
on the fouth-weft end of the ifland, in the fame place where
the Centurion lay, inftead of delightful lawns, found the
trees and underwood fo thick, that in endeavouring to force
a paffage through, they were entangled and cut as if with
whip-cord. After they had cleared the well, which they
imagined was the fame at which lord Anfon filled his
cafks, commodore Byron found the water brackifh, and full
of worms. THe fays, “ the road alfo where the fhips lay
was a dangerous fituation at this feafon (Augutt 1ft), for
the bottom is a hard fand, and large coral rocks; and the
anchor having no hold in the fand, is in perpetual danger of
being cut to pieces by the coral ; to prevent which as much
as poflible, I rounded the cables, and buoyed them up
with émpty water-cafks. Another precaution alfo was taught
me by experience, for at firft I moored, but finding the
cables much damaged, I refolved to be fingle for the future,
that by veering away, or heaving in, as we fhould have
more or lefs wind, we might always keep them from being
flack, and confequently from rubbing, and this expedient
fucceeded to my wiih. At the full and change of the
moon, a prodigious {well tumbles in here, fo that I never
faw fhips at anchor roll fo much as our’s did while we lay
here ; and it once drove in from the weftward with fuch vio-
lence, and broke fo high upon the reef, that I was obliged to
put to fea for a week; for if our cable had parted in the night,
and the wind had been upon the fhore, which fometimes
happens for two or three days together, the fhip muft inevit-
ably have been loft upon the rocks. I foon found that the
ifland produced limes, four oranges, cocoa-nuts, bread-fruit,
guavas, and paupaus in abundance ; but we found no water-
melons, feurvy-grafs, or forrel. Notwithftanding the fatigue
and diftrefs that we had endured, and the various climates
we had pafled through, neither of the fhips had yet loft a
fingle man fince their failing from England, but while we
lay here two died of fevers, a difeafe with which many were
feized, though we all recovered very fatt from the fcurvy.
T am indeed of opinion that this is one of the moft unhealthy
fpots in the world, at leaft during the feafon in which we
were here. The rains were violent, and almoft inceffant ;
and the heat fo great as to endanger fuffocation: befides
the inconvenience which we fuffered from the weather, we
were inceflantly tormented by the flies in the day, and by
the mufquitos in the night. The ifland alfo {warms with
centipedes and fcorpions, and a large black ant, fearcely
inferior to either in the malignity of its bite. Befides thefe,
here were venomous infeéts without numbers, altogether
unknown to us, by which many of us fuffered fo feverely,
that we were afraid to lie down in our beds: nor were
thofe on board in a much better fituation than thofe on
fhore, for great numbers of thefe creatures being carried
into the fhip with the wood, they took poffeffion of every
birth, and left the poor feamen no place of reft either
below or upon the deck. Our principal refource for
frefh meat was the wild hog, with which the ifland
abounds. Thefe creatures are very fierce, and fome of
them fo large, that a carcafe frequently weighed 200
pounds. Mr. Gore, one of our mates, at laft difcovered
a pleafant fpot on the north-weft part of the ifland, where
cattle were in great plenty, and whence they might be
hrought to the tents by fea. We were now upon the whole

TIN

pretty well fupplied with provifions, efpecially as we baked
frefh bread every day for the fick ; and the fatigue of our
people being lefs, there were fewer ill with the fever ; but
feveral of them were fo difordered by eating a very fine
looking fifh which we caught here, that their recovery was
for a long time doubtful.”? The author of lord Aafon?s
voyage fays, that the people on board the Centurion
thought it prudent to abftain from fifh, as the few which
they caught at their firft arrival furfeited thofe who eat of
them. Befides the fruit that has been mentioned already,
this ifland produces cotton and indigo in abundance, and
would certainly be of great value if it were fituated in the
Wet Indies. The furgeon of the Tamar enclofed a large
{pot of ground here, and made a very pretty garden, but
he did not ftay long enough to derive any advantage from
it. Captain Wallis touched upon this ifland in 1767 ; and
obtained beef, pork, poultry, papaw apples, bread-fruit,
limes, oranges, and every refrefhment mentioned in the
account of lord Anfon’s voyage. The fick began to re-
cover as foon as they went on fhore; but flefh meat would
not keep fweet for fcarcely one day. N. lat. 14° 55’. W.
long.* 214° 4!.

TINICUM, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Bucks, containing 1017 inhabitants; 20 miles N. of
Philadelphia.—Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Delaware, containing 249 inhabitants.

TINIETZ, a town of Aultsan Poland ; 4 miles W. of
Cracow.

TINIMA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 22 miles
W.N.W. of Bayamo.

TINING, in Agriculture.
LAGE.

TININGBURG, in Geography, a town of Hungary ;
16 miles N. of Prefburg. a BENG

TINISSI, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-

atz ; 10 miles S.E. of Konigingratz.

TINIT, a town of Africa, in Zanhaga, on the coaft ;
25 miles S.S.E. of Cape Mirik.

TINJULEEN, a town of Africa, in the country of
Darah; 105 miles S.E. of Morocco. N. lat. 29° 30).
W. long. 5° 30!.

TINKER’s Isranp, one of the’ Elizabeth’s Iflands,
near the coaft of America.

TINKLING or Tinetine of the Ear.
NITUS.

TINMOUTH, in Geography, a pott-town of the ftate
of Vermont, in the county of Rutland, containing 1001
inhabitants; 8 miles S. of Rutland.—Alfo, a town of
Nova Scotia, on the eaft coaft, formerly called Pidou.

TINNA, or -T1na, in Ancient Geography, a river of the
ifle of Albion, between the gulfs Taua and Boderia, ac-
cording to Ptolemy, fuppofed to be the river Eden, in Fife.
—Alfo, a {mall river of Italy, in Picenum.

TINNE’, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Mafina, on
the north fide of the Niger; 130 miles W.S.W. of Tom-
buétoo.

TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with melted
tin, or with tin reduced to a very thin leaf.

Looking-glaffes are foliated or tinned with thin leaves of
beaten tin, applied and faftened to them by means of quick-
filver. See LookING-GLass.

Kitchen utenfils are tinned with melted tin ; and locks,
bitts, {purs, &c. with leaf-tin, by the help of fire.

For the method of tinning iron-plates, fee Lattin and
Tin-Plates.

Copper and brafs are covered over with tin by the help of
fal ammoniac, the acid of which cleans the furface of the

4X 2 metals

See Tine. See alfo Trz-

See Tin-

» ee

metals to be tinned, and the oily matter contained in it
furnifhes the phlogifton (according to the old fyftem) that
is neceflary in this operation. The copper, or brafs, bein

made hot enough to melt tin laid upon it, is ftrewed over wit

fal ammoniac, and the melted tin rubbed about the plate.
The fal ammoniac takes up the drofs of the tin, and leaves
the tin to flow freely upon the metal. As the furface of cop-
per is continually altered by the mere action of the air, the
workmen, before the tinning of any veflel, ferape its furface
with a fteel inftrument till it be clean and bright ; then they
place the veffel upon kindled coals, and heat it to a certain
degree : as foon as it is hot, in fome procefles of tinning,
they rub it with pitch, and apply the melted tin, which
they {pread upon the furface of the copper by means of
hards. For this purpofe pure tin is feldom ufed; but,
in general, two parts of tin are alloyed with one part of lead.

The pitch ufed in this latter mode of tinning is quite
neceflary, becaufe the degree of heat given to the copper
is fufficient to calcine its furface in fome degree : and this
alteration, however flight, would prevent the perfeét adhe-
fion of the tin, unlefs by means of the pitch the phlogifton
was reftored to it at the very inftant of the application of
the tin. The pitch alfo prevents the flight calcination
which would happen on the furface of the tin, or revives
the fmall particles of calx which are formed during the
operation. In either way, or in the method of tinning iron
plates, the fuccefs of the operation depends on the facility
with which tin unites with thefe metals, which incorporates
with them, diffolves in fome meafure their furface, and forms
a kind of alloy, at leaft when the tinning is well performed ;
and moreover, on the cleannefs of the Pebe, both of the
melted tin, and of the copper or iron to which it,is applied ;
for the metals cannot perfe¢tly unite unlefs they are in a
metallic ftate, and free even from their own earth or calx.

It has been alleged that copper veffels, fo pernicious
in themfelves, are not perfeétly preferved from ruft or ver-
digris by tinning ; and, befides, tin itfelf is combined with
See, and lead is alfo ufed in tinning. M. Malouin has,
therefore, propofed in his Memoirs on Zinc (Mem. de
VAcad. Sc. 1742.) to fubftitute that femi-metal in place
of lead and tin, for the tinning of iron and copper veffels ;
the greater hardnefs of the zinc, it is thought, would render
it lefs liable to be worn, and the dangerous effects of lead and
tin would be avoided. Macquer’s Dié&. Chem. Engl. edit.

The plumbers, on fome occafions, tin or whiten their
fheets of lead: in order to which they have a tinning furnace,
filled with live coal, at the two fides of which two men are
placed, who hold up the fheets over the fire to heat: and
the tin-leaves being laid over them, as faft as the fheets grow
hot, and the tin melts, they fpread it, and make it take by
rubbing it with tow and refin.

TINNITUS Avrium. A very common difeafe in’ the
fenfe of hearing, is when certain founds, like thofe of a drum,
a bell, the falling of water, &c. are heard, when no fuch
noifes actually exift, or can be heard by other perfons.
‘This affeétion is called tinnitus aurium, of which various kinds
have been obferved. For the moft part, it is a very flight
tranfient diforder ; but fometimes it is moit ob{tinate, long
continued, and troublefome. It fometimes arifes from the
flighteft caufe, fuch as an thing partially flopping up the
meatus auditorius, or Euftachian tube itfelf, fo that the free
paffage of air into the cavity of the tympanum is inter-
rupted. A kind of tinnitus is heard by the moft healthy
when they yawn.

A. much more frequent and troublefome fpecies of tin-
nitus accompanies many difeafes both of the febrile and
nervous kind. This is faid to be oceafioned partly by the

TIN

increafed impetus of the blood towards the head, with an
increafe of fenfibility in the nervous fy{tem itfelf, fo that the
very beatings of the arteries are heard ; and partly by the
augmented irritability and {pafmodic motions of the little muf-
cles within the organ of hearing. In fevers, the throbbing
of the carotid arteries at the fides of the fella turcica has
produced exceflive annoyance in particular individuals, efpe-
cially when they were in the recumbent pofture ; and the
celebrated Haller informs us, that when he was affliéted
with fever, he fuffered much from the beating fenfation
caufed in his ears, as he fuppofed, from the pulfation of the
carotids in the neighbourhood of thofe organs.

According to writers, tinnitus aurium fometimes arifes
from a vehement affeGtion of the mind; fometimes from a
diforder in the ftomach; fometimes from rheumatifm ex-
tending its effects to the ears and head; or from a catarrh,
producing a temporary obitruétion in the Euftachian tube.
In the foregoing examples, the cure of the affeétion of the
ear depends upon the removal of the other diforders, of
which it is merely an effeét.

In certain cafes, tinnitus aurium occurs as a feparate
independent diforder, and may bethe caufe of long-continued,
diftreffing fuffering. The exiflence of unreal founds in
the organ of hearing generally prevents the patient from
hearing diftinétly other fonorous impreflions, and, of courfe,
more or lefs deafnefs is a common attendant of the complaint.

The writer of this article lately had a patient, who is
attacked five or fix times every year with tinnitus aurium,
which caufes for feveral days the moft annoying fenfations
in the ears, and a confiderable degree of deafnefs. The
diforder is always accompanied with fevere pain in the
branches of the nerve coming out of the infra-orbitary
foramen, head-ache, indigeftion, and many fymptoms of the
nervous and bilious kind.

In this cafe, relief is obtained by fomenting the affected
ear with a decoétion of poppies, and wafhing out the meatus
auditorius with a fyringe and warm water. However, thefe
means are always aflifted with a few dofes of calomel and
rhubarb, without which, in all probability, the local appli-
cations would not entirely anfwer.

We have alfo had other cafes, in which a ftrong folution
of opium in water, camphorated oil, blifters, &c. were the
remedies employed.

The tinnitus aurium, produced by fevers, fometimes
does not fubfide at their termination, but lafts, either in a
continued or periodical form, during life. Two fuch
inftances are now within our own recolleétion ; and every
man of experience muft have witnefled the fame thing.

TINNUNCULUS, in Ornithology, the name of one of
the long-winged hawks, called by Linnzus FAaxLco tinnun-
culus; whieh fee.

It is about the fize of a common pigeon. Its bill is
fhort, crooked, and very fharp, and covered with yellow
flcin at the top; near this the bill is white, elfewhere it is
blue; its tongue is bifid; its mouth very wide, and its
palate blue ; its head is large and flatted, and is of an afh-
colour, with longitudinal itreaks of black; its back and
wings are brown, variegated with black fpots; its rump is
grey, with fome tran{verfe black [pots ; and its breaft and
belly of a pale ruft-colour, with a few longitudinal ftreaks
of black ; its tail is long and pointed, its tip of a pale fer-
ruginous hue, with a broad tranfverfe ftreak of black over
it; and the reft of the tail is a mixed grey and brown,
with black fpots and ftreaks ; its legs and feet are of a fine
yellow. °

The tinnunculus, or keftrel, breeds in the hollows of
trees, in the holes of high rocks, towers, and ruinated

buildings :

aN

buildings: it lays four eggs, which are white, variegated
with a number of red f{pots; its food is field-mice, {mall
birds, and infects.

This is the hawk which we fo frequently obferve in the
air fixed in one place, and as it were fanning with its wings,
at which time it is watching for its prey. It flings up the
indigefted fur and feathers in form of a round ball. Ray
and Pennant.

TINO, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the coaft of
Genoa, at the entrance of the gulf of Spezza; 8 miles S.
of Spezza. N. lat. 44°3!. E. long. 9° 40’. See Trnero.

Tino. See Tenos.

The form of this ifland is oval, about 60 miles in circum-
ference. It is mountainous, but its rich plains are decked
by the opulence of induftry. Its fruits are excellent and its
wine good; but the moft abundant of its productions is
filk, which is manufaCtured by the females, who are highly
commended for the beauty of their perfons and the elegance
of their drefs. The inhabitants are a@tive and induftrious,
moft of whom are of the Greek church, though it is the
fee of a Roman Catholic bifhop. It is reckoned one of the
moit agreeable iflands of Greece, but has no good harbour.
The fmall town of San Nicolo is built on the ruins of the
ancient Tenos. Its capital bears the name of the ifland.
Nelatr37° 36! E. long. 25° 9!

TINPHADUM, or TrmpHapum, in Ancient Geography,
a place of Africa, in Numidia, upon the route from The-
veite to Sitifis, between Thevelte and Vegefela. Ant. Itin.

TINSEDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Darah. N. lat. 27° 30’. W. long. 5° 46’.

TINTA, a town of Peru, in the bifhopric of Cufco,
and jurifdiction of Canas y Canches, fometimes alfo called
Tinta; 60 miles S. of Cufco.

TINTENIAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Ille and Vilaine; 9 miles S.S.E. of Dinan.

TINTINNABULUM, among the Ancients. See BELL.

TINTO, in Geography, a river of Spain, in the province
of Seville, which owes its name to its waters being tinged of
a yellow colour. It is alfo of a petrifying quality ; and it
is faid that it deftroys all verdure, and that no fifh can live
in it. Its nature, however, is changed by the confluence
of other rivulets ; for when it paffes by Niebla, it is not dif-
ferent from other rivers: and it falls into the Atlantic, fix
leagues lower down, at the town of Huelva, where it is two
leagues broad, and admits the paflage of large veffels as
high as San Juan del Puerto, three leagues above Huelva.

TINTON, a town of the ftate of New Jerfey, near the
fea; 12 miles E. of Freehold, in the county of Monmouth.

TINTOQUE, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Xalifco ; 45 miles S.S.W. of Compoftella.

TINTORETTO, It, in Biography, the cognomen of
a celebrated Venetian painter, whofe real name was Giacopo
Robufti. He was born at Venice in 1512, the fon of a
dyer; from whence he acquired the name of I] Tintoretto.
His natural difpofition towards the art of drawing manifefted
itfelf very early, and his father had the wifdom to indulge
it; and feeing it likely to lead to fomething decifive, caufed
him to be inftruéted in painting, and finally placed him as a
pupil with Titian, then in the prime enjoyment of his re-
putation and power. It is a painful thing to relate, and a
fevere leffon to the pride of the moft able, that where fo
much ability, fo much honour and wealth abode, the mean
and degrading paffion of jealoufy fhould have found en-
couragement. ‘Titian, the great, the honoured Titian, that
man who poffefled a mind capable of grafping almoft all the
art of painting required, who was richly and highly ho-
zoured, courted, and employed, is faid (and the truth of

12

ToUuN

the ftory reits upon too found authority) to have feen with
the corroding pangs of jealoufy the early effays of his pupil
Tintoretto, and to have permitted it to operate fo ftrongly
upon him, that he excluded the dreaded objeét from his
houfe, about ten days after his admiffion.

But the afpiring talents of the young painter were not to
be damped by fo mean a seat: though even in the
powerful hands of Titian. To him difmiffion from the eye
of a mafter was emancipation. He dared to think for him-
felf, and boldly aimed at fele&tion in art, and an union un-
thought of till then ; and as Lanzi fays, generoufly afpired
at the honour of being the founder of a {chool and ftyle of
his own, by combining the form of the great Florentine,
M, Angelo, with the colour of his former matter. To
maintain a due excitation to the performance of fo bold an
undertaking, he wrote upon the wall of his ftudy, “ Il di-
fegno di Michel Angelo e il colorito di Tiziano ;’? and with
all the ardour of an intrepid mind, endeavoured to perfect
the tafk he had affigned himfelf, by copying whatever pic-
tures of Titian he could procure during the day, and draw-
ing by night from cafts taken from the works of M. Angelo,
together with many others he procured from ancient baffo-
relievos and ftatues. It is doubtlefs to his ftudies by night
and the lamp, that he acquired that perfe& maftery of chiaro-
{curo, thofe decided maffes of light and fhade, which dif-
tinguifh his works, both in their groups and fingle figures.
Add to thefe labours, that he modelled in wax and clay,
and clothed his figures ftudioufly, arranging them in dif-
ferent lights, and fometimes hanging them from the ceiling,
to acquire, by drawing from them in that pofition, the
knowledge of the /otto in fu, then much in ufe for the
adornment of ceilings, and in the houfes of the grandees.
By thefe deep ftudies, and a perfect knowledge of anatomy,
he was enabled to exert the exuberant and glowing fancy
with which nature had bleffed him, in the freeft and boldeft
manner ; and had he always applied his powers with equal
intenfenefs, with a careful difcrimination of what was due
to his own honour, there can be no doubt but that he would
have left a name unrivalled in art. This for fome time he
attended to, and fome of his beft works lack only charaéter
and expreflion to place them in the higheft rank. The large
picture which lately adorned the walls of the Louvre, but
is now returned to its original ftation, the Scuola di S.
Marco at Venice, isa work of this clafs, which he painted
when only 36 years old; and another is the Crucifixion, in
the Scuola diS. Rocco. The former is known by the name
of Il Servo, and reprefents the miracle of St. Mark defcend-
ing, and breaking the bonds of a flave condemned to death
by Turks. Grand but not correé in its ftyle of defign,
aftonifhing the mind by the intrepid boldnefs of its colour
and execution, it difplays more complete maftery of the
materials of art than is to be found in the works of any
other painter. If there be any fault in this aftonifhing per-
formance, it is that the fubje¢t is loft in the fplendour of
the execution, the {pirit in the matter in which it is em-
bodied. The fame cannot be faid of the Crucifixion above
mentioned, in which the louring deep and ominous tone
preferved through the whole, produces the moft perfe&
unity, gives ftrength of expreffion to the picture, and oyer-
whelms the fpeGiator with terror. All feems to be hufhed
in filence round the central figure of the Saviour fufpended
on the crofs, with his fainting mother, and a group of male
and female mourners at his feet ; and though many are the
improprieties of coftume and of aétion, yet all vanifh in the
power which compreffes them to a fingle point, and we do
not deteét them till we recover from the firft impreffion.
Unhappily for his fame, he was not always fo careful in his

labours ;

FIN

labours; and the impetuofity of his mind, or perhaps the
feelings of his employers, who were numerous, did not
allow him fufficient time to do juftice to himfelf; and he
permitted many pitures to leave his eafel, poffeffing only
the freedom of colour and execution which peculiarly be-
longed to his pencil. ;

Tintoretto was fo certain of his execution, that he is faid
by Sandrart to have frequently wrought without a previous
fketch, or any preparatory outline, finifhing as he went on,
and adapting his labours to the price he was to receive ; not
fufficiently confidering that his works would outlive their
author, and deprive him of a large portion of the fame fo
juftly due to his power, when efficiently exercifed. It
was, therefore, truly obferved by An. Caracci, that in
fome of his works, Tintoretto was not inferior to Titian,
while in others he fell below himfelf.

One remarkable inftance of his intrepidity and impetuofity
of genius, and promptnefs of execution, is related by Va-
fari, viz.: The confraternity of S. Rocco at Venice had
determined to decorate their church with a pifture of the
apotheolis of their patron faint, and, defirous of having the
choice of good defigns, commiflioned fome of the moft
eminent artifts to make compofitions for their feleétion.
Paulo Veronefe, A. Schiavone, Salviati, Zucchero, and
Tintoretto, were the competitors. On the day appointed
for their decifion, the good fathers were aftonifhed to finda
finifhed picture by Tintoretto placed in the appointed fitua-
tion; and when they remonftrated upon fo extraordinary
a proceeding, as they had only required a defign from
him, he told them that was his way of making defigns, and
that if they hefitated to pay him for his trouble, they were
welcome to the piéture, which was allowed to keep pof-
feffion of its honours. His compeers rendered due juitice
to fo extraordinary an exertion, and denominated him
I furiofo Tintoretto.

© do juftice to the power of Tintoretto, he mutt be
contemplated on the grand theatre of his piétorial exiftence,
viz. at Venice, where alone his grander works are to be
found; and there the public buildings are filled with them,
in the higher and lower degrees of excellence. In ftyle,
the grandeur which he borrowed of Michael Angelo was
rather mufcular enlargement of line, and that not always
correét, than feleét or charaéteriftic; and it is not often
that he rifes above common nature; moftly fo in his female
charaéters, though they are often too flender for truth of
action, and too affeéted for grace. His touch is delight-
fully free, with a full impafto of colour, and his chiaro-
feuro of the richeft and moft brilliant kind. He lived to
the great age of 82, and died at Venice in 1594.

Agotaletis left a daughter named Marietta Robutti,
who was born at Venice in 1560, and whom he inftruéted in
the art of painting, principally in portraiture, in which fhe
acquired confiderable practice and reputation; painting
many of the principal perfonages in her native city. She
had the honour to be invited to the courts of the emperor
Maximilian and of Philip king of Spain; but her father
would not be prevailed upon to part with her. She died
foon after him, in 1590. He left alfo a fon, Domenico
Robutti, who praétifed the art with confiderable fuccefs,
though not with the fire of invention or execution which
charaéterife his father’s produétions. He was born at
Venice alfo, in 1562. His principal works are in the Sala
di Configlio and the Scuola di San Marco at Venice. Por-
traiture was, however, his principal occupation, and moft
{uited to his genius ; and he had the honour of being emi-
nently patronized. He died in 1637.

TINURTIUM, Tovurnvs, in Ancient Geography, a

TIO

town of Gaul, on the route from Lugdunum to Gef-
foriacum. Anton. Itin. ; .
TINUS, in Botany, aname in Pliny, book 15, chap 30, for
what he fays is fometimes termed a fort of wild laurel, and is dif-
tinguifhed by the blue colour of its berries. This defcription
is univerfally agreed to apply to our Laurus-tinus, Viburnum
Tinus of Linnzus; a plant likewife indicated by Ovid’s ;

Et bicolor myrtus, et baccis cerula tinus.

Linnzus has transferred this name to a Weft Indian fhrub,
{uppofed by him to conftitute a new genus, having fome re-
femblance to the above fhrub.—Linn. Gen. 200. Schreb.
270. Juff. 264 and 451.—Clafs and order, Enneandria
Monogynia.

The characters of this however were difcoyered by
Swartz to be founded in error, the plant being a genuine
{pecies of Crerura ; fee that article, n. 5.

_ The origin of the word Tinus has been fought by Vaillant
in the Greek 10:, /mall, or dwarf, as meaning a {maller or
more humble kind of laurel ; but this is {carcely correét, nor
does the derivation by any means fatisfy us. ‘

TINZ, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in
pality of Brieg ; 22 miles W. of Brieg.

TINZULIN. See Tinsuceen. an

TIO, a town of South America, in the prevince of Cor-
dova; 70 miles E. of Cordova.

TIOGA, a county of New York, ereéted from Mont-
gomery county in 1791,’ and from the E. part of this
county. "The county of Brome was erected in 1806. Tioga
is bounded N. by a {mall angle of Steuben county, and by
Seneca and Cayuga counties, E. by Brome county, S. by
the ftate of Pennfylvania, and W. by Steuben county,
Its form is nearly that of a {quare, 26 by 34 miles; its
area 571,306 acres: between 42° and 42° 25! N. lat., and
2° 14/ and 3° W. long. from New York. Its towns are
Condor, Caroline, Catharinas, Cayuta, Chemung, Denby, El-
mira, Owego, and Spencer its capital. Its eaftern part is tra-
verfed by the Sufquehanna; and the Tioga, the principal
W. branch of that river, waters the S.W. part. The furface
is confiderably broken and hilly. It is rapidly increafing
in population, and contains a large proportion of good farm-
ing land. Rafts, arks, and {mall boats defcend the waters of
this county, and find the principal market at Baltimore, in
Maryland. Tioga fends one member to the houfe of affembly.

TioGa, a large townfhip in the S.W. corner of Brome
county, 13 miles W. of Chenango Point ; bounded N. by
Berkfhire, E. by Union, S. by the ftate of Pennfylvania, and
W. by Tioga county ; about 15 miles long from N. to S.,
and 7 broad, having the Sufquehanna running W. acrofs
its centre. The foil is various, and the furface uneven. It
yields various kinds of trees, grain, and pafture. Fruit in
general fucceeds well, and apples are no where better. This
town has been fettled fince about 1790.—Alfo, a river of
New York, which runs into the Sufquehanna at Tioga Point,
N. lat. 41° 56’. W. long. 76° 33/. ‘ i

TIOLO, a town of Italy, in the Valteline; 10 miles
S.W. of Bormio.

TION, a river of France, which runs from the lake of
Annecy to the Siers.

TIOOKEA, one of King George’s iflands, in the South
Pacific ocean, difcovered by ie Byron. “It is alow
ifland, with a large lake in the centre. Captain Cook fent
to examine a creek, which he fuppofed communicated with
the lake. They found the creek fifty fathoms wide at the
entrance, and thirty deep ; farther in thirty wide and twelve
deep ; the bottom every where rocky, and the fides bounded
with coral rocks : dogs feemed to be in great plenty, a no

rut

the princi-

iP

fruit was feen but cocoa-nuts. The inhabitants of this
ifland, and perhaps of all the low ones, are of a much darker
colour than thofe of the higher iflands, and feem to be of a
more favage difpofition. This may be owing to their fitu-
ation, nature not having beftowed her favours on thefe low
iflands with that profufion fhe had done to fome of the
others. The inhabitants are chiefly beholden to the fea for their
fubfiftence ; eonfequently are much expofed to the fun and
weather, and by that means become more dark in colour,
and more hardy and robuift, for there is no doubt of their
being of the fame nation. Captain Cook’s people ob-
ferved that they were ftout well-made men, and had marked
on their bodies the figure of a fifh, a very good emblem of
their profeffion. S. lat. 14° 27!. W.long. 144° 561.

TIORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the
country of the Sabines, on the route from Reate to Lifta,

between Vatia and Litta.

TIORN, in Geography, an ifland in the North fea, near the
weit coaft of Sweden, about 25 miles in circumference, con-
taining three parifhes, and abounding in excellent paftures.
N. lat. 58°. E. long. 11° 29/.

TIORNEBIERG, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, near
the fouth coaft of Laland. NN. lat. 54° 42’. E. long.
11° 18!

TIORNEHOLM, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, near the
fouth coaft of Laland. N. lat. 54° 39'.. E. long. 11° 37’.

TIOS, Tizum, or Zion, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Paphlagonia, which lay, according to Ptolemy, on
the coaft of the Enxine fea, between Pfyllium and the
mouth of the river Parthenius.

TIOUGHNIOGA, in Geography, a river of New York,
which runs into the Chenango, N. lat. 41° 56'.. W. long.
76° 53!

TIPARA, atown of Hindooftan, in Oude; 10 miles
S.E. of Gooracpour.

TIPARENUS Iwnsuxa, now Specia, in Ancient. Geo-
graphy, the ifle of Tiparena, fituated in the Argolic gulf,
feparated by a {mall canal from the continent, which efta-
blifhed a communication between the gulfs Hermione and
Argolic.

TIPASA, Tresa, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cefa-
rlana, according to Ptolemy and the Itin. Anton. having
the title of colony, and fituated on the route from Carthage
to Tingis, between Czfarea Colonia and Cafe Caluenti.
It ftill preferves its ancient port, and has fome remains of
ancient walls.

TIPE, or Tyre, in Rural Economy, a trap or device of
the wooden box, or excayated earth kind, for catching or
taking rabbits, &c. Thefe tipes or traps are fet or formed
in a particular track at the time the rabbits have departed
from the warrens, or parts of them, in fearch of food, all the
other holes or ways of return being ftopped up. Dogs are
then employed in forcing the rabbits to return, when they
are taken in the tipesor traps. The tipes are formed of dif-
ferent numbers and fizes, according to the nature and extent
of the warren. _

TIPER, or Trpra, in Geography, a country of Afia, an-
nexed to Bengal, bounded on the N. by Silhet, on the E.
by Ava, on the S. by Chittigong, and on the W. by
Dacea, about 100 mileslong, and 50 broad: the inhabitants
are faid to be moft fubje& to goitres or wens in the throat,
adifeafe generally attributed to the water drank. Comillah
feems the chief town. A town of the fame name is laid

down in fome maps, as fituated on the river. N.lat.24°20!. j

E. long. 110°.
TIPHA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Greece,
ig Becotia, fituated on the gulf of Corinth, in which was a

6 ei ee

temple of Hercules, whofe feaft was annually celebrated.
Paufanias.

TIPHCA Princeps, one of the Hebrew accents, fome-
times ferving for a comma, and marked under a letter
thus (° ).

TIPHIA, in Entomology, a genus of the Hymenopteraorder
of infeéts, in the Gmelinian fyftem of Linneus; the chara¢ters
of which are, that the mouth has a membranaceous roundith
jaw, a mandible arched, and acute, a fhort tridentated lip,
and no tongue; the feelers are four, filiform, unequal,
ftretched out in the middle of the lip ; and the antenne un- _
filiform and arched. This genus includes the following

Species.

Vesrirormis. Black, with a ferruginous abdomen,
black at the bafe, and cyaneous wings. "The fphex _vefpi-
formis of Fabricius. Found in Malabar.

Crassicornis. Black, the abdomen with three bands, the
legs ferruginous, and the wings cyaneous. Found in Spain.
Niegra. Black, without {pots. An European infeG.

Femorata. Black, with the four hinder thighs angu-
lated and red. Found in England.

Hisrrionica. Black, thorax maculated, abdomen with
five yellow bands, the two foremoft interrupted. Found in
China.

Qurixqurcixera. Black, thorax fpotted, abdomen with
five yellow bands, the fecond interrupted. Found in
England.

V ARIEGATA.
domen yellow.

CILtIaTa.

Thorax black, varied with yellow, ab-
A Siberian infec.
Black, the fegments of the abdomen yellow,
with ciliated margin. Found in Spain.

Heamorruorpars. Black, the abdomen with five yel-
low {pots on each fide, the toes and legs red. Found in
South America.

Epniprtum. Black, the thorax with a red dorfal fpot.
Found in South America. .
Hairs black, thorax reddifh before, the fecond

RapuLa.
and third fegments of the abdomen yellow. Found in New
Holland.

Dorsata. Black, the fecond and third fegments of the
abdomen yellow. A Coromandel infe&.

Ruricornis. Ferruginous {potted with black, yellow

abdomen, and four black bands. Found in T'ranquebar.
Tricinera. Black, the abdomen with three yellow
bands, the anus and legs ferruginous. Found in South
America.
CoLraris.
villous, behind retufe, with cinereous wings.

Malabar.

Black, the thorax on the fore-part cinereous
Found in

Morto. Black, with brown wings, pofterior thighs
banded with cinereous. Found in Spain.
PEpEsTRIs. Apterous, black variegated with yellow,

thorax compreffed. Found in New Holland.

TIPHLE, in Jchthyology, a name by which fome authors
exprefs the acus, or tobacco-pipe fifh.

TIPICA, in Geography, a town of Peru; 3omiles E. of
Lipes.

TIPING, a town of Corea; 25 miles S.E. of King-
ki-tao.

TIPIOCA, or Tapioca, a name given by fome authors
toafort of cream or flour made from the yucca or manihot-
root, by maceration of it in water, after exprefling the
juice.

TIPOR, in Geography, a town on the weft coaft of
Celebes. S. lat. 2°5!,. E. long. 119° 22).

TIPPACANOE Cnrexrk, a river of North America,
which

TiP

which runs into the Wabafh, N. lat. 40? 18.
86° 56.

TIPPAL, ariver of England, in Northumberland, which
runs into the Tyne, near Haltwhiftle.

TIPPERARY, a county in the province of Muntter,
Ireland, extending in a very irregular form between the
King’s and Queen’s counties on the north, the latter county
and that of Kilkenny on the eaft, the counties of Waterford
and Cork on the fouth, and thofe of Limerick, Clare, and
Galway on the weft. From the two latter counties, the
river Shannon forms a natural boundary ; as the river Suir
does from Waterford for about 15 miles on the fouth. The
length from north to fouth is 52 Irifh (or 734 Englifh) miles,
and its breadth 31 Irifh (or 39% Englifh) miles. It con-
tains 554,950 acres, or 867 fquare Irifh miles, equal to
882,398 acres, or 1420 fquare Englifh miles, including
bogs, mountain, and wafte. There are twelve baronies, two
of which, Upper and Lower Ormond, gave the title of
duke, as they now do that of earl, to the Eianity of Boteler,
or Butler, fo diftinguifhed in Irifh hiftory. The popula-
tion of Ireland not having yet been fatisfactorily afcertained,
little can be faid on the fubjet. Dr. Beaufort tated the
number of houfes in 1792, at 30,703; and from the means
of information he had, and his ufual accuracy, there can be
little doubt of his correétnefs: but from the great increafe
of tillage fince that time, the number of houfes muft have
increafed, though Tipperary has had more caufes to retard
this increafe than any other county in Ireland: 30,703
houfes, at an average of 54 fouls per houfe, would be
about 169,000; but if, according to Mr. Bufhe’s opinion,
as given in the T'ranfaétions of the Irifh Academy, we take
64 as the average, it would exeeed 190,000, a very {mall
population for fuch an extent of grouad. The number of
parifhes is 187, which, when Dr. Beaufort wrote, were com-
prifed in 63 benefices, and had only 46 churches. A number
of churches have however been fince built, as well as feveral
glebe-houfes, and fome benefices have been divided ; to which
the exertions of the prefent archbifhop of Cafhel ( Brodrick)
have greatly contributed. Unions of parifhes which were
formed, when from the ftate of the country the income of a
parifh was very {mall, and the number of inhabitants very
few, are now as unneceflary as they are injurious. The
archbifhopric of Cafhel, and bifhopric of Emly, which are
un'ted, contain 116 parifhes, Waterford 32, and Kil-
laloe 41. Tipperary returns four members to the imperial
parliament, two knights of the fhire, and two for the
boroughs of Clonmell and Cafhel. This reduétion was lefs
than in moft other counties, as Tipperary had only three
boroughs before the Union, of which Featherd was dif-
franchifed. Though the towns reprefented are confider-
able ones, efpecially Clonmell, yet the boroughs are both
what are called eine ones, the proprietors in fact exercifing
an undifputed right of chufing the member. The lands of
Tipperary have been always ranked amongift the molt pro-
duétive in Ireland, and one tra& in sacucui, including the
neighbourhoods of Tipperary and Cafhel, has been called
the Golden vale, on account of its extraordinary fertility.
It has however been always a great grazing country ; and
as this fyftem drives the peafantry into barren mountains, or
forces them to crowd into towns and villages, that they may
procure a precarious and wretched fubiiftence, they too
commonly become turbulent, violent, and difcontented.
Whether this be the caufe or not, fuch is certainly the cha-
racter of the peafantry of this county, who have been en-
gaged in every difturbance, and who are now groaning under
an infurreétion aét, attended with enormous expence, which
the ufual parliamentary opponents of government could not

W. long.

a

ebjec to, and which, though there is an apparent calm, it
would be yet unfafe to repeal. The increafe of tillage
would operate favourably, but the exemption of grazing
land from every kind of tithe, operates as an encourage-
ment to it, which the prefent ftate of the market for grain
is not likely to counteract. Whilit, however, Tip
contains a confiderable portion of very fertile land, it has
alfo extenfive tra€ts of bog and mountain. Of the former,
the moft extenfive is a traét lying in the north-eaft of the
county, between the towns of Rofcrea, Templemore, Ur-
lingford, Littleton, and New Birmingham, and forming a
part of the Great Bog of Allen. This was furveyed by
Mr. Ather, of Caftle-comer, under the dire&tions of the
commiffioners for enquiring into the nature, extent, &c. of
the bogs of Ireland; and from his report it weuld appear,
that about 36,000 acres, moftly in this county, maine be
eafily reclaimed, and at a moderate expence, on account of
the favourable fituation for draining, and the abundance of
limeftone gravel, of which the diftri€& is principally com-
pofed, and which is the beft material for reclaiming them.
To the fouth of this range of bog, and fituated between the
fmall town of Killenaule and the county of Kilkenny, is the
coal diftri&. It refembles what has been called the Leinfter
coal diftri@& in the very able geological and mining report
lately given of that diftri by Richard Griffith, efq.
mining engineer to the Dublin Society. It feems indeed to
be only a continuation of that diftri&, and is feparated from
it by a fecondary limeftone. country. The fpecies of coal
is the carbonaceous or ftone-coal, better known by the name
of Kilkenny coal. To the fouth of this, and in the fouth-
eaftern angle of the county, is Sliebh-na-man mountain.
On the borders of the county of Waterford, over the town
of Cloghen, are the Knockmele-down mountains, which
occupy a confiderable fpace in both counties. Nearly
parallel to thefe, and north of them, are the lofty Galtees,
extending from the borders of Cork and Limerick to the
town of Cahier. Between thefe and the town of Tippe-
rary is the lower range, called Sliebh-na-muck ; but the
greateft extent of mountain croffes the county from fouth-
weft to north-eaft, running from the county of Limerick to
the Queen’s county, and completely feparating the two
Ormonds from the reft of the county. The high hills ad-
joining Limerick are called the Keepe mountains, from the
highett of them, which is a remarkable obje& to the tra-
veller and the adjoining country. The hills near the {mall
town of Silvermines, have been marked in fome maps as the
Silvermines mountains ; others have been called the Devil’s —
Bit ; and adjoining the Queen’s county, they take the name
of the Sliebh-bloom mountains. In this diftriét, lead and
copper mines have been wrought with various fuccefs ; and
{ome parts of it afford fine mill-ftones. The river Suir rifes
in the north of the county, near Rofcrea, and flows from
north to fouth, when it takes an eaftern direétion, and be-
comes the boundary between it and Waterford. This and
its tributary ftreams afford an abundant fupply of water ;
and turn a very great number of boulting-mills. The
weftern divifion of the county has the Shannon for its
boundary, and is well watered by the ftreams which flow to
it from ite range of mountains above mentioned. Clonmell,
on the Suir, and at the fouthern extremity of the county, is
the fhire-town, and though very inconveniently fituated for
the affizes, has an excellent gaol, court-houfe, &c, It isa
place of confiderable trade, and one of the principal inland
towns of Ireland. Cafhel, Rofcrea, Nenegh, TSpperary,
Carrick, and fome others mentioned in their proper places,
are of ref{peétable fize, but none of them diftinguifhed for
trade or manufa&tures, unlefs we except the manufaéture of
ratteens

i a

ratteens,at Carrick. Tipperary was, previous to the arrival
of the Englifh, a part of the kingdom of Muniter; fome-
times feparated as an independent fovereignty under the
kings or princes of Cafhel. The name Ormond is a cor-
ruption of Oir Momond, i.e. Eaft Munfter, and was fo
called in oppofition to Defmond, South Muniter, and
Thomond, North Munfter. After the Englifh fettlement,
the O’Briens were confined to Thomond, the Fitzgeralds
eftablifhed themfelves in Defmond, and the Butlers became
the poffeffors of Ormond and Kilkenny, acknowledging
indeed the fovereignty of England, but maintaining tach
authority as rendered it only nominal. The counties of
Kilkenny and Tipperary were palatinates ; and it was not
till the attainder of the duke of Ormond, in 1716, that this
diftin€t jurifdiGion was abolifhed. As the inhabitants of
Tipperary were atively engaged againft the Proteftants in
1641 and the fucceeding years, great forfeitures took place
on Cromwell’s fuccefs, and many of the prefent landholders
are defcendants from his officers: Tipperary abounds with
ruins. The number of old caftles is very great, fome of
them boldly fituated, and forming very ftriking objects to
the traveller: fuch as the caftle of Ardfinnan, built by
king John, and that of Cahier, on an ifland in the Suir,
The chief ecclefiaftical ruins are thofe of Holycrofs, Mo-
naincha, and Cafhel, which all deferve to be vifited by the
curious. No ftatiftical account has been publifhed of the
county of Tipperary, and there appear to be very {canty
materials for its hiftory.

Tipperary, a market and poft-town in the county of the
fame name, 87 miles S.W. from Dublin, and about 20
miles N.W. from Clonmell, on the road to Limerick. Its
name is faid to be in Irifh Tiobrad-arain, fignifying the wel!
of the territory called drain. The town ts not large, and
ree to be in a ruinous condition, though it was formerly
of fufficient importance to give its name to the county.
The adjoining county is very rich, and there are fome fine
feats, setially Thomaftown, the fplendid feat of the earl
of Llandaff, defcended from the Mr. Matthew whom Swift
vifited ; and Damers-Court, a feat of the earl of Dor-
chefter. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of Emly, the
church of which was once the metropolitan church of
Munfter, and which ftill gives name to a bifhopric, united
to the archiepifcopal fee of Cafhel.

TIPRA. See Tipera.

TIPREE, a dry meafure at Bombay ; where the candy
contains 8 parahs, the parah 16 adowlies, 64 feers, or 128
tiprees. Rice is fold by the batty meafure, in which the
morah is = 4 candies, or 25 parahs, the parah 20 adowlies,
150 feers, or 300 tiprees. A candy is = 25 Winchelter
bufhels nearly.

TIPSA, in Geography, a town of Algiers, in the province
of Conftantina, on the borders of Tunis, near the banks of the
Melagge, anciently called Tipa/a ; at prefent a frontier city
and garrifon of the Algerines.. ‘This place, which enjoys a
fine Fiuasion; with fome mountains at 2 fmall diitance, ftill
preferves the principal gate, feveral fragments of old walls,
and other marks of the rank and figure it formerly obtained
amongft the cities of Numidia ; 85 miles S.E. of Conitantina.
N. lat. 35 E. long. 8°.

TIPSTAVES, officers appointed by the marfhal of the
king’s bench, to attend the judges with a rod or flaff tipped
with filver, and take charge of fuch perfons as are either
committed, or turned over at the judge’s chambers.

The denomination is alfo fometimes given to thofe more
frequently called doffons ; who are the wardens of the Fleet’s
officers, attending the king’s court with a painted ftaff, for
the taking into cuftody fuch prifoners as are committed by

VoL. XXXV.

Saul.

LLY
ine court ; and to attend fuch prifoners as go at large by
icence.

TIPUL, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the people
of the Philippine iflands, to a {pecies of crane common there,
and fo tall, that when it ftands ereét, it can look over a man’s
head. See Doncon.

TIPULA, in Entomology, a genus of the Diptera order of
infects, the characters of which are, that the mouth has a ver
fhort probofcis, membranaceous, canaliculated on the back,
receiving a briftle ; the hauftellum fhort, without a vagina ;
the feelers two, incurved, equal, filiform, longer than the
head: the antennz are moitly filiform.

The fmaller fpecies of this genus fo much refemble gnats,
that the generality of authors, not excepting even Goedart
and Swammerdam, have confounded the two genera, and
defcribed thefe among the gnats.

The long form of the body, the pofition of the wings, and
the length and pofition of the legs, are the circumftances
that make the refemblance between the gnats and tipulz ;
but the ftru€ture and organs of the head are alone a very
fufficient diftinGion.

As the tipulz differ from the gnats in the figure of the
mouth, and in being without a trunk, they differ as much
from the other flies of that character, by their refembling the
gnat in the fhape of their body. They differ alfo in the
conformation of the mouth, and its feveral parts and organs.
The opening of the mouth is a flit extending itfelf from the
fore part of the head toward the hinder part, and its lips
cannot be called upper and lower ; but they are lateral ones.
When the body of the creature is preffed, this mouth opens,
and fhews what feem to bea fecond pair of lips within.
Thefe are more firmly clofedthan the others, and refemble only
certain duplications of the flefh. The exterior lips are carti-
laginous, and are furnifhed with fhort hairs ; the interior are
perfeétly fmooth, and of a flefhy texture. The head of the
tipula is of a long and flender figure ; the lips are articulated
at the extremity of this head, and on each fide there ftands,
on the upper part, a fort of beard, which, when minutely exa-
mined, is found to be articulated in the manner of the an-
tenne of infeéts. Thefe two beards, in their ufual po-
fition, are placed clofe together, and bent forwards over
the head; their office feems to be the covering of the
aperture of the mouth. Thefe feem conftantly to be found
in all fpecies of the tipulz, and placed exactly in the fame
manner.

The largeft fpecies of tipule are ufually found in our
meadows, and thefe are in no danger of being confounded
with the gnat kind, their fize alone being a fufficient obvious
diftin@tion. Thefe are often found of nearly an inch in
length from head to tail; but their bodies are very flender,-
and are compofed of only nine rings. ‘The male tipula is
eafily diftinguifhed, at fight, from the female; it is much
fhorter in the body, and is thicker at the tail than any where
elfe; this tail alfo ufually turns upwards, whereas that of
the female is placed in the fame line with the body, and is
flender, and compofed of feveral fcaly parts, proceeding from
the laft ring of the body. Thefe creatures are found in our
meadows through the whole fummer ; but the end of Sep-
tember and beginning of O&tober is the time when they are
moftt of all plentiful.

The legs of thefe creatures are greatly difproportioned to
the body, according to the common rules of nature, efpe-
cially the hinder pair, which are in the larger fpecies ufually
three times the length of the body.

This large fpecies is a creature of no great beauty ; its
body is of a brownifh colour, and its coreclet is fo elevated,
that the creature feems hump-backed ; the head is {mall, and

4Y the

TIPULA.

the neck very fhort; the reticulated eyes are fo large, that
they cover almoft the whole furface of the head ; thefe are
of a greenifh colour, with a caft of purple, when viewed in
fome lights. Reaumur fuppofes that two very lucid f{pecks,
on the anterior part of the breaft, are eyes, though placed
in fo very fingular a manner ; the wings of this creature are
long, but very narrow, and feem fcarcely well proportioned
to the fize of the animal ; they are tranfparent, but have a
flight caft of brown ; and their ribs, when viewed by the
microfcope, appear befet with fcales, or feathers, in the
manner of thofe of the gnat kind. Some fpecies of the
tipule have them alfo fringed with thefe fcales at the edges ;
there are no ailerons, or petty wings, at the origin of thefe,
but in the place of them there are two very fine balancers or
mallets ; thefe have long pedicles, and roundifh or oval heads ;
the ftigmata of the corcelet are four ; one pair is placed im-
mediately underneath thefe balancers, and the other imme-
diately below the firft pair of legs; the firft pair is very
long, the others fmall, and thofe on the rings of the body, if
there be any, are too fmall for our fight, even with good
glafles. ach ring of the body is compofed of two half
eylinders, which are joined into one, by means of a mem-
brane, which gives them room to diftend or clofe up at the
creature’s pleafure. The large tipule all carry two anten-
nz, or horns, upon their heads; but thefe are of no remark-
able ftruéture, they are only compofed of a great number of
joints, each covered with a fine downy hairinefs; and at the
joining of each to the next, there is a tuft of longer and
more {tiff hairs. This is the defcription of the common large
tipule which we find in the meadows, and in almoft all its
parts is applicable to the generality of the larger fpecies of
thefe infects.

The {maller kinds are very numerous, and of great variety.
Thefe are frequent in all places, and at all feafons of the
year ; the {pring fhews us immenfe clouds of them, and even
the coldeft winter’s day fhews a great number of them in the
fun-fhine about noon. Thefe creatures fly much better than
the larger tipule ; they feem indeed to be almoft continually
upon the wing, and their manner of flight is very fingular ;
they are continually mounting and defcending again, and that
without quitting the direétion of the line in which they go
forward ; this they will often do for many hours together.
In tracing thefe flies from their origin, they are all found to
be produced from worms which have no legs, and have aregu-
lar fealy head. 'Thofe from which the larger tipule are pro-
duced live under ground; they are moft fond of marfhy
places, but any ground will do that is not often difturbed.
They ufually are found at about an inch under the furface,
and are fo plentiful in fome places as greatly to injure the
herbage.

Thefe creatures do not find it neceflary to their living,
that plants fhould be upon the furface of the earth in which
they live. There is frequently found in the hollows of the
ftumps of old trees, a fort of earth which feldom produces any
vegetables ; yet the female flies of this fpecies well know that
their young will find a proper fubfiftence there ; and there
are ufually found great numbers of them in all thefe places.
The hollow elms and willows, fo common in our hedges, and
by ditch fides, afford innumerable proofs of this: but it
mutt be obferved, that they are only found in fuch earth of
this kind as is continually fomewhat moitt.

M. Reaumur mentions a very fingular fpecies of large
tipulea, which was produced with him from one of the
worms found in the earth of an old elm; this was of the
larger kind, and had fome beautiful {pots on the wings. It
had alfo a very elegant tufted antenna; whereas, in the
common large tipule, thefe are plain and fimply granulated

2

ones, as well in the males as females. Reaumur’s Hift. Inf.
vol. ix. p. 7, &c.

The numerous fpecies are diftributed, by Gmelin, into
feveral claffes, as follow : ;

* With patent Wings.

Pectinicornis. With pectinated antenne ; the wings
with a black fpot; the thorax yellowifh. Found in moift
places in Europe.

Rivosa. With hyaline wings; rivules brown, with a
fnowy fpot. Frequent in Europe.

Srxuata. With white wings, finuated margin and {pots
brown ; cinereous body, and ferruginous feet. Found in
the north of Europe.

QuapRiMAcuLATA. With wings brown-veiny, margin
and four {pots brown ; abdomen above yellowifh. There is
a variety denominated calmarienfis. Found is the meadows

of Europe.

Crocara. With wings having a brown fpot; ab-
domen black, yellow bands. Frequent in the north of
Europe.

Oxeracea. With hyaline wings ; the margin of the rib
brown. Found in Europe at the roots of pot-herbs, grain,
&e. &e.

Hortorum. With hyaline wings; feattered obfolete
{pots. Found among the pot-herb plants of Europe.

Tricotor. With whitifh wings; the exterior margin
and bifid apex brown. Found in North America.

TRIANGULARIS. With wings dimidiate-brown, and
white triangular {pot. Found in Scotland.

VarieGaTta. Black ; bafe and fides of the abdomen red,
{potted with yellow. Found in the gardens of Europe.

Contaminata. Black, with white wings ; two bands,
and a point black. Found in moift places of Europe.

Lunara. With afh-coloured wings, and white marginal
lunule. Found in the meadows of Europe.

Turcica. With veiny wings; white marginal lunule ;
cinereous body, and abdomen with a black dorfal line.

Prarensis. With variegated thorax; brown abdomen ;
fides {potted with yellow ; front tawny. Found in the mea-
dows of Europe, deftroying the roots of graffes.

Dorsauis. Yellowifh; brown back; hyaline wings ;
marginal fpot black. Found in Germany and Italy.

Prumsra. Brown-cinereous, with white wings ; rib and
nerves black. An Italian infect.

Terrestris. With hyaline wings; brown marginal
point ; back of the abdomen cinereous. Found in Europe.
See Crane-Fly.

Cornicina. With hyaline wings, marginal point brown :
abdomen yellow ; three lines brown. Found in Europe at
the roots of plants.

Nicra. With brown wings, and black body. Found
among the plants of Europe.

Avsimana. Black, with teftaceous thighs, and hinder
tarfi white.

Cosraxis. Sordidly yellow ; with antenne twice longer
than the body ; hyaline wings, and brownifh cofta. Found
in Van Diemen’s Land.

Cravires. Brown; with tarfi annulated with white in
the middle ; ovated, incraflated. Found in North America.

Arata. With glaucous wings; marginal point and
body black ; firft fegment of the abdomen and feet red. An
European infect.

BimacutaTa. With hyaline wings ; two brown {pots ;
the middle of the abdomen {potted ferruginous ; plumofe an-
tenne ; as the former.

ANNULATA,

TIPULA.

ANNULATA. With wings variegated with brown ; thighs
with white rings ; as the former.

Ocetxaris. With whitifh wings, very numerous, blackith,
ocellar fpots. North of Europe.

Cinerea. With whitifh wings, three brown fpots, ci-
nereous unfpotted body. A Norwegian infeé.

Fascrata. With whitith wings, four brown flexuofe
bands ; abdomen and feet yellowifh. Found in the marfhes
of Sweden.

MELANocEPHALA. Teftaceous; head and dorfal line of
the thorax black ; wings hyaline ; three brown ftreaks. A
Cayenne infe@.

Sexruncrata. With white wings; three marginal
brown points ; thorax comprefled, yellow ; dorfal line black.
Found in Italy.

Fiavires. Brown, with obf{cure wings {potted cine-
reous, and three brown coftal fpots; feet yellowifh ; joints
brown.
Tripuncrara. With hyaline wings ; three marginal
points brown ; yellow body. Found in Italy.

FLaAvescens. With unfpotted wings; yellow body ;
brown back. - Found in the fields of Europe.

Ensirormis. With lanceolate ferrulate antennz ; wings,
veins, and fpot black. Found in Sweden.

ReGeLationis. With hyaline glofly wings; cinereous
brown body. Found frequently in Europe.

Pirires. Cinereous ; with ftriated brownith wings ; fore-
moft legs hairy

Morio. Black; with white wings; marginal point
brown ; pallid feet.

Repricata. With hyaline wings; margin flender, re-
curved; body brown; fimple antenne. Found in the
waters of the north of Europe.

Monorrera. Black ; with feet and feelers pallid. North
of Europe.

Arunpineti. Whitith ; villofe antenne ; black eyes.
Found among the reeds of Europe.

Barsicornis. Black; with plumofe antennz ; fimple
atthe apex. Found occafionally in Europe.

GicanTea. With wings brown, hyaline, waved longi-
tudinally in the middle. Found in the gardens of Auttria
and France.

Venosa. With hyaline wings ; veins brown, and brown
margin. In Upper Auttria. ‘

Piicata. Cinereous ; with hyaline wings ; brown veins ;
external margin and middle line interwoven in fmall folds.
Upper Auitria.

Puncrata. With hyaline wings, pointed with black ;
exterior margin {potted with black. As the former.

Puraconirivis. Yellow; with black head, hyaline
wings, and three black points. Found among the reeds in
‘Auftria,

Lixeara. Yellow; pointed with three lines on the
thorax, and four on the abdomen. Auiftria and Carniola.

Ocreata. Black; with hyaline wings, fpotted and
pointed with black ; the band before the hinder tarfi white.
Upper Auttria. ‘

Brrasciata. Yellow ; with hyaline wings, fubfafciated
with brown. Upper Auttria.

Depressa. With cinereous thorax ; abdomen yellow,
depreffed ; wings yellowifh-brown ; four marginal fpots
brown. An European infec. ;

Discotor. Cinereous ; abdomen on both fides yellowith ;
wings with brown and white fpot. As the former.

Pecrinata. Black; with antenne femi-pectinated ;
glaucous wings ; marginal point and apex large; thighs and
legs red ; apices black. Ass before.

Versicotor. Yellow; thorax yellow, {potted with
black ; abdomen and back, beneath and fides, cinereous ;
wings, veins, and {pot brown. As before.

Macutosa. Black; bill, legs, and apex of abdomen
yellowifh ; wings with fcattered brown fpots. As before.

Lurea. Pale yellow; with yellowifh wings. As
before.

Fuscrres. Black ; with two yellowifh bands on the ab-
domen ; white wings, {potted with black ; yellowith legs,
joints, and foles ; with the toes brown. Ass before.

Quaprirasciata. Cinereous-yellowifh ; with grey
wings ; four yellowifh bands, and margin of cofta pointed ;
with yellow legs ; black joints. Ass before.

OcrorunctatTa. With white wings; eight black
points; black abdomen ; thorax and legs palifh. Found
at Paris.

PanristeNsis. Green; with hyaline wings ; brown
band ; the two bands of the abdomen and anus black. As
before.

Secauts. Cinereous; with ciliated wings ; eyes, anten-
nz annulated with white; the apex of the abdomen and
feet black. Found in fields of rye. Gmelin queries whe-
ther the two lait fpecies belong to this tribe of infeéts.

* With incumbent Wings : “ Culiciform.”

Piumosa. With greenifh thorax ; white wings ; brown
point ; and plumofe antennez. In the marfhes of Europe.

Lirroratis. Greenifh; with unfpotted wings; and
fore-legs very long. In the maritime parts of Europe.

Cixcra. Livid; with wings and three marginal {pots
black ; the abdomen black, annulated with white. Found
in Sweden.

Morirarrix. With fore-legs very large and motatory ;
with white ring. Frequent in Europe, yellow-green.

Piticornis. Blackifh ; fore-legs as before ; thorax li-
neated ; white wings unfpotted.

Fascicutata. Black ; fore-legsas before ; fides of the
abdomen fpotted with ferruginous. Found in Germany.

TeENDENS. Ferruginous ; with white unfpotted wings ;
fore-legs very long and pale. In marfhes of Denmark.

Vipratoria. Fore-legs very large, motatory ; white
at the apex. Foundin marfhes of Europe.

Varia. Brown; fore-legs elongated; abdomen yel-
lowifh ; wings varied with white and black.

Tremuta. Fore-legs very long, motatory ; black, with
white wings. In the marfhes of Sweden. ;
Frexizis. Fore-legs motatory, all pallid; wings with

dufkyifh band. In the watery places of Europe.

Moniis. With white legs, nine black rings; wings
varied with white and cinereous. In the gardens of Eu-
rope. *

Zonata. Pallid; with wings, two bands, and three

points brown; thighs with brown angle. Found in

Orford.

Virens. Green; with unfpotted wings; brown foles.
A Swedifh infe&.

Viriputa. Green; with antennz verticillate, hairy ;
pallid legs. North of Europe.

GernicuLaTa. Beneath yellowifh; lines of the thorax
and back of the abdomen black, with white immaculate
wings.

pe ieies Smooth-brown; with hyaline unfpatted
wings, and palifh legs.

MacrocepHaLa. Greenifh; with eyes and back of
the thorax black. In the marfhes and moift fhores of
Europe,

PusincA. Green; with three black {pots on the hinder
4Y2 part

fe a

part of the thorax ; antenne of the male plumofe. In the
lakes of Europe.

Marci. Black, fmooth; with blackifh wings ; fore-
thighs furrowed inwards. In the dunghills and putrefcent
foil of Europe: probably a variety of hortulana ?

Tuoma. Black, fmooth; with black wings; fides of
the abdomen marked with a faffron line. At Upfal.

CHRYSANTHEMI. Black, fmooth; the abdomen red at
the bafe; the antennz incraffated, pilofe. On the chryfan-
themus coronarius of Spain.

Ferruainata. Black, fmooth; brown wings ; abdomen
brown-ferruginous. South of Europe.

Jouannis, Black, {mooth ; white wings; black point ;
fhort antenne ; black legs. In fhady parts of Europe.

Pomonz. Black, fmooth; hyaline wings ; black point ;
ferruginous thighs. In the plains of England and
Norway.

Ruricotus. Black, fmooth; red thorax. At the
Cape of Good Hope.

Brevicornis. Black, fmooth; with wings blackifh at
the margin ; abdomen brown; fore-fhanks fpinofe. In the
fhady gardens of Europe.

Purris. Brown; the bafe of the wings cinereous.
the teeming foil at the commencement of Pane

Fesritis. Black, oblong, hairy ; with blackifh wings.
An European infeét in clofe places.

Insutanis. Black, hairy ; with ferruginous legs, hinder
elongated.

Forcipata. With cylindric black abdomen; wings
brown-hyaline ; anus appendiculated. An Englifh infec.

In

Vernans. Cinereous; thorax black-lineated; white
wings {potted with brown. In meadows of Denmark.
Froriteca. Black, filken. On the apple-flowers of

Europe, which it deftroys.

Horturana. With hyaline wings; exterior margin
black. In the flowers of afparagus and apple.

PHALZENOIDES. With wings deflexed,. cinereous, ovate-
lanceolated, ciliated. In. the walls of dunghills and mixens
of Europe.

Hirta. Hairy ; with wings deflexed, ovate-ciliated,
teffellated with white and black. In Lapland.

Persicari&£. Black; with wings incumbent, —fubci-
liated ; under the leaves of the peach-tree.

Norata. Black; with white wings; with a white {pot
in front of the fides of the abdomen. In Europe.

Juntrerina. Cinereous; with white wings; margin
villous ; found in the juniper.
Cunicirormis. Cinereous, with pallid legs; wings

marked with two blackith fpots. At Upfal.

IncarNATA. Incarnated ; with moderate antenne. At
Upfal.
Patustris. Pallid ; black head ; reddifh abdomen. In

marfhes of Europe.

Loneicornis. With antenne longer than the incarnated
body. In moift places of Europe.

Ruripes. Black; with red legs; wings black in the
middle ; yellowifh at the bafe. North of Europe.

SticricaA. Black; fegments of the abdomen white at
the apex ; wings with abrown point. In Germany.

Patuipa. Pallid, pilofe; legs pun&tated with black.
In Germany.

Harniensis. Brown; lateral line of the thorax and
legs whitifh, unfpotted.

FLABELLIcORNIS. Pallid; abdomen annulated with
black ; wings fpotted. Germany.

Birunctata. Brown; wings cinereous; marginal
point white. Found in Europe.

ei R

Srricea. Black; back black; fides of the thorax
bare; balancers yellow. In Sweden.

Mixvutissima. Yellow; eyes concurring in the vertex
black. In the ditches of Sweden and Auftria.

Puxicaris. Black; fides of the thorax, fcutellum, and
abdomen yellow. Inthe ditches of Europe.

Pennicornis. With antenne bipeinate ; black body ;
halteres, or balancers, white. In the flowers of ariftolochia
clematis.

Scaruorse. Black; antenne moniliform; with wings
incumbent hyaline. In the privies of Auftria. :

Buxr. Yellow; head and thorax black; wings brown
incumbent. In the box-tree of Europe.
Berserina. With wings incumbent, fuliginous;

{potted white at the bafe and margin. In the excrefcences
of the barbery.
Lurescens. Yellowifh ; three brown fpots on the back ;
antenne plumofe. Found in Europe. : :
Tripasciata. Ferruginous ; with three bands on the
wings. In Europe. >
Mutticotor. Yellowifh body; greenifh abdomen ;
white wings with a brown band. As before. i
Asa. Grey; with white wings and abdomen; the
apex of the latter brown. As before.

Carsonaria. Black; legs ferruginous; wings hya-
line. As before. ;

Prumiconnis. Brown; antenne brownith-plumofe ;
legs yellowith. As before.

Dicnroa. Black; legs ferruginous. As before.

Leucorrera. Brown; apex of abdomen and legs pale
yellowith ; wings white. As before.

MoscuiFERA. Wings cinereous ; thorax and abdomen
yellow. Found in Chili,

TIPULA Waspe. See Wasp Tipula.

TIQUADRA, in Ancient Geography, one of the {mall
iflands fituated near the Balearic iflands, near the town o'
Palma. f

TIQUINA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the dio-
cefe of La Paz; 55 miles N.N.W. of La Paz.

TIR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Khoraflan ;
40 miles N. of Herat.—Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Farfiftan; 50 miles N.E. of Schiras. '

TIRABOSCHI, Grroramo, dbate, in Biography,
author of the beft hiftory of Italian literature which that
country, fertile in men of learning, tafte, and talents, has
produced. He was born at Bergamo in 1731, and is
ityled Cavaliere by his biographer, and the lalt editor of
his Hiftory, in a life prefixed to the index of the fecond
edition, publifhed at Modena in 1794. He had his educa-
tion in the Jefuits’ college from fifteen till the abolition of
the order. He was profeilor of eloquence in the univerfity
of Brera at Milan till the year 1770, when he was appointed
prefe& of the Efte library at Modena, by the intereft of
count Firmian. He firft diflinguifhed himfelf, after this
appointment, by a new edition of the Italian and Latin
Vocabulary of Mandofio ; which work was almoft wholl
new written by him; and corrected and augmented with
the moft refined purity of the two languages; and the
Latin and Italian orations which he delivered publicly at
Milan, two of which were printed, and eftablifhed his
reputation for eloquence. :

He diftinguifhed himfelf during the firft years of his pra-
fectorfhip of the duke of Modena’s library, by drawing
up a new catalogue of the manufcripts, books, medals,
gems, and rarities of that celebrated library, and com-
piled the firft volume of his Hiftory of Italian Literature,
publifhed in 1771, which manifefted fuch tafte and folid

learning

TIR

learning as altonifhed his readers ; but the public in general
was itill more aitonifhed at his finifhing the whole work
in eleven years, confifting of thirteen large volumes in 4to. ;
a work which, by its immenfe erudition, profound critical
difcuffions, and judgment in every kind of literature, ac-
quired him the praife of the whole republic of letters.

Befides this great work, he produced during the fame
period the life of St. Olympia; a letter on the comparative
excellence of Italian and Spanifh literature ; the life of Ful-
vio Tefto; the two firft volumes of the Biblioteca Modenefe ;
and all the articles which he furnifhed to the twenty-three
firft volumes of the Giornale di Modena, a kind of review
and hiftory of new books and difcoveries in arts and {ciences
within the year.

He was knighted by the duke of Modena, though a re-
gular beclehaitie, and ennobled by his feliow-citizens at
Bergamo. To enable him to proceed in his great work
with more convenience, his patron augmented his appoint-
ment, and gave him an afiiftant in the library.

His correfpondence with the learned throughout Europe
rauft have occupied much of his time: as at his deceafe, among
his papers were found materials for twenty-eight volumes of
original letters addreffed to him as author of the Literary
Hitftory of Italy, and editor of the Giornale di Modena.
Tn his numerous minor produtions, as well as in thofe of
greater volume and importance, he difcovers himfelf to have
been gifted with a quick penetration, and pofleffed of great
facility in writing, as well as a clear conception of the
works of others, which to have acquired, muft have been
ftudied with conftant application.

This admirable writer died at the age of fixty-two, of a
bloody flux, in 1794.

From this celebrated work, we expected to acquire new
and authentic information concerning the rife and progrefs
of mufic previous to the feventeenth century, in a country
which kas taught every other part of Europe all the refine-
ments of the art, a country in which we fought in vain, by
travelling, converfation, and the perufal of all the books
written by the natives which we could procure on the fub-
ject, to trace the origin of Italian melody. Dull and pe-
dantic elementary books we procured in abundance; but
fearcely any that we could read with pleafure, previous to
the eftablifhment of the opera at the beginning of the feven-
teenth century. Quadrio’s heavy volumes are filled without
tafte, fele€&tion, or folicitude concerning the authenticity
of fa&ts. Padre Martini, unfortunately for modern mufical
hiftory, did not live to finifh his plan; having advanced no
farther than the ancient mufic of the Greeks.

Tirabofchi is copious on all other parts of literature,
arts, and {ciences. It is only on mufic, and mufical writers,
our peculiar refearch, that we have ever found him unfatis-
faGtory: we never confulted him on any other fubje&
unprofitably. The little he tells us of Pythagoras, Arif-
toxenus, the Etrufcans, and Guido, we had often previoufly
read in innumerable books in various languages.

He fpeaks of the Lyric poetry of the Greeks and Ro-
mans; but that of the Italians has not furnifhed an ar-
ticle. We did hope to be informed what kind of melodies
were fet to the fongs of Dante, Petrarca, and Boccaccio.
We could not reafonably expeét fpecimens of this melody
in notation, any more than prints of pi€tures and buildings
that are mentioned in his work ; but when a capital work
of Raphael, Michael Angelo, or Palladio is Mentioned, we
are generally told where it is to be feen, or at leaft where
it Aas been feen. Had Tirabofchi told his readers where
the original melodies to the fongs of the old Italian poets

6

DER

were to be found, it would have been a great fatisfaétion
to thofe who confult books for ufeful and folid.information,
or feek in them for any thing but mere amufement.

Of the laft century he fays nothing, as his plan went
no farther than the end of the feventeenth century. And,
indeed, of that period, his information is very fcanty ;
neither Cariffimi nor Stradella, the two beft compofers
which Italy had then produced ; nor among contemporary
theorifts, or writers on harmonics, is any notice taken of
Lemme Roffi, or Daniel Bartoli, authors of two books,
which in a general hiftory of literature ought to have been
mentioned. See Bartow, and Rossi.

TIRACHEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea,
in the Decapolis, on the coaft of the fea of Galilee.

TIRADE, in French Mufic, formerly implied what the
Greeks meant by wywyw, agoge, dufus, the filling up a wide
interval by the intermediate diatonic notes. (See Greex
Mufic.) But, at prefent, tirade feems nearly equivalent to
volata in Italian; a divifion, a flight.

TIRAGHT, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic,
ne the W. coaft of Ireland; 8 miles S.W. of Dunmore-

ead.

TIRAMANGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Ma-
dura; ro miles S.W. of Madura.

TIRAMANY-MUTOO, a river-of Hindooftan, which
runs into the Cauvery ; 8 miles N. of Carroor.

TIRAN. See Tyran.

TIRANADUM, or Tinixapum, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cefariana, on the
route from Carthage to Cefarea, between Rapidum and
Caput-Cillanum. Anton. Itin.

TIRANDURG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 12 miles $.S.E. of Oufloor.

TIRANO, atown of Italy, in the department of the
Lano, late belonging to the Grifons, the capital of the
Upper Terzero, and refidence of a governor called Podeita,
on the Adda, which divides it into two parts, connected by a
{tone bridge of a fingle arch : formerly furrounded with walls
by Ludovico Sforza, as a defence againft the Grifons, who de-
ftroyed the fortifications when they gained poffeffion of the
Valteline. The chief trade is in wine and filk, which is not
confiderable. The wine is fent into the country of the Grifons,
to Bormio, and into.the territories of Venice ; the filk, which
is drawn from this diftri& of the Valteline, is not of the bett
quality, nor very abundant ; part is forwarded to Venice,
and the remainder, through Chiavenna, to Germany. About
half a mile from the town, on the other fide of the Adda,
is the church of the Madonna, or Virgin, much vifited by
Catholic pilgrims ; the modern building annexed to what re-
mains of the old edifice is in an elegant ftyle of architecture,
and the era of it is 1533, the ancient part having been
ereéted in 1206. In the area before the church is held the
fair of Tirano, remarkable for the number of cattle brought
hither for fale; they are fed upon the higheft Alps, where
they continue until the {now begins to fall, and are chiefly
fent from hence into Italy. The fair is in Oétober, and
lafts three days, during which time the authority of the
podefta is fufpended, and the governor of the Valteline has
abfolute jurifdi€tion over the town and the diftri@; 24
miles E.N.E. of Morbegno.

TIRANY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;

miles N. of Ootatore.

TIRA'TA, in old Jtalian Mujfic, implied a recular af-
cent or defcent of notes of the fame kind ; but, at prefent,
the term has a more extenfive acceptation than its original

import, drawn out: as when a fubject is well treated, pro-
ductive

TIER

duGtive of beautiful paffages, made the moft of by a com-
pofer ; it is then faid to be ben tirato. “gee” ,

TIRBIA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ;
16 miles N.W. of Urgel.

TIRE, or, as the feamen pronounce it, tier of guns.
See Tier. ?

TIREBOLI, in Geography, a river of Turkith Arme-
nia, which runs into the Black fea at Tirebolii—Alfo, a
town of Turkifh Armenia, on the Black fea, at the mouth
of a river of the fame name ; 20 miles N.E. of Kerefour.

TIREH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, fituated
on the Meinder; the inhabitants are chiefly Turks; 32
miles $.S.E. of Smyrna. N. lat. 38° 8’. E. long. 27° 4o!.

TIRES of Wheels, in Rural Economy, the traps, flips,
bands, or hoops of iron which are put round them for the
purpofe of guarding and proteéting them againtt the effects
of the roads, as well as fecuring and keeping them tight in
their different parts. The moft advantageous and beneficial
form of tire for wheels of different kinds and breadths in
different points of view, have probably not yet been well af-
certained. It is obvious, however, that it fhould be fuch
as may have the leaft poffible tendency to penetrate and
deitroy the furfaces on which the wheels aét and move. It
would appear, that almoft all of thofe who have written on
this fubjeét, have gone upon a wrong or falfe principle ;
nearly all having direéted that the exterior furface,
when more bands than one are ufed, as in the cafe of
broad-wheeled waggons, fhould be unequal ; in fuch a man-
ner as that the centre band may receive the whole of the
preflure, when the road is even and compofed of hard ma-
terials ; the other bands being only in readinefs to fuftain
their portions of the burthen, when, either from unevennefs
or the want of firmnefs in it, they may be brought into
contact with: it.

It is well known, however, to every one, that it is the
nature of a wedge to work its way, when forcibly applied
to a cleft or opening ; and that the extent of its penetration
will depend on the fharpnefs or acutenefs of its wedge-
form, and the power by which it is impelled. Admitting
this to be the fact, it is plain that every wheel, the tire of
which aéts in the fmalleit degree as a wedge, muift enter a
loofe foil, furface, or road, more or lefs, in proportion as
its edge or projeétion is more or lefs acute and protruding,
or the contrary.

A rolling cylinder is not eafily capable of penetrating
below the Firface, for this reafon, that it prefents no one
protruding point ; but where a rolling body {wells out in a
projecting manner in the middle, it will unqueftionably aé&
or work deeper in that part where it is the moft promi-
nent, than in any other, as it is a fort of obtufe wedge.
And fuch muft be the cafe in every wheel of which the
tire is not cylindrical ; as when its protruding part gets
in, the whole body foon finds its way.

A broad flat tire is not, however, without its inconve-
nience ; as, whether the road be good or bad, it prefents
the fame furface, and, of courfe, is as much refifted in its
front, while on a hard furface, as while on one into which it
finks. Confequently, the cylindrical tire can never draw
light and free, though it will not by any means penetrate
deeply into any tolerably found furface.

Flat tires are probably, however, the beft of any for
narrow wheels.

In confequence of the above, it has been propofed by
fome, that every wheel fhould be furnifhed with a concave
or hollow tire which is cylindrical; but, that after leaving
two rims, of proportionate breadth, at the edges, the whole

rik

intermediate fpace fhould be fcooped out, or otherwife hol-
lowed. By this means, on hard roads, the wheel would
ride on the two rims only: while on foft roads, the whole
would bear up the burthen. All fuch wheels, the tires
of which have even the fmalleft tendency to a wedge-like
form, invariably, it is faid, throw the foil or earth from
them; fqueezing it out at the fides, and burying them-
felves, not only in the furrows they make, but under the.
very mud which they force from out of them: while, on
the contrary, the concave tire, it is fuppofed, keeps in the
foft foil, unlefs, indeed, it be in an abiolutely floppy itate,
and forces it, by compreffion, to bear up the weight or
burthen. It is obferved, that let two wheels be tried on
a meadow which is not very firm in its furface, the cylin-
drical tired wheel will, affuredly, at better than that with
a receding or convex edged fort of tire ; but that the con-
cave tired wheel could not, it is believed, fail to difplay
its fuperiority in feveral of the moft defirable points and
re{pects.

Let it be fuppofed thatthe tire of a waggon-wheel is
nine inches in breadth, and cylindrical: at the two edges
leave a band of one inch in breadth, or more; then groove
out the intermediate fpace, to an inch and a half in depth
in the centre, rounding it in gradually. Such a tired
wheel would, it is faid, on a hard road, prefent only two
inches of bearing ; while the refiftance would gradually in-
creafe in proportion as the incumbent weight, and the
foftnefs of the furface over which it may be proceeding,
fhould bring the whole to bear in an equal manner. The
foft foil could not efcape fo eafily, at leaft, it is conceived,
from under a concave tire, as thofe of the oppofite kind,
confequently it could not add to the exterior impediments
of wheels.

It muft neverthelefs be admitted, it is faid, that the con-
cave tire is liable to fome difadvantage ; for inftance, it will
at times clog, and, pofiibly, not only choke its own groove,
but even accumulate confiderably more ; which will adhere
to the clay and other matters with which the groove may
be filled. In this way, it would, in fa, it is chatehe be-
come, in a certain meafure, cylindrical. But that if it did
no more than fill its groove on heavy foils, it would not
prove fo highly obje@tionable ; for, on fuch, the whole
breadth of the tire ought to prefs the foil or furface.

The remedy fuggefted for the above inconvenience, in
fuch cafes, is that of a fuitable fixed {eraper, which has no
difficulty in it, at leaft, for carriages on one pair of wheels,
or for the hind wheels of waggons. Such a feraper, and
the mode of fixing it in fuch cafes, may be feen deferibed in
{peaking of {crapers for different kinds of implements,
tools, &c.

Thefe hints and fuggeftions may be ufeful in leading to
farther improvements on the tires of wheels, which is a
matter of great importance in different points of view, and
which, as has been feen, has yet been thought but little
upon in a proper manner. See WHEEL.

TIREYMEG Lake, in Geography, a lake of North
America. N. lat. 61° 52'.. W. long. 107°.

TIRGUBIS, or Tieust, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia, in Mefopotamia, on the banks of the river Cha-
boras, according to the Theodofian table and Ptolemy ;
fituated N.W. of Refaina.

TIRGUL, in Geography, a town of European Turkeys
in Moldavia; 62 miles W. of Jaffy.

TIRGULFORMOSA, a town of European Turkey,
in Moldavia; 20 miles W. of Jafly.

TIRING,

[i R

TIRING, in Falconry, is the giving a hawk the leg or
pinion of a fowl to pluck at. Did. Ruft.

TIRIPANGADA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptol.

TIRIPIN, in Geography, a fea-port of South America,
in the province of Cumana.

TIRISTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Myfia, near the Danube, between Trimanium and Duruf-
torum, Ptol.

TIRISTRIA, or Terrista, a promontory of Lower
Myfia, on the Euxine fea, between Dionyfopolis and
Odeffus. Ptol.

TIRKA, in Geography, atown of Africa, in the king-
dom of Ghana, on the north fide of the Niger; 120 miles
E. of Ghana. N. lat. 15° 20'._E. long. 14° 30’.

TIRLEMONT, a town of France, in the department
of the Dyle, called by the people of the country Tienen ;
on the Geete. It was anciently one of the principal cities
of Brabant, and made a fourth quarter in the aflembly of
the States; but that precedence was afterwards removed
to Bois-le-Duc. It certainly has been a very flourifhing
and populous city, and many vettiges of its grandeur are
yet vilible ; but it has fuffered much by war, and other ca-
lamities ; g miles S.E. of Louvyaine.

TIRMAKUL, a fort of Hindooftan, near Gooty,
taken by the Britith in 1801.

TIRMANIZ, a mountain extending from Bukovina to
Tranfylvania.

TIRNA, a river of Hungary, which runs into the Da-
nube, a few miles below Prefburg.

TIRNAU,atown of Hungary, containing nine churches,
and as many convents. This town was built in the thir-
teenth century; 20 miles E.N.E. of Prefburg. N. lat.
48° 24. E. long. 17° 44’.

TIROAN. See Taron.

TIROCOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
8 miles S. of Calloor.

TIRRETO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ;
15 miles E.S.E. of Reggio.

TIRROUP-MEW,, a town of the Birman empire: the
meaning of the word is the Chinefe city, and the appellation
was derived from a victory obtained over the Chinefe fome
centuries ago, when they invaded Birmah; 35 miles N.E.
of Paghan.

TIRSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
in Mygdonia.

TIRSCHENRIED, in Geography, a town of Bavaria ;
28 miles N.N.E. of Amberg.

TIRSCHNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 4 miles N.W. of Kofteletz.

TIRSIO, in Ichthyology, aname given by Gaza and fome
other authors to the phocena of Willughby and others,
the porpeffe or marfum. Pliny, Bellonius, and many others
call it turfio. d

TIRSRUM, in Geography, a town of Sweden, mn Eaft
Gothland ; 25 miles S. of Linkioping.

TIRUA, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the
coalt of Chili. N. lat. 38° 30!.

TIRUAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bundelcund; 20
miles N.E. of Callinger.

TIRUMBORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura ;
~ 7 miles N.E. of Madura. } : ,

TIRUN, or TEpoNnG, a name given to tribes who live
chiefly on the N.E. coaft of Borneo, and are reckoned a
favage and piratical race, addifted to eating the flefh of
their enemies. Their language is peculiar. It is probable,

a fon

however, that they are only a tribe of Idan, who are ima-
gined to be only a race of Haraforas or Alfoérs, as they
are termed by the Dutch, who feem to be the moft original
race of all the eaftern iflands, excepting perhaps the Papuas.
The Idan are fometimes termed Marut ; they are certainly
the original inhabitants of Borneo, and refemble the Hara-
foras equally in itature, agility, colour, and manners. The
Haraforas are indigenous in almoft all the eaftern ifles, and
are fometimes found on the fame ifland with the Papuas or
oriental negroes. They are often lighter in colour than the
Mahometan races, and generally excel them in ftrength
and aétivity. They are univerfally rude and unlettered, and
where they have not been reduced to the ftate of flaves of
the foil, their manners have a general refemblance. In their
manners, the moft fingular feature is the neceffity impofed
on every perfon, of fome time in his life embruing his hands
in human blood; and, in general, among all their tribes, as
well as the Idan, no perfon is permitted to marry, till he
can fhew the fkull of a man whom he has flaughtered.
They eat the flefh of their enemies, like the Battas, and
drink out of their fkulls; and the ernaments of their houfes
are human fkulls and teeth, which are confequently in great
requeft among them, as formerly in Sumatra, the ancient
inhabitants of which are faid to have originally had no other
money than the fkulls of their enemies. The Haraforas are
found in all the Moluccas, in Celebes, the Philippines, and
Magindano, where they are termed Subano or Manubo ;
and the ferocious race mentioned by Marfden, who live
inland from Samanka in Sumatra, and are accuftomed to
atone their own faults by offering the heads of ftrangers to
the chiefs of their villages, are probably of the fame de-
{cription. Af. Ref. vol. x.

TIRUVELORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 30 miles E. of Tanjore.

TIR-Y, or Tyrie, one of the iflands of the Hebrides,
fituated in the diftri& of Mull, and fhire of Argyle, Scot-
land, is about 11 miles in length, and 24 miles in breadth.
Its coaft is moftly rocky, and interfeéted with many beautiful
fandy bays, fome of thema mile broad. About one-half of
the furface is arable, interfperfed with {mall rocks and rifing
grounds, none of which are above 250 feet above the fea-
Tevel ; but the furface in general is fo even, that the
waves are often feen from the one fhore rifing apparently
feveral feet above the level of the other. In the centre of
the ifland is a large plain, which contains about 1200 Scotch
acres, and is elevated about fix feet only above high-water
mark: confequently, in {tormy weather the fea often meets
acrofs this plain, and is produétive of bad confequences.
The inhabitants have endeavoured to avert this evil by
building a defence of ftone and earth on the one fide,
while the fea, én the other, has raifed a confiderable barrier
of bowlder ftones; yet neither has been fufficient to re-
fift the waves of the Atlantic. Here are feveral lakes,
covering in all about 600 acres: in one of thefe is a fmall
ifland, on which are the ruins of an ancient caftle, on the
{cite whereof aneat houfe has been ereéted for the refidence
of the factor of the duke of Argyle, who is proprietor of
the whole ifland. The fifheries employ a number of hands,
as well as the manufa€ture of kelp, of which about 245
tons are annually made. The hill of Cean-Mharra, the
weitern point of the ifland, is remarkable for a great num-
ber of large natural caves, frequented by innumerable flocks
of fea-fowls. Here are the remains of many Danifh forts,
and alfo of feveral old chapels, at fome of which burying-
grounds and crofles are {till vifible. Inthe time of St,

Columba, this appears to have been part of the pay
)

Tis

of that church. Here is a parochial fchool, and alfo one
eftablifhed by the Society for Promoting Chriftian Know-
ledge, both of which are well attended. The population
of the parifh (which comprehends the iflands of Coll,
Gunna, and Tir-y) was, in the year 1811, eftimated at
3186. There is a regular ferry from Tir-y to Coll, three
miles diftant, which is often dangerous, owing to a heavy
{well from the Atlantic, and a rapid current over rocks and
fhifting fands. The two iflands appear to have been for-
merly united: the ifle of Gunna, which lies in the found,
being apparently part of the intermediate land which has
efcaped deftruétion.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. y. Car-
lifle’s Topographical Dictionary of Scotland, vol. ii.

TIRYNS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Argo-
lide, N. of Midea, fituated in an enclofure of the moun-
tains; called anciently Halicis, or the town of fifhermen,
from its having been the abode of the Hermionean fifher-
men. Inthe time of Paufanias it was in ruins.

TISAUS, or Tiseum, a vety lofty mountain of
Theflaly.

TISALPHATA, a town of Mefopotamia, fituated W.
of the Tigris, on one of the {mall rivers which difcharged
themfelves into the Mygdonius.

TISBURY, in Geography, a {mall fifhhing town on the
N. coaft of Martha’s Vineyard, belonging to the ftate of
Maffachufetts.

TISCHNOWITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle
of Brunn; 13 miles N.W. of Brunn.

TISDRA, Tuspro, or Thy/drus, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Africa, fix leagues S.W. of Sarfura and five
leagues S.W. of Achola. It has many ancient relics of
altars, infcriptions, columns, and fragments of marble ftatues ;
and alfo the remains of an amphitheatre.

TISEBARICA, a country of Ethiopia, according to
fsrrian, which commenced near the port of Berenice, and
extended along the Red fea, as far as the country of the
Mofchophagi.

TISHEET, in Geography, a town of Africa, with a
falt-mine; 150 miles N. of Benown. N. lat. 17° 201.
W. long. 26° so’.

TISHOLTZ, a town of Hungary ; 10 miles E.N.E.
of Libeten.

TISIDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
the command of which, according to Salluft, was given by
Metellus to Jugurtha.

TISIPHONE, in Mythology, onc of the three Furies.
She is reprefented by the poets with vipers, fometimes as
loofe ferpents, intermixed with her hair, and fometimes as
ferpents growing from her head inftead of hair. As fhe is
one of the chief of all the infernal executioners, her robe
is _defcribed either as dropping with frefh blood, or {tiff
with human gore: this robe is faftened round her with a
ferpent inftead of a girdle; and fhe has fometimes vipers
twifted round her arms inftead of bracelets. They fome-
times give her a torch in her hand wet with blood; fome-
times a torch in one hand and a ferpent in the other ; and
fometimes ferpents in both. Statius, Theb. i. v. QI. v.11.
v. 113. ‘Theb. vii. v. 467. Ovid. Met. iy. v. 483. Vv. 490.
Ve 495. Ve 510.

TISMANA, in Geography, a town of Walachia, at the
fource of a river of the fame name; 18 miles W. of Ter-
gofyl—Alfo, a river of Walachia, which runs into the
Syl, 15 miles S. of Tergofyl.

TISQUIUU Laxg, a lake of North America. N. lat.

6° 10’, W. long. 95° 45/.
TISRI, or Tizri, in Chronology, the firll Hebrew

TT

month of the civil year, and the feventh of the ecclefiaftical
or facred year.

The Hebrews call it ra/b-ha/banna, that is, the beginnin
of the year. It anfwered to part of our September aid
O&ober. On the firft day of this month was kept the
feaft of trumpets, becaufe the beginning of the year was
then proclaimed by found of trumpets. On this day they
refrained from all forts of fervile bufinefs, and offered in
facrifice a calf, a ram, and feven lambs. Levit. xxiii. 24.
Numb. xxix. 1.

The tenth day of this month was the great day of expia-
tion, and on the fifteenth the feaft of ‘Tabernacles began,
which lafted till the twenty-fecond day inclufively. See
Scenopecia.

TISSA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Sicily,
at the northern foot of /&tna, near the river Onobala,
Ptol.

TISSANAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbul; 16 miles S.W. of Sumbul.

TISSIA, a town of Bengal; 35 miles S.E. of Pay
lamow. .

TISSUE, Cettutar, in Anatomy, the cellular fub-
ftance. It is an expreffion borrowed from the tiffu cellulaire
of the French, who alfo often call it tifa mugueux. See
CeLiLuLar Subflance.

TISTE, in Geography, a poft-town of Germany, in the
county of Verden; 20 miles N.E. of Rotenburg. *

TISURUS, Tozer, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa Propria, S. of Adrametum, and 4 leagues SW.
of Tichafa. It has fome Roman remains.

TIT, in Geography, a town of Morocco, near the At-
lantic ocean; 8 miles S.W. of Mazagan.

Tir, in Rural Econsmy, a term provincially applied to a
{mall {tiff horfe, or fort of poney, and fometimes to other
horfes, as a handfome or ugly tit, &c.

TITALBARY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 29
miles N.N.W. of Goragot. d

TITALEEA, a town of Bengal; 6 miles E. of Moor-
fhedabad.

TITALLYA, a town of Bengal; 50 miles N. of
Dinagepour.

TITAN. See Levanr.

TITANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicyonia,
E. of the river Sitas, and W. of the river Afopus ; fitu-
ated on a mountain, and regarded asa fortified town. -Here
was a temple of Efculapius, and a ftatue of this god ; and
alfo a itatue of Hygeia. In the temple of Efculapius were
nourifhed facred ferpents.—Alfo, a {mall country of Sicy-
onia. — Alfo, a river of Afia, which had its fource i
mount Zagrus, and flowed into the river Sillas. i

TITANIA, trance, in Antiquity, a feftival in memory —
of the Titans.

TITANID, or Antemin#, the feven daughters of
Chronus, fon of Uranus, by Attarte. ;

TITANIS, in Ancient Geography, a port on the weitern
coaft of Corfica, between the mouth of the river Ticarius
and the town of Fifera. Prtol.

TITANIUM, in Mineralogy, a metal originally dif-
covered by Mr. Gregor of Cornwall, in the grains of a
black mineral found in the bed of a rivulet in the valley of
Menaian, in that county. It occurs alfo in-different ftates
of oxydation or intermixture in various parts of the world;
and, according to the recent obfervations of M. Cordier, is
a conftituent part of moft volcanic rocks. The oxyd of
titanium is reduced by expofure to an intenfe heat, being
previoufly moiftened with oil and furrounded by powdevelk

charcoal.

TITANIUM.

‘chareoal. A blackith bliftered fubftance is obtained, which
has a reddifh colour in fome points. According to Lampa-
dius, its colour refembles that of copper, but is deeper, and
the luitre is confiderable. It is brittle, but when in thin
plates, its elafticity is confiderable.

en titanium is boiled with nitric acid, no remarkable
effe&t enfues, but the bright fpots difappear, and are fuc-
ceeded by a white compound. Nitro-muriatic acid forms
alfo a white powder, which remains fufpended in it. Sul-
phuric acid exhibits a fimilar appearance, fulphurous acid
is difengaged, and the titanium is partly changed to a white
oxyd, and partly diffolved. Muriatic acid diffolves tita-
nium, but not its oxyd. A

The folution of titanium gives a white precipitate with

alkaline carbonates, a grafs-green mixed with brown with

2 oe of potafh, and a dirty dark green with the hydro-
ulphurets. Infufion of galls precipitates a reddifh-brown
fubftance, which, if the folution be concentrated, has the
appearance of blood. A rod of tin immerfed in the folu-
tion imparts to the liquid round it a fine red colour, and a
rod of zinc a deep blue.

Titanium tarnifhes by expofure to the air, and is oxy-
dized when heated in contaét with it. It can exift in three
ftates of oxydation ; the firft is blue or purple, the fecond
red, and the third white. The white oxyd is the only one
the compofition of which is accurately known. It has
been fhewn by Vauquelin and Hecht to confift of eighty
parts of red oxyd, and eleven of oxygen. Titanium has
not been combined with fulphur, but has been com-
bined by Mr. Chenevix with phofphorus.

The only alloy of any confequence which it forms is with
iron ; it is of a grey colour, interfperfed with brilliant par-
ticles, and is quite infufible. The above are the principal
properties of this metal which have yet been difcovered:
it has not hitherto been applied to any ufeful purpofe in the
arts.

The ores of titanium have been divided into fix fpecies
by mineralogifts; viz. menachanite, iferine, nigrine, {phene,
rutile, and otahedrite.

Menachanite is fo called from the valley of Menaian, in
Cornwall, where it was originally found. It occurs alfo
on the fhores of the ifland of Providence, and in the vici-
‘nity of Richmond, in the United States of America; and
alfo at Botany Bay, in New South Wales. It is found in
fmall angular grains, which are of a greyifh or iron-black
colour, and have a rough Aa ed furface. From its
appearance it has been confounded with iron-fand, but its
magnetic attraction is much weaker: it is lefs hard, and may
be diftinguifhed by its fracture, and particularly by the
luftre, which approaches to femi-metallic. ‘The fracture is
imperfeétly folizted: the fragments are angular and fharp-
edged, and it is perfectly opaque. It yields to the knife,
retaining its colour in the flreak. It is opaque and brittle.
The fpecific gravity, according to Gregor, is 4.427 ; but as

iven by Lampadius, is 4.270. Menachanite is infufible by
ae blowpipe without addition, but tinges borax of a

ifh-brown colour. Its conitituent parts, according to
Ricaroth, are
Cornwall.
Oxyd of iron - - —-§ 1.00
Oxyd of titanium “30 Geleg
Oxyd of manganefe - 0.25
Silex Srage os? oS 3-50
100

Voi. XXXV.

Botany Bay.
According to Chenevix :

Oxyd of iron - =

Oxyd of titanium = - - =

Silex - = - - YI
100

Lferine is {o called from having been originally found near
the fource of the river Ifer, in Silefia: it is diffeminated in
penne fand, with iron-fand. It occurs alfo with fimilar

and in the bed of the river Don, in Aberdeenthire, It is

fufpeéted by profeffor Jamefon to be aflociated with trap-
rocks ; and from the obfervations of M. Cordier, that it is
found as a conftituent part of lava, this opinion is rendered
the more probable. Iferine is of a brownih iron-black colour.
It is found in {mall grains and rolled pieces, with a rough
and glia furface. The internal luitre is femi-metallic.
Its fracture is conchoidal, which diftingnifhes it from mena-
chanite, to which it bears a near refemblance. The fpe-
cific gravity is 4.5. Before the blowpipe it melts into a
blackifh-brown coloured glafs, which is flightly attra&ted
by the magnet. The mineral acids have no fenfible effe&
on it, but the acid of fugar extraéts a portion of the
titanium. According to Dr. Thompfon, its conftituent
parts are

Oxyd of titanium - - 48
Oxyd of iron - - 48
Oxyd of uranium - - 4

100

Nigrine ; Titane oxydé ferrifére of Haiiy, is fo called on
account of its colour, which inclines toa velvet-black. It
occurs, like the preceding f{pecies, in angular grains and in
rolled pieces. The external hiftre is gliftening, that of the
fracture fhining : the ftruéture is imperfeétly foliated. It is
opaque, and harder than menachanite. Nigrine is brittle, and
gives a yellowifh ftreak. The fpecific gravity varies from
3-700 to 4.740. It is not attraéted by the magnet, and is
infufible by the blowpipe, but with the addition of borax
melts to a tranfparent hyacinth red globule. The acid of
fugar extraéts the titanium from this ore. It is found in
alluvial ground in Tranfylvania, Bavaria, and the ifland
of Ceylon: it occurs alfo in the granite of the Uralian
mountains.

The conftituent parts of nigrine are given as under :

Tranfylvania.

3 Wy Klaproth.
Oxyd of titanium - - 84
Oxyd of iron - - 14
Oxyd of manganefe - 2

100

The Uralian Mountains.

Lowitz.
Oxyd of titanium - - 53
Oxyd of iron - - - 47

100

O@ahedrite ; Schorl bleu, Rome de Lifle ; Titane anatafe,
Haiiy. This ore of titanium is fo called from its conftant
oceurrence in cryitallized forms, which are varieties of the

4Z o¢tahedron.

cas Ges i

oftahedron. The cryftals are fmall; the furface is tran{-
verfely ftriated, and has a femi-metallic luftre: the internal
luftre is alfo fplendent. The ftruéture is foliated. This
mineral is more or lefs femi-tranfparent ; it fcratches glafs,
and is brittle. The {pecific gravity, according to Haty,
is 3.8571. The colour of o¢tahedrite is indigo-blue, pafling
through many fhades to brown. It is infufible by the blow-
pipe, but with borax it forms a reddifh-brown coloured
glafs. At the extremity of the flame, the brown colour
changes to blue, and becomes opaque; by the continued
aétion of the blowpipe, the brown colour reappears, and
may be again changed by variation of temperature. This
mineral is rare: it occurs in veins with felfpar, axinite,
rock-cryftal, and chlorite, in the primitive rocks of Dau-
phiny, and in drufy cavities in limeftone, at Hadeland, in
Norway.

Sphenz and Rutile —Thefe ores of titanium have been al-
ready defcribed. (See SpHeNe and Rutize.) In addition
to thofe articles we may {tate, that common fphene has been
difcovered in fmall cryitals in the fienite of the mountains in
Galloway, and on the fouth fide of Loch-Nefs; in the
granite of Bennevis and Aberdeen ; and alfo in other parts
of Scotland. Rutile has alfo been difcovered in the granite
of Cairngorum, and near to Beddgelert, in Carnarvonhhire.

TITANOS, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs
lime; by others for the calx of burnt gypfum or plafter of
Paris, and by others a lixivium of quicklime.

TITANS, Tiranes, Tiravs, in the Ancient Mythology,
the fons of Uranus or Ceelus, and Vetta, or Titza, or Terra,
i. e. of Heaven and Earth, according to Hefiod and Apollo-
dorus; or, which comes to the fame thing, of Ether and
Tellus, according to Hyginus. They are faid to have
derived their name from their mother, and hence the moft
ancient fabulous hiftories have made them pafs for fons of
the Earth. Apollodorus reckons fix Titans; Oceanus,
Ccelus, Hyperion, Crius, Iapetus, and Saturn or Cronus:
Hyginus alfo reckons fix, viz. Briareus, Gyges, Sterope,
Atlas, Hyperion, and Cottus; but he feems to include
the hundred-handed giants in the number, which A pollodorus,
and the generality of mythologifts, diftinguifh from the
Titans.

The tradition is, that Ccelus, by the fame wife Vefta,
had Briareus, Gyges, and Cottus, the hundred-handed
giants, and had chained them up in Tartarus: Vefta, the
earth, their mother, refenting this treatment, raifed the
Titans againft their father, her hufband: all, excepting
Oceanus, made war upon him and dethroned him, fetting up
Saturn in his place.

Saturn, it feems, proved no more favourable to them
than his father; but continued the giants in their prifon.
Upon this, Jupiter revolted againft Saturn; ferving him as
he had done Coelus; and refcued the three giants; who
afterwards proved of great fervice to him in the war which
the Titans waged againft him.

This war laited ten years: but at length the Titans were
vanquifhed ; Jupiter remained in peaceable poffeffion of
heaven ; and the Titans were buried under huge mountains
thrown on their heads.

yee gives another origin of the Titans: he derives
them from Titan, Saturn’s eldeft brother, by Ccelus and
Vefta; who, though prefumptive heir of heaven, yet finding
his father and mother more inclined for Saturn than for him,
furrendered to him his right of fucceffion, on condition he
fhould not bring up any male child, that the empire of heaven
might revert to his own iffue the Titans.

But Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, having been afterwards
faved by the artifice of Ops, Titan, and his fons the Titans,

a J..T

made war on Saturn, who had difpoffeffed his father Uranus
of the throne, and acquired an extenfive empire, vanquifhed
and imprifoned him; thus he continued in the power of his
enemies, till Jupiter, who had been conveyed by his mother
Rhea for fafety to the ifle of Crete, being grown up,
left Crete, made war on the Titans, and delivered his
father.

Having re-eftablifhed him on the throne, he returned to
the place of his retreat. Saturn afterwards reigned for fome
time in tranquillity ; but upon confulting an oracle, he re-
ceived information that he would be expofed to danger
from the youngett of his fons. Accordingly he recurred to
all poffible means for getting aid of Jupiter. Having fought
him in Grete, he was betrayed and conftrained to make a
hafty retreat into the Peloponnefus. Thither Jupiter pur-
{ued him, and obliged him to take fan€tuary in Italy, under
the prote¢tion of Janus.

The Titans, thus difperfed through feveral countries of
Greece, being jealous of the power of this new conqueror,
as they had been of his father’s, levied troops againft Saturn,
and gave him battle ; but being defeated, they retired into
the interior parts of Spain, whither Saturn followed them.
Jupiter fought them out in their retreat, and beat them for
the laft time near Tarteffus, and with this battle terminated
the war, which had lafted ten years. Saturn made his efcape
into Sicily, and there, as it is faid, died from grief. With
this laft victory, and the death of Saturn, commenced the
reign of Jupiter. During the war of the Titans, Atlas
feized on thofe provinces of Africa which were remote from
the centre of the empire. Pluto was fettled governor of
the weftern parts of the empire of the Titans, of the Gauls,
and Spain, which government, after the death of Pluto, was
given to Mercury, who is faid to have become the
divinity of the Celtz ; and Jupiter referved to himfelf the
whole Eaft, that is, Greece, the Ifles, and that part of
Afia whence his anceftors came. For the explication of
the fable that reprefents the Titans as thruft down to
Tartarus by Saturn, fee TaARTARus.

The moft judicious among our mythologifts, fuch as
Gerard Voflius, Marfham, Bochart, and father Thomaflin,
are of opinion that the partition of the world among the fons
of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japhet, was the original of the
tradition of the fame partition among Jupiter, Neptunes and
Pluto; and hence they have been led to form comparifons
between the three fabulous princes, and the three fons of the
patriarch. Accordingly the learned Pezron contends that the
divifion which was made of this vaft empire, came in after-
times to be taken for the partition of the world: that Afia
remaining in the hands of Jupiter, the moft potent of the
three brothers, made him be looked upon as the god of
Olympus, a celebrated mountain where he had his refidence,
and which was afterwards taken for heaven itfelf: that the
fea and iflands which fell to Neptune, occafioned their giving
him the title of god of the fea: and that Spain, the ex-
tremity of the then known world, thought to be a very low
country in refpe& of Afia, and famous for its excellent
mines of gold and filver, falling to Pluto, occafioned him to
be taken for the god of the infernal regions. However
this be, the empire of the Titans, according to the ancients,
was very extenfive. Thefe princes were poffeffed of
Phrygia, Thrace, a part of Greece, the ifland of Crete, and
feel other provinces, to the inmoft receffes of Spain. ‘To
thefe Sanchoniathon feems to join Syria; and Diodorus adds
a part of Africa and the kingdoms of Mauritania.

F. Pezron, in his Antiquity of the Celt, makes that
people to be the fame with the Titans; and their prinees
the fame with the giants in Scripture, According to him,

the

EET
the ‘Titans were the defcendants of Gomer, the fon of
Japhet. He adds, that the word Titan is perfeé& Celtic,
and derives it from fit, earth, and den or ten, man: and hence
it was the Greeks alfo called them very properly ynyess, g. d.
terrigine, earth-born.

Banier obferves, that although moft of the ancients have
confounded the giants (fee Rebel Grants) with the
Titans, they ought to be diftinguifhed. The latter, he
fays, were ee an illuftrious family, and extended their empire
over one part of the world; the others were fo many banditti
difperfed over Theflaly, who occafioned great trouble to
the Titans. Hefiod diftinguifhes them from one another,
and ilates that the giants were not born till long after the
overthrow of the Titans, and after the wars which thefe
carried on againit the others. The occafion of confounding
them feems to have been, that both the giants and the
Titans made war upon the gods; with this difference, that
the Titans, though of the fame race, had often feparate
interefts ; fome taking part with Saturn, and others of them
with Jupiter: whereas the giants were a gang of robbers,
who had a defign equally upon all the Titans. Both giants
and Titans were reprefented as fons of Heaven and Earth,
and hence they have been confounded, for want of con-
fidering,-what Apollodorus fays, that Earth brought forth
the giants only becaufe fhe was incenfed aaa Jupiter
for keeping the Titans fhut up in Tartarus. Thus the
Titans were born long before the giants.

The Titans, according to the learned Mr. Bryant, were
thofe Cuthites, or fons of Chus, called giants, who were
employed in building the tower of Babel, and who were
afterwards difperfed. See Dispersion of Mankind.

He fuppofes that they were denominated from their reli-
gion and place of worfhip, Titea, which is reprefented as
the mother of thefe people, being compounded of Tit-aia,
and fignifying literally a brea/? of earth, analogous to t740s
cnmns of the Greeks, and therefore expreffing the figure as
well as the materials of the ancient altars, which confifted of
a conical hill of earth, in the fhape of a woman’s breatt.
Thefe altars were alfo called Tit-an and Tit-anis, from the
great fountain of light, ftyled 4n and Anis. Hence many
pkces were called Titanis and Titana, where the worfhip of
the fun prevailed; for Anes and Hanes fignified the fountain
of light or fire. Titana was fometimes expreffed Tithana,
and by the Ionians Tithena; and Tithena was faid to be the
nurfe of the Titans. But Titea their mother, and Tithena
their nurfe, were all of the fame nature, viz. altars raifed of
foil. Hefiod, in his account of the difperfion of the Titans,
and of the feuds which preceded (Theogon. ver. 676, &c.),
fays that the Deity at laft interpofed, and put the Titans to
flight, and condemned them to refide in Tartarus at the ex-
tremities of the earth; but Mr. Bryant obferves, that he has
confounded the hiftory by fuppofing the giants and Titans to
have been different perfons. The fons of Chus, he fays,
were the aggreffors in thofe a€ts of rebellion defcribed by
the poets as the war of the giants, who were alfo reprefented
under the charaéter of the Titanians. The fitions of the
poets with regard to the banifhment of the Titans after
their war againft heaven, took their rife from this true
hiftory. A large body of Titanians, after the difperfion,
fettled in Mauritania, upon the Atlantic ocean, which is the
region ftyled Tartarus, and reprefented as the realms of
night, becaufe it was fituated in re{pect to Greece towards
the regions of the.fetting fun. The term Qogo:, by which
it was exprefled, fignified both the weft and darknefs ; as
did alfo Ereb, 3", whence Erebus, which was alfo
another name for 'Vartarus, to which the poets condemned
the Titans and giants. The firft war of the Titans, accord-

gO a 6

ing to this ingenious writer, confifted in aéts of apottaey
and rebellion againft heaven: and this refers to that part of
the hiftory of the fons of Chus, which reprefents them as
building a mighty city in the region, which they had
ufurped, and erecting a lofty tower, to prevent their being
{eattered abroad: but there was another war in which they
were engaged with men, which happened in confequence of
the difperfion. This was no other than the war mentioned
by Motes, which was carried on by four kings of the family
of Shem, againft the fons of Ham and Chus, to avenge
themfelves of thefe enemies by whom they had been greatly
aggrieved. See Bryant’s Analyfis of Ancient Mythology,
vol. iii. p. 48, &c. p. 71, &c.

The word Titan is alfo ufed by the poets for the fun;
in which cafe it is likewife Celtic, though from another
root, being formed from ti, hou/e or habitation, and tan, Sire.

Hefychius obferves, that Titan is likewife ufed for fodo-
mite. He adds, that it is alfo one of the names of anti-
chrift ; in which fenfe it muft be written Zvitan, in Greek,
to contain the numeral letters of 666, which in the Apo-
calypfe, xiii. 18. is the number of the beatt.

TITANUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Mi-
nor, on the coaft of the A£olide, on the banks of a river of
the fame name.

TITARESSUS, a town of Afia, in Lefler Armenia, in
the country named Melitane. Ptol.

TITARESUS, or Trrargssus, a river of Theflaly,
mentioned by Homer, which had its fource in mount Ti-
tarus.

TITATY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 55 miles
N. of Dinagepour.

TITCHFIELD, a fmall market-town in the hundred
of the fame name, in the Portfdown divifion of the county
of Hants, England; is fituated near the Titchfield river,
3 miles W. from Fareham, and 78 miles S.W. from London.
It is inhabited by many refpeétable families. The church,
which is the only object of particular notice, is a fpacious
edifice, of the workmanfhip of different ages: the N. fide
is faid to have been built by William of Wykeham ; but the
S. fide is more ancient. In the S. chancel is an intereftin
monument to the memory of fir Thomas Wriothefley, firf
earl of Southampton, Jane his lady, and Henry their fon,
the fecond earl; all of whom are reprefented by effigies on
the tomb. Four annual fairs are held in Titchfield; and a
weekly market on Saturdays. The population of the parifh,
under the a& of 1811, was returned as 3227, the number of
houfes at 553.

At a fhort diftance from the town, on the N., are the ruins
of Titchfield Houfe, the ancient feat of the Wriothefleys.
It was ereéted, by the firft earl of Southampton, on the fcite,
and with the materials of an abbey, founded for Premonttra-
tenfian canons, by bifhop Peter de Rupibus, in the year
1231. The annual revenues of this eftablifhment, at the
period of the diffolution, amounted, according to Dugdale,
to 246/. 16s. 1d.; but according to Speed, to 280/. 19s. 43d.
Its poffeffions were then granted by Henry VIII. to his.
favourite fecretary, Wriothefley, who built here, Leland
reports, ‘a righte ftatelie houfe embattled, and having a
goodlie gate, and a conduéte caftelid in the middle of the
court of it, in the very fame place wher the late monaftefie
ftoode.”” This building is now in a very dilapidated {tate :
the entrance gateway is the principal part left ftanding ;. fix-
teen rooms having been recently pulled down for the fake
of the materials. The eftate is the property of John Delmé,
efq. of Cam’s Hall. In Titchfield Houfe, Charles I. was
concealed after his efcape from Hampton Court in 1647,
and previous to his refigning himfelf to colonel Hammond,,

4Z 2 who,

ELD

who condu&ted him to the Ifle of Wight.—Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. vi. Hampthire ; by J. Britton and
E. W. Brayley.

TITCHVIN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Novgorod, on the river Sias; 84 miles N.N.E. of Novgo-
rod. N. lat. 59°52'. E. long. 33° 14/.

TITE. See Trent.

TITEA, in Mythology, the wife of Uranus or Ceelus, by
whom he is faid to have had eighteen children, each of which
had his own name, though they were generally defignated
by the appellation of Titans ; which fee. This princefs, after
her death, received divine honours, and fhe was called after
her name.

TITERUD, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Aggerhuus ; 38 miles N. of Chriftiana.

TITHENIDIA, rindi, in Antiquity, a Spartan fefti-
val, fo called from r$y2, nurfes, who at this time carried
the male infants committed to their charge to the temple of
Diana Corythallia. For the ceremonies obferved on this
occafion, fee Potter, Archzol. Grec. lib. ii. cap. 20. tom. i.
Pp: 432, feq.

ITHES, Tyrues, Tenths, Decime, or Diximes, the
tenth part of the increafe, yearly arifing and renewing from
the profits of lands, the ftock upon lands, and the perfonal
induftry of the inhabitants ; allotted to the clergy for their
maintenance.

Tithes effentially differ from offerings, oblations, and obven-
tions, which are the cuftomary payments for communicants
at Eafter, for marriages, chriftenings, churching of women,
burials, and fuch like. See Osriations.

Tithes, with regard to their feveral kinds or natures, are
perfonal, predial, and mixt.

Titues, Perfonal, ave thofe due or accruing from the
profits of labour, art, trade, navigation, and induftry of
men ; and of thefe, only the tenth part of the clear gains and
profits is due; after charges deduéted.

Tirnes, Predial, are thofe which arife merely and imme-
diately from the ground ; as grain of all forts, hay, wood,
fruits, herbs; for a piece of land or ground, being called
in Latin predium (whether it be arabs meadow, or paf-
ture), the fruit or produce of it is called predial.

Tirnes, Mixt, are thofe which arife not immediately
from the ground, but from things immediately nourifhed by
the ground, as from beafts, and other animals fed with the
fruits of the earth; as colts, calves, lambs, chickens, milk,
cheefe, eggs.

Tithes, with regard to their value, are divided into great
and /mall.

Tirnes, Great, are thofe of corn, hay, and wood.

Tirnes, Small, are the predial tithes of other kinds, to-
gether with thofe that are called mixt and perfonal. It is
faid, that this divifion may be altered by cuftom, which will
make wood a fmall tithe in the endowment of the vicar; by
quantity, which will convert a {mall tithe into great, if the
parifh is generally cultivated with it; and by change of

lace, which makes the fame things, e.g. hops in gardens,
mall tithes, in fields great tithes. But it has been admitted,
that the quantity of land within any parifh, that is cultivated
for a particular produce, cannot change the nature of the
tithe : and, according to this opinion, the law is now fettled,
that the tithes are to be denominated great or fmall, accord-
ing to the nature and quality of them, and not according to
the quantity.

It has been faid by lord Coke and many others, that be-
fore the council of Lateran in the year 1180, a man might
have aes his tithes to what church or monattery he pleafed ;
but this is denied by Dr. Prideaux. It is now certain, that

ae fu

tithes of common right do belong to that church, within
the precindts of whee parifh they arife; and this regulation,
correfponding with the ancient law of the land, was enjoined
by a decretal epiftle of Innocent III. to the archbifhop of
Canterbury, in the year 1200. (2 Inft. 641. 2 Blackit.
Com. 27.) But though one perfon may prefcribe to have
tithes within the parifh of another; this is what is called a
“ portion of tithes.” (Gibf. 663.) Tithes extra-parochial,
or within the compafs of no certain parifh, belong to the
crown, and may be granted to whom the king will. 1 Roll’s
Abr. 657. 2 Inft. 647. 2)

It is a general rule, that of common right tithes are
be paid for every thing that yields an annual increafe ;
this rule admits of exceptions, e. g. tithe is due from faffron,
though gathered but once in three years; and on wood that
is felled or lopped, called /ylva cedua, though it is not re-
newed every year: and on the other hand, tithes fhall be
paid for the produce of feeds, as of clover, fown on the
fame ground, though renewed oftener than once a year.
No tithes fhall be paid of common right for any thing that
is of the fubftance of the earth, or which is not of annual
increafe, as ftone, lime, coal, tin, lead, and fuch like; nor
for creatures that are fere natura, or of a wild nature, as
deer, hawks, fifh, &c. whofe increafe fo as to profit the.
owner is not annual, but cafual; unlefs tithes in either of
thefe cafes are payable by cuftom. Degge, p. 2. c. 8.
1 Inft. 651. 664.

Lands, #id their occupiers, may be exempted or dif-
charged from the payment of tithes, either in part or totally,
by a real compofition, or by cuftom and prefcription.

A real compofition is when an agreement is made between
the owner of the lands, and the parfon or vicar, with the
confent of the ordinary or patron, that fuch lands fhall for
the future be difcharged from payment of tithes, by reafon
of fome land, or other real reecompence given to the parfon,
in lieu and fatisfa€tion thereof. But thefe compofitions are’
now reftrained by the difabling ftatute 13 Eliz. cap. 10.
See ComposiTION.

A parfon may bind himfelf by deed to accept of a com-
pofition for tithes during life, or incumbency of a par=
ticular living. It is alfo very common to agree by
for an annual compofition for tithes, which binds the
parties to it till fufficient notice given of diflent from the
agreement, but what is fufficient notice to determine fuch
an agreement, has never been decided in terms. See LEAsEs
by Statute.

A difcharge by cuftom or prefcription is, where time out
of mind fuch perfons, or fuch lands, have been either par-
tially or totally difcharged from the payment of tithes. The
difference between cu/ffom and pre/cription is this: Cuflom is
that which gives right to a province, county, hundred, city,
or town, and is common to all within the refpedtive limits ;
in pleading of which it is allered, that in fuch a county or
the like, there is, and time out of memory hath been, fuch
a cuitom ufed and approved therein. Pre/éription is that
which gives a right to fome particular houfe, farm, or ot!
thing ; in pleading of which it is alleged, that all they
whofe eftate is had in fuch land, have time out of mind paid
fo much yearly, or the like, in full fatisfa&tion of all tithes
arifing on thofe lands. (Gibfon, 674.) And there is this
difference between a prefcriptive and cuftomary modus, that
the former is annexed to the lands which it covers, whereas
the latter exifts in aétion of law, independent of the lands
by force of the cultom of the diftri&. In a prefcripti:
modus, therefore, the lands muft be definite, and not liable
to fhift. And therefore a bill to eftablifh a modus for every
ancient farm, but not fetting out the abuttals of each, was

difmiffed,

TITHES.

difmiffed, alchopgh it was ftated that the whole parifh con-
fifted of ancient farms. (See Custom and PRESCRIPTION. )
This cuffom, or prefcription, is either de modo decimandi,
(fee Mopus Decimandi,) or de non decimando. No modus
can be eftablithed at this day, but by aét of parliament. A
modus founded upon good confiderations may be in various

; “grays Bore’, and tithes become due in kind: as,

Tis Where and is converted to other ufes: fo, when the
prefcription is for hay and grafs, {pecially, in fo many acres
of land; if the land is converted into a hop-garden or til-
lage, the prefcription is gone.

2. By the alteration or deftru€tion of the thing for which
the money was paid: as where two fulling-mills were under
the fame roof, and turned into a corn-mill ; where alfo there
was one’pair of ftones in a mill, and another pair was added ;
and where the water-courfe was altered by the owner, and the
mill was pulled down and re-edified upon it; in all thefe
cafes, it was adjudged that the modus was gone. But where
a man was feifed of eight acres of meadow and one of paf-
ture, for the tithes whereof he had paid time out of mind
5 + 4d. and afterwards the owner built a corn-mill upon the
ame ; it was adjudged that he fhould pay no tithes for the
corn-mill, becaufe the land was difcharged by the modus.
2 Inft.. 490.

3- By non-payment of the confideration, or payment of
tithes in kind, for fo long a time as to deftroy the poffibility
of making proof that fuch cuftom or prefcription was: but
an interruption for fome fhort time only, will not difcharge
it; efpecially if made by the leflee, to the prejudice of the
leffor. Watf. c. 47.

The rule is, that the modus is to be fued for in the ec-
clefiaftical court, as well as the very tithe; and if it be al-
lowed between the parties, they fhall proceed there; but if
the cuftom be denied, it muft be tried at the common law :
and if it be found for the cuftom, then a confultation muft
go; otherwife the prohibition ftandeth. The like is af-
firmed, in cafe a jury upon an iffue joined in a prohibition
upon a modus decimandi, find a different modus; fince a
modus is found, they fhall not have confultation. 2 Inft. 490.

The principal reafon why the courts of common law pro-
hibit the fpiritual court from trying of modufes, is, that
whereas every modus is lefs than the real value, the rule of
the canon law is, that lefs than the real value fhall not be
taken, and that a cuftom to the contrary is void; and that
the ecclefiaftical and temporal laws differ in the times of
limitation, forty years or under making a good cuftom by
the ecclefiaftical laws, whereas by the temporal laws it muit
be beyond the time of memory. Gibf. 691.

But the fpiritual courts have commonly allowed and do
allow pleas of modus decimandi; and the averment in the
prohibition is not that they do take cognizance, but that
the plea hath been offered and refufed ; which fuppofeth,
that if the plea be admitted, the prohibition ought not to
go. And accordingly it hath been affirmed by Doderidge
and others, that the fpiritual court may as well try the mo-
dus, as the right of tithes, and that a prohibition is not to
be granted, till the fpiritual court either refufe to admit the
plea, or proceed to try it by methods different from the rules
of the temporal law, as to the time of limitation, or num-
ber of witneffes, or the like. And where lord Coke con-
tended for the contrary doétrine, it was declared by Kelynge
and Twifden, that in cafe one libel for a modus decimandi,
if the {piritual court allow the plea, they may try it.
Gibf. 691.

But, notwithitanding, it feemeth now to be clearly fet-
tied, that if a modus decimandi be fued for in the ecclefi-
aftical court, a prohibition lies to {top the trial of it, if the

10

modus be denied ; and the reafon is not upon the account
that the fpiritual court wants juri{di€tion, but in regard of
the notion the temporal law hath of cuftom, different from
the fpiritual : and feeing that every modus is due by cuftom,
it is the common law only that can determine, what time
and ufage with us fhall be fufficient to create fuch cuftom,
that is, time beyond all memory to the contrary. Whereas
by the fpiritual law, fometimes ten years, fometimes twenty,
they will adjudge fufficient to create a cuftom. And pro-
hibitions in fuch cafes are granted, not becaufe the fpiritual
court hath not jurifdiGtion of the matter, but in refpect of
the trial which is to be by the temporal law only ; and if
upon the trial it be found for the modus, the proceedings
fhall go on in the fpiritual court; if againft the modus, the
prohibition fhall ftand. Watf.c. 56.

If in the trial of a modus, the defendant permits the fpi-
ritual court to proceed to fentence, he is then too late to
come for a prohibition; becaufe it is only for defe& of
trial, and not for defe& of jurifdi€tion: but a man is never
too late for a prohibition, where it is for defect of jurifdie-
tion. Bunb. 17. 10 Eaft’s Rep. 349.

A bill in equity, in the nature of a bill of peace, will alfo
lie to eftablifh a modus, where a fuit has been inftituted for
tithes in kind ; but a bill to eftablifh a modus or cuftomary
payment in lieu of tithes, cannot be fupported, where there
has been no attempt to enforce the payment of tithes in
kind. 4 Gwill. 1596.

The following modufes have been eftablifhed as good, by
decifions in the courts of law : One penny for ancient gardens
and orchards. (Bunb. 79.) Seventeen-pence for every cow
having a calf, for the tithe of the milk and calf ; eleven-pence
for the tithe of the milk of a milk cow, milked without a
calf; for every heifer, the firft year fhe has a calf, thirteen-
pence for the milk and calf—thefe payable at Michaelmas.
Eight-pence for every hogfhead of cyder, made of apples
grown in the parifh ; for hoard apples, one penny ; for fire-
wood fpent on the farm, one hearth penny ; for fruit, herbs,
roots, and other garden ftuff, a garden penny ; for a colt,
one penny ;—thefe payable at Eafter. (Bunb. 57.) Eight-
pence for a cow, four-pence for an heifer; three fhillings
and four-pence, payable at Eafter, for every {core of fhee
fhorn out of the parifh, and fo proportionably for a lefs
number than twenty, or for a lefs time than a year, for
their wool and lambs. (Bunb. 171.) T'wo-pence an hog-
fhead for cyder. (Roll. Abr. 649.) The non-refident oc-
cupiers of land in B. and W. to pay on Good Friday, or as
foon after as demanded, four-pence an acre for the tithe of
hay, and the herbage of pafture lands not ploughed or fown ;
but, if refident, to pay tithes in kind, (2 P. Wms. 565.)
Four-pence an acre for high land, and three-pence an acre
for low land. (Ibid.) 'T'welve-pence for an acre of low
meadow, and eight-pence for an acre of high meadow, for
tithe of hay. (1 Bro. P. C. 214.) One penny for hay for
an ancient meffuage, with the demefne lands thereunto be-
longing, uae 60 acres, &c. One pound fix fhillings
and eight-pence for an ancient tenement, containing 625
acres, for hay, fmall tithes, and Eafter offerings. (Bunb.
161.) Nine cart-loads of logwood, delivered to the rector
by the lord of the manor, for himfelf and tenants, in lieu
of alltithes. (Bunb. 279.) So of fix pounds per annum.
(Cro. Eliz. 559.) A halfpenny for eaeh calf, in lieu of
calves, payable on Wednefday before Eafter. A fmoak
penny for fire-wood. An halfpenny, payable on Shear-day,
for the wool of each fheep dying between Candlemas and
Shear-day. Four-pence a month, payable on oneal
for the tithe wool of every hundred fheep fhorn in the parifh,
which were brought in after the 2d day of eg

ee

TITHES.

Three eggs for every cock and hen, duck and drake, pay-
able on Wednefday before Eafter, in lieu of tithe eggs,
and chickens and ducks hatched in the parifh. (Bunb. 307-)
Thirty eggs for all tithes of eggs. (1 Roll’s Abr. 648. 651.
2 Salk. 656.) The tenth cheefe made from the ift of May
until the laft of Auguft, in difcharge of the tithe of milk.
(Cro. Eliz. 609.) An halfpenny for the wocl of fheep
fold after fhearing, and before Michaelmas. (Moore, git.)
One penny per head for fheep brought into the parifh after
Candlemas, and clipt in the parifh, in lieu of tithe of wool ;
three-pence per head for fheep in the parifh before Candle-
mas, and carried out before fhearing time, though the wool
tithe is not then a@tually due. (1 Anft. 341.) Itisa good
modus for an innkeeper, that in confideration that he and
all, &c. have paid tithe hay and grain growing upon the land
belonging to the faid inn, and have paid tithe for all their
own cattle feeding upon the land, that they have been time,
&c. difcharged of the tithes of the horfes of their guefts
agifted in the faid land, when they travel by the faid inn ;
for fome have faid that this was but a perfonal tithe, and
others have faid that no tithes fhould be paid for fuch agi/f-
ment by the common law, without any modus. 9 Vin.
Ab. 13.

The things that are titheable are, for the moft part, as
follow : corn is a predial great tithe, and titheable according
to the cuftom of the place, commonly by the tenth thock,
cock, or fheaf. Beans and peafe, expended in the houfe, are
fubje& to no tithes; but if they are gathered to he fold, or
to feed hogs, they are titheable, and are in their nature great
tithes. Hay is a predial great tithe, and is to be tithed in
{wathes or cocks, according to the cuftom of the place.
Clover, rape, and woad, are {mall tithes ; heath, furze, and
broom are alfo titheable : but no tithe fhall be paid of fern.
(2 Inft. 652.) The tithe agiftment is a {mall tithe, and due
of common right. Wood is a predial tithe, but whether
great or fmall, hath been queftioned between the parfons and
the vicars ; but it has been refolved, that if a vicar be only
endowed with the {mall tithes, and has. always had tithe-
wood, in fuch cafe it fhall be accounted a {mall tithe, other-
wife it is to be accounted among the great tithes. Timber
fit for building of houfes and fhips, and comprehending oak,
elm, and afh, are exempted from tithes, by 45 Edw. III.
c. 3; but timber-trees, cut and corded for fuel, have been
adjudged to pay tithes, as well as under-wood ; however, no
tithe fhall be paid for the roots of trees, for wood cut for
hufbandry or fuel, for hurdles of fheep, for hop-poles, and
for making of bricks, and alfo fruit-trees. When the wood
is titheable, it is fet out while ftanding by the tenth aere, pole,
or perch; or, when cut down, by the tenth faggot or billet.
Of under-woods fold ftanding, the tithe fhall be paid, not by
the feller, but by the buyer. The tithe of flax and hemp is
a {mall tithe, and by ftatute this is charged at 5s. per acre.
fe & 12 Will. c. 16.) The tithe of madder is alfo a
mall tithe, and charged at 5s. or acre, by 31 Geo. II.
c.12. The tithe of hops is predial, and reckoned among
{mall tithes ; it is not to be paid till after they are picked,
and before they are dried, every tenth meafure. Out of
gardens is paid tithe of all garden herbs and plants, which
are {mall tithes, and may be demanded in kind: potatoes
and turnips are alfo fmall tithes, as are likewife tobacco and
faffron. However, in lieu of the tithes of gardens, a cer-
tain confideration in money is paid, either by cuftom, er by
agreement with the parfon. Fruits of trees, as apples, pears,
ae cherries, and the like, are predial tithes, to be paid
in kind when they are gathered, unlefs there is fome modus,
or rate-tithe, paid in lieu of them. The tenth calf is due
to the parfon of common right ; and if there are feven, he

fhall have one; if under feven, a halfpenny, or what cuf-
tom fhall dire&t, fer each calf. But in moft places, at this
day, the cuftom hath obtained, that if there are five, the
parfon fhall have the value of half a calf, lamb, or other fuch
like; if there are fix, he fhall have one entire; and fhall
receive or pay out refpectively a proportionable fum for each
number under five, or above fix. Colts and pigs are titheabl
in the fame manner as calves; and the time of payment of
thefe tithes is when they are fo old that they may be weaned.
Wool and lamb are generally reckoned mixt {mall tithes.
Milk is a mixt tithe: where tithe-milk is paid in kind, no
tithe-cheefe is due ; and where tithe-cheefe is paid in kind, no
tithe-milk is due. The tithe of milk is to be paid, not by
the tenth part of every meal, but by every tenth meal en-
tire. Deer and conies, being fere nature, are not titheable
of common right, but by fpecial cuftom. Of fowls, which
are domeftic, as geefe, hens, and ducks, tithes are to be
paid, either by paying the tenth egg, or the tenth of their
young, according to cuftom. It hath been adjudged, that
the paying of thirty eggs in Lent, is a good modus for all
tithes of eggs. Bees are free of tithes, but the wax and
honey are chargeable at the rate of the tenth meafure of
honey, and the tenth weight of wax. By the books of com-
mon law it appears, that fome tithe or other is due for a
mill. Fifh in ponds and private fifheries, and in common
rivers, are titheable only by cuftom. Fifh taken in the fea are
eels by cuftom as a perfonal tithe. Perfonal tithes are
regulated by ftat. 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 13 5 but perfonal
tithes are now fearcely any where paid in England, unlefs for
mills or fifk caught in the fea, and then payable where the
party hears divine fervice, and receives the facrament.

The manner or form of fetting out or payment of tithes,
is for the moft part governed by the cuftom of the place.
The parfon, viear, impropriator, or farmer, cannot come
himfelf, and fet forth his tithes, without the licence and con-
fent of the owner ; for if of his own head he fhall tithe the
corn or hay of any land-holder within his parifh, and carry it
away, he is a trefpaffer, and an action will lie againft him for it.
But every perfon is bound of common right, te cut down,
and fet eut the tithes of his own lands. And that it ma
be done faithfully and without fraud, the laws of the chure
entitle the parfon to have notice given him ; but by the de-
claration of the common law, fuch notice is not neeeflary.
Yet neverthelefs, the common law declareth a cuftom of
tithing without view to be an abfurd cuftom: and by the
ftatute of 2 & 3 Ed. VI. c. 13. it is enaéted, that at all
times whenfoever, and as often as any predial tithes shall be
due at the tithing of the fame, it fhall be lawful to every
party to whom any of the faid tithes ought to be paid, or
his deputy or fervant, to view and fee their faid tithes to be
juftly and truly fet forth and fevered from the nine parts.

The care of the tithes, as to wafte or f{poiling, after fever-
anee, refts upon the parfon, and not upon the owner of the
land. For it feemeth that the parfon is at his peril to take
notice of the tithes being fet out; and fo it hath been de-
clared, that although the parifhioner ought de jure to reap
the corn, yet he is not bound to guard the tithes ef the
parfon. Gibf. 689. :

But after the tithes are fet forth, he may of common right
come himfelf, or his fervants, and fpread abroad, dry and
{tack his corn, hay, or the like, in any convenient place or
places upon the ground where the fame grew, till it be fuffi-
ciently weathered and fit to be carried into the barn. But
he muft not take a longer time for the doing thereof,
than what is convenient and necefflary ; and what fhall be
deemed a convenient and neceflary time, the law doth not nor
can define ; for the quantity of the corn or hay, and the wea-

ther,

TITHES.

#her, in this cafe are to be oonfidered ; and what fhall in this
and all other cafes of like nature be faid to be a reafonable
and convenient time, is to be determined by the jury, if the
point come in iffue triable by a jury ; but if it come to be
determined upon a demurrer, or other matter of law, the
judges of the court where the caufe depends are to refolve
@theiame. Deg. p. 2. c. 14. Str. 245.

And it fhall be lawful quietly to take and carry the fame
away. And if any perfon carry away his corn or hay, or
his other predial tithes, before the tithe thereof be fet
forth ; or willingly withdraw his tithes of the fame, or of
fuch other things whereof predial tithes ought to be paid ;
and if any perfon do {top or let the parfon, vicar, proprie-
tor, owner, or other their deputies or farmers, to view, take,
and carry away their tithes, as is above faid ; he fhall forfeit
double value, with cofts; to be recovered in the ecclefiatti-
seal court. 2.8 3 Ed. VI. c. 13.

Amd he may carry his tithes from the ground where
they grew, either by the common way, or any fuch way as
the owner of the land ufeth to carry away his nine parts.
But if there are more ways than one, and the queftion is,
which is the right way, this is cognizable in the temporal
court. Deg. p. 2.c. 14.

It feems, that if tithes fet forth remain too long upon the

land, the owner of the foil may take them damage feafant ;
but then, if he be fued for them, in order to juftify, he
mutt fet forth how long they had remained before he took
them; and when they fhall be faid to remain too long is
triable by the jury. Watf.c. 54.
_ Or an ation upon the cafe will lie againft the parfon for
his negligence in this behalf: but no aétion in fuch cafe
will lie, unlefs the parifhioner hath duly fet forth his tithes,
and hath alfo given notice to the parfon, that they are fo
fet forth. Deg. p. 2.c.14. L. Raym. 187.

But the occupier of the ground cannot put in his cattle
and deftroy the corn or other tithe: for that isto make him-
felf a judge, what fhall be deemed a convenient time for
taking it away: but the court and jury, upon an action
brought, are to determine of the reafonablenefs of the time,
and of the recompence to be made for the injury fuitained.
L. Raym. 189.

Tithes are recoverable in the fpiritual court by the ca-
non law, and by divers ftatutes, as the ftatute of circum-
jpeGe agatis, 13 Edw. I. ft. 4; the ftatute of articuli cleri,
9 Edw. II. ft. 1.c. 1. 18 Edw. III. ft. 3. c. 7. 1 Rich HI.
€. 13, 14. 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 20. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 7.
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c.13. 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 6.34. 1 Geo.
ft. 2. c. 6. 27 Geo. II. c. 20.

Tithes in London are fubje& to particular regulations.
By a decree made in 1545, according to the ftatute 37
Hen. VIII. c. 12. it is ordered, that the citizens and inha-
bitants of London and its liberties, fhall yearly pay their
tithes to the parfons, vicars, and curates, after the rate of
«64d. for every 10s. annual rent, and 2s. 9d. for every 205.
rent, and fo above the rent of 20s. by the year, afcending
from 10s. to 10s., according to the faid rate. The wife,
children, fervants, or others of their family, taking the rites
of the church at Eafter, hall pay 2d. for their four offering
days yearly, &c. Notwithftanding the fettlement of this
decree, divers prefcriptions for the payment of lefler rates
than the parfors might require by it (as to pay 10s. for the
tithe of a houfe, although its rent was 40/. a year, or more)
have been gained and allowed. But by 22 & 23 Ch. II.
c. 15. after the fire of London, annual certain tithes, or
fums of money in licu of tithes, for fifty-one churches,
were appointed to be raifed by affeffments, in the manner pre-

fcribed by the faid act. For the ftipends of the minifters of

the fifty new churches, provifion is made by the feveral acts
of parliament relating to them, to be raifed from the duties
on coals. There are alfo particular ftatutes for particular
churches, in London and in other places.

Original and Hiftory of Tithes.—The cuftom of giving or
paying tithe is very ancient; in Gen. xiv. 20. Abraham
oe Melchifedech the tenth of all the fpoils he had taken

rom the four kings he had defeated: in Gen. xxviii. 22.
Jacob makes a vow at Bethel, to give the tenth of all the
riches he fhall gather in that fojourn, to God.

But thefe tithes were free and voluntary, and, befides, dif-
fered in divers other refpe€ts from what was afterwards called
tithe : what Melchifedech received, was only the tenth of
the {poils, not of Abraham’s poffeffions ; and this once, not
annually ; and befide, not as maintenance, which Melchife-
dech wanted not, but as homage: add, that this was only
from one prieft to another; for Abraham had not only a
prieft in his loins, but was a prieft himfelf. And as to
Jacob, who was alfo a prieft, what he did was the effeé&
of a vow, voluntarily taken, to offer the tenth of all he
fhould poffefs; not to any other prieft, but to God himfelf
upon an altar.

Tithe was firft legally enjoined by Mofes, Lev. xxvii. 30.
Numb. xviii. 21. Deut. xiv. 22. That legiflator obliged
the Ifraelites to the payment of feveral kinds of tithes: as,

1. The firft tithe WRN WYP, which was a tithe of
all the fruits given to the Levites: this was not taken till
after the oblation ealled MM 7M terumah, which was a
tenth part allotted to the priefts, had been made.

2. The fecond tithe was a tenth part of the nine remain-
ing, after payment of the firft tithe. This tithe was fet
apart in each family, and the mafter of the family was
obliged to carry it to Jerufalem, and to ufe it there; or, in
cafe he could not, he was to redeem it, or convert it into
money : in which cafe he was to add a fifth to it, and carry
the money to Jerufalem.

3. The tithe of the tithe, was the tenth part of all the
tithes that had been given to the Levites by the people: for
the Levites, afterthey had got all their tithes of the people,
divided the whole into ten parts; and in their turn gave a
tithe to the prieits.

4 The tithe of the third year was another kind of tithe,
not much different from the fecond tithe, excepting that it
was lefs troublefome ; becaufe they did not earry it to Jeru-
falem either in kind, or in money, but kept it by them, to
be {pent by the Levites, the ftrangers, the fatherlefs, and the
widows of the place, Deut. xiv. 28, 29. This was alfo
called the tithe of the poor, and the third tithe ; and thefe third
years when it was paid, were called the tithe-years. Several
learned Jews and Chriftians, however, conceived that this
was not a diftin& tithe, but the fame asthe fecond ; fo that,
as Mr. Mede apprehends, what was wont in other years to
be fpent in feaiting, was every third year {pent upon the
poor. All thefe tithes are calculated to amount to above
one-fixth of the revenue of each perfon.

Thefe matters are all farther explained in the Talmud,
in which are two books on tithes; alfo in the book of bene-
ditions, 395°}3, in the commentaries of Bartenora, Mai-
monides, R. Schelomoh Jarrhi, in Scaliger, Amama, Sel-
den, Frifchmuth, Quenited, Varenius, Hottinger, Sigo-
nius, Cunzus, Godwyn, Leidecker, &c.

Under the new law, tithes are not eftablifhed by Jefus
Chrift, or Chriftian difpenfation, as they were under the
old law by the miniftry of Mofes; the Chriftian priefts, and
the minifters of the altar of the new covenant, lived at firft
wholly upon the alms and oblations of the devaut. f

In after-times, the laity gave a certain proportion of their

9 reyenues

TITHES. F

reveriues to the clergy, but voluntarily, and not out of any
conftraint or obligation : the firft inftances we have of this,
are in the fourth and fifth centuries.

This gift was called tithe, not that it was really a tenth
part of their income, or near fo much; but only in imita-
tion of the tithes of the old law.

In the following age, the prelates in their councils, in
concert with the princes, made an exprefs law to the pur-
pofe ; and obliged the laity to give a full tenth part of their
revenues, their fruits, &c. to the ecclefiaftics.

This the church enjoyed without difturbance for two or
_ three centuries; but in the eighth century the laity got hold

of part of thefe tithes, either by their own authority, or
by grants and donations of the princes; and appropriated
them to their own ufes.

Some time afterwards they reftored them, or applied them
to the founding of monafteries or chapters, and the church
confented, at leaft tacitly, to this reftitution. In 1179, the
third council of Lateran, held under Alexander III. com-
manded the laymen to reftore all the tithes they yet held to
the church.

In 1215, the fourth council of Lateran, held under
Innocent III., moderated the matter a little ; and, without
faying any thing of the tithes which the laity already pof-
feffed, forbad them to appropriate or take any more for the
* future.

We may obferve, that, upon the firft introduGtion of
tithes, though every man was obliged to pay tithes in general,
yet he might give them to what priefts he pleafed, which
were called arbitrary confecrations of tithes: or he might pay
them into the hands of the bifhop, who diftributed among
his diocefan clergy the revenues of the church, which were
then in common. But when diocefes were divided into
parifhes, the tithes of each parifh were allotted to its own
particular minifter ; firft by common confent, or the ap-
pointments of lords of the manors, and afterwards by the
written law of the land. However, arbitrary confecrations
of tithes took place again afterwards, and became in general
ufe with us till the time of king John. This was probably
owing to the intrigues of the regular clergy, or monks of
the Benediétine and other rules, and will account for the
number and riches of the monafteries and religious houfes
which were founded in thofe days, and which were fre-
quently endowed with tithes. But in procefs of years,
the income of the laborious parifh-priefts being fcandaloufly
reduced by thefe arbitrary confecrations of tithes, it was
remedied by pope Innocent III. about the year 1200, in a
decretal epiltle, fent to the archbifhop of Canterbury, and
dated from the palace of Lateran, which enjoined the pay-
ment of tithes to the parfons of the refpeétive parifhes,
where every man inhabited, agreeably to what was after-
wards directed by the fame pope in other countries. This
epiftle, being reafonable and juft, and correfpondent to the
ancient law, was allowed of, and became /ex terra. This
put an effectual {top to all the arbitrary confecrations of
tithes ; except fome footfteps which {till continue in thofe
portions of tithes, which the parfon of one parifh hath,
though rarely, a right to claim in another: for it is now
univerfally held that tithes are due, of common right, to
the parfon of the parifh, unlefs there be a {pecial exemption.
This parfon of the parifh may be either the a@tual incum-
bent, or elfe the appropriator of the benefice : appropri-
ations being a method_of endowing monafteries, which
feems to have been devifed by the regular clergy, by way
of fubflitution to arbitrary confecrations of tithes.

Fa. Paolo, in his “ 'Treatife of Beneficiary Matters,’’ is
of opinion, that the cuftom of paying tithes, under the new

law, began in France; and affirms, that there are no if
ftances of it before the eighth and ninth centuries: but he
mutt be miftaken ; for in the fecond council of Matifcona,
held in 585, it is faid exprefsly, that the Chriftians had a
long time kept inviolate that law of God, by which tithe of
all their fruits was enjoined to be given to the holy places,
&e. ,

In effe&t, Origen (Hom. xi. on Numb.) thinks, that the
old laws of Moles, touching the firft-fruits and tithes, both
of cattle and of the fruits of the earth, are not abrogated
by the gofpel; but ought to be obferved on their ancient
footing. ‘

The 5th canon of the council of Matifcona orders tithe
to be paid to the minifters of the church according to the
law of God, and the immemorial cuftom of the Chriftians,
for the ufe of the poor, and the redemption of captives,
and that upon penalty of excommunication: which is the
firft penalty we find impofed on fuch as would not pay
tithe. On which grounds it is that many among the modern
clergy hold their tithes to be jure divino. ;

Others, on the contrary, plead, that the recompence to
be given church minifters, is differently ordained by God,
according to the differences he has put between his two
great iF enlilciney the law and the gofpel: under the law
he gave them tithes; under the gofpel, having left all
things in his church to charity, and Chriftian freedom,
he has given them only what fhall be given them freely, and
in charity. That the law of tithes is in force under the
gofpel, all the Proteftant divines, except fome among the
Englih, deny ; for though hire to the labourer be of moral
and perpetual right, yet that {pecial kind of hire, the tenth,
can be of no right or neceflity, but to the {pecial labour for
which God ordained it ; that {pecial labour was the Levi-
tical and ceremonial fervice of the tabernacle, (Numb. xviii.
21. 31.) which was abolifhed: the right, therefore, of the
fpecial hire muft be abolifhed too. }

That tithes were ceremonial, is evident from their not
being given to the Levites till they had been firft offered
as an heave-offering to the Lord, ver. 24. 28. aa

He, then, who by the law brings tithes into the gofpel,
brings in likewife a facrifice, and an altar ; without which,
tithes, by the law, were unfanétified and polluted, ver. 32.
And, therefore, they were never thought of in the firft
Chriftian times, till ceremonial altars and oblations had been
brought back.

The Jews themfelves, ever fince their temple was de-
ftroyed, though they have rabbies, and teachers of the
law, yet pay no tithes, as having no proper Levites to whom,
nor any altar upon which to hallow them; which argues
that the Jews themfelves never looked on tithes as moral,
but merely ceremonial. Add, that tithes were not allowed
to the priefts and Levites merely for their labour in the
tabernacle ; but in confideration of this likewife, that they
were not allowed to have any other part or inheritance
in the land Me 20. 24.), and, by that means, for a tenth,
loft a twelfth.

Befides, it has been urged, that the priefts and Levites
were properly the officers and minifters of ftate under God
as king of Hrael; and the Ifraelites paying through their
hands one-tenth to him, was agreeable to the cultom of
almoft all nations to pay one-tenth to their king. Tithes,
therefore, are to be confidered as an appendage to the
theocracy, and it has been faid, that it will be extremely
difficult to prove, that Chriftian minifters have a divine
right to demand them, from this circumftance of a confti-
tution peculiar to the Jewifh nation. As to the original
of tithes, judge Blackitone obferves, that he will not put

the

TITHES.

the title of the clergy to them upon any divine right ;
though fuch a right certainly commenced, and, as he appre-
hends, as certainly ceafed, with the Jewifh theocracy ; yet
an honourable and competent maintenance for the minifters
of the gofpel is, undoubtedly, sure divino; whatever the
particular mode of that maintenance may be. Accordingly,
“all municipal laws have provided a liberal and decent main-
tenance for their national priefts or clergy: ours, in par-
ticular, have eitablifhed this of tithes, probably in imitation
of the Jewith law ; and, perhaps, confidering the degenerate
ftate of the world in general, it may be more beneficial to
the Englifh clergy to found their title on the law of the
land, than upon any divine right whatfoever, unacknow-
ledged and unfupported by temporal fanétions. But, how-
ever beneficial this appointment may be to the clergy, it
has been complained of as impolitic in a variety of refpeéts,
and peculiarly burdenfome to the ftate.

Mr. Smith obferves (Nature and Caufes of the Wealth
of Nations, vol. iii.), that tithes, as well as other fimilar
taxes on the produce of the land, are in reality taxes upon
the rent, and, under the appearance of equality, are very
unequal taxes ; a certain portion of the produce being in
different fituations, equivalent to a very different portion of
the rent. In fome very rich lands the produce is fo great,
that the one-half of it is fully fufficient to replace to the
farmer his capital employed in cultivation, together with
the ordinary profits of farming-ftock in the neighbourhood.
The other half, or, what comes to the fame thing, the value
of the other half, he could afford to pay as rent to the
landlord, if there was no tithe. But if a tenth of the pro-
duce is taken from him in the way of tithe, he muft require
an abatement of the fifth part of his rent, otherwife he can-
not get back his capital with the ordinary profit. In this
cafe the rent of the landlord, inftead of amounting to a half,
er five-tenths of the whole produce, will amount only to
four-tenths of it. In poorer lands, on the contrary, the
produce is fometimes fo fmall, and the expence of cultiva-
tion fo great, that it requires four-fifths of the whole pro-
duce to replace to the farmer his capital with the ordinary
profit. In this cafe, though there was no tithe, the rent of
the landlord could amount to no more than one-fifth or
two-tenths of the whole produce. But if the farmer pays
one-tenth of the produce in the way of tithe, he muft re-
quire an equal abatement of the rent of the landlord, which
will thus be reduced to one-tenth only of the whole produce.
Upon the rent of rich lands, the tithe may fometimes be a
tax of no more than one-fifth part, or four fhillings in the
pound ; whereas, upon that of poorer lands, it may fome-
times be a tax of one-half, or of ten fhillings in the pound.

It is a great difcouragement to the improvement of land,
that a tenth part of the clear produce, without any deduc-
tion for the advanced expence of raifing that produce,
fhould be alienated from the cultivator of the land to any
other perfon whatever. The improvements of the landlord
and the cultivation of the farmer are both checked by this
unequal tax upon the rent. The one cannot venture to
make the moft important, which are generally the moft
expenfive improvements; nor the other to raife the moft
valuable, which are generally too the moft expenfive
crops; when the church, which lays out no part of the
expence, is to fhare fo very largely in the profit. When,
inftead either of a certain portion of the produce of
land, or of the price of a certain portion, a certain
fum of money is to be paid in full compenfation for all
tax or tithe; the tax becomes, in this cafe, exa&ly of
the fame nature with the land-tax of England. It nei-

Vou. XXXV.

ther rifes nor falls with the rent of the land. It neither
encourages nor difcourages improvement. The tithe in
the greater part of thofe parifhes which pay what is called
a modus in lieu of all other tithes, is a tax of this kind.
Some have propofed, as a better method for raifing a re-
venue for the clergy, to lay an equivalent tax upon all
eftates, cultivated or not cultivated. It is well known, and
has often been lamented, even by the clergy themfelves,
that this method of raifing a revenue for their fubfiftence,
is a continual fource of difpute between the clergy and their
parifhioners, and contributes to obftru@ the ufefulnefs of
their miniftry. In Holland, and fome other Proteftant
countries, the civil magiftrates have adopted what fome
have thought a better plan, by allowing their minifters a
fixed ftipend, paid out of the public funds.

In effedt, for the firft three hundred years after Chrift,
no mention is made in all ecclefiaftical hiftory of any fuch
thing as tithes ; though, in that time, altars and oblations
had been recalled, and the church had miferably judaized in
many other things. The churchmen confeffedly lived all
that time on free-will offerings: nor could the defeé of
paying tithes be owing to this, that there were wanting
civil magiftrates to enjoin it ; fince Chriftians, having lands,
might have given out of them what they pleafed ; and the
firft Chriftian emperors, who did all things by advice of
the bifhops, fupplied what was wanting to the clergy, not
out of tithes, which were never prpoteds but out of their
own imperial revenues.

The firft authority produced, fetting afide the Apoftolical
Conititutions, which few of the patrons of the tithes will
infift on, is a provincial fynod at Cullen in 356, where
tithes are voted to be God’s rent: but before that time,
divers other abufes and complaints had got ground, as
altars, candles at noon, &c. And thus one complaint be-
gat another ; as it is certain that tithes fuppofe altars.

It is not eafy to afcertain the time when tithes were firft
introduced into this country, About the year 794, Offa,
king of the Mercians, made a law, by which he gave to
the church the tithes of all his kingdom, in order, as it is
faid, to atone for the death of Ethelbert, king of the Eaft
Angles, whom, in the preceding year, he had caufed to be
bafely murdered. But that they were paid in England
before this time, by way of offering, according to the ancient
ufage and decrees of the church, appears from the canons
of Egbert, archbifhop of York, about the year 750, and
from an epiftle of Boniface, archbifhop of Mentz, written
about the fame time to Cuthbert, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, and from the 17th canon of the general council held
for the whole kingdom at Chalchuth, in the year 787. But
the law of Offa (firft gave the church a civil right to them
in this land by way of property and inheritance, and enabled
the clergy to recover them as their legal due, by the coer-
cion of the civil power. However, this eftablifhment of
Offa reached no farther than to the kingdom of Mercia,
over which he reigned; until Ethelwulph, about fixty
years after, enlarged it for the whole realm of England.
See REVENUE.

Judge Blackftone fays, that poflibly tithes in this country
were contemporary with the planting of Chriftianity among
the Saxons, by Auguftine, the monk, about the end of the
fixth century. But the firft mention of them, which he has
met within any written Englifh law, is in a conftitutional de-
cree, made ina fynod held (as he fays) A. D. 786, in which
the payment of tithes in general is ftrongly enjoined. ‘This
canon or decree, which did not at firft bind the laity, was effec-
tually confirmed by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their

5A parlia-

TITHES.

parliamentary conyentions of eftates, refpectively confifting
of the kings of Mercia and Northumberland, the bifhops,
dukes, fenators, and people. This was a few years later
than the time when Charlemagne eftablifhed the payment of
them in France, A.D. 778, and made the famous divifion of
them into four parts; one to maintain the edifice of the
church, the fecond to fupport the poor, the third the bifhop,
and the fourth the parochial clergy.

The next authentic mention of them is in the Foedus
Edwardi et Guthruni, or the laws agreed upon between
king Guthrun, the Dane, and Alfred and his fon Edward
the Elder, fucceffive kings of England, about the year goo.
This treaty may be found at large in the Anglo-Saxon laws,
and it not only enjoins the payment of tithes, but adds a
penalty upon non-obfervance ; which law is feconded by the
laws of Athelftan, cap. i. about the year 930. This, he
fays, is as much as can be certainly traced out, with regard
to their legal original. Blackft. Com. b: ii. c. iti. fe&t 2.
Burn’s Eccl. Law, vol. iii. article Tithes.

The cuftom of paying tithes, or of offering a tenth of
what a man enjoys, or of what he reaps from it, has not only
been praétifed under the old and the new law, but we alfo
find fomething like it among the heathens.

Xenophon, in the fifth book of the expedition of Cyrus,

ives us an infcription upon a column, near the temple of
Diana, by which the people were warned to offer the tenth
part of their revenues every year to that goddefs.

The Babylonians and Egyptians gave their kings a tenth
of their revenues: fee Ariftorle in his Oeconomics, lib. il.
Diodorus Siculus, lib. v. and Strabo, lib. xv.

Afterwards the Romans exaéted of the Sicilians a tenth
of the corn they reaped ; and Appian tells us, that thofe
who broke up, or tilled any new grounds, were obliged to
carry a tenth of their produce to the treafury.

The Romans offered a tenth of all they took from their
enemies to the gods ; whence the name of Jupiter Predator :
the Gauls, in ike manner, gave a tenth to their god Mars,
as we learn in the Commentaries of Czfar.—And Feftus, de
Verb. Signif. affures us, that the ancients ufed to give tithe
of every thing to their gods: ‘ Decima queque veteres diis
fuis offerebant.”’

_Authors have been ftrangely perplexed to find the ori-
pie of a cuftom eftablifhed among fo many people of dif-
erent manners and religions to give a tenth to their kings,
romal igen or their minifters of religion. Grotius takes it
to arife hence, that the number ten 1s the moft known, and
the moft common among all nations; by reafon of the
number of fingers, whichis ten. On this account he thinks
it is, that the commandments of God were reduced to ten,
for people to retain them with greater eafe ; that the philo-
fophers eftablifhed ten categories, &c.

_TitHEs, Piaire parole denote tithes which are not
within the compafs of any diftin@ parifh. By the canon
law, thefe were to be difpofed of at the difcretion of the
bifhop; but by the law of England, all extra-parochial
tithes, as, in feveral foretts, belong to the king, and may be
granted to whom he pleafes. Accordingly they have been
adjudged to him, not only by feveral refolutions of law, but
alfo in parliament 18th Edw. I. But extra-parochial waftes
and marth lands, when improved and drained, are by 17th
Geo. II. c. 37, to be affeffed to all parochial rates in the
parifh next adjoining.

_ Trrnes, impropriated and ya An called alfo infeodated
tithes, are thofe alienated to fome temporal or ecclefiattical
lord, united to their fee, and poffefled as fecular goods.
See Appropriation and ImPROPRIATION.

the Proteftant clergy.

By the council of Lateran, held under Alexander III. in
1179, the alienation or infeodation of tithes is prohibited for
the future: whence all infeodations made fince that time are
generally held, by the canonitts, illegal.

Some attribute the original of thefe impropriated tithes
to Charles Martel; and hold him damned for firft giving the
revenues of benefices to fecular nobles. But Baronius w
have this to be a fable, and refers their origin to the wars in
the Holy Land; which is alfo the opinion of Pafquier.

The tribute, it feems, which the Romans impofed on all
the provinces of their empire, was a tenth part of all the

fruits: hence feveral authors obferve, that the Franks, —

haying conquered the Gauls, and finding the impofition
eftablifhed, they kept it on foot, and gave thofe tithes in fee
to their foldiers ; and this, fay they, was the origin of in-
feoffed or impropriated or appropriated tithes. But the
truth is, they are not fo ancient ; nor do we find any mea-
tion of them before the reign of Hugh Capet; even the
very council of Clermont, held in 1097, as hot as it was in
the intereft of the church, does not fay one word of them ;

which yet would undoubtedly have made loud complaints of

fuch an ufurpation, had it been then known.
Tirues, Portion of, denotes tities which the parfon of

one parifh hath a right to claim in the parifh of another. —

Thefe portions, which Dee probably, at leaft in part, have
been owing to the lord o
diftri&s which are now apportioned into diftin@ parifhes,

are in law fo diftin& from the reétory, that if one who has

them purchafes the reCtory, the portion is not extin@, but
remaineth grantable. The cognizance of thefe belongs, like
that of other tithes, to the ecclefiaftical court. )

Tirues, as Ob/frudtions to Agriculture, the impediments —

and hindrances which they throw in the way of the pro-
grefs and improvement of the land and its cultivation and
amendment. It has been faid to be the inftru€tion of

natural as well as revealed religion, that a portion of our

property is due for the maintenance and fupport of the wor-
fhip of God, and that “ thofe who ferve at the altar, fhould

live by the altar ;”? but that whether a {pecial proportion of

one-tenth of our yearly income from land is due to the
clergy by divine and unalterable right, is*a point which has
been warmly agitated, and much controyerted. Under the
Jewifh government, it is well known that tithes were di-
reéted to be paid by divine appointment. And it has been _
ftated by bifhop Butler, that under the Mofaic difpenfa-
tion, God himfelf affigned to the priefts and Levites, tithes
and other poffeffions, and that in thefe poffeffions they had
a divine right ; a property quite fuperior to all human laws,
ecclefiaftical as well as civil. But that every donation to
the Chriftian church is that of a human donation, and no
more ; and therefore cannot give a divine right, but fuch a

right only as muft be fubjeét, in common with all other pro- _

How far the

perty, to the regulation of human laws.

claim to tithes on the principle of divine right remains ftill —

eftablifhed in Catholic countries, is not well known; but
this fort of claim to tithes has long fince ceafed in this
country.

conduét of Henry VIII. of England, and of Chatles I. of

Scotland, furnifhes indubitable proofs of their holding a —

different opinion; as thofe kings, on the abolition of
popery, in place of transferring the tithes from the Roman
Catholic clergy to their fucceffors in office, aflumed the
right of granting the greateft part of them to the nobility
and great laymen of the time ; and in the latter kingdom in
particular, with the burden only of reafonable ftipends to
And further, that the grants of

tithes —

a manor’s eftate, extending into —

And it is remarked by a late writer, that the -

4

¥

]

TITHES.

tithes made by thefe kings and their fucceffors having been
either dire€tly and indire€tly ratified by parliament, are now
to all intents and purpofes the property of the fucceffors of
thefe original grantees.

The hiftorian Gibbon has ftated that tithes appear to
have been common in all ages. That the firft Chriftian
emperor, Conftantine the Great, was very liberal to the
church ; and in the year 321, publifhed an edi, granting
his fubjeéts full liberty to bequeath any extent of property
they chofe to theclergy. But that this, in place of proving
that a tenth of the produce was payable to the clergy in the
early ages of Chriftianity, fhews, it is thought, the direc
contrary ;—that the clergy, inftead of having any legal right
to tithes, were fupported by charitable or gratuitous do-
nations, and not by affeffments made either under divine or
human laws. The period or time, however, when the pay-
ment of tithes was eftablifhed by law, is noticed by Mon-
tefquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, who ftates that no one
queftions but the clergy opened the bible before the time of
Charlemagne, and preached the gifts and offerings of the
Leviticus. But that he dares fay, before that prince’s
reign, though the tithes might have been preached up, they
were never eftablifhed. And the above hiftorian not only
fixes this period, but the reafon of it too, in the manner
below: the fynod of Frankfort, held under Charlemagne in
the year 794, furnifhed, it is faid, a cogent motive to pay
the tithes. A capitulary (ftatute) was made in it, wherein
it is faid, that in the laft famine the ears of corn were found
to contain no feed, the infernal fpirits having devoured it all ;
and that thofe fpirits had been heard to reproach the people
with not having paid tithes ; in confequence of which it was
ordained, that all thofe who were feifed of church-lands
fhould pay the tithes; and the next confequence was, the
obligation extended to all.

he writer of a late agricultural report has ftated, that in
this country, tithes, or a tenth of the produce of the fruits
of the earth, as well as of cattle, have been fo long efta-
blifhed, that without afferting their divine right, it may be
maintained, that every eftate in the kingdom was once fub-
je& to them, and that every exoneration has arifen either
from encroachment, from royal grant on the diffolution of
the abbeys, or from impolitic conceffion, by accepting a
fpecific fum of money in lieu of them, which, as it does not
vary with the times, has left the clergy in many parifhes and
diftri&s of the kingdom without any adequate provifion.
All modufes and compofitions real, are, it is faid, of this
nature ; but that, as many of thefe are fixed and irrevocable,
it muft be left to the difcretion of the patrons, or the inter-
ference of the legiflature, to reGify the evils which they have
_ produced, and to fulfil the fcripture maxim, that “ the la-
bourer is worthy of his hire.’’

And that when it is confidered, that the title by which a
tenth of the produce of agriculture is appropriated to the
church, is far more ancient and better afcertaied than that
to the other nine parts, it will appear furprifing that the
dues of the clergy fhould in general be paid with reluétance,
and that lay proprietors, on the contrary, fhould find little
difficulty, either in obtaining a fair rent for their lands, or a
reafonable compofition for their tithes. Yet the fact is in-
difputable, it is faid, that incumbents, however moderate in
their demands, can feldom advance the compoiition for their
tithes in any proportion to their value, without expofing
themfelves to obloquy and oppofition ; or if they take their
tithes up, are frequently iubje&t to expences and incon-
yeniences, befides producing an unfavourable effet on agri-
cultural improvement, to encourage which ought to be no
lefs the obje&t of private than of public policy.

That the farmer, when he takes.a bargain of the farm
kind, which ie fubjeé& to tithes, will undoubtedly eftimate
the proportion he is to pay to the incumbent, not according
to what may have been demanded twenty or thirty years
ago, but what it is a¢tually worth at the prefent moment ;
and that if, by the lenity or forbearance of the reCtor or
vicar of his parifh, he may pay lefs, he ought to confider it as
a facrifice that often can be ill afforded, and as laying him
under an obligation which he fhould endeavour to return by
every means in his power. Were this the cafe, that har-
mony which the good of religion, and the intereft of the
parties require, would, it is thought, be preferved inviolate ;
and that none but the extortionate incumbent would be the
obje& of deferved enmity and reproach. The writer too has
feen many good effeéts refulting from the proprietors of
titheable land becoming perfonally refponfible to the clergy-
man, and letting their eftates, efpecially when there are no
leafes, tithe-free. The advantage is mutual ; and it prevents
mifunderftandings as well as an oppofttion of interefts, which
frequently arife, when the tenant and the incumbent are left
to themfelves.

That, upon the whole, the rights of the clergy are exaéted
with extreme moderation, {mall as many of their livings are,
in moft parts of this portion of the country. That no very
great part of their tithes is taken in kind, in many places ;
yet that notwithitanding, complaints exift of the hardfhip of
tithes from the farmer, and of the unpleafant fituation in
which the incumbent fs fometimes placed, by trying to raife
his humble benefice to two-thirds, or even one-half of its
real worth. Hence, it is conceived, there muft be fome-
thing radically wrong in a fyftem, which excites prejudices
in the moft liberal and enlightened minds, and which equally
militates againft the interefts of religion and thofe of agri-
culture.

Having thus briefly ftated the nature of the origin of
tithes, and the difficulties which attend them, as they refpe&
the clergyman and farmer, it may be proper and neceffary
to inquire to what ufes they were applied, after a legal
right to demand them had been obtained, and how far the
clergy of the prefent day follow out in praétice the principle
on which they were originally made payable. It has been
remarked by the writer of the work on Modern Agriculture,
that in regard to the queftion, whether the tithes in this
part of this country be now appropriated to the ufes for
which they were at firft paid, whether voluntarily or by
compulfion ? it will be neceffary to go back to the firft in-
troduétion of the tithing fyftem into the country. Bede
ftates, it ts faid, that about the year 597, Gregory the
Great, then pope, fent amonk of the name of Auftin into
England, to propagate the gofpel, and to introduce a ne
tem of church-government note the people. Auftin
having fucceeded to the utmoft of his wifhes, and having
received a grant of land from the then king of Kent, befides
donations from private individuals, for the fupport of him-
felf and the priefts whom he had brought along with him,
found it neceflary to apply to the pope for diretions in
regard to the manner in which thefe royal and private dona-
tions fhould be applied. Gregory folved the monk’s quef-
tion, by replying, that it was the cuftom of the church to
divide fuch voluntary gifts as Chriftians were pleafed to be-
ftow in four parts: to give one to the bifhop, another to
the inferior clergy, a third to the poor, and to fet afide the
fourth for ereéting and upholding churches or places of
worfhip. And in confirmation of this, it may be noticed,
that Blackftone has remarked, that at the firft eftablifhment
of parochial clergy, the tithes of the parifh were diftributed
in a fourfold divifion ; one for the ufe of the bifhop, another

FeNie) for

TITHES.

for maintaining the fabric of the church, a third for the
poor, and the Bianth to provide for the incumbent : but that
when the fees of the bifhops became otherwife amply en-
dowed, the bifhops were prohibited from demanding their
ufwal fhare of thefe tithes, and the divifion was in three parts
only. In confidering the ftate of tithes in the fourteenth
century, he likewife takes notice of an a& of Richard II.
enjoining the bifhops to allocate a proper fum out of the
tithes of each diocefe, for the fuftenance of poor pa-

rifhioners ; remarking, in addition, that it feems the people -

were frequently fufferers by withholding of thofe alms, for
which, among other purpofes, the payment of tithes was
originally impofed.

The firft of the above two writers obferves farther, that
at what period the fuperior clergy of England firft poffeffed
themfelves of the tithes, in defiance of the original deftina-
tion, and of many ftatutes made to enforce an application of
them to the ufes for which they were firft made payable, it
is unneceflary to inquire. It will not be denied, however,
it is thought, by the keeneft ftickler for the prerogatives of
the church, that in place of one-third of them being applied
for the ufe of the officiating clergy, one-third for the
fupport of the poor, and the remaining third for the re-
pairs of the churches, which, when the bifhops had ac-
quired land in mortmain, or free alms, fufficient to fup-
port their dignity, was the deftination originally intended ;
the tithes payable in England are now very differently,
although not, it is faid, fo legally, appropriated. Thofe
people, fays the writer, who are moft difpofed to ery out
“the church is in danger,’? when the real or fuppofed
rights of the clergy are invaded by the flighteft attempts to
alienate the tithes, ought to reflect that the third of all the
tithes in England, whether in poffeffion of the church or of
the laity, ought to be allowed for the fupport of the poor ;
that another third ought to be expended in the repairs of
the churches, the expence of which is now defrayed, in al-
moft every inftance, by an affeflment on the parifhioners ;
and that the laft third ought to fall to the officiating clergy-
men, many of whom are the moft miferable of the fons
of men.

But it is not by any means, it is faid, intended to cenfure
the prefent members of the church of England for aliena-
tions of rights that took place centuries ago; far lefs to in-
finuate that that refpectable body have not an unqueftionable
right to the value of fuch a proportion of the produce of
the foil, as. will enable them to fill the {tations in which they
are placed with dignity and honour. The obje& which is
here aimed at, is the giving a fuccinét account of the par-
ticulars and circumftances in which the payment of tithes in
kind operates again{ft the introdu€tion of improvements in
agriculture, and the advancement of religion ; and by fhew-
ing the manner in which the alteration in the tithing fyftem
was effected in Scotland, to endeavour to point out a way
in which the future payment of tithes in England may be
arranged, fo as to meet the purpofes, and mott effectuall
promote the interefts of agriculture, without in the fmalleft
degree infringing on the rights of the individuals concerned
in paying or receiving them.

There are many different ways in which the payment of
tithes in kind operates unfavourably to the general advance-
ment and profperity of the hufbandry of this country.
According to the writer of the Effays on rural affairs, it is
univerfally confidered as a grievance ; there being, it is faid,
fearcely an agricultural furvey of a county, in which it is
not flated as an evil that ought to be removed. And this
the author thinks no wonder, as the drawing of tithes in
kind, when it is examined with attention, will be found to

operate dire€tly, in the ftriéteft fenfe of the word, as a tas
on induftry ; and to be, at the fame time, more vexatious
in the mode of colle€ting than perhaps any tax that has ever
been adopted, or had recourfe to, on any occafion.

It is conceived to be a meafure that has an injurious and
unfavourable effe@ on four different defcriptions of fociety,
as the farmer, the landholder, the clergyman or impropriator
of the tithe, and the public.

As to the firft, or the farmer, he is more or lefs affected,
according to the differences of the nature, circumftances,
and fituation of the land which he may hold. The intelli-
gent writer on Modern Agriculture, noticed above, confiders
it unfortunate, though certainly the cafe, that the payment
of tithes in kind operates more againit the fpirited improyer
than againit the flovenly and indolent ; and that tithes, as
the law now ftands, cannot be confidered fo much the tenth
of the natural produce of the foil, as a tenth of the capital
employed by the farmer in its cultivation and improyement.
For inftance, if a farmer pays his ploughman ten pounds a
year of wages, his labourer ten-pence a day for his labour,
or the landlord a hundred pounds of rent, he muft confider
himfelf as advancing one-tenth part of thefe fums for the
purpofe of promoting the intereft of the tithe-owner, who
not only receives annually a fum equivalent to the tenth
part of this capital, but that tenth improved to the higheft
degree which the unremitting exertion of the tenant is able
to effe&. Mr. Locke, it is continued, in his Treatife on
Civil Gevernment, remarks, that it is labour which puts

the greateft part of the value upon land, without which it ~

would fcarcely be worth any thing. That it is to that we
owe the greateft part of all its ufeful products ; for all that.
the produce of an acre of wheat is more worth than the
produce of an acre of as good land which lies waite, is
the effet of labour. Hence, it is thought, the farmer
furnifhes a fund to purchafe the neceflary labour, where-
by an acre of land is rendered fo produétive as to af-
ford fix, or eight, or ten shillings yearly of clear revenue to,
the tithe-owner, which, but for che application of that
labour, would have remained unproduétive for ever, in fo
far at leaft as he was concerned. So much is this the cafe,

it is faid, that if a farmer expends one hundred pounds on

the purchafe of manure, the improvement and cultivation
of his farm, and the payment of the rent ; and if the value
of the crop, when fold, amounts to one hundred and ten
pounds, he is aétually a lofer to the extent of five pounds,
or what may be the intereft of one hundred pounds for a
year. He indeed gets his capital of one hundred pounds
returned, but the tithe-owner draws the ten pounds, or
rather more, or, which is the fame thing, the value; fo
that the farmer has employed his capital to enable the tithe-

owner to draw a dividend of 10 per cent. on that capital ;.

whereas had he lent it on mortgage, or placed it in the
funds, he would have benefited himfelf and his family to
the extent of the intereft or the dividend which he, in either
of thefe cafes, would have himfelf received. So much, it
is faid, for the abfurdity of attempting to improve lands
under fuch circumitances. The able writer of the above
named Effays likewife, after ftating different ways in which
tithes operate againit the tillage or corn-farmer, ftrongly
remarks, that in this country, befides commans and wattes,
much very fine land is allowed to remain in grafs in a very
unproduétive ftate, which, with a very little or moderate
degree of induftry and outlay of money upon it, might be
made to yield abundant crops of corn: and the reafon af-
figned for this difgraceful ftate of management and want of
produétion, which is fo called, bectute were it altered,
even the grafs-land might be ealily made twice as praduc-

tive

TITHES.

Yive as it is by a judicious ufe of the plough, is, that the
tithe of corn-land is fo very heavy, as deters the farmer
from having recourfe to the plough: whereas in Scotland,
where the corn-tithe is never drawn in kind, immenfe tra@ts
of country, which thirty years ago were covered with
heath, and totally unproduétive even of grafs itfelf, are
now converted into fertile fields that yield abundant crops
of corn and grafs; and which, if the tithe-laws had there
exifted, muit, in all probability, have continued unpro-
du@tive until the end of time. This is a contraft that is
very {triking to every one, it is faid, who travels through
thefe parts of that country; and that it brings forward a
practical fa&t, which ought, it is thought, to outweigh a
million of {peculative arguments.

The intelligent author of the Prefent State of Hufbandry
in Great Britain ftates, that another grievance to which
farmers are fubjected, in the payment of tithes in kind,
arifes from the harfh and oppreflive manner in which the
payments are fometimes exa¢ted. The nature and extent
of this grievance may, it is faid, be learned by a perufal of
the extraé&t which is given below, from the fame writer’s
Agricultural Report of the County of Northampton; where
it is ftated, that it has happened, (though, to the credit of
the tithe-owners be it faid, the inftances are very few or
rare,) where, when the tithes have been let for the purpofe
of oppreffion, the tithing-man has been known to exert that
authority with which he was invefted ; that he has not only
taken the tenth fhock of corn, and the tenth cole of hay,
but alfo the tenth lamb, pig, hen, egg, &c.; nay, has even
avr into the garden, and taken not only the tenth part of
the fruit, but likewife the tenth of the produce of the
kitchen-garden. Under fuch circumitances as thefe, it may
be afked, who is the farmer that would not feel himfelf
aggrieved? From this it muft appear, it is thought, ob-
vious, that whether the farmer’s intereft or happinefs be
confidered, it muft be equally his defire that fome arrange-
ment fhould be effeéted, whereby the payment of tithes in
kind fhould for ever be abolifhed ; for, as the writer of the
Agricultural Report of the County of Buckingham very
iullly, it is faid, obferves, it may be laid down as a pro-
pofition, that whatever profit arifes to the cultivator of the
foil, by the force of fuperior ingenuity and induitry, fhould
be held facred by the church and government. If it be
otherwife, it difcourages the improvement of the foil ; and
thereby the church prevents the future increafe of her
tithes, and the government the future increafe of its taxes.

It has been ably contended by the writer of the Eflays on
rural fubjeGis, already noticed, that though the tithe-laws
are hurtful to the farmer, they are perhaps {till more fo to
the proprietor or land-holder. Whatever checks, it is faid,
the induftry of the farmer, muft, in a direét manner, diminifh
the income of the landlord ; and as the energy of a farmer,
when once excited, is well known to augment in proportion
to the advances he has made, whatever checks that energy
in the bud, occafions in time a diminution of income to the
proprietor, much greater than can be eafily conceived. And
that, as it is fuppofed the proportion of rent which can be
afforded for arable land, increafes with the productivenefs of
that land in a much higher degree than in the ratio of the
quantum of the crop ; whatever tends to render land per-
manently more produétive than before, if no deduction be
made from it, tends, at the fame time, to augment the income
of the proprietor in a ftill higher degree than that of its pro-
duce. But as it is obvious that the tithe operates as a dead
bar to the commencement of improvements in agriculture
upon any foil of no ooh degree of fertility, fo as to pre-
vent the beginning of that motion, from the acceleration of

r

which alone the proprietor can hope to derive confiderable
increafe of rent ; in all cafes his rent is diminifhed in a much
higher ratio than one-tenth, as it might feem to do by thofe
who take only a flight view of the matter. It is added, that
fhould the proprietor of poor lands, feeing the impoffibility
of the tenant’s improving them, attempt to render thefe more
permanently fertile by the outlay of ftock upon them, that
he never expeéted to draw back ; but would content himfelf
with a reafonable return of intereft on the capital in the
name of rent, he would not find the cafe much altered. He
fets out, it may be fuppofed, with this principle, that if he
can fecure a permanent rent, equal to 5 fer cent. on the
money expended upon them, he will be very well fatisfied
with it. Let us fay, then, that twelve buthels of grain
were the neat expence of culture, &c. which, on an ayer-
age of all forts of corn, was valued at 4s. the bufhel; and
that he had expended 20/. the acre, the intereft of which,
at 5 per cent., 1s 20s. or in other words, five bufhels. But
that before he can draw this rent free of tithe, the average
produce mutt be, at leaft, eighteen bufhels, out of which
muft be taken one bufhel and nine-tenths, fo that inftead
of five, his rent will be reduced to 3 per cent. nearly ; while
the tithe-owner will be entitled to draw nearly 2 per cent.
for ever, on the capital which the improver had thus ex-
pended. It is almoft needlefs to add, it is faid, that under
fuch circumftances it is vain to look for a general fpirit of
agriculture, either among proprietors or tenants, to both of
which defcriptions of perfons the operation of the tithe-laws
are, it is contended, highly oppreflive.

And another inftance is {tated of very material import-
ance, in which tithe becomes fingularly pernicious and pre-
judicial to proprietors of land. The importance of keeping
and preferving the whole produce of the ground upon the
farm where it was raifed, for the purpofe of making manure,
feems, it is faid, to be very generally underftood ; asa claufe
to that effect is univerfally found inferted in the leafes in
every county of England, wherever leafes are granted at all.
What punifhment, it is afked, would the proprietors of thefe
lands deem adequate to the crime of felling off the whole
produce of the farm every tenth year? Yet great as this
crime would be, it would not be adequate, in point of da-
mage to them, to the right of drawing tithe in kind from
their arable lands ; becaufe the farmer who fold the produce
would, at leait, become pofleffed of money to replace, in
fome degree, by means of extraneous manures, the lofs he
had incurred by the abftraGtion of the home-dung. Thofe
who are entitled to draw the tithe in kind are, in fa&t, by
this means, vefted with a power of enriching themfelves,
or their own private property, if they be fo inclined, at
the expence of every other proprietor around them. In
this point of view, therefore, tithes are fingularly perni-
cious to proprietors of land. ‘This is unqueftionably an
objection to the drawing of tithes in kind that can pro-
bably never be well got over by any of thofe who are fo
favourable to the fivelene tithing fyftem. It ftrikes at the
very vitals of all our improvements in hufbandry and rural
bufinefs.

Befides, the writer of the work on modern hufbandry con-
fiders that infomuch as the fpirit of improvement is deprefled
and checked, the land-helder mutt be injured ; and that as
there are no regulations or laws exifting in this country
which have fuch a tendency to impede the introduction
of new or improved modes of hufbandry as thofe of ex-
ating the payment of tithes in kind, there are, of courfe,
none that operate fo decidedly againft the landed intereft of
the kingdom. If, it is faid, the farmer be reftrained from
inclofing, draining, purchafing manure, in fhort, from cul-.

tivating

TITHES.

tivating and improving his land to the higheft degree, who
will deny that the intereft of the owner is affe€ted? And
that this is the cafe in a variety of inflances, from the opera-
tion of the tithe-laws, is admitted by every one who is
perfe€tly acquainted with the prefent ftate of agriculture in
this country. : ‘

In refpeét to the impropriators of tithes, it may be no-
ticed that, if the interefts of religion and the clergy be
confidered, it will be found that the fyftem of taking the
tithes in kind is equally produétive of bad confequences. It
will be difcovered to difturb the harmony of fociety, and to
be often the means of creating fuch difputes and divifions
between the clergyman and his parifhionérs, as renders the
teligious inftru@ions of the former of little avail. sanone
the many inftances which might be mentioned of the teaf-
ing and vexatious circumftances of this nature that occur to
unhinge the harmony which ought to fubfift between the
clergyman and his parifhioners, that which is given below,
from the Agricultural Report of the County of Hants, may
be fufficient. In this cafe the clergyman and the farmer
were at variance; and the farmer, determined to be even
with the clergyman, gave him notice that he was going to
draw a field of turnips on acertain day. The clergyman
accordingly fent his team and fervant at the time appointed,
when the farmer drew ten turnips, and defired the other to
take one of them; faying he fhould not draw any more
that day, but would let him know when he did. This fully
fhews the vexatioufnefs of the praétice of tithing in this
manner.

Further, that in a political point of view it is alfo inju-
rious, as tending to loofen that chain of intercourfe and
conneétion which, it is conceived, is of fo much importance
to keep united. The intereft of the clergy would likewife
be greatly promoted, were they to receive an equitable com-
penfation for their tithes, in place of drawing them in kind,
or of making annual arrangements with the farmers.

But it is the lay proprietors, it is faid, that are the moft
blameable in refpeét to the rigorous manner in which the
tithes are colleGted. It is faid that clergymen, who
aét up to the charaéter in which they ftand in the feale
of fociety, (and the moft violent declaimer againft them
will not pretend that a very great majority of that refpect-
able body do not fo aét,) very generally facrifice fo great a
portion of their juft demands for the fake of peace and
quiet, that, if the expence of colleGting be added, there is
fcarcely any compofition that can be propofed which it
would not be for their intereft to accept. Some inftances
there no doubt are, where the clergyman, being of a turbu-
lent, avaricious difpofition, lays hold of every advantage, and
collects his tithes to the value of the uttermoft farthing :
but it ought to be remembered, that a clergyman who does
fo, nay, that a clergyman who fubmits to the drudgery of
collecting tithes in kind, muft lofe, in the opinion of the
parifhioners, a great fhare of that refpeétablility of cha-
raéter, which it is his indifpenfable duty to fupport and
keep up.

And in relation to the public, the effeét which this inju-
dicious regulation has, is equally prejudicial and mifchievous.
It comes in, according to the author of Modern Agricul-
ture, for its fhare of the lofs arifing from the effe& which
the tithe-laws have on the hufbandry of the country, as, by
their operation, the quantity of corn that might be culti-
vated, did not fuch laws exilt, is diminifhed to an immenfe
degree, and other branches of the art of farming are greatly
impeded. Befides, they check induftry, by deprefling the
farmer’s {pirit, and by preventing the circulation of money
that would be expended in improvements, and in the pur-

chafe of the manufaétures of the country. Were no fuch
laws ini force, the proprietors and farmers, in confequence
of the fuccefs of the improvements which in that event
would be undertaken, would be enabled to purchafe
more of the manufa@tures of the country, pay a greater
fhare of the taxes for the fupport of the ftate, and after
all, live in a greater ftate of eafe and comfort, than under
the exifting circumftances they are able todo. In fhort,
it is confidered that the abolition of thefe laws is the
only meafure that can be adopted with any probability of
fuccefs, at leaft the firft one that ought to be attended to,
with a view of again bringing the corn-trade to turn once
more in favour of this country. When all thefe various
circumftances are conjoined ; and when it is further con-
fidered that, except in Spain and Portugal, there is fearcely
a civilized nation in the world where this fyftem of church-
flavery is allowed to exift ; and that even in Ruffia tithes
are abolifhed ; it may be reafonably hoped that the period is
not far diftant when England will be relieved by legal and
conftitutional means, and in confequence of arrangements
made on liberal principles, from this almoft Egyptian
bondage. =
It eater likewife appears, from the accounts given by
different writers on the fubje& of tithes, that they were
paid in the latter etd and ages of the Romifh church with
great reluétance ; and even in this country during the reign
of Henry VIII. Therefore it is faid, that if, when im-
provements in agriculture were in their infancy, and at a
period too when men’s minds were held in flavifh fervitude
by the clergy, the payment of tithes in kind could hardl
be enforced, can it be fuppofed wonderful, that in thefe
enlightened days it fhould be confidered as a grievance?
At a period when the principles of religion and of real
genuine liberty are better afcertained, and more generally
known, than in any former age, it is not furprifing that laws
compelling the payment of tithes in kind, laws which ori-
ginated in edi¢ts iffued by bigotted kings under the influence
of defigning priefts, fhould now be found inimical to the beft
interefts of the country, and to the happinefs of fo man
thoufands. That this is the cafe, every inhabitant of this.
ifland has ample opportunities of fateyine himfelf by a p
rufal of the agricultural reports of the different counties of
England and Wales, which have been lately publifhed. And
that as thefe reports, after having been circulated among the ©
proprietors of land and farmers for their correétion and
amendment, {till contain, in their republication, the fame or
fimilar complaints in refpe&t to the hardfhips which the
farmers are fubjefted to, and the injury which agriculture
fuftains, by the continuance of the payment of tithes in kind,
fuch complaints may juftly he deemed the voice of the people
proclaimed in a conflituttopel way ; and as fuch, merit the
moft ferious and fpeedy attention of the legiflature and of
the clergy. oe
A few of the injurious effets of the praétice of paying tithes
in kind have been noticed above, and many more of the hard-
{hips proceeding from it are recorded in the different agricul-
tural county furveys and other works which have been only
flightly touched upon in what has been already faid upon the
fubjec&t. And the neceflity of fomething effectual being
done, in order to the removal of fo inconvenient and appre
five a regulation, has been ftrongly fhewn in the writings of
the various advocates of the improvements of Britifh huf-
bandry and farming, as well as by many other able and —
intelligent writers on matters conneéted with them, but
which, for want of room, cannot be confidered here. _ Ir
As, therefore, fome reform in the mode of paying tithes
in this country muft be admitted to be indifpenfably necef-

fary,

i

TITHES.

fary, it is to be withed that the legiflature, efpecially at the
prefent time, would devote that attention and confideration
to the fubje&t which its importance and neceflity demand,
and the clergy come forward with fuch reafonable propo-
fitions for the adjuftment of the bufinefs as may be fuitable,
as by fuch means the matter might, and no doubt would, be
foon eafily fettled to the fatisfaCtion of all the parties con-
cerned.

In the view of affording a proper knowledge of the moft
fuitable means of effecting fo important an alteration, the
author of the “* Prefent State of Hufbandry”’ in this ifland,
gives the following clear account of the beneficial arrange-
ment which took place in refpe& to tithes in Scotland,
and of the circumftances which led to it. It is ftated, on
the authority of Erfkine’s ‘ Inftitutes of the Law of Scot-

-land,”’ that the payment of tithes in kind was continued
for many ages in that kingdom; and that, owing to the
precarioufnels of the climate, it was attended with more

Ebevons hardfhips than could have taken place in the
outhern part of the ifland. Every Scotch proprietor or
farmer, who prefumed, after reaping their corns, to carry off
any part of them from the field, until the perfon having
right to the tithe had drawn his fhare, were. from the firft
eftablifhmert of this right, fubje@t to fevere penalties. The
tithe-owner, on the contrary, either from indolence, a
defire to opprefs, or with a view of compelling the proprietor
or farmer to purchafe his tithes annually at a high price,
frequently delayed drawing his fhare until a great part
of the crop or produce was rotten. Notwithitanding feve-
ral ftatutes were enacted witha view of checking the oppref-
five difpofition which fo often evinced itfelf in the condu&
of the clergy in this refpeét, yet thefe grievances continued
to exift, more or lefs, until the year 1633; when a decree-
arbitral, pafled by Charles I. in 1629, for arranging and
determining a mode, to be afterwards adopted, for the pay-
ment of tithes, was ratified by parliament.

That during the ftruggle for the eftablifhment of this or
that form of church-government, great alterations had taken
place, both in regard to thofe having right to the tithes,
and to the manner in which they were exaéted. On the
‘Reformation, the benefices of the church fell to the crown,
and were, at different periods, gifted for fervices, or other
confiderations ; fuch as for fupporting univerfities, hofpitals,
&c. ; and the perfons obtaining them were denominated
lords of ereGtion, and fometimes called by other names.
They likewife got, or aflumed, the right of nominating
officiating clergy on all vacancies. Thefe alienations were,
‘by act of parliament, 1587, put a ftop to; and fuch tithes
as had not been previoufly difpofed of, remained with the

* crown unalienably. The tithes, which were then annexed
to the crown, may be valued and leafed by the proprietor of
the lands, but cannot be purchafed. The officers of the
‘crown are in ufe to grant leafes of this defcription of tithes
for nineteen years, and which are renewed as matters of
ourfe on paying a reafonable fum on fuch renewal. T
fum demanded is regulated by the yearly value of the
tithes ; fo that a capital equal to between five and fix years’
amount of the tithes, laid out at the commencement of the
leafe, and improved by compound interett, is fufficient to
produce fuch a fum at the expiry as will obtain renewals to
perpetuity. : root Pa

Some of the clergy remained, it is faid, in poffeflion of
their benefices after the Reformation; and the vacancies
that happened in fuch benefices were filled up by thofe
who affumed the right of prefentation. An act of parlia-
ment was foon afterwards paffed, whereby the patrons were
deprived of the right of patronage : but in compenfation

5

for this fuppofed hardfhip, it was enadied, that the right of
all tithes, fo poffeffed by the clergy, fhould be veld in
thofe who had exercifed the right of patronage. . Patrons
having acquired tithes in this way, are compelled by law
to fell them at nine years’ purchafe of the yearly value of
the tithes.

The fyftem of tithes and tithmg having, however, got
into great confufion, in confequence of the various alterations
that took place in the government of the church of Scot-
land, thofe interefted found it neceflary to fubmit their
feveral rights and claims to the determination and final
award of Charles I., who, on the 2d of Septemher, 1629,
pronounced two decrees-arbitral, or judgments, which laid
the foundation of that arrangement refpecting tithes, and
the payment of the eftablifhed clergy in Scotland, which
has been produtive of fo many good confequences.

The moft important article in thefe two decrees-arbitral,
is that which direéts the valuation and fale of tithes; after
which, theland-holder is entitled to the whole crop upon pay-
ment to the proprietor of the tithes of a yearly rent, or to
purchafe them at an eafy rate, fubje& to a reafonable pro-
vifion to the clergy. The words of this famous decree are,
it is faid, that “the rule of all tithes, where they are
valued jointly with the ftock, fhall be a fifth part of the
conitant yearly rent that is paid for the lands.’”? Another
material circumftance in the valuation of tithes in Scotland
is, that the rents of mills, thofe arifing from recent improve-
ments, and fome others of lefs importance, are deducted
from the grofs amount.

By thefe decrees, which were ratified in parliament in
1633, the proprietors of land not having right to the tithes,
were not only found entitled to fue the titular in an a@tion
at law to afcertain their yalue, but, unlefs vefted in the
crown, to obtain a purchafe of them on eftablifhed terms,
as mentioned above. Thus, ever fince 1633, every land-
holder in Scotland has had it in his power to acquire right
to his own tithes, either by purchafe, or leafe, fo that they
fhould be no longer payable in kind. Neverthelefs, thofe
who negleé& to fue for a valuation may ftill be fubjeéted to
all the inconyeniencies of the former law; as under fuch
circumftances, thofe having right to the tithes may draw
them in the manner commonly praétifed in England. The
remedy is, however, fo eafy, that he muft be a fool indeed
who would fubje&t himfelf or his tenants to fuch a flavifh
fervitude, while he has it in his power, by a fimple appli-
cation to the fupreme court of the country, to abolifh it
for ever.

Some inftances are, however, recollected, where pro-
prietors in the north of Scotland, having a right to the
tithes, and being unwilling to forego all the power of
harafling their tenants, which attached itfelf to the ancient
feudal barons, ftill continued to draw the tithes for fome
time. But they at laft became afhamed of fuch condué ;
and there is not now, it is faid, one inftance where tithes
are paid in kind, or where the tenants have any concern,
either diretly or indire@ly, with or in the payment of
tithes on the north fide of the Tweed. How then, it may
be afked, are the Scotch clergy provided for? The anfwer
is, it is faid, eafy ; the ftipends provided by law for the
maintenance of the Scotch clergy are ftill payable out of
the tithes. The judges of the court of feffions, who aé&
as commiffioners for the arrangement of tithes, have a right
to modify reafonable ftipends to the parochial clergy. And
accordingly, in all fuch cafes, where the clergyman can
fhew that the parifh is a place of more than ordinary refort,
that the cure is burdenfome, or that the neceffaries of life
give a high price in that part of the country, or that the

{canty

TITHES.

{canty allowance of ftipend in that parifh bears too fmall a
proportion to the weight of the charge, provided there are
free and unappropriated tithes in the parifh, the commif-
fioners, on the application of the clergyman, grant an addi-
tional ftipend, either in money, but more generally, where
pratticable, in grain, as being lefs flu€tuating in value than
money. But that owing to the free tithe in the parifh
having been previoufly affigned to the clergyman, fome
inftances do occur, where the commiffioners have it not in
their power to augment his ftipend, although it be too {mall
for the decent maintenance of a numerous family. In all
fuch cafes it would, it is thought, be highly proper to
apply part of the bifhop’s tithes, fuch as are now payable
to the crown, to the purpofe of rendering the fituation of
thefe clergymen, who are fo unfortunately fituated, more
decent and refpeétable.

In order to the introduétion of a fuitable arrangement
in regard to tithes in this part of the country, it is remarked,
that the queftion has been for fome time paft very popular,
and much agitated; and that many difficulties have been
ftarted, apparently for the purpofe of rendering it more
perplexed and complicated than it is in reality. Holding
it as a facred and inviolable principle, that tithes, as now
payable in England, were formerly appropriated for par-
ticular purpofes, and that although in many inftances alien-
ations were made at different periods; yet that as thefe are
exprefsly or virtually confirmed by thofe laws which proteét
national and individual property ; therefore tithes, as now
payable in the fouthern part of the ifland, are payable in
conformity to the laws of the country. This being granted,
no man who has a regard for juftice, who venerates the
conftitution, or who would not with to fee the rights of
property invaded, but mutt be fatisfied, that if the prefent
mode of paying tithes is abolifhed, the clergy and the lay-
proprietors of tithes are, in law, juftice, and equity, en-
titled to an equivalent. What that equivalent ought to be,
and in what manner afcertained, becomes the quetftion. It
is obferved, that it is not by appeals to quarter-feffions,
nor by fpecial aéts of parliament for this or that particular
diocefe or parifh, that this great national queftion can be
determined with propriety: it is only by a fubmiffion of
all rights and claims of both parties to the determination of
fome one refpeétable individual, that the matter can be
amicably or equitably decided. Avnd it is thought, that the
moft proper individual to be made choice of is the fovereign,
or perfon holding the government of the country.

The clergy, it is faid, need not be afraid to appeal to
fuch an arbiter, as in the courfe of a great length of time
there has been no inftance of any degree of infringement of
or upon their rights. ‘The land-holders and lay tithe-
owners may keep their minds at eafe, as though the moft
facred regard for religion has been evinced, yet it has been
divefted of fuperftition or bigotry. If, it is continued,
Charles I. during the anarchy of church-government that
prevailed in his time, found no difficulty in pafling a decree
in a fimilar cafe, which, having received the fanétion of
parliament as a matter of courfe, laid the foundation for a
jutt and equitable arrangement of the tithes, the bufinefs
may unqueftionably be accomplifhed with much lefs diffi-
culty at the prefent period. The probable confequences of
fuch a fubmiffion would, it is thought, be, that the arbiter
would no doubt appoint commiflioners to examine and
afcertain the yearly value of all the landed property in
England, the produce of which is fubjeét to the payment
of tithes. Were the yearly value of the lands afcertained
by a corn-rent in place of one in money, and which, it is
fuppofed, might be eafily done by taking the average price

of corn for the feven or ten years or more laft paft, with
the exception, however, of 1795 and fome other fearce
and dear years, the clergy could fuftain no lofs, nor would
after valuations in confequence of the depreciation in the
value of money, be rendered neceflary.

This being done, a fifth, a fixth, or any other given pro-_
portion of the free rent, after the payment of parliamentary
taxes affeCting land, would be declared due to the tithe-
owner in lieu of the payment of tithes in kind. One claufe
of the decree would probably, it is thought, be, to compel
every lay-owner of tithes to fell his right to the land-holder,
at a fair and equitable, but regulated price ; and another
would moft likely be, declaring the clergy entitled for ever
to a fifth or fixth, or fome other determinate proportion of
the prefent real free rent of all titheable lands, to which
they may have right, and fubjeéting the proprietors to the
regular payment thereof. Thus at once would, it is faid,
a load which has for many ages prefled down the fpirit of
the Englifh farmers, be removed, and that while all ranks
and degrees muft applaud the equity and the propriety of
the arrangement, a fpirit for agricultural improvements
would evince itfelf fuperior, it is thought, to any of which
the records of this country make mention.

It is fuppofed that this mode is the lefs ex€eptionable, as.
it is almoft fimilar to that adopted when aéts of parliament
are paffed for enclofing particular parifhes. At the firft
meeting of the commiflioners named in fuch aés, they direét,
that all having intereft may deliver in their claims, and the
rights or grounds on which they claim, againft a certain
day. Thofe being afterwards examined by the commif-
fioners, who are neither more nor lefs than arbiters appointed
by the legiflature, their decifion conftitutes the law in
regard to the right by which the individual proprietors
hold the lands, which by the arbiter’s award is affigned to
them. In place, therefore, of multiplying aéts of parlia-
ment refpeCting the adjuftment of tithes ad infinitum, one
only, and that a very fhort one, feems neceflary, authorizing
the governing perfon to arbitrate between the owners of
the tithes and the land-holders ; and whofe award, like that
of the commiffioners appointed under aéts of parliament for
enclofures, fhould be final, and have the effeét of law.
Having thus laid down the general principle, it will
be expeéted that any attempt will be made to combat the
little difficulties that may be ftarted againft the praética-
bility of carrying the meafures founded thereon into effect.
Thefe the wifdom of the arbitrator will be fully fufficient
to obviate and direét. One thing is certain, it is fuppofed,
namely, that a decree-arbitral or judgment, pronounced by
fuch high authority, and founded on thefe principles, would
give univerfal fatisfaction to every party concerned. -

On a matter which is fo very interefting and important
to the Englifh land-holder and farmer, it will be neceflary
and ufeful to bring to the inquirer’s notice and attention a
few of the different other modes and plans which have been
fuggeited at different times by different writers for effecting
the bufinefs and adjuftment of the matter of tithes.

The intelligent writer of the Effays on rural affairs has
fuppofed, that the tithes of or in England and Wales fhould
be converted, fo as to make a payment in money be univer-
fally received in lieu of the payments in kind that are at pre-
fent exigeable ; but under fuch modifications as to prevent
the poflibility of thofe who are entitled to draw the tithes
from fuffering by the depreciation in the value of money,
which we have feen for a long time paft has been going on in
a regular progreffion ; and which may be expeéted to con-
tinue ; or may, perhaps, as at this time in a neighbourin
country, be funk almait to nothing by fome political track

that

TITHES.

that cannot at prefent be forefeen. With thefe views, might
not, it is afked, a law be obtained, authorizing the valuation
of tithes, in every cafe where either of the parties interefted
in it fhould fo incline? This might be done,'it is faid, by a
fummons raifed againft all the parties concerned, either be-
fore the fheriff of the county where the property lay, or be-
fore any other judge that fhould be thought more proper for
executing the office ; who, after hearing the parties, fhould
proceed to make a legal inqueft to obtain a clear proof what
had been the amount of the tithes, a€tually paid and drawn,
for five, ten, fifteen, or twenty years laft paft, as fhould be
judged the moft proper, out of the feveral lands in queftion ;
fpecifying diftin@ly the quantity of each denomination of
grain, or other titheable produce. But as it may eafily be
‘orefeen, that it would be a matter of great difficulty, in
many cafes, to get at thefe faéts with precifion, might it
not be put in the power of the judge, if the parties could
not agree as to that particular, to appoint two or more per-
fons of good charaéter in the neighbourhood, to gather up
the tithes in kind themfelves, fairly and honeftly, for five
years next to come, without favour to any perfon; the
amount to be delivered to the perfons having a right to re-
ceive them, after the quantities had been plectanly afcer-
tained, fo as te admit of the colleGtors making up an ac-
count of the whole, upon oath, to be delivered to the judge ;
who, from that account fo made up, fhould caufe an
average to be ftruck of the quantities of each particular ar-
ticle; which average quantities, after deduGting a juft pro-
portion for the expence of colleCting, and taxes affecting the
tithe, fhould be declared by him to be the legal tithe exigeable
from the land in queftion in all time to come? But as there
is room to fufpe& that the money prices of corn, wool,
&c. of different denominations, may rife to be much
higher in fome future period than it was at that time ; in-
ftead of then afcertaining the price of thefe articles, let it
be declared, that the quantities of grain and other articles
refulting from the averages refpeCtively, are payable out of
the refpeétive lands, leaving the average prices of fuch grain,
&c. to be fettled and afcertained each year, as is {pecified
below ; declaring that the money which fhall arife from the
average prices thus afcertained, fhould be in lieu of the
sie aie that could be exa&ted each year; the time of
payment too to be fpecified. And, in order to prevent all
difputes as to the average prices of thefe articles in time to
come, let the fheriff of each county be authorized and re-
quired to make an inqueft at a certain period each year of
what has been the aétual ready money felling price of corn
of the preceding year’s crop, from the time the crops were
reaped till this time, and of wool, as well as of all other
titheable articles for the former year, by examining witnefles
before a jury to be appointed for that purpofe, which prices,
after being thus afcertained, fhould be publifhed and de-
clared to be thofe by which the quantity of tithe-corn of
each particular defcription, and other titheable articles, con-
tained in any degree of valuation, fhould be payable for the
crop of the preceding year. Thus, it is faid, would the
tithe-owner be entitled to receive payment of his tithes,
without any extraordinary expence or trouble, or unjuit de-
duGtion or difpute whatever: the farmer would be allowed
to carry on his operations uncramped by thofe galling re-
ftraints which the tithe-laws at prefent perpetually throw
in his way : the proprietor would be at liberty to apply
fuch part of his capital as he might incline, towards pro-
moting agricultural improvements, with a reafonable pro-
fpe& of being benefited by his exertion: and the public
would become poffeffed of a quantity of furplus produce of
land, which it can have no profpe&t of ever otherwife en-
VoL. XXXV.

joying, which would be the means of diffufing a perpetual
plenty through every corner of the land.

Mr. Pitt too, in his account of the agriculture of a
midland diftri@, fuggefts, that the mode or fcheme to
be adopted as the outline of an exchange of tithes, fhould
be for land, in the manner direéted below, as land will
always bear a value proportionate to that of its produce, and
that even the price or value of labour is meafured by the
fame ftandard. This is, that an a@ of parliament fhould
appoint, in every diocefe, an equal number of the moft re-
{fpectable clergy and country gentlemen commiffioners and
truftees, with a power of nominating furveyors, to value all
the tithes belonging either to the clergy or laity within the
diocefe ;- and that this aét fhould be let give an option to the
land-owners of purchafing their refpeétive tithes, at the va-
luation fixed on them by fuch commiffioners and furveyors ;
the money arifing from fuch redemption being invefted in
the funds, or other more proper fecurities, until a fuitable
opportunity fhould offer of laying it out in the purchafe of
land ; and that, where the land-owners fhould refufe to pur-
chafe fuch tithes, the commiffioners fhould have the power
of mortgaging them, or of taking up money on their fecu-
rity, to be invefted in the fame way with that arifing from the
tithes aétually fold ; or after a given time, the truftees might
be impowered to fet apart an allotment of the land of thofe
owners who refufe to purchafe, and which, if conveniently
fituated for the former tithe-owner, might be fo applied,
otherwife fold ; and the money arifing from fuch fale in-
velted as before, until it could be laid out in the purchafe
of land. The execution of fome fuch plan or mode as
this, would, it is fuppofed, be attended with infinitely lefs
trouble and expence than now incurred by the annual valua-
tion of tithes ; as, fhould fuch a regulation be once effected,
the bufinefs would be fettled for ever : while under the pre-
fent fyftem, the furveyor or valuer’s bufinefs is never done,
but continued from year to year; and, if it fhould remain,
will be from generation to generation. An equivalent in
land mutt certainly, it is thought, be a more folid property
than tithes. Land too may be improved in any degree by
good management and induftry : tithes fluctuate or fink in
value at the will of the cultivator. Some fuch commutation
as this may, it is thought, be readily and eafily effeted,
and that all parties would be pleafed with the alteration.

The concluding remarks and fuggeftions on this greatly
interefting matter, are the refult of the inveftigations and en-
quiries of two clergymen, who have been lately engaged in
drawing up accounts of the ftate of the agriculture of two
large counties of the kingdom; thofe of Hereford and
Berks. The former ftates, that of the various modes pro-
pofed to effe& the defirable obje& of a general commutation
of tithes, that of a corn-rent feems to have met lefs obje€tion
than moft others which have been yet propofed ; ftill, how-
ever, nothing has been ferioufly attempted, and the matter
remains open to further difcuflion. It has not, perhaps, it
is faid, occurred to every one, that tithes, in their prefent
form, have a dire& and powerful tendency towards increafing
the prices of wheat and of every other grain, by creating
obftacles to its culture, and thus diminifhing the quantity
which would otherwife be grown. But that the He fad,
that an acre of land under the culture of wheat, is liable to
a deduétion on account of tithes, in nearly a ten-fold pro-
portion to that of an acre of land grazed by cattle or fheep,
is furely fufficient evidence that tithes muft operate unfa-
vourably to the culture of grain, and confequently to its
abundance and cheapnefs. How defirable then is, it isfaid,
fuch a commutation as would render this payment equally
heavy onevery acre of land, according to its value, whether

5B it

TITHES.

it be applied to the culture of grain, or to the produétion
of animal food. Under this impreffion it is here propofed,
that in lieu of tithe, a tax be impofed, on the principle of
an equal land-tax, upon every eftate, according to its value,
for the fupport of the clergy. The wifdom of parliament
would, it is fuppofed, eafily determine how many fhillings
in every pound of rent would be equal to the revenues to
which the clergy have a claim, and that the meafure would
be greatly facilitated by the inveftigations oceafioned by the
income or property aét lately in force. The tenant might
be made liable in the firft inftance to the payment of the
duty propofed as a fubftitute for the tithe, but in cafe of
his defalcation, the landlord might be made ultimately re-
{ponfible.

In this mode of arrangement, the clergy, it is fuppofed,
would receive what is their due, a full equivalent for tithes
in its prefent ftate; the fecurity would ftill attach to the
foil itfelf, and their revenues would {till increafe with the
increafe of the value of land and its produce. Encourage-
ment would thus be afforded to increafe the culture of grain ;
the induftrious farmer would not have to contribute more than
is juft proportion ; the tithe-owners too would obtain the
fair value of their property; the clergy of the church of
England would acquire that degree of refpe& and efteem to
which few will deny that they are, in the aggregate, enti-
tled; and, above all, they would be enabled to fulfil the
valuable purpofe of their inftitution: while at prefent, the
clergyman who demands but the fair value of his property,
becomes hated, and often infulted ; and, to ufe the itrong
language of fome, his ‘ integrity becomes fufpected ; his
every action is feen through a falfe medium ; and the paftor
is loft in the colle¢tor of tithes!’? If it fhould be objected,
that under this or any other mode of commutation, the
farmer would not eventually be benefited, becaufe the land-
lord would then receive what is now paid to the tithe-owner ;
and that the farmer has no juft ground of complaint, as he
engaged his. farm fubje&t to the deduétion or payment of
tithes ; let it be underftood that the intereft of the commu-
ak at large, not of any one branch of it, is here contended

or.

The writer maintains, that the gréat object of a commu-
tation of tithes, beyond a religious view of it, is the relief
of the corn-field, and not the farmer. Perhaps, it is faid,
if the fubje& be well confidered, the farmer would gain lefs
in a commutation than any one clafs of fociety. Tithes, in
their prefent form, may check his improvements, may con-
tract his fyftem of farming and his capital, may harafs his
mind, and lead to perfonal animofities and expenfive litiga-
tions ; but probably his mere payments in lieu of tithe
would, on the whole, be as heavy under any commutation,
as thofe to which he is now liable. The public, it is faid,
muit give that price for grain, at which it will anfwer the
farmer to raife it ; and that fuppofing it poffible that the
farmers throughout the ifland were to engage in a combina-
tion, to convert fo much of their prefent tillage into paf-
ture, as would leave only half the ufual number of acres
under corn, the inevitable confequence would be, that grain
would fell at an enormous price, and the farmer would re-
ceive that increafed price, at a time when his expences were
diminifhed in the proportion of his tillage. Thus the con-
fumer, which is the public, and not the farmer, would
fuffer ; and if a tax, fuch as tithes, added to the increafed

price of timber, iron-work, and labour, fhould induce the

farmer gradually but materially to contraét his tillage, there

could be no hope that grain would be fold during any confi-

derable period at a moderate price ; nor could there be an

adequate fupply for the wants of the country, without the
I

aid of large importations, which are always precarious, and
fometimes impoffible : and as animal food invariably rifes in
value with the increafed value of grain, the farmer might
thus be enriched at the expence of every other branch of the
community. The plan or mode here propofed for a com-
mutation would, it is prefumed, counteraé or prevent thefe
ferious evils ; encouragement would be given to an extended
culture of grain; and anew motive to induftry and exertion
would be found in the confideration, that the moft indolent
farmer muft contribute an equal fum with the moft aétive
and fuccefsful cultivator.

The latter of thefe clergymen thinks, that in regard to
tithes in fecular hands, though the church may fuffer in the
amount of its income, it derives a confiderable degree of fe-
curity for what it ftill poffeffes, from this very circumftance ;
and confequently only touches on the fubje&t fo far as to
propofe that they fhould be commuted for land, according
to their value. To this no reafonable objeétion is feen, er
any infuperable difficulty, if a legiflative plan were once
chalked out for itsaccomplifhment. But as for tithes in the
hands of the clergy, whether great or {mall, it is fuppofed
they might be beneficially commuted, by firft taking their
fair valuation by two competent {worn commiffioners, one of
whom fhould be named by the incumbent, qe fixing a
fum to be paid according to the combined prices of corn,
meat, aS mutton and beef, and malt, to be taken on the
average of the feven preceding years, and to vary with
the times every fubfequent feven years. And in order to —
prevent any thing perfonal between the incumbent and his
parifhioners, except in the duties of his vocation, the oyer-
feers and churchwardens to be made the refponfible agents in
colleéting and paying the fum to be raifed, with certain
provifoes and fecurities again{ft mifapplication and lofs. A
corn-rent aloneis, it is faid, found to be an inadequate mode
of commutation ; but that taking the three great articles of
life in every family, dread, meat, and malt, the clergyman
would be fecure from injury, and the farmer, paying only
in proportion to the value of his produce, would have no
reafon to complain. It is to be obferved, however, that it is
wifhed for the laws to aét uniformly for the benefit and fe-
curity of the parochial minifter, without fubje@ting hin | to
the neceflity of coming forward in a perfonal and partia
light. By thefe means, what he might lofe in the influence
aE fear, would, it is thought, be amply compenfated for on
the principle of love ; without which he can feldom be happy
himfelf, or difcharge the duties of his facred office with
effect and fatisfaétion. k

Where lands have been exonerated from tithes by an a&t
of parliament, and an allotment made in land in lieu of
them, even where an adequate value -has been given, which
in no inftance that has fallen under the writer’s notice is, it
is faid, really the cafe, it is throwing too much land into
mortmain, it is fubjeéting the incumbent to all the cares and
incumbrances of landed property, and driving him to the
neceflity of becoming a farmer, for which he is often ill
qualified, or of letting lands, according to the exiting laws,
on fuch conditions, that improvement muft be checked, and
induttry languifh. J‘

In order, however, to obviate fome of the evils refulting
from a practice that has already, it is faid, become too
general, it is propofed, that after having referved a fufficient
glebe, which in every inftance fhould be done, with a due
regard to the value of the living, the incumbent fhould be
allowed to leafe the remainder, at the full value, with the
confent of the patron and the bifhop, on a running leafe,
determinable every three or feven years, at the option of
either of the two principal contratting parties. A new in-

cumbent

ure

a1 T

eumbent would thus, it is fuppofed, without waiting too
jong, have an opportunity of improving his property, if he
thought it capable of being fo ; and the tenant, having a fair
profpe& of occupying the land under any change, would
teel himfelf equally fafe in making improvements, as if he
zented of a layman. All dilapidations and repairs on the
farm, however, fhould fall on the tenant; who ought not
only to be bound in proper covenants, but be obliged to
give due fecurity for their performance, as well as the pay-
ment of the rent.

Or, to land belonging to the clergy, the corn, meat, and
malt rents might, it is faid, be applied as well as to tithes
with leafes for twenty-one years certain, which would pro-
bably be the moft eligible mode, as it would give uniformity
to the plan of clerical provifion, and would always afferd an
income according to the times.

Upon the whole confideration of the fubject, there cannot
be any doubt but that great advantage and improvement
would arife to agriculture, from fome meafure of this nature
being had recourfe to and carried into execution; and
though the farmer might not perhaps, on the whole, ex-
perience any great diminution in the quantity of money
which he would have to pay, he would be wholly freed
from the anxiety, trouble, and vexation, which conftantly
attend the taking of tithes in kind, and at the fame time,
which is much more important and material, be left at full
liberty to exert his utmoft endeavours to promote all kinds
of improvements, which the nature of his farm may with
propriety admit. And in this way, and by fuch means,
the art of agriculture would be carried forward to fuch a
ftate of improvement and perfeCtion as cannot be eafily
conceived. Befides, fuch a meafure might have a confider-
able effe& in promoting the inclofure and cultivation of
much land ftill in the difgraceful fituation of wafte, all
which are defirable obje&ts on various accounts in the pre-
fent ftate of the country.

TitHeE-Rate. See Rate-Tithe.

Titues, SubtraGion of. See SUBTRACTION.

TITHING, Decexna, or Decury, a number or com-
pany of ten men, with their families, knit together in a kind
of foc, and all bound to the king, for the peaceable
behaviour of each other.

Anciently no man was fuffered to abide in England above
forty days, unlefs he were enrolled in fome tithing.—One
of the principal inhabitants of the tithing is annually ap-
pointed to prefide over the relt, being called the tithing-man,
the head-borough, and in fome countries the borfholder, or

-borough’s elder, being fuppofed the difcreeteft man in the

borough, town, or tithing. The diftribution of England
into tithings and hundreds is owing to king Alfred. Sce
Deciners, Franxk-Pledge, and FrinurGH.
TITHONIA, in Botany, was fo named by profeffor
Desfontaines, in allufion to the glowing light-orange tint of
its flowers, which the French call couleur aurore. The
fabled favourite of Aurora, Tithonus, is therefore here
meant to be commemorated. The allufion would have
been ftill more happy, had the flower been one of the ever-
lafting kind.—Desfont. Ann. du Muf. v. 1. 49. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2246. Juff. 189. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 708.
Poiret in Lam. Di&. v. 7. 690.—Clafs and order, Synge-
—_ Polygamia-fruftranea. Nat. Ord. Compofite oppofitifolia,
inn. Corymbifere, Jufl. ’
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx cylindrical, of a double ro
of ovate-oblong, acute, flat, nearly equal, ereét feales. Cor.
compound, radiated. Florets of the difk numerous, all
perfect, level-topped, tubular ;_ limb five-toothed ; tube in-
flated near the bafe. Thofe of the radius female but abor-

fas

tive, about twelve ; limb elliptic-lanceolate, acute, entire,
horizontal, flat. Stam. in the difk only, Filaments five,
capillary, fhorter than the tube; anthers united into a
cylinder of the fame length. P/?. in the difk, Germen ob-
long, flender ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the partial
corolla; ftigmas two, recurved, obtufe; in the radius,
germen very {mall ; ftyle f{carcely any. Peric. none, ex-
cept the unchanged calyx. Seeds in the florets of the difk
only, folitary, ovate, {mooth ; their crown of five fhort,
acute, erect, membranous fcales. Recepf. convex, chaffy,
its {eales concave, acute, rather taller than the feeds.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy, convex. Seed-crown of
five chaffy feales. Calyx cylindrical; its fcales equal, con-
verging, in two rows. Florets of the difk inflated at the
bafe; thofe of the radius elliptic-lanceolate.

1. T.. tagetiflora. Marigold Tithonia. Desfont. as above,
t. 4. Willd. n. 1.—Native of Vera Cruz. Root annual.
Stem ereé&, alternately branched, leafy, a foothigh. Leaves
alternate, on long ftalks, downy, crenate, reticulated with
yeins, triple-ribbed ; the lower ones deeply three-lobed ;
upper undivided, ovate, or fomewhat heart-fhaped, acute.
Flowers on long folitary ftalks, at the end of each branch,
orange-coloured, about the fize of a French marigold.

TITHOREA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
in the Phocide, on mount Parnaflus, 80 ftadia from Delphi.
This place was famous for its facred grove dedicated to
Minerva, a temple with the ftatue of this goddefs, and the
tomb of Antiopé and Phocus. The temple of Efculapius
Archagetes was fituated 70 ftadia from Tithorea. The
inclofure which contained the chapel of Ifis was 40 ftadia
farther diftant than the temple of Efculapius. -

TITHRASUS, a town of Africa, in Libya, bordered
by a river of the fame name.

TITHRONIUM, a town of Greece, in the Phocide, in
which was a grove facred to Apollo, with fome altars and a
temple, but without a ftatue. This town was fituated 15
ftadia from Amphicea and 20 from Drymea, near the river
Cephiflus. Paufanias.

TITHYMALOIDES, in Botany, fo called from its
affinity to Tithymalus, the Euphorbia of modern botanitts,
differs from that indeed merely in having the calyx gibbous
on one fide at the bafe.—Tourn. Inft. 654.—Two or three
Welt Indian fpecies of Euphorbia come under this defcrip-
tion.

TITHYMALUS, z:$ux%0; of Diofcorides, fuppofed to
be derived from 7:0, the brea/t, in allufion to the milkinefs
of the plant. Tourn. t. 18. See EupHorsra.

TITI, Santi pr, in Biography, was born at Citta
S. Sepolero, in the Florentine ftate, in 1538. He firft ac-
quired a knowledge of painting under the tuition of A. Bron-
zino, and afterwards of Bandinelli, but owes the greater part
of his fame to his ftudies at Rome, where he long refided,
and from whence, as Lanzi obferves, he carried back to his
native country a graceful and {cientific ftyle of art, not fup-
ported by much ideal beauty, but chiefly characterized by
the truth and frefhnefs of nature ; and in expreffion he had
few fuperiors in any {chool, none in his own. He adorned
his pictures with pieces of architeG@ture, which {cience he in
a meafure profeffed, and by its means gave great relief to his
figures, and increafed the dignity and beauty of his com-
pofitions. His principal works are, the Supper at Emmaus,
painted for the church of St. Croce, at Florence; the Refur-
reG@ion of Lazarus, in the Duomo di Volterra; and the
Defcent of the Holy Spirit, painted for a convent at Citta
di Caftello. He died at Florence in 1603, aged 65, leaving
a fon, Tiberio Titi, born at Florence in 1578, who followed
the fame art with his father, but not with equal fuccefs. In

5Bz2 general

TITIAN.

general he painted fmall portraits very {kilfully, and made
drawings in black-lead ; of which there is a large colle€tion
in the Florentine gallery, made originally for the cardinal
Leopold de Medici. He died in 1637. : :

TITIAN, the name by which we are acquainted with
that great mafter, who is univerfally regarded as the head
of the Venetian {chool of painting, Tiziano Vecelli da
Cadore. This juftly diftinguifhed artift_ was born of noble
parents at the caftle of Cadore, in Friuli, in 1480, accord-
ing to Vafari and Sandrart 5 though Ridolfi, and others after
him, place the date of his birth three years earlier, in 1477:
but as Giorgione was confeffedly older than he, and was
born in 1478, we have preferred the authority of the former,
as moft likely to be corre. The education he received,
firft from Sebaftiano Zuccati of Trevigi, and afterwards
from Giovanni Bellin? at Venice, rendered him a diligent
and fubtle obferver of nature. His early works exhibit the
greateft_corre€tnefs of imitation, but in a laboured and
minute ftyle, with a finith fo highly wrought, that when,
at a maturer age, he painted a piéture for Ferrara of the
tribute-money, in competition with Albert Durer, he ex-
celled in nicety of pencilling that mafter of minutenefs ;
with this difference, that his finifh did not, like the Ger-
man’s, obtrude itfelf, and impede the general effet, but
obtained grandeur by diftance. This pi¢ture, to which he
made no companion, as he foon after changed his ftyle,
now adorns the gallery of Drefden, and remains a proof of
the fenfe this great artift entertained of the falfity of that
tafte, which feeks for gratification in mere finifh, and which
he deferted for the adoption of a ftyle conveying general
character inftead of identity. It was from the better tafte
of his fellow pupil, Giorgione, that Titian imbibed a more
exalted view of art, and was induced to quit the meaner
and more confined ftyle with which he commenced his
praétice ; and fome portraits which he painted about this
time are {carcely to be diftinguifhed from thofe of Giorgione
himfelf. But he feems to have found it not exaétly to his
mind, and foon difcovered a variety of ftyle more congenial
to his own feelings ; lefs foftened, and perhaps lefs grand,
but more agreeable; a ftyle which delights the {pectator
lefs by novelty of effe&t, than by the exaétnefs of truth.
His firft work in this ftyle, which is entirely his own, and
may be denominated Tizianefque, is the archangel Raphael
leading Tobiah, painted in his thirtieth year for the facrifty
of S. Marciale ; and foon after he painted the Prefentation
of the Virgin, at the Carita; one of the richeft and moft
numerous of his compofitions remaining.

When only eighteen years of age, he had painted a por-
trait of the head of the Barbarigo family, which excited
univerfal admiration ; and he was foon afterwards employed,
in concert, or rather in rivalry, with Giorgione, to paint
one of the fronts of the Fondaco de Tedefchi, when un-
happily the jealoufy already fubfifting between thefe great
artiits was {trengthened by the fuperior encomiums beftowed
upon Titian. On the death of Giorgione in 1511, Titian
fucceeded him in feveral important commiflions, and con-
tinuing to increafe in renown, was invited to the court of
Alfonfo, duke of Ferrara, for whom he painted the cele-
brated picture of Bacchus and Ariadne, now in England.
Here he became acquainted with the poet Ariofto, whole
portrait he painted, and in return was celebrated by him in
his Orlando Furiofo.

About 1523, Titian produced the work which, above all
others, elevates him in the feale of merit among, painters ;
wiz. the celebrated piCture of the Death of St. Peter the
Martyr, for the church of S. Giovanni and S. Paolo at
Venice, which has by almoft all artifts and connoiffeurs

been confidered his chef-d’ceuvre in hiltory. This extra-
ordinary picture was one of the firft objets of French
fpoliation at Venice. It was painted originally on wood,
but was transferred to canvas in France, in confequence
of its haying been much bliftered from the wood by the
effet of fea-water in its voyage to Marfeilles; and it is
now returned to its original ftation in a more agreeable, if
not more perfect condition, than when it was firft removed.
The excellence of this pi€ture procured him, according te
Vafari, a commiflion from the fenate to paint the battle of
Cadore between the Venetians and the Imperialifts, or the
rout of Giaradadda, in which the aétion proceeded during
a tremendous ftorm of rain. This grand work was de-
ftroyed by fire, but the compofition is preferved to us by
the print engraved by Fontana. Befides thefe, he painted
feveral other public works, which, together with the friendly
affiftance of Pietro Aretino, whofe pen delighted to dwell
upon the powers of this great artift’s pencil, {pread his
fame in every dire€tion, and he was honoured with a fuper-
abundance of employment. In 1530, when Charles V.
came to Bologna te be crowned by pope Clement VIE.
Titian was fent for by the cardinal Hippolito de Medici to
paint the portrait of the monarch, which he did on horfe-
back and in armour; which fo pleafed Charles, that he
gave the painter 1000 crowns of gold, and declared he
would never be painted by any body elfe. When Titian
returned to Venice, he found Pordenone much employed
and fupported by feveral of the principal perfons ; but his
great {uperiority foon became too manifeft to be refifted,
and he was more than ever employed, both publicly and in
private.

In 1541 the emperor returned to Bologna, to hold acon-
ference with the pope, and was again painted by Titian, as
was alfo the cardinal Hippolito a Medici in a Hungarian
drefs. He alfo painted his friend P. Aretino, who about
this time introduced him to Fred. Gonzaga, duke of
Mantua, whom he painted, and alfo, for him, a feries of
the twelve Czfars for a faloon in the palace; underneath
each of which, Julio Romano afterwards painted a fubjec
from each of their hiftories.

Titian had foon after the honour of painting pope
Paul III., when he vifited Ferrara in 1543, and was in-
vited by that pontiff to Rome; but he excufed himfelf at
that time on account of an engagement with the duke of
Urbino, whofe portrait he painted with fo much fire and
truth, that Aretino honoured it with a fonnet, compari
it with that of Alexander by Apelles. He painted
feveral other pictures for the fame duke of Urbino (Fran-
cefco Maria), and when he had completed his engagement
there, accepted another invitation to Rome, fent by the
pope, through the medium of cardinal Bembo.

He arrived there in 1546, according to Vafari, who was
already known to Titian, having feen him at Venice, and
was on this occafion honoured by the cardinal’s appointin
him Cicerone to this great painter ; to condué& him throu
the city, and to fhew him its beauties. Nothing ouside
more flattering than his reception by the pope, who imme-
diately upon his arrival affigned him apartments in the Pa-
lazzo Belvidere, and employed him in painting his portrait at
whole length, and thofe of the cardinal and the duke Ottavia,
which gave univerfal fatisfa€tion ; but an Ecce Homo, which
he painted as a prefent to the pope, was not elteemed by
the Roman artilts, whofe minds were accuftomed to the
works of Raphael and M. Angelo. The latter is faid to
have remarked to Vafari, after feeing Titian at work on his
Danie, that it wasa great pity the Venetian painters applied
themfelves fo little to defign, and had not a better mode of

ftudy,

TITIAN.

fludy, being fo perfectly fkilful in colour and imitation.
Adding, “ if this man were as much aided by art in defign
as he 1s by nature, and moft particularly fo in giving juft
refemblance of natural objects, he would be perfe&t ; as he
has a noble fpirit, and a beautiful and lively manner.’?

He did not remain long in Rome, but on his return to
Venice vifited Florence, where he beheld with delight the
great works of art with which it is adorned, and vifited
the grand duke Cofmo, who declined his offer to paint his
portrait, perhaps, as Vafari obferves, that he might not
give umbrage to the ingenious artifts of his own city and
dominions.

Immediately upon his arrival at Florence, he received an
invitation from his patron, Charles V., to vifit Spain, and
accordingly went to Madrid, where he arrived in 1550.
He remained there three years, during which time he painted
a great number of portraits and hiftorical pi€tures. For
the portrait which he painted of the emperor, he received
1oco crowns of gold, and was created a knight of the
order of St. Jago, and a count palatine of the empire,
with a itipend from the treafury of Naples of 200 crowns
annually ; and to this, Philip II. added afterwards 200 more,
befides paying him munificently for each of his produétions.
When Charles had devoted his life to the autterities of a
convent, he commiffioned him to paint a large picture of
the Trinity, accompanied by the Holy Virgin, and fur-
rounded by faints and angels, in which the emperor, and
the emprefs his wife, were reprefented elevated to the
heavens, and in the a& of adoration. There is a fetch of
it in England, and a print has been engraven from the
picture, by which it appears to have been a very grand
work,

Though Titian had returned to his native place before
Philip Ii. came into poffeffion of the throne, and was as
much engaged as he could be, yet that monarch, when he
had built the Efcurial, and conceived the idea of enriching
it with the moft {plendid materials, reforted to his father’s
favourite painter to affift him in perfeCting it; and though
it does not appear that Titian returned to Spain, yet he
muft have employed his pencil very affiduoufly in its fervice
from the very great number of his piétures which are to
be found there, many of them among his very fineft pro-
duGtions. Several of thefe have been withdrawn by the
feruples of bigotry from public view ; and among them his
picture of a fleeping Venus, which was prefented by
Philip IV. to our Charles I., when prince of Wales, on his
vifit to Spain, and which after his death was purchafed by
the Spanifh ambaffador, then refident here. r

Titian was invited by Henry VIII. to England, but his
numerous engagements on the continent prevented him from
coming. He painted, however, two pictures for Henry,
which now adorn Cleveland Houfe (the marquis of Staf-
ford’s). Their fubje&ts are the Bath of Diana, with the
unfortunate intrufion of Aeon, and the Difcovery of the
crime of Califta, and both are exquifite performances, and
in tolerably good prefervation. They continued in the
royal colleGtion till it was difperfed on the death of
Charles I., and found their way into the gallery of the
duke of Orleans; and on the purchafe of the Italian part
of that colle&tion being effe&ted by the duke of Bridge-
water, the earl of Carlifle, and lord Gower, thefe pictures
fell to the lot of the former of thefe noblemen.

This great painter is one of the happy few, for whom
nature and circumftances have combined in fortunate con-
junGion. “ For him,” as Vafari juttly obferves, “ health
and fortune laboured, and he received of heaven only happi-
nefs and bleffings.”? By him the higheft among men, the

moft learned, and the moft beautiful, were proud to have
their portraits tranfmitted to pofterity. He was handfome
in perfon and graceful in manners, and lived in a ftyle
worthy of one fo honoured and beloved. Thefe bleflings
he was permitted to enjoy through a very uncommon por-
tion of human exiftence, which was at length interrupted
by the plague in his 96th year. He appears to have been
able to purfue his delightful art to a very advanced period,
fot Vafari found him painting in 1566, when he yifited him
at Venice, and fpeaks of it with pleafure; and though it
may well be imagined that the latter produétions oF his
pencil exhibit the ftrong hand of time, yet they are free
and matterly in every thing in which a perfeé&t knowledge
of the principles of the art are concerned, and weak only
in the execution.

Had Giorgione lived but to one-half of the lengthened
years of his great rival, Titian might not perhaps have ftood
fo completely at the head of the Venetian {chool of paint-
ing, as from his numerous excellent produétions he now
does. ‘That noble work, the death of S. Pietro Martire,
alone fully entitles him to this diftin@ion and honour : per-
haps no other produétion of the pencil is fo perfe& in the
combination of every requifite quality of a fine painting ;
compolition, defign, aétion, expreffion, chiaro-fcuro, and
colour. The choice of the fcene, and the accompaniments,
are every way adapted to affift in creating alarm and difmay :
the tone of evening or twilight {pread over the whole, and
contrafted to the brilliant ray of heavenly light from aboye,
aids the impreffion ; and the execution is in eyery part cor-
re{pondent to the grandeur of form feleted. This picture
he painted, as we have faid, in the prime of his life, when he
was about forty-three ; and he continued long after to work
in the fame ftyle, which is of his own creation, and totally
different from both his former laboured one, and his latter
loofe and vague manner. In this picture, every part is
wrought to an exact charaéter of reprefentation, though
without minutenefs, or in any degree trefpafling upon the
heroic nature of the tragic fubje&t ; and there is no intro-
duction of heterogeneous matter, as is too frequently to be
found in his hiltoric produ@tions. Here he appears to haye
caught a glimpfe of the grandeur of Michael Angelo’s ftyle,
and to have employed it more effe€tually than in any other
of his works, except perhaps in the figures on the ceiling of
the Salute at Venice, and the martyrdom of St. Laurence
in the Jefuits’. In general, his fele€tion of form is but little
improved upon his model; his male figures being too
flefhy for charaéter or aétion, and his females too full for
elegance.

The mind of Titian appears to have been of a fedate and
rather ferious character. There is, as fir Jofhua Reynolds
has obferved, “a fenatorial dignity about him,” which dif-
tinguifhes him from his compeers of the Venetian {chool.
Allhis compofitions are arranged with gravity ; even the gay
and fometimes licentious fubje&ts which he now and then
amufed himfelf with, are conducted with fuch a feale of
chiaro-fcuro and colour, as gives an air of morality to their
effe&, which impofes upon the {peétator a tone of fobriety,
and induces him to difcard thofe loofe thoughts which the
gay luxuriance of the ftyle of Rubens, treating the fame
compofitions, would inevitably excite. ;

Colouring appears to have been the grand foundation of
the fuccefs of Titian. He knew better than any other
painter the juft power of each colour of his pallette ; and by
this knowledge, produced a fpecies of chiaro-fcuro inde-
pendent of light and fhade, and perfeétly diftin@ from that
of Corregio and Lionardo da Vinci, and more immediately

imitative of the general effe&ts of nature. Matter of the
8 means

ike weit

means of imitating the moft fubtle combinations of colour
in vifible objeéts, and fully comprehending the degrees of
purity or of tone with which colours might be employed
individually or colleétively, to affift in projecting or with-
drawing the various parts of a picture, he never fails to gra-
tify the eye with a full and true relief, correfpondent with
the nature of the fubje@. In this quality he was as much
ideal, as the Greeks and Florentines were in form; for
though the harmony and richnefs which he produced are to
be found occafionally in nature, it is neither her every day
attire, nor is it to be comprehended by fuperficial obfervers.
There is a {cience of exceeding import to painting in the
arrangements of colours, by which a fcilful artift will create
attraction or difgutt, asit pleafes him. Change the pofition
of the colours of that moft beautiful of nature’s works, the
rainbow ; let the blue and the green occupy the centre, and
the red and yellow the edges obs ; and judge how far it will
decreafe in its power of attraétion. Of this {cience, Titian
was the firft great poffeffor; and as he poffefled the
knowledge of the value of colours, fo alfo did he that of
the nature of fhade; that colour (to the painter at leaft,
though it be the abfence of it to the philofopher) which
deftroys all colours, and renders all alike obfcure; and
which is the moft difficult of attainment in all that re-
lates to the art of colouring. The tone of fhade that
Titian employed, whatever be the fubftance which pro-
duced it, was ufed by no other fo fuccefsfully, except Tin-
toretto. It feems, in its union with the local colours of ob-
jeéts, to have produced the half teints without further labour ;
or at leaft to have laid fuch a foundation, as to have made
that of the fubfequent tinting very trifling ; and doubtlefs
this mode of proceeding rendered him able to produce fuch
an infinity of works as appear to have iffued from his pencil.
His errors flowed naturally, from the eafe with which he
produced the beauties of his ftyle ; and as the mind was
filled with gratification by the delightful harmony and rich-
nefs of colour his works prefented, fo it fought the lefs for
the qualities of expreffion, and appropriate drefs and aétion
in the figures; and would not condemn too rudely the fre-
quent admiffion of heterogeneous matter.

To the accufations of exhibiting defeéts like thefe, the
works of Titian are far lefs juftly fubject than thofe of his
imitators and fucceffors in the Venetian fchool of painting ;
none of whom poffeffed the tafte and judgment of this great
matter, though many were eminently fkilful in their refpec-
tive departments.

TITIANGO, Giroramo Dante, called //. According
to Ridolfi, he was brought up in the {chool of Titian, and was
employed by that matter to affift him in feveral of his works.
By frequently painting in conjunétion with him, and fome-
times copying his works, fome of his piétures, retouched by
Titian, have paffed for originals by that mafter. He fome-
times painted from his own defigns, and his picture in the
church of St. Giovanni at Venice, reprefenting 5. S. Cofmo
and Damiano, is worthy of the {chool in which he was
educated, Bryan’s Dic.

TITICACA, or Cuucuito, in Geography, a lake of
South America, in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, dio-
cefe of La Paz, and jurifdiction of Chucuito, the figure of
which is oval, inclining nearly from N.W. to S.E., its cir-
cumference being about 80 leagues, and depth near the
fhore from four to fix fathoms, and towards the middle forty
or fifty, without any fhoals. Ten or twelve large rivers,
befide a great number of fmaller ftreams, difcharge them-
felves into it. The water, though neither bitter nor
brackifh, is fomewhat turbid, and its taite is fo naufeous
that it cannot be drank. It abounds with fith of two very

i lige Se i

different kinds; one large and palatable, called by the ©
Indians Suchis, and the other fmall, infipid and bony, long
fince called by the Spaniards Boyas. It has alfo a great
number of geefe, and other wild fowl, and the fhores are
covered with flags and rufhes, the materials of which the
bridges are made. The weftern borders of this lake are
called Chucuito, and thofe on the E. are denominated
Omafcuyo. It contains feveral iflands, from one to another
of which the Indians pafs on their balfas, a kind of rafts,
fupported by inflated fkins. One of thefe iflands is very
large, and was anciently one mountain, fince levelled by
order of the Incas: this gave to the lake its own name of
Titicaca, which, in the Indian language, fignifies a moun-
tain of lead. In this ifland the firft Inca, Mancho-Capac,
the illuftrious founder of the empire of Peru, invented his
political fable, that the fun, his father, had placed him,
together with his fifter and confort Mama Oello Huaco,
there, enjoining them to draw the neighbouring people from
the ignorance, rudenefs, and barbarity in which they lived,
and humanize them by cuftoms, laws, and religious rites
diated by himfelf ; and in return for the benefits refulting
from this artful ftratagem, the ifland has, by all the Indians,
been confidered as facred; and the Incas, determining to
ere&t on it a temple to the fun, caufed it to, be levelled, that
the fituation might be more delightful and commodious.
This was one of the moft fend temples in the whole
empire. Befides the plates of gold and filver with which
its walls were magnificently adorned, it contained an immenfe
colleGtion of riches, all the inhabitants of provinces which
depended on the empire, being under an indifpenfible obliga-
tion of vifiting it once a year, and offering fome gift. Ac-
cordingly, they always brought in proportion to their zeal
or ability, gold, filver, or jewels. This immenfe mafs of

riches, the Indians, on feeing the rapacious violence of the -

Spaniards, are thought to have thrown into the lake; as it
is certainly known they did with regard to a great part of
thofe at Cufco, among which was the famous golden chain
made by order of the Inca Huayna-Capac, to celebrate the
feftival of giving name to his eldeft fon. But thefe valuable
effects were thrown into another lake, fix leagues 5. of
Cufco, in the valley of Orcos: and though numbers of
Spaniards, animated with the flattering hopes of fuch
immenfe treafures, made frequent attempts to recoyer them,
the great depth of the water, and the bottom being covered
with flime and mud, rendered all their endeavours abortive.
For notwithftanding the circuit is not above half a league,
yet the depth of- water is in moft places not lefs than
twenty-three or twenty-four fathoms.

Towards the S. part of the lake Titicaca, the banks
approach each other, fo as to form a kind of bay, which
terminates in a river called El Defaguadero, or the drain,
and afterwards forms the lake of Paria, which has no vifible
outlet ; but the many whirl-pools fufficiently indicate that
the water iffues by a fubterraneous paflage. Over the river
Defaguadero is {till remaining the bridge of rufhes, invented
by Capac Yupanqui, the fifth Inca, for tranfporting his
army to the other fide, in order to conquer the provinces of
Collafuyo. §. lat. 16° 10’. W. long. 69° 56’.

TITILLARES Vewnz2, a name given by fome authors
to the iliac veins.

TITILLATION, Tititrario, the a& of tickling, i.e
exciting a fort of pleafurable idea, by a gentle application of
fome foft body, upon a nervous part ; and which ufually
tends to produce laughter.

TITILLICUM, a word ufed by fome anatomical writers
for the arm-pit.

TITIN Ara, in Geography, a mountain of Rules iP

si S]

jae i

the government of Upha.
61° 14!.

TITIOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Ifauria, or the fecond Cilicia, one of the twenty-three
towns, which, according to the Notitia of Hierocles, were
under the metropolis of Seleucia; named Titopolis by
William of Tyre.

TITISNESS, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the coaft
of Lapland, at the entrance of a bay called Titsfiord.
N. lat. 67° 36).

TITIUM Fravom, in Ancient Geography, a river of Il-
lyria, which difcharged itfelf into the fea at Scardona, and
ferved as a boundary between Liburnia and Dalmatia,
Pliny. It is named Titus by Ptolemy.

TITIZIGHE, in Geography, a feaport town of the prin-
cipality of Guriel, with a good harbour, on the Black fea.
‘This place is alfo called Pghino ; 10 miles S. of Puti.

TITLARK, in Ornithology. See ALaupa Pratenfis.

TITLE, Tirvtus, an infcription put over any thing, to
make it known.

The word is more particularly ufed for the infcription in
the firft page of a book, expreffing the fubjeét of it, the
author’s name, &c.

What tortures abundance of authors, is to find f{pecious
titles for their books ; a title fhould be fimple, and yet clear :
thefe are the two genuine charatters of this kind of com-
pofition. Affuming titles are prepoffeffion againft the
authors.

Tite, Titulus, in the Civil and Canon Law, denotes a
chapter or divifion of a book.

A title is fubdivided into paragraphs, &c.—Each of the
fifty books of the Digeft confifts of a number of titles ;
fome of more, others of lefs.

Tite is alfo an appellation of dignity, diftinGion, or
pre-eminence, given to perfons poffeffed of the fame.

The titles oF order or dignity, Loyfeau obferves, fhould
always come immediately after the name, and before the
titles of office.

The king of Spain has a whole page of titles, to exprefs the
feveral kingdoms and fignories of which he is mafter. The
king of England takes the title of fing of Great Britain and
Ireland: the king of France, the title of Ling of France and
Navarre: the king of Sweden intitles himfelf sing of the
Swedes and Goths: the king of Denmark, ding of Denmark
and Norway: the king of Sardinia, among his titles, takes
that of king of Cyprus and Jerufalem: the duke of Lorrain,
the title of Aing of Jerufalem, Sicily, &c.,
~The cardinals take titles from the names of fome churches
in Rome: as of St. Cecilia, St. Sabina, &c. and they are
called cardinals of the title of St. Cecilia, &c.

The emperor can confer the title of prince, or count of
the empire ; but the right of fuffrage in aflemblies of the
empire depends on the confent of the eftates. :

The Romans gave the titles of Africanus, Afiaticus,
Macedonicus, Numidicus, Creticus, Parthicus, Dacicus, &c.
in memory of the victories obtained over the people of thofe
countries. The king of Spain, after the like manner, gives
honourable titles to his cities, in recompence for their fer-
vices, or their fidelity.

Titre exprefles alfo a certain quality afcribed by way of
refpeét to certain princes, &c. : :

The pope has the title of Aoline/s ; a cardinal prince of
the blood, that of royal highnefs, or moff ferene highne/s, ac-
cording to his nearnefs to the throne ; other cardinal princes,
moft eminent highnefs ; an archbifhop, grace and moft reverend ;
a bifhop, right reverend; abbots, priefts, religious, &c.
reverend.

N. lat. 52° 25. E. long.

EET

: As to fecular powers, to the emperor is given the title of
imperial majefly ; to king, majefly ; to the king of France,
moft chriftian majefly ; to the king of Spain, catholic majefty 3
to the ni! of England, that of defender of the faith ;
to the Turks, grand fignor and highne/s ; to the prince of
Wales, royal highnefs ; to the dauphin of France, Serene high-
nef 3 to electors, eleoral highnefs ; to the grand duke, moft
Jerene highne/s ; to the other princes of Italy and Germany,
highne/s ; to the doge of Venice, moft ferene prince; to the
republic or fenate of Venice, /ignory ; to the grand-mafter
of Malta, eminence; to nuncios, and to ambafladors of
crowned heads, excellency.

_ The emperor of China, among his titles, takes that of
tienfu, fon of heaven. The Orientals, it is obferved, are ex-
ceedingly fond of titles: the fimple governor of Schiras, for
inftance, after a pompous enumeration of qualities, lord-
fhips, &c. adds the titles of fower of courtefy, nutmeg of con-

JSolation, and rofe of delight.

Tire, in Law, denotes a right which a perfon has to
the poffeffion of any thing.

_A title to lands is thus defined by fir Edward Coke:
titulus oft jufta caufa poffidendi id quod noftrum eff, or it is the
means by which the owner cf lands hath the jut poffeffion
of his property. There are feveral {tages or degrees requi-
fite to form a complete title to lands and tenements. The
loweft and moft imperfeét degree of title confifts in the mere
naked poffeffion, or aétual occupation of the eftate, without
any apparent right, or any fhadow or pretence of right, to
hold and continue fuch poffeffion. See Dissrisry.

The next ftep to a good and perfe& title is the right of
poffeffion, which may refide in one man, while the a@tual
poffeffion is either in himfelf or another. The third cir-
cumftance attending a title is the mere right of property,
the jus proprictatis, without either poffeffion or even the
right of poffeffion. It is poffible that one man may have
the pofleffion, another the right of poffeffion, anda third the
right of property. But in the union of thefe three qualifi-
cations confifts a complete title to lands, tenements, and
hereditaments. For it is an ancient maxim of the law, that
no title is completely good, unlefs the right of poffeffion
be joined with the right of property ; which right is then de-
nominated a double right, jus duplicatum, or droit droit.
And when to this double right the actual poffeffion is alfo
united, when there is, according to the expreffion of Fleta,
juris et feifine conjunétio, then, and then only, is the title com-
pletely legal.

The ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. g, hath provided, that no
one fhall fell or purchafe any prefented right or title to
land, unlefs the vendor hath received the profits thereof for
one whole year before fuch grant, or hath been in a€tual
poffeffion of the land, or the reverfion or remainder ; on pain
that both the purchafer and vendor fhall each forfeit the
value of fuch land to the king and the profecutor.

A title to things perfonal may be acquired or loft by oc-
cupancy, by prerogative, by forfeiture, by cuftom, by fuc-
ceffion, by marriage, by judgment, by gift, by contraét, by
bankruptcy, by teftimony, and by adminiftration. Blacktt.
Com. b. ii. See Possession and Property.

Title is alfo an authentic inftrument, by which a man can
prove and make appear his right.

There muft be at leaft colourable title to come into pof-
feffion of a benefice, otherwife the perfon is deemed an in-
truder. For prefcription with title, fee PrescripTion.

Tire, in the Canon Law, is that by virtue of which a
beneficiary holds a benefice: fuch is the collation of an or-
dinary, or a provifion in the court of Rome, founded on a
refignation, permutation, or other legal caufe. The ae

°

TES

of a benefice, or beneficiary, is either a true or a colour-
able one. A true or valid title is that which gives a right to
the benefice: fuch is that received from a collator who has
a right to confer the benefice on a perfon capable of it, the
ufual folemnities being obferved. See CoLLATion, &c.

Colourable title is a feeming one; i. e. fuch an one as ap-
pears valid, and is not. Such would that be founded on the
collation of a bifhop, in cafe the benefice in queftion were
not in his collation.

By the cations, a colourable title, thou h falfe, produces
two very confiderable effe&s. 1. That, after peaceable pof-
feffion for three years, the incumbent may defend himfelf
by the rule de triennali Pefefione, againft fuch as would dif-
pute the benefice with him. 2. That in cafe he be profe-
cuted within three years, and obliged to furrender the bene-
fice, he fhall not be obliged to reftore the produce of it,
during the time he poflefled it.

Tite is alfo ufed, in feveral ancient fynods and councils,
for the church to which a prieft was ordained, and where he
was conftantly to refide.

“ Nullus in prefbyterum, nullus in diaconum, nifi ad cer-
tum titulum ordinetur.’”? Concil. Londin. ann. 1125.

There are many reafons why a church might be called
titulus, title: the moft probable Cowel takes to be this, that
in ancient days the name of the faint to whom the church
was dedicated was engraved on the porch, as a token that
the faint had a title to that church; whence the church itfelf
became afterwards to be called titulas.

Tirxes, or Titular Churches, M. Fleury obferves, were
formerly the denomination of a particular kind of churches
at Rome.

In the fixth and feventh centuries, there were four forts
of churches in that metropolis; viz. patriarchal, titular,
diaconal, and oratorial. 'The tituli, titular, were, as it were,
parifhes, each affigned to a cardinal-prieft, with a certain
diftriét or quarter depending on them, and a font for the
adminiftration of baptifm in cafe of neceffity.

Tirxe, Clerical or Sacerdotal, denotes a yearly revenue or
income of the value of fifty crowns, which the candidates
for priefthood were anciently obliged to have of their own,
that they might be affured of a fubfiftence.

By the ancient difcipline there were no clerks made, but
in proportion as they were wanted for the fervice of the
church, which is ftill obferved with regard to bifhops ; none
being confecrated, but to fill fome vacant fee.

But for priefts, and other clerks, they began to make
vague ordinations in the Eaft as early as in the fifth century :
this occafioned the council of Chalcedon to declare all vague
and abfolute ordinations null.

Accordingly the difcipline was pretty well obferved till
towards the end of the eleventh century ; but then it began
to relax, and the number of priefts was exceedingly in-
creafed; either becaufe the people became defirous of the
privileges of the clericate, or becaufe the bifhops fought to
extend their jurifdiétion.

_ One of the great inconveniences of thefe vague ordina-
tions was poverty, which frequently reduced the priefts to
fordid occupations, and even to a fhameful begging. T'o
remedy this, the council of Lateran laid it on the bifhops
to provide for the fubfiftence of fuch as they fhould ordain
without title, till fuch time as they had got a place in the
church that would afford them a fettled maintenance,

There was alfo another expedient found out to elude the
canon of the council of Chalcedon ; and it was appointed,
that a prieft might be ordained on the title of his patri-
mony ; that is, it was not neceflary he had any certain place

2. F

in the church, provided he had a patrimony fufficient for a
creditable fubfiftence.

The council of Trent retrieved the ancient difcipline in
this refpe&t, forbidding all ordination, where the candidate
was not in peaceable poffeffion of a benefice fufficient to
fubfift him ; and allowing nobody to be ordained on patri-
mony or penfion, unlefs where the bifhop declares it to be
expedient for the good of the church: fo that the benefice
is the rule, and the patrimony the exception. See Orpi-
NATION,

But this rule is not regarded, even in fome Catholic coun-
tries, particularly France, where the patrimonial title is the
mott frequent ; and the title is even fixed to a very moderate
fum.

As to religious, the profeffion they make in a monaftery
ferves them a a title, in regard no convent is obliged to
maintain them: and as to mendicants, they are maintained
upon the #itle of poverty.

Thofe of the houfe and fociety of the Sorbonne are alfo
ordained without any patrimonial title, and on the fole title
of poverty ; it being fuppofed a doétor of the Sorbonne
can never want a benefice. ’

Tite for Orders. See Deacon, Orpination, and
Priest.

TITLIS, in Geography, a mountain of Switzerland, in
the canton of Uri, the moft elevated in thofe parts, and”
{carcely inferior to the Schreekhorn and Jungfrauhorn ; it
was for a long time confidered as inaceeflible. The fummit
of this mountain is called Nollen, and commands a ve
picturefque fcene of mountains and vallies ; 11 miles S.8.W.
of Altorff.

TITMEG, a lake of North America. N, lat. 62° 15/.

W. long. 99°:

TITMOUSE, in Ornithology. See Parus.

TITOLO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bafilicata; 6 miles S.W. of Potenza.

TITONEUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain fituated
on the confines of Thrace and Macedonia.

TITOVO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the gox
vernment of Kaluga; 40 miles E.S.E. of Kaluga. _

TITSCHEIN, New, or Nowi Giezi, a town of Mo-
ravia, in the circle of Prerau, well built and defended b
walls; 24 miles E.N.E. of Prerau. N. lat. 49° 32!. Ep.
long. 18° ro’.

ITSCHEIN, Alt, a town of Moravia; 2 miles S.W. of
New Titfchein.

TITSCHIN, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Ol-
mutz; 16 miles S. of Olmutz.—Alfo, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Prerau; 8 miles S.W. of Freyberg.

TITTERIE, a fouthern province of Algiers, which
extends from the river Mafaffran, on the W., to the river
Booberak, on the E.: northward it is bounded by the Me-
diterranean, and fouthward by Sahara; about 60 miles long
and 40 broad.

Tirrerte Gewle, a lake of Algiers, fituated near moun-
tains ; 60 miles S. of Algiers.

Titrerte Dofh, or Hadjar Titterie, a ridge of precipices
in Algiers; on the fummit is a large plain, with only one
narrow road leading up to it, where a tribe of Arabs keep
their granaries ; 50 miles S, of Algiers.

TELTING, or Diertine, a town of Bavaria, in the
bifhopric of Aichftatt ; 5 miles N. of Aichftatt.

TITTIUS, in Botany, a name given by Rumphius,
Amboyn. v. 3. t. 19, and t. 20, to two yery dierent Teal
of trees, the Srtiee of which is fuppofed by Juffieu to be a
Cornutia. See that article. ’

TITTMANING, or Ditrmanine, in Geography, a

town .

+ it Dade en AR ili sella Sy Po

oS tie ahs

tales"

eT ee a ee ee

: irr

town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg, on the Salza. In
the year 1310, a pettilential difeafe made fuch ravages in this
town, that 1300 perfons died between the 11th of November
and the 2d of February following. In the year 1571, al-
meft the whole town was burned down by lightning; 20
miles N.N.W. of Salzburg. N. lat. 48° 1/. E. long.
12° 44!.

~TITTUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, which belonged to the Carzans. Ptol.

TITUBATION, in 4fronomy. See TREPIDATION.

TITUL, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the
Theyfle. This town has often been taken and retaken by
the Imperialifts and Turks; 24 miles E.S.E. of Peter
Warden.

TITULAR, or Tirutary, denotes a perfon invefted
with a title, in virtue of which he holds an office or benefice,
whether he performs the functions of it or not. In this
fenfe the term is ufed in oppofition to furvivor, and to a
perfon only aGting by procuration, or commiffion. An
officer is always reputed titular till he hath refigned his

' office, and the refignation hath been admitted.

TituLaR is alfo fometimes applied adjeGively to a perfon
who has the title and right of an office or dignity, but with-
out having pofleffion, or difcharging the funétion of it.

It is fometimes alfo ufed abuts y for a perfon who af-
fumes and pretends a title toa thing, without either a right
to it, or a poffeffion of it. :

TituLar Churches. See Tirxes.

Trruvars of Tithes, a term fometimes applied to perfons
who had the poffeffion of tithes under the crown in Scotland.
They had alfo other names or titles applied to them in fome
cafes. See Trrues.
~ TITULCIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, between Mantua to the N.E. and Toletum to the
S.W.; marked in Anton. Itin. on the route from Saragofla
to Emerita.

TITUS, in Scripture Biography, a difciple and companion
of the apoftle Paul, who attended him in many peregrinations
to Jerufalem, Ephefus, and Crete, and who was deputed by
him on feveral important fervices. For,an account of the
epiftle addreffed to him by St. Paul, fee EpisTLe.

Titus Vespasianus, in Biography, a Roman emperor,
was the eldeft fon of Vefpafian, and born A.D. 40. In the
courfe of his education at the court of Nero, he made a great
proficiency in the ftudy of eloquence and poetry. In his
military fervice he firft ranked as tribune in Germany, and
afterwards in Britain; and by his valour and {kill, as well as
by the graces of his perfon and manners, obtained great
applaufe. On his return to Rome, he acquired reputation
in the forum as a fuccefsful pleader. His firft wife was the
daughter of a Roman knight, and after her death he married
a lady of illuftrious defcent, whom he divorced after fhe had
borne him one daughter. Having diftinguifhed himfelf as
queftor, he ferved as lieutenant under his father in the war
of Judea, during which he gained renown, not only by his
military enterprifes, but by the mildnefs and generofity of
his temper; and though he did not abftain from the in-

dulgences of youthful propenfities, he did not negleé& ferious
Occupations. When Vefpafian, after the death of Otho,
was deliberating about affuming the purple, he a¢ted as
mediator in the confederacy between him and Marianus, the
governor of Syria; and when Vefpafian marched to Italy,
‘Titus was entrufted with the profecution of the war in Ju-
dza. When his father took poffeffion of the imperial au-
thority, he declared Titus his colleague in the confulate,
A.D. 70. In that year Jerufalem was taken after a cala-
mitous fiege, and the deftruétion of the temple, which

Vor, XXXV.

ie eg

Titus withed to have preferved. After the reduétion of
Jerufalem, he went to Alexandria, and took part in the
fuperititious confecration of the ox Apis; and after having
given audience to the ambaffadors of the king of Parthia,
he haftened to Rome with a view of counteracting fome un-
favourable rumours, and was honoured with a magnificent
triumph. ~Vefpafian admitted him to a participation of the
empire, and they continued to co-operate in the exercife of
the imperial power, and lived together in amicable inter-
courfe. Suetonius, however, intimates that Titus’s condu&
was in a variety of refpects very far from being irreproachable,
either in private life or in his public charafter. During the
war in Judza, he had indulged a violent paffion for Berenice,
daughter of Agrippa I. king of the Jews, and widow of
Herod, king of Chalcis ; and as fhe followed him to Rome,
he gave offence to the people by his attachment to a foreign
queen of doubtful reputation ; and, as Suetonius fays, fufpi-
cions were entertained that Titus would eventually prove a
fecond Nero.

Upon the death of Vefpafian, A.D. 79, Titus imme-
diately fucceeded him; and by his condu@ towards his
rival Domitian, and to thofe who adhered to his intereft, he
gained the affeGtion of the people, and eftablifhed a charac-
ter, which has caufed him to be recorded under the glorious
title of “ The Delight of the Human Race.” Although
his reign was fhort, it was diftinguifhed by a feries of bene-
ficent aétions ; not always, perhaps, equally liberal in the
principle from which they originated. ‘This courfe of bene-
ficence was commenced by a confirmation of ail the grants
and donations made by his predeceflors. And he thus efta-
blifhed a precedent, which governed the condu& of his fuc-
ceffors. Upon affuming the office of chief pontiff, he
avowed it to be a folemn engagement not to fhed the blood
of a citizen, and to this refolution he adhered in a con-
fpiracy againft himfelf. In the cafe of one of the two pa-
tricians implicated in this crime, he calmed the anxiety of his
mother by deputing a fpecial meflenger to affure her that
her fon’s life was in no danger. ' Befides, he abrogated the
law of high-treafon with refpeét to all convictions for words
or writings againft the perfon or dignity of the emperor.

It was one of his maxims, ‘that no one ought to depart
difcontented from the perfon of his prince ;”’ and on this he
founded his practice of giving hopes to petitioners when he
thought it neceflary to refufe their requeits. If we conneé&
this maxim with his well-known exclamation at the clofe of
a day on which he had conferred no benefit, ‘* My friends I
have loft a day,”’ we cannot forbear fufpeting that the be-
nefits to which he referred were rather aéts of private bounty
to courtiers or importunate fuitors, than the performance
of public duties. Many inftances occur of his love of po-
pularity, and of the excefs in which he indulged it. The
public calamities that happened during his reign gave occa-
fion for the exercife and difplay of his compaffion and
bounty ; fuch were the great eruption of mount Vefuvius,
which deftroyed Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other towns:
and the conflagration of Rome, which was followed by a
fatal epidemic diforder. His general condu& entitled him
to the affeGtion of his fubje&ts ; nor does he feem to have
deferved reproach for any aét of injuftice or oppreffion.
Whilft he was on a journey to the country of the Sabines,
he was feized with a fever, which terminated fatally, on the
13th of September, A.D. 81, in the 4rft year of his age,
and after a reign of two years and lefs than three months.
Apprehending his diffolution, he lamented his early and pre-
mature doom; and yet, though his death was deplored at
Rome as a general calamity, it was perhaps, confidering the
flexibility of his difpofition, and his inclination to profufe

5c expen-

Ly

expenditure, favourable to his own reputation and to the
public profperity and happinefs. Suetonius. Anc. Un.
Hift. Crevier’s Rom. Emp.

TITWALLA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Baglana; 28 miles E. of Baffeen. Ms

TITYRUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in
the weftern part of the ifle of Crete, in the country named
Cydonia, according to Strabo. On this mountain was a
temple named Diétynn2zum Templum. In fome copies of
Strabo, this mountain and temple are placed in the town of
Cydonia.

TITZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Roer; 4 miles N.N.E. of Juliers.

TITZLA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania, -

on a falt lake ; 60 miles S.W. of Kirfhehr.

TIVA, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 130 miles W. of
Bafforah.

TIVER, in Rural Economy, the provincial name of a fub-
{tance of the colouring ochre kind, ufed for marking fheep
in fome places. E

TIVERING, a term applied to the a& or operation of
marking fheep and lambs in different ways, with the material
of the tiver kind, in fome diftri€ts and places, for particu-
lar ufes and purpofes. Thus, it is a praétice with fome
correét fheep-farmers to have their fheep tivered fo as to
afcertain different points in their management with great
exaGtnefs. The bows or breafts of the rams are tivered
every two or three days in the tupping or riding feafon,
and the ewes which are put to them, the firft week, marked
with one ftroke of tiver, thofe of the fecond week, with two
{trokes, and fo on. The tivering of fheep is alfo ufeful on
many other occafions for marking and diftinguifhing the ob-
jects and views of the fheep-farmer. The practice of it is
very common in the Romney-marfh fyftem of fheep-grazing.
See SHEEP.

TIVERTON, in Geography, anciently called Twyford-
town, a borough and market-town in the hundred of the
fame name, and county of Devon, England ; is fituated on
the flope of a hill between the rivers Exe and Loman, 14
miles N. by E. from Exeter, and 163 miles W. by S. from
London. In the time of Alfred it was only a village, but
had twelve tithings belonging to it, and was governed by a
portreve. Henry I. granted the manor and lordfhip to
Richard Rivers, afterwards earl of Devon, by whom a
caftle was erected here about the year 1106, which
continued to be the baronial refidence for a confiderable
number of years. The attraCtions of the caftle occafioned
a great increafe in the buildings and population of Tiverton ;
and by the favour of the lords, it was invefted with the privilege
of a market as early as the year 1200. About fifty years
afterwards, the ftream of water, now called the Town-Leat,
was conduéted from the diftance of five miles to fupply the
inhabitants ; and a piece of wafte land, called Elmore Com-
mon, was given for the benefit of the poorer clafles, either
for pafturage or for cultivation. Thefe advantages continued
to attract new fettlers; but the moft rapid augmentation of
the town took place on the final eftablifhment of the woollen
manufacture about the year 1500. Towards the clofe of
Elizabeth’s reign, Tiverton was the principal place in the
county for the manufaéture of woollen goods ; particularly
kerfeys, which {till continue to be the chief article made
here. About this period, the profperity of the town re-
ceived a temporary check; in 1591 it was vifited by the
plague, to which 550 perfons fell victims ; numbers fled for
fafety ; and the inhabitants were fo thinned, that the growing
of grafs in the ftreets is particularly recorded. Scarcely had
the town recovered, when it was nearly deftroyed by fire,

rit iV

April 3, 1598, when more than four hundred houfeswere
confumed, and thirty-three perfons perifhed in the flames :
the value of the property deftroyed was eftimated at 150,000/.
In about a dozen years from that time, Tiverton was again
efteemed a town of great importance, and called the chief
market-town of the Weft. Many rich clothiers and mer-
chants lived in it, and 8000 people were conftantly employed
in its woollen manufa@tures. The buildings were increafing
in number and ref{pectability, and Tiverton would have pro-
bably become one of the greateft manufaturing towns in
the kingdom, but for a fecond conflagration, which deftroyed
nearly all the property of the inhabitants, and wholly blaited
their flourifhing expeétation. In this fire, which happened
Auguft 5, 1612, fix hundred houfes were deitroyed, with
goods and merchandize to the amount of 200,000/. ; and
the inhabitants of every defcription were reduced to the
greateft diftrefs. The poor manufaéturers were diftributed fn
different towns, by which means the advantages of the cloth-
ing trade that had hitherto been exclufively enjoyed by Ti-
verton, were extended to other parts of the county. In
the year 1615, Tiverton received its firft charter of incor-
poration from king James ; and its government was vefted in
a mayor, twelve capital burgeffes, and twelve affiftant bur-
geffes. The right of returning two members to parliament
was alfo granted to the fame perfons. This charter con-
tinued in force ull 1723, when it was forfeited by negleé,
and a new one, exaétly fimilar, was granted by George I.
In 1731, a third deftructive fire occurred, which again nearly
laid wafte the town. During the 17th century, the trade
and population progreflively increafed : but in the following
century, rapidly declined: a favourable alteration has re-
cently taken place, and the general trade of the town is now
on a refpeétable bafis. By the parliamentary return of the
year 1811, the number of houfes is ftated to be 1303, the
inhabitants 6732. A weekly market is held on Tuefdays,
and two fairs annually. The fpot of ground on which
Tiverton is built, partakes of a triangular form, from the
courfe of the rivers by which it is bounded. Its greateft
length is nearly one mile ; its breadth exa@ly three quarters.
The four principal ftreets form a quandrangle, inclofing an
area of gardens, in the centre of which is a bowling-green.
Mott of the houfes are of red brick, or of ftone, and are
generally covered with blue flate. Thofe on the outikirts
of the town, and at the ends of the ftreets, which efca
the fire of 1731, are of earth or cobb, covered with thatch.
The principal buildings are the caftle, the church, and the
free grammar-fchool. The caftle, from the prefent remains,
appears to have been nearly of a quadrangular form, inclof-
ing an area of about an acre, and furrounded by ftron
walls, from twenty to twenty-five feet in height. At the
angles were embattled towers, about thirty-five feet high.
This fortrefs was fecured from attack on the W. fide by a
fteep declivity of about fixty feet, on the edge of which
a lofty wall was built. Two wide and deep moats, filled
with water from the Town-Leat, defended the whole of the
N. and S. walls to each fide of the caufeway leading to the
gate on the E. This caftle has been frequently expofed to
fieges: during the reign of Stephen, and in the conteft
between the houfes of York and Lancafter, it was feveral
times fubjeét to the affaults of the contending parties; and
in the civil war of Charles I. being garrifoned for the king,
it was befieged and taken by abe parliamentary forces.
From this period the caftle has been falling to decay ; and
feveral of the ancient buildings have been converted into
the offices of a farm. Great part of the S. and W. walls,
with parts of the towers at the angles, are ftill ftanding.
The moat at the S. fide is converted into a good kitchen
garden 5

Ties,

ro U.

garden; that on the N. fide is filled up, and made part of
a court-yard. The church is fituated on an eminence, at a
fhort diftance from the caitle ; and though the work of dif-
ferent ages, is more regular than might have been expected.
The S. fide is ornamented with much curious fculpture.
The tower is a plain ftone ftru€ture, ornamented with bat-
tlements and pinnacles; the height is 116 feet. The inte-
rior of the church is fpacious, and its chancel is feparated from
the body of the church by a fcreen, ornamented with elegant
tracery. The church being too {mall for the reception of the
inhabitants of the town, a chapel of eafe was erected about the
year 1733; and here are alfo feveral meeting-houfes for dif-
fenters of various denominations. A free grammar-{chool
was erected about the year 1604, purfuant to the will of
Peter Blundell, a native, and eminent clothier of this town;
who, from a very low origin, by a long life of fuccefsful in-
duftry acquired an ample fortune ; and bequeathed 40,000/.
to various charitable purpofes. In this fchool he provided
for the inftruétion of 150 boys: with maintenance for
three fcholars in each of the univerfities of Oxford and
Cambridge, to be chofen out of his fchool. Here are alfo a
charity-{chool, a free Englith {chool, feveral alms-houfes, and
other endowments for the benefit of the poor inhabitants.
The other public buildings are: the town-houfe, a {pacious
edifice, appropriated to the meetings of the corporation,
gend juries, and other public bodies ; the market-houfe, a
arge quadrangular fabric, for the ftanding and fale of corn;
and the hofpital or poor-houfe, an extenfive ftru€ture,
erected in 1704, and containing various workfhops for the
employment of thofe whom indigence or misfortune may
oblige to have recourfe to it. ‘The parifh of Tiverton is
upwards of nine miles in length, and about eight miles in
breadth.

At a fhort diflance to the fouth of Tiverton is Colliprieft
Houfe, formerly the feat of the Blundell family, but now
the property of Thomas Winflow, efq. who recently rebuilt
and enlarged the manfion. It ftands on the fide of an emi-
nence near the river Exe, having a floping lawn in front,
and a hanging wood behind.—Hiftorical Memoirs of the
Town and Parifh of Tiverton, &c.; by Martin Dunsford,
Exeter, 4to. 1790. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. iv. Devonfhire; by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley,
1803.

acon, a town of Rhode ifland, in the county of
Newport, containing 2837 inhabitants, fituated on the Taun-
tom river; 15 miles S.E. of Providence.

TIUHOLM, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the Catte-
gat; 4 miles N.N.E. of Fladftrand.

TIVICA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 15 miles
N.N.E. of Tortofa. ‘

TIVIOT, a river of Scotland, which rifes about 12 miles
S.W. from Hawick, and runs into the Tweed, at Kelfoe.
The valley which it waters is called Tiviotdale.

TIUKI-KARAGAN, a cape on the E. fide of the
Cafpian fea; 156 miles S.E. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 44° 20!
E. long. 50° 14’.

TIULIT, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez;
12 miles S.W. of Fez.

TIUMEN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolfk, at the union of the Pifchma and the Tura. This
town is not built parallel to the river Tura, but at right
angles with it ; and the little river Pifchma runs through the
town, and falls into the Tura at the extremity of it. Over
the river is a bridge of eighty-three fathoms in length ; and
a little below it ftands a fort, built with ftone, in which is a
church of the fame materials. Without this fortification,
and towards the lower bank of the Tura, are fix wooden

TLoA

churches, a convent of nuns, with achurch, and 500 dwelling-
houfes. At the lower end of the town is an oftrog. Be-
yond the Tumenka lies the Yamfkaia floboda, or fuburb,
confifting of 250 houfes, inhabited by people of all ranks
and profeffions ; and at the extremity of this fuburb ftands
a monattery : it has likewife three churches, built with ftone.
Another fuburb lies oppofite to Tiumen, on the N. fide of
the Tura, which is inhabited by Ruffians, Mahometan Tar-
tars, and Bucharians; riz miles W.S.W. of Tobolfk.
N. lat. 57°. E, long. 65° 14/.

TIVOLI, anciently called Tiur, a town of the Pope-
dom, in the Campagna di Roma, fituated on a rocky moun-
tain, planted with olive-trees, which are faid to yield the
beit oil in Italy ; the fee of a bifhop held immediately under
the pope. The town itfelf is mean, and contains a great
number of forges. The cathedral is built on the ruins of
a temple of Hercules. In the market-place are two images
of Oriental granite, reprefenting Ifis, the Egyptian deity.
The principal beauty of this place arifes from the river Te-
verone, which falling headlong about fifty feet down the
rock, forms a noble cafcade, and feveral leffer ones, called
Le Cafcadelle. The latter are extremely picturefque ; as
is alfo a deep ravine in the hili, called La Grotta di Nettuno,
into which the great cafcade falls. To enrich the view,
here are fome remains 9f ancient buildings, as the villa of
Mecenas, and particularly the little round temple of the
Sibyl, as it is commonly called, but rather of Vefta; one
of the moft elegant remains of the Grecian architeéture.
The naturalift will here take pleafure in obferving the con-
tinual formation of new Tiburtine ftone from the depofit
of water defcending from the calcareous Apennines; 15
miles E.N.E. of Rome, N, lat. 41° 58’. E. long.
12° 46!.

TIURANEN, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 38/. E. long. 24° 46!.

TIUTERS, an ifland of Ruffia, in the gulf of Finland;
80 miles E.N.E. of Revel. . N. lat. 59° 40'. E. long.
27curAl.

TIVY, a river of South Wales, which rifes about 5 miles
N. from Tregaron, and runs into the fea about 5 miles be-
low Cardigan.

TIXIER, Joun, (Lat. Ravifius Textor), in Biography,
a perfon of literary charaéter in France, was lord of Ravify
in the Nivernois, and educated in the college of Navarre at
Paris, where he taught the belles-lettres, and whence iffued
many of his publications for the ufe of his ftudents. In
1500 he was appointed reétor of the univerfity of Paris, and
he died, as fome fay in the hofpital, in 1522. His works
are, “ A Colleétion of Latin Letters,’ “ Dialogues,”
“© Poems,”’ “ Epigrams,’? ‘ Orations,” &c, in Latin,
written in good ‘ftyle ; ** Officina, feu potius Nature Hif-
toria, &c.’? feveral times reprinted; ‘* De Memorabili-
bus et claris Mukeribus, aliquot diverforum Scriptorum
Opera,” to which he has annexed the life of Joan of France,
written by himfelf, Moreri.

TIZ, in Geography. See T11z.

TIZRI, in Chronology. See Tisrt.

TIZZANO, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Parmag 13 miles S. of Parma.

TIZZONAIOS, in the Gla/s drt, are two apertures,
one on each fide of the working-furnace, by which a fervitor
night and day puts on coals to maintain the fire,

TLACOOZELOTL, in Zoology. See OcELor.

TLAM, or Stam, in the A/um-Works, a word ufed by
the workmen to exprefs a fort of mud or foulnefs which
does great hurt to the alum, rendering it foul and coarfe.
The flam is a muddy fubftance fettling to the bottom of

5Cz the

ELA

the veflels ; but in the boiling of the liquor it gives a red-
dith colour, and diforders the whele works when in any
great quantity. They always pafs their liquor over four
parcels of the alum-rock, and the laft, if not carefully cal-
cined, generally gives it this difadvantageous mixture. Phil.
Tranf. N° 142.

TLANHQUACHUL, in Ornithology, the name of a
Brafilian bird, very much approaching to the nature of the
European platea, or fpoonbill. .

It is a very voracious bird, and feeds on live fifh, but will
not take or meddle with dead ones, and is all over of a
beautiful red. It has a black ring round the upper part
of its neck, and is common about the fhores of the fea
and rivers.

TLAQUACUM, in Zoology, the name given by the
Spaniards, and fome others, to a very remarkable animal in
America, commonly known among us by the name of the
poffum or opoffum.

TLAQUATZIN, a name by which the natives in fome
parts of America call the opoffum.

TLAQuatzin Spinofum, the name by which Hernandez
has called the cuanda, a fort of Brafilian porcupine.

TLASCALA, in Geography, a province of North
America, in the government of Mexico; bounded on the
N. by Guafteca, on the E. by the gulf of Mexico and the
province of Guaxaca, on the S. by the Pacific ocean, and
on the W. by the province of Mexico Proper; about 320
miles in length, and from 40 to 120 in breadth. The cli-
mate, foil, and produce, are much the fame with thofe of
Mexico Proper. On the W. fide there is a chain of moun-
tains for the {pace of eighteen leagues, very well cultivated ;
and on the N. is alfo a great ridge of mountains, covered
with perpetual fnow, the neighbourhood of which expofes
it to horrid tempefts, hurricanes, and frequent inundations,
whereby houfes, even on the top of eminences, are fome-
times endangered. Yet this is allowed to be the moft po-
pulous country of all America: and this is partly afcribed
to its having been originally an ally to Cortez, in the con-
queft of Mexico, who obtained a grant of it from the em-
peror Charles VI. alfo king of Spain, by which it is fill ex-
empt from any fervice or duty whatfoever to that crown, only
paying the king of Spain a handful of maize for each head,
as an acknowledgment ; which inconfiderable parcels were
faid, upwards of fifty years ago, to make up 13,000 bufhels ;
for it produces fo much of the Indian corn, that hence it
had the name of Tlafcala, that is, the Land of Bread. By
this means the towns and villages fwarm with Indians. This
province was anciently a monarchy, till civil wars arifin
among the inhabitants, they formed themfelves into an anit.
tocracy of many princes, in order to get rid of one. ‘They
divided their towns into different diftriéts ; each of them no-
minated one of their chiefs to refide in the court of Tlafcala,
where they formed a fenate, whofe refolutions were a law to
the whole. Under this form of government they maintained
themfelves a long while againft the kings of Mexico, and
continued in it till the reception of the Spaniards under
Cortez.

TLASCALA, a town of North America, and anciently
the capital of a province to which it gives name, fituated on
a river, which runs into the Pacific ocean. When the Spa-
niards firft arrived here, it is faid to have contained 300,000
inhabitants: and Acofta affirms, that it had a market-place
large enough to hold 30,000 buyers and fellers ; that in the
fhambles were feldom lefs than 1500 fheep, 4000 oxen, and
2000 hogs. But matters were fo much altered, that Ge-
melli, who was here in 1698, fays it was then become an
ordinary village, with a parifh-church, in whieh hangs up a

TME

picture of the fhip which brought Cortez to La Vera Cruz,
The inhabitants formerly offered up human facrifices, and
when the Spaniards firft arrived here, we are told by Diaz
del Cattillo, that they found wooden cages, in which pri-
foners were confined to be fatted for vidtims; 20 miles N.
of Puebla de los Angelos. N. lat. 19° 45’. W. long.
98° 30!.

TLAYOTIC, in Natural Hiflory. See Coxic-Stone.

TLEMSAM, or TELEMsEN, in Geography. See TRE-
MECEN-

TLETSCH, a town of Ruffia, in the government of To-
bolfk, on the Irtifch ; 72 miles E.S.E. of Tobolfk.

TLEUQUECHOLTOTOTL, in Ornitholgy, the
Mexican name of a bird of the wood-pecker kind, defcribed
By Beever the name of the avis falutiferus ; the
eathers of a red creft it carries on its head bein
remedy for head-aches. Sie? po:

TLOS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia Minor, in
Lycia, at the pafs of a mountain, on the fide of Cybara, ac-
cording to Strabo. Itis placed by Ptolemy in the number
of the interior towns of Lycia, in the vicinity of mount
Cragas.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Pifidia.

TLUMACZOW, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Hradifch ; 15 miles N. of Hradifch.

; TMAIE’, a town of Egypt; 12 miles S.E. of an-
ora.

TMARUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Epirus,
in Thefprotia, at the foot of which was a temple. Strabo.
It was alfo called Tamarus and Tomarus.

TMATARACAN, or Tamartercan, literally denot-
ing the “ {warm of beetles,’’ called in Theodofius’s Itine-
rary ‘¢ Tamatarce,’’ a name anciently given to the city of
Taman, over the fuburbs of which extend all the ruins
of the ancient city of Phanogoria. The diftance acrofs
the Bofphorus from 'T'mataracan to Kertchy, i. e. from Pha-
nogoria to Panticapzum, is found to correfpond with the
a&tual diftance from Taman to Kertchy. Among other
antiquities of Taman, one of the moft remarkable is the Nau-
machia, or amphitheatre for naval combats, not lefs than
1000 paces in diameter, with its whole area paved. The
fubterraneous conduits for conveying water full remain, but
are applied to other ufes. The materials of the ruined build-
ings do not exift in the ifle of Taman, but mult have been
brought from the Crimea, from Greece, or in later ages,
by the Genoefe from Italy. The diftance from Taman to
Yenikele, on the oppofite fhore, is about 12 miles. Clarke’s
Travels, vol. ii.

TMESCHEDE, or Muscueps, a town of Germany, in
the county of Arenfberg, on the left fide of the Roer ; 3 miles
N.W. of Arenfberg.

TMESIPTERIS, in Botany, an uncouth, however
learned, name, compofed of zunzi:, a notch, or incifion, and
micess, a fern, becaufe the capfules are feated in the notches
of the frond.—Bernhardi in Schrad. Journ. for 1800, 131.
t. 2. f. 5. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 5. 56. Swartz Fil. 187. Labill.
Nov. Holl. v. 2. 105. t- 252. ‘This fern is referred by
Mr. Brown to Psttorum. (See that article.) We ought
there to have noticed Mr. Brown’s remark, that the plant
of Forfter differs from Labillardiere’s, in not having abrupt
leaves, and that it was found in New Zeeland, not in the
ifle of Tanna. Willdenow has juftly obferved the difference
between Bernhardi’s figure, and that of Labillardiere. Mr.
Brown fays both thefe fpecies are parafitical, on the ftems
of arborefcent ferns.

TMESIS, cyrcic, formed from tr.v, J cut, in Grammar,
a figure by which a compound word is feparated into two
parts, and one or more words interpofed between them.

Thus,

SEO A

Thus, when Terence fays, “ que meo cunque animo libi-
tum eft facere,’”? there is a tmefis; the word quecunque
being divided by the interpofition of meo.

Lucretius abounds in tmefes ; as fepe falutantum tatu
preterque meantum ;” or “ diffidio potis eft fejungi, feque
gregari ;” and “ difpedtis difque gregatis.”’

MOLUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Afia Minor, in Lydia. Strabo fays that the town of Sardis
was commanded by the Tmolus, a rich mountain, on the
fummit of which the Perfians had ereéted a turret, from
which might be feen all the adjacent fields, which were
watered by the Cnyftrus. According to Homer it ob-
tained, from its extraordinary elevation, the name of Ventofe,
or windy. From Pliny we learn that the Pa¢tolus, Chry-
forrhoas, and the fountain Tarne, had their fources in this
mountain, and that it produced excellent wine, highly com-
mended by Pliny and Vitruvius. The fummit is reprefented
as always covered with fnow. It was fometimes denominated

Timolis, as by Ovid,
“ Defernere fibi Nymphz? . . . Timoli.”

According to the mythologifts, it was in this mountain that
Apollo punifhed Midas, king of Phrygia, by giving him
affes” ears.

Tmo.us, a town of Afia Minor, in Lydia, on mount
Tmolus. According to Tacitus, Tmolus was one of the
twelve towns overthrown by an earthquake, in the fifth year
of the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 117, and it was rebuilt by
this prince.

TMORUS, the name of one of the fummits of the Cerau-
nian mountains, in Epirus.

TMULGA, in Geography, a town of Algiers; 10 miles
E. of Sinaab.

TNYSSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Caria.

TOA, in Geography, a river of the ifland of Porto Rico,
which runs into the harbour of Porto Rico.

TOAD, Rubeta, Rana Bufo of Linneus, in Zoology, a
creature fufficiently known. See Rana.

The toad has been generally confidered as a poifonous
animal, but Mr. Pennant apprehends without fufficient rea-
fon. They have been taken up in the naked hand without
the leaft injury, and quacks have even eaten them, and drank
their juices without damage. Befides, they are common
food to many animals, as buzzards, owls, Norfolk plovers,
ducks, and fnakes ; of late, indeed, live toads have been
applied to cancers, with a view of curing them: facts
have been alleged in proof of their efficacy for this pur-
pofe. The mode of applying them has been to put the
animal into a linen bag, and to hold its head, prefling out of
the bag, to the part, which it has foon laid hold of and fucked
with greedinefs till it dropped off dead. The creature has
fwelled and appeared to be in great pain ; often {weats much
and turns pale ; and fometimes difgorges, recovers, and be-
comes lively again. For other particulars, we muift refer
to Mr. Pennant’s appendix uli infra. The time when toads
propagate is early in the {pring ; at which feafon the females
are feen crawling about oppreffed by the males, who con-
tinue on them for fome hours, and adhere fo fait as to tear
the fkin from the part to which they ftick. They impregnate
the {pawn as it is drawn out in long ftrings, like a necklace.
And the female is affifted by the male, in difcharging the
fpawn, who with his hinder feet pulls out the eggs, whilft
his fore-feet embraces her breaft. The eggs are included
each in a membranous coat that is very firm, in which is con-
tained the embryo, and thefe eggs, faftened to one another
by a fhort but ftrong cord, form a kind of chaplet, the

12

£ OA

beads of which are diftant from each other about half their
length. The male, by drawing this cord with his paw,
performs the funétions of a midwife, and acquits himfelf in
it, it is faid, with a dexterity which could not be expected
from fo:lumpifh an animal. Pennant’s Brit. Zool. vol. iii.
Pp: 14. p. 385, &c. .

The toad of Surinam, or rana pipa of Linneus, has lon
been an object of attention to the curious, on account o
its enormous bulk and ugly form. Dr. Fermin, in his
“ Traité des Maladies les plus fréquentes a Surinam,” &c.
publifhed at Maeftricht in 1764, has given fome remarks
on its mode of generation. Having put three males and a
female into an open veffel of water, he obferved that one of
them had feveral {pots on its back, which were eggs, each
containing an embryo. At the end of three weeks, the ani-
mal feemed much agitated, and one of the cells on his back
burfting open, a young one crept out of it. In five days no
lefs than thirty-five of thefe cells opened in the fame manner
and produced as many animals. On the back of one of thefe
which was diffe€ted, there were no lefs than one handred and
twenty of thefe cells, each of which he confiders as a real
matrix, in which its eggs are lodged and fecundated ; and,
indeed, in one of them he difcovered an embryo completely
formed, enveloped in a kind of placenta, accompanied by
two thin tranfparent membranes, feemingly analogous to the
chorion and amnios in other animals. For other fpecies of
toad, fee Rana.

Toap-Fifh, Rana pifcatrix, in Ichthyology. See Loputus
Pifcatrix, and Sra-Devil.

Toap-Flax, in Botany. ANTIRRHINUM.

Toap-Stone, in Mineralogy, a variety of trap-rock. _ (See
Trap.) The toad-ftone of Derbyfhire is generally a dark-
brown bafaltic amygdaloid, compofed of an intimate inter-
mixture of bafalt and green earth, and containing oblong
cavities, principally filled with calcareous fpar. It fometimes
affumes the form and texture of a compact bafalt, and is alfo
found in a decompofing foft ftate, approaching to clay. In
compofition and appearance it bears a ftrong refemblance to
fome volcanic rocks; and there are certain peculiarities in the
geological pofition of this rock, which have excited con-
fiderable attention. Mr. Whitehurft, in his Theory of the
Earth, has given a particular account of the Derby fhire toad-
ftone ; and has ftated the number of beds, and the thicknefs
of each, with that of the mountain lime-ftone, with which it
alternates, as under :

Firft lime-ftone - 50 yards.
Firft toad-{tone et
Second lime-{tone - 50
Second toad-ftone - 46
Third ljme-ftone - 60
Third toad-ftone =) 522,

Fourth lime-ttone - not cut through.

It appears, however, that the thicknefs and extent of the
toad-ftone beds are by no means fo regular as thofe of the
other ftrata, in the fame diftriét.

In fome fituations, one or more of the beds will become
very thin, or be entirely wanting ; in other fituations, a fingle
bed will be found of vaft thicknefs: and maffes of this fub-
ftance, which cannot be referred to any of the three beds,
will be found interpofed in the lime-ftone ftrata. In fome
inftances, particularly near Afhover, nodules of lime-ftone
may be feen imbedded in toad-ftone. Farey’s Derbyshire
Report, vol. i. p. 276.

The moft remarkable phenomenon which the beds of toad-
{tone prefent in Derbythire, is the complete feparation of the
metallic veins which they generally occafion. The ms

me-

EO

lime-ftone of that diftri€& is interfe€&ted by numerous per-
pendicular metallic veins, which rife from the loweft lime-
{tone to the uppermoft ; but on finking through the vein in
the firft lime-ftone, down to the firft toad-ftone, the vein will
entirely difappear, but on perforating through the toad-
ftone, it will be found again in the fecond lime-ftone; and
the fame appearances will be prefented on piercing through
the fecond and third beds of lime-ftone, and the fecond and
third beds of toad-ftone. See Plate IV. Geology, Sg. l-
where 1, 2, 35 45 reprefent the four beds of lime-itone ;
5, b, b, the three beds of toad-ftone; and v, v, v, v, the
metallic vein pafling through the different lime-{tone beds,
but completely cut off or feparated by the intervening beds

. of toad-{tone. To account for this interruption of the vein
at v, v, v, Mr. Whitehurft fuppofes that the toad-ftone, ina
{tate of igneous fufion, has burft through the lower ftrata,
and has faced itfelf between the ftrata of lime-ftone by a
lateral motion. Were this the cafe, we muft admit that the
toad-ftone had rifen through fiffures or dikes, fimilar to what
exift in many of the northern parts of Britain, and are called
whin-dikes. The whin-ftone, or bafalt, bearing a clofe
refemblance to toad-ftone, and the ftrata in the peak of
Derbyfhire being much fraétured, we fhould feel little
difficulty in admitting the probability of Mr. Whitehurit’s
theory, did it apply to the different phenomena which thefe
beds of toad-ftone prefent. According to this theory, the
beds of toad-ftone muft have been interpofed fubfequently to
the formation of the metallic veins. There are, however, in-
ftances, in which very large veins extend from the lime-ftone
to fome depth in the toad-ftone, and terminate in {mall
ftrings of ore ; in other inftances, thou h the ore is not con-
tinued through the toad-ftone, a {mall vein filled with {par
may be traced from No. 1. the firft lime-ftone, through 4, to
No. 2. the fecond lime-ftone. Such inftances prove, in the
moft decifive manner, that the formation of the veins was
pofterior to that of the toad-ftone. Hence we are led to
feek for fome other caufe which may explain the abfence of
metallic ores in the beds of toad-ftone. This fubjeé will be
confidered when we treat of metallic veins. See Trap, and
Vers, Mineral and Metallic.

From the experiments of Dr. Withering on this ftone
with different acids, alkalies, and by fufion, it appears that
one hundred parts of it confift of 634 parts of filiceous earth,
16 of calciform iron, 7} of calcareous earth, and 143 of
earth of alum. The aggregate of thefe ingredients is found
to weigh 14 parts more than the original mafs, which is
afcribed to the fubftance capable of uniting with fixable air,
not having been fully faturated with it, as they would be
after their precipitation by the earth of alum. (Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxii. part ii. p. 353.) This fubftance differs little from
bafaltes: it is fofter, contains a {maller proportion of iron,
and a larger of filex.

TOAGAMALLY, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Carnatic; 17 miles W.S.W. of Trit-
chinopoly.

TOAHOUTA, one of the fmaller Society iflands, near
Otaha,

TOAIREH, a town of Egypt, on the coaft of the Red
fea, where the water is falt; 3 miles N. of Kolzum.

TOALDO, Joseru, in Biography, a diftinguifhed phi-
lofopher, was born in 1719 at a {mall village near Marof-
tica, in the valley of Vicenza, at the foot of the Alps, and
fent, inthe year 1733, to the feminary of Padua, where he
ftudied Latin, rhetoric, philofophy, theology, and parti-
cularly mathematics. In this feminary he afterwards be-
came a teacher of grammar, rhetoric, philofophy, and
mathematics. His firft literary work was a new edition of

5

EQ A

the writings of Galileo, to which he added feveral fragments
never before publifhed, with a preface and notes. For his
fervices to the above-mentioned feminary he was recom-
penfed with the benefice of Montegalda, which he enjoyed
for 14 years, and which he exchanged for another more
convenient, after his appointment by the fenate of Venice,
in 1762, to the profeflorfhip of aftronomy and meteorology
in the univerfity of Padua. Here he conftru&ted an ob-
fervatory, begun in 1767 and completed in 1774. In 1769
he publithed at Padua a fhort view of plane and f{pherical
trigonometry, entitled ‘ Tayole Trigonometriche, &c.”?
which was reprinted and ufed in many of the Italian femi-
naries. He next publifhed a treatife on the influence of the
heavenly bodies on the weather and atmofphere, containing
the refult of a long feries of meteorological obfervations.
This work, printed at Padua in 1770, 4to., was tranflated
into different languages, and fo well received, that he was-
admitted into various learned focieties. About the fame
time he prefented to the public effays in favour of ele&trical
conduétors, which caufed them to be erected in the Venetian
territories ; alfo a chronological view of uncommon changes
in the weather, with tables of the ftate of the barometer,
and the flux and reflux of the fea. His meteorological
journal was begun in 1773, and continued till his death.
His celebrity was augmented in 1774 by an anfwer toa -
prize queftion, propofed by the academical fociety of Mont-
pelier, on meteorology applied to agriculture; and after
this time he laboured inceflantly in diffufing meteorological
{cience. In 1777 he tranflated Lalande’s Aftronomical
Tables, and his “‘ Abrégé de |’Aftronomie ;’? and fome
time after, his “* Aftronomie des Dames ;” ereéting alfo in
his obfervatory a marble buft of that eminent aftronomer.
From this time he almoft reftri€ted his attention to aftro-
nomy and meteorology, endeavouring to confirm his hypo-
thefis of the influence of the moon on the different changes
of the weather. He alfo publifhed an hiftorical view of the
fervices rendered by the Venetian {chools to aftronomy,
geography, and navigation. In 1783 he obtained, in con-
junction with his nephew Chiminello, who was his affiftant
in the obfervatory, the prize offered for the beit treatife on
the conftru€tion of a comparative hygrometer ; and in 1784
he publifhed a {mall work on the longitude, which was well
received. He proceeded regularly with his journal till the
year 1787, when a {mall work in two fheets was printed at
Venice ; and in the following year his Tables of Vitality
appeared at Venice and Padua. Of his travels in 1780 and
in 1788, in the courfe of which he examined the place where
Hannibal crofled the Alps, the refult was inferted in his
differtation on the fubjeét, printed in the fourth volume of
the Tranfaétions of the Academy of Padua. But our limits
will not allow us to give even the titles of the numerous
eflays and papers which he publifhed on various fubjects,
relating principally to meteorology. The journals of the
period in which he lived contain many curious pieces con-
tributed by this induftrious inquirer into the operations and
phenomena of nature. Befides his publications, he left
in MS. feveral papers, and particularly obfervations on the
trayels of Marco Polo, and on the real epoch of the
Chinefe wall. The termination of Toaldo’s life was aece-
lerated by the chagrin which he felt, in confequence of a
fruitlefs attempt to ferve a young man who had been de-
prived of his office. This irritation affected his health, fo
that in November, 1797, he was attacked by a nervous af-
fection, which in a few days proved fatal, in the 79th year
of his age.
“ Toaldo,’’ fays his biographer, “* was of fmall ftature ;
but, in general, had an engaging appearance that infpired
confidence

iO 3B

confidence and refpeét. His deportment was eafy, and in
his converfation, which was lively, he difplayed great know-
ledge, and an extenfive acquaintance with various branches
of fcience. Simple in his manners, open and fincere, he
indulged only the milder paffions; and feemed to have no
other ambition than that of being ufeful. He was fteady in
his friendfhip ; always ready to do good offices in the moft
difinterefted manner, and indulgent towards every one
around him. To the talents of a literary man, he added the
virtues of the citizen; and therefore was vuniverfally ef-
teemed, but particularly by thofe who enjoyed his more
intimate acquaintance.”’ Phil. Mag.

TOALOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Baramaul ; 3 miles S.E. of Wombinellore.

TOAMENSING, a townhhip of Pennfylvania ; 50 miles
N. of Philadelphia.—Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania ;
15 miles N. of Philadelphia.

TOANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, eaft of this river, among the people
called Naniche. Prtol.

TOANT, a people of Arabia Felix, in the environs of
the ftrait of the Arabic gulf. Pliny.

TOB, or Tusa, a country on the other fide of Jordan,
in the northern part of the tribe of Manafleh. It was the
country into which Jephtha retired, as we read in the boox
of Judges.

TOBA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, near the welt coaft of Aroo. S. lat. 5° 8’. E.
long. 135° !.

TOBACCO, Nicotiana, in Botany.
TIANA.

Togacco, Culture and Preparation of. See Nicotiana.

Tosracco, Hiftory of. Tobacco was not known in Eu-
rope till after the difcovery of America by the Spaniards,
and firft imported about the year 1560, as fome fay by fir
Francis Drake.

The Americans of the continent call it petun, thofe of
the iflands yoli. The Spaniards, who gave it the name
tobacco, took it from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, where
they firft found it, and firft learned its ufe ; or, as fome fay,
it derived its name from the ifland of Tabago, or Tobago.

The French, at its firft introduction among them, gave
it various names; as Nicotiana, or the ambaffador’s herb,
from John Nicot, then ambaffador of Francis II. in Por-
tugal ; who brought fome of it with him from Lifbon, and
prefented it to a grand prior of the houfe of Lorrain, and
to queen Catherine de Medicis ; whence it was alfo called
gueen’s herb, and grand prior’s herb. They alfo gave it
other names, which are now all reduced to the original

name of fobaco, or tobacco, from Tabaco, given it by Her-
nandez de Toledo, who firft fent it into Spain and Por-
tugal. ; '

It appears from Lobel, that this plant was cultivated in
Britain before the year 15703 and the introduction of the

raétice of {moking it in England has been commonly
afcribed to fir Walter Raleigh, about the year 1584. The
cultivation of it is now common in various parts of the
globe ; and though prohibited by the laws of this country,
the manufa@ture of it forms no inconfiderable branch of
commerce.

Tobacco might be cultivated with advantage through the
greater part of Europe; but almoft in eyery part of Europe
it has become a principal fubjeét of taxation; and it has
been fuppofed, that it would be more difficult to colle a
tax from every farm where this plant might happen to be
cultivated, than to levy one upon its importation at the
euftom-houfe. The cultivation of tobaceo has been, upon

See Nico-

PP OcB

this account, moft abfurdly, (fays Mr. Smith, Wealth
of vot prohibited through the greater part of Europe,
which neceffarily gives a fort of monopoly to the countries
where it is allowed ; and as Virginia and Maryland produce
the greateft quantity of it, they fhare largely, though not
without fome competitors, in the advantage of this mono-
poly: the cultivation of it, however, is faid to be lefs pro-
fitable than that of fugar. At the time when the author
publifhed his work above cited, about ninety-fix thoufand
hogfheads of tobacco were annually purchafed in Virginia
and Maryland, with a part of the furplus produce of Britifh
induftry ; but the demand of Great Britain does not require,
perhaps, more than fourteen thoufand. If the remaining
eighty-two thoufand, therefore, could not be fent abroad
and exchanged for fomething more in demand at home, the
importation of them muft ceafe immediately, and with it
the produétive labour of all thofe inhabitants of Great Bri-
tain, who are at prefent employed in preparing the goods
with which thefe ecighty-two thoufand hogfheads are an-
nually purchafed. 'Thofe goods, which are part of the
produce of the land and labour of Great Britain, having no
market at home, and being deprived of that which they had
abroad, muft ceafe to be produced. The moft round-about
foreign trade of confumption, therefore, may, upon fome
occafions, be as neceflary for fupporting the produétive la-
bour of the country, and the value of its annual produce, as
the moft direct. In order to facilitate the great exportation
which was neceflary, for getting rid of that which remained
after the home confumption, the whole duties were drawn
back, provided the exportation took place within three
years.

The principal kinds of tobacco imported into England
are, as we have already obferved, the Maryland, called
Oroonoko, and the Virginia-tobacco. The former is not
fo agreeable to the Britifh tafte as the fweet-fcented tobacco
of the latter country ; but the northern nations of Europe
are faid to like it better.

Befides the tobacco of the Welt Indies, there are con-
fiderable quantities cultivated in the Levant, the coafts of
Greece, and the Archipelago, the ifland of Malta, and
Italy. ‘The marks of good twift tobacco are a fine fhining
cut, an agreeable fmell, and that it has been well kept.

In the ifland of Ceylon, there are two kinds of tobacco
cultivated for profit. They call both kinds dunkol, which
fignifies a leaf, the ufe of which is to be fmoked. The one
kind they call hingele dunkol or fingele dunkol, for they make
no difference between the letter S and H in their pronuncia-
tion ; the other they call dunkol kappada; kappada fignifies
gelding, and is a word of Portuguefe origin. This kappada
tobacco is much ftronger and more intoxicating than the
other; but both kinds are the produce of the fame plant ;
only the fingle tobacco has very little care taken of it, being,
after the fowing, in a manner left to itfelf; while the other
has great pains beftowed upon it during the whole time of
its growth, and till it is fit for ufe.

Some of the Ceylonefe chew this ftrong tobacco with
their betel; and fome, who f{moke it alone, ufe no pipe,
but, taking a long leaf of it, they roll it up into a long
form, and cover it with the leaf of the wattukan-tree ; they
then light one end of it, and {moke by the other, till the
whole is confumed. Phil. Tranf. N° 278, p. 1143.

Although in Ruffia tobacco is not confidered as one of
the general neceffaries of the lower clafles of the people,
the praétice of fmoking having been held as a fin to the end
of the 17th century; neverthelefs the confumption of it is
by no means fmall, and of courfe the importation always

much overbalances the exports. In 1793, the former at St.
. Peterfburg

TOBACCO.

Peterfburg alone amounted to upwards of 47,000 rubles ;
and the latter, from all parts of the empire, barely to
20,000: however, the confumption muft have increafed, as
the exportation in 1768 is ftated by Guldenftedt at 21,000,
and the whole of the importation at 108,000 rubles. The
culture has been profitably carried on, fince the year 1763,
in various diftri€&ts of the empire. Moft of it is obtained in
the Malo-Ruffian governments, where the cultivation was
firft encouraged ; but it has been much cultivated in other
regions, e.g. about the Volga and the Sanrara, and parti-
cularly by the Coffacks on the Orenburg and Siberian lines.
The greater part of the Ruffian tobacco is derived from
American, and fome Turkifh and Perfian feed. In the
generality of the fouthern governments, thefe plantations
admit of being greatly multiplied. The different forts of
tobacco and fnuffs prepared from it, which are now in ufe,
are to be attributed to the difference of the climate and foil
in which it grows, and the peculiar mode of managing and
manufaéturing the plant, rather than to any effential dif-
ference in its qualities.

Tosacco, in the Materia Medica, (Fc. 'This is a well-
known drug of a narcotic quality, which it difcovers in all
perfons, even in {mall quantity, when firft applied to them ;
and when ufed in large quantities, its effe¢ts have fometimes
been more violent, fo as to have proved a mortal poifon.
Befides its narcotic qualities, it poffeffes alfo a ftrongly fti-
mulant power, perhaps, as Dr. Cullen obferves, with re{pec&
to the whole fyftem, but efpecially with refpeé to the fto-
mach and inteftines ; fo as readily, even in no great dofes,
to prove emetic and purgative.

The leaves of tobacco have a ftrong difagreeable fmell,
and a very acrid burning tafte: diftilled in a retort, with-
out addition, they yield an acrid, empyreumatic, poifonous
oil. They give out their acrid, matter both to water and
fpirit, but moft perfeétly to the latter: the aqueous infu-
fions are of a yellow or brown colour, the fpirituous of a
deep green. The feveral forts of tobacco imported from
NESE are ftronger in tafte than that of our own growth,
and the extraéts made from them much more fiery, but in
lefs quantity.

Tobacco has been employed, in ordinary ufe, by fnuffing,
fmoking, and chewing ; and thefe practices have been com-
mon for more than 200 years to all Europe, and they have
more or lefs prevailed in other parts of the globe. Like
other narcotics, the ufe of it may be introduced by degrees ;
and its peculiar effets may hardly at all be manifefted ; but
beyond certain limits, violent effeéts have been fometimes
produced on thofe who have been accuftomed to the ufe of
it, ‘The power of habit is often unequal, even among thofe
who have been addi&ted to this praétice. Dr. Cullen men-
tions a lady, who had been for more than twenty years ac-
cuftomed to take fnuff at all times of the day ; but fhe found
at length that indulging much in the ufe of {nuff before din-
ner took away her appetite; and in procefs of time, that a
fingle pinch, taken any time before dinner, palled her appe-
tite for that meal. But when fhe abftained from the ufe of
it, her appetite returned ; and after dinner, for the reft of the
day, fhe took fnuff freely without inconvenience. When
fnuff, that is, tobacco in powder, is firft applied to the nofe,
it proves a ftimulus, and excites {neezing ; but by repetition,
that effect entirely ceafes.

Snuff, when firft employed, if it be not taken in fmall
quantity, and if it be not thrown out immediately by
{neezing, occafions fome giddinefs and confufion of head :
but thefe effeéts do not occur when perfons are habituated
to the ufe of it. But fuch perfons, if it be taken beyond
the ufual quantity, experience the fame confequences ; and

the effet is manifeft, not only on the fenforium, but on
other parts of the fyftem, particularly the ftomach, occa-
fioning a lofs of appetite, and other fymptoms of a weakened
tone in that organ. Dr. Cullen fays, that he has obferved
feveral inftances of perfons who take {nuff to excefs, fuffer-
ing from it by a lofs of memory, by a fatuity, and by other
fymptoms of the weakened or fenile ftate of the nervous
fyftem, induced before the ufual period. He has alfo found
fymptoms of dy{pepfia, and pains of the ftomach, occurrin,
every day, in confequence of excefsin the practice of takin
fnuff. Thefe fymptoms have fubfided, when the ufe
fnuff has been difcontinued. A fpecial effect of {nuffing,
he fays, is its exciting a confiderable difcharge of mucus
from the nofe; and there have been feveral inftances of
head-aches, tooth-aches, and ophthalmias thus relieved ; and
when this difcharge of mucus is confiderable, the ceafing
or fuppreffion of it, by abftaining from fnuff, is apt to occa-
fion thofe diforders which it had formerly relieved. An-
other effe& of taking {nuff is this, that as a part of the
{nuff is often carried back into the fauces, fo a part of this is
carried down into the ftomach, and then more certainly pro-
duces the above-mentioned dyfpeptic fymptoms. =~

Smoking, when firft practifed, fhews very ftrongly the
narcotic, vomiting, and even purging powers of tobacco,
and it is very often ufeful as an anodyne ; but by repetition
thefe effe&s difappear, or only fhew themfelves when the
quantity {moked is beyond what habit had before admitted
of ; and even in perfons much accuftomed to it, it may be
carried fo far as to prove a mortal poifon. From much
fmoking, all the fame effe€ts may arife which we faid might
arife from the excefs in fnuffing.

With refpe& to the evacuation of mucus which is pro-
duced by f{nuffing, there are analogous effeéts produced by
fmoking, which commonly ftimulate the mucous follicles of
the mouth and fauces, and particularly the excretories of the
falivary glands. By the evacuation from both fources, with
the concurrence of the narcotic power, the tooth-ache is often
greatly relieved by it ; but we have not found the fmoking
relieve head-aches and ophthalmias fo much as fnuffing often
does. Sometimes fmoking dries the mouth and fauces, and
occafions a demand for drink ; but, as commonly the ftimu-
lus it applies to the mucous follicles and falivary glands
draws forth their liquids, it occafions on the other hand a
frequent fpitting.

So far as this is of the proper faliva, it occafions a waite
of that liquid fo neceflary in the bufinefs of digeftion; and
both by this waite, and by the narcotic power at the fame
time applied, the tone of the ftomach is often weakened,
and every kind of dyfpeptic fymptoms is produced,
Though in fmoking a great part of the fmoke is again
blown out of the mouth, ftill a part of it muft neceflarily
pafs into the lungs, and its narcotic power applied there often
relieves fpafmodic afthma; and by its ftimulant power it
there alfo fometimes promotes expeCtoration, ae proves
ufeful in the catarrhal or pituitous difficulty of breathing.

Smoking has been frequently mentioned as a means
of guarding men againft contagion. In the cafe of the
plague, the teftimony of Diemerbroek is very ftrong ; but
Rivinus and others give us many faéts which contradié this ;
and Chenot gives a remarkable inftance of its inutility. We
cannot indeed fuppofe that tobacco contains an antidote of
any contagion, or that in general it has any antifeptic
power ; and therefore we cannot allow that it has any fpecial
ufe in this cafe : but it is very probable that this and other
nareotics, by diminifhing fenfibility, may render men
liable to contagion ; and by rendering the mind lefs ative
and anxious, it may alfo render men lefs liable to fear, ae

as

TOBACCO.

has fo often the power of exciting the activity of the conta-
ion. The antiloimic powers of tobacco are therefore on
the fame footing with thofe of wine, brandy, and opium.

The third mode of ufing tobacco is that of chewing it,
when it fhews its narcotic qualities as ftrongly as in any other
way of applying it; though the naufeous tafte of it com-
monly prevents its being carried far in the firft practice.
When the practice, however, is continued, as it is very dif-
ficult to avoid fome part of it diffolved in the faliva from
going down into the ftomach, fo this, with the naufea ex-
cited by the tafte, makes vomiting more readily occafioned
by this than the other modes of applying it. They are the
ftrong, and even difagreeable impreffions repeated, that give
the moft durable and tenacious habits; and therefore the
chewing of tobacco is apt to become one of thefe: and it is
therefore in this way that it is ready to be carried to the
greateft excefs, and to fhew all the effeéts of the frequent
and large ufe of narcotics. As it commonly produces a
eonfiderable evacuation from the mouth and fauces, fo it is
the moft powerful in relieving the rheumatic affection of
tooth-ache. This practice is alfo the occafion of the greateft
wafte of faliva ; and the effects of this in weakening digef-
tion, and perhaps from thence efpecially, its noted effeét of
producing emaciation, may appear.

The effects already recited of the different modes of em-
ploying tobacco depend efpecially upon its narcotic power,
and certain circumitances accidentally attending its applica-
tion to the nofe and mouth : but as we have obferved before,
that befide its narcotic, it poffeffes alfo a ftimulant power,
particularly with refpeé to the alimentary canal: by this it
is frequently employed 2s a medicine for exciting either vo-
miting or purging, which it does as it happens to be more
immediately applied to the ftomach or to the inteftines.

An infufion of from half a drachm to a drachm of the
dried leaves, or of thefe as they are commonly prepared for
chewing, for an hour or two, in four ounces of boiling
water, affords an emetic which has been employed by fome
practitioners, but more commonly by the vulgar only. As
it has no peculiar qualities as an emetic, and its operation
is commonly attended with fevere ficknefs, it has not been,
nor is it likely ever to come into common practice with
phyficians.

By long boiling in water, its deleterious power is faid to
be abated, and at length deftroyed: an extraét made by
long coétion, is recommended by Stahl and other German
phyficians, as the moft effe€tual and fafe aperient, ek i
expectorant, diuretic, &c.; but the medicine mutt neceflarily
be precarious in ftrength, and has never come into ufe among
us. Lewis Mat. Med.

It is more commonly employed asa purgative in glyfters ;
and, as generally very effectual, it is employed in all cafes of
more obitinate coftivenefs ; and its powers have been celebrated
by many authors. Dr. Cullen has known it to be in frequent
ufe with fome praétitioners : and he adds, it is indeed a very
effeGtual medicine, but attended with this inconvenience,
that when the dofe happens to be in any excefs, it occafions
fevere ficknefs at the ftomach, and it has been known to free
quently occafion vomiting. Fos,

A. ftrong deco€tion of tobacco, with proper carminatives
and cathartics, given glyfter-wife, fometimes proves of good
effeét in what is ufually called the ftone colic, and alfo in the
iliac paffion.

It is well known, that in cafes of obftinate coftivenefs, in
ileus and incarcerated hernia, the {moke of burning tobacco
has been thrown into the anus with great advantage. The
fmoke operates here by the fame qualities that are in the in-
fufions of it above-meutioned: but as the fmoke reaches

You, XXKV.

much farther into the inteftines than injeétions can commonly
do, it is thereby applied to a larger furface, and may there-
fore be a more powerful medicine than the infufions. In fe-
veral inftances, however, fays Dr. Cullen, I -have been dif-
appointed of its effets, and have been obliged to have re-
courfe to other means.

Bates and Fuller give fome receipts, in which tobacco is
an ingredient, with mighty encomiums, in afthmatic cafes.

Hoffman obferves, that horfes have been often relieved by
this remedy, but in human fubjets it has been rarely tried ;
and fays he has known fome of the common people, who la-
boured under excruciating pains of the inteftines, freed in an
inftant from all pain by {wallowing the {moke. Both the de-
coétion and the {moke have not unfrequently been injefted in
cafes of incarcerated herniz, and often withfuccefs. The
{moke thus applied is recommended as one of the principal
means for the revival of perfons apparently dead from
drowning or other fudden caufes ; but fome fulpe& the nar-
cotic power of tobacco as unfavourable in thefe cafes.

The infufion of tobacco, whenit is carried into the blood-
veffels, has fometimes fhewn its ftimulant powers exerted in
the kidneys ; and very lately we have had it recommended to
us as a powerful diuretic of great fervice in dropfy. Upon
the faith of thefe recommendations we have now employed
this remedy in various cafes of dropfy, but with very little
fuccefs. From the {mall dofes that are proper to begin with,
we have hardly obferved any diuretic effeéts ; and though
from larger dofes they have in fome meafure appeared, we
have feldom found them confiderable: and when, to obtain
thefe in a greater degree, we have gone on increafing the
dofes, we have been conttantly reftrained by the fevere fick-
nefs at ftomach, and even vomiting, which they occafioned :
fo that we have not yet learned the adminiftration of this
remedy, fo as to render it a certain or convenient remedy in
any cafes of dropfy.

Tobacco is fometimes employed externally in unguents
and lotions, for cleanfing foul ulcers, deftroying cutaneous
infe&ts, and other like purpofes: it appears to be deftruc-
tive to almoft all kinds of infe&ts, to thofe produced on
vegetables as well as on animals. Lewis.

A ftrong decotion of the ftalks, with fharp-pointed
dock, and alum, is faid to be of good fervice, ufed exter-
nally, in cutaneous diftempers, efpecially the itch: fome
boil them for that purpofe in urine. The fame decoétion is
faid to be infallible in curing the mange in dogs.

Tobacco beat into a mafh with vinegar or brandy, and
laid on the ftomach, has fometimes good effects in removing
hard tumours of the hypochondria. We have the hiftory of
two cures made by fuch applications in the Med. Eff.
Edinb. vol. ii. p. 41.

The juice of this plant is {aid to be good againft ulcers
and mortifications. Boyle’s Works, Abr. vol.i. p. 56.

Some caution, however, Dr. Lewis obferves, is requifite
even in the external ufes of tobacco, particularly in folutions
of continuity : there are inftances of its being thus tranf-
mitted into the blood, fo as to produces violent effets.

A drop or two of the chemical oil of tobacco being put
on the tongue of a cat, produces violent convulfions, and
death itfelf in the {pace of a minute ; yet the fame oil ufed
in lint, and applied to the teeth, has been found of fervice
in the tooth-ache ; though it mutt be to thofe that have been
ufed to the taking of tobacco, otherwife great ficknefs,
retching, vomiting, &c. happen; and even in no cafe is the
internal ufe of it warranted by ordinary practice. See ex
periments on the effeéts of oil of tobacco on pigeons, by
M. Fontana, in which he found vomiting to be a conftant
effect of this poifon, as he calls it, and the lofs of motion

5 D in

TOBACCO.

in the part to which it is applied an occafional or accidental
effect, in Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixx. part i. append. p. 38, or
Fontana fur les Poifons, &c. Florence, quarto.

In cafes of obftinate ulcers, the infufion has been employed
as a lotion with advantage; but the many inftances of its
being abforbed, and thus proving a violent poifon, diffuade
from the practice ; efpecially as there are other medicines of
greater efficacy, that may be ufed more fafely. Bergius re-
commends it to be employed as a fomentation in the para-
phymofis. ;

Sim. Paulli, phyfician to the king of Denmark, in an
exprefs treatife on tobacco, obferves, that the merchants fre-
quently lay it in bog-houfes, to the end that, becoming im-
pregnated with the volatile falt of the excrements, it may be
rendered the brifker, more fetid, and ftronger.

Amurath IV. emperor of the Turks, the grand duke of
Mufcovy, and the emperor of Perfia, have prohibited the
ufe of tobacco in their ftates. Our king James I. wrotea
treatife exprefsly againft it, entitled “A Counterblaft to To-
bacco.””? By a bull of pope Urban VIII. fuch are excom-
municated as take tobacco in churches.

Toracco, Laws and Regulations concerning.—Tobacco
is not to be planted in England, on forfeiture of 4os.
for every rod of ground thus planted; but this fhall not
extend to hinder the planting of tobacco in phyfic gardens,
in quantities not exceeding half a pole of ground, and
alfo on forfeiture of 10/. for every rod. (15 Car. Il.
c. 7. 12 Car. II. c. 34.) And juftices of peace have
power to iflue warrants to conftables, to fearch after and
examine whether any tobacco be fown or planted, and to
deftroy the fame, which they are to do under penalties, &c.
22 & 23 Car. II. c.26. 5 Geo. c. 11.

The act of 29 Geo. III. c. 68. regulating the import-
ation, exportation, and manufacture of tobacco and fnuff,
and alfo that of 30 Geo. III. c. 40. made to explain and
amend the former, are fo extended, and comprehend fo
great a variety of particular regulations, as not to admit of
minute recital in this place. The former repeals a confider-
able number of preceding ftatutes. By 49 Geo. III. c. 68.
and c, 69. all duties under the refpe€tive departments of Cuf-
toms and Excife are repealed, and other duties are granted
in lieu,of them. Tobacco and {nuff are alfo fubject to
annual duties by the a&t for continuing the duties on pen-
fions, offices, &c. ; andcertain drawbacks are allowed upon
the exportation of them: which duties are to be under the
management of the commiffioners of the cultoms and ex-
cife. 43 Geo. III. c. 68. and c. 69.

No tobacco fhall be imported but from America, on pain
of forfeiture, with the veffel and its contents; except from
Spain, Portugal, and Ireland, from which it may be im-
ported under certain regulations. (29 Geo. III. c. 68.)
But tobacco of the territories of Ruflia or Turkey may be
imported from thence in Britifh-built fhips, and warehoufed,
and may be exported or entered for home confumption, on
payment of the like duties as tobacco of the United States
of America; and on its being manufactured in Great
Britain and exported fhall be entitled to the drawbacks.
(43 Geo. III. c. 68.) By 45 Geo. III. c. 57. tobacco,
the production of the Weft Indies or the continent of
America, belonging to any foreign European ftate, may be
imported into certain ports fpecified in the a&, and ex-
ported to any port of the united kingdom, fubjeét to
the regulations of the aét; and fuch tobacco fhall pay the
fame aies as that which is the growth of the Britith
Weft Indies, or of the United States of America. By
49 Geo. III. c. 25. unmanufa&tured tobacco may be im-
ported from any place in Britith veffels navigated according

to law, or in foreign fhips navigated in any manner whatever
belonging to any ftates in amity with Great Britain; and
fuch tobacco fhall be liable to the fame regulations as
tobacco from the Britifh plantations.

But no tobacco or fnuff fhall be imported in any veffel of
lefs burthen than 120 tons ; nor any tobacco-{talks, tobacco-
{talk flour, or fnuff-work, in any veffel whatever ; nor any ~
tobacco or {nuff in cafks lefs than 45olbs. on the like
penalty ; except loofe tobacco for the crew, not exceedin
slbs. for each perfon; nor fhall the veffel be forfeited, if
proof be made from the fmallnefs of the quantity that fuch
tobacco or {nuff was on board without the knowledge of
the owner or mafter. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

And no tobacco or {nuff fhall be imported except at
London, Briftol, Liverpool, Lancafter, Cowes, Falmouth,
Whitehaven, and Hull (and by 31 Geo. III. c. 47.
Newcaftle-upon-Tyne) ; on the like forfeiture.

Every manufaCturer of tobacco or fnuff fhall
take out a licence from the officers of ex-
cife, for which he fhall pay, if the quantity
of tobacco and {nuff-work, weighed by
him for manufacture within the year,
ending the 1oth of O&ober previous to

his taking out fuch licence, did not £ 5. d.
exceed - = 2 : 20,000 lbs. 2 o @
If above 20,000 and not exceeding 30,000 3'o 0
30,000 - - 40,000 4 00
40,000 - - 50,000 5 0 0
50,000 - - 60,000 600
60,000 - - 70,000 TOS
70,000 - - 80,0co 8 0 oO
80,000 - - 90,000 9 oO
90,000 : - 100,000 1Q 0 0
100,000 - - 120,000 T2! 0
120,000 . - 150,900 15 0 0
150,000 - - - 20 0 ©
Every perfon who fhall firft become a manu-
facturer of tobacco or fnuff, fhall pay for
every fuch licence 2/., and within ten days
after the roth of O@ober next after takin
out fuch licence, fuch further additional
fum, as with the faid 2/. fhall amount to
the duty herein before direGted to be paid,
according to the quantity of tobacco and
fnuff-work weighed for manufa@ture within
the preceding year - - - 20 0

and a furcharge.

And every dealer in tobacco and {nuff fhall take out a
licence in like manner, for which he fhall pay, within the
liberties of the chief office in London, §s., elfewhere 2s. 6d.
43 Geo. III. c. 69. Sched. (A.)

But perfons licenfed as manufacturers, who fhall not fell
tobacco in a lefs quantity than four pounds, nor fnuff in
two pounds, need not be licenfed as dealers. 29 Geo. III.
c. 68.

Every perfon who fhall manufa&ture or deal in tobacco
or {nuff without taking out fuch licence ; or fhall not renew
the {ame ten days at leaft before the end of the year, fhall
forfeit, if amanufaéturer, 20o/., and if a dealer, 5o/.

But no perfon fhall be liable to the faid penalty of so/.
for felling unmanufaétured tobacco or fnuff, whilft remain-
ing in the king’s warehoufe.

But perfons in partnerfhip need not take out more than
one licence for one houfe.

Every perfon who fhall manufacture tobacco, tobacco-
ftalks, or returns of tokaccg, or fatten any tobacco-flalks,

or

TOBACCO.

or cut the fame into Spanifh, fhall be deemed a manufac-
turer of tobacco. And every perfon who fhall grind or
manufa¢ture any tobacco-ftalk flour, {fnuff-work or fnuff,
fhall be deemed a manufaéturer of fnuff. And every per-
fon who fhall fell any tobacco, tobacco-ftalks, or returns
of tobacco, or ftalks flattened or cut into Spanifh, fhall be
deemed a dealer in tobacco. And every perfon who fhall
fell any tobacco-ftalk flour, fnuff-work or fnuff, fhall be
deemed a dealer in fnuff, within the meaning of this aét.

Every manufa¢turer and dealer thall make entry in writ-
ing of his houfe or place intended to be made ufe of for
manufaéturing, keeping, or felling tobacco or fnuff, three
days before he fhall begin, on pain of forfeiting 200/., and
alfo the tobacco and {nuff there found, together with the
cafks and package, which may be feized by the officers of
the cuftoms or excife.

Every manufacturer, within the limits of the head office,
muit be an occupier of a tenement of ro/. a-year, and pay
to the parifh rates ; elfewhere, he muft pay to the church
and poor.

Every fuch manufagturer fhall, three days before he be-
gins, make entry in writing at the excife-office of all mills,
prefies, engines, rollers, ftoves, mullers, or {pinning-wheels,
mtended to be ufed by him about the manufaéturing of
tobacco or {nuff ; on pain of forfeiting 50/. for every fuch
utenfii not entered.

Every fuch manufaturer and dealer fhall caufe to be puc
up in large legible chara€ters over his door, or on fome
eonfpicuous part of fuch houfe or place, the words Manu-
fadurer of, and Dealer in Tobacco and Snuff, or Tobacco or
Snuff, or Manufa&urer of, or Dealer in Tobacco and Sup,
* netsh or Snuff (as the cafe may be) ; on the penalty
of sol.

If any perfon, who has not made fuch entry as afore-
faid, fhall put up the faid words, he fhall forfeit 10o/.

And by 30 Geo. III. c. 40. no perfon fhall fet up or
begin any manufactory of tobacco or {nuff within five miles
of the fea-coaft, except in the ports and places aforefaid,
where tobacco may be imported, or places within three
miles thereof; or in cities, or the fuburbs thereof, and
market-towns ; and no entry thereof fhall be of any avail.
But the fame fhall not extend to places duly entered before
the 5th of July, 1789. .

But tobacco and fnuff may be manufactured by any
unlicenfed Spanifh cutter or {nuff-miller at any entered
mill, on account of any licenfed manufacturer, provided
the fame be legally permitted from fuch manufaéturer,
and for the fole purpofe of manufaCturing or grinding.
29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Every manufacturer fhall give notice in writing to the
officers (if in London fix, in cities and market-towns twelve,
and elfewhere twenty-four hours), before he fhall begin to
ftrip, fpin, or prefs any tobacco for cutting; or make
any tobacco into carrots, or flatten any ftalks for Spanifh ;
and fhall exprefs therein the weight of each article, and the
time he intends to begin: and the officer fhall attend ac-
cordingly, and he fhall begin within one hour of the time
fo mentioned, and fhall proceed without delay ; and fhall
afterwards deliver -a declaration in writing to fuch officer,
of the quantity intended to be ufed for each fort of to-
bacco; on the penalty of 20/. and fuch notice being void,
30 Geo. III. c. 40.

Provided, that if fuch tobacco fhall afterwards appear
to be unfit for the purpofe fpecified in fuch declaration,
it may be applied to any other purpofe, on giving 48
hours’ notice to the officer of the fort it is intended for.
29 Geo. IIL c. 68,

Such manufaturer, as foon as the manufacturing ie
finifhed, fhall deliver to the officer a declaration of the
weight of the different forts of tobacco fo manufa€tured,
and the number of the rolls or carrots made, and the weight
thereof, and of the tobacco-ftalks and returns arifing from
the operation ; and fhall keep each fort feparate for twenty-
four hours, or until an account be taken; on the penalty
of sol.

If any manufacturer fhall make, or have in his poffeffion,
any roll or carrot tobacco for exportation, which fhall have
any tobacco-ftalks therein, the fame fhall be forfeited, and
may be feized, and he fhall alfo forfeit sol.

Every perfon who fhall cut any walnut-tree, ‘or other
leaves, herbs, or plants, in imitation of tobacco (not being
tobacco-leaves or plants) ; or fhall colour the fame fo as
to refemble tobacco ; or fhall mix any fuch leaves, herbs,
or plants with tobacco; or fhall fell, or expofe to fale, or
have in his poffeffion any fuch leaves, herbs, or plants fo cut,
coloured, or mixed, fhall forfeit the fame with the cafks
and package, which may be feized; and alfo 200/.

Provided, that nothing hereim fhall extend to prohibit
any fuch manufacturer from dyeing tobacco, or for having
fuch dye in his poffeffion for that purpofe. 30 Geo. III.
C. 40.

Every manufacturer of {nuff fhall provide proper moveable
cafks for preparing, laying down, or putting into bins {nuff-
work and tobacco-ftalks for flour ; and fhall place them fo
as that the officer may conveniently examine and weigh the
fame at all times; and fhall mark every fuch cafk with a
progreflive number, and the tare and weight thereof ; and
fhall not lay down any {nuff-work in any cafk not fo mark-
ed; nor put the fame in any bin; on the penalty of 5o/.
29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Such manufacturer of {nuff fhall, before he begins to
liquor, or cut any tobacco or ftalks, &c. or to lay down
any {nuff-work, give like notice as aforefaid to the officer,
and fhall in fuch notice declare the weights thereof refpec-
tively, and the number of each particular cafk or bin in
which the fame is intended to be laid down ; and fuch officer
fhall attend accordingly ; and fuch perfon fhall begin within
one hour of the time fo mentioned, and fhall without delay
proceed therein, until the whole is weighed ; and fhall then
deliver an account in writing of the quantity intended for
each fort of {nuff or flour; and when put into cafks, he
fhall give a like notice, and in the prefence of the officer
fhall affix to each cafk a ticket {pecifying the number of
fuch cafk, and the weight of the {nuff-work, &c. therein,
and the time when laid down, and what fort of fnuff it is
intended for; which ticket fhall be figned both by fuch
manufaéturer or his fervant and the officer ; and when the
fame is intended to be taken out to be ground, like notice
fhall be given, and the fame fhall be veried out in the pre-
fence of the officer. And no fuch manufaéturer fhall mix
{nuff-work or tobacco-ftalks for flour of one making with
another; on pain of forfeiting for every offence afore-
faid sol.

Provided always, that if fuch fnuff-work fhall afterwards
appear to be unfit for the purpofes fpecified in fuch de-
claration, or be intended to be manufactured contrary
thereto, notice thereof in writing fhall be given to the
officer within forty-eight hours ce the sour of fuch
declaration, and a frefh declaration fhall be given, {pecifying
the fort it is intended for, and fuch manufaéturer fhall pro-
ceed therein in manner as aforefaid. 30 Geo. III. c. 40.

Scotch fnuff and tobacco-ftalk flour may be manufaétured
into brown Scotch fnuff, and tobacco-ftalk flour into rappee
{nuff, fubjeét to the regulations aforefgid, And on taking

G2 ftock,

TOBACCO.

ftock, certain credits fhall be allowed, as fet forth in the
at; and if on taking fuch ftock any excefs be found, the
fame fhall be forfeited, and may be feized. 30 Geo. ITI.
c. 40.

Awa to fnuff-work in operation, tobacco, tobacco-ftalks,
or flour, or returns of tobacco, may be added, on giving
to the officer, previous to fuch increafe_ a made a like
notice, and conforming to the regulations fpecified in the
act.

The whole of any parcel of fnuff-work in cure, may be
mixed with the whole of any other parcel in cure, although
laid down at different times, if the fame be mixed in the
prefence of an officer, to whom notice is to be given as
aforefaid. ;

If any manufacturer has occafion to fupply his cuftomers
with manufaétured tobacco or fnuff from any parcel in
operation, before the whole is finifhed, he may, in the pre-
fence of an officer, take for the purpofe aforefaid any
manufa@ured tobacco or {nuff not lefs than 2oolbs. But
if taken without conforming to the regulations f{pecified in
the aét, he fhall forfeit 50/.

And every manufaéturer fhall diligently manufaéture fuch
fnuff-work, and ftalks for flour, when taken out of fuch
cafk, according to the notice given ; and when the fame is
finifhed, he fhall deliver to the officer a declaration in writ-
ing of the weight of each fort fo made, and fhall keep the
fame feparate Por twenty-four hours, or until the officer fhall
have taken an account thereof; on the penalty of sol.
29 Geo. III. c. 68. ; :

Every manufagturer may have a ftore-room for keeping
dried Scotch fnuff, but the fame fhall have but one door or
opening, which fhall be locked up, fealed, and fecured by
the officer ; wherein may be depofited Scotch fnuff returned
dire€tly from the mill for fix months, without being taken
as part of his ftock. And when the fame is intended to
be taken out of fuch room, notice fhall be given to the
officer, who fhall attend and open fuch room, and fuch
{nuff fhall be taken out in his prefence; and fhall be kept
feparate one making from another ; on the penalty of sol.
And if any fuch manufaéturer fhall open fuch ftore-room,
except in the prefence of an officer, he fhall forfeit 200.

Every perfon, who fhall cut any walnut, hop, fycamore,
or other leaves, or any other herbs, plants, or materials (not
being tobacco-leaves or plants) ; or fhall colour or cure any
fuch, to make the fame refemble tobacco ; or fhall fell the
fame, mixed or unmixed, for tobacco ; fhall forfeit
5s. a pound, half to the king (charges of the profecution
firft dedu@ted), and half with full cofts to him who fhall
fue. 1 Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 46.

Every perfon who fhall make, mix, or colour any fnuff
with ochre, umber, or other colouring, except water tinged
with Venetian red only ; or fhall mix with {nuff any fultic
or yellow ebony, touchwood, or other wood, or any dirt,
fand, or {mall tobacco fifted from tobacco,—fhall forfeit the
fame, and 3/. for every pound weight, half to the king,
and half to him that fhall fue. 1 Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 46.
5 Geo. I. c. 11. .

And all fuch leaves and other materials, and all engines,
utenfils, and tools for working the fame, may be fearched
for and feized, by warrant of three commiffioners of the
treafury or of the cuftoms. 1 Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 46.

If any perfon fhall mix any fultic, or other wood, or
any leaves, herbs, or plants (other than tobacco), or any
earth, clay, or tobacco-fand, with any fnuff-work or {nuff ;
or fhall eolour the fame with any fort of colouring (water
tinged with colour only excepted) ; he fhall forfeit zo0/.
And if any manufacturer or dealer in {nuff fhall fell, or ex-

pofe to fale, or have in his entered premifes, any fuitic,
yellow ebony, touchwood, logwood, red or Guinea wood,
Braziletto or Jamaica wood, Nicaragua wood, or Saunders
wood; or any walnut-tree, hop, or fycamore-leaves; or
fhall have in his poffeffion any of the aforefaid articles ; or
any other wood, leaves, herbs, plants, earth, clay, or to-
bacco-fand, mixed with any fnuff-work or {nuff; or fuch
fnuff-work or {nuff-coloured (except as aforefaid) ; he fhall
forfeit 5o/., and the fame fhall be forfeited, and may be
feized. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Any manufaCturer of Britifh rappee, Scotch or brown
Scotch {nuff completely finifhed, and of which an account
has been taken by the officer, may liquor the fame, before
mixing with {nuff of a different making, fo as it exceed
not the legal credit. And if fuch manufaéturer fhall in-
tend to liquor fnuff, for which the legal credit has not been
received, he fhall give notice thereof to the officer. But
no {nuff fhall be liquored in lefs parcels than 2o0olbs.,
nor in more than four different parcels of one making.
30 Geo. III. c. 40.

Snuff, for which fuch allowance fhall have been made,
fhall be kept feparate from all other fnuff, and fhall be fhewn
to the officer on demand ; on the penalty of 2o/.

Every manufacturer and dealer, who fhall mix Spanifh
with fhort cut tobacco, or any tobacco-ftalk flour with
{nuff, or {nuff of different forts the one with the other,
fhall every day enter in a book or paper, the quantity fold,
fent out, or confumed of two pounds or upwards, and the
grofs weight thereof, and the time when mixed; on pain
of forfeiting 5o/. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

When any officer fhall difcover that the manufa€turing
of tobacco or {nuff is carried on in any unentered place,
and that any perfon knowingly affifts, or is any ways con-
cerned in carrying on the fame, every fuch perfon fhall for-
feit 30/. over and above all penalties and forfeitures that the
proprietor thereof fhall be liable to ; and fuch officer or his
affiftant, may {top and arreft fuch perfon, and convey him
before a juftice, who, on his confeffion, or the oath of one
witnefs, may convict fuch perfon fo difcovered, who fhall
immediately pay the faid penalty to fuch officer or perfon
who brought him; and if not fo paid, fuch juftice fhall
commit “him to the houfe of correétion to hard labour for
fix months from the day of conviétion, or until the faid
penalty be paid. And for a fecond offence, he fhall for-
feit 60/., which, if not paid in manner aforefaid, he fhall be
committed in like manner for one year, or until fuch penalty
be paid.

The officers of excife (between five in the morning and
eleven in the evening without a conftable, and between .
eleven in the evening and five in the morning with a con-
{table) may enter into any houfe or place belonging to or
made ufe of by any manufa€turer or dealer, and take an
account of the ftock found therein; and fhall give credit
(as particularly fet forth in the a&). And if at any time
any excefs in {tock fhall be found, of which no notice has
been given to the officer, unlefs received by permit, the
fame fhall be deemed and taken to be brohgee in without

ermit. :
: Every manufaCturer and dealer fhall keep fufficient f{eales
and weights for the ufe of the officers, on the penalty of
1oo/, And if any fuch perfon fhall, in weighing, ufe any
art or device to prevent fuch officer from taking a true
weight of fuch tobacco, &c. he fhall forfeit zo00/. toge-
ther with fuch fcales and weights, which may be feized.

And every fuch manufa€turer and dealer fhall with a fuf-
ficient number of his fervants affift fuch officer in taking
fuch account of flock, on pain of forfeiting 50/. 4

ut

TOBACCO.

But no officer fhall weigh any tobacco, tobacco-ftalks,
or fouff-work, whilft aétually in the operation of manufac-
ture ; except {nuff-work intended to be fent out or received
by permit.

And unmanufaétured tobacco, tobacco in the ftate of
Operation, and manufaétured tobacco, fhall be kept fepa-
rate from each other ; on the penalty of sol.

The officers fhall be permitted to take famples of tobacco
or fnuff, &c. in the pofleffion of any manufacturer or dealer,
paying for the fame (if demanded) the value or ufual price ;
on the penalty of 1oo/. upon refufal.

Every manufaCturer and dealer fhall, in a book or paper,
to be furnifhed by the officers, keep an account of all to-
bacco, &c. and fnuffs which he fhall have fold, fent out,
or confumed the preceding day, in quantities of 4lbs. or
upwards, of tobacco, &c. and 2lbs. or upwards of fnuffs;
and alfo another book or paper in like manner, if under
4lbs. of tobacco, &c. or 2lbs. of fnuffs. But no fuch
perfon fhall have more than one fuch book or paper of each
fort at the fame time, which is to be returned to the officer,
if in London, or any city or market-town every fix weeks,
elfewhere every fix months, or when the fame is filled up
er demanded ; and fhall be verified on oath. And fuch
books and papers fhall lie open for the infpeétion of the
officer, and fhall be made up at his requeft ; on the penalty
of rool. for every offence.

If any officer fhall difcover any increafe in ftock not
legally accounted for, the fame fhall be deemed and taken
to be made by a commodity, for which no duty has been
paid, and privately brought in without permit; and fuch
increafe fhall be forfeited, and may be feized ; and the per-
fon, in whofe ftock fuch increafe.fhall be found, fhall alfo
forfeit 20/.

But Scotch fnuff, in the cuftody of a manufaGturer or
dealer, not having gained more than slbs. in the 1oolbs. by
the moifture of the air, fhall be deemed a fair commodity, and
fuch perfon fhall have credit for the fame in his ftock, and
may remove the fame by permit. And fach fnuff hall be
kept feparate from all other fnuff, and fhewn to the officer
upon demand; on the penalty of 20/.

If any manufacturer fhall remove any tobacco or fnuff
out of his entered houfe or place, before the fame has been
weighed, and taken an account of by the officer, or fhall
hide or conceal the fame from the view of fuch officer; he
thall forfeit so/.

And no tobacco (except returns) of 4lbs. and upwards,
nor fnuff of 2lbs. and upwards, nor any tobacco-ftalks,
Spanifh returns of tobacco, tobacco-ftalks for flour, {nuff-
work, or tobacco-italk flour, exceeding zoolbs. fhall be
removed by land or water without a permit, on pain of
forfeiting the fame, with the cafks and package, and alfo
the horfes, cattle, boats, barges, and carriages ufed in con-
veying the fame, which may be feized. __ }

Such officer on requeft fhall grant permits, wherein fhall
be limited the time for fuch removal ; and if the goods per-
mitted fhall not be delivered within the time fo limited,

the fame fhall be deemed and taken to be removed without
permit. ;

But no permit fhall be granted or be valid for the removal
of any fnuff-work from one part of the kingdom to another
except from the entered premifes of a manufacturer of
fnuff, where the fame was laid down to the mill for the pur-
pofe of grinding; on forfeiture thereof, together with the
horfes, cattle, boats, barges, and carriages, which may be
feized. 30 Geo. III. c. 40.

And no fuch permit fhall be granted or be valid, unlefs
the requeft note from fuch manufaéturer or dealer contain

I

the particulars fpecified in the a&, and fuch permit to cor-
refpond with the requeft note; and if for removing un-
manufactured tobacco (other than famples ), except the
fame be in the original package, and be removed according
to the regulations {pecified in the a@: and all tobacco, &c.
removed contrary thereto fhall be forfeited, together with
the cafks and package, and the horfes, cattle, boats, barges,
and carriages ufed in the removal thereof, which may be
feized. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Provided always, that permits may be granted for the
removal of any unmanufaétured tobacco, in any quantity
not lefs than z2oolbs. in any package whatfoever, from
the entered premifes of any manufaéturer to any mill to
be manufactured, and back to fuch entered premifes.
30 Geo. III. c. 4o.

And every manufacturer of tobacco or fnuff may manu-
faGture their tobacco, tobacco-ftalks, fnuff-work, and re-
turns of tobacco, at any entered mill, and may remove the
fame by permit to and from fuch mill.

Provided, that nothing herein fhall extend to prevent
any manufaQurer from floving or fnithing tobacco, or
drying {nuff-work at any mill, provided the officer be al-
lowed to weigh and take an account thereof. 29 Geo. III.
c. 68.

Where any permit fhall be granted for the removal of
any tobacco or fnuff, &c. and the fame fhall not be re-
moved agreeable thereto, fuch permit fhall be returned be-
fore the expiration of the time limited for fuch removal 3 on
forfeiture of treble the value of fuch goods. And where
{uch permit fhall not be fo returned as aforefaid, and on
taking ftock a decreafe does not appear to anfwer the con-
tents of fuch permit, a like quantity fhall be forfeited, and
may be feized.

No manufaéturer, unlefs licenfed as a dealer, fhall have a
permit for, or fhall fell or fend out, any manufa€tured to-
bacco, Spanifh, or returns of tobacco, in a lefs quantity
than 4lbs., nor fnuff than 2lbs.; on the penalty of 2o/.

No tobacco, &c. or fnuff, &c. fhall be brought into any
houfe or place of a manufa@turer or dealer without a permit,
and alfo notice thereof fhall be given to the officer ; on pain
of forfeiting the fame, together with the cafks and package,
which may be feized, and fuch manufaéturer or dealer fhall
alfo forfeit treble the value thereof.

No tobacco or fnuff, &c. fhall be removed from any
place without the limits of the bills of mortality or excife-
office in London, to any place within thofe limits; nor
from any place without the limits of the ports herein before
enumerated to any place within, or within two miles of
thofe limits; on forfeiture thereof, with the cafks and
package, and alfo the veffels, horfes, cattle, and carriages
employed in removing the fame, which may be feized. But
the fame fhall not extend to the legal removal of the feveral
articles {pecified in the act.

By 30 Geo. III. c. 40. tobacco-ftalks ftripped from the
leaf may be removed, by permit, from any entered premifes
out of the limits of the bills of mortality, to any place
within thofe limits, fubje& to the regulations in the afore-
faid act, and this aé& {pecified.

Any manufaGturer or dealer, who hath received into his
ftock, by permit, any tobacco or f{nuff, may return the
fame within forty-eight hours to the perfon from whom he
received it under certain regulations. But if found returned,
or returning without permit, or fhall not be the fame iden-
tical tobacco or fate which had been received, without
any alteration ; the fame fhall be forfeited, with the cafke
and package, which may be feized, and the perfon who
fhall return the fame fhall alfo forfeit 50/, 29 Geo. III. c. cs

tT Os

If any tobaeco of 4lbs. or upwards, or fauff of zlbs. or up-
wards, or any tobacco-ftalks, &c. fhall be found removing,
unlefs between feven in the morning and five in the evening
from 29th Sept. to 25th March, and between five in the
morning and feven in the evening from 25th March to
29th Sept. (except by a common carrier or veffel which
utually goes out of thefe hours,) the fame fhall be forfeited,
with the cafks and package, and the horfes, carriages, and
veflels made ufe of in conveying the fame, which may be
feized, whether the fame be accompanied with a permit
or not.

If any perfon whatfoever without a permit, or hawkers
with one, fhall offer any tobacco, &c. to fale, he fhall for-
feit the fame, together with the package, and alfo zo.
And the perfon to whom it fhall be fo-offered to fale, may
feize the fame, and carry it to the next warehoufe bees
ing to the cuftoms or excife, and fhall bring the perfon fo
offering it to fale before a juftice, who fhall commit him to
prifon, that he may be profecuted for fuch penalty ; and
the perfon fo feizing the fame fhall be entitled to the fame
rewards as the officers of the cuftoms or cacife ; and in cafe
fuch perfon fhall defire it, the commiffioners may caufe three-
pence for every pound of tobacco, &c. fo feized to be paid
to him, till the fame can be difpofed of, upon a certificate
under the hand and feal of fuch juftice, of fuch offender
being committed to prifon; and after fale, the money fo
advanced fhall be replaced out of the produce of fuch
fale.

If any perfon fhall counterfeit or forge any permit, he
fhall forfeit 500/.

If any perfon fhall affault, refift, oppofe, moleft, ob-
firu&, or hinder any officer in the due execution of this or
any other aét; or fhall refcue any goods which have been
feized ; or any veffel, horfes, cattle, or carriages, which have
been forfeited, and for which no particular penalty is pro-
vided; he fhall forfeit 200/.

If any perfon fhall give or offer any bribe, recompence,
or reward to any officer to prevent him doing his duty,
whether the fame be accepted or not, he fhall forfeit s5oo/.

No tobacco, {nuff, &c. fhall be landed, without firft
making entry thereof with the officers of the cuftoms, on
forfeiture thereof, with the caflks and package.

If any officer of excife fhall have caufe to fufpe& that
any tobacco, &c. or fnuff, which fhall have been imported
contrary to this aét, or forfeited by this or any other act,
is depofited, lodged, hid, or concealed, if within London
or Weftmintter, or the limits of the chief office, upon oath
made before two commiffioners, elfewhere upon oath made
before one juttice fetting forth the ground of his fufpicion,
fuch commiffioners or juftice may, by warrant, authorife
fuch officer by day or night, but if in the night, in the
prefence of a conitable, to enter into fuch fufpeéted place,
and to feize and carry away all fuch tobacco, &c. or {nuff
which fhall be there found, together with the cafks and
package containing the fame. And if any perfon fhall ob-
ftrué& or hinder any fuch officer fo authorifed, or perfon
affifting him in the execution of fuch warrant, he fhall for-
feit 100/.

Tobacco and fnuff, taken as prize, are fubjeéted to the
ee of this a&t, by 43 Geo. III. c. 134.

o manufacturer or dealer in tobacco or f{nuff, or perfon
anywife interefted or concerned therein, fhall aét as a ma-
crac in the execution of any aé relating to tobacco or
nuff ; and all a¢is done by fuch perfon fhall be utterly null
and void.

If any tobacco-ftalks or ftems ftript from the leaf fhall
be imported, the fame fhall be forfeited and burned, and

10.5

the officer feizing the fame fhall be allowed one penny 2
pound; and every perfon, who fhall be affifting or other-
wife concerned in unfhipping the fame, or to whofe hands
they fhall knowingly come after unfhipping, fhall forfei
treble value, together with the veffels, bags, cafks, or other
things, wherein the fame are contained, and the horfes,
cattle, carts, and other carriages, made ufe of in removing
the fame; half to the king, and half to fuch officer of
the cuftoms, who fhall feize, inform, or fue for the fame.
12 Geo. c. 28. 5 Geo. III. c. 43. 8 Geo. c. 18.

All feizures of veffels or boats of 15 tons or under, and
of horfes or other cattle and carriages, by virtue of any
aét relating to the cuftoms, may be profecuted, heard, and
determined, before two juftices refiding near where the
feizure was made. 8 Geo. III. c. 18. 5 Geo. III. c. 43.
29 Geo. III. c. 68.

And all penalties and forfeitures in the excife may be
fued for, levied, and mitigated as by the laws of excife, or
in the courts at Weitminifer, half to the king, and half to
him who fhall fue (unlefs otherwife particularly direéted).
29 Geo. III. c. 68. 30 Geo. III. c. 4o. 43 Geo. Til.
c. 69.

Tobacco-ftalks or flems, ftripped from the leaf, that are
imported, fhall be forfeited and burnt, and the officer feizing
the fame fhall be allowed rd. a pound ; and perfons affifting-
in unfhipping them, &c. fhall forfeit treble value, with the
veffels, horfes, &c. which may be profecuted and deter-
mined before two juftices near the place where the feizure
was made. (12 Geo. c. 28. 5 Geo, IIT. c. 43.
8 Geo. c. 18.) By 24 Geo. EI. c. 41. and 26 Geo. tt.
<. 13. no tobacco or ftalks exceeding 24lbs. weight, nor any
fnuft exceeding rolbs. fhall be conveyed by land, without
proper certificates, under penalty of forfeiture, together
with horfes and carriages, and commitment of the carrier to
the county-gaol for one month by one juitice. The feizure
of horfes and carriages may be determined by two juftices.
near the place where the feizure was made.

Toxacco, Englifh, Nicotiana minor, or Nicotiana he
of Linneus, is a {pecies of tobacco, which was originally 4
native of America, but now propagates itfelf plentifully
in England and other parts of Europe. ‘The flowers are
of an herbaceous yellow colour, appearing in July, and are .
fucceeded by roundifh capfules filled with fmall feeds,
which ripen in autumn, ‘The leaves are faid by fome to
be of the fame quality with thofe of henbane ; but by others,
to be fimilar to the preceding, but weaker. They have
been fometimes fubftituted in our markets, inftead of the
true tobacco; but are eafily diftinguifhed by their fmall-
nefs and oval fhape, and by being Fei with pedicles,
Lewis.

Tosacco, Kanafler. See Kanastrr.

Toxsacco-Water, among Sheep-Farmers, a liquor prepared
by infufing or boiling tobacco in water, A very ufeful
mode of preparing it 1s, by boiling one pound of tobacco in
two gallons of {trong falt brine, adding, after the liquid has
become cool, about three ounces of the oil of turpentine.
It is fometimes, too, the praétice to diffolve fifteen or
twenty grains, or more, of fublimate or muriated quick-
filver in the turpentine, before it is added to the liquor or
mixture. A {mall proportion of corrofive fublimate, dif:
folved in fpirits of wine, is alfo a fafe and neat mode of in-
corporating it with the tobacco-water or liquid.

Tobacco-water, or liquor, is likewife occafionally mixed
with other fubftances ; as two pints of it have fometimes
three ounces gf fulphur mixed in them, being put on a
os until they boil together, The liquor is ufed in a cold

ate, ’

The

TOB

Tke South Down fheep-farmers have a deco@ion of
tobacco, wildvine-roct, and fulphur, which is boiled in
brine for a quarter of an hout, and then ftrained off for ufe.

Tobacco-water, or liquor, is kept ready prepared for the
ufe of farmers in many places where fheep are largely kept,

~ but it is probably the beft way for them to provide their
own.

This water, or liquor, is a powerfully efficacious remedy
in various cafes of the fcab kind in sheep, and probably in
other animals. It is ufually applied by thedding or dividing
the wool by the fingers and thumbs, and pouring a little of
the liquid in along it. It may be ufed every night, as there
may be occafion. Such difeafes are readily removed by it
in moft cafes, and efpecially in long-woolled fheep, in which
they often take place.

In gardening, the fimple water, or liquor, which is pre-
pared by infufing or boiling tobacco in foft water, without
any admixture, or having any fuch fubftances as above dif-
folved in it, is often found beneficial in deftroying and re-
moving infeéts of different kinds on fruit-trees and fruit-
fhrubs, by having it repeatedly f{prinkled over them by
means of a watering-pot, or fee teas or in any other
way. Many forts of theie trees and fhrubs in hot-houfes,
and other places, are treated in this manner with great effe&
and advantage in clearing them of fuch vermin.

‘Fosacco Key, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the bay of
Honduras, near the coaft of Yucatan. N. lat. 16° 45!.
W. long. 88° 35'.

Tosacco-Pipe. See Tobacco Pirr.

Topacco-Pipe Clay. See Cimo.itr.

Tosacco-Pipe Fifb, in Ichthyology, the Englith name of
the Acus, or the SynanatHus Acus of Linneus; which
fee.

TOBACTLI, in Ornithology, a name which Nieremberg
fays is often given to the American bird more commonly
called hoadii.

TOBAGO, in Geography, one of the Caribbee iflands,
in the Welt Indies, about 30 miles in length frora fouth-
eaft to north-weft, and about nine in breadth. This ifland
was firft difcovered by Columbus, in the year 1498; but
though projects were formed for fettling it, particularly by
William, earl of Pembroke, who obtained a grant of it in
the year 1628, and alfo of Barbuda and St. Bernard, they
proved ineffetual. About the year 1632, fome Zealanders,
having fitted out a {mall fquadron for trading to thofe
iflands, made fuch a favourable report of this in particular,
upon their return home, that the company of merchants
to which they belonged undertook to fettle it, and gave it
the name of New Walcheren, from one of the iflands in
Zealand. ‘The new colony, in a fhort time, increafed to
about 200, who, finding themfelves peftered by the vilits
of the Caribbean Indians, began to ere& a fort for their
prefervation. The Indians had recourfe to the Spaniards,
who readily granted them affiftance. They fent a force
upon the ifland which demolifhed the rifing fort, and exter-
mimated the new colony. It was probably from fome
Dutch merchants who travelled to Courland, that James,
duke of that country, conceived the defign of fettling
Tobago. Being a prince of an aétive difpofition, and find-
ing there was room for fuch a fettlement, he fent over a
colony of his own fubjeéts, who fettled upon what has fince
been called Great Courland Bay, and erected a {mall regular
fort, with a town, in the neighbourhood ; and the duke’s
title was farther confirmed by a grant from Charles II.
king of England, but difputed by the Dutch. Upon the
extinétion of the Kettler family, dukes of Courland, in the
perfon of Ferdinand, fon of duke James, the fief of the

i)

Toes

ifland of Tobago reverted to the crown of England in 1737.
By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, St- Vincent, Do-
minica, St. Lucia, and Tobago, were declared neutral, and
thofe who remained of the ancient proprietors were left in
unmoleited poffeffion. By the gth article of the peace of
Paris, figned on the 10th of February, 1763, the three
iflands of Dominica, St. Vincent, and Tobago, were affigned
to Great Britain, and St. Lucia to France ; the Charaibes
not being mentioned in the whole tranfaétions, as if no fuch
people exifted. The climate of Tobago is far more tem-
perate than could be expeéted in an ifland that is but rr
degrees 16 minutes north from the equator ; for the heat
is allayed by the fea-breezes. Tobago has another favour-
able circumitance to recommend it, by its lying out of the
track of thofe hurricanes that prove fo fatal to the other
Welt India iflands. The furface of the ifland is unequal
and (eas diverfified ; but no part of it is rugged or
impaffable, though its north-weft extremity is mountainous.
Its foil is of different kinds, but in general the mould is
rich and black, and proper for producing, in the greateit
plenty, whatever is raifed in other parts of the Weft Indies.
The abundance of {prings upon the ifland contributco to ita
healthfulnefs, and its bays and creeks are fo difpofed as to
be very commodious for all kinds of fhipping. Its fitua-
tion, however, requires fortifications te render the ifland
fecure again{t the vifits of favages and enemies. Befides
its producing the different kinds of wood that are to be .
found in the other Welt India iflands, the Dutch affirm,
that both the true nutmeg-tree and the cinnamon-tree,
with that which produces the real gum copal, grows upon
the ifland, but this affertion wants confirmation. Mr. Blome,
who, in 1687, wrote “ The prefent State of our American
Iflands,”’ fays that the foil of Tobago produces Indian
corn, Guinea corn, peafe, beans, French beans, figs, pine-
apples, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, limes, plantains,
bananas, grapes, guavas, tamarinds, prickly pears, papaws,
and a variety of other fruits, which are not to be found in
Europe. The cocoa-tree grows here to fuch perfe€tion,
that the Indians call it God’s tree, as producing both meat,
drink, and clothing. Mufk-melons, water-melons, gourds,
cucumbers, and pompions, are raifed to perfeGtion: neither
is there any want of potatoes, yams, carrots, turnips, parf-
nips, onions, and manioc. Wild hogs abounded fo much in
Tobago, that the people killed at leaft twenty thoufand of
them every year without their being fenfibly diminifhed.
Here are likewife found peccaros, refembling fwine, arma-
dilloes, guanoes, Indian rabbits, and badgers. Horfes,
cows, afles, fheep, deer, goats, and rabbits, were probably
introduced by the Dutch, and have multiplied exceedingly.
The fea is ftored with excellent fifh, particularly turtle of
every kind, and mullets of a moft delicious tafte, with other
kinds unknown in England. In fhort, the commodities
which the country doth, or may produce, are cocoa-nut,
fugar, tobacco, indigo, ginger, farfaparilla, fempervivum,
bees’-wax, venelloes, natural balfam, balm, filk-grafs, green
tar, foap-earth, with many curious fhells, ftones, marcafites,
and minerals. In 1781, the ifland was furrendered to the
French on favourable terms. In 1793, it was again taken
by the French, and foon after retaken by the Britifh. N.
lat. 11° 16'. W. long. 60° 30’.

Tosaco, Little, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of
Tobago, about two miles long, and one broad. }

TOBAK, atown of European Turkey, in Beflarabia,
on lake Jalpug. In 1789, the Ruflians were defeated by
the Turks, near this town ; 34 miles N.N.W. of Ifmail.

TOBAN, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 16 miles N.E.
of Trinidada.

TOBAR,

TOUS
TOBAR, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile; 18 miles

from Burgos. ;

TOBATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the interior of Paphlagonia.

TOBATI, in Geography, a town of Paraguay; 50
miles N.E. of Affumption.

TOBED NicavurRLEDEGH, a river of New Brunfwick,
which runs into the St. John, N. lat. 46° so’. W. long.
67° 36" ‘

TOBIANUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Schone-
veldt and others to the ammodytes, or fand-eel.

TOBIRA, or Tosera, in Botany, a Japanefe fhrub,
figured and defcribed by Kempfer; fee Pirtosrorum,
n.2- See alfo Evonymus, where its ill-agreement with
the latter genus is noticed.

TOBIS, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Swedes
to the ammodytes, or fand-eel.

TOBITSCHAU, or Towaczow, in Geography, a town
of Moravia, in the circle of es 10 miles S. of

Imutz. N. lat. 49°23! E. long. 17° 14!.
eee in ataes Gaaney a river of the ifle of
Albion, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the
weftern coaft, between the promontory Oétapitorum and
that of Ratoftathybius.

TOBLER Bacu, in Geography, ariver of Wurtemberg,
which runs into the Glatt, 2 miles N.W. of Sultz.

TOBLPAD, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 8 miles
S.W. of Gratz.

TOBOL, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in N. lat. 52°
30', and long. 81°, in the country of the Kirghiftzi, in the
chain of mountains that parts it from the government of
Upha. It pours itfelf into the Irtyth or Irtifch at Tobolfk,
after running a courfe of about 500 ver{ts, in which it re-
ceives the followin rivers; viz. the Ui, the Ifet, the
Tura, and the Tavda, all which fall into it on the left. Of
thefe, the Tura is the largeft ; it rifes near Verkhoturia, in
the Ural mountains, and glides into the Tobol, in lat. 57°

o!, after having taken up the rivers Salda, Tagil, Pyfhma,

itza, &c. into which la{t-mentioned, the Neiva, the /Etth,
and the Irbit flow. By this acceffion of waters, the Tura
becomes a confiderable river, not much inferior to the
Tobol itfelf. The Ifet is likewife a river of fome confe-
quence, rifing out of a lake two verfts from Ekatarineburg ;
and after having taken up feveral rivers, as the Sifert, the
Sinava, the Tfetfha, and the Mizs, falls into the Tobol, in
N. lat. 57°. The Tobol has moftly low fhores ; and in
the {pring feafon frequently fhade its waters far around.

TOBOLOVO, an oftrog of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolfk, on the Enifei. N. lat. 69° go’. E. long.
86° 42!.

TOBOLSK, a city of Ruffia, and capital of a govern-
ment, at the confluence of the Irtif{ch and Tobol. It is the
fee of an archbifhop, and was heretofore the capital of all
Siberia. This city is divided into the Upper and Lower
Towns. The Upper Town ftands very high, on the eaft
fide of the Irtifch ; and the Lower Town lies on a plain,
between the hill on which the former is built, and the river.
Both towns taken together are of a very large circum-
ference ; but the houfes being moftly built with wood, it
was nearly confumed by fire about the year 1786, and
afterwards rebuilt chiefly of ftone. It contains about
15,900 inhabitants. In the Upper Town, which is properly
called the city, ftands the fort, which was built with ftone,
by governor Gagarin. In the fort are the governor’s court,
as it is called, the governor’s houfe, the archbisiop's palace,
the exchange, and two of the principal churches, which are

TOB

all ftone buildings. "The Upper Town, which ftands on the
eaft fide of the fort, and is inclofed within an earthen ram-
part, affords nothing remarkable, but a market for provi-
fions and all kinds of fmall ware, three wooden churches,
and aconvent. The Lower Town contains a market-place
for all kinds of provifions, on which feveral fhops are built.
The Upper Town is out of the reach of inundations from
the river, by its high fituation, which, however, is attended
with this inconveniency, that the inhabitants are under a
neceflity of going down the hill for water. Befides, large
mafles of earth fall from the fide of a hill, on which the
town ftands, towards the river, almoft every year, which
obliges the inhabitants to pull down and rebuild the houfes
that ftand near the declivity. The Lower Town, indeed,
has water at hand, but is expofed to inundations when the
river overflows its banks; but fuch floods do not happen
every year. ‘The town is very populous, and almoft the
fourth part of its inhabitants is compofed of Tartars, who
are partly defcended from thofe that were fettled there
before the conqueft of Siberia, and partly from the Bu-
charians. Thefe Tartars, in general, behave very quietly,
and carry on fome commerce ; but praétife no mechanic
trades. They are very fober, and averfe from intemper-
ance, and all kinds of riotous living. The reft of the in-
habitants are Ruffians, whofe anceftors were banifhed hither
for their crimes, or fuch as are exiles themfelves. As
every thing is fold here fo exceeding cheap, that a common
man may live very well at Tobolfk at ten rubles a year; in-
dolence and floth prevail to fuch a degree, that it is a hard
matter to get the leait utenfil, &c. made, though the town
abounds with artificers, who want neither tools nor mate-
rials to carry on their ref{peétive trades. The commerce
is in a flourifhing condition in this city: and the traffic
which the Bucharian and Kalmuck merchants carry on in
Indian goods, with which they fupply all Siberia, and
part of Ruffia, is very confiderable. All the Chinefe cara-
vans are obliged to pafs through this town; and all the
furs furnifhed by Siberia are brought into a warehoufe in
this city, and from hence are forwarded to the Siberian
chancery at Mofcow. Several of the Swedifh officers, who
were taken prifoners at the battle of Pultawa, and fent to
Tobolfk, fet up fchools here, in the year 1713, for teaching
the children of Swedes, Ruffians, Coffacks, Tartars, &c,
the German, Latin, and French languages, with geography,
geometry, and drawing. Many of them alfo took in
boarders. Thefe fchools acquired great reputation; fo
that children were fent hither for education, from a confider-
able diftance, and the exemplary behaviour of thefe mili-
tary pedagogues was attended with uncommon fuccefs,
However, when the peace of Nyftadt was concluded, the
Swedifh officers returned into their own country, and then
thefe beneticial feminaries of learning dropped of courfe.
Some time after a German {chool was founded here, under
the aufpices of the emprefs ; 1000 miles E. of Mofcow,
N. lat. 57°. E. long. 68° 14/. ;

TOBOLSKIAN Tarrars, derive their appellation
from the river Tobol, on which they dwell; and they are
the defcendants of the inhabitants of Ifker or Sibir, their
ancient capital, which being reduced to a heap of ruins
after Yormak’s conqueit, they abandoned ; and inftead of
it the Ruffians afterwards built Tobolfk. 'Thefe are dif-
tin& from the Tartar inhabitants of Tobolfk, who are a
barbarian colony. Their number amounts to upwards of
4000 males,

TOBOLSKOI, a government of Ruffia, extending from
N. lat. 55° to 78°. E. long. 59° to 108°, including a con-
fiderable part of Siberia, ‘Tobolik is the capital.

TOBORON,

PO ).C

TOBORON, atownof Thibet ; 53 miles N. of Tourfan
Hotun.

TOBOSO, Ex, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 37
miles S. of Huete.

TOBRONA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 148 miles
S.W. of Havannah.

TOBRUS, in Ancient Geosraphy, a town of Africa
Propria, in the number of thofe fituated between the river
a ta and the town of Thabraca. Ptolemy.

OBULLA, in Geography, a town-of Africa, on the
E. coait of Tunis; § miles N.W. of Medea.
_ TOBY, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia, near the
Gulf ; 20 miles N. of Chriftianfand.

opy’s Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs into
the Allegany, N. lat. 41° 8’. W. long. 79° 4o’.

“TOCA, a central town of New Granada, E. of Bogota,
the capital. a

TOCAIGH, 2a bay on the W. coait of the ifland of

Owhyhee : the depth of water was 25 fathoms ; the bottom
a ftiff clay, and good holding ground, incommoded by a
patch of rocky bottom, which was found to fhoal fuddenly,
and the depth to decreafe to 7. 4. 2nd -2 fathoms, about
the fourth of a mile to the fouth-weftward of the anchoring-
place; and confequently to be a very great inconvenience
to the roadftead, which at beft, in the opinion of captain
Vancouver, is but a very indifferent one, being entirely
expofed to the north-weft winds, and the weftern oceanic
fwell, which beats with great violence in the reefs that
encompafs the fhores. Thefe reefs ftretch out a mile or
upwards, leaving between them and the land a narrow
“channel, that affords comfortable and commodious landing
fer fmall boats and canoes; but the landing is at too’
“great a diftance from the place of anchorage to allow of
profecuting any debarkation from the fhip. N. lat. 20° 3!.
E. long. 204° 4/.

TOCAIMA, a central town of New Granada, in the
immediate proximity of Bogota, the capital, and W. of it:

“founded in 1544, at fome diitance from the river Poti,
called Bogota, not far from its confluence with the river
Magdalena. ‘Its fituation is bad, expofed to great heats,
and numerous venomous creatures, and even deftitute of
water. But the diftri@ is very fertile in cacao, tobacco,
fugar, maize, yucas, plantains, potatoes, &c. and the fifh
are abundant in the rivers of Bogota and Fufagafuga,
though there be many alligators. ‘The inhabitants, about

00, are moftly poor. Here are mines of excellent copper,
though not worked.

“TOCANTIN’s River, a river of South America,
formed by the union of a number of {mall rivers in Brafil,
which rife about the r8th or 19th degrees of fouth latitude,
and between the soth and sift degrees of weft longitude.
“Its courfe is due north to the 2d degree of fouth latitude,
“when it joins the Guanapu, about 120 miles from the fea,
and takes the name of Para, from a city fo called.

TOCAT, or Toxat, acity of Afiatic Turkey, in the
pachalic of Sivas, anciently a city of Pontus, called Berifa.
‘Tt is fituated on the river Tofanlu, in the corner of a valley,
“and almoft furrounded with mountains, which afford quarries
of marble, and well fupplied with water from innumerable
fprings. On the top of a lofty rocky mountain, on the
“WY. fide of the town, are the remains of an old caftle. The
“flreets are well paved, but frequently built on uneven
‘ground. The houfes are tiled, and moftly built with wood.
‘Tt is the refidence of a cadi, a waiwode, and an aga, com-
manding a thoufand janizaries, and fome {pahis. The inha-
‘bitants are computed to be 60,000, confifting of 20,000

Turkifh families, 4000 Armenians, and about 400 families

© Vou. XXXV.

TPC

of Greeks. The Armenians have feven churches, the
Greeks only one. The Armenians make an excellent wine,
refembling claret in flavour, but ftronger. Fruits are abun-
dant in this town, and the grape-vines are excellent. It is
the fee of a metropolitan, dependent on the archbifhop of
Nicfara, or Neocxfarea, an ancient city, almoft ruined,
about two days’ journey from Tecat. Here are fome
manufactures of filk and yellow Turkey leather ; but the
chief trade is in copper veflels, kettles, candlefticks, &c.
which are fent to Conftantinople, Egypt, &c. 'Tocat may
be confidered as the centre of trade f Afia Minor. The
copper is obtained from the mines of Gumifcana, at the
diftance of three days’ journey from Trebifond, and from
thofe of Caftan Boal, yet richer, and fituated ten days’
journey from Tokat, on the W., towards Angora. The
caravans from Diarbek arrive in eighteen days, from Sinob
in fix, from Burfa in twenty, from Smyrna in twenty-feyen,
and proportionally lefs on horfeback, or on mules; 40
miles N.W. of Sivas. _N. lat. 39°35/. E. long. 36° 30’.

TOCAYO. See Tocuyo.

TOCCATA, Ital. from foccare, to touch: to prelude, to
touch an inftrument, to play a fhort movement extempore,

revious to the performance of a regular piece.

TOCCATINA, a fhort prelude, or trial of an inftru-
ment.

TOCCAVIENSIS Botus, Bole of Tokay, in the Materia
Medica, a fine medicinal earth, dug about Tokay in
Tranfylvania, and efteemed a powerful aftringent. Kent-
man calls it the Jolus Pannonica vera; and Crato, bolus
Hungarica.

This laft author efteemed it fuperior even to tlie bole
armenic of Galen, and had a great opinion of it in malignant
fevers. It is a fine and pure earth, and very heavy, mode-
rately compact in its texture, but not very hard; and in
colour of a confiderably deep and ftrong yellow. It is
naturally of a fmooth furface, and does not ftain the fingers
in handling. It ferments violently with acid menftrua, and
does not become redin burning. Hill. See BoLe.

TOCHEN, in Geography, 2 town of Germany, in the
principality of Anhalt Zerbft ; 5 miles W. of Zerbit.

TOCHU, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Quoja.

TOCKAY, in Zoology, the name of a Ricctes of Indian
spe diftinguifhed from the other kinds, by being {potted

over.

TOCKSDOREF, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Bartenland ; 6 miles N.W. of Raftenburg.

TOCMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arcadia, in
the fouthern part to the N.W. of Megalopolis, and E. of
the Alpheus. It ftood upon an eminence ; but it was in °
ruins in the time of Paufanias.

TOCMOL,.in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome to
the common turtle.

TOCOCA, in Botany, a Caribbean name, ufed by
Aublet.—Guian. 437. t.174. Jufl. 330. See Mevas-
TOMA.

TOCOLOSIDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana. Ptolemy. The Itinerary
marks it 48 miles from Tingis, and three miles from
Volubilis.

TOCORARY, or Tuxorant, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the country of Ante; ro miles E. of Infuma.

FOCORT. See Tuacurr. 4

TOCOSANNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of India
on the other fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy places its mout
in the Ganges.

TOCOYENA, in Botany, an unexplained name.—Aubl.
Guian. 131. t. 50. Juff. 201. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 163.

5E See

TOC

See GARDENIA, of which this is probably a fpecies. The
author calls his only fpecies T. /ongiflora, and his defcription
contains the following particulars.

The flem is three feet high, ereét, fimple, leafy, {carcely
fhrubby. Leaves oppofite, ere&, pliant, fifteen inches
long, lanceolate, entire, fmooth, tapering at each end, on
{mooth footfalks, about an inch and half in length, at-
tached to a pair of triangular, acute, combined, intrafolia-
ceous flipulas. Flowers about fourteen in a terminal head,
in oppofite feffile pairs, each flower accompanied by two
{mall {caly braéeas. Calyx {uperior, bell-fhaped, in five
{mall fegments, meafuring with the germen not more than
four lines. Corolla with a yellowifh cylindrical tube, as
thick as a goofe-quill, and nine or ten inches long, dilated
at the throat, and terminating in a white bell-fhaped limb,
with five ovate, equal, fpreading fegments. Anthers nearly
feffile; between the fegments of the corolla, oblong, incum-
bent. Germen oval, inferior. Style capillary, the length of
the tube, tumid and hairy for an inch below the top.
Stigma of two large, comprefled, oval lips, included within
the throat of the corolla. Berry oval, an inch long,
crowned with the calyx, of two cells, with numerous
roundith feeds, imbedded in vifcid pulp. The flowers have a
very {weet {mell. Aublet met with feveral plants of this
{pecies in the wood of Aroura in Guiana, flowering in Au-
guft.—All the leaves were perforated or gnawed by infects.
His dried fpecimen of the flower is as black as ink. If
mannia of Thunberg and Salifbury be diftin& from Gardenia,
the prefent plant fhould feem to belong to the former. _

TOCRUM, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 8 miles
S. of Koonda.

TOCRUR, a town of Africa, and capital of a kingdom,
in Nigritia, on the north fide of the Niger, W. of Cafhna ;
270 miles E.N.E. of Tombuétoo. N. lat. 16° 32’. E.
long. 6° s!.

TOCSON Horvy, a town of Thibet; 20 miles W.S.W.
of Tourfan. N. lat. 43° 26’. E. long. 89° 14!.

TOCUYO, a city of South America, in the goyern-
ment of Venezuela, fituated in a valley formed by two
mountains. Its divifion and conftruétion are very regular :
the ftreets are on a line, and fufficiently wide. It has a well-
built parifh church, on which depends a chapel of eafe.
The Francifcans have one monaftery, and the Dominicans
another. It is governed by a common-council. The
climate is rather cold than hot; and though the fky is
often overcaft, the air is wholefome. The inhabitants are
graziers, agriculturifts, artifans, and traders. The wheat
of its vicinity is reckoned the beft in the province, and
furnifhes fufficient for the confumption of many towns of
the interior. They export from 8000 to 10,000 quintals of
flour. From the wool of their fheep they fabricate cover-
lids, and other cloths, which they carry as far as Mara-
caibo and Carthagena. They have alfo tanneries and
taweries, and, like the inhabitants of Carora, work up as
many as they can of the raw materials, and fell the reft.
Another article of commerce, very lucrative to the citizens
of Tocuyo, is falt, which they bring from the falt-ponds of
Coro. In this city are reckoned 10,200 perfons, who
are reproached with the crime of fuicide. ‘Tocuyo is go
leagues diftant S.W. of Caraccas, and 20 leagues N. of
Truxillo. N. lat. 9° 35’. Long. W. of Paris 72° 40!.—
* Alfo, a river of Venezuela, which difcharges itfelf into the
fea, 25 leagues E. of the Gaigues, which runs 16 leagues
W. of Coro. The fource of Tocuyo is about 15 leagues
S. of Carora, upwards of 60 leagues from the fea. It is
navigable as far as Banagua, a ae fituated on its banks,
at the diftance of 40 leagues from its mouth. Its vicinity

TOD

furnifhes abundance of timber of the largeft fize, and fit
for every kind of building. Depons, vol. i. and ii.

TOD of Wool is mentioned in the ftatute 12 Car. II.
c. 32. as a weight containing twenty-eight pounds, or two
ftone. See Wercur.

Some will have the word derived from the French, #oilet,
a wrapper, within which, by ufage, two ftone of wool are
folded.

A laft of wool contains 12 facks, a fack 2 weighs, 13 tods,
26 ftone, 52 cloves, or 364 pounds.

Top-Head, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coaft of
Scotland, in the county of Kincardine; 5 miles S. of
Stonehaven. N. lat. 56° 51’. W. long. 2° 11'.

TODDALIA, in Botany, Juff. 371. Poiretin Lam. Di&.
y. 7. 693, a barbarous name made out of the Kaka-toddali
of Rheede, Hort. Mal. v. 5. 81. t.41- (See Scororta.)
—Todda, with fome addition, is the appellation of other
Indian plants, as Todda-pana of Cycas circinalis, and Todda- —
vaddi of Oxalis fenfitiva. We humbly hope that the worthy
M. Poiret, who is fo highly difpleafed at our wifhing to
retain a Scopolia, will approve of our having fo much laboured
toeftablifh a Porreria. See that article.

TODDA-PANA, the name by which many authors
call the palma farinifera, or fago-tree.

TODDINGTON, or Tuppineron, in Geography, an
ancient market-town in the hundred of Manfhead, and
county of Bedford, England; is fituated five miles N. by
W. from Dunitable, and 39 miles N.W. by N. from
London. A market was originally held here on Thurfdays,
by a grant from king Henry III, in 1218; but this was
changed to Saturday, by a charter of Edward II. in 1316,
which was confirmed by Richard II. in 1385. In 1681,
the market was fo confiderable, that fixteen butchers rented
ftalls in the market-place. It gradually declined, and of
late years has been wholly difcontinued. The market-
houfe was pulled down in 1799, and the materials fold. It
is probable, that it had been before difcontinued, and after-
wards revived, as Leland does not include Toddington in
the lift of the market-towns in Bedfordfhire. A fair was

anted by the charters of 1218 and 1316: five are now

eld in the year. The population return of the year 1811,
ftates the parifh to contain 259 houfes, and 1143 inhabitants.
The manor of 'Toddington was given by William the Con-
queror to Ernulfus de Hefdin, anceitor of the earls of
Perch. On the death of the laft earl, in 1216, it devolved
to the earl of Pembroke, and from him to Paulinus Peyvre,
fteward of the houfehold to Henry III. From the Peyvre
family, the manor defcended to fir Thomas Cheney, K, G.
whofe fon, Henry, was knighted by queen Elizabeth in
1563, fhe being then on a vifit to him at Toddington.
In 1572, fhe created him lord Cheney. Lord Cheney built
a noble manfion at Toddington, of which nothing now re-
mains but the kitchen, which is remarkably fpacious. Tod-
dington church is a handfome ftruéture ; the frieze, on the
outfide, is decorated with grotefque figures of animals. The
fouth tranfept contains fome ancient monuments of the
Peyvres, and alfo thofe of the Cheneys. ‘The north tran-
fept was the burial-place of the Wentworths, and contains
two monuments to lady Maria, and lady Henrietta Went-
worth, on each of which 2000/. were expended. Both tran-
fepts are in a fhameful ftate of dilapidation. In the year
1443, an hofpital was founded at Toddington, by fir John
Broughton, for three poor men, and a matter or chaplain,
who was to pray for the fouls of the Peyvre family. There
are now no traces of the hofpital: the ftones were ufed in
building the market-houfe. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia,

vol. i. Bedfordfhire, 1806.
TOD-

TOD

TODDIPOODY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Rajamundry ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Rajamundry.

TODDY, or Toppt, is a juice drawn from various
kinds of palms, by cutting off the branch intended by
nature to produce fruit, and receiving from the wounded
branch the fap which was defigned for the nourifhment of
the future crop. But as toddy, although fweetifh when
firft drawn, is in a {tate of fermentation in the courfe of
24 hours, acquiring an intoxicating quality, and thus be-
comes four and harfh, it could not have been the palm-wine
of the ancients ; which muft have kept for fome time, as
it was carried on the rivers during voyages. of many days,
and even appears to have been ftored up. ‘Toddy is ufed
with molafies, rice, and other ingredients, in the diftillation
of Arrack; which fee. The toddy of the date-tree is faid
to be of an inferior quality to that from fome other kinds of
palms. The palm-wine was made in Babylonia, where
palms abounded, of the fruit of the palm-tree. This was
{weet to the tafte, but apt to give the head-ache. The
palm, as Herodotus informs us (Clic, c. 193.) produced
to the inhabitants of Babylonia, bread, wine, and honey.
The wine muit have been very plentiful, for he fays that
the boats which defcended the Tigris from Armenia, fome
of which were very large, were loaded with palm-wine as
the principal article of their commerce. We derive fimilar
information from Xenophon, who fpeaks of the floats that
paffed. the Euphrates at Carmanda, and the Tigris at
Cene. We learn, from the travels of M. Burckhardt in
Nuba (Nubia) in 1813, that the practice of making wine
as.an article of commerce is difcontinued in Mefopotamia
and Babylonia, where the date-trees abounded, and where
the profufion of fruit rendered wine fo plentiful, becaufe in
modern times the want of a proper diftribution of water
for irrigation, has left only a {mall proportion of date-trees ;
and hence it is probable, that none of the fruit can be
{pared from the neceflary demand for food. Kempfer is
filent on the fubje&t of palm-wine; and this circumftance
fatisfaGtorily proves the difcontinuance of the practice of
making it in thofe countries. M. Burckhardt tells us, that
in all the larger villages of Nubia, the ufe of palm-wine is
very common; and at Derr, the reputed capital of the
country, a great quantity of fpirit is confumed. The
wine, he fays, does not tafte amifs ; but it is too rich and
too thick to be drank with pleafure. When the date-fruit
has acquired its full maturity, it is thrown into large earthen
boilers, and left to boil without interruption for two or
three days. It is then ftrained, and the clear juice put into
earthen jars, well clofed aiid buried in the ground, where it
ferments. It is left ten or twelve days under ground; at
the expiration of which time it is fit to drink. It keeps
for twelve months, and then turns four. The aqua-vite
made from dates is of a very good quality, and keeps well
for years. People of the upper clafles at Derr are every
evening intoxicated either with date-wine or {pirits, of
which great quantities are confumed. They are fold
openly. From Siout, fouthward, through Upper Egypt,
date-fpirits are made and publicly fold ; the pacha receiving
a tax upon it from the inn-keepers : they alfo make a kind
of jelly or honey from the dates, which ferves for a fweet-
meat.

Toppy-Tree. See Mammee-77ee. \

TODEA, in Botany, a fuppofed genus of ferns, dedi-
cated by Willdenow to the memory of the Rev. Henry
Julius Tode, a clergyman of Mecklenburg, who died in
17975 aged 64. He is diftinguifhed among cryptogamic
botanifts, as the author of an accurate and practical work,
in quarto, with numerous plates, entitled fungi Mecklen«

TOD

burgenfes Seleéi, publifhed at Lunenberg, in 1790, to which
the reader will find frequent references in our {everal articles
relating to the order of Fungi. This genus, however, is
funk in Osmunpa; fee that article, n. 3.

TODENDORP, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Holftein; 6 miles N.E. ae amburgh.

TODI, Maria Francisca, in Biography, born in Por-
tugal in 1748, arrived in England in 1777, with Jermoli,
as firft woman in the comic opera. She muit have im-
proved extremely after fhe left this country, where fhe re-
mained only one feafon, and was little noticed; her voice
being feeble, and feldom perfeGtly in tune. But the after-
wards became the moft captivating finger for tafte and ex-
preffion in cantabile airs, in France and Germany (accord-
ing to report), that ever appeared in Europe. She was
taught by Perez.

Topi, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the
duchy of Spoleto, near the Tiber, the fee of a bifhop, im-
mediately under the pope. It contains feveral churches
and convents; 18 miles W. of Spoleto. N. lat. 42° 47!.
E. long, 12° 18).

TODIALOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Coimbetore; 5 miles N. of Coimbetore.

TODIVESTI, a town of Moldavia; 6 miles N.E. of
Saczava.

TODOROVA, a town of Croatia; 18 miles W.N.W-
of Novi.

TODOS Sanvos. See Axx-Saints.

TODS, a town of the ftate of Virginia; g miles E.N.E.
of Hanover.

TODTENVOGEL, in Ornithology, a name by which
Gefner and fome other authors have called that fpecies of
cenanthe, known in England by the name of the /fone-chatters

Srone-fmich, or moor-titling.

TODTIBERG, in Geography, a mountain of Switzer-
land, and reckoned one of thé higheft in the country, in the
road from Difentis to the Grifons.

TODUCA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in Mauritania Czfarienfis, towards the fource of the river
Ampfaga.

TODUS, Tony, in Ornithology, a genus of the order
Pice, the chara¢ters of which are, that the bill is awl-fhaped,
fomewhat depreffed, obtufe, ftraight, and at its bafe befet
with briftles ; the noftrils are ovate and fmall; the feet are
formed for walking; and the outer toe is connected at the
bafe to the middle one.

Species.

Virivis. Green, with a red breaft: the green tody.
Found in the warmer parts of America, and the neighbour-
ing iflands. :

Cinereus. Afh-coloured, with the under part yellow :
the Tie-tie of Buffon; the grey and yellow fly-catcher of
Edwards. Found in open places of Surinam and Guiana.

Fuscus. Ferruginous, under part olive-coloured, {potted
with white; the tail ferruginous, and wing? crofled with a
blackifh bar. Found in South America, lefs than the green.

Caruxevs. Blueifh, with white throat ; temples, throat,
and abdomen orange. Found in America, of the fize of the

reen.

: Vanivus. Varied with blue, black and green ; the bill,
head, throat, neck, feet, nails, and tail black ; the margin
of the tail, and the coverts of the wings, green, Found in
India.
LevcocrpHatus. Black, the head fubcriftated ; throat
and upper part of the neck white: white-headed tody of
Latham. Found in America.

5E2 Bracuy-

TOE
Bracnyurvs. Black, the vertex, neck, back, and fhort
tail black: the fhort-tailed tody oe Latham. Found in
America.

Piumsevus. Above lead-coloured hoary, beneath milky ;
the crown, wing-feathers, and tail black: plumbeous tody
of Latham. Found in Surinam.

Oxscurus. Above brown and black, underneath very
fordid white, with pale throat: the dufky tody of Pennant
and Latham. Found in Rhode ifland.

Reeivs. Black and brown; the breaft whitifh, ftriated
tranfverfely with blackifh; the throat and eye-brows white ;
the abdomen, rump, and tail red; the creft ferruginous at
the apex, tipped with black: king tody of Latham. Found
in Cayenne.

Parapisrus. Crefted head black ; body white; tail
wedge-formed ; the intermediate tail-feathers very long :
pied bird of paradife of Edwards, and paradife fly-catcher of
Latham. It has the following varieties; viz. the tody with
wings and tail pale-red ; the tody underneath white, the
breatt from czerulefeent to cinereous ; and the Brafilian crefted
tody. Found in Africa and the ifland of Madagafcar.

Ferrucineus. Ferruginous-black, underneath ferru-
ginous; wing-feathers auteea with a brown bar; cheeks
{potted with black and white: the ferruginous-bellied tody
of Latham. Found in Cayenne.

Novus, or Guxarts. Brown, underneath white ;
throat white, and breaft {potted with brown, above yel-
low: white-chinned tody of Latham.

Pratyruyncuos, or Rostratus. Brown-yellowifh,
beneath yellow, throat whitifh ; vertex lead-coloured, with
a white {pot upon it ; wings and tail brown ; bill very broad:
the broad-billed tody of Latham.

Macroruyncnos, or Nasutus. Black, bill very broad;
chin, fides of the cheeks, abdomen, vent and rump red: the
great-billed tody of Latham.

Roupecuta. Cinereous, with orange throat and breaft,
and white abdomen: the red-breafted tody of Latham.
Native of New Holland.

XKANTHOGASTER, or FLAVIGASTER. Brown-cinereous,
fix inches long ; beneath luteous, with pale bill: the yellow-
bellied tody of Latham. Native of New Holland.

Crisratus. Creft crimfon ; body brown, fpotted with
white. Found in Guinea.

TOEBAN, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft of the
ifland of Java.

TOELCHUS de Apie, a diftri& of South America, in
the country of Patagonia.

Tortcuus de la Caballo, a diftri& of South America,
in the country of Patagonia.

TOE-LING Horoun, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 375
miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 42° 22'. E. long.
123° 20).

TOENDE, in Commerce, a corn meafure in Denmark,
equal to 8 fcheffels or fkiepers, or 32 foertels or fierdingers,
and 12 toendes = a laft: 100 toendes of Copenhagen, an-
Iwer to about 494 Englifh quarters. A laft of Spanifh
falt, or of coals, contains 18 toendes, and the toende = 8
{kiepers or 176 pots, which contain 54 Danifh cubic feet ;
but Norway falt is fold by weight, and the toende muft
weigh 250lbs. Danifh weight, or 275 lbs. avoirdupais. A
lait of French falt, or of lime, contains 12 toendes, corn
meafure; a lait of oil, butter, and other fat fubftances, is 12
toendes, beer meafure; and a toende of beer mutt hold 44
Danifh cubic feet, or 136 pots. By a tonne or toende of
hard corn is meant as much land as can be fown with
1 toende of rye, 1 of barley, and 2 of oats, What -is
called a toende of faatland or arable land is the fourth part

TOE

of the above, and contains 563% Danifh fquare ruthes, or
220 Englifh fquare perches. Thus the toende of hard
corn is = 54 Englifh acres. A Danifh fquare foot con-
tains about 153 Finglifh fquare inches; or 16 Danifh
f{quare feet = 17 Englith fquare feet nearly. :

TOENII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany,
in the vicinity of a lake, which was common to them, the
Rhetians, and Vindelicians. Prtol.

TOENJOLOKER, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea. S. lat. 5° 30’. E. long. 132° 32!.

TOES, by anatomifts called digiti pedis, are the extreme ;

divifions of the feet, anfwering to the fingers of the hand,
and refembling them in figure, and make the third part of
the foot. See ExTREMITIEs.

Tors, Adhefions of the. It is a frequent thing to meet
with new-born infants with their fingers or toes cohering
or growing together, either by a ftri@ adhefion of the
flefh, or elfe by fome loofe produétions of the fkin, as in
the feet of ducks and geefe; and a diforder of the fame
kind is alfo fometimes Bund in adults, from accidents; as
when the fingers or toes have been negleéted, after an excori-
ation of them by burns or wounds. In both thefe cafes the
furgeon’s affiftanceisneceflary, partly to remove the deformity,
and partly to reftore the proper ufe of the fingers.

Thefe adhefions, according to the nature of the diforder, |
are to be feparated by cutting out the intermediate fin,
or elfe barely by dividing them from each other with a pair
of fciffors. When this is done, to prevent their cohefions
again, each finger muft be invefted jeparately with a fpiral
bandage about an inch broad, dipped in lime-water and
{pirit of wine. 1 t 3

Sometimes the fingers, inftead of adhering to each other,
grow to the palm of the hand, from wounds or burns, fo
that they cannot be by any means extended, or drawn back
to open the hand. The method of relieving this diforder
is firft very carefully to feparate the fingers from the adhe-
fions of the palm, without injuring their tendons, then drefs
them with a vulnerary balfam, and fcraped lint, and extend
them on a ferula or thick pafte-board; and let them remain
in this extended pofture, feparately to be drefled till they
are perfetly healed; but at every drefling they muft be
ove moved, to prevent a rigidity or ftiffnefs of the joints.

eifter.

Tor, in the Manege, is the ftay of the hoof upon the fore-
part of the foot comprehended between the quarters.

We commonly fay the toe before, and the heel behind, in
Trench pince devant et talon derriere; implying, that in
horfes, the toe of the fore-feet is ftronger shoe the toe of
the hind-feet : and, on the other hand, that the heels behind
are ftronger than thofe before ; and accordingly, in fhoein
we drive higheft in the toes of the fore-feet, and in the hee
of the hind-feet.

A horfe that does not reft his hind-feet all equally upon
the fhoe, but raifes his heels, and goes upon the toes of his
hind-feet, is called in French rampin.

Tox-Head, in Geography, a cape of the county of Cork,
Ireland, not far from the Stags of Caitlehaven. N. lat.
51° 27!. W. long. 9° 9!— Alo, a cape of Seotland, on
the S.W. coaft of the ifland of Lewis, in that part called
Harris; 42 miles S.W. of Stornaway. N. lat. 57° sol.
W. long. 7° 5!.

Tor-Shell, in Conchology. See Povricirgs.

Tor-Stick, in Agriculture, the flick or bar which confines
that part of {mall carts in its place, that contains the load,
but which, on being flipped out, lets that or a part of it
be difcharged. It has been obferved in the Correéted
Agricultural Report of the County of Norfolk, that Mr.

Overman,

TOF

Overman, of Burnham, in that diftri@, has made an im-
provement in his carts of this kind: inftead of the toe-
itick drawing out to let the back or framed part of the cart
tilt up, and deliver the load or part of it, this contrivance
turns in the centre on a piyot, and the hooks which confine
it at the ends, are each in a pofition the reverfe of the other,
by means of which it is expeditioufly effeGted.

TOESA, in Commerce, a long meafure in Spain; the
toefa or braza is 2 varas, or 6 feet, that is, 663 Englifh
inches ; a palo or pace, is 5 feet; aneftadal, 12 feet, or
4 varas ; and a cuerda, 83 varas.

TOESCHI, Avessanpro, in Biography, the head of a
celebrated mutfical family from Romania, fettled at Munich,
who in 1756 was appointed concert-matter to the eleétor of
Bavaria’s ecclefiaftical band.

‘Torscu1, Cuarves Josepn, after being diretor of the
chamber-mufic of the court of Bavaria, in 1756 was ap-
pointed firft violin in the famous band of the eleétor
palatine at Manheim. He was feven years concert-matter,
and engaged in other honourable profeflional employments
about the court of Manheim till 1786. In 1766 he pub-
lifhed at Paris fix fymphonies; violin quartets; and flute
concertos. About the fame time, fix violin duets, and
other works at Amfterdam. His ftyle is full of fire, new
effe€ts, and in flow movements, grace and elegance. He
was a difciple of the great Stamitz, and died at Manheim
in 1788, in the 6oth year of his age, leaving behind him an
excellent private character.
~ Torscut, JoHN, concert-mafter at Manheim, and an ad-
mirable performer on the violin. He was one of the prin-
cipal ornaments of the famous court-band in 1756.
~ Torscui, SuUsANNAH, a finger of great merit in the fervice
of the court at Munich, brought up under Holtzbauer, the
maeftro di capella to the elector palatine.

TOESOBIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the ifle
of Albion, which’ had its mouth, according to Ptolemy, on
the weftern coaft, between the gulf Sercia and the pro-
montory Ganganorum: probably the river Conway.

TOE-YAH-YAH, in Geography, a bay of Owhyhee, one
of the Sandwich iflands, extending along the whole coaft from
the wefternmott point, to the northern extremity of the ifland,
and bounded to the N. by two very con{picuous hills.
Towards the bottom of the bay there is foul, corally ground,
extending upward of a mile from the fhore, without which
the foundings are regular, with good anchorage, in twenty
fathoms. Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. in.

TOFIELDIA, in Botany, was fo called by the late
Mr. Hudfon, after his correfpondent Mr. Tofield, who re-
fided in the neighbourhood of Doncatter, and to whom
Britifh botanifts are indebted for the difcovery of Vicia
bithynica, the original fpecimens of which are preferved in his
herbarium, now belonging to William Younge, M.D.F.L.S.
of Sheffield, Yorkfhire—Hudf. Angl. ed. 2. 157. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 397. Dryandr. in Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 2. 324.
Purfh 246. Kunth Nov. Gen. et Sp. Pl. v. 1. 267. (An-
thericum; Linn. Gen. Pl. ed. 1. 106, but not of the fub-
feguent editions. Narthecium ; Ger. Gallopr. 142. Juff. 47.
Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 209. Lamarck Illuttr.
t. 268. )—Clafs and order, Hexandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord.
Tripetaloidee, Linn. Junci, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, mem-
branous, three-cleft, fmall, permanent. Cor. Petals fix,
oblong, concave, equal, {preading, permanent, many times
loager than the calyx. Stam. Filaments fix, oppofite to
the petals, awl-fhaped, fimple, {mooth, about the length
of the corolla; anthers incumbent, roundifh-heart{haped.
Piff, Germens three, fuperior, eens! pointed, termi-

T O'F

nating in as many fhort, diftant, vertical ftyles; ftigmas
capitate. Peric. Capfules three, conneéted at the bafe,
gibbous, keeled, membranous, of one cell and two valves,
burfting chiefly at the inner edge. Szeds numerous, elliptie-
oblong: angular, inferted into the inner margin of each
valve.

Eff. Ch. Calyx three-cleft. Petals fix, equal. Styles
vertical, fhort. Capfules three, fuperior, combined at the
bafe. Seeds numerous. Anthers roundifh.

The {mall membranous permanent calyx, more or lefs
diftantly feparated from the other parts of the flower by an
elongation of the bafe of the latter, is the very peculiar
charaéter of Tofeldia. By this it is diftinguifhed from Hz-
Lonias, Nartuecium and ANTHERICUM, with all which
it has been confounded ; fee thofe articles. Helonias more-
over has a fimple germen and capfule, with very few feeds.
Narthecium and Anthericum have each a fimple ftyle; the
former hairy filaments, and tunicated feeds; the latter an-
gular feeds.

Five of the fix fpecies, now known to compofe the
genus before us, have been confounded together as one.
We thall give their charaCters, and mott effential fynonyms.
The whole hiftory of the miftakes which have embroiled
the fynonyms and characters, both generic and {pecific, of
Tofieldia, have lately been detailed, more at length than
{uits our purpofe here, in a paper communicated to the
Linnzan Society by the writer of the prefent article.

The fpecies are all perennial and herbaceous, with fimple
Jftems, {piked, or generally cluttered, flowers, {word-fhaped,
equitant, moftly radical, /eaves, the habit of the whole very
nearly according with Narthecium. The feeds, in fome in-
ftances, betray an affinity to that genus, in a little mem-
branous appendage at each extremity, as may be feen in our
T. alpina.

1. T. palujtris. Scottifh Afphodel, or Marth Tofieldia.
Hudf. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Ait. n.1. Engl. Bot. t. 536.
(T. pufilla; Purfh n.1. Anthericum calyculatum; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 447. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 106. t. 10, f. 3. Fl. Dan.
t. 36. Lightf. Scot. 181. t. 8. f. 2. Helonias borealis ;
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 274.)—Head of flowers ovate. Stem
fmooth, thread-fhaped, leaflefs. Petals obovate, obtufe
Germens roundifh.—Native of bogs, and the margins of
rivulets, on the mountains of Lapland, Scotland, Durham,
and North America, flowering about July. A little fmooth
plant, of a deep green, with a flender folitary /fem, from
four to fix inches high, naked, except an occafional {mall
leaf at the bafe. The radical /eaves are two inches long,
ereét, forming feveral tufts. F/owers {mall, pale green, in
a folitary ovate-oblong denfe head, fcarcely more than half
an inch in length, often much lefs. There are hardly any
difcernible braéeas, the calyx being clofe to the main ftalk,
and divided down to the bafe, into three {mall, acute, mem-
branous fegments. The reft of the flower is elevated on a
fhort ftalk within the calyx, which, as the fruit advances,
becomes very confpicuous. The cap/ules are obovate, each
about the fize of muftard-feed, crowded together into a

lobular form, minutely pointed, and crowned by the
ftyles.

Bihan and Purfh, miftaking what we fhall next defcribe,
for the true Linnean Anthericum calyculatum, juftly confi-
dered this as a new fpecics. A little examination, of the
Flora Lapponica in particular, would have prevented this
error, though all writers upon European plants have hither-
to confounded the two fpecies in queftion.

2. T. alpina. Alpine Tofieldia. Sm. MSS.n.2. (T.
paluftris; Redout. Liliac. t. 256. Narthecium iridifolium ;
Villars Dauph. y. 2. 225. N. calyculatum ; Allion. Pedem.

V. 2.

TOFIELDIA.

v. 2.165. Poiret in Lamarck Dié. v. 4. 431, the fyno-
nyms confufed. Phalangium alpinum paluftre, iridis folio;
Tourn. Inft. 368. Segu. Veron. v. 2. 61. t. 14, copied in
Lamarck’s t. 268. Pfeudo-afphodelus fecundus ; Cluf. Hift.
v. 1.198. Afphodelus Lancaftria verus; Ger. Em. 96.)
—Clulter cylindrical. Braéteas nearly equal in length to
the flower-ftalks. Stem fmooth, bearing two leaves. Petals
obovate. Germens oblong-—Very common in moift grafly
paftures, or the margins of rivulets, on the Alps of Auf-
tria,. Switzerland, Italy, Savoy and Dauphiny, flowering
in Auguit. We know not of its having ever been obferved
in Britain, notwithftanding the name in Gerarde’s herbal,
which is mifapplied to the figure of this plant, and properly
belongs to Narthecium offfragum, exhibited in the preceding
page of the fame book. Linnzus knew the prefent {pecies
by its fynonyms only, cited, with marks of well-founded
doubt, in his F/. Lapp. He was led by Dillenius to efteem
it a mere variety of the foregoing, an opinion generally
adopted ever fince, but certainly for want of due enquiry.
The alpina is not only twice the fize of paluflris, with a
thicker more woody root, but the /fem always bears two
diftant leaves. The flowers form a cluffer, not a head or
{pike, from one to two inches long, often interrupted, with
a concave braéea at the bafe of each flalk, about its own
length. Calyx clofe to the reft of the flower, rather flightly
three-cleft. Petals more yellowifh. Cap/ules oblong, com-
bined almoft all the way up, thrice as large as in palu/fris.
As the fruit advances, the partial ftalks become {till more
evident than in the flower.

3. 'T. fenopetala. Narrow-petalled Tofieldia. Sm. MSS.
—Clufter cylindrical. Bra¢teas overtopping the calyx.
Stem f{mooth, bearing two leaves. Petals lanceolate, acute.
—wNative of North America, where it was gathered by
Kalm, whofe {pecimens were referred by Linnzus to his
Anthericum calyculatum. They more agree with our TZ. al-
pina, in fize and habit, having two or three /eaves on the
Jfiem. The clufler is denfe and obtufe, an inch and a half
long. Braéeas very different from that f{pecies, being
lanceolate, and always as long as the partial ftalk and calyx
taken together ; fometimes much longer. Calyx broad and
fhallow, unequally notched. Petals greenifh-white, lance-
olate, narrow and acute, not obovate. Anthers pointed.
Germens tapering into ftyles twice the length of the fore-
going. No doubt can exift of this being a moft diftiné
pecies. We find no indications of it in the works of Mi-
chaux or Purfh, nor is its precife place of growth known.

4. T. cernua. Drooping-flowered Tofieldia. Sm. MSS.
mea ae n. 39; Gmel. Sibir. v. 1. 73. t. 18. f. 2.)—

lufter cylindrical. Flowers drooping. Braéteas very
fhort. Flower-ftalks {mooth, the length of the corolla.
Stem leaflefs.—Found by Gmelin in mountainous woods in
Siberia, flowering late in July. This is a fpecies fo evi-
dently diftin& from all the foregoing, that we cannot ac-
count for their having been confounded ; except by fup-
poling that Linnzus, not having fpecimens of each in fruit
as well as in flower, too haftily confidered the various ap-
pearances before him, as caufed by different ftages of
growth. The drooping flowers, and quite pendulous fruit,
of the prefent plant are remarkable at firft fight ; and the
former are exprefled in Gmelin’s figure. Thefe characters
are too decided, in both our fpecimens, to be attributed to
any accident in drying. ‘The whole plant indeed is larger
than any of the former three, with more creeping roots.
Stem a foot high, or more, quite leaflefs, except at the very
bottom, glaucous in the upper part. eaves near three
inches long, narrow, with a {mall oblique point, fuch as
may be feen in fome of the leaves of moft of the f{pecies,

except /fenopetala, whofe foliage is peculiar for its long,
ftraight, taper points. Cluffer ere&t, fmooth, two inches
long while in flower, near four when in feed, rather lax,
many-flowered, {carcely interrupted. Fower-/talks {pread-
ing, flender, fcattered, about an eighth of an inch long,
and {till longer when the fruit is full-grown, having a little
ovate braéfea at the bafe of each, about a quarter the length
of the ftalk. Flowers white, about twice the fize of Con-
vallaria bifolia. Calyx with three fhallow lobes. Petals
obovate, obtufe, flightly pointed, concave, the length of
the flower-ftalks, and keeping pace with them in their fub-
fequent elongation. Stamens fhorter than the corolla, with
yellow, heart-fhaped, pointlefs anthers. Germens ovato-
lanceolate, with longifh flyles. Cap/fules fhorter than the
permanent corolla, obovate, membranous, but brittle, com-
bined nearly all the way up, fo as to form a turbinate three-
lobed fruit, crowned with the three {preading Pyles and
capitate fligmas. Seeds minute, prifmatic.—Gmelin’s fup-
pofed variety, taken from Steller, having a leafy fem, is
probably another fpecies. T. cernua is a very pretty plant,
and we may hope that, in fome of the frequent importa-
tions from Siberia, it may be introduced into the gardens of
England.

5. T. pubens. Downy American Tofieldia. Dryandr.
in Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 2. (T. pubefcens; Purfh n, 2.
Narthecium pubens ; Michaux Bor.-Amer. y. 1. 209. An-
thericum filamentis levibus, perianthio trifido ; Linn. Hort.
Cliff. 140. Gron. Virg. ed. 1. 39. Afphodelus minor
albus; Pluk. Mant. 29. Phyt. t. 342. f. 3.)—Clufter cy-
lindrical, interrupted. Flower-{talks aggregate, rough, the
length of the corolla.—Found in the moift meadows, and
ety boggy woods, of Virginia and Carolina, flowering in
July, according to Clayton and Purfh. This is moft like
the laft in ftature and habit, but the roughnefs of the
flowerflalks and their main flalk, effentially diftinguithes it.
The former grow three or four together, as if rather whorled.
than feattered. The flowers are white, with yellow anthers,.
and appear to be always erect.

6. T. glutinofa. Vifcid Yellow Tofieldia. Purfh n. 3.
(Narthecium glutinofum ; Michaux Bor.-Amer. y. 1. 210.)
—Clufter ovate, denfe. Flower-{talks glutinous, rough,
the length of the corolla. Anthers prominent, orbicular.
—Gathered by Mr. Menzies on the weft coaft of North
America. Michaux fays his plant is found from Quebec
to lake Miftaffins. There is no room to fuppofe the latter
different from our’s, though the Narthecium glutinofum of
Mr. Gawler, Curt. Mag. t. 1505, is very decidedly fo, being
a real and evident Narthecium, not, like Michaux’s, a To-
feldia. Purth calls it N. americanum, p. 227, which name,
though not one of the beft, we would fubltitute for g/utino-
Jum in our article Nartuecium, the plant not being glu-
tinous. All reference to Michaux and his obfervations. in
that place are to be erafed. The plant is, according to
Purfh, a native of boggy fields and woods, on the pine-
barrens, as they are termed, of New Jerfey, flowering in
June and July. -

Our Tofieldia glutinofa has a tuberous horizontal root, with
long fimple fibres. Stem a foot high, angular, roughifh all
over with fhort glandular hairs, atuccially for two inches
from the fummit. Leaves few, almoit entirely radical, four
or five inches long, narrow, ribbed, fmooth, except a little
roughnefs towards the point. C/s/er about an inch in
length, of twelve or fourteen pale-yellow fowers, on hairy
vifcid ftalks, about a quarter of an inch long, fometimes in
pairs, having at the bafe one or two acute braéeas, one-
third that length. Lobes of the calyx fhallow. Petals
obovate, rather fhorter than the flamens. dnthers purplith,

nearly

TOF

nearly orbicular, pointlefs. Germens ovate-oblong, taper-
ing into longifh flyles, with fmall figmas. The habit and
hue of the plant are very fimilar to the European Narthecium
ofifragum as well as to the N. americanum above-mentioned.

7. T. frigida. Wintry Tofieldia. Kunth Nov. Gen. et
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 267.—Clutter lax, partly feattered. Flower-
ftalks fmooth, twice the length of the bracteas. Petals
rather acute. Stem fmooth, with three diftant ovate leaves
towards the top.—Native of lofty fummits of the Andes,
in the kingdom of Quito, between Loxa and the village of
Ona, where it was found, by the celebrated travellers Von
Humboldt and Bonpland, flowering in December. Hav-
ing feen no fpecimen of this, we can only extract its cha-
racters from the defcription of our able friend Mr. Kunth,
who unluckily was not acquainted with the technical dif-
ferences of the other {pecies, fo that his f{pecific character
anfwers nearly equally well to any one of the genus. The
root is perennial, perpendicular, branched. Stem about a
foot high, round, fmooth, bearing in its upper part three
ovate, acute, fmooth, diftant /eaves, called by Mr. Kunth
braGeas. Radical leaves two-ranked, {fword-fhaped, ribbed,
fmooth, rigid, three or four inches long. Clu/ter (errone-
oufly termed /pica) folitary, ere€t, two inches long. Flowers
on folitary partial ftalks, which are {mooth, round, two lines
in length, with an ovate acute raéea, half as long, at the
bafe of each. Calyx in three deep, ovate, acute es
one-fourth as long as the oblong, fharpifh, ftriated, whitifh
a Stamens fhorter than the corolla, fmooth, with ob-
ong upright anthers. Germens combined. The prefent
{pecies may perhaps be neareft akin to our 7. /fenopetala,
differing eflentially in having fhorter braéeas, to fay nothing
of other diftinctions, which the reader will dete&t by the
above defcription.—The author {peaks of To/ieldia as mono-
gynous, taking the /fy/es for /figmas, and not adverting, as
it appears, to the partial feparation of either the germens or
capfules. Hence we muft conclude that this feparation is
here lefs remarkable than in the other fpecies, which brings
the plant in queftion nearer to Helonias, the calyx being its
only, though all-fufficient, diftinGion.

TOFSALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Abo, on an ifland; 20 miles W.N.W. of
Abo. j

TOEFT, Torrum, or Tofta, in our Law-Books, a parcel
of land, or a place where a mefluage hath ftood, but is de-
cayed, or cafually burnt, and not re-edified.

Tort alfo fignifies a grove of trees.

TOFTA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, E.
of the ifland of Aland. N. lat. 60°13’. E. long. 20° 7.

TOFTS, Karnanine, in Biography, an Enghth finger
of great renown on our ftage at the beginning of the laft
century. In 1703, fhe fung at a fubfeription concert in
Lincoln’s-Inn theatre, feveral Italian and Englifh fongs.
This lady was the conitant rival of Margarita de l’Epine.

In 1704, fhe fung at the fubfcription mufic in Drury-lane
playhoufe; and foon after, fignora Margarita fung for the
firft time at the fame theatre. At her fecond appearance,
“there was a difturbance while fhe was finging, which, from
the natural, and, it is to be feared, not uncommon effects of
rival malice, was fufpeéted to have been created by the emif-
faries of Mrs. Tofts; an idea the more difficult to eradicate,
as the principal agent had happened to live with that lady as
afervant. But as the law of retaliation is frequently prac-
tifed on the like occafions by the injured party, it was
thought neceffary, a few days after, to infert a paragraph and
letter in the Daily Courant, February 8, 1704, in vindica-
tion of Mrs. Tofts. _

She was the principal finger in Clayton’s Arfinoe, in

2

TOF

1705, the firft opera attempted in our country and language
on the Italian model. See Crayton.

Mrs. Tofts was likewife the heroine of the famous opera
of Camilla, of Addifon’s Rofamond, fet by Clayton, and
Thomyris, adjufted to Italian mufic, and wholly to Englith
words, till the arrival of Valentini, in 1707, the firft male
foprano finger that ever appeared on our {lage ; when Ca-
milla and Thomyris were performed, half in Englifh and
half in Italian. And even after the arrival of the celebrated
Nicolini, when a new opera, entitled Pyrrhus and Deme-
trius, was brought on the ftage in 1708, in which almofi all
the charaéters were filled up by Italians, Mrs. Tofts conti-
nued to perform her part in Englifh, as did Ramondon and
Cook ; but the public feemed perfectly fatisfied with the
motley performance, which had a run of eighteen nights ;
and the confufion of tongues, concerning which Mr. Ad-
difon is fo pleafant in the Spectator, feems to have been to-
lerated with perfe@ good humour by the public, which, in
mufic as well as words, feemed to care much lefs about what
was fung, than how it was fung.

After the year 1709, when the whole opera, poetry, mu-
fical compofition and performers were Italian, Mrs. Tofts,
who feems to have endeared herfelf to an Englifh audience
by her voice, figure, and performance, more than any pre-
ceding finger of our country, retired. é

Colley Cibber, though he does not fpeak of mufic en
connoiffeur, and, as an Englifh a€tor and patentee of a
theatre, was an enemy to Italian operas and Italian fingers
upon a principle of felf-defence, probably gives us the gene-
ral and genuine opinion of his acquaintance concerning
Mrs. Tofts, who, he fays, had her firft mufical inftruGions
in her own country, ‘before the Italian tafte had fo highly
prevailed, and was then not an adept: whatever defe& the
fafhionably fkilfal might find in her manner, fhe had, in the
general fenfe of her hearers, charms that few of the moft
learned fingers ever arrive at. The beauty of her fine pro-
portioned figure, and exquifitely {weet filver-tone of voice,
with peculiar rapid fwiftnefs of her throat, were perfections
not to be imitated by art or labour.”

This. performer had fongs given to her in all ftyles;
her compafs, however, did not furpafs the common limits of
a foprano, or treble voice. With refpeét to her execution,
of which we are ftill enabled to judge by the printed copies
of her fongs, it chiefly confifted in fuch paffages as are com-
prifed in the fhake, as indeed did that of moft other fingers
at this time. :

Mrs. Tofts quitted the ftage in 1709. The talents of
this finger and of Margarita de I’Epine gave rife to the firft
mufical faGtions which we hear of in this country. Ac-
cording to Hughes, author of the Siege of Damafcus, their
abilities were difputed by the firft people in the kingdom.

Mufic has learn’d the difcords of the ftate,
And concerts jar with Whig and Tory hate.
Here Somerfet and Devonfhire attend

The Britith Tofts, and ev’ry note commend ;
To native merit juft, and pleas’d to fee

We’ve Roman arts, from Roman bondage free.
There fam’d 1’ Epine does equal kill employ,
While lift’ning peers crowd to th’ ecttatic joy :
Bedford to hear her fong his dice forfakes,
And Nottingham is raptur’d when fhe fhakes ;
Lull’d ftatefmen melt away their drowfy cares
Of England’s fafety, in Italian airs.”

Although it is publicly infinuated in the Tatler, for Thurf-
day, May 26, 1709, that Mrs. Tofts was infane, it feems

doubtful whether we are to take this account literally, or
whether

“

-

TOG

whether fir Richard Steele had not recourfe to invention,
or at leaft exaggeration, in order to throw a ridicule on
opera quarrels in general, and on her particular difputes at
that time with the Margarita or other female fingers. See
Tatler, N° 20. ; Rise

After quitting the ages by which fhe is faid to have ac-
quired a confiderable fortune, fhe married Mr. Jofeph
Smith, who was afterwards appointed conful at Venice,
where he refided till the time of his death, about the year
1770. He was a great colleGtor of books and pictures,
and a patron of the arts in general. ‘

TOGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Greater
Armenia. Ptol.

* Toca, in Antiquity, a wide woollen gown, or mantle,
without fleeves, ufed among the Romans, both by men and
women.

In procefs of time, none wore the toga but lewd women :
whence that of Horace, in matrona, ancilla, peccef/ve togata.
Lib. i. fat. ii. ver. 63. ?

The toga was of divers colours, and admitted of various
ornaments: there was that called toga domeffica, worn within
doors ; toga forenfis, worn abroad; toga militaris, ufed by
foldiers, tucked up after the Gabinian fathion ; and toga
pida, or triumphalis, wherein the victorious triumphed : this
was embroidered with palms: that without any ornaments
was called toga pura.

The toga pida, &c. was an ancient habit of the Etrufcans,
and not brought to Rome till after Tarquinius Prifcus had
fubdued the twelve ftates of that nation.

The toga was fometimes worn open, and called aperta ;
fometimes girt or tucked up, called precin@a; and this
cinéture or girding, again, according to _Sigonius, was of
three kinds ; /axior, or the loofe kind, where the tail trailed
on the ground ; adffridior, the clofe kind, wherein it did
not reach fo low as the feet ; and Gabinia, where one of the
fkirts or lappets was girt round the body.

Sigonius diftinguifhes the feveral toge, or Roman gowns,
into pura, candida, pulla, pita, pretexta, trabea, and
paludamentum. See PrmtTextTa, PALUDAMENTUM, &c.

The toga pura was alfo called virilis. Kennet’s Rom.
Ant. part ii. c. 8.

Toca is fometimes ufed metaphorically for peace.
TROPE.

Toc, Jus, or priyilege of the toga, was the fame with
the privilege of a Roman citizen, i. e. the right of wearing

_ a Roman habit, and of taking, as they explain it, fire and
water through the Roman empire.

TOGAWADY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Baramaul; 7 miles S. of Sankerydurgam.

TOGDA, or TonGa, a town and diftri& of Africa, in
the country of Sugulmeffa; 50 miles W. of Sugulmeffa.

TOGEBAUT, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irac ; 81 miles N. of Ifpahan.

TOGETHER, in Sea Language, the order given to the
men in the exercifes of heaving, rowing, twifting, &c. to
a& all in concert, or at the fame inftant.

TOGGEL, ina Ship, a {mall wooden pin, about five or
fix inches long, and ufually tapering from the middle toward
the extremities. It is ufed to fix tranfverfely in the lower
part of a tackle, in which it ferves as a hook whereby to
attach the tackle toa ftrop, flings, or any body in which the
effort of the tackle is to be employed,

There are alfo toggels of another kind, employed to
fatten the top-gallant fheets to the fpan, which is knotted
round the cap at the top-maft-head. Filconer See
Beckers.

TOGGENBURG, in Geography, a county of Swit-

See

TOT

zerland, dependent on the abbey of St. Gal, bounded on
the N. by the territory of St. Gal, on the E. by the
canton of Appenzell, on the S. by the county of Sar-
gans and the territory of Cafter, and on the W. by the
canton of Zurich. In its natural quality it refembles Ap-
penzell and the other cantons, and, being full of fertile
Alps, abounds in numerous breeds of cattle. . Till the year
1436, this county had its own counts ; the laft of whom
carried his indulgence to his vaffals fo far, as to grant them
fuch privileges as nearly amounted to a ftate of abfolute
freedom: accordingly, on his demife in the above year, they
entered into a clofe alliance with the cantons of Schweitz and
Glaris, which alliance was confirmed in 1440. Afterwards,
the county defcended to the barens of Raron; but, in
1468, they fold it to Ulrich VIII. abbot of St. Gal, who,

‘in 1469, entered into a perpetual league with the cantons of

Schweitz and Glaris, and likewife gave his fan@tion to the
former compact between the inhabitants of the county and
the faid cantons. In the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the Toggenburgers, refenting the illegal and oppref-
five exactions of abbot Leodegarius, applied for affiftance
to their allies, who readily granted it; and, in 1707, Zu-
rich and Bern alfo declared, that they would maintain the
county of Toggenburg in the fecure enjoyment of its rights
and liberties, againit all illicit violence whatfoever. On this
the people began to affert their rights, and, in 1707, ina
folemn landefgemeine, held at Watweil, renewed their fede-
ral oath, and ereéted three councils, named the great, leffer,
and privy, which are compofed of an equal number of mem-
bers of both fects. The inteftine commotions here conti-
nued however to increafe, till, in 1712, they broke out into
open war, in which Zurich and Bern fided with the county,
and Schweitz and Glaris with the abbot. In 1718, at
Baden, in the Argau, an accommodation, confirming the
liberties of the county, was brought about between the
new abbot and the cantons of Bern and Zurich. Purfuant
to this peace, the abbot and prince of St. Gal both is, and
bears the title of, natural fovereign, and territorial lord of
the county of Toggenburg ; and the people are to take the
accuftomed oath to him, and to pay him fuitable fervices,
but without any violation of their rights and liberties. —

TOGLUPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah
of Delhi; 15 miles W.N.W. of Panniput. Cte ui

TOGOMI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
80 miles N.W. of Meaco.

TOGOSOHATCHEE Creer, a branch of the Oak-
mulgee river, in the ftate of Georgia. ’

OGRIN, Care, a cape at the mouth of the river
Sierra Leone. : ,

TOGULA, among the Romans, a narrow kind of toga,
ufed by the poorer fort of people.

TOHBA, a denomination given to a clafs of priefts in
Thibet. Youth intended for the monaftery of Tefhoo-
Loomboo, are, upon their firft being admitted, at the age of
eight or nine years, into the eftablifhment, called “ Tuppa,”
and they are then occupied in receiving the inftruétio
fuited to their age, and the duties for which they are de~
figned. At fifteen they are ufually admitted into the order
oF Tohba, the firft ftep in their religious clafs, and after
due examination, they are advanced from the order of Toh-
ba to that of Gylong, between the age of twenty-one an
twenty-four. See GyLonc. .

TOHOTCHIE Horvn, in Geography, atown of Chi-
nefe Tartary, in the country of Hami; 30 miles N.W. of
HamilHotun. inane

TOJIE, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeifh; 10 miles
N. of Hurdah. rou
: TOIKO,

TOK 5

‘TOLKO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 80
miles E.S.E. of Jedo. N. lat. 36° s5/. E. long. 140° aol.
TOILES, fares or nets fet by. hunters for catching of

wild beafts; as deer, &c.

TOILET, a fine covering, of linen, filk, or tapeitry,
{pread over the table in a. bed-chamber, or drefling-room, to
undrefs and drefs upon.

The drefling-boxes, in which are kept the paints, poma-
tums, eflences, patches, &c. the pin-cufhion, powder-box,
aa &c. are efteemed parts of the equipage of a lady’s
toilet.

That of the men confifts of comb-cafe, bruthes, &c.

To make a vifit to one at his toilet, is to come to enter-
tain him while he is drefling or undrefling.

Sattin, lace, velvet, brocade, point de France, &c. are
now ordinarily ufed for toilets: anciently they were made
much plainer: whence the name, which is formed from the
French, toiletie, a diminutive of toile, any. thin fluff.

TOISE, or Faruom, a long meafure in France, con-
taining 6 feet, the foot being 12 inches, the inch 12 lines,
fubdivided into 12 points: 76 French feet are equal to 81
Englith feet, or, more accurately, 4000 French feet equal
4263 Englith feet.

TOISON @’0r, a term, in Heraldry, for a golden fleece,
which is fometimes borne in a coat of arms.

TOISSEY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ain, near the Chalarogne and Saéne, which
unite about half a mile from the town; 18 miles W. of
Bourg-en-Brefle.
~ TOJUCA, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
lantic, ‘S. lat. 27° gal.

- TOKA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Aurun-
gabad; 33 miles S.W. of Aurungabad.

TOKAT, a river of Bucharia, which ruts into the Gi-
hon, near Hefdr-afp.

TOKARESTAN, a diftri@ of Grand Bucharia,
fituated to the eaftward of Balk.

- TOKAY, a town or rather village of Hungary, fituated
at the foot, and to the E. of a high hill, clofe by the con-
flux of the river Bodrug with the Theis or Tibifcus. The
inhabitants are chiefly either Hungarians of the Proteftant
religion, or Greeks, who came originally from Turkey, but
have been long fettled here, for the purpofe of carrying on
the wine-trade. The hills on which the vine grows lie all to
the W. of the river Bodrug, and beginning clofe by the
town of Tokay, extend weftward and northward from
thence, and occupy a fpace of perhaps ten Englifh miles
{quare ; but they are interrupted and interfperfed with many
extenfive plains, and feveral villages. Near fome of thefe,
particularly Tabia and Tarczal, the wine is better than. that
which is produced on the hill of Tokay ; but it all goes
under the fame name ; 98 miles N.W. of Colofvar. N. lat.
48% 10'. E. long. 10° 57!

Toxay-Wine, derives its name from the town or village
of Hungary, where it is produced. (See the preceding
article.) The vineyards extend beyond the forty-eighth de-
gree of northern latitude ; the foil where the vines grow is a
yellow clayifh earth, extremely deep, and interfperfed with
large loofe lime-ftones: the expofures mott inclining to the
fouth; the fteepeft declivities, and the higheft parts of thefe,
produce the beft wine. This wine, fo far from its ea
found in fo fmall a quantity as never to be genuine, unlefs
when given in prefents by the court of Vienna, is a common
defert swine in all the great families at Vienna and in Hun-
gary, and is very generally drank in Poland and Ruffia: nor
is the Tokay wine altogether the property of the crown, but
many of the German and Hungarian nobility, as well as gen-

~ Vor. XXXV.

TOK

tlemen, and even peafants, have vineyards at Tokay. The
grapes are all white, and the vintage commonly begins
about the 28th of Oober, fometimes as late as the 11th
of November. There are: four forts of ‘witie made from
the fame grapes, diftinguifhed at Tokay bythe names
of effence, aufpruch, mafslafch;and: the’ common wines=
The effence is made by picking out the half-dried and fhri-
velled grapes, and putting them into a perforated veffel,
where they remain as long as any juice runs off by the mere
preflure of their own weight. This is put inte {mall cafles.
The aufpruch is made by pouring the expreffed juice of the
grapes from which the former had been picked on thofe that
yielded the effence, and treading them with the feet. The
liquor thus obtained ftands for a day or two to ferment, and
then is poured into {mall cafks; which are kept in the air for
about a month, and afterwards put into the cellars: The
{ame procefs is again repeated by the addition of more juice
to the grapes which have alteady undergone the two former
preflures, and they are now wrung with the hands; and thus
1s had the mafslafch. The fourth kind is made by taking all
the grapes together at firfl, and fubmitting them to the
greateft preflure: this is chicfly prepared hy the peafants.
The effence is thick, and very {weet and lufcious ; it is
chiefly ufed to mix with the other kinds. The aufpruch is
the wine commonly exported, and which is known in
foreign countries by the name of Tokay. The goodnefs of
it is determined by the following rules. ‘The colour fhould
neither be reddifh norvery pale, but alight filver : in trying
it, the palate and tip of the tongue fhould be wetted with-
out {wallowing it, and if it manifeft any acrimony to the
tongue, itis not good; but the tafte ought to be foft and
mild ; when poured out, it fhould form globules in the glafs,
and have an oily appearance: when genuine, the ftrongeft is
always of the beft quality : when fwallowed, it fhould have
an earthy aftrimgent tafte in the mouth, which is called the
tafte of the root. All Tokay wine -has an aromatic tafte,
which diftinguifhes it from every other f{pecies of wine. It
keeps io any age, and improves by time ; but is never good
till about three years old. It is the beft way to tranfport it
in cafks ; for when it is on the feas, it ferments three times
every feafon, and thus refines itfelf. When in hottles, there
muit be an empty fpace left between the wine and the cork,
otherwife it would burft the bottle. A little oil is put
upon the furface, and a piece of bladder tied over the cork.
The bottles are always laid on their fides in fand.. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixiii. part ii. p. 292, &c.

TOKE, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles N.N.E,
of Dacca.

TOKEN-BESSEYS, a clufter of fmall iflands in the
Eaft Indian fea. S. lat. 6°. E. long. 123° 36/.

TOKENS, in Pefilential Cafes, thofe livid {pots which
appear in the feveral flages of the difeafe, and are certain
forerunners of death. They generally appear only under
the moft defperate cireumftances, and -when the patient
would otherwife be declared dying ; but Hodges gives us
inftances where they appeared before any other {ymptomes of
the difeafe, and came out without any pain or trouble; yet
even in thefe cafes the perfun always died. Thefe tokens
are the mark by which the fearchers conclude of the,caufe of
the death of the perfon, and are the rule for ordering the
houfe to be fhut up, to prevent the fpreading of the difeafe.
But the ourfes, and other crafty people, have a way of dif-
guifing the fymptom after death; by covering the body with
wet and cold fheets. Thefe flrike in the fpots, fo that the
perfon may be thought ‘te have died by fome other difeafe.

Toxrns, Falfe, in Law. Sce Parse.

Toxens, in Coinage, coins in the reign of queen Elizabeth,
5F ftruck

TOL

ftruck in the cities of Briftol, Oxford, and Worcefter, and
alfo by about 3000 tradefmen and others ; upon returning
which to the iffuer, he gave current coin, or value, for them,
as defired. In the fucceeding reign, on the 19th of May,
1613, king James’s royal farthing tokens commenced by
preclamation. Thefe were not forced upon the people as
farthings or eftablifhed coin, but merely as pledges or
tokens, for which government was egy to give other coin
if required. Their legend was the king’s common titles
running upon each fide. Thefe pieces were not favourably
received, but continued in a kind of relu€tant circulation
through the whole of this reign, and the be inning of the
fucceeding. In 1635, Charles I. ftruck thofe with the rofe
inftead of the harp, But the vaft number of counterfeits,
and the king’s death in 1648, put an utter ftop to their
currency ; and the tokens of towns and tradefmen again
took their run, increafing pectigen® till the year 1672,
when farthings properly fo called were firft publifhed by
government. Thefe town-pieces and tradefmen’s tokens,
together with thofe of the time of queen Elizabeth, are col-
lected by fome antiqnaries with great avidity. Similar
tokens, fays Pinkerton, are to this day current in Scotland,
both of copper and tin, principally ufed by the bakers and
grocers ; farthings not pas very common in that country.

In 1804, the bank of Ireland bought in a large quantity
of depreciated filver coin ; and, as a {ubftitute, ifued Spamifh
dollars, newly ftamped, at 6s. Irifh, and alfo fraétions of the
dollar, which had been minted for the occafion at the Tower
of London, confifting of five-penny, ten-penny, and thirty-
penny pieces Irifh, being exaétly +, +4, and 4% of the
dollar. All thefe coins are called Bank tokens, the Bank
having engaged to receive them again at the iflued price,
and they have been declared a legal tender in the payment of
taxes: their intrinfic value may be known from that of the
dollar. In 1809, a new filver coinage was minted at the
Tower of London for the colonies of Effequibo and Deme-
rary, confifting of pieces of 3, 2, 1, 4, and 4 guilders: the
larger piece weighs 15 dwt., and is 1 oz. 6 dwt. worfe than
Englifh ftandard. Its value therefore is 3s. 5d. fterling, or,
computing it as the dollar is now rated in the Weft Indies
(i.e. at 4s. 8d.), its value is 3s. 84d. and the fmaller pieces
in proportion. They are marked on the reverfe ‘ Colcnies
of Effequibo and Demerary Token,” and the king’s
is on the obverfe. The exchange with London fhould be
about 12 guilders for 1/. fterling, but varies canfiderably
above this, even to 20 guilders, and upwards. Kelly’s
Cambift.

TOKIS, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon; 40 miles N.N.E. of Meaco.—Alfo, a town of
Japan, in the province of Ximo; 15 miles N.N.W. of
Nangafaki.

TOKI-TAO, a {mall ifland near the coaft of China.
N. lat. 38° 7!. E. long. 120° 39!.

TOKORARI. See Tocorary.

TOKTABA, a town of Bootan; 50 miles N. of
Beyhar.

TOL, in Law, a term fignifying to defeat, or take away.
From the Latin, tollere, which fignifies the fame.

Thus, to tol the entry, is to take away the right of
entry.

Tot Peden Penwith, in Geography, acape on the S. coat
of the weftern extremity of Cornwall; 3 miles S.E. of
Land’s End. N. lat. 50° 4/. W. long. 5° 36'.

TOLA, in Commerce, a weight for gold and filver at
Bombay, Surat, and other places in India: at Bombay, the
tola contains 40 valls, 100 gonze or Bombay grains, or 600
chowes. The tola is equal in weight to the filver rupee;

TOL

24 tolas make 1 feer, and 32 tolas 13 valls = 1 lb. troy.
At Surat, the tola contains 32 valle or 96 ruttees: 823
valls make 1 oz. troy, and therefore 31 tolas 1 Ib. troy
neatly.

TOLABO, Caps, in Geography, a cape on the E. coait
of Eelebes. S. lat. 0° 45/. E. long. 122° go’.

TOLAGO Bay, a bay on the N.E. coait of the north-
ern ifland of New Zealand, in the South Pacific ocean, dif-
covered by captain Cook in the year 1769. It is moder-
ately large, and has from feven to thirteen fathom, with a
clean fandy bottom and good anchorage, and is fheltered
from all winds except the north-eaft. On the fouth point
lies a {mall but high ifland, fo near the main as not to be dif-
tinguifhed from it. Clofe to the north end of the ifland, at
the entrance into the bay, are two high rocks ; one of which
is round, like a corn-ftack, but the other is long, and per-
forated in feveral places, fo that the openings appear like the
arches of a bridge. Within thefe rocks is a cove, conve-
nient for wood and water. Off the north peint of the bay
is a pretty high rocky ifland ; and about a mile without it,
are fome rocks and breakers. The tide flows at the full
and change of the moon, about fix o’clock, and rifes and
falls perpendicularly from five to fix feet. Captain Cook
faw no four-footed animals, nor the appearance of any,
either tame or wild, except dogs and rats, and thefe were
very fcarce: the people eat the dogs, as at Otaheite, and
adorn their garments with the fkins. He climbed many of
the hills, hoping to get a view of the country, but could fee
nothing from the top except higher hills, in a boundlefs fuc-
ceffion. The ridges of thefe hills produce little befides
fern ; but the fides are moft luxuriantly clothed with wood
and verdure of various kinds, with little plantations inter-
mixed. In the woods he found trees of above twenty dif-
ferent forts, and carried {fpecimens of each on board ; but
there was nobody to whom they were not altogether un-
known. The tree cut for firing was fomewhat like the
maple, and yielded a whitifh gum. Another fort was found
of it, of a deep yellow, which might be ufeful in dyeing.
One cabbage-tree was met with, and cut down for the cab-
bages. The country abounds with plants, and the woods
with birds in an endlefs variety, exquifitely beautiful, and of
which none of them had the leaft knowledge. The foil of
both the hills and vallies is light and fandy, and very fit for
the produétion of all kinds of roots ; though none were feen
except fweet potatoes and yams. S. lat. 38° 22, W.
long. 181° 15!.

TOLAND, Joun, in Biography, a writer on fubje&s of
political-and religious controverfy, was born in the year a
in Ireland, near Londonderry ; and his parents, of a good fa-
mily, were Roman Catholies. Educatedin the principles of
his family, he renounced them before he attained the age of
fixteen years, and became a zealous oppofer of popery.
Accordingly he completed his education in Scotland, and
having fpent three years in the univerfity of Glafgow,
removed to Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in
1690. From Edinburgh he removed to London, and be-
came acquainted with fome reipeétable diffenters, who
enabled him to purfue his ftudies for two years more at
Leyden. On his return to London, he vifited Oxford, and
here he colleéted materials for the execution of fome literary
projeéts: one of which was a differtation in order to prove
that the common narrative of the death of Regulus was a
fable. In 1696 he publifhed at London his ‘ Chriftianity
not myfterious ; or a Treatife fhewing that there is nothing
in the Gofpel contrary to Reafon, or above it ; and that no
Chriftian Doétrine can be properly called a Myftery.”
This publication caufed an alarm, and not without reafon,

: among

TOL
among Chrittians of all denominations, by whom it was re-
garded as an attempt to overthrow revealed religion. At
home and abroad it excited attention, and the advocates of
Chriftianity concurred in the defence of their religion
againit what they conceived to be an attack upon it. The
magiftrates, alfo, intruded into this controverfy, and pro-
cured a prefentment by the grand jury of Middlefex.
The author withdrew from the ftorm which feemed to be
aos into his own country; but the obnoxious cha-
racter of his book had excited prejudices againft him.
' Toland, as we learn from the correfpondence between Mr.
Molyneux and Mr. Locke on the fubjeét, does not feem-to
have aéted with that moderation and prudence which might
reafonably have been expected in his circumftances. His
manner of defending and propagating his opinions gave jutt
offence even to thofe who entertained fome degree of refpe&
for his talents and learning ; and was condemned by thofe
who were avowed advocates of rational liberty and enemies to
every kind of perfecution. From another quarter he ex-
perienced a feverity of treatment, which his own mifcondu&
had provoked, but which, in this more enlightened and
liberal period, none, we prefume, will undertake to juftify.
In a reply to Toland’s book, by Mr. Peter Brown, fenior
fellow ef Trinity college, the civil magiftrate was called
upon to interfere ; accordingly the grand jury of Dublin
made a prefentment of the book : the parliament of Ireland
voted it to be burnt by the common hangman, and iflufed ap
order that the author fhould be taken into cuftody by the
ferjeant at arms, and profecuted by the attorney-general.
Toland, univerfally fhunned by his acquaintance, and re-
duced to pecuniary diftrefs, left the country, and returned
to England. While fome difapproved the violence of this
proceeding, others juftified it ; and Dr. South, in particular,
highly commends the Irifh parliament for having, ‘ to their
immortal honour, prefently fent him (Toland) packing, and,
without the help of a faggot, foon made the kingdom too
hot to hold him.”? On the fpirit which diated this lan-
guage we make no comment. ‘Toland, upon his arrival in
London, publifhed an account of his treatment in Ireland,
and renouneing Communion with the Diffenters, declared
himfelf a latitudinarian, or one who would comply with the
religious worfhip of any clafs of Proteftants, whofe dif-
ferences were not, in his eftimation, of fufficient importance
to juitify difturbing the peace of a nation. He then di-
rected his attention to other topics; and in 1698 he pub-
lifhed a pamphlet, intitled “The Militia reformed,” in
which he propofed to fubftitute that {pecies of armament
to a ftanding army. Inthe fame year he wrote a “ Life of
Milton,” to be’ prefixed to an edition of his profe works,
and which was alfo printed feparately. In this preface
he oppofed the notion then prevalent, that the ‘ Icon
Bafilike’’ was written by Charles I.; and from the con-
fideration of this impofture, as he pronounced it to be, he
digreffed to the confideration of the fpurious works that had
been afcribed to Chrift and his apoftles. Againft a hoft of
political and religious adverfaries, he defended himfelf in a
treatife intitled * Amyntor ;”’ in which he gave a complete
hiflory of the “Icon Bafilike,’? and alfo a catalogue of
fuch primitive writers, who were judged by him to be f{pu-
rious. As he was fuppofed in the difcuffion of this latter
topic to impugn the authenticity of the received canon of
Scripture, he drew forth replies from fome of the ableft
advocates of Chriftianity, and particularly Mr. (afterwards
the highly celebrated Dr.) Samuel Clarke.

In 1699, Toland was engaged by the duke of New-
caftle to publith ‘ Memoirs of Denzil Lord Holles ;”” and
in the following year by Mr. Robert Harley, afterwards
earl of Oxford, then a Whig, to give a new edition of

T® ©

Harrington’s “ Oceana.”” When the AG of Sueeefiion was
paffed, on occafion of the death of the duke of Gloucefter
in 1701, he publifhed “ Anglia Libera,’ being an ex-
planation and eulogy of this act; and he accompanied the
earl of Macclesfield, who was deputed to carry it to
Hanover, and had the honour of prefenting his book to
the eleétrefs Sophia, and of kiffing her hand on the occafion.
At Berlin, which he vifited, he held a difpute, before the
queen of Pruffia, with the learned Beaufobre, on the autho-
rity of the books of the New Teftament; an account
of which was fent by the latter to the “ Bibliotheque
Germanique.”? Upon his return to England in 1704,
he publifhed “Letters to Serena,’’ (meaning the queen
of Pruffia,) on the origin and force of prejudices; the
hiftory of the foul’s immortality among the heathens; the
origin of idolatry ; and remarks on Spinoza’s philofophy.
Thefe letters were animadverted upon by Wotton, and by
the author of the Divine Legation. fn 1708 he pub-
lifhed at the Hague two Latin differtations, entitled «A dei-
fidemon, five Titus Livius a Superftitione vindicatus,?
and “ Origines Judaice, five Strabonis de Moyfe et Reli-
gione Judaica Hitoria breviter illuftrata.” In 1718 he
publifhed “ Nazarenus ; or Jewifh, Gentile, or Mahometan
Chriftianity,”? &c. in which he endeavours to fhew that
the Jewifh converts were to obferve their own law through-
out all generations, &c. Two years afterwards appeared a
Latin traét, entitled “¢ Pantheifticon : five Formulacelebrande
Sodalitatis Soeratice, &c.:’”? a work which has fubjeéted
its author to the charge of atheifm, and in confequence of
which he was unjuftly accufed by Dr. Hare with having
compofed a profane prayer to Bacchus in his character of
Pantheift. In the ae year he publithed his ‘'Tetrady-
mus,” on the pillar of cloud and fire that guided the
Ifraelites; on the exoteric and efoteric philofophy of the
ancients ; on Hypatia, the female philofopher ; and a de-
fence of his Nazarenus againft Dr. Mangey. To this work
he annexed an account of his condu& and fentimenrts, fo-
lemnly profeffing his preference of the Chriftian religion,
pure and unmixed, to all others.

Toland’s health was now declining, and being in low cir-
cumfttances, lord Molefworth affured him that he fhould
never want, while he himfelf lived. However, his difeafe
baffled all remedies, and his life clefed on the 11th of
March, 1722, in the 53d year of his age. He manifetted a
confiderable degree of refolution and patience during the
progrefs of his illnefs: replying to one who afked him if he
wanted any thing, “ I want porns but death ;’’ and after
taking a calm leave of his friends, faying to them that ‘ he
was going to fleep.’’ In an epitaph which he prepared for
himfelf, he expreffes that confidence and felf-applaufe which
belonged to his charaéter. He clofes with thefe words :
‘‘ Spiritus cum ethereo patre, a quo prodiit olim, conjun-
gitur; corpus item; nature cedens, in materno gremio
reponitur. Ipfe vero zternum eft refurreturus, at idem
futurus Tolandus nunquam.”’ His pofthumous works were
publifhed in 2 vols. 8vo. in 1726, and again in 1747,
with an account of his life and writings, by Des Maizeaux.
Biog. Brit.

TOLANORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 5 miles N. of Volconda.

TOLASTRA Recto, in Ancient Geography, a country
of Afia, in Galatia. Ptolemy.

TOLBIACUM, a town of Gallia Belgica, according to
Tacitus; fituated on the route from Trevari to Colonia
Agrippina. : f
TOL-BOOTH, or Toxi-Boorn, a place in a city,
where goods are weighed, to afcertain the duties or import

on them.
Bek i2 TOLCES.-

TOL
TOLCESTER, Totcesrrum, in our Old Writers, an old

excife, or duty paid by the tenants of fome manors to the
lords, for liberty to brew and fell ale. ‘
TOLCKSDORF, in’ Geosraphy, a town of Pruffia, in
Ermeland; 12 miles S.E. of Frauenburg.
TOLEDO, in Biography. See Atva. D
ToxLepo, in Geography, a city of Spain, in New Cattile, on
the Tagus, the fee of an archbifhop, and an univerfity, founded
in the year 1475. The origin of Toledo is uncertain ; it is
only known to have been a Roman colony, and made the
depofitory of the treafures fent te Rome. From the Ro-
mans it pafled under the dominion of the Goths; Leovigild
refided there and embellifhed the city, which became more
confiderable under his fucceffors. The Moors took Toledo
jn 714, and reigned there till 1085, when it was taken from
them by Alphonfo VI., who ftyled himfelf emperor of To-
ledo, whence it took, and has preferved, the title of royal
and imperial. Toledo, as is well known, was formerly fa-
‘mous te the exquifite temper of the fword-blades made
there ; and the genuine ones that ftill remain are fold at an
exorbitant price. It is faid that the fecret of Hardening
them has been again recovered ; and experiments haye been
made with blades lately fabricated there which feem to juttify
this affertion. When one of thefe has undergone the oper-
ation of tempering, if it be in the leaft notched, by ftriking
with it feveral violent blows on an iron head-piece, it 1s
rejected : almoft all that are made here, it is faid, will ftand
this proof. ‘Two centuries ago, Toledo contained more than
200,000 inhabitants, but now fearcely 30,c00. When a
houfe falls to decay, it is never rebuilt ; and in 20 years more,
this city will be little elfe than a heap of ruins. ‘Toledo is
built upon rocks, and commanded by eminences which feem
to prefent the image of fterility ; yet, in the midft of thefe
precipices, the traveller finds, to his furprife, feveral fertile
and charming fituations, impenetrable to the burning rays of
the fun. Thefe places are called Cigarrales. Several coun-
cils have been held at Toledo, particularly one in 633, in
which it was declared unlawful and unchriftian to. force
people to believe, feeing it is God only who hardens, and
fhews mercy to whom he will; but by another council in a
few years after, they highly commended their monarch for
perfecuting the Jews. ~ In 681 it was decreed, that the
archbifhop of ‘Toledo fhould have power to ereate bifhops
throughout Spain in the king’s abfence, and confirm thofe
made by the king. In 1355, it was feized by Henry and
Frederick, the baftards, brothers of king Peter, who robbed
all the Jews, and murdered about 1000 of them; 32 miles
§.S.W. of Madrid. N. lat. 39° 56'. W. long. 4° 18\.
TOLEN, a town of Norway ; 22 miles W. of Berga.
—Alfo, an ifland belonging to the ftate of Zealand, in
the eaft branch of the Scheldt, feparated from the main land
of Brabant by a canal, about ten miles in length, and four in
breadth. It contains two towns, Tolen and St. Martyn’s
Dyck, and feveral villages. “Tolen, the capital, from whence
the ifland itfelf is named, is a handfome town, and ranks as
fourth in the affembly. The name of it is derived from the
toll which was formerly paid here by order of the counts of
Zealand. It is fortified with feven battions, and the ftates
have caufed a fort, called Suckenburg, to be built on the
other fide of the river, fo that it is now one of the ftrongeft
frontier towns of the ftate of Zealand. The ftadt-houle is
an old building, which makes a good fhow. The arfenal is
fituated at the entrance of the {mall harbour ; there is alfo a
magazine for powder. The church is built in the figure of
a crofs, and is an extraordinary piece of archite&ture ; 4. miles
N.W. of Berg-op-Zoom. N. lat. 51° 36’. E. long: 3° 58'.
TOLENTINO, a town of the Popedom, in the mar-
quifate of Ancona, on the Chiento, the fee of a bifhop,

Tow

united to Macerata. It is only remarkable for being the
depofitory of the body of St. Nicholas, where the arm, by
bleeding afrefh, prognofticates when any fignal calamity is
to befall Italy ; 18 miles W. of Fermo. N. lat. 43° 10!. E.
long. 13° 18).

FOLEN TINUM, in Ancient Geography, atown of Italy,
in Picenum, S.W. of Ricina.

TOLENUS, a river of Italy, in the country of the
Marfi.

TOLERATION, in Religion, a term which has engaged
much attention in the difputes among Proteftants.

M. Bafnage, and fome others, diltinguifh civil toleration
from ecclefajtical. The latter allows of different, and even
oppofite fentiments in the church; and the firft permits
them in civil fociety. ; ;

By civil toleration, is meant impunity and fafety in the
ftate for every fe& which does not maintain any doétrine
inconfiftent with the peace and welfare of the ftate.» This
civil or political toleration, implies a right of enjoying the
benefit of the laws, and of all the privileges of the fociety,
without any regard to difference of religion. aa

Ecclefiaflical toleration is an allowance of certain opinions,
which, not being fundamentals, do not hinder thofe who
profefs them from being efteemed members of the church.
But as to the quality and number of thefe fundamental
points, they never could, nor in all probability ever will be
agreed upon. WN bles

In order to difcover the genuine principles of toleration,
it is neceflary to confider that, antecedently to the formation
of civil focieties, mankind poflefs certain rights, independent
of all human grant, not derived from any compact, and which
are therefore to be acknowledged as the rights of human
nature. A right to: judge for themfelves in points of reli-
gion is one of thefe rights; which, whilft it authorizes
every individual to claim the exercife of this privilege to
himfelf, obliges him to allow it in the fame extent to all
about him, and eftablifhes one uniform regulation for his
behaviour toward others, and their behaviour toward him :
e.g. no apprehenfions of the truth and, certainty of any
perfon’s religious fentiments can jultify him in attempting
to impofe them on his neighbour ; for the fame right of
judgment which any one can claim, belongs, on the fame
principle, equally to a//, and ought to be equally facred*and
inviolable in all; and no reafon can be alleged by him for
taking the religious liberty of others from them, but what
will, at the fame time, equally deftroy his own title to it.
The injuftice of fimilar encroachments upon Aim from others
follows from the fame principle, and with the fame evidence.

Whether the claim of fuch a liberty of judgment in reli-

ion for ourfelves is weakened by men’s entering into civil
feelety: is the next object of contideration.

The great end of government is to proteé& the fubjeéts of
it from the injuries to which they were expofed in a ftate of
nature ; and as all injuries imply rights of which they are
violations, and the care taken to guard againft the violation of
thefe rights is an acknowledgment of the reality and import-
ance of them; it evidently follows, that when they enter
into fociety, if the primary and leading view of government
be to prevent or reftrain thofe injuries, to which men were
expofed for want of its protection, they carry thefe rights
with them ; that they continue to retain thems and that,
inftead of fuppofing themfelves to be deprived of them, the
very defigu with which they put themfelves under the au-
thority of government is to fecure them the more firmly.
With this view they entruft the prefervation of them to com- -
mon guardians, by whofe intervention, it is prefumed, they
will Fe more vigoroufly afferted and more effeCtually pro-
tected, than it is poflible they fhould be in a ftate where

there

fi

equal, impartial eafe and

TOLERATION.

there is no common umpire to check. the evils of oppreffion
on the one hand, and reftrain the no lefs formidable evils of
immoderate refentment on the other.

If we confider what are the rights which men give up to

overnment, when they enter into civil focieties, they will be
Bent to be, not thofe which may moft properly be ftyled
the primary rights of human nature; not the mght which
every man has to live undifturbed, to enjoy the advantages
which he juftly poffeffes, and to be left to his freedom in all
things not injurious to his fellow-creatures ; but the confe-
queatial, though equally real and certain right which, where
men are not fubjeét to government, every perfon has to take
the affertion of all his rights into his own hands, and correét
the infringers of them by the infliting of fuch pains, or the
ufeof fuch other methods of deterring the authors of the
‘wrong, as reafon fhall warrant for his future fecurity : and,
feaking precifely, even thefe rights are not abfolutely ex-
“tinguifhed and utterly loit, but fufpended by fuch limita-
tions as the order and well-being of fociety require, and fo
~ long as the fuccours of government fhall be effectual. The
primary rights of liberty, fafety, and protection from op-
preffion, ftill fubfift in their full vigour. To fuppofe them
abandoned, renounced, and annihilated, or that government
-can have any right to deftroy them, is afcribing to it a right
to defeat the end for which it is eftablifhed, and betray the
truftrepofed in it. It is, indeed, totally inverting the prin-
ciple upon which the power of rulers ftands, and by which
-the aéts of it ought to be guided.

Man was not made for government, but government for
-man ; and the great obje&t, to which all the operations of it
fhould be direéted, is to guard, as much as poflible, the

edom of all the fubjects of it.
To this purpofe judge Blackftone obferves, that the prin-

ipal aim of fociety is to protect individuals in the enjoy-
‘ment of thofesabfolute rights, which were vefted in them by
the immutable law of nature, but which could not be pre-
ferved in peace without that mutual affiftance and inter-
coutfe, which are gained by the inftitution of friendly and
civil communities : i elise the primary end of human laws
is to maintain and regulate thefe abfolute rights of individuals.
See GovernMENT and Civil Liserry.

Now of all the rights inherent in human nature, that of
thinking for ourfelves, and following the conviction of our
‘own judgments in relation to the object of our faith, wor-
fhip, and religious obedience, is the moft facred, incontef-
tible, and in every view of it, intitled to the moft careful
proteétion. The prefervation of thefe is one of the chief,
-perhaps the firft end for which civil focieties are inftituted,
and the rulers of them invefted with power: and therefore,
in all governments, the rights of confcience fhould have a
principal place affigned them in the care of thofe, to whom
the protection of their fellow-creatures is committed. If
the fecuring of equal, impartial liberty, in all thofe in-
ftances of it in which it is not injurious to others, be fo much
the obje& of every equitable, wife, and well-conftituted
fyftem of laws, that all needlefs encroachments upon it are
deviations from the fpirit which ought to be diffufed
through all laws, and impair the benefit which they ought
to confirm, can it be fuppofed that the rights of confcience
ought not to be guarded from violation ? Rights of this
kind are the laft which men can ever be imagined to give up
to be modelled at the pleafure of others ; nor (as it is argu-
ed) is there any one principle conneéted with their fubmiflion
to governors in other refpects, that can require or juftify fuch
afurrender. Does it follow that, becaufe the magiftrate 1s
entrufted with authority to decide difputes between us and
our fellow-citizens concerning property, he is to determine

points which lie only between God and our own confciences ?
Becaufe it is allowed to be his office to guard the peace of
his fubjects, and to infliét punifhments for this purpofe on
thofe who unjuftly difturb it; is it to be taken for granted,
that he is to di€tate to them what rule of faith they fhall
adopt, and in what manner they are to worfhip the Deity ;
when it is allowed on all hands, that of thefe things the will
of God is the only rule, and that no worthip can be accept-
able to him, but what is accompanied with the fincere con-
viction of him who offers it? Befides, it is argued, that fuch
is the nature of this right, and it fo ftands upon a foundation
peculiar to itfelf, and-is diftinguifhed from every other right,
that it cannot be given up. Property may be refigned,
transferred, or fubmitted to the regulation of others ; a man
may relinquifh his eafe, and fubje& himfelf to inconveniences,
and be not only innocent but laudable ; nay, he may facrifice
life itfelf, and merit the higheft applaufe ; but his confcience
he cannot refign.

To “prove all things, and hold faft that which is good,” is
not only a privilege but a duty ; an obligaticn laid upon hint
by the very nature of religion and virtue, and from which he
cannot difcharge himfelf without departing from the prin-
ciples of both. It muft always remain entire to him; nor,
while the principles of the moft reafonable liberty are allowed
to fubfiit in their due extent, can any attempt be confiftently
made to take it from him.

From thefe principles it has been inferred, that toleration,
fo far from being a matter of mere grace or favour, which
government has a right to withhold, grant, abridge, or re-
{ume at pleafure, is the acknowledgment and confirmation
of a right: not one of thofe adventitious rights, which are
fubfequent to the eftablifhment of civil focieties, and arife
out of the peculiar forms and conititution of it ; but of thofe
higher rights which belong to men as fuch, and which ought
to be preferved under all ftates and governments whatever,
as effectually, univerfally, and impartially as any other
right. With regard to the extent of toleration, it is urged,
that if liberty of confcience be a right effential to human
nature, all penalties in cafes merely of a religious nature
mutt be an infringement of a right, and a degree of oppref-
fion, though inflicted by alaw. Farther, the inquiry con-
cerning the perfons entitled to toleration does not depend
on the fuppofed truth or error of the fentiments which men
may adopt, but upon the common right, which all men
have, to be led in thefe points by the light of their own
minds, and to enjoy all the fecurities and benefits of fociety,
while they fulfil the obligations of it. All who can give
good fecurity to the government under which they live, and
to the community to which they belong, for the perform-
ance of the duties of good fubje&s and good citizens, have
an undoubted claim to it, and cannot with any juft reafon
be deprived of it. It is not error, but injury to the ftate,
or the individuals who are under the care of it, which juf-
tifies the animadverfion of the magiftrate ; and all to whom
this cannot be juftly imputed, are the objeéts of his pro-
tection.

Archdeacon Paley diftinguifhes two kinds of toleration:
the one partial, which is the allowing to diffenters the un-
molefted profeffion and exercife of their religion, but with
an exclufion from offices of truft and emolument in the ftate ;
and the other complete, which is the admiffion of them, with-
out diftin@ion, to all the civil privileges and capacities of
other citizens. The juftice and expediency of toleration in
general is founded by this ingenious writer primarily in its
conducivenefs to truth, and in the fuperior value of truth
to that of any other quality which a religion can poffefs.
Befides this principal argument for toleration, there are

5 other

TOLERATION.

other apxiliary confiderations that are important. The
reftriGtion of the fubje& to the religion of the ftate is a
needlefs violation of natural liberty, and in an inftance with
regard to which conftraint is always grievous. Perfecution
produces no fincere conviction, nor any real Sa of
opinion ; on the contrary, it vitiates the public morals, by
driving men to prevarication, and commonly ends in a ge-
neral though fecret infidelity, by impofing, under the name
of revealed religion, fyftems of doétrine, which man cannot
believe, and dare not examine: finally, it difgraces the cha-
rater, and wounds the reputation of Chriitianity itfelf, by
making it the author of oppreffion, cruelty, and bloodfhed.
Our author includes under the idea of religious toleration
the toleration of all books of ferious argumentation, without
deeming it any infringement of religious liberty to reftrain
the circulation of ridicule, invective, and mockery upon
religious fubjeéts.

Concerning the admiffion of diffenters from the eftablifhed
religion to offices and employments in the public fervice,
which is neceflary to render toleration complete, doubts, fays
Dr. Paley, have been entertained with fome appearance of
reafon. In vindication of thefe doubts, he refers to thofe
who hold ‘religious opinions that are utterly incompatible
with the neceflary functions of civil government; enthufiatts,
who maintain that all diftinétion of property is abolifhed by
Chriftianity, and that the gofpel enjoins upon its followers a
community of goods ; and to Quakers or Friends, who be-
lieve it to be contrary to Chriftranity to take up arms. He
allows, however, that with the fingle exception of refufing
to bear arms, the various feéts of Chriftians which aétually
prevail in the world hold no tenet which incapacitates men
for the fervice of the ftate. It has indeed been afferted,
that difcordancy of religions, even topple each religion
to be free from any errors that affeét the fatety or the con-
dué& of government, is enough to render men unfit to a&
together in public ftations. But upon what argument, or
upon what experience, is this affertion founded? I per-
ceive no reafon,’? fays this liberal writer, “‘ why men of
different religious perfuafions may not fit upon the fame
bench, deliberate in the fame council, or fight in the fame
ranks, as well as men of various or oppofite opinions upon
any controverted topic of natural philofophy, hiftory, or
ethics.’’ For a further account of this author’s fentiments
on toleration and collateral fubjeéts, fee Reticion, Sus-
SCRIPTION, and Trst-4@.

To the term toleration, though it has been adopted by
Mr. Locke and feveral writers of the firft diftinétion, others
have objected ; alleging that, as words have a confiderable
influence on opinions, this term appears to be injurious to
that religious liberty, which it is defigned to import. It
implies a right to impofe articles of faith, and modes of
worthip ; that nonconformity is a crime; and that the /uf-
ferance (toleration) of it is a matter of favour or lenity.
But the nonconformift in every country, whether he be a
Chriftian at Conftantinople, a Proteftant at Rome, an Epif-
copalian in Scotland, or a Prefbyterian in England, and,
we may add, a Catholic in any part of Great Britain, if his
rational principles be confonant to his pra¢tice, will regard
this claim of right as ufurpation ; and will urge, that it has
been neither conferred by Jefus Chrift, nor deed by the
people. Our Saviour exprefsly declares, “ My kingdom
is not of this world ;” and his religion was perfecuted and
opprefled, during the period of its greateit purity and per-
fection, and when the minifters of it had gifts and powers
which are now unknown. The people could not delegate
fuch a right to any man or body of men ; fer the human mind
is fo mutable, that no individual can fix a ftandard of his

own faith, much lefs gan he commiffion another to eftabliff
one for him and his pofterity ; and this power would be in
no hands fo dangerous as in thofe of the ftatefman or prieft,
who has the folly and prefumption to think himfelf qualified
to exercife it. The ufe of this term was introduced at a
time, when very imperfect notions of religious liberty, and
very erroneous ideas of the authority of the civil magiftrate
in the province of religion, prevailed. In its literal accept-
ation, it is without doubt objeétionable, and incompatible
with juft views of religious liberty. What human being,
however exalted his rank or extenfive his influence, can pre-
fume to tolerate or fuffer a fellow-creature to worfhip God
according to the diétates of his own confcience, and in that
way, or according to thofe rites and forms, which he ap-
prehends the object of his worfhip has prefcribed; or, in
other words, to ¢olerate God in receiving that worfhip ; for
to this extreme the argument may be extended. All dif-
abilities and penalties incurred by not worfhipping God, and
performing other aéts of religion, according to any merely
human ritual, are in fat prohibitions againft man’s ren-
dering and God’s receiving the homage of the underftanding
and the heart. Toleration, it has been faid, fuppofes on the
part of thofe who exercife it an authority, to which they
have no juft claim ; and on the part of thofe who are the ob-
jects of it, a certain degree of criminality and culpability,
which the perfons that exercife the right of toleration con-
defcend to excufe and allow. Such are the ideas which fome
modern writers have entertained on this fubje€&t; and ac-
cordingly they have wifhed for a difufe of the term, as it is
founded in, and leads to, error. Liberty, whether it be com-
plete, or partial, is a term well underftood ; and the ufe of it
is lefs liable to objection than that of toleration.—See on this
fubje&, Fownes’s Inquiry into the Principles of Toleration,
&c. 8vo. 1772. Locke’s Letters concerning Toleration,
in his Works, vol. ii. p. 231, &c. Hoadley’s Rights of
Subjects, paflim. Paley’s Philofophy, vol. ii. c: 10. Per-
cival’s Effay on Truth, p. go.

To the account above given of the general principles of
toleration, it will be proper to add a few words concerning
the ftate of toleration in our own country. With regard to
the Proteftant-diffenters in general, fee DissenrERs, Non-
CONFORMISTS, and QuaKERs. See alfo ConvENTICLE,
Corporation-44@, Suerirr, and Test.

As for diffenting teachers, or minifters in particular, they
were prohibited by 17 Car. II. cap. 2. from coming within
five miles of a city, town-corporate, or borough, unlefs
only in pafling upon the road, or unlefs required by legal
procefs, without taking an oath of allegiance therein men-
tioned, on pain of 4o/., and of commitment by two jutftices,
on oath of the offence, for fix months. And by 22 Car. II.
cap. 1. preaching in any meeting or conventicle, in other
manner than according to the praétice of the church
of England, incurred a forfeiture of 20/. for the firft
offence, and for every other offence 40/. Moreover, by
13 & 14Car. II. cap. 4. no perfon fhall prefume to confecrate
and adminifter the facrament before he be ordained prieft,
according to the form of the church of England, on pain
of 1oo/. But now by 1 W. cap. 18. commonly called the
A& of Toleration, which, by 19 Geo. III. cap. 44. is
declared to be a public aét, they are exempted from the
penalties of thofe ftatutes, upon taking the oaths of al-
legiance and fupremacy, and fubfcribing the declaration
againft popery; and alfo, by 1 W. cap. 18. fubferibing
the articles of religion mentioned in the ftat. 13 Eliz, cap. 12.
(which only concern the confeffion of the Chriftian faith
and the doétrine of the facraments) with an exprefs excep-
tion of thofe relating to the government and powers of the

church,

TOLERATION.

church, and to infant baptifm ; or if they feruple fubfcribing
the articles, upon making and fubfcribing the declaration

ref{cribed by ftat. 19 Geo. III. cap. 44. profeffing them-

elves to be Chriftians and Proteftants, and that they be-
lieve the Scriptures of the Old and New Teftament, as
commonly received among Proteftant churches, to contain
the revealed will of God, and that they receive the fame as
the rule of their doétrine and practice ; for the regifter of
which they fhall pay 6d. to the officer of the court and no
more, and 6d. for a certificate thereof figned by fuch officer.
A farther enlargement of the Toleration A@, in favour of
thofe who impugn the doétrine of the Trinity, was made
by 53 Geo. III. c. 160.

Any preacher or teacher, duly qualified, hall be allowed
to officiate in any congregation, although the fame be not
in the county where he was fo qualified, provided that the
place of meeting hath been duly certified and regiftered,
and fuch teacher or preacher fhall, if required, produce a
certificate of his having fo qualified himfelf, and before any
juftice of fuch county where he officiates, make and fub-
feribe fuch declaration, and take fuch oaths as aforefaid, if
required. (10 Ann. cap. 2.) And every fuch teacher,
having taken the oaths, and fubfcribed as above, fhall from
thenceforth be exempted from ferving in the militia, or on
any jury, or from being appointed to bear the office of
churchwarden, overfeer of the poor, or any other parochial
or ward office, or other office in any hundred, city, town,

arifh, divifion, or wapentake. For the ftate of diflenting
f{chool-mafters, fee Scnoot-Mafer.

In confequence of the Toleration A&, non-conformity
is no longer acrime in the eye of the law, and the penalties
to which it was obnoxious are not only fufpended, but
abfolutely annulled with regard to thofe diffenters who are
qualified as the at dire&ts. See Furneaux’s Letters to
Judge Blackftone, letter i. See Disspnrers.

For an account of the laws relating to Papifts or Catho-
lics, fee Parists. We fhall here {tate the toleration granted
to Catholics by the 31 Geo. III. c. 32. By this aét it hall
be lawful for perfons profeffing the Roman Catholic religion,
to appear in any of the courts at Weltminfter, or at the
general quarter feffions for the county, city, or place where
he fhall-refide, and there in open court, between the hours
of nine in the morning and two in the afternoon, take, make,
and fubfcribe the following declaration and oath: viz.

“TA.B. do hereby declare, that I do profefs the Roman
Catholic religion.

1 A.B. do fincerely promife and fwear, that I will be
faithful and bear true allegiance to his majefty king George
the Third, and him will defend to the utmoft of my power,
againft all confpiracies and attempts whatfoever, that fhall
be made againft his perfon, crown, or dignity ; and I will
do my utmoft endeavour to difclofe and make known to his
majefty, his heirs and fucceffors, all treafons and traitorous
confpiracies which may be formed againft him or them:
and I do faithfully promife to maintain, fupport, and de-
fend, to the utmoft of my power, the fucceflion of the
crown ; which fucceffion, by an aét intitled, dn AG for the
further limitation of the crown and better fecurity of the rights
and liberties Hi the fubje@, is and ftands limited to the princefs
Sophia, eleétrefs and duchefs dowager of Hanover, and the
heirs of her body, being Proteftants, hereby utterly re-
pouncing and abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any
other perfon claiming or pretending a right to the crown of
thefe realms. And J do {wear, that 1 do reje& and deteft,
as an unchriftian and impious pofition, that it is lawful to
murder or deftroy any perfon or perfons whatfoever, for or
under pretence of their being heretics or infidels ; and alfo

12

that unchriftian and impious principle, that faith is not to
be kept with heretics or infidels. And I do further declare
that it is not an article of my faith, and that I do renounce,
reject, and abjure the opinion, that princes excommunicated
by the pope and council, or any authority of the fee of
Rome, or by any authority whatfoever, may be depofed or
murdered by their fubjeéts, or any perfon whatfoever. And
I do promife that I will not hold, maintain, or abet any
fuch opinion, or any other opinion contrary to what is ex-
prefied in this declaration. And I do declare, that I do
not believe that the pope of Rome, or any other foreign
prince, prelate, flate, or potentate, hath or ought to have
any temporal or civil jurifdi&ion, power, fuperiority, or
pre-eminence, direétly or indire@tly, within this realm. And
I do folemnly, in the prefence of God, profefs, teftify, and
declare, that I do make this declaration, and every part
thereof, in the plain and ordinary fenfe of the words of this
oath, without any evafion, equivocation, or mental referva-
tion whatever ; and without any difpenfation already granted
by the pope, or any authority of the fee of Rome, or any
perfon whatever ; and without thinking that I am or car
be acquitted before Ged or man, or abfolved of this de-
claration, or any part thereof, although the pope or any
other perfon or authority whatfoever fhall difpenfe with or
annul the fame, or declare that it was null or void.”?

Which faid declaration and oath fhall be fubfcribed by
fuch perfen with his name at full length, if he can write,
and if not, with his mark, and his name fhall be written
by the officer, adding his title, addition, and place of abode,
which fhall there remain of record: and fuch officer shall
make, fubfcribe, and deliver a certificate of fuch declara-
tion and oath having been duly made and taken, if de-
manded, for which he fhall have 25.3 which certificate fhall
be competent evidence, unlefs falfified.

And fuch officer hall yearly, on or before the 25th of
December, tranfmit to the privy council lifts of the perfons,
with their titles, additions, and places of abode, who fhall
have made and fubfcribed fuch declaration and oath in the
preceding year.

And no Roman Catholic, who fhall have taken and fub-
fcribed the faid oath as aforefaid, fhall be conviéted upon
any of the aéts following ; viz. 1 Eliz. c. 2. 23 Eliz.c. 1.
29 Eliz. c.6. 35 Eliz.c.2. 1Jac.I.c.4. 3 Jac. I.c. 4.
3 Jac. I. c. 5. and 7 Jac. I. c. 6. or any other ftatute or
law of this realm; or in any ecclefiaftical court, for not re-
forting to church, or having fervants who fhall not refort to
church, or other place of common prayer.

And by 43 Geo. III. c. 30. Roman Catholics taking
and fubfcribing the declaration and oath contained in the
31 Geo. III. c. 32. fhall be entitled to all the benefits of
the 18 Geo. III. c. 60. to every purpofe as if they had
taken the oath thereby prefcribed.

And whereas, by 23 Eliz.c. 2. 27 Eliz.c.2. 35 Eliz.
GolZeqo2: Jaceds:c} Any Gy Jacailaseemys sian glace gare
25 Car. II. c. 2. Papifts are made fubje& to feveral punifh-
ments, penalties, and difabilities, it is enaéted that no per-
fon who fhall take and fubfcribe the faid oath in manner
aforefaid fhall be profecuted or conviéted for being a Papift,
or reputed Papift, or for profeffing or being educated in the
Popifh religion, or for hearing or faying mafs, or for being
a prieft or deacon, or entering or belonging to any eeclefi-
aftical order or community of the church of Rome, or for
being prefent at or performing or obferving any rite, cere-
mony, pra¢tice, or obfervance of the popih religion, or
maintaining or seme others therein. .

Provided always, that no place of congregation or af-
fembly for religious worfhip fhall be allowed, until the plaee

c)

TOLERATION.

of fuch meeting fhall be certified to the feffions of the
county or place in which the fame fhall be held, and be
there recorded’; and the clérk of the peace fhall give a cer-
tificate thereof, if demanded, for which he fhall have 6d.
And no minifter or other perfon fhall officiate in any fuch
place of meeting*until his name and defeription as a prieft or
minifter fhall have been recorded at the feffions, for which
fhall be paid 6d. and a certificate thereof fhall be granted,
if demanded, for which fhall be paid 2s. And no prieft
or minifter who fhall officiate in any fuch meeting not fo re-
corded as aforefaid fhall be deemed to be within the benefit
of this aét for any purpofe whatfoever.

Provided, that if any fuch place of aflembly fhall have the
doors locked, barred, or bolted, during the time of meet-
ing, all perfons who fhall come to or be at fuch meeting
fhall receive no benefit from this a€t, notwithftanding his
having taken fuch oath as aforefaid, but fhall be liable to the
fame pains and penalties, as if this aét had not been made.

If any Roman Catholic hall hereafter be appointed high
or petty conftable, churchwarden, overfeer of the poor, or
any other parochial or ward office, and fhall feruple to take
upon him any of the faid offices, he may execute the fame
by a fufficient deputy, to be approved of in like manner as
other perfons.

Eyery minifter of any Roman Catholic congregation who
fall take and fubfecribe the faid oath in manner aforefaid,
fhall be exempt from ferving on juries, and from the office
of church-warden, overfeer, or other parochial or ward
office, or other office in-any hundred of any fhire, city,
town, parifh, divifion, or-wapentake.

But all laws made for frequenting divine fervice fhall con-
tinue in force, unlefs where perfons fhall come to fome re-
ligious worfhip permitted by this a&t, or an at of 1 W.
& M. for exempting Diffenters.

And if any perfon fhall wilfully and on purpofe mali-
cioufly and contemptuoufly come into any congregation or
aflembly of religious worfhip permitted by this aét, and
difturb the fame; or mifufe any prieft, minifter, preacher,
or teacher therein, he fhall, on proof by two witnefles,
before one juftice, find two fureties of the peace to be
bound by recognizance in 5o/. and in default thereof, fhall
be committed to prifon till the next feflions, and on convic-
tion of fuch offence at the feffions, fhall forfeit 20/. to the

king.

Provided, that no benefit herein contained fhall extend to
any Roman Catholic ecclefiaftic permitted by this at, who
fhall officiate in any congregation, or aflembly hereby per-
mitted, with a fteeple and bell, or at any foneral in any
church or church-yard; or who {hall exercife any of the
rites or ceremonies of his religion; or wear the habits of
his order, fave within fome place of congregation, or af-
fembly for religious worfhip permitted by this a&; or in
any private houfe where there fhall not be more than five
pevfons affembled befides thofe of the houfehold ; or who

END OF VOL. XXXV.

Printed by A. Strahan,
New-Street-Square, London,

.24th of June 1791, be

fhall not previoufly to his fo exercifing his funétion have
taken the oath of allegiance, — and declaration
hereby appointed, in manner aforefaid. wd 2

But nothing herein fhall exempt any Roman Catholic
from paying tithes or other parochial duties, or any other
duties to the church or minifter; or to repeal any part of
26 Geo. IT. c. 33. “ for preventing clandeftine marriages,”
or any parts of any ftatutes concernin marriages it to
give any eafe or benefit to any perfon oti fhall, by pr
ing, téaching, or writing, deny or gainfay the oath and de-
claration aforefaid, or the doétrines therein oo
any of them ; or to repeal or affe&t any law concerning the
right fucceflion to or limitation of the crown. +.

And no Roman Catholic, who fhall take and fubferibe
the faid oath of allegiance, abjuration, and declaration, a8
aforefaid, fhall be profecuted for teaching youth as a tutor
or {chool-mafter ; but he fhall not hold any m: ip
any college, or fchool of royal foundation, or of’ an
endowed college or fchool for the education of youth; ner
fhall keep a fchool in either of the univerfities ; nor fhall re=.
ceive into his fchool for education the children of any Pro-
teftant father; nor fhall teach fchool until his name
fhall be entered at the feflions in manuer aforefaid, as°2
Roman Catholic fchoolmafter: and no perfon offending in
the premifes fhall receive any benefit from this a&. 4. |”

Provided alfo, that nothing herein fhall make it lawful to
found, endow, or eftablifh any religious order or fociety
of perfons bound by monattic or religious vows; or any
{chool, academy, or college by any Roman Catholic ; and
that all ufes, trufts, and difpofitions, whether of real or
perfonal property, before deemed to be unlawful, fhall con-
tinue to be fo deemed. aEW; Fe SRT oe

No perfon fhall be fummoned to take the oath required
by 1 W: & M. feff. 1. c. 8. or the declaration required by
25 Geo. II. c. 2. Nor fhall the 1 W. & M. feff. 1. e.g.
for removing Papifts from London and Weftminiter, extend
to Roman Catholics who fhall have taken and fubferibed
the oath, &c. herein appointed. &) 03

No peer who fhall have taken and fubfcribed the faid oath,
&c. in manner aforefaid, fhall be liable to be profecuted
under 30 Car. II, ft. 2.

And the 1 Geo. I. feff. 2. c. 55. and 3 Geo. IIT. c. 18.
requiring Papifts to regifter their names and real effates are
repealed ; and all deeds and wills of Papifts fhall, after the

good as if the faid aéts had never
been made. ily Ne Bey 4

And whereas by 7 & 8 Will. c. 4. and 1 Geo. FE. ft, 2.
Caltts bia perfon acting as a counfellor at law, barrifter,
attorney, folicitor, clerk, or notary, not having taken thi
oaths and declaration therein preferibed, fhould be liable to
certain penalties, it is enaéted that thefe oaths and declara-
tions fhall be no longer required ; but the oath and declara-
tion herein appointed fhall be taken in lieu thereof, in man-
ner aforefaid.

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