iat Palts s itt 3 A Theres aH ae * ea btert Hf bay al te Rar bochnateelgne Veg! relies} '. Ford stt | Leb ib) eh srrea tig i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopaediaorun3/rees THE CYCLOPADIA; OR, Universal Dictionary OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. VOL. XXXVII. < ee eh | i ar 1 £ z ‘4a : a puny bins MAK esate id @ | mvKXKE 109 ee s qi QO . - ¢ Printed by A. Strahan, ‘ at New-Street-Square, London. ; : vp a a.” #) THE CPFCLOPA DIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF Arts, Sciences, and Literature, BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.B.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. EE IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. XXXVII. EE LONDON PrintED FoR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PatTernosTER-Row, F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, Je MAWMAN,; JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R- SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO., J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. pel ak 12 10097 = P b / - gi i cre ra: oe * in esd yah AREA BT RON wie | Ga a Saen at caw | a + wih LOY Ss PL A Bt "oA Ae ray Aha ge La ° AP, , OTOP Oe x ay a) i ae @ > Ai it ’ - ester rut Can ia ab ae: beac RS we CVCLOPZAEDIA: OR, A NEW UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF oR ES and SCLE N:C#es: VERMES. ERMES, in Anatomy and Phyfiology. We have ex- Y plained, under Crassirica tion, the objections to which the Linnean clafs of Vermes is liable, confidered as one of the great divifions of the animal kingdom ; and we have propofed, in place of it, an arrangement grounded on the dif- tinGtions of anatomical ftru€ture, and therefore better fuited to the purpofes of comparative anatomy, as well as more conformable to natural method. Ass the anatomical defcrip- tion of the Moxiusca (which order includes moft of the Linnzan vermes) could not be prepared in time to appear under that word, it has been deferred to the prefent article, which will include alfo an account of the clafles VermrEs and Zoopnyta. In his ‘ Handbuch der Naturgefchichte,”’ Blumenbach retains the Linnean term VERMEs, dividing the clafs into, I. Inteftina; II. Mollufca; ILI. Teftacea ; IV. Cruftacea (Echino-dermata, Cuvier); V. Corallia (Zoophytes of moft naturalifts); and VI. Zoophyta (chiefly microfcopic animais and the animalcula infuforia). In the following article we fhall employ the terms Mot- Lusca, VEeRMEs, and ZoopHyTA, not in the acceptation in which they are ufed by Linnzus or Blumenbach, but as they are explained in the article CLassiFIcaTion ;—the fame fenfe in which they are ufed by the French naturalifts generally, and by Cuvier particularly, in his moft valuable and ufeful works, the ‘‘ T’ableau élémentaire” and “ Le- sons d’ Anatomie comparée.”’ When, in defcending along the fcale of living beings, we arrive, after the clafs of fifhes, at the invertebral animals, or fuch as have no vertebral column, we enter on an immenfe feries of various creatures, the moft numerous, and at the fame time the moft curious and interefting in refpe& to the difference of their organization and faculties. At this point in the feale, the vertebral column is anni- hilated : as this column is the bafis of the fkeleton, the latter Vor. XXXVII. no longer exifts; and confequently the moving parts no longer have their points of ation on internal organs. Moreover, no invertebral animal breathes by means of cellular lungs : none have any vocal organ, nor confequently voice. They appear, at leaft for the moft part, not to have true blood ; that is, not to have a fluid undergoing a true circulation, and pofleffing, as one of its effential characters, the red colour. It would be an abufe of words to call the colourléfs fluid, which moves flowly in the cellular fub- ftance of polypes, blood. We might as well give that name to the fap of vegetables. This conftant and ftriking difference of colour in the nutritive fluids has been adopted, by fome zoologifts, as the bafis of their firft great divifion of the animal kingdom. The primary divifion into red-blooded and white-blooded correfponds with that into vertebral and invertebral animals. The eye has no iris in invertebral animals. ‘They have no kidney. In the vertebral claffes, and particularly in the firft, or that of moft complicated and perfe& organization, all the effential organs are infulated, occupying diftin& and fepa- rate fituations ; in the invertebral, they are all brought to- ether. In his ** Tableau élémentaire,’’ Cuvier introduces us to the Zoophytes as the laft or moft fimple of the animal king- dom in their organization and faculties. The Mollufca poffefs nearly the fame apparatus of organs for digeftion, circulation, refpiration, and fenfation as red-blooded ani- mals ; and they even come very near in thefe points to fith. Infe&s, occupying a lower rank in the feale, have.no diftin& circulation, and refpire by trachez. Yet they poflefs a {pinal marrow, nerves, and organs of fenfe. In moft vermes we recognife analogous parts, and they probably exift in all But, in the zoophytes, we no longer difcern thefe organic B apparatufes ; VERMES. apparatufes : there are, in a few, barely digeftive vifcera, and fome indications of refpiration. They have no circula- tion, no nerves, no centre of fenfation: each part of the body feems to imbibe immediately the materials of its nu- trition, and to poffefs, within itfelf, the power of fenfation. Hence moft of thefe animals have very ftrong reproductive powers, quickly reftoring injured or loft parts. Some of them indeed are multiplied by a fimple divifion, like plants. There are however different degrees in this fimplicity, which is common to all, We pafs fucceffively from beings, which have feet, tentacula, hard and foft parts, and diftinét vifcera (viz. the Echino-dermata), to others, whofe whole body is a gelatinous mafs varioufly fhaped (Medufz), or, when ex- amined with the moft powerful microfcope, prefents an ap- parently indivifible atom (Infuforia). Stagnant water, infufions of vegetable fubftances, the recent feminal fluids of animals, &c. teem with animated points, round, oyal, or of other figures, with or without a {mall appendix forming a tail, only vifible, for the moft part, by means of ftrong magnifying powers. In the arrangement of Lamarck thefe creatures form a diftin& clafs, with the name Infuforia. As they are merely microfcopic objeéts, we can only fay of them, that they are minute, gelatinous, femitranfparent points, in fome of which more opaque fpots are vifible, homogeneous, irri- table throughout, and contraéting in every dire€tion ; con- fequently changing their form frequently, but generally afluming, when at reft, a determinate figure in each fpe- cies. We confider that thefe little bodies, which are mere animated points, and conftitute, if we may ufe fuch an ex- preffion, the ultimate term of organization (ultimate at leaft to our means of refearch), are nourifhed by abforption from their whole furface, and are probably excited by the fur- rounding influences of caloric, eleftricity, &e. ‘Thus they refemble vegetables, which live by abforption, executing no digeftion, and performing organic motions in confequence of external excitation. But the infuforia are irritable and con- traGtile, and execute fudden motions, which they can repeat : this charaéterizes their animal nature. The genus Monas of Cuvier, or Chaos of Blumenbach, includes the fimpleft known animals. The latter author di- vides his Chaos into aquatile, infuforium, and {permaticum, according as the animals are found in water, in vegetable infufions, or in animal femen. For adefcription of the latter, we refer to the article GrNERATION ; fome of the former are noticed under AnimALCULE. The Volvox is a round, yellowifh or greenifh, gelatinous, and nearly tran{parent ani- malcule, which {wims round and round, and moves about without any vifible organsof motion. It (volvox globator) abounds in fummer in the water of marfhes, and then has a reddifh colour. In its interior we can diftinguifh globes fimilar to itfelf; which come out of its body, moye about in the fame way, and are feen to contain other {maller ones ; fo that the animal may be faid to be pregnant at once with feveral fucceflive generations. The volvox conflictor is found in the water of dunghills, and moves by turning alternately to the right and left. It contains internally round mole- cules, which move about alfo, The appearance of thefe animalcules, their motions, and the multiplication of fome fpecies, lead us to afcribe them to the animal kingdom; but doubts are entertained on the fubjeét. In that fenfe, at leaft, we underftand the remark of Cuvier, ‘* On feroit méme tenté de croire que plufieurs de ces animaux microfcopiques ne fe forment que de la décom- pofition des matiéres foumifes 4 Vinfufion.?? Tab. Element. p- 663. They who believe them to be animals, are again divided 12 in opinion refpeéting the mode of their produétion ; fome arguing from analogy that they are produced by generatien of fome kind, while others admit of a fpontaneous origin, or what has been commonly called equivocal gencration. Spal- lanzani made feveral experiments to determine this point. Long boiling accelerated the produétion of the animalcules ; which were alfo produced from the infufion of vegetable feeds burnt with the blowpipe. When boiling infufions were put into glafs tubes, and thefe immediately hermetically fealed, no animalcules were produced. Eleétricity, tobacco- fmoke, oleaginous, fpirituous, and corrofive liquors deftroy them. They will live a month in vacuo ; but are not pro- duced in that fituation. Spallanzani’s Tra&ts on Animals and Vegetables. Refpeéting this do&trine of equivocal generation, we ma obferve, that the only argument in its favour is the indireé& and unfatisfa€tory one arifing from its oppofers being unable to fhew that the creatures in queftion are produced by a procefs of generation. The analogy of all nature, down to the minutett infeéts, which our microfcopes enable us to in- veltigate, affords a very ftrong prefumptive proof againft it, and leads us to conclude, that if our means of examination were more perfeét, we fhould find that thefe creatures are produced and multiplied like all other animated beings. There are numerous other {fpecies named after differences of form, or according to the circumitances under which they are produced. ‘The Proteus has the fingular property of changing its form, almoft inceflantly, into every poffible modification of figure. The {mall animals found in vinegar and palte ( Vibrio aceti et glutinis), generally called eels from their elongated figure, are almoft large enough to be diftin- guifhed by the naked eye. Freezing does not deftroy them ; but evaporation does, unlefs they are protected b a little duft from the contaét of the air. It is faid that they change their fkin, that they have different fexes, and produce young ones alive in fpring, then lay eggs till autumn. The genera juft enumerated, viz. Monas, Volvox, Pro- teus, Vibrio, together with two others, Burfaria and Kol- poda, make up the order infuforia nuda of Lamarck ; that is, fuch as have no external appendices. He has a fecond order of infuforia appendiculata, including fuch infufion animalcules as exhibit any prominent part like hairs or tail, &c. The feminal vermiculi, as they have been termed, (cercarie, Lamarck,) belong to this order, for they haye a tail. It includes alfo the genus or family of the tricho-cerce and trichade. We come next to animalcules a little more complicated in their {tru€ture ; they poffefs ftellated organs, confilting of fine ciliated procefles furrounding an opening, and fufeep- tible of motion, with the fuppofed obje& of drawing their prey towards the aperture. The following animals are formed by Lamarck into an order which he calls Polypi, and which we deem a very natural one. They are gemmiparous, or multiply by fhoots. They have a fmall elongated body, homogeneous, gelatinous, very irritable, poffefling wonderful reprodu@tive powers, provided at its upper end with a mouth, which is furrounded by rotatory organs, or radiated tentacula, and ferves as the entrance of an alimentary cavity which has no other opening. This cavity is the only organ they pof- fefs ; it is ufually an elongated bag, feldom folded on itfelf, or poflefling any appendages. Such is the idea of a polype; when feveral of thefe little bodies are connefed together, and participate a common life, they compofe the animals of zoophytes. The VERMES. The idea, which fome have entertained, that the brain and nerves, the mufcular fyftem, &c. of which no trace can be difcovered in the polypi, neverthelefs exift, but are expanded and as it were melted down into the general mafs of the body, fo that every point is capable of fenfation, mufcular motion, &c. is a perfe&tly gratuitous and impro- bable fuppofition. On this view, it would follow that a frefh-water polype (hydra) has all the organs of a perfect animal in every part of its body, and confequently fees, hears, {mells, &c. at all points. Thus it would be a more perfe& animal than man, as each molecule would be equi- valent, in the complement of its organization and faculties, to an entire individual of the human fpecies. If we allow this to the polype, how can we refufe it to the monas, to vegetables? The ftudy of nature teaches us in all cafes, that when an organ ceafes to exift, the faculty is no longer found. The polypi are very irritable, and are a€ted on by exter- nalinfluences. Light attraéts them towards the quarter whence it comes, as it does the branches, flowers, and leaves of plants. No polype purfues its prey; but when a foreign body touches its tentacula, they ftop and convey it to the mouth ; it is fwallowed without diitin@tion, digefted if fuf- ceptible of that procefs, otherwife rejected. Lamarck objects to the term zoophytes, or animal plants, becaufe thefe are truly animals, and have nothing of vege- table nature. The only relations between polypi and plants are in the fimplicity of their ftru€ture, in the connection of feveral polypi with each other, fo as to communicate by their alimentary canal, and form compound animals; and in the external form of the mafles which thefe united polypi com- pofe, a form which for a long time caufed them to be taken for true vegetables, fince they are often ramified nearly in the fame manner. Whether polypi have one or more mouths, we muft always bear in mind that they lead to an alimentary cavity, that is, to an organ of digeftion which does not exift in any vegetable. The wheel animal of Spallanzani is a remarkable fpecies of this kind (rotifer redivivus ; vorticella rotatoria, Gmel.) It is found in ftagnant water, and in the fand of fewers and tiles. It has a tail, and is forked in front; each portion bearing a kind of toothed wheel, which can be drawn in at pleafure. Internally an organ is perceptible with a flow and irregular motion, fuppofed to be a ftomach. he name of redivivus was given to this creature from its remarkable property, pointed out by Spallanzani, of re- covering life after being long dried. This refufcitation will take place at the end of fome years; but Spallanzani fays, that the animal muft be kept in the fand in which it is found. (See his Tracts.) Baker (on the Microfcope) makes a fimilar reprefentation with re{pe@ to the eels of blighted corn. The vorticellz of Cuvier, polypes 4 bouquet, (Brachio- nus, Blumenbach, ) have {mall organs, like fine hairs, coming out of their anterior extremities, turning about rapidly and inceffantly : their nature and ufe are unknown. Some have a tail; others a thread-like peduncle. The latter are united in an arborefcent manner, They inhabit ftagnant waters, and are fo minute, that a mafs of them appears only as a fpot of film. They multiply by fimple divifion, one of the frmall bodies fplitting, and each half becoming an entire one. The botrylli, corine, and criftatelle, or polypes 4 plumet of Cuvier, are allied to the latter: they poffefs tentacula or ciliated organs ; and are either fingle or colleéted into arbo- refcent maffes. In the frefh-water polypes (hydra), the organization is rather more complicated, and the fize of the animal increafes, fo that it is vifible with the naked eye. They are gelati- nous, femi-tranfparent, and therefore not eafily recognifed by a perfon unaccuftomed to look for them. Their body is elongated, fmall at one end, by which it is attached to fome aquatic plant, teftaceous animal, &c. and larger at the other. It confifts of a cayity terminating at the large end by a round orifice, furrounded by long tentacula. ‘The animal indeed may be regarded as a ftomach, provided with inftruments for catching its food: the latter is the ufe of the tentacula. The fubftance of the body appears, under the ftrongeft magnifying powers, a mere jelly, with more opaque portions inter{perfed. Blumenbach compares it to boiled fago. They live on naiades, monoculi, and other {mall aquatic animals, which they feize with their tentacula,.and convey into the ftomach, where they are digefted, and from which the refufe is reje@ed by the fame opening. They perform locomotion, and feem very fenfible to light, although nothing like mufcle or nerve can be difcerned in them. Neither have any veffels been feen in them: the are faid indeed to receive a tint from the food they take, fo that it muft pafs immediately from the {tomach into the organs. The moft furprifing circumftances, however, in thefe ani- mals, are their mode of multiplication and their extenfive power of reprodu€tion. They propagate by buds from their own body. If cut into fix or more pieces, each be- comes a perfect animal: they may be inverted, and the ex- ternal and internal furfaces will be changed and affume each other’s funétions. When they are partially divided in the longitudinal direGtion, the feparated parts heal fo as to form two heads or tails, &c. See the article Potyrr; alfo, Trembley Mem. pour fervir 2 lHiftoire d’un Genre de Polypes d’Eau douce, &c.; Leid. 1744, 4to. Baker’s Natural Hiftory of the Polype; Lond. 1743, 8vo. Réfel Hiftorie der Polypen ; in the third volume of his Infe@en- beluftigungen. Schiffer Armpolypen in den fiiffen Waf- fern um Regenfburg, 1754, 4to. From the frefh-water polypes, there is an eafy tranfition to the animal of the Welt India iflands defcribed by Ellis, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. lvii. tab. 19. fig. 1, and in his Natural Hiftory of Zoophytes, tab. 1. fig. 1, under the name of actinia fociata, or clufter animal flower. It is the zoanthe a drageons of Cuvier, hydra fociata of Gmelin. It is of a tender flefhy fubftance, confifting of many diftin@ tubular bodies, each of which fwells above into a fmall bulb: at the top of this bulb is the mouth, furrounded by one or two rows of tentacula, which can be extended or with- drawn at pleafure: in the latter ftate they look like circles of beads. Thefe bodies are conneéted below to a firm flefhy wrinkled tube, fticking fait to the rocks, and fend- ing forth other flefhy tubes, which creep along them in various dire€tions, and give origin to fimilar bodies rifing up irregularly in groups. Knobs are obferved on the ad- hering tube, from its infinuating itfelf into the inequalities of the coral rock. When the animal is difleGted lengthwife, a large cavity is expofed, into which a tube opens from the mouth. From this tube eight {mall cords arife, continued to the lower part of the animal, where they feem to be loft in the flefhy bafis. The fmall polypi will appear to us more wonderful, and will more powerfully engage our attention, when we fixd that they produce all thofe marine fubftances, forserly called zoophytes, from a notion that they partook both of the animal and vegetable natures, and includins corals, co- rallines, madrepores, millepores, fponges, &-* &¢. So ac- tive are thefe mirute creatures in fome -4tts of the ocean, Bez that VERMES. that their conftruGtions form the bafis of new iflands, con- ftitute extenfive and dangerous reefs, block up harbours, create fhoals, &c. All which effe&s are produced by ani- mals not greatly exceeding in bulk the frefh-water polype. It has been repeatedly found in the Weft Indies, that wrecks become covered univerfally and thickly with madre- pores and other corals within three-quarters of a year. The formerly excellent harbour of Bantam is now almoft entirely occupied by corals. Several volcanic ifles of the South-fea, and fome even of the Weft Indian, as for example Bar- badoes, are coated over with coral. The dangers to nayi- gators from great coral banks rifing out of the bottom of the fea, in unknown tra&ts, may be illuftrated from what Cook and Flinders experienced on the coafts of New Holland. Thefe productions were formerly defcribed with vegeta- bles, and they will be found fo claffed by Tournefort : their vegetable nature was even defended by Pallas. Our coun- tryman Mr. Ellis has the honour of demonftrating that they belong to the animal kingdom, and of fhewing the animals by which they are formed. See his papers, accompanied by plates, in the 48th, 4gth, soth, 53d, 55th, and 57th vols. of the Phil. Tranf. ; alfo his admirable works, ‘‘ Natural Hif- tory of Corallines,”’ &c. Lond. 1755, 4to. ; “¢ Natural Hif- tory of many curious and uncommon Zoophytes,”’ &c. 1786, 4to. See alfo Donati della ftoria Naturale Marina dell’ Adriatico ; Venez. 1750, 4to. ; Cavolini Memorie per fer- yire alla ftoria de Polipi Marini; Napol. 4to. The animals belonging to thefe fubftances may be called compound polypi. The flefhy maffes, which are differently circumftanced in different cafes, exhibit numerous proje&- ing heads, each of which has a muuth with radiated tenta- cula. Thefe heads may be either extended or withdrawn. Thus all the polypi are conne&ed into one mafs, which is increafed by fhoots.. In ftru€ture, thefe compound polypi do not differ from the fimple ones, fo far at leaft as our pre- fent knowledge of them goes. ; Some zoophytes confift of a horny tube, branching out varioufly, and hollow internally. The axis of thefe zoo- phytes is occupied by a {tem of animal fubftance, and at each of its branches a polype projets. The horny covering probably grows as the fhells of the teftacea do: and we may fuppofe, that the tentaculated heads of the animal ferve to procure it nourifhment. The flofcularia is of this kind; the animal is not very intimately conneéted to the tube. The tubularia occurs in frefh water as well as in the fea ; there is a horny tube, fometimes fimple, fometimes ramified. The polype at the end exhibits tentacula, or a bundle of hairs like a pencil. The capfularia and fertularia are of the fame kind. In other inftances, each polype, inftead of being con- neéted to a common item, is contained in a horny or calca- reous cell, with thin fides. In thefe there is not the fame dire& communication as in the former genera. Each polype is infulated, or, if they communicate, it muft be by very fine filaments, traverfing the cells. In thefe and fome other of the zoophytes, veficles are ogcafionally feen, and have been fuppofed to be ovaries: the latter yopinion, however, is inconfiftent with the views entertained at prefent. Cellularia, fluftra, and corallina, exemplify this: though, with refpe& to the latter, it mutt be cdferved, that its animals have not yet been demon- ftrated, and its pores are fo fmall, that they muft be ex- tremely ms yte, The zoop-rtes which have an axis of folid fubftance, covered by a {oz flefhy layer, with hollows, which con- tain tentaculated polypi, have been called cerato-phyta. The axis is fometimes ligneous or horny, or flony, and covered by a flefhy fubftance capable of contracting. In this there are numerous hollow tubercles, from which there are pro- jected and withdrawn at will, heads, or-rather tentacvlated mouths formed like polypi, all belonging to the fame animal, like the branches of a polype: that is, the foft fubftance co- vering the folid axis is to be regarded as the animal, of which thefe are fo many mouths. It has the power of extending itfelf to form a bafis of adherence to folid bodies. We alfo obferve it extending over and forming a new ftratum of coralline matter, inclofing foreign bodies that may be at- tached to the axis. That the coralline axis is formed by the flefhy covering cannot be doubted; we perceive in it concentric ftrata, indicating its fucceffive depofitions, and the furface is marked by longitudinal lines correfponding to the figure of the animal covering. When the trunk of the coralline tree contains ligneous or vegetable matter, pro- bably this is an extraneous body, on which the coral is depofited. The branches are produced by an elongation of the foft flefh, which forms them in its interior: but their {trata are not continuous with thofe of the trunk, as in the cafe of trees. : ‘ Cuvier (Tableau elémentaire, p. 671.) flates, that the nourifhment taken by any of the polype heads is converted to the ufe of the whole animal; to which, alfo, he afcribes- a common will, as evidenced by its extenfion for the purpofe of adhering to furrounding obje@s. We know no faés concerning the ftru€ture of the animal covering, at all fuffi- cient to warrant thefe ftatements. The gorgonia nobilis (ifis nobilis), or red coral, is an ex- ample of this ftruéture. The axis is the compa ftony fubftance, of the hardnefs of marble, of which coral orna- ments are made. ‘The flefhy covering is of a bright red, containing calcareous molecules, which form a kind of in- cruftation when dried, and exhibiting numerous cavities in which polypi are lodged. Each of thefe has eight denticu- lated tentacula. . The antipathes and ifis belong to this di- vifion. See the excellent plates of Ellis in the Natural Hif- tory of Zoophytes, exhibiting all the faéts above enumerated ; particularly tab. 3. fig. 1—5. for various views of the ifis hippuris, or black and white coral: tab. 11. gorgonia flam- mea: tab. 12. figs. 1, 2. gorgonia ceratophyta: tab. 13. figs. 3, 4. gorgonia pectinata: tab. 14. figs. 1, 2. gorgonia briareus : fig. 3. gorgonia pinnata. The pennatula, or féa-feather, belongs alfo to this divifion, and it is remarkable among the marine zoophytes, as being unattached, and poffefling the power of locomotion. All the others are fixed by their trunks or bafes to fome other ob- ject, as rocks, fhells, fea-weed, &c. &c. The pennatula refembles a feather, and confifts of a fhaft and barbs. The former is cartilaginous and covered by a flefhy layer ; from which, at its {maller half, forty, fixty, or more curved arms proceed on both fides, like the barbs of a feather. Ten, twelve, or more {maller proceffes are continued from one edge of each of thefe primary barbs ; and in each of thefe is contained a delicate gelatinous polype, with eight tentacula. “ The ftem of the fuckers of this animal,’ fays Mr. Ellis, “is of a cylindrical form: from the upper part proceed eight fine white filaments or claws to catch their food ; when they retreat on the alarm of danger, they draw themfelves into their cafes, which are formed like the denticles in the corallines ; but here each denticle is furnifhed with {picule, which clofe together round the entrance of the denticle, and proteé this tender part from external injuries.’ Phil. Tranf. vol. liii. Pp: 424. Thus, VERMES. » Thus, in a feapen of a {pan long, there are at leaft above 00 of thefe polypes. (See Ellis, Zoophytes, p. 6. et feq. tab. 8.) They fwim about in the fea by a common motion produced by their numerous polypi; and are re- markable for poffeffing phofphoric properties; hence one kind has been called pennatula phofphorea, and Linneus fays of it, “* habitat in oceano, fundum illuminans.”” (Phil. Tranf. vol. lil, tab. 19. fig. r—5.) The pennatula rubra, or Italian feapen, is alfo ftrongly phofphoric. Dr. Shaw ob- ferves of it, that on the coaft of Algiers it fends forth fo great a light in the night, that the fifhermen can diftin- guifh the fifh as they {wim by it, fo as to know where to caft their nets. See Phil. Tranf. vol. liii. p. 21. figs. 1, 2. The foft covering of the flem of the feapens confifts ex. ternally of a {trong coriaceous membrane, and internally of a thinner membrane: the cavity of the latter is occupied merely by the bone or cartilage. Between the two mem- branes are innumerable yellowifh ‘eggs, floating in a whitifh liquor. The fins are alfo compofed of two fkins; the outer ftrong and leathery, the inner thin and clear. The cylin- drical part of the fuckers is formed in the fame way, except that their outward fkins are fofter. Both the fins and fuckers are hollow; fo that the cavity of the fuckers may communicate with their fins, as their cavity does with the trunk. , - See an account of the feapen or pennatula phofphorea of Linnzus ; likewife a defcription of a new fpecies of fea- ‘pen, found on the coaft of South Carolina, with obferva- tions on feapens in general, by J. Ellis, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. liii. with three plates reprefenting various {pecies, with magnified views of the tins and polypes. The lithophytes are zoophytes with an axis or bafis of a ftony fubftance, in which receptacles for polypi are exca- vated. The madrepores and millepores belong to this di- vifion. See Ellis’s Zoophytes, tab. 23. for views of the millepora truncata, in which the polypes are feen magnified. They are fo numerous in fome feas, as to form entire iflands : feveral of thofe in the South-fea are a mere con- eries of madrepores. The laft kind of zoophytes have a fpongy friable or fibrous fubftance for their bafis, covered by a flefhy incruf- tation, which fometimes contains polypes. There are only two genera; viz. alcyonium and {pongia. The interior of the latter is light, friable when dry, compofed of fine, di- verging fibres. The animal covering is a foft incruftation, without calcareous particles, which becomes coriaceous by drying, and is pierced with cells from which the heads of polypes iffue. See Ellis in the Phil. Tranf. vol. litt. tab. 20. figs. 10. 11. and 13. Whether the fponges are animals, is flill doubted even by good naturalifts: at all events, they poffefs the charafters and faculties of animals in the loweit degree. They confift of amore or lefs denfe and flexible fibrous tiffue, covered in its recent flate by a femifluid and thin kind of animal jelly. Regularly formed round apertures are obferved, fometimes pierced in flightly prominent papille ; but no polypes iffue from thefe, nor has any thing of the kind ever been feen in them. The only circumftance mentioned about them, that can be deemed a fign of life, is a flight and hardly perceptible contraétion or fhrinking, when they are torn from their fituation. After their death, the animal jelly diffolves and is removed, and the fibrous bafis alone is left. See Ellis on the Nature and Formation of Sponges, Phil. Tranf. vol. lv. pl. ro and 11. Next to the polypes, whether exifting fingly and un- covered, or conneéted with thofe conftruétions which con- ftitute the zoophytes, we may place, in refpeé to fimplicity of ftructure, the a€tinie and medufe. The former poffefs a coriaceous body, with confiderable power of contraétion, which enables the animal to change its figure very remark- ably, from a half {phere, when the mouth is fhut, and the tentacula withdrawn, to a cyliider when it is open. It ad- heres by a circular difk to the fand, rocks, &c. The oppofite end forms a mouth, furrounded by feveral rows of long, conical, and moveable tentacula, which can be withdrawn or extended at pleafure. The mouth is round, and leads ftraight into a cylindrical ftomach, with rugous fides. They live on fmall crabs principally, which they feize and envelop with their tentacula. The refufe is re- jected by the fame paffage. Between the parietes of the ftomach and the fkin there is a vaft number of very fine in- teftines, interwoven with each other, of which the commu- nications and ufes have not been found out. The aétinie are famous for their reproductive powers. When cut in two, each part becomes a perfect animal. The tentacula and other parts are eafily reftored. The young a€tinie are born alive, either at the mouth or through the fide of the parent ; in the latter cafe the cicatrix foon clofes. They move fometimes on their bafis, fometimes on the ten- tacula. Lamarck’s clafs- of polypi terminates with the aétiniz. It includes the following orders : I. Polypes rotiféres (wheel-bearing), having ciliated and _retatory organs round the mouth. Urceolarie. Brachioni. Vorticellz. Il. Polypes a polypier, — polypes conneéted with hard fubftances ; having radiated tentacula about the mouth, and conneéted to a hard fubftance, which does not float loofe in the water. 1. With membranous or horny polypier, without any dif- tin@ cortex. Crriftatella. Plumatella. Cellularia. Sertu- laria. Fluftra. Cellepora. Botryla. 2. Polypier with a horny axis, covered by an incruftation. Aleceabularn, Corallina. Spongia. Alcyonium. Anti- pathes. Gorgonia. 3. Polypier with an axis partly or entirely ftony, and covered by a bark-like incruttation. Ifis. Corallium. 4. Polypier entirely ftony, and without incruftation, Tu- bipora. Lunulite. Ovalite. . Siderolite. Orbalite. Al- veolite. Ocellaria. Efchara. Retepora. Millepora. Aga- rica. Pavonia. Meandrina. Aftrea. Madrepora. Caryo- phyllia. Turbinolia. Fongia. Cyclolite. Dadtylopore. Virgularia. IIL. Polypes flottans ; loofe polyp. Polypier loofe, floating in the water, having a horny or offeous axis, covered by a flefhy inveftment, to which all the poly pi are conneéted : radiated tentacula round the mouth of the latter. Funiculina. Veretilla. Pennatula. En- crinus. Umbellularia. IV. Naked polypi; mouth with radiated tentacula, often multiplied ; no polypier. Pedicellaria. Corina. Hydra. Zoanthus. Actinia. The fubftance of the medufz is tranfparent and gelatinous (whence their common name of fea-blubber), aid almoft entirely deftroyed by evaporation or boiling. In the ftate of reft, their body reprefents the fegment of a {phere, with the convexity fmooth, and the oppofite fur‘ace furnifhed with various tentacula. Coloured lines are obferved in their interior, but nothing which indicates circulation. To- wards their edges, however, numerous veffels are obferved, communicating apparently with the alimentary cavity. They inhabit the ocean, {wimming very well by rendering ed Oey VERMES. body alternately more and lefs convex. When the tide ebbs, many of them are left on the fhore motionlefs. Although thefe creatures are very numerous, and in fome inftances of great bulk, their ftru€ture and economy are hitherto but little known. Meffrs. Péron and Le Sueur devoted their attention to them very particularly in their voyage to the Southern iflands; have delineated fome f{pecies in their “ Voyage aux Terres Auftrales ;”’ and have announced acom- prehenfive work on the whole tribe, in which their natural hiftory and ftru€ture are to be amply inveftigated. Perhaps this has even now appeared; but we have not feenit. In the notice of this publication, given in the Annales du Mu- féum d’Hiftoire Naturelle, tom. xiv. p. 218. et feq. they ob- ferve, ‘that the fubftance of the medufz is refolved entirely, by a kind of inftantaneous fufion, into a fluid analogous to fea-water ; yet the moft important funétions of life are ex- ercifed in thefe bodies, which feem to be merely coagulated water. Their numbers are prodigious, yet we have no cer- tain knowledge of their mode of generation: they are in fome cafes feveral feet in diameter, and weigh fifty or fixty pounds, yet their fyftem of nutrition efcapes us: they execute the moft rapid and continued movements, yet we can difcover no fibrous or mufcular ftruéture: their fecre- tions are exceedingly abundant, yet we fee nothing of the mechanifm by which they are executed: they have refpira- tion of a very active kind, but its feat is a myftery: they appear very feeble, yet fifhes of fome inches in length are their conftant prey: their ftomach feems incapable of any action on the latter animals, but they are digefted imme- diately. Several of them contain air in their interior; we do not know how they can derive it either from the atmo- {phere or water, or develope it in their inteftines. Several are phofphoric : they fhine in the darknefs of the night like fo many globes of fire ; yet the nature, the principle, and the agents of this ftriking property are fo many problems. Some fting and benumb the hand which touches them ;: the caufe of this phenomenon is equally unknown,”? The latter property, being one of the moft obvious, has influenced the name of thefe beings: they are called in all languages, fea-nettles. In the fame volume of the Annales du Muféum, the au- thors quoted above have given a view of the generic and {pe- cific charaéters of the medufz, as they will be defcribed in their great work. See p. 325, et feq. The echino-dermata of Cuvier are the moft complicated in their ftru@ture among the zoophytes: they have a coria- ceous or calcareous covering, a diftin& internal refpiratory organ, and often numerous retratile feet. In many the fin is of a more or lefs cruftaceous nature ; or it may even be a true fhell. The feet, paffing through apertures of this covering, admit of being extended or withdrawn: they are often arranged with much regularity. There is a mouth, provided generally with five teeth arranged in a circle, and leading into an alimentary cavity in the interior of the body : there are alfo ovaries ; and a very extenfive ramified organ, which feems to eftablifh a perpetual circulation of water through the bodies of thefe animals, and confequently a kind of refpiration. Nothing is found like heart or brain. The holothuria (fea-cucumber), with its cylindrical body and thick leathery fin; the afterias, with its conical radiated proceffes and pliable calcareous integument ; and the echinus (fea-hedgehog), with a complete calcareous fhell, belong to this divifion. The medufe, ftar-fifh, echini, &c. are formed by La- marck into a diftin@ eclafs, which he calls Radiaria, or radiated animals, becaufe their bodies are diftinguifhed, in the arrangement both of their internal and external parts, by being formed into radii furrounding a centre; a form- ation of which the firft {ketch is feen in the polypes. Their mode of generation is not exaétly known, but they poffefs confiderable powers of reproduétion: they contain organs that feem like ovaries. ‘The mouth is placed down- wards, or on the inferior furface of the body: they have no head, eyes, nor articulated limbs, probably no nerves; and no circulating fyftem. This clafs comprehends two orders : I. Radiaria mollufca (foft radiant animals). Gelatinous body, foft tranfparent fkin, without any articulated fpines ; Genera: Stephanomia. Lucernaria. Phyflopho- no anus. rus. Phyfalia. Velella. Porpita. Pyrofoma. Beroe. Equorea. Rhizoftoma. Medufa. II. Radiaria echino-dermata. Opaque cruftaceous or co- riaceous fkin, furnifhed with retratile tubercles, or {pines articulated upon tubercles, and perforated by rows of holes. 1. Stellerida. Skin not irritable, but moveable; no anus. Genera: Ophiurus. Afterias. 2. Echinida. Skin not irritable, nor moveable ; an anus. Genera: Clypeaftrus. Caffidites. Spatanguis. Anan- chites. Galerites. Nucleclites. Echinus. 3. Fiftulida. Body elongated ; {kin irritable and move- able; an anus. Genera: Holothuria. Sipunculus. The vermes of Cuvier approach very much to the larve of infects. Perfe& infeGts are diftinguifhed, among all the white-blooded claffes, by the perfeétion of their organs of motion, their members having diftin& articulations, and the component parts being folid. The larve in fome cafes en- joy the fame advantage: thofe of the orthoptera and hemip- tera have as perfect legs as the perfe& infe€ts: in the larve of the lepidoptera and coleoptera, the members are generally very fhort, and not capable of prompt motion. The limbs difappear entirely in the larve of the diptera, and many of the hymenoptera, their place being fupplied by hairs, briftles, or merely by the rings and tranfverfe wrinkles of the trunk. The vermes refemble the laft mentioned larve ; but they undergo no change of form. The largeft have the body divided into diftin& rings: a knotted nervous cord is found in their interior. ‘Thofe which live in water, breathe by membranous or tufted branchiz, like many aquatic larve. Others have along the fides of their body ftigmata precifely fimilar to the openings of the trachez in infe@ts.. The organs of motion, in feveral inftances, are {tiff briftles or fpines. Others crawl by fuc- ceflively wrinkling or contra€ting the different parts of the body. Some have even antennz. In fhort, we cannot af- fign any general charaéter, drawn either from external form or internal ftru€ture, which would be fufficient, in all cafes, to diftinguifh worms from the larve of infe&s. Moft worms inhabit the interior of other animals, as the larve of fome infeéts do: others live in the earth or water. Some of the latter conftru& folid habitations, either b agglutinating foreign fubftances, or by pouring out a cal- careous matter, like that of the teftaceous mollufca. But the fhells of worms may always be diftinguifhed from thofe of the mollufca, becaufe they are always either ftraight or tortuous tubes, never regularly {piral, or an expanded cone, and rhore particularly becaufe the animal is never attached, which it is almoft invariably in the cafe of the mollufca. This clafs of vermes has been divided by Lamarck into two; namely, worms, and annular animals (annelides), His clafs of worms contains the inteftinal worms, and fome others, whofe organization is equally imperfe&t. The ani- mals included in this clafs have a foft body more or lefs elon- gated, VERMES. gated, without head, eyes, or articulated limbs. _ They have no circulating veffels. No organ of fecundation has been hitherto difcovered ; fo that fexual generation does not feem to exift in them. The parts fuppofed in fome to be ovaries feem to be mere colleGtions of reproduCtive molecules, which require no fecundation. Their inteftinal canal is complete, or poffeffes two openings ; and the mouth confifts of one or more apparatufes for fucking. The clafs is divided into three orders; viz. cylindrical, veficular, and flattened worms, according to the form of the body. The clafs of annelides or annulofa has a foft elongated body, covered by tranfverfe rings, and no articulated limbs : feldom a head or eyes. They have a knotted f{pinal marrow ; arteries and veins containing a fluid, which is generally red. They breathe by branchiz, which are fometimes external and prominent, fometimes concealed. The clafs confifts of two orders : I. Annulofa crypto-branchia (having concealed branchiz). Genera: Planaria. Hirudo. Lernea. Clavala. Naias. Lumbricus. Thalaflema. II. Gymno-branchia (having external branchiz). Genera: Arenicola. Amphinomia. Nereis. Terebella. Amphitrite. Sabellaria. Serpula. Spirorbis. Siliquaria. Dentalium. The mollufca have a mufcular heart, to which the nutri- tive fluid is brought by the veins, and from which it is car- ried out by the arteries ; they have organs nearly refembling the gills of fifh, in which the fluid 1s expofed to the im- fluence of the furrounding element, and glands which pour different fecretions into the alimentary canal. ‘They have a brain, nerves, and fome organs of fenfe; but in the latter there is more variety than in the other points. Their body, or at leaft their limbs have no bone in the interior; but fe- veral of them are inclofed in very firm, even ftrong cafes, which are called fhells (tefte), whence the animals them- felves have been denominated teftacea or fhell-fith in common language. Thefe are comprehended, together with the en- tirely naked ones, under the name mollufca. They have white and very irritable mufcles. They are extremely tenacious of life ; moving after being cut into . feveral pieces, and reproducing very confiderable portions of their body when deftroyed in any way. Their fkin is always foft, and generally lubricated by a vifcous fecretion: it is very fenfible, and poffeffes organs, called tentacula, capable of elongation, for the purpofe of touching. None have organs of {melling, ‘but there are eyes in feveral, and ears in fome. The body is generally enveloped, or at leaft co- yered in great part by a membranous inveitment, called in French manteau, which we fhall term the mantle. Several have moreover a hard covering named a fhell, compofed of one or more pieces, called valves, and produced by calca- reous matter tranfuding from the mantle. To this the body is fixed by means of mufcles. Molt mollufca inhabit the fea; fome dwell in frefh water, and others live in the earth. Lamarck removes four genera from the mollufca, to con- ftitute a diftin® clafs, which he calls cirrhipédes: thefe genera are tubicinella, coronula, balanus, anatifa. Their principal diftinguifhing chara€ters are articulated arms co- vered by a horny fkin ; two pairs of mandibles to the mouth; a knotted nervous cord. It appears from the preceding review, if we join to it the confideration of the ftru€ture of infe&ts, that the animals with white blood, as they have been called, have not fo many common charaéters as the red-blooded. Their chief diftinGions are of the negative kind, as the abfence of a vertebral column, and of an interior articulated fkeleton, &e. “« Thus,”’ fays Lamarck, ** when we confider fucceffively the various organic fyftems of animals, from the moft com- pound to the moft fimple, we fhall obferve a degradation of the organization commencing even in the clafs which com- prehends the moft perfeé animals, proceeding from clafs to clafs, though with anomalies caufed by various circumftances, and terminating at lait in the infuforia. The latter are the moit imperfe&, and moft fimply organized ; the degrada- tion in them has reached its term, the organization being re- duced to a fimple, homogeneous, gelatinous body, almoft without confiftence, poffefling no diftin& organs, and fimply formed of a very delicate tiffue, which feems to be affeéted by the furrounding fubtile fluids. “© We have feen each organ, even the moft effential, gra- dually degenerate, become lefs diftiné, and at laft entirely difappear long before we had reached the extremity of the feries : and we may obferve, that it is principally in the in- vertebral animals that the fpecial organs are obferved to be annihilated. : ‘* Before we quit the divifion of vertebral animals, great changes are perceived in the perfe€tion of the organs, and even fome of them, as the urinary bladder, the organ of the voice, the eye-lids, &c. difappear entirely. The lung, which is the mot perfeét apparatus for breathing, dege- nerates in reptiles, ceafes to exift in fifhes, and is not found in any invertebral animal. The fkeleton itfelf, which furnifhes the bafis of the four limbs poffefled by moft verte- bral animals, begins to decline, particularly in reptiles, and ends altogether in fifh. “ But in the invertebral animals, we fee the moft important parts annihilated, one after the other : the heart, the brain, the branchiz, conglomerate glands, circulating veflels, the organ of hearing and of fight, thofe of fexual generation, and even thofe of fenfation and motion. We fhould feek in vain among the polypes for the flighteit trace of nerves or mufcles : irritability alone fupplies the place of fenfation and voluntary motion. All the motions of a polype are the re- fult of external excitation. Put a frefh-water polype (hydra) in a glafs of water, and place this glafs in a cham- ber, which receives light from one quarter only. It will flowly move itfelf towards the part on which the light falls, and will remain there. Vegetables turn themfelves towards the light in an analogous manner. “ Undoubtedly, wherever a particular organ no longer ex- ifts, the faculty which it exercifed ceafes alfo : the latter ts alfo more obfcure in proportion to the deterioration of the organization. Infeéts are the laft, in the fcale of animated nature, poffefling eyes; we have reafon to fuppofe that they fee very ob{curely, and make but little ufe of their eyes. Ms This degeneration may be obferyed, even in the nature. and confiftence of the effential fluids, and of the flefh of ani- mals. The blood and mufcles of the mammalia and birds are the moft compound and animalized of animal produc- tions. After fith, thefe fubftances are progreffively changed to fuch a degree, that in the foft radiant animals, in the polypi, and particularly in the infuforia, the nutritive fluid has merely the colour and confiftence of water, and the flefh is a foft jelly, fcarcely animalized.”? Philofophie Zoolo- sigue, tom. i, p. 212, et feq. he following Table, extraéted from the fame work of Lamarck, p. 277, et feq. exhibits the invertebral animals, arranged according to their ftru€ture, with their princi- pal charaéters, in a progreffive feries, from the moit fimple upwards. Animals VERMES. Animals without Vertebre. Ciaffes. Degrees. Generation by fplitting of the body, or by fhoots ; body gelatinous, I. Inrusoria. even for digeftion. Generate by fhoots ; body gelatinous, with great powers of rege- neration ; no internal organ, except an fingle opening. Mouth at one end furrounded by radiated ten- tranfparent, homogencous, contractile, and microfcopic : no ra- diated tentacula nor rotatory appendices ; no fpecial organ, not 1ft. No nerves; no vef- fels; no internal and {pecial organ, but for digeftion. 2d. No knotted medul- lary cord; no circu- lating veflels ; fome in- ternal organs befides thofe of digeftion. body radiated ; mouth placed alimentary cavity with a | longitudinal, knotted, medullary cord; re- fpiration by trachee, which convey air ; cir- | 3d. Nerves ending in a Trachez confined to certain Il. Potyri. tacula, or by ciliated and rotatory organs. They compofe, for the moft part, compound animals. Ifl. Rapraria. articulated limbs ; the form of the below. ; Suboviparous; body foft, and highly reproduétive ; undergo no IV. VeRMEs. metamorphofis ; no eyes, nor articulated limbs, nor radiated dif- pofition of internal organs. Oviparous; undergo metamorphofis; poffefs, in their perfe& ftate, eyes in their head ; fix articulated limbs ; trachee extend- Negeeseor es ing over the whole body ; a fingle fecundation in the courfe of life. Oviparous ; undergo no metamorphofis, but poffefs always articu- VLA lated limbs, and eyes in their head. . ARACHNIDA parts; an attempt at circulation courfe of life. . CRUSTACEA. } feldom eyes; refpire by branchiz Mo t.usca. in a brain. Strudure and Formation of the hard Parts, which /upply the Place of the Skeleton in the lower Orders.—The want of an internal articulated fkeleton is the moft ftriking charater of the fecond great divifion of the animal kingdom, or the invertebral animais. Infeéts and cruftacea have a fpecies of external fkeleton; they poffefs hard parts, which are at once inftruments of motion, and means of fupport and pro- teétion for the included fofter organs. (See Insects, in Anatomy.) The fhells of the mollufca are to be regarded rather as provifions for defence, as habitations of the foft animals which they inclofe, than, like the fkeleton of the vertebral animals, or the hard external covering of cruftacea and infe&ts, as inftruments of motion. Shells are compofed, like bones, of a calcareous matter, intimately connected with a gelatinous fubftance, from which it may be feparated by means of acids. It is not difpofed in laminz, or in fibres, but is diftributed uniformly through- out the whole body of the fhell. It is only in fome fpecies that we find {trata eafily fepa- rated, and as it were agglutinated to each other, like the leaves of paper in the formation of palteboard. We know from obfervation that thefe {trata do not all exift in young animals ; they have only the external, which are at the fame time the fmalleft. In proportion as the animal increafes in age, it forms a new {tratum on the internal furface of the fhell, which extends beyond the edges of all the preceding ftrata; fo that each operation of this kind adds to the fize peel great powers of reproduétion ; no head, eyes, nor Oviparous ; poffefs a mantle and articulated arms, with horny fkin ; CIRRHIPEDA. foi : 2 no eyes ; refpire by branchiz ; knotted nervous cord. Oviparous ; body foft, with its parts not articulated ; mantle va- riable ; refpire by branchie, varying in form and fituation ; no’ fpinal marrow, nor knotted longitudinal cord, but nerves ending culation imperfect, or 3 feveral fecundations in Ed nok: Oviparous ; body and limbs articulated ; flin cruftaceous ; eyes on the head ; and generally four antenne ; refpire by branchie; a longitudinal knotted medullary cord. Oviparous ; body elongated and annulated ; no articulated limbs ;_ . ANNELIDA. 3 y 8 4th. Nerves ending in a ' brain, or a knotted medullary cord; re- {piration by branchiz ; arteries and veins for circulation. ; knotted nervous cord. of the fhell in length, breadth, and thicknefs. Thefe are certain fats: to prove them, it is only neceflary to compare fome fhells of the fame fpecies that have belonged to indi- viduals of different ages; the feweft {trata will always be found in the fhells of the'young. Mufcles, which may be obferved when they are very young, and even before they quit the body of the mother, have at that period one ftra- tum only ; but the hell is not therefore foft and gelatinous ; it poffeffes the fame firmnefs as the adult fhell, and its greater fragility is merely owing to its thinnefs. It has been a queftion among phyfiologifts, whether thefe fhells grow by developement or intuffufception, or by fimple juxtapofition? That is, whether the fhell, like our bones, contains nutritive veflels capable of increafing, diminifhing or varioufly modifying it ; or whether the gelatinous and calcareous component elements of- the fhell are fimply depofited from the furface of the animal’s body, and attached to the pre-exifting mafs ? We conceive that the latter mode of formation has been incontrovertibly eftablifhed ; that the fubftance of the fhell is inorganic, and confequently poffeffes no power in itfelf of increafe, diminution, or any vital change. sn This point was firft inveftigated by Reaumur, whofe re- fearches are fo clear and fatisfaGtory, that they have left very little to be added by his fucceffors. -They are detailed in the Memoires de l’ Academie des Sciences for 1709, under the title «* De la Formation et de l’Accroiffement des Co- iI quilles — VERMES. quilles des Animaux tant terreftres qu’aquatiques, foit de Mer, foit de Terre.”’ He followed up the fubje&, in anfwer to fome objeCtions, in the Memoirs for 1716, p. 303: under the title ‘* Eclairciflemens de quelques Difficultés fur la Formation et l’Accroiffement des Coquilles.” «« When (fays the author) the animal, which filled its fhell exactly, increafes in fize, and the fhell is confequently in- fufficient to cover it entirely, a part of the furface muft be expofed. This is the part neareft to the opening, for the animal’s body can be augmented only in that direGtion. The inhabitants of a fpiral fhell, as fnails, grow only in the di- reGtion of the head, or towards the epening of the fhell ; while thofe which occupy bivalve fhells, as mufcles, can in- ereafe in their whole circumference. In both cafes it is the uacovered portion of the body that produces the fhell.’’ Mem. de 1709, p. 367. “« That the animal really grows before its fhell, in the way juit pointed out, may be eafily feen in the garden- {nails at their feafon of increafe. We obferve that the fhell is too {mall. The animal fixes itfelf againft a wall, or remains at reft, and a part of its body manifeftly extends beyond the fhell all round.” Ibid. p. 370. He illuftrates the natural growth by the procefs employed for repairing injuries. <‘* After breaking away a portion of the fhell, which can be eafily done without injuring the animal, as it adheres only at one point, we obferve the creature foon attach itfelf to the fides of the veffel in which it is placed. A fine pellicle, which may be com- pared to the web made by the houfe {pider in the angles of walls, covers the body in twenty-four hours, and forms the firft firatum of the new fhell. In a few days this is thickened by feveral ftrata produced under it; and, at the end of about ten or twelve days, the new portion of fhell has nearly the thicknefs of the original part.’? P. 371. _ * If,” he obferves, ‘‘ the injury were repaired by means of materials furnifhed by the broken edge, as in the cafe of a fra€tured bone, we fhould obferve a callus produced from that margin, and extending gradually into the centre of the aperture. But the edge, in faét, remains unaltered, and the matter depofited is on the furface of the body.’ P. 373. That the body of the animal affords the materials by which the fhell is formed, is rendered more evident by the following experiments. ‘I broke away a portion of the fhell, and placed in the opening, between the animal’s body and the fhell, a portion of lamb-fkin leather, fuch as is ufed to make what are called chicken gloves. I faftened this to the internal furface of the fhell, fo that it completely fhut up the opening intervening between the fhell and the ani- mal’s body. It is evident, that if the fhell itfelf produced the materials of reftoration, the new fubftance ought to be formed, in fuch circumftances, on the exterior furface of the leather. On the contrary, however, that fide which was towards the animal’s body became lined with fhell, and none was depofited on the exterior furface. “ Again, I broke away a part of the fhell at its opening, introduced a portion of the leather, and faftened it to the inner furface ; then turned it down, and faftened it alfo to the outer furface, fo that the circumference of the opening, with its broken edge, was completely covered. Now, if the fhell grows by a principle of vegetation, either this covering fhould have prevented the growth, or the elongation of the fhell fhould have pufhed the leather forwards. On the con- trary, the fhell grew, and the leather remained where it was placed, being interpofed between the old fhell and the new piece, to the formation of which the former confequently could not have contributed.” P. 374. « Tt is a neceflary confequence of the preceding faéts, that VoL. XXXVII. the fhells of {nails increafe in fize, only by an addition to the number of their fpiral turns, and that the length of a turn, when once formed, continues always the fame. The truth of this ftatement is eafily fhewn. If the fhell of a full-grown fnail be reduced to the fame number of turns as that of a young one of the fame fpecies, the two fhells are then of the fame fize. This holds true, even with refpeé to the fhells of {nails juft produced. A turn more or lefs makes a great difference in the fize of the fhell; for the dia- meter of each is nearly double that of the preceding, and about one-half of the following: hence half, or even a fourth of a turn more increafes confiderably the fize of the fhell.”” P. 378. The fame point has been attentively examined by Mr. Carlifle, whofe conclufions confirm in all refpeéts thofe of Reaumur. “ The moft appofite illuftrations, and the moft pofitive inftances of union between vital and extra-vital parts, are to be found in the teftaceous tribe of animals. After a long- continued and careful inveftigation, I am fully convinced, that the fhells of all the vermes of Linnzus are extra-vaf- cular from their, commencement, and remain fo during the whole of their conneétion with the living creature. The firft produétion and the growth of thofe fhells always depend upon a depofit of material thrown out from the furface of the body of the living animal. The figure and colours of the feveral parts of thofe fhells, in every fpecies, depend upon the fhape and the colouring glands of the modelling organs. Fraétures are repaired by fpreading a cruftaceous fluid over the inner edges, and never by any exudation from the fra@ured parts, fince they retain always the {quared broken furfaces after fuch repairs. Extraneous bodies are equally covered with fhell, whether they are in contact with the parent fhell or not. ‘The firft may be feen in the fre- quent envelopement of nereifes in the common oytter; the latter has been often afcertained by the experiments made for the purpofe of creating artificial pearls, and which might, if fkilfully pra&tifed, yet prove very fuccefsful. The borings of parafitical vermes into fhells are never filled up, or the bored furface altered, unlefs fuch borings pene- trate into the cavity where the living animal dwells, and then the apertures are invariably plugged up or {meared over with pearly matter. The water-worn external furfaces of old fhells, and other external abrafions, are never repaired, which is to be feen in old living oyfters expofed to the moving fri€tion of currents or {trong tides, in the worn-oif {pines of the pholas daétylus, and in the convex points of the two valves of old mytili, efpecially the mytilus anatinus. I have fought in the moft extenfive collections of the metro- polis for examples of fraGtures and other injuries which have occurred to the fhells of living vermes, and I have colleéted many remarkable f{pecimens. They all demonftrate the fame refults without any exception. I have made numerous experiments upon the garden-fnail, (helix nemoralis,) by fra€turing and breaking away the fhell in various parts, and have always found the repairs to be effeGted from within by firft {mearing over an epidermoid varnifh, and then by plaiftering the inner furface of that film with fucceflive cal- careous laminz. 1 have in vain attempted to inje& the hells of recent vermes from the vafcular parts of their bodies ; and am fully fatisfied, that none of their albuminous or gela- tinous teftaceous membranes were ever at any time tra- verfed by veffels ; indeed, they do not poffefs any of the reticular texture or arborefcent pores which are common to all vafcular parts; but, microfcopically examined, they refemble the exuvial or epidermoid membranes. To thefe may be added the notorious cireumftance of the uate ablenefs VERMES. ablenefs of the outer furfaces of teftaceous fhells during their growth, and the continued renewal of their other furfaces which admit of conta& with the living inhabitant ; next, the ftains and coloured tranfudations which they often derive from metallic falts, and other colouring materials placed in their vicinity ; and laftly, that fuch occurrences do not affe& the living animal.” See ‘ Facts and Obfervations re- lative to the Conneétion between vafcular and extra-vafcular Parts, in the Struéture of living organized Bodies.”” Lond. Med. Repofitory for Auguft, 1814. i It is ftated of fome teftaceous mollufca, that they quit their fhell to form a new and larger one. Cuvier afferts this of the cypreas, and it is alfo fuppofed to be the cafe with the balani. (See Annalesdu Muféum, t.i. p.470.) In thefe inftances it is clear that the furface of the body muft form the new fhell. The inhabitant of the paper nautilus (argonauta argo) does not adhere to its fhell at any point; the additions to the fhell cannot therefore poflibly be made by the way of developement. It grows, in all probability, by a fecretion formed by its two palmated arms. Nautili are met with where extenfive fra€tures have taken place, and have been confolidated by depofition from within. Hift. des Mol- lufques, par Denys Montfort, t. iii. p. 284. The animal comes out of its egg with the thell ready formed ; it poffeffes one turn, and fometimes rather more, but is very thin. Leeuwenhoeck firft afcertained the fact refpecting oyiters. ‘Lifter made the fame obfervation, and extended it to other teftacea, both terreftrial and aquatic. Marfigli, Rumphius, Swammerdam, Reaumur, and Adan- fon, confirmed the difcovery. The latter naturalift fhewed that the viviparous teftacea agree with the oviparous, in the circumftance of their young being covered by fhells at the time of birth, and even before. Encycl. Method. t. vi. p. 5409. * As the animal grows after birth, its body advances con- {tantly towards the mouth of the fhell; the pofterior end quits the bottom of the firft turn, to which it does not ad- here, and when the fize of the fhell is complete, it occupies a fituation very diftant from its original one. In fome {pecies of an elongated figure, as the bulime cenfolidé and decollé, and feveral others, where the end of the fpire re- mains very thin and unfupported, it is liable to break: the animal ftops the breach by anew calcareous exudation from the pofterior end of its body. In other teftaceous mollufea the end of the {pire becomes folid, and prefents a mafs of laminated calcareous matter, fometimes as hard as marble. The fucceflive layers are diftin@ly vifible when a fe€tion is made. I have now before me a {plendid fpecimen of the trochus Niloticus, in which fix turns of the {pire are folid, and filled with a calcareous fubftance equal to the fineft Carrara marble. I can demonftrate the fame fa in other fhells. “In fome cafes different phenomena are exhibited. The murex tritonis not only has the apex of its long {pire con- folidated, but, as the animal grows older, and abandons more rapidly the-extremity of the fpire, inftead of filling up the whole tube, it forms only thick fepta, which are conftruéted fucceffively in the fituations where the animal’s body refts for a while.”” Hift. des Mollufques, par Denys Montfort, t. ili. p. 246, et feq. Some white-blooded animals have hard parts internally ; but they are not articulated fo as to form the bafes of moveable members, and their texture differs confiderably from that of ordinary bones. The common cuttle-fifh (fepia officinalis) contains in the flefh of the back an oval fubftance, convex before and behind, white, folid, friable, and of a calcareous nature. This fubftance is not attached to the flefh, but has the appearance of a foreign body intro- duced into it. There is no indication of any veffel or nerve entering it ; nor is any tendon affixed toit. It is compofed of thin parallel lamellz, which are not in immediate contaé& with each other. The intervals are occupied by an infinite number of {mall hollow columns, ftanding perpendicularly between one lamella and another, and arranged in very regular quincunces. As the fuperficies of the lamelle are plane, and thofe of the bone itfelf convex, they neceffarily interfe&t each other: the points of interfe€tion are marked on the furfaces of the bone by regular curvilinear itriz. Thefe bones have a kind of wings, which are of a lefs opaque nature, lefs brittle, and have a greater refemblance to thin elaftic horn, than the body of the bone. To this laft fubftance the part called the fword of the calmar (fepia loligo) bears an analogy. It is tranfparent, elaftic, and very brittle; its fhape is fometimes that of a leaf, fometimes of a fword-blade. It bears the fame rela- tion to the foft parts, and occupies the fame fituation as the bone of the cuttle-fifh. There is a gradation in ftruture from this {word of the calmar and bone of the cuttle-fith, which are completely internal, to the external fhells of the teftacea. The bulla aperta (Linn.), bullea (Lamarck), has a fhell contained in its cloak or outer integument, and not vifible on the ex- terior of the body. It is extremély thin, and almoft tranf- parent ; not attached to the body by any mufcle, for it is fo weak that the flighteft mufcular force would breakit. It is ftriated, fo as to indicate fucceffive depofitions ; and fo placed in the body as to cover the principal vifcera. (Cuvier, Annales du Muféum, t.i. p. 159. pl.12.) |The dolabella, teftacella, and parmacella, have analogous fhells, called by Cuvier coquillescachées. (Ibid.t.v.) There isa thin fhell contained in the cloak of the pleuro-branchus. (Ibid. t. v. p- 270; pl.18. B. fig. 3.) There is a {mall and thin cal- careous plate in the back of the flug, analogous to the com- mon fhells. The flefhy covering of the branchie has a larger but thin, horny, tran{parent and flexible plate in the aplyfia. Ibid. t. ii. p. 297. The infulated bony or horny pieces juit enumerated, par- ticularly that of the cuttle-fifh, ftrongly confirm the repre- fentation which has been already given refpeéting the growth of fhells. They muft inereafe by ftrata fucceflively depo- fited ; and they may thus be called internal fhells. The afterias and echinus have a kind of fkeleton, the nature of which very much refembles that of the mollufca. In the echinus it is a folid calcareous envelope; frequently very hard. It has a number of little holes, through which pafs membranous feet, furnifhed with tubercles and points analogous to the fubftance of the fhell, which play freely on thefe tubercles. In the ftar-fifh, the calcareous part forms a ftalk, com- pofed of a number of {mall articulated vertebre, which extend under the middle of each of the branches of the body, and to which is attached a kind of offeous grating, which fupports the remainder of the envelope of the branch to which it belongs, and which is rendered remarkable, even externally, by its projeGtion, and by the tubercles of dif- ferent forms that cover the whole of its furface. ; Their offeous ftalk cannot be regarded as completely ex- ternal, fince it is covered outwardly by an epidermis and other foft parts. This is, perhaps, the moft ftriking excep- tion to the general rule that white-blooded animals have no internal articulated fkeleton. The mode of growth of the fkeleton of the ftar-fifh has not yet been F ficiently in- veftigated; the fkeleton of fome holothurie is exadly fimilar. Corals, VERMES. ‘Corals, other zoophytes, and lithophytes, have hard parts, which are fometimes horny, fometimes calcareous, and fome- times fpongy ; but which grow by fimple juxtapofition, or at leaft like fhells by the addition of fucceffive ftrata. In fome their growth takes place externally, and the fenfible fubitance envelopes the old ftrata by new ones, with which it again covers itfelf. Such is the cafe with the lithophyta and ceratophyta. In others, the parts which have once at- tained their proper hardnefs, no longer increafe in thick- nefs ; but new fhoots or branches are formed at their extre- mities. Such are all the jointed zoophytes. There are fome minute obfervations on the texture, courfe of the fibres, &c. of fhells, and fimilar fubftances, in a paper by Mr. Beudant, entitled “‘ Memoire fur la Struture des Parties folides des Mollufques, Radiaires, et Zoophytes.”’ See Annales du Muféum, t. xvi. p. 66. Chemical Compofition of Shells, &Fc.—For our knowledge of the chemical compofition of thefe fubftances, we are indebted principally to the excellent papers of Mr. Hat- chett in the Philofophical TranfaGtions for 1799 and 1800. Shells, like bones, confift of calcareous falts united to a foft animal matter; but in the former the lime is united chiefly to carbonic acid, whereas in the latter it is united to phofphoric acid. The predominating ingredient in fhells is carbonate, in bones, phofphate of lime. This conftitutes the characteriftic difference in their compofition. Mr. Hatchett divides fhells into two claffes. The firft are ufually of a compaét texture, refemble porcelain, and have an enamelled furface often finely variegated. The fhells belonging to this clafs have been diftinguifhed by the name of porcellaneous fhells; they are exemplified in the voluta, cyprza, &c. Thofe of the fecond clafs are ufually covered with a ftrong epidermis, below which lies the fhell in layers, and compofed of the fubftance known by the name of mother-of-pearl: thefe he calls mother-of-pearl fhells. The frefh-water muicle, the halyotis iris, and the turbo olearius, are examples. In the firft clafs there is a fmall, in the fecond a large proportion of animal matter. Porcellaneous fhells contain fo little animal matter, that they emit no fmoke nor {mell, when expofed to a red heat, nor are they blackened ; and they diflolve with effervefcence in acids, without leaving any refidue. They confift, there- fore, of carbonate of lime, cemented together by a {mall portion of animal matter, which is foluble in acids, and therefore refembles gelatine. Some patelle from Madeira, examined by Mr. Hatchett, confifted alfo of carbonate of lime, but they emitted a {mell like horn, when expofed to a red heat, and left a femi- liquid gelatinous matter behind, when diffolved in acids. They contain, therefore, lefs carbonate of lime, and more animal matter, which is alfo of a more vifcid nature than that of porcellaneous fhells. The mother-of-pearl fhells, when expofed to a red heat, erackle, blacken, and emit a ftrong fetid odour. When immerfed in acids, they effervefce at firft itrongly ; but gradually more and more feebly, till at laft the emiffion of air-bubbles is fearcely perceptible. The acids take up only lime, and leave a number of thin membranous fub- ftances, which ftill retain the form of the fhell. From Mr. Hatchett’s experiments, we learn that thefe membranes have the properties of coagulated albumen. Thefe fhells, then, are compofed of alternate layers of coagulated albumen and carbonate of lime, beginning with the epidermis, and ending with the laft formed membrane. The animals which inhabit thefe fhells, increafe their habitation by the addition of a ftratum of carbonate of lime, fecured by a new membrane. Different fhells vary confiderably in the proportion of their conftituents, and in the confiftency of the albuminous part. Some, as the common oyfter-fhell, approach nearly to the patella, the albuminous portion being {mall, and its confiftence nearly gelatinous ; while in others, as the halyotis iris, the turbo olearius, the real mother-of-pearl, and a fpecies of frefh-water mufcle, the membranes are diftinG, thin, compaét, and femi-tranfparent. One hundred parts of mother-of-pearl contain fixty-fix of carbonate of lime, and thirty-four of membrane. Merat-Guillot in Ann, de Chimie, tom. xxxiv. p. 71. Pearls, or the concretions formed in thefe fhells, refemble them exa€tly in ftru€ture and compofition. The fubftance confifts of concentric and alternate coats of thin membrane and carbonate of lime. Hatchett, in Phil. Tranf. 1739. The bone of the cuttle-fifh was found by Mr. Hatchett : = exactly fimilar, in its compofition, to mother-of-pearl ells. Mr. Hatchett compares the porcellaneous fhells to enamel of teeth, (fee CRanium,) and mother-of-pearl fhells to the bone of teeth, or other bone. (See Bonz.) The only dif- ference is, that in enamel and bone the earthy falt is phof- phate of lime, whereas in fhells it is pure carbonate of lime. The fhells of the echini, and the crufts of the afterias (ftar-fifh), are made of carbonate, with a {mall quantity of phofphate of lime ; and a greater or lefs proportion, accord- ing to their hardnefs or flexibility, of an animal, gelatinous, or albuminous matter. Many of the fubiftances which compofe the bafis, or hard part of zoophytes, have the hardnefs and appearance of fhell or bone : others are foft, and belong rather to the clafs of membrane or horn. From Mr. Hatchett’s admirable differtation in the Philofophical Tranfations for 1800, and the experiments of Merat-Guillot in the Annales de Chimie, tom. xxxiv., our knowledge of the chemical conftitution of thefe fubftances is derived. The hard zoophytes are compofed chiefly of three ingre- dients ; 1. Ananimal fubftance of the nature of coagulated albumen, varying in confiftency, fometimes being gelatinous, and almoft liquid, at others of the confiftency of cartilage ; 2. Carbonate of lime; 3. Phofphate of lime. In fome zoophytes the animal matter is very fcanty, and phofphate of lime wanting altogether ; in others, the animal matter is abundant, and the earthy falt pure carbonate of lime : in fome, there is much animal matter, with a mixture of carbonate and phofphate of lime ; and a fourth clafs is almoft entirely deftitute of earthy falts. Thus we have four claffes ; of which the firft refembles porcellaneous fhells, the fecond mother-of-pearl fhells, the third the crufts of the cruitacea and echino-dermata, and the fourth horn. 1. When the madrepora virginea is immerfed in diluted nitric acid, it effervefces ftrongly, and is foon diffolved. A few gelatinous particles float in the folution, which is other- wife colourlefs and tranfparent. Ammonia precipitates nothing, but its carbonate throws down abundance of car- bonate of lime. It is compofed, therefore, of carbonate of lime and a little animal matter. The following zoophytes yield nearly the fame refults; viz. madrepora muricata and labyrinthica; millepora czrulea and alcicornis; and tubipora mufica. z. The madrepora ramea effervefces in weak nitric acid ; but when all the foluble part is taken up, there remains a membrane, completely retaining the original fhape of the madrepore. The fubftance taken up is pure lime. Hence it is compofed of carbonate of lime, and a membranaceous fubftance, which, as in mother-of-pearl fhells, retains the figure of the madrepore. aa : C2 The VERMES. The following zoophytes yield nearly the fame refults ; wiz. madrepora fafcicularis; millepora cellulofa, fafcialis, and truncata ; and ifis hippuris. Merat-Guillot gives the following ftatement of the com- pofition of three fpecies, which muft, according to this ‘account, be referred to the prefent clafs. - Articulated White Coral. Red Coral. Giraltine. ’ Carbonate of lime 50 53-5 49 Animal matter - 50 46.5 51 100 100.0 100 —— ee 3. _Immerfion in weak nitric acid does not affect the fhape of the madrepora polymorpha: there remains a tough, opaque, membranaceous fubftance of a white colour, filled with a tranfparent jelly. The acid folution yields a flight precipitate of phofphate of lime, when heated with ammonia, and carbonate of ammonia throws down a copious precipitate of carbonate of lime. It confifts, therefore, of animal matter, partly in the ftate of jelly, partly in that of membrane, hard- ened by carbonate, together with a little phofphate of lime. The fluftra foliacea, corallina opuntia, and ifis ochracea, gave the fame refults ; except that in the two latter, phof- phate of lime could only be difcovered in the folution of the burnt fubftance. The colouring matter of the ifis ochracea falls down in a fine red powder in weak nitric or muriatic acid; whereas that of the tubipora mufica, and of the gorgonia nobilis, or red coral, is deftroyed by thefe acids. After the red coral has been immerfed in acid, it is feen to confift of two parts, viz. an external tubulated mem- brane of a yellow colour, inclofing a tranfparent gelatinous fubftance. The acid folution yields only carbonate of lime ; but when the red coral is heated to rednefs, and then diffolved, the folution yields a little phofphate of lime alfo. Red coral then confifts of an internal ftem, compofed of gelatinous matter and carbonate of lime ; and an external covering or cortex, confifting of membrane hardened by the calcareous falts; and both coloured by fome unknown fubftance. The gorgonia ceratophyta and flabellum have a fimilar compofition. The cortex of the gorgonia fuberofa contained a little phofphate and a large portion of carbonate of lime. The ftem contained fearcely any earthy falt. The gorgonia fetofa and pe€tinata exhibited nearly the fame phenomena. 4. Gorgonia antipathes has a horny ftem, but is deftitute of cortex. It gives out fome gelatine to boiling water. When fteeped in nitric acid, it becomes foft, and exhibits concentric coats of thin, opaque, brown membranes, of a ligneous afpe&t. With potafh it forms an animal foap, and poffeffes nearly the properties of horn. The items of the gorgonia umbraculum and verrucofa are fimilar ; but they both poffefs a cortex, compofed of membrane and carbonate of lime. Mr. Hatchett analyfed many fpecies of fponges; but found them all fimilar in their compofition. They confift of gelatine, which they gradually give out to water, and a thin brittle membranous fub{tance, which pofleffes the properties of coagulable albumen. The alcyoniums refemble very much in their compofition that of the gorgonia fuberofa. They yield a little gelatine to water. ‘They are foftened, and appear membranous in nitric acid, which takes up the carbonate of lime, and likewile a little phofphate, at leaft when the fubftance has been pre- vioufly heated to rednefs. In the Annales du Muféum d’Hiftoire Naturelle, we have an account, by A. Laugier, of the earthy and faline matters contained in the liquor produced by the {pontaneous decompofition of the medufe. This was procured by the melting of a blue medufa taken in the Channel. When left to fpontaneous evaporation, a cryftalline pellicle formed, and was removed, and fo on fucceflively, until no more cryftals were formed. ‘ The falt thus obtained,”? fays the author, “‘ was formed of carbonate and phofphate of lime; thefe falts exifting in exa&tly the fame proportions as in all the calcareous concretions, produced by the hardening juices of the mollufca, the polypes, and the cruftacea, which I have examined, fuch as red coral, white coralline, oyfter-fhells, crab’s-eyes, &c. wiz. carbonate of lime 92, phofphate of lime 7, animal matter uniting the molecules 1, in 100 parts. See p. 346. The remaining liquor, being evaporated to drynefs, gave a faline refidue, of which the component parts, fimilar to the falts of the fea, were, in 100, muriate of foda 7g, muriate of lime 4, muriate of magnefia 3, muriate of iron 2, ful- phate of lime 1, water and lofs 11. P. 349. So complete, fays Péron, is the fpontaneous fufion of the medufe, that from an’ individual weighing feveral kilo- grammes, hardly a few milligrammes of membranous refidue remain in the filter. Ann. du Muf. t. xv. p. 43. Organs of Motion.—In the cephalopodous mollufca. The mollufca, which have the head furnifhed with long ap- pendages for progreflive motion, are called cephalopoda ; and have two orders of mufcles, one belonging to the body, the other to the feet or tentacula. ; The fac which compofes the body of thefe animals, | {tripped of the external fkin, prefents a mufcular tiffue of very compact fibres. Thofe of the outer layer appear to have alongitudinal direGtion ; the middle layer is tranfverfe ; and the fucceeding layers have different obliquities. They can flatten, elongate, twift, and bend the fac; but the action of each layer cannot be afligned in a pofitive manner, on account of their very complicated ftruéture. In the back of thefe animals, under the fkin, there is found a body more or lefs folid. In the cuttle-fifh it is a fpecies of bone compofed of different thin parallel plates one above another, and feparated by little columns difpofed in the form of quincunces. This bone is oval, thick to- wards the middle, and thin at the circumference. In other fpecies, its form varies much, but its iubftance is generally elaftic, and tranfparent like glafs. Its furface is fometimes marked with longitudinal furrows. The fepia o€topus wants it entirely. Two ftrong mufcles arife from the inner furface of. the fac, on each fide of this bone. They run towards the head, and on their arrival there, divide each into two branches; one branch is inferted into the head, the other mixes its fibres with thofe of the fac, at the edge of which it ends. The cephalopoda have eight conical feet, of different lengths, arranged in a circle at the top of the head, round the mouth. The animal can turn and bend them in e direction, and faften itfelf to bodies by help of the cups or fuckers with which they are furnifhed. The mufcles, which perform their motions, are very numerous: they may, however, be diftinguifhed into thofe that are common to the whole foot, and thofe that are proper to the fuckers. Below the fkin we find a very thin mufcle, the fibres of which are united by a loofe cellular fubftance. It aceom- panies the {kin in all its different fhapes, and may, perhaps, be regarded as a mufculus cutaneus employed to corrugate the {kin, and give greater force to the mufcle fituated within it, upon which it aéts like a girdle. Between the feet, and under the fkin, which unites them at their bafe, two VERMES. two thin mufcles are fituated, one below the other, the fibres of which are tranfverfe. One arifes in the middle longitudinal line of the foot, on the fide oppofite to the fuckers, and proceeds direétly to its infertion in the fame line of the adjacent foot on either fide. The other arifes below the fuckers themfelves, goes over the lateral parts of the foot, and at lJaft forms a mufcular membrane with tranfverfe fibres, which pafles under the preceding mufcle, and proceeds to its infertion in the other foot, exa¢tl in the fame manner as it took its origin. This double mufcular membrane bears fome analogy to that which unites the toes of web-footed birds, fuch as ducks, geefe, &c. It produces a circular plate, which occupies the intervals be- tween each bafe of the feet. 'Thefe two mufcles probably ferve to bring the feet nearer to each other; the tes may befides feparate the two rows of fuckers. It reaches the whole length of the foot, but becomes thinner towards the extremity. Below thefe three layers of mufcles (the two tranfverfe and the cutaneous), we find another pretty large one, the conical figure of which determines the fhape of the foot. At the furface it feems entirely formed of tranfverfe fibres ; but on cutting it in different direGtions we find that it has longitudinal fibres. Thefe fibres are interwoven like thofe of the human lingual mufcle towards its centre. In the centre of this mufcle there is a vacant fpace, in which we find very large veffels and nerves. The fuckers are faftened to the inferior furface of this mufcle, and toa layer of fibres ftill more evidently longitudinal, by little flefhy bands, dif- fering in dire€tion according to the {pecies. The fuckers are formed by a mufcular cup of radiated fibres, which, by their contra¢tion, diminifh its capacity. But at its edge, and clofe to the plate under the cylindrical mufcle, there is another layer of circular fibres, like a {phinéter, which renders the cup more convex. Finally, each fucker is retained and moved upon the foot by. little mujfcular fafciculi interlaced together, and uniting at laft in the inferior tranfverfe mufcle of the foot. At leaft, this is the cafe in the fepia otopus. In the calmar (fepia loligo), and the cuttle-fifh (fepia officinalis), the fuckers are attached by very {mall mufcular peduncles. When an animal of this kind approaches any body with its fuckers, in order to apply them more intimately, it pre- fents them in a flat or plane ftate ; and when the fuckers are thus fixed, by the adaptation of furfaces, the animal con- traéts the {phinGter, and forms a cavity in the centre, which becomes a vacuum. By this contrivance, the fucker ad- heres to the furface with a force proportioned to its area, and the weight of the column of air and water-of which it forms the bafe. This force, multiplied by the number of fuckers, gives that by which all or a part of the feet adhere to any body. The power of adhefion is fuch, that it is eafier to tear off the feet than to feparate them from the fubftance to. which the animal choofes to attach itfelf. In the cuttle-fifh and the calmar, the mouth of the fucker is furrounded by a cartilaginous indented zone; in the octopus it is only a flefhy difk, flat, and perforated in the middle. Befides the eight feet jult defcribed, which are all that are poffeffed by the o¢topus, the cuttle-fifh and calmar have two others much longer and f{maller, and without fuckers, except at the extremity, which isenlarged. Their ftru€ture is in other refpects the fame as that of the other feet. The organs of locomotion in the gafteropodous mollufca, refide principally in that inferior part of the body on which they drag themfelves forwards, and which is called their foot. It is a flefhy mafs, formed of fibres which crofs each other in feveral dire€tions, and are capable of giving it every poffible fhape. Moft commonly it has that of an oval, pointed behind; but, by the various contrations of which thefe fibres are fufceptible, they extend or contra& it in the whole or in part, fo as to produce that flow progreffive motion, which every body has remarked in the common fnail or flug. The tranfverfe fibres are eafily feen in the foot of the flug, if it be opened by the back. They pro- ceed from the edges of the foot to two longitudinal middle tendinous lines. Below thefe we meet with others in a con- trary direction; but fo interwoven, that it is difficult to trace the layers. In the {cyllea the foot is only a longitudinal furrow, im- preffed in the whole length of the belly of the animal. By the help of this furrow it embraces the flalks of fucus, upon which it crawls. In other refpeéts, the organization of its foot is nearly the fame as that of the flug. In the limpet (patella), the inferior layer is compofed of tranfyerfe fibres, which are interlaced at the edge with numerous circular ones. The fuperior layer confifts of two rows of fibres, meeting at an acute angle on a middle line, which correfponds to the long diameter of the foot. There are alfo fome circular fibres at its edge. The inferior layer, by its contraétions, lengthens the ellipfis of the foot, while it leffens the breadth ; and the inferior diminifhes the length, but increafes the breadth. This is the mechanifm which produces the progreflion of thefe animals. Laftly, the cir- cular fibres diminifh the furface on all fides, and render it convex above, thereby producing a vacuum, which makes the animal adhere firmly to the furface that fupports it. So powerful is this adhefion, that we cannot feparate a limpet from the rock by means of the fingers. Reaumur tied a ftring round the limpet, called by the French cil du bouc (patella Greca), and fufpended a weight from it perpendicularly. Thirty pounds were ne- ceflary to feparate the fhell; and this weight was fupported by the animal for a fhort time. Reaumur conceives that the adhefion is not produced on the principle of forming a vacuum, but by a vifcous fluid; and ftates, that when the fhell and animal were fplit vertically, the divided portions ftill adhered. (Mem. de ?Acad. des Sciences de Paris, 1711, p- 109, et feq.) In this reprefentation we are fa- tisfied that this able obferver was miftaken. The gafteropodous mollufea, which are furnifhed with fhells, poflefs, befides the mufcles juft defcribed, others that enable them to retreat into the fhell, and protrude their body from it again.. Thefe fhells, or moveable habi- tations, vary much in their form. ‘They are generally made of one piece, of different fhapes, fimple, without twifting, in the limpet; in a flattened fpire, as in the planorbis; in a globular and pyramidal fpire, as in the fhell of the inail, bulimus, dipper-{nail, &c. The chiton is the only genus of gafteropoda which has a fhell formed of feveral pieces. In the limpet the foot is faftened to the circumference of the fhell by a ring of fibres attached all round the fhell, and which, after piercing the outward covering or cloak, are inferted in the edges of the foot, and interlaced with its circular fibres. They leave a {pace in front, for the paflage of the head. This mufcle, by its contraétions, brings the foot and the fhell clofer together, and compreffee the body ; on relaxing, it allows the fhell to be raifed up by the elaf- ticity of the body. In the garden-fnail there are two flrong mufcles, which draw VERMES. draw the foot aad the whole body within the fhell. They arife from the columella or axis of the fhell, and, haying penetrated the body below its fpiral part, they run forward under the ftomach, and fpread their fibres in feveral flips, which interlace with thofe of the mufcles proper to the foot, the fubftance of which they enter. From thefe attachments, their mode of ation may be eafily underflood. When the animal wifhes to protrude itfelf from the fhell, its head and foot are forced out by circular fibres, which furround the body immediately above the foot. The acephalous mollufea have the body enveloped by a membrane principally mufcular, which is called the mantle or cloak. This integument is more or lefs complete in the different genera. It is generally covered by valves or fhells of various forms and proportions. Few of the genera want this folid covering ; among thofe, however, are the afcidia and falpa. The valves of the fhells are fo difpofed, that they can move one upon the other, by means of offeous projections, which reciprocally receive each other, thus forming a real hinge. They are, befides, connected by an elaftic ligament of a horny fubftance, which continually tends to open them. “ This elaftic fubftance,’’ fays Mr. Carlifle, ‘is wedged in at the hinge: its {pring is excited by compreffion ; but it does not poflefs the property of expanfion beyond its paflive ftate. When dried, it cracks into cubes. As the valves increafe, this elaftic ligament is augmented along the inner furface only, and muft have been always depofited during the ex- panded ftate of the valves, fince the limits of its elaftic con- dition are exa¢tly adapted to that ftate. As the laminz of the fhells increafe, there is a gap at thé outfide of the hinge, filled with foft crumbling and decompofing worn-out elattic ligament: this gap prefents two inclined planes meeting at an acute angle, and that fpace is kept free from pebbles and hard extraneous bodies by the prefence of the decompofing ligament ; as fuch an accident would prove fatal, by pre- venting the opening of the valves.” Monthly Repofitory for Auguft, 1815. The hinge of the fhells prefents fo many varieties, that naturalifts have drawn from it the charatteriftics of the genera. The oyfter, placuna, fcallop, avicula, &c. have no tooth in their joint. The piddocks and the mya or gapers have it in one of the valves only ; but it is not received into a fofla. The razor-fhells have the hinge ftrengthened by a tooth in each fhell, which projeéts inward. Thefe two projections meet and move upon each other. The anomia, unio, chama, fpondylus or thorny oyfter, and fe- veral others, have one or two teeth on one valve only, which are received into correfponding cavities, in the op- pofite valve. The venus, cockle, and maéra, have teeth on each fhell, which are mutually received. Laftly, the arca has a multitude of little teeth, which are clofely in- dented with each other. Thefe different conformations either facilitate the motion of the hinges, or ftrengthen the joint ; or they permit a greater or lefs opening of the valves. The elaftic ligament, which tends continually to open the valves, is not always fituated at the fame point of the fhell. The mufcles, for example, have it at one fide of the valves. The placunz have a little ofleous appendage, which forms a projection in the infide of each valve ; and from this arifes the ligament that holds them together. The perna has in each valve feveral little cavities, oppofite to each other in pairs, in which an equal number of {mall ligaments are lodged. The fhells of the acephala prefent feveral other pe- culiarities. We find the valves immoveable, and foldered to- ether at the angle, in the pinna. The teredo or pipe-worm fa the body inclofed in a calcareous tube, and is armed with two little moveable valves, which are ufed in pene- trating wood. The terebratula has on the inner part of one of the valves two offeous appendages, which fupport the body. The contractile membrane which covers all the body of the acephalous mollufca, and is called the mantle, is a real mufcle, prefenting many varieties. Sometimes, and indeed moft commonly, it is open before, in the dire&tion of the valves, as in the oyfter, the mufcle, &c.; in the fhells that have two ends always open, as in the razor-fhells, the gapers, the piddock, &c. it is perforated at both extremities. Laftly, the cloak may envelope the whole body of the animal, and be open at one end only, as in the afcidia. The cloak of the oyfter is compofed of two pieces of the fame form as the fhell; they are fixed to the body pof- teriorly, or on the fide of the hinge, and extend to the edges of the valves. Their fubftance is foft, femi-tranf- parent, and furnifhed with a number of mufcular bands: they are perforated by the mufcle, which clofes the fhell. One of the edges is in folds, like a flounce, and feftooned ; the other is furnifhed with {mall conical and contraétile tentacula. The cloak of other acephala differs from this defcription in its general form ; in the tentacula on its edge ; in the tubes, which are prolongations of it; and, laftly, in the muicles which perforate it. The aperture which ferves for the expulfion of the feces, and that which receives water and the different aliments, are fometimes prolonged into a kind of tube, which is a con- tinuation of the cloak: this is called a probofcis (in French “trompe.’’) The oyfter, the mufcle, the unio, the ano- dontites, have only one of thefe apertures, which is the anus. ‘The water merely enters by the large flit in the cloak. In the cockle, each aperture is a few lines elon- gated ; that which ferves for refpiration is longer and larger than the other. They are {till more elongated and unequal in the venus, tellina, ma¢tra, and fome other genera. The razor-fhell has likewife two ; but in the piddock, both tubes are inclofed in a very thick flefhy probofcis, through the whole length of which they pafs without uniting. In the acephala that have the cloak open before, the tentacula are placed at its edge, and in particular towards the anus; but in thofe which have tubes, they are fituated at the orifice of the probofcis. In the edible mufcle (my- tilus edulis, Linn.), they are branched. The valves of fhells having a continual tendency to open, in confequence of the ation of the elaftic ligament fituated at the fide of the hinge, it was neceflary that the contained animal fhould have the power of clofing them at pleafure. For this purpofe they are furnifhed with mufcles, pafling between the valves at right angles. In the oyfter there is only one mufcle of this kind, fituated near the centre of the fhell, behind the liver, and in the middle of the cloak. It is equally inferted into both valves, pafling in a ftraight line between them; and bringing them together, by its con- traction, with an’ aftonifhing force. In the moderate fepa- ration of the valves, we obferve the operation of the elaftic ligament, when the mufcle is relaxed: if we touch the ani- mal, the fhell is inftantly clofed ; and we can eftimate the power with which this is accomplifhed, by the amount of the force required for the forcible difruption of the valves. The fame mechanifm is feen in the perna, avicula, and fpondylus. There are two mufcles for clofing the fhell in the mytilus, : 8 folen, VERMES. folen, venus, maéra, cardium, &c. They are always feparate from each other towards the extremities of long fhells, and generally approximate at the edge on which the hinge is fituated, in order that a very {mall relaxation may produce a large opening on the oppofite fide. ‘The common oyfter poffeffes its firft pair of valves, con- fifting of fingle laminz, before it leaves the parental organs ; the mufcle paffes between the centre of the concavity of each fhell, adhering to each, and it a&s on the valves nearly at right angles. ‘The animal has no other continuity with the fhell. As it grows, it augments the margin of its fhells, and thickens them by adding new laminz on the infide ; the mufcular adhefion glides forward, ftill keeping to the centre of the valves. . Many of the teftaceous mollufca have the power of re- moving themfelves from one place to another, by means of a mufcular appendix, which they can protrude or retra&t at pleafure, with which they faften themfelves to the fand and rocks, and thus drag themfelves along. This appendix is called the foot of the animal. The common oyfter, the fpondylus or thorny oyfter, fome fpecies of the fcallop, the anomia, and in general all the mollufca that have fhells with unequal valves, have no foot, and are, therefore, deprived of the means of voluntary locomotion. _ One of the moft fimple of thefe feet is that of the frefh- water mufcle (mytilus anatinus, Linn.; anodontites, Cuv.) It is fituated before the body, towards the margin of the fhells. Its form is a compreffed oblong. We obferve on each fide externally a layer of fibres, proceeding from the hottom of the fhell. There are alfo fome internal fibres, which crofs each other at right angles ; and others unite the two external layers, to which they are attached in a circular manner. From this difpofition it will eafily be underftood, that the animal may, when it pleafes, change the three dimenfions of the foot, or of one of its parts: by this means, it is enabled to place its fhell flat on the ground, and to crawl along like the inail by the help of its foot. The mufcle may be obferyed to open its fhell, to put forth the foot, and elongate it, to feel about with it. The animal fixes it to fome objeét, and drags the fhell after it. The animal called by the French layignon, alfo a bivalve, puts forth abroad flat foot, by which it makes its way into the fand or mud. It has two long tubes, which keep up its communication with the furface, for the purpofe of refpira- tion. The holes correfponding to them fhew where the animal is. See Reaumur, “ Du Mouvement progreflif, et de quelques autres Mouvemens de diverfes Efpéces de Co- quillages, Orties, & Etoiles de Mer,” in the Acad. des Sciences, 1710, with feveral figures, and detailed explana- tion of the fubje@, both fo far as concerns the animals juft mentioned, and fome others. We find this fimple foot in the piddock. Its form is almoft fpherical, and tunicated by a flat furface. The part which Linnzus has obferved in the razor-fhells, and which he has compared to a glans in its prepuce, is the foot, by which the animal buries itfelf in the fand, or rifes to the furface. In thefe two genera, the foot is protruded at the aperture of the fhell, which is oppofite to that through which the tubes pafs. See Reaumur in the Acad. des Sciences, 1712, with figures. The foot of the cardium or cockle is fomewhat complex. It has a triangular appendix, which is capable of inflexion, of feizing with its point the glutinous matter, and drawing it out into threads. But the foot of the fea-mufcle (mytilus edulis),is the moft remarkable in its organization. It re- fembles a fmall tongue, marked with a longitudinal furrow, fufceptible of confiderable elongation, and of being fhortened into the form of a heart. This organ is moved by five mufcles on each fide. T'wo arife from the extremities of the fhell, near thofe which clofe it; the other three come from the bottom of the fhell, and the depreffion for the nates. They are all inferted into the foot, with the fibres of which they are interwoven, in the fame manner as the external mufcles of the human tongue join the lingual. The organ is completely enveloped in a fheath formed of tranfverfe and circular fibres, of an obfcure purple colour. This foot is employed both in {pinning and crawling: the laft office is performed as in all the other bivalves. It ac- complifhes the firit by feizing with its point the gluten fupplied by a gland fituated under its bafe, and drawing it out into threads, in the above-mentioned furrow. The gland that fecretes this humour, of which the thread is formed, will be defcribed hereafter. The organs of motion in worms are not fo perfe& asin the larve of infeéts ; having neither {ealy nor membranous feet, feveral of them crawl or drag themfelves along by the help of ftiff hairs or briftles, with which they are wholly or partly covered: of this defcription are the genera aphro- dita, terebella, nereis, lumbricus, &c. Two kinds of mufcles contribute to their motion. The one extends the whole length of their body, and forms four principal fafciculi, two of which belong to the belly, and two to the back. Thefe four mufcles may be faid to conftitute the mafs of the body. We find them im- mediately under the fkin. Their fibres are parallel; but their length does not exceed that of the rings, being inter- rupted in the folds of each ring by a very compaé cellular tillue. The ftru@ture of thefe mufcles is, however, moft diftinétly obferved in the infide. We there find that they are feparated from each other by a longitudinal line, and enveloped in a kind of fae of a clofe cellular fubftance, which correfponds to each ring of the body. Thefe four mrufcles produce the principal motions. Where thofe of the back contract wholly or partially, they raife the portion of the body to which they belong : the fame effe&t, but in the oppofite direction, is produced by the conftruétion of the ventral mufcles. The fecond order of mufcles is appropriated to the mo- tions of the fpines or briftles. Their number is equal to that of the tufts of hairs. The defcription of one of them will be fufficient to give us a knowledge of the whole. The hairs, briftles, fpines, &c. which proje@t from the bodies of thefe animals, are manifeftly moveable. They are retracted, and pufhed out at pleafure. The mufcles which produce thefe motions are vifible only when the animal is laid open, the inteftinal canal taken out, and the fkin ftripped off. We then obferve that each tuft of hair is re- ceived in the concavity of a flefhy cone, the bafe of which is attached to the longitudinal mufcles, and the apex to the internal extremity of the hairs. All the fibres which form this cone are longitudinal, but enveloped by a compaé cellu- lar fubftance. They move the hairs outwardly, and in the di- reCtion which their contra€tion may determine. This firit clafs of the mufcles, which belong to each branch of hairs, may be called the protraGtors of the {pines. The fpines are withdrawn within the body by another fet of mufcles, which may be called retra€tors. They have fewer fibres than the former ; their aétion therefore is feeble. They are fituated under the internal furface of the long mulcles, at a fhort diftance from the holes with which the latter are perforated for the paflage of the hairs. They are inferted into the tufts of f{pines, nearly on a level with the point, which thefe reach, when completely retracted. It may VERMES. may be conceived that the protraétors, when they aé, puth the retractor outwards ; but the latter, when contracting in its turn, tends to recover the parallel fituation of its fibres, and thus draws the {pines inwards. It is by the help of thefe mufcles, and of the fpines on which they a, that the imperfe& locomotion of thefe worms is effected. There are other worms, deftitute both of {pines and briftles ; and therefore poffefling a different mufcular or- anization. Their manner of crawling differs confiderably om that of the former. ‘Their progreffion is accomplifhed by means of the two extremities of their bodies, which they apply alternately to the furface on which they crawl. They are fitted for this kind of motion by a peculiar ftruéture. We may divide them into two orders. The firft, as the leeches, and feveral inteftinal worms, have the head and the tail terminated by a kind of contrattile flefhy difk, fomewhat refembling thofe of the arms of the cuttle-fifh. The ftruéture of thefe two difks, which perform the office of fuckers, cannot be eafily afcertained ; for when the flcin which covers them is removed, we obferve merely fome very {mall fibres interwoven in different direétions. Though the worms with fuckers poffefs a great power of contraétion, it is extremely difficult to trace the mufcles that move their bodies. Their whole fkin may indeed be regarded as one mufcle, or kind of flefhy fac, furnifhed with circular and longitudinal fibres, and containing the veflels, vifcera, and glands. This mufcular fkin is thick, and lined with a very folid and compaé cellular fubftance. When the worm wifhes to change its place, the body is fixed at one of the extremities, by means of the fucker that terminates it; the circular mufcles of the fkin then a&, which elongates the animal’s body by diminifhing its dia- meter: when the free extremity has in this manner reached the place to which the worm choofes it fhould be extended, it is applied and made fait to that {pot by the fucker, and becomes the fixed point of a new motion: the animal having detached the fucker firft made ufe of, draws it by the operation of the longitudinal fibres of the {kin towards the fecond fucker, and proceeds in this manner to fix each extremity alternately. This is the mechanifm by which progrefiion is effeGted in worms that have terminating difks. The fecend order of worms, which move by fixing their extremities, includes the greater part of the inteftinal kind. Thefe poffefs lefs contratile power than the leeches, and their motions are therefore lefs extenfive. Their head, in- ftead of being terminated by a difk, is fometimes provided with hooks, by means of which they fix themfelves to the parts they fuck. Such are the common tenia, the tenia fo- lium, the hydatigena, the heruca, the echinorhynchus, the uncinaria, &c. &c. The difpofition and number of the hooks, which vary confiderably, have been defcribed by naturalifts. The Organs of Motion in Zonphytes vary confiderably in their nature, form, and action. It is neceflary, therefore, in order to obtain a juft notion of thefe organs, to take a particular and fucceffive view of them in certain orders of thofe animals. The echino-dermata are diftinguifhed by numerous re- traCtile feet, and a covering more or lefs folid. hefe feet are a kind of fuckers, and have nearly the fame organiza- tion in the three genera which compofe this order. In their form, they refemble a globular phial or ampulla: they are filled with a fluid, and their parietes are formed of circular fibres. The elongated or tubular portion of the ampulla is the only part that appears externally, when the feet are ex- tended. It is terminated by a kind of difk, which is con- cave in the middle. The fpherical portion is fituated within the body. From this conftruétion of the foot, the me. chanifm of its a¢tion will be eafily underftood. The liquor contained in the ampulla becomes, by a change of place, the caufe of motion: when the foot is drawn into the body, the {pherical portion of the ampulla is greatly enlarged : when the foot protrudes, the parietes of the ampulla contraét, and impel the contained fluid into the tubular part, which con- fequently increafes both in length and circumference. In the retratile motion of the foot, the tunic of the tube is contraGted, and the liquor thereby forced back into the body of the ampulla. The number of thefe feet vary confiderably in the different genera and fpecies. The holothuriz are covered with a thick coriaceous fkin, which the animal can lengthen or fhorten at pleafure. Thefe two motions are produced by longitudinal mufcular bands, varying in length and breadth in different fpeeies, and fmaller tranfverfe bands extended over the whole internal furface of the body. The animals included in this genus have their feet difpofed in different manners, and in fome fpecies they are even wanting. In others we find them either fpread ir- regularly over the whole body, fituated upon one fide only, or placed in longitudinal rows, In the afteriz, or fea-ftars, the covering of the body has a clofe fibrous texture, the interftices of which are filled with grains of calcareous matter of various forms and di- menfions. This kind of cruftaceous {kin is however fufcep- tible of a certain motion, which, though flow, is very re- markable. The body of the animal is commonly divided into five branches, to which the feet are attached. "Thefe laft are ranged in feveral files throughout the whole length of the branches from the mouth. The branches are fome- times furnifhed with fpines, their middJe portion‘is frequently entirely calcareous, but articulated at its origin, and moye- able upon the central part of the body. Reaumur counted 1520 legs in a ftar-fifh ; yet their mo- tion is extremely flow. Thefe legs can be extended or with- drawn, or partly thruft out : when withdrawn, their extre- mity is vifible. Mem, de PAcad. des Sciences, 1710, p- 487. The echini, or fea-eggs, are encrufted by a complete eal- careous fhell, the furface of which is covered by tubercles difpofed in a very regular manner. Moveable fpines of va- rious fhapes and fizes are articulated to thefe tubercles. It is very difficult to difcover the fibres by which the {pines are moved at the will of the animal; for in their joints we ob- ferve only a folid ligamentous fubftance, which cannot be eafily cut. The feet are protruded through holes which perforate the fhell with much regularity, and form uniform parallel lines, called by naturalifts ambulacra. They are very numerous, but produce, as in the afterias, only a very flow motion. The medufe fwim, by difplacing the water with alter- nate motions, rendering their bodies now flat, now convex. Reaumur has a figure of one ; Acad. des Sciences, 1710, p- 478, pl. 11. “ Although,”’ fays Peron, “the medufe are compofed of a homogeneous jelly, without any appearance of fibres, they poffefs a truly furprifing power of contraétion. Con- ftantly aGtive on the furface of the waters, we fee them alternately contra€ted and developed. When the animal comes from below towards the furface, he ftrikes from above downwards, and thus raifes himfelf in confequence of the refiftance of the water to this motion of his umbella. In order to change the direétion of his courfe, he is inclined, fo that the umbella forms a more or lefs acute angle with the hori- zon; in this cafe the direétion of the ftroke, and confe- quently the refiftance being oblique, he is urged forwards in 7 the VERMES. the fame direGion. When he has reached the furface, the vertical pofition can have no other effe& than that of retainin him in the fame pofture and place: to change it, he mu again incline his body. In this way, all the medufe with gelatinous and orbicular bodies wim: the umbella remains parallel to the horizon only in the ftate of reft, or at leaft of relative repofe. Defcending in the water is accomplithed very fimply : their fubftance being fpecifically heavier than that of fea-water, it is only neceflary that they fhould con- tra& themfelves powerfully, fo as to contraét their dimen- fions in every direction, and they fink of themfelves. Some- times, in order to go down more quickly, they turn them- felves over ; fo that the upper convex part of the umbella is downwards.’’ Annales du Muféum, tom. xv. p. 41. The coriaccous fkin which covers the atinix, pofleffes fo extraordinary a power of contra¢tion, that thefe animals can affume at pleafure the moft diffimilar forms. Sometimes they are flattened into a difk; fometimes elevated into a cone; fometimes lengthened intoa cylinder, &c. &c. “ They can walk,’’ fays Reaumur, “ in two ways ; firft, by means of their bafis, of which they can change the figure, dilating or contra¢ting it in different direCtions, fo as to move forwards the body flowly.”? Reaumur defcribes this at great length; Acad. des Sciences, 1760, p. 470, et feq. “I have alfo,’’ fays he, “ feen them walk upon their tentacula. They were the kind that live in holes of rocks, and poffefs long tentacula in proportion to their fize. In this cafe the animal is inverted, the bafis being upwards. The tentacula are very vifcous, and even rough to the touch, fo as to be well calculated for the purpofe.”” P. 475. He has reprefented them in the different forms which they can affume, in fig. 2:—26. In frefh-water polypes (hydra), we obferve moveable ten- tacula about the mouth, which feem principally deftined to feize their prey. The animal has the power of locomotion. The f{mallnefs and tranfparency of parts in the other génera do not allow of our difcovering the mechanifm by which motion is produced. The two following memoirs of Reaumur, in the Academy of Sciences, contain the beft account of the motions of thefe animals, and they are illuftrated by feveral figures. * Du Mouvement progrefiif, et de quelques autres Mouve- mens de diverfes Efpéces de Coquillages, Orties, et Etoiles de Mer,”’ 1710, p- 439; ‘* Obfervations fur le Mouvement progreffif de quelques Coquillages de Mer, fur celui des Heriffons de Mer, et fur celui d’une Efpéce d’ Etoile,” 1712, p. 115. Nervous Syftem.—Animals without vertebre are not formed on a common plan, either with refpeét to the nerves or mufcles ; they prefent difparities fo great, and indeed are fo deficient in common charaGers, that we are obliged, with- out making any general obfervations, to confider the nervous fyftem in the different claffes and the principal genera. Brain and Nerves of the Cephalopodous Mollufca.—In the fepia o€topus, the cuttle-fifh, and the calmar, the nervous fyftem appears to refemble in fome refpeéts that of red- blooded animals. The brain is inclofed in a particular cavity of the cartilage of the head, which is pierced by a number of holes to give paflage to the nerves. The carti- lage of the head has the form of a hollow and irregular ring; its pofterior part is the thickeft, and contains the brain; its anterior part contains the ears, and a femicircular canal which communicates on each fide with the cavity of the brain, and includes the medullary collar. The cefopha- gus paffes through the centre of this cartilaginous ring, and is confequently, as in all white-blooded animals, furrounded by the medullary cord. The lateral parts of the’ carti- Vou. ¥XXVITI, laginous ring have eminences which form a kind of orbit on each fide. The brain is divided into two diftinét parts ; one next the cefophagus, the furface of which is fmooth, and the other towards the back, which is round, and marked by longitu- dinal ftriz. The medullary collar arifes from the lateral parts of both portions: in the o€topus it is in the form of a lamina, the anterior part of which produces four large nerves, which, with the four correfponding nerves, proceed forward into the eight feet, which crown the head. Thefe laminz are joined inferiorly, and thus furround the cefopha- gus. Two other principal pairs of nerves arife on each fide, near the origin of the collar. The firft or optic pair ex- tends direétly into the orbit, paffes after a fhort courfe through the {iclerotic coat, and is there dilated into a gang- lion larger than the brain, fhaped like a kidney, with the concave fide turned towards the brain. The fubftance of this ganglion appears to be the fame as that of the brain : its convexity produces a multitude of {mall nerves, as fine as hairs, which pafs through the choroides, by an equal num- ber of {mall holes, to form the retina. ‘The fecond pair belongs to the mufcles of the fac; it originates a little above the preceding pair. Thefe nerves defcend obliquely, and after leaving the cerebral cavity, pafs between the mufcles, which fuftain the head, to the lateral part of the fac, near its fuperior edge, between the body and the bran- chiz. It then divides into two branches, one of which defcends to the bottom of the fac, the other dilates into a roundifh ganglion, which produges a*multitude of nerves, difpofed like radii. “Thefe are diftributed to all the flefhy fibres of the fac and the fins. The anterior and inferior part of the collar gives origin to two pairs of nerves. The firft or auditory are very fhort, as they only traverfe a cartilaginous lamina to pene- trate the ear, where they are diftributed. The fecond pair iffues fromi the cartilage by two holes placed near each other, and beneath the ears: the two nerves which compofe it de- {cend within the peritoneum to the bottom of the fac. When they arrive near the heart, they form a complicated plexus, from which all the nerves of the different vifcera proceed. Each foot has a nerve, which paffes from one extremity to another, like an axis, and occupies a canal, which we have defcribed in {peaking of the mufcles. This nerve is en- larged, at different {paces, by numerous ganglia, which have the appearance of tubercles, and from each of which ten or twelve nervous filaments proceed: thefe diverge and pene- trate the mufcles of the interior of the foot, to which they diftribute branchiz ; but the chief ramifications are fpent on the fuckers. This defcription is taken from the o€topus: the other cephalopoda differ only in having a brain lefs diftinétly di- vided, and prefenting lefs confpicuous furrows. Nervous Syftem of the Gafteropodous Mollufca. In the Snail (Helix Pomatia.)—'The brain is fituated upon the efophagus, behind an oval mafs of mufcles, which en- velop the mouth and the pharynx. Its fhape is nearly femi- lunar, with the concavity backwards. The angles of the crefcent are prolonged on each fide into a branch, by which the cefophagus is encompafled in a collar. The falivary glands, and the mufcle which retra&ts the mouth and brain, pafs alfo through this collar. ‘The two cords produced by the brain unite below the cefophagus and mufcle in a large round ganglion, which is more than one-half the fize of the brain. All the nerves proceed from one or other of thefe two maffes. Thofe furnifhed by the brain proceed from the D lateral VERMES. lateral parts of its convex fide. There are, firft, two nerves for the flefhy part of the mouth; next, one on each fide for the {mall horns; then two for each great horn, one of which proceeds to the bafe of that horn, and paffes into its mufcular fubftance ; the other goes to the eye. The latter is folded confiderably- on itfelf, when the horn is drawn inward. There are befides fome other filaments, which ex- tend to the bafe of the parts of generation, and to the mufcles which move the head. The large inferior ganglion produces at firft three great nerves, one for the penis, ano- ther for the brain, and athird for the mufcles, which draw the whole animal into its fhell. The inferior furface of this ganglion afterwards produces two great fafciculi, which proceed backward, and which, after pafling between the two mufcles before mentioned, are diftributed to all the flefhy parts of the foot. Swammerdam’s figure of the nerves of the fnail appears to have been taken from the flug. In the Slug (Limax Rufus.) —The brain is alfo fituated behind the cefophagus in this animal, but it has the form of a narrow ribbon lying crofswife. It enlarges a little at its lateral parts, each of which produces a filament to encircle the efophagus. The ganglion, which is formed by the union of thefe two filaments, is larger than the brain. Two principal trunks proceed, each on its refpective fide, in a ftraight line from this ganglion. They extend along the lower part of the body, throughout its whole length, preferving nearly a parallel direction. On the external fide they each detach a number of filaments, which penetrate into the flefhy fubftance of the fkin. A great number of other filaments alfo proceed immediately from the inferior ganglion to the fkin. Further, the inferior ganglion fends off two nerves on each fide, which go to the vifcera, and follow the diftribution of the arteries. With refpe&t to the brain, properly fo called, it furnifhes in the firft place a nerve on each fide for the flefhy mafs of the mouth; then two for each of the great horns, one of which extends to the eye, and becomes the optic nerve. The nerves of the fmall horns arife more outwardly. In the Aplyfia.—This is a {mall marine animal, very like the flug, but refpiring by means of branchiw, which form a kind of tuft on the back, and are covered by a particular operculum. The brain is fituated as in the {nail; but the branches, which furround the efophagus, produce two ganglia, one on each fide, which are conjoined by a fmall filament. The brain furmifhes, at its anterior part, two flender fila- ments, which encircle the flefhy mafs of the mouth, and unite under it in a {mall ganglion, whence the nerves of the lips are detached. The brain afterwards affords nerves to the horns and the eyes, which are in this animal fituated be- tween the horns, and to the parts of generation. The two lateral ganglia tranfmit a multitude of nerves to all the flefhy parts of the foot and fkin; they alfo produce each a long cord, which unites to its correfponding cord on the aorta, near the part where it arifes from the heart; there they form a ganglion, from which all the nerves of the vifcera proceed. 5 In the Cho Borealis. —This {mall animal has no foot, and can only fwim. It refpires by two branchiz, in the form of wings, fituated on the neck; but in other refpeés it very much refembles the flug. Its nervous fyftem is ana- Jogous to that of the aplyfia. Its brain is formed of two roundifh lobes: it furnifhes immediately nerves to the tentacula, and gives origin to a double collar. The anterior extends, as in the aplyfia, under the mouth, to form a {mall ganglion. The potterior 10 has a ganglion on each fide, which furnifhes nerves to the mufcular fkin that furrounds the body ; each of thefe pro- duces one or two other ganglia, which fend nerves to the vifcera. In the Doris. —This is alfo a {mall marine animal fimilar to the flug, but it refpires by external branchiz difpofed like ftars round the anus. The brain is very large in pro- portion to the reft of the body, and pavtibitarly in com- parifon with that of other gafteropoda. It is elongated tranfverfely, and of a fquare form. It is fituated immie- diately above the origin of the efophagus, behind the or- bicular mafs of mufcles, which form the parietes of the mouth. Six nerves proceed from the brain on each fide ; one pair is deftined for the mufcles of the mouth, another for the tentacula. The third is a cord, which pafles below the cefophagus, and is loft in the mufcles of the foot, where it may be very diftin@ly obferved on the lateral parts of the internal furfaces The fourth and the fifth are dire¢ted above the mafs of inteftines, and proceed to the fkin of the back. Lattly, the fixth terminates in the parts of generation. In the Scyltea.—This is another marine animal fimilar to the flug, but refpiring by branchie in the form of wings arranged by pairs on the back: it crawls on a furrow in its belly. The collar furrounding the cefophagus is a fimple cord, and does not enlarge into a ganglion as it proceeds downward. The brain, which is above it, is of an oval form; it fends nerves to the mouth and to the horns, but there are no optic nerves, as this animal has no eyes. The nerves of the vifcera arife from the inferior part of the col- lar, and thofe of the mufcles from its fides. t In the Sea-Ear ( Halyotis Tuberculata.)—This animal has no ganglion above the cefophavus to fupply the place of the brain. We find merely a nervous filament, fituated tranf- yerfely above the cfophagus, behind the mouth. Four {mall ramifications proceed from the middle and anterior part of this filament, two on each fide, and are loft in the parietes of the mouth. At each extremity of the tranfverfe, nervous filament there is a very large flat ganglion, from the circumference of which a number of nerves are detached to the adjacent parts. Three filaments pafs off on each fide from the external furface of this ganglion: one is fent to the fetiform tentaculum, fituated above the mouth, the other two proceed to the flat tentaculum, like a buckler, placed more pofteriorly and on the fides. The moit pof- terior appears to be intended for the eye: it is the thickeft, the other feems loft in the mufcular parts. A very remarkable filament is detached from the fuperior parts: it proceeds above the cefophagus, and joins the cor- refponding one on the other fide. There is a {mall enlarge- ment at the point of union, from which four nerves proceed, two on each fide of the middle line. The moft external is loft in the mufcles of the tongue; the other purfues the middle line of the cefophagus, and is ramified over the in- teftines. Several {mall branches are detached inferiorly, and terminate in the fan-like mufcles that fuftain the tongue. Laftly, the ganglion is prolonged pofteriorly into a thick nervous cord, fituated on the fides and below the efophagus, which becomes flat, as it proceeds backward: it defcribes a femilunar curve, fo that the two nerves of the oppofite fides are approximated, and finally touch each other at the bafis of the tongue, and below the anterior part of the large mufcle which attaches the animal to its fhell. The union of thefe two nerves produces a ganglion, from which two very remarkable trunks, intended for the inteftines, proceed ; they can be followed to above the ftomach, and we can per- ceive that fome of their ramifications enter the liver. After the VERMES. the formation of the ganglion, which furnifhes nerves to the vifcera, the two trunks penetrate by two different holes into the fubftance of the mufcle of the foot. Thefe two holes are the origin of two canals, which run throughout the whole length of the foot, on the fides of another middle canal, which appears deftined to diftribute the blood of the animal. The two nerves, lodged in the lateral canal, are diftributed by a great number of lateral holes into the fub- ftance of the flefhy mufcles of the foot, and of the thell, where they may be followed with facility. Inthe Helix Stagnalis and Helix Cornea ( Planorbis Cornea), the brain confifts of two lateral mafles, feparated by a contraction. In the living animal they are of a lively red colour. The diftribution of the nerves differs very little from what we obferve in the common fnail. Nervous Syftem of the Acephalous Mollufca.—It is formed on a plan far more uniform than that of the gafteropoda. In all the teftaceous acephala, from the oyfter to the pholas, and the teredo, there appears no effential difference : it confifts always of two ganglia, one on the mouth re- prefenting the brain, and another towards the oppofite part. Thefe two ganglia are united by two long nervous cords, which take the place of the ufual collar, but which occupy a much greater {pace at the foot where it exifts, and the ftomach and liver always pafs in the interval between them. All the nerves arife from the two ganglia. In the Anodontites, or Frefh-water Mufcles, in Cockles, in the Venus, Maéra, and Mya.—In thefe, and generally in all the bivalves which have two cylindrical mufcles, one at each extremity of their valves, for the purpofe of bringing them together; the mouth is placed near one of thofe mufcles, and the anus near the other. The foot appears about the middle of the fhell; and the tubes for the excre- ments and refpiration, when they exift, go out at the end of the fhell oppofite to that in which the mouth is fituated. The brain is placed at the anterior edge of the mouth; it is oblong tranfverfely ; it fends off two cords anteriorly, which go to the adjacent mufcles, and turning towards each fide, penetrate the lobes of the cloak, paffing through the whole extent of their edge. The brain furnifhes alfo, on each fide, fome filaments to the membranous tentacula, which furround the mouth, and detaches, from its pofterior edge, the two cords analogous to the medullary collar in other in- vertebral animals. Thefe cords proceed, each on its fide, under the mufcular ttratum which envelopes the liver and the other vifcera, and which becomes thicker as it is con- tinued to form the foot, which is frequently con{truéted for {pinning. When arrived at the pofterior mufcle which clofes the valves, thefe cords approach each other, and en- large as they unite to form the fecond ganglion. This ganglion has the form of two lobes. It is at leaft as large as the brain ganglion, and always much more eafily diftin- guifhed. It detaches two principal nerves on each fide, and the four together reprefent a kind of crofs. The two anterior nerves, as they afcend, proceed a little towards the fide of the mouth, and after having defcribed an arc, pene- trate into the branchie. The other two pafs on the pof- terior mufcle, precifely in the fame manner as thofe of the brain on the anterior. After detaching fome filaments they proceed into the cloak, the edge of which they follow until they join thofe of the brain; they thus form a continued circle. We do not yet know the origin of the vifceral nerves in thefe animals. The teftaceous acephala, in which the foot is protruded by an extremity of the fhell, that always remains open, and the tubes by the oppofite extremities, that is to fay, in razor-fifh and piddocks, the mouth, and confequently the brain, is always near one extremity, The nerves which pro- ceed from the brain, take therefore a longer courfe before they diverge to join the cloak. The cords of the collar, however, have a much fhorter diftance to pafs before they unite. There is a confiderable fpace, ‘particularly in the razor-fifh, between the mafs of the vifcera fituated in the bafe of the foot, and the pofterior mufcle. The fecond ganglion is fituated in the middle of this fpace, between the branchiz of each fide: it is round, and much more diftin& than in the other fpecies ; the nerves it produces are how- ever exa@tly fimilar. In the oyfter, which has no mouth at the anterior part, the brain and mouth are fituated under the kind of hood which the cloak forms towards the hinge. The nerves go direétly into the cloak itfelf. The ganglion is fituated on the anterior furface of the fingle mufcle, immediately behind the mafs of vifcera. The nerves it produces are the fame as in the preceding genera. : Inthe Afcidia.—T hefe {mall marine animals are enveloped in an immoveable coriaceous or gelatinous cafe, which has two apertures ; one for the expulfion of the excrement, the other for the admiffion of water to the branchiez. The branchiz are in the form of a large fac, and are inclofed, as well as the other vifcera, in another membranous bag, of the fame form as the external cafe, but {maller, and completely adhering to that cafe at the two apertures only. The in- ferior ganglion is fituated on this membranous fac ; its pofi- tion is between the two apertures, but neareft that which correfponds to the anus; it produces four principal nerves : two afcend towards the fuperior or refpiring aperture, the other two defcend towards that of the excrements. There are {maller nerves difperfed through all the membranous fac. We have not yet difcovered thofe preduced by the brain, nor the brain itfelf, which is doubtlefs fituated as ufual on ie mouth. ‘The mouth is in the bottom of the branchial ac. In the Tritons of Linneus, which inhabit the anatiferous and balanite Shells, (Lepas, Linn.) —Thefe animals approach perhaps nearer to the cruftacea, and particularly to the mo- noculi, than to the mollufca. Their nervous fyftem is a fort of middle kind between that of the mollufca, and that of the cruftacea and infeGs. The brain is placed acrofs the mouth, which is itfelf fituated in the part of the body correfponding to the liga- ment, and at the bottom of the fhell. It produces four nerves to the mufcles fituated in that place, and to the ftomach, and two others which embrace the cefophagus, and proceed into that elongated portion of the body which bears the numerous articulated and ciliated horny tentacula which the animal protrudes from its fhell. Thefe two fila- ments approach, and form a ganglion, and then proceed clofe to each other among thefe tentacula, furnifhing a corre- {ponding pair of nerves for each pair of tentacula ; but there are no apparent ganglia at the origin of thefe nerves. The general refult from the preceding ftatements is, that the nervous fyftem of the mollufca confiits in a brain placed on the cefophagus, and in a variable number of ganglia, fometimes approximated to the brain, and fometimes dif- perfed in the different cavities, or placed under the mufcu- lar envelopes of the body; that the ganglia are always conneéted to the brain and to each other by nervous cords, which eftablifa a general communication between thefe dif- ferent medullary maffes: that the nerves all arife either from the brain or the ganglia; and laftly, that there is no part which can be compared to the medulla oblongata and medulla f{pinalis. Nervous Syftem of Worms.—Some genera prefent a very D2 difting VER MES. diftin& nervous fyitem, organized nearly like that of the cruftacea and infe€&ts. In others, however, that fyftem be- comes fo obfcure, that we can fearcely recognife its exift- ence. Thus the clafs of worms, which in feveral of its genera ranks above infects, with refpeét to the organs of circulation, is reduced almoft to a level with the zoophytes, when confidered with regard to the organs of fenfation. The Aphrodite aculeata has a very diftin& nervous fyftem. Immediately behind the tentacula, fituated above the mouth, we obferve a large nervous ganglion, which is the brain ; it has the form of a heart, the broadeft and bilobed part of which is dire@ted backwards. The pointed anterior portion produces two {mall filaments for the tentacula, and the lateral parts fome other filaments, which are {till more flender, for the parietes of the mouth. This ganglion is fituated immediately above the origin of the cfophagus. ‘The two cords which arife from the brain, and from the collar, are very long and delicate ; they gradually increafe in thicknefs as they approach the point of their union. Each then produces a large filament, which we fhall call the recurrent nerve; thefe nerves are very diftin@ : they are directed forward towards the part where the cefophagus, which is very fhort, joins the ttomach. They may be eafily followed by the naked eye to the lateral parts of that vifcus, which is very long and mufcular; before they reach the inteftines that follow the ftomach, they fwell into a ganglion, which produces a great number of nervous fibrils. The two curves of the collar produce a very large ganglion at their union; it is bifurcated anteriorly, and iituated immediately behind the mouth, and above the cefo- phagus ; it is the anterior extremity of the chief nervous cord. We do not obferve any filaments proceeding from it. To this firft ganglion another {ueceeds, which is diftinguifhed from it only by a {mall contraétion ; the latter produces two nervous filaments, which go forwards into the mufcles of the abdomen. A feries of ganglia, the fpaces between which are confiderably greater, afterwards fucceed ; each of thefe fends off fix nerves, three on a fide, which are loft in the mufcles. Thefe ganglia are twelve in number. The nervous cord, which fucceeds, and which occupies the pofterior third of the body, no longer exhibits any apparent enlarge- ment; but pairs of nerves are {till detached at certain {paces. Finally, this cord may be followed to the extre- inity of the body. In the Leech, the nervous fyftem is a longitudinal cord, compofed of twenty-three ganglia. The firft is fitvated above the cefophagus ; it is {mall and rounded ; anteriorly it produces two flender filaments, which proceed above the difk of the mouth. The lateral parts furnifh a thick pair of nerves, that form a collar round the cefophagus, as they pro- ceed downward, and unite at the fecond ganglion. This ganglion is of a triangular figure, and appears to be formed by the union of two tubercles. Two of thefe angles are anterior and lateral ; they receive the nerves that proceed from the firft ganglion. The other is pofterior ; it is pro- longed into a nerve rather more than half a line long, which produces the third ganglion : the anterior part of the trian- gular ganglion which we defcribe, detaches two {mall nerves that are loft on the efophagus, around the mouth. The nine fucceeding ganglia are precifely of the fame form, and produce each two pair of nerves; they differ only in the greater or lefs diftance at which they are placed from each other. The third, as we have obferved, is very near the fecond. The three following are at the diftance of nearly a line and a half: but thofe which fucceed, from the feventh to the twenticth, are at the diftance of three or four lines: finally, the three laitvare very clofe together. All thefe ganglia are fituated longitudinally below the inteftinal canal, to which they furnifh, from their fuperior furface, a number of nervous filaments ; they produce on each fide two nerves, which pafs into the longitudinal and tranfverfe mufcles, in the fubftance of which they are loft. Thefe nerves run in oppofite dire€tions, fo thae they reprefent the figure of an X. The coat of thefe nerves is black, and very folid, fo that before the parts have been immerfed in alcohol, they appear like a fyftem of veffels. The nervous cord of the Earth-worm derives its man from a ganglion fituated above the cefophagus : this gangh is formed of two clofe, but very diftin& tubercles. It pro= duces a pair of {mall nerves proceeding to the parietes of the mouth, and two large cords, which embrace the eefopha- gusin the form of acollar: thefe unite to form the nervous cord, the origin of which therefore appears bifurcated. Three pair of {mall nerves are detached at this place: one from the cord itfelf, and the others from its lateral parts. They all proceed into the mufcles of the mouth. The nervous trunk is continued to the anus, along the inferior part of the inteftine ; its fize is not fenfibly diminifhed, and the contra¢tions are not very remarkable: there are, there- fore, no réal ganglia. A pair of nerves arifes between each of the rings of the body ; thefe nerves pafs under the longi- tudinal mufcles, and difappear between them and the fkin. When the nervous cord reaches the anus, it terminates by forming a plexus, which is loft on the parietes of that aperture. In the Gordius argillaceus, there is only a fingle nervous cord, fimilar to that of the earth-worm, but its contraGtions are ftill lefs apparent. The Nereis and Terebella have, within the {kin of the belly, a longitudinal cord, which may be regarded as nervous: it has as many contraGtions as there are rings in the body. No nervous filament has been obferved proceeding from this cord. : In the Sea-worm (LZumbricus Marinus, Linn.), which in its external chara¢ters approaches nearer to the nereis than to the lumbricus, the nervous fyftem is the fame as in,the nereids, but the cord gradually increafes in thicknefs towards the middle of the body, where it is much more difting. ; Inthe Afcaris Lumbricoides of Man and the Horfz. — This animal appears to have two nervous cords; they are ob- fervable throughout the whole length of the body, on the Jateral parts of the abdomen. They unfte above the cefo- phagus, exaétly at its origin on the mouth; they are very flender, and produce no remarkable ganglion: they are {maller at their origin than towards their extremity, that is to fay, towards the anus ; but they are equal, and precifely fimilar to each other with refpect to their different parts. We ob- ferve at firft fome fmall granular points, which enlarge in proportion as the nerve defcends. When it has reached the middle of the body longitudinally, it forms fquare ganglia, at a fhort diftance from each other. Laftly, towards the termination, for the length of nearly fix lines, the nerve be- comes more and more flender, and ends in a very {mall fila- ment, which unites with that of the other fide. Thus we find an evident analogy in the organization of the nervous fyitem of cruftacea, infeéts, and worms, no lefs ftriking than that which prevails in the external forms, in the difpofition of the mufcles, and the fingular divifion, inte a feries of rings or fegments, which we obferve in thefe animals. This analogy prevents us from eftablifhing be- tween thefe three claffes limits equally diftin@ with thofe which fubfift between them and the mollufea. The uniform 6 diftribution VERMES. diftribution of nearly equal ganglia upon a cord, extending throughout the whole length of the body, feems defigned to furnifh each fegment with a brain peculiar to itfelf. Thus we are gradually conduéted to that general diffufion of the medullary fubftance, which feems to take place in zoo- phytes. Animals in which no diftin® Nervous Syftem has been yet dif- covered.—We do not, fays Cuvier, include in this divifion the animals of the clafs of worms, or the mollufca, in which the minutenefs or foftnefs of the parts have not yet per- mitted us to trace the nervous fyftem. Analogy will not allow us to doubt its exiftence, when the parts which ac- company it uniformly exift. Thus the flukes (fafciola) having veffels, or liver, &c. muft be fuppofed to have nerves alfo, though we have hitherto been unable to demonftrate them. We even doubt not the exiftence of a nervous fy{ftem in feveral inteftinal worms, particularly thofe which have a cylindrical form, which we fuppofe to have a medulla nearly fimilar to that deferibed in the large afcarides. It is found in the gor- dius; why fhould it not exift in the echinorhynchus, ftrongylus, &c. &c.? But there are animals, in which analogy affords us no affiftance, to whom we cannot afcribe a nervous fyftem, unlefs we diftinétly obferve it: there are fome inteftinal worms, very different in form from thofe we have mentioned, and the greater part of zoophytes. The afterias has parts very fimilar to nerves; but Gal- vanic experiments ought to be made on living individuals, to prove completely their nature. Round the cefophagus we obferve a girth of a foft whitifh fub{tance, which pro- duces ten filaments, two to each of the branches, which form the body of the ftar. The two filaments belonging to each branch having arrived at the bafe of the offeous and articulated ftalk, which ferves for the principal fapport of the animal, unite to form a fhort cord, which extends di- re€tly from one to the other: they afterwards both con- tinue along the {talk te the extremity of the branch, dimi- nifhing always in thicknefs. At the place where they are united, each produces a fafciculus of filaments, which are diftributed to the ftomach, which, in thefe animals, is fituated in the midft of the body, between the five branches, The appearance of all thefe filaments is rather tendi- nous than nervous, and that circumftance chiefly has hi- therto prevented us from forming a decided opinion of their nature. _ In the Holothuria, properly fo called, among which we do not include either the thalia, or the holothuria phyfeter of Linneus, we find fomething fimilar to what we have de- feribed in the afterias ; but the appearance of the cord is much more nervous, and this is a ftrong confirmation of our conjectures. The parts we allude to are feen moft diftin@ly in the fpecies of holothuria which have. fivé longitudinal pairs of mufcles, as the priapus and penta@ta. Between the two muf- cles, which compofe each pair, there is extended a white eord, flightly ferpentine, and marked by tranfverfe rings, likecommon nerves. The five cords enlarge as they pro- ceed towards the cefophagus, where they feem to unite and furround the canal. The Sipunculus is more fimlar to the holothuria than to any other animal, though naturalifts have hitherto placed them next the lumbricus. They have only a fingle whitith cord, but it completely refembles thofe of the holothuria, and it proceeds, in the fame manner, to embrace the cefopha- gus by its anterior extremity. If the parts now mentioned are real nerves, it will be neceflary to feparate the echino-dermata from the other zeo- phytes, and eftablish them as a diftin& clafs. | In the Sea Urchins (£chinus), nothing fimilar to nerves has been obferved: the fame remark may be extended to the aGtinie and medufe. With refpe& to the polypes, both the frefh-water kind and thofe which belong to the corals, &c. we have already obferved that their bodies exhibit only a gelatinous and ho- mogeneous pulp, in which no particular arrangement of organs can be difcerned. All thefe animals have however diftinét fenfations: their fenfe of touch is very delicate ; they not only perceive the motions which agitate the water in which they live, but they completely feel the degrees of heat and light. The expanfion of the aétinie correfponds precifely to the ferenity of the atmofphere. The hydra perceives very diftinétly the prefence of light; prefers it, and conftantly turns towards it. The microfcopic animals appear to approach in fome meafure the nature of polypi, by their uniform and gelatinous ftru@ture. There are fome, however, in which we obferve a more complicated organiza- tion, and feveral kinds of internal vifcera; but it will be obvious, that we have no means of afcertaining whether they poffefs a nervous fyftem. Organs of Senfe.—The eye. The cephalopodous mollufca have two eyes fituated at the fides of the head, under the tentaculated arms. Moft of the gafteropoda have alfo two eyes, but very {mall, and placed either on a level with the head, or on fome of the flefhy and moveable tentacula. In fome they are fituated at the bafe of thefe tentacula; in others at the middle, or the point. In all this order, only the clio, {eyllea, and ler- nea, want eyes. No eyes are found in the acephalous mollufca. Among the articulated worms there are fometimes found {mall tubercles, which have been regarded as fimple eyes, in confequence of their refemblance to thofe of infects. Some leeches have two, four, fix, or eight; in fome of the nereids we find two or four: in fome naiades only two, &c. No parts that can be compared to eyes have hitherto been obferved in any zoophyte. . The cephalopodous mollufea, particularly the calmar, have very large eyes ; on the contrary, in fuch of the gaf- teropoda as poflefs eyes, they are fcarcely vifible. The eye of the cuttle-fifh has no cornea, nor aqueous humour : the anterior aperture of the fclerotic is not filled up, and the cryftalline projects acrofs it. Under the con- junétiva, however, a particular membrane is obferved, dry, fine, and tranfparent, enveloping the {clerotica itfelf, and fupplying, by its anterior part, the place of the cornea. This conjunétiva is eafily feparable from the eye, as in fer- pents. ‘The cryftalline is fpherical, as in animals which fee in water ; and hard in confiftence. The ftruéture of the {clerotic is fingular, being much removed pofteriorly from the globe of the eye. The large:ganglion of the optic nerve, and feveral other glandular parts, are fituated between them. The fclerotica, therefore, forms pofteriorly a truncated cone, the pointed part of which is direGted to the bottom of the orbit: to this portion the mufcles are attached. The an- terior part nearly fhuts the globe of the eye. It is very foft and vifcous; eafily feparated, and prefents a coarfe felt- like texture, which becomes firmer in fpirits of wine. In fome fpecies it has a metallic brilliancy. As there is no cornea, the fclerotic is wanting oppofite to the cryttalline ; but the hole is not fufficiently large to admit a view of the iris without diffeGtion. The internal furface of the choroid is of a purple-red colour. The ufe of the ciliary proceffes, in retaining the cryftalline, VERMES. cryftalline, is no where fo diftin@ly feen as in the eye of the cuttle-filh. They form a ee zone or diaphragm, in the aperture of which the cryftalline is truly encafed. A deep circular furrow paffes completely round the cryftalline, and divides it into two unequal hemifpheres. The ciliary pro- cefles penetrate into this furrow, where they are fo firmly fixed, that they cannot be removed without being torn. The procefs is not formed of projecting laminz, but of a continued membrane, the two furfaces of which are marked by a circle, confifting of a vaft number of fine radiated ftrie, which prefent a very agreeable {peétacle. The fepie have glandular bodies between the fclerotica and the choroid ; but none between the latter and the tunica Ruyfchiana. The feparation of thefe two membranes is even fometimes difficult ; the choroides is more thick, foft, and vafcular, the Ruy{chiana thin and dry. There is no tape- tum, al! the eye being lined internally by a deep purple pig- ment. The pupil is fhaped like a kidney. After the numerous optic filaments have perforated the choroid, they are confounded in a fingle membrane, the retina. The cryftalline divides eafily into two hemifpheres, the limits of which are marked externally by a deep furrow : each hemifphere confifts of a number of concentric cups, compofed of radiated fibres. As the conical {clerotic of the fepie is attached to the bot- tom of the orbit, the glandular bodies, which ferve to fupport the globe, are fituated, not between it and the orbit, but between it and the choroid. The part fixed to the edge of the optic hole is pointed ; it preferves therefore fome degree of mobility. There are only two {mall mufcles, one fuperior and an anterior, the head being fuppofed upwards. The fepiz and other Sees which have not the eyes at the extremity of their tentacula, have no eye-lid; the fkin covers the eye, as in ferpents andeels. But the flugs, fnails, &c. have an organization, which is far more complicated, and much better calculated for the prote¢tion of their eye. This organ is fituated at the extremity of a flefhy tube, called a horn or tentaculum, which may be drawn completely within the head, and protruded by a motion fimilar to the evolution of the finger of a glove. We have already de- {cribed the mufcles that draw the {nail into its fhell. The particular mufcle of the eye is attached at the external edge of each of thefe mufcles: this mufcle penetrates to the in- fide of the horn, to the extremity of which it is fixed. When it contraéts, therefore, but {till more when affifted by the contraétion of the great mufcle of the body, it draws the extremity of the horn inwardly, in a manner which re- fembles the turning in of a flocking. The annular fibres, which encircle the horn throughout the whole of its length, unfold the internal part by fucceffive contraGtions, and thus bring back the eye to its external pofition. In the flug, the retractors of the eyes are fimply attached to the flefhy mafs which forms the foot. In the inferior horns or tentacula, which have no eyes, the mechanifm is alfo the fame. The gafteropodous mollufca are the only order, among the animals we are now confidering, that poffeffes an organ of hearing. No animals placed below thefe in the feale of being are known to poffefs fuch an organ, although there are proofs of the faculty inmany. The ear of the fepiz is very fimple ; it is entirely concealed in the body of the an- nular cartilage, which ferves as the bafe of the great tenta- cula, or feet of thefe animals. Towards the back of the head there is an eminence of the cartilaginous ring, unperforated, and covered by the thick integument of the animal. . The membrane of the labyrinth contained in this part is a fimple purfe of an oval or roundifh form, containing a clear fluid, In the common cuttle-fith (fepia officinalis), it has internally feveral conical eminences, difpofed in an irregular manner ; thefe eminences are wanting in the other f{pecies. In the pulp which fills the membrane there is a {mall body fufpended, which is offeous in the cuttle-fifh properly fo called, aad like ftarch in the oGtopus. In the fepia officinalis it refembles a {mall fhell. See Scarpa de Auditu et Olfaétu. : Organ of Touch.—We do not eafily diftinguifh all the parts which compofe the integuments o* vertebral animals, in thofe that have no vertebre: fome of the ftrata are more diftin@, others lefs fo: there are alfo fome fpecies in which we do not find the whole of them. Of the animals we are now confidering, different orders dwell in different fituations, and are expofed to very different external circumftances : there are corre{ponding variations in their outward coverings. Some live in the inteftines of other animals, the mucous fluids of which fufficiently proteét them ; others are enclofed in calcareous or ftony habitations, neceflary to enfure them from the agitations of the waves, and from the furrounding hard bodies. Others have a hard integument, covered fome- times with {pines. There is an epidermis in invertebral animals: thofe which live in water have it commonly mucous ; it is of a very dif- ferent thicknefs in the feveral {pecies. It is nearly the fame in the cephalopoda as in fifhes. In the naked gafteropoda it very much refembles that of falamanders and frogs. There is an epidermis on the fhells of moft teftacea. In the land kind, as the fnails, it is a dry pellicle, very eafily detached, when the fhell is, after the death of the animal, expofed to the a¢tion of the atmofphere, or plunged into boiling water. In the mufcles, both of frefh and falt water, and in other bivalves, we obferve a fimilar epidermis, which envelopes the fhell externally. This epidermis is always wanting on the furface of the projeCting parts, on which the animal draws its fhell along the fand, becaufe it is there worn off. In fome fpecies of fhells, the epidermis is thick and vifcous, and on this account it has been named fea-cloth. This is very remarkable in feveral fpecies of the genus arca of Linneus ; and to exprefs this peculiarity, he has called one of them pilofa. In all the teftacea, the epidermis which envelopes the fhell is continued to produce the pellicle, which covers the animal, and it produces the fame change as that which is prolonged within the body of vertebral animals. It is thin and mucous on all the parts which are not expofed to the action of the ambient fluid. In the fpecies of gafteropoda, however, whofe fhell is concealed under the fkin, and does not ferve for defence, the epidermis does not change its nature. We have examples of this in fome fpecies of aplyfia and {cyllea, as well as in the animal which produces the fhell, called by Linnzus helix halyotoidea (figaret of Lamarck). Worms have a diftin cuticle, which is eafily feparated from the {kin in the earth-worm, when it has been immerfed for a few hours in {pirits of wine, or macerated fome days in water : it is a pretty folid pellicle, which may be removed in a fingle piece. In the fipunculus faccatus this epidermis is even entirely feparated from the body, which is uneon- nected and floating within it, as if it were inclofed in a fac. Leeches and fome other worms have the cuticle mucous, like that of the gafteropodous mollufea. It is very difficult to afcertain the nature of the epidermis in zoophytes, or even to difcover whether it exifts in fome of them. The fea-{tars (afterias), the urchins (echinus), and the aétiniz, appear to poffefs it. The medufz are eo- vered with a pellicle, but fo thin and tranfparent that it cannot be fuppofed to confill of ftrata. The other zoo~ phytes, VERMES. phytes, as the polypes, &c. have a mucous furface, the foftnefs of which prevents us from diftinguifhing any mem- brane. Molt mollufca have a rete mucofum below the epidermis. In the cephalopoda it is moft commonly of a blue or red colour ; but it forms a very thin layer. _ That of the gaf- teropoda varies confiderably, as we may obferve particularly in the flug. It is thick and vifcous; but diflolves com- pletely in water. In fituation, the fhell is analogous to rete mucofum. It is found immediately under the epidermis, and, when fome of the calcareous part is. removed, it is a kind of cruft without any apparent organization, and not a membrane. It is produced by fucceffive ftrata. Finally, it is coloured, and its fhades are infinitely various. - The rete mucofum is to be found in a {mall number only of zoophytes: and it cannot even be feparated from the fkin, as in the afteriz and actinie. It appears to be confounded with the calcareous fhell, which forms, the habitation of feveral other genera. This may be obferved in fome f{pecies of echini and corallines ;. and in the ceratophytes, and a number of lithophytes. Nothing at all approaching to the appearance of nervous papille can be feen in white-blooded animals. In the cepha- lopodous mollufca fome nervous filaments may be feen in the fmall globules, which feem glandular, and which cover the fkin. In other mollufca, fome nervous filaments. may be traced into the fubftance of the fkin ; but they cannot be feen to form papille. No real cutis is to be obferved in the invertebral animals, exeepting the’cuttle-fifh andthe other cephalopoda. It is applied almoft immediately to the mufcles, by means of a very denfe cellular fubftance : it is of a very coriaceous na- ture, and not eafily lacerated. Its fibres are very flender. In the other inyertebral animals, there is no part which can be compared to the cutis. There is, indeed, a pellicle under the fhell of the cruftacea, but it is fine, tranfparent, and has very little confiftence. The fkin calt off by the larve of infeéts in moulting, is of the fame nature and thick- nefs as that below it, and’ which is deftined to fucceed it. Even the envelop of certain chryfalides, as thofe’ of the lepidoptera and diptera, cannot be regarded as cutis: it is rather a kind of horny epidermis. In the perfec ftate, there is no part of the teguments of infeéts that can be compared to the cutis. [he fame obfervation applies to the worms and zoophytes. In the invertebral animals, that have foft bodies, almoft all the mufcles may be confidered as cutaneous; for the greater number are attached to the fkin. But as they are alfo employed in progreffion, they are defcribed among the organs of motion. Befides the fkin in general, which is an univerfal organ of jouch in-man, and the red-blooded claffes, there are parti- cular organs poffeffing a much more acute power of dif- cerning the tangible properties of bodies, and at the fame time fo conftruéted as to admit of eafier application to their furface. The fingers exemplify this. It may be doubted whether the invertebral clafles have any parts calculated to perform fuch an office ; and we rather think that they have not. Some, however, regard the tentacula as organs of touch, and confider them analogous to the antenne of in- feéts, or to the fingers of man and the quadrumana. We have already defcribed the tentacula of the cephalo- podous mollufca,; under the head of Organs of Motion. They obvioufly ferve for feizing their prey ; but whether they enjoy any fenfe of touch is extremely doubtful. - The horns of the {nail have been defcribed in the account of the eye. Thofe of the other genera among the gaftero- poda do not differ, except that they are incapable of that motion by which the former are retracted and protruded like the finger of a glove. They have mufcular fibres, which may be contraéted or relaxed. Tentacula are found in many invertebral animals; but they are not fo univerfal as the antenne among infeéts. They are fituated on the head; often at the opening of the mouth, as in the doris; above it, as in the fiug; or round it, as in the terebella. Several fpecies have fimilar appendices round the cloak. Such are the limpets, the genus halyotis, &c. Among the acephala, the greater part are provided with thefe appendices, and fome have them in great num- bers. In the {pecies which have the cloak completely open they are placed around it, and particularly towards the anus: this may be obferved in oyfters, mufcles, &c. In thofe in which the cloak opens by a tube only, the ap- pendices are attached to the circumference of its orifice. Such are the genera venus, cardium, &c. ‘The tube itfelf furnifhes thefe animals with an excellent inftrument of touch. The flefhy and ciliated arms of the genera lingula and terebratula are equally proper for this employment ; but thofe of the anatifa are very inferior, in confequence of their horny fubftance. Cirri are found in feveral fpecies of worms; and they fometimes appear to be formed of different articulations, like the antenne of infeéts. Nerves proceed into thofe of the aphrodita and nereis. ‘There are none in the lumbricus and leech ; but their‘place is fupplied in the latter by the two difks which terminate their bodies. Their number varies: generally there are two, the flug has four, the cuttle-fith eight, the pennatula forty to fixty or more. Many varieties of form are alfo obferved, and defcribed by writers in natural hiftory. The tentacula of the polypes are faid to be hollow, and to communicate with the ftomach. Fine hairs are obferved in them, by means.of the microfcope 5 they. alfo poflefs numerous knots, which probably are of feryice in fixing them on animals which they feize for prey. Throughout the invertebral claffes, we find thefe inftru- ments chiefly ufed for feizing the creatures on which the animal lives. The tubularia, hydra, brachyonus, vorticella, &c. throw the water into motion by means of their arms. When any thing on which they can prey comes near, they inftantly feize and convey it to the mouth. ‘Trembley ob- ferved, that the tubularia fultana (polypes a bouquet) gave a rotatory motion to the water, and thus conduéted the prey to their arms. Olivi obferved, that the atiniz and polypes (hydra) perceived their prey at a diftance, put the water in motion, and thus brought it within the {phere of their arms. Speaking of thefe organs, Cuvier fays, “ the anus, the tufts and the flowers of feveral zoophytes (polypi, La- marck); the innumerable tentacula of the fea-{tars, urchins and aétiniz, and the complicated branches of the medufe, are excellent organs of touch.” Of the infenfible parts, covering the fkin, very little re- mains to be faid; we have already defcribed the formation of the fhell, and. have made fome further remarks on it in {peaking of the fkin. ‘ Many of the vermes clafs have the body furnifhed with bunches of hairs, which are fometimes ftiff and retra¢tile, and ferve for feet, as we have pointed out in the genera nereis, terebella, lumbricus, &c. In the aphrodita, there are, befides thefe briftles, employed in progreffion, an infinite number of other hairs, which are long, flexible, and of a changeable fea-green colour; there is alfo a tomentous felt-like fubftance, covering the branchiz, through which the water is ftrained. I Organ of Smelling—The faculty of fmell is connected in all VERMES. all animals, in which it has been hitherto difcoyered, with the refpiratory apparatus; the air which enters the latter loaded with odorous effluvia a€ting on the olfactory nerves in its paflage. This analogy would lead us to look for the nofe in fimilar fituations in invertebral animals. No fuch organ, however, has yet been difcovered in this great divi- fion of the animal kingdom; although in fome inftances there are ftrong proofs that-fuch a fenfe exifts. (See Insects, in Anatomy.) In mollufca and worms we have ftill fewer dire& arguments for the exiftence of the fenfe, than in infe&ts. We fhould not perhaps expeét it in in- teftinal worms, as it could anfwer no purpofe; nor in fuch teftaceous animals and corals, &c. as have no power of locomotion. Organ of Tafte.—The fepiz, {nails, and moft gafteropodous mollufca, have a cartilaginous tongue, the fingular ftructure of which will be {poken of in defcribing the organs of maftication, &c. It has no motions except fuch as are conneéted with deglutition. Its anterior part is fixed below the mouth; and it is ineapable of embracing fapid bodies. The acephalous mollufca do not appear to have any tongue; perhaps they exercife the fenfe of tafte b thofe tentacula, fo fimilar to papille, with which their cloaks are furnifhed at the parts, where the water, which is the vehicle of their aliments, enters. There is no tongue, properly fpeaking, in worms ; though fome have given that name to the probofcis of the tha- laffema, echinorhynchus, &c. The zoophytes have alfo no tongue; but the tentacula, which furround their mouth, are frequently fo fine, and of fo delicate a fubftance, as to be very well calculated for the feat of tafte. Organs of Digeftion. Organs of Maftication in the Mollufea.—As this clafs hardly poffeffes in any inftance an offeous or at all folid head, their jaws, when they have any, cannot be articulated with, or reft upon the head. Although the cephalopoda poffefs a kind of cranium, they do not conftitute an exception to this rule ; the parts compofing their mouth are fufpended in the ring formed by this cranium. The jaws of the mollufca confift of horny, or fometimes ftony fubftance, fixed in an oval flefhy mafs, enveloping the mouth, and compofed of the mufcles of the jaws, and of thofe concerned in deglutition. The mufcular fibres be- longing to this mafs are not very diftinG, although we per- ceive in them different direGtions, by which they are calcu- lated to approximate or feparate the jaws. The latter differ confiderably in form. All the cephalopoda poffefs two, which refemble exa@ly the horny mandibles of a bird. They are convex, hooked, and very fharp-pointed. They confift of a double plate of a thick hard horn, of a deep- brown colour, of which the edges, oppofed to each other at the triturating part, become very thin, while they are hidden at their bafis in the flefhy mafs already mentioned. This inftrument is employed to break the crabs and other teftaceous animals which are ufed for food. The form and number of the jaws are not fo conftant in the gafteropoda. The common flugs and {nails have only one, which correfponds to the upper ; it is crefcént-fhaped, and the concave edge is denticulated. In the tritonia, the jaws may be beft compared to the fhears employed in fhearing fheep. Inftead, however, of playing on a gommon fpring, the two plates move by a joint ; and they are flightly curved, inftead of being plane. Thefe jaws are eae and move from right to left; the cutting-edge of one flides over that of the other, and they are very fharp. ’ We fee nothing in the aplyfia but a thin horny plate, of no great ftrength, covering the interior of each fide of the mouth. Even this flight induration is not obferved in the onchidium. The gafteropodous mollufca, poffefling a long or fhort probofcis, have no jaws at all; this is the cafe with the buccinum, murex, voluta, bullea, &c. ; and among the naked gafteropoda, with the doris, fcyllea, &c. We merely find in fome cafes, that the fides of the bottom of the probofcis are covered with cartilaginous plates; there are fuch in the doris. The ofcabrio has no mafticating organ : neither have the pteropoda, as the hyalea, clio, pneumo- dermon, &c, None of the acephalous mollufea have jaws, nor any thing fubfervient to maftication properly fo called. The teredos employ, for piercing wood, the valves of their fhells, which fome naturalifts have called their teeth; but about the true nature of which it is impoffible to doubt, when the teredo is compared to the pholas, the genus moft analogous to it. The valves of the former feem merely a miniature reprefentation of thofe belonging to the latter; as Adanfon obferved long ago. , The naked acephala, as the falpa (biphore), afcidia, &c. have no apparatus for dividing their food. The cirropoda, as the balanus and lepas, have veftiges of jaws, difpofed in pairs. The lepas, for example, has two denticulated pairs, and a thin one fimply rounded. Organs of Maftication in the Vermes.—Some of this clafs have lateral jaws as ftrong as thofe of any infe& or crufta- ceous animal, and even very fimilar to them in form. In a large {pecies of nereis, for example, the opening of the cefophagus is furnifhed with eight calcareous pieces, which feem to fupply the place of mandibles, jaws, and lower lip. The two upper are flattened, arched, and pointed hooks, difpofed like the branches of a pair of forceps, united behind, and articulated upon a horny, elaftic, femilunar plate fituated above the efophagus. The two following are broader, but not fo long; they have fix denticuli direGted backwards; they are articulated towards the pof- terior third and below the hooks, which reft upon them in their whole length. The third jaw on each fide is placed below and exteriorly ; it is fhorter and embraces the firft jaws, as in the-bowl of afpoon. It is found, on attentive examination, to be compofed of three {mall pieces placed near together; the internal has its edge denticulated with twelve {mall triangular points, like the teeth of a faw: the middle is placed forwards, and forms the pofterior edge of a prominent rounded eminence, fituated at the opening of the mouth; the laft is external, and terminated by a fingle- point. The two lower pieces, which feem to ferve for a lower lip, are the longeft, flattened horizontally, fofter at their edge, which confifts of a horny and rather flexible fubftance. All the parts juft fpecified are furrounded by a ftratum of mufcular fibres deftined to move thems In other fmall fpecies of nereis, the opening of the cefophagus is very mufcular, covered with wrinkles and points of a horny firm texture, arranged in a cireular manner, and on feveral lines, which are capable of rubbing on each other. Two principal ruge, fituated towards the upper part, fupport two larger horny pieces of a round form. At the lower and back part are two arched hooks, which come together like the branches of forceps. In other fpecies we alfo obferve two hooks; but the horny points are not arranged in the fame manner. They are colleGted in fix groups in mufcular eminences, of which three are anterior and three pofterior. It appears that the animal has the power of inverting this part of the cfopha- gus, EE EE VERMES. gus, fo as to bring out the two hooks, which feize the food like a pair of forceps. When it is feized, they drag it in, and the mufcular part of the ceefophagus, aéting on it by its contraGtions, and by means of the horny papille, divides and triturates it, and thus prepares it for the aétion of the inteftinal canal. The other marine vermes, arranged near the nereids, fuch as the arenicole, the amphinomiz, amphitrite, tere-, bellz, and ferpule, have neither jaws nor teeth. At leaft we can hardly give that name to the peCtinated proceffes of the amphitrite. They are fcaly pointed pieces, of a brilliant golden colour, arranged in two rows, which repre- fent two combs, but fituated out of the mouth, on the fur- face of the head, and enabling the animal to fix itfelf, or to hook in various fubftances, but not to mafticate or divide the food. _ The aphrodite have four {mall teeth at the bottom of a probofcis, which they can extend or withdraw at will. Leeches have three {mall femi-circular prominences in the interior of the mouth: the edge is cutting, and finely denti- culated, like a faw. With this inftrument they pierce the fin. The lumbricus has no jaws. Organs of Maftication in the Echino-dermata.—Amongtt the invertebral animals, the echini are thofe which have the moft furprifing apparatus of this kind. Their external covering, which is bony and confifts of a fingle piece, pre- fents a large round hole, in which the mafs of the mouth 1s fufpended, attached indeed by ligaments and mufcles, but moveable to a certain point. ‘The bony part of this mafs has fome refemblance to a lantern with fix divifions : the comparifon was made as long ago as the time of Ariftotle. The obje& of the apparatus is to fupport and move five teeth, which encircle the {mall round aperture, by which the foodenters. "Thefe teeth are worn away by mattication, and are conftruéted on the fame principle as the incifors of the rodentia ; viz. very long, foft behind, and hardening towards the front, in which direction they advance in proportion to the effeét of the attrition. They reft in an apparatus confifting of fixed and moveable pieces. The fixed pieces ad- here within the fhell, all round the hole: they confift of five bony arches, whofe convexities are turned towards the cavity of the fhell, or downwards; while their concavities are to- wards the edge of the circular opening, or upwards. The principal moveable pieces are five triangular pyramids, form- ing the principal body of the mafs of the mouth, and dividing the great pyramid or pentagonal lantern of the mouth. Two faces of each pyramid correfpond to thofe of the neighbour- ing pyramids: they are marked by five tranfverfe ftrie. Their inner edges do not touch each other, but are fe- parated by a {mall interval. The dorfal or external face of each pyramid is convex, thick, and perforated towards its bafe by a triangular or circular opening, differing in fize ac- cording to the {pecies. Its inner edge has a groove, in which the body of the teeth pafles and can move longitudinally, but mn no other direétion. Its extremity pafles out at the point of the pyramid; and the five points being approximated —_ the opening of the mouth, the five teeth end there alfo. The pyramids are hollow, and their faces do not exaly touch thofe of the neighbouring pyramids; but they are united by a flefhy mafs, which can approximate them. Its effe& is that of bringing the five teeth together, and thus contracting the opening of the mouth. The canal of the cefophagus paffes between the five py- ramids; the fides of their bafes, by which they touch each other, are united, two by two, by five bony pieces difpofed like radii, and approximating towards the cefophagus as Vou. XXXVII. their centre. Each of thefe pieces unites the adjaeent fides of the bafes of two pyramids, being articulated to them in a loofe manner. The third fide of the bafis of each py- ramid, that which conftitutes the bafis of its dorfal or exter- nal furface, forms one of the planes of the general pyramid or pentagon. In the natural pofition thefe fides corre{pond to the intervals of the fixed bony arches, which confequently anfwer to the angles of the pentagonal pyramid. Twenty mufcles aé&t from the fixed bony arches on this pentagonal pyramid, and can either move it entirely, or move on each other the five triangular pyramids which compofe it. Ten of thefe mufcles pafs from the intervals of the arches to the external bafes of the five pyramids. When they aét all together, while at the fame time the mufcles joining the pyramids together contraét, the whole mafs of the mouth is carried forwards, or towards the outfide of the body. If they aét feparately, they incline the mafs and render its axis oblique, making the internal extremity of the axis converge towards the fide of the mufcles which aé. If one aéts alone, while the particular mufcles joining its pyramid to the two neighbouring ones are relaxed, it carries the tooth of that pyramid further inwards than the others. The ten other mufcles go from the convexities of the arches like radii, to terminate at the points of the pyramids ; fo that each point receives the mufeles of the two neigh- bouring arches. Ass the arches proje¢t inwardly, thefe muf- cles are inclined towards the outer furface of the fhell; confequently their effe&t, when they a& together, is that of making the mafs of the mouth pafs a little inwards. When they aét feparately, while the mufcles uniting the pyramids are contracted, they incline the mafs of the mouth, by making the external extremity of its axis converge towards the fide of the mufcle which aéts. When the mufcles join- ing the pyramid to its neighbours are relaxed, the effect of the mufcles we are now defcribing is to draw back the tooth correfponding to that pyramid, and move it away from the aperture of the mouth. Thus, in thefe three relations, the mufcles coming from the arches are antagonifts of thofe which come from their intervals. If both fets a& together, they become common antago- nifts of thofe which join the pyramids, and their operation will then be to ieparate the latter from each other, and to enlarge, not only the entrance of the mouth, but the whole of the paflage left for the efophagus through the axis of the great pentagonal pyramid. Befides the twenty-five mufcles, which a& immediately on the pentagonal pyramid and its parts, there are ten others, which aét on it through the intervention of five officula, which we muft now defcribe. They are flender, and rather femi-circular or arched ; and are placed each on the fame level with one of the five bony radii which have been defcribed. One extremity of each arc is: articulated to the internal extremity of the correfponding radiated piece: the other pafles above and on the outfide of its external extremity, and is bifurcated like the letter Y. A pentagonal membrane unites and ftrengthens their extremities towards the centre. Each of the two branches of the Y receives a mufcle com- ing from the middle of the neareft interval of the fixed bony arches ; fo that each of the five interyals gives a mufcle to the two neareft Ys. The effeét of the mufcles, a@ing hy fuch levers, in in- clining the mafs of the mouth in every direétion can be eafily conceived. Each tooth may be confidered as a long triangular prifm ; of which the two pofterior faces make re-entrant angles. The part which comes out of the point of the pyramid is : very VERMES. very hard; but it becomes gradually fofter behind, and forms a long flexible tail. This foft part has a filky, or even metallic luftre, and is torn by the flighteft effort. The form of teeth juft defcribed, is that which we find in the echinus efculentus. In other fpecies, as the echinus cidaris, inftead of being prifmatic, they are like half tubes, and their extremity, which is worn away obliquely, forms the bowl of the fpoon. All the echini, properly fo called, and apparently all the fubgenera, which have the body {pherical and the mouth central, have a mouth conftruéted in the manner juft de- {cribed. Such as have the mouth central, and the body flattened (clypeatter, Lamarck ; echinus rofaceus), have an oval mafs compofed of five afleous pieces, each fupporting a tooth: but this mafs is quite flattened, like a circular cake divided into five feGors. The faces, by which the fec- tors touch each other, are not ftriated. Although there are fibres to unite them, they are merely perforated by fine and regular pores. The furface oppofite to the opening is elevated at the fides into fine and prominent lamin ; the other furface is fometimes like this. ‘Their teeth do not flide in grooves, but are fixed, and have the fhape of a comprefled cylinder, worn obliquely at the end which is in action. The oppofite end is foft, as in the preceding inftance, but not prolonged into a flexible tail. The external mufcles which aét on this apparatus are very trifling. Such echini as have the mouth oblique, and furnifhed with a plate of the fhell advancing under it, as the fpatan- guis and caffidula of Lamarck, have neither teeth nor offeous mafs to fupport them. There is merely round the opening of the mouth a fkin furnifhed with {mall fealy pieces, fimilar to thofe of the fhell, but not fo clofely fet as to render this part inflexible ; it can, on the contrary, be extended and retraéted to a certain point, at the will of the animal, like a probofcis. The afteriz have no teeth; their mouth is a round mem- branous aperture, leading to the ftomach by a very fhort efophagus, which is fometimes capable of being everted, particularly when the animal is hungry. ‘Thofe {pines of the external furface, which are neareft to the mouth, may ferve, when inclined towards that opening, to retain the prey: but they cannot be regarded as teeth in the proper fenfe of the word. The opening of the mouth in the holothuriz is furrounded by a ring compofed of ten femi-offeous pieces; but they ferve merely as points of fupport for the longitudinal muf- cles of the body and the tentacula. ‘They are covered by the internal integument of the mouth, fupport no teeth, and are not concerned in the bufinefs of mattication. The fipunculi have no hard parts in the mouth, nor elfe- where : neither have any of the zoophytes, which come next in the fcale. Salivary Organs. In the Mollufcaa—They are very large in the cephalo- poda and gafteropoda; more confiderable indeed than in any other animals. In the former there are two pairs. The firft and {malleft is fituated on the flefhy mafs of the mouth: each gland has a fhort excretory dudt, penetra- ting the mafs laterally, a little in front of the origin of the cefophagus. The other pair is much larger, fituated under the neck, behind the liver, and oppofite the crofs. The excretory duéts of the two glands unite into one tube, which afcends behind the efophagus, and penetrates the mafs of the mouth towards the pofterior point of the fmall cartilage, which fupplies the place of a tongue. Thefe glands are whitifh, flattened, and but little granulated. They are lo- bulated, and Lave an angular outline ; and they receive large branches from the principal artery. In general, the gafteropoda have only a fingle pair of thefe glands. In the common {nail (helix pomatia), they are ob- long, placed clofe to the origin of the efophagus, and pro- duce two long canals, which increafe in fize as they are in- ferted in the mafs of the mouth above. In the red flug they are lefs, and merely form a collar round the origin of the ftomach. In the aplyfia, the falivary glands are two long, narrow, ribbon-like bodies, floating at the fides of the cefophagus. They are inferted in the mouth, near the origin of the fto- mach, without having any part of their excretory dué un- covered. Their pofterior extremity is fixed to the fecond ftomach by means of branches received from the ftomachic artery. The doris has falivary glands fhaped like a long narrow ribbon, attached behind to the ftomach. They are fo flen- der in fome fpecies, that they might be taken for nerves, when they have pafled through the nervous collar of the brain. Animals of the genus bullea, though very fimilar to the aplyfie, have merely two fhort flender glands; but in the clio borealis they are nearly the fame as in the aplyfia. In the pneumodermon they are elongated, and contraéted where they pafs under the brain: for in all thefe animals, without exception, either the gland, or at leaft its excretory canal, pafles with the cefophagus through the cerebral ring. In the tritonia they are very large and lobulated, fituated at the fides of the cefophagus, and tolerably wide in their middle. The ftruéture is fimilar in the onchidium. They are generally confiderable in the aquatic univalves, as in the genera bulimus, murex, and buccinum, which is remark- able, inafmuch as in aquatic vertebral animals they are either {mall or entirely deficient. They are {mall in the halyotis. In the Echino-dermata.—The holothuriz have all round their mouth oblong blind pouches, which terminate in that cavity, and muift be fuppofed to pour into it fome liquor analogous to faliva. There are twenty of different lengths in the holothuria tremula. The pentaétes has only two, much larger. Nothing of the kind has been difcovered in the echini and afteriz. The medufe and other radiaria, and the zoophytes pro- perly fo called, exhibit no falivary apparatus. Organs of Deglutition. In the Mollufca—We mutt diftinguifh the external or- gans or lips from the internal or tongue. The former are again divided into two kinds ; viz. fhort or proper lips, and tubular lips elongated into a probofcis. 1. Proper lips. In the cephalopoda, the opening of the mouth is furrounded by a flefhy and denticulated circle, which covers and entirely conceals, when the animal choofes, the two mandibles of the bill. In the gafteropoda, which have no probofcis, the mouth is generally a longitudinal flit, whofe flefhy margins hold the place of lips. Sometimes, as in the tritonia and onchidium, thefe lips have the form of thin plates, often divided into fhreds, as in the tritonia arborefcens; the inferior tentacula of the aplyfia may alfo be confidered as folds of its lips. All the common bivalves have round their mouth four membranous folds, ufually triangular, and more or lefs elon- one ferving apparently by their motion to convey the ood towards the mouth. One of their furfaces is, moreover, fo vafcular, that it probably has fome conne¢tion with the bufinefs of refpiration. Sometimes thefe folds are united, two by two, in part of their length, as in the pinna. In 4 other VERMES. other inftances, the proper opening of the mouth is fur- rounded by a circle of flefhy fimbriz, more or lefs divided, as in the {pondylus. The naked acephala, as the biphore, thaliz, afcidiz, &c, have neither folds nor fringes. ‘The mouth of the biphore has merely a circular and flefhy edge. Tn the brachiopoda (terebratule and lingule) lips do not exift ; but their place is advantageoufly fupplied by two long ciliated arms. ! 2. Probofcis. Several naked mollufca, as the doris, and . probably moft of the teftacea, as the buccinum, murex, voluta, &c. have a flefhy cylindrical or conical probofcis, which they eniploy for feizing their food at a diftance. The motions of thisinftrument are not confined to flexion and a limited elongation, as in the trunk of the elephant ; but it is capable of being withdrawn into the body by folding inwards within itfelf, and of being extended again, like the finger of a glove, the horns of a fnail, or many other parts of mollufca. AY It may be reprefented as a cylinder folded inwards within itfelf, or as two cylinders, of which one includes the other, and the two fuperior edges are continuous, fo that in draw- ing outwards the inner cylinder, it is elongated at the expence of the other, and in pufhing it back again it is fhortened, while the exterior is elongated. The latter effect takes place at the infide, becaufe this outer cylinder has its inferior edge fixed to the parietes of the head. There are feveral longitudinal mufcles divided into many fhreds at their two extremities. They are fixed on one fide to the parietes of the body ; andon the other to the internal parietes of the inner cylinder in its whole length, and to its very, end. It is obvious that they will have the effect of drawing inwards this cylinder, and the whole probofcis. When it is thus retracted, a large part of the inner furface of the internal cylinder comes to form part of the outer furface of the external cylinder: and the contrary takes place when the probofcis is elongated or extended. The infertions of the mufcles undergo correfponding variations. _ The’elongation of the internal cylinder, by the unfolding of the external, is effe€ted by the proper annular mufcles of the probofcis. They furround its whole length; and by their fucceffive contraétions thruft it outwards. There is one ftronger than the others where the external cylinder is attached to the parietes of the head. When the pro- bofcis is elongated, its retractor mufcles, by acting partially, can bend it to one fide or the other ; and the various portions in this way antagonife each other. This defeription may ferve alfo for the murex tritonis ; but the proboicis is much fhorter than in the buccinum. Tn thofe mollufca which have a probofcis, the ceefophagus . is very long, and loofely folded, that it may follow all the motions of that inftrument: it forms in a manner a third cylinder concentric to the two others. None of the cephalopodous, pteropodous, or acephalous claffes have a probofcis : the part which has been fo named in the cirrhopoda (the anatife and balani) is the rectum. The fuppofed probofcis which fome authors {peak of in feveral bivalves, is the canal for the conveyance of water into the fhell : it is placed oppofite to the true mouth, and is an organ of refpiration, not of deglutition. The Tongue.—It is very fingular in the cephalopoda and gafteropoda; and has nothing parallel in the animal kingdom. It is 2 membrane covered with prominent {pines or ridges direfted backwards, and capable of exercifmg a kind of periftaltic motion, in which the f{pines’are alternately raifed and depreffed, fo as gradually to propel the alimentary fub- tances into the efophagus. The tongue of the cephalopoda is placed between the two mandibles: it is behind the jaws in fuch gafteropoda as have thofe organs. This is particularly obfervable in the tritonia, when the tongue immediately receives whatever pafles the cutting edge of the jaws. Others have it near the opening of the mouth; and thofe which have a probofcis, have their tongue at the anterior extremity of that organ. In that cafe it ferves, in fome degree, as an organ of matti- cation ; as it can cut the food more or lefs by means of its hooks. The tongue varies much in length ; and there are {pecies in which we are at a lofs to affign an explanation for its confiderable extent. In the halyotis, for example, it is half as long as the body ; in the patella and turbo pica it is nearly quite as long, and folded like the inteftines ; and, what is remarkable, thefe genera have no probofcis. In thofe which have one the tongue is fhort. The arrangement of the organ makes it impoflible for the animal to employ more than the anterior. part : but probably it may refemble fome kinds of teeth, the pofterior part coming forwards, and fucceeding to the other in proportion as it is worn away in front. This conjeéture receives confirmation from the foft and nearly gelatinous ftate of the pofterior part : we may fuppofe that it becomes firm when it comes into ufe, as the teeth of quadrupeds which are to fucceed. All this pofterior part is rolled up longitudinally, like a horn. In the cephalopoda the tongue is oblong, and’ prolonged pofteriorly into a long horn. In the aplyfia it is very broad, heart-fhaped, and placed on two rounded eminences feparated by a groove. In the bullea it forms a {mall tubercle at the bottom of the mouth. The hard covering of this tongue is difpofed in a regular and conftant manner in each fpecies. It confifts, in the cephalopoda, of hooked {pines of equal length, arranged in two lateral rows, and of a middle feries of fcales with five points. In the ofcabrio, there is on each fide a feries of hooked fcales, with three points, and of long, fharp, and hooked, but fimple fpines. In the middle there are fmall tubercles. The turbo pica has tranfverfe, cutting, and denticulated laminz. : The tongue of the aplyfia is covered all over with {mall hooked fpines, difpofed in the quincunx order. In the onchidium there are very fine tranfverfe grooves, themfelves marked with itill finer ftri of an oppoiite direétion. The arrangement is nearly the fame in the doris. A fimilar ftruéture occurs in the {nail and flug, but it is fo minute that a ftrong glafs is neceflary to perceive it. The acephala have no proper tongue ; but there is a cir- cular valve at the entrance of their efophagus, directed to- wards the {tomach, and capable of contributing powerfully to deglutition. It is very plain in the oyfter. Generally thefe are mere tranfverfe folds, which dire& the food by their periftaltic motion. The Alimentary Canal and its Appendages.—The alimentary canal of invertebral animals is compofed of the fame effential, parts as in thofe which have vertebre. There is an internal mucous furface, which in fome inftances affumes a callous nature, and fometimes becomes villous, or has a papillary texture; a cellular ftratum external to this, analogous to what fome have called the nervous coat of the mammalia; and a mufcular covering of variable thicknefs. A leading difference is, that often the ferous or mefenteric coat, and the mefentery itfelf, are wanting. There feems to be none in feveral mollufca, and in the clafs of infe€ts, and we only meet with it again in the echino-dermata. Another difference is, that the cellular ftratum is not always vafcular: it is fo E 2 only VERMES. only in the mollufca, worms, and fome echino-dermata. In no cafe have infects any thing more than trachee rami- fied in the parietes of their inteftines, and moft zoophytes have nothing at all. A third, but lefs general difference is, that the membranes of the ftomach are often armed with hard parts, either fimply in the form of plates, as in the bullza ; or of teeth, as in the cruftacea; or of {cales, as in the grylli; or hooks, as in the aplyfia. This is a new analogy between the inteftinal membranes and the {kin ; for we know, that in thefe animals, the fhells and fcales which cover them, are often produced by the induration of their rete mucofum. In its relative length, in the fize of its different parts, in the number and form of its dilatations, and particularly of the ftomachs and czxca, and in its internal folds, the ali- mentary canal of invertebral animals exhibits varieties alto- gether analogous to thofe obferved in the vertebral claffes. ‘Thus, for example, fuch as are carnivorous, have a fimple and fhort canal, &c. There is more variety in the pofition of the anus. The zoophytes, fome echino-dermata excepted, have none at all, but void their excrement by the mouth. Infeéts, worms, and cruftacea, always have an anus at the extremity of the body oppofite to the mouth, and below. In the mollufca its pofition feems fubje to no rule. In the doris we find it backwards and upwards; backwards and downwards in the onchidium. It is on the right fide in the flug, fnail, aplyfia, and bullza; in the head, in the patella; in front of the neck, in the cuttle-fifh ; on the fide of the neck, in the clio: in the acephala it is ufually found oppofite to the mouth. : Alimentary Canal of the Mollufca—Locomotion is per- formed in all the cephalopoda with the head downwards : as the mouth is in the centre of the feet, the food mutt afcend into the abdomen: the re€tum defcends and opens into a cartilaginous cloaca, or funnel, placed in front of the neck, and ferving as a common receptacle for the femen, the eggs, and the inky fluid. The cefophagus paffes behind the liver, or towards the back; and the rectum in front, or towards the abdomen : the reft of the canal is in the bottom of the fac or abdomen. In the middle of the cefophagus of the fepia o€topus, there is a confiderable dila- tation, of which the parietes, though thin, are manifeftly glandular: this is a true crop, analogous to that of birds ; but they have nothing fimilar to the bulbus glandulofus of birds. The ftomach is a gizzard in its general arrangement : the parietes are covered by two mufcles nearly as itrong as thofe of the gizzard of the gallinaceous birds : its internal membrane is equally thick, cartilaginous, and eafily fepa- rated. ‘The pylorus is near the cardia, and leads into a f{pecies of cecum, or, if that name fhould be preferred, a third ftomach which is a little bent on itfelf in a {piral form. Here the hepatic canals terminate. The fecond, or true pylorus, is near the other, and alfo near the cardia. A {mooth canal lies along the concavity of the third ftomach : the reft of its internal furface is plaited tranfverfely, and exhibits the orifices of an infinite number of {mall mucous follicles. The inteftine itfelf has thin fides: it is large, and nearly of uniform diameter throughout. In the oc- topus it makes two nearly tranfverfe convolutions, and a large longitudinal turn before it proceeds ftraight to the infundibulum. In the calmar it goes ftraight, without any convolution. The alimentary canal prefents numerous varieties in the gafteropoda. It is mott fimple in the {nail and flug. The cefophagus, after being a little dilated to form a kind of crop, ends at the ftomach, which is itfelf merely an oblong { membranons bag, with a large hepatic canal opening in it. The pylorus is near the fame part: the inteftine is cylin- drical, and of uniform fize ; it makes two turns, and then goes forwards and to the right, to open clofe to the orifice of the lung, after having paffed along the parietes of that cavity, and furnifhed numerous branches to the venous veffels which are diftributed over thofe parietes. The fame relation is obferved in the other gafteropoda between the inteftine and the pulmonary organ: hence the anus is always near the branchiz, when the latter are of limited extent. The parmacella differs only in having the anus, as well as the pulmonary opening further back ; and the teftacella, in having them quite at the pofterior extremity. There is a fimple membranous ftomach in the doris ; it is an oval fac, into the bottom of which the bile is poured from numerous orifices. ‘The pylorus is placed forwards, near the cardia; and the imteftinal canal, whichis large and fhort, goes dire@tly backwards, almoft without any turn, to open in the centre of the branchial circle, placed at the pofterior part of the back. In the tritonia and phyllidia, the ftomach is as in the doris ; but the inteftine goes forwards to the right, where the anus ends under the edge of the cloak. The pylorus is nearer to the cardia, and the anus more anterior, and nearer to the generative orifice, in the phyllidia: it is feparate, and placed further back, in the tritonia. The halyotis has merely a membranous fac at the back of the body. The canal is uniform throughout, and runs twice and a half the length of the body, nearly in three ftraight lines. It opens by a flefhy tube in the cavity of the branchiz, onthe left of the body. In the buccinum the cefophagus is long and flender, has a {mall lateral crop, and foon after ends in a rounded fto- mach. ‘The inteftine is very fhort. When it has reached the right fide of the branchial cavity, it is dilated into a large tube with thick fides, of which the internal furface is plaited longitudinally : it contraéts fuddenly before opening at the anus. The ftomach of the murex is a flight membranous dilata- tion. The re&tum is not dilated, but fituated as in the buc- cinum. The inteftine is fhort. The ftomach of the patelle is a {carcely fenfible dilatation ; the bile enters by numerous pores. In the ofcabrio it is a rounded fac. The inteftinal canal in both thefe genera is flender and long ; and makes many convolutions. Inthe helix itagnalis the ftomach begins to be more com- plicated. It is furmfhed with two mufcles united by com- mon tendons, and radiated exa¢tly as in the gizzard of birds. Immediately before entering it, the efophagus is dilated into a kind of crop. The onchidium alfo has a thick gizzard, preceded by a crop. Two hepatic canals open into the latter, and a third into the former. The gizzard is followed by two membranous but thick ftomachs ; one is pyramidal, with the broad part turned towards the gizzard, and parietes deeply plaited into longitudinal ridges: the other is narrower, cy- lindrical, and more delicately plaited. There is fome analogy between the ftomach of the pleuro- branchus and that of the onchidium; but the organ is weaker in the former. There is at firfta membranous crop, which is a mere dilatation of the cefophagus, receiving, clofe to the opening of the fecond {tomach, the biliary fluid : then comes a {mall gizzard, with mufcular but weak parietes : this is followed by a third ftomach, which refembles, by the thin longitudinal laminz of its inner furface, the third fto- mach (manyplus, feuillet, Fr.) of the ruminantia. Liaftly, there is a fourth ftomach, fimply membranous like the firit, but VERMES. bat fmaller. We obferve in the gizzard a narrow groove, leading direétly from the firft ftomach into the third, and probably fubfervient to fomething like rumination. The inteftine is fhort and uniform. -The aliment is moulded, in the third ftomach, into long whitifh cords. “-" The aplyfia has a ftill more curious ftomach : it is alfo four-fold. The cefophagus, at firft narrow, dilates fud- denly to form the firft ftomach or crop, whichis a large thin membranous bag, making a nearly fpiral turn, and having no glandular appearance. Then follows a fhort cylindrical gizzard, with mufcular and very itrong parietes: they are covered internally with a very extraordinary kind of armour, to which there is nothing exa@tly fimilar, although the offeous pieces belonging to the ftomach of the bullza bear fome analogy to it. Let us conceive pyramids with rhomboidal bafes, whofe irregular faces are united into an apex divided into two or three obtufe points. Their fubftance is femi- cartilaginous, and compofed of {trata parallel to the bafis. There are about twelve large ones, arranged in quincunces on three rows, and fome {maller, placed at the upper edge of the gizzard. Thefe pyramids adhere fo flightly to the mucous furface, that the flighteft conta& difplaces them, no trace of membrane, or any other union, being perceptible. The places to which they adhered are, however, marked by {mooth prominent furfaces, while the intervals are flightly hollowed and {ftriated. The apices of thefe pyramids come together in the middle of the gizzard, and they muft con- fequently comminute the food which paffes along the {pace between them. The third ftomach is broad, but not fo long as the former, and has an equally fingular covering, confifting of {mall pointed hooks attached to one fide of the cavity, al- moft as flightly as the pyramids are to the preceding ftomach. Their points are turned towards the gizzard, and no other ufe can be affigned to them but that of {topping the paflage of the aliment when infufficiently triturated : here, indeed, the form of the alimentary fubftances is no longer recog- nizable. Near the pylorus are two {mall prominent mem- branous criftz, between which the orifice of the fourth fto- mach is feen, and that of the hepatic veffels. The former, as in the cuttle-fifh, might be calleda cecum. This cecum is as long as the third ftomach: its diameter is {mall, its fides fimple, without any internal projections, and it is ab- folutely hid in the liver. The inteftinal canal is of uniform diameter, with thin tranfparent fides, more fo than thofe of the third ftomach, and diftinguifhed from it by this circum- ftance: it makes two great convolutions enveloped in the lobes of the liver, and terminates at the anus, in the middle of the right fide of the body, by a re€&tum which paffes tranfverfely. Its internal furface exhibits neither papillz nor valyes ; it has no fenfible conftri€tion nor dilatations. The moit ftrongly armed of all known ftomachs is that of the bulla lignaria and aperta; there are three flat ftony pieces ; two of fimilar form, triangular, broader and late- ral, one narrower, rhomboidal and middle, united by muf- ‘cular fibres, which have the power of approximating them. Thefe hard fubftances are larger in the bulla lignaria, and rather differently made. Draparnaud found that this ap- paratus had been confidered as a fhell, and had given rife to the eftablifhment of the genus tricla or gioénia. In the Pteropoda.—Two of the {mall genera which com- pofe this order, wiz. the clio and pneumodermon, have ftomachs of the fame kind: they are, fimple membranous bags, furrounded by the liver, and receiving bile from nu- merous orifices. The third genus, hyalwa, has a dilatation of the efophagus, followed by a fhort cylindrical gizzard : both have internal longitudinal plates. The two firit genera have a fhort ftraight inteftine : the hyalea has three convolu- tions included in the liver. In the Acephala.—We generally find in this family a mem- branous {tomach, following a very fhort cefophagus, fur- rounded on all fides by the liver, which adheres to it inti- mately, and in which it appears to be excavated. Its pa- rietes are very irregular, forming feveral {mall cul-de-facs, at the bottom of which the bile is received: for in all the order that fluid enters the ftomach immediately. The biliary apertures have fomewhat valvular edges, to prevent the food from entering the ducts. The inteftine makes fe- veral convolutions, chiefly out of the liver, and moft fre- quently in the fubftance of the mufcles of the foot, in which it is in a manner incafed. Towards its origin, in fome {pecies, the inteftinal canal has dilatations, which might be taken for fecond ftomachs. In others there is a true fecond ftomach, which is a kind of cecum near the pylorus. The greateft fingularity, which is alfo abfolutely peculiar to fome acephala, is a part long ago defcribed by Willis, Swam- merdam, and others, but more particularly by Poli, under the name of the cryftalline ftilette. It is probably tranfparent and cartilaginous ; elongated, pointed at one end, and obtufe at the other. It is compofed of lamin, included one in the other, and contained in a fheath clofely applied to the com- mencement of the inteftine, but open towards the ftomach, fo as to allow the point of the ftilette to penetrate that cavity- On this point is articulated a body of fimilar texture, divided into fome conical eminences, and occupying the entrance of the ftomach: it is difficult to affign the ufe of fuch an organ. The folen has a fecond ftomach, long and flender, and occupying half the length of the foot, into which it pene- trates: the inteftine begins at the fide of the origin of the latter, and proceeds parallel to it. The oyfter has alfo a fe- cond ftomach, fituated between the branchiz and the mufcle that clofes the fhell: the inteftine rifes from it near its com- mencement, and proceeds in an oppofite direGtion. According to Poli, the inteftinal canal is fhorter in the genera fixed to one fpot, as the oyfter and {pondylus, than in thofe which are capable of locomotion, as the cardium and venus. Yet the frefh-water mufcle has it fhort soit makes a ‘ingle fold in the foot, and returns backwards to defcend to the anus. The fame arrangement is found in the mya pictorum. On leaving the fecond ftomach, in the oylter, the inteftine afcends, furrounds the liver, and then goes backwards. It is nearly the fame in the fpondylus. In the eatable mufcle (mytilus efculentus), it defcends along the back, afcends again, goes round the liver, and then defcends to the anus. Itis very fhort, making only two flight curves, in the venus decuffata; but in the cardium edule (common cockle) it makes feven or eight fpiral turns in the foot, and is more than five times the length of the body. It is equally long, but rather differently arranged, in the maétra piperata, where its commencement is very large, and might ealily pafs for a fecond ftomach. It is the fame in fome of the genus venus, and in the orbicular telline : the common tellinz have moreover a kind of cecum at the end of this dilatation. In moit of the acephala the reGtum paffes through the middle of the heart, but the oyfter is an exception. There are fome remarkable varieties refpeéting the anus. In thofe which have no tubes to the cloak, and which walk or {pin like the frefh-water and fea mufcles, it opens by a flefhy difk or fphinéter, between the two edges of the cloak. In thofe which have thefe tubes, the anus itfelf makes another, fituated more internally, projecting into the cavity of VERMES. of the cloak, behind one of the mufcles which clofe the fhells. Such is the cafe in the folen, pholas, &c. The naked acephala have a fimple ftomach and fhort in- teftine. In the afcidia, the latter makes only two conyolu- tions ; in the biphori (falpa), it turns twice round the liver, near which the anus is found. There is only one {pecies (thalia) in which the canal is prolonged further, even to the oppofite extremity of the body. The heart in this family is never traverfed by the rectum. The brachiopoda (terebratulz and lingule) have a fimple uniform canal. In the lingula it comes from the mouth, which is between the two arms, and makes two turns before reaching the anus, which is at the fide. It is nearly twice as long as the body. Alimentary Canal of Worms.—It is in general ftraight, without any confiderable inequalities, extending from one end of the body to the other, and occupying nearly its whole capacity. In the common fea-moufe (aphrodite aculeata), there is a fiefhy part in front, holding the place of a probofcis, and capable of being extended out of the body: a miftake has been committed in confidering this as a ftomach. A cy- lindrical inteftine follows, of {mall diameter, but giving origin on each fide to twenty long blind proceffes, be- coming larger towards their blind end, which is attached between the mufcles of the: feet and the lateral veffels. This organization is the more remarkable, as nothing like it is met with in the neighbouring genera. The amphinomia capillata and tetraedra (terebella flava and roftrata) have firft a ficfhy mafs of the mouth or a pro- bofcis, rounder and fhorter than that of the aphrodite, then a {mall cefophagus, and an enormoufly dilated ftomach, with cellular parietes, like thofe of a colon, the folds of which are fixed by a tendinous line placed on the ventral fide. It oc- cupies two-thirds of the length of the body, and ends in a large fhort inteftine. The arenicola, or worm ufed as a bait by fifhermen (lumbricus marinus, Linn.) has no flefhy probofcis; the cefophagus occupies one-eighth of its length ; the ftomach, which is more dilated, occupies a third. It is of a fine yel- low, with the furface divided into lozenge-fhaped facculi, the feparations of which are marked by veffels of a beautiful red. The reft of the canal is {mall, {mooth, and ftraight. In the leech of frefh water (hirudo fanguifuga), an cefo- phagus equal to one-eighth of the animal is followed by a ftomach occupying one-half of its length : this organ is ca- pacious, with thin fides, and divided by numerous mem- branous diaphragms, which contraé it confiderably, leaving only an opening in the middle. The inteftine is narrower, and its internal membrane, which is opaque, exhibits an in- finite number of fmall plaits ; it enlarges towards the anus, which is very {mall, fo that its exiftence has been er- roneoufly denied by fome anatomifts. Two ceca arife from the pylorus, proceed parallel to the principal canal, and are nearly as long. In the fea-leech (hirudo tuberculata), the alimentary canal may be faid to enlarge from the mouth to the oppofite end; the exiftence of a ftomach is marked merely by its fepta, which are wanting in the inteitine. The common earth-worm has only a long canal, divided by numerous tranfverfe fepta, which are even itrengthened by membranes attaching them to the exterior covering of the body. Some dilatations in front may reprefent a kind of ftomach. The canal of the nereis is equally fimple, ftraight, and conftri@ed at intervals: nothing more can be obferved in the amphitrite, terebelle, and ferpule. The tail which terminates the body of the genus amphitrite, contains the rectum. Cuvier has, however, obferved in one fpecies of amphitrite, which lives commonly on the oyfters, a very thick and hard globular gizzard. In the lumbricus, thalaffema, and echinus, the canal ie five or fix times longer than the body, of equal diameter throughout, with thin and corrugated fides. The pofterior part is filled with excrement, moulded into {mall fhort cylinders. Among the inteftinal worms, the afcaris has a very fimple canal with thin fides, of nearly uniform diameter, and {carcely longer than the body. Alimentary Canal and Sac of Zoophytes.—In this clafs we meet with alimentary canals poffefling both mouth and anus, and others like a fimple fac, more or lefs complicated. The firft are even fupported by a true mefentery, which is not found in infects, mollufca, or worms. Such a ftru€ture is feen in the echinus and holothuria. The canal of the holothuria tubulofa is four times the length of the body, in which it makes a double convolution, refembling the figure 8. It commences at the mouth by a flight contraétion, then retains nearly the fame diameter throughout. Its parietes are flender: the anus opens into the great cloaca fituated at the back of the body, and fepa- rated from the cavity of the abdomen only by a valve: this circumftance will be further confidered in {peaking of the re{piratory organs. A membranous mefentery attaches this whole canal to the external coverings of the body. A fimi- lar arrangement is obferved in the holothuria pentattes. The fipunculus has a {mall uniform canal, going firft {traight from one extremity of the body to the other ; then returning in a {piral manner round this ftraight part, to ter- minate at a lateral anus very near the mouth. It is fix or eight times as long as the body. An alimentary cavity, conftituting a complicated bag, is obferved in the afterias. It is a membranous fac, much folded when empty, placed in the common centre of the rays, and having no other opening but the mouth, fo that the excrement is rejected by the paflage which admits the food. This bag has ten blind appendices or inteftines, minutely fubdivided into branches and ramifications, which form a very beautiful objet. Thefe are lodged in the rays or branches of the body, two in each: when there are more than five branches, there are alfo more than ten of the rami- fied ceca. Thefe trees, or kind of bunches of grapes, are fixed rays in their place by membranous mefenteries. The afteriz, whofe rays have no feet, but refemble the tails of ferpents (ophiuri, Lamarck), have no fuch cxca. Their fomach isa fimple bag, occupying merely the central dif of the animal: its membrane, however, exhibits in all parts an infinite number of {mall facculi. Probably the fame ftru€ture exifts in the kind called caput medufz. The alimentary canal of the medufe is as complicated as that of the aiterie ; but, inftead of being fufpended in’ the. great cavity of the body, it feems to be excavated in its fub- itance. The ftomach, which is very large, fills the bafis of what is called the pedicle or difk of the animal: tubes proceed from it in a radiated manner towards the edges of the fuperior broad part of the body, which has the fhape of a fegment of a fphere. Thefe veffels communicate together by lateral branches, and both furnifh an infinite number of {mall ramifications, which form a very complicated net-work over the whole body, conveying the nutritive fluid to all parts, as blood-veffels do in other animals. This plexus is particularly difcernible towards the edge of the umbella, where it refembles a {pecies of lace. The VERMES. The medufz differ moft widely in the manner by which the aliment enters the ftomach. Some havea fingle mouth, a large round opening: others, inftead of a mouth, have numerous branched tentacula, each perforated by a {mall opening. Each opening gives origia to a {mall canal, which joins the neighbouring one, and fo on: in this way four large trunks are formed, which end in the {tomach, and conyey to it the matters abforbed by the {mall apertures of the tentacula. The number of the latter fometimes exceeds eight hundred. It is from this ftructure, which is hitherto unique in the animal kingdom, that Cuvier has eftablifhed the genus rhizoftoma, from two Greek words (pita and soue) fignitying rootand mouth. Therhizoftoma, in faét, may be faidto derive its nourifhment from a kind of roots ; and in it, as well as in all the medufz, the ftomach fupplies the place of a heart. The alimentary apparatus of the atinie confifts of a fimple bag, with a circular opening, ferving both for mouth andanus. The aperture is placed in the centre of the fu- perior furface of the animal, and is furrounded by the ten- tacula, which can feize the prey, and convey it immediately to the mouth. The animal has the power of contraéting or dilating this orifice. The alimentary fac is fufpended in the pet cavity of the animal by a kind of membranous at- tachment. No inteftine nor any: veffel is known to proceed from this ftomach. See Memoire pour fervir a l’Hilt. de VAtterie rouge, &c. par Dr.‘Spix, Annales du Muféum, tom. xui. pl. 33. “Tt is furprifing (fays Reaumur), that a foft animal like this, not provided with claws, or any thing equivalent, fhould be able to devour others apparently well defended by their fhells, fuch as mufcles and other bivalves, and various {pecies of univalyes. It is however certain, that the a@tinie live on the flefh of thefe animals, though, as they {wallow them whole, and then contract the entrance of the ftomach over them, it is not eafy to find out how they extraét the animal from its fhelly coverings. We can only fee that after a cer- tain time they expel the empty fhells by the fame orifice through which they had fwallowed the whole animal. I have feen in this way the largeit mufcle-fhells thrown out empty by moderate-fized a¢tiniz : while in fome cafes they are re- jeGted without the animal having been extracted. In the fame way I have feen them throw up entire buccina. I once faw a large mufcle expelled entire through the bafis of the actinia, where there is no natural opening. In getting rid of the fhells, particularly when they are large, the animal not only dilates its mouth to the greateft extent, but abfo- lutely inverts the whole cavity, as you would a ftocking.”’ See fig. 25. Reaumur, Acad. des Sciences, 1710. p. 475. In the common poly pes (hydra), the whole body appears to be a ftomach ; and the nutritive matter is imbibed appa- rently direétly from the furface of the cavity into the fub- ftance of the animal. The moft curious faét in relation to this ftomach is, that if the animal be inverted, the external furface performs the office of {tomach juft as well as the ori- ginal ftomach did. The pyrofoma, a large {pecies of marine polypus, without arms, brought to France by Péron, feems, like our frefh- water polypes, to bea mere ftomach. The polypes, which form by their aggregation compound animals, fuch as thofe which produce the various lithophytes, have a nutritive fyftem nearly related to thofe of the common polype and medufa. Cuvier has examined this in the vere- till (pennatula cynomorium), whofe large and foft body, and tranfparent polypes, are more favourable to fuch re- fearches than moft other animals of this clafs. In the body of each polype, a fmall ftomach with brownifh parietes is obferved, from which proceed five tubes fimilar to thofe of the medufe, that is, executing the funétions both of in- teftines and veflels. Thefe inteftines are at firft yellowith and undulated ; having traverfed two-thirds of the length of the polype, they become ftraight and {maller, and thus penctrate the general body or ftem which fupports all the polypes. ‘Vhey then feparate to join correfponding veffels from the neighbouring polypi, and form with them a net- work occupying the whole mafs of the ftem. By means of this communication, the food taken by one polype is en- joyed by the whole animal, which may be confidered as a fingle one with feveral mouths and ftomachs. The alcyonium exos exhibits an analogous ftru€ture. See Dr. Spix, in the Annales du Muféum, tom. xiii. p. 451, et feq. pl. 335 and it is probable that a fimilar organization prevails through the whole clafs. Appendages to the Alimentary Canal. Liver.—All the mollufca have a liver, which is generally very large, but never poffefles a gall-bladder. It does not receiye, as in the vertebral animals, the blood which has cir- culated through the inteftines, and thus acquired a venous nature; but it derives from the aorta the neceffary fupply for its own nutrition, and the fecretion of its peculiar liquor; and it returns this blood to the vena cava, which is the fame with the pulmonary artery in thefe animals. In this arrangement we may perhaps find a reafon for their having no fpleen. The liver of the cephalopoda is a large oval mafs of a yellowifh-brown, fituated towards the back near the head, partly tilling the interval behind the funnel, and partly defcending into the abdomen. It may be divided into two lobes, between which the trunk of the aorta pafles, giving to each a confiderable branch. The bag, which produces the inky fluid peculiar to thefe animals, is inclofed between thefe two lobes; and in the calmar (fepia loligo), it is at- tached in front of them. Monro confidered it to be a gall- bladder ; he thought the ink was merely bile, confequently that that fluid was excrementitious in thefe animals. This is a grofs error. Inthe common cuttle-fifh the ink-bag is found in the bottom of the abdomen, far from the liver ; and in thofe fpecies, where the two organs are neare{t to- gether, they are not organically united. The bag contains its fecreting apparatus in its own cavity, and the liver pours the bile into the alimentary canal. There are two excretory tubes, one for each lobe, penetrating together the third ftomach, near its middle. Air impelled into the hepatic vein pafles eafily into thefe two canals; and they {peedily inflate the third ftomach. The bile which they pour out is of an orange-yellow; it remains for a confiderable time mixed with the chyme, in the lateral and tortuous refervoir of the third ftomach, where it can flowly exert its ation. All the gafteropoda have a large liver, divided fnto nu- merous lobes and lobules, and fometimes into feveral maffes, each of which has a particular excretory canal. Thefe lobes are interwoven with the inteftinal convolutions, en- veloping them, or being enveloped by them, and united by acellular texture. “The diftribution of the artery and vein is eafily feen, and even that of the proper veflels, which are diftributed into the fmalleft lobules, the liver refembling a bunch of grapes more than a homogeneous parenchymatous mafs, and extending ufually through nearly the whole length of the body. In the aplyfia, it pours out its fecre- tion by feveral openings’near the orifice of the cecum, or fourth ftomach ; that is, nearly as in the cephalopoda. In the pleurobranchus and onchidium, which have feveral fto- machs, there are differences. The bile is poured into the firft ftomach of the pleurobranchus. The onchidium has its VERMES. ite liver divided into three diftin@ maffes, of which the ex- cretory duéts are not even united. ‘The two firlt terminate ia the firft ftomach by diftin& orifices ; the third opens into the bottom of the gizzard or fecond ftomach. In the teftacella the liver is divided into two independent mafles: their duéts are inferted oppofite each other, in the beginning of the inteftine, not in the ftomach. The doris and phyllidia, which have a fimple membranous ftomach, receive the bile in it by feveral openings. The liver of the former is remarkable, inafmuch as it gives rife to a fecond excretory veffel, terminating on the outfide of the body, near the anus. The object of this ftructure is not known. The {nail and {lug have enormous livers, divided into many lobes and lobules, all which pour their liquor by a common canal into the bottom of the cul-de-fac formed by the ftomach behind the pylorus. ‘The appearance of the liver is remarkable, particularly in the flug, from the con- trait of its black furface with the fine opaque white of the blood-veffels. The teftaceous gafteropoda have an equally voluminous liver, filling, together with the generative or- gans, the greateft part of the convolutions of the fhell. The liver of the acephala generally envelopes the {tomach, like an incruftation on its furface: it pours the bile into that cavity by numerous orifices. The patella among the gafteropoda, and the clio and pneumodermon among the pteropoda, have the fame ftru¢ture; but the hyala, which belongs alfo to the latter order, has its liver placed as in the common gaiteropoda, that is, interwoven with the inteftine. Even in the acephala, the inteftine, after leaving the ftomach, often returns to penetrate again the fubftance of the liver. This form and difpofition of the liver are found in the naked acephala (afcidie and biphori), as well as in the others. In the brachiopoda (lingule and terebratulz), the liver is diftin@, conneéted with the convolutions of the in- teftine, and even with the mufcles. In all the mollufca, as in the red-blooded animals, the bile is of a greenifh-yellow, more or lefs ftrongly marked. Nothing analogous to a liver is found in the worms, unlefs we confider the yellow fubftance in the parietes of the ftomach of the arenicola as fuch. The echino-dermata and zoophytes have nothing -which can be compared to this gland. The liver then feems to end with the mollufca, and fome cruftacea: infeéts have a kind of fubftitute for it, and zoophytes have nothing like it. In proportion as the funétion of refpiration is lefs confined, and extends to more parts in the body, the liver ceafes more completely. Coverings and Supports of the inteftinal Canal. In the Mollufcaan—We may affert in general, that the alimentary canal of the mollufca is not enveloped nor fup- ported bya mefentery. The different convolutions are joined together, and to the lobes of theliver, by cellular tiffue, blood- veffels, and nerves, but not fixed toa membrane. Yetall the vifcera are contained in a true peritoneum, which even forms a diftin& cavity for the heart, and alfo envelopes the lung, when the latter is not entirely exterior ; but this peritoneum is not folded inwards to cover the inteitine. The peritoneum of the gafteropoda nearly lines the whole external integument of the body: the latter is thick and mufcular, and, therefore, proteéts it effectually. In thofe which have a fhell, the part of the body conftantly covered by it is not furrounded by mufcles; it is covered only by peritoneum and a thin layer of fkin, and might almoft be regarded as a natural hernia, formed by parts whieh have protruded from the mufcular portion of the animal. In the cephalopoda the peritoneum is a bag contained iu another bag, namely, that which properly conftitutes the body. But the latter does not entirely inclofe the former ; its opening leaves the peritoneum uncovered in front, where it is proteéted only by a thin continuation of the fkin. The peritoneum of the cephalopoda is further remarkable from the circumftance of its being perforated by two openings, which communicate externally. There is no other example of fuch a ftru€ture, except in the rays. As the cephalo- poda have a head, feparated from the body by a neck, and a true cartilaginous cranium, their peritoneum, which does not reach beyond the neck, does not cover the brain, nor the mafs of the mouth, as in the other mollufea. > In confequence of the form of the body, the peritoneum of the acephala occupies a {maller fpace than that of the other mollufca. It is furrounded by the mufcles, which go to the foot ; and when there is no foot, it is fimply covered by the fkin. Nothing like an omentum has been feen in any animal of this clafs. Some worms, as the arenicola, have their alimentary canal fupported merely by blood-veffels; others, as the earth-worm, have {mall tranfverfe membranes connecting” the canal to the exterior covering of the body ; but a me- fentery, properly fo called, exifts in none. A thin mem- brane, forming an internal lining to the exterior integuments, may be regarded as a peritoneum. In the echino-dermata we again meet with a perfe& me- fentery, and even fometimes with a kind of omentum. The mefentery of the echini is fixed to the fhell, and makes turas exaétly correfponding to thofe of the inteftine, which it covers. In the ftar-fifh there are as many mefenteries as ramified ceca in the branches of the body. They adhere alfo to the internal furface of the general covering, parallel to the axis of the branch. In the holothuria tremula, the mefentery is attached to the inteftine from the mouth; it accompanies the tube to the other extremity of the body, following one of the longitudinal mufcles; it then croffes, and returns to the mouth, following a fecond; crofles again, and re- defcends to the anus along a third. Let it, however, be remarked, that the numerous veffels of this animal are not found in the mefentery, but on the oppofite furface of the canal. The interweaving of thefe veflels with each other, and with the refpiratory organs, forms a fingular fpecies of omentum, concerned in the bufinefs of refpiration. The alimentary fac of the a¢tinie is fupported by feveral vertical membranes, which furround it like radii, and are fixed on the oppofite fide to the covering of the body. The medufze have no occafion for mefentery, their ali- mentary cavity being merely excavated in the gelatinous mafs of their body: the frefh-water and other polypes ftill lefs fo, inafmuch as their inteftine and body are one and the fame thing, that is, fimply a bag formed of a gelatinous membrane. Organs of Abforption.—No abforbing veffels can be dif- covered in the lower clafles of animals now under our con- fideration. Cuvier thinks that the veins abforb in them ; and he fupports his fentiments by the following ftate- ment. We are firft, fays he, led to this notion by obferving that the blood of thefe animals does not differ from what is called lymph in the red-blooded claffes: and alfo by the fa&t, that no anatomical method has hitherto enabled us to demonitrate the exiftence in thefe animals of any but blood- veffels. We have already obferved that the parts, called by Poli lymphatic veffels, belong to the nervous fyftem. There are, .befides, fome pofitive reafons; of which the principal is the natural communications of the great cavities of VERMES. of the body, in which there is always much fluid to be ab- forbed, with the trunks of the great veins. Thefe communications are particularly obvious in the cephalopoda, where the principal branches of the vena cava are furnifhed with a multitude of bodies refembling ramified glands, and floating loofely in the abdomen. They have tubes manifeftly ending in the trunk of the vein. Fluids in- jeéted into the vein penetrate like a dew the extremities of thefe ramifications, and pafs into the abdominal cavity. Sometimes air will pafs in the fame way. There mutt equally be a paflage in the oppofite dire¢tion. Among the gafteropoda, the aplyfia exhibits a communi- cation no lefs free between its veins and the great cavities of the body. If we impel air from the lung into the vene cave, which are continuous in thefe animals with the pul- monary artery, the abdomen will be diftended. The ori- fices, through which the air efcapes, are vifible to the naked eye: they muft admit liquids from the abdomen, as they allow air to pafs from the veffels into that cavity. The paffage of the rectum through the heart in the ace- phala is another point deferving attention. We cannot fee what end this arrangement can ferve, if the nutritive fluid does not find its way through the inteftine into the heart, where it will be mingled with the blood, and fet in motion. This manner of viewing the fubjeét coincides extremely well with the gradation of the organic fyftems,“in the dif- ferent claffes of animals. Infe&ts moft probably have no veffel at all (fee Insects, in Anatomy): it is, therefore, natural to find before them, in the fcale, animals which have veflels of one kind only, and which, therefore, may be arranged between the vertebral divifion poflefling the two kinds, viz. lymphatic and fanguineous, and the infects which have none; unlefs at leait we regard the fecretory tubes as a third order, the moft effential, becaufe common to all. The mollufca, vermes, and cruftacea, feem deftined to hold this intermediate rank. The echino-dermata, and particularly the holothuriz, are of a doubtful kind: their place cannot be yet afligned. In the zoophytes, properly fo called, the fubitance of their body forming the fides of the alimentary cavity is im- mediately impregnated with the nutritive fluid. The medufz do not differ in this refpeét from the fimpleft polypes, except that their cavity has numerous tubular prolongations. If thefe inteftinal tubes are to be confidered as veffels, the ftomach will perform, with refpe&t to them, the functions of a heart. Organs of Circulation and Re/piration.—As both thefe kinds of organs exift together in all the vertebral claffes, there can be no variety in their combinations; but one or the other may be wanting in invertebral animals, fo that we may eftablith between them in this refpeé relations, which are very con- ftant in the claffes, in which thefe organs are perfectly un- deritood. Thus, in the mollufca, the worms with red blood, and the cruftacea, which have a complete circulation, we find circumfcribed branchie. Infeéts have the body nourifhed by a fluid, which ftagnates inftead of circulating ; and in them refpiration is effeted by means of trachez, which are diftributed over the whole body. True zoo- phytes, medufe, and polypes, in which the body itfelf forms the fides of the inteitinal canal, and dire@ly abforbs its nourifhment, have no particular organ for refpiration. Probably the whole body refpires. The mollufca have a double circulation ; that is, all their blood, after circulating through the body, paffes through the lungs before it is fit to be circulated again. The cephalopoda have three hearts, two compofed of a ventricle and an auricle, and one of a ventricle only: the Vou. XX XVII. gafteropoda have one, confilting of a ventricle and an au- ricle ; the acephala one, of a ventricle with two auricles ; and the brachiopoda two, of a ventricle without an auricle. This clafs alone, in fat, exhibits nearly as many modifica- tions of the circulating organs, as all the four clafles of ver- tebral animals: thefe modifications, however, have reference to the number and pofition of the auricles and ventricles, not to the courfe of the circulation, which is always double. The cephalopodous mollufca have the moft complicated fyftem of circulating organs of all animals, pofleffing three diftin@ hearts, two pulmonary and one aortic. The defcending vena cava, formed by the union of branches which return the blood from the head and arms, pafles from the neck, along the front of the liver, towards the bottom of the abdominal fac: it receives the hepatic vein in its courfe, and immediately afterwards, that is about the middle of the abdomen, it is bifurcated, each branch going tranf- verfely to one of the lateral hearts ; but before they arrive, they receive various branches from other parts. Thus, di- rely after their origin from the common trunk, each re- ceives a vein from the inteftines and back of the body ; and at the very point of entering the hearts, each receives another from the lower parts. All thefe veins are extremely thin and tranfparent : they are much more capacious and exten- file than the arteries ; no valve can be feen in them, except at the entrance of the hepatic vein. The two great tranfverfe branches, which end in the late- ral hearts, and all the veins immediately ending in them, are perforated by openings leading into very fingular appendices of a ramified or glandular appearance, fuch as are found in the nervous fyftem of no other animal. They are numerous, large, and of an opaque yellowifh- white : only two offices can be afcribed to them ; either that of fecreting fome fluid from the arterial blood, or of ab- forbing the liquids of the abdomen and conveying them into the veins. The {mall number of their arterial ramifications favours the latter idea: it is fufficient for their nutrition, but not for a fecretion proportioned to their volume. The two lateral hearts are placed at the root of the branchie ; they are more or lefs rounded, with thick, muf- cular, though rather foft parietes, and large flefhy columns, intercepting numerous {paces of different fize. In the fepia oétopus they are of a very deep brown red, as in a red- blooded animal, while all the other vifcera, the mufcles, and the aortic heart, are whitifh. The entrance of the vein into each lateral heart is furs nifhed with two membranous reCtangular valves, fixed at their bafes and extremities, and loofe only at the inner edge: they allow the blood to pafs in, but prevent its return. The pulmonary artery goes out at the extremity of the heart op- pofite to the entrance of the vein. There is no valve at its origin in the o€topus, but in the cuttle-fifh and calmar there are four, fhaped like {mall flefhy tubercles, furround- ing the orifice of the artery, and preventing the return of the blood. They are a little beyond the origin, and in the very trunk of the artery. The latter runs along the external and pofterior edge of the gill, producing as many lateral branches, perpendicular to its trunk, as there are plates of the gill. Their ramifications and diftribution will be defcribed in the article on refpiration. A branchial vein is found on the oppofite or internal and anterior edge of the gill, from which it colle&ts the blood. Reaching the lower end of the gill, the vein quits it, and runs traniverfely towards the middle of the body, a little below and behind the part where the vena cava bifurcates. Here it ends in the third, aortic, or intermediate heart. This heart receives then two pulmo- nary veins, one from each gill, which end each on its own F fide, VERMES. fide, reaching the heart direétly, and without ary previous divifion. Their cardiac orifices are furnifhed with two membranous retangular valves, analogous to thofe of the venz cave in the pulmonary hearts. The aortic heart is white, and of a firmer tiffue than the two pulmonary hearts. Its form is oval in the longitudinal direftion in the calmar; tran{verfely in the oftopus ; and like the trefoil leaf in the officinalis. Its internal parietes exhibit numerous mufcular columns, decuflating in all direc- tions. In the oétopus it produces two principal arteries and fome f{maller ones, all arifing immediately from the cavity, and not from a common trunk. The fuperior afcends nearly parallel to the vena cava, giving branches to it, as well as to the furrounding parts. The inferior is the largeft artery, and indeed analogous to the aorta: having iven branches to the lower part of the fac, it turns up- wards behind the vifcera to the head, and fends ramifications to the inteftines, liver, cefophagus, then terminates, near the flefhy mafs of the mouth, by a circle which furrounds the cefophagus, and fupplies the crop, the falivary glands, the mouth and feet. Gafleropodous Mollufca.—In all thefe, without exception, the pulmonary fyftem is exaétly inverfe of that of fifhes : that is, the heart is compofed of an auricle and a ventricle, and it receives the blood from the lung to diftribute it over the body ; while the heart of fifhes fends the blood from the body to the lung. In other words, the gafteropoda poflefs always a fimple aortic heart. All the veins of the body end in one or two vene cave, which, as foon as they reach the refpiratory organ, are changed into pulmonary arteries, with- out this change being marked by a ventricle, nor even by valves. It is exaétly the fame as the change of the trunk of the inteftinal veins into that of the vena portarum. The pofition and direétion of thefe veins are determined by that of the pulmonary organ, which latter is ufually found in the neighbourhood of the rectum, that they may receive more readily the veins of the inteftines, which probably bring the chyle with them. Large trunks alfo come from the liver. Thus, in the doris, where the branchie form a circle round the anus, the vena cava having collected the blood from the whole body, and traverfed the liver, arrives above the reGtum, and divides into branches, which feparate like radii to enter the bafes of the branchial tufts. Thefe branchiz return the blood, which has undergone their ac- tion, by veflels correfponding to thofe which brought it. The auricle, which is fhaped like a pyramid with a very broad batis, has this bafis difpofed in a circular manner, and receives the blood from the pulmonary veins. It conveys this blood immediately into the heart, which is round, flat, and placed on the back of the liver. The heart has valves at its entrance and exit: the latter is the origin of a large artery divided immediately into four branches. One is turned back, and foon loft in the liver ; two others alfo enter this gland; the fourth, which is the continuation of the trunk, goes dire@tly forwards, giving branches to the intef- tine, ftomach, falivary glands, organs of generation and mouth, and is loft ultimately in the flefhy mafs of the foot. The tritonie and phyllidie have the lungs at the two fides of the body, and the heart confequently in the middle, towards the back. ‘The auricle, placed at the back of the heart, extends tranfverfely from one fide to the other. It receives the blood from two or rather four pulmonary veins, which extend on the two fides of the body, from one end to the other, in the fubftance of the flefhy covering, and receive the blood from all the branchial tufts. The latter had received it from two arteries reaching in the fame way 12 along the fide of the body, and placed parallel to the veins. Thefe pulmonary arteries colleét the blood from the body by fix large veins, three on each fide, coming principally from the liver and inteftines. The veins of the mufcular covering end in thefe trunks without quitting its fubftance. Having thus received from the lung the blood, which has circulated through that organ, the heart diftributes it over the body by three large arteries, one of which goes back~ wards into the ovary, another downwards to the liver and inteftines, and the third forwards to the male organs of gene- ration, the mouth, and the flefhy mafs of the foot. The onchidium has fome refemblance to the tritonia. Two veflels are formed in the fame manner in the flefhy co- vering on the two fides, and they convey the blood of the body into the lung; but by their extremity only, fince the lung itfelf is excavated in the back of the body. Thefe veflels receive the blood from the vifcera by cS {mall veins entering feparately, and that of the flefhy covering by others excavated in its thicknefs. The heart is near the lung behind on the right fide. Its auricle is very large, and furnifhed with flefhy columns. The heart produces one great trunk, which firft gives a branch to the liver and vifcera, then a long retrograde one to the reétum and organs of generation, which are fituated behind and on the right. It afterwards paffes in the collar of the cefophagus, and gives two large branches to the general covering. The right fends an artery to the falivary gland of its fide; the left does the fame, and moreoyer one to the male organ of generation: the trunk is then loft in the mafs of the mouth. The aplyfia poffeffes one of the mott curious circulating fyftems. There is excavated on each fide, in the flefhy covering, a large veflel furrounded by mufcular bands de- cuflating in every direétion: thefe veffels receive the blood by ordinary veins from certain parts. ‘Two come from the gland which furrounds the fhell, and produces the purple liquor: but it is very clear that they communicate imme- diately with the abdominal cavity by feveral large holes. Are the latter fhut during life by mufcular contraétion, or by any fine membrane? We do not hitherto know. However this may be, the two large veffels unite behind, and thus produce a third, which is the pulmonary artery. This is alfo very large, and runs forwards along one fide of the membranous triangle which fupports the branchiz on its two furfaces. It diftributes the blood to all the branchial plates by a correfponding number of branches: this blood returns by correfponding veffels into the pulmonary vein, fituated alfo in the branchial triangle, and terminating in the auricle. The heart is fituated croffwife, along the middle of the body, a little towards the left, inclofed in 2 pericardium. The auricle is large, thin, tranfparent, and {trengthened by mufcular fafciculi, which intercept lozenge- fhaped fpaces. The ventricle is oval and thick, and has {trong mufcular columns : it has valves only at its entrance, they are reGtangular.. The artery is divided at its exit into three principal trunks. The firft goes to the left, for the liver and inteftmes; the fecond forwards to the ftomach ; the third and longeft remains longer in the pericardium, in- clining towards the right. It poffeffes in this fituation a very extraordinary apparatus of unknown ufe; namely, a double crifta filled internally with ramifications, arifing from the artery itfelf, and filled by injeGting the artery. They appear to have blind terminations ; and the liquid they con- tain appears to pafs back fimply into the veflel, without entering any veins. After quitting the pericardium, this artery gives a branch for the correfponding part of the muf- cular covering, then goes directly forwards under the efo- phagus. Arriving at the crop, it fends a retrograde branch to VERMES. to the general covering ; under the nervous collar of the -eefophagus it produces a fecond, which goes backwards to the left in this covering; then immediately afterwards a third, which goes to the right for the penis. The trunk is then bifurcated, and loft in and about the mouth. The lung lies on the front of the body in the flug, and the heart is placed immediately under it. The innumerable ramifications {pread over the internal furface of the lung all end in the auricle, and the latter in the ventricle placed under it, and producing behind two large arteries. One fuddenly turns forwards to the mouth, the generative organs and the general covering; the other goes direétly back- wards, and is diftributed to all the vifcera. The circulation of the pleurobranchus much refembles that of the aplyfia. But, as the heart is placed more for- wards, the pofterior artery is the largeft of the three, fince it has more parts to nourifh. ~ In the teftaceous ga{teropoda, the heart and its auricle are fituated in the bottom of the great pulmonary cavity, which occupies the upper part of the front of the body, to- wards the edge of the fhell. The lung, whatever may be its form, receives the blood of the body,: and a particularly large portion from the laft part of the inteftine, which runs clofe on the furface of the pulmonary cavity, opening fome- times within it, fometimes at its edge. Having pafled through the lung, the blood enters the auricle, goes thence into the ventricle, from which it is fent over the whole body by arteries, which vary according to the general form of the animal. The branchiz form a feries all round the body, under the cloak, in the patella. ‘The pulmonary vein is alfo difpofed in acircular manner, collects the bloed from all the branchial plates by many {mall veins, and carries it to the heart, which is fituated above the head, and diftributes it over the whole body. Acephalous Mollufca.—I1n fuch of thefe as have the heart dn the back, and traverfed by the reGtum, it is perfe@ly fymmetrical, oval, broader behind, and accampanied by an auricle on each fide. Their branchie form four parallel plates: each auricle receives the blood from the two ranchiz of its own fide, and tran{mits it to the heart. Thefe auricles are triangular, broad towards the branchie, and pointed towards the heart: fometimes they have a kind of crifte, fufceptible of dilatation. Their fides are tran{- parent, and poflefs few projeéting threads. . Their openings into the ventricle are furnifhed with valves, which allow the blood to pafs only from the auricle to the ventricle. The latter is much ftronger than the auricle: its fides are opaque, and furpifhed with numerous flefhy columns. The blood ‘oes from it by two arteries fituated at its two extremities ; thefe follow the re€tum, one afcending towards the head, the other defcending to the anus. Such is the heart of the anodontites, or frefh-water mufcle, of the venus, maétra, car- dium, folen, pholas, mya, and apparently of all the equivalve bivalves. But the bivalves with unequal thells, at leaft the oyfters and the peétens, have the heart differently placed ; it occu- pies a cavity between the mafs of the liver and the mufcle that clofes the fheil; and is directed from behind forwards, or from the back to the branchiz, and not, as in other bi- walves, from above downwards, or from the anus to the head. In this cafe the auricles, or rather the fingle bilobed auricle is fituated before the heart, and not at the fide. This is wemarkable in the oyfter on account of its thicknefs, and deep red colour. It receives the blood from the branchie, and the heart diitributes it to the body by two veffels which -pafs out at the extremity oppofite to the auricle, and go, one upwards to the liver, the other downwards to the mufcle. Each branchia has an infinite number of fmall, {traight, parallel veffels, terminating perpendicularly in a larger one at the back of the branchia: thefe dorfal trunks convey the blood to the auricle. But each branchia has at the fame time another feries of {mall veffels, fimilar and parallel to the firft, and pouring the venous blood into their extremities. This blood is brought by another veffel at the back of each branchia, which veilel receives the veins of the body. The circulation is carried on in the pteropoda, as in the gafteropoda, by a fimple heart, with one auricle, which re- ceives the blood from the lung, and tran{fmits it to the body. Thefe things may be feen in the hyalza and pneumiodermon. Cuvier ftates, that he has diffeéted only one genus of brashiopoda, and found two diftin& hearts, both aortic, that is to fay, receiving blood from the lung, and fending it to the body. Thus we find that the whole clafs of mollufca poflefles a circulation as complete as any vertebral animal ; and that this circulation is double. When there is only one ventricle, it is aortic, and not pulmonary ; when more than one, they are feparate, and form fo many diftin& hearts. The paflage from the arteries to the veins, in the little as well as in the great circulation, is as evident as in animals of the higher claffes. Blood and Circulation of Worms.—The blood is tranfpa- rent, or at moft a little blueifh, in mollufca and cruftacea. The fuppofed red blood of fome of the firft clafs is merely a fecretion. But the entire clafs of articulated worms, both marine and terreftrial, has the blood more or lefs red, and often of as deep a tint-as in any vertebral animal. It may be feen in the genera lumbricus, hirudo, naias, nereis, aphro- dite, amphinomia, amphitrite, terebella, and ferpula. But the lumbricus marinus (arenicola) exhibits moft plainly, not merely the colour of the nutritive fluid, but alfo its courfe and direction : the yellow colour of the inteftine and the grey colour of the parietes of the body allowing all the veffels to be perfe&ly diftinguifhed. A large vetlel, diminifhing in fize at the two ends, lies along the back, between the branchiz. It fends forward the blood by its anterior origin, and receives fifteen lateral yeflels on each fide, one from each branchia. They bring the blood from thofe organs, and are to be regarded as pul- monary veins: when the branchie contra@, the large veffel is diftended. The blood is carried back to the branchie by veffels fimilar in number to the preceding, but not all arifing from a fingle trunk. The nine firft proceed from a large veffel fituated upon the inteftinal canal immediately under the one firft defcribed. The others come from the back part of a veffel parallel to the two firft, but fituated under the inteftinal canal. Thefe two great longitudinal. trunks fend all their blood to the branchie : they reprefent both vene cave and pulmonary arteries ; for thofe branches which do not go to the lungs are veins returning the blood from the various organs. Thefe branches of the vena cava in the lumbricus marinus are {pread over the yellow furface of the inteftinal canal with an admirable regularity ; and the beauty of the arrangement is heightened by the {plen- dour of their purple colour. All thefe branches arife, in the firft inftance, from two veflels, which proceed along the fides of the inteftinal canal, and perform the office of an aorta. They afcend as far as the lower part of the cefophagus, and then are bent to communicate with the great pulmonary vein, with which the defcription began. At this communication there is a {well- ing, which exhibite to the naked eye more marked contrac- F2 tions VERMES. tions and dilatations than any other part of the fyftem < although their parietes are no thicker than thofe of the other veflels, their enlargements may be called hearts ; but as they are not found in all worms, it would be more exact to fay that the circulation is carried on in thefe animals by the velfels only, without a heart. If, however, the exiftence of a heart be admitted, at leaft in the lumbricus marinus, it muft be confidered as double, and, like that of the two preceding elaffes, aortic. The aphrodite, amphinomiz, and nereids, differ from the Jumbricus marinus, only in having a greater number of pul- monary veffels correfponding to the greater number of branchie. But in the fpecies which have their branchize on the neck, as the amphitrite, the pulmonary veflels form four trunks, two arterial and two venous, coming from the trunks, which extend the whole length of the body, upon the inteftine, and fimilar to thofe which have been de- {cribed in the lumbricus marinus. The colour of the blood is more difficultly perceived in the leech, becaufe it is paler and lefs contrafted with the ground of the body ; yet the veflels may be eafily diftin- guithed, and inje&ted with mercury. There is a large longi- tudinal veffel on each fide, communicating together, both towards the belly and back, by tranfverte branches, the ramifications of which, diftributed in the fkin, probably ferve for refpiration, as no other organ can be found out. Along the back we obferve a middle and flender veflel, not fo immediately connected to the two others, as they are to each other, and producing branchiz on each fide. This probably belongs to the arterial, and the two others to the venous fyftem ; but their conneétion has not been hitherto difcovered. Longitudinal veflels, producing ramifications filled with a fine red blood, may be feen in the earth-worm. Movements of fyftole and diaftole are very manifeft, and quickly performed in all thefe red-blooded worms. ) Echino-dermata.—I have not, fays Cuvier, been able hi- therto to arrive at any clear notions concerning the arrange- ment of the vafcular fyftem in this order ; but the following is the refult of my refearches. The inteftinal canal of the holothuria tubulofa is twice folded, and confequently forms three portions. The middle of thefe has a veflel at its fide, diminifhing towards the two ends. It receives numerous fhort veffels from another tube, which will be defcribed laft ; and it produces from the oppo- fite furface others, which are much fubdivided, and whofe branches are at laft united into an equal number of {mall veffels to end in a fecond trunk, which will be defcribed. The net-work produced by this fubdivifion of the branches of the firft veffel, before they end in the fecond, is intimately interwoven with the {mall branches of a hollow ramified organ ending in the cloaca, and probably concerned in refpir- ation. This organ can be diftended with water, or emptied at the will of the animal, and thus probably admits of the blood being aéted on by the air. The firft veffel, then, would be a pulmonary artery, and receive the blood from the body to tran{mit it to the lung. We have feen the branches, by which it receives blood from the inteftine : that of the reft of the body comes from a veflel, which will be defcribed third in order, having been brought by veins which are per- ceived over the whole mefentery. The fecond great trunk is divided into four great branches, united by a tranfverfe one: two receive the blood from the lung, and run parallel to the firft trunk, but at a diltance fuited to the fubdivifions of branches which go from one to the other.. Thefe two branches are a kind of pulmonary veins ; they convey the blood, which has undergone the aétion of the lung, into the two other branches by the tranf- verfe canal, and by their extremities ; for there is a vifible communication between them. Thefe other branches, which confequently perform the office of aorta, run along the firft portion of inteftine, fending blood to it by an infinity of {mall, but rather long arteries, which feem to terminate imme- diately in the body of the inteftine. The fuperior branch, arriving at a certain height, is bifurcated, and its two rami- fications are joined fo as to form a circle round the cefopha- gus, from which five arteries go off to the mafs of the mouth and the general covering of the body. The blood returns from this covering by veins, which fill the mefenteries : but there is alfo a general trunk, which feems to form a kind of vena cava. It 1s made up of four principal branches, united by a tranfverfe one. ‘Two of thefe branches, which run along the firft portion of inteftine, receive the blood from it; and the two others tranfmit it to the pulmonary veflel by the fmall branches already mentioned at the begin- ning of the defcription. According to this reprefentation, the arrangement would very clofely refemble that of worms. In the alteriz and echini the fame approximation is ob- ferved between the vafcular and digeitive fyftems. The principal vein and artery equally run along the inteftinal canal in the latter; and they are multiplied in the former to follow the ceca. Nothing like blood-veffels can be feen in the medufe. “ The fubftance of thefe zoophytes,”’ fays Péron, ** prefents at firft view the appearance of a kind of jelly, mare or lefs diaphanous, confiftent, and agreeably coloured according to the {fpecies. Excepting the lines, lamelle, and veffels of the lower furface of the umbella, their fubftance appears homo- geneous, even when examined with the moit powerful magnifiers. However it may be torn or cut, theappearance is the fame, and no trace of internal vefflels can be difcovered. Such indeed are the denfity and homogeneoutnefs of this matter, that we can hardly conceive it to be penetrated and nourifhed by veffels.”” Annales du Muféum, t. xv. p. 42. Organs of Refpiration—Cuvier obferves that thefe exhibit, in invertebral animals, the fame relations to the organs of motion, and particularly to the force which animates thofe organs, as in the vertebral claffes, and thus confirm the theory which affigns the degree of motive power as a mea- fure of the quantity of refpiration. Thus, the only clafs in this divifion of the animal kingdom, in which moft of the individuals have the power of flying, is that in which re- {piration takes place at all points of the body, in which the trachee convey air to all parts ; in fhort, infedts. - In fome of thofe which have no wings, and therefore do not fly, the power of the mufcles is evinced by the rapidity of their other motions. Let any one obferve the centipede running, or the flea jumping, and he will acknowledge that they belong to a clafs poffefling great mufcular power, as he would judge of the oftrich and caflowary, although they are birds without wings. The mollufca, fuperior to infets in their circulating organs, and particularly in the central parts of their nervous fyftem, have a circum{cribed refpiration ; they breathe only by the lungs, and no portion of air is admitted into the ret of the body. It is therefore only neceffary to compare the flownefs of their motions, with their rapidity in infe&s, to eftimate the effeéts of thofe differences in organization. Invertebral animals poffefs either lungs more or lefs analo- gous to thofe of reptiles; branchie, fometimes fimilar to thofe of fifhes, fometimes to thofe of tadpoles; or laftly, trachez, a kind of organ not known in the vertebral divifion. The latter is peculjar to infe&ts ; the former to a {mall num- ber VERMES. ber of mollufca ; the fecond is the moft common, and is found in moft mollufca, in worms, and cruftacea. The mode of refpiration is not well known in the echino-dermata, fo that ‘their organs cannot be claffed with certainty. The effe& of refpiration cannot be eftimated by the co- lour of the blood, except in red-blooded worms, where it is very obvious: it may be feen without ligature or incifion in the branchiz of the lumbricus marinus. But the effet of this function on the refpired air may be eafily judged: the refearches of Vauquelin and other naturalifts have fhewn that inyertebral animals confume oxygen like others, and infect the refidue with carbonic acid. See Respiration. _ ~ gm Organs of the Mollufca.—We meet in this clafs with lungs, with uncovered branchiz, and with branchiz contained in a cavity. In the cephalopoda and acephala they are always of the latter kind: the gafteropoda have all three forts. A lung is found in the terreftrial gafteropoda, and in thofe aquatic kinds which are obliged to come to the furface of the water in order to take in air. The principal genera that have it are the {nail (helix), flug(limax),the tefta- cellaand parmacella, among the terreftrial ; in the onchidium, bulimus of pools (helix ftagnalis), and planorbis, among the aquatic. This lung is a larger or {maller cavity, commu- nicating externally by a narrow aperture, which can be vopened or clofed voluntarily, while the cavity, contracting or dilating at the fame time, expels or admits air. As the parietes are mufcular, and there is no bony ftru€ture, there is novother mechanifm than mufcular contraétion. The pa- rietes of the cavity are furnifhed with an almoft infinite net- work of blood-veffels, ramified in a rather fpongy fubftance. ‘The cavity itfelf is placed on the neck, and opens at the right fide of the cheft, in the fnail, flug, bulimus, and planorbis ; on the back, and opens on the right fide of the body, in the parmacella; on the back, and opens back- wards, in:the teftacella ; on the pofterior part of the body, and opens behind, under the edge of the cloak, in the on- chidium. The branchie projeGting externally, fometimes reprefent tufts or trees, as in the tritoniz, where they form a kind of hedge all round the body, and in the doris, where they have a circular arrangement round the anus, at the pofterior part of the back ; fometimes in {mall laminz or {cales, as in the eolides, where they are difpofed like tiles on the back, in the phyllidiz, the ofcabrio, the patelle, where they form a cordon all round the body, under the edge of the cloak. In the feyllea they are pencils of filaments, difperfed over flethy plates, or a kind of wings placed on the back. In the glaucus they refemble fins, radiated like a fan: in the pleurobranchus they are {mall plates, arranged in tranfverfe rows on the two furfaces of a prominent plate at the right fide of the body. : Teftaceous gafteropoda have prominent branchiz, but fituated in a cavity concealed under the edge of the fhell. The opening is generally very free, and occupies all the upper part of the animal’s neck. Often alfo a part of the flefhy edge of the cloak is prolonged into a {mall canal, lodged in a correfponding canal of the thell, and calculated to conduét the furrounding element into the branchial ca- vity, even while the animal is entirely inclofed in its calca- reous habitation. Thefe canals are found in all the genera made out of thofe united together by Linneus under the names buccinum, murex, and ftrombus. In moft of the genera the branchiz form one or two long feries of tranfverfe plates, occupying the whole length of the cavity, but a part only of its breadth, and reprefenting, fometimes a prifm, fometimes a kind of pen fixed by the whole length of its flem. ‘There is a fingle feries in the murex tritonis ; a large and a {mall one in the buccinum undatum ; two large ones in the halyotis. Some genera however deviate from this general rule ; the patella Hungarica, which feems fo much like the other pa- tellz, has its branchie arranged in {mall long plates, placed within a cavity above the neck, but forming a tranfverfe feries round the edge of the cavity. The courfe of the blood, however, is the fame, whatever form the branchie may poflefs in the gafteropoda: each di- vifion and fubdivifion receives a pulmonary arterial branch from the vena cava, and fends a venous branch into the pul- monary vein, which terminates in the heart. The poii- tion of the branchiz regulates that of the heart, as well as the courfe of the large veffels. The branchiz of the acephala are formed into plates, each compofed of a double leaf: they have a double feries of veffels, very regularly and clofely arranged, like the teeth of a fine comb, the ftriz being at right angles to the length of the plate. An artery and a vein run along the bafis of the plate. The teftaceous acephala have four of thefe plates, inclofed between the two lobes of the cloak, and allowing the foot to pafs between them when there is one. The internal furface of the four triangular plates furround- ing the mouth, and occupying the place of lips or tentacula, is alfo ftriated with veffels fimilar to thofe of the branchiz, and may probably affift in refpiration. Poli {peaks of fmall air-veffels, commencing in the {mall tentacula, ufually fituated at the pofterior edge of the cloak, or round the orifice of the branchial tube ; he fup- pofes that they penetrate to a certain refervoir, whence the air paffes into the interior of the branchie. Cuvier has not found this ftru€ture, and thinks that refpiration is carried on in the acephala, as in other mollufea and fifhes, by the fimple afflux of water over the external furface of the branchiz. Some genera bring this water to the branchie by fimply opening the fhell and the anterior edges of the cloak. It is expelled by again fhutting the fhell. In the mufcle, which has the wideft opening of the fhell be- hind, the water paffes in and out at this part. When the animal is placed in water, a flight motion of the fluid is per- ceived in this fituation, produced by the procefs of refpira- tion. Inthe genera which have the cloak prolonged be- hind into one or two tubes, the water enters, and is dif- charged by the tube fartheft from the back, or by the ana- logous canal, when there is only one tube: for it is then divided into two canals. The cardium, venus, maétra, tellina, &c. &c. have two tubes ; the pholas, folen, teredo, mya, &c. have only one. ‘They can partly withdraw the tubes into the fhell by means of two flat, fan-fhaped, re- tra€tor mufcles, attached to the lobes of the cloak: but they do not extend them fimply by mufcular aétion ; for they may be feen to increafe in length and breadth both at the fame time in the pholades. In the afcidiez, which are naked acephala, the branchiz do not form four plates, but a fingle large fac, with an ex- tremely fine vafcular net-work. This bag is filled with water as often as the animal dilates it: the mouth is at its bottom. In the biphori, or falpe, and the thalia, they form only a narrow ribbon, obliquely traverfing the interior of the body : the water, in pafling through this from before backwards, neceflarily goes over this ribbon. The cephalopoda alfo have their branchie inclofed in a cavity, that is, in the bag forming their body. They are fe- parated from the other vifcera by the peritoneum, and their cavity communicates externally by the funnel under the neck. ‘The water is admitted and expelled by the es an VERMES. and contraction of the mufcular parietes of the bag: thus it is renewed in the branchiz. The latter are two large pyra- mids, placed at the fide of the peritoneum, with their bafe towards the bottom of the fac, and the apex towards the in- fundibulum. Each is attached by a membranous ligament to a mufcular column which adheres to the fac, and fends a procefs to each of the plates of which the pyramid is com- pofed. The pulmonary artery, arifing from the lateral heart of its own fide, afcends along the external edge of the branchia, giving two arteries to each plate. The pulmonary ‘vein, which terminates in the intermediate heart, defcends along theinternal fide of the branchia, receiving two veins from each plate. The plates themfelves are arranged one over the other, parallel to the bafis of the pyramid: their figure is triangular, and the two furfaces exhibit rows of pencils, filaments, or minute ramifications, which are the ultimate divifions of the pulmonary veffels. Each branchial pyramid of the calmar has as many as fixty of theie plates, while we find only nine in the o€topus ; but in the latter the rows of filaments are more minutely ramified, and form much thicker ftrata. Refpiration mutt be effected by the admiffion of water to the branchia, and by its penetration among all the fine pro- ceffes of their furfaces; in the fame way, in fhort, as in other inftances. Inftead of branchiz, the brachiopoda have a circle of {mall triangular plates attached to each lobe of the cloak. Among the pteropoda, the hyalza has them concealed in the two folds of the cloak ; they reprefent vafcular ramifi- cations on the wings of the clio; and in the pneumodermon they are {mall plates, forming various lines on the furface of the abdomen. In the fingular animals called anatife and balani, there are found, on each fide, at the bafis of the arms or tentacula, conical plates, equal in number to that of the arms, but having a contrary direétion, namely, towards the back, and lying againft the body-under the cloak. Their relation to the vafcular fyftem has not yet been determined. Thus we find, in all the mollufca, as complete an appa- ratus for refpiration as for circulation. An extraordinary additional or fecondary office of the branchiz is that, which they perform in fome acephala, of affording a receptacle, for a certain time, for the ova, and even for the young when hatched. Organs of Refpiration in Worms.— Leeches and earth- worms, as well as the thalaflema, have no other apparatus for breathing but the fkin andits vafcular net-work : but in other genera there are ridges or tufts, in which the veffels are ramified. Thofe which fwim freely in the water have the organs equally arranged on the two fides, along a more or lefs confiderable portion of the back. Such as live in tubes have them ufually placed on the head, that they may be more eafily expofed to the water. Inthe aphrodite aculeata they are fmall flefhy crifte, flightly refembling that of the cock, fituated above each of the tu- bercles, which fupport briftles. There are forty pairs. In the fcaly aphrodite they are {mall bundles of filaments. In the nereids there are {mall flefhy cones, amounting to two or three on each fide of a ring: the blood-veffels are ramified in them with wonderful delicacy. Sometimes, in- ftead of thefe fmall cones, there are true filaments grouped into pencils, of three, or feven, or even in the form of tufts. Sometimes there are fmall thin plates. In the terebella flava the branchix reprefent bipinnated leaves, and have a beautiful rofe-colour. There are thirty pairs. In the tetraedra and carunculata there are merely large fafciculi of filaments. Their number in all thefe ge- nera is the fame as that of the rings of the body. The arenicola (lumbricus marinus) has only fourteen pairs occupying the middle of the back, and refembling {mall clofe bufhes, of the fineft carmine when diftended with blood, and becoming pale again when empty. The terebella have branchie in the form of {mall clofe trees ; there are only three pairs, fituated in the back, near the head. : a3 ’ In the amphitrite-there are two pairs ia the fame fituation, but fhaped like feathers, very thick. ; They form, in the ferpulz, at the fides of the mouth, two beautiful fan-like proceffes, with feathery branches, having long ftems and fhort barbs, and exhibiting the fineft colours. The number of feathery procefles, as well as the general curvature of the fan, varies according to the {pecies. ‘ The fabelle (amphitrite ventilabrum, Linn., &c.) have fan-like branchie, as well as the ferpule. Sometimes the fan has a fpiral turn. In thefe animals each branchia has a vafcular, arterial and venous fyftem, as in the higher claffes. But we come to an end here of refpiration by expanfion of the vafcular fyftem. Refpiration of the Echino-dermata.—Monro regarded the feet, or thofe cylindrical and extenfile tentacula, by means of which the echini, afteriz, and holothuriz walk, as organs for abforption of the furrounding fluid, at leaft in the firft of thefe genera. Cuvier afligns this funétion, in the two firft named genera, to organs much f{maller and more nume- rous, which may be feen in a living afterias obferved in water. Befides the great tentacula of the lower furface, the whole integument briftles with {mall flefhy tubes, which are withdrawn into {mall openings as foon as the animal is taken out of water. They form a beautiful fpe@tacle in the large fpecies, coming out at all points: the very {pines produce them by {mall apertures along their ftems ; and while the minute tubes are extended, they refemble fmall leaves of trees conneéted to their branches. There are fpe- cies in which they form tufts, &c. round thefe fpines. Thofe tubes which are fituated on the fides of the feet, are gene- rally longer than the others. It can hardly be doubted, that they have the office of conveying water into the interior of the body. The holothuriz, at leaft the tubulofa, have no tubes projecting externally, but they have an internal. organ, which muft be fubfervient, according to all appearance, to ref{piration. It is one or more membranous and hollow trees, of which the trunk opens into the fame receptacle (cloaca) as the anus. It enters the body, dividing and fubdividing, until it ends at laft in {mall conical produétions. The branches {well at intervals into veficles, which are generally found more or lefs diftended with water. The holothuna tubulofa has a fingle trunk, divided from its origin into two principal branches, of which one pro- ceeds along the general covering, adhering to it by a kind of mefentery ; the other runs among the inteftines, interweav- ing its branches with the veflels already noticed. This con- nection is fo intimate, that it cannot be detached without laceration: probably there is a communication at this point between the nutritive fluid and the furrounding element. The holothuria pentaGtes has two diftin& trunks, deeply divided into large branches; other fpecies have only one, which is not divided. All animals fituated below thefe in the f{eale, are deftitute apparently of refpiratory apparatus. The genera medufa and rhizoftoma, whofe numerous vef- fels are expanded in the thin edge of their difk, may te bably VERMES. bably refpire by this part: but the zoophytes, properly fo called, beginning with the armed polypes (hydra), breathe, if at all, by their whole furface. If, as fome haye conjeétured, the vibrating organs of the vorticelle and rotifers are an apparatus for breathing, thefe animals ought to occupy a higher rank in the feale of being than they do now. Their extreme minutenefs muft oppofe great obitacles to our acquiring any exact knowledge about them. Phyfialogy of Ref/piration.—The changes produced in the air a ees of the oN ae have been already fpoken of in the article ResprRATION, towards the end, under the head of Re/piration of Animals. We have only to notice here the faéts that have been afcertained re- f{peGting their temperature. « Spallanzani obferves,’’ fays Mr. Ellis, “* that when a fnail or flug is infulated in a jar of atmofpheric air, a ther- mometer placed in the jar will continue ftationary; but when feveral are confined together, the mercury rifes one- tenth, one-feventh, and even one-fifth of a degree, and in oxygen gas, one-third of a degree; from which he con- cludes, that {nails and flugs, in decompofing oxygen gas, give out caloric enough to be fenfible to the thermome- ter. (Memoirs on Refpiration, p.255. 258.) This ex- periment we repeated, by confining feveral {nails in a pint jar of air, from the top of which a {mall thermometer was fufpended, and at the bottom a glafs of lime-water was placed. A film of carbonate of lime foon over{pread the lime-water, the infide of the jar was dimmed by moifture, and the mercury in the thermometer rofe at the fame time nearly one degree. Dr. Martine fays, that from the refult of feveral trials which he made, {nails were about two de- grees warmer than the air. (On Thermometers, p. 141.) Mr. Hunter found the lungs of fnails 38°, when the at- mofphere was 34°; and, in other inftances, {nails were fix and feven degrees above the atmofphere, when it was fo low as 30°. Earth-worms he found 58.°5, when the atmofphere was 56°; and, in other trials, the worms exceeded by four, leeches by three, and flugs by four degrees the temperature of the ambient air. (Treatife on the Blood, p. 298, et feq. ) The temperature of a fnail, which was 44°, fank, on expo- fure to a cold mixture, down to 31°, and then froze; and feveral leeches froze likewife when reduced to 31°. (Ob- fervations on the Animal Economy, p. 105.) In all thefe experiments, the animals, when thawed, were found to be dead; but Mr. Carlifle fays, that the garden-{nail may be frozen, during its ftate of dormancy, without deftroying its mufeular irritability. DPhilof. Tranf. 1805, p. 18.”? In- quiry into the Changes, &c. p. 215. Generative Organs. Generative Organs of the Mollufca.—Four combinations are ‘met with in this clafs: wiz. 1. Separate fexes with copulation; in feveral gafteropoda, as the buccinum. 2. Separate fexes without copulation ; in the cephalopoda. 3. The fexes united with reciprocal copulation; in the inail, and moft gafteropoda. 4. The fexes united, and fecundating each other in the fame individual, or perfeé& hermaphrodifm ; in the acephala. The Cephalopoda; Male Organs.—The tefticle is a large, whitifh, and rather foft gland, found in the bottom of the abdominal fac ; its ftru€ture is remarkable, and eafily deve- loped. It is inclofed in a membranous capfule, united to it only by veffels pafling between them, and that at one point only: it has a thin proper cellular tunic. Its furface ex- hibits an infinite number of {mall areole, which are the com- mencement of white, opaque, foft filaments, lying clofe to- gether and compofing the whole fubftance of tlie gland. In the cuttle-fifh thefe filaments are {mall and numerous, fo that’ the areole are mere points. In the o€opus the filaments are larger, and like ribbons. They unite fucceffively to form. trunks, which terminate in the cuttle-fifh, in vaft numbers, in three or four large excretory canals pafling through the gland in various direGtions, and ending ultimately in a large common circular opening, furnifhed with a valve which pre- vents the return of the fluid. In the o&opus, which has fewer filaments, the large common canals do not exift, but the filaments end immediately at the common opening. Thefe filaments are themfelyes {mall excretory veffels, furrounded by glandular parenchyma, and conneéted by blood-veflels, nerves, and cellular fubftance. The fluid they fecrete is poured out through the opening into the membranous cap- {ule, from which it is conveyed by a canal reprefenting the epididymis, and tortuous, like that tube in the human fub- je&. It ends in a larger canal, of which the interior has at firft feyeral projeGting and ramified columns and ridges, and afterwards a fingle one extending through its whole length, and dividing it into two half canals. This canal, much fhorter and lefs tortuous than that of the epididymis, con- tracts towards its end, and penetrates a tolerably large cy- lindrical glandular body, poffeffing a large excretory duét, which receives the termination of the canal juft mentioned. This body is large and folid in the o&topus, much lefs and nearly membranous in the cuttle-fifh. It is regarded as a kind of proftate. Its canal joins one of the two belong- ing to the cavity which contains the {pringing tubes, which will be {poken of prefently. This cavity or burfa, which is large and much folded, is capable of confiderable extenfion, and contains the cele- brated tubes, firft imperfeétly defcribed in the cuttle-fith by Swammerdam, then more in detail by Needham in the ealmar, and rendered famous by Buffon, who derived from them the principal fupport of his fyftem, on the nature of the {permatie animalcules. ~ The o¢topus has them larger than the two other fpecies. The burfa, which contains them mixed up with a vifcid liquor, is compofed of two compartments communicating together, but each poffefling a diftinét orifice. One of thefe orifices is the commence- ment of a flender canal, which ends on the exterior of the penis at the fide: the other alfo produces a canal, which, after having become {till {maller, opens externally near the bafe of the penis.. The penis is a hollow, cylindrical, flefhy body, perforated at its point, and having a cul-de-fac behind the place where the canal juft mentioned opens. Its cavity poflefles flefhy columns internally. The excretory canal of the proftate, which is to tranfmit alfo the feminal fluid of the teiticle, communicates more particularly with that compartment of the burfa, whofe dué& opens externally on the penis. » The communication indeed is very near its orifice. It is the other compartment of the burfa, whofe du& opens in the penis. The name of penis is given to this part, becaufe it projects externally, and has a cylindrical form: it does not feem, however, ta be an organ of copulation, although it certainly is one of ejaculation. All the canals now defcribed, from the tefticle to the penis, are fituated on the left fide of the abdomen, and the penis proje@s within the left branchia; but as the funnel placed under the neck clofes the flefhy bag, it feems impof- fible for the penis to approach the part which gives iffue to the oviduét of the female, fo as to produce copulation. The feminal fluid thrown out by the penis muft traverfe the funnel, as the ova, the ink, and the excrements do. A Swam-. VERMES. Swammerdam and Needham took the burfa of the fpring- ing tubes for the tefticle, from which it is confiderably dif- tant. They have been followed in this error even by modern authors. The tubes themfelves are membranous bodies like worms, terminated by a filament thinner than their body, fix lines or more in length. While they remain in their vifcous liquid, or if placed in fpirits or oil, they continue at reft ; but if they are put in water, they become agitated, twift about, and throw out at one extremity an opaque matter. By means of a glafs we can fee in their interior an opaque whitifh body, fpiral like a cork-fcrew, terminating behind in a fpongy mafs, and before in a fimilar fmaller one. It feems that this body is elaftic, and retained by the external membrane of the tube; that water, by foftening and diffolving the ex- tremity of the tube, allows the fpiral or fpongy body to exert its natural elafticity; and that the twifting of the tube arifes from the effort which the {piral body thus makes to efcape. However the matters may be explained, the mo- tion certainly is not a vital one, and may be feen in the tubes of a cuttle-fifh, which has been preferved for years in {pirits of wine, as foon as they are put in water. But what purpofe is ferved by thefe tubes? Are they, like the pollen of plants, capfules containing a feminal aura, and not giving way to allow its efcape, until they are in a proper fituation? They feem to be developed only in the burfa, which contains them, and they are not found at all feafons. Are the ordinary fpermatic animalcules to be con- fidered analogous to thefe tubes, according to the notions of Buffon? Female Organs.—They are more fimple. The ovary oc- cupies a fituation analogous to that of the tefticle, and is in the fame manner enveloped by a membranous capfule, to which it is conneé&ted at one point only by veffels. The capfule is fimple in the oftopus, divided into two by a feptum in the cuttle-fith. The ovary has thoufands of ramifications, and refembles the moft complicated and beautiful tree. The ova enlarge unequally: at the end of a certain time we find them large, prefled together, and angular. Two tubes go from the capfule in the o€topus, and the calmar fagittatum of Lamarck. Inthe former, when empty, they are {mall, and plaited internally. They end at the fides of the anus. At one-third of their length is a knot, which is a gland tra- verfed by the ova, and furnifhing them with their external Sap It is divided, like an orange, by longitudinal epta. a the calmar fagittatum there are fimilar glands, much larger in proportion, oval, fituated at the very end of the oviduéts, and divided by very numerous, thin, tranfverfe fepta. The ovidu& enters at the fide, and contraés con- fiderably before going out. The cuttle-fifh and common calmar have a fingle ovidué& terminated by a gland of the fame kind. The du& of the latter is larger, and makes two convolutions. The duéts of the calmar fagittatum end at the inner fide of the branchie : the fingle tube of the cuttle-fifh and com- mon calmar terminates near the left branchia, in the fame fituation as the penis of the male. Thefe three {pecies have alfo three enormous oval glands, divided, like that of the ovidu@, by tranfverfe fepta, and opening at the fides of the anus. Their ufe is unknown. The eggs of the otopus and calmar are united by a gela- tinous fubftance into {mall maffes, while thofe of the cuttle- fifh are united by a duétile matter into bunches, like thofe of grapes. The uniting medium is probably furnifhed by the glands which terminate the oviduét : perhaps the three glands juft mentioned may alfo be concerned in furnifh- ing it. : pee od Gafteropoda.—They muft be arranged in two feétions; thofe in which the organs of the fwo fexes have a common iffue, as the fnail; and thofe in which their iffues are feparate, or even diftant, as the aplyfia. Under ~ the firft are included the fnail, flug, teftacella, parmacella, doris, tritonia, and many univalves. The flug may be defcribed firft, as being the moft fimply organized: it has only the organs common to the whole clafs; wiz. an ovary, oviduét, tefticle, vas deferens, penis, and bladder with along neck. The ovary is fituated towards the back part of the body, between the lobes of the liver and the inteftines. It formsa very complicated congeries, like a bunch of {mall grapes, of which each grain is an ovum, while the pedicles are tubes uniting together, and ending at laft in the ovidu&t. The latter forms many zigzags, and adheres fo clofely to the tefticle, that it may eafily be fuppofed to penetrate its fubitance, and receive the fecreted fluid ; but this is not the cafe. Having followed the whole length of the tefticle, become obvioufly larger, and even during the feafon of copulation {wollen and plaited, the ovidu& terminates in the bottom of the common cavity of generation. : The tefticle is a white oblong gland, very large, particu- larly at the feafon of propagation. It may be divided into two parts: the pofterior, behind the junétion of the ovi- duét is oval, and {wells moft at the time juft mentioned. The anterior is oblong. Its ftru€ture does not fo much confift of filaments, like that of the cuttle-fifh, as of grains. It pro- duces an excretory canal, which opens at the bottom of the penis. The latter is a cylindrical flefhy bag, poffefling internally a prominent ridge in its whole length, and opening into the common cavity of the generative organs. . It can be everted like the finger of a glove, and be extended by means of its own fibres, and withdrawn to its original pofition by a retra€tor mufcle arifing from the back of the animal, and inferted in the point of the bag, near the vas deferens. When this bag is unfolded, and is protruded externally, it forms a projecting penis, the internal ridge being unfolded fo as to make the internal furface fufficiently broad to become ex- ternal. The orifice of the vas deferens is now found on the very point of the penis, having been before at the bottom of the bag. The bladder with the long neck, making the third prin- cipal organ, was called by Swammerdam the refervoir of the purple, believing that the murex formed in an analogous part the celebrated colouring matter of the ancients. This is not the cafe ; though the real ufe of the part in queftion is not known. It fometimes contains, both in the flug and fnail, a concrete reddifh-grey fubftance: at other times merely a liquid. It is found in all gafteropoda, and’*may poffibly be concerned in producing a fluid to cover the eggs. The common cavity of generation is a flefhy fac, in which the three preceding organs terminate, and which hasan ex- ternal opening under the right fuperior horn. When {nails copulate, they evert this fac, which then prefents three openings; wiz. of the ovidué, bladder, and penis. The latter quickly comes out of its opening, and enters the ovidu& of the other individual. In this way pr dager is effeGted: the laying takes place fome days after. The intimate connection between part of the ovidué& and part of the teftis and vas deferens, deceived Swammerdam concerning the nature of thefe organs. He fir conceived rat the VERMES. the tefticle to be the ovary: having afterwards found the true ovary, he called the teftis the bag of glue. The large part of the oviduét adhering to the teftis he called the uterus ; and not feeing that the vas deferens belongs exclu- lively to the teftis, and has only an external attachment to the ovidu&, he admitted a communication between the uterus and penis. : . The fize of the penis varies in the different fpecies of {nails : fome have it longer than the body, when extended. Thefe organs in the teftacella do not differ remarkably from thofe of the {nail. . The ovary of the tritonia is more voluminous, the oviduct larger in proportion, and the tefticle irregularly lobed and fhaped like a ball. ‘ In the doris, the oviduGt, after joining the teftis, appears to unite with the canal of the bladder, and to form with it a common canal. In the doris folea, from the Indian feas, it feems even to enter the bladder itfelf ; which would con- frm the notion of this part being defigned to furnifh a cover- ing for the ova. The tefticle is rounded, and touches the common cavity. A {mall acceflory bladder is connected to the canal of the bladder. - In the bulimus ftagnalis (helix, Linn.) the conne€ion between the ovidué and tefticle is not fo clofe. The vas deferens can be diftinguifhed throughout, at firft large and expanded into a refervoir much plaited, and capable of con- taining a large quantity of fluid. At pafling out, the canal is fmall, enters the flefh near the end of the ovidu&, then comes out again to end in the bottom of the fac of the penis, which is organized as in the flug. : The ovary and tefticle of the {nail are arranged as in the flug. The neck of the bladder is much longer, and con- nected to the broad portion of the oviduct, as far as the point of its union with the tefticle. The lower part of its neck is broad, and receives the orifice of the ovidu&t. It moreover receives the apertures of two parts, which do not exift in the flug; viz. two ramified organs, each of which terminates in fifteen or twenty {mall ceca, containing a white milky liquor. This might be confidered as feminal fluid, and the organs as veficulz feminales, but they have no immediate conneétion with the vas deferens. The latter terminates in the fide of the penis, near its entry into the common cavity. The penis therefore is not perforated at its bottom, asin the flug: it is alfo much longer ; but pro- bably it cannot be aalded in its whole length, perhaps only as far as the point at which the vas deferens enters: this would then become its external extremity. The fnail has another remarkable part, not found in the flug ; viz. the fac of the dart. It is oblong, with thick muicular parietes : at the bottom there is a papilla, from which proceeds a pointed dagger-fhaped dart, with four cutting edges. The fubftance of this fingular part is cal- fareous: it is renewed when loft. Snails prick each other with it, at any part of the fkin indifferently, when they are about to copulate. They feem too to dread it ; for as foon as one perceives the other’s dart, he withdraws immediately into the fhell. The obje& of fuch a proceeding cannot be conje&tured. Copulation does not take place, until after both individuals have brought out their darts : it refembles that of the flug. - The length of the penis protruded in copulation, and the number of ceca, vary in the different {pecies of fnails. : The parmacella has the fame organs as the {nails. Its veficule are oval and undivided, and terminate dire@tly in the common cavity. The fac of the dart is nearer to the Vou. XXXVII. prepuce of the penis; and the vas deferens opens in the bot- tom of the latter. The fecond feétion of hermaphrodite gafteropoda in- cludes thofe, in whom the penis paffes out at fome point of the body diftant from the ovidu@. The vas deferens is {till united to the ovidu&t, and communicates with the penis only by the intervention of a groove excavated in the ex- ternal furface of the body. This groove is on the right fide of the neck in the aplyfia; under the right edge of the cloak in the onchidium, &c. The ovary of the aplyfia is an oval mafs, occupying all the pofterior part of the abdomen, and in its ordinary ftate of a whitifh colour. The ovidué arifes from it by feveral veflels, coming from the different parts of the mafs, like the excretory tubes of a gland, and uniting into one canal. The latter, having run along the right fide of the tefticle, fuddenly becomes fmaller, turns round the apex of that een and forms a canal which, having been clofely joined or fome time to the vas deferens, terminates by opening in it, after receiving a {mall blind inteftine, apparently analo- gous to the ramified organs of the fnail. The tefticle is of a beautiful yellow, and refembles an elliptic {pheroid furrounded by a fpiral band. Its middle is tolerably compact, and feems nearly homogeneous. The {piral band is itfelf divided into a principal finely ftriated band, of which the ftrie are probably fo many veffels, and two {mooth borders, which are excretory tubes. The fu- perior is the vas deferens common to the whole tefticle, ferving to convey the feminal fluid. The common cord going to the exterior of the body is at firft divided into two canals. That which comes from the teftis is formed of a thin membrane much plaited : the other, from the ovidu, has thicker parietes. From the firft third of their length they communicate freely by means of a flit: yet the diftinction between them is marked by a projecting membranous feptum. The oval bladder opens, towards the fecond thread, by a {mall particular du&, Beyond this orifice, the double canal forms a prominence, vifible externally, on the right fide of the body : its open- ing is continuous with a deep groove formed in the right fide of the neck, and continued into the body of the penis. Does this groove condu& the feminal fluid of one aplyfia into the body of another? The folution of the mode of fecundation in thefe animals depends on the anfwer to that quettion. The onchidium refembles the aplyfia in the feparation of the organs. The ovidu&, after being joined to the tef- ticle, is united to the canal of the bladder, near its neck ; and the common canal goes out at the fame point as the vas deferens. From their orifice a groove extends, on the right fide, along the under part of the cloak, to that of the penis fituated at the right fide of the head. The latter com- municates firft with a cavity having two cul-de-facs. In the bottom of one of them a cylindrical tube enters, which tra- verfes an elliptical mufcular enlargement, and extends be- yond it to a length more than five times that of the body. Near its entrance into the cavity, this tube conceals a fhar horny point. The other cul-de-fac receives the end of a tube fhorter and much flenderer than the preceding, with- out any enlargement. ‘This has alfo a {mall horny point in the correfponding fituation. The ufe of thefe organs is not known. The ovidu& is diftin@ throughout from the tefticle and the canal of the bladder in the bullxa, although the three organs have their iffue at the fame point. There is alfo an acceflory veficula, coming out with them, and a fmaller one ending VERMES. ending in the ovidu&. The penis forms a tube nearly as long as that of the onchidium, but without any enlargement or acceflory tube. The openings of the fexual organs are remote from each other in the hyalea and pneumodermon, although united in the fame individual ; but the animals are too {mall for a ' detailed defcription. Gafteropoda with feparate Sexes.—This feparation certainly exifts in the buccinum undatum. The male is recognized, even externally, by a flefhy penis as large as a finger, com- prefled, broader at the end, and terminated by a {mall tubercle, which is perforated by the orifice of the vas deferens. It adheres to the right fide of the neck, and folds back into the pulmonary cavity, but the animal often extends it, without any intention of copulating. The vas deferens traverfes its whole length, making feveral folds and zigzags; it enters the right fide of that part of the body which fills the fhell, makes a large packet of tortuous turns, becomes gradually {maller, and ends at the telfticle, a yel- lowifh, foft, glandular mafs, occupying with the liver the higheft turns of the fhell. Nothing fimilar to this penis is found in the female; the neck is f{mooth, but on the right fide of the pulmonary cavity, between the body and the reétum, a large canal is feen, the extremity of the oviduét. The orifice is fmall: on opening it we find a large tube with thick glandular parietes, calculated no doubt to furnifh an exterior covering for the ova. It opens a little within the edge of the pul- monary cavity by a {mall aperture. In the murex tritonis, there is a fimilar feparation of fexes, and a penis equally flefhy and prominent. Inftead, however, of having a complete vas deferens in its interior, there is a fimple groove on the furface, continued on the body, as far as the portion which fills the fhell. The penis Is proportionally fhorter and thinner than in the buccinum. The female has an oviduét fimilar to that of the female buccinum. The ftrombus has a mere tubercle projeCting flightly at the right fide of its very fmall foot. The feminal fluid is conveyed to it alfo by a groove. The penis of the voluta is flefhy, conical, always pro- jeGting, but not perforated: the femen arriyes by a groove, which however ends at its bafis, without going to the point. In thofe genera with feparate fexes, the ovidué is wanting when there is a penis with its groove; this groove occupy- ing the place of the ovidud. There is an hermaphrodite fpecies; but it feems formed rather on the model of thofe juft defcribed, than on that of the {pecies in the former, divifion. It is the helix vivipara of frefh water. It has an oviduct and a groove, placed fide by fide, and ending refpeétively at the ovary and tefticle. The latter is clofely joined to the ovidu&: its groove ter- minates externally at the very edge of the foot, under the right horn; and there ie no penis but the prominence which this edge may form when extended. The ovidué is of great fize and length when filled with {mall living individuals. This animal is ovo-viviparous. In the upper part of its oviduét we find eggs not hatched, refembling {mall globules of a whitifh glairy matter, in which with a glafs the animal can be feen covered by its fhell. In thefe ova the {mall pedicle may be {till feen, by which they were attached to the ovary. The acephala are all hermaphrodites, and impregnate themfelves without any copulation. We difcover no other generative organs but an ovary, extending over the two fides of the body, immediately under the fkin, penetrating be- 10 tween the tendons of the mufcles, and fometimes between the two membranes of the cloak. The fize and colour vary according as the animal is more or lefs advanced in geftation. Ata certain period a milky liquor is feen in it, which is probably a feminal fluid defigned to fecundate the ova. When the latter are advanced, they pafs into the fpaces between the two vafcular laminz, compofing each of the four plates of the branchiz, and fometimes diftend them in an extraordinary manner, for the number is truly pro- digious in fome fpecies. The Bes of the ovo-viviparous fpecies, as the frefh-water mufcle, are hatched in the branchiz. When we obferve the little mufcles with a glafs, we fee them open and fhut their valves with great activity. No orifice has yet been difcovered, by which they could pafs out; probably they efcape by lacerating the tiffue at the edges of the branchiz between their pulmonary veffels. The organs of generation in the naked acephala, as the biphori and afcidiz, and in the branchiopoda, as the tere- bratulz and lingulz, have not been carefully inveftigated. The cirropoda, or balani and anatife, differ very much from the acephala, and approach in their male organs, as in feveral others, to the cruftacea. On each fide of their in- teftinal canal there is a white ferpentine tube, fuppofed to be the tefticle, and ending towards the bafis of the re@tum- Yet thefe animals are hermaphrodites, and their ovaries are two mafles placed between the trunk and the cloak, and connected in their fituation only by veffels and cellular tffue. Generative Organs of Worms.—This clafs exhibits the three combinations, which are found in the mollufca ; fome have the fexes feparate ; others united, fo that they fecun- date themfelves in an infulated manner; in a third divifion they are united, but there is a reciprocal copulation. The leech exemplifies the latter modification; it has a very confiderable penis, compofed of a thick and long mu{cular tube, hollow internally, which can be protruded like the penis of the fnail, while it is prolonged backwards into a flender and merely membranous tube. There are two tefticles, each compofed of numerous convolutions of a fingle, foft, whitifh canal, with glandular fides, and of a fhort, itraight, and mufcular vas deferens. Thefe two tubes appear to terminate at the bafis of the mufcular part of the penis, and the feminal fluid probably flows along the grooves of its furface, when it is unrolled. Near it is a cavity opening externally, and ferving apparently to receive the penis of the other individual. The orifices of thefe parts are near each other, and near the anterior extremity of the body. The earth-worm exhibits two orifices on its under fur- face, near the anterior extremity, and not, as fome have defcribed, at the {welling in the middle of the body. They correfpond internally to two or three foft, oval, glandular cavities. There are feveral fmaller ones around them. Thefe feem to be the organs of generation ; but we cannot point out their funGtions. Willis mentions that the large cavities are fometimes filled with eggs; but we fee true ovaries, in the form of {mall inteftines, arranged in three or four pairs, and {welled by ova, fo as to refemble rows of beads. No external or internal organ of copulation can be found; yet it is popularly known that earth-worms remain clofely embraced for the purpofe of fecundation. In the anterior part of the body of the lumbricus marinus there are five greyifh facculi on each fide, fufpended by veflels and cellular fubftance, and appearing analogous to thofe of the earth-worm. The ova muft efcape from the faceuli VERMES. facculi in thefe animals, for we fometimes find the whole body filled with them. The fame thing is feen in the aphrodite, where the fexes are feparate; in Foal individuals the body is filled with a whitifh milt, while the large ones have it full of {mall ova in all the intervals of the vifcera. If, as it feems probable, there are particular organs for the preparation of thefe fub- ftances, they have not yet been difcovered or defcribed. The fame obfervation may be extended to the genera nereis, ferpula, and other red-blooded worms, It is doubtful, whether or no there are diftin& fexes in the inteftinal worms. In the afcaris lumbricoides, the orifice of generation is found in the anterior third of the body: a {mall fhort veffel foon ends in two larger ones, which dually diminifhing extend to four or five times the length of the body, and are collected in irregular bundles, which may be eafily developed. Thefe tubes, which mutt be regarded as ovaries, contain a milky fluid, and an infinite number of {mall ova. All the echino-dermata feem to be hermaphrodites, and to poflefs the power of fecundating themfelves: their ovaries fill a large part of the body, when they are {wollen in the feafon of laying. They are fometimes feen bathed as it were in a milky liquor, which feems to hold the place of feminal fluid: this may be obferved in the common ftar-fifhy, where the ovaries form five large branches, one for each divifion of the body: the eggs are round and reddifh. The echini, properly fo called, have from five to ten con- fiderable ovaries, reddifh, lying near the furface of the fhell, and ending at the circumference of the anus. They form the eatable portion of the echini. In the holothuriz, a colleé&tion of numerous ramified {mall tubes is feen near the mouth, amazingly developed at particular feafons, when they are filled with a reddifh powdery matter, fometimes colle€ted in globules. Thefe parts feem to be the ovaries; but we fee alfo, near the anus, numerous whitifh filaments, refembliug worms, and each formed of a flender elaftic thread, turned fpirally, and capable of being unfolded. The mode of generation in the aétinie has been defcribed by Reaumur: he ftates that “ in producing its young, the actinia inverts its body as it does in rejecting the hells of animals, which it has fwallowed for food. I have obferved that thefe animals are viviparous, and have feen them come out, perfeétly formed, from the body of the mother, as they are reprefented in fig. 25. It is neceffary that the cavity fhould be turned infide out, as we have already defcribed in {peaking of the digeftive procefs : the young ones then come out of a large tran{fverfe fiflure. Although the parent may contain fometimes more than twelve (and this opening is large enough to allow feveral to pafs at once), they come out one by one, and indifferently at all parts of the fiffure. Thefe little a@tinie, before their birth, are placed in the bafis of the parent ; and lodged in folds of the membrane.”’ Reaumur, Acad. des Sciences, 1710, p. 477. The procefs and the organs concerned in it have been defcribed more in detail by Dr. Spix, in the Annales du -Muféum d’Hift. Naturelle, tom. xiii. “¢ The fpace left be- tween the alimentary cavity and the external envelop of the animal is divided,”’ he fays, ‘¢ into longitudinal cavities by folds of a membrane which lines it, and is analogous to peritoneum. Each longitudinal cavity contains an ovary, and communicates with two or three tentacula. Each ovary is compofed of three or four cylindrical and united tubes, joining together at their bafis into a common canal, and becoming flenderer towards the apex in proportion as the eggs become f{maller, of which each ovary contains about fixty. The common tubes of two neighbouring ovaries join into one, and this latter again joins the common tube of the two next ovaries. The oviduct thus formed belongs therefore to four ovaries, and terminates in the bottom of the ftomach. This is the only point at which the young can come forth: hence all obfervers have found them in the ftomach, without knowing how they came there. The eggs are round, yellow, and fimilar to grains of fand. The actiniz are viviparous, according to the obfervations of Reaumur, Ellis, and Dicquemarre, with which my own agree. I have often feen the young come out of the mouth, of a form perfeétly fimilar to that of the mother. An actinia, which I have in {pirits of wine, contains a great number of eggs marked with an opaque point, and appa- rently containing the embryo animal. I have even an individual about the fize of a hempfeed, which feems to quit its covering with difficulty, and whofe mouth and tentacula are not yet diftiné.”” P. 448. pl. 33. The multiplication of polypes and zoophytes by buds or fhoots is well known: this feems to preclude the exiftence of a particular organ of generation. Yet the author juft quoted, has defcribed and figured parts which he confiders as generative organs in a {pecies of alcyonium. See his Memoir and plate as above. Peculiar Secretions.—The inky fluid of the fepiz is pro- duced in a membranous bag, exprefsly deftined to that office. he fecreting organ is a villous furface, with fine and long procefles, adhering to one of the fides of the bag. The fecretion is a very thick black fubftance ; but its par- ticles are fo minute, that it admits almott of infinite dilution, and a {mall quantity will tinge a vaft volume of water. This matter, when removed and dried, forms the colour named fepia by the painters ; that of the common cuttle-fifh is a black-brown. The o€topus has it blacker; and the Indian ink which comes from China is certainly nothing more than the produce of fome fepia of that country, fo that it is ufelefs to attempt imitating it by artificial mix- tures. Chemical analyfis has difcovered in it a very mi- nutely divided carbonaceous matter, mixed with animal gluten. The ink-bag of the oftopus is enveloped by the lobes of the liver, which has given rife to the erroneous idea of fome moderns, that this part is analogous to the gall-bladder, and that the fluid is a biliary fecretion. It is in front of the liver in the calmar, but free, and not inclofed in its {ubftance. In the cuttle-fifh it is much more deeply placed, before the inteftines and the intermediate heart. In all cafes, its excretory duct terminates near the anus, pouring its liquor into the funnel, which is the general re- ceptacle for all the excretions. The purple matter, fo celebrated among the ancients, is produced by feveral different gafteropoda: poflibly, how- ever, fome fpecies may furnifh it of a more beautiful or durable kind. It tranfudes in fome of the genus murex from the edges of the cloak ; fo that it is no doubt pro- duced in them as in the aplyfia, of which the organ will be defcribed. Swammerdam iufpeéted that the fac, adhering to the organs of generation, and defcribed by the indefinite term of bladder, was the refervoir of the purple; but this fufpicion does not feem well founded. In the aplyfia the operculum of the branchiz is analo- gous to the cloak of other univalves, and differs from it only becaufe the fhell does not entirely fill it. The edge is occupied, in all parts to which the fhell does not extend, by a {pongy fubftance, of which all the pores are diftended by the purple matter. This is fo thick, that when it is ex- aK eae: preffed VERMES. prefled without being diluted, its colour is a black violet ; but it gives water the tint of claret wine. A fingle aplyfia is capable of colouring in this way feveral buckets of water. In fpirits of wine this liquor becomes of a deep green. Some naturalifts reprefent that the colouring liquor of cer- tain animals of the genus murex comes out of the body green, and changes to purple by the a¢tion of light But it may be {queezed out of the murex brandaris of a perfect violet colour. Spinning Organs (Filitres) of acephalous Mollufca.—The mufcles of falt-water (mytilus), the lime (oftrea ma, Linn.), perne (oftrea, Linn.), avicule, and peétines, are fixed to rocks by means of threads, which they make them- felves. Thofe of the pinna are the moft celebrated, for they have been aétually employed in manufa€tures. The matter, of which the threads are formed, is pro- duced by a conglomerate gland, concealed in the body under the bafe of the foot. The latter, which has more or lefs refemblance to a tongue, with a groove along its under furface, feizes the vifcous matter at the orifice of the ex- cretory tube, draws it out, and models it in the groove. Tt fixes the end, ftill foft, to a rock, and returns to the orifice, to find the materials of another. Reaumur has mi- nutely defcribed the procefs, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1710, from which we have taken the following particulars. «« From the root of this kind of tongue, or the part where it is attached to the body of the animal, feveral threads are obferved to proceed to fome neighbouring fixed objeét, and thus attach the animal in its fituation. They are about equal in fize to a pig’s briftle; vary in length from one to two inches, and pafs out of the fhell at the part where it naturally opens. Stones, ela: of fhells, and very fre- quently the fhells of other mufcles, are the objeéts to which they are fixed: hence we often find large aflemblages of thefe animals adhering together. I have fometimes reckoned more than 150 threads employed in faftening a fingle mufcle : as they take different dire€tions, we may regard them as fo many cables keeping the animal firmly anchored. «« Having detached feveral, I inclofed them in boxes, and put them in the fea: in a few days, they were attached to the fides of the veffel, and to each other. I placed others in veffels of fea-water, and obferved their proceedings. In a fhort time they opened their fhell, and thruft out the part already defcribed, which I have compared to a tongue. They elongated and then fhortened it, and thus ftretched it out farther: they would at laft extend it to two inches in length, and then feel about with its extremity, as if to re- connoitre the ground. After thefe preludes, they fixed it for a time in one fpot, and then withdrew it quickly, carry- ing it back completely into the fhell. I now difeovered that they were fixed to the {pot by athread. The repeti- tion of this manceuvre multiplied the threads, until they were fufficiently numerous to faften the animal. The new threads thus formed were whiter and more tranfparent than thofe which had exifted for fome time.’? P. 114, et feq. When a thread has been formed, the animal feems to try its ftrength, and fometimes it gives way. They will fix themfelves to the furface of glafs. ‘They do not form more than four or five threads ina day. P. 122. M. Reaumur could not difcover whether they have the power of detaching themfelves, after being once fixed. The youngeft mufcles {pin thefe threads, fuch even as are fmaller than millet feeds. The threads give way in time, either from the repeated fhocks to which they are expofed, ox from an alteration in their texture*by time. P. 123, The pinne are very large animals, the valves of their fhells meafuring one or two feet, attached to rocks, &c. in a manner fimilar to that of the mufcles, except that the threads are longer and more numerous. © They almoft equal, in finenefs and beauty, the filk fpun by the filkworm: hence the French name of coquille porte-foie, and the ancient name of barba byfilina applied to this produétion, which has been generally called the deard of the animal. It has a€tually been manufaétured in Sicily, and other parts of the Medi- terranean, into gloves and other articles, which exaétly re- fembled filk. As the individual threads are fo fine, their number is immenfe. Ibid. In the Memoirs for 1717, Reaumur fpeaks at greater length of the pinna or jambonneau, and the filk threads which attach the animal to furrounding objeéts. Thefe animals are fifhed in the Mediterranean, in from fifteen to thirty feet of water. The tuft of filk is attached, as in the mufcle, immediately to the animal’s body, and paffes be- tween the two valves, at four or five inches from the {mall end of the fhell, in large pinnez. As they are torn up with an iron hook, you cannot be fure of feeing the whole length of the faftening ; but Reaumur has found it feven or eight inches long, and weighing three ounces. The {pinning organ is about two inches long in the dead animal, and muit admit of extention to fix or feven inches in the living, to form threads of the length we meet with. The end of the filk paffes into a conical bag, which contains four mem- branous plates, and an equal number between them of thin filk plates, made of fine filk intricately interwoven. ‘The filk faftening of the animal is fecured to the latter. Ob- fervations fur le Coquillage appellé Pinne marine, ou Nacre de Perle, &c. On the fubje&t of the remarkable power, poffeffed by many animals of the lower orders, particularly in the genus medufa, of producing light, fee the article Lieut. The fource of that fingular property, which many me- dufe poffefs, of imparting a burning fenfation to the fkin, like that produced by the common nettle, (whence their names of urtica marina, fea-nettles, &c.) is not known. It may be in fome fluid fecreted by the animal. We may obferve, in general, of all the fecretions in the lower orders, including the purple matter and filk, the biliary fluids, the luminous and ftinging particles, the cal- careous matter of fhells, &c. that they are produced in ftru@tures much lefs complicated, and in animals much lefs perfe@tly organized, than the analogous produéts of the vertebral divifion. We cannot pretend to give a complete enumeration of the works, from which information may be derived on the fubje& of the preceding article; but we fhall mention a few of the moft important. On the anatomy of the lower orders, fcience is moft deeply indebted to the learned, acute, and indefatigable Cuvier, who has contributed more than all others together to our accurate knowledge of thefe claffes. His ‘* Lecons d’ Anatomie comparée’? contain the refults of moft of his labours ; and the greater part of our deferiptions is derived from that work. He has alfo publifhed numerous excellent papers, accompanied with very beautiful and valuable en- gravings, on the anatomy of feveral genera of mollufca, in the Memoires du Muféum National d’Hiftoire Naturelle. They are as follow : Memoire fur Animal de la Lingule (Lingula anatina, Lamarck) ; tom. i. p. 69. Memoire fur la Bulla aperta (Lamarck), Bulla aperta (Linn.); tom. i. p. 156. ; Memoire fur le Clio borealis ; tom. i. p. 242. Memoire VER Memoire fur le Genre Tritonie, avec la Defcription et Anatomie d’une nouvelle Efpece, Tritonia Hombergii ; tom. i. p. 480. Memoire fur le Genre Aplyfia, vulgairement nommé Lievre marin, fur fon Anatomie, et fur quelques unes de fes Efpeces ; tom. ii. p. 287. Memoire concernant |’Animal de l’Hyale, un nouveau Genre de Mollufques, intermediaire entre l’Hyale et le Clio, et |’ Etabliffement d’un nouvel Ordre dans la Claffe des Mollufques; tom. iv. p. 223. ' Memoire fur les Thalides (Thalia, Brown), et fur les Biphores (Salpa, Forflcaohl); tom. iv. p. 360. Memoire fur le Genre Doris; tom. iv. p. 447. Memoire fur le Limace (Limax, Linn.), et le Coli- magon (Helix, ejufd.); tom. vii. p. 140. Memoire fur le Limnée (Helix ftagnalis, Linn.), et le Planorbe (Helix cornea, Linn.); tom. vii. p. 185. Memoire fur l’Onchidie, Genre de Mollufques nus Voifins des Limnées, et fur une Efpéce nouvelle, Onchidium Peronii; tom. v. p- 37- Memoire fur la Phyllidie et fur le Pleurobranche, deux nouveaux Genres de Mollufques de la Famille des Gaftéro- podes, et Voifins des Patelles et des Ofcabrions, dont V’un eft nu, et dont autre porte une Coquille cachée ; tom. v. -p- 266. , Memoire fur la Dolabelle, fur la Teftacelle, et fur un nouveau Genre de Mollufques a Coquille cachée, nommé Parmacelle ; tom. v. p. 4 Memoire fur la Scyllée, 1’ Eolide et la Glaucus, avec des Additions au Memoire fur la Tritonie ; tom. vi. p. 416. Memoire fur |’Ianthine et la Phafianelle de M. Lamarck ; tom. xi. p. 121. Memoire fur la Vivipare d’Eau douce (Cycloftoma vivi- parum, Draparnaud; Helix vivipara, Linn.), fur quelques Efpéces voifines, et Idée générale fur la Tribu des Gaftéro- podes peétinés a Coquille entiére ; tom. xi. p. 170. Memoire fur le grand Buccin de nos Cétes ( Buccinum undatum, Linn.), ainfi que fur les Buccins, les Murex, les Strombes, et en général fur les Gaftéropodes peétinés a Syphon; tom. xi. p. 447. Memoire fur le Genre Tethys, et fon Anatomie; tom. xii. P: 257: Memoire fur les Acéres, ou Gaftéropodes fans Tentacules apparens; tom. xvi. p. I. Sur les Afcidies, et fur leur Anatomie, Memoires du Muféum d’Hiftoire Naturelle ; tom. ii. p. 10. Sur les Animaux des Anatifés et des Balanes, Lamarck {Lepas, Linn.), et fur leur Anatomie ; ibid. p. 85. We may refer alfo to Péron, fur le nouveau Genre Pyro- foma, Ann. du Muf. tom. iv. p. 437. Péron et Le Sueur fur les Medufes du Genre Equorée, tom. xv. p- 41; et Hiftoire de la Famille des Mollufques Pteropodes, p. 57. Spix Memoire pour fervir a ’ Hiftoire de l’ Afterie rouge (Afterias rubens, Linn.), de A@tinie coriacée (A€tinia coriacea, Cuv.), et de !’Alcyon exos; Ann. du Mul. tom. xiii. p. 438. Mery, Remarques fur la Moule des Etangs; Mem. de V Acad. des Sciences, 1710. Reaumur, De la Formation et de l?Accroiffement des Coquilles des Animaux tant terreftres qu’aquatiques, foit de Mer, foit de Riviere ; ibid. 1709. Reaumur, Du Mouvement progreffif, et de quelques autres Mouvemens de diverfes Efpeces de Coquillages, Orties, et Etoiles de Mer; ibid. 1710. Reaumur, Des différentes Manieres dont plufeurs Efpeces 9 VER d’Animaux de Mer s’attachent au Sable, aux Pierres, et les uns aux autres, 1711. Reaumur, Obfervations fur le Mouvement progreflif de quelques Coquillages de Mer, fur celui des Heriffons de Mer, et fur celui d’une Efpéce d’Etoile; ibid. 1712. Reaumur, Eclairciflement de quelques Difficultés fur la Formation et l’Accroiflement des Coquilles; ibid. 1716. Lamarck, Syftéme des Animaux fans Vertebres. Bofc, Hiftoire Naturelle des Vers. Bohadfch, De quibufdam Animalibus marinis, 1761, 4to. Pet. Forfkaohl, Icones Rerum naturalium, quas in Itinere orientali depingi curavit. Edidit C. Niebuhr, Havniz, 1776, fol. J. C. Poli, Teftacea utriufque Siciliz, eorumque Hif- toria et Anatome. Parma, 1791, 2 vols. fol. Goeze, Verfuch einer Naturgefchichte der Eingeweide- wurmer thierifcher Korper, 1782, 4to. Werner, Vermium Inteftinalium prefertim Tzniz hu- mana brevis Expofitio, 1782, 8vo.; with three continua- tions, 1782, et feq. Rudolphi Entozoorum Hiftoria, 2 vols. Svo. Miller, Zoologia Danica, fol. Miller, Von wiirmern fiiffen und falzigen Waflers, gto. Pallas, Mifcellanea Zoologica et fpicilegia Zoologiz. Swammerdam, Biblia Nature. Lifter, Exercitationes Anatomice. Since this article was finifhed, new and valuable fources of information on the fubjeé&ts comprehended in it have been opened to the public. Under this head we may enu- merate Cuvier Hiftoire et Anatomie des Mollufques, 4to. 1817, containing all the memoirs f{pecified above, and fome new ones, particularly one on the cephalopoda. Cuvier, Regne Animal, 4 tom. 8vo. Savigny, Sur les Animaux fans Vertebres, part 2. Lamarck, Sur les Animaux fans Vertebres, 2d edition, greatly enlarged. Blainville, various memoirs on the Mollufca, publifhed in the Bulletin des Sciences, 1814—1817. Tiedemann, Anat. der Holothuria, des Seefterns, et des See-igels ; fol. Landfhut. VERMICELLI, or Vermicne tt, a kind of mixture, prepared of flour, cheefe, yolks of eggs, fugar, and faffron ; and reduced into little long pieces, or threads, like worms, by forcing it with a pifton through a number of little holes in the end of a pipe made for the purpofe. The word, in the original Italian, fignifies Littl worms: they alfo call it ¢agliarini, and millefanti. It was firft brought to us from Italy, where it is in great vogue. In effet, it is the great regale of the Italians. Other nations are not eafily brought to relifh the tafte of it. It.is chiefly ufed in foups and pottages, to warm, provoke venery, &c. VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that bears a relation or refemblance to worms, vermiculi. Anatomifts particularly apply it to the motion of the in- teflines and certain mufcles of the body. The vermicular, or periftaltic, motion of the inteftines is performed by the contraétion of the fibres thereof from above downward; as the unnatural, or antiperiftaltic mo- tion, is by their contraction from below upwards. The contraction happening in the periitaltic, which others call the vermicular motion, as refembling the motion of worms, does not affect all the parts of the inteftines at once ; but one part after another. VermicuLar, or Vermiculated Work, Opus vermiculatum, in Sculpture, a fort of ornament, confifting of frets, or knots, VER winding knots, in Mofaic pavements, g, fome fort, the tracks made by worms : and reprefenting, in «¢ Quam lepide lexeis compofitz, ut tefferule omnes Arte pavimento, atque emblemate vermiculato.”’ Cic. de Orat. lib. iii. VERMICULARIA, in Botany, from vermiculus, a little worm, fo named by Tode, on account of the arrange- ment of the feeds. —Tode Fung. Mecklenb. v. 1. 31. Perf. Syn. Fung. r10.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi. Eff. Ch. Capfule globofe, feffile, filled with vermicular bodies, covered with feeds. This genus appears to have been feen only by the lynx- eyed author of the Fungi Mecklenbergenfes. Perfoon has adopted it from him. Three fpecies are all that we find defcribed. 1. V. pfeudofpheria. Black Granulated Vermicularia. Tode n. 1. t. 6. f. 46. Perf. n. 1.—Globofe, aggregate. Capfule granulated, black. Seed-bearing filaments loofe, naked, white.—On rotten oak-bark in March, found but once. The capfule is not larger than a grain of fand, flightly compreffed, tender, not brittle as in Spheria ; full of fhort, flexible, crowded fibres, covered all over with ex- tremely minute white feeds. Afterwards the fibres turn orange-coloured. 2. V. pubsfcens. Downy Vermicularia. ode n. 2. t.6. f. 47. Perf. n. 2. —Globofe, fcattered. Capfule downy, two-coloured. Seed-bearing filaments loofe, naked, hoary.—Found in rainy weather, in July, on dry ftalks, or dead branches. The fize of cabbage-feed, of a deep orange- colour, covered with white cottony down. fibres very flender, crowded together. 3. V. hifpida. Hifpid Vermicularia. 'Tode n. 3. t. 6. f. 48. Perf. n. 3.— Cufhion-like, fcattered. Capfule black, befet with briftles, which difappear from its fummit. Seed-bearing filaments whitifh, loofely immerfed in meally pulp.—Found but once, on rotten elder-wood, in April. This is no larger than the firft fpecies. The cap/ule is orbi- cular, deprefled; when young briftly all over; but at length the centre fhows itfelf quite bare, very fmooth, never burfting, flightly wrinkled as it advances in age. The fibres, though unconneéted with any other part, are im- bedded in rather foft pulp, which is peculiar to the prefent {pecies. PVERMICULARIS. See Ascaris. VerMicuLaRis Cruffa, a term ufed by fome anatomical writers to exprefs the internal hairy and corrugated coat of the inteftines. VERMICULI Spermatict. See GENERATION. VERMICULUM, a word ufed by fome chemifts to exprefs a tin€ture or elixir. * VERMICULUS Marinus, the Sea-worm, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a genus of fhell-fifh. Thefe fhells are called vermiculi, fea-worms, from the fifh contained in them, which is always a fort of worm. They ufually are found in great clufters together, interwoven oddly with one another. Bonani calls them fea-ferpents, inclofed in fhells, from the various twifted forms in which they adhere to fhips and rocks. The author eftablifhes them among the multivalves, becaufe they are never found fingle, but always in thefe clufters. In this fenfe he looks upon the whole clufter as the fhell-fifh under confideration, not any one of the fingle tubes ; though he acknowledges that each of thefe tubes is a perfect fhell, independent of the reft, and has its proper VER inhabitant. triétnefs in natural hiftory, therefore, would not bear him out, in arranging them among multivalves ; for they are certainly an univalve fhell, though many of them happen always to be found together. Care muft be had not to confound thefe with the dentalia and entalia; for thefe laft are always found fingle; and the vermiculi, of the kind here treated of, are always found to- gether in great numbers, forming clufters of ten inches, and often much more in diameter. Of the vermiculi, which are ftraight, we have eight fpecies ; of the crooked kind, we have four f{pecies; and of thofe which are difpofed in a fort of circles, we have nine fpecies. Hilt. Nat. Eclair. p. 354. According to Da Cofta’s arrangement, the vermiculi or worm-fhells conftitute the third family of univalve fhells: and he defines them to be tubular cylindric fhells, fingle, in mafles together, or adherent to other fhells or bodies; va- rioufly finuous, by windmg or twifting to and fro in a very irregular manner. Of thefe vermiculi he reckons two genera, viz. thofe which have no fixed or regular form, as the common vermiculi, of which, though they are found in great abundance, there are not many different fpecies; and the penecilli or worm-fhells, which, in the whole, or any particular part, have a determinate regular fhape or ftruc- ture. There are few fpecies of this genus; the watering- pot from the Eaift Indies is the chief kind, and, when perfect, - is much valued. There are alfo vermiculi which have con- camerations, or are divided into chambers by a few or many tranfverfe plates; but they are feldom regular, or fet at equidiftant intervals, and not pierced by a pipe or fiphun- culus, communicating from chamber to chamber, fo as to permit the fifh to penetrate more than one chamber or in- clofure at a time ; in which ref{peét they differ from the con- camerated fhells, as the nautili, &c. The vermiculi are frequently found in the foffile ftate; but there is no fpecies, that is not known recent, or from the fea. Da Cotta’s Conchol. p. 148. See ConcHoLocy. VERMIFORMIS Appendix Ceci, in Anatomy, a {mall blind procefs conneéted with the cecum. See INTESTINE. VeERMIFORMIS Procefus, of the cerebellum. See BRAIN. VERMIFUGE Sussrances, in the difeafes of animals, are all fuch as are found capable of deftroying or expelling infe€ts or worms from their bodies. They are of many dif- ferent forts, as thofe of favin chopped fine, antimony, calomel, and many others. See Worms. VERMIFUGUS, the fame with anthelmintic. Worm-Seed, and Worm-PowpERs. VERMILION, a bright, beautiful red colour; in great efteem among the ancients, under the denomination of minium. There are two kinds of vermilion; the one natural, the other faétitious. The natural is found in fome filver mines in form of a ruddy fand; which they prepare and purify by feveral lotions and co&tions. When this is ufed as a colour, no other preparation is neceflary than a careful levigation with water on a ftone. The faditious or common is made of artificial cinnabar, ground up, as fome fay, with white wine, and afterwards with the white of eggs: in this ftate it is made into cakes, and left to dry. And to fit it for ufe, they grind it up a fecond time with water, and whites of eggs. To purify and heighten its colour, fome grind it up with urine, or fpirits of wine, to which a little faffron is added. Some alfo pretend to make vermilion of lead, burnt and wafhed ; or of cerufs, rubified by fire. But thefe are not See VER not properly denominated yermilion, but red lead. See Minium. It is this laft, however, that feems to be the artificial minium, or vermilion of the ancients; and, accordingly, apothecaries and painters {till give it that name. The ancient Greek and Latin authors have given divers fabulous accounts of their minium ; and feveral of the mo- derns have adopted their dreams ; the moft rational accounts are, that Theophraftus attributes the firft invention of making it to Callias the Athenian; who hit upon it in en- deavouring to draw gold, by fire, out of a red fand, found in the filver mines, in the year of Rome 249. But Vi- truvius fays, it was difcovered in the Cilbian fields ; where it was drawn from a red ftone, called by the Greeks anthrax. We have two kinds of vermilion from Holland; the one of a deep red, the other pale; but both are in reality the fame matter, the difference of colour only proceeding from the cinnabar’s being more or lefs ground: when fine ground, the vermilion is pale; and this is preferred to the coarfer and redder. It is of confiderable ufe among the painters in oil, and in miniature ; and likewife among the ladies, as a fucus, or paint, to heighten the complexion of fuch as are too pale. VERMILION is. fometimes alfo, though improperly, ufed for what we otherwife call hermes, or fcarlet grain. VERMILLION Lakg, in Geography, a lake of North America, which extends 6 or 7 miles N.N.W., and by a narrow {trait communicates with lake Namaycan, that takes its name from. a particular place at the foot of a fall, where the natives {pear fturgeon. N. lat. 48° 4o!. W. long. 93° 26'. VERMILLION Point, or Cape Townfend, a peninfula in lake Michigan, which feparates Green bay from the other part of the lake; 23 leagues long, and from 1 to 3 broad. VERMILLION River, one of the principal rivers of Loui- fiana, in that part of the ftate which is called Attacapas, and which is bounded S. by the gulf of Mexico, N.W. by Opeloufas, N.E. by the Atchafalaya, and on the E. by the Atchafalaya and the lakes belonging to that river. This diftri€t forms a fcalene triangle, whofe area amounts to 5100 {quare miles: the actual population, afcertained by the cenfus of 1810, amounts to lefs than two perfons to the {quare mile. The Vermillion river, like the Teche (which fee), has its fource in Opeloufas, and enters Attacapas or Attakapas at the mouth of Carrion Crow; it then runs fouth about 16 miles, then winds to the weft, and receives from the fouth the bayou (creek) Tortua, continues weft eight miles, pafles the ridge of hills, (a ramification of which winds along each bank to fome diftance,) and affumes a fouth-weft courfe, which it maintains 25 miles. When it enters the hills, its magnitude juftifies the title of river, though it has that appellation below the Carrion Crow. The tide in autumn is perceivable thus high, the current of the river being at all times rather gentle. When it has completed its fouth-weft courfe, it winds fouth-eaft by fouth 20 miles: the whole length of its comparative courfe in Attacapas being 69 or 70 miles ; but the diftance, purfuing the windings of the ftream, muft exceed 100 miles. The two large prairies, known by the names of Opeloufas and Attacapas, extend on each fide of the Vermillion, from its entrance into Attacapas to its egrefs into the gulf of Mexico. Wood abounds more on the Vermillion than on the Teche; and though the foil may be lefs fertile, it is neverthelefs excellent, and the quantity greater on an equal length of river. There are 80 miles on the banks of the VER Vermillion, which have an extenfion backwards of two miles, that afford 320 fuperficial miles, or 204,800 acres. Some of the moft beautiful fettlements yet made in the Attacapas are upon this river. From the diverfity of foil, and eleva- tion, none can err in giving the preference, with regard to beauty of appearance, to the banks of the Vermillion, hefore any other river in Louifiana, fouth of bayou Beuf. The lower part of the Vermillion will, without doubt, fuit the culture of the fugar-cane ; whilft the whole extent of its banks is well adapted to cotton and corn. The Vermillion, by its union with the gulf, forms the natural communication of its inhabitants with the fea. At prefent the depth of water through the inlet into the Vermillion will not admit veflels of very confiderable burthen. Darby’s Geog. De- {cription of the State of Louifiana, Philad. 1816. VERMILLION River, a river of America, which runs into the Wabafh, N. lat. 40° 5/. W. long. 87° 40.—Alfo, a river of America, which runs into the Theakiki, N. lat. 41° 1o!. W. long. 88° 40'.—Alfo, a river of America, which runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 45'.. W. long. 82° 12!. VERMILLION Sea. See CALIFORNIA. VERMIN, in Agriculture, a colleive term which in- cludes all the various forts of {mall animals, that are injurious to the corn, fruit, and other produce of the farmer. ‘The vermin, rats and mice, ftand foremoft among thofe which are the moit prejudicial. It has been ftated, that one of the former eats aad deftroys more than a quart of corn, on the average, in the courfe of the week ; which amounts to the vaft quantity of upwards of twenty quarters in the year, for the {upport of an hundred of them; and this is probably fewer than the number to be met with, in moft cafes of large corn-farms ; fo that the real damage is perhaps confiderably more. The injury fuftained from the latter is, in all pro- bability, nearly equal to that from the former. The lofles, on a moderate calculation, cannot be lefs than forty pounds in the year to every large farmer, and half that amount to thofe of the fmaller clafs. In the field, the barn, and the dairy, thefe fmall vermin are equally difagreeable, troublefome, and deftruCtive, and are fuppofed to be more mifchievous than moles. Much care is beftowed, it is faid, on the deftruétion of moles; and it might be worth while to endeavour to leffen the num- ber of field vermin of this fort, which are in their nature, it is contended, more injurious to the farmer than moles are. In the rick-yard, the barn, the dwelling-houfe, and fome other places too, their mifchievoufnefs is too obvious not to be noticed. In the dairy they not unfrequently commit great injuries, by {poiling and deftroying the different pro- duéts; and in the harnefs-rooms, and places where fuch articles are kept, they are not lefs deftruétive, by eating into and gnawing the different articles. The barn and the ftack-yard are, it is faid, ufually put under the care of the cat; but to fet a trap for this vermin, in a barn full of corn, has perhaps been confidered as a thing fo unlikely to be effective, that it has feldom been tried. The fuccefs of traps, where they have been ufed, has been fufficient to recommend them; for although a total extirpa- tion of the vermin, in cafes where they have been tried, did not take place, an annual faving of fome quarters of corn has been the confequence. It is remarked, that while the number of thefe vermin is great, almoft any kind of trap may be ufed, provided it be properly baited ; but that for taking a remaining artful few, a common fhaped round fteel trap, fuited to the fize of the vermin, has been found to be the moft effe€tual. In order to the complete extirpation of thefe and other vermin, VERMIN. vermin, the author of a late Calendar of Hufbandry has, however, advifed that every farm fhould be well provided with a competent number of ferrets, and of true vermin- bred dogs, fuch as are ufually kept for the purpofe ; and that an hour or two fhould be {pared weekly, and referved for executing the bufinefs in all acceffible places. The holes and haunts of the vermin, in and about the premifes, are to be diligently fought out and difcovered ; trifling re- wards being given for the purpofe, as an encouragement, by the mafter. Nothing of a refpite is to be allowed to the delinquents, but a war of extermination is to be conftantly kept up and carried on throughout the whole year. In aid of thefe means, others too may be adopted, when neceffary ; as thofe of the trap kind, which fhould be of the cage fort, and not fuch as to endanger the cats, a moft ufeful fort of domettics, which are fully entitled to care and kindnefs ; the qualifications of which in this fituation are, that they do not touch young poultry, and hunt for mere fport, rather than from the impulfe of hunger; as eating their prey injures them, and leffens their exertions. The ferrets in this view are, it is thought, beft kept in huts, in the fame manner as the rabbits: their-food is well known to be any fort of offal of the flefh kind, with occafionally a little milk and bread boiled. The fame means of extirpation and removal apply equally, st is fuppofed, to the field vermin, polecats, weafels, and their different varieties; which, unlefs they be checked, commit fuch frequent confiderable nightly depredations in and gbout farm-yards, as to become highly injurious, taking away various kinds of poultry in different ftates, and fome- times even young pigs. But it is believed that neither thefe nor the fox would be heard of near fuch premifes, if they were well furnifhed and guarded by vermin dogs. A good method of trapping field vermin has been pro- pofed by the author of the Rural Economy of the County of Kent, which is this: a wooden box, refembling a dog- kennel, divided in the middle by an open wire partition, running from end to end, and reaching from-the ridge of the roof of it to the floor; one fide of which partition is again divided into two parts or cages, one of them for a rabbit, and the other for a live fowl to be put into, to allure the vermin ; the other half formed into a falling box-trap to take them in. But it is furely a moft unneceffary piece of cruelty to expofe a poor wretched fowl or rabbit to the fight and claws of their dreaded enemy. Kill the baits, and all is right; as the {cent of the frefh blood is the greateft poffible enticement to fuch vermin. In regard to vipers, efts, lizards, toads, and different others of any fort of poifonous vermin of the reptile kind, which are troublefome and prejudicial to the farmer, it is fuggefted, that if country-people, who are engaged in this way, would be uinanimous and fteady in their endeavours, all thefe forts of creeping little animals might in time be extin- guifhed. Would a fingle parifh but make the effort, it is faid, of rooting out all fuch ufelefs and dangerous vermin, they would foon find their account in it, and would un- doubtedly be followed by their adjoining diftri€ts. The only mode is, it is thought, by the allowing of handfome premiums to thofe who fhall produce the vermin, or who may difcover their retreats, hiding-places, or their ova or eggs. In refpe& to the deftru€tive vermin birds of prey, and thofe of other kinds, it may be noticed, that the former, fuch as carrion-crows, ravens, magpies, kites, hawks, and fome others, chiefly endanger the poultry, fometimes even attack lambs, and are often injurious to difeafed fheep, by picking them in different parts; while the latter, as jays, pigeons, rooks, and different forts of {mall birds, are princi- pally deftruétive of field produce. The firft, as well as pies, bull-finches, and fome others, are greatly deftrutive of fruit, and the jay often commits much injury on bean- crops near harveft-time. Pigeons are particularly injurious at feed-time and harveft, by deftroying large quantities of grain, tares, and feeds, and doing much hurt to the crops. Rooks are a fort of vermin which do great injury to various kinds of field-crops as they rife, and at other times ; but they are thought by fome to be ufeful in devouring the rub-worm and other infe&ts. Small birds do much mif- chief by the deftru€tion of grain which they caufe at the time of -fowing, and when the corn becomes nearly ripe ; befides that which they, in fome cafes, do to fuch build- ings as are covered with thatch. In fome places they quit the towns, villages, and fingle houfes, and attack the corn-fields in flocks of thoufands together, and would foon clear whole fields if not kept off by proper means. Some forts of thefe birds feed upon animal as well as vegetable food, and do good by leffening the number of grubs, cater- pillars, and butterflies, and much harm by deitroying blof- foms, fruit, and corn in the fields. Great numbers of caterpillars are faid to have been found in the ftomachs of fome forts of thefefmall birds. The beft and moft effe@tual proteCtion againft their injuries and depredations, in all thefe cafes, is probably the gun, though other means, fuch as rattles, and different contrivances, may be had recourfe to againft fuch vermin. Vermin of the worm, grub, flug, and other fimilar kinds, are often very injurious to the farmer’s crops. The earth- worm, the wire-worm, the grub of the cock-chaffer, the flug, the turnip-fly, the black canker caterpillar, the black infeét, which deftroys beans, and the yellow maggot, which feeds on the ears of wheat, are of numerous families, and not lefs mifchievous than any of the above vermin. They not un- frequently cut off turnip, clover, tare, and other fuch crops, and do great damage to thofe of the corn-kind.. There is a whitifh fort of flug that often prevails much in bean and pea-ftubbles, in ftrong land when fown with wheat, and in wheat after clover and beans. It is very deftru€tive too to rye-crops in fome diftri€ts and places. The deftrution of thefe forts of vermin may be attempted in different ways, as by having them devoured, in fome cafes, by the introduGtion of fuitable birds for the purpofe, and thofe of ducks and gulls in other cafes. It has been ftated that worms and flugs which feed on the new roots of corn, and other fuch matters, may moftly, perhaps, be deftroyed by a clean fal- low, continued fo long as to occafion their death by want of food. It is probably a miftaken notion, it is faid, that lime fpread in fuch a quantity as to be beneficial to the foil, will deftroy thefe reptile vermin. In Kent, near the chalk-hills, and even on a calcareous foil, they lime, it is faid, fre- quently, and very liberally, without being at all relieved from the ravages of worms. The earth-worm feeds on herbs, and as its fize is much larger, fo it is probably more deftru€tive than the wire-worm. See Brack Canker, Grus, Stuc, Turnip-Fly, and Wire-Worm. Vermin of the fly kind, fuch as hornets, wafps, and others, are often prejudicial to feeding and pafturing ftock, and render team animals, in fome a quite ungovernable ; they and their nefts fhould of courfe be as pie deftroyed as poffible, in order to prevent fuch inconveniences and acci- dents. Seee Wasp. Game may be confidered as a fort of vermin on farms, which feed upon the farmer’s crops, and induce and en- courage fportimen to commit much injury and deftruction on VERMIN. on his property in the purfuit of fuch field-fport. This fhould be avoided and done away with whenever it can, as the damage is very confiderable in many cafes. See Game. The able writer of the Correted Report of the Agri- culture ofthe County of Middlefex has eftimated, that the expences of guarding againft, and the damage produced by ‘vermin and game, on a farm of two hundred acres, half arable and half grafs, without fheep-walks, amount to fifty pounds in the year; which is nearly five fhillings an acre on the whole quantity of land, which fum will perhaps, it is fuppofed, average the cultivated corn and grafs land farms of Britain; and that, as there are nearly forty millions of acres in this ftate, thefe depredations amount to ten millions the year. This is an amount which would hardly have been fufpe&ted by many, and which it is important in different points of view to prevent as much as poffible. VERMIN, in Gardening, is a term applied to various {mall animals that are’ injurious fo garden-crops in different cafes, and as deftruGtive asin the farm-yard. Rats and mice are of this kind, and do much mifchief in fheds and other places, where they frequently deftroy beans, peas, and other’feeds; they fhould therefore be extirpated as much as poffible in all fuch cafes. And there are different modes of deftroying them in thefe inftances ; as by traps, poifon, &c. But Mr. Forfyth ad- vifes never to ufe arfenic, or corrofive fublimate for that purpofe, except under particular circumftances, as they are deadly poifon: nux vomica will, he thinks, generally anfwer the end as well, without the danger. He has fuggefted it as a very good plan to prevent accidents, to enclofe the traps in cafes, having holes in the ends of them large enough to admit rats, but {mall enough to exclude dogs, cats, &c. And the following is recommended as a bait for rat-traps in thefe cafes: Take a pound of good flour, three ounces of treacle, and fix drops of the oil of carraways: put them all in a difh, and rub them well together till they are pro- perly mixed ; then add a pound of crumb of bread. ‘The traps baited with this mixture fhould be fet as near their haunts as poffible ; but, for two or three days, fo as not to fall or ftrike on the rats going in, but letting them have free liberty to go in and out at pleafure, as this makes them fearlefs. Some of the bait fhould alfo be laid at the rat- holes, and a little of it fcattered.quite up to the traps, and fo on to the bridge of each trap, where-a handful may be placed. It may alfo, it is fuggefted, be proper to {cent the traps with the following mixture, for the purpofe of en- ticing the rats into them. ‘Take twenty drops of oil of rhodium, fix or feven grains of mufk, and half an ounce of oil of anifeed ; put them in a {mall phial, and fhake it well before ufing ; then dip a piece of twifted paper or rag in the mixture, and rub each end of the trap with it, if a box-trap, and put two or three drops on the bridge, leaving the paper or rag inthe trap. Of whatever kind the trap is, it fhould be fcented ; but once in a twelvemonth will be fufficient. Then throw fome chaff mixed with a little wheat about the bottom of the trap, in erder to deceive the rats ; for they are very fagacious, and will not enter a fufpicious place. This will be neceflary to be done only at the firft time of fetting the traps ; for after fome rats have been caught, and have watered and dunged in them, rats will enter boldly when they find others have been there before them : do not, therefore, wath or clean out the trap, as fome people do before they fet it again, but let the dung and urine remain init. Keep the aces where the traps are fet as private as poflible ; and when they are fet Vou. XXXVII. for catching, mix no bread with the bait, as the rats will in that cafe be apt to carry it away. It is advifed, that when the holes are found quiet, and that no rats ufe them, to flop them up with the following compofition ; Take a pint of common tar, half an ounce of pearl-afhes, an ounce of oil of vitriol, and a good handful of common falt, mix them all well together, in an old pan or pot. Take fome pieces of paper, and lay fome of the above mixture very thick on them; then ftop the holes well up with them, and build up the mouth of the holes with brick or ftone, and mortar; if this be properly done, rats will, he afferts, no more approach thefe, while either {fmell or tafte remains in the compofition. In order to deftroy the rats in places where traps cannot be fet, he recommends us to take a quart of the above bait, then rafp into it three nuts of nux vomica, and a quarter of a pound of crumb of bread, if there was none before: mix them all well together, and lay it into the mouth of their holes, and in different places where they frequent ; but firft a them of the bait without the nux vomica, for three or our fucceeding nights; and when they find it agrees with them, they will eat that mixed with the nut with ereedinefs. It is further obferved, that rats are frequently very troublefome in fewers and drains. In fuch cafes, arfenic may be ufed with fuccefs, as follows : Take fome dead rats, and having put fome white arfenic, finely powdered, into an old pepper-box, {hake a quantity of it on the fore parts of the dead rats, and put them down the holes or avenues, by the fides of the fewers at which they come in; this puts a ftop to the live ones coming any further; for when they perceive arfenic, they will, it is aflerted, retire immediately : whereas, if they were put down without the arfenic, the live ones would eat them. We have, however, found that thefe animals take arfenic beft when it is prepared, by being finely levigated and mixed up with very ftrong old cheefe and oatmeal. In order to deftroy mice, Mr. Forfyth advifes perfons to take a quart of the bait for rats before there is any bread mixed with it ; then to take four nuts of nux vomica, and rafp them very fine, otherwife the mice will pick out the food from it, on account of its bitter tafte ; rub them well together; lay fome of it upon a piece of paper, or, if without doors, on a piece of tile, removing all other food from the place, and it will kill all that eat of it. What is not eaten, fhould be taken away in the morning, and replaced at night. Ifthis be in a garden, fhelter it with boards or tiles, that it may not get wet. Open traps fhould likewife be fet, as mice are fhy in enter- ing clofe ones. And care fhould be taken not to convey thefe animals into gardens by the ftraw litter, or other fimi- lar materials. Slugs are a fort of vermin that are frequently found harbouring about the foundations of walls, and about the roots of peas, lettuce, &c. They may, Mr. Forfyth thinks, be picked off, and killed, by putting them into a pot in which is a little fine unflaked lime: or the ground where they are fhould be well watered with foap-fuds and urine, mixed with tobacco-water. When they are numerous on the furface of the ground, which frequently happens aftex rain, or in a dewy morning, fine unflaked lime thrown over the borders, &c. will, he contends, deftroy them: But he prefers the above mixture, which, if the ground be well watered with it, will bring them up out of their holes, when they very foon die; it will alfo deftroy their eggs, which they always depofit in the earth. H Snails, VER Snails, alfo, during the winter, the fame writer aflures us, gather themfelves together in clufters; and in that feafon are frequently found in great numbers behind wall-trees, ~ and in holes of the walls. They fhould be carefully picked off and crufhed, which is the only effe€tual way of getting rid of them. If any fhould efcape, they fhould be de- ftroyed as they make their appearance in the apg As they alfo depofit their eggs in the ground, the borders fhould be well watered in the above manner. ; Wafps and flies are highly deftructive of all forts of fruit ; therefore, as foon as the wafp and large flefh-fly make their appearance, it is proper to get ready feveral bottles or phials ; then mix up grounds of wine or beer, with fweep- ings of fugar, honey, or grounds of treacle, and with this mixture fill the bottles half or three-quarters full ; then place fome of them at the bottom of the wall, and hang a fuffi- cient number up by a piece of yellow willow, or pack- thread, on the nails againft the walls in different places, ob- ferving to empty them frequently as they fill with flies and wafps ; firft pour the liquor into an empty bottle, and then fhake out the dead infe&ts, crufhing them with your foot, that none of them may revive; then pour back the liquor into the bottles and phials as at firft. In this manner a reat many may be deftroyed, it is fuppofed, before the Euit becomes ripe. If you begin to hang up the bottles as foon as you fee the fly, which comes much earlier than the wafp, you will be able to deftroy great numbers of them, and will have the bottles ready for the wafps when they make their appearance. The fly will be found as deftruc- tive as the wafp to grapes. And when the weather is hot, and the wafps are numerous, if they do not enter the bottles faft enough (which will happen when the fruit is very ripe), a little oil may be put in a cup, and with a feather dipped in it touch their backs, and they will inftantly drop down ; when you will find them turned black and green by the effeéts of the oil. See Wasp. Birds attack fruit much when it begins to ripen. ‘The beft preventive in this cafe is, Mr. Forfyth fuppofes, to cover the trees with nets, or bunting, a fort of cloth of which fhips’ colours aremade. See Vitis. There are many other vermin of the infect tribe that are likewife highly deftru@tive to fruits and garden-crops, but which are noticed under the articles which they are found to injure in moft cafes. In fome they may be beft deftroyed, however, by gathering them by the hand as foon as they begin to appear in a {mall number, by plentiful {teaming or watering ; in others, by fmoking and powdering with tobacco; and in others by different compofitions, as thofe of foap-fuds and fulphur, or lime-water, and other fuch matters. Some are beft taken by artifice, as ear-wigs and others of the fame kind, asin the cafes of wafps and flies. See CATERPILLAR, Apuis, Coccus, Turirs, &c. VERMIN, in Sheep, the different {mall animals which are troublefome and hurtful to them. The maggots produced from the ova or éggs of the flefh or fheep-fly, are a fort of vermin which are to be particularly guarded againft in the later fummer months, as they are then foon hatched in any wound, filth, or dirt, that may be in or hang about the fkins of them, often producing great pain, uneafinefs, and eating into the flefh and deftroying the fheep, when not fpeedily removed. food, lie down frequently, and bite themfelves with their teeth, they fhould be carefully examined ; when, in fome cafes, large blifters may be difcovered, under which the vermin are concealed ; or the part is found of a dark colour, Confequently, when they are feen to be uneafy « and difturbed, to frequent rubbing places, negle€t their © VER and quite wet { and even fometimes large holes are eater into the bodies of the fheep. In all fuch cafes the wool is to be carefully clipped off, the blifters, when prefent, opened, and the vermin picked out from the injured parts, which fhould then be gently wafhed, either with foap and water, with fpirits and vinegar, with lime-water, with ftale urine and black foap, or with infufion of tobacco, being afterwards anointed with tar, or the fame fubftance mixed with butter and fulphur or red precipitate. In this way the vermin are foon removed and deftroyed, and the fheep reftored. In order to prevent the vermin, whenever fheep are wounded by the fheers in clip- ping, by the bite of dogs, or in any other way, a little tar ointment is to be applied to the parts. Dirty layers or paftures are faid to be liable to produce this kind of vermin, which moft commonly attack lambs, and often appear about the hips of fuch as are affeGted with loofenefs. There are other forts of vermin which are very injurious to fheep. See Tick. The fox too is an artful and formidable enemy of fheep and poultry, as well as the wild cat, which is extremely fierce and ftrong, and very deftruétive of lambs and fowls. The foumart is alfo very mifchievous among weak lambs. Eagles are likewife frequent in the more northern diftriés, the ftrength and depredations of which are well known te fheep-farmers ; but ravens are probably more deftruétive, being ready to attack fheep in all cafes of diftrefs, and ex- ceedingly quick-fighted in difcovering fuch inftances. Alb thefe forts of vermin fhould, confequently, be exterminated as much as poflible, by offering premiums for their claws, fkins, &c. and other proper means of different kinds. VERMINA. See Vermine, and VERMINATION. VERMINATION, Verminario, the a& of breeding worms, and other vermin ; particularly bots in cattle, &e. VERMINATION is fometimes alfo ufed among phyficians, for a fort of tormina ventris, or wringing of the guts; in which the patient is affected, as if worms were gnawing his inteftines. VERMINE, Vermina, a colle&tive name, including all kinds of little animals, or infe&ts, which are hurtful-‘or troublefome to men, beafts, fruits, &c. as worms, lice, fleas, bugs, caterpillars, ants, flies, &c. VERMIS, Worm, in Natural Hiflory. See VERMES~ and Worms. Vermis Aureus. See APHRODITA. ~ Vermis Ceruleus. See CmruLzus. Vermis Cerebri, the worm in the brain, a name given by fome. writers to an epidemical fever in Hungary, attended with terrible deliriums. VERMIVOROUS Animats, are fuch as feed upon worths. VERMONETA, in Botany, Jufl. Gen. 343, a manu- {cript‘name of Commerfon’s, for a fuppofed genus of his, referred by Juffieu to their own Blackwellia, which we are much difpofed to unite with Homarrom; fee the latter. VERMONT, in Geography, one of the United States of America, fituated’ between 40° 42! and 45° N. lat. and 3° 35' and 5° 27! E. long. from Washington ; and bounded on the N. by Lower Canada, S. by Maffachufetts, E. by Conneéticut river, which divides it from New Hampfhire, and W. by New York. Its extent from N. to S. is 152 miles, and its breadth from E. to W. 60 miles: its area is 8700 fquare miles, or 5,568,000 acres. It. is divided into thirteen counties, containing the number of townfhips and inhabitants, tin O 4, ~ me. Suhabitants, together with the chief towns, exhibited in the following Topographical Table. Counties. Townfhips. Population. Chief Towns. Addifon 24 19:993 Middlebury 415 Bennington 16 15,893 . Bennington 611 Caledonia 23 18,730 Danville 771 Chittenden» 24. 18,120 Burlington 804. Effex 14 3,087 Guildhall 685 Franklin . 19 16,427 St. Albans 429 Grand Ifle 5 3,445 North Hero 82 Jefferfon* Montpelier. Orange 20 255247 Chelfea 745 “Orleans 23 5,830 Craftfbury 832 Rutland 27 29,486 Rutland 658 “Windham 24 26,760 Brattleborough 786 Windfor 23 345879 Windfor 898 : 242 217,895 * Laid out fince the cenfus was taken. ‘The number of inhabitants returned in the fchedule of Mr. J. Willard, marfhal,- January 26th, A.D. 1811, is 217,913- In each townfhip is a referve of two portions of land, each of 350 acres, one for the fupport of public {chools, and the other to be given in fee to the firft minifter who fettled in the townfhip. An extenfive chain of high mountains runs through the middle of this ftate, nearly S. and N., be- tween Conneticut river and lake Champlain. he natural produce of this chain of mountains is hemlock, pine, {pruce, and other evergreens ; and on this account, as it has always a green appearance, it is denominated “Ver Mons,’’ or ‘Green Mountain.’’ On fome high parts of it the fnow lies till May or June. The country, on the E. fide of the mountain, is watered by Paupanhoofak, Quechey, Welds, White, Black, and Weit rivers; and on the W. fide by the La Moille and Onion rivers, and Otter creek, which dif- charge themfelyes by one mouth into lake Champlain, zo or 30 miles S. of St. John’s. ‘The adjacent lands are ex- cellent in quality, and annually enriched by the inundation of the water, occafioned by the melting of the {now on the Green mountains. The general afpe& of the country is hilly, but it has many rich valleys, which furnifh very good palturage for cattle, and which, contrafted with the hills, afford beautiful fcenery. Timber-trees of various kinds are abundant ; wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, are culti- vated by the inhabitants : though the corn on high grounds is fometimes liable to be damaged by the frofts. Flax and hemp are raifed in confiderable quantities: and. potatoes, pumpkins, together with garden-roots and vegetables, are plentiful. The fugar-maple affords a large fupply of ex- cellent fugar. The metals and minerals of this country are iron, lead, copperas, flint, marble, pipe-clay, and vitriol. ‘The trade of Vermont is principally carried on with Botton, Portland, Hartford, and New York; whither the inhabit- ants export horfes, beef, pork, butter, cheefe, wheat, flour, iron, nails, pot and pearl afhes. The climate refembles that of New Hamphhire, and is upon the whole very healthy : the winters, however, are long and fevere, and the fummers hot. ‘The inhabitants are for the moft part emigrants from Con- necticut and Maflachufetts, and their defcendants. The only foreigners are Scots, who have formed a fettlement. As to the character, manners, cuftoms, laws, policy, and VERMONT. religion of the people in Vermont, we need only fay that they are New-Englandmen. ; Before the late war, this tra&t of country was claimed both by New York and New Hampfhire; but upon the commencement of hoftilities between Great Britain and her colonies, the inhabitants confidered themfelves as free from any legal jurifdi€tion, and affociating together, formed for themfelves a conftitutional government ; and before it was acknowledged by congrefs on the 4th of March, 1791, as the fourteenth {tate; they commenced their political independent exiftence as a feparate government in the year 1777. On the 15th of December in this year, their reprefentatives, in convention at Windfor, declared that the territory called Vermont, was and of right ought to be a free and inde- pendent ftate ; and for the purpofe of maintaining regular government in the fame, they made a folemn declaration of their rights, and ratified a conftitution, of which the follow- ing is an abftract. Their declaration, which makes a part of their conftitu- tion, aflerts that all men are born equally free—with equal rights, and ought to enjoy liberty of confcience—freedom of the prefs—trial by jury—power to form new ftates in vacant countries, and to regulate their own internal police : that all elections ought to be free: that all power is originally in the people: that gavernment ought to be inftituted for the common benefit of the community, and that the com- tunity have aright to reform or abolifh government : that every member of fociety hath a right to proteGtion of life, liberty, and property ; and in return is bound to contribute his proportion of the expence of that proteétion, and yield his perfonal fervice when neceflary : that he fhall not be obliged to give evidence againft himfelf : that the people have a right to bear arms, but no ftanding armies fhall be maintained in time of peace : that the people have a right to hold themfelves, their houfes, papers, and poffeffions free from fearch or feizure; and therefore warrants without oaths firft made, affording fufficient foundation for them, are contrary to that right, and ought not to be granted: that no perfon fhall be liable to be tranfported out of this ftate for trial for any offence committed within this ftate, &c. By the frame of government, the fupreme legiflative power is vefted in ahoufe of reprefentatives of the freemen of the ftate of Vermont, to be chofen annually by the freemen on the firft Tuefday in September, and to meet the fecond Thurfday of the fucceeding Oftober: this body is vefted with all the powers neceflary for the legiflature of a free ftate : two-thirds of the whole number of reprefentatives elected, make a quorum. Each inhabited town throughout the flate has a right to fend one reprefentative to the aflembly. The fupreme executive power is vefted in a governor, lieutenant-governor, and twelve counfellors, to be chofen an- nually in the fame manner, and vefted with the fame powers as in Conneéticut. Every perfon of the age of twenty-one years, who has re- fided in the ftate one whole year next before the eleftion of reprefentatives, and is of a quiet, peaceable behaviour, and will bind himfelf by his oath, to do what he fhall in con- {cience judge to be moft conducive'to the beft good of the ftate, fhall be entitled to all the privileges of a freeman of this ftate. Each member of the houfe of reprefentatives, before he takes his feat, muft declare his belief in one God, in future rewards and punifhments, and in the divinity of the ferip- tures of the Old and New Teftament, and muft profefs the Proteftant religion. Hz Courts VER Courts of juftice are to be eftablifhed in every county throughout the ftate. The fupreme court, and the feveral courts of common pleas of this ftate, befides the powers ufually exercifed by fuch courts, have the powers of a court of chancery, fo far as relates to perpetuating teftimony, obtaining evidence from places not within the ftate, and the care of the perfons and eftates of thofe who are non compotes mentis, &c. All profe- cutions are to be commenced in the name, and by the autho- rity of the freemen of the ftate of Vermont. The legiflature is to regulate entails fo as to prevent perpetuities. All field and ftaff-officers, and commiffioned officers of the army, and all general officers of the militia, fhall be chofen by the general affembly, and be commiffioned by the govertior. Common fchools and academies are liberally encouraged in Vermont}, and in 1800 a college was incorporated in Middleburg, which is now in a flourifhing itate. See Correcr. Morfe. Melifh. : VERN, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 10 miles S. of Perigueux.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire ; 6 miles S. of Segre. Vern, or Vernde, or Werna, a town of Weitphalia, in the bifhopric of Paderborn ; 2 miles W.N.W. of Salz- kotten. VERNACIA, Venacta, Veniatia, Vernatia, or Veni- ane, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, upon the route from Bracara to Afturia, between Complutica and Petavo- nium. Anton. Itin. VERNACULAR is applied to any thing that is pecu- liar to fome one country. Whence, difeafes which reign moft in any particular na- tion, province, or diftrit, are fometimes called vernacular difeafes ; though more frequently endemic difeafes. Such are the plica Polonica, [corbutus, tarantifm, &c. VERNAL, fomething belonging to the penne feafon. (See Sprinc.) Hence, vernal leaves are thofe leaves of plants which come up in the fpring, &c. VERNAL Signs and Equinox. See Sign and Equinox. VerRNAL Gra/s, in Botany. See ANTHOXANTHUM, and Sweet-/cented Vernal Grafs. VERNAL, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the coaft of Mexico, N. lat. 16°35’. W. long. 95° 50! VERNAMO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ; 35 miles N.W. of Wexio. VERNANTOIS, atown of France, in the department of the Jura; 3 miles S. of Lons le Saulnier. VERNASSA, a town of Genoa; 5 miles S.W. of Spezza. VERNE, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs; 3 miles N. of Beaume les Dames. VERNET, Josrrn, in Biography, the beft landfcape painter of the French fchool, was born at Avignon in 1712. He was educated in his native country, and afterwards fent to Rome, where he ftudied under Adrian Manglard, a painter of fea-pieces and landfcapes of fome note. He foon fur- paffed his initru€tor, and the {tyle which he adopted was as clofe an imitation of nature as he knew how to make ; and his views of Rome and Naples, &c. will always pleafe, from the frefhnefs and f{pirit with which they are painted. His colouring, however, is not exaétly true ; the hues are too pofitive and crude, and lack the foftnefs and delicacy of Claude or Wilfon; but his compofitions are excellently arranged, and he gave great truth of ation to water ; he 6 VER alfo adorned his piétures with groups of figures, arranged with tafte and freely executed. He remained many years in Italy, till at length the repu- tation he had acquired induced Louis XIV. to invite him to return to France, where he was engaged to paint a fet of views of the fea-ports of that kingdom. However correc thefe views may be, it is evident that Vernet did not labour con amoré at them, as they by no means rival the pi€tures he painted of other fubje¢ts, where he was more free to follow his own tafte. He was very much employed and honoured, and enjoyed the exercife of his talents till he arrived at the age of 77, when he died, in 1786. VeRneT, in*Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Eaft Pyrenées; 4 miles S. of Prades. Vernet /e Bas, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 13 miles N. of Digne. VERNEUIL, a town of France, and principal place of a diftriG, in the department of the Eure; 18 miles W. of Dreux. N. lat. 48° 43'. E. long. 1/:—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 15 miles E. of Montmarault. VERNEY, Guicuarp-JosEPpH pu, in Biography, an eminent, anatomift, was the fon of a phyfician at Feurs in Forez, and born in 1648. From Avignon, where he ftu- died medicine for five years, he removed to Paris in 1667, and there acquired high reputation, not only as an anatomical demonftrator, but as an eloquent lefturer. His manner was ardent and interefting, and this, together with his youth and agreeable perfon, rendered the ftudy of anatomy fafhionable. After his admiffion into the Academy of Sciences in 1676, he employed himfelf in an affiduous profecution of the na- tural hiftory of animals, and the refult of his refearches may be found in the Memoirs of the Academy. About this time he was engaged in communicating anatomical inftruction to the dauphin and his learned attendants ; and in 1679 he was nominated profeflor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens, where his auditors were very numerous, many of whom were foreigners. In this and the following year he was occupied in Lower Brittany and on the coaft of Bayonne in the diffec- tion of fifhes. His work entitled ‘* Traité de Organe de l’Ouie, contenant le Structure, les Ufages, et les Maladies de toutes les Parties de l’Oreille,”” was publifhed in 1683, and tranflated into various languages. In his anatomical refearches he was indefatigable, and he made many difco- veries, the honour of which has been claimed by others. Having abfented himfelf for a long time from the meetings of the Academy, he returned to it again, in his 80th year, on the republication of his Hiftory of Animals, and entered into its bufinefs with his former vivacity. In advanced age he undertook a work on infeés and reptiles; and though he was afflicted with a pulmonary complaint, he expofed himfelf to the injurious effects of the damp and night ait, in order to obferve the actions of fnails, with a view to the perfeétion of the work in which he was engaged. Although his health could not but be impaired by this pra@tice, his life was prolonged to his 82d year, as he died in September 1730. He bequeathed his valuable anatomical preparations to the Academy, leaving a charaéter held in high eftimation by contemporary anatomifts and phyfiologiits, and by all who had enjoyed the benefit of his inftruétion in their youth. After his death, Senac publifhed from his MSS. ‘ Traité des Maladies des Os,’ in 2 vols. 12mo. ; and all his memoirs and pofthumous papers were colleéted in his “ CEuvres Ana- tomiques,’’ 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1761, publifhed by Bertin, to whom his MS.. remains were entruited by Senac. Haller. Gen. Biog. Se > VER VERNI, in Geography, a town of the republic of Lucca ; 12 miles N. of Lucca. VERNIA, in Ancient Geography, a name which Eufta- thius gives to one of the Britifh ifles, fuppofed by Ortelius to have been Hibernia. VERNICIA, in Botany, fo called by Loureiro, from vernix, varnifh, becaufe the nuts of this tree afford by pref- fure a kind of oily varnifh, either ufed by itfelf to prote& wood from the weather, or employed to adulterate the true Chinefe or Japan varnith.— Loureir. Cochinch. 586.—Clafs and order, Monoecia Monadelphia. Wat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Euphorbia, Juff. Gen. Ch. Male, Ga/. Perianth tubular, in two rounded, erect fegments. Cgr. bell-fhaped, of five oblong {preading petals, longer than the calyx. Sam. Filaments ten, combined at the bafe, the inner ones longeft ; anthers as many, arrow-{haped. Female flowers few, on the fame branch, Ca/. and Cor. unobferved. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh, three-lobed ; ftyle none ; ftigma obtufe, three-cleft. Peric. Drupa round- ifh, warty. Seed. Nut bony, bluntly triangular, rugged, of three cells, with an ovate-oblong kernel in each. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx two-lobed. Petals five. Stamens ten. — Female, Calyx .... Corolla... . Stigma obtufe, three-cleft. Drupa warty, with a triangular three celled nut. 1. V. montana. Cay déau fon, of the Cochinchinefe. Tong xi, of the Chinefe.—Native of mountainous woods in _ Cochinchina, as well as in China. A large tree, with afcend- ing branches. Leaves {cattered, ftalked, flightly heart- fhaped, pointed, entire, undulated, fmooth, perforated with two glands at the infertion of the footfalk. Flower-ftalks terminal, many-flowered, fhort. F/owers white. The wood is of little ufe for building. The nuts afford a copious expreffed oil, which is yellow, vifcid, tranfparent, moderately liquid, ufed as a fort of varnifh for arrows, and any wood expofed tothe weather. It alfo ferves to increafe the bulk of the far more valuable Chinefe varnifh, obtained from the Augia of Loureiro ; as well as to render that fub- ftance more fluid and manageable. For lampsit is ufelefs, be- caufe it burns too fiercely and confumes too fpeedily.— We have not been able to reduce this plant to any known genus. All our knowledge ref{pe€ting it is derived from Loureiro. VERNIER, is a graduated index which fubdivides the {malleft divifions on any ftraight or circular fcale, in the reading of which greater accuracy is required, than can be obtained by fimple eftimation of a fraCtional part, as indi- cated by a pointer, or fiducial edge. The vernier was firtt invented by Pierre Vernier of Franche Comté, and made Known to the world at Bruxelles (or Bruflels) in the year 1631, through the medium of a pamphlet entitled ‘* La Con- ftruGion, I’ Ufage, et les Proprietes du Quadrant nouveau de Mathematique,” &c. It foon gained the preference over the fcale of Nonius, which was a circular diagonal fcale, and which by fome writers is yet confounded with a Vernier’s index, though there is no greater refemblance between the two, than exifts between the dial of a clock and the hand that points to it. The vernier is applicable to any ftraight or circular line, provided the divifions be equal ; but the con- trivance of Nonius was in the graduated line or {cale itfelf, and required the aid of a fiducial edge as an index. We have given the reprefentation of a vernier in feveral of our aftronomical plates, when we were defcribing Circte, EquatortAL, QuapRant, TRAnsIt-/n/frument, and Tuxo- poLiTeE, therefore it will not be neceflary to introduce any other figure for the purpofe of illuftration ; particularly as the principle of its application can be made clearly intel- ligible by either arithmetical or algebraical notation. Let us fuppofe two lines, either ftraight or portions of circles, to VER be exatly alike in dimenfions, one called A, and the other B, and let one of them be divided into more equal parts than the other by wnity ; then will the difference of any two of the equal parts of the two lines, or arcs refpeétively, be a frac- tion, the numerator of which is the common length of the equal lines, or arcs, and the denominator the produé of the numbers of parts into which each is divided. ‘For if we put A for the common length of the equal lines, or arcs, with n and 2 + 1 for the equal parts into which each is divided refpeétively, the length of the divifions of each will A its A » and their difference — — = meen n ni be 2 and 7 A nxa+iti . To exemplify this principle in an arc of {mall radius, let each degree be divided by an engine into three parts, of each 20!, and let it be required that the vernier fhall read to the accuracy of one minute ; in this cafe the fhort fcale of the vernier muft be divided into 20 parts, and the equal arc on the limb of the inftrument either into 21 or 19 parts, fo that the difference of the two equal arcs, in divifions, may be = 1; if 21, the former number, is adopted, the reading will be in a backward dire€tion ; but if the latter (viz. 19), it will be forward ; let the arc on the limb be 6° 20’, and let each degree be divided into three parts, of 20! each ; alfo let 19 be the number of fuch parts or divifions ; and let the equal arc on the vernier be divided into 20 equal parts ; then n = 19, and » + 1 = 20 will make a difference be- tween a fingle divifion of the limb, and one of the vernier bly uOn20 her SO! 19 X 20 380 becomes the index for fubdividing the fmalleft divided {pace of the limb, and it is afcertained how often it muft be taken, by infpeGting the place on the divided vernier, where a ftroke on it exaétly coincides with a dividing ftroke on the divided limb of the inftrument ; for inftance, if the zero, or ftroke marked 0, be the coincident one, the reading may be had from the divifions of the limb only, without any addition from the vernier ; but if the coincidence happens at any other place, fay at ftroke 5, ftroke 8, or ftroke 10, as num- bered on the vernier, then 5/, or 8/, or ro!, as the cafe may be, mutt be added, as the meafure of a fractional part of a divifion, to the meafure read from the divifions only, that are contained between zero on the limb and zero on the vernier : the difference, which we have faid is = 1! when taken once, is 5’ when taken five times, and 8! when taken eight times; and as the point of coincidence can never be miftaken, wherever it may fall, it will always determine how many minutes muft be added for the fractional portion of a divifion, that zero of the vernier has advanced into an entire divifion ; and as the eye will form arough judgment at once, whether zero of the vernier is near 4, 1, 4, 2, or 3 of a {pace on the limb, this notice will at once guide the obferver to that part of the vernier’s fcale, where the coincidence will be immediately found ; for as zero of the vernier ad- vances in any divifion of the limb, by the flow motion of the tangent-{crew of any inftrument, the point of coincidence of the ftrokes of the two ares advances with it, till the ftroke at zero becomes itfelf coincident with a new dividing {troke of the arc on the limb, which coincidence denotes the addi- tion of another 20’, in our example, without reference to the vernier: but fhould there be any doubt about the exactitude of the coincidence, 20", 30", or 40", may be taken inftead of the laft minute, accordingly as the eye can belt das the = 1', as was required. This difference VERNIER. , a the {mall quantity fhort of perfe& coincidence ; and examin- ing the places of the preceding and following ftrokes will greatly affift in forming this judgment. ; If we were to fubititute 21 for 19 {paces on the limb, the refult would be the fame, with the inconvenience of reading backwards, and of fubtraéting inftead of adding ; pile syle wae ied Ze x 20," | ALO : modern conftruétion are exempt from this inconvenience, by having always one more divifion on the fcale of the vernier, than on the equal are of the limb. In Troughton’s {nuff-box fextant, which is a very con- venient inftrument for the pocket, the radius of the divided arc is only about 13 inch, and the degree is divided, there- fore, into two {paces only, fo that go! are neceflarily indi- cated by the vernier ; and as 29 fpaces on the limb are taken equal to go on the vernier, the {malleft quantity indicated 14°30! 870! 29 x 30 ~=«870 coincidences that indicate the laft 30! is progreffive, like the reading on the limb of the inftrument. In the common ebony fextant, the degree is fometimes di- vided into four parts, by reafon of the increafed length of the radius; confequently, when the reading is in a forward direc- tion, fifteen divifions on the vernier occupy the fame arc as four- teen on the limb ; and the {malleft quantity indicated thereby is Basal I al aa = 1'; but the brafs fextants made and TA ely eto divided by the beft makers, have the minute fubdivided into twenty, fifteen, ten, or even five feconds, according to the length of the radius, by means of a vernier with divifions and fubdivifions, aéting with divifions and fubdivifions on the limb, which is a refinement of the original invention, intro- duced by Troughton, in confequence of the fuperior excel- lence of modern dividing. We have now before us one of Ramfden’s beft brafs fextants of 94 inches radius, on the limb of which the degree is divided into three parts, and 40 divifions on the arc of the vernier meafure 39 divifions = 1!, as before; but inftruments of is = 1/, as before ; and the reading of the ul 1Z0 bt 780! 4 68eo! i: 39X40 1560 1560 is the fmalleft quantity that the vernier will indicate, and every alternate ftroke thereon counts one minute as the coin- cidence advances. This mode of reading the vernier doubles its former accuracy. But on the limb of this fame inftru- ment, the late Mr. W. Walker prevailed on Mr. Troughton to divide a fecond arc, within the former, which by our mea- furement is only of nine inches radius: in this inner arc, which reads with the inner arc of the vernier, the degree is firft divided into halves, and then each half is fubdivided into five {maller divifions, by fhorter ftrokes very delicately cut, fo that the degree is divided into ten {mall fpaces, of 6! each, which are to be read before the vernier’s {ubdivifion of one of thefe fpaces is examined. On the feale of the inner vernier are 72 {mall divifions, co-extenfive with 71 on the limb ; and as each of thefe is = 6', we have 70 X 6l—= 4260, or 25560" for the whole arc of meafurement : confequently 25560" 25560! qi X72.) 112 be indicated by fuch a vernier, and accordingly we obferve on the feale of the Vernier twelve {mall or fubdividing {paces between each minute ftroke; i. e. every twelfth ftroke is a long one, and they are numbered 1, 2, 3, &c. up to 6, which is the value of one of the {malleft divifions on the limb, and 8 on the limb ; therefore = 5" is the fmalleft quantity that can confequently the value of each fubdivifion-on the fcale is ~~ of 1/, or 5: and yet, by the help of a high magnifier, placed in the centre of an illuminating reflector of plaifter of Paris, this {mall quantity may be clearly difcriminated. When Ramfden firft faw this wonderful application of the powers of the dividing engine, he called his workmen together, to witnefs what he at firft confidered the folly of attempting ~ greater accuracy than was practicable ; but a clofe examina- tion of the divifions convinced him, that his preconceived: opinion had ftood in the way even of his own improvements. Sometimes a divided head or nut has been fixed on the end of the tangent-fcrew of flow motion, particularly by the older makers of pillar and mural aftronomical quadrants, in order to fubdivide the divifions of the vernier, as may be feen at Greenwich, Richmond, and other obfervatories ; but when this apparatus has been in ufe fome time, the parts become loofe and inaccurate, even allowing that the meafuring {crew itfelf can be confidered as perfect in all refpe€&ts. On an examina- tion of fome of Graham’s, the Siffons’ and Bird’s quadrants, we find that though the accuracy of 1" is profefled by the conftru€tion, yet very little dependence can be placed on fuch profeffion after the parts have been for yearsinufe. Of this conclufion Ramfden was no doubt fenfible, when he introduced into his larger inftruments the microfcopic read- ings, with a good {crew at the focus of the eye-piece of 2 compound microfcope, where there is not fo much ftrefs on the fcrew as at the periphery of the arc, where the fcrew forms alfo a part of the clamping apparatus. To this adop- tion of the ufe of a compound microfcope, in conjunétion with the fubfequent improvements in the art of dividing, much of the claim to fuperior excellence in our Englifh aftro- nomical inftruments is to be attributed, which claim is {till further fupported by the invention of the achromatic objeGt- glafs and improved eye-pieces of the telefcopic portion. Hitherto we have confidered the principle and application of a fingle vernier only, which is in itfelf an ufeful and beautiful contrivance ; and, as we have faid, may be ap- plied with advantage to fubdivide a ftraight line; as, for in- ftance, the feale of a barometer into hundredth parts of an inch, or the feale of Dollond’s divided obje&-glafs micro- meter into the five-hundredth parts, or more ; but with an entire circle that is graduated all round, the accuracy of an obfervation is greatly augmented, nay enfured, by the ufe of different verniers reading at different parts of the limb at the fame time. At firft two diametrically oppolite verniers were introduced, as has been aflerted, by one of the Siffons, though, we underftand, not with a view to reading at oppofite fides of the circle, by way of correéting the ob- fervation by an average ; feeing that the remote end of the vernier bar had only a fingle flroke anfwering to zero of the other ; but fubfequently, in tranfit and other inftruments ufed with a fpirit-level, the double vernier became a valuable appendage, particularly when the conftruétion of the inftru- ment admitted of inverfion of the pofition of the axis, fo as to procure a double obfervation ; and.thence the true zero of the graduation of the meafuriug limb. This ufeful property was extended, we believe, by Troughton, firit by introducing four, and then, with equal advantage, three equidiftant verniers of fimilar powers. We have fhewn the great ufe of additional verniers, at confiderable length, under our article CrrcLe, particularly with refpe& to the property that three poffefs of corre&ting for the excentricity — as well as inequality of the divifions of a circular inftru- ment ; and that as great accuracy may be expected from one croffed obfervation with Troughton’s reflecting circle; or from a pair of reverfed obfervations with a theodolite, with either circle, that has three verniers, as can be obtained by a repe= ee Se, fare 59 X 60 3540 3540 for the denominator, and VER a xepetition of obfervations on the repeating circle ; for, by : am in which Tronghton’s circular inftruments are ufed, the readings will be had at fix different points of the ircle, though very little time is expended im making the fervations. It is hardly neceflary to add here, that when an inftrument is of the refle€ting kind, its divifions are doubly numerous for the fame radius, when compared with an inftrument that meafures only by direét vifion ; and that therefore the divifions on the vernier mutt be calculated to have their dimenfions accordingly. In Troughton’s re- fleGting circle of five inches radius, the degree is divided into three parts, and fifty-nine of thefe are commenfurate with fixty on the fcale of each of the three verniers ; therefore the excefs of a {pace on the limb over one on the vernier is 19° 40! __ 70800" = 20", which is the fmalleft quantity that a fingle vernier will indicate ; but as there are fix read- ings in the croffed obfervation, which obfervation annihilates the errors of zero, and of the darkening glaffes when ufed, it is to be inferred that the refult will be accurate to 20! oF little more than ¢hree Seconds, if we difregard the probable errors of reading, and of taking conta&s in the obfervation, common to all inftruments. The figures of the vernier fcales in this circle count both ways, from each end, becaufe the figures’ read both to the right and left of zero on the limb, but there can be no miftake if the figures of the vernier are counted the fame way that the limb of the circle reads: Formerly the zero of the vernier was placed at the middle of its feale ; and when it read out at one end, it commenced at the other, and finifhed again in the middle; but this method, being liable to mifapprehenfion, is now difcontinued. In an eighteen-inch aftronomical circle, by Troughton, at prefent under our examination, which has four verniers at equal diftances, andturns in azimuth, the degree is divided by Engine into twelve’ divifions, of which 5g fill the fame arc as 60 on the verniers ref{pectively ; hence we have 59, x 5! = 295', or 17700" for the numerator, and 59 x 60 = eraoW Seat 5", the fmalleft 3549 quantity that one vernier will indicate; and accordingly the fpace between zero and 1! on the vernier is fubdivided in 12 {maller fpaces, fo that each fucceflive coincidence will mark out 5! on each feparate vernier ; but as there are four verniers, and as the circle will reverfe in pofition by means of the azimuthal motion, there will be virtually eight read- ings from which to. take an average of 5", fo that the pro- bable accuracy, refulting from fuch average comes within the Second, and would have done fo if there had been only three verniers., Hence the advantage gained over the average of the yerniers by microfcopic readings, is probably not fo great as is generally fuppofed. VERNIO, in Geography, a town of Etruria; 11 miles N.W. of Piftoya: . VERNIS Martin. See Copal Varnisu. VERNISH. See Varnisu. VERNISSON, in Geography, a river of Franee, which runs into the Loing, near Montargis. VERNODUBRUM, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gallia Narbonnenfis._ Pliny. VERNOIL, in Geography, a town of France, in’ the department of the Mayne and Loire; 14 miles S.E. of Baugé. VERNON, in Biography, an Englifh finger, brought up VER at St. Paul’s under Savage, was feleG&ed from among ,the chorifters of that cathedral, in 1750, to perform the part of Puck the fairy in Queen Mab. When his voice broke into a tolerable tenor, he was engaged at Drury-lane theatre to fupply the place of Lowe, who was degraded into a finger at Sadler’s Wells and Cuper’s Gardens. Vernon, with a yoice much inferior to that of Lowe at his beft, was a much better mufician and afor, and had not only all Lowe’s parts affigned to him at Drury-lane, but fucceeded him at Vaux- hall, where, and at the theatre, he continued to perform till the time of his death. Vernon was not only the profeffional fucceffor to Lowe, but heir to his imprudence and debauchery. VERNON, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Eure, on the fouth iide of the Seine; 15 miles E.N.E. of Evreux. Vernon, formerly Hin/dale, a town of America, in Wind, ham county and ftate of Vermont, on the W. bank of Con- necticut river ; containing 1159 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Suffex county, in the tate of New Jerfey, 21 miles N.E. of Newtown ; containing 1708 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Trumbull county, in the diftri& of Ohio; containing 606 inhabitants. VERNON, Mount. See Mount Vernon. VERNONBURG, a town of the ftate of Georgia; 11 miles S. of Savanna. VERNONIA, in Botany, was fo named by Schreber, in memory of Mr. William Vernon, fellow of St. Peter’s college, Cambridge, who towards the end of the feventeenth century made a voyage to Maryland, in company with Dr. David Kreig, a German phyfician, of which botany was the principal obje&t. Their herbarium, confifting, it is faid, of feveral hundred new plants, came into the poffeffion of fir Hans Sloane, and contributed to enrich the fupplement, or third volume, of Ray’s Hifforia Plantarum. A North American genus therefore is peculiarly proper to comme- morate Mr. Vernon; whofe merits as an accurate and in- duftrious Englifh botanift are, moreover, recorded by Ray in the preface to his Synop/is, ed. 2d, and his namé often occurs in the cryptegamic part of that work. We find no further mention of this gentleman, nor does he appear any where as an author.—Schreb. Gen. 541. Willd. Sp. Ph. V- 3- 1632. Mart. Mill. Di@.v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. y. 4. 502. Michaux Boreal!-Amer. v.2. 94. Purfh 511.— Clafs and order, Syag: nefia Polygamia-equalis. Nat. Ord. Compofite capitate, Linn. Cinaracephale, Juff. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated, with nume- rous, ovato-lanceolate, pointed, coloured feales. Cor. com- pound, uniform, all the florets, tubular, equal and perfec, of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; the tube inflexed; limb with five recurved fegments. Svam. Filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube.\ Pi. Germen oblong ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the fta- mens ; ftigmas two, refiexed. Peric. none, the calyx re- maining unchanged. Seeds folitary, ovate. Down capil- lary, coloured, feffile, longer than the calyx, furrounded at its bafe with a very fhort crown, of many chaffy briftles. Recept. naked, flat. G Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx ovate, imbricated. Florets tubular, five-cleft. Seed-down double ; the outer chaffy, fhort ; inner capillary. The fpecies,of this genus, as far as they were known to Linneus or Juffieu, were referred by both to SERRATULA ; fee that article,;and Liarris. Thefe genera diifer very clearly from Vernonia in their feathery feed-down, deftitute of furrounding feales or briftles, and the firft of them has, moreover, either a fealy or a villous receptacle. Seyen fpe- cies VER cies of Vernonia have been determined, all of them, except one, natives of North America, and all herbaceous and per- ennial, except that one, which is annual and of Eaft Indian origin. ; ; 1. V. noveboracenfis. Long-leaved Vernonia. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n.1. Purfhn.5. Bigelow Boft. 187. (Serratula noveboracenfis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1146. S. noveboracenfis maxima, foliis longis ferratis; Dill. Elth. 355. t. 263. Pluk. Phyt. t. 10g. f. 3; fee Dill.)—Leaves lanceolate, rough, finely ferrated.. Corymb level-topped. Calyx-fcales with flender points.—By road-fides, and in old paftures, from Canada to Carolina; flowering from Auguft to O&o- ber. Purfh. Stem four or five feet high, erect, furrowed, purplith, clothed with abundance of feattered, nearly feffile, Jong and narrow /eaves; paler underneath. — Flowers nu- merous, dark purple, turning nearly black in decay. Scales of the calyx ending each in a fine flender awn. Bigelow. 2. V. prealta. Tall Vernonia. Willd. n.2. Ait.n. 2. Purfh n. 4. (Serratula przalta ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1146. Mill. Tc. t. 234. S. virginica, perfice folio, fubt0s incano ; Dill. Elth. 356. t. 264. Eupatoria virginiana, ferratule noveboraceniis latioribus foliis; Pluk. Almag. 141. Phyt. t. 280. f. 6.)—Leaves lanceolate, ferrated ; downy beneath. Corymb level-topped. Calyx-fcales ovate, pointed.—By road-fides and the borders of woods, from New England to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to O&ober.—A tall rough- looking plant. Purfh. Flowers purple. Calyx-/cales with fhorter points than the laft ; and /eaves more downy beneath. Linnzus did not well diftinguifh thefe two fpecies, nor have we been able to compare authentic fpecimens. 3. V. glauca. Glaucous-leaved Vernonia. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n.3. (Serratula glauca; Linn. Sp. Pl.1146. 5S. marilandica, foliis glaucis, cirfii inftar denticulatis ; Dill. Elth. 354. t. 262.)—Leaves lanceolate, ferrated ; glaucous beneath. Corymb repeatedly compound, _level-topped. Calyx-feales ovate, acute.—Native of North America. This is omitted by Purfh, nor have we feen any certain {fpecimen. Dillenius reprefents it with broader /eaves than either of the former. A garden fpecimen communicated by fir Jofeph Banks under this name, has {mooth /eaves, glaucous beneath ; but the points of its calyx-/cales are as long as in the firft. Perhaps Willdenow’s fpecific chara€ters, almoft entirely founded on the calyx, may be fallacious. The points of the {cales appear variable in length, in all the fpecimens that have fallen in our way, all of ‘which we fhould efteem one {pecies, anfwering beft, on the whole, to the characters of WV. noveboracenfis. ‘The roughnefs of the /eaves in any of them is but flight. ; 4. V. fafciculata. Tufted Vernonia. Michaux Boreal.- Amer. v. 2.94. Purfh n. 3.—*‘* Leaves linear, elongated, fparingly ferrated. Flowers corymbofe, ere&, crowded. Calyx ovate, {mooth, with pointlefs fcales.””—Native of meadows in the Illinois country. Michaux. In Virginia, flowering from Auguft toO Gober, the fowers{mall. Purfh. This, at leaft, fhould feem to be a diftin f{pecies. 5. V. anguftifolia. Narrow-leaved Vernonia. Michaux ybid. Purfh n. 2. (Chryfocoma graminifolia; Walt. Carol. 196.)—-Leaves crowded, linear, elongated, nearly entire. Corymb fomewhat umbellate. Calyx-fcales with little rigid points.—In barren fandy woods from Virginia to Georgia, flowering in Auguit and September. lowers the fize and figure of V. prealta. Purfh. Confidering how much fome plants, nearly related to this, though of different genera, are liable to vary in the breadth of their foliage, we cannot but fufpeé this as a doubtful fpecies, like fome of the foregoing. 6. V. oligophylla. Yew-leaved Vernonia. Michaux ibid. VER Purfh n. 1. (Chryfocoma acaulis; Walt. Carol. 196.)—~ «« Stem fimple, nearly naked. Leaves ferrated; radical ones oblong-ovate; the reft lanceolate. Corymb pani- cled.’?—Native of South Carolina. all the preceding. Purfb. Michaux diftinguifhes two va- rieties ; one denominated verna, in which both flowers (of two that we prefume ftand together) are ftalked ; the other autumnalis, in which one of thefe flowers is nearly feffile. 7. V. anthelmintica. Worm-feed Vernonia. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. (Conyza anthelmintica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1207. Scabiofa conyzoides, foliis latis, dentatis, femine amaro lum- bricos enecante ; Burm. Zeyl. z10. t:95. Cattu-{chiragam; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 2. 39. t. 24.)—Leaves elliptical, ferrated, roughifh, tapering at each end; moft downy be- neath. Flowers terminal, about three together.—Native of various parts of the Eaft Indies. The feeds were fent to Kew, in 1770, by M. Richard, and have been received fince from time to time. This fpecies, well removed hither by Willdenow from Conyza, is annual, or, in our ftoves, bien- nial, flowering in fummer. The fem is branched, feveral feet high, bufhy, downy. © Leaves ttalked, coarfely ferrated, two or three inches long, veiny, more or lefs downy on both fides. Flowers pale purple, larger than any of the Ameri- can fpecies. Calya-/cales each tipped with a linear leafy point, very various in length. Sced-down exaGly anfwering to the generic charaéter, and well defcribed by Burmann. The /eeds powdered, and drank with warm water, are ufed in India to kill inteftinal worms in children. m VERNOSOLA, in Ancient Geography; a place in Gallia Aquitannica ; 15 miles frem Aquz Sicce. Anton. Itin. VERNOUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Ardéche ; 14 miles S. of Tournon. VERODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Belgic Gaul, on the route from Durocorvorum to Divodurum, be- tween Ad-Fines and Axuenna. Anton. Itin. VEROFABULA, a town of Afia, in Pheenicia. VEROLAMUM, or VeruLamium, a town of Great Britain, mentioned in feveral routes of Antonine, fituated between Durocobrive or Dunftable, and Sullioniace or Brockley Hills. Antiquaries have no difpute abont the fituation of this town, which was undoubtedly at Verulam, near St. Albans. » It was a very flourifhing and populous city in the Roman times, and honoured with the title and privileges of a municipium or free city. Dion Caffius fays that it was the capital of the Catuellani, whom Ptolemy calls Catycuchlani. VEROLI, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the Campagna di Roma, the fee of a bifhop, under the pope ; it contains eight churches and three convents 3 3 miles S. of Alatri. N. lat. 41°42'. E. long. 13° 20. - VEROMANDUI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Belgic Gaul, according to Cefar and Pliny. Their habi- tation was S. of the Nervii, N. of the Sueffones, E. of the Ambiani, and W. of the foreft of the Ardennes. They were able to furnifh no more than 1000 men in a common war againft the Romans. VEROMETUM, a town of Great Britain, in the fixth Iter of Antonine, between Rate or Leicefter, and Margi- dunum, near Eaft Bridgeford ; placed near Willoughby. VERON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Yonne; 5 miles S.S.E. of Sens. — VERONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Ve- netia, towards the W., upon the Athefis. It was founded by the Eugenians, from whom it paffed to the Cenomans, who driven from Brixia, fettled here. Martial fays, that Verona was no lefs indebted to the birth of Catullus than Mantua to that of Virgil. Under the reign of Vitellius, the partifans Flowers purple, 2s in” WE R _ partifans of Vefpafian made it a place of arms. Towards the year 249 A.D., the emperor Philip was put to death in this city, or its environs, by order of Decius. Under the empire of Carus, in 284, Sabinus Julianus revolted and took poffeffion of Verona, but he was defeated by the emperor near the walls of the city. It fhut its gates againft Con- ftantine, when he took poffeffion of the empire oa Max- entius ; but opened them after the defeat of the latter to the conqueror, who treated the inhabitants with moderation after his vi€tory. In 568, Verona was transferred to the Lom- bards. ‘See the next article. Verona, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital of the Veronefe, the fee of a bifhop, fituated on the Adige. It is fortified in the ancient manner, and defended by three caftles; two of which, namely, St. Felix and St. Pietro, ftand on a hill; and the third, called Il Caftello Vecchio, and a kind of citadel, lies in a plain along the river Adige, which runs through the city, and over which are four ftone bridges, of which the principal, near the laft-mentioned caftle, is 348 feet long. The city makes a better appear- ance by its delightful outlets than within, moit of the fireets ‘being narrow, crooked, and dirty, and the houfes but mean. The number of its inhabitants is now computed to amount to nearly 50,000, but formerly was much greater. The beft ftreet is that called the Corfo, which is pretty long. The cathedral is an old building. One of the fineft churches is that of St. Georgio, belonging to the Benediétines. The palace in which the fociety, or academy, of Philharmonics affemble, as alfo the fociety of the Philati, in order to the revival and improvement of martial exercifes, is remarkable, particularly on account of the great colleétion of all the an- cient infcriptions and monuments in the Etrurian, Punic, Egyptian, Greek, and Latin languages, found or brought here fora great many years paft. The largeft {quare in the city is the Piazza d’ Armi, in which is a marble ftatue, repre- fenting the city of Venice. In the Palazzo della Regione, or the Guildhall, are the ftatues of five illuftrious natives of Verona, viz. Catullus, Marcus /Emilius, Cornelius Nepos, the elder Pliny, and Vitruvius ; but the moft valuable piece of antiquity here is the celebrated Roman amphitheatre, (fee AMPHITHEATRE, ) which fo far exceeds all others, the fteps, or feats, on which the people fat, being {till entire ; though, in reality, but little of it appears ancient, having been care- fully repaired, from time to time, at the city’s expence. The learned count Maffei computed that it held 22,184 {peétators: the outward wall and the upper ftory are want- ing. Near this city is a delightful place, called Campus artius, at prefent ufed for the annual fair ; it is conftruét- ed in a quadrangular form, with four gates, and in the centre, along the ftands and booths, which are placed in a dire&t line, one may fee ali the four gates. The trade of this city is not improved as it might be, by fupplying other countries with the medicinal plants growing on Monte Balbo, olives, oil, wine, and very good linen, fewing filk, and woollen ftuffs. The Scaligeri were lords of this city for 170 years ; and one of them, for his greater fecurity, and to keep the city in awe, built the Caftello Vecchio, and the large ftone bridge. In 1387, Galeaffo Maria, firft duke of Milan, drove out the Scaligeri, and ufurped the fovereignty of this city ; but in the year 1409, the Venetians became mafters of it. In 1796, Verona was taken by the French; 60 miles W. of Venice. N. lat. 45°37'. E. long. 8° 9). VERONESE, Atessanpro, called L’ Orbetto, in Biogra- phy, was born at Verona in 1582. He acquired the name of ‘Orbetto, from having been, whilft a boy, the conductor of a blind beggar ; from this condition he was refcued by Do- menico Riccio, and inflru@ed in the art of painting, for You, XXXVII. VER which he had exhibited confiderable ability. After paffing fome years with Riccio, of whom he became the rival rather than the fcholar, he went to Venice, and there ftudied under Carlo Cagliari, and acquired an excellent idea of colouring. He then went to Rome, and drew attentively, and in the end compofed a ftyle of his own, in which he attempted to combine the excellencies of the two fchools in which he had ftudied, and in a great degree fucceeded. He had a ready imagination, fo that frequently he pro- ceeded to paint his fmaller works without any preparatory fketch. We feldom fee in this country any other than {mall produétions of this celebrated mafter, and thofe generally painted upon marble, but it is not upon them that his fame 1s founded. Lanzi, fpeakiag of a picture of his in the church of S. Stefano in Verona, called the Forty Martyrs, fays, *¢ it is a work which, in the impafto of colour, and the keeping, has the quality of the Lombard fchool ; it partakes of the Roman in defign and expreffion, and of the Venetian in colouring. It is the moft ftudied, the moft finifhed, the gayeft, that he ever made, with a degree of beauty in the heads, almoft rivalling thofe of Guido; and with fo much art in the compofition, that all is underftood, even the mul- tiplied circumftances which are introduced in the back- ground of the piéture.”’ There is alfo another fine piéture by him at Verona, a Pieta, in the church of the Mifericordia, which is elteemed one of the very fineft in that city. He maintained himfelf fully in competition with Andrea Sacchi and Pietro da Cor- tona, in the church of La Conceffione ; and he painted feveral other pictures for public buildings in Rome. He died at Rome 1648. Veronese, Paoto. See CAGriari. VERONESE, in Geography, a province of Italy, fo called from its capital, Verona, bounded on the north by the Tren- tin, on the eaft by the Vicentin, on the fouth and fouth-wett by the Mantuan, and on the weft by the lake of Garda ; about 50 miles in length, and 25 in breadth. The foil is fertile, and produces plenty of filk, corn, wine, oil, and the moff de- licious fruits. The Veronefe was anciently a Roman colony ; afterwards it made a part of Lombardy. After divers revo- lutions, it became the property of the houfe of Efte, from whence it fell to the dukes of Milan ; and in 1409, to the Venetians. VERONICA, a term abbreviated from vericonica, of vera-icon, q. d. true image, and applied to portraits, or repre- fentations of the face of our Saviour on handkerchiefs. Veronicas are imitations of that celebrated original one, preferved with great veneration at St. Peter’sin Rome ;. and imagined by fome to be the handkerchief laid over our Sa- viour’s face in the fepulchre. The firft mention we find of this famous relic is in a cere- monial compiled in 1143, dedicated to pope Celettine, by Benedi&t, a canon of St. Peter’s: but there is no mention made of the time when it was brought to Rome. AA featt is kept in honour thereof in moft churches, on the Tuefday in Quinquagefima week. It is to be obferved, that the name veronica is only given to fuch handkerchiefs as reprefent no more of our Saviour than his face ; for fuch as reprefent his whole body, as that of Befangon, which fhews his fore-part at length; and that of Turin, which reprefents both his fore and hind-part, as having covered him all over, were never called by this name. The painters fometimes reprefent the veronica as held up by an angel, but moft commonly by a woman, which woman the common people imagine to be a faint, called St. Veronica; a perfon of that name having been fup- I poled, VERONICA. pofed, about the ninth century, to have prefented her hand- kerchief to our Saviour as he went to Calvary, to wipe his face, when the pi€ture was miraculoufly impreffed upon it. This woman, it was added, was the perfon troubled with the flux of blood mentioned in the Gofpel; and accordingly, fhe was foon joined with St. Fiacrius, and invoked together with him againft the hemorrhoids. And hence the eftablifh- ment of feafts in honour of St. Veronica, in the churches dedicated to St. Fiacrius. The milliners have taken St. Veronica, or, as they call her, St. Veniffe, or St. Venecia, or Venifa, for their tutelary faint. f Veronica, in Botany, an old, but not claffical, Latin name, whofe derivation has occupied and perplexed etymo- logifts as much as any upon record. Linnzus thought it a corruption of Vetonica, which, as profeflor Martyn ob- ferves, confounds it with Betonica. The fame learned writer gives us a Greek etymology, from Hoffmann, Ceporxn, COM- pofed of ¢epo, to bear, and vx, vidory, or diflinétion, as if we fhould fay in Englifh, bearing the bell, on account of its beauty. But we doubt whether this be more than a pun. Its common etymology is of a mule kind, between Greek and Latin, from werus, or rather vera, true, and sxw, a jgure ; and this, illiterate and barbarous as it is, has the fanétion of the fuperftitious legend of St. Veronica, whofe handkerchief is recorded to have received the impreffion of our Saviour’s face, as he ufed it, in bearing his crofs to the place of his crucifixion. But we find nothing analogous in any of the herbs which has borne this name, nor any character, true or falfe, ftamped upon them, except that of their own peculiar beauty. Ambrofinus fays the word is German, and originated in the druggifts’ fhops of that country, though he favours the idea of its being corrupted from Ve- tonica, our Betonica, or Betony. The chief obje& of this controverfy is to learn the true pronunciation of the name in queftion. If there be any truth in its Greek origin, the muft be long; but if otherwife, the analogy of Betonica may juftify the ufual praétice, of throwing the accent on the o.—Linn. Gen. 12. Schreb. 15. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 54. Vahl Enum. v.14. 55. Mart. Mill. Did. v.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 15. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v.1. 5. Ait. Hort. Kew. y. 1. 26. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 434. Purfhto. Tourn. t.60. Juff.g9. Lamarck Di&. by Poiret, v. 8. 505. Illuftr. t.13. Gertn.t.54. (Hebe; Juff. 105.)—Clafs and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Pediculares, Jufl. Scrophularine, Brown. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four, rarely five, deep, lanceolate, acute, fometimes obovate, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhaped ; tube almoft as long as the calyx; limb flat, in four deep, ovate, unequal fegments, the lowermoft narroweft, the op- pofite one broadeft. Stam. Filaments two, inferted into the tube of the corolla, fpreading, afcending, tapering down- wards ; anthers roundifh-oblong. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, compreffed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens, declining ; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Capfule inverfely heart-fhaped, or fomewhat elliptical, comprefled in the upper part, of two cells, and two, more or lefs cloven, valves. Seeds numerous, roundifh. Eff. Ch. Corolla four-cleft; wheel-fhaped ; its lower feg- ment narroweft. Capfule fuperior, of two cells. Obf. Linnzus remarks, that the tube of the corolla, though in moft inftances very fhort, in fome fpiked {pecies is of confiderable length. Mr. Brown particularly indi- cates V. virginica and fibirica, as having a tube longer than their five-cleft calyx, and hence belonging to Papgrora, 10 if that genus, which moreover fcarcely differs from Wut- FENIA, ought to be retained ; fee thofe articles. The calyx is five-cleft in fome other fpecies, as multifida, and feveral neighbouring ones, though others of the fame tribe have a four-cleft calyx. Such a difference therefore furnifhes merely, im this cafe, a fpecific, not a generic, diftinGion. Veronica is a very natural genus. The flem, ufually her- baceous, is in fome few inftances fhrubby. Leaves oppofite, . fimple, moftly undivided, fometimes many-cleft ; in a few cafes whorled ; thofe which accompany the flowers, whether true bradeas, or the proper foliage of the plant, the flowers being axillary, are nearly all alternate. Partial fower-flalks alternate, fingle-flowered. @alyx more or lefs unequal. Corolla blue, rarely white or pale red, marked with fimple, radiating lines, not reticulated. The fpecies are very nu- merous, natives of the cold or temperate regions of Europe, America, New Holland, and New Zeeland. Seventeen are wild in Britain ; about twenty-five exotic ones are cultivated in the gardens, being moftly perennial and hardy. We have feveral to add to thofe of Linneus and Willdenow, and even to the more copious catalogue of Vahl, amounting to fixty-eight {pecies. The fourteenth edition of Linn. Sy. Veg. contains but forty. They are commodioufly and na- turally arranged by their inflorefcence. Seét. 1. Clufters terminal. Leaves more or lefs whorled. 1. V. fibirica. Siberian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 12. Willd. n.t. Vahln. x. Ait. n.1. (V. fpicata altiffima, foliis verticillatis; Am. Ruth. 20..t. 4.)—Clufter denfe, with nearly feflile flowers. Tube of the corolla twice as long as the five-cleft calyx. Leaves from five to nine in a whorl, lanceolate, feffile.—Native of Siberia; fent to Kew by profeflor Thunberg, in 1779. A hardy perennial, not rare in curious gardens, flowering in July and Auguit, and rifing to the height of five feet. The numeroufly whorled, finely ferrated, {mooth /eaves, and the long, denfe, upright /pikes, rather than cluffers, of innumerable pale blue, often white, tubular fowers, with long, proje€ting, capillary ffamens and Jiyle, well mark this fine {pecies. 2. V. virginica. Virginian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Willd. n.z. “Vahl n.2. Ait. n.2.. Purfh a. 1. ‘“« Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v.15. 112.t.1.”? (V. virginiana procerior, foliis ternis, quaternis, &c.; Pluk. Phyt. t. 70. f. 2.) —Clufters obf{curely whorled, with nearly feffile flowers. Tube of the corolla twice as long as the five-cleft calyx. Leaves four or five in a whorl, elliptic-lanceolate, ftalked.—On calcareous hills of North America, in funny expofures, flowering from July to September. Perennial. Spikes long ; white or blufh-coloured. On the mountains of Virginia, I obferved a very tall-growing variety, with purple flowers, extremely beautiful. Pur/b. This is ufually of more humble ftature than the preceding, and more fre- quent in gardens. The /eaves are fewer in a whorl, broader, and, in our {pecimens, downy beneath. Cluffers, or /pikes, feveral at the top of the ftem. 3. V. foliofa. Leafy Hungarian Speedwell. Vahl n. 3. «“ Waldit. et Kitaib. Hung. v. 2. 106. t. 102.’’—-Leaves three in a whorl, ovate, doubly ferrated. Calyx four-cleft. Native of Hungary. Stem abgut two feet high, ere@, fimple, hairy below. Leaves on fhort ftalks, acute, veiny beneath ; the lower ones downy, efpecially the rib and mar- gin; uppermoft rather lanceolate and fmooth. Lower clufters three together ; upper ones oppofite or alternate. Braéeas linear. Corolla of a violet-blue. Cap/ule inverfely heart-fhaped. Vasil. 4. V. maritima. Sea-fide Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2.5. Vabln.4. Willd. n.4. Fl. Dan. t. 374? (V. mas furreéta elatior; Barrel. Ic. t. 891. V- {puria ; VERONICA. {puria ; Poit. et Turp. Parif. 19. t. 18. Lyfimachia ceru- leo flore ; Cluf. Hift. v.2.52. L.czruleahortenfis ; Lob. Te. 344. Ger. Em. 477. f. 9.)—Clufters terminal, with nearly feffile flowers. Leaves ftalked, three in a whorl, un- equally and fharply ferrated.—Native of barren dry ground, near the fea-coaft, in the north of Europe. Linnzus ob- ferved it frequently on the confines of the Lapland Alps, near the North fea, though no where more abundantly than on the fea-coaft near Tornea. We mutt take his plant as a fixed point, by which to determine this much-confufed {pe- cies ; which, though often feen in gardens, flowering in the early part of fummer, does not find a place in the Hort. Kew. The old wooden cut, which is the very fame in all the old authors above cited, reprefents the Linnzan plant moft perfeGily, even better than the plate of Fi. Dan., whofe leaves are too broad, and too finely ferrated. ‘The root of V. maritima is perennial, and fomewhat creeping. Stems two feet high, ere&t, fimple, leafy, round below, quadrangular above, fimely downy, though occafionally fmooth in a garden, the angles being the firit part that be- comes fo. eaves three or four in a whorl, on elongated rather flender ftalks, {preading and rather dependent, linear- lanceolate, pointed, two and a half or three inches long, copioufly, deeply, unequally, and very fharply ferrated, either finely downy, or quite fmooth, on both fides ; ac- companied by axillary tufts of a few linear, or awlfhaped, fmall, ferrated leaves. Flowers blue, in one large, central, denfe fpike, accompanied by feveral furrounding {maller ones, from the bofoms of the uppermoft leaves, fometimes termi- nating {mall branches. Calyx unequally four-cleft, narrow, longer than the tube of the corolla. A fingular variety, as it is fuppofed, of this is defcribed in Linn. Amoen. Acad. V. 3. 35. t. 2, by the name of V. /puria, and preferved in the Linnean herbarium. The aves are deeply and vari- oufly pinnatifid and jagged ; flowers {maller than ufual in V.. maritima, and always barren. Linnzus conceived it to be a mule, from the pollen of Verbena officinalis, which grew near the Veronica maritima in his garden. We can neither confirm nor difprove this opinion. The plant muft not be confounded with V. /puria, hereafter defcribed. Three dried fpecimens from Ehrhart’s Herbe are before us, V. glabra, n. 113; nitida, n. 21; and elatior, n. 31. The firft is confidered by Willdenow as the identical ”. ma- ritima, and indeed agrees well with V. reéta cerulea, Befl. Eyft. vern. ord. 5. t. 10. f. 2. cited by C. Bauhin as the fame with our maritima ; but the /eaves are fhorter and more ovate, with far lefs taper ferratures than the Linnean {pecimen, or the authentic old wooden cuts ; being more of the fhape of Fl. Dan. t. 374, though with much broader ferratures. The flem and leaves are very {mooth; partial flower-falks elongated and flender, nearly {mooth ; tube of the corolla about twice as long as the calyx, which laft feems an im- portant diltinGtion, fhould it prove conftant.—/V. nitida, Ehrh. n. 21, is the top of a large luxuriant plant, whofe very fmooth /eaves are oppofite, or aggregate, not diftin@ly whorled, though its lower ones perhaps might ; their form broad-ovate, ftrongly and fharply ferrated, their length one anda half or two inches. C/u/fers numerous and long ; the partial flower-flalks a little downy, longer than the talyx, which is full as long as the tube of the corolla. If thefe characters may be depended on, as in other plants, the two fpecimens in queftion muft be diftinét from each other and from maritima. ° V. elatior, n. 31, moft unaccountably referred by Willdenow to Jongifolia, is more near maritima than either of the others, having merely broader, and lefs deeply ferrated, /eaves, and agreeing as nearly with Fl. Dan. t. 374, as a cultivated fpecimen ufually does with a wild one. Its inflorescence and flowers precifely refemble thofe of the Linnzan fpecimen of maritima. This isfurely V. /picata of Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 97. 5. V. crenulata. Notch-flowered Speedwell. ‘* Hoffm. Phytogr. Blatt. fafe. 1..95.”? Wahl n. 5.—‘‘ Leaves three ina whorl, or oppofite, oblong-lanceolate, ferrated, downy like the ftem. Corolla finely crenate.”,—A garden plant, perennial, two feet high, with fcattered branches in the upper part of the fem. Lower leaves ftalked, oppofite, rarely three together; upper nearly feffile, alternate, pretty equally and acutely ferrated. Cluflers hardly fix inches long. Braéeas lanceolate. Calyx four-cleft, hairy at the edge. Corolla deep blue, hairy in the throat ; its fegments waved, minutely crenate. Capfule roundifh-ovate, {mooth, of four valves. Hoffmann, Vahl. We know nothing of this {pe- cies, having feen no {pecimen anfwering to its name or character. } 6. V. /puria. Spurious Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Willd. n. 3. Vahl n. 6. Gel. It. v. 1. 169. t- 39. (V- {picata anguftifolia; Bauh. Pin. 246, Herb. Sherard. V. reéta vulgaris major ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 347. _V. reéta her- bariorum ; Lob. Ic. 473. V.affurgens five fpicata ; Ger. Em. 628, according to C. Bauhin ; but the fame cut is in Clufius, v. 1. 346, who probably has the fame f{pecies twice.)—lLeaves three in a whorl, or oppofite, on fhort ftalks, lanceolate, equally ferrated, fomewhat downy ; con- tracted at each end. Clufters lax.—Native of Siberia and the fouth of Europe. About the ftature of the laft, but the /lem is round to the top ; eaves fhorter, equally, though ftrongly ferrated, on much fhorter Stalks ; never more than three in a whorl, often oppofite only. Calyx the length of the tube. Vahl records an opinion of our learned friend Dr. A. Afzelius, that this may be a three-leaved variety of V. longifolia. Some botanifts of the fouth of Europe, from whom we have fpecimens, have conceived the fame idea. But the real /ongifolia is totally diftinG, as we fhall hereafter fhew. 7. V. paniculata. Panicled Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd. n.45. Vahln.7. Ait.n.31. (‘“ V. dentata ; Schmidt Bohem. v. 1. 31.7” V. anguftifolia, floribus pani- culatis; Amm. Ruth. 24.)—Leaves ftalked, three in a whorl, lanceolate, equally ferrated, fmooth. Stem afcend- ing, panicled with numerous fimple clutters.— Native of Si- beria, Tartary, and Bohemia. A hardy perennial in this country, introduced by Mr. Hunnemann, in 1797, yet it has never been figured. The herbage is {mooth. Stem round, not quite ere&t. Leaves an inch or more in length, narrow, acute, rather diftantly ferrated, on fhortith ftalks. Cluflers lax, many-flowered, {mooth, on long, axillary, partly leafy, ftalks, making a handfome terminal panicle. #owers blue. Vahl is certainly right in removing this fpecies to the prefent feGtion, near its moft natural allies. It is, however, very diftiné from the latft. 8. V. complicata. Folded-leaved Speedwell. ‘ Hoffm. Phytogr. Blatt. fafc. 1. 98.” Vahl n.8.—“ Leaves whorled, or oppofite, linear-lanceolate, folded, toothed ; teeth thickened.’’—Native of Europe. Perennial. Stem two feet high, ereét, flightly zigzag, round, downy in the upper part ; the flowering branches nearly oppofite. Leaves moftly oppofite, rarely three in a whorl, {preading, re- flexed ; the radical ones elliptical, fomewhat hoary, un- equally toothed. Braéeas Iinear-lanceolate. Calyx four- cleft, downy. Corolla blue, hairy in the throat. Cap/ule inverfely heart-fhaped, {mooth, with four valves. Hoffm. Vabl. 9: V. brevifolia. Short-leaved Speedwell. “ Waldtt. et Kitaib. Hung. t.—.” Marfch. a Biebertt. Taur.-Caucaf. 12 Wa Ts VERONICA. v. 1. 6.—¢ Leaves three in a whorl, broadly lanceolate, downy, fharply and finely ferrated. Calyx and bracteas very fhort.’’—Native of ftony hills of Caucafus, flowering in May and June. Perennial. Whole herb clothed with fine, rather glaucous, pubefcence. Akin to V. /puria in flowers and inflorefcence, but the /eaves are much fhorter and broader, with fharper more copious ferratures. Mar/ch. Se&.2. Cluffers or fpikes terminal. Leaves oppofite. 10. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Fl. Suec. ed. 2.4. Willd. n. 5, excluding Eh- rhart’s fynonym. Vahl n.g. Ait. n.6? Schrad. Veron. 26. t.2. f.12? (V. fpicata latifolia; Bauh. Pin. 246. Ger. Em. 628. V. prima ere¢tior latifolia; Cluf. Hitt. y. I. 346. V. major latifolia, foliis {plendentibus et non fplendentibus ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 283.)—Leaves oppofite, ovate, pointed, doubly and fharply ferrated, fmooth, on very fhort ftalks. Clufters aggregate, erect. Calyx ovate, fhorter than the tube of the corollan—Native of Sweden, Tartary and Auftria. Perennial. Stems ere&t, two feet high, leafy, round, either {mooth, or finely downy, with mj- nute recurved hairs. Leaves two and a half inches long, and nearly one broad, with extremely numerous and fharp, un- equal, and often double, ferratures. Footfla/ks broad and very fhort; to the upper leaves fcarcely any. Cluflers rather denfe, all erect and crowded, forming a fort of pyra- midal panicle. Partial flower-/falks {lightly downy, for the moft part longer than the calyx, whofe four fegments are broad, ovate, and nearly equal. Tube of the corolla about twice as long as the calyx, and equal to the limb.—Such is the real V’. longifolia, the Swedifh plant of Linnzus, for which, if we do not greatly err, authors haye miftaken the maritima of Fl. Dan. t. 374. This latter is actually quoted for /ongifolia, by Mr. Dryander in Hort. Kew. on the authority, we prefume, of Schrader, whofe work is not within our reach, and therefore we refer to his plate with hefitation. That the above-mentioned plant of Fl. Dan. may be a diftinét {pecies from maritima, we are readily dif- pofed to allow. But that both of them are perfectly different from our true /ongifolia, and eflentially diftinguifhed from it by the much narrower, and more unequal, fegments of their éalyx, to fay nothing of the /eaves and footflalks, is certain. A good figure of the /ongifolia is wanting, John Bauhin’s being the beft that we can find ; as the others are very de- fe€tive in their foliage. Vahl’s defcription anfwers better to the fo often. mentioned maritima of Fl. Dan. than to the real longifolia. His variety 8, V. /picata urtice folio, Amm. Ruth. 26, though cited likewife as a variety by Linnzus, appears to be the true plant, the defcription agreeing precifely, except the « folitary fpike.”? t1. V. incana. Hoary Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n.6. Vahln. ito. Ait.n. 3. ‘ Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. 15. 123. t.6.”? Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 7. (V. {picata lanuginofa et incana, floribus ceruleis; Amm. Ruth. 24.) @. V. negle&ta ; Vahl n. 11. Hoary and denfely downy. Spike terminal, moftly foli- tary. Leaves oppofite ; lower ones ftalked, crenate or fer- rated ; uppermoft entire, feffile, tapering at the bafe-—Na- tive of the rocky fummits of mountains in Siberia and T'au- ria, flowering in June. An elegant plant, a foot high, its white pubefcence being ftrikingly contrafted with the denfe Spike, rather than clufler, of dark blue flowers. Calyx cot- tony, with four oblong unequal fegments. The /eaves cer- tainly vary in scubetiels as well as in the ftrength of their ferratures, and we gladly profit of the hint given by the learned author of the Flora Taurico-Caueafica, to confider Vahl’s VY. negle&a, which is frequent in gardens, as a mere 12 variety. Still we do not concur with the fame great autho~ rity in thinking the pubefcence alone diltinguifhes this {pe- cies from V’. /picata ; even though fpecimens of luxuriant Jpicata, as they appear to us, are pinned by Linnzus in his herbarium to the genuine wild incana. 12. V. fpicata. Spiked Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 7. Vahln.12. Fl. Brit.n.1. Engl. Bot. t.2. Poit. et. Turp.. Parf. 19. t.19.., Bl Danstsae (V. fpicata minor; Bauh. Pin. 247. Vaill. Parif. t. 33. f.4. WV.re&a minima; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 347. Ger. Em. 627. V. fpicata rea minor; Bauh. Hilt. v. 3. 282.) @. V. altera ere@a anguftifolia: Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 346. — (V. fpicata reGta major; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 282. V. affur- gens, five {fpicata; Ger. Em. 628.) Spike terminal, moftly folitary. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, bluatifh, with fhallow ferratures, fomewhat downy; the extremity entire. Stem afcending, unbranched.—Native of open, chalky, mountainous, or alpine paftures, throughout moft parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowerin from July to September. The roof is creeping, perennial, alittle woody. Stems from three to ten or fourteen inches high, each bearing ufually a fingle denfe {pike of dark-blue flowers ; but the luxuriant variety 8 has feveral /pikes. The lower flowers are not feffile. The fegments of the calyx are oblong and downy. he whole /erd is more or lefs downy, or finely hairy, but by no means cottony, or hoary, in the manner of the laft. The /eaves vary in breadth, and are fometimes almoft entire. 13. V. hybrida. Welfh Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n.8. Vahl n.13. FI. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 673. _(V. {picata cambrobritannica, bugule fubhirfuto folio; Rai Syn. ed. 3. 278. t. 11.) — Spikes terminal. Leaves oppofite, elliptical, obtufe, roughifh, unequally and bluntly ferrated. Stem nearly ereét.—Native of feveral parts of Europe, but rare. It 1s found in the Welfh county of Montgomery, as well as in Lancafhire. Linneus fuf- pected this might be a mule between V. officinalis and /picata, though furely without authority. It is moft akin to the laft, but twice as large in every part, with rougher /eaves and flem, nor does it alter by culture. The /pikes, or rather clufters, are very long and denfe, feldom folitary, and con- fift of innumerable blue flowers. 14- V. incifa. Cut-leaved Speedwell. Ait. ed. 1. y. I» Ig. ed. 2. n.g. Willd. n. 11. Vahl n. 14. ‘* Schrad- Veron. 33.’’—Clufters terminal. Braéteas as long as the calyx and flower-ftalk. Segments of the calyx linear-lan- ceolate, longer than the tube of the corolla. Leaves lan- ceolate, deeply pinnatifid, fmooth.—Native of Siberia. The whole habit of this fpecies is very flender. Stem branched, about two feet high, leafy, round, flightly downy. Leaves linear-lanceolate, or varioufly pinnatifid and cut, very narrow, with axillary tufts of ftill narrower and much fmaller ones. C/u/fers folitary at the ends of the branches, lax, many-flowered. Partial /fa/és capillary, a little downy, fhorter than the ca/yx, which is four-cleft, unequal, {mooth. BraGeas linear, channelled, f{mooth, various in length, but, in the lower part of the clufter at leaft, extending beyond the points of the calyx. Corolla blue, with acute ements. 15. V. laciniata. Jagged-leaved Speedwell. Ait. ed. 1. ve 1. 19. ed. 2. n.8. Willd. n.10. Wahl n.15. ‘ Schrad. Veron. 32.” (“ V. fpuria; Junghans Ic. Rar. cent. 1. fig. 2, excluding the fynonyms.’”? Willd.)—Clufters ter- minal. Braéteas as long as the flower-ftalk. Segments of the calyx Seat tnseette. as long as the tube of the corolla. Leaves linear, pinnatifid.— Native of Siberia. Akin, to the lafl, but the fhorter more ovate fegments of the calyx afford a clear diftinGion. The clufers are very long, and their VERONICA. theit lower braéeas, much longer than the upper, partake of the nature of leaves. 16. V. pinnata. Wing-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 24. Willd. n.g. Vahl n.16. Ait. n.7. ‘ Schrad. Veron. 32. Laxmann in AQ. Petrop. ann. 1770. 553. t. 29. f. 1. Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. 15. 130. t. 10.””—Clutters ter- minal. Segments of the calyx lanceolate. Leaves pinna- tifid, with linear, acute, divaricated, entire or toothed, feg- ments.—Found by Laxmann in Siberia, and by Dr. Sib- thorp on mount Athos.—Like the two lait, this is a hardy perennial in the gardens, flowering in June and July ; but though they have been introduced about forty years, they are not become common. The foliage of the prefent fpecies abounds with copious, narrow, often capillary, feg- ments. C/u/fers numerous, from a {pan to a foot long, con- fifting of a profufion of handfome {ky-blue fowers, whofe calyx is {mooth, almoft equally four-cleft. Braéeas linear, yarious in length. Cap/ule inverfely heart-fhaped, a little longer than the permanent calyx, tumid, with four valves. 17. V. bellidioides. Daily-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. Mant. 316. Willd. n. 21. Vahl n. 17. Ait. ne tz. )(V. 0.543. t.15- f..15, Hall. Hift. v. 1. 235. V. alpina, bellidis folio, hirfuta; Bauh. Prodr. 116.)— Clufter corymbofe, terminal, hairy, of few flowers. Leaves obovate, crenate. Stem fimple, afcending. Capfule ellip- tical, abrupt, emarginate.—Native of the Alps and Pyrenées, flowering in June and July. This is one of thofe numerous alpine plants, which were firft introduced to the knowledge of Britifh cultivators by Dr. Pitcairn and Dr. Fothergill, who in 1775 fent a fkilful gardener abroad for that purpofe. V. bellidioides is perennial, with a creeping fem, throwing up perfectly fimple flowering-branches, a finger’s length, bearing two or three pair of oppofite fpatulate /eaves, fmaller than the more numerous radical ones. The whole of the herbage is more or lefs hairy. F/owers pale greyith- blue, from five to eight in aterminal vifcid corymd, afterwards elongated and racemofe. 18. WV. gentianoides. Gentian-leaved Speedwell. Vahl n. 18. Symb.y. 1.1. Willd. n.22. Ait. n. 13. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 194. FI. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 5. t.5. Curt. Mag. t. 1002. Venten. Malmaif. t.86. (V. orientalis ereéta, gentianelle foliis; Tourn. Cor. 7. V. erecta, blattarie facie ; Buxb. Cent. 1. 23. t. 35.) —Clufter corymbofe, terminal, hairy. Radical leaves lanceolate, fome- what crenate, {mooth.—Native of Cappadocia, and the mountains of Taurida and Caucafus, as well as of the Bithynian Olympus. Hardy, perennial, and not uncommon in gardens, flowering in May and June. But this little alpine plant, originally four or five inches high, by culture rifes to the height of two feet, with a lax habit, and long clufter of numerous flowers. It may always be known by its thick, fmooth, acute /eaves, with a pale cartilaginous edge, refembling the foliage of Gentiana acaulis. ‘The corolla is large, beautifully ftreaked; purplifh-blue in a wild ftate ; blueifh-white in gardens. 19. V. thymifolia. 'Thyme-leaved Speedwell. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 5. t. 6. Prodr. n. 19.—Clufter ter- minal, corymbofe. Leaves revolute, hoary. Stems fome- what fhrubby, diffufe. Lobes of the capfule divaricated.— Difcoyered by Dr. Sibthorp on the fummits of mountains in Crete, flowering on the firft melting of the fnow. A fhrubby little plant, whofe ffems are only three or four inches high, flightly branched, clothed with thyme-like, oppofite, hoary, elliptical, entire, revolute /eaves, tapering down into fhort footfalks. Flowers blue, very pretty, in elufers not an inch long. Cap/ule hairy, inverfely heagt- fhaped, with diftant lobes. 20, V. fruticulofa. Flefh-coloured Shrubby Speedwell, Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. Mant. 316. Willd. n. 24. Vahl n. 19. Fl. Brit. n.5. Engl. Bot. t. 1028. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll, V.4- 229. t.5. (V.n.545; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 235. t. 16. f. 1.)—Clufter terminal, elongated, many-flowered. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate. Stems ereét, fomewhat fhrubby. Cap- fule ovate, of four valves. Native of the mountains of Auttria, Scotland, Switzerland, and the Pyrenées, flowering in July. The ffems, at leaft their flowering branches, are quite ereét, from four to fix inches high. Leaves above an inch long, a little downy at their edges and veins, fome- times quite entire, fometimes crenate or ferrated. Flowers numerous, in a {piked rather than corymbofe cluffer, pink or flefh-coloured, never blue. Cap/ule abrupt or rather acute, foon f{plitting into four valves. 21. V. faxatilis, Blue Rock Speedwell. Linn. Suppl. 83. Willd. n.25. Vahl n. 20. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 1027. Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 284. Dickf. Crypt. fafe.2. 29. (V. fruticulofa; Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. tgt. Fl. Dan. t. 342. V.n. 545 63 Hall. Hilt. v. 236. V. tertia fruticans; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 347. V. fruticans ferpyllifolia; Ger. Em.628.)—Clufter terminal, corymbofe, of few flowers. Leaves elliptical. Stems f{preading, fome- what fhrubby. Capfule ovate, of four valves.—Native of the mountains of Norway, Scotland, Auftria, Switzerland, and the Pyrenées, more frequent than the preceding, flower- ing in July. This is akin to the laft, with which many botamifts, even the greateft, have confounded it. ‘The flems however are diffufe ; /eaves fhorter and rounder ; flowers of a rich ultramarine blue, and much fewer in each fhort corym- bofe clufter. The éra&eas too are rounder and fhorter in proportion to the fartial flalks. The flowering branches of both thefe {pecies are herbaceous and annual, though the main ftem of both is fhrubby and perennial, forming woody entangled tufts——V. nummularia, Gouan. Illuftr. 1. t. 1. f. 2, appears by original f{pecimens from the author to be, as Willdenow and Vahl make it, a dwarf variety of the Saxatilis, with {mall, rounded, crowded eaves. V. pygmea, Schranck Salifb. n. 11. t. 1. f. 1, feems fcarcely different from the nummularia. 22. V. alpina. Alpine Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 7. t.9. f. 4. Willd. n. 26. Vahl n. 21. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 484. Fl. Dan. t. 16. (V- pumila; Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 75. t. 22. f. 5. Spec. 19. t. 3. f. 3. V. integrifolia; Willd. n.27. V. n. 5443 Hall. Hitt. vy. 1. 235. t. 15. f. 2.)—Clufter terminal, denfe, corymbofe. Leaves ovate, {moothifh, fomewhat ferrated. Calyx fringed. Stem afcending, fimple.—Native of the alps of Europe, from Lapland to Savoy, flowering in July and Auguft. Vahl thinks this Teucrium fextum of Cluf. Hitt. v. 1. 350, with the defcription of which it well agrees, but there being no figure, we cannot abfolutely decide. In general, though not unfrequent in boggy alpine {pots, among trickling rills, in Switzerland and Savoy, it feems to have almoft totally efeaped the notice of the earlier writers. The root is perennial, rather creeping. Stems procumbent at the bafe, then afcending obliquely, a little zig-zag, round, leafy, from two to five inches long. Leaves about an inch long, more or lefs broadly elliptical, rarely hairy. Flowers {mall, of a bright light blue, with a white tube, fhorter than the four ovate, nearly equal, hairy fegments of the calyx. Capfule oval-heartfhaped, of two comprefled valves.— We reduce to this {pecies, on the authority of Vahl, the V. integrifolta of Schranck and Willdenow, of which no {pecimen has fallen in our way ; but we find among thofe of indubitable V. alpina many that anfwer to their de- {criptions. 23. V- VERONICA. 23. V. ferpyllifolia. Smooth Speedwell, or Paul’s Betony. Linn. Sp. Pl. is. Willd. n.28. Vahl n. 22. Fi. Brit. n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 1075. Curt. Lond. fafe. 1. t. 3. Purfh n. 4. Fl. Dan. t. 492. (V- humifufa; Dickf. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2.288. V.minimarepens; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99. f. 1. V. minor; Ger. Em. 627. V. minor ferpyllifolia ; Lob. Ic. 472.)—Clufter terminal, fomewhat fpiked. Leaves ovate, flightly crenate, three-ribbed, {mooth. Capfule inverfely heart-fhaped, fhorter than the ftyle.— Native of Europe and North America, in paftures, and by road-fides, very frequent, flowering in May and June. The herbage in moift fituations is fmooth, fhining, and rather juicy ; in dry open or hilly ground it becomes downy or hairy. The roots are perennial. Stems from two to twelve inches long, ereét or proftrate. Clu/fers elongated, lax, with ovate braéieas. Corolla {mall, elegantly variegated with bright blue and white, ftreaked with dark blue. 24. V. tenella. Little Round-leaved Speedwell. Allion. Pedem. v. r. 75. t. 22. f.1. Willd. n. 29. Wahl n. 23. Symb. y. 3. 5.—* Leaves roundifh, fomewhat rugged and crenate, all ftalked. Stem creeping, villous as well as the calyx.”’—Native of the Pyrenean mountains, and the alps of Savoy. This is faid to differ but little from the laft. Indeed Plukenet’s t. 233. f. 4, cited for the prefent, can hardly be any thing elfe than the ferpyllifolia. Allioni defcribes the /eaves as lefs firm and even than that fpecies, but the creeping /fem and lefs denfe clufler, are characters of no moment. We have not examined the plant. 25. V.telephiifolia. Orpine-leaved Speedwell. Vahl n. 24. (V. orientalis, telephii folio; Tourn. Cor. 7.)—‘ Leaves obovate, nearly entire. Stem creeping.’’—Gathered in Armenia by Tournefort, and defcribed by Vahl from his herbarium. Svems thread-fhaped, fmooth. Leaves ftalked, hardly half the length of the nail, very obtufe, fmooth, with one or two obfcure notches about the extremity ; acute at the bafe. Flowers (and we prefume inflorefcence) wanting im the fpecimen. Vah/. 26. V. ruderalis. Round-leaved Peruvian Speedwell. Vahl n. 25. (‘ V. ferpyllifolia; Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 6.””)— «Leaves roundifh, crenate, obfcurely five-ribbed; the upper ones flightly fringed and entire. Stem creeping.’’— Native of wafte ground, borders of fields, and cool watery fituations, in Peru. Perennial. Stems many, diffufe, thread- fhaped, purplith ; downy in the upper part. Lower Leaves on fhort ftalks, fpreading; upper feffile. Partial flower- falks thread-fhaped, the length of the bradeas. Corolla violet ; its {malleft ferment white. Vahl. This is evidently very near V’. ferpyllifolia. Se&. 3. Clufters lateral. ' 27. V. parviflora. Small-flowered Shrubby Speedwell. Vahl n. 26. Symb. v.3. 4. Willd. n. 16.—Clutters axil- lary, about the ends of the branches. Segments of the calyx ovate, fringed. Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, pointed. Stem fhrubby.—Gathered by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander in New Zeeland. They gave a {pecimen to the younger Linnzus, by the name of V. floribunda. ‘The Stem is perhaps feveral feet in height, with forked, twifted, round, fearred, woody branches, leafy only while young. Leaves crowded, feffile, crofling each other in pairs, from one to two inches long, very {mooth and even, fingle-ribbed, deciduous. Cluffers'axillary, and fomewhat terminal, ftalked, denfe, many-flowered, nearly {mooth, longer than the leaves. Flowers {mall, we believe them to be white. Bra&eas minute, fringed. Calyx the length of the tube of the corolla, and only one-third as long as the ovate, fmooth, finally four-valved and quadrangular. cap/ule. The fyle is remarkably long and capillary, deciduous. This is one among many fhrubby or arborefcent white. flowered fpecies, referrible to Juflieu’s and Commerfon’s genus of Hebe, which are indeed fo unlike moft Veronice in ‘habit, that one could with their fru€tification afforded any generic diftin@tion. They ferve to approximate the prefent genus, by fome points of refemblance, to the Ja/minez. 28. V. macrocarpa. Large-fruited Shrubby Speedwell. Vahl n. 27. Symb. v. 3. 4.—Clutters axillary, about the ends of the branches, ereét. Segments of the calyx lanceo- late. Leaves lanceolate, entire, flat. Stem fhrubby. — Native of New Zeeland. The /eaves are four inches long, fmooth and even, without lateral ribs, or veins. Tube of the corolla twice, and cap/ule thrice, the length of the calyx. Vahl. 29. V. falicifolia. Willow-leaved Shrubby Speedwell. Forft. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 28. Symb. v. 3. 4. Willd. n. 15.—Clufters axillary, about the ends of the branches, drooping ; partial ftalks aggregate. Segments of the calyx lanceolate. Leaves lanceolate, entire ; tapering at each end. Stem fhrubby.—Gathered in New Zeeland by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander. This appears to be nearly re- lated to the laft, but the /eaves are narrower at the bafe. In our {pecimen they are little more than two inches long, {carcely perceptibly undulated at the very edge. Cluffers longer than the leaves, their capillary partial fralks very numerous, feveral from the fame point, each accompanied by its own little fhort lanceolate bradea. Tube of the corolla twice the length of the calyx; fegments of its limb elliptic-lanceolate, acute; not, as in the two preceding, obtufe. Capfule, according to Wahl, oblong and acute, twice as long as the calyx. 30. V. elliptica. Elliptic-leaved Shrubby Speedwell. Forft. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 29. Willd. n. 13.—Clufters axil- lary, about the ends of the branches, fimple, of few flowers. Segments of the calyx ovate, acute. Leaves elliptic-lan- ceolate, pointed, entire, flightly revolute. Stem fhrubby.— Native of New Zeeland, from whence Mr. Menzies has favoured us with a fpecimen in feed. No writer has yet given any detailed defcription of this fpecies. Its woody branches are rough with very protuberant fcars, where the leaves have been, and when young are quadrangular. Leaves crowded, crofling each other in pairs, about an inch long, acute at each end, fingle-ribbed, fmooth, very flightly revo- lute, or reflexed at the margin. C/uffers of not more than fix or eight flowers, at firft probably fhort and denfe ; when in fruit hardly longer than the leaves; their /a/ks all an- gular and {mooeth. Sraéeas minute, acute, permanent. The corolla we have not feen. The permanent calyx is f{mooth, acute, half the length of the ovate, acute, tumid, four-valved cap/ule. 31. V. decuffata. Crofs-ieaved Shrubby Speedwell. Ait. n.20. Vahln. jr. Willd. n.19. Curt. Mag. t. 242.— Clufters axillary, about the ends of the branches, fimple, of few flowers. Segments of the calyx ovate. Leaves el- liptical, obtufe, entire, flightly revolute. Stem fhrubby. —Native of Falkland iflands, and the ftraits of Magellan ; yet it requires the fhelter of a greenhoufe in this country. Dr. Fothergill-is faid to have firft cultivated this fhrub in 1776. It flowers, but not freely, in July and Auguft, and the foliage is evergreen. This {pecies is fo nearly related to the laft, that they muft neceflarily be placed next to each other, nor are we well aflured of a fpecifie diftin@ion be tween them. The /eaves of the prefent are indeed much fhorter, rounder, and lefs pointed, but their figure is not invariable. The inflore/cence is precifely fimilar. The flowers are white, large and elegant, obferved by Mr. Curtis to have a moft delicious fragrance, fimilar to that of Olea fragrans ; another VERONICA. another point of refemblance to the Jafminea, fee n. 27. The fame writer juftly obferves, that the fepments of the corolla are more equal than is ufual in Veronica, and fome- times vary to five. The capfule is oval, fcarcely emarginate. 32. V. formofa. Elegant Shrubby Speedwell. Brown n. 1. —Clufters corymbofe, axillary, of few flowers. Leaves lance- olate, entire; acute atthe bafe. Stem fhrubby. Branches with two oppofite hairy lines. —Gathered by Mr. Brown in Van Diemen’s ifland. The /eaves are evergreen, in pairs croffing each other, very f{mooth. Brown. 33. V. catarracte. Water-fall Shrubby Speedwell. Forft. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 30. Ait. n. 12.—Clufters axillary, clon- gated, lax. Leaves ftalked, lanceolate, diftantly ferrated. Stem fomewhat fhrubby.—Gathered by Forfter in New Zeeland, we prefume near fome remarkable cafcade. The leaves are an inch long, acute at each end, fmooth; paler beneath. Cluffers from the bofoms of the upper leaves, four inches long, with {mooth fower-/alks in diftant pairs. Calyz with four awl-fhaped fegments, fhorter than the ob- long capfule. Vahl. 34. V. Jabiata. Labiated Speedwell. Brown n. 2. Ait. Epit. 376. Curt. Mag. t. 1660. (V. Derwentia; Little- john in Andr, Repof. t. 531.)—Clufters axillary, elongated. Leaves feffile, ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed, unequally fer- rated.—Native of Van Diemen’s ifland, and the fouth coaft of New Holland, flowering with us moft part of the fummer. It is perennial and herbaceous, increafed by part- ing the roots, but hitherto treated as a greenhoufe plant ; though, not being fhrubby, it will probably bear our cli- mate. ‘The /fems are fimple, ereét, about two feet or more in height, round, leafy, very fmooth. Leaves oppolite, clafping the ftem by a fort of dilatation, fearcely to be termed a foot{talk, veiny, quite fmooth, three or four inches long, acutely and copioufly ferrated. Cluffers numerous, oppofite, about the top of the item, afcending, ftalked, many-flowered, rather denfe, a little downy ; their partial ftalks fometimes aggregate. Braéeas awl-fhaped. Segments of the calyx four, lanceolate: thofe of the pale blue co- rolla elliptic-lanceolate, unequal, acute. Cap/ule of four valves, . 35. V. aphylla. Naked-ftalked Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 20. Vahl n. 32. Ait. n. a1. (V.n. 541; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 234. V. alpina pumila, caule aphyllo; Boce. Muf. 17. t. 1, and t.g. V. faxatilis parva, caulibus nudis; Pluk. Phyt. t.114. f. 3. Segu. Veron. v. 1. 241. t.3.f.2. Teucrium minimum; Cluf. Hitt. v. 1. 350.) 8. V. Kamtchatica; Linn. Suppl. 83. (‘ V. grandi- flora; Gertn. Nov. Comm. Petrop. v. 14. p. I. 531. t. 18. f. 2.”? Vahl.) Leaves obovate, crenate, hairy. Flower-ftalks ere, naked, thrice as long as the branches, about three-flowered. —Native of alpine fituations in the fouth of Europe, and north of Afia; not uncommon on the mountains of Switzer- jand and the north of Italy, flowering in July ; but it has never been found in Britain or Ireland. The perennial trail- ing flems throw up feveral fhort leafy éranches, about an inch in length. eaves crowded, oppofite, ftalked, ufually an inch long, fometimes much lefs, bluntifh, with numerous fhallow notches; their pubefcence finely jointed. Fower- Jflalks folitary, near the top of each branch, two or three inches long, each bearing two or three light-blue flowers, on flender downy partial ftalks, accompanied by oblong ob- tufe bradeas. Calyx hairy, in four obovate fegments. Cap- fule twice the length of the calyx, obovate, emarginate, thin, compreffed, hairy. The variety 8 differs merely in the fomewhat larger fize of every part; the pubefcence being not more articulated in this than the common /. aphylla, as we have long ago remarked; Tr. of Linn. Soc. Ve I. 190. 36. V. Beccabunga. Brooklime Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Willd. n. 30. Vahln. 33. Fl. Brit. n.8. Engl. Bot. t. 655. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 3. Woodv. Med. Bot.t.7. Purfh n.5. Fl. Dan. t. 511. (Beccabunga; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 100. Anagallis feu Becabunga ; Ger. Em. 620. Sium; Fuchf. Hilt. 725.)—Clufters lateral. Leaves elliptical, flat. Stem creeping.—Native of clear ditches, and hmpid ftreams, throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, as well as in North America, flowering in June and July. Perennial. Stems procumbent or float- ing in their lower part, fending out long fibrous radicles from the joints; round, fucculent, {mooth and fhining, like every other part of the herb, and extending two or three feet. Leaves flightly ferrated, of a bright rich green, from one to two inches long, on fhort broad ftalks. Cluffers axillary, oppofite, ftalked, longer than the leaves, of feve- ral, not very brilliant, blue fowers. Segments of the calyx ovate, as long as the roundifh, emarginate cap/ule. De Theis fays, the old name Beccabunga is corrupted from Bach-punghen, the German appellation of this plant ; bach meaning a rivulet ; from whence comes the word deck, ufed for a brook in Yorkfhire and Norfolk. However this may be, Dr. Sibthorp found Becabunga the Turkifh name of this Veronica; adopted perhaps from fome European doétor. 37- WV. Anagallis. Water Speedwell, or Long-leaved Brooklime. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Willd. n. 31. Vahl n. 34. Fl. Brit. n.g. Engl. Bot. t. 781. Curt. Lond. fafe. 5. t.2. Purfhn.6. Fl. Dan. t. 903. (Anagallis aquatica major ; Ger. Em. 620. )—Clutfters lateral, oppofite. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated. Stem ere¢ét.—Native of ditches, the borders of rivers, and other watery fituations, throughout Europe; more general in North America than the fore- going ; and found alfo in Japan. Perennial, and agreeing in habit with VY. Beccabunga, but taller, more ereét, and readily known by its long, acute, lanceolate /eaves. The clufters alfo are longer and more pointed, and the flowers {maller, occafionally flefh-coloured. 38. V. /cutellata. Narrow-leaved Marfh Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Willd. n. 32. Vahl n. 35. Fl. Brit. n. 10. Engl. Bot. t. 782. Curt. Lond. fafe. 5. t. 3. Purfh n. 7. Fl. Dan. t. 209. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 15. t.13. (V. pa- luftris anguftifolia; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 96. f.1. Ana- gallis aquatica quarta; Lob. Ic. 467. Ger. Em. 621.)— Clufters lateral, alternate ; partial flower-ftalks divaricated. Leaves linear, flightly indented.—Native of watery places, efpecially on fpongy bogs, or a fandy foil, in various parts of Europe and North America; much lefs common in England than the two laft; flowering in July and Augutt. A flender, weak, often purplifh, perennial herd, with long narrow /eaves, occafionally downy. Flowers pale flefh- coloured, with purple veins; their falks bent quite back as the cap/ule ripens. ‘The cluffers are axillary, rarely oppofite. V. parmularia, Poit. et Turp. Parif. 16. t. 14, is only the hairy variety of this {pecies, mentioned in Fl. Brit., which is rather of a {maller fize, and hairy or downy in every part of the herbage ; but even the authors cited efteem it only a variety. 39: V. gracilis. Slender New-Holland Speedwell. Br. n. 4.—* Corymbs lateral, of few flowers. Leaves linear- lanceolate, nearly entire, very f{mooth as well as the nearly fimple ftem.’’—Native of Port Jackfon, New South Wales. Partition of the cap/ule contrary to the valves. Brown. 40. V. perfoliata. Perfoliate Speedwell. Br. n.3. Curt. Mag. t. £936.—Clutters lateral, ftalked, many-flowered. Leaves entire, very fmooth, ovate, pointed; combined at the VERONICA. the bafe. Capfule of four valves.—Native of Port Jack- fon, New South Wales Flowers dark blue. P 41. V. Billardieri. Sharp-leaved Syrian Speedwell. Vahl n. 36.—Clufters axillary, many times longer than the lance- olate-oblong, entire, hoary leaves. Stems proftrate, hoary. —Gathered in Syria by M. Labillardiere. The /fems are feveral, thread-fhaped, fomewhat branched, hoary and vil- lous, like the foliage and flower-ftalks. Leaves nearly feffile, hardly the length of the nail, fharpifh, without ribs or veins, and accompanied by axillary rudiments of linear leaves. Cluffers after flowering two or three inches long. BraGeas linear, the length of the partial ftalks. Calyx in four linear, equal fegments, the length of the fame. Cap- Sule inverfely heart-fhaped, comprefled, as long as the calyx, becoming {moother as it ripens. ahi. 42. V. macroftachya. Blunt-leaved Syrian Speedwell. Vahl n. 37.—Clufters axillary, many times longer than the linear-oblong, obtufe, deeply ferrated, hoary leaves. Stems proftrate, hoary.—Native of Syria. Labillardiere. Every part of the herb is villous and hoary. Stems feveral, a {pan jong, thread-fhaped, fomewhat branched. Leaves feffile, the length of the nail; a little dilated, and deeply ferrated, towards the extremity. Cl/uflers long. Braéieas \inear. Calyx in four linear fegments. Cap/ule as in the laft. Ina garden the /lem becomes eighteen inches, and each clu/ler two feet, in length ; with very foft downy /eaves. Pabl. 43. V. pedtinata. Pe€tinated Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 24. Willd. n. 36. Vahl n. 38. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 25. (V. conftantinopolitana incana, chamedryos folio ; Yourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. 1. 25. t. 39. f. 1. )—Clufters lateral, on leafy ftalks. Leaves oblong, with deep parallel ferratures. Stems proftrate.—Gathered by Buxbaum, and fince by Sibthorp, on craggy fhelvy mountains, bordering both fhores of the Bofphorus, flowering in fpring. Mr. Hawkins met with this plant on the higheft fummits of the Sphaciote mountains of Crete. It has a woody perennial root, and feveral woody /fems, a finger’s length, chiefly hairy on two oppofite fides. Leaves nearly feffile, not an inch long, with parallel, bluntifh, rather deep incifions. Flowers blue, in long, loofe, downy cluffers, whofe talks bear feveral, alternate, partly entire, leaves. Segments of the calya linear, obtufe, hairy, two of them much longer than the other two. 44. V. orientalis. Various-leaved Speedwell. Mill. Did. ed. 8. n. ro. Ait. n. 27. Willd. n. 39. Vahl n. 39. Marfch. Taur.-Cauc. v. 1. 12. (V. auftriaca @; Linn. Sp. Pl. 17; the fpecimen marked V. cappadocica, foliis laci- niatis; Tourn. Cor. though no fuch name occurs there. V. heterophylla; Salifb. Ic. 7. t. 4. V. montana, folio vario; Buxb. Cent. 1. 24. t. 38.)—Clufters lateral, lax, on partly leafy ftalks. Leaves pinnatifid, fmooth, acute; ta- pering at the bafe ; the uppermoft linear-lanceolate, nearly entire. Partial {talks capillary, longer than the bra¢teas.— Native of graffy paftures in Armenia, Georgia, and Tauria, flowering in June and July. Miller cultivated it in 1748, and it is {till preferved in the gardens; but there was no reafon for retaining his unmeaning name, which had not come into general ufe, inftead of the expreffive one of he- terophylla. This evil it is now too late to remedy. The plant is hardy and perennial, bufhy, of a pale and fmooth appearance, the /eaves varioufly cut, thin, flat, and pliant. Flowers copious, rather large, light blue, prettily ftriated. Calyx and braéeas linear, rather downy. Cap/ule kidney- fhaped. 45. V.taurica. Narrow-leaved Taurian Speedwell. Willd. n. 42. (V. orientalis 2; Vahl n. 39. Marfch. Taur.-Cauc. v. I. 12.)—Clutfters lateral, lax, on naked italks. Leaves linear, revolute, downy, tapering at the bafe; entire, or? fomewhat toothed. Partial ftalks longer than the obtufe braéteas.—Native of Tauria, on chalky ftony hills, flower- ing from June to Auguft. We cannot agree with Vahl in reducing this to V. orientalis. Our wild {pecimens, from the Chevalier de Steven, fhew it to be a more firm and rigid plant, with woody roots. The decumbent /fems are not a finger’s length. Leaves almoft coriaceous, bright green, an inch long, fomewhat downy on both fides, very narrow and revolute in their lower part; fome of them cut into two, rarely more, ftrong, lateral, tooth-like fegments. C/u/- ters axillary, greatly overtopping the branches, as in the foregoing ; but the lower part of their long firm ftalks is naked, never leafy. The braé&eas, and fegments of the calyx, are obovate and obtufe, not linear. ~Flowers but half the fize of the laft ; according to Willdenow rofe-coloured, as they feem in our fpecimen. Capfule abrupt, fearcely lobed. 46. V. parviflora. Small-flowered Oriental Speedwell. Vahl n. 40. (V. orientalis minima, foliis laciniatis; Tourn. Cor.7. Buxb. Cent. 1. 26. t. 41. f. 2.)—Clufters feveral, lateral, on naked ftalks. Leaves pinnatifid, linear, revo- lute. Braéteas linear, obtufe, as long as the partial ftalks. —Native of Cappadocia and Armenia, in grafly hilly paf- tures, flowering in June. Linnzus confounded it with V. pedinata, though nothing can be more diftiné&t; nor can there be lefs difficulty in diftinguifhing this {pecies from the two laft. The feems are hardly a finger’s length. Leaves deeply and regularly pinnatifid, thick, obtufe, revolute, and in our fpecimen rather downy, as in taurica; Vahl fays {mooth. Cluflers from four to fix about the top of the ftem, and rifing far above it, downy all over, on long, round, downy, leaflefs ftalks. Partial ftalks rather fhorter than the braGeas. Flowers blue, much {maller than even the laft. Calyx with four linear, obtufe, very unequal feg- ments. Cap/ule inverfely heart-fhaped, more deeply divided than in faurica. 47. V. rofea. Rofe-coloured Speedwell. Desfont. At- lant. v. 1. 13. Vahl n. 41,—Clufters denfe, axillary, nearly terminal, on naked ftalks. Leaves unequally pinnatifid, minutely hairy ; lower ones wedge-fhaped, obtufe, toothed. Braéteas linear, nearly as long as the partial ftalks.— Found by Desfontaines, on mount Atlas, near Tlemfen. The /fems are fhrubby, numerous, afcending, from four to eight inches high. eaves an inch long, acute, tapering at the bafe into a fhort foot/talk. Calyx in four linear-lanceolate unequal feg- ments. Corolla rofe-coloured, the fize of V. Teucrium, here- after deferibed. 48. V. auffriaca. Auftrian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Willd. n. 41. Wahl n.4z. Ait. n. 28. (V-~ multifida et auftriaca; Jacq. Auftr. ¥. 4. 15. t. 329. Chamedrys fpuria, tenuiffimé laciniata; Bauh. Hilt. v. 3. 287. Morif. fe&. 3. t. 23. f. 17.) —Clutfters lateral, on long naked ftalks. Leaves flightly hairy, varioufly pinnatifid, or bipinnatifid; moft deeply towards the bafe. Partial ftalks capillary. Calyx very unequally five-cleft, fomewhat hairy.—Native of Auf- tria, Silefia and Carniola, a hardy perennial in our gardens, flowering from June to Auguft. The herbage is more or lefs downy, but fearcely hoary, except the /fems, which are round, leafy, a fpan or more in height. Leaves various in their divifions, the fegments generally broader upwards, all decurrent, fometimes as narrow and compound as in V. mul- tifida, with which moft botanifts have always confounded the prefent fpecies. Flowers light blue, in feveral long, lax, axillary c/u/lers, rifing high above the ftem. Segments of the calyx acute, the two lowermoft very long, the fifth oppofite to them, between the two others, much {maller than VERONICA. than either, but, as far as we can difcern, always prefent. Divifions of the corolla elliptic-oblong, acute. Cap/ule fmall, fhorter than the calyx, elliptic-obcordate. 49: V. multifida. Fine-cut Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17, excluding the fynonym. Willd. n. 40. Vahl n. 43. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. t. 191. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 12. Curt. Mag. t. 1679. (V.n. 38; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 2223 ex- cluding the fynonym of Tournefort. )—Clutfters lateral, on Jong naked ftalks. Leaves deeply and doubly pinnatifid, downy, with linear revolute fegments tapering downwards. Calyx very unequally five-cleft. Segments of the corolla rounded.—Native of open fields and hills, in Siberia, Tau- ria, and about mount Caucafus, flowering in April and May. A much {maller plant, more delicate in its herbage, than the laft, as well as more downy. The narrow revo- lute {preading fegments of the /eaves, refembling fome kinds of Artemifia, readily diftinguifh it. The flowers are bright blue, with rounder broader divifions than in V. auffriaca. The calyx is very fmooth in every flower of the original Lin- nzan {pecimen, but in moft others, from various quarters, it Is more or lefs downy. The fifth fegment is minute, fcarcely half fo long as the fhorteft of the others. Baron Marfchall a Bieberftein obferves, that all this tribe of Veronice, with cut leaves, have a five-cleft calyx. 50. V. tenuifolia, Slender-leaved Georgian Speedwell. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 13.—“ Clufters lateral. Leaves pinnatifid, with linear-threadfhaped divifions. Seg- ments of the calyx awl-fhaped; three upper ones very fhort. Stems afcending.’’— Gathered in Georgia, by the Chevalier de Steven. Perennial. Akin to the laft, but the Jtems are more elongated ; /eaves lefs fubdivided ; their feg- ments, efpecially thofe of the lower ones, longer ; partial Jfialks equal to the braéivas, or longer ; three upper fegments of the calyx minute. May this be VY. parviflora of Vahl? (fee n. 46.) The flowers however are by no means f{maller than multifida or orientalis. Mar{chall. 51. V. caucafica. Slender-leaved Caucafian Speedwell. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf, v. 1. 13.—‘ Clufters lateral. Leaves doubly pinnatifid, with lanceolate or linear feg- ments. Partial ftalks capillary. Segments of the calyx lanceolate, nearly equal. Stem almott ereét.”>—From the fame country. Perennial. The /eaves are like multifida, but the divifions of the lower ones are broader. Partial ftalks longer than the braéeas. § gments of the calyx four, almoft equal, broader than in the neighbouring fpecies. Lobes of the corolla rounded. Mar/chall. 52. V. Allionii. Shining-leaved Speedwell. Villars Dauph. v. 2. 8. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 190. Willd. n.18. Vahl n. 44. Ait. n.1g. (V. pyrenaica ; Allion, Pedem. v.1. 73. t. 46. f.3. V. repens, ex alis fpicata, &c.; Spec. 21. t. 4. V. officinalis 2; Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. V.n.23 Ger. Galloprov. 332. V. mas repens pyrenaica, folio longiori glabro; Sherard Schol. Bot. 46. Tourn. Inft. 143. Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 1.)—Clufters lateral, very denfe, obtufe, on long {mooth ftalks. Leaves roundifh-oblong, crenate, rigid, fhining, fmooth as well as the creeping {tems.—Native of mount Cenis, and the alps of Switzerland, Dauphiny and Savoy, flowering in Augutt. Root perennial, creeping. Stems round, procumbent, leafy, creeping alfo to a great extent. Leaves roundifh, or obo- vate, firm and coriaceous; paler beneath: on fhort broad footftalks. Clufters axillary, folitary, fcarcely more than one to each branch, on a round, naked, firm, afcending ftalk, thrice the length of the leaves; the clufler itfelf an inch long, downy, elliptic-oblong, obtufe, of numerous, crowded, violet-blue flowers, with very fhort partial flalks, not half the length of the obtufe braceas. Calyx in four oblong, Vos. XXXVII. unequal fegments. Villars mentions a hairy variety. ‘This {pecies, confounded by Linnzus with the following, is of a much more rigid, compact, and fmooth habit, of a darker hue, and unqueftionably very diftin&. Its infufion, ufed medicinally in the fouth of France, for colds, coughs, de- bility of the flomach, &c. is faid to be more fragrant and aromatic than that of V. officinalis, a popular medicinal tea in the northern parts of Europe. 53. V. officinalis. Common Male Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. rq. Willd. n.17. Vahln.45. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t.765. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3.t.1. Purfh n. 2. Woodv. Suppl. t. 219. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 93. Fl. Dan. t. 248. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 12. t.8. (V. mas; Fuchf. Hitt. 166. V. vera et major; Ger. Em. 626.)—Clufters lateral, ftalked, flender, acute, rather Jax. Leaves elliptic- oblong, ferrated, rough, ftem procumbent.—Native of dry {andy banks, heaths and woods, on a barren foil, through- out Europe and North America, flowering in May and June. Perennial. Stems trailing, branched, forming broad tufts or fcattered patches. Whole plant hairy. Leaves more oblong, acute, pliant, paler, and more deeply ferrated, than in the former. Flowers pale blue, or light pink, {triated, in long, rather lax, alternate, axillary c/uflers, on hairy ftalks, about twice the length of the leaves. Cap/ule inverfely heart-fhaped, fplitting into four valves. The late Mr. Mackay has fent us from the mountains above Blair in Athol, and from Ireland, a fort of inter- mediate variety between this and VY. Allionit, partaking of the rigidity and fmoothnefs of the latter, but even more ftrongly ferrated than officinalis. We {carcely hefitate to which fpecies to refer it, though we have never compared living {pecimens. 54. V. reniformis. Kidney-leaved Speedwell. Purfh n. 3.—Spikes lateral, ftalked. Leaves kidney-heartfhaped, deeply crenate, fmooth. Stem creeping.—Colle&ted by Mefirs. Lewis and Clark, in boggy foil, on the banks of the Miffouri, flowering in June. Perennial. Stem creep- ing, thread-fhaped, taking root at the joints. Leaves op- pofite, on long ftalks, deeply cut and notched. Flower- Jflalks axillary, alternate, round, fmooth, the length of the leaves, bearing towards the top a fingle, oblong, crenate bradea. Spike oblong, fhort. Flowers large, crowded, pale blue. Calyx four-cleft ; the two upper fegments ob- long ; two lower linear, much fmaller. Corolla flat, with oblong acute fegments, thrice the length of the calyx ; the lower one linear. Filaments the length of the corolla. Purfh. 55- V. profrata. Trailing Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Willd. n. 35. Vahl n. 46.. “Ait. n. 24. Ehrh. Herb. n.71- Roth in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v.13. 137. (V. anguftifolia minor; Rivin. Monop, Irr. t.95. f.2. Chamedrys fpuria minor anguftifolia ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 287.) @. V. fatureiefolia ; Poit. et Turp. Parif. 18. t. 17. Clutters lateral, moftly oppofite, corymbofe. Leaves ellip- tic-oblong, varioufly ferrated, nearly feffile ; upper ones nar- rower and entire. Stem afcending, partially naked at each fide.’ Calyx five-cleft, very unequal.—Native of Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France, and the Levant. A hardy perennial, flowering in May and June. The herbage is light green, “more or lefs downy, flightly hoary. Stems not a fpan long, clothed with fhort denfe recurved pu- befcence, which is partly fmoothed away, here and there, in oppofite lateral lines. Leaves three-quarters of an inch long, rarely more, rather blunt, crenate or deeply ferrated for the moft part ; the upper ones only being linear, revo- lute and entire; but in the variety, as we judge it, moft of K the VERONICA. the leaves are of the latter defcription. The flowers are bright blue, rather fhowy, in corymbofe denfe tufts, fubfe- uently lengthened out into long lax clwffers. The calyx thems to vary in acutenefs, but is generally {mooth. 56. V. pilofa. Hairy-ftalked Germander ~ Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1663, excluding the defcription. Willd. n.34. Vahl n.47. (Chamedryos falfa fpecies, Teucrium fe- cundum aut quintum Clufii; Bauh. Hitt. v. 3. 286. )—* Cluf- ters fomewhat {piked. Leaves ovate, obtufe, plaited. Stem proftrate, hairy.”’—Native of Auftria. Linnaeus. ‘This is a very doubtful fpecies, not to be found in the Linnzan herbarium ; and the defeription in Sp. Pl. 1664. is erafed by Linnzus himfelf, from his own copy. Willdenow’s defcription of a Bohemian f{pecimen, in his pofleffion, anfwers very nearly to one of thofe patted toge- ther as the pro/frata, in the Linnzan herbarium, whofe /eaves are more cut, and calyx rather fharper than the three others ; but we cannot think there is any {pecific diftin@tion between them. The calyx of this fpecimen has five fegments, though that charaéter is not invariable. Willdenow defcribes four. 57. V. Teucrium. Upright Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16, fynonyms confufed. Willd. n. 33. Vahl n. 48. Ebrh, Pl, Off. 51. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 16. t.15. .(V. montana; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t.g5. f.1. Chamedrys fpuria major anguitifolia; Bauh. Pin. 249. Bauh. Hitt. v. 3. 285. chap. 58. Ch. fylveftris; Dod. Pempt. 45. Ch. vulgaris mas; Fuchf. Hift. 871. Teucrii quarti tertia fpecies ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 349.)—Clufters lateral, oppofite, cylindrical, on long ftalks. Leaves feffile, oblong-lanceolate, bluntly ferrated, rough. Stem afcending, hairy. Fifth fegment of the calyx very minute.—Native of Germany, Bohemia, and France, on a dry foil, flowering in May. The root is perennial. Srems feldom quite ereét, a foot long, round, hairy, partly fmooth on two oppofite fides, leafy. Leaves an inch and a quarter long, veiny, hairy, itrongly ferrated, but not cut; a little dilated at the bafe. Cluffers axillary, ufually two near the top of the ftem, rifing high above it, on long, parallel, naked, downy ftalks. Flowers copious, rather crowded, large, handfome, of a fine blue. Segments of the calyx oblong, the fifth minute, various, often obfolete. Mr. Sieber has fent as a variety of this fpecies the /. deniata of Schmidt, whofe Jeaves are narrow, linear, and nearly all entire. Yet it is probably not fpecifically diftiné. 58. V.-datifolia. Great Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd. n.44. Vahl n. 49. Ait. n. 30. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v.1. 10. (V. Teucrium; Roth in Sims and Kon, Ann. of Bot. v. 1.137. V. pfeudo-chamedrys ; Jacq. Auftr. t. 60. Chamzdrys fpuria major altera, five frutefcens ; Bauh. Pin. 248. T'eucrium majus pannonicum ; Ger. Em. 659. T. quartum; Cluf. Hift. v.1. 349.)— Clufters lateral, oppofite, tapering, on long ftalks. Leaves feffile; ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, rough, deeply ferrated and cut. Stem ere&, hairy. Calyx unequally five-cleft. Native of Auftria, Bohemia, Germany, and the Levant ; a common hardy perennial in gardens, flowering in June and July. We have long fuppofed this not fpecifically diftin® from the laft. Wahl and Roth confound them ; Willdenow feems to have been acquainted with their differences, and the old authors were clearly fo. The prefent is a more tobuft plant, with broader more jagged /eaves. The /fem is quite {mooth on two oppofite fides, denfely and equally hairy on the intermediate ones. Flowers large, copious, very brilliant, in denfe more tapering clufters. Fifth feg- ment of the calyx half as long as the two next, but on this mark we have little reliance. Linnzus has led Jacquin and 4 others aftray, by citing fynonyms of V. uriicefolia for his latifolia, of which latter, as above defcribed, the original fpecimen is preferved in his herbarium, nor can we concur with the learned Dr. Roth in transferring this name to the urticifolia : fee his excellent remarks in Ann. of Bot. above cited. Neither do we by any means affert our Teucrium and Jatifolium to be more than varieties of each other, Schmidt’s deniata perhaps excepted, which is too unlike the latter. We have only aimed at colle€ting their fynonyms, and in- dicating what diftin@ions we could find,.for future inquiry. 59. V. peduncularis. LLong-ftalked Germander Speed- well. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v.1. 11. Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v.2. 401. (V. pedunculata; Vali n. so. V. chamedryos foliis parvis; Buxb. Cent. 1. 26.t. 41. f. 1.) —Clufters lateral, oppofite; with long c&pillary partial ftalks. Leaves ftalked, ovate, deeply ferrated and cut ; their fegments toothed. Calyx in four, nearly equal, bluntifh feements.—Native of fhady thickets and groves of mount Caucafus, flowering in May. Perennial. Akin to V. Chamedrys hereafter defcribed, but the /fems are hairy almoft all round ; /eaves ftalked, {maller, and yet more cut, in an unequal or compound manner. The partial flower- Jfralks are alfo longer ; the braGeas and fegments of the calyx broader and more obtufe. The variety y of Fi. Taur.- Cauca/. fent by the Chevalier de Steven, is of a very differ- ent and diminutive afpeét ; the /eaves {carcely ftalked, or cut. 60. V. umbrofa. Wood Germander Speedwell. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 11.—** Clufters lateral, of few flowers. Leaves oblong, obtufe, diftantly ferrated, rough; upper- moft linear-lanceolate, entire. Stems creeping. Calyx as long as the corolla.”’—Native of the denfe fhady foreits of Tauria, about the town of Karaflubafar, flowerimg in April and May. Perennial, forming loofe tufts. Par- Es flower-ftalks thread-fhaped. Segments of the calyx inear. Specimens fent by the Chevalier de Steven from Tauria, under this name, have fmooth /eaves, except the edges ; clufters of rather numerous, though diftant, large and hand- fome blue flowers ; braéicas ovate, as well as the fegments of the calyx, which laft is but half the length of the corolla. 61. V. Michauxii. Illuftr. v.1. 44. DiG. v.8. 532. ters lateral. Flowers fomewhat crowded. Leaves ovate, toothed, feffile. Herbage hairy and glutinous.””—Brought from the Eaft by Michaux to the Paris garden. Stems four to fix inches long, clothed with whitih vifcid hairs. Leaves oppofite, obfcurely toothed, bluntifh, an inch and a half long, fix lines broad, without ribs. Stalks axillary, op- pofite, fome of them at the ends of the fhort lateral leafy branches al! downy, hardly fo long as the leaves. Flowers on very fhort downy ftalks, crowded. Braéeas lanceolate. Segments of the ca/yx four, oval, fharpifh, fcarcely downy. 62. V. Chamedrys. Wild Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Willd. n. 38. Wahl n.52. Fl. Brit. n. 12. Engl. Bot. t. 623. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t.2. Mart. Ruft. t. 66. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 13. t-9. Fl. Dan. t.448. (V.pratenfis latifolia; Riv. Monop. Irr. t.94. Chamadrys; Brunf. Herb. v.1. 125. Ch. vulgaris foemina; Fuchf. Hift. 872. Ch. fylveftris; Ger. Em. 657.) — Clufters lateral. Leaves ovate, feffile, rugged, deeply ferrated. Stem diffufe, with a narrow hairy line at each fide. Calyx four-cleft, lanceolate.—Native of grafly paftures, groves, and banks throughout Europe, and even in Japan, peren- nial, flowering in May. Few of our wild flowers can vie with this in elegance and brilliancy, nor can the pencil ole 0 Michauxian ‘Speedwell. Lamarck Vahl n. 51.—* Cluf- VERONICA. do it juftice. The wavy /lems {pread in every direction, and are merely fringed at each fide with a line of longifh hairs, not only partially naked, as in 7. Teucrium and /atifolia. The foliage is akin to the latter, but lefs cut. C/u/fers numerous, generally oppofite, on hairy ftalks, taper-pointed, many- flowered. Braéeas lanceolate, ufually rather fhorter than -the partial ftalks. Flowers large, bright blue, moft ele- gantly veined ; paler at the back. Capfule inverfely heart- fhaped, {mall. ‘ 63. V. urticefolia. Nettle-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Suppl. 83. Willd. n. 43. Vahl n. 53. Ait. n. 29. Jacq. Auftr. t.59. (V. 0.535; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 232. V. pratenfis, omnium maxima; Buxb. Cent. 1. 23. t. 34. V. maxima; Dalech. Hift. 1165. Chamedrys f{puria major latifolia; Bauh. Pin. 248.)—Clufters lateral, lax, with capillary ‘ftalks. Leaves feffile, heart-fhaped, pointed, fharply ferrated. Stem quite ere&t. Calyx four-cleft, ovate.—Native of woods in Auftria, Bavaria, Switzerland, and Bithynia, flowering in May and June. This fpecies was not known to Linnzus, till Jacquin, who originally took it for Jatifolia, fent him a fpecimen. Under this latter name it is defcribed by Dr. Roth, in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. t. 137, but was never what Linnezus intended. No fpecies is better defined nor better named. The large nettle-like Jeaves at once determine it. The roots are perennial, moderately creeping. Stems ere&t and ftraight, flender, eighteen inches or two feet high, quite fimple, marked with a flight hairy line. C/u/fers numerous, axillary, oppofite, ere€t, loofe and flender. Flowers {mall, flefh- coloured, with crimfon lines. Cap/ule of two femi-orbicular lobes. 64. V. Pone. Rock Germander Speedwell. Gouan Tluftr. 1. t. 1. f.1. Willd. n.23, excluding the variety. Vahl n. 54. (V. petrea; Pon. Bald. 179? Cluf. Hitt. vy. 2. 336?)—Clufter nearly terminal, lax, of few flowers. Leaves feflile, heart-fhaped, obtufe, coarfely ferrated. Stem erect. Calyx five-cleft, {mooth.—Native of the Pyrenees, and perhaps of mount Baldus. Perennial. “ Stem four or five inches high, quite fimple and upright. Lower leaves {malleft, roundifh, crenate; the reft an inch long, very blunt, coarfely ferrated, entire at the extremity, befprinkled with diftant clofe-preffed hairs: Braéeas linear, the length of the partial ftalks. Flowers diftant, the fize of V. Cha- _madrys. Such is Vahl’s defcription of Gouan’s plant, which he received from that author, and found himfelf alfo on the Pyrenees. He afferts it to be a diltin& f{pecies, nor do we doubt his accuracy. We neverthelefs have great doubts refpeGting Pona’s plant, which may be a Linnzan Paderota, as Linnzus fuppofed ; for the figure very clofely agrees with Micheli’s Buonarota, t.15. Gouan himfelf feems not quite certain of Seguier’s plant, from mount Baldus; nor do we implicitly confide in Gouan’s learning with regard to fynonyms. The references to Plukenet, Phyt. t. 233. £. 2. and 3, are beft omitted. Willdenow is furely wrong in referring hither Allioni’s /’. pumila, which Vahl more judicioufly confiders as V. alpina; fee our n. 22. 65. V. montana. Mountain Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pi. 17. Suppl.83. Willd. n.37. Vahl n. §5. Fl. Brit. n.11. Engl. Bot. t. 766. Curt. Lond. fafe. 4. t.2. Jacq. Auftr. t. 109. Hoffm. Germ. ann. 1791. t.1. Fl. Dan. t. 1201. (V. procumbens; Rivin. Monop. Trr. t. 93. Alyflum Diofcoridis montanum ; Column. Ecphr. v. 1. 286. t. 288. )—Clufters lateral, elongated, lax, of few flowers. Leaves ovate, ftalked, ferrated. Stem diffufe, hairy all round. Native of fhady rather mountain- ous woods, efpecially on a calcareous foil, in Denmark, England, Germany, and Italy, flowering in May and June, - much lefs beautiful; fegments of the calyx obovate. A very diftin& perennial fpecies, which fomé botanifts have incautioufly confounded with V. Chamedrys. Scopoli, {till more unaccountably, united them both with 7. Teucrium. Sherard, who firft noticed the montana in England, and Curtis, have been more exact in their obfervations. The fiem being hairy in every dire€tion, and the large cap/ule formed of two orbieular lobes, not obcordate, are abun- dantly fufficient diftinétions. The /eaves are thinner, and more fhining, than in Chamedrys; flowers {maller, paler, We regret that a miftake of the late very accurate Mr. W. Brunton is recorded in Turner’s and Dillwyn’s Botanift’s Guide 666. He feems to have taken up a portion of the root of Chamedrys along with montana, and thought the latter was, in the following feafon, transformed into the former. His fpecimens are before us; and of the obvious and abfolute diftinétnefs of the fpecies there can be no doubt, however they came together. 66. V. calycina. Long-cupped New Holland Speedwell. Br. n. 5.—Clufters lateral, of few flowers. Leaves ftalked, ovate, rugofe, unequally crenate, hairy as well as the creep- ing ftem. Calyx hairy, fringed, longer than the capfule. Obferved by Mr. Brown, in Van Diemen’s ifland, and oi the fouth coaft of New Holland. 67. V. diftans. Diltant-flowered New Holland Speed- well. Br. n.6.—Corymbs lateral, ftalked, of few flowers. Leaves ovate, broadly ferrated, fmooth. Foot ftalks fringed. Stem decumbent, with a hairy line at each fide.—Gathered on the fouth coaft of New Holland, by Mr. Brown. 68. V. arguta. Sharp-toothed New Holland Speed- well. Br. n. 7.—Clufters lateral, lax. Leaves ovato-lan- ceolate, fmooth, unequally ferrated. Stem downy on two oppofite fides. Lower footftalks one-third the length of the leaves.—Gathered by Mr.. Brown at Port Jackfon, New South Wales. A fpecimen from the fame country, communicated by Mr. Lambert, anfwers in every refpeét to the above definition, except that the /eaves are triangular- heartfhaped ; but perhaps it may be a variety only. ‘The calyx has four obovate fegments, rather longer than thé nearly orbicular cap/ule. , 69. V. plebeia. Common New Holland Speedwell. Br. n. 8.—Clufters lateral, lax. Leaves ovate, unequally and deeply ferrated, {mooth. Stem very finely downy. Lower footftalks half as long again as the leaves.—Gathered at Port Jackfon, by Mr. Brown, who fpeaks of it as very clofely related to the laft. Seét. 4. Stalks fingleflowered, axillary. 70. V. biloba. Two-lobed Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 172, excluding the fynonyms of Columna and ‘Bauhin. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1..193. . Willd. ns 46. Vahl n.56. (V. orientalis, ocymi folio, flore minimo ; Toura. Cor. 7. V. arvenfis annua, chamedryos folio; Buxb. Cent. 1. 24. t. 36.) —Flower-ftalks thread-fhaped. Leaves ovate, acute, ferrated, nearly fmooth. Calyx of the fruit in four deep, ovate, three-ribbed, almoft equal, fegments.— Gathered by Tournefort in corn-fields in Cappadocia ; and by the Chevalier de Steven on the eaftern mountains of Caucafus. The root is annual. Stems two to four inches high, ere€t, branched, downy. Leaves fomewhat heart- fhaped at the bafe, half or three-quarters of an inch long, on fhort ftalks. Flowers axillary, folitary, alternate, about the top of the ftem and branches, the leaves which accom- pany them being more entire, and feflile, than. the ref. Segments of the calyx lanceolate while in flower, the two uppermoft fhorteft; afterwards they become much larger, ovate, fringed, marked with two evident lateral ribs befides the central one. Corolla fmall, white. Capfule hairy, of K 2 two VERONICA. two diftin&, divaricated, rounded lobes, much fhorter than the permanent calyx. Linneus feems to have taken his fpecific chara&ter from Columna’s Ecphrafis, t. 290, which reprefents a widely different fpecies, akin to Chamedrys, poflibly the Pone of Gouan; fee n. 64. 71. V. amoena. Handfome-flowered Annual Speedwell. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 14.—‘ Flowers folitary. Leaves ovate, crenate; floral ones oblong, entire, much fhorter than the flower-ftalks. Segments of the calyx linear. Stem f{preading.””—-Gathered by the Chevalier de Steven, in the fields of Georgia, flowering early in fpring. Root annual. Herb the fize of V. arvenfis. The floral Jeaves are minute and entire, fo different from the reft, as to caufe a doubt whether they be other than braéeas, and the inflorefcence racemofe. This is the moft beautiful f{pecies of the prefent fe€tion, on account of its very large blue flowers, white in the middle. Mar/ch. 72. V. glauca. Glaucous Three-cleft Speedwell. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1.6. t..7.—Flowers folitary. Leaves heart-fhaped, deeply ferrated. Stems procumbent. Seg- ments of the calyx three-cleft.—Native of the fummit of mount Hymettus, above Athens. Mr. Ferdinand Bauer. Root annual. Stems {preading on the ground in every dire€tion, much branched, reddifh, with a denfe hairy line at each fide. Leaves glaucous, ftalked, more or lefs deeply cut, fearcely an inch long, moft hairy at the bafe and under- neath ; the lower ones oppofite; upper alternate. Flower- ftalks capillary, fmooth, fhorter than the leaves. Calyx in four very deep, nearly equal, wedge-fhaped fegments, re- markable for being three-cleft, which well marks the {pecies. Corolla deep blue, white in the centre. 73- V. agreftis. Procumbent Field Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd. n.47. Vahl n.58. FI. Brit. n. 13. Engl. Bot. t. 783. Curt. Lond. fafe.1. t.1. Fl. Dan. t.449. (V. folio chamedryos; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99. f.2. Alfine foliis triffaginis; Ger. Em. 616.) @. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1.6. t.8. (V.perfica; Poir. in Lam. Di@. v. 8. 542. V. flofculis oblongis pediculis infidentibus, chamedryos folio, major; Buxb. Cent. 1. 26. t. 40. f. 2.) Flowers folitary. Leaves ovate, deeply ferrated, fhorter than the flower-ftalks. Stems procumbent. _ Seg- ments of the calyx ovate. Seeds cupped.—Native of cul- tivated and waite ground, throughout Europe, annual, flowering from April to the end of autumn. f was gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, in Prince’s iflands, near Con- itantinople. Root fmall. Stems proftrate, fimple, except at the bafe, round, leafy, hairy, from fix to twelve inches long. Some of the lower /eaves are oppofite, but the greater part are alternate, all ftalked, roughifh. Flowers deep blue, rather fmall. Segments of the calyx ovato-lan- ceolate, fringed, generally quite entire, now and then irre- gularly toothed ; becoming broadly ovate as the fruit ad- vances. Cap/ule rough, of two round {welling lobes. Seeds about fix in each cell, externally rugged, hollowed out underneath, where their {talk is inferted.— We would gladly, if poflible, have made a diftinG {pecies of the V. byzantina of Sibthorp’s manufcripts, our variety 8; but no difference is to be found, except the greater fize of every part. The corolla is much larger, paler, more elegantly ftreaked. The form of the calyx, tumid capfule, and curious ftru€ture of the feeds, are all the fame as in our common kind. 74. V. arvenfis. Wall Speedwell, or Speedwell Chick- weed. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd. n. 48. Vahl n. 59. Fl. Brit. n. 14. Engl. Bot. t.734. Curt. Lond. fafe. 2. 2. Fi. Dan. t.515. Purfh n.8. (Alfine foliis vero- t.zk nice; Ger. Em. 613. Alyflum; Column. Phytob. t. 28.) — Flowers folitary, nearly feffile. Leaves ovate, deeply ferrated; the floral ones lanceolate, entire. Stem erect.. Seeds flat.—Native of Europe, North America and Japan, on walls, banks, and dry gravelly or fandy ground, flowering in May. The ferbage is of a pale green, rough. Stem about fix inches high, branched from the bottom. Lowett /eaves on fhort ftalks; the reft feffile; the floral ones fo fmall, as to feem like bradeas only, but their true nature appears from the analogy of other annual fpecies. Flowers {mall, pale blue; their very fhort ftalks more or lefs elongated as the fruit advances. Segments of the calyx lanceolate, fomewhat unequal. Cap/ule inverfely heart- fhaped, compreffed. Seeds elliptical, flat, with a little dimple in the centre of one fide. 75. V. rotundifolia. Round-leaved Peruvian Speedwell. “ Fl. Peruv. v. 1.6.”? Wahl n.60.—* Flowers folitary, ftalked. Leaves orbicular-kidneyfhaped, crenate. Stem thread-fhaped, creeping.’’—Plentiful in boggy fituations in Peru. Hairy. Stem flender, branched, round, purple. Leaves two or three, often but one, from each joint, on long ftalks, fomewhat peltate, deeply notched. Floqwer- flalks twice the length of the footitalks. Segments of the calyx lanceolate. Corolla of a rofy purple, with ovate feg- ments. Stamens three, the length of the tube. The flowers are occafionally five-cleft, with four ftamens. Vahl from the F/. Peruv. There is no figure, and having feen no {pecimen, we are very ready to concur with Vahl, in his opinion, that the genus of this plant is doubtful. 76. V. cymbalaria. White Oriental Speedwell. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 7. t.9. (V.cymbalariefolia; Vahl n.61. V.cymbalarifolia; Gmel. Tubing. 6. V. hederi- folia@; Linn. Sp. Pl.1g. Willd. n. 49. V. chia, cym- balariz folio, verna, flore albo umbilico virefcente ; Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. 1. 25. t. 39. f. 2.) Flowers folitary. Leaves heart-fhaped, deeply crenate. Segments of the calyx rounded. Seeds cupped, nearly f{mooth.—Native of fields about Conftantinople, and in the Greek iflands, as well as in Morocco. Annual. Stems fpreading or pro- cumbent, branched at the bafe only, a fpan long, fquare, with a hairy line at two oppofite fides. Leaves all ftalked, oppofite, rounded, obtufe, with two or three deep notches at each fide, but fearcely lobed. Flowers white with a yellow centre, on long, oppofite, capillary ftalks, reaching beyond their correfponding leaves. Segments of the calyx obovate, obtufe, fringed, entire. Cap/ule turgid, of two round lobes, hairy. Seeds only two in each cell, large, hollow at one fide, nearly f{mooth externally, chiefly wrinkled at the margin. Very diftin& in its calyx from the following. 77. V. hederifolia. Ivy-leaved Speedwell. Linn, Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 49. Vahl n. 62. FI. Brit. n. 15. Engl. Bot. t..784. Curt. Lond. fafe. 2. t.i. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 23. t.26. Fl. Dan. t. 428. (V. folio hedere ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t.g9. Alfine hederacea; Ger. Em. 616. Alfines quartum genus; Fuchf. Ic. 13.)—Flowers folitary. Leaves heart-fhaped, flat, five-lobed. Segments of the calyx heart-fhaped, acute. Seeds cupped, wrinkled. —Native of fields and wafte ground throughout Europe, flowering in April and May. Annual, in habit like the laft, but the /eaves are more decidedly lobed, and ivy-like, though of a pale green. They are alfo, except a very few of the lowermoft, all alternate, moftly longer than their footftalks. Flowers pale blue, on long, folitary, axillary italks. Segments of the ca/yx nearly equal, pointed, three- ribbed, with a very broad heart-fhaped bafe. Seeds much more wrinkled at the outfide than the laft, but agreeing with that f{pecies and agre/fis in their reverfed cup-like form. —The late Mr, Crowe obferved to the writer of this, after the VERONICA. the prefent fpecies had appeared in Engl. Bot., that it is fcarcely to be found with us in flower later than May, and that the Norfolk farmers call it Winter-weed. 78. V. filiformis. Capillary-ftalked Speedwell. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1! 195. Willd. n. 50. Vahl n. 63. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. y. 1. 15 (V. orientalis, foliis he- derz terreftris, magno flore ; Tourn. Cor. 7... Buxb. Cent. I. 25. t. 40. f. 1.)—Flowers folitary. Leaves heart-fhaped, crenate, much fhorter than the long flender flower-italks. Segments of the calyx lanceolate.—Native of the Levant ; found by the Chevalier de Steven in mountainous fields of Georgia, flowering early in the fpring. We have com- pared his {pecimens with Tournefort’s, nor is there any difference, though the reference to this author is directed in the F/. Taur.-Cauca/. to be ftruck out. The root is annual. Stems long and trailing. Leaves a quarter of an inch long, alternate, on fhort ftalks, and fhaped more like thofe of arvenfis or agreflis than of hederifolia. Flower- AAalks four times as long as the leaves. Segments of the calyx elliptic-lanceolate, obtufe, flightly three-ribbed. Cap- fule inverfely heart-fhaped, reticulated with veins. Seeds fomewhat cupped. 79. V. Crifla-galli. Crefted Speedwell. Stev. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 11. 408. t. 31.—Flower-ftalks folitary, as long as the ovate, ferrated, nearly feffile, leaves. Calyx of the fruit divided to the bafe into two heart-fhaped, cloven, ferrated, comprefled leaves.—Found by the Chevalier de Steven, to whom we are obliged for a f{pecimen, very plen- tifully in the denfe fhady foreits of Eaftern Caucafus, above Kubam, flowering in May. The root is annual. Stem a {pan high, afcending, fimple, or alternately branched, flender, downy, on two oppofite fides. Leaves molt like V. agreffis, uniform ; the floral ones alternate, the reft oppofite. Stalks axillary, flender, downy. Flowers extremely minuteand fuga- cious, blue. Calyx greatly enlarged after flowering, of two flat, parallel, ftrongly ferrated, veined, heart-fhaped valves, each with two points, being altogether peculiar in this genus, and about the diameter of the leaves. Capfule of two nearly orbicular lobes, fhorter than the permanent calyx, very minutely fringed. Seeds folitary in each cell, black, rugged ; concave, or umbilicated, at one fide; in- ferted at the top of the cell. 80. V. triphyllos. Blunt-fingered Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 51. Vahl n. 64. Fl. Brit. n. 16. Engl. Bot. t. 26. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 8. t. 10. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t.2. Fl. Dan. t. 627. -(V. folio rute ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 96. Alfine reta; Ger. Em. 612.)— Flowers folitary. Upper leavesin deep, finger-like, obtufe fegments. Flower-ftalks longer than the calyx. Seeds flat.—Native of fandy fields, here and there, throughout Europe; rare in England, occurring chiefly in the fandy confines of Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering in April. Dr. Sibthorp found it, very luxuriant, in fields bordering on the Euxine fea. A {mall upright annual plant, more or lefs branched, leafy, downy, a little vifcid and hoary. Lower leaves oppofite, undivided, {carcely lobed ; upper alternate, in three deep fegments, the lateral ones often cloven. Flowers of a rich dark blue. Two fegments of the calyx fometimes notched. Capfule almoft orbicular, emarginate. Seeds nu- merous, obovate, flat. ‘This plant turns black in drying, like moft of the following fpecies. 81. V. verna. Vernal Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n.52. Vahl n. 65. Fl. Brit. n. 17. Engl. Bot. t.25. Rofe Elem. app; 444. t.2. f. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 252. Poit.et Turp. Parf.21.t.22. (V. Bellardi; Willd. n.56. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 77. t. 85. f.1. V.fucculenta; ibid. 78. t. 22. f. 4.)—Flowers folitary. Leaves pinnatifid. Flower-ftalks fhorter than the calyx. Stem erect.—Native of dry open fandy fields in various parts of Europe, flower- ing in April. In England it chiefly occurs about Bury, Thetford, and the fame fandy country as the laft, but there in the greateft abundance, though foon difappearing after the feed is fhed. This diminutive {pecies is moft akin to V. arvenfis, in the flat elliptical form of its Jeeds, general habit and colour ; not turning black in drying, like triphylles and mott of its allies. But the /eaves, unlefs ftarved, are deeply fingered, or pinnatifid, their terminal lobe often large and rounded, like #riphyllos ; even the floral ones are deeply three-cleft. The /lem, whether branched or not, is {tiff and ereét, from one to four inches high. Calyx in four nearly equal, lanceolate, acute fegments. Capfule inverfely heart- fhaped. The herb varies i, much in luxuriance, and confe- quently in the divifions of its /eaves, that fearcely two re- prefentations of it are alike. 82. V. digitata. Slender-fingered Speedwell. Vahl n. 66. Symb. v.1. 2. (WV. verna; Cavan. Leccion. 22. V. aci- nifolia; Ait. n.37. V.chamepithyoides; Lamarck Iluftr. v- I. 47.)—Flowers folitary, feffile. Leaves all in deep, finger-like, linear fegments. Stem ere&t. Capfule wedge- fhaped.—Native of the fouth of Europe. We have ga- thered it in Lombardy, and received it from near Aranjuez in Spain, by favour of the late abbé Cavanilles, who has defcribed this fpecies for verna. The plant is annual, flowering in April. Stem branched from the bottom only, from three to fix or eight inches high, rigid, round, downy, leafy, rather woody. Leaves alternate, feflile, generally cut, more than half way down, into three, five, or feven, linear, obtufe, flefhy, fomewhat rough or hairy, entire feg- ments ; the bafe narrow and linear, which Vahl confiders, perhaps juitly, as a footfalk. Flowers {mall, axillary. Calyx in four deep, lanceolate, fringed fegments, the length of the capfule, two of them fhorter than the reft. Cap/fule inverfely heart-fhaped, but with ftraight fides, rough, abrupt, rigid. Seeds pale, roundifh, not compreffed. 83. V. precox. Early Jagged Speedwell. Allion. Auc- tuar. 5. t.1. f. 1. Wahln.57. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 22. t.24. (V.acinifolia; Willd. Prodr. Berol. 11. V. minor annua, ocymi caryophyllati folio, fubtus rubro; Vaill. Parif. 202. )—Flowers folitary, ftalked. Lower leaves oppofite, ftalked, heart-fhaped, deeply ferrated and notched ; upper- mott oblong, alternate, nearly entire. Stem ere&. Style longer than the lobes of the capfule—Native of fields about Turin, Paris, and Berlin, flowering in March and April. Mr. Davyall found it alfo in the Lower Valais, in April, 1787. An annual upright plant, about the fize of V. arvenfis, but with more of the habit and red hue of ¢ri- phyllos, much larger and ftronger than verna. Stem chiefly branched from the bottom, round, downy all over, but moft denfely on two oppofite fides. Leaves rough, rather flefhy ; the largeft half an inch long, and nearly as broad, obtufe ; varioufly toothed or jagged ; floral ones hardly fo long as eovlouer fake. Flowers blue or purplifh. Seg- ments of the calyx obovate-oblong, hairy, two of them rather the fhorteft. Capfule inverfely heart-fhaped, hairy, tumid, rounded at the fides, fo as to be fomewhat orbicular, the permanent /lyle extending far beyond its lobes. Seeds numerous, roundifh, cupped and umbilicated.—No wonder that thofe botanifts, who had not feen both {pecies, have always taken this for the following, and yet they are effen- tally diftn@. 84. V. acinifolia. Bafil-leaved Early Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 54. Vahl n.67. Dickf. Dr. Pl. n. 1. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 22. t. 23. Allion. Ped. v. 4. 79: (V.romana ; ibid. t. 85. f. 2. V. minima, clinopodii minoris folio ; Vaill. Parif. 201. t, 33. f.3. V. minima, clino- podii minoris folio glabro, romana; Bocc. Muf. 19. t. 102) — Flowers VER —Flowers folitary, ftalked. Leaves oppofite, ovate, flightly crenate ; lower ones oppofite, partly ftalked ; upper feffile, alternate, entire. Stem ereét. Style about as long as the lobes of the capfule.—Native of France, Italy, Turkey, and, as it is reported, of Germany ; though we have never received from that country any thing but arvenfis or pracox under this name. In fhady negleéted garden walks, and gra- velly ground, about Rome, nothing is more common than this little annual, flowering in April. What Mr. Davall fent to Kew for acinifolia, in 1788, was certainly the precox. The prefent is by far the moft delicate and flender plant of the two, though nearly of the fame height. Leaves {moother, paler, ovate, and much more entire. owers much f{maller, on rather longer, more capillary, ftalks. Segments of the calyx ovate, or obovate. Cap/ule fhort, broadly obcordate, with round diftant lobes, between which the permanent /fyle is fituated, fearcely, if at all, extending beyondthem. Seeds numerous, oval, flat. The authors of the fplendid, but too foon difcontinued, Flore Parifienne, have well diftinguifhed thefe two laft fpecies, by the proportion of the /lyles to their refpeétive, very differently fhaped, cap/ules. It is curious to obferve how authors have erred and copied each other’s errors, in their citation of Boccone. See Linnzus, Willde- now, Vahl, and Poiret in Lamarck. 85. V. peregrina. Purflane-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 20. Willd. n. 55. Wahl n. 68. Ait. n. 38. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v.1. 192. Purfh n.g. FI. Dan. t. 407. (V. romana; Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Mant. 317. V. mari- landica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 20. ** Murr. in Comm. Goett. for 1782. 11. t.3.”? V. caroliniana ; Walt. Carolin. 61. V. terreftris annua, folio polygoni, flore albo ; Morif. v. 2. 322. fe&t. 3. t. 24. f. 19.)—Flowers folitary, feffile. Leaves oblong, {mooth, obtufe, toothed or entire ; the lower ones oppofite. Stem ere&. Style fhorter than the lobes of the capfule.—Native of cultivated ground in feveral parts of Europe, Britain excepted, as well as of North America, Lima, and the Brazils, flowering in fummer. The root is annual. Herd very variable in habit and fize, fometimes partly decumbent ; it is branched from the bafe, fmooth in every part, rather fucculent, vaftly more like Purflane, than any fpecies of Polygonum. Leaves an inch or more in length, for the moft part feflile, fome of them coarfely and diftantly toothed, the upper or floral ones generally entire. Flowers nearly or quite feffile. Segments of the calyx ob- long, bluntifh, a little unequal. Corolla fmail, white. Capfule inverfely heart-fhaped, with a very fhort /fyle, not reaching quite fo far as the lobes. Seeds numerous, fmall, oval, flat.— Linnzus was fingularly unfortunate with refpe& to this fpecies and the acinifolia. His original {pecimen of V. romana, an{wering to the charaéter, as well as the num- ber, in Sp. Pl. ed. 1, is, notwithftanding Vahl’s doubts, precifely the fame as his peregrina, of which a third fpecimen is marked acinifolia ; but this laft {pecimen is not an original one. The fynonyms of romana are properly referred in Sp. Pl. ed. 2. to acinifolia, fo that the Linnzan romana is to be entirely excluded. Whether the V. ere@a acini folio glabro, floribus ceruleis, Dill. Giff. app. 39, be the acinifolia, as com- monly fuppofed, or the precox, we have fome doubts. V. marilandica, adopted from Gronovius, is univerfally allowed to be the peregrina, which therefore embraces three Linnzan fpecies, none of them entitled to rank even as varieties of each other. Veronica, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the her- baceous, perennial, and fhrubby kinds, among which the fpecies cultivated are, the Siberian fpeedwell (V.- fibirica) ; the Virginian {peedwell (V. virginica) ; the baftard {peed- well (V. fpuria); the fea fpeedwell (V. maritima); the long-leaved fpeedwell (V. longifolia) ; the Welfh fpeedwell VER (V. hybrida); the cut-leaved {peedwell (V. incifa); and the crofs-leaved {peedwell (V. decuffata). — In the fecond fort the ftems are terminated by long flender {pikes of white flowers, which appear late in July ; and it varies with the blufh-coloured flowers. The third is peren- nial in root, having the ftems terminated by long fpikes of blue flowers, which appear in June and July. A variety of this has a flefh-coloured flower. The fourth has the ftalks of lefs length than thofe of the preceding, but the flowers are of a bright blue, and appear in July. There are varieties with leaves oppofite, in threes or in fours, with blue, blueith, flefh-coloured, and with white flowers. The fifth has the ftems a foot and a half high, which are terminated by long {pikes of blue flowers, which appear in June. ‘The fixth has very white and woolly ftalks about a foot high, the flowers of which are deep blue in terminating fpikes. A variety has white flowers. The laft fort is a bufhy fhrub, about two feet in height. Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be raifed by feed and parting the roots. In the annual forts the feeds fhould be fown in the autumn, or very early {pring, in the borders or places where the plants are to grow, being lightly covered in: if the feeds be permitted to fcatter, good plants may be raifed : fometimes they are fown on beds, to be afterwards removed. In the perennial forts the roots may be parted in the autumn or early {pring, and planted out where they are to grow, or in nurfery rows to be afterwards removed. They fhould not be parted too fmall, or oftener than every two years: the large-growing forts are proper for the bor- ders, clumps, &c. and the trailing kinds for banks and fhady flopes, or other fimilar places: they are hardy, and require only to be kept clean afterwards. The eighth fort is readily increafed by cuttings in the {pring and fummer, being ma- naged asa hardy greenhoufe plant, in the fame way as the myrtle. In very mild winters it fometimes ftands fecure in the open air. The annual and perennial forts afford variety in the borders, clumps, and other parts of pleafure- grounds, and the laft among plants of the hardy potted greenhoufe kinds. Veronica, in the Materia Medica. The Beccabunga was formerly ufed ‘in feveral difeafes, and applied externally to wounds and ulcers ; but its fuppofed efficacy muft depend on its anti{corbutic quality. Asa mild refrigerant juice, it is deemed ferviceable in an acrimonious {tate of the fluids ; and it 1s ordered in the Lond. Ph. as an ingredient in the fuccus cochliariz compofitus. Its benefit depends on taking the juice in large quantities, or eating the frefh plant as food. The leaves of the officinalis have a weak, not difagreeable, {mell, and a bitterifh tafte: an extra& from them by re@tified {pirit is moderately bitter and aftringent. About a century ago, this plant was much recommended as a fubititute for tea: as a medicine, it had confiderable reputation in coughs, aithmas, confumptions, &c.; but, as it is a lefs powerful aitringent than many others, it is now difregarded. Lewis. Woodville. VERONUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by many to a {mall river-fifh, well known in England by the name of the minow. rose VEROVITZA, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia. This is a ftrong town, fituated near the Drave; 36 miles S.S.E. of Canifcha. VERPILLIERE, La, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere; 5 miles S.E. of Lyons. VERPLANK’s Pornt, a fortified fpot in the ftate of New York, on the left bank of Hudfon’s river, in Weft Cheiter county, which was taken, in 1779, by the Britifh troops ; 34 miles N. of New York. N. lat. 41° 15'. W. long. 74°. VERRANA, VER VERRANA, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Oria. \ - YVERREGINUM, or Verruco, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Volfci. VERRETZ, in Geography, a fettlement of the ifland of Hifpaniola ; 30 miles N.E. of St. Marc. VERREZ, a town of France, in the department of the -Dora, or in Piedmont, fituated at the foot of a hill, on a ftream of water, which divides into three branches, traverf- ing the town on both fides, and the centre. The inhabitants shave no other ramparts than the neighbouring mountains, and no other foffes than the beds of the rivers, made by nature: the houfes are about 150 in number. In the moft elegant part is a {quare fortrefs, built on a fharp rock, furrounded with a wall of ftone, a parapet, and a good rampart, which furrounds the fortrefs and the gate of entrance, fo that no one can arrive at this gate till they have pafled the rampart and a drawbridge upon the foffe. When the bridge is up, the fortrefs is fuppofed to be impregnable, being furrounded on all fides with frightful precipices, while the accefs is only by narrow pafles in the valley, which a fmall garrifon can obftrué& and annoy the enemy far and near; 15 miles S.S.E. of Aofta. VERRIE‘RES, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 13 miles S.E. of Poitiers.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Marne ; 3 miles S. of St. Menehould.—Alfo, a town of Neufchatel, on the bor- ders of France, the environs of which are famous for cheefe. Near it is a narrow pafs of only five feet wide, with in- acceflible rocks on both fides; fo that a few men could defend it againft great numbers. VERRIO, Antonio, in Biography, was born at Naples in 1634- After he had acquired the management of the pencil, he went to Touloufe, and there was engaged to paint the high altar in the church of the Carmelites. He was invited by Charles II. to England, the king intending to engage him in defigns for tapeftry, to be made here ; but he changed his mind, and ordered him to paint moft of the ceilings of Windfor caftle, the great hall, and the chapel ; all which he loaded with heterogeneous compounds of gods and goddeffes, vices and virtues, and all the emblematic imagery which fcholaftic pompofity could mutter up, to fupply the place of common fenfe ; and this he executed with great freedom and great frefhnefs of colour, but in a manner devoid of any other good quality of art. For thefe labours he was paid nearly 6ooo/. The Revolution was not to his mind: he declined to ferve king William, and went to the earl of Exeter at Bur- leigh, where he painted feveral apartments, which are efteemed his beft works. He afterwards painted at Chatf- worth, and at Lowther: at length he was perfuaded by the earl of Exeter to engage to paint for the king the great ftaircafe at Hampton-Court ; and Walpole obferves, ‘ he painted it as ill as if he had fpoiled it out of principle.” His eyes failing him, queen Anne gave him a penfion of 200/. per annum for life; but he did not long enjoy it, dying at Hampton-Court in 1707. VERRO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Riga; 124 miles N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 58° 10/. E. long. 27° 24’. VERROCHIO, Anoprea, in Biography, was among the early Florentine artifts who prepared the way for the greater talents of fubfequent painters. He was born at Florence in 1432, and diftinguifhed himfelf both as a {culptor and painter. He had the honour to be the in- ftruétor of P. Perugino and Lionardo da Vinci, and was mich employed ; till, as Vafari reports, being engaged by VER the monks of St. Salvi, at Valombrofa, to paint a picture of the Baptifm of Chrift, he fet Lionardo da Vinci, then his pupil, to put in the figure of an angel from his defign, and he executed his tafk in a manner fo {uperior to the work of his mafter, that Verrochio, in: difguft, refolved to paint no more, but apply himfelf entirely to {culpture and drawing. His ftyle of defign was grand and free, and Lionardo took great pleafare in copying his drawings, particularly a battle-piece, on account of the peculiar airs of the heads, the difpofition of the hair, and the ations of the figures. He died in 1488, aged 56. ‘ VERRUA, in Geography, a town of Piedmont, or lately of France,.in the department of the Tanaro, on a high hill, near the Po, oppofite Crefcentin: the fortifications were once very ftrong, and the caftle was called impregnable ; 18 miles N.E. of Turin. N. lat. 45° 14!. E. long. 8°. VERRUCA, in Medicine. See Wart. Hence, yerrucous is applied to any excrefcences which have a refemblance to warts. There are alfo verrucous ulcers, &c. VERRUCARIA, in Botany, fo called by Perfoon, from verruca, a wart, in allufion to the protuberant form of its fruétification. The fame name had been previoufly applied by Wiggers in his Primitie Fl. Holfat. 85, in an extremely vague manner, to many of the cruftaceous Lichens of Linnzus; but it is now limited, as Perfoon intended, to a very natural genus. —Perf. in Uft. Annal. fafe. 7.23. Schrad. Spicil. 108. Achar. Prodr. 13. Meth. 113. ‘* Lichenogr. 51. t. 4. f. 2, 3.” Syn. 87.—Clafs and order, Crypiogamia Alge. Nat. Ord. Lichenes. Gen. Ch. Srond cruftaceous, expanded, flat, uniform, clofely attached. Receptacles nearly globofe, or fomewhat hemifpherical ; their bafe funk in the frond; their coat double ; outermoft rather cartilaginous, thick, black, cloth- ing the upper, or expofed, half, and furnifhed with a {mall prominent mouth ; inner very thin and membranous, entirely inclofing a globular, cellular nucleus. Eff. Ch. Frond cruftaceous. Receptacles halfimmerfed, globofe, concave, black, with a cellular nucleus. We have, under Enpocarpon, adverted to the near agreement between the fructification of that genus and the prefent. Their habits and fronds however are very different, and Schrader has long ago indicated another diftinGtion, that the receptacle is always clofed in Verrucaria, while in Endo- carpon its contents are difcharged, he fays ‘‘ exploded,”’ by a {mall, but diltin&, orifice. On thefe charaCters this great cryptogamift would found his generic diftinctions, regardlefs of the nature of the frond, and the greater or lefs degree of prominence of the receptacles funk therein. But the learned Acharius, fo peculiarly devoted to this difficult department of botany, has defined Verrucaria by more obvious, and as we think more natural limits, by which we have profited above. He defines forty-five fpecies of this genus, in his lateft pub- lication, the Synopfis Methodica Lichenum. They are diftri- buted into four feétions, according to the nature of the craft, or frond. Se&t. 1.. Frond membranous, or fomewhat cartilaginous, contiguous and /mooth. "Twenty-one {pecies. Thefe all grow on the {mooth barks of various trees, in Europe, Africa or America, in the form of a thin infepa- rable membrane, generally of a different colour from the cuticle of the bark, by which, more than the black dot-like fructification, thefe plants are generally rendered confpi- cuous. Examples of this fection are V. pundiformis. Ach. Syn. n.1. (Lichen pundtiformis ; Engl. Bot.t. 2412. L. myacoproides ; Ehrh. Crypt. 264. ) —Cruft determined, very thin, {mooth, rufty-brown. Re- ceptacles VER ceptacles minute, black, hemifpherical, umbilicated.— Found by Mr, W. Borrer, on the fmooth bark of afh-trees. V. analepta. Ach.n.2. (Lichen analeptus; Engl. Bot. t. 1848.)—Differs from the foregoing chiefly in the central depreffion of the receptacles being more minute. V. gemmata. Ach. n.12. Meth. 120. t. 3. f.1. (V- melaleuca; ibid. 117. V. alba; Schrad. Spicil. 109. t. 2. f. 3.)—Cruft undefined, thin, fmooth, of a hoary white. Receptacles feattered, hemifpherical, polifhed, beaked ; nu- cleus globular, pellucid.—Found on the barks of the taller kinds of trees. Acharius. Mr. D. Turner has met with this {pecies in England. The black and fhining prominent receptacles are {trongly contrafted with the white, fomewhat mealy, crutt. Se&. 2. Frond rather folid, more or lefs gelatinous. ‘Three fpecies. V. mucofa. Ach. n.22. Meth. fuppl. 23. ‘ Wahlenb. Lapp. 466.”?—Cruft gelatinous and flimy, very {mooth, blackifh-green. Receptacles minute, nearly lobular, funk, with a prominent beak ; dirty white internally.—Found by Mr. Wahlenberg, on rocks and ftones wafhed by the moun- tain ftreams of Lapland and Sweden. When dry it is hard and almoft black, but moifture reftores the cru/? to a flimy ftate, and the frudification is vifible, in both ftates, to a careful obferver. The other {pecies of this fetion are named gelatinofa and ceuthocarpa. Se. 3. Cru/? fomewhat tartarcous and friable, uninterrupted, cracking into fmall portions, or powdery. Seventeen fpecies. V. Schraderi. Ach.n.25. Meth. 114. (V.rupettris ; Schrad. Spicil. 109. t. 2. f. 7. Lichen Schraderi; Engl. Bot. t.1711. L.immerfus ; Hoffm. Enum. Lich. 24. t. 3. f.5. L. fufco-ater @; Hag. Lich. 49.)—Cruft tartareous, hard, whitifh, fmooth. Receptacles minute, crowded, nearly globular, umbilicated, funk ; femitranfparent within.—This 1s often to be feen on chalk or lime-ftone. The cavities in the very hard cru/f, feem formed by the growth of the recep- tacles, and remain empty and unclofed after the latter fall out ; juft as happens in the true Lichen immerfus, or Lecidea immerfa. In this ftate our prefent Verrucaria may fre- quently be obferved, on wrought ftones in expofed fitua- tions ; its hard cru/? being {carcely diftinguifhable from the ftone, except by its internal green hue when rubbed. V.. Harrimanni. Ach. n. 26. Lichenogr. v. 1. 284. (Lichen Harrimanni; Engl. Bot. t. 2539.)—Crult tarta- reous, contiguous, limited, moufe-coloured, with very mi- nute depreffed dots. Receptacles minute, immerfed, globofe, with a prominent bordered orifice ; brownifh within.— Native of hard, grey, calcareous rocks, in the county of Durham, where it was difcovered by the Rev. Mr. Harriman, a very fkilful Britifh botanift. The cruff of this is thicker, with a more defined black edge than ufual in Verrucarie, yet it cannot be feparated in any entire portions from the {ftone. The dotted furface is peculiar. The dilated rim of each receptacle is all that is vifible of the fruétification. V. maura. Ach. n. 36. Meth. fuppl. 19. (Lichen maurus; Engl. Bot. t. 2456.)—Cruit thin, continued, im- perfeGtly circumfcribed, coal-black, fmooth, with innumer- able minute cracks. Receptacles black, immerfed, fwelling under the cruft, marked by an umbilicated point ; nucleus blackifh.—Mr. W. Borrer has noticed this frequently on rocks on the Scottifh coaft, and his fpecimens agree with thofe fent by Mr. Wahlenberg, the original difcoverer of the prefent fpecies, on the rocky fhores of Sweden. It compofes footy infeparable blotches, on {tones expofed to the flux and reflux of the tide; but when examined, will be found as diftin& in characters as any of its tribe, VER Se&t. 4. Cruft foft, fibrous, fomewhat fpongy, or like a thin cobweb. Four fpecies. F f V. epigea. Ach. n. 43. Meth. 123. (Spheria epigea ; Perf. Syn. Fung. append. 27. Lichen terreftris; Engl. Bot. t. 1681.)—Cruft fomewhat fibrous, gelatinous, un- even, pale greenifh-grey. Receptacles minute, globofe, immerfed, with a prominent orifice ; internally black.—Not unfrequent on earthy or muddy banks. When dry the cruft is fmooth and even, without any fign of the fibrous texture, which becomes vifible on the admiffion of wet. The recep- tacles are {cattered like little black dots over the furface, being moft prominent in a dry ftate. r V. byffacea. Ach. n. 45. Meth. 116. (Spheria byf- facea; Weigel Obf. Bot. 42. t. 2. f.9. Perf. Syn. Fung. append. 27.)—Cruft fomewhat leprous and fibrous, dirty white. Receptacles minute, nearly globular, half immerfed, perforated ; black within.—On the trunks of old oaks, and other trees. This feems to be a very doubtful Verrucaria- We have never examined it, but the cru/? is defcribed more of a leprous than fibrous texture, refembling By/us laGea of Linnezus. Receptacles full of black powder. It is one of thofe ambiguous produétions, partly allied to the Lichenes, partly to the Fungi, which the ftudents of each tribe prefs into their own fervice. From an attention to the fibrous bafes of fome other Sphariz, we fhould incline to think this a fungus, efpecially if the receptacles be really full of powder : but on the other hand, the mealinefs of the cruff is much more of the nature of the genus under confideration. Acha- rius now confiders as a variety of this, his V. /tiica, Meth. 118; and indeed they appear very nearly akin. VERRUCINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of the Maritime Alps, N.W. of the Sueltari, mentioned by Pliny. They are placed at Verignon. VERRUCOLA, La, in Geography, a town of Etruria; 4 miles E. of Pifa. VERRUCOSUS, Warty, in Botany and Vegetable Phy- fiology, is a term applied to any part of the furface of a plant when furnifhed with fcattered protuberances from its own fubftance. Euonymus verrucofus of Scopoli and Jac- quin has a warty bark. The young branches are firft be- {prinkled with little black fhining oblong fpecks, which foon enlarge, crack longitudinally, and become tumid rough warts, having much more of the appearance of a parafitical fungus, than many produétions that are fo denominated. In Alve perlata the cutiele of the leaves is ftudded with hard cartilaginous {mooth warts, exhibiting a moft genuine ex- ample of a folium verrucofum. So in Echium, feveral {pecies bear hard, almoift bony or fhelly, warts, fometimes elegantly ftellated, from which the briftly clothmg of the herba originates. Thefe are all lefs itrong and remarkable, ae more luxuriant the plant. The papillary coat of the Ice- plant, Mefembryanthemum cryftallinum, can {earcely come under the above denomination ; being an affemblage of cu- ticular bladders full of a watery fluid, without any cuticular or flefhy folidity. VERRUYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Two Sevres; 7 miles N.N.W. of St. Maixens. VERRY, in Heraldry. See Varry. VERS du Gard, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Gard; 6 miles S.E. of Uzes. Vers en Montagne, a town of France, in the department of the Jura; 18 miles N.E. of Lons le Saunier. VERSA. See Vice Ver/a. ‘ VERSAILLES, in Geography, a city of France, and capital of the department of the Seine and Oife. In the beginning of the laft century, it was a {mall village, when II Louis VER Louis XIII. built here a hunting feat, which Louis XIV. enlarged into a palace, in a foreft 30 miles in circumference, which became a place of frequent refidence of the royal family till the revolution. The palace is magnificent, with beautiful gardens, adorned with ftatues, canals, fountains, &c. and a park five miles in circumference, furrounded with a wall. Since the revolution, it has been erected into a bifhop’s fee; 3 pofts S.W. of Paris. N. lat. 48° 49!., E. long. 2° 11!. x, oe VERSAILLES, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Alleghany ; containing 883 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Woodford county, in the ftate of Kentucky ; containing 488 inhabitants. F VERSAK, a diftri€&t of Afiatic Turkey, in the S. part of Caramania, fo named from a mountain, 60 miles S.E. of Cogni. VERSAMEYRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Cutch; 20 miles E. of Boogebooge. VERSARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 32 miles S. of Amedabad. VERSAUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 6 miles N. of Pernalla. VERSCHORISTS, in Lcclefiaftical Hiffory, a religious fe&t, deriving its denomination from Jacob Verfchoor, a na- tive of Flufhing, who, in the year 1680, out of the tenets of Coccius and Spinofa, produced a new form of religion ; for the leading tenets of which fee Harremists. The difciples of Verfchoor were alfo called Hebrews, on account of the zeal and diligence with which they applied themfelves to the ftudy of the Hebrew language. VERSE, Versus, in Poetry, a line or part of a dif- courfe, confifting of a certain number of long and fhort fyllables, which run with an agreeable cadence; the like being alfo reiterated in the courfe of the piece. This repetition, according to F. Boffu, is neceflary to diftinguifh the notion of verfe from that of profe; for in profe, as well as verfe, each period and member are parts of difcourfe, confifting of a certain number of long and fhort fyllables; only, profe is continually diverfifying its meafures and cadences, and verfe regularly repeats them. This repetition of the poets appears even in the manner of writing ; for one verfe being finifhed, they return to the beginning of another line to write the verfe following : and it is to this return that verfe owes its name ; verfus coming from vertere, to turn or return. Accordingly, we find the fame word ufed to fignify any thing that is placed in a certain regular order: Cicero ufes verfus for a lime in profe; Virgil for a row of trees, and evey of oars in a galley. But as the regularity of verfe carries with it more charms, and requires a greater degree of exactnefs, the word has, in time, become appropriated to poetry. Fo make verfe, it is not enough that’ the meafures and quantities of fyllables be obferved, and fix juft feet put, one after another, in the fame line; there are farther required certain agreeable cadences, particular tenfes, moods, regi- mens, and even fometimes words unknown in profe. But what is chiefly required, is an elevated, bold, figura- tive manner of dition ; this manner is a thing fo peculiar to this kind of writing, that, without it, the moft exa& ar- rangement of longs and fhorts does not conttitute verfe fo much as a fort of meafured profe. See Porrry. Dr. Blair ( LeGures, vol. iit.) obferves, that nations, whofe language and pronunciation were of a mufical kind, refted their verfification chiedy upon the quantities, that is, the length or fhortnefs of their fyllables. Others, who did not make the quantities of their fyllables to be fo diftinétly per- VoL. XXXVII. VER ceived in pronouncing them, refted the melody of their verfe upon the number of fyllables it contained, upon the proper difpofition of accents and paufes in it, and frequently upon that return of correfponding founds which we. call rhyme ; which fee.. The former was the cafe with the Greeks and Romaius ; the latter is the cafe with us, and with mo{t mo- dern nations. The Greek and Latin verfes confift of a certain number of feet, difpofed in a certain order ; fo that every fyllable, or the greateft number at leaft, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity; and their manner of :pronouncing rendered this fo fenfible to the ear, that a long fyllable was counted precifely equal in time to two fhort ones. Upon this principle, the number of fyllables contained in their hexameter verfe was allowed to vary. The mufical time, however, was precifely the fame in every fuch verfe, and was always equal to that of twelve long fyllables. In order to afcertain the regular time of every verfe, and the proper mixture and fucceffion of long and fhort fyllables which one ae compofe it, were invented what the grammarians call metrical feet, da€tyles, fpondees, iambics, &c. And the hexameter verfe was {canned or meafured by fix me- trical feet, either daétyles or fpondees, with this reftric- tion, that the fifth foot was regularly to be a daétyle, and the laft a {pondee. And fome have attempted to make French and Englifh verfes on the fame foundation, but with- out fuccefs. The introduétion of thefe feet into Englifh verfe would not fuit the genius of our language, which does not corre- {pond, in this refpeé, to the Cree or Latin. Hence mere quantity is of little effe&t in Englifh verfification. The only perceptible difference among our fyllables is owing to that ftronger percuffion of voice, called accent, with which fome of them are uttered: and accordingly, the melody of our verfe depends much more upon a certain order and fucceffion of accented and unaccented fyllables, than upon their being long or fhort. If we take any of Mr. Pope’s lines, and, in reciting them, alter the quantity of the fyllables as far as our quantities are fenfible, the mufic of the verfe will not be much altered ; but if we do not accent the fyllables as the verfe diftates, its melody will be totally deftroyed. See Lord Montoddo’s Treatife of the Origin and Progrefs of Language, vol. ii.) In the conftitution of our Sees the czfural paufe is an effential circumftance, and this falls towards the middle of each line. In the French heroic verfe this is very fenfible. This is a verfe of twelve fyllables, and in every line, juft after the fixth fyllable, there falls, regularly and indifpenfably a cefural paufe, dividing the line into two equal hemiftichs. Thus the one-half of the line always anfwers fo the other, and the fame chime returns inceffantly on the ear, without intermiffion or change ; which is, without doubt, a defe& in their verfe, and renders it unfit for the freedom and dignity of heroic poetry. For the difference of the Englifh verfe in this refpe&t, fee Pause. See alfo Accent, Prosopy, and QUANTITY. Voffius is very fevere on the modern verfe, and makes it altogether unfit for mufic : our verfes, fays he, run all, as it were, on one foot, without diftin€tion of members or parts, and without regard to the natural quantities of fyllables. We have no rhythmus at all ; and we mind nothing, but to have a certain number of fyllables in a verfe, of whatever nature, and in whatever order. Mr. Malcolm vindicates our verfe from this imputation. It is true, he fays, we do not follow the metrical compofi- tion of the ancients; yet we have fuch a mixture of {trong and foft, long and fhort fyllables, as makes our verfe flow L fmooth V ER {mooth or rumbling, flow or rapid, agreeable to the fub- jet. Inftances of all which we have in the following lines. “ Soft is the ftrain when Zephyr gently blows. The hoarfe rough verfe fhould, like the torrent, roar. The line too labours, and the words move flow. __ Flies o’er th’ unbending corn, and fkims along the main.” By making a fmall change, or tranfpofition of a word or fyllable in any of thefe verfes, any body who has an ear will find, that we make a great matter of the nature and order of the fyllables. Voffius adds, that the ancient odes were fung, as to the rhythmus, (fee Ruytum,) in the fame manner as we fcan them ; every pes being a diltin& bar, or meafure, feparated by a diftin® paufe, though, in reading, that diftin@ion was not accurately obferved. Laftly, he obferves, that their odes had a regular return of the fame kind of verfe; and the fame quantity of fylla- bles in the fame place of every verfe ; whereas, in the mo- dern odes, to follow the natural quantity of our fyllables, every ftanza would be a difliné& fong. : b It is next to impoffible to write profe without fometimes intermixing verfe with it ; fo that Vaugelas’s rule, which en- joins us to avoid them, is next to impraéticable. T his may be farther faid, that for fhort verfes they are fo little per- ceived, that it is {earcely worth one’s while to ftrain one’s felf to avoid them; and as to long verfes, they are chiefly to be avoided in the ends of periods, for, in the middle, they are {carcely felt. In the general, rules of this kind muft be con- fidered as principally regarding numerous verfes, and fuch as are readily diftinguifhed by their cadence : thus, in Latin, it is {earcely poffible to avoid iambic verfes ; but hexameters mutt, by all means, be avoided, their cadence being more fenfible and more ftudied. Verfes are of various kinds ; fome denominated from the number of feet of which they are compofed ; as the mono- meter, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, hendecafyllabum, &c. Some from the kinds of feet ufed in them; as the pyrrhichian, proceleufmatic, iambic, trachaic, da&ylic, anapeffic, fpondaic or molloffean, choriambic, iambi- daétylic, or dadylotrachaic. Sometimes from the names of the inventors, or the authors who have ufed them with mott fuccefs: as the Anacreontic, Archilochian, Hipponadic, Phe- recratian, Glyconian, Alcmanian, Afclepiadean, Alcaic, Stefi- chorian, Phalifean, Ariftophanian, Callimachian, Galliambic, Phalecian, and Sapphic. Sometimes from the fubje&, or the circumftances of the compofition ; as the hersic, elegiac, Adonic, &c. See HEXAMETER, PENTAMETER, LAMBIC, &c. In reckoning the feet of iambics, trochaics, and ana- peftics, each meter is a dipody, or comprehends two feet. In other verfes, a meter is but a fingle foot. Hence it is that the iambic trimeter is alfo called fenarium, becaufe compofed of fix feet. See VeRsIFICATION, infra. The ancients invented various kinds of poetical devices in verfe, as centos, echoes, and monorhymes. Verse, Alexandrin or Alexandrian. See ALEXANDRIN. Verse, Blank, isa noble, bold, and difencumbered fpe- cies of verfification ; free from that full clofe which rhyme forces upon the ear-at the end of every couplet, and allow- ing the lines to run into each other, with as great, if not greater, liberty than the Latin hexameter. Accordingly it is fuited to fubje&s of dignity and force, which demand more free and manly numbers than rhyme. The conftraint and ftri€t regularity of rhyme are unfavourable to the fublime, or to the highly pathetic ftrain. Anepic poem ora tragedy would be fettered and degraded by it. As this kind of verfe is naturally read with lefs cadence or tone than rhyme, VER the paufes in it, and the effe& of them, are not always fo fen- fible to the ear. It is conftruéted, however, entirely upon the fame principles, with refpeét to the place of the paufe. See Pause. : Verses, Concordani, Daétylic, and Zlegiac. See the adjectives. Verses, £quivocal, thofe where the fame words contained in two lines carry a different fenfe. ay ; Verses, Fefcennine. See FESCENNINE. Verse, Heroic. See Heroic. Our Englifh heroic verfe is of that kind which may be denominated iambic ftru€ture ; that is, compofed of a nearly alternate fucceffion of fyllables, not fhort and long, but un- accented and accented. The line often begins with an un- accented fyllable, and fometimes, in its courfe, two unac- cented fyllables follow each other. But, generally, there are either five or four accented fyllables in each line. The number of fyllables is ten, unlefs an Alexandrian verfe be oc- cafionally admitted. In the Italian heroic verfe employed by Taffo in his Gierufalemme, and Ariofto in his Orlando, the paufes are of the fame varied nature with thofe that be- long to Englifh verfification. See Pausr, and Versiri- CATION, infra. Verses, Metrical. See MeTRIcAL. Verses, Reciprocal, are thofe which read the fame back- wards as forwards. See RETROGRADE. Verses, Rbopalic, Serpentine, and Technical. See the ad- jectives. : Verse is alfo ufed for a part of a chapter, feGtion, or paragraph, fubdivided into feveral little articles. The whole bible is divided into chapters ; and the chap- ters are divided into verfes. | The five books of the law are divided into fifty-four fef&tions. See ParascHE and PeNTATEUCH. Many of the Jews maintain, that this was one of the con- ftitutions of Mofes from mount Sinai; and fome modern Chriftian writers, fuch as Buxtorf, Leufden, Pfeiffer, and their admirers, infift upon it, that the divifion of the verfes of the Old Teftament was not a work merely human, but had the peculiar privilege of being fixed by the infpired au- thor of each book, or at the lateft by Ezra. Others, with greater probability, afcribe it to Ezra, and fay that it was made for the ufe of the fynagogues, in which one fec- tion was read every Sabbath-day, and thus the whole law read over every year. When the Jews were forbidden, in the time of the perfecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, to read the law, they fubitituted in its room fifty-four feGtions out of the prophets, which were afterwards continued ; and when the reading of the law was reftored by the Maccabees, the fe&tion which was read eyery Sabbath out of the law, ferved for their firft leffon, and that out of the prophets for their fecond leffon ; and fo it was pra¢tifed in the time of the apoftles. ; Thefe fe&tions were divided into verfes, whieh the Jews call pefukim. They are marked out in the Hebrew bibles by two great points at the end of them, called /oph-pa/ul, i. e. the end of the verfe. I Ezra was not the author of this divifion, it is certainly very ancient, and was probably in- vented for the fake of the Targumifts, or Chaldee inter- preters. Mention is made of thefe verfes in the Mifchna. Prideaux’s Conn. vol. ii. p. 479. For the more modern di- vifion, fee CHAPTERS. That the modern divifion could not be of infpired autho- rity is undeniable, for no infpired author could feparate words which the fenfe determines to be infeparable, feveral inftances of which occur. It is probable, fays Dr. Kennicott (State of the printed ebrew VER Hebrew Text, vol. i.), that the divifion of the verfes of the Old Teftament has been different at different times ; and it feems certain, that verfes were not the fame in St. Jerom’s time as at’ prefent : for that learned father, in his preface to the book of Job, obferves, that there were feven or eight hundred verfes (fome think the true reading to be feventy or eighty) wanting in the ancient Latin tranflation of that book ; which cannot be eafily fuppofed of fuch verfes as the prefent, the whole book containing no more than one thou- fand and feventy of our verfes. But the nature of verfes having varied, and the prefent verfes, as terminations of, or paufes in the fenfe, having been probably fixed in the Hebrew text, or in the Greek verfion, fome ages after the publica- tion of the books of the Old Teftament, as they confefledly were with regard to the New Teftament ; we hall the lefs wonder that fome of the wifer Jews made no fcruple to alter the received divifion where they found it te be erroneous. F. Simon tells us that Elias Levita, the beft Jewifh cri- tic, affirms, the prefent diftinGtion of verfes was made b the Maforet Jews, after the Talmud; and that Aben-Ezra mentions amongft others, R. Mofes Cohen, a learned gram- marian, who took the liberty of joining fome verfes of the bible otherwife than they were joined by thofe who had marked them ; affirming that they were miftaken in thofe places. The divifion of chapters into verfes has been found fo convenient, that it has been ufed in all the editions of the bible, ever fince it was firft introduced. It is not, however, without its difadvantages. By this divifion the fenfe is often interrupted, and the reader may be thus led into mif- takes, by fancying that every verfe completes the fenfe. Befides, fome perfons are hence led to conceive, that every verfe contains a mylftery, or fome effential point, though there is frequently no more than fome incident or circum- ftance recorded in that place. Moreover, it has proved the occafion of that wrong method which fometimes prevails among preachers. Many imagine that one verfe is a fuffi- cient fubjeét for a fermon ; and when they find that it does not furnifh folid and inftruétive refleGtions enough, they are conftrained to wander from their point, and in order to fill up their difcourfe, difplay their wit and learning, which ohied adminifter but little edification to their hearers, and is undoubtedly contrary to the end of preaching. It is then much to be wifhed, that fome judicious perfon would divide the chapters otherwife than they are at prefent divided. If the verfes were fuffered to remain, they fhould be fo divided, as to make always a complete fenfe, though on this account they might happen to be longer or fhorter than they now are. But perhaps it would be better to fupprefs the verfes entirely, and to divide the chapters into certain ar- ticles, which fhould contain fuch a number of verfes as would complete the fenfe. When any word or paflage of {cripture is quoted, it would be no great trouble to look over a whole article, which could not require much time. To which we may add, that fuch amethod of divifion would much affift the memory, which is now overburdened with fuch a great number of verfes as preachers are, occafionally, obliged to remember. The divifion of verfes in the New Teftament was firlt made by Robert Stephens; and fo negligently was it done, that his fon, Henry Stephens, affures us, he worked at it as he travelled from Paris to Lyons. Many learned men tind great fault with this divifion, and yet it is every where followed. F. Simon obferves, that the Greeks and Latins meant by verfe, a line, containing a certain number of words. He adds, that the authors of thofe days, to prevent any thing being added or taken away from their works, ufed to mark, at the end, the number of verfes they contained ; but the VER books themfelves were written all running, without any di- vilion, points, or the like. Verse, Neck. See Necx-Verfe. Verse, in Church Mufic: as, a verfe anthem is diftinét from a folo anthem, an anthem for two or three voices, and from a full anthem. A verfe anthem confifts of choruffes, with folo movements between them, for one, two, or three voices, fo that in this fenfe verfe is equivalent with folo. VERSED Sine of an Arch. Sce Verfed Sine. Co-VeERSED Sine. See Co-versep Sine. VERSHIRE, in Geography, a town of Vermont, in the county of Orange, containing 1311 inhabitants; 16 miles N. of Hanover. VERSHOCK, or Wenrsnock, a Ruffian meafure equal to 13 of an Englifh inch. An arfheen is divided mto 16 verfhocks, or werfhocks, and equals 28 Eng. inches: thus 9 arfheens = 7 Eng. yards, and 4 verfhocks = 7 Eng. inches. A face, fafhe, or fathom, is == 3 arfheens, or 7 Eng. feet. VERSIFICATION, the art or manner of making verfe ; alfo the tune and cadence of verfe. Verfification is properly applied to what the poet does more by labour, art, and rule, than by invention, and the genius, or furor poeticus. See Porrry. The matter of verfification is long and fhort fyllables, and feet compofed of them ; and its form is the arrangement of them in correét, numerous, and harmonious verfes; but this is no more than a mere tran{lator may pretend to, and which the Catilinarian war, put in meafure, might merit. It is with reafon, therefore, that thefe fimple matters are diftinguifhed from the grand poetry, and called by the name verfitication. In effe&, there is much the fame difference between grammar and rhetoric, as there is between the art of making verfes, and that of inventing poems. Hiftory of Verfification—It appears that verfe has been cultivated from the earlielt period of literature, and among all people, from the moft barbarous to the moft refined ; and to it principally we are indebted for moft of the original accounts we have of the ancient nations of the earth. Equally meafured lines, with an harmonious collocation of expreflive and fometimes highly metaphorical terms, the al- ternate lines either anfwering to each other in fenfe, or ending with fimilar founds, were eafily committed to me- mory, and eafily retained. As thefe were often accom- panied with a pleafing air or tune, the fubje& being for the moft part a concatenation of ftriking and interefting events, hiftories formed thus, became the amufement of youth, the palliative of labour, and the folace even of old age. In fuch a way, the hiftories of moft nations have been pre- ferved. ‘The interefting events celebrated, the rhythm or metre, and the accompanying tune or recitativo air, rendered them eafily tranfmiffible to pofterity ; and by means of tradi- tion, they pafled fafely from father to fon, through the times of comparative darknefs, when the various tribes of mankind had no method more effe€tual of communicating to their defcendants the principles of their worfhip, their re- ligious ceremonies, their laws, and the renowned actions of their fages and heroes, till they arrived at thofe ages in which the pen and the prefs have given to them, by multi- plying the copies, a fort of deathlefs duration. The propriety of affigning the priority to Hebrew verfi- fication is obvious. The moft intelligent confider the Hebrew to have been the primeval language, or at leaft the moft ancient of which we have any knowledge; and, there- fore, it is here that we muft look for the earlieft dawn of the poetic art. The addrefs of Lamech (Gen. iv. 23.), which is in hemiftichs in the original, is doubtlefs the moft ancjent verfe in the world, L2 Oi VERSIFICATION. OF the fame kind is Noah’s prophecy concerning his fons (Gen. ix. 25—27.), Jacob’s blefling to the twelve patriarchs (Gen. xlix. 2—27.), the fong of Mofes (Exod. xv.); and the book of Job, of Pfalms, the fongs of Solo- mon, Ifaiah, &c. afford ample proof not only of the ex- iftence of verfe among the ancient Hebrews, but that in its origin and earlier hiftory it was intimately conneéted with mufic; that is, it was frequently fet to fome air or tune, for vocal or inftrumental performance. Having thus pointed out the origin of verfe, at an early period, among the Hebrews; we fhall now endeavour to trace its rife amongft other nations, affigning the precedence chiefly to thofe where we are moft likely to find it in a native, rather than in a borrowed or ingrafted tate. Tcho-Yong, the fixteenth emperor of the ninth period, is the firft on record among the Chinefe for his attachment to the Mufes. Feu-Hi compofed verfes on the pifcatorial art. Chin-Nong, a fucceeding emperor, wrote verfes on the fertility of the earth. Here we find what is frequently remarkable in the early hiftory of the ancients, the office of a chief or legiflator and bard or poet united in one perfon : for many of the ancient poems were of a legiflative caft, and contained, in verfe, the moft effential parts of their religious, moral, and political fyftems. The laft emperor whom we find to have retained the poetical charafter was Chao-Hao. After him the complex office feems to have feparated, as the next bard we meet with is in the perfon of the philofopher Confucius, who lived about fix hundred years before the Chriftian era. (See Extraits des Hift. Chinois, and Du Halde Hift. Chinois.) The Chinefe ode, therefore, tranf- lated by fir William Jones, muft be of high antiquity, as Confucius confidered it as very ancient in his tme. About one century before the fame epoch, Calidas, who has been termed the Shakfpeare of India, wrote his poems. Such being the flate of oriental verfe at thefe early periods, it is not more than we might expect, that the Portuguefe mi{- fionaries fhould meet with it on the coaft of Proper India, where they found the natives pofiefled of a {pecies of rude verfe fet to mufic. They compofed, in the Malabar tongue, a long ode, containing a hiftory of the Portuguefe prelate, and a defcriptive detail of what had paffed at his fynod. This nation had preferved the ancient cuftom of tranfmitting to pofterity, by this kind of poem, all the moft remarkable events. (La Croze’s Hitt.) The miffionaries, who vifited the oppofite coaft of Coromandel, give us fufficient proof that the culture of yerfe was not inconfiderable at that early period. (Lettres Edifiantes, rec. xviii. p. 28.) With refpeét to Egypt, the origin of the belles lettres is fo loft in the antiquity of that famous kingdom, that we know no- thing of the firft advances made there in verfe. We naturally expeat that it met with the fate of its kindred fcience, mufic ; which, in an early period, had all its forms un- alterably fixed by law, and, therefore, improvement and corruption were alike prevented. In adyerting to thofe points of the poetic horizon, where we are moft likely to defcry the early dawn of the art of verfe, it is now incumbent on us to notice the Arabs, whofe language, from its manifeft affinity, unqueftionably had a common origin with the Hebrew and Chaldaic ; and, confe- quently, is one of the moft ancient in the world. Ceunt Reviczki, however, was of opinion, that with refpe& to the metrical art of the Arabs, it was an invention of a date much later than that of the Hebrews, and that it affumed its form only a fhort time before Mohammed. At the begin- ning of the feventh century, the Arabic language was brought toa high degree of perfection, by a fort of poetical academy, that ufed to aflemble at flated times in a place called Ocadh, where every poet produced his beft compofi- tion, and met with the applaufe which it deferved. The mott excellent of thefe poems were tranfcribed in charaéters of gold upon Egyptian paper, and hung up in the temple of Mecca, whence they were named mozahebat, or goldeny and moallakaf, or Sufpended. The poems of this fort were called caffeidas, or eclogues, feven of which are preferved in our libraries, and are confidered as the fineft that were written before the time of Mohammed. Concerning the Arabic and oriental verfe in general, count Reviczki re- marks, that he ‘ anticipates the mortification of all our European poets, when they difcover that the oriental dia- lects had a greater variety of feet, and confequently the true f{cience of metre and profody.’’ After the above-mentioned period, however, the Mufes diffeminated their gifts with a prolific hand, and many were fignalized with their favours. Amongft the reft, the caliph Almamon, fometimes termed the Arabian Auguitus, for the proteétion he afforded to the belles lettres, bore an early and a diftinguifhed rank. We have only to confult the abbé Andres, in his luminousywork “ Dell’ Origine, de’ progreffi e dello Stato attuale d’Ogni Letteratura,”’” to aflure ourfelves, on the authority of the authentic manufcripts which he cites, that the Arabs had now become pre-eminent for their cultivation of the Mufes. Scoppa affirms that there is no exaggeration in the expref- fion of the *¢ Hiftoire de la Poefie Frangaife,’? which, from undoubted evidence, afferts ‘ that there had been more poets amongft the Arabs than in all the reft of the world.’ Abilabba-Abdalla, fon of the caliph Motaz, recapitulates the lives of an hundred and twenty-one poets of the firft rank. Another work, entitled ‘* Théatre des Poétes,’? - forms a library of twenty-four volumes. Cafiri, the cele- brated author of the ‘‘ Bibliotheque Arabico-Hifpana de VEfcurial,’’? does not hefitate to maintain that the excel- lencies of the Arabian poets rofe as high in the feale of merit as thofe of the Greeks and Latins. In our endeavour to trace the hiftory of verfification, where it is more likely to be found in its native and unbor- rowed {tate, we now turn to the northern nations of Europe. Tacitus mentions the verfe and hymns of the Germans, at a time when that rough people inhabited the woods, and whilft their manners were yet favage. The Arthur of Teu- tonic romance is the hero Dieterich of Berne, who lived about the year 450 A.D. It is thought that his deeds of high enterprife were fung in the ancient and barbarous verfes, fome of which were colle&ted by Charlemagne. The fight of Theodoric to the Huns is related in an exceedingly curious fragment, from the language and metre of which we infer, it muft have been compofed in the eighth century. We learn from a Latin fragment, written by Du Chefne, that Lewis the Pious, fon of Charlemagne, being defirous that all his fubje&ts {peaking the Theotife language fhould be enabled to read the feriptures, ‘* ordered a Saxon, who was reputed to be no vulgar bard, to make a poetical tranfla- tion of the Old and New Teftament into the German tongue.’? It is fuppofed by Eccard and the German phi- lologitts, that the ** Harmony of the four Evangelilts,”’ in the Cottonian library, forms a part of this tranflation. Ottfried’s Paraphrafe of the four Gofpels, made about the year 870, affords a proof that alliteration had fallen into dif- ufe, and prefents us with the earlieft fpecimen of German rhyme. Nor is this early produétion uninterefting. The infant Saviour is defcribed as growing amongft men as a lily amongit thorns. The victory gained in the year 883 over the Normans, by Louis II1., was recorded, as is {tated by a contemporary chronicle, ‘* not only in our annals, but alfo in our national fongs.”? The Franks had not yet adopted the language of 8 their VERSIFiCATION. their vaffal Gauls; and one of their national fongs, which has been fingularly preferved, is written in the pure Franco- Theotifc diale&t, and confequently belongs to the hiftory of German poetry. From thefe fcanty remains we pafs on to the period (from 1136 to 1254) during which the imperial dignity was held by the houfe of Hohen-Stauffen. Upon the acceffion of Conrad III., the founder of the Swabian line, the banquet-hall fuddenly unfolds its portals, and we behold the fathers of romantic verfe, in the perfons of “kings and dukes, mailed knights and trufty {quires,”’ each of whom took the harp in glee and game, And made a lay, and gave it name.”’ Under this new race of rulers, the diale€ts of the fouth and welt of Germany obtained a decided preponderance. The Swabian or Allemannic became blended with the Franco-Theotifc, and thus formed the bafis of the language of the prefent day ; which, as in the parallel inftance of the * Volgare illufire’’ of Italy, has fuperfeded its fiiter idioms, and become the fole vehicle of information. _ Whatever literary impulfe may have been given by the firft crufade, it appears that the fecond produced a more decided effe&, by generally diffufing the cultivation which had been maturing in the more propitious regions of the fouth. The population of the empire was brought into clofer conne€tion with the fongiters of Provence and Cata- lonia, and their polifhed {trains were foon re-echoed in the harfher tones of the “‘ Minne Singers,”’ or bards of love, as they were pleafed to call themfelves, of the Swabian era. A noble author is now confidered as a rare occurrence. But in the age of the “ Minne Singers,’? hardly any one dared to cultivate the art of verfification, unlefs he could prove his fixteen quarters. The fovereigns of Germany themfelves, emulating perhaps the example of our captive Richard, fhared in the fame fervour. The collection in the volume of Rudiger Manifs is headed by the poems of the emperor Henry; the next place is held by Wenceflaus, king of Bohemia. A ballad, diftinguifhed for its tender- nefs, is given as the produétion of the duke of Breflau. The verfe of Henry, duke of Anholt, is by no means de- void of tafte and elegance; and a fingle lay bears witnefs to the talents of the unfortunate Conradine. The “ Gefte’’ of king Rother conneéts itfelf both with the Helden-buch and the Cycle of Charlemagne. This poem, and a fragment of the hiftory of the expeditions of the French monarchs againft the Saracens, are the earlieft fpecimens now extant of the German metrical romance. The Swabian era produced upwards of two hundred poets, many of whom are deferving of attention. Under Rodolph of Hapfburg (1273) and his fucceffors, they began to lofe ground ; and the brilliancy which had diftin- guifhed the preceding era gradually died away. It is difficult to eftablifh a definite boundary for the dif- ferent periods of literary hiftory ; they melt into each other, like the colours of the rainbow. In Conrad of Wiirz- burgh, who flourifhed towards the conclufion of the 13th century, we find the glow of better days united to fome of the peculiarities of the later ‘*‘ Mafter-Singers’’ of Augf- burg and Nuremburg. At this time a few princes and high-born lords, amongft whom Otto the marquis of Bran- denburg, and the count of Leiningen, may be named as the moft diftinguifhed, {till continued to imitate the ftyle of the Swabian poets. But they had no fucceffors. The art expired amongft the nobility, and the fcene was fud- denly changed. Poetry certainly never had fo fingular a fortune in any other country as in Germany, It actually became one of the incorporated trades in the German cities ; and the burghers obtained the freedom of it, as of any other corporation. By M. Grimm the “ Minne-Singers” and the «< Maiter-Singers’’ are fuppofed to have originally formed but one clafs of poets. At all events, thefe focieties offer a mott fingular phenomenon. Compofed entirely of the lower ranks of fociety, they obtained a monopoly of verfe-craft, and extended their tuneful fraternity over the greater part of the empire. The candidate for admiffion into thefe fo- cieties was introduced with prefcribed formalities. The four ‘¢ merkers,’? or examiners, fat behind a filken curtain, to pafs judgment on his qualifications. One of thefe had Martin Luther’s tranflation of the bible before him, it being confidered as the ftandard of the language. His province was to decide whether the diction of the novice was pure, and his grammar accurate. The others attended to the rhyme and metre of the compofition, and the melody to which it was fung. And if they united in declaring that the candidate had complied with the ftatutes and regulations, he was decorated with a filver chain and badge, and admitted into the fociety. Bouterwick remarks, that the rude inferiority of the German poetry, during the 16th century, forms an un- pleafing contraift to its {tate in Italy and Spain. In the age of Ariofto and Cervantes, Hans Sach continued to rank as the firlt German poet; and the only dignified epic which Germany poflefled was the ftiff allegory of Melchior Pfuit- zing. Having traced the rife and progrefs of the art of verfifica- tion in Germany, we fhall now full purfue the fame fyftem, in noticing, firlt, thofe places where its early dawn was un- mixed with the rays of neighbouring conttellations, She- ringham and Bartholine inform us, that the fcaldi or bards were highly honoured among the Danifh tribes; that their verfe was of the legiflative caft ; and that they fung the great actions of their anceftors, and kindled the fame of war b the influence of poetic recitation. The ‘* Welkina’’ and *¢ Niflunga Saga’? were compiled in the 13th century from the fongs of the Danes and Swedes. We alfo meet with the poetical and mufical office united in almoft every northern clime. The union of the legiflator’s and bard’s charaéter is exemplified in the perfon of Snorro Sturlefon, who, about fix hundred years fince, was at once the chief legiflator and moft eminent bard in the ifle of Iceland. Odin, the Scythian legiflator, boafted that the Runic fongs had been handed to him by the gods. Strabo tells us, that through- out the whole diftri& of Gaul, there were three kinds of men heldin high eftimation, the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids. Diodorus Siculus adds, that ‘ the bards fung to inftruments, praifing fome and fatyrizing others.’ The Britifh bards, about the fame time, were of the fame character ; and their genius is fufficiently evinced by their verfe yet extant under the name of Offian, if Offian’s work be genuine. In Ireland they were endowed with eftates, and lived by public patronage,: inde- pendent and free from temporal care. Ollamh Fodlah, ane of their kings, fummoned them to a triennial feftival,' for the purpofe of tran{mitting to pofterity the authentic re- cords contained in their verfe; which were from them felected and preferved in the cuftody of the king’s antiquary. In the year 558, the Irifh bards, being extremely numerous, and infolently powerful, had attained the fummit of their influence. Even in the time of Spenfer, they were the fubjeé&t of ferious complaint. (Keating’s Hiftory, and Spenfer’s View of the State of Ireland.) Nor are we with- out inftances of the native and ungrafted ftate of: verfe in the tranfatlantic world. In the ancient empire of Peru, Garcilaflo de la Vega informs us, that their fongs were in- numerable ; ' VERSIFICATION. numerable ; that he had heard many, and learned fome from his anceftors, who were the laft of the royal family of the Incas. Their Incas or chiefs had been poets or muficians in the early periods of their hiftory. The fame author pre- fents us with fome {pecimens of their verfe, which bear every charaGter of aboriginal texture. Father Lafitau (Mceurs des Sauvages, tom. ii. p. 213.) has given a circumftantial account oF the feftivities of the Iroquois, Hurons, and fome lefs confiderable tribes of North American Indians, in which verfe and fong bore an eflential part. Thefe, for the moft part, confift of the fables of ancient times, and are com- pofed in a ftyle fo antiquated as to differ materially from their colloquial diale&. They were obferved alfo to re- trench or ftrike off fome fyllables from their words, to pro- duce the requifite meafure ; and the audience beat the time with a correfponding motion of the head, accompanied with fhouts, repeated at certain intervals with fuch accuracy that they never err. It is eafy to perceive that our remarks have hitherto been confined to trace the earlieft fource and rife of verfification amongft thofe nations only, where we were moft likely to difcover it in a ftate unmixed with borrowed ftreams. The tafk is evidently not a little difficult, to fay exactly where it can be contemplated in a ftage purely nafcent. Its diftant courfe has gradually receded from our view, and ultimately loft itfelf in the remote and vifionary forms of aboriginal tradition. Nor do we mean to affirm that the fubfequent meanders, which, from each infulated fountain, we have for a while been led to purfue, has, in every inftance, re- mained unblended with the confluence of adventitious chan- nels. It is fufficient if, by the preceding remarks, we have, in any degree, developed thofe features which appear to be uniformly peculiar to its infant ftate. This, however, will not only apologize for, but even warrant, our omitting, until this, to mention the Greek and Roman verfification, where we can contemplate it only in an engrafted predica- ment. It is admitted, that knowledge and ufeful arts the Greeks received from the Eaft; yet it is the opinion of fome, that fince ‘the Greeks ftudied no foreign language, it was impoflible that any foreign literature fhould influence their’s. Not even the name of a Perfian, Affyrian, Pho- nician, or Egyptian poet is alluded to by a Greek writer. The Greek poetry was, therefore, wholly national. The Pelafgic ballads were infenfibly formed into epic, tragic, and lyric poems; but the heroes, the opinions, the cuftoms mentioned in them, are exclufively Grecian; as they had been, when the Hellenic minftrels knew little beyond the Adriatic and the Egean.”? This argument, however, is not fo conclufive as to lead to the inference, that the Greeks had no preceding example from which to copy. No more can we fuppofe that Homer was the moft ancient poet : for as the Paradife Loft of Milton plainly implies that other epic poems exifted prior to this, and that Milton had read them ; fo do the Iliad and Odyfley of Homer. It is con- trary to all the phenomena of the human mind, that fo finifhed a work fhould have been the jfr/? eflay of the kind. There can be no room to doubt but many poets flourifhed before Homer. As the Paradife Loft neceffarily fuppofes Spenfer’s Fairy Queen; that, Taflo’s Gerufalemme Libe- yata; that, Virgil’s Aéneid; and the A®neid, the Iliad of Homer; fo the Iliad itfelf may ftand in reference to as many preceding poems as the Paradife Loft does. As the JEneid never could have exifted, had not the Iliad gone before, after the model of which it is entirely conftructed ; and as the Jerufalem Delivered is a proceed from the JEneid, as the Fairy Queen is from the poem of Taflo, and the Paradife Loft from the whole; fo we may conjec- ture, that the Iliad is from the worke of preceding poets, and that we are left to lament the irreparable lofs of a valt mafs of intelle& in the deftru€tion of the works which pre- ceded and gave birth to thofe of Homer. In the art of verfification, the Greeks and Romans claim that eminent and diftinguifhed rank, which has already fe- cured to their memory that renown and celebrity to which they were fo unqueftionably entitled. But as they pof- | fefled this art only in an engrafted ftate, and as their fuc- cefs in this department of literature is fo univerfally known, and as we fhall have a future opportunity to notice it, our limits compel us here to pafs to that which is more recondite and lefs generally underftood. According to the teftimony of the abbé Andres, and the authentic MSS. which he cites, it is to the Arabs that Spain, France and Italy, were not a little indebted for the cultivated ftate of their verfification. Thefe nations had for a long time groaned under the yoke of the barbarians of the North; and according to the teftimony of the abbé Andres, it is chiefly to the inftrumentality of the Arabs that we owe the © return of the fciences into Europe. Amongft the French and the Spaniards who have cultivated with the greateft fuc- cefs the poetry of which the Arabs gave them the exam- ple, the Troubadours of Provence, for the harmony of their enchanting verfe, which has been received with fuch eclat through Weftern Europe, ftand pre-eminently diftinguifhed. The hiftory of the Troubadours is replete with the names of thofe exalted perfonages, to whom it had become a de- lightful recreation to compofe verfe in the Provengal diale&. We may mention, amongtt others, William, duke of Aqui- tania, whofe verfes were compofed in the year 1100 A.D.; Peter I.; Alphonfe I.; James the Conqueror; James I. ; Thibaut, king of Navarre; Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of Naples and Sicily ; Henry, duke of Brabant ; Peter Mauclerre, earl of Brittany ; Raoul, count of Soif- fons. There exifts yet at the Efcurial a code, of which Cafiri (tome i. p. 126.) makes mention, and which notices the literary difpute between Abu-Jahia, fon of the king of Toledo, and Almotemed, king of Cordova, to obtain the poetic prize. Neither muft we omit to mention the name of Frederic II., who patronized the Mufes, and was himfelf a poet. Nor the poems compofed by king Alphonfe X. fon of St. Ferdinand, who fignalized himfelf for the protec- tion he afforded to the Troubadours. The encouragement which the Provencal poets enjoyed under the aufpices of the great, induced them to traverfe Europe in every direétion. They reforted to the caitles and palaces of kings, they were received with tranfport, and their melodious ftrains were liftened to with enthufiaftic plaudits. Nor was England without fome {hare of the general fervour. It was by the aid of the Troubadours, fays Dryden, that Chaucer enriched and polifhed that language, which the fame Dryden calls « fterile.”” Richard I. was furrounded by the Troubadours and cultivated their verfe. In fhort, fays the fame Andres, every king and emperor accounted it an honour to become accomplifhed in Provengal poetry. From the interceurfe of the Provencals throughout Italy, their verfe obtained the honour of becoming the mother of Italian poetry. This is aflerted by Bembo, Equicola, Varchi, and by many other Italian authors, and efpecially by Baftero (Prefaz alla Crufca Provenzale.) There is no Italian au- thor who has more frankly pronounced his opinion in favour of the Provengals than Bembo. (Prof.I.) He favours us with a long detail of all that the Italians had borrowed from the Provengals. Redi alfo enumerates thofe amongft the Ttalians, who had blended in their Tufcan compofition, a multitude of words and phrafes peculiar to the Provencals. The VERSIFICATION. he celebrated 'Tirabofchi, in his Hiftory of Italian Litera- ture, {peaks alfo of the rhyme and the different kinds of poetic compofition which the Italians had borrowed from the Provengals. On this fubje@t may be read the work of Vicenzo Gravina della Ragion Poetica, liv. 11. p. 132, and L’Iftoria della volear Poefia del Crefcimbeni. The three fathers of Italian literature, Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca, were eminently convyerfant with this exotic verfe. The laft lived a long time in Provence, and ftudied for a while at Paris; and Taffoni affures us, ‘* il Petrarca molto prefe da’ rimatori Provenzah.’? As to Boccaccio, it is generally ac- knowledged, that in his Decameron, he excels by the riches he has culled alike from the Roman and Provengal poets. But of the three, it is more efpecially Dante who has clearly decided, that it is Italy which has borrowed from the French, and more particularly from the Troubadours. It is not without foundation that the count Caylus ac- eufes the Italians of plagiarifm ; and it is not without reafon that Millot fays, that the Provengals opened the road to the Italians and furnifhed them with models for imitation. Neverthelefs, whatever may be the degree of plagiarifm of which the ancient Italian poets are accufed ; whatever may have been the anteriority of the time in which the belles lettres flourifhed among the Provengals ; and the time when it paffed to the Italians; we cannot refufe to the latter the honour of being pre-eminently diftinguifhed for the peculiar care they have beftowed on the fuperftruéture, and for their advancing to the acmé of cultivation thofe arts and feiences which had been fepulchred under the ruins of the Roman empire. The Arabs, the Spaniards, the French, the Eng- lifh, and all other nations, fays Andres (tome i. c. 12. p. 339. edit. de Parme), have been as the Egyptians and the Afiatics who claim the right of originality in the invention and culture of their verfe ; but the Italians may be regarded as the Greeks, who with the induftrious bee culled their honey from every furrounding flower. We mutt not forget, however, that with regard to this right of priority, the Provengals have formidable rivals in the Sicilians. The authorities on each fide of the queftion feem paradoxically equal. Sicily has always boafted herfelf to have been the cradle of Italian poetry. She encircles herfelf with a cloud of authorities, which ferve as a fhield to protect her from the defign to rob her of that title of which fhe defires the exclufive enjoyment. To this end, fhe frequently offers to confideration the following paflage of Dante. (Volg. Elog.) “* Ex acceratis, quodammodo, vulgaribus Italis, inter ea que remanferunt in cribro comparationem facientes honorabilid's ac honorificentils, breviter feligimus : et primo de Siciliano examinemus ingenium: nam videtur Sicilianum vulgarem fibi famam pr aliis adfcifcere, eo quod guidquid poetantur Itali Sicilianum vocatur.”’ Petrarch, who in the next age fucceeded Dante, both in his profe and poetic works, confirms the fame opinion. Nor does he exprefs himfelf with lefs decifion in the epiftle which he compofed about the year 1360. Petrarch alfo informs us, that in his poems, he had fol- lowed that fpecies of vérfification, which had made its re- appearance fome ages before in Sicily, or at leaft two or three hundred years before the twelfth century. But to afford the cleareit light in the difcuffion of this fubjeG, it is neceflary to tranfport our ideas to the period of the decline of the Roman empire. The Italian language took its radical elements from the nature of the Latin. Even before the fplendour and the authority of the emperors had been impaired, the language was adulterated by that ad- mixture of barbarifms which feemed the neceflary confe- quence of foreign intercourfe. But all limits to this cor- 4 ruption were overthrown, when the Goths, the Huns, the Greeks, the Lombards, the Franks and Germans in rapid fucceflion inundated the empire. Hence arofe a new jargon which ferved the vulgar and the plebeian tribes in their col- loquial intercourfe, whilft the learned and the polite circles of fociety endeavoured to maintain the dignity and purity of the Latin language. The former, however, compofed the majority, and carried the day. This, according to Mu- ratori, happened about the 11th century. But whilft this revolution happened in Italy, France and Spain, where the Latin language, the common genus, branched into three kindred {pecies, each receiving fuch modifications as were fuited to the ‘circumftances and temper peculiar to each nation, Sicily had alfo been long fubje&t to a fimilar revolution by the frequent invafions of the Saracens from the year 649 to 827; and again to 1060. And befides this, the Latin language had been already cor- rupted by the influence of the Vandals, who made a defcent on this ifle in 440, and by the dominion of the Goths, who governed it from 493 to 535, when Belifarius refcued the ifland. The Sicilians had alfo their plebeian diale@ ; and they had, from the dominion of the Arabs, imbibed a pre- dileGtion for that peculiar fpecies of verification, which the latter had been equally fuccefsful in communicating to the Spaniards. The Sicilians, guided by that delicacy of the ear for which they are always remarkable, difcovered them- felves to be the firft that had in their native language a cer- tain melodious order, refulting not from that profodial quan- tity which defines merely fyllables to be long or fhort, but rather from another meafure, which is the effeé of the acute accent, artificially diftributed within the limits of a definite number of fyllables. They were thus enabled, without any other effort, to imitate the tafte and the verfification of the Arabs their conquerors ; and the example of the latter was a Jpark to fet on fire what till this was but latent in their imagin- ation, and thus the genius and natural difpofition of their minds received an unexpected and brilliant developement. It is, at leaft, affirmed, that the Sicilians have far exceeded the Spaniards and the French in the culture of this modern verfification. And Caftelvetro and Muratori maintain, that it was not Italy and Sicily that received from the Provengals the elements of this new fpecies of verfe, but that the latter were indebted for it to the Sicilians. We learn, however, from the authority of incontettible witnefles, that the Sici- lians made great progrefs in the culture of the fine arts either during the gth or roth century ; whilft Fauchet could not find among the poetry of the French a writer more ancient than Euftaché, who flourifhed about the middle of the 12th century. And Galland (Acc. Infer. tom. iii.) could not quote an author anterior to the fame. And whilft the learned Andrews could not fix the birth of the fame art amongit the Spaniards earlier than the 11th century. The Sicilian verfification, at firft rude, uncultivated, and barbarous, became, by degrees, a ftudied and polifhed art, replete with brilliant images, and with thoughts noble and fublime. It was, in fhort, the verfe of the year 1220 that was feen to fhine with peculiar luftre in the mind of Fre- deric II., who, after he had received the inveftiture from pope Celeftin, came to reign in Sicily. The Sicilians pre- ferve even yet his poems, thofe of Euzo his fon, king of Sardinia, and thofe of Pier delle Vigne, fecretary to the fame. From the eentre of Sicily, this art difleminated itfelf over all Italy. The more learned Italians, attraéted by the virtues of a generous prince, came in a crowd to Sicily, frequented the court of Frederic, became themfelves poets, and carried the tafte of the novel verfification into their native country. Cref- VERSIFICATION. Crefcimbeni dates the’ commencement of this art about the year 1189. But Quadrio fixes its origin about the year 1135. And this he proves by an infcription in verfe, which he found in the cathedral church of Ferrara. It is: not improbable, however, that when Frederic II. arrived in Sicily, which happened nearly a century after this, he was already well inftruéted in this new fpecies of verfifi- cation, which he had learned in Provence, his native coun- try ; and alfo that he poffeffed an art which he had derived from the Arabs eftablifhed in Spain, whilft the Sicilians boafted the poffeffion of the fame art, which they had ori- ginally received from the Saracens. Thefe two points of hiftory being reduced to thefe paral- lel terms, it will become eafy to refolve what would other- wife appear to be contradictory and paradoxical in thofe apparently oppofite opinions, of which the one attributes to the Sicilians, the other to the Provengals, the honour of having been the firft who communicated to Italy the know- ledge of this modern {pecies of verfification. The fac doubtlefs is, that both the one and the other, nearly at the fame time, received from the Arabs that new acquilition for which their own dialeéts were found to poffefs a certain in- nate congeniality, and fubfequently became reciprocally in- ftrumental in confirming and maturing that art, which foon became celebrated throughout Europe, under either the Italian epithet ‘lettere amene e leggiadre,” or the Proven- gal “¢ guai faber,”’ i. e. the gay /cience. Having now, perhaps, executed the moft difficult part of our tafk, in tracing from this remote and obfcure period, the earlieft fource of this new fpecies of verfification, our limits and our readers will exempt us from entering into a long detail of the fubfequent progrefs of this art amongtt two neighbouring nations, efpecially as this part of the fub- jet is more acceffible through the medium of the pens of the hterati of France and Italy. Before we proceed to treat on the nature of verfe, it will be neceflary to premife the following explanations of fuch technical terms as will occur in the fequel. A SYLLABLE. By a reference to the article Quanrtiry, the reader will difcover that we have already had an opportunity of diftin- guifhing between a fhort and a long fyllable, and of tating that the former is ufually denoted by a {mall curve, as ~ ; and the latter by a dafh, as ~ Frer. A foot, (fo called from the ancient cuftom of beating time by the foot,) is a part of a verfe, and contifts of two or more fyllables, as here exemplified. I. Twetve Simpce Frer. 1. Four feet of two fyllables. Adiion deer. its «veda ins «piv swesticen seth -eissltaes So 55 PAU DY RilGssgadd.cdteess dower apie selenide dopeclces she iAntrophee;nOr Choreeis sdibss.seasih sebeawddatees Aip lamb Wists «xis vas ltad Shs peotews sd speremavettes 2. Eight feet of three /yllables. j te TUG LDU eein cet. Sapeae nes ciaceieseee sheds ceeae eee j j é Astriara cgi momtcsiisadtns outtto hy. acmebtofeip Sr PMMA SU AGUTHee aeinsiabid de cweldaedee ap eothiatve ood: Me crore BR Anan ape lt: Aes ose S ob wauseieavsicane sed obs saul vis QUA bacchic........2..+ i al a ohlgitalne «pad domiely tans oh eee TOMMENNRAMEL DEA CHICrpoenidbs suesaiweads « doy onsWasn cash rates Lil crebicg Om amphimacer,, g- An Alcmanian daétylic trimeter hypercataleGtic, with a Pherecratic daétylic trimeter acataleétic ; as, Omne hominum genus in terris Simili furgit ab ortu.—Boet. 10. The Alcmanian daétylic tetrameter acataleGtic, with an Archilochian daétylic dimeter hypercataleétic ; as, Quam thalamo, tedifque jugalibus Invida mors rapuit.—Aufon. Parent 2. “y1. The Alcmanian da&tylic tetrameter acataleGtic, with n iambic dimeter acataleétic ; as, Sunt etenim penne volucres mihi Que celfa confcendant poli.—Boét. ° 12. The Anacreontic iambic dimeter catale@ic, with the Pherecratic daétylic trimeter acatale¢tic ; as, Quifquis volet perennem Cantus ponere fedem.—Boet. 13. The ad ee ee ee VERSIFICATION. .13- The iambic trimeter acataleétic, with the pentameter 5 as, Quamvis fluente dives auri gurgite Non expleturas cogat ayarus opes.—Boét. elegiac 14. The iambic trimeter acataleGtic, with the iambic dimeter acatalectic; as, This liburnis inter alta navium, Amice, propugnacula.—Hor. 15. The iambic trimeter acatale&tic, with the Archilo- chian elegiambic ; as, ‘ : Petti, nihil me, ficut antea, juvat x Scribere verficulos, amore percuffum gravii—Hor. 16. The fcazon iambic, with an iambic dimeter acata- le@tic ; as, Verona doéti fyllabas amat vatis Marone felix Mantua eft.—Martial. 17. The Euripidean trochaic dimeter catalectic, with an jambic dimeter acataletic ; as, Orbis omnes incole A fole Eoo ad Hefperum.—Buchan. 18. The Euripidean trochaic dimeter catalectic, with an Archilochian iambic trimeter catale€tic ; as, Non ebur, neque aureum Mea renidet in domo Jacunar.—Hor. 19- The Alcmanian trochaic dimeter acataleétic, with a Pherecratic daétylic trimeter acatale¢tic ; as, Quos vides federe celfos Solii culmine reges.—Boet. 20. The trochaic tetrameter cataleCtic, with an iambic trimeter acatale@tic ; as, » Ore pulchro, et ore muto, {cire vis que fim? Imago Rufi rhetoris PiGtavici.—Aufon. 21. The Sapphic pentameter acatale@tic, with an iambic dimeter acatale€tic ; as, Gentis humanz pater atque cuftos Quam fanéta majeftas tui.—Buchan. 22. The Sapphic pentameter acatale@tic, with the Gly- conic choriambic trimeter acataleftic ; as, Cum polo Phebus rofeis quadrigis Lucem fpargere ceperit.—Boet. 23. The Phalzcian pentameter acataleCtic, with an ele- giac pentameter ; as, Quid tantos juvat excitare motus Et propria fatum follicitare manu.—Boet. 24. The Phalecian pentameter acataleftic, with an Alcaic da&ylic tetrameter acatalectic ; as, Quamvis fe Tyrio fuperbus oftro Comeret, et niveis lapillis.—Boét. 25. The Phalecian pentameter acatale&tic, with a Sapphic pentameter acatalectic ; as, Hic partus placida manens quiete, Hoc patens unum miferis afylum.—Boét. ' 26. The Ariftophanian choriambic dimeter acataleéic, with an Alcaic epichoriambic tetrameter acataleétic ; as, Lydia dic per omnes Te deos oro, Sybarin cur properes amando.—Hor, 27. The Glyconic choriambic trimeter acataleGic, with the Afclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acataletic ; as, Sic te diva potens Cypri, Sic fratres Helene lucida fidera.—Hor. 28. The Afclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acataleGic, with the Pherecratic da€tylic trimeter acataleCtic ; as, Si quantas rapidis flatibus incitus Pontus verfat arenas.—Boet. 29. The Afclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acataletic, with an iambic dimeter acatale@tic ; as, Eheu, que miferos tramite devios Abducit ignorantia.—Boet. 30. The daétylic-trochaic feptenarius, with an Archilo- chian iambic trimeter cataleétic ; as, Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni, Trahuntque ficcas machine carinas.—Hor. 31. The trochaic daétylic, with an iambic daétylic ; as, Si quis Aréiuri fidera nefcit Propinqua fummo cardine labi.—Boét. Il. Of the Carmen Dicolon Triftrophon. 1. Two Ariftophanian anapeftic tetrameters acatale@ic, and an Adonic dimeter acataleétic ; as, Tu quoqgue in evum, Crifpe, futurum Meiti venies commemoratus Munere threni.—Aufon. 2. Two Alcmanian trochaic dimeters acataleGtic, and an Euripidean trochaic dimeter cataleétic ; as, Incolz terrarum ab ortu Solis ultimum ad cubile, Eia Domino pfallite— Buchan. 3. Two {mall Ionic trimeters acatalectic, and a {mall Tonic tetrameter acatale¢tic ; as, Miferarum eft, neque amore dare ludum Neque dulci mala vino lavere; aut ex- -animari metuentes patrue verbera lingue.— Hor. III. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tetraftrophon. 1. Three Anacreontic trochaie dimeters acatale€tic, and a choriambic trochaic quinarius ; as, Age cunéta nuptiali Redimita vere tellus Celebra toros heriles Omne nemus cum fluviis, omne canat profundum.—Claud. 2. Three Sapphic pentameters, and an Adonic dime- ter; as, Jam fatis terris nivis, atque dire Grandinis mifit pater, et rubente Dextera facras jaculatas arces Terruit urbem.— Hor. VERSIFICATION. 3.. Three Glyconic choriambic trimeters acataleGtic, and a Pherecratic daétylic trimeter acatalectic ; as, Dianz fumus in fide Puellz, et pueri integri : Dianam pueri integri, Puelleque canamus.—Catull. 4. Three Afclepiadic choriambics and a Glyconic ; as, Aurum per medios ire fatellites, | Et perrumpere amat faxa potentius Té&u fulmineo. Concidit auguris Argivi domus ob lucrum.—Hor. IV. Of the Carmen Tricolon Triftrophon. 1. An hexameter, an Archilochian dattylic dimeter hypercataleGtic, and an Jambic dimeter acataleétic ; as, Te regem Dominumque canam, dum lucida volvet Lucidus aftro polus, Et unicum colum Deum.—Buchan. 2. An hexameter, an Iambic dimeter acatalectic, and an Archilochian daétylic penthemimer ; as, Horrida tempeftas ccelum contraxit ; et imbres Nivefque deducunt Jovem : Nunc mare, nunc filiz. Epod. 13. Thus Heinfius feans the 13th Epod. 3. An Iambic trimeter acataleGtic, an Archilochian dac- tylic penthemimer, with an Iambic dimeter acatale¢tic ; as, Petti, nihil me, ficut antea juvat Scribere verficulos— Amore perculfum gravi.—Hor. But others term this a carmen dicolon diftrophon. 4. A Glyconic choriambic trimeter, an Afclepiadic _ choriambic tetrameter, and an Alcaic choriambic pen- tameter ; as, Per quinquennia jam decem Ni fallor, fuimus ; feptimus infuper Anno cardo rotat, dum fruimur Sole volubili.— Prudent. V. Of the Carmen Tricolon Tetraftrophon. 1. Two great alcaics, an Iambic dimeter hypercatalec- tic, and a {mall alcaic; as, Odi profanum vulgus et arceo : Favete linguis: carmina non prius Audita, Mufarum facerdos, Virginibus puerifque canto.—Hor. 2. Two Afclepiadic choriambics, a Pherecratic daétylic trimeter, and a Glyconic choriambic ; as, Prima noéte domum claude, neque in vias Sub cantu querule defpice tibiz : Et te fepe vocanti Duram, difficilis mane.—Hor. There is likewife a third kind formed by a certain ar- rangement of ode 12. lib. 3. of Horace; for which fee the Carmen Diocolon Triftrophon, No. ILI. As the literature of Italy and France is allowed to hold fuch diftinguifhed rank and importance in the republic of 6 letters, it is now incumbent on us to offer fuch remarks as may tend to develope the nature and principles of Italian and French Verfification. I. If the reader will take the trouble to confult the abbé d’Olivet on the French Language, (edit. of 1807, p.6— 10.) he will find a detail of thoie who attempted the com- pofition of verfe after the principles of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This pra€tice, however, has long fince be- come quite obfolete, and fyllabic quantity has been fuper- feded, in the ftru€ture of verfe, by accentuation, and there- fore the definition of modern yerfe may be given im the following words. IL. A verfe is an aflemblage of fuch a definite number of fyllables or feet, and comprifes fuch a feries of regularly recurring accents, as may be eafily remarked by the ear; whofe pleafing fucceffion is regulated by our innate per- ception of what is mufical and harmonious; and it, there- ~ fore, admirably ferves to delight the ear, to expand the foul, to folace the heart, to aid the memory, and to adapt the language of difcourfe to that of fong and mufic. The extent or the meafure of verfe ought to be fuch, that it may be eafily and fenfibly felt by the ear ; otherwife verfe differs not from profe. For if the number of feet or fyl- lables conftituting the verfe be fuch, as to prevent the eafy recognifance of the fame returning feries, the ear fails to be delighted, or the memory to be affifted by the recurrence of what it is only fatigue or difficulty to anticipate. That an intimate analogy exifts between verfe and mufic is manifeft to the moft fuperficial obferver. They receive their exiftence from the {fame laws, and their obje& is to gratify and delight the fame organ. Amongit the ancients, mufic lent its numbers to poetry. It was to the lyre that Apollo, Orpheus, and Homer fung their yerfe. << Illud quidem certum,”’ fays Voffius, ‘* comnem poefim olim can- tatum fuifle.”? It is, therefore, to mufic that we muft refer for the bafis, the rationale, of verfification. “ It is affirmed too, by the definition juft given, that verfe admirably ferves to delight the ear, to expand the foul, and to aid the memory. (Verfe aims to render the truths and fentiments expreffed by its language, amiable and interefting. And this it eife&ts by the medium of an accurately meafured and agreeable fucceffion of accented and unaccented founds, which addrefs the ear ; and by the means of fuch images and fentiments as delight and affect the foul: and the memory is powerfully affifted as well by the one as by the other. III. Toexplain the nature of Italian verfe, it is neceflary to remark, that they divide all the words contained in their language into, three claffes, termed words tronchi, piani, and Jdruccioli. Words having the accent on the laft fyllable are called tronchi; as bonta, virtu, fa, fenti. Thofe having the accent on the penultimate are termed piani; as udmo, animale, impéro, &c. And thofe that are accented on the antepenultimate are named /druccioli; as docile, abito, an- cora, &c. The firft are denominated tronchi, (trongués coupés, cut fbort,) becaufe they were originally entire, as bontade, virtute, face, fentis. The fecond clafs, piani, receives this diftinGtion from the circumftance of the words compofing it being pronounced (pianamente) more gently than thofe of the other two claffes ; and the laft, the /druc- cioli (coulans or gins), becaufe the words of this kind feem to flow or flide {wiftly from the antepenultimate fyllable to the end. IV. Hence alfo it follows, that a verfe alfo receives its de- nomination, according as it is terminated by a word of one or the other of thefe kinds: confequently, verfes termed tronchi are terminated by an acute accent; thofe called piani VERSIFICATION. ‘pian? have a fyllable after this accent; and the {druccioli have two; to which fome add the pit che {druccioli, which have four fyllables after the accent. The lait accent decides the nature and the completion of every verfe. The ear meafures the extent of a verfe from its commencement to the laft accent. The ear is naturally fenfible at the occurrence of this laft accent, that the har- mony of the verfe is accomplifhed : it is fatisfied, and de- mands nothing more. It is equal, whether the laft accentu- ated fyllable be itfelf the laft fyllable, or followed by one, two, or four fyllables ; for the meafure of the verfe is com- prifed between its commencement and this laft accentuated fyllable. The fyllables remaining after this accent are re- dundant, with ref{peét to the meafure and harmony of the verfe. (See Ariftotle, Poet. cap. 8.) This confideration will render it evident, that if a verfe be piano, (which fpecies the Italians fele& for their regular meafure,) it will have the precife number of fyllables which the nature of the verfe affigns to it; if it be tronco, it will have one lefs; if {drucciolo, one more. Therefore, the verfe piano is acata- leG&ic ; the verfe tronco, cataleGiic; the verle {drucciolo, hypercataleétic. V. The French in a fimilar manner divide thei* words chiefly into two claffes, the mafculine and the feminine. The mafculine (correfponding to thofe which the Italians term fronchi) have the accent on the lait fyllable ; as verti, nouveau, il parla, and are generally of the mafculine gender. The feminine (analogous to the Italian piani) have the ac-, cent on the penultimate ; as honnéte, ils parlerent, il parle, France, &c.: and thefe are fo called, becaufe that nouns of this defcription are generally terminated by the e mute, a charaGteriflic of the feminine gender. The words called fdruccioli by the Italians (gliffant by the French) can only be found in fuch phrafes as garde-le, dites-le, mdntre- le, &c. E "The fame epithets are alfo applied to their verfe, accord- ing to the charaéteriftic of the word which terminates it. Thefe preliminary obfervations, well underftood, will reconcile the anomalies which, until the prefent, have pro- duced an apparent difference between the nature of the Italian and that of the French verfification. For fince the Italians fele& the verfe piano for their common meafure, and the French the mafculine (or tronco), which, between the com- mencement of the verfe and the accented fyllable, will con- tain one fyllable lefs than the former ; it follows that the Italian verfe will always exceed the French verfe of the fame kind by one fyllable. For example, the Italian hen- decafyllable piano has eleven fyllables, and the French hendecafyllable mafculine (tronco) ten; and the French hendecafylable piano will have the fame, for they do not reckon, as the Italians, the redundant fyllable. The only fimple feet admitted in the compofition of French and Italian verfe are the trochee, the iamb, the da@tyl, and the anape{t. It is unneceffary to repeat here the definition we have already given of a metre and a rhythm, in a former part of this article. We fhall, therefore, now proceed to ftate all the poffible combinations that can refult from thefe four feet in the compofition of a hemiftich, which is, by a late French writer, confidered as a fimple or primi- tive verfe. An iambic hemiftich may confift of three, four, or five feet ; fo may the trochaic, the anapeftic, or the daétylic hemiftich : therefore, from hence we have twelve varieties, or all the poffible combinations of the hemiftich. For each of the four feet cannot produce more than three varieties, the {malleft of which cannot confift of lefs than three, nor the greateft of more than five feet. Hence, then, we have at once the minimum and maximum of their extent. At the former, we affert that an hemiftich cannot confift of lefs than three feet. We have already remarked, that the ex- tent or meafure of a verfe ought to be fuch as to admit of its being eafily and fenfibly remarked by the ear, otherwife it is not verfe, but profe. And every verfe or hemiftich contains more or lefs of the rhythmical order; and, as we have already obferved, a rhythm is a feries of fimilar feet continued until the ear perceiyes the order of the feries, and is able to anticipate the peculiar nature and recurrence of the verfe. But one foot cannot be a feries, therefore a foot cannot be ahemiftich. We have already affirmed, too, that the fucceflion of two fimilar feet conftitute a metre; and a metre is the commencement of a feries. But the commence- ment of a feries is not the feries itfelf: the feries {uppofes a continuation; therefore, the fucceflion of two feet, or a metre, cannot be a hemiftich or primitive verfe. For the union of two feet form a metre; but a metre is not a rhythm ; therefore, two feet are not ahemiltich. But if to’ two fimilar feet fucceed another of the fame nature, then the feries is decided. An hemiftich, then, cannot have lefs than three feet. What is {maller than this is only the element of an hemiftich. Let us further inquire, in what confifts the harmony of a verfe? Doubtlefs in the regular order of the accents in its rhythm or feries. But one foot has only one accent; therefore, it has no harmony, and cannot be an hemiftich or radical verfe. So we reply concerning two feet; they are not an order or feries, but only the com- mencement of a feries.) We may, with M. J. J. Sulzer, iluftrate thefe remarks by repeating the following feries, un deux, un deux, un deux, un deux, un deux, &c. Here we can ealily perceive the rhythmical order. But no one can fuppofe that the firft foot, un deux, is an order or feries ; nor in the firft two feet, un» deux, un deux, do we perceive more than the commencement of a feries. But if we include the third, un deux, un deux, un deux, we fee at once the order, the feries, the rhythm, and, laitly, the metrical he- miftich precifely decided. Three feet, then, is the {malleft number which can conftitute the’ hemiitich or primitive verfe. In the fame manner we may determine the maximum of the hemiftich. We have faid that it cannot exceed five feet ; for the number muft be fuch as may be diftinGly remarked by the ear. Suppofe, for example, an hemiftich of fix feet ; fince it may be divided into two equal parts of three feet each, and fince three feet form an hemittich, it is evident that the line of fix feet is mot one but two hemiftichs, 7. e.°a verfe. But the hemiftich of five feet is incapable of being thus divided. If it be, ket the one part confilt of three feet, which, as we have juit proved, is an hemiftich; the other of two feet, which is only a metre; and a metre, as we have jutt obferved, is not an hemiftich; confequently, the line of five feet is an hemiftich or primitive verfe. And becaufe a verfe of fix feet is compofed of two hemiftichs, the line of five feet is the maximum or greateft hemiflich or primitive verfe ; and lines confifting of more than this, after the re- dundant fyllables are cut off, contain two or more hemiltichs of a verfe. VI. Some writers on verfification are in the habit, how- ever, of treating on verfe, which they term difyllabic, trifyl- labic, quadrifyllabic, the quinarius, and the fenarius. But thefe are not verfes, but only the elements of a regular and complete verfe. We fhall, however, in conformity. to their cuftom, and to omit nothing effential, efpecially in what muft be admitted to form the bafis of this art, proceed to «treat on the elements here enumerated. 1. The difyllabic member cannot have more than one ac- cent. VERSIFICATION. If it is tronco, it has but one fyllable (fee obf. 3. cent. and 4, fupra); if piano, two; if {drucciolo, three ; as; Tronco < = a Li. Piano - - - LAffo ! Sdrucciolo - - = Pénfaci. z. The trifyllabic member, if it has but one word, has only one accent; if it confift of two words, it has two accents. If it is tronco, it has only two fyllables ; if piano, three ; if {drucciolo, four; as, Tronco - - - Potra Chi fi. Piano - = - Potranne Si diffe. Sdrucciolo - - - Rifyégliati + No, differo +. 3. The quadrifyllabic member tronco has only three fyllables; piano, four; {drucciolo, five; as, Tronco - - - To men vo 3. Piano = = = Belle rofe + Porporine *. Sdrucciolo - - - I di volano °*. We may here remark, that the Italians call that the ac- cent (commun), which is placed at the end of each verfe,, and which accomplifhes the meafure of the fame. They _affign this epithet to it, in confequence of its being effential and common to all verfe. And this accent is placed on the laft fyllable, if the verfe is tronco; on the penultimate, if piano; on the antepenultimate, if {drucciolo. Now, in the above quadrifyllabics, we may obferve that this accent uni- formly falls on the third fyllable. 3. The quinarius, befides the common accent, has alfo an accent on the fecond fyllable, fometimes on the firft, and not unfrequently it has only the common accent. It con- tains four, five, or fix fyllables, according to the laws al- ready prefcribed ; as, Tronco = =, Porgilo a mé*. Piano = & Terfi deh forgi’. Sdrucciolo - - Ahnonti pérdere®. The difyllabic member, when it is tronco, does not con- tain even the image of a foot; but if it is piano, it is a trochee, as laff6; and if it is fdrucciolo, it is a dattyl, as péenfici. The trifyllabic, of whatever kind it be, can have only an iamb, as potra, potranne, rifcégliati. Example: Sé cérca, S’ io vo’ Se dice: ?? Colla forte L’amico Cangiando Dov’ e Sembianza ; 4 L?amico Virtu »? Infelice » T’incoftanza Rifpondi Diventa Mori Per me, &c.—Metatt. The quadrifyllabic is a monometer, confifting of two trochees, which form a metre; and two of thefe united form the regylar o€anarius. 1. Damigella ‘Tuttabella, Verfa verfa — quel bel yjno Fa che cada La ruggiada Dittillata — di rubigo. 2. O’ nel feno Rio veneno Che vifparfe Amor profundo,” Ma gittarlo E iiarlo Vo’ fommerfo in- quefto fondo. The quinarius is an iambic monometer, and confequently not arhythm. Example: Oh quanto e facile Nella catena D’amor languir ! ett e difficile oterne ufcir ! Si {euote il laccio, Ma non fi {pezza, E amor fi vendica Con piu fierezza Del folle ardir.—Zeno. VII. Every fpecies of French verfe is the fame as the Italian. In each we difcover the fame number of fyllables, the fame accents, the fame cefura, the fame feet, the fame harmony. ‘To evince this, we fhall now ftate, in the fame order as we have done for the Italian verfe, the following elements or members of a verfe. 1. The difyllabic Tronco - Eft. Piano - Enré. Donné. Sdrucciolo Donné-lé. 2. The trifyllabic Tronco - Séra*. Piano - Facile3. Sdrucciolo Régardé-lé *. 3- Quadrifyllabic Tronco - Combattéz3. Piano - Considéré*. Sdrucciolo Considéré-lé5, VIII. The Senarius. The fenarius is an anapeitic monometer cataleGic, hay- ing only an iamb for the firft foot. Befides the accent . common, (which is on the fifth fyllable,) it generally requires an accent on the fecond fyllable ; though fometimes the ac- cented fyllables are the firft, third, and fifth. It contains five, fix, or feven fyllables, according as the verfe is tronco, piano, or {drucciolo ; as, Tronco - Piano - Sdrucciolo Ufate pieta®. Begli aftri d’amore®. Da qui tu quel calice’. The French, according to the rule which we have already explained, call this verfe of five fyllables. “The difference is merely nominal: the verfes are virtually the fame. Tronco - Toijoiirs cé zéphir. Piano - L?amour 4 dés charmes. Sdrucciolo (no example exifts). IX. The Septenarius. If to’ each of the monometers, of which we have juft treated, we add one, two, or three other feet, thefe mono- meters become, according to the principles we have pre- {cribed, regular and legitimate verfe. The feptenarius is compofed of iambic feet, and contains fix, feven, or eight fyllables, according as the verfe is troneo, piano, or fdrucciolo ; as, Tronco - Che vino é qué! cola®? Piano - In un gravofo affanno’. Sdrucciolo O liquor dolce e amabile*. This verfe, befides the common accent, which conftantly alls a ene VERSIFICATION. falls on the fixth fyllable, requires an accent on the fourth. Often it has the accent on the fecond and fourth, and then the verfe is exceedingly harmonious. It is ftated, however, to be a peculiar conveniency of this verfe, that it does not abfolutely require any other accent than the accent common ; but fince the regular feptenarius confifts of three iambic feet, we difcover the evident reafon that it fhould have the acute accent on the fecond, the fourth, and fixth; as, 2 4 6 * 4 = 4 hie This verfe is of extraordinary antiquity in Italian verfiti- cation, as appears from the verfe of Meffer Ruggeri, quoted by Triflino. The French, who, as we have often remarked, meafure their verfe by the mafculine (tronco), call the feptenarius of fix fyllables. In reality it is only three iambic feet, the feventh fyllable is redundant. With regard to the accents, it is fubje& to the fame laws as the Italian feptenarius. Tronco - A foi-méme odieux °. Piano - Le fot de tout sae X. The Alexandrine Verfe. Two feptenarian verfes united, form what the Italians call an Alexandrine or Martellian verfe. Thefe verfes, called by the Italians Aleffandrini, are an imitation of the French Alexandrine, which the French themfelves, as Fauchet and Pafquier obferve, have de- rived from an ancient rhapfody which celebrated the life of Alexander the Great. The Italians, however, alfo call them Martelliani, from James Martelli, a learned and ingenious author, who, in the compofition of his tragic verfe, fuccefsfully imitated the French Alexandrine. Although this verfe confifts of fourteen fyllables, it is not abfolutely neceflary to divide it into two exa& fevens, with all the rules which are effential to each feptenary. The rhythm is iambic to the end of the verfe. But in proportion as we negle& the accents, the verfe becomes more grave and majeitic, and more free and harmonious in proportion as we pay itriGt attention to the rules prefcribed for the fep- tenarius. There is not a literary Italian that is not perfeétly aware that the Italian and French Alexandrine are the fame. The moft infenfible ear may perceive the fame percuffion of the accent, the fame number, the fame harmony. This verfe, according to the different pofition of the ac- cent, preferves in French as well as in Italian a character of dignity which equals the Latin hexameter. And the French have made choice of the Alexandrine to treat on epic and tragic fubje€&ts. Neither were they diffuaded from this be- caufe this verfe was fligmatized by the epithet “‘ commun,” in confequence of the fhepherds, the vintagers, and hufband- men having availed themfelves of its peculiar facilities for their poetic effufions. XI. O@onarius. The ogtonarius confifts of four trochaic feet. Befides the common accent, which is uniformly on the feventh iyllable, it requires the accent on the third. But if the accent fhould fall both on the third and fifth, ftill more if " ee firft, third, and fifth, the harmony will become more enfible. 1 3 B 5 7 Tronco - Viva Bacco il noftro re. - ¥ 3 5 7,8 Piano - Mufa, amor porto novella. ad 3 x 3 5 7.9 Sdrucciolo L’acqua agghiaccia i corpi, e gli animi. YoueXXXVI. ‘whee Loretto Mattei quotes fome verfes from Rofpigliofi, ac- centuated on the fecond fyllable ; but this kind of verfe has few admirers ; it is {carcely difcernible from profe. The oftonarius is generally employed for lyric poems, and airs adapted to mufic, and for the canzonetfe. But it is every where diftinguifhed by that charatteriftic of gravity which renders it equally adapted to fublime and elevated fubjects. Since the o€tonarius contains two monometers of four fyllables each, (fee the quadrifyllabic member, ) it may very properly be divided by the ce{fura into two equal parts. This verfe amongft the French, for the reafon already afligned, is faid to be of feven fyllables. It is fubje& to the fame laws of accentuation as the Italian. The accent, however, on the fifth, amongft the French, is fometimes omitted, but never that on the third. t 3 7, Tronco - Belle nymphe tes attraits. 3 5 5 a Que langueurs, que foins jaloux. x 3. S. 7 Piano - Viens m’aider a fuir les vices. XII. Novenarius. Some are of opinion that the Italian novenarius does not poflefs fufficient harmony for poetic compofition. And PAbb? Quadrio declares that this fpecies of verfe ought not to be admitted in Italian poetry. On_the other hand, Jofeph Gaétan Salvatori affirms that verfe of this kind is by no means defective in point of harmony ; and many poets of diftinguifhed rank have employed this fpecies of rhythm with fuccefs. Example : Tronco - Certo che vinto a morte andro*. Piano - Tormento crudele tiranno’. Sdrucciolo Vedi, vedi come fen fuggono*®. This verfe, as it refpeéts the accent, is fubdivided into four varieties. The firft, befides the common accent, has the accent on the third and on the fifth fyllable. The celebrated Sacchi is inclined to fuppofe that this kind of verfe is compofed of two iambic quinarti, of which the former is acephalous, fo as to give nine fyllables in all. The fecond variety has the accent on the third and fixth fyllables. The third variety has, befides that accent which is common to every fpecies, the fourth fyllable only accentuated. This variety is an iambic dimeter hypercataletic. It cov- fifts of two quinarii, of which the firil is tronco : or if it is piano, it is fubjeé to the elifion confequent on the following hemiftich beginning with a vowel. It admits alfo the ac- cent on the fecond and fixth fyllables, as well as on the fourth; and then the rhythm becomes purely iambic, and the harmony more complete. The fourth variety, befides the common accent, has the fecond and fifth fyllables accentuated. This variety is an anapzftic trimeter, having the firft foot fupplied by an iamb. XIII. The Decafyllatic Verfe. The decafyllabic fometimes confifts of two quinarii, which form a cefura at the point of their union. Since this verfe is compofed of tw quinarii, it is ne- ceflarily fubje& to the fame laws. See § VI. 3. Sometimes it is not compofed of two quinarif, nor has it any regular czfura. This {pecies of verfe is anapx{tic trimeter, either cata: le&tic, VERSIFICATION. le&tic, acataleGtic, or hypercatale@tic, according as it is trenco, piano, or fdrucciolo ; as, ; 3 6 ° Tronco - Contra morte non val frefea eta. 3 \ 6 Ee ne Piano - VWatto incendio fe bolle riftretto. a 6 = q 10 Sdracciolo —_I bon vini fon quelli che acquietano. There is another variety of the decafyllabic verfe, of which Chiabrera has given us an example. It has the accent on the firft, the third, the fifth, the feventh, and on the ninth fyllables.. The rhythm of this verfe is effentially different from either of the preceding ; it confifts of five trochaic feet. MIV. The Hendecafyllabic Verfe. The hendecafyllabic verfe is alfo called heroic ; for it is that rhythm* which, from its harmony, its grave and majettic movement, and the variety of which it is fufceptible, offers to the poet peculiar advantages for the expreflion of fublime and elevated fubjeéts. It is, in common with every other, capable of three kinds; as, , Tronco - Monte-pulciano d’ogni vino é ib re’®. Piano T’Alzo natura in verfo al ciel la fronte™. Sdrucciolo Celebri l’acqua, e fe la bea pur Pindaro’?. Redi. 10 Tronco - Le printems fuit, hatons-nous d’étre heureux. 10 11 - Quin’en ferait en effet idolatre.—Petr. This verfe is generally accented on the fecond, the fourth, the fixth, the eighth, and on the tenth fyllable, which laft is the accent common, or invariable. And the verfe thus accentuated is the moft harmonious : but as an unvaried recurrence of the fame luxuriant rhythm would become eventually monotonous, it admits of the fol- lowing varieties. 1. It is fufficient, if, befides the common accent, the fixth fyllable fhould be accented. 2. The fecond variety has, independently of the com- mon accent, the fourth and eighth fyllables only accented. 3. The third variety, befides the common accent, has only the fourth and the feventh fyllables accented. With regard to the 5 farsa difference in the number of fyllables between the Italian and French hendecafyllable, the reader is referred to what has been already obferved at § V. Piano Concerning the Intermixiure of different Verfe.—Whatever | harmony may arife from the fucceffion of verfes of the fame kind, they often aequire a new excellency when the feries is compofed of an appropriate admixture of verfe of a different rhyme. It may now be reafonably inquired, why is the intermix- ture of different verfe productive, at one time, of an agree- able effe&t, and at another of the contrary? In anfwer to this inquiry it is here only neceflary to remark, that we have already faid that the hendecafyllabic verfe and the {eptena- riug, together with the two members of which the hendeca- fyllable is compofed, the feptenarius and the quinarius, are of the iambic rhythm. Hence we clearly perceive, that the tranfition from the hendecafyllable to the feptenarius, and * Rhythm and rhyme are two diftin& things: the former is defined in the preceding pages of this article, it is derived from “euduoc ;_ the latter is only the correfpondence of the laft found of one verfe, to the laft found of the next. Andon account of this material diftin€tion, not generally un- derftood, even Ly Englifh lexicographers, the recent writers on this fubject chus orthographieally diftinguith the former,—rhythm. vice verfa, from the latter to the former, preferves the fame rhythmical order and movement. And the fame principle will fanétion the intermixture of an o€tonarius and a quadri- fyllabic verfe, fince the rhythm of each is trochaic. It often happens however, that notwithftanding the exatt identity of the rhythm in the alternation of different verfes, the effe&t is not agreeable. But this only happens when we conne€t verfes, ie example, of four feet, with others of five or three feet. And here it is evident, that although a verfe of five feet and another of four are of the fame rhythm, yet they prefent an effential difference. The verfe of five feet is indivifible, but that of four feet, which is an even num- ber, may be divided into two equal parts, which are in rhythmical quantity perfe&tly equivalent and reciprocal to each other. The impreflion, therefore, refulting from this yerfe, is different from that of the verfe which can only pre- fent to the ear the rhythm of two unequal parts. And here we may add, once for all, that all which we have faid con- cerning the combination of verfe of the fame or of different kinds in the Italian language, is perfe€tly applicable to that of the French alfo. I. Of the Sonnet. The regular fonnet contains fourteen hendecafyllabic verfes, divided by the rhythm into four ftanzas, or ftrophes, of which two are tetraftrophons, and two triftrophons. The fonnet, which the Italians call ¢ cola coda, ‘ caudato,’ receives this appellation from the circumitance of its having, after the fourteenth verfe, a train of one or more ftanzas of three verfes each, or triftrophons. The fifteenth verfe muft in this cafe bea feptenarius, and rhyme with the fourteenth. Sonnets may be alfo compofed of the yerfe oftonarius, feptenarius, or quinarius. The two rhymes of the tetraftrophon ftanza are fufcepti- ble of four different combinations, according to the follow- ing table. Any of which, but legitimately no other, the poet may adopt freely at his choice. rit. Tetraftrophon : rhyme clofed ( ferée). 1 |= '-'“and 5 - - ano 2 Maar Ore 6 - - ore { moft in 3 = m= ore 1 a a ufe. 4 - - ano 8 - - ano ‘2d. Tetraftrophon: rhyme alternate. t) pou eeaeai ta 5 - - atto 2icnt SIwera 6 = => era ‘ 3 - = atto 7 => =) afto 4 - = era 8 - - era 3d. Tetraftrophon; rhyme reciprocally alternate. Tibtioe s ms Ald 5 - - ezZzo 2 - = eZZ0 64) aise) sid Bib =a idi Jom follnezZe@ 4 - - €2ZZ0 8 - -) idi 4th. Tetraftrophon: rhyme alternate and clofed. ‘ I - - ente 5 a eae 2 - = eme 6 - = ente 3.5 =>) =sh ente Toe Pen Vente AR pey eme 8 - - eme The rhyme of the triftrophon may have, at the option of the poet, the following varieties. rit, Triftrophon: rhyme connected (enchainée). Thy ice =" bee Sante S a : moft in 2s ~ ante Soe - ogno 6 - - ogno Or, Xs EE 4 - - ente 2 - - ente St) a eto : 3 -. - ogno 6 - = ogno 3d. Triftrophon: rhyme duplex. Tena. ate 4 - - oria iors 2 emp = OLIA greet ate ufed 3 - - oria 6 - = ate y ; There is no effential difference between the Italian and French fonnet. In addition, however, to the above, they alfo employ the following rhymes. _ 4th. Triftrophon : rhyme tertian (a la maniére Francais). 1 - - ufe 4 - - eme 2 - - ufe 5 - -. eme Ben net 6t = .-Pnet Or, vi were Sere APs a) Crit 2 - = eux 5 - = erre 3 - - erre 6 - =~ crit We may, in the reading of poets, difcover other methods ; but every feries differing from the above, is pronounced, by the connoiffeurs, to be not “ ad unguem.”’ : Il. Of the Ode.—Canzone, or Chanfon. The ode is a compofition formed of an indefinite number of ftanzas, which, with refpeét to the rhyme and the meafure of the verfe, are uniformly the fame to the conclufion of the oem. We may except, however, thofe concluding ftanzas which have been called congé (congedo, or commiato), as if the poet, by this concluding ftrophe, fhorter than the reft, took his /eave of the poem, or perfon to whom it is addrefled. Our limits will not admit of examples. III. Of the Canzonetta. The canzonetta (chanfonette, or the Anacreontic ode) is an imitation of the charaCteriftic, the fimplicity, and the art- lefs ftyle of the odes of Anacreon. Of this fpecies of com- pofition, the celebrated Taffo was the inventor ; but the praife is due to Chiabrera for that acmé of perfe€tion to which he has advanced it. The canzonetta differs from the ode in the following par- ticulars. 1. Generally, though not always, the ftanzas of which they are compofed are lefs, and contain a {maller number of verfes. 2. The ftanzas confift of {mall verfes of different kinds. 3. They are not adapted to that elevated and fublime ftyle which the ode requires. The charatteriftic of their ityle fhould be fimple, artlefs, and familiar ; and they are, therefore, very well fuited to what is of an agreeable and humourous nature, to fables, and to allegories, of which the fenfe or moral is ufually given at the clofe. The number of ftanzas of which the canzonetta confilts is indefinite, at the difcretion of the poet. The ftrophes are ufually compofed of four or fix verfes, in their meafure either mixed or uniform, but always agreeing together by the clofed or alternate rhyme. (Rime ferrée ou alternée.) See the table of rhyme under the Sonnet. Sometimes the ftanzas contain ten verfes, and then, as well as when they have fix a the two firft and the two lait fhould rhyme to- ether. . When the ftrophe contains verfes tronchi, piani, and {druccioli, we may perceive a difagreement in the rhyme. But of whatever nature the firft ftanza may be, the fubfe- quent ftanzas fhould ftri€tly conform thereto. In lyric poems, on the contrary, we are at liberty to vary the ftanza, pro re natd, as circumftances and the tafte and difcretion of the poet may require. . IV. The Sapphic Ode. This ode, of which the Grecian poetefs Sappho was the inventrefs, is, when regular, compofed of feveral tetraftro- phons, of which the three firft verfes are hendecafyllabic, the lait a quinarius. Frequently, however, the feptenarius is fubftituted for the quinarius ; in which cafe the ftrophe has lefs elegance, and lefs conformity to the Grecian ori- ginal, of which they fhould be an exaét imitation, The thyme moft employed is the alternate or the clofed (alternée or ferrée). ; Among the feveral forms of the French ode, the follow- ing is much admired. The reader muft be content with a fingle ftanza for illuftration ; our limits forbid more. Puiffantes Déités, qui peupler cette rive, Préparer, leur dirais-je, une oreille attentive Au bruit de mes concerts. Puiffent-ils amollir vos fuperbes courages En faveur d’un Héros digne des premiers ages Du naiffent Univers !—Rouffeau. We are compelled, for want of appropriate epithets, to borrow the following terms with which the Italians and the French denominate certain ftrophes of their compofition. Terza Rima.—This {pecies of compofition contains feveral triftrophons, each confifting of three hendecafyllabie verfes. The rhyme is connected together in fuch a manner, that the firft verfe of each ftanza agrees with the third, and the fecond rhymes with the firft and the third of the ftanza following. And this order is preferved to the end. There is no example of this fpecies of compofition in the French language, for, by a tran{pofition of the verfes, the convert the triftrophon into the tetraftrophon, and then call the terza rima the Quarta Rima.—By the quarta rima, that fpecies of poem is denominated which contains feveral tetraftrophons, of which each verfe is an hendecafyllabic in Italian, and an Alexandrine in French: the rhyme is either férrée or al- ternée. See table of rhyme under Sonnet, fuprae =. Sefla Rima e¢ Ottava Rima.—Compoiitions of this kind receive their name from the number of verfes of which their {tanzas are compofed; the former of-fix, the latter of eight. The two laft verfes agree together in rhyme (plate) i. €. un- mixed; the reft in rhyme (alfernée) alternate; fee table, fupra. The French do not adhere to any regular ftandard in the compofition of the /e/fa rima, which they call ks fixains, ou les flances de fix vers. But with regard to the ** Oitava rima’’ of the Italians, and the ‘* Stances de huit vers”? of the French, there is, both as it ref{peéts the rhyme and the nature of the verfe, which in either cafe is hendecafyllabic, a perfe& fimilarity. This {pecies of compofition has prevailed much fince the time of Thibaut, who lived a hundred years before Boccace. V. The Madrigal and the Epigram. The madrigal is a fmall poem confifting generally of not lefs than fix nor more than twelve verfes, which are either o¢tonarii, or more commonly feptenarii or hendecafyllabic. The * VERSIFICATION. The number of verfes, however, of which the madrigal con- fifted, was amongft the poets of the fixteenth century arbi- trary. The rhyme is yet ad libitum; fometimes only the two laft verfes rhyme together. The chara&ter of the madrigal is not effentially different from the epigram of the Latins. It is contradiftinguifhed, however, by its ftyle, which, though fimple, is fo elevated as to become equally unadapted to the fatire, or to hu- mourous and trivial fubjeéts. The epigram is a {mall poem confilting of an indefinite number and kind of verfes, and terminating in a point of wit. Generally, however, it contains not lefs than two nor more than eight verfes, which are frequently hendecafyllabic, and rhyme together by couplets. VI. The Dithyramb. The dithyramb is a {pecies of poem compofed in honour of Bacchus : or, in faét, it is any poem written with a degree of unufual wildnefs and enthufiafm. It employs verfe of every kind, piano, tronco, fdrucciolo, great and {mal], with or without rhyme, and ftanzas of any magnitude. And the whole is written with that liberty and freedom from reftraint, as indicates it to be the indigenous produGtion of the devotee of Bacchus. Its ftyle at one time is elevated, at another low. ‘The metaphors it employs are bold; its phrafeology excentric and whimfical, and words are admitted either purely exotic, or oddly compounded of others ;_as ebrifef- tofo, egidarmato, capribarbicornipede, &c. The reader will find many examples of the Italian dithyrambic in the works of Crefcimbeni, Quadrio, and Andrucci, and in the “ Bacco in Tofcana” of Francefco Redi. VII. The Idyl. This fpecies of poem confifts of an indefinite number of feptenarii or hendecafyllabic verfes, and free from all reftraint as it refpe&ts the rhyme. The word idyl (idillio) is derived from in Mechanics, a regular, reciprocal mo- tion VIBRATION. tion of a body, e.g. 2 pendulum; which, being fufpended at freedom, fwings, or vibrates, firft this way, then that. For the bob being raifed, falls again by its gravity; and with the velocity thus acquired, rifes to the fame height on the other fide ; whence its gravity makes it fall again: and thus its vibrations are continued. Mechanical authors, in lieu of vibration, frequently ufe the term, o/cillation ; which fee. The vibrations of the fame pendulum are all ifochronal ; that is, they are performed in equal-time, at leaft in the fame. climate: for, towards the equator, they are found fomewhat flower. See PenpULUM. A pendulum 3 feet 3,3, inches, according to Huygens, or 39.25 inches, according to fir J. Moor and lord Brouncker, vibrates feconds, or makes 3600 vibrations in an hour. The vibrations of a longer pendulum take up more time than. thofe of a fhorter one, in a fubduple ratio of the lengths. Thus, a pendulum three feet long will make ten vibrations, while another nine inches long makes twenty. For to is the half of 20, and 3 feet, or 36 inches, are the fquare of 6 inches; which is double of 3, whofe {quare is 9; fo that 10 is to 20 in a fubduple ratio of 36 to 9. The fame thing is meant when we fay, that the number of vibrations of pendulums, in a given time, is in a reci- procal fubduple ratio of their lengths. The following table fhews the number of vibrations in a minute, correfponding to pendulums of different lengths, exprefled in inches. Length. Vibrations. || Length. | Vibrations. |} Length. | Vibrations. 4 187 LOvalt LEIS 35 63 5 167 12 107 40 59 6 153 15 97 50 53 7 142 20 84. 60 47 8 132 25 75 9 125 30 68 M. Mouton, a prieft of Lyons, wrote an exprefs treatife to fhew, that, by means of the number of vibrations of a given pendulum, in a certain time, one might eftablifh an univerfal meafure throughout the whole world; and fix the feveral meafures in ufe among us, in fuch manner, as that they might be recovered again, if at any time they fhould chance to be loft, as is the cafe of moft of the ancient mea- fures; which we now only know by conje@ture. See Univerfal Measure and STanpDaArRD. The vibrations of a flretched chord, or firing, arife from its elafticity ; which power being of the fame kind with that of gravity, the vibrations of a chord follow the fame laws as thofe of pendulums: confequently, the vibrations of the fame chord equally ftretched, though they be unequal in length, are equidiurnal, or are performed in equal times : and the fquares of the times of the vibrations are among themfelves, inverfely, as the powers by which they are equally bent and infle&ted. (See CHorp and Srrine.) On this fubje&, fee Young’s Philof. vol. ii. p. 546. The founding body in ation quits its tranquil ftate by flight, but fenfible and frequent undulations, each of which is called a vibration. ' Thefe vibrations, communicated to the air, convey to the ear, by that vehicle, the fenfation of found; and this found is grave or acute, in proportion as the vibrations are more or lefs frequent in the fame time. See Sounp. ; The vibrations of a fring (which fee), too, are propor- tionable to thé powers by which it is bent: thefe fellow the fame laws as thofe of the chord, or pendulum ; and, confe- 7 quently, are equidiurnal ; which is the foundation of fpring watches. For Pythagoras’s account of the doétrine of vibrations, fee PyTHAGORAS. Visrations are alfo ufed in Phyfics, &c. for divers other regular alternate motions. Seniation is fuppofed to be performed by means of the vibratory motion of the con« tents of the nerves, begun by external objects, and pro- pagated to the brain. This doétrine has been particularly illuftrated by Dr. Hartley, and extended farther by him than by any other writer, in eftablifhing a new theory of our mental opera- tions. The doétrine of vibrations, and its ufe in explaining our fenfations, are comprifed by this writer in the followin propofitions: that the whole medullary fubftance of the brain, {pinal marrow, and the nerves proceeding from them, is the immediate inftrument of fenfation and motion: that this white medullary fubftance of the brain is alfo the imme- diate inftrument by which ideas are prefented to the mind ; or, in other words, whatever changes are made in this fub- ftance, correfponding changes are made in our ideas, and vice verfa : that the eee remain in the mind for a fhort time after the fenfible objeéts are removed ; that external objects imprefled upon the fenfes occafion, firft in the nerves on which they are impreffed, and then in the brain, vibra- tions of the fmall, and, as one may fay, infinitefimal, me- dullary particles: that thefe vibrations are excited, propa- ine and kept up, partly by the ether, 7. e. by a very ubtile and elaftic fluid, and partly by the uniformity, conti- nuity, foftnefs, and ative powers of the medullary fubftance of the brain, {pinal marrow, and nerves ; which Dr. Hart- ley fuppofes are rather folid capillaments, according to fir Tfaac Newton, than {mall tubuli, according to Boerhaave : and that the phenomena of fenfible pleafure and pain, and alfo thofe of fleep, appear to be very fuitable to the doftrine of vibrations. Hence he proceeds to eftablifh the agreement of the doétrine of vibrations with the phenomena of ideas. Sen- fations, he fays, by being often repeated, leave certain veftiges, types, or images of themfelyes, which may be called fimple ideas of fenfation ; becaufe the moft vivid of thefe ideas are thofe where the correfponding fenfations are moft vigoroufly imprefled, or moft frequently renewed ; whereas, if the fen- fation be faint or uncommon, the generated idea is alfo faint in proportion, and, in extreme cat evanefcent and imper- ceptible. The exa& obfervance of the order of place in vilfible ideas, and of the order of time in audible ones, may likewife ferve to fhew, that thefe ideas are copies and off- {prings of the impreffions made on the eye and ear, in. which the fame orders were obferved refpetively : and though it happens that trains of vifible and audible ideas are prefented in fallies of the fancy, and in dreams, in which the order of time and place is different from that of any former impref- fions ; yet the {mall component parts of thefe trains are copies of former impreffions ; and reafons may be given of the varieties of their compofitions. Senfory vibrations, by being often repeated, beget, in the medullary fubftance of the brain, a difpofition to diminutive vibrations, which may be alfo called vibratiuncles and miniatures correfponding to themfelves ‘refpeétively : fo that if it be allowed that ori- ginal impreffed vibratory motions leave a tendency to minia- ture ones of the fame kind, place, and line of dire€tion, this author infers, that fenfations muft beget ideas, not only in the fenfes of fight and hearing, where the ideas are fuffi- ciently vivid and diftin&, but in the three others, fince their fenfations are alfo conveyed to the mind by means of vibra- tory motions. Any fenfations, fays Dr. Hartley, by being affociated with one VIB one another a fufficient number of times, get fuch a homes over the correfponding ideas, that any one of the fen fations, when imprefled alone, fhall be able to excite in the mind the ideas of the reft: and any vibrations, by being aflociated to- gether a {ufficient number of times, get fuch a power over the correfponding miniature vibrations, that any of thofe vibra- tions, when impreffed alone, fhall be able to excite the minia- ture of the reft. Hence he argues, that fimple ideas will run into complex ones, by means of affociation, and that when this is the cafe, we are to fuppofe, that the miniature vibra- tions correfponding to thofe fimple ideas run, in like manner, into a complex miniature vibration, correfponding to the re- fulting complex idea ; fome of which complex vibrations, at- tending upon complex ideas, may be as vivid as any of the fenfory vibrations excited by the direét aétion of objects. See Association and Mental PutLosopHy. Dr. Hartley alfo applies the do€rine of vibrations to the explication of mufcular motion, which, he thinks, is per- formed in the fame general manner as fenfation, and the per- ception of ideas. For a particular account of his theory, and the manner in which it is largely illuftrated, and the ar- uments by which it is fupported, we muft refer to his Ob- see on Man, vol. i. paflim. The feveral forts and rays of light fir [faac Newton con- ceives to make vibrations in the ether of feveral magmitudes or velocities ; which, according to thofe magnitudes or ve- locities, excite fenfations of feveral colours ; much after the fame manner as vibrations of air, according to their feveral magnitudes or velocities, excite fenfations of feveral founds. See Cotour and Sounp. Heat, according to the fame author, is only an accident of light, occafioned by the rays putting a fine, a fubtile, ethereal medium, which pervades all bodies, into a vibrative motion, which gives us that fenfation. See AZrnER and Heat. From the vibrations or pulfes of the fame medium, he ac- counts for the alternate fits of eafy reflection and eafy tranf- miffion of the rays. See RerLection and UNDULATION. See alfo Licut. In the Philofophical TranfaCtions, it is obferved that the butterfly, into which the filk-worm is transformed, makes one hundred and thirty vibrations, or motions of its wings, in one coition. VIBRATIUNCLES. See gerne ae VIBRATO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs into the Adriatic, 2 miles N.N.E. of Giulia Nova. VIBRISS A, a word ufed by medical writers to exprefs the hairs in the noftrils. VIBURNUM, in Botany, reckoned by Linneus, Pil. Bot. 174, among the Latin names whofe origin cannot be afcertained, is traced by Vaillant, Ainfworth, and Martyn to the verb vieo, to bind ; which is perfeétly confiftent with Virgil’s expreffion of /enta viburna, but does not decide the old doubt, whether the poet meant our Viburnum, or any fhrub of the willow or ofier kind. Matthiolus has led mo- dern botanifts to apply this name to the genus before us, one of whofe fpecies, /’. Lantana, he conceives to be Virgil’s plant, on account of its great pliability and humble flexible growth, well contrafted with the tall and upright cyprefs. —Linn. Gen. 147. Schreb. 197. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1486. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 334. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 206. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 166. Purfh 201. Juff. 213. Tourn. t.377- Lamarck Illuftr. t. 211. Gertn. t. 27. (Opulus; Tourn. t. 376. Tuinus ; Tourn. t.377.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn. Caprifolia, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth fuperior, very fmall, in five V AG deep permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped, cut half way down into five obtufe, reflexed or f{preading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla ; anthers roundifh. P/?. Germen inferior, round- ifh, crowned with a turbinate gland ; ftyles fcarcely any ; ftigmas three. eric. Berry roundifh, of one cell. Seed folitary, roundifh, bony. Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, deeply five-cleft. five fegments. Berry with a folitary feed. Viburnum is technically diftinguifhed from SamBucus, (fee that article, ) by having one /eed inftead of three. . The Jftem is fhrubby, {carcely arborefcent, with tough and pliant branches. Leaves fimple, oppofite, ftalked, moftly ellip- tical, undivided, except in the Opulus of Tournefort and its neareft allies. #/owers generally terminal, cymofe, copious, whitith. Berry red, blue, or black ; in fome cafes eatable. The plants are hardy, natives of Europe, America, or Japan. 1. V. Tinus. Common Laurus-Tinus. Linn. Sp- Pl. 383. Willd. n.1. Ait. n.1. Curt. Mag. t. 38. (Tinus, n. 1, 2, and 3; Cluf. Hift. v.1. 49. Laurus Tinus ; Ger. Em. 1409.)—Leaves ovate, entire; their veins furnifhed with axillary tufts of hair underneath. Cymes fmooth.— Native of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, efpecially about the coatts of the Mediterranean. In our gardens it is a valuable evergreen, thriving beit near the fea, feldom injured, except by very hard and lafting frofts, which fometimes deftroy it nearly to the root. Ina pure air it flowers all winter long, even when partially covered with fnow; but in elofe or fmoky fituations, the plant is eafily killed, and never blof- foms. ‘The berries are feldom perfected but in a green- houfe. At Vienna this fhrub, like the Prunus Lauro-cerafus, is always treated as a greenhoufe plant. We have lately feen what is now become the Englifh name, affeétedly accented Laurijftinus. But it isa compound word, meaning Laurus, which is called Tinus ; and Ovid teaches us that the firft fyl- lable of Tinus is long ; fee that article. The fpecies be- fore us is very bufhy, {preading widely, feldom above five feet high; the twigs fmooth, dark red; angular when young. eaves two or three inches long, acute, veiny ; dark fhining green above; paler beneath, with glandular hairs at the origin of each large vein. Flowers tinged with red. Berries blue, like burnt fteel, very beautiful. The eaves axe occafionally more or lefs hairy, whence Clufius and Aiton diftinguifh three or four varieties. 2. V. tinoides. Mexican Laurus-Tinus. Linn. Suppl. 184. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves elliptical, entire; the origin of their veins flightly hairy underneath, Cymes and young branches hairy.—Sent by Mutis from Mexico. Like the preceding, but the /eaves have fhorter foot/falks, and are ellip- tical rather than ovate; the young dranches, and all the flower-ftalks, are clothed with briftly hairs. 3. V. villofum. Downy Jamaica Viburnum. Swartz Ind. Occ. 564. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves ovate, acute, entire ; hoary and downy beneath.—Gathered by Maflon and Swartz on hills in the fouthern part of Jamaica, flowering in av- tumn. A /brub about fix or eight feet high, with a grey bark. The young éranches, like the footffalks, cymes, and backs of the aves, are clothed with foft, ftarry, hoary pu- befcence, particles of which are alfo feattered over the green upper furface of each leaf. Flowers white. 4. V. fcandens. Climbing Viburnum. Lian. Suppl. 184. Willd. n. 4. (V. virens; Thunb. Jap. 123.)—Stem twining. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated. Cymes lax. Styles twice as long as the calyx. Outer flowers radiant.—Native of Japan. A flender climbing forub, with fhort, leafy, op- pofite branches, Leaves two inches long, thin, tapermg at each Corolla in VIBURNUM. each end, bright green, fmooth. Cymes flender, hairy, of three unequal branches. Flowers white; a few of them imperfect, with large, dilated, unequal, radiant calyx-leaves inftead of petals, as in ‘the Guelder-rofe, &c. Thunberg deferibes ten /lamens, but this is an accident, or error, his own fpecimen before us having but five. The three elongated Styles, with club-fhaped figmas, are remarkable. Nothing is known refpeting the fruit. The germen is turbinate, en- circled with the calyx, as in Hydrangea. 5- V. nudum. Smooth Oval-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 383.- Willd. n.5.. Ait.n.2.. Purfhn.4. (V. fohis oyato-lanceolatis integerrimis; fubtds venofis; Mill. Ic. 183. t. 274.)—Leaves elliptical, bluntifh, fomewhat revo- lute, nearly entire, very {mooth, as well as the cymes, branches, and footitalks—Native of North America, in fwamps, particularly on a fandy foil, from Canada to Georgia, flowering in May and June. Every part is very fmooth. Leaves three or four inches long ; evergreen in the fouthera ftates of North America, but not in our gardens. The cymes are large, on long terminal ffalks. Flowers co- pious, white. Berries black. .. 6. V. obovatum. Smooth Obovate Viburnum. Walt. Carol. 116. Poiret in Lam. Dié.v. 8.658. Purfhn. 5. —Leaves obovate, obtufe, fmooth, entire or fomewhat notched. Cymes feflile. Berries roundifh-ovate.—In fhady woods of Carolina and Georgia, flowering in May and June. Purfb. Flowers white, fmall. Berries blackifh. This is fuppofed to be V. caffnoides of Michaux, Boreal.- Amer. v. 1. 179, though not that of Linnzus. 7+ V.‘prunifolium. Plum-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl..383. Willd. n.6. Ait. nm. 3. Purfh nor. (V. Lentago ; Moench Hort. Weiffenit. 140. t.8. Mefpilus prunifolia virginiana; Pluk. Phyt. t. 46. f. 2.)—Smooth, with wide-fpreading branches. Leaves roundifh-obovate, finely ferrated. Footitalks even. Cymes feffile. Berries roundifh.—Common in hedges and fields, from New Eng- land to Carolina, flowering in May and June. A hardy fhrub, cultivated by Miller. The /eaves are {carcely an inch anda half long, full an inch broad, minutely and fharply ferrated. Flowers white. Berries dark blue. 8. V. pyrifolium. Sharp-leaved Viburnum. — Poiret in Lam. Did. v. 8. 653. Purfhn.2.)—Smooth. Leaves ovate, pointed, ferrated. Cymes fomewhat ftalked. Berries elliptic-oblong.—On the banks of rivers, in Pennfylvania, New Jerfey, &c. flowering in May and June. Refembles the former, but is not fo ftraggling in its growth. Ber- ries black. Purfb. Our wild Pennfylvanian {pecimen has copioufly ferrated /eaves, two inches and a half long, with taper entire points. The fruit feems rather obovate. This may perhaps be V. arboreum, Muhlenb. Catal. 32. n. 12, our fpecimen having been fent by that excellent botanitt, without a name, and formerly referred by us to prunifolium, to which it is certainly near akin. 9- V. dauricum. Siberian Viburnum. Pallas Roff. v. 1. p- 2. 30. Willd.n.7. Ait. n.4. (Lonicera mongolica; _ Pall. Roff. v. 1. p. 1. 59. L. dauurica; ibid. t. 38. L.n. 8; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 135. t. 25. )—Leaves ovate, ferrated, dotted and hairy. Cymes of few flowers.—Found in the fiffures of rocks, in various parts of Siberia. The late Mr. Bell, to whom our Englifh gardens are fo much indebted for _ plants from that country, introduced this in 1785. It flowers in June and July, but is not ornamental. The Laves are an inch and a quarter long, about half as broad. Flowers white, very few in each cyme, compared with moft of the fpecies. Corolla with an elongated tube. In his firft ac- count of this plant, above cited, Pallas attributes five, fix, or feven feeds to the fruit ; in the fecond he fays one of his VoL. XXXVII. “pupils impofed upon him with a wrong f{pecimen, and that the real fruit of this fhrub is an oval Zerry, red at firft, then black, like 7. Lantana, but more oblong, with a folitary, comprefled, ribbed feed. He gives figures of thefe parts, with the /eaf of a {maller variety, in his tab. 58. fig. F, G ; which he calls tab. 7. Pallas further remarks, that the feat- tered pubefcence of this {pecies is ftellated, and that a por- tion of fuch is found on the flower-ftalks ; all which brings it nearer to the Lantana, a circumftance hardly to be divined from his figure. 10. V. dentatum. Shining Tooth-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n.8. Ait.n.5,c. Purfh n.g.. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. 13. t- 36.—Leaves roundith-ovate, acute, furrowed and fomewhat plaited, ftrongly toothed, nearly f{mooth on both fides. Cymes ftalked. Berries almoft glo- bular.—In mountainous woods frequent, from New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July, and known by the name of Arrow-wood. Berries dark blue. Pur/b. . The leaves of this fpecies are three inches long, and nearly as broad, fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe; befprinkled on the upper fide with fine, fimple, diftant hairs ; paler and {moother beneath. They are ftrongly ribbed. Flowers rather {mall, hairy in the middle. Ca/yx white as well as the etals. f 11. V. pubefcens. Downy 'Tooth-leaved Viburnum, Purfh n. 10. (V. dentatum 6; Ait. n.5. Willd. n. 8.) —Leeaves ovate, pointed, furrowed and fomewhat plaited, ftrongly ferrated ; foftand downy beneath. Cymes italked. Berries oblong.—In the lower parts of Virginia and Caro- lina, flowering in June. The whole of the fhrub fmaller than the preceding. Purfh. We have a f{pecimen of this from the Paris garden, marked V. dentatum longifolium, Juff. The leaves are downy on both fides, but particularly foft at the back; their form oblong-oyate ; length two or. two and a half inches ; margin fharply ferrated ; tranfverfe veins numerous, divided. #Yowers much like the laft. ' 12. V. plicatum. Plaited Japatefe Guelder-rofe. Thunb. Tr. of Linn, Soc. v. 2. 332. Willd. n.g. (V.dentatum ; Thunb. Jap. 122, excluding the reference to Linnzus. Fundan, vulgo Te Mariqua; Kempf. Am. Exot. 854. )— ‘* Leaves ovate, obtufe, with tooth-like ferratures, plaited.’’ —Found by Thunberg near Fammamato, in Fakona, and other parts of Japan, flowering in April and May. The flowers ave radiated, like our Guelder-rofe ; but the /eaves, as Kempfer obferves, are rounder than in that {pecies, with crowded ribs, and a ferrated margin. Thunberg fays the leaves are plaited, efpecially before they fully expand; their form rounder, and their teeth finer, than in the true V. den- tatum, 1. IO. 13. V. erofum. “Jagged Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb. Jap.124. Willd. n. 10.—Leaves obovate, pointed, fharply notched, nearly {mooth. Footftalks downy, as well as the cymes.—Native of Japan. Branches grey, fomewhai fpread- ing, {mooth, except when young. oot/fa/ks fiender, near an inch inlength; Thunberg calls them very fhort ; we fufpect he wrote petiolus for pedunculus, (the common flower-tftalk, ) which is very fhort, and downy like the cyme, (not panicle nor umbel,) which it fupports. The flowers are numerous and crowded, but not radiated. Leaves pliant, ftrongly veined, two or three inches long, dilated upwards. 14. V. Lantana. Mealy Guelcer-rofe ; or Way-faring Tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n.rr. Fil. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 331. Jacq. Auftr. t.3q41. (Viburnum; Matth. Valgr. vy. 1. 194. Camer. Epit. 122. Lantana, five Vi- burnum ; Ger. Em. 1490.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, fharply {errated, veiny ; downy beneath, with ftarry has. Cymes {talked, downy.—Native of hedges and thickets, in the more ph temperate VIBURNUM. temperate parts of Europe, on a chalky or marly foil, flower- ing in May, aad not rare in various parts of England, efpe- cially Oxfordfhire. It has juftly been deferibed by Ray, as of a taller ftature in the’ northern counties than in the fouth. In general it is a tufted bufh, with round, pliant, mealy twigs. (See the explanation of the generic name.) All the fialks, the backs of the elliptic-heartfhaped veiny leaves, and in fome meafure their upper furface, are’ clothed with denfe, hoary, ftarry hairs, often loaded with duft from the road, which fcarcely adds to the powdery afpe& of the plant. Flowers white, in large, rather convex, ftalked cymes. Stigmas {effile, very fhort and thick... Berries roundifh, abrupt, comprefled ; when young red on the outermoft fide, yellow on the other ; finally quite black, mealy and aftrin- gent, with a large, flat, furrowed feed. The foliage turns in autumn to a dark red. 14. V. grandifolium. Large-leaved, or American, Way- faring Tree. (V. Lantana , srandifolium ; Ait. ed. 1. v. I. 372. ed. 2. n. 6, 8, by miltake called grandiflorum. Willd. n. a1, &. V. lantanoides ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v.f. 179. Purfh n. 11.)—Leaves roundifh-heartfhaped, abruptly pointed, unequally and obtufely ferrated ; their ribs and ftalks downy, with {tarry hairs. Cymes quite feflile. Berries ovate.—In fhady woods, on high mountains, from Ganada to Virginia, principally in the foreits called Beech- woods, flowering in June and July. Known by the name of Hobble-bufh. Berries red ; but when ripe, black. Pur/b. Of more humble growth than the laft, with more trailing branches, and larger greener feaves. Michaux has well feparated it from the European Lantana, but we cannot adopt his barbaroufly-formed {pecific name, though too many fuch illiterate deformities are unaccountably introduced daily by more claffical writers. The error of grandiflorum, for grandifolium, is one of thofe very few which efcaped the late fupremely accurate Dryander. It were an injury to his memory not thus to correct him. 15. V. tomentofum. Downy Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 123. Willd. n. 12. (Sijo, vulgo Adfai, &c.; Kempf. Am. Exot. 854.)—‘ Leaves ovate, pointed, ferrated, veiny; downy beneath. Cymes lateral.’”—Obferved by Thunberg, in various woods between Miaco and Jedo, as well as cultivated, in Japan, flowering in April and May. The branches are round, {mooth, reddifh, divaricated, fub- divided. eaves ovate, (not heart-fhaped,) ribbed; the upper ones moft downy beneath. The youngett branches, and all the fa/és, are downy. Cymes axillary, at the extre- mities of the fmall branches. FYoqwers radiant. Thunberg. Kempfer {ays the fowers are blue, compofing a large denfe ball, the outer ones largett. 16. V. hirtum. WHairy Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 124. Willd. n. 13.— Leaves ovate, ferrated, villous. Footftalks hairy.””—Native of Japan. Stem afcending in a zigzag manner, round, fmooth ; its branches alternate, round, fmooth at the bafe, hairy at the extremity. Leaves oppo- fite, refembling thofe of a nettle, acute, deeply and equally ferrated, an inch long, veiny ; the veins clothed with white clofe hairs. Footfalks and flower-/talks covered with hori- zontally {preading hairs. Flowers minute, not radiant. Stigma two-lobed. Thunders. 17. V. acerifolium. Maple-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 7. Purfh n. 12. Venten. Jard. de Cels, t. 72.—Leaves three-lobed, pointed, fharply ferrated ; downy beneath. Footttalks hairy, with- oft glands.—In rocky mountainous fituations, from New England to Carolina, flowering in May and June. Berries black. Pur/b. The branches are round, finely downy, with ftarry hairs. Such are found alfo on the foot/alés, but in- termixed with fimple much coarfer ones. The saves are rather acutely lobed, and ftrongly ferrated, very much re- fembling thofe of the Common Vine. Stipulas fetaceous, in pairs on the bafe of each footftalk. Cyme of many downy branches, on along terminal common fialk. Flowers not radiant. This appears by the manufcripts of the cele- brated Peter Collinfon, to have been imported by him in 1736. 18. V. orientale. Oriental Guelder-rofe. Pallas Roff- v. I. p. 2. 31.t. 58. f. H. Willd. n. 15. Opulus orientalis, folio ampliflimo tridentato; Tourn. Cor. 42.) — Leaves three-lobed, pointed, coarfély and rather bluntly toothed. Footitalks fmooth, without glands.—Native of rather alpine fituations in Imiretta. Pallas. Differs from the laft, to which it is very nearly akin, in having eaves ftrongly toothed, not ferrated, and an oval /eed, with three ribs and two furrows at each fide, as in V. Lantana, inftead of the heart-fhaped feed of the acerifolium. Willdenow. Berries red. Pallas. 19. V. Opulus. Common Guelder-rofe, Water Elder, or Snow-ball Tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 16. Fl. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t.332. Fl. Dan. t. 661. (Sambucus aquatilis five paluftris; Ger. Em. 1424. 5S. aquatica; Camer. Epit. 977. )—Leaves three-lobed, fharply toothed. Footitalks fmooth, furnifhed with glands. Cymes radiant.— Native of watery thickets and hedges throughout Europe, flowering in June. A {mall bufhy éree, {mooth in all its parts, only the backs of the /eaves being occafionally downy. Their three lobes are unequally toothed or ferrated. The foot/talks bear, towards the top, feveral cup-like glands, and towards the bafe, a pair or two of linear /fipulas. Cymes large, fmooth, ftalked, of numerous white flowers, the marginal ones abortive, dilated and radiant. Berries oval, drooping, fcarlet, very fucculent, not eatable. Seed heart-fhaped. A variety with globofe cymes, compofed en- tirely of radiant flowers, is commonly cultivated in gardens and fhrubberies, as a companion to the lilac and laburnum. The foliage turns in autumn to a beautiful pink or crimfon, as In many genera of trees and fhrubs that are principally American. 20. V. molle. Soft-leaved American Guelder-rofe. Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. v.1. 180. Purfh n.13. (‘ V. alni- folium ; Marfh. Arb. 162.’?) — ‘ Leaves roundifh-heart- fhaped, plaited, furrowed, toothed ; downy beneath. Foot- ftalks flightly glandular. Cymes radiant. Berry oblong- ovate.””—In hedges in Kentucky, near Danville, as well as in Tennaffee and Upper Carolina, flowering in June and July. Berries red. his fpecies refembles the following. Purfb. The leaves are undivided, not three-lobed. The flowers are radiant. The dar& falls off every year in thin fhreds. Michaux. 21. V. Oxycoecus. Cranberry Guelder-rofe. Purfhn. 14. (V. Opulus 8; Ait. n.8. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. y. 1. #80. ‘ V.trilobum ; Marfh. Arb. 162.” )—Leaves three- lobed, acute at the bafe, three-ribbed ; lobes divaricated, elongated, pointed, {paringly toothed. Footftalks furnifhed with glands. Cymes radiant.—In fwamps and fhady woods of Canada, and on the mountains of New York and New Jerfey, flowering in July. Berries red, of an agreeable acid, refembling that of Cranberries, Vaccinium macrocar- pon, for which they are a very good fubftitute. Pry/b. We have never examined this {pecies, though it probably may be found in the London nurferies. If the fruit an- fwers to the above charaéter, and is plentiful, it would be worth cultivating for the table. The #evigs are defcribed of a fhining red. 22. V. edule. Smaller Eatable Guelder-rofe. Purfh n. 15. VIBURNUM. n.rs. (V.Opulusy; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 180.) —Loeaves three-lobed, bluntifh at the bafe, three-ribbed ; lobes very fhort, ferrated with minute pointed teeth. ftalks furnifhed with glands. Cymes radiant.—On the ‘banks of rivers, from Canada to New York, flowering in July. A fmaller and more upright fhrub than the preceding {pecies. Berries of the fame colour and fize, but, when completely ripe, more agreeable to eat. Pur/h. 23. V. dilatatum. Spreading Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 124. Willd. n.17.—Leaves obovate, pointed, un- equally toothed, villous. Cymes axillary.—Gathered by ‘Thunberg in Japan. Stem fhrubby, ereé&t, fomewhat angu- lar, grey, villous. Leaves two inches long, ftalked, ribbed, jagged at the margin, villous on both fides ; the lower ones {maller. Footffalks round, villous, three-quarters of an inch long. Cyme axillary, repeatedly compound, four-cleft and three-forked, very widely fpreading, with downy ftalks. Flowers not radiant. Thunberg. The learned author ufes the terms panicle, umbel, and cyme indifferently in his defcrip- tions of this genus; but from what we have feen, even of his own fpecies, we, without fcruple, fubftitute the latter throughout. 24. V. macrophyllum. Large-leaved Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 125. Willd. n. r8.—Leaves obovate, pointed, toothed, fmooth. Cymes radiant, terminal. — Native of Japan. ~The whole plant is fmooth. Stem and branches round. Leaves ribbed, paler beneath, four inches in breadth, and fomewhat more in length. oosffa/ks one-third the length of the leaves. Thund. 25. V.cufpidatum. Pointedéleaved Japanefe Viburnum. ‘Thunb. Jap. 125. Willd. n. 19.—Leaves ovate, peinted, ferrated, villous. Cymes radiant.—From the fame country as the two laft. Leaves equally and acutely ferrated, of the fize of the preceding fpecies, clothed with feattered hairs. Cymes terminal, repeatedly compound. Thunb. 26. V. Lentago. Pear-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n.g. Purfh n. 3. — Leaves fmooth, broad-ovate, pointed, finely and fharply ferrated. Footftalks bordered, crifped. Cymes feffile.—Frequent in hedges, and on the borders of woods, from New England to Carolina, flowering in July. More inclined to grow to a tree than any of the reft of the American fpecies. Ber- ries black. Purfh. Cultivated in England, by Mr. James Gordon, in 1761. diton. The eaves are three inches long, and nearly half as broad, rather cortaceous, very {mooth, with many tranfverfe ribs. Foot/alks channelled, with a eurled dilated border at each fide. Buds large, ovate, with along point. We never faw the flowers. 27. V. fquamatum. Scaly Viburnum. Willd. Enum. 327. (V. nudum; var. fquamatum ; Muhlenb. Catal. 32.) —“ Leaves oblong, bluntly and finely ferrated. Foot{talks and flower-{talks clothed with fealy pubefcence.’’—Native of Pennfylvania. A hardy fhrub in the open air at Berlin. Leaves two inches long, with a very fhort point ; their bafe fomewhat contraéted ; their edges unequally, diftantly, bluntly, and very flightly ferrated; {mooth, except the under fide of the younger ones, which is befprinkled with fmall, brown, very diftant, fcales. Foot/Palks, as well as the long lanceolate buds, thickly covered with minute, brown, hairy fcales. Cyme terminal, as in V. nudum, 0. 5, which the prefent fpecies greatly refembles ; but it is diftinguifhed by the feales of all the ftalks, and the finely-ferrated, lefs coriaceous, /eaves, which are neither fhining nor revolute. Willdenow. 28. V. caffinoides. Thick-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n.21. Ait. n.1o. Purfhn. 6.—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, acute at each end, fmooth, crenate, flightly Foot-_ revolute. Footitalks keeled, without glands.—In fwamps from New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July. Berries blueith-black. Purfh. The whole plant is {mooth. Leaves two inchgs long, more or lefs, and one broad, coria- ceous ; paler beneath the tranfverfe ribs fearcely vifible. Footftalks angular, gibbous at the bafe, but not decurrent. Cymes terminal, on {hort ftalks. 29. V. levigatum. Caffioberry Viburnum, or Paraguay Tea. Ait.n. 42. Willd. n. 23. Purfhn.7. (Caffine Peragua; Linn. Mant. 220. C. foliis ovato-lanceolatis ferratis oppofitis deciduis, floribus corymbofis; Mill. Ic. 55. t. 83. fr. C. vere perquam fimilis arbufcula, philly- ree foliis antagoniftis; Pluk. Mant. 40. Hortul, Angl. 16, t. 20.)—Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, unequally ferrated ; entire at the bafe. Branches two-edged.—F ound near the fea-coaft, in Virginia and Carolina, flowering in June and July. Berries black. Purfh. The fmooth wand-like branches are marked at each fide with a narrow prominent line, running down from the infertion of the foot/alks, which are rather fhort and thick, carinated, ‘bordered, and fome- what crifped. Leaves fearcely two inches long, bluntifh. Cymes at the ends of fhort lateral branches. /Vowers white, not radiant. Berries globular, red. 3 30. V. nitidum. Shining Narrow-leaved Viburnum. Ait. n. Ii. Willd. n.22. Purfh n. 8.—* Leaves linear-laneeo- late, very {mooth, entire, or flightly ferrated ; fhining above. Branches quadrangular.’’—In fandy barren woods of Caro- lina and Georgia. A low /hrub, with {mall leaves. Purfh. Mr. Aiton {peaks of it as hardy, flowering in May and June; cultivated in 1758, by Mr. Chriftopher Gray, who had at that time, and long before, a well-furnifhed nurfery- ground at Fulham. VisuRNUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the deci- duous and evergreen flowering kind, among which the fpe- cies cultivated are, the pliant mealy or wayfaring tree (V. lantana) ; the water elder or guelder rofe (V.opulus) ; the pear-leaved viburnum (V. lentago) ; the thick-leaved vibur- num (V. caffinoides) ; the fhining-leaved viburnum (V. ni- tidum); the caffioberry bufh (V. levigatum) ; the oval- leaved viburnum (V. nudum) ; the plum-leaved wiburnum (V. prunifolium) ; the tooth-leaved viburnum (V. denta- tum) ; and the lauruftinus, or lauruftine (V. tinus). The firft is a thickly-branched fhrub, the flowers of which ate whitifh, in large terminating, folitary, many-flowered cymes. It is fometimes known by the name of pliant mealy tree ; and according to Withering, the bark of the root is ufed to make bird-lime. There is a variety in North America with larger leaves, of a bright green ; and with variegated leaves in nurferies. The fecond fort is a fmall bufhy tree, with numerous white flowers, fmooth in all its parts, and very much branched. There is an American variety, which is a fhrub, that has the twigs of a fhining-red colour, and which rifes eight or ten feet high, with many fide-branches, covered with a {mooth purple bark: the leaves cordate-ovate, ending in acute points, deeply ferrate, having many {trong veins, and ftanding upon very long flender footitalks. There is alfo another beautiful variety common in planta- tions, under the name of guelder-rofe, bearing large round bunches of abortive flowers only, which rifes to the height of eighteen or twenty feet, if permitted to ftand: the ftem becomes large ; the branches grow irregular, and are co- vered with a grey bark: the leaves are divided into three or four lobes, fomewhat like thofe of the maple; they are about three inches long, and two and a half broad, jagged on their edges, and of a light green a the 2 owers Witla flowers come out in a large corymb, are very white, and being all neuters, are barren: from their extreme white- nefs, and {welling out into a globular form, fome country people have given this fhrub the name of /now-ball tree. It is alfo fometimes called elder rofe, and rofe elder. In the feventh fort there are varieties with deciduous and evergreen leaves. The eighth fort has a woody ftalk ten or twelve feet high, and is commonly called 4/ack haw in North America. The ninth has the {talks foft, pithy, and branching, with white flowers. There are varieties with the leaves f{mooth on both fides, and with the leaves downy underneath, and drawn out to a oint. i In the tenth fort there are feveral varieties ; as the {maller hairy-leaved, in which the umbels (cymes) of flowers are {maller, and appear in autumn, continuing all the winter. The plants are much hardier than in the original fort. The fhining-leaved, in which the ftalks rife higher, and the branches are much ftronger: the bark is fmoother, and turns of a purplifh colour : the leaves are larger, of a thicker confiftence, and of alucid green colour: the umbels (cymes) are much larger, and fo are the flowers; thefe feldom appear till the fpring, and when the winters are fharp, the flowers are killed, and never open unlefs they are fheltered. There is a fub-variety of this with variegated leaves, with gold-ftriped and filver-ftriped ; in which the branches are warted, the younger ones four-cornered ; the leaves oppofite, ovate, on fhort petioles, rigid, fhining, perennial ; the younger ones hirfute, with fhort ferruginous villofe hairs: flowers in crowded cymes, with little braGteas between them : the co- rolla white ; and the berries, when ripe, blue. The common, with narrower leaves, hairy only on the edge and veins underneath: the fruit {maller. And the upright lauruftinus. Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may fome of them be increafed by feeds, moft of them by layers, many by cut- tings, anda few by fuckers. The feeds in the deciduous kinds fhould be fown in the autumn or {pring in beds of light fine mould, being well covered in. ‘The plants appear in the firft or fecond year ; and when they are of a twelvemonth’s growth, they fhould be planted out in nurfery rows, to be continued till of proper growth to plant out in the fhrubberies or other parts of plea- fure grounds, as from two to five feet. Tn the lauruftinus kinds, the feeds, after being mixed with mould in the autumn, foon after they become ripe, and ex- pofed to the air and rain in the winter, fhould in the {pring be fown ona gentle hot-bed, or in pots plunged into it ; the plants being continued in the bed till the autumn, when they fhould be removed and managed as in the layer method. The plants raifed in this way are faid to be hardier than thofe raifed from layers. The firft fort is tedious in being raifed from feeds. In the layer, which is the moft expeditious mode of raifing moft of thefe plants, the young lower branches fhould be laid down in the autumn or fpring, being pegged down in the ufual manner in the earth, when they moftly become well rooted in a twelvemonth, and may then be taken off and planted out where they are to remain, or in the nurfery ; and fome- times, in fome of the kinds, a few are put in pots. The beft feafon for removing the tenth fort is in the early autumn, that they may be well rooted before the winter fets in. The firft fort fucceeds beft by layers put down in the au- tumn ; and the ftriped variety may be increafed by budding it upon the plain fort. Vac The cuttings may be made in the autumn from the ftrong young fhoots being planted in a moift border in rows, when in the following fummer many of them will be rooted, ane form little plants. Moft of the deciduous forts may be raifed in this way. The fuckers fhould be taken up in the autumn or {pring with root-fibres, and be planted out in nurfery rows to have a proper growth. The guelder-rofe may be readily in- creafed in this way, and fometimes the lauruftinus. The fourth fort is rather tender in winter while in its young growth, as well as the fixth, and fhould have protec- tion in that feafon. A plant or two fhould be conftantly laid in pots under fhelter. This laft fort is eafily increafed by layers. Thefe plants afford much variety and effeé& in fhrubbery and other parts of pleafure-grounds, when planted out in a mixed order. The evergreen fort are cften ufed to cover difagreeable objets. The flowering evergreens are likewife often fet out in pots. They are fometimes trained to a fingle ftem, to the height of one or two feet, being encou- raged to branch out into a clofe bufhy round head. They fhould all moftly be permitted to take on their own natural growths, except the occafional retrenching of their lower ftraggling branches, and pruning the long fhoots from their heads. Visurnun-Galls, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a {pe- cies of galls, or fmall protuberances, frequently found on- the leaves of the viburnum. Thefe are of a very fingular nature, and feem to be compofed of a different fubitance from that of the leaf. They appear in form of brown cir- cular {pots, of which there are fometimes forty or more on one leaf: they are about the fifteenth of an inch in diame- ter, and nfe a little above the furface of ‘the leaf, as well on the under as the upper fide; each of them has alfo a fmall prominence in the centre, on each fide of the leaf, looking like a nipple ftanding on the breaft. Thefe are found in great plenty in the months of June, July, and Auguft, and, when opened, each contains one infe&t, which is a {mall worm of a white colour, with fix legs, and two hooks of a brown colour at the head. M. Reaumur found that thefe worms became, in fine, a very {mall f{pecies of beetle. They were of a cinnamon colour, and had conic and granulated antennz of a beautiful figure. Reaumur’s Hitt. Infeéts, vol. vi. p. 209. VIC, in Geography, a town of France, and feat of a tri- bunal, in the department of the Meurte; 15 miles E. of Nancy.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne, on the Gartempe; 18 miles N. of Mont- morillon. Vic, or Vicg, a town of France, in the department: of the Indre; 18 miles N. of Chateauroux. : Vic. See Vique. Vic Bigorre, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the Upper Pyrenées ; 18 miles E. of Pau. N. lat. 43° 22’. E. long. 8!. Vic en Carladex, or Vic fur la Cére, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal, fituated at the foot of the Cantal, with a medicinal fpring; 21 miles W.S.W. of St. Flour. Vic le Comie, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Déme. About half a league from the town is a medicinal {pring ; 6 miles S.W. of Billom. Vic Deffos, a town of France, in the department of the Arriege; 6 miles S.W. of Tarafcon. Vic Fezenfac, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 12 miles S. of Condom. VICAR, Vicarius, a perfon appointed as deputy af another, VICAR. another, te perform his funétions in his abfence, and under his authority. The word is formed from vicarius, gui alterius vices gerit. ‘The pope pretends to be vicar of Jefus Chrift on earth. He has under him a grand vicar, who is a cardinal; and whofe jurifdiGtion extends over all priefts, both fecular and regular ; and even, in many cafes, over laymen. Apoftolical vicars are thofe who perform the functions of the pope in churches or provinces which he has committed to their direGtion. Among the ancient Romans, vicarius, vicar, was a lega- tus, or a lieutenant, fent into the provinces where there was no governor; fo that the vicarii were properly the emperor’s vicars, not thofe of governors. Cod. de Offic. Vicar. Italy, in the time of the eaftern empire, was governed by two vicarii; the one vicar of Italy, who refided at Milan ; the other vicar of the city, who relided at Rome. Cujas obferved, that the word vicar was fometimes, though rarely, attributed to the lieutenant-generals of pro- confuls, or governors of Roman provinces. Vicar, in the Canon Law, denotes a prieft of a parifh, the predial tithes of which are impropriated or appropriated ; that is, belong either to a chapter, religious houfe, &c. or to a layman, who receives them, and only allows the vicar the fmaller tithes, or a convenient falary, anciently called portio congrua. He is thus called, guafi vice fungens reforis, as ferving for, or in lieu of, re€tor, who would be entitled to the great tithes, Hence, the part or portion of the parfonage allotted to the vicar, for his maintenance and fupport, or the promo- tion or living which he has under the parfon, is called a vicarage. ‘Yhis part or portion is, in fome places, an annual fum of money certain ; but in moft places, it is a part of the tithes in kind, which moft commonly is the {mall tithes ; and in fome places he has a part of the great tithes, and alfo of the glebe. The ftipend of vicars was formerly at the difcretion of the appropriators ; but, on account of their negleét, it was enaéted by 15 Rich. II. c.6. that in all appropriations of churches, the diocefan bifhop fhould ordain (in proportion to the value of the church) a competent fum to be diftri- buted among the poor parifhioners annually, and that the vicarage fhould be fufficiently endowed. However, the vicar was liable to be removed at the pleafure of the appropria- ter ; and, therefore, by 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it is ordained, that the vicar fhall be a fecular perfon, not a member of any religious houfe; that he fhall be vicar perpetual, not removable at the caprice of the monattery ; and that he fhall be canonically inftituted and inducted, and be fufficiently endowed, at the difcretion of the ordinary, for thefe three exprefs purpofes, to do divine fervice, to inform the people, and to keep hofpitality. Inftitution and induétion feem to be the fpecific difference between a vicar and a perpetual curate; both can only be in a church that was appro- priated. But this muft be underftood, only where the curacy is parochial ; for as to curates of chapels, there feems to be no fimilitude between them and curates of parifhes. In appropriated churches, where no vicar has been endowed, the officiating minifter is appointed by the appropriator or impropriator, and is called perpetual curate. The endow- ments in confequence of thefe ftatutes have ufually been by a portion of the glebe, or land belonging to the parfonage, and a particular fhare of the tithes, called fmall or vicarial tithes; which fee. Some, however, were more liberally, and fome more fcantily endowed; and hence many things, I as wood in particular, is in fome countries a redtorial, ard in fome a vicarial title. The diftin@ion therefore of a par- fon and vicar is this: that the parfon has generally the whole of all the ecclefiaftical dues in his parifh; but a vicar has generally an appropriator over him, entitled to the beft part of the profits, to whom he is in effe& a perpetual curate, with a ftanding falary. Though in fome places the vicarage has been confiderably augmented by a large fhare of the great tithes; which augmentations were greatly affifted by the ftatute 29 Car. II. ¢. 8. enacted in favour of poor vicars and curates, which rendered fuch temporary augmentations (when made by the appropriators ) perpetual. See Avemrnration. Blackft. Comm. book i. A vicar who has a part of the great tithes, and alfo of the glebe, is called a vicar endowed. Thefe vicars were anciently called perpetui vicarit; be- caufe not appointed by the impropriator, and licenfed by the bifhop to read fervice; but prefented by the patron, and canonical inititution given them by the hands of the or- dinary ; and fo having conftant fucceflion, or corporations, and never dying. The a& of endowment by the bifhop might be made either in the act of appropriation, or by a fubfequent act or feparate inftrument. Upon the making of an appro- priation, an annual penfion was referved to the bifhop and his fucceffors, commonly called an indemnity, and payable by the body to whom the appropriation was made. See APPROPRIATION and IMPROPRIATION. A vicarage by endowment becomes a benefice diftin@ from the parfonage. As the vicar is endowed with feparate revenues, and is now enabled by the law to recover his tem- poral rights without aid of parfon or patron; fo hath he the whole cure of fouls transferred to him, by inftitution from the bifhop. It is true, in fome places, both the par- fon and the vicar do receive inftitution from the bifhop to the fame church as it is in the cafe of finecures ; the origi- nal of which was thus: The rector (with proper confent) had a power to entitle a vicar in his church to officiate under him; and this was often done; and by this means two perfons were inftituted to the fame church, and both to the cure of fouls, and both did a€tually officiate. So that however the reétors of finecures, by having been long ex- cufed from refidence, are in the common opinion difcharged from the cure of fouls (which is the reafon of the name) ; and however the cure is faid in the law-books to be in them habitualiter only ; yet in ftri€nefs of law, and with re- gard to their original inftitution, the cure is in them a@ua- liter, as much as it is in the vicar. Gibf.719. Cro. Jac. 518. 1 Sid. 426. The parfon, by making the endowment, acquires the pa- tronage of the vicarage. or in order to the appropriation of a parfonage, the inheritance of the advowfon was to be transferred to the corporation to which the church was to be appropriated ; and then, the vicarage being derived out of the parfonage, the parfon of common right muft be pa- tron thereof. So that if the parfon’ makes a leafe of the parfonage (without making a fpecial refervation to himfelf of the right of prefenting to the vicarage), the patronage of the vicarage pafleth as incident to it. (2 Roll. Abr. 59.) But it was held in the 21 Jac. that the parifhioners may pre- feribe for the choice of a vicar. And before that, in the 16 Ja, it was declared by the court, that though the advow- fon of the vicarage of common right is appendant to the rectory, yet it may be appendant to a manor; as having been referved {pecially upon the appropriation. Guibf. 719. Moore, 894. 2 Roll. Rep. 304. Sometimes, upon appropriation, the right of prelentie the Vic the vicar was given to the bifhop, probably to induce his confent : as appeareth from divers inftances. There were no vicarages at common law; or, in other words, no tithes or profits of any kind do de jure belong to the vicar, but by endowment or prefcription ; which cannot be prefumed, but muft be fhewn on the part of the vicar. For which reafon, the payment of tithes to the parfon is prima facie a difcharge againft the vicar. Gibf.719. Palm. 113. Yelv.86. 4 Mod. 184. The firft endowment of the vicars cannot be prefcribed againft by the parfon. Which original endowments there- fore being of fuch authority as no time can deftroy ; and fuch caufes between parfon and vicar as relate to them, or depend on them, being alfo cognizable in the fpiritual court: it were much to be wifhed, fays Dr. Gibfon, for the fake of the poor vicars, that diligent fearch were made after them in the ecclefiaftical offices, and other repofitories of records; in order to bring to light as many as can pof- fibly be found. Efpecially, fince it hath been alfo adjudged, that if a vicar hath ufed time out of mind, or for a fae time, to take particular tithes or profits, he fhall not lofe them, becaufe the original endowment is produced and they are not there: but inafmuch as every bifhop had an indif- putable right to augment vicarages as there was occafion, and this, whether fuch right was referved in the endowment or not; the law will prefume, that this addition was made by way of augmentation. Gibf. 720. The lofs of the original endowment is fupplied by pre- feription ; that is, if the vicar hath enjoyed this or that par- ticular tithe by conftant ufage, the law will prefume that he was legally endowed with it; by the fame reafon that it prefumes fome tithes might be added, by way of augment- ation, which were not in the original endowment. Gibf. 720. 2 Keb. 729. Hardr. 328. Tt is faid that all compofitions for the endowments of vicarages fhall be expounded by the judges of the common law ; and if the fpiritual court meddle with that matter, they are to be prohibited. Watf.c.3o9. Lit. Rep. 263. But where the difpute is between re€tor and vicar, being both fpiritual perfons, it feemeth that the proper cognizance of the caufe belongeth to the ecclefiaftical judge. 2 Brownl. 36. See, however, Moore, 457. But the courts of equity frequently determine upon the interpretation of endowments. The canonifts mention four f{pecies of vicars: fome per- petual ; others, appointed for a certain time, and on fome {pe- cial occafion, called mercenarii: others, called /peciales, ap- pointed not for the whole cure, but for fome certain place, article, or at: others, generales, neither perpetual, nor ap- pointed for any certain a¢t, but for all things in the general. Vicar-General was a title given by Henry VIII. to Thomas Cromwell, earl of Effex; with full power to overfee the clergy, and regulate all matters relating to church-affairs. Wicar-General is now the title of an office, which, as well as that of official principal, are united in the chan- cellor of the diocefe. The proper work of an official is to hear caufes between party and party, concerning wills, le- gacies, marriages, and the like ; which are matters of tem- poral cognizance, but have been granted to the ecclefiaftieal courts by the conceflions of princes : whereas that of a vicar- general is the exercife and adminiftration of jurifdiGtion purely fpiritual, by the authority and under the dire@tion of the bifhop, as vifitation, corre&tion of manners, granting in- ftitutions, and the like, with a general infpeCtion of men and things, in order to the prefervation of difcipline and good government in the church. Thefe two offices have Been OLE ordinarily granted together; but Dr. Gibfon wifhes they might be flill kept feparate ; the office of vicar-general to be vefted in the hands of fome grave and prudent clergy- man, ufually refident within the diocefe; and that of offi- cial (as being converfant about temporal matters) in the hands of a layman, well fkilled in the civil law. VICARDI, the name of an office in the ifland of Candia. The word is probably a corruption of the Latin vicarii. The vicardi is the governor of a village, and is fometimes the parifh prieft ; his office is to levy the public taxes, and to fend offenders to the cadic. This office is always ap- pointed yearly. Pococke’s Egypt, vol. ii. part ii. p. 12. VICARELLO, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the Patrimonio, near the lake of Bracciano, celebrated for its baths; 3 miles N.W. of Bracciano. VICARIO deliberando occafione cujufdam recognitionis, &c. in Law, an ancient writ that lies for a fpiritual -perfon imprifoned. VICARO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capita- nata; g miles S.E. of Volturara. VICE, Virrum, in E¢hics, is ordinarily defined an elec- tive habit, deviating either in excefs, or defe&t, from the juft medium in which virtue is placed. It is called a habit, to diftinguifh it from fin, which is only an aét: hence, a fin is looked upon as fomething tran- fient ; and a vice, as fomething permanent. In the common ufe of the terms vice and fin, there is no ground for this fubtle diftin@ion. Vice, as oppofed to vir- tue, 1s better defined the difagreement of the aétions of any intelligent being with the nature, circumiftances, and relation of things ; hence called the moral unfitnefs of fuch aétions. See VIRTUE. Some authors diftinguifh three ftates of vice: the firft in- continentie, of incontinence, in which a perfon fees and ap- proves the good, but is hurried to evil by the violence of his paffions. ‘The fecond intemperantia, of intemperance ; in which even the judgment is depraved and perverted; the third feritatis, of obduracy ; in which the perfon is totally immerfed in vice, without any fenfe or feeling of it. The ftate of incontinency is confidered as infirmity, in which the perfon feels the fharpeft {tings of confcience : that of intemperance, as malice, in which the remorfe is not fo lively. In that of obduracy there is none. Vice, in Smithery, and other arts employed in metals, is a machine, or inftrument, ferving to hold faft any thing they are at work upon, whether it be to be filed, bent, or rivetted, &c. The parts of the vice are, the face, or plane, which is its uppermoft part ; the chaps, which are cut with a baftard-cut, and well tempered ; the /erew-pin, cut with a {quare, ftrong worm ; the ut, or fcrew-box, which has a fquare worm, and is brafed into the round box ; the /pring, which throws the chaps open; and the foot, on which the whole is mounted. Vicr, Hand, is a {mall kind of vice, ferving to hold the lefs works in, that require often turning about. Of this there are two kinds, the broad chapt hand-vice, which is that commonly ufed; and the /guare-nofed hand- vice, feldom ufed but for filing fmall round work. Vice is alfo a machine ufed by the glaziers, to turn, or draw lead into flat rods, with grooves on each fide, proper to receive the edges of the glafs. This machine confilts of two iron chaps, or cheeks, joined with two crofs iron pieces. In the {pace between the chaps are two fteel wheels, and their fpindles, or axes, pafled through the middle, each of which has its nut or pinion with teeth, that catch into each other; and to the loweft is fitted a handle, by which the machine is turned. There VTre There are fome of thefe vices double, and that will draw two leads at once: thefe have three wheels. Some glaziers will turn lead of different fizes in the fame vice; by chang- ing their cheeks for each fize. With another pair of {pindles, whofe nuts almoft meet, they turn lead for tiers; which, when it comes out of the vice, is almoft cut afunder, in two thicknefles, eafy to be parted. Before the invention of this vice, they ufed a plane: accordingly, in all the ancient windows, we find the lead planed and grooved that way. Vice is alfo ufed in the compofition of divers words, to denote the relation of fomething that comes inftead, or in the place, of another. In this fenfe the word is Latin, vice, ftead, place, turn, &e. : Vicn-Admiral. See ApMiRAL. Vicr-Chamberlain, called alfo, in ancient ftatutes, under- chamberlain, is an officer in the court, next under the lord- chamberlain ; and who, in his abfence, has command and controul of all officers belonging to that part of the houfehold called the chamber above ftairs. Vicr-Chancellor of an univerfity is an eminent member, chofen annually to manage affairs in the abfence of the chan- cellor. Vice-Comes, in Law. See Viscount. Vice-Comitem, Accedas ad. See AccEDAS. Vice-Comitis, Refpectu habendo computi. See Respxctu. Vicr-Conful, an officer who difcharges the duty of a conful, under his orders or during his abfence. Vicer-Doge is a counfellor of Venice, who reprefents the doge when fick, or abfent ; that the fignory may never be without a chief. The vice-doge never takes the ducal chair, nor bears the horn, nor is addreffed under the title of /ereniffimo: yet the foreign ambafladors, {peaking to the college, ufe the com- mon apoftrophe of fereniffimo principe; and he performs all the offices of doge, and gives anfwers to ambaffadors, with- out moving his cap. Vicr-Dominus, a vifcount, fheriff, or vidame. Vicr-Dominus Abbatie, or Ecclefre, in the Civil and Canon Law, an advocate, or protector, of an abbey or church. See ApvocaTeE. Vice-Dominus Epifcopi, in the Ganon Law, is the com- miffary or vicar-general of a bifhop. Vice-Gerent, Vicegerens, a vicar, deputy, or lieutenant. Vice-Legate, an officer whom the pope fends to Avignon, and fome other cities, to perform the office of a fpiritual and temporal governor, at a time when there is no legate, or cardinal, to command there. All the Gaul Narbonnoife, as Dauphiné, Provence, &c. has recourfe to the vice-legate of Avignon, for all ecclefiaf- tical difpatches ; in like manner as the other provinces ad- drefs themfelves to Rome. See Lecare. Vicr-Roy, a governor of a kingdom, who commands therein in the name and ftead of a king, with full and fove- reign authority. Thus, when Naples and Sicily were fubje& to Spain, vice-roys were fent thither; and the name is now given to thofe who govern in Mexico and Peru. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland is alfo fometimes called the vice-roy. Vice-Verfa, a Latin phrafe, frequently retained in Eng- lifh writings ; fignifying as much as on the contrary. Thus, as the fun mounts higher and higher above the horizon, infenfible perfpiration increafes; and, vice verfa, as he defcends lower, it diminifhes. VICEGRAD, or VisseGrap, in Geography, a town of 4 vVire Hungary, near the Danube, with a cattle, formerly the re- fidence of the kings of Hungary. It was enlarged, and magnificently fitted up by Charles I., who, in 1310, ordered the royal crown to be depofited here. In this caftle likewife he entertained John, king of Bohemia, and his fon Cafimir, king of Poland, and Nemagna, king of Bofnia and Servia. After the death of Louis II. it was taken by the Turks, hee which it has been negleéted; 9 miles S.S.E. of ran. VICENNALIS, in Antiquity, fomething of twenty years, or that returns after twenty years. Among the Romans, vicennalia particularly denoted the funeral feafts, held on the twentieth day after a perfon’s deceafe. Vicennatia, or Vicennales Ludi, were alfo games, feafts, and rejoicings, held every twentieth year of the reign of a prince. On medals we frequently meet with vicennalia vota; the vows put up on that occafion for the fafety of the emperor and the enlargement of the empire. Thefe are exprefled by vor. x. & xx, in the medals of Tacitus, Gallienus, and Probus; vor. x. M. xx, in thofe of Valerius Maximianus and Galerius Maximianus; vor. X. MUL. XX, in thofe of Conftantine, Valentinian, and Va- lens; vor. x. MULT. xx, in thofe of Dioclefian, Conftan- tine, Julian, Valentinian, Theodofius, Arcadius, Honorius ; VOTIS X. MULT. Xx, in thofe of Julian, Valentinian, Gra- tian; vor. x. sic. xx, in thofe of Valerius Conftantius ; VOT. XII. FEL. Xx, inthe yeunger Licinius; vor. xv. FEL. xx, in Conftantine. VICENTE, or Vincent, St¢., in Geography, a province of Brafil, containing the noted republic of St. Paul (which fee); and as this is the firft province in which the Porfuguefe eftablifhed themfelves, fo it was one of the moft fertile, till the difcovery of the mines diverted the channels of com- merce. It is now chiefly remarkable for hams, efteemed equal to any in Europe; and, if Eftalla may be credited, for tanned hides of large {wine. VICENTIA, Vicenza, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Venetia, upon the Medoacus Minor (the Bar- chiglione). Of its foundation nothing is known; but it appears to have been a Roman colony, and municipal. The partifans of Vefpafian took poffeffion of it, A.D. 69. Tacitus, Hift. 1. iii. c. 8. VICENTIN, in Geography, a country of Italy, bounded on the north by the Tyrolefe, on the eaft by the Trevifan and the Paduan, on the fouth by the Paduan, and on the welt by the Veronefe and Tyrolefe; about 45 miles in length, and from 10 to 24 in breadth. This territory was formerly a part of Lombardy. It is partly hilly, and partly flat; but in general uncommonly pleafant and fertile. The plains abound in all kinds of corn, fruit, and mulberry- trees ; and the mountainous parts afford good paftures, and moft excellent wine, called ‘ vino fanto.” ‘The breeding of cattle is fo very confiderable here, that the country of Vicenza is proverbially called the fhambles of Venice. The fheep are in tolerable plenty, and the wool is excellent. The culture of {ilk is fo important, that it produces annually upwards of 200,000 pounds of that article; there are alfo filver and iron mines, medicinal fprings, paper, and faw- mills, which are abundantly provided with timber from the forefts. Fifh and venifon are in abundance. The hill Su- mano is celebrated on account of the great variety of falu- brious herbs which grow there; and on the other hills petrified fhells and fifh are found, fome of which differ en- tirely from thofe that live in the Adriatic fea. The larger rivers and rrvulets are the Aftico, Agno or Gua, the Te- monchio, Val 'C monchio, the Cerifon, and Tergola, all which run into the river Bachiglione, and difcharge themfelves afterwards into the Po. The territory of Vicenza belonged formerly to ancient Venetia, and in the fequel raifed itfelf to the rank of one of the thirty duchies of Lombardy, and was incorpo- rated by Charlemagne with the Marca Trevifana. In the progrefs of time, the country of Vicenza aflumed again a republican form; and in the 13th century, fell under the dominion of the tyrant Ezzelin. After his death, it came under the government of Padua, from which it was taken by the family of Scala, who were again difpoffeffed of it by John Galeazzo Vifconti, duke of Milan. It did not, how- ever, remain long in his hands; for in the year 1404, it refcued itfelf from the government of Milan, and fubmitted voluntarily to the republic of Venice. In the year 1796, it became part of the Auftrian monarchy, in virtue of the peace of Campo Formio. This province comprehends one city, 13 {mall towns and boroughs, and upwards of 300 vil- lages. The whole population amounts, according to the laft enumeration made by the French, to 286,000 fouls. VICENTINO, Don Nicoto, in Biography, publifhed at Rome, 1555, a work in quarto, entitled ‘* L’Antica Mufica ridotta alla moderna Prattica,’? or ** Ancient Mufic reduced to modern Praétice,’? with precepts and examples for the three genera and their fpecies ; to which is added, an account of a new initrument for the moft perfect perform- ance of mufic, together with many mufical fecrets. During the 16th century, and a great part of the next, many of the moft eminent mufical theorifts of Italy employed their time in fubtle divifions of the {eale, and vifionary pur- fuits after the ancient Greek genera; nor was this rage wholly confined to theorifts, but extended itfelf to praétical muficians, ambitious of aftonifhing the world by their deep {cience and fuperior penetration, though they might have employed their time more profitably to themfelves, and the art they profefled, in exploring the latent refources of har- monic combinations and effe€ts in compofition, or in refining the tone, heightening the expreflion, and extending the powers of execution, upon fome particular inftrument. Thefe vain inquiries certainly impeded the progrefs of mo- dern mufic; for hardly a fingle tra&t or treatife was pre- fented to the public, that was not crowded with circles, fegments of circles, diagrams, divifions, fubdivifions, com- mas, modes, genera, fpecies, and technical terms, drawn from Greek writers, and the now unintelligible and ufelefs Jargon of Boethius. Vicentino, by the title of Don prefixed to his name, feems to have been an ecclefiaftic of the Benediétine order. He was a practical mufician, and appears to have known his bufinefs. In his treatife he has explained the difficulties in the mufic of his time, with fuch clearnefs, as would have been ufeful to the ftudent, and honourable to himfelf, if he had not {plit upon enharmonic rocks, and chromatic quick- fands. He gives a circumitantial account of a difpute be- tween him and another mufician at Rome, Vincentio Lufita- nio, who maintained that modern mufic was entirely diatonic ; while Vicentino was of opinion, that the prefent mufic was a mixture of all the three ancient genera, diatonic, chro- matic, and enharmonic. This difpute having produced a wager of two gold crowns, the fubjeét was difcufled in the pope’s chapel, before judges appointed by the difputants, and determined againft Vicentino ; whether juftly or unjuftly, depends upon the precife fenfe affigned to the term chromatic by the feveral difputants. What ufe was made of the enharmonic genus in the mufic of the 16th century, we know not; but whenever other founds are ufed than thofe of the feale, ftri@ly diatonic, by VIC introducing F, C, or G fharp, or any flat, except that of B, which the Greeks themfelves allowed in the fynem- menon tetrachord, and the moft fcrupulous writers upon canto-fermo, in the modes of the church, the diatonic is mixed with the chromatic; and to this licence the firft con- trapuntifts were reduced, at a cadence in D and A minor, as well as G major. Though Vicentino loft his wager by the decifion of the judges againft him, he recovered his honour fome time after, by his antagonift, Lufitanio, recanting, and coming over to his opinion. According to Kircher, Vicentino was the firft who imagined that the proportions or ratios of the ancient diatonic genus were inadmiffible in our counterpoint ; and tried in his work to eftablifh the tetrachord to confift of a major, femitone, and two tones, one major and one minor ; which forms the diatonic fyntonas of Ptolemy, which Zar- lino has propagated, and which is now in general ufe. VICENZA, in Geography, a'city of Italy, and capital of the Vicentin, fituated at the union of two {mall rivers, in a plain, between two hills. The celebrated archite&, Andrea Palladio, was born and lived here. Among the buildings are feen feveral regular ftately palaces, and other elegant edifices, particularly the council-houfe, the grandeur of which is heightened by two very lofty columns, with St. Mark’s winged lion on one of them, and on the other the image of our Saviour. The Monte della Pieta isa ftately fabric, and has a very fine library. Of the churches, which are 57 in number, 14 are parochial, and 29 conventual, with feveral guod hofpitals. The cathedral ftrikes the eye with nothing particular. The great altar of the Dominican church is a moft auguft piece of Palladio’s architeure, as is alfo the beautiful convenient theatre in the building where the Academia Olympicorum meets. The feats are difpofed in the manner of the ancient amphitheatre, and the perfpec- tive is furprifingly beautiful, chiefly by reafon of the many ftatues of Roman emperors, and fome philofophers. This academy is a fociety of men of learning, who meet at ftated times, for the improvement of the Italian language. By the fame flilful archite& is likewife the copy of the tri- umphal arch of the Campo Martio, without the city, erected - for the embellifhment of the public walk. The church della Madonna di Monte, on a mountain, without the city, is much frequented by pilgrims, and poffeffes a fine frontif- piece, with a convent built clofe by. The Scaligeri were once for a confiderable time lords of this city ; afterwards it paffed through feveral hands, and, in 1304, fubmitted to the republic ‘of Venice; 35 miles W. of Venice. N. lat. 45° 31/.. E. long. 11° 22!. VICES, aterm ufed by the dealers in horfes to exprefs certain faulty habits or cuftoms in that creature, which render him troublefome to the rider, and are never to be worn off, but by attention to the regular methods. The following are the tricks generally underftood as vices - by dealers, and their methods of preventing, correcting, and curing them. 1. If a horfe carry his head or neck awry, ftrike him twice or thrice with the {pur on the contrary fide ; but if he be very ftiff-necked on the right fide, and very plying or bending on the left, the rider is to hold the right rein fhorter than the other, and give him fudden checks every time he inclines that way, having a fharp wire faftened in the reins, that ftriking in his neck, he may be compelled to hold it ftraight ; but in this, care muft be always taken to check him upwards, for otherwife he will get a habit of ducking his head, which will prove very troublefome. 2. Ifa horfe is apt to fhake his head and ears upon the leaft occafion, or move his ears when he is going to kick or bite, Wic bite, or caft his rider; the way of curing this is to ftrike him on the head with a wand, as foon as he fhews the firft attempt to it; and, at the inftant of ftriking him, he is to be checked with the bridle, and ftruck with the fpur on the contrary fide: this will put him out of his pace, and he is then to be ftopped, that he may have leifure to underftand the rider’s meaning. Every time that he ftarts or winces, which are fignals that he is going to bite, or to ftrike with his heels, the fame is to be done, and he will, by degrees, be broke of thefe habits. 3. If a horfe is fubje& to ducking down his head fre- quently, the rider muft, every time he is guilty of it, check him fuddenly with his bridle, and at the fame time ftrike him with the fpurs, in order to make him fenfible of his fault. If he be itanding, he is thus to be made to bring his head in the right place as he ftands; and when he does fo, he is to be cherifhed, that he may underitand the rider’s meaning, which, in time, he will certainly do. 4. If a horfe be ficittifh, and apt to ftart, fo that the rider is never free from danger while on his back, the caufe of the malady is firft to be carefully inquired into: if it be found to proceed from a weak fight, which reprefents ob- je&ts to him other than they really are; the method of curing him is, every time he does it, to give him leifure to view the things, and fee what they really are; he muft have time to view them well, and then be rid gently up to them. If, on the contrary, his fkittifhnefs depends on his being naturally fearful, and alarmed at every noife, he is to be cured of it by the inuring of him to loud noifes of many kinds, as firing of guns, drums, trumpets, and the like ; and he will, in time, come to take delight in that of which he was before afraid. 5- If a horfe be reftive, and refufe to go forward, the rider is to pull him backwards, and this will often occafion . his going forward: this is ufing his own fault as a means of reclaiming him. The rider is firft cautioufly to find whether this vice proceeds from real ftubborniiefs, or from faintnefs : if from the latter, there is no remedy but reft; but if a€tual ftubbornnefs be the fault, the whip and f{pur, well employed, and perfifted in, will at length be found a certain cure. 6. Ifa horfe rear up an end; that is, if he rifes fo high before as to endanger his coming over the rider, the horfe- man muft give him the bridle, and bear forwards with his whole weight. As he is going down, he fhould have the {pur given him very roundly ; but this muft by no means be done as he is rifing, for then it will make him rife higher, and probably come over. 7. If a horfe be fubje& to lie down in the water, or upon the ground, there is no better remedy than a pair of fharp {purs refolutely applied. But there is fome caution to be ufed in the application of them, for bad horfemen generally are the occafion of the faults in horfes, by correéting them ‘out of due time. The proper moment of {purring is juft when he is going to lie down; but when this has diverted him from the thought of it, he is not immediately to be fpurred again. For the doing this frightens the creature, and puts him into confufion to that degree, that he at length becomes reftive, and thus one fault is only changed for another, and that per- haps a worfe. 8. Ifa horfe be apt to run away, very cautious means mutt be ufed to break him of it. The rider muft be gen- tle, both with a flack curb, and keeping an eafy. bridle- hand. He is firft to be walked without ftopping him; but only ftaying him, by degrees, with a fteady, not a violent hand, and always cherifhing him when he obeys: when he is thus made very manageable in his walk, he is to be put to Vou. XXXVII. Vee his trot, and finally to his gallop; and from thefe he is to be brought into a walk again, always by degrees, and ftay- ing him with a fteady hand. By ufing this method from time to time, with judgment and patience, it is probable he may at length be cured. g- Ifa horfe is apt to fly out violently, it is certain, that the more the bridle-rein is pulled, and the more he is hurt by tugging the curb, the fafter he will run: the beft method is therefore, if there be field-room enough, to let him go, as foon as he is going, by flackening the bridle, and giving him the {pur continually and fharply, till he flacken of his own accord. Thus, by degrees, he will find that himfelf is the fufferer by all his flights, and he will then leave them off, though he could be never broke of them any way elfe. 10. Some horfes will not endure the fpurs when they are given them, nor ever go forwards ; but faftening themielves to them, they will ftrike out and go back; and if they are preffed more hard, they will fall to italing without ever going out of the place. If the horfe who has this vice be a geld- ing, it will prove very difficult to cure him of it. A ftone- horfe, or mare, are much eafier cured ; but even thefe will be trying at it again afterwards; and if they ever get the better ohalen rider, they will not fail to keep it up in this particular. Every horfe, of whatever kind, that has this fault of cleaving to the fpurs, as the jockeys call it, and not going forwards with them, is to be rejeCted, in the buying for any gentleman’s riding, for it is a fign of a reftive nature, and is a fault generally accompanied with many others. VICESIMATIO, in Roman Antiquity. See Decima- TION. VICH, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Oby, N. lat.61°20!. E. long. 76° 14’. VICHEREY, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges; 9 miles E. of Neufchateau. VICHNOU, or Visne, in Mythology, a deity in the Ealt Indies, of whom the Brachmans have a tradition, that he was metamorphofed into a tortoife; and they explain this fable by faying, that by the fall of a mountain the world began to ftagger and to fink down gradually towards the aby{s, where it would have perifhed, if their beneficent god had not transformed himfelf into a tortoife to bear it up. See VIsHNU. VICHY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Allier, on the Allier ; near it are fome medi- cinal fprings ; 3 miles S.W. of Cuffet. VICIA, in Botany, the Vetch, an old Latin name, is by fome etymologifts derived from vincic, to bind together, as the various f{pecies of this genus twine, with their tendrils, round other plants. De Theis traces this word to its Celtic fynonym, Gwig, whence alfo, according to him, comes the modern Greek name of the vetch, Pixiov or Arxx.—Linn. Gen. 376. Schreb. 497. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1093. Mart. Mill. Di@. v.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 768. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 69. Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 4. 310. Purfh 471. Juff. 360. Tourn. t.221. Lamarck Illuttr. t. 634. Gertn. t.151. (Faba; Tourn. t. 212.)—Clafs and order, Dia- delphia Decandria. Wat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Legu- minofe, Juil. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, ere&t, cloven half way down into five acute fegments ; the upper ones fhorteft, converging ; all of equal breadth. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard oval, with a broad oblong claw ; its f{ummit emarginate with a {mall point ; the fides reflexed; the back marked with a longitudinal, compreffed, elevated line. Wings two, oblong, ereét, half-heartfhaped, fhorter than the ftandard, with oblong claws. Keel fhorter aan U the VICTA. the wings, half-orbicular, compreffed, with a divided oblong claw. Stam. Filaments in two fets, one fimple, the other in nine divifions; anthers ereét, roundifh, with four fur- rows. A neétariferous gland, fhort and pointed, arifes from the receptacle, between the compound filament and the ger- men. iff. Germen linear, compreffed, long ; ftyle fhorter, thread-fhaped, bent upwards at a right angle ; ftigma obtule, tranfverfely bearded underneath. Peric. Legume long, coriaceous, of one cell and two valves, terminating in a point. Szeds feveral, roundith. Obf. Faba of Tournefort has oval compreffed feeds. Vicia of that author and Rivinus has roundith feeds. Eff. Ch. Stigma tranfverfely bearded on the under fide. An extenfive genus of herbaceous, perennial or annual plants, climbing by'means of tendrils, which terminate the common footftalk of their abruptly pinnated /eaves. It is nearly akin to Laruyrvs, (fee that article, ) differing effen- tially in the /ligma, and in a generally more flender habit, with {maller, more oblong, flowers. The fpecies are moftly natives of Europe, a few of Barbary, and North America, {earcely any occurring in tropical climates. The flowers are axillary : either racemofe on a longifh common ftalk ; or nearly feffile, folitary or two or three together ; their colour crimfon, purplifh, or pale yellowifh, rarely white or blue. Se&. 1. Flower-flalks elongated. 1. V. pififormis. Pea Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1034. Willd. n. 1. Ait.n.1. Jacq. Auftr.t. 364. (Pifum fyl- veftre; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 229. P. perenne fylveftre ; Ger. Em.1220. Cracca flore ochroleuco ; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 52.)—Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets ovate ; the lower pair clofe to the ftem.—Native of woods in Hungary, Au- ftria, Germany, Switzerland, and near Conttantinople ; a hardy perennial, flowering in July and Auguift in our bo- tanic gardens. The /fem is angular and ftriated, branched, climbing to the height of feveral feet. Leaves of three or four pair of not quite oppofite, broad, blunt, fmooth /eaf- fets, about an inch long, all on very fhort partial ftalks, at- tached to a ftraight /oot/lalk from three to five inches in length, which ends in a branched tendril; the loweit pair largeft, and clofe to the /ipulas, which are ovate, acute, with an awl-fhaped defcending lobe. Flower-flalks half as long as the leaves, each bearing a denfe clufter of numerous, ob- long, pale-yellowith flowers, all drooping one way. Legume an inch and half long, near half an inch broad, {mooth, veiny, of a rufty brown. 2. V. caroliniana. Carolina Vetch. Walt. Carol. 182. Willd. n.2. Purfhn.5. (V. parviflora ; Michaux Boreal.- Amer. v. 2. 69.)—Stalks with many diftant flowers. Leaf- lets numerous, elliptic-lanceolate, nearly {mooth. Stipulas ovato-lanceolate, entire. Stem fmooth.—Native of moun- tians in North America, from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering in July and Auguit. Refembles V. Cracca, but the flowers ave white, with a black-tipped /landard, and a great deal {maller. Pur/h. The /lem is angular, furrowed. Leaflets eight or ten, not quite oppofite. Stipulas f{mall. Clufiers three inches or more in length, of above twenty flowers, hanging all one way. Walter, Willdenow. 3. V. pontica. Euxine Vetch. Willd. n. 3. (V.mul- tiflora {picata, floribus albidis, calyce purpureo; Tourn. Cor. 27.)—Stalks with many crowded flowers. Leaflets nume- rous, lanceolate. Stipulas lanceolate-{wordfhaped, entire. Stem downy.—Native of the country near the Euxine fea. Stem angular and furrowed. Tendrils of the leaves three- cleft. Leaflets from twenty to twenty-feven, elliptic-lanceo- late, an inch or more in length, bearing, on the under fide efpecially, many {cattered clofe-prefled hairs. Stipulas almoft 9 half an inch long, hairy, ribbed. C/uflers fix inches, the lower ones a foot, in length. Flowers drooping, crowded, the fize of V. Cracca. Willdenow. 4. V. dumetorum. Great Wood Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd.n.4. Ait.n.2. (V.n.4273 Hall. Hitt. v. 1.185. Cracca fylvatica; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 51.)— Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets reflexed, ovate, pointed. Stipulas fomewhat toothed.—Native of France, Switzer- land, Germany, and the neighbourhood of Conftantinople ; a hardy perennial, flowering in May or June, but feldom cultivated here, except for curiofity. The /eaflets are {maller, more numerous, and more alternate than in the firft {pecies, the lower one only fituated near the bafe of _ their common footftalk. Flowers fewer, and much larger, purple, not yellow. Legumes lanceolate, tapering. at each end. : 5. V./ylvatica. Common Wood Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n.s5. Fl. Brit.n. 1. Engl. Bot.t-79. Fl. Dan. t.277. (V.n.426; Hall. Hit. v.1. 185. t. 12. f.2.. V. multifora maxima perennis, tetro odore, floribus alben- tibus, lineis ceruleis ftriatis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 71. f. 1.)— Stalks many-flowered, longer than the leaves. Leaflets nu- merous, elliptical. Stipulas lunate, with capillary teeth.— Native of rather mountainous woods and thickets, in Swe- den, Germany, France, and England, flowering in July and Auguft. An elegant plant, with a branching perennial root. The flems are much branched, climbing over bufhes, which they decorate with long-ftalked cluflers of white flowers, de- licately {triated with purplifh-blue. The /eaflets are feat- tered, fmooth, blunt, or emarginate, with a {mall point ; their length from a quarter to half aninch. Legume lanceo- late, pointed, {mooth, with about four feeds. This fpecies is well worthy of a place in gardens and fhrubberies. In the north of England it often makes a beautiful appearance in hedges and mountain thickets, flowering copioufly for feveral weeks. 6. V. americana. American Wood Vetch. Muhlenb. Cat. 65. Willd. n. 6. Purfh n. 3.—Stalks with feveral flowers, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets elliptic-lanceo- late, obtufe, {mooth. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped, deeply toothed.—Difcovered in Pennfylvania, by the late Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, from whom we have a fpecimen. It flowers in May, and is perennial. Purfh compares this fpecies with V. fylvatica, as to the fize of its flowers and general re- femblance. But the /eaffets are rather larger, fomewhat toothed. Stipulas with deep, but not capillary fegments. Flowers much fewer, their common ftalks never longer than the leaves. 7. V. grandiflora. Laarge-flowered Vetch.—Stalks with feveral flowers, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets ovate, {mooth. Stipulas lunate, with fharp teeth. Calyx-teeth taper-pointed.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies, at the upper. edge of the foreft, on the mountain called Mowna-rooa, in Owhyhee, whichis 6000 feet high. This magnificent {pecies is much larger than any of the preceding. Its /eaflets, near an inch and half long, are the fhape of V. dumetorum, but twice as large. Flowers pale purple, full thrice the fize of dumetorum ; their flandard and other petals all itrongly re- curved. Calyx half as long as the corolla, with long, very finely pointed, teeth. The c/uffers are lax, with flender, fomewhat downy, partial /a/ks, three-quarters of an inch in . length. We have not feen the /egume. 8. V. variegata. Parti-coloured Oriental Vetch. Willd. n.7. Prodr. Fl. Gree. n: 1700. (V. orientalis multiflora argentea, flore variegato; Tourn. Cor. 27.)—Stalks with many imbricated flowers. Leaflets elliptical, villous. Sti- pulas deeply divided at the bafe, Oe eee n) —— VICIA. of the Levant. TZournefort.. Found by Dr. Sibthorp in the Peloponnefus. His fpecimens anfwer well to Willdenow’s defcription, except that the /eaves, though clothed with fhining hairs, are fearcely “ whitifh, or filvery.”” The /fems are about a foot high, {quare, ftriated, villous. Leaflets from fourteen to twenty, obtufe ; thofe of the lower /eaves ob- ovate, emarginate, pointed, crowded. Tendrils fhort, cloven. Common flalk dilated, femi-cylindrical. Stipulas pointed. Cluflers rather longer than the leaves, Flowers the fize of V. fativa, turned all one way. 9. V. caffubica. Caflubian Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n. 8. Ait.n.4.. (WV. Gerardi; Jacq. Auftr. t. 229. V. pedunculis multifloris, petiolis polyphyllis, foliolis villo- fis, itipulis acutis integris appendiculatis; Gerard Gal- lopr. 497. t. 19, excellent. - V.. multiflora caffubica fru- tefcens, lentis filiqua; Pluk. Phyt. t.72. f. 2.)—Stalks many-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets elliptic- oblong, flightly downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire, with a divaricated awl-fhaped {pur at the bafe.—Native of moun- tainous woods and meadows, in Provence, Pomerania, and Auftria. Perennial, flowering in June, and ripening feed in Auguit. This, it feems, has been formerly confounded with V. fylvatica, but the flems are only about eighteen inches high, ereé&t, not climbing. The whole of the herbage is fomewhat downy. Leaflets very numerous, oppofite or al- ternate, obtufe or emarginate. Stipulas narrow, with a ca- pillary point. Flowers light purple, from fix to twenty, drooping, the fize and fhape of Y. /ylvatica. Legumes ovate, hardly an inch long, likewife refembling thofe of the /y/va- tica. The name caffubica, taken from a province of Pome- rania, is extremely exceptionable, for a plant found in fo many different countries. 10. V. atrepurpurea. Dark-purple Vetch. Desfont. At- lant. v. 2. 164. Willd. ns 9.:—Stalks many-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Calyx-teeth briftle-fhaped, very villous. Leaflets: lanceolate, villous. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped, deeply toothed. Legume hairy.—Native of the ifles of Hyeres, and of Algiers. Annual. ‘The whole plant is vil- lous. Stem {quare, ftriated. Leaflets from eight to twelve, ‘bluntifh, pointed. Stipulas ovate, with deep, linear-lanceo- late, pointed teeth. Calyx clothed with long {preading hairs. Corolla of a deep blood-red. Legume covered with fhort reddifh hairs. Very different from the following fpecies. Willdenow. it. V. villofa. Villous Vetch. Roth Germ. v. 2. part2. 182. Hoit. Syn. 399. Willd. n. 10.—“ Stalks longer than the leaves, with many imbricated flowers. Leaf- lets oblong-ovate, villous. Stipulas —half-arrowfhaped, ovate ; bluntly toothed at the bafe.’?—Native of Germany, Auftria, and Hungary. Refembles V. Cracca, but the root is annual ; flowers larger; lem weaker ; herbage more vil- lous ; /egumes twice as broad, and half as long again, as in that fpecies, with feeds twice as large, grey covered with footy powder, not black and {mooth. Roth. 12. V. polyphylla. Many-leaved Vetch. Desfont. At- lant. v. 2. 162. Willd. n.11. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 699, unpublifhed. (¥V. orientalis multiflora incana, anguftiflimo folio; Tourn. Cor. 27. Buxb. Cent. 5. 46. f. 35.) —Stalks longer than the leaves, many-flowered. Leaflets linear- lanceolate, acute, downy. Stipulas half-haftate, lanceolate, entire.—Native of Hungary, Greece, mount Hymettus, and Barbary. Perennial. Stems branched, angular, climbing, clothed, like the reft of the herbage, with foft filky hairs. Leaflets very numerous, near an inch long. Stalks rather longer than the leaves, each bearing a clufter of larger, lefs numerous and crowded flowers, than in the Peas i Calyx-teeth very unequal. Standard {ky-blue, with purple veins. Wings and feel white ; the latter tipped with violet. Legume oblong, fmooth. 13. V. Cracca. Tufted Vetch. Linn, Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n. 12. Fl. Br. n.2. Engl. Bot. t..1168. Purth n. 4. Curt. Lond. fafe.5.t.54. Mart. Ruft.t.117. Fl. Dan. t. 804. (Cracca; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 50.) —Stalks the length of the leaves, with many. imbricated flowers. Leaflets lanceolate, bluntifh, downy. Stipulas half-arrow- fhaped, mojtly entire. Found in thickets, hedges, and fields throughout Europe, as well as in North America, flowering in July and Auguft, when the denfe cluflers of numerous blue flowers make a handfome appearance. The petals are all blue ; flowers more crowded ; /eaflets fhorter and rather blunter than in the laft. In the ffipulas we find no permanent difference, the lower lobe being more or lefs di- varicated or deflexed. Curtis juftly remarked that the figma is hairy all round. 14. V. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Vetch. Roth Germ. v.2. pt.2. 183. Willd. n.13. Ait. n.6. Donn Cant. ed. 5. 176.—** Stalks longer than the leaves, with many im- bricated flowers. Leaflets linear, three-ribbed, fmoothifh. Stipulas linear, entire.’’—Native of fandy hillocks in Ger- many, as well as in l’auris. Said to be very like the pre- ceding ; but of a more humble and upright growth. The lower /lipulas only are half-haftate ; the upper ones fimple and linear. Flowers fewer in each clufter, always violet- coloured. Legumes about half as large. Roth. 15. Vi onobrychioides. Saint-foin Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036. Willd. n. 14. Ait.n.7. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 325. t. 42. f. r. (WV. onobrychidis flore ; Bauh. Prodr. 149. )— Stalks longer than the leaves, with many diftant flowers. Leaflets linear, rather abrupt, fmooth. Stipulas lanceo- late, deeply toothed at the bafe.—Native of Switzerland, Italy, the fouth of France, Greece, Cyprus, and the. Archi- pelago, flowering in fummer. The root is annual. Herb branched, climbing, with the habit of 7. Cracca, but fmooth, and much more variable in fize, as well as in the breadth of the /eaflets, which are moreover fometimes acute, fometimes obtufe or abrupt, always tipped with a briftly point. Flowers thrice as large as in Cracca, fewer and more re- mote, parti-coloured with crimfon and white. Legume an inch and half long, lanceolate, pointed, with many fmall Seeds. , 16. V. diennis. Biennial Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036. Willd. n. 15. Ait. 0.8. (V.n.g; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 10. t. 2.) Stalks much longer than the leaves, with many feat- tered flowers. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, fmooth. Com- mon footitalks angular, furrowed. Stipulas half-arrow- fhaped, italked.—Native of Siberia. A tall, f{mooth, biennial plant. Leaflets ribbed, an inch and quarter or inch and halflong. Vowers half the fize of the laft, whitifh, with a blue ffandard. ; 17. V. altiffima. Tall Vetch. Desfont. Atlant.-v, 2. 163. Willd. n.16.—** Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets about twelve, elliptical, abrupt, fmooth. Stipulas toothed.?? —Native of Barbary, in hedges near Arzeau. Akin to the foregoing, but the abrupt /eaffets, and toothed /ipulas, diftinguifh it. Desfontaines. We would obferve that ne- thing is more variable than the termination of the eee ia .this tribe ; yet we do not difpute the diftin€&tnefs of the pre- fent fpecies. The herd is perennial, perfe€ly fmooth throughout, fix feet high. Flower-/falks longer than the leaves, angular. Flowers numerous, pale blue, fearcely larger than in V. fepium ; fee the fecond fe€tion. 18. V. Bivone. Blue Sicilian Vetch.—stalks as long as the leaves, about three-flowered. Leaflets elliptical, obtufe, hairy. Stipulas lunate, deeply toothed. Legume oblong, U2 reticulated, VICIA. reticulated, {mooth.—Native of Sicily, from whence it was fent us by the baron Bivona Bernardi. Akin to feveral of the foregoing, but decidedly diftin&t. Root perennial. Stems feveral, climbing, eighteen inches or more in height, fharply angular, hairy like the reit of the herbage. Leaflets half or three quarters of an inch long, pale -green, rather filky. Flowers two, three, or four on each ftalk, light purplith- blue, much fhorter than thofe of V. Cracca. Calyx-teeth all remarkably long, tapering, finely fringed. Legume an inch and quarter long, half an inch broad, flat, with four or five Seeds. 19. V.niffoliana. Red Oriental Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl.1036. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. g,—Stalks fhorter than the leaves, with few flowers. Leaflets elliptic-oblong, obtufe, downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire. Legumes comprefled, ovate- oblong, filky.—Native of the Levant. A hardy annual, faid to have been firft introduced at Kew, in 1773, by the cele- brated earl of Bute. The whole plant is downy, or fome- what filky. Leaflets an inch long, tapering at the bafe into little partial flalks. Stipulas narrow, undivided. Flowers five or fix, dark purple, the fize of the laft. Calys-teeth long and flender, but not quite fo long in proportion to the tube as in that fpecies. Legume above an inch long, flat, very filky, with four or five large prominent feeds. Linneus cultivated this fpecies at Upfal. We have never obferved it in any colleétion here. , 20. V. benghalenfis. Bengal Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036. Willd. n. 18. Ait. no. 10. (V. benghalenfis, hirfuta et incana, filiquis pifi; Herm. Lugd.-Bat. 623. t.625. Cracca benghalenfis; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 50.)—Stalks fhorter than the leaves, about three-flowered. Leaflets elliptic- oblong, obtufe, downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire. Le- gume turgid, oblong, filky.—Native of Bengal, from whence fir Jofeph Banks procured feeds for the Kew garden, in 1792. An annual ftove-plant, flowering in June and July. This is nearly related to the laft, in general habit, pubefcence, fiipulas, and calyx ; but the flowers are {carcely more than three ; their petals longer, faid to be of a very deep {carlet, at leaft their upper half, the cel tipped with black. We have not feen them, except dried. The /egume differs effen- tially from the foregoing, having concave valves, like a Pifum, with five large round feeds. 24. V.canefcens. Hoary Syrian Vetch. Billard. Syr. fafe. 3. 17. t.7. Willd. n.19. Ait. n.11.— Stalks many-flowered, about the length of the leaves, which {carcely bear tendrils. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, downy. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped. Legume turgid, oblong, filky. — Gathered by La Billardiere, towards the fummit of mount Lebanon, and by Sibthorp in Greece. Sir Jofeph Banks fent feeds to Kew in 1800. If this and the two preceding exift at prefent, in any garden, they ought to be figured in one, not both, of our periodical works. The prefent is marked as a hardy annual, flowering in July and Auguft. The whole herd is fab with foft down. Stem ere&, afoot or more in height, {quare, ftriated. Lower /eaves numeroufly pinnate, with an odd leaflet, in whofe place the upper ones have only a fhort {traight point, or abortive tendril. Flowers blue, full as large as the laft, and more numerous. Legume welling as in that, downy, but with fewer feeds. 22. V.capenfis. Cape Vetch. Berg. Cap. 215. Willd. n. 20. Thunb. Prodr. 125.— Stalks elongated, many- flowered. Leaves pinnate with an odd leaflet, without ten- drils ; filky beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided.—Native of the Capeof Good Hope. Perennial. Svem a {pan high, ere€t, angular, fmooth ; branched at the bafe ; the branches ‘hort, procumbent. Leaflets about twenty-one, linear, abrupt with a point, or flightly emarginate ; {mooth above ; fcarcely half fo long as the finger-nail. Stipulas membra- nous, ovate or lanceolate, fimple and entire. C/u/fers round- ifh, hairy, rather denfe, on long ftalks. Calyx-teeth lanceo- late, acute, nearly equal. Bergius. Linneus has made a manufcript note in this author’s book, faying “ this plant refembles Hippocrepis como/a, but it has a racemus, not an um- della. It cannot be a Vicia, becaufe of the odd leaflet.”,— The laft remark is invalidated by V. canefcens, n.21. We have feen no {pecimen, on which to found any opinion. 23. V. pellucida. Tranfparent Vetch. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 2. 50. t.222. Willd. n. 21.—Stalks fhorter than the leaves, with feveral flowers. Leaves pinnate with an odd leaflet, without tendrils, downy. Stipulas lanceo- late, undivided. Legume falcate, many-feeded.—Native of the Cape of Good Tone: Jacquin’s figure anfwers fo well to the remark of Linnzus under the laft fpecies, that we are much inclined to think the prefent is the very fame plant. Willdenow indeed, who had feen a dried fpecimen of the former, thought them diftin& ; but he indicates no material difference. The flowers of Jacquin’s plant have a roundifh, elegantly ftriated, /tandard, with purple wings and keel. The legume is comprefled, curved, near two inches long, with ten or more feeds, feparated by tranfverfe ftric- tures. Bergius has not defcribed the fruit of his plant. 24. V. fruticofa. Willd. n. 22. (Lathyrus tomentofus ; Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 58. t.84. Orobus tomentofus; Desfont. Tabl. 224.)—Stalks fhorter than the leaves, two-flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate, without tendrils, downy. Stipulas awl-fhaped, undivided. Legume ftraight, downy, many- feeded.—Found on hills near Huanuco, in Peru. A fhrub, flowering in the Madrid garden from July to November. The /fem is two feet high, with numerous, drooping, downy, round branches. Leaflets about twenty pair, elliptical, uni- form, entire, a quarter of an inch long, without an odd one, or any terminal point. F/owers yellow, in fhape and fize not unlike the laft, nor is the legume very diflimilar, except being ftraight, and gradually dilated upwards.—We feel little confidence as to the genus of this plant, but a certain refemblance to the two lait, notwithftanding the want of an odd /eaflet, induces us to retain it here. Perhaps they might all three, if all diftin@, be removed from Vicia, and on more complete examination and comparifon, might form a genus. 25. V. biflora. Two-flowered Sharp-leaved Vetch. Des- font. Atlant. v. 2. 166. t.197. Willd. n.24. Ait. n. 13. —Stalks two-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets linear, tapering at each end. Tendrils divided. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped.—Native of Algiers. A hardy annual, fent to Kew, by M. Thouin, in 1801, flowering from June to Auguit. The fem is flender, angular, procumbent. Leaflets eight or ten, alternate, very narrow. Stipulas mi- nute, occafionally toothed. Sta/és flender, bearing one or two rather large, oblong, blue flowers, and tipped with a {mall point. Calyx-teeth rather fhort. Corolla moft like V. benghalonft or biennis, in fhape and dimenfions. 26. V. ciliaris. Fringed Vetch. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 1706. Fl. Gree. t. 700, unpublifhed.—Stalks fingle-flowered, pointed, as long as the leaves. Leaflets emarginate. Stipulas mm many fetaceous fegments.—Ga- thered by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor, probably near Smyrna. We know not whether the root be annual or perennial. The /fems are weak, climbing, two or three feet long, branched, angular. . Leaflets about feven pair, half an inch long, fmooth. Yendrils many-cleft. Stipulas lunate, very remarkable for their numerous, {preading, almoit ca- pillary, fegments. Point of the fower-falk elongated three- quarters of an inch beyond the flower, which is therefore lateral, VICIA. lateral, about the fize of the laft, pale blue ftreaked with purple. Legume an inch long, elliptical, acute, comprefled, with two feeds. 27. V. graminea. Grafly-leaved Vetch.—Stalks about four-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets linear, pointed, fmooth. Stipulas ovate, entire, flightly half-arrow- fhaped.—Gathered by Commerfon, at Buenos Ayres. We do not find any account of this fpecies, a fpecimen of which was given by Thouin to the younger Linneus. The whole herb is nearly or quite fmooth. Svem two feet or more in height, flender, angular, furrowed, fcarcely branched. Leaves remote, each of three pair of very narrow leaflets, above an inch long, with a fimple or divided tendril at the end of their common ftalk. Flowers very {mall, pale, ap- parently tinged with purple. Calyx a little downy, the teeth fhorter than the tube. Legume {mooth, comprefled, not an inch in length, elliptic-oblong, with an oblique in- curved point, and fix or feven {mall round feeds. 28. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Vetch. Poiret in Lam. Did. n. 15.—Stalks much longer than the leaves, with many diftant flowers. Leaflets numerous, linear, elongated, fmooth. Stipulas lanceolate, half-arrowfhaped, entire.— Gathered in Syria, by La Billardiere. Stems ftraight, an- gular, ftriated, ftiff, {mooth, branched. Leaflets from fix- teen to twenty, alternate, diftant, very narrow, an inch and a half long, ribbed, entire. S¥ipu/as narrow and acute. Tendrils in two or three divifions. //owers yellowifh-white, drooping, in very loofe clufters. Legume not obferved. Poiret. 29. V. oroboides. Four-leaved Vetch. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 4.323. Willd. n. 25. Hoft. Syn. 399. ( Orobus pannonicus quartus; Cluf. Hift. v. 2.231.)—Stalks about four-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets two pair, ovate, pointed, without a tendril. Stipulas half-arrow- fhaped, toothed at the fide.—Found by Wulfen, m the mountainous woods of Carinthia and Carniola, flowering in May and June. We have fpecimens from Jacquin. ‘The root is perennial, tuberous. Stems ereét, a foot and half high, fimple, leafy, angular, frongly furrowed, fmooth. Leaves of two pair of large, fmooth, reticulated /eaflets, an inch, or inch and half, long, with a {mall awl-fhaped ftipu- laceous point in the place of atendril. Clufius’s figure erro- neoufly reprefents an odd leaflet here and there. Flowers an inch long, yellow, with a purplifh calyx, about four to- gether, in fhort, lax, axillary c/u/ffers. For V. £rvilia, Willd. n. 23. fee Ervitta and Ervum. We are now convinced that this plant is an Zrvum. Se&. 2. Flowers axillary, nearly feffile. 30. V. fativa. Common Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1037. Willd. n.26. Fi. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t.334. Purth n.2? Mart. Ruft. t.116. Fl.-Dan. t. 522. (Vicia; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t.54. Ger. Em. 1227. Lob. Ic. v. 2.75. Camer. Epit. 320.) 8. Fl. Brit. V. anguitifolia; Willd. n. 28. Ruivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 55. (V. lathyroides; Hudf. 318, a. Dickf. H. Sicc. fafc. 4.12. V. fylveftris, five Cracca major; Ger. Em. 1227. V. globofa; Retz. Obf. fafc. 3. 39? Willd. n. 27 ?) y. Fl. Brit. (V. fylveftris, flore ruberrimo, filiqua longa nigra; Raii Syn.321. V. anguttifolia; Sibth. Oxon. 224. V. folio anguitiore, flore rubro; Dill. Giff. append. 47.) Legumes feffile, folitary or in pairs, nearly ere&. Lower leaves with abrupt leaflets. Stipulas toothed, marked with a dark depreffion.— Native of cultivated ground, and grafly paftures, throughout Europe, flowering in May and June. A very variable annual plant, more or lefs hairy, diftinguifhed by a brown or blackifh depreffed mark on each ffipula, which is vifible in all the fuppofed varieties ; but we are not fure that thofe varieties may not be fpecifically diftin& ; at leait our y, which is chara@terized by its long, cylindrical, black /egumes, and very elegant crimfon folitary fowers. The leaflets of V. fativa, ufually from four to fix pair, vary much in breadth; thofe of the lower /eaves are fhorter, abrupt, or even inverfely heart- fhaped; the reft lanceolate or linear; all tipped with a briftle. Yendril of the common ftalk long and branched. Flowers varioufly fhaded with red and blue. Legume com- prefled, rough, or a little downy, with many globofe, or flightly lenticular, very fmooth feeds. The ufe of this plant for fodder is well known. The /eeds are the favourite food of pigeons. 31. V. amphicarpa. Subterraneous Vetch. Dorthes in Journ. de Phyf. v. 35. 131. Willd. n.29. (Aracus ouoiov; Cluf. Exot. 87. t. 88.)—Legumes folitary, feffile ; the lower ones fubterraneous, ovate. Leaflets linear, abrupt, three pair. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped, toothed.—Native of Provence. Root annual. Stems a {pan long, diffufe, angu- lar. Leaves flightly hairy, with more or lefs of a tendril. Flowers crimfon, moft like V7. fativa y. Legume lanceolate, acute, above an inch long, with many feeds. Such is the ordinary fructification; but feveral flowers are produced from fubterraneous leaflefs flalks. ‘Thefe are very {mall, confifting of a clofed colourlefs calyx, in which, when ex- amined againft the light with a magnifying glafs, /lamens may diftinétly be feen. Each of thefe flowers produces an oval-pointed /egume, with one very perfe& feed. Orobus faxatilis, Venten. Jard. de Cels, t.94, may poffibly be this plant, though the author did not obferve its two-fold fru@i- fication. Many perfons have taken the prefent Vicia for Lathyrus amphicarpos, which exhibits a fimilar phenomenon, but is widely diftinG in other refpects. 32. V. pufilla. Small American Vetch. Muhlenb. Cat. 65. Willd. n. 30. Purfh n. 1.—Stalks folitary, capillary, fingle-flowered. Legumes oblong, f{mooth. Leaflets about fix, linear-lanceolate, bluntifh. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped, entire—Found by the Rev. Mr. Muh- lenberg, in Pennfylvania, and New Jerfey. Mr. Purth fays, it grows in low grafly grounds, from Pennfylvania to Vir- ginia, flowering in July and Auguft. The flowers are ex- ceedingly fmall, white, with a tinge of red. Purfh. Root annual. S¥em four or five inches high, afcending. Tendril of the lower /eaves fimple, of the upper divided, and very long. Legume {mall. Willdenow. 33. V. lathyroides. Spring Vetch. Linn. Sp Pl. 1037. Willd. n. 31. Fl. Brit.n. 4. Engl. Bot. t.30. Jacq. Mife. Auitr. v. 2.299.t. 18. Fl. Dan.t. 58. Hudf. 310, y- (V. minima; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t.55. Eryum folo- nienfe; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1040.)—Legumes feffile, folitary, fmooth. Leaflets about fix ; the lower ones abrupt. Sti- pulas half-arrowfhaped, nearly entire. Seeds cubical, tu- berculated. Native of France, Britain, Norway, and the Levant. With us it grows in fallow fields, or graffy paftures, on a gravelly or chalky foil, flowering in April and May ; at which time of the year it may always be found in Hyde- park, near Kenfington gardens. The roo¢ is annual, though befet with red flefhy tubercles. Herb downy, or rather filky. Stems procumbent, f{preading, from three to fix inches long. Zendrils fimple, generally very fhort, or wanting. Leaflets moftly inverfely heart-fhaped ; thofe about the top of the ftem more oblong and narrower. Stipulas not marked, and feldom toothed. F/owers {mall, blueifh. Legume erect, very {mooth, by which, and efpecially the cubical rough Jeeds, this long-obfcure fpecies is at any time to be known from all the varieties of V.fativa. Sometimes the focers are VICIA. ave white, or ftriated. The fendrils ave never divided, nor the /eaflets more than fix. ; 34. V. lutea. Rough-podded Yellow Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1037. Willd. n. 32. Fl. Brit. n.5. Engl. Bot. t. 481. (V. flore ochroleuco, filiquis hirfutis propendenti- bus ; Morif. fect. 2. t. 21.) —Legumes folitary, nearly fef- file, reflexed, hairy. Stems difiufe. Stipulas coloured. Standard fmooth.—Native of the pebbly fea-fhores of the fouth and eaft of England, as well as of France, Spain, Italy, Barbary, Greece, and the Levant, flowering in July and Auguft. The root is perennial and creeping, much di- vided. Stems diffufe, not much branched, {mooth, angular, ftriated, from one to two feet long. Leaflets numerous, elliptic-oblong, hairy beneath ; fometimes abrupt. Tendrils much branched. Svipulas triangular, brown or reddifh. Flowers long, pale yellow, ftreaked or {tained with grey or purple. Legumes ovate, pointed, an inch and half long, rough with hairs {pringing from {mall tubercles. Seeds from five to eight. Some of the flowers and legumes are often fubterraneous, as in 7. amphicarpa, n. 31. 35. V. Aybrida. Hairy-flowered Yellow Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1037. Willd. n. 33. Fl. Brit.n.6. Engl. Bot. t. 482. Jacq. Auitr. t.146.—Legumes folitary, nearly feffile, reflexed, hairy. Standard villous. Leaflets emargi- nate.—Native of bufhy places in Auftria, the fouth of France, and of England. Found chiefly in Somerfetfhire, about Glaftenbury, flowering in June. This is nearly re- lated to the laft, but the /fems are taller and more upright. Leaflets generally more obtufe than in /utea, though variable, as in that and other Vicie. Stipulas always entirely green. Back of the ffandard clothed with yellow filky hairs. We prefume not to fay how far this is really a diftiné& {pecies, though we have little faith in its being, as the name indicates, a mule produétion. 36. V. melanops. Black-eyed Yellow Vetch. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth.n.1711. Fl. Grec. t. 701, unpubl.— Legumes folitary, reflexed, linear, fmooth. Stems diffufe. Stipulas marked. Wings of the corolla depreffed, incum- bent. — Found by Dr. Sibthorp in Laconia. The root feems perennial. Herb very like the laft, but rather {moother, and the legumes differ effentially in their long narrow figure, and fmooth furface. Flowers of a dull greenifh-yellow ; their wings, which converge horizontally, tipped with a very dark brown, almoft black. 37. V. pannonica. Hungarian Yellowifh Vetch. Jacq. Auttr. t. 34. Willd. n. 34. Ait.n.19. (V. fylveftris albo flore; Cluf. Hitt. v. 2. 235. )—Legumes ftalked, about three together, hairy as well as the ftandard. Stipulas marked. Native of meadows in Auftria and Hungary. Annual. Said to have been cultivated in the Oxford gar- den, in 1658. We have a fpecimen from Jacquin’s own her- barium, by which this {pecies appears to be very like V. hy- brida, ef{pecially in its hairy /landard; but the flowers are paler, and grow two or three together. The calyx is reddifh. Legumes dark brown when ripe, hairy, and fhaped like V. lutea and hybrida. Willdenow fpeaks of a variety with violet-coloured flowers, the Vicioides uncinata, Moench. Method. 136, which may be a diftin& fpecies, as the colour is not altered by culture. fuch plant. 38. V. levigata. Smooth-podded Sea Vetch. Fl. Brit. n.7- Engl. Bot. t. 483. Willd. n.35. Ait. n. 18. (V.hybrida; Hudf. 319.)—Legumes feffile, folitary, re- flexed, ovate, fmooth. Stems nearly upright. Leaflets elliptical, very fmooth.— Found on the ftony fea-beach at Weymouth, Dorfetfhire, flowering in July and Augutt. We bave never met with a {pecimen from any other country, We have no knowledge of any . yet there is no doubt of the f{pecies being perfectly diftin&. The root is perennial, with many flefhy knobs. Whole plant entirely {mooth, efpecially the /egume, which differs in that refpeé&t from V. lutea, hybrida, and pannonica, with all which it agrees in fhape. The /éeds are rarely more than five. The /fems are from fix to twelve inches long, much lefs fpreading than thofe of /utea. Leaflets elliptic-lanceo- late, hardly ever abrupt or emarginate. Tendrils branched. Stipulas green, or pale brown. Calyx-teeth nearly equal. Flowers the fize of V. lutea, varying between pale purplifh- blue and yellow. Both Hudfon and Lightfoot knew this {pecies well, but could not agree about its fynonyms. 39. Vajsordida. Dingy Vetch. “ Waldit. et —Kitaib. Hung.” Willd. n. 36.—Legumes nearly feffile, in pairs, reflexed, linear-oblong, reflexed at the point, fmoothifh. Leaflets obovate-oblong, emarginate. Stipulas marked.— Native of meadows in Hungary. Communicated by M. Thouin to the writer of this. It flowered in Mr. Mackie’s garden, near Norwich, in 1813. ‘The root is annual. Plant totally diftin&: from the laft, notwithftanding Willdenow’s doubts, being larger, with emarginate /eaflets, feldom quite {mooth : twin flowers of a dull or dirty yellow; but par- ticularly a much longer, linear, not ovate, /egume, which, though not hairy, is fomewhat roughifh to the touch, and curved upwards, not downwards, at the point. 40. V. peregrina. Broad-podded Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1038. Willd. n. 37. Ait. n.20. (V. peregrina, anguf- tiflimis foliis, filiqua lata glabra ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 6.) —Legumes folitary, on fhort ftalks, reflexed, ovate, fmooth, Leaflets linear, very narrow, {mooth, abrupt, emarginate.— Native of the fouth of France, from whence Linneus re- ceived {pecimens in the herbarium of Sauvages. Dr. Sib- thorp found it in Caria. M.Thouin fent feeds to Kew garden, in 1779. The plant is annual, flowering in July, of a flender fmooth habit. Leaflets extremely narrow in a wild ftate, with two divaricated terminal points; in a luxu- riant cultivated fpecimen they are rather wider, and more obtufe, but fcarcely exceeding an inch in length ; they are from feven to ten, {eattered, on a ftalk ending in a divided tendril. Flowers {talked, pendulous, of a reddifh-purple, fhorter and thicker than feveral of the preceding, and more like thofe of Orobus tuberofus. Legume fhaped like V. lutea, hybrida, &c. with adeflexed point, but longer, flatter, and quite {mooth. Seeds fix in our {fpecimens. A very diltin& {pecies, little known to modern botanifts, of which a good figure is wanted. 41. V. monantha. Single-flowered Spur-ftalked Vetch. Retz. Obf. fafe. 3. 39. Willd. n. 38. Ait. n.21. (V- calcarata ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 166; Willdenow. )—Statks much fhorter than the leaves, fpurred under the folitary flower. Leaflets lanceolate, obtufe. Stipulas divided. Legumes {mooth, drooping.—Native of Barbary. A hardy annual, flowering in July and Auguit. Herb fmooth. Stem angular, decumbent, two feet long. Leaflets twelve or thir- teen, gradually decreafing, obtufe with 2 point. Flower the fize of V. fativa, red with blueifh veins. Seeds fix or feven. Retzius. The defcription of Desfontaines anfwers very well to this, except that he {peaks of the /eaves as flightly villous, and of the flowers as pale blue, half the fize of fativa, to which fpecies neverthelefs he thinks his plant re- lated; but the /fipu/as are not marked. 42. V. fepium. Common Bufh Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1038. Willd. n. 39. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 515. Tl. Dan. t.699. Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 56. (WV. maxima dumetorum; Ger. Em. 1227. Aphace; Fuchf. Hitt. 110.)—Stalks about four-flowered, much fhorter than the upright fmooth legumes. Leaflets numerous, . ovate, = tufe, VICIA. tufe, gradually fmaller upwards.—Common in hedges and bufhy places throughout Europe, flowering with us in May - and June. The root is perennial, fomewhat creeping. Stems about two feet high, weak, but little branched, furrowed, clinging to other plants by the tendrils of their aves. The whole herb is clothed with fcattered fhort hairs. Leaflets twelve to fifteen, of a dull greyifh-green ; the loweft an inch in length, the uppermoft half as much. Svipulas ovate, acute, marked with a brown depreffion ; the lower ones ge- nerally half-arrowfhaped. Flowers crowded, dull purplifh- blue, rather fhort and thick. Legumes nearly ere&t when ripe, linear-lanceolate, an inch and a half long, blackith, minutely dotted, not hairy. Seeds about fix or eight glo- bular, fmooth. 43. V. bithynica. Rough-podded Purple Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1038. Willd. n. 40. Fi. Brit. n. 9. t.1842. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v.2.t.147. Allion. Pedem. Vv. 1. 325. t.26. f.2. (Cracca floribus albis, foliis circa caulem denticulatis; Buxb. Cent. 3. 25. t. 45. f. 2.) —Le- gumes ftalked, folitary, ere&, rough. Leaflets two pair, elliptic-lanceolate, or nearly lear. Stipulas toothed.— Native of Greece, Italy and Bavaria, in cultivated fields ; as well as of bufhy places in Yorkfhire and Worcetterfhire, and of fields, or rocky fituations, near the coaft of Hamp- fhire, Dorfetfhire, and Devonthire; flowering from May to July. The root is perennial, branching, with many {mall flefhy knobs. Stems angular, trailing or climbing, two feet long, {mooth. Leaflets from one to two inches long, vary- ing from a line to one-third of an inch in breadth, acute ; rather hairy underneath. Stipulas large, half-arrowfhaped, very deeply, but varioufly, toothed. F/ower-/talks various in length, from half an inch to an inch and a half, hairy as well as the long-toothed calyx. Flowers nearly as large as V’. lutea, purple, occafionally white. Legume oblong-lan- ceolate, an inch and half long, half an inch broad, reticu- lated, rough with tawny hairs. Seeds five or fix, fpeckled. The feel and wings of the flower, pure white, tipped or tinged with blue or violet, when frefh, turn greenifh or brownifh twelve hours after gathering. 44. V. platycarpos. Ylat-podded Vetch. ‘ Roth. Ab- handl. ro. t.1.”? Willd. n. 41. Ait. n.24. (Aracus faba- ceus, et Faba Kayrina, cui femina minora; Bauh. Hitt. v. 2. 286. )—* Legumes folitary, nearly feflile, comprefled, fome- _ what inflated. Leaflets ovate, toothed at the end. Stipu- las with fringe-like teeth.’’—Native of Germany. Annual. Cultivated in Chelfea garden in 1723, flowering in July and Auguft. dion. Stem a foot and half high, thick, an- gular, hollow, alittle hairy. Leaflets four, like thofe of V. Faba, hairy, dark green, with a long branching tendril. Stipulas broad. Flowers purple. Legumes large, longith, hairy. Seeds the fize of peas, of a ftrong difagreeable talte and {mell ; black when ripe. Bauhin. 45. V. narbonenfis. Broad-leaved Narbonne Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1.737. Willd. n. 42. Ait.n.25. Roth. Abhandl. ro. t. 2.”? Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 57. (Faba fyl- veftris; Matth. Valgr. v.1. 381. Ger. Em. 1209. )—Le- gumes about three together, nearly feffile, compreffed. Leaflets ovate, obtufe, entire. Stipulas fringed ; toothed at the bafe.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Annual. The fize of the laft. Leaflets one or two pair, with a divided tendril, obtufe, quite entire, an inch and a half long, one broad, hairy at the rib and margin. Flowers folitary ; in a cultivated ftate two or three, dark purple. Germen fringed. Legume oblong, rather hairy. Seeds globofe. 46. V. Faba. Common Garden Bean. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1039. Willd. n. 43. Ait. n.26. (Faba; Matth. Valgr. Vv. I, 380. Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 23. F. major, hortenfis ; Engl. Bot. /é Ger. Em. 1209,)—Stalks with feveral flowers, very fhort. Legumes afcending, tumid, coriaceous. Leaflets elliptical, acute, entire. Tendril abortive. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped, toothed at the bafe.—Native of the borders of Perfia, near the Cafpian fea, according to Lerche. Commonly culti- vated throughout Europe, for the food of men and horfes = there being many varieties, differing in the fize, roundnefs or flatnefs, as well as quality, of the feeds. Annual, flower- ing in June and July. The /fem is from three to five feet high. Leaflets {mooth, larger, more acute at each end, and more alternate than in the two laft. FYoqwers from fix to ten or more, on a fhort racemofe {talk, delicioufly flagrant, white, with a broad black velvet-like fpot on éach wing. Calyx whitith, with ovate taper teeth. Legume large, thick, oe pulpy within while unripe, containing four or five eeds. The Faba minor five equina; Bauh. Pin. 338. F. mi- nor; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t.24; is the variety called the Horfe Bean, known by its fmall pod and roundifh feeds. OF this alfo cultivators obferve many fubordinate varieties, me perhaps VY. narbonenfis is often confounded among them. . 47. V. ferratifolia. Saw-leaved Vetch. Murr. in Linn. Sylt. Veg. ed.14. 665. Jacq. Auftr. append. t.8. Willd. n. 44. Ait. n. 27. (V. narbonenfis; Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 1715. V. fupina, latiffimo folio ferrato ; Tourn. Inft. 397. Aracus fabaceus ferratus; Bauh. Hitt. v. 2. 287.)—Legumes about three together, nearly feffile, fringed. Leaflets elliptical, obtufe, ferrated throughout, as well as the ftipulas.—Native of Hungary, Greece, and the ifland of Cyprus, in moift cultivated ground. A hardy annual with us, flowering in June and July. This is nearly related to the two laft, and ftill more perhaps to 7. platy- carpos ; but differs from all in the copious fharp ferratures of the leaflets, which are ufually four pair, with a branched tendril. Stipulas broad, fharply and copioufly toothed. Flowers three or four, on a very fhort ftalk, dark purple. Legume comprefied, with feven or eight globular feeds. We believe the Linnzan fynonyms, as here arranged, are corre&t ; and yet Linnzus, like other botanifts from time to time, certainly confounded thefe four laft fpecies more or lefs together. His fpecimen marked zarbonen/is, from the Upfal garden, anfwers to the character of platycarpos, the leaflets being toothed towards the extremity. Hence, in the fecond edition of Sp. Pl. he altered the {pecific charaGter, to ftipulifgue denticulatis. But this is not an original fpeci- men, anfwering to the firft edition of Sp. Pl. which latter we take as the moft certain authority ; and it is in this cafe confonant with the fentiments of all authors, as above quoted. The plant of the Prodr. Fl. Grec. therefore, by miftake called there narbonenfis, is really ferratifolia, with which its fynonyms agree. Poffibly platycarpos may be a variety of Jerratifolia; but for want of an authentic fpecimen, from fome author who has written upon it, we decline any de- cifion upon that point. Thefe two, and the real narbonenfis, agree in hairinefs; the blunt rounded fhape of their /eaflets 3 the prefence of tendrils; the dark purple of their flowers ; and the {trong briftly fringe of their germens and legumes ; in all which points they differ from V. Faba. Vict, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the biennial, per- ennial, and annual hardy kinds, among which the {pecies cultivated are, the common vetch or tare (V. fativa) ; the Narbonne vetch or tare ( V. narbonenfis) ; the many-flowered Siberian vetch (V.biennis) ; the wood many-flowered vetch (V. fylvatica) ; the tufted vetch (V. cracca) ; the Caffubian ligneous vetch (V. cafflubica) ; and the common bean (V. faba. ) The VICIA. The firft fort does not rife to any great height, but is a plant that varies with common purple flowers ; with white flowers. And there is the early fummer vetch ; the black- feeded vetch ; and the white-feeded vetch. It is the fort which is commonly cultivated in the field for the purpofe of green fodder, &c. as well as the production of feed. Sometimes alfo in pleafure-grounds, &c. as alow climbing plant. See Tare. The fecond has long climbing ftalks, with dark purple flowers. The third fort alfo rifes to fome height, with numerous light blue flowers coming from the fides of the branches. The fourth rifes with climbing ftalks to the height of five or fix feet, having many pale blue flowers. It is a twining plant among trees or buthes. The fifth has the fame fort of {talks and flowers. The fixth fort has lower trailing woody ftalks, and pale blue flowers. The laf fort has an annual root, with an upright ftalk from two to three or four feet in height in the larger garden varieties. There are feveral varieties of garden beans ; as the Ma- zagan bean, which is the firft and beft fort of early beans at prefent known. It is brought from a fettlement of the Portuguefe on the coaft of Africa, juft without the ftraits of Gibraltar, and is f{maller than thofe of the horfe- bean kind. The early Portugal or Lifbon bean, which is the next, and appears to be-the Mazagan fort faved in Portugal, as it is very like thofe which are the firft year faved in this country. It is the moft common fort ufed by the gardeners for their firft crop, but they are not near fo well tafted as the real Mazagan. The {mall Spanifh bean, which comes in foon after the Portugal fort, and is rather a {weeter bean. And of the fmall early varieties, there is one which is chiefly planted for curiofity. It is a dwarf, fix or ten inches in height, with branches {preading like a fan, and flowers fucceeded by {mall pods, both in clufters ; whence it is called the dwarf fan or clufter bean. Further alfo of the middle-fized later beans, a fort now very commonly cultivated is the long-podded bean, a yard or more in height, a great bearer, the pods long and narrow, clofely filled with oblong middle-fized feeds. Of this there are feveral fub-varieties, as the early, the tall, the Turkey, &e. The broad Spanifh, which is a little later than the other, but comes in before the common forts, and is a good bearer. The white-bloflomed bean, which has none of the black mark on the wings. The feed is femi-tranfparent, and having lefs of the peculiar bean flavour, when young, than any of the others, 1s by many in much efteem. It bears abundance of fmallifh, long, narrow pods, and the feeds are almoft black when ripe. And there is a red-bloffomed bean, with {mallifh pods and feeds, but which is not near fo palatable as that with white bloffoms. There are alfo fome other varieties, as the Mumford, the green Venetian, &c. In the large late kinds, the Sandwich bean, which comes foon after the Spanifh, and is almoft as large as the Windfor bean, but, being hardier, is commonly fown a month fooner. It is a plentiful bearer, but not very delicate for the table. The Toker bean, which comes about the fame time with the Sandwich, and is a great bearer. The white and black bloffom beans, which are alfo by fome much efteemed ; the beans of the former, when boiled, are almoft as green as peas; and being a tolerable {weet bean renders it more valuable. Thefe forts are very apt to degenerate, if their feeds are not faved with great care. The Windfor bean is allowed to be the beft of all the forts for the table: when thefe are planted on a good foil, and are allowed fufficient room, their feeds will be very large, and in great plenty; and, when they are gathered young, are the {weeteft and beft tafted of all the forts; but thefe fhould be carefully faved, by pulling out fuch of the plants as are not perfeétly right, and afterward by forting out all the good from the bad beans. This fort of bean is feldom planted before Chriftmas, be- caufe it will not bear the froft fo well as many of the other forts ; fo it is generally planted for the main crop, to come in in June and July. Method of Culture in the Vetch Kind.—Al\ the forts of vetches may be propagated by fowing the feeds in the au- tumnal or fpring feafons, but chiefly in the latter, and moftly where the plants are to remain and grow, as in the large open flower borders, in thofe of the fhrubberies and pleafure- grounds, as well as in the woody walks, wildernefs parts, and in the thickets; or in any other place where the are to run and climb up any fort of wood. They fhould be fown in patches near to fhrubs or bufhes on which they may climb, and fometimes in the open fpaces, to climb upon fticks fet for the purpofe. Method of Culture in the Bean Kind.—Thefe crops are raifed with much facility by fowing them at different times from Oéober to March, or later. ‘The {mall forts are moftly ufed for the earlieft crops, and the firft two or three of the above forts are the moft proper for the purpofe; but the Mazagan kind is the earlieft of all, and moft proper to plant for the firft crop, and the Portugal and {mall Spanifh bean next, all of which fhould be planted early on warm fouth borders, or other fheltered funny expofures, under or near walls, pales, or hedges, or other warm defended quarters, every month from Oétober till the beginning of February ; in order that if the firft planting fhould fail by inclement weather in winter, the others may fucceed ; and if all the crops fhould furvive the froft, they will fucceed one another regularly in bearing. ‘The planting fhould be performed in rows, ranging fouth and north, two feet and half afunder, an inch and half deep, and two or three inches apart in each row. They may alfo be planted in one row lengthways clofe along under a fouth wall, &c. The dwarf bean is not proper to be planted for any general crop, only a few for variety ; for which purpofe it may be put in in autumn or winter; or in any of the {pring or fummer months till June or July, in rows two feet afunder, or in patches about the borders. Of the middle-fized forts, the long-pods, broad Spanifh, and white-bloffomed bean are the be{t for general culture ; though fome of all the others may be planted occafionally ; and the feafon for thefe forts being put in, is for the firit crop in November or December, on a broad warm border, or in any of the moft fheltered kitchen-garden quarters, in rows two feet anda half or a yard afunder, three inches diftance in the row, and two or three inches deep ; repeating the planting every month till March, in the open quarters. Of the large kind, the Sandwich and Toker bean, being generally more plentiful bearers, and of fomewhat lefs fuc- culent growth than the Windfor, are rather hardier to refift the froft, and may be planted earlier, as before Chriftmas for the firft crop ; and any time after till May, if required ; and of the Windfor, a {mall or moderate crop may be planted in December, in open mild weather, and a dry foil; in a larger fupply in January ; anda firft full crop in February ; an Vic and thence in full fupplies, of thefe or any of the other larger fort, every three or four weeks, till the end of April, for the main crops ; continuing planting them till the end of “May, to have fucceflions as long in the feafon as poflible. Thefe fhould conftantly be planted in open expofures, in rows a yard afunder, or three feet and a half for the large Windfor fort ; four or five inches afunder in each row, and three deep. p . They fucceed in any common foil, but where the land is manured for them it is the beft. The general method of planting them is by the dibble, or in drills; for early planting in dry ground, a fhallow drill may be firft made, then planting the’ beans in a row along the bottom, allowing from two to four or five inches dif- tance in the row, according to the fize or growth of the different varieties, and from one and a half to three inches deep in the fmall and large beans; and when the plants are come up about three inches high, they fhould be earthed up on each fide of the row with a drawing hoe, keeping them clear from weeds by occafional hoeing in dry weather; and after having advanced nearly to full growth, and in bloom, it is proper to top the plants in general, which throws all the nourifhment to the embryo pods, and greatly promotes their fetting, and forwards their growth ; and in the latter crops prevents their being fo much an- noyed with the fmall black fly. Ass the ufe of garden beans is very confiderable for fome length of time, a pretty large portion of kitchen-garden ground fhould be allowed for the different crops each year, in order to have a proper fucceflion. They fucceed well, as has been feen, in any common foil, but the beft where manure is employed, and in free open fituations, where they are not injured by the fhade or droppings of trees, felecting the drieft and warmeft places for the early crops, and the ftrong- eft moift ground for the late ones. In gathering the crops, avoid pulling up the ftems, efpe- cially when the land is moitt. The plants of the vetch kind are, for the moft part, intro- duced for the purpofe of variety and ornament in their elimbing growth and the curious appearance of the flowers. VICINAGE, and VicinituM, a neighbourhood. See VENUE. VicinaGe, Common per Caufe de. See Common. VICIOLA, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs into the Trontino, at Teramo. VICIOSAS, a clufter of {mall iflands, near the coaft of Honduras. N. lat. 15° 12!.. W. long. 83° 4’. VICIS e Venellis Mundandis, in Law, a writ lying againft a mayor, bailiff, &c. for not taking care that the itreets be well cleanfed. VICISSITUDE, Vicissrrupo, the fucceeding of one thing after another. As, the viciflitude of feafons, for- tune, &c. VICK, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft Goth- land ; 37 miles N. of Uddevalla. VICKERYVANDY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 18 miles W.N.W. of Pondicherry. C VICO, Enea, in Biography, a native of Parma in the 16th century, was one of the firft perfons who illuftrated the medallic fcience. By profeffion he was an engraver of copper ; and at his death in Ferrara, among other remains, he left copper-plates of all the coins in Europe, with their weight, ftandard, and value. See Irauran School of En- graving. Vico, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Sorento; near the fea. Its fituation is delightful, on the brow of a hill, Vor. XXXVII. Vic backed by an amphitheatre of mountains. The ftrata of thefe eminences incline contraryways to one centrical point, as if there had originally exifted a fimilar mafs in the centre, torn afunder and fwallowed up by one of thofe fhocks which muft have often overturned this unftable country. Charles II. and Joan I. raifed Vico out of obfcurity, on account of the charms of its fituation. In 1694, it was al- moft deftroyed by an earthquake; 3 miles E.N.E. of So- rento.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 10 miles W. of Viefte.—Alfo, a town of Corfica, in which is the cathedral of the bifhop of Sagona; 30 miles S. of Calvi. N. lat. 43°3/. _ E. long. 8° 56’.—Alfo, a village of Dalma- tia, near the river Norin, in a marfhy fpot, where the an- cient Narona once ftood. The inhabitants, who go often to cut reeds in the marth, fay that the veftiges of that large city may {till be feen under water. It muift have been ex- tended over the plain a great way, and undoubtedly above three miles in length, at the foot of the hills. The ancient roads are now under water, and the prefent paffage over a very fteep and craggy hill, on which, probably before the Roman times, the fortifications were ere&ted. Along the path are to be feen traces of ancient infcriptions on the rock. A poor hamlet now occupies the {pot where temples and palaces of the conquering Romans once ftood ; and grand veltiges ftill remain of baths, aquedu@ts, walls, and noble edifices ; even the wretched cottages of the Morlack inha- bitants are all built cf fine ancient hewn ftone; 5 miles N.W. of Citluc. Vico di Pantano, 2 town of Naples, in Lavora; 12 miles S.W. of Capua. VICOMAGISTER, among the Romans, an officer whofe bufinefs it was to take care of the ftreets, that no- thing might obftru€, or render them any wife incommo- dious. VICONTIEL. See VicounTI5E.. VICOVARO, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the Sabina, on the Teveroni; 20 miles E.N.E. of Rome. VICOUNT, Vicr-comres, in our Law-Books, fignifies the fame with fheriff ; between which two words there feems to be no other difference, but that the one came from our conquerors, the Normans ; and the other from our anceftors, the Saxons. Vicount, or Vifcount, is alfo ufed for a degree of no- bility, next below a count or earl, and above a baron. Camden obferves, that this is an ancient name or office, but a new one of dignity never heard of among us till Henry VIth’s days, who, in his eighteenth year, created, in parliament, John lord Beaumont, vicount Beaumont: but it is much more ancient in other countries. Du-Cange, indeed, will have the dignity to have had its firft rife in England; but it is much more probable it was firft brought over hither by the Normans. The privileges of a vifcount are, that he may have a cover of affay held under his cup when he drinks, and may have a travers in his own houfe. And a vifcountefs may have her gown borne up by a man, out of the prefence of her fu- periors ; and, m their prefence, by a woman. VICOUNTIELS, Vicontiexrs, Vicecomitalia, in our Law-Books, denote things belonging to the theriff ; parti- cularly certain farms, for which the fhenff pays a rent to the king, and makes what profits he can of them. VicountiEeL, Writs, are fuch as are triable in the county or fheriff’s court, and which are not returned to any fupe- rior court, till finally executed by him. Of which kind are divers writs of nuifance, the writ of ADMEASUREMENT of Paflure, &c. which fee. ; VicountieL or Vicontiel Jurifdidtion, is that jurifdiction bs belonging VIC belonging to the officers of a county ; as fherifis, coroners, efcheators, &c. VICQ, in Geography. See Vic and Via. VICQ-D’AZYR, Ferrx, in Biography, was born at Valogne’, in Normandy, in 1748, and diftinguifhed himfelf both as a phyfician and a man of letters. Settling at Paris in 1765, he purfued with diligence every branch of ftudy conneéted with medicine, and paid particular attention to the phyfiological part of anatomy. In 1773 he commenced a courfe of le&ures on human and comparative anatomy, in which purfuit he was very popular ; but he was interrupted by a {pitting of blood, which made it neceflary for him to return to his native place. Here he applied to the anato- mical examination of fifhes, the refult of which he commu- nicated to the Academy of Sciences, which aflociated him as amember. When a murrain appeared among the cattle in Languedoc in 1775, Vicq-d’Azyr was commiffioned by the minifter Turgot to difcover means for reftraining ats which charge he executed with fuccefs. A medical fociety was formed at Paris about this time, which he zealoufly promoted, and of which he was feeretary. He alfo, in con- ne@tion with this fociety, performed the office of eulogift, very much to his own reputation, and to the honour of many confiderable perfons, whofe talents and fervices he commemorated. In his private character he exhibited, with entle manners, a very confiderable degree of ardour and fatibility ; fo that he is reprefented as a warm friend and philanthropical citizen. He obtained both fame and for- tune, employing the latter liberally in collecting a coftly apparatus and a well-chofen library. Agitated and ex- haufted by the difaftrous effects of the revolution, he died in June 1794, at the age of forty-fix. His “ Eloges Hif- toriques’’ were colleéted and publithed, with notes, and a memoir on the author, by J. L. Moreau, three vols. 8vo. 1805. His other writings were communicated to the Me- moirs of the Academy of Sciences and of the Medical Society. Nouv. Dié. Hitt. VICTIM, Vicrima, fo called, either becaufe vinda per- cuffa cadebat, or becaufe vin@a ad aras ducebatur, a bloody facrifice, offered to fome deity, of a living thing ; either a human perfon, or a beaft, which is flain to appeaie his wrath, or to obtain fome favour. See SacriFicn. It is not certain who was the firft perfon that introduced bloody facrifices among the Pagans. If the authority of Ovid be at all regarded, he alleges that the fow was the firft animated viGtim which was offered to Ceres, on account of the ravages which that animal makes in the field. ( Fait. 1.i.) From Homer we learn, that the ufe of fuch facrifices was common in the time of the Trojan war. Whenever they were introduced, it is certain that they were very ancient in the Pagan world. It may be obferved, however, that when viGtims of this kind were offered, they blended with them herbs, falt and meal. Pliny informs us, that Numa pro- hibited the Romans from ufing bloody victims, or any other facrifice, befides thofe in which they employed fruits, falt, and corn. Dion. Halic. afcribes this prohibition to Romulus; and he adds, that this ufage fubfifted in his time, although they had fuperadded to it that of bloody facrifices. At length, however, fupertftition prevailed to fuch a degree, that they offered to their deities human victims ; and this barbarous cuftom, the origin of which is not fatif- factorily af{certained, was propagated to almoft every known nation, 'Thefe horrid facrifices, prefcribed even by the oracles of the gods, were known in the days of Mofes, and conftituted a part of thofe abominations with which this le- giflator reproached the Amorites. ‘The Moabites facrificed their children to Moloch, and burned them in the cavity of Vic the ftatue of that god. According to Dionyfius of Hali- carnaflus, they offered men in facrifice to Saturn, not only at Tyre and Carthage, but even in Greece and Italy. The Gauls, if we may believe Diodorus Siculus, facrificed to their gods their prifoners of war; thofe of Tauris, all the ftrangers who landed upon their coafts: the inhabitants of Pella facrificed a man to Peleus. ‘Thofe of Temeffa, as Paufanias has it, offered every year a young virgin to the Genius of one of Ulyffes’ affociates, whom they had ftoned ; and Ariftomenes, the Meffenian, facrificed three hundred men at one time. Strabo mentions thofe abominable facrifices offered by the ancient Germans. Athanafius gives the fame account of the Pheenicians and Cretans; and Tertullian of the Scythians and Africans. In the Iliad of Homer we fee twelve Trojans facrificed by Achilles to the manes of Patro- clus. In fine, Porphyry gives a long detail of all the places where, in old times, they offered up human facrifices ; among which he enumerates Rhodes, the ifland of Cyprus, Arabia, Athens, &c. From all thefe teftimonies put together, and from feveral others, which it is needlefs to quote, it follows, that the Pheenicians, the Egyptians, Arabians, Canaanites, the in- habitants of Tyre and Carthage, thofe of Athens and La- cedemon, the Ionians, all Greece, the Romans and Scy- thians, the Albanians, the Allemans, the Angles, the Spaniards, and the Gauls, were equally guilty of this horrid fuperttition. For the public facrifices there were authorized minifters or priefts who made a choice of vitims; and feveral names were given to thefe victims from fome circumftances that attended the oblations. Such as were offered up the day before the folemnity, were called “ precidanez hoftize ;” as the fow, facrificed to Ceres before harvelt, was called ‘ prz- cidanea porca.””? Again, they gave the name of * fucce- danez hoftiz’”? to fuch facrifices as they offered up, when the former ones had been negleéted ; and thus it was they atoned for the omiffion. There were others named “ eximiz hoftiz ;?? meaning not that thefe victims had any peculiar excellence, as the word properly fignifies, but that they were feparated from the flock in order to be facrificed, ‘‘ eximebantur grege.’? The ewes that had two lambs, which they facrificed with the mother, were termed ‘ ambi- gue oves,’””? and the vidtims whofe entrails were adherent, “ harunge’’ or “ haruge ;”? fuch as were confumed, pro- digiz ;?? and fuch as had two teeth higher than the reft, * bidentes.”’ OF whatever nature the vitims were, great care was to be taken in the choice of them; and the fame blemifhes, that excluded them from facrifices among the Jews, rendered them alfo imperfect among the Pagans; whence it would feem that they borrowed feveral rites from the Hebrews. All forts of viGtims were not offered indifcriminately to every divinity, or for every purpofe. It was commonly 2 fow, big with young, that they offered to Cybele and to the goddefs Tellus; the bull to Jupiter; to Juno, heifers, ewe-lambs, fheep; and at Corinth they facrificed to her a fhe-coat. ‘To Neptune, a bull and lambs, as appears from Homer ; to Pluto, likewife, a bull; and to Proferpine a cow, both of them black: and when that goddefs was taken for Hecate, they facrificed to her a dog, an animal whofe barking they thought drove away the apparitions fent by that goddefs. The moft acceptable victims to Ceres, were the boar and the fow: they made her likewife an offering o honey and of milk. To Venus the dove, the he-goat, the heifer, a white fhe-goat, &c.: to Bacchus, a he-goat. They facrificed the cow and the bull to Hermione, as we learn from /Elian, who adds, that in thefe facrifices, a bull, which Il ten VICE ten men had much ado to matter, of his own accord followed an old prieftefs to the altar. To the Sun fometimes honey ; - but the Armenians and Maffagetes facrificed to him horfes. ‘To Apollo (for frequently he was diftinguifhed from the Sun) they offered the ram, the fhe-goat, the ewe, and the he-goat ; and when they confounded him with the Sun, a young bullock, with gilded horns, as an emblem of his beams: they offered to him likewife a raven. To Mars, the horfe, the bull, the boar, and the ram. The Lufita- nians facrificed to him he-goats, fhe-goats, and fometimes their enemies; the Scythians offered to him afles; and the Carians, dogs. We learn from Homer, that the victims moft grateful to Minerva were the bull and the lamb; or, ac- cording to Fulgentins Planciades, oxen which had never known the yoke. To Diana, itags, fhe-goats, more efpe- cially among the Athenians; and, in fome places, cows. To the Dii Lares, a bullock, or an ewe-lamb, according to the ability of thofe who offered. To them they alfo fa- crificed cocks and {wallows, and the hog, whence they got the name of Grundiles. In fine, every god had his favourite animal, tree, or plant. Among the animal kind, the lion was confecrated to Vul- ean; the wolf to Apollo and Mars; the dog to the Lares and to Mars; the dragon to Bacchus and Minerva; the griffins to Apollo; the ferpents to Efculapius; the ftag to Her- cules; the lamb to Juno; the horfe to Mars; the heifer to ifis. Among the birds, the eagle was faered to Jupiter : the peacock to Juno; the owl to Minerva; the vulture and the wood-pecker to Mars; the cock likewife to Mars, to Efculapius, Apollo, and Minerva; the dove and fparrow to Venus ; the king’s-fifher to Tethys; the phoenix to the Sun; and the cicada, a fort of flying infe&, to Apollo. Among the fifhes, which belonged all to Neptune, the con- cha marina, and the {mall fifh named apua, which Fetus fays is produced by the rain, were acceptable to Venus, and the barbel to Diana. Among the trees and plants, the pine was confecrated to Cybele, for the fake of Atys ; the beech to Jupiter ; the oak, and its different fpecies, to Rhea; the olive to Minerva; the laurel to Apollo, from his amour with Daphne ; and the reed to Pan, from the ftory of Sy- rinx: the lotos and the myrtle were likewife confecrated to Apollo and Venus; the cyprefs to Pluto; the narciflus and the maiden-hair, termed likewife capilli veneris, to Pro- ferpine; the afh-tree and dog’s-grafs to Mars; purflane to Mercury ; the myrtle and the poppy to Ceres; the vine, and its leaves, to Bacchus ; the poplar to Hercules; dittany and the poppy to Lucina; garlick to the Dii Penates; the alder-tree, the cedar, the narciffus, and the juniper-tree, to the Furies; the palm to the Mufes; the plane-tree to the Genii; the alder to the god Sylvanus; the pine to Pan, &c. The Greeks offered Iphigenia, at Aulis, for a victim to obtain a favourable wind. As there were different forts of vitims, the mode of offering them was alfo different. Some were wholly burnt, and others confumed only in part: and it belonged to the diviners among the Greeks, and to the arufpices among the Romans, to order the time, form, and manner of the facri- fices. We may further remark with Lucian, that the fa- erifices differed according to the quality of the perfons. “ The hufbandman,” fays he, “ offers up an ox; the fhep- herd, a lamb; the goat-herd, a goat: there are fome who make only a fimple offering of cakes or incenfe; and he that has nothing, makes his facrifice by kifling his right hand.” Artificial or faditious victim, denotes a victim made of baked paftes in the form of an animal, which was offered to Vie the gods, when they had no natural vidtims or no oppor- tunity of offering them. Thus, according to Porphyry, Pythagoras offered a facrifice of an ox in pafte; Empe- docles is alfo faid by Atheneus to have done the fame. Pythagoras derived the practice from Egypt, where it was very ancient, and where it was ufed in the time of Hero- dotus. VICTIMARIUS, a minifter, or fervant of the prieft, whofe office was to bind the victims, and prepare the water, knife, cake, and other things, neceflary for the facrifice. See SAcRIFICE. To the vitimarii it alfo belonged to knock down, and kill, the viGtims: in order to which, they ftood clofe by the altar, naked to the waift, but crowned with laurel ; and holding a hatchet or a knife up, afked the prieft leave to {trike ; faying, Agone? Shall I firike? Whence they were called agones, and cultellarii, or cultrarii. When the viétim was killed, they opened it; and, after viewing the entrails, took them away, wafhed the carcafe, and fprinkled the flour on it, &c. ‘ The fame viGtimarii alfo lighted the fire in which books were condemned to be burnt. See Liv. lib. xl. cap. 29. and A. Gellius, lib. i. cap. 1. extr. 12. : VICTOIRE, or Woody Ifland, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea. N. lat. 1° 33/. E. long. 106° 18’, VICTOPHALIT, or Vicrosaut, in Ancient Geography, a people of Dacia, according to Eutropius and Ammianus Marcellinus. This country was fubjugated by Trajan. VICTOR I., pope, in Biography, fucceeded Eleuthe- rius in 192. During his pontificate feveral circumftances occurred which render it difficult to maintain his infallibility. He firit appeafed and afterwards anathematized the heretical do@rine taught at Rome by Theodotus of Byzantium con- cerning the perfon of Chrift. He alfo recognized a pro- phetic fpirit in Montanus ; and gave to two of his female fol- lowers, Prifca and Maximilla, letters of peace to the churches of Afia and Phrygia, which he afterwards re- voked. As his infallibility was impeached, his pontifical authority was alfo vigoroufly oppofedin the controverfy be- tween the Eaftern and Weftern churches concerning the cele- bration of Eafter. The former had been accuftomed to ob- ferve the rule eftablifhed for the Jewith pafchal, whereas the latter difapproved the obfervance of Eaiter on any day ex- cept Sunday, and they had, accordingly, adopted a different method of computation. The difpute was of no great im- portance, and had occafioned no difcord and feparation be- tween thefe churches. But Vitor arrogantly interpofed, and enjoined the Afiatic prelates to obferve the cuftom that prevailed among the Weftern Chriftians. Thefe prelates re- fifted his mandate, and Vigtor menaced Polycrates, bifhop of Ephefus, who took the lead on this occafion, with exclu- fion from his communion. The prelate convened a council of all the bifhops of Afia Minor, and they were unanimous in their refolution not to abandon the ancient practice. The pope was exafperated, and declared the Afiatic prelates un- worthy of the title of brethren, and excluded them from all fellowfhip with the church of Rome. But his violence was difapproved, and he was regarded as a difturber of the peace and union that fubfifted among Chriftians. Irenzus, bifhop of Lyons, remonitrated againit his conduét ina letter written to him with a fpirit of wifdom and moderation ; and the Afiatics retained their cuftom till the Weftern pratice was authoritatively eftablifhed by the council of Nice. Thefe proceedings fufficiently fhew that the fupremacy of the fee of Rome was not acknowledged at this period. Victor, after a pontificate of ten years, clofed his life towards ve X 2 en VTE end of the year 201, or the beginning of 202. None of his writings are extant, though, according to St. Jerom, he was the firft ecclefiaftical author who ufed the Latin lan- guage. His zeal for the church has caufed him to be en- rolled among the faints of the Roman calendar. Dupin, Bower. Vicror II., pope, was the fucceffor of pope Leo IX., and elevated to the papal chair by the influence of Hilde- brand, afterwards pope Gregory VII., and by the fpecial appointment of Henry III., emperor of Germany. ‘The perfon chofen was Gebehard, bifhop of Eichiftat, a rela- tion of the emperor, who againft his own inclination was confecrated in April 1055, and aflumed the name of Vidor. Soon after his promotion he held a general council at Flo- rence, for the correction of various abufes, and the con- demnation of Berengarius’s dotrine concerning the Eucha- rift, Hildebrand maintained his influence during this pon- tificate, and availed himfelf of an opportunity that offered for extending the civil authority of the papal fee. This was the recognition of Henry III. as the only true emperor, againft the claims of Ferdinand, king of Caftile and Leon. The pope’s requifition, though at firft vigoroufly op- pofed in Spain, ultimately prevailed. In 1056 a council was held at Touloufe, which paffed feveral canons againft fimony, and the incontinence of the clergy. Whillt this council was fitting, Victor was fummoned by a {pecial meffage from the emperor Henry to attend him in his laft moments. The pope, in compliance with his dying intreaty, recognized his fon, Henry IV., for his fucceflor in the em- pire. After his return to Italy he held a council at Rome, and then retired to Tufcany, where he died in July 1057. A fingle letter of this pope remains: and fuperftition has recorded fome miracles that were wrought during his pon- tificate. Dupin. Bower. Victor III., pope, one of three perfons named by Gregory VII. in 1085, when he was dying, and recom- mended to the cardinals as his fucceflor. The perfon chofen was Defiderius, abbot of Monte Caffino, defcended from the family of the dukes of Benevento, and born about 1027. He had embraced a monattic life in 1050, and was chofen abbot of Monte Caffino in 1058, and in the follow- ing year created cardinal. It was with great reluctance that he confented, in 1086, to accept the pontificate, and as foon as the attendant ceremonies were completed, he with- drew to his monaftery. In the following year a council was held at Capua, which contftrained him to accept the pope- dom in March 1087, and he was folemnly confecrated in the church of St. Peter by the name of Vitor III. His ele€tion was contefted by the antipope Guibert and his ad- herents ; but he was zealoufly fupported by the countefs Matilda, who by force of arms eftablifhed him at Rome, though he was not long after obliged to withdraw to Monte Caffino. Here he engaged the Italian princes to form a league againft the African Saracens. Soon afterwards he fummoned a council at Benevento, at which Guibert was anathematized, and the decrees of Gregory againft lay in- veftitures and fimony were renewed. During the feffion of this council he was taken ill, and after recommending Otho, bifhop of Oftia, for his fucceffor, he retired to Monte Caffino, and died in September 1087. Whilft he was abbot he wrote four books of dialogues on the miracles of St. Benedi&, and the other monks of Monte Caffino, three of which are publifhed in Mabillon’s “* AGta Santorum.” Dupin. Bower. Victor-Amapgus II., duke of Savoy, and firft king of Sardinia, was born in 1666, and fucceeded his father, I VIC Charles-Emanuel II., in 1675. In 1684 he married Anna» Maria of Orleans, daughter to the duke of Orleans, bro- ther of Lewis KIV., by Henrietta-Anne of England, which marriage would have conveyed to the houfe of Savoy the next hereditary right to the Britifh throne, after the houfe of Stuart, if it had not been fet afide by its profeffion of the Roman Catholic religion. of this prince, which is not very honourable to his memory, was the expulfion, by much flaughter, of his Proteftant fub- jects of the Vaudois. In 1687, however, he joined the grand alliance againft France, in which treaty the reftoration of the Vaudois was a fecret article. Voltaire chara¢terizes him as a wife, politic, courageous prince, underftanding the art of war, and pra¢tifing military difcipline ; but charge- able with faults, both as a fovereign and asa general. in the firft war againft France he was a fevere fufferer; but in 1696 a treaty was concluded, by which all the places he had loft were reftored, and a fum of money was granted to him by way of indemnification ; and a contraé& of marriage was fettled between his eldeft daughter and the duke of Burgundy, heir apparent to the crownof France. The duke of Savoy then joined his troops to thofe of his new ally, and he foon after became generaliflimo of Lewis XIV. Soon after thefe events, another conneétion was formed be- tween the houfe of Bourbon and the duke of Savoy, by the marriage of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandfon of Lewis KIV. called to the throne of Spain, to the duke’s fecond daugh- ter: and thus he had the rare fortune of feeing the two principal kingdoms of Europe occupied by his immediate defcendants. Neverthelefs, at the commencement of the fucceflion-war, in 1702, the duke abandoned the intereft of thefe courts, and entered into fecret negociations with the allied powers. The French court, having found that he had figned a treaty with the emperor, adopted hoftile mea- fures, and took from him a number of towns, and in 1706 laid fiege to his capital, Turin, which he bravely refitted, until he was effeCtually fuccoured by prince Eugene, who attacked the French in their trenches, and raifed the fiege. The duke, having recovered the towns which he had loi, aflifted the Imperialifts in driving the French from Lom- bardy. The duke afterwards had fome difagreement with the emperor, and remained inactive till the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. In this general pacification, fuch was the high eitimation in which he was held by all parties, that he was reftored to the pofleffion of the duchy of Savoy, the county of Nice, and all their dependencies. The king of France yielded to him two ftrong fortrefles, and feveral valleys among the mountains; and the ridge of the Alps was made the boundary between France on one fide, and Piedmont and Nice on the other. The emperor confirmed to him that part of Montferrat which had belonged to Mantua, with feveral provinces and terri- tories in Italy ; and his Catholic majefty refigned to him the kingdom of Sicily, which gave his houfe the royal title ; and it was moreover agreed, that in default of heirs to the king of Spain, that crown fhould pafs to the houfe of Savoy, in preference to that of Bourbon. Vi&tor-Amadeus and his {poufe were crowned at Palermo, in the clofe of that year, and the Spaniards evacuated Sicily: but fome dif- ferences occurring between him and the court of Spain, it was required that he fhould fend his eldeft fon to Spain, as a kind of hoftage.. Upon his non-compliance with this requifition, Alberoni, the prime minifter of Spain, made preparations for conquering Sicily from Vitor, and Sardinia from the emperor. France and England interpofed in the difpute ; and it was finally determined, that Vitor fhould refign Sicily, The firft military tranfa&tion . VIC Sicily, and as an indemnity receive Sardinia, with the royal title annexed to it, which meafure was accomplifhed in 1718, and the dukes of Savoy have thenceforth ranked among the monarchs of Europe as kings of Sardinia. Vi&or-Amadeus from this time devoted himfelf to the arts of peace ; and after a reign of fifteen years, as duke and as king, abdicated his titles and government, in. 1730, in favour of his fon, Charles-Emanuel, contenting himfelf with an annual penfion. But afterwards repenting of his conduét, and inftigated by an ambitious miftrefs, to whom he was privately married, he attempted to refume his royalty. The new king refitted his inclinations, and placed him under a de of reftraint, in which ftate he died, at the caftle of Rivoli, | near Turin, in 1732, in his 67th year. Mod. Un. Hift. Gen. Biog. Victor, Auretius. See AURELIUS. Victor, in Geography, atown of Peru, in the jurifdiction of Arequipa; 15 miles S. of Arequipa. VICTORIA, Vicente, in Biography, was a Spanifh artift, a native of Valencia, and born in 1658. He went to Rome when young, and there became a fcholar of Carlo Maratti, and diftinguifhed himfelf fufficiently in hiftorical painting to be taken into employment by the grand duke of Tufeany. His portrait is in the Florentine gallery. He painted feveral pi€tures for churches in his native country, and died at Rome in 1712. Vicrorta, Mafear, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauritania Cefarienfis, S.E. of Arfinaria: mentioned by Ptolemy. Vicrorra, a town of ancient Britain, belonging to the Damnii, which Camden fuppofes may be the ancient Britifh town mentioned by Bede, called Caer-Guidi, and fituated in Inch-Keith, a {mall ifland in the Firth of Forth. Bax- ter earneftly contends for Ardoah, in Strathearp, while Horfley prefers Abernethy. Its fituation cannot be afcer- tained. Victoria, in Geography, a town on the fouth-weft coaft of the ifland of Amboyna, fituated ina large bay. N. lat. 3° 42!, E. long. 128° 23'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the At- Jantic, near the coaft of Brafil. S. lat. 23° 40!.— Alfo, a town of South America, in the province of Caraccas ; fix leagues E. from Tulmero, and on the road that leads to the city of Caraceas. It was founded by the miflionaries, and compofed folely of Indians, until indu(try fixed her feat in the valleys of Aragoa, and drew thither a number of whites, of whom part fettled at Vitoria. The lands in its vici- nity were cultivated, and their produce placed decent houfes in the room of Indian huts. A very handfome church, vying in beauty and fize with the principal cathe- drals in America, has lately been ereéted in this place, and the number of inhabitants of all colours is reckoned to amount to 7800. VICTORIZ& Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Hilpania Citerior, near the river Hebrus. Victor Julio Brigenfium Portus, a port and town of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Varduli. VICTORIAN Periop, in Chronology. See Periop. VICTORIATUS, among the Romans, a coin with ViGtory reprefented on one fide, equal in value to half the denarius. VICTORINUS, Carus, or Fasrus Marius, in Bio- graphy, an African philofopher, was a convert to Chritti- anity, and flourifhed in the fourth century. He gained fuch a degree of reputation by teaching rhetoric at Rome, that a ftatue was erected in honour of him in one of the pub- lic places. He was led to the perufal'of the Scriptures by the ftudy of Plato’s works, and thus convinced of their VIC truth, after fome hefitation, he publicly declared himfelf a Chriftian, and was baptized in the prefence of all the people. He was the author of feveral works, fome of which are publifhed in the Bibliotheca Patrum ; but as they are of no great value, it is needlefs to enumerate them. The time of his death, though not precifely afcertained, is fuppofed to have been previous to the year 386. Dupin. VICTORIOLA, in Botany, a name ufed by fome au- thors for the hippogloffum, called in Englifh the Alexandria- laurel, horfe-tongue, or double-tongue. VICTORIUS, in Biography. See VetTorI. VICTORY, Vicrorra, the overthrow, or defeat, of an enemy, in war, combat, duel, or the like. See War, ComBat, DurLt, CHampion, &c. Among the Romans, crowns, triumphs, &c. were decreed to their generals, for the vi€tories they gained. Victory, Aéian, denotes the victory which Auguftus, or rather his general, gained over Mark Antony after the capture of AGtium ; in commemoration of which he built the city of Nicopolis, and re-eftablifhed with peculiar mag- nificence the Actian games. Victory, Games of, were public games celebrated on account of a victory ; they were called by the Greeks emivixecios ofwyec, and in Latin infcriptions they are denomi- nated Judi widorie. Of thefe, the Roman hiftory recites thofe in honour of Auguttus, after the battle of AGium ; thofe of Septimius Severus, after the defeat of Pefcennius Niger ; thofe in honour of Lucius Verus and Marcus Au- relius, on their return from the expedition againft the Par- thians, recorded on the marble of Cyzicus, &c. Victory, in Mythology, called Nixn by the Greeks, was perfonified and made a deity both by the Greeks and Romans. According to Varro, fhe was the daughter of Colum and Terra; but Hefiod makes her the daughter of Styx and Pallas. ‘Temples, ftatues, and altars were confecrated to this deity. Sylla, according to Cicero, inftituted games in honour of this goddefs. At Athens there was a temple dedicated to Viétory, in which was placed her ftatue without wings. The firft temple built in honour of her by the Romans was during the Samnite war, under the confulate of L. Pofthumius and M. Attilius Regulus. With them fhe was reprefented as a winged deity, fometimes almoft in the attitude of flying, and with her robe carried back with the wind ; holding a laurel crown in her hand, which was an- ciently the peculiar reward of fuccefsful generals and great conquerors. The Egyptians reprefented her under the figure of an eagle, a bird always victorious in its combats with other birds. ‘The poets inform us that her wings were white, and her robe of the fame colour. They fometimes defcribe her hovering between two armies engaged in battle, as doubtful which fide fhe fhall choofe, and fometimes ftand- ing fixed by one fhe is refolved to favour, as fhe is often {een on the medals of the Roman emperors. This goddefs is often reprefented in a chariot, drawn rapidly along by two horfes. Pliny {peaks of a picture of Viétory in Rome, in which fhe was afcending to heaven, in a chariot with four horfes, as fhe appears on the Antonine pillar, carrying thither fome hero, and with a palm-branch in her hand. This, and the crown of laurel, were her general attributes ; and a third was a trophy, and fometimes two, one on each fide of her. Sometimes fhe is feen mounted on a globe, as fhe appears upon the medals of the emperors, becaufe they reckoned themfelves mafters of the world. When a naval battle was defigned, fhe was drawn mounted on the prow of a fhip ; and when fhe holds a bull by the muzzle, it points out the facrifices that were offered after any advantages that were gained. It appears from the ancients that no nee victim VoL victim was offered to her, but that her facrifices were the fruits of the earth. She was called by various names; by the Egyptians, Nepthe ; by the Sabines, Vacuna; by the Greeks, Apteros, without wings; by others, Vitula. Among her epithets were Eteralcea, which Homer ufes to denote that fhe inclined to both fides ; that of Prepes and Volacris, to denote her fwiftnefs ; and that of Ceeligena by Varro, becaufe Victory comes from heaven. A Vittory at Rome, whofe wings were burnt by lightning, gave rife to the following epigram: ‘* Rome, great queen of the world, thy glory fhall never fade, fince Vi€tory, now ftripped of her wings, can never fly away.” Victory, in Geography, a town of America, in the diftri&t of Vermont, and county of Effex, containing fix inhabitants ; 75 miles N. of Norwich. Vicrory, Cape, the extreme N.W. point of the Straits of Magellan, at the opening to the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 52° 15’. W. long. 76° 40!. VICTUALLER, one that fells vi€tuals ; and we now call all common alehoufe-keepers vi€tuallers. See ALr- HOUSE. ViGtuallers fhall fell their viétuals at reafonable prices, or forfeit double value; and viétuallers, fifhmongers, poul- terers, &c. coming with their vi€tuals to London, fhall be under the regulation of the lord-mayor and aldermen ; and fell their viétuals at prices appointed by juftices, &c. (23 &.31 Edw. III. c. 6. 7 Rich. I. 13 Rich. II.) If any victuallers, butchers, brewers, poulterers, cooks, &c. confpire and agree together not to fell their victuals, but at certain prices, they fhall forfeit for the firft offence 1ol., for the fecond 20/., and for the third offence aol. (2 & 3 Edw. VI. c.15.) See ForesraL.ina. VicTtUALLER, Agent. See AGENT. VICTUALLING-Orricr, an office formerly kept on Tower-Hill, now in Somerfet-Houfe and Deptford, for fur- nifhing his majefty’s navy with victuals. It is managed by feven commiffioners, who have their in- ferior officers, as fecretaries, clerk, &c.; befides agents in divers parts of Great Britain, Ireland, &c. VICTUS Ratio, among Phyficians, a particular man- ner of living, for the prefervation of health, and prevention of difeafes. VICUNNA, in Zoology, aname given to the pacos. VICUS Aaquantus, in Ancient Geography, a very confi- derable town of Hifpania, in Lufitania, towards the north, in the country of the Vettones. Vicus Augufli, Kair-Wan, a town of Africa, on a large plain, S. of Adrumetum, marked in the Itin. of Antonine between Aquiliane and Cloacaria.—Alfo, a town of Africa Propria, upon the route from Carthage to Sufetula, be- tween Adrumetum and Aque Regie. Anton. Itin. Vicus Badius, a place of Italy, on the route from Rome to Adria, between Palacrinum and Centefimum. Anton. Ttin. Vicus Cuminarius, a place of Hifpania Citerior, belong- ing to the Carpentani, at a {mall diftance upon the left of the Tagus. It is marked in the Itin. Anton. on the route from Emerita to Cefar-Augutta, between Alces and 'Ti- tulciz. Vicus Judzorum, a place of Egypt, on the other fide of the Nile, between Thou and Scene Veteranorum, accord- ing to the Itin. of Antonine. Vicus Novus, Vico, afmall place of Italy, in Campania, at fome diftance to the S.E. from Calatia and Capua.—Alfo, a place of Italy, in Umbria, on the route from Rome to Adria, between Eretum and Reate. Anton. Itin. VID VID, in Geography, a river of Bulgaria, which rans into the Danube, 10 miles W. of Nicopoli. VIDA, Marco-Girotamo, in Biography, a modern Latin poet of reputation, was born at€remona of parents nobly defcended, but in humble condition. The date of his nativity is differently affigned ; fome fixing it in the year 1470, and others in 1490. His education was liberal at Padua and Bologna, in the latter of which cities two of his poems were publifhed in 1504, under the name of Marc- Antonio, which he changed for Marco-Girolamo, when he took orders as a canon regular of Lateran. For affift- ance in the ftudy of theology and philofophy, to which in early life he was devoted, he went to Rome in the latter years of Julius II.- His poems were much applauded, and gave him rank among the principal geniufes of the age. He was indebted to the early patronage of Ghiberti, bifhop of Verona, for an introdu€tion to Leo X., who beftowed upoa him both wealth and honours. Befides other benefices, he prefented him to the priory of St. Silveftro, in Frafcati, where he enjoyed a favourable opportunity for purfuing his ftudies, and efpecially the completion of his ‘* Chriftiad,’? in which Leo had engaged him. Of his more confiderable poems, his work entitled “* De Arte Poetica”’ is fuppofed to have been firft written ; and the firft known edition of it is dated in 1527. This was foon followed by his “* Bombyx,’’ or art of rearing filk-worms, and his ‘* Scacchiz Ludus,’ or poem on the game of chefs. Clement VII. became his fecond patron, and promoted him firft to the office of apoftolical prothonotary, and in 1532 to the bifhopric of Alba. After the death of this pope, he retired to his dio- cefe, and eftablifhed the chara&ter of a zealous and affec- tionate paftor; and when, in 1542, Alba was invefted by the French, he contributed by his exhortations and example fo to animate the citizens, as to preferve it from the enemy. His two books “ De Republica’”’ contain dialogues, which are the fubftance of a converfation that paffed between him, and fome cardinals and learned men, at the council of Trent. Thefe dialogues are excellent, with refpeét to the corre€tnefs and elegance of their ftyle, and evince that the author was no lefs extenfively converfant with politics and philofophy than with polite literature. In 1551 Vida retired to Cre- mona, on account of the wars which defolated his diocefe : however, he was not unmindful of his paftoral charge, but effectually interceded with Don Ferdinand Gonzaga, go- vernor of Milan, and thus prevented his marching, as he threatened to do, to Alba, and putting all the inhabitants to the fword. In 1563 he was ftill at Cremona, but foon after removed to Alba, and died there in 1566. Asa Latin poet, Vida acquired a very high reputation ; to which he was juftly entitled, partly on account of the fubje&s which he feleéted, and partly for the fingular claffic purity and dig- nity of his {tyle, formed on the model of the moft admired productions of antiquity. Virgil was the obje& of his ad- miration and imitation, whom he refpected, and after whom he copied, as Cicero was the model of the profe Latin writers of that age. ‘* Vida’s works,” fays a judicious biographer, “ do not fo much give'the impreflion of a writer of original and fervid genius, as of one poflefling tafte, elegance, and ingenuity.”’ Befides the poems already mentioned, Vida was the author of Eclogues, of Sacred Hymns, and of other {mall pieces, which are marked with his purity of di€tion and claffical refinement. The fame of this poet in England has been greatly promoted by the well-known lines in Pope’s Effay on Criticifm, which place him on a parallel with Ra- phael, and entitle Cremona to boaft of him, as much as Mantua of Virgil; but this was the hyperbolical eulogy of a juvenile writer, which his maturer judgment would fcarcely haye WED have confirmed. ‘The candid Tirabofehi is contented with faying of him, that his qualities, if not fufficient to rank him in the number of firft-rate poets, at leaft give him a title to be placed much above the vulgar tribe of old verfi- fiers. Rofcoe’s Life of Leo X. Gen. Biog. VIDAME, Vicr-pominus, was anciently ufed for the bifhop’s deputy in temporals ; as comes, or vice-comes, was the king’s. The word, according to Nicod, comes from vicarius 3 or according to Pafquier, from vice-dominus ; dom fignifying dominus, or lord. See Dom. The original inftitution of vidames was for the defence of the temporalities of bifhoprics, while the bifhops them- felves were taken up in prayer and other fpiritual fun¢tions. They alfo led the bifhop’s forces when they were obliged to go to war, either to defend their temporalities, or for the arrier-ban. » They alfo managed, and pleaded, their caufe in courts of juitice ; diftributed juftice among their tenants ; and pre- vented any body’s pillaging, or damaging, the houfes of deceafed bifhops, &c. In effe&, they reprefented the bifhop, confidered as a temporal lord. In fome ancient charters, the vidames are called advocates, or advowees. _ Vipame continued to be a title of fignory, or lordfhip ; attributed to feveral gentlemen in France: as the vidame of Chartres, of Amiens, &c. The ancient vidames, Pafquier fays, were the bifhops’ temporal. judges; and they had the fame privileges as the vifcounts. By degrees, the vidames converted their office into a fee ; and the bifhops their vidames, or judges, into vaffals; as kings did their counts, dukes, &c. Accordingly, the vi- dame of Chartres, &c. held lands of the bifhops of thofe places. See VALVAsoR. VIDDIN, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the Danube, the fee of a Greek archbifhop ; 356 miles N.W. of Conitantinople. N. lat. 44°25’. E. long. 22° 26!. VIDE, in Fr. Mufic, is equivalent to open, in Englifh : as corde @ vide, an open firing, on inftruments with a neck, fuch as a violin or violoncello ; or the found produced by the whole length of a ftring from the nut to the bridge, with- out the preffure of a finger. The found of open itrings is not only more grave or lower in tone than when preffled by the finger, but more fonorous and full; which arifes from the foftnefs of the finger which impedes its vibrations : on which account good players on the violin avoid ufing open ftrings as much as pof- fible, in order to preferve an equality of tone. But to do this, the. performer muft know all the /bifts, and be well acquainted with the finger-board. See Suirr and Fincer- BOARD. VIDEO, Monte, in Geography. (See MontEvipE0. ) This, fays Mr. Mawe, is a tolerably well-built town, fituated on a gentle elevation, at the extremity of a {mall peninfula, and is walled entirely round. Its population amounts to be- tween 15,000 and 20,000 fouls. The harbour is the beft in the Rio de la Plata, and has a very foft bottom of deep mud, but cannot be called a good one for veflels -above 300 or 400 tons. ‘The houfes are generally of one ftory, paved with brick, and furnifhed with few conveniencies. In the fquare is a cathedral, and oppofite to it an edifice, divided into a town-houfe, or cabildo, anda prifon. The fireets are unpaved, and the well that fupplies the town with water is at the diftance of two miles. Provifions are abundant and cheap, particularly beef. The inhabitants, efpecially VID the Creolians, are humane and well-difpofed, when not ae- tuated by political or religious prejudices. Their habits, like thofe of their brethren in Old Spain, proceed from the oppofite extremes of indolence and temperance. The ladies are generally affable and polite, and in their perfons neat and clean. ' Abroad they ufually appear in black, and always covered with a large veil, or mantle; and at mafs they always appear in black filk, bordered with deep fringes. The chief trade of Monte-Video confifts in hides, tallow, and dried beef ; the two former being exported to Europe, and the latter to the Weit Indies, efpecially to the Havannah. Coarfe copper from Chili, in fquare cakes, is fometimes fhipped here, and an herb called “ metta,” from Paraguay, the infufion of which is ufed as tea in England. The cli- mate is humid ; in the winter months (June, July, and Au- guft) the weather is occafionally boifterous, and the air piercing. In fummer, the ferenity of the atmofphere is often interrupted by tremendous thunder-ftorms and lightning, and alfo deluges of rain, which fometimes deftroy the harvett. The heat is troublefome, and the mofquitoes are pecu- liarly injurious. The town ftands on a bafis of granite : and the high mount on the oppofite fide of the bay, on which is a light-houfe, and which gives name to the town, is princi- pally compofed of clay-flate in laminz, perpendicular to the horizon. The vicinity of Monte-Video is agreeably diverfi- fied with low gently floping hills, and long valleys watered by beautiful rivulets, but traces of cultivation are rarely obferved. VIDEROE, one of the Faroer iflands. N. lat. 61° 59!. VIDICINORUM Oppipum, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Picenum, dettroyed by the Romans. VIDIGAL, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Algarve; 18 miles N. of Sagres. VIDIGUEIRA, a {mall market-town of Portugal, in Alentejo; 12 miles N.E. of Beja, and 5 leagues from Serpa, in a very charming country. On one fide isa fertile plain, on the other, clofe to the town, rife mountains, interfected with valleys, that are adorned with quintas and orange-gardens, with a large Gothic church on the fore-ground. The place _ is fmall, having little more than z000 inhabitants. Its oranges are fmall, but well-flavoured, and the beft in the country, as is alfo the wine, from the neighbouring Villa de Trades, much celebrated at Lifbon. VIDIMARUM, in Botany, the name of the tree which bears the febeftens, a medicinal plum, of Afia and-Aigypt. VIDIMUS, in Zaza, the fame with innotefcimus ; being letters patent of a charter of feoffment, or fome other in- ftrument, not of record. VIDINI, in Ancient Geography, apeople of European Sarmatia. Ammian. Marcell. VIDOTARA, a bay on the northern fide of Great Britain, near the mouth of the river which runs by Aire. VIDOURLE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the lake of Than, near Aignes Mortes. VIDRA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 12 miles N. of Vique. VIDROPUSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tver; 12 miles N. of Torzok. VIDRUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Germany ; its mouth, according to Ptolemy, being between Marmanis Portus and the mouth of the river Amatfius. VIDUA, a river on the northern coaft of Hibernia. Ptol. VIDUCASSES, the name of a people who occupied a part of that country which is now the diocefe of Bayeux. The capital of thefe people was near the river Orne, a little above Caen, probably Vieux. VIDU- VIE VIDUCHOVA, in Geography. See Fippicuow. VIDUITATIS Prorzssto, the making a folemn profef- fion of living a chafte widow ; a cuftom heretofore obierved in England, and attended with divers ceremonies. VIE. See Cestur qui Vie. Vix, in Geography, a river of France, in the department of the Vendée, which runs into the fea near St. Gilles. — Alfo, a river of France, in the department of the Calvados, which runs into the Dive, 3 miles N.W. of Crevecceur. VIECHTACH, a town of Bavaria; 13 miles S.E. of Cham. VIEDAM, or Vepam, the name of a facred book of law and religion, written, according to M. de Sainte- Croix, by the Samaneans, in the Samfcretan, or Shanferit language, and held in great veneration by the Brahmins of Hindooftan, from a notion that Brahma, their legiflator, re- ceived it fromthe Deity himfelf. See Vena. VIEDENBRUCK, or Vipvensrucce, in Geography. See WIEDENBRUCK. VIEJO, one of the fmall Bahama iflands. VIELBRUN, or Fersrun, a town of Germany, ia the county of Wertheim ; 17 miles W. of Wertheim. VIELLA, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 10 miles $8. W. of Nogaro.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia; 38 miles W.N.W. of Urgel. VIELLE, a mofical inftrument, often confounded with the viole, or viol. It is not, indeed, a Joqwed inftrument, like the viol, but its tone is produced by the friGtion of a wheel, which performs the part of a bow. The ftrings are preffed on the wheel by the fingers, and fometimes by keys. It is at prefent a mere ftreet inftrument every where but at Paris, where it is much in ufe with other inftruments at the Boulevards and Guinguettes ; and even ladies fome- times condefcend to learn to play upon it. Kircher gives it no better title than that of Jyra mendicorum, the beggar’s lyre. It is fo loud in the open air, that it feems impoffible to bear it in a room. The itinerant performers on this in- ftrument are generally Savoyards. The name of the inftrument feems a corruption of wiole, if itis not the eldeft of thetwo. The Di&. Etymol. fays ; Viole, Violon, from the Spanifh éiola and biolone. The Spaniards alfo fay diuela, whence we (the French) have Vielle. {t has a neck or finger-board fretted, and two {trings, always founding as drones, tuned fifths or eighths. VieLLe, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lower-Pyrenées ; 21 miles N. of Pau. ViELLe Ridée, the Wrinkled old Woman’s Shell, in Con- chology, a name given by the French authors to a {pecies of chama of the mutilated kind, very much refembling the fa- mous concha Veneris, but longer, and without that pecu- liarly-fhaped oval aperture to which that fhell owes its name. - It has feveral {pines about the lips, as the concha Veneris has, but they are fhorter, and more obtufe, than in that fhell. The whole furface of this {pecies is deeply and irre- gularly wrinkled. Itis of a whitith colour, variegated with brown. VIELLEUR, in Natural Hiffory, the name of afpecies of fly common in Surinam, and fome other places. It is moderately large, though lefs fo than the lantern-fy, fo common in that place, and has a long head, and fome other particulars, in which it refembles that creature. Mrs. Merian has given a figure of it, and reports it as the opinion of the natives, that it changes at length into a lantern-fly. VIELMUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the on of the Tarn, on the Agout; 9 miles W. of aftres. VIE VIELSK, atown of Ruffia, in the government of Vo- logda, on the ages 156 miles N.N.E. of Vologda. N. lat. 61° go’. E. long. 41° 44/. = VIENENBURG, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhopric’ of Hildefheim ; 7 miles S. of Schladen. VIENNA, or Viennensium Civitas, in Ancient Geo- graphy, one of the moft opulent towns of Gaul, and the ca- pital of the Allobroges. This town enjoyed the rights of a Roman city, and the prerogative of furnifhing fabjeas for the fenate of Rome, granted to it, according to Tacitus, under the confulate of Rutilius, in the year of Rome 664. This place is mentioned by Strabo as the moft confider- able among the Allobroges. Mela ranks it among the moft opulent in the Narbonnenfis, and it is cited by Pliny under the denomination of acolony. By the firft divifion of ancient Narbonnenfis, Vienne became the metropolis of that diftri&, which was diftinguifhed by the name of the Viennois, and this province was formed at the beginning of the fourth century, fince it is mentioned in the aéts of the council of Arles, held A.D. 314. See VIENNE. ViEeNNA, in Geography, acity and capital of Auftria, the fee of an archbifhop, on the W. fide of the Danube, on a fertile plain, where it receives a {mall river, called Vien, which paffes through the city and fuburbs; near the place where ftood the ancient Vindobona. The fituation is pleafant, for to the eaft and north the country around is entirely level, but to the weft and fouth is feen a range of mountains, which are thickly planted with trees and vines; and the Danube, which is here,very wide, divides itfelf in that part of the town into feveral arms, forming many iflands, which are ftocked with wood. The circumference of that which is properly the fortified city of Vienna is not large, and only contains about 60,000 fouls; but the fuburbs are therefore the more ample; and, according to the eftimate of a late traveller, the city and the fuburbs together’ contain 230,000 (others fay 254,000) inhabitants, without including the gar- rifon. In 1795, the whole population of Vienna was com- puted at 231,105 inhabitants; of whom 1231 were ecclefi- aftics, 3253 nobility, 4256 public fun¢tionaries, and perfons living upon their private fortune, and 7333 citizens be- longing to the corporation. In the city itfelf there are nu- merous and beautiful palaces: but the ftreets are not fpa- cious, and are, in part, crooked. The houfes are generally of brick, covered with ftucco. There is but one ftreet in Vienna that can be called magnificent, and this is a con- tinued line of {plendid houfes and palaces. It is called the “ Nobles’-f{treet.’? The fuburbs are conftru€ted on a better plan, and would be very elegant, if the houfes were larger and richer in archite€tural ornaments. Mott of the itreets are regular, level and wide, but they are chiefly inhabited by manufacturers and workmen of various trades. Near the centre of the town is a bridge thrown acrofs a deep low ftreet, which admits of the paflage of carriages, whilft the ufual thoroughfare is below, refembling our canals over navigable rivers. Thofe people of fafhion who have no country-feats, or who are prevented by their public employ- ments from leaving Vienna, generally refide in the fuburbs during fummer. The fecond floor of all burghers’ houfes is allotted for the refidence of the officers of the imperial court ; and the owners can only purchafe an exemption by paying a {um of money for the ereCtion of barracks. It is divided into four quarters, which contain fifteen fquares or public places; that of the court is large and beautiful ; in it, between two fountains, is a fuperb monument, built by the emperor Leopold ; in the high market-place is a marble monument, reprefenting the marriage of Jofeph and the Virgin, ere€ted in the year 1732. Vienna contains fifty churches VIENNA. churches or chapels, and twenty-one convents. The chief edifices are the metropolitan church of St. Stephen, the im- rial palace, library and arfenal, the houfe of aflembly for the i of Lower Auttria, the council-houfe, the univerfity, and fome monatteries. The metropolitan church is a dark Gothic building, richly adorned on the outfide with feulp- ture, and within with thirty-eight altars, moftly of beautiful marble ; a great number of relics, jewels, &c. and an ancient vault, in which the archdukes are interred. Here is a mau- foleum of Frederic III. which coft 40,000 ducats, and a monument in honour of prince Eugene of Savoy. Near it is a palace of the archbifhop. In a chapel belonging to the Capuchins, the princes of the royal family are buried, without pomp, with hardly their names over their tombs. The univerfity of Vienna was initituted in the year 1365, from a college founded about a century before, and is divided into four faculties and four nations, Auftrian, Saxon, Hun- garian, and Rhenifh. It has been much improved fince the year 1752. The booksin the library are not very numerous ; it is open two or three hours morning and afternoon. The imperial library contains about 5000 or 6000 volumes, printed in the 15th century, rare manufcripts, and a very extenfive and valuable colleétion of prints, and is well furnifhed with ufeful modern books. It is open three or four hours every morning to the public. The imperial cabinet is very rich in medals, and {till more fo in natural hiftory. The Academy of Arts is divided into feven claffes, each of which has its own profeflor. A tafte for mufic is like- wife very general: and the theatre at Vienna has been liberally encouraged. It muft be acknowledged, however, that liberty does not flourifh here. It is faid that the lift of prohibited books is {carcely exceeded by that of the Index Expurgatorius at Rome. _Neverthelefs it has an univerfity, as we have already mentioned, and fome confiderable fchools, principally with a view to commerce. Education needs or demands greater encouragement. The people are in gene- ral honeft, and fimple in their manners. Their ruling pro- penfity is that for luxurious living, both as to food and drink. The women are handfome, and mild in their manners. They love drefs, and are addi€ted to luxury. Mulfic is the principal obje& of their attention. The Augarten and the Prater are the principal promenades. The police of Vienna is fo well conduéted, that the {treets are remarkably quiet and orderly, fo that as early as ten o’clock at night filence prevails. The fuburbs are far larger than the city itfelf. They are adorned with a great number of {pacious gardens, and many of the buildings occupy a large {pace of ground. They lie round it, but are removed to the diftance of 500 or 600 com- mon paces from the works of the fort. The line which in- clofes them and extends on both fides to Leopoldftadt, was, in the year 1794, thrown up againft the Hungarian rebels, and afterwards lined with bricks, the gates and entries to it being always kept by regular guards. Thefe fuburbs ftand for the moft part under the jurifdi€tion of the town-council, to whom an appeal lies from the fentence of the judge and his affeffors, with which each fuburb is provided. Of them, Leopoldftadt is the largeft and chiefeit. It lies next the town, on an ifland in the Danube, being formerly called the Jews’ town; but the emperor Leopold, in 1670, having driven that people from thence, it took its name from him. It contains one parifh church, two cloifters, the old imperial favorita, a citadel, which, in 1683, was miferably laid wafte by the Turks, and but a {mall part of it repaired ; together with the adjoining extenfive au-garden, and many confider- able fine houfes and gardens. On an ifland in the Danube, well planted with wood, is the Prater, or imperial park, and to the S. is the chapel of Herenhartz, much frequented in Vor, XXXVILI. Lent for the fake of amufement as well as of devotion. In one of the fuburbs is the palace of Belvidere, which for- merly belonged to prince Eugene ; and at the diftance of a few miles ftands Schombrun, another imperial palace. The garrifon of Vienna confifts of one regiment of foot. Pro- vifions are brought to Vienna from the different parts of Autftria, and other countries belonging to the emperor, in the greateft plenty and variety. The police pays parti- cular attention to the fupply of provifions, and often infpects the markets, and the weights and meafures of the dealers. A modern traveller fays, he has feen a {core of wild hogs and a dozen ftags in the game-market at the fame time, and hares, literally, by cart-loads, with abundance of pheafants and partridges. Every kind of bird feems to be an article of food, and none rejeted; hawks, jays, magpies, are brought to market, and even the bulfinch and robin are not fpared. The livers of geefe are efteemed a great delicacy ; and in the fifh-market are found, with fturgeon, carp, pike, tench, and trout, tortoifes, frogs, and fnails. ‘The manu- factures of Vienna are numerous; that of cotton on the increafe, that of filk much regarded, and embroidery en- couraged. The people of Vienna, upon the whole induf- trious, excel in manufactures of fteel, carriages of all forts, filk, ribbands, harnefs, faddles, &c. The inland commerce, carried on by the Danube, is not inconfiderable. The people delight in the combats of wild beafts and of bulls. Vienna owes its firlt aggrandizement to Henry I. duke of Auttria, who, about 1142, made it the place of his refidence ; it was then a town, and in 1158 was furrounded with walls. In 1198 it obtained its municipal privileges, and was better fortified. The mortality of this city is thought to be greater than that of any other place in Europe ; and it is commonly faid that one in twenty dies annually : a late traveller, Kutt- ner, fuppofes the mortality much greater. Although Vienna be much expofed to the N. and E. winds, yet the fouthern hills ferve as a fence againft the rain, fo that the traveller rather complains of duft than of moifture. The fummer heats, on account of its fituation in the midft of hills and mountains, which colle& much {now and ice in winter, laft only about two months, and in winter the cold is often very fevere. The pleafantnefs of the environs is faid to be much enhanced by the happy afpeét of the Auftrian pea- fantry of this city. The number of thofe who fall victims to pulmonic difeafes is very large, and many have been carried away by the *{mall-pox, the ravages of which, it is hoped, will be reftrained by the introduétion of the practice of inoculation for the cow-pox. The eftablifh- ments for the relief of the fick are very numerous; fuch are the Great Hofpital, which in 1796 received 11,860 patients; and within its walls is contained a pathological mufeum; the hofpital for lying-in-women, which in the above-mentioned year received 1904 women; the lunatic hofpital, which in the fame year accommodated 261 infane perfons ; a military hofpital; and an hofpital for Jews, excel- lently managed. The fuburbs of the town, according to a fingular and ufeful inftitution founded by Leopold, are divided into eight diflri€s, each of which has its phyfician, furgeon, and midwife, all paid by government, whole office it is to vifit the poor at their own houfes. In the year after its eftablifhment this inftitution was extended to the whole city. Another inftitution has the charge of difeafed children under ten years of age. In 1796 it was ordained, with a view to the public health, that no new-built houfe fhould be inhabited before the phyfician of the diftri€t had ex- amined whether the walls were fufficiently dry ; 175 miles S. of Prague. N. lat. 48° 13/, E. long, 16° 23/. Vienna, a port of entry and poft-town of the eaftern Y fhore VOR E fhore of Maryland, in Dorchefter county, on the W. fide of Nanticoke river, about fifteen miles from its mouth. It contains about thirty houfes, and carries on a brifk trade with the neighbouring fea-ports, in lumber, corn, wheat, &c.; 15 miles N.W. of Salifbury, and 120 from Wafhing- ton.—Alfo, the capital of Greene county, Kentucky, on the N. fide of Green river ; about 158 miles W.S.W. of Lex- ington.—Alfo, a town of Kennebeck county, in the dif- tri€t of Maine, incorporated in 1802, including the late plantations of Gofhen and Wyman: the number of inha- bitants is 417.—Alfo, a poft-town in Abbeville county, South Carolina; 651 miles from Wathington.—Alfo, a town in Ohio county, Kentucky, containing 26 inhabitants. VIENNE, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri@, in the department of the ere, fituated on the left fide of the Rhdne, over which was formerly a ftone- bridge, built in the year 1265, now deftroyed. A Ro- man colony was eftablifhed here, and called Vienna Al- lobrogum. In the fifth century it was taken by the Bur- gundians, and the kings made it their place of refidence. In the ninth century it was the capital of the kingdom of Provence. It was afterwards ere¢ted into an archbifhopric, and became the capital of a province called Viennois, in which ftate it remained till the revolution, when the arch- bifhopric was fuppreffed. In 1311, a council was held here by order of pope Clement V. in which, among other matters, the fuppreffion of the knights Templars was determined ; 10 pofts N. of Valence. N. lat. 45° 32!. E. long. 4° 58!. VIENNE, a town of France, in the department of the Loir and Cher, on the fouth fide of the Loire, oppofite Blois. VIENNE, a river of Franee, which rifes about three miles E. of Tarnac, on the borders of the departments of the Cor- reze and the Creufe, paffes by or near to Tarnac, Aimoutier, St. Leonard, Limoges, Aix, St. Junien, Chabanois, Con- folent, St. Germain fur Vienne, Availle, Ile Jourdain, Luf- fac, Chavigny, Chatellerault, Ifle Bouchard, Chinon, &c. and joins the Loire, in the department of the Indre and Loire, about five miles above Saumur. ViENNE, one of the nine departments of the weftern region of France, formerly a part of Poitou, in 46° 30! N. lat., bounded on the N. and N.E. by the department of the Indre and Loire, on the E. by the department of the Indre, on the S. by the departments of the Charente and Upper Vienne, and on the W. by the department of the Two Sevres. The department of the Maine and Loire joins it a little to the N.W. The territorial extent of this department is 7340 kiliometres, or 364 fquare leagues, and it contains 250,807 inhabitants. It is divided into 5 circles or diftri€ts, 31 cantons, and 344 communes. The circles are Loudun, comprehending 32,256 inha- bitants ; Chatellerault, 46,518; Montmorillon, 48,570; Civray, 38,9713; and Poitiers, 84,492. Its capital is Poitiers. According to Haffenfratz, its extent in French leagues is 21 in length, and 13 in breadth; its circles are 6, its cantons 49, and its population 257,953. Its con- tributions in the 11th year of the French era amounted to 1,979,952 fr.; and its expences, adminiftrative, judi- ciary, and for public inftruGtion, to 280,570 fr. 35 cents. This department is diverfified with hills, plains, heaths, and cultivated lands, yielding grain, wine, fruits, flax, and good paitures. It has confiderable foretfts. Vienne, Upper, one of the nine departments of the upper region of France, formerly Limofin, in 46° N. lat., bounded on the N. by the departments of the Vienne and Indre, on the E. by the department of the Creufe, on the S.E. by the fame department, on the S.W. by the VIE department of the Dordogne, and on the W, by the de- partment of the Charente. The territorial extent of this department is 60024 kiliometres, or 288 fquare leagues, and its population confifts of 259,795 inhabitants. tt is divided into 4 circles, 26 cantons, and 224 communes, Its circles are Bellac, including 85,388 inhabitants; Li- moges, 92,637; St. Yriuix, 38,251; and Rochechouart, 43,519. Its capital is Limoges. According to Haffen- fratz, it is in length 26 French leagues, and in breadth 12 ; its circles are 5, and cantons 40, and the number of its inhabitants 266,910. The contributions of this depart- ment, in the 11th year of the French era, amounted to 1,641,147 fr.; and its expences, adminiftrative, judiciary, and for public inftruétion, were 241,803 fr. 33 cents. The foil of this department is, in general, of an indifferent quality ; yielding rye, little wheat, and tolerable paftures. The hills are covered with chefnut-trees and woods. Here are mines of iron, lead, copper, coal, and quarries of marble. Vienne /e Chateau, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 6 miles N. of St. MenehouJd. VIENS, a town of France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone; 3 miles E.N.E. of Apt. VIEPREZ, ariver of Poland, which rifes 16 miles W-. of Lublin, and runs into the Viftula near Stezicza, in the palatinate of Sandomirz. VIEPRIE, atown of the Popedom, in the duchy of Spoleto; 5 miles N.E. of Todi. VIERINGEN, or WierinGen, an ifland in the Zuyder See, of an oval form; about fix miles in length, and, where wideft, rather more than two in breadth; 6 miles S.E. from the Texel. VIERRADEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark, on the Welfe, near its union with the Oder; 24 miles S.E. of Prenzlow. VIERUEDRUM, or Verveprum, in Ancient Geo- graphy, a promontory of the ifle of Albion, according to Ptolemy. VIERZON, in Geography, 2 town of France, and prin- cipal place of a diftri€, in the department of the Cher, near the conflux of the Eure and Cher; 11 pofts S. of Orleans. N lat. 47° 13!. E. long. 2° oJ. VIESCAS, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ara- ‘on; 10 miles from Jaca. VIESCHORN, a mountain of Switzerland, in the can- ton of Bern, and bailiwick of Grindelwald. VIEST, or Uszsr, or Oye/f, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Oppeln; 14 miles W.N.W. of Gleiwitz. VIESTI, a town of Naples, in Capitanata, on the coaft of the Adriatic, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Manfre- donia; 29 miles N.N.E. of Manfredonia. N. lat. 41° 56. E. long. 33° 52!. VIETA, Francis, in Biography, a very eminent mathe- matician of the 16th century, was born at Fontenal, in Poitou, in the year 1540. Although he occupied the poft of mafter of requefts at Paris, and his time and attention were much engaged by the duties of his office, he was inde- fatigable in his application to mathematical ftudies ; fo that he is faid to have remained in his apartment for three days, without either eating or fleeping. In his writings he mani- fefts great originality of genius, as well as invention. For a brief account of his improvements in algebra, we refer to that article. On other branches of the mathematics, befides thofe that may be denominated analytical, he beftowed much attention and labour; and whilft he colle&ted and de- tailed what others had done before him, he enlarged the boundaries of f{cience, and made fome important and ufeful additions VIE additions to the ftock of knowledge which had been amaffed by his predeceffors. In this refpeét he was not a mere la- bourer, but original and ingenious in his communications. His treatife on “ Angular Se€tions” is a performance which enabled him to refolve a curious problem, propofed by Adrian Romanus to mathematicians, and which amounted to an equation of the 45th degree. Romanus was fo im- preffed by his fagacity, that he travelled from Wirtemberg in Franconia, where he refided, as far as France, in order to yifit Vieta, and cultivate friendfhip with him. His « Apollonius Gallus,”’ or reftoration of Apollonius’s trac om Tangencies, not to mention other pieces that may be found in his works, difplays powers of invention, eminently adapted to the more fublime geometrical {peculations. His traéts on trigonometry, plane and fpherical, with the tables annexed to them, were important and valuable at the time when they were publifhed, and without doubt led the way fo farther modern improvements. We have no reafon for believing that Vieta was irritable and querulous; but his difputes with Scaliger and Clavius, more efpecially with the latter, did him no honour. Scaliger pretended to quadrate the circle, an operation for which he was altogether incom- petent, and Vieta evinced his incapacity. With Clavius he had a conteft about the emendation of the Gregorian ca- lendar, charging him with ignorance and error; whilft he himfelf committed miftakes, which Clavius deteéted. The lofs of Vieta’s “* Harmonicon Celefte,”? entrufted with father Merfenne, and furreptitioufly taken from him, has been much deplored. Others of his works have alfo been loft, which has been probably owing to his caufing few to be printed, and retaining them in his own cuftody, thofe excepted which he diltributed among his friends and perfons of icience. Vieta was profoundly {killed in the art of de- cyphering, which he employed with advantage to his country. Vieta, notwithftanding the intenfenefs and afli- duity of his application, paffed his grand climacteric, and died at Paris in December, 1603. After his death, fome of his MSS. were publifhed by Alexander Anderfon, an in- genious Scots mathematician, a native of Aberdeen; and in 1646, Schooten gave an edition of all his works which he was able to colleét. Montucla. Hutton. VIETRI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 2 miles N.N.E. of Cangiano.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra. In 1694 it was deftroyed by an earthquake ; 2 miles W. of Salerno. VIEUSSENS, Raymonp, F.R.S., in Biography, was born at a village in Rovergue, and having commenced his education at Rhodez, he purfued the ftudy of phyfic at Montpellier, where he graduated. In 1671 he was chofen phyfician to the hofpital of St. Eloy. The refult of his anatomical refearches in this fituation was publifhed under the title of “ Neurology,” and gained him great reputation. His name became known at court, and Mad. de Mont- penfier, in 1690, chofe him as her phyfician. After her death he returned to Montpellier, and direéting his attention to chemiftry, he found an acid in the caput mortuum of human blood; and on this imagined difcovery founded a theory, which he communicated to the different fchools of medicine. In advanced life his writings were multiplied, without augmenting his reputation. He died in 1726. His moft valuable work is his “ Neurologia Univerfalis,”’ Lyons, 1685, folio, which is commended by Haller, and which exhibits a more accurate diffe€tion of the brain than that of any preceding writers. After his death appeared *¢ Hiftoire des Maladies internes,” 4to., containing many ractical obfervations. Haller. Eloy. VIEUSSEUXIA, in Botany, was fo called by Dr. VIE Daniel de la Roche, in his inaugural differtation, publifhed at Leyden in 1766, in honour of his countryman and friend M. Vieuffeux, an excellent botanift; of whom, however, we know not that the world has heard any thing further, or that he has written-any thing relative to this fcience. The genus in queftion was thought, by its truly intelligent and ingenious author, to be intermediate between Jris and Ferraria. Jt has not been adopted by Thunberg, Ker, or any of our popular botanifts, who have declined feparating it from /ris, there appearing no diftinGtiye charaéter, except the ftamens being united into atube. The learned Decan- dolle, on the contrary, has adopted Viewfeuxia, in Ann. du Muf. v. 2. 141. t. 42. He is followed by Redouté, who figures the fame fpecies, V. glaucopis, in his Liliacées, v. 1. t. 42, and mentions feven f{pecies in all; as well as by Def- fontaines, in his recently-publifhed Tableau de Ecole de Botanique du Jardin du Roi, ed. 2. 37. Mott, if not all, of the plants fuppofed to conftitute the above genus, are, we believe, comprehended as varieties by Thunberg under his Iris tricufpis. See his differtation on Jris, p. 15; alfo Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 231. VIEUX Matsons, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne ; 6 miles W. of Montmirail. Vieux Marché, a town of France, in the department of the North Coaft; 8 miles S. of Lannion. VIEVY, a town of France, in the department of the Céte d’Or; 6 miles S. of Arnay le Duc. VIEW, Visus, in Law, the a& of veiors, or viewers. This is called by Braéton, “* Res quafi facra, quia folam perfonam regis refpicit, et introduéta pro pace, et communi utilitate.’” When a real action is brought, and the tenant knows not well what the land is, that the demandant afks ; he may pray the view: which is, that the jury may /ée the land which is claimed. This courfe of proceeding we received from the Normans, as appears by the Grand Cuftomary. It is ufed in various cafes ; as in aflize of rent-fervices, rent-charge, rent-fec; in a writ of nuifance; in a writ quo jure; in the writ de ra- tionabilibus divifis, &c. See Jury. Vinw of Frank Pledge, Vifus Franci Plegii, is the office which the fheriff in his county-court, or the bailiff in his hundred, performs; in looking to the king’s peace, and feeing that every man be in fome pledge. See Courr-Leet, and Frank-Pledge. View; in matters of Optics, Perfpedlive, &c. See Vision. View, Point of. See Point. View, among Hunters, the track, or print of the feet, of a fallow deer on the ground. Visw a Place, To, in the Military Art, is to ride about it, before the laying of a fiege, in order to obferve the ftrength or weaknefs of its fituation and fortification. VIEWERS, or Veiors, in Law. Sée Verours. VIEYRA, Antony, in Biography, a Portuguefe writer, was born at Lifbon in 1608, and im early life accompanied his father to the Brafils. His genius at the age of fourteen began to difplay itfelf to a degree that excited the aftonifh- ment of his tutors. In 1623 he entered into the fociety of Jefus, and having carefully read the feriptures, the works of the fathers, and the Summa Aquinatis, he compofed fome traéts, and gave leGtures in the college of Bahia. At this time he was tutor to the fon of the viceroy of Brafil, the marquis of Montalvan; and in 1641 accompanied him to Europe. At Lifbon he diftinguifhed himfelf in the pulpit, and was appointed by John IV. preacher to the court. The king, difcovering alfo his talents for public affairs, deputed him, in 1646, on important bufinefs to 2 England, yir England, Holland, and France, and alfo to the court of Rome. For the fervices rendered in thefe miffions he was offered a bifhtopric, which he declined accepting, and re- quefted only to be employed as a miffionary among the favages in the forefts of Maragnan. ‘The king demurred again{t acceding to this propofal, but urged him to accept a bifhopric, which he ftill refufed; but with fome other Jefuits he embarked in a fhip, in order to proceed to Ma- ragnan. Soon after his arrival there in 1653, he was fent to Portugal, in order to obtain an order from the king, that the Portuguefe fettled in the Brafils fhould treat the’ Indians with lefs cruelty. He fucceeded in the obje& of his miffion, but he was not allowed to return to America, though he went thither fome time after ; and in lefs than fix years, in a diftri@ more than 600 miles in extent, he formed an efta- blithment fimilar to that in Paraguay. There the Indians were inftruéted, and availing themfelves of their knowledge, began to live like men, and to praétife the virtues which Chriftianity taught them. The Portuguefe refiding in Brafil were alarmed, and could not bear that the Indians, whom they treated as flaves, fhould enjoy the bleffings of liberty: they, therefore, feized Vieyra and his attendants, and tranfported them to Portugal, under a charge of their joining the Dutch in forming a plan for expelling all the Portuguefe from Brafil. Vieyra and his affociates were able to prove their innocence, and fucceeded in obtaining the re- inftatement of all their brethren in the colleges and other eftablifhments of Maragnan. Vieyra remained in Portugal, and, at the defire of the queen and minifters of ftate, drew up a remonftrance, which was prefented to king Alphonfo, refpeCting the irregularities and abufes that prevailed in the kingdom. The king’s favourites were incenfed, and, in 1663, thofe who were attached to the queen, and who wifhed to promote the welfare of the nation, were fent into banifhment. Vieyra was firft conveyed to Oporto, and foon after to Coimbra; and for the more certain and fpeedy de- cifion of his fate, he was committed into the hands of the inquifition. Many charges were alleged againft him; how- ever, in 1667, when the influence of the favourites termi- nated, he was freed from the inquifition, and fent to Lifbon. He was merely forbidden to preach; but this prohibition was revoked, when the queen, Maria Ifabella of Savoy, and the infant Don Pedro, then regent of the kingdom, exprefled a wifh to hear him. In 1669 he was called to Rome, and preached before queen Chriftina of Sweden, who was fo much pleafed that fhe invited him to the con- verfaziones held in her palace, and requefted him to become her confeffor. But finding the air prejudicial to his health, he returned to Lifbon, after having obtained from pope Clement X. a letter of exculpation, freeing him from the jurifdiGtion of the inquifition, and rendering him immediately amenable to the college of cardinals. WVieyra, upon the re- covery of his health, fet fail for Brafil; and being incapable, on account of his advanced age, of fuperintending the mif- fion of Maragnan, of which he had been long fuperior general, he {pent his time in revifing his writings, and pre- paring for the termination of his life, which happened at Bahia in 1697, when he had attained nearly the goth year of his age. His interment was conduéted with great pomp, his coffin being borne to the grave by the viceroy and his fon, and other perfons of diftinétion. ‘The Portuguefe con- fider Vieyra as the beft writer their country ever produced. His works were publifhed at Lifbon between 1679 and 1718, in 14 quarto volumes. Gen. Biog. VIF, Fr., in Mufic, lively. See Vivace. This word, {ays Rouffeau, implies a movement, gay, cheerful, and ani- mated ; and requires a bold execution, full of fire. 10 VEG Vir, in Geography, a town of France, in the department’ of the Ifere ; g miles S. of Grenoble. VIFALU, a town of Hungary; 16 miles S.S.E. of Ketfkemet. VIG, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of Olonetz. N. lat. 63° 30!. E. long. 34° 14!.—Alfo, a river of Ruffia, which paffes through lake Vig, and runs into the White fea, zo miles S. of Kemi. VIGAN, Le, a town of France, in the department of the Lot; 17 miles N. of Cahors.—Alfo, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the Gard; 36 miles W.N.W. of Nifmes. N. lat. 43° 59'. E. long. 3° 40’. VIGANONI, Giuseppe, in Biography, a tenor finger in the Italian opera, firft arrived in England in 1782, as man in the comic opera, in which part Lovatini had rendered us very difficult to be pleafed. Trebbi, his immediate fuccef- for, was a very ufeful performer, as he occafionally had a part affigned him in the ferious opera; but he excited no raptures in either ferious or comic parts. And Jermoli and Tafca, his fucceffors, were ftill lefs interefting. The fame might perhaps be faid of Viganoni, with a {mall diminution of praife. His finging did not appear to us in a ftyle of ex- preffion that was genuine Italian; it feemed to favour of German or French expreffion, or of both. On his fecond arrival in London, he had lefs voice than when he came here firft ; but more knowledge of mufic, a greater variety of embellifhments, and more ufe of the flage. His voice was never powerful, and now he had more falfet than real notes in his {cale; and fucha rage for gracing and changing paffages, that he fcarcely ever let the audience hear a fingle paffage as it was written by the compofer. He certainly knew his bufinefs, and was a good mufician ; but his flyle of finging was what painters would call maniére: for with all his rifforamenti, or embellifhments, of which he was fo lavifh, his performatice feemed monotonous. VIGASIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Ve- ronefe ; ro miles S. of Verona. VIGENNE, a river of France, which runs into the Sadne, at Talmey. VIGEOIS, a town of France, in the department of the Correze, on the Vezere; 4 miles S. of Uzerches. VIGER, an ifland. in the North fea, on the coaft of Norway; 10 miles round. N. lat. 62°35/. EE. long. 6230 VIGESIMA, among the Romans, a tax of the twentieth art of the yearly incomes of all inheritances. It was firft eftablifhed by Auguttus. Vicrsima was likewife a cuftom paid for flaves fold, as alfo for one made free. , VIGESIMARIUS, among the Romans, an officer who had the management of colle&ting the vigefima. VIGEVANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogna, capital of a fmall diftri@, in the principality of Piedmont, lying between the Novarefe and the Lumelline, on the Tefin, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Milan; 13 miles S.E. of Novara. N. lat. 45° 19’. E. long. 8° 53!. VIGGIANO, a town of the ifland of Corfica, in the diftri& of Tallano. VIGHIZZOLA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, near a lake which abounds in fith, efpecially ecls; 16 miles S. of Padua. VIGIA, atown of Brafil, in the government of Para; go miles N.N.E. of Para. —Alfo, a rock near the fouth coaft of Cuba, N. lat. 21° 32! W, long. 84° 32.—Alfo, a rock VIG a rock near the fouth coaft of Cuba. long. 80° 55/. : VIGIL, or Eve, in Church Chronology, the-day before any feaft, &c. med __ Though the civil day begins at midnight, yet the eccle- fiaftical or f{criptural day begins at fix o’clock in the evening, and holds till fix in the evening the enfuing day. Hence, the colle& for every Sunday and holiday, by order of the church, is to be read, at the preceding evening fervice, that is, at fix o’clock the day before ; from which time the religious day was fuppofed to begin. And this firft part of the holiday, from fix o’clock the day before, was, by the primitive Chriftians, {pent in hymns, and other devotions ; and, being often continued till late in the night, was called vigil. Thefe vigils came by degrees to be fo enlarged, that, at laft, all the day preceding the holiday was called by the name. The origin of vigils is deduced by Forbes from a cuftom in the ancient church, for the people, both men and women, to meet together in the evening before Eafter-day, and watch and pray, as expeCting the- coming of our Lord, who was to rife early in the morning. This practice, Tertullian obferves, ad uxorem, afterwards got to other feafts, and faints’ days. But abufes creeping in, they were forbidden by a council, in 1322, and, in lieu of them, faftings were infti- tuted on the day before, though {till called by the ancient name of vigils. See WaAKEs. Vict, Coma. See Coma. VIGILANTIUS, in Biography, an ecclefiaftic of the fifth century, was born in Gaul, and removing to Spain, became a parifh prieft in the diocefe of Barcelona. He is faid to have written treatifes on religious fubjeés in a po- lithed ftyle ; but he incurred the cenfure of Dupin, becaufe he expoted feveral fuperftitions of the time in which he lived. After his return from a voyage to Paleftine and Egypt, he propagated opinions that were hoftile to the corrupt ftate of Chriftianity at that period. He denied that the tombs and remains of the martyrs are entitled to any kind of adoration, and cenfured pilgrimages to holy places. He derided the miracles pretended to be wrought at the fhrines of martyrs, and condemned the noturnal affemblies held at fuch places. He affirmed that the pra¢tice of burning tapers by day-light at the tombs of holy perfons was a fuperitition, borrowed from the Pagans; that prayers addreffed to departed faints were of no avail; and he {poke with contempt of faftings and mortifications, the celibacy of the clergy, and the aufterities of monatftic life. He alfo afferted, that the vo- luntary poverty of thofe who diftribute all their fubftance to the poor, and the pra¢tice of fending donations to Jerufalem for pious purpofes, are in no refpet acceptable to the Deity. Thefe opinions were favourably received by feveral of the bifhops in Gaul and Spain; but Jerom, the great ad- vocate for monkifh difcipline, cenfured them with feverity, and rancoroufly abufed Vigilantius for adopting and propa- gating them. His oppofition, and that of perfons of fimilar entiments prevailed, and prevented every kind of reform, The refentment and hoftility of Jerom, to whom Vigilantius had been recommended by Paulinus, feem to have commenced with his declaring himfelf an enemy to fuperftition. Bayle. Dupin. Mofheim. VIGILIA, in Ancient Chronology. See Watcu. Viaii1a, that ftate of an animal which is oppofite to fleep, and is popularly called waking or watching. See Sreep and Wartcuine. VIGILIA, in Antiquity, denote the watches and guards among the Roman foldiers, who performed duty by night, N. lat. 20° 53'. W. YHLG in contradiftinétion to the excubie, who kept guard by day, either in the camp, or at the gates and intrenchments: of thefe laft there feem to have been affigned one company of foot and one troop of horfe to each of the four gates every day ; and it was a moft unpardonable crime to defert their poft, and to abandon their corps of guards. In the camp, there was allowed a whole manipulus to attend before the pretorium, and four foldiers to the tent of every tribune. The night-guards affigned to the general and tribunes were of the fame nature as thofe in the day. But the proper vigils were four in every manipulus, keeping guard three hours, and then relieved by four others ; fo that there were four fets in the night, according to the four watches, which took their name from this cuftom. The ni ht-guard was fet by a tally or teffera, with a particular sitanion given from one centuricn to another through the army, till it came again to the tribune who firft delivered it. Upon the re- ceipt of this, the guard was immediately fet. But becaufe this regulation was not fufficient, they had the circuitio vi- gilium, or a vifiting of the watch, commonly performed about four times in the night by fome of the horfe. Upon extraordinary occafions, the tribunes and lieutenant-generals, and fometimes the general himfelf, made thefe circuits in perfon, and took a ftriét view of the watch in every part of the camp. Kennet’s Ant. Rom. p. 206. ViciLt1# Florum, in Botany, aterm ufed by Linneus to exprefs a peculiar faculty, belonging to the flowers of fe- veral plants, of opening and clofing their petals at certain hours of the day. Previous to the explanation of this phe- nomenon, it is neceflary to obferve, that the flowers of moft plants, after they are once opened, continue fo night and day, until they drop off, or die away. Severai others, which fhut in the night-time, open in the morning fooner or later, according to their refpeCtive fituation in the fun or fhade, or as they are influenced by the manifeft changes of the atmofphere. But the clafs of flowers, to which this article refers, open and fhut regularly at certain hours, ex- clufive of any manifeft changes in the atmofphere. This property is fo evident in one of our common Englifh plants, the tragopogon /uteum, that our country people have called: it John-go-to-bed-ai-noon. .innzus’s obfervations in the Phi- lofophia Botania, p. 273, extend to near fifty fpecies, which are fubje&t to this law: fuch are the male pimpernel, the blue-flowered pimpernel with narrow leaves, the little blue convolvulus or bindweed, the day-lily, the proliferous pink, the common purflain, the white-water-lily, the garden let- tuce, the dandelion, the rough dandelion, feveral {pecies of hawkweeds, wild fuccory, wild marygold, &c. See an account of this phenomenon by Dr. Pulteney, in Phil. Tranf. vol. 1. p. 506, &c. See alfo SLEEP of Plants. VIGILIUM Prerectus. See Prerecr. VIGILIUS, in Biography, a pope, was raifed to the pontificate by the emprefs Theodora, when his predeceffor Silverius did not anfwer her purpofe, on certain ftipulated conditions, to which a perfon like him, deftitute of prin- ciple, could have no objeétion. He was, therefore, fent from Conftantinople to Italy with a fum of gold, and an order to Belifarius, then mafter of Rome, to depofe Sil- yerius, and to eleé& Vigilius. Accordingly the meafure was accomplifhed in November 537: Silverius was banifhed, and Vigilius, a Roman by birth of a noble fa:nily, was or- dained to the fee of Rome. Silverius appealed to the em- peror Juftinian, and obtained an order for a rehearing ; but upon his return to Rome, he was banifhed to a diftant ifland, in confequence of the intrigues of Vigilius, and there died in 538. After the death of Silverius, the church of Rome acknowledged Vigilius as lawful pope. Although he pundtually ¥i BG pundtually fulfilled his engagements to the emprefs, he wrote a letter to the emperor, in which he folemnly pro- fefled the orthodox faith; and in another letter to the pa- triarch of Conftantinople, he commended him for his zeal in favour of the council of Chalcedon, which by his engage- ment to Theodora he condemned, and anathematized as heretics thofe perfons whom he had lately admitted to his communion. ‘The emperor Juftinian, fond of exercifing authority in matters of faith, was induced, in 542, to iflue an edi&, condemning the writings of certain prelates who were inclined to the Neftorian tenets, famous under the ap- pellation of “‘ The Three Chapters ;’? and his edict was received by almoft all the Eaftern bifhops. Vigilius, at the head of thofe of the Weftern churches, refufed to concur in what they conceived to be an aflumption of authority in matters of faith, which belonged only to a general council. Upon this refiftance, Vigilius was fummoned by the em- peror to repair to Conftantinople. He left Rome amidit the curfes of the people, who charged him with enormous crimes, and arrived at Conftantinople in the beginning of the year 547- At firft he declared againft the imperial edi&, and excluded from his communion the patriarch and all the bifhops who had fubfcribed it. The emperor’s mea- fures, however, caufed him to waver; and at a council held at Conftantinople, he iffued a decree, entitled “ Judi- catum,”? in which the ‘ Three Chapters’? were formally condemned. But when he found that this decree excited a great oppofition on the part of the Weftern bifhops, he got it revoked, under a pretence of referring the matter to a general council. Without ftating the violence and coercion of the emperor on the one hand, or the refiftance and tergi- verfation of the pope on the other, it will be fufficient to obferve, that after Vigilius had a fourth time changed his declaration relating to the ‘* Three Chapters,” which he finally condemned by a folemn conftitution, he was per- mitted to return to Rome, which had been in the mean time facked by Totila, and recovered by Narfes. But durmg his voyage he was feized with a fit of the ftone, and obliged to land in Sicily, where he died in 555. A fummary of the letters of this pope, ftill extant, is given by Dupin. Bower. Dupin. Mofheim. VIGINTIVIRATE, a dignity among the ancient Ro- mans, eltablifhed by Czfar. This dignity comprehended four others; for of the vi- gintiviri, or twenty men which compofed the company, there were three who fat and judged all criminal affairs ; three others had the infpeétion of the coins and coinage ; four took care of the ftreets of Rome; and the reft were judges of civil affairs. VIGLES, in Geography, a town and caltle of Hun- gary; 5 miles S.S.E. of Altfol. VIGNACOURT, a town of France, in the department of the Somme; 9 miles N.W. of Amiens. VIGNAIS, or Vinwars, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tralos Montes; 15 miles W. of Braganga. VIGNE, Awnprew pe 1A, in Biography, a French writer of the 15th century, bore arms under Charles VIII., and was fecretary to his queen, Anne of Britamny. In conjunction with Jaligni, he compofed a “ Hiftory of Charles VIII.,” folio, printed at the Louvre, under the care and with the notes of Denis Godefroy. He alfo wrote * Vergier d’Honneur,” Paris, 1495, containing an exact account of the expedition of Charles VIII. againft Naples, at which he was prefent. Nouv. Dic. Hift. Vienr, ANNE pr ZA, a French poetefs, was born in 1634 at Vernon-fur-Seine. Her talent for poetry appeared 4 VIG fo foon, that Peliffon faid of her, fhe feemed to have been fuckled by the Mufes. Menage compliments her with hay- ing furpafled the ancients, and ‘excited the jealoufy of the moderns, by the beauty and fonoroufnefs of her verfe. She is faid to have united the ftudy of philofophy with that of polite literature, and her charaéter is reprefented as no lefs eftimable than her talents. Huct fpeaks highly of ‘her cheerfulnefs and amenity, notwithitanding the feeblenefs of her conftitution, and the pains fhe fuffered. She clofed life under the anguifh of a calculous complaint in 1684, at the age of 50. Her principal pieces are an ode, entitled ‘¢ Monfeigneur le Dauphin au Roi,’ for which the received from a perfon unknown a lyre in gold enamelled, with a_ copy of verfes in her praife ; “* Ode a Mademoifelle de Seu- dery ;”” ‘“ Reponfe a Mademoifelle Defeartes ;”? and feveral other “* Piéces de Vers,’’ colleéted in a {mall o&avo. Mo- reri. Huet. Gen. Biog. Vicnr, Pierre DELLE, a celebrated minifter of the em- peror Frederic II., was born of mean parentage in Capua, at the end of the twelfth century; and having purfued his ftudies to good effeét as a mendicant {cholar at Bologna, he was introduced to Frederic II., and ingratiated himfelf with this prince to fuch a degree, that he gave him a lodging in his court, and the opportunity of further improvement. He became a proficient in civil and canon law, and acquired an elegant ftyle of writing, fo that he was advanced by the em- peror to the poits of prothonotary of his court, judge, and chancellor ; and he became the confident of all his defigns. His ability and learning raifed him to the higheit reputation, and his influence in the court of Frederic was boundlefs. The emperor afforded him opportunity of amafling immenfe treafures, and employed him in a variety of the moft im- portant embaffies, which our limits will not allow us to re- count. But before the clofe of his life, he loft the emperor’s attachment and confidence, for which various reafons, none of which are fatisfattory, have been affigned. To the jealoufy and envy of court attendants, the fall of favourites may often be juftly afcribed. Whatever was the caufe in this inftance, Vigne fuffered feverely under his mafter’s dif- pleafure: he was deprived of fight, and fhut up in prifon ; and finking into defpair, he put an end to his life. The time of his death is not known. The chronicle of Placentia dates his being blinded in 1248. Six books of letters re- main, which Tirabofchi regards as one of the moft valuable monuments of the 13th century. The laft edition of them is that of Bafil, in 1740. He alfo collected and arranged the laws of the kingdom of Sicily ; and to him are attributed a work “ Concerning the Imperial Authority,” and a book “On Confolation,”’ in imitation of that of Boethius. He alfo compofed fome Italian poems. Gen. Biog. VIGNETTE, in the art of Printing, is a French word, now often ufed among Englifh artifts and writers, to denote the flourifh or ornament placed at the beginning of a book, preface, or dedication. Thefe vignettes or head-pieces are very various in their form and fize. See the defcription of PRINTING-Pre/s. VIGNIER, Nicuoras, in Biography, an hiftorian and chronologift, was born at Bar-fur-Seine in 1530, and brought up a Proteftant. Having loft his property in the civil wars, he withdrew to Germany, and prattifed phyfic . with reputation and advantage. Upon his return to France, he conformed to the eftablifhed religion, and was appointed phyfician to the king, as well as hiftoriographer-royal. One of the moft curious of his works is his ‘ Traité de POrigine et Demeure des anciens Frangois,” 1582, 4to., which was tranflated into Latin by Andrew du Chefne. His other works may be confulted with advantage by thofe who eee VIG who wifh to acquaint themfelves with French hiftory. This writer died in 1595. Moreri. ‘Wiener, Jerom, grandfon of the preceding, was born at Blois in 1606. He was the fon of a Proteftant minifter, educated in that profeflion, and defigned for the law; but in 1628 he abjured Calvinifm, and entered into the congre- gation of the Oratory. He became fuperior of feveral houfes in his fociety, and acquired high reputation for piety as well as for extenfive erudition. He was more particularly eonverfant with the oriental and other languages, with me- dals and antiquities, and with the genealogy of the fovereign houfes of Europe. He died at St. Magliore, in Paris, in 1661. His writings of various kinds were numerous. ‘VIGNOLA, a name commonly given to James Ba- Rozzi, from the place of his birth, a {mall town in the duchy of Modena, an eminent archite&t, was bornin 1507 ; and as he difcovered an early inclination for the arts, he was fent for education to Bologna. From painting, to which he was firft attached, he direGted his attention to archite@ture. By various defighs, upon the principles of Vitruvius, fome of which he communicated to the hif- torian Guicciardini, he acquired early reputation. With a view to further improvement he went to Rome, and was there admitted into the academy of defign, newly founded, and employed by it in meafuring the mott celebrated remains of antiquity. The abbate Primaticcio, who was fent to Rome in 1537, by Francis I. of France, to procure defigns of the ancient buildings and cafts of flatues, availed himfelr of the affiftance of Vignola; and onhis return, took him to France. After two years’ refidence in France, he returned to Bologna, and was employed in forming a plan for the facade of the church of St. Petronius, which, through the envy of his competitors, was not executed till fome years afterwards. In and near this city he built fome palaces, and conftruGed the canal of Naviglio, running thence to Ferrara. Unduly recompenfed for this work, he went to Placentia, and planned a palace for the duke of Parma. After his return to Rome in 1550, he built feveral churches there ; and by the intereft of Vafari, pope Julius III. ap- pointed him his archite@. For him he built a villa, and near it the {mall church of St. Andrew, in form of an an- cient temple ; and by his command he brought the Acqua Vergine to Rome. After the death of Julius, he was em- ployed by cardinal Alexander Farnefe in the conttruction of his magnificent palace or caftle of Caprarola; and he had alfo the charge of building the church belonging to the profeffed houfe of Jefuits at Rome, which is an edifice of extraordinary beauty and grandeur. It was raifed only to the cornice before the death of Vignola, and finifhed by his difciple James della Porta. After the deceafe of Michael Angelo, Vignola was appointed to fucceed him as archite& of St. Peter’s, in conjunction with Pirro Ligorio, a Nea- politan. This engagement and his advanced age obliged him to decline accepting an invitation from Philip II. to the court of Spain. He was confulted, however, with regard to the different plans given for the Efcurial ; and one which he furnifhed was highly approved, though not adopted. His other profeffional labours were interrupted by a com- miffion from Gregory XIII. to fettle the limits between the territories of the church and thofe of the duke of Tuf- ‘cany ; which commiffion he executed to the pope’s fatis- faétion. Upon his return from this fervice, he was feized with a fever, of which he died in 1573, aged 66. His re- mains were folemnly interred in the church of Sta Maria della Rotunda, the ancient Pantheon. Vignola acquired reputation as an author no lefs than as a practical artift. _of Daviler, is moft efteemed. VIG His “ Rules for the five Orders of Architeéture’? were formed on the pureft tafte of antiquity, and have been al- ways reckoned claffical and original. This work has been often reprinted, and tranflated into almoft all the European languages. ‘The French tranflation, with the commentaries Vignola alfo wrote a treatife on “ Praétical Perfpeétive,”” which has paffed through many editions. ‘Tirabofchi. D’Argenville. Gen. Biog. VIGNOLES, Atpuonso pr, a learned Proteftant minifter, was born in 1649 at Aubais, in Languedoc, and received his education chiefly under domeftic tutors; and for the ftudy of theology he went to Saumur. He offi- ciated as minifter, firft at Aubais, and then at Cailar. On the revocation of the edi@ of Nantes, in 1685, he removed to Brandenburg, and ferved feveral churches for 14 years. In 1701 he was ele&ed a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin; and in 1703, by the recommendation of Leibnitz, the king ordered him to quit his church, and refide at Berlin, that he might be thus more ufeful to the Academy. He preached, however, for fome years at a church in the vicinity of Berlin. Upon the diftribution of the members of the Academy into claffes, Vignoles was placed firft in that of hiftorians, and afterwards in that of mathematicians. In 1727 he was chofen diretor of the Royal Academy, which poft he occupied with diftinguifhed re- putation. He died in 1744, at the advanced age of gs. He contributed a variety of eflays and differtations on hif- tory, chronology, and antiquities, to the ‘ Bibliotheque Germanique,”’ the “* Memoirs of the Berlin Academy,’? and the «* Hiftoire Critique de la Republique des Lettres.’? His principal feparate work, the refult of labour and much erudition, was ** Chronologie de |’ Hiftoire fainte, et des Hiftoires étrangéres qui la concernant, depuis la Sortie d’ Egypte jufqu’a la Captivité de Babylon,” Berlin, 1738, 2 vols. 4to. Moreri. VIGNOLY, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Bafili- cata; 5 miles $.S.E. of Potenza. VIGNORY, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne; 10 miles S. of Joinville. VIGNOT, a town of France, in the department of the Meufe, on the Meufe ; 17 miles E. of Bar le Duc. N. lat. 48° 46'. E. long. 5° 41!. VIGNUOLA, or Vienota, a town of Italy, in the department of the Panato; 15 miles §.E. of Modena. VIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife; 8 miles W. of Pontoife. VIGO, Giovanni pa, in Biography, an eminent fur- geon, born in Genoa, and in 1503 invited to Rome by pope Julius II. to be his firft furgeon. Healfo received a confiderable penfion from the pope’s nephew, cardinal della Rovere. His work, entitled. ‘* Pra&tica in Arte Chirur- gica copiofa,’’ firft publifhed at Rome in 1514, folio, be- came very popular, and was often reprinted. It is a very full compendium of the art of furgery, (as then known and prattifed,) and contains alfo a {yftem of ‘anatomy and of materia medica, and was long regarded as a ftandard work. Another of his works, entitled “* Chirurgia Compendiofa,”’ 1517, is akind of fummary of the former, and fome new obfervations. Haller. Eloy. Vico, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province of Galicia, fituated on a bay of the Atlantic, de- fended by a fort on an eminence, but not capable of great refiftance. It has alfo an old caftle, and ftands in a very fruitful country. In 1589, Vigo was plundered by fir Francis Drake. In 1702, the Englifh and Dutch fleets forced their paffage in, and made themfelves mafters of the Spanifh plate-fleet, when juft returned from America. In 17195 VIL 1419, the Englifh again took poffeffion of the place, but re- linquifhed it after raifing contributions ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Tuy. N. lat. 42° 14!. W. long. 8° 43!. VIGOER, a town of Norway, in the province of Ber- gen; 25 miles E. of Bergen. VIGOLO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 15 miles S. of Piacenza. VIGOLZANO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 8 miles S. of Piacenza. VIGONE, a town of France, in the department of the Po; 14 miles S.S.W. of Turin. VIGORETZKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Olonetz; 20 miles E. of Povenetz. VIGOROSO, or VicorosaMENTE, in the /talian Mufic, is ufed to direét a performer to fing or play with vigour, ftrength, and firmnefs. VIGTEN, in Geography, an ifland in the North fea, near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 64° 55'. E. long. Pi Ol VIGULONE, a town of the duchy of Parma; 15 miles S.S.W. of Parma. ; VIHELY, a town of Hungary; 10 miles N.E. of Patak. VIHIERS, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri@, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 20 miles S. of Angers. N. lat. 47°9'. W. long. 27!. VIJAR, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ; 13 miles N.E. of Almeria. VIJAYA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a grand- daughter of Brahma, her father being Dakfha. ‘The name Vijaya, like Sarvajaya, means viforious or all-conquering, and is given to Parvati in fome of her martial charaéters. In fome books it is related, that in the procefs of churning the ocean, as defcribed in our article KuRMAVATARA, a flower or plant was produced, called Vijaya, or ever vic- torious, which Siva kept for his own ufe. UJIBO, in Geography, a town of South America, in the jurif{diétion of Guayaquil. VIKA, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 6 miles S.E. of Fahlun. VIKRAMA, or VixramapiryA, in Biography, a cele- brated aftronomer and legiflator of the Hindoos. The era named after him, corrupted into Bickermajit or Beeker- majeet, is in very extenfive ufe in the Eaft, both among Hindoos and Mahometans; though the latter, of courfe, generally among themfelves adopt that of the Hegira. In the ninth volume of the Afiatic Refearches is a learned eflay by Mr. Wilford on the era named after this celebrated aftronomer, who was a monarch alfo. His capital was Ougein, under which article we have given fome account of that very interefting city, and fome notice of its royal patron, and his era. VILAINE, in Geography, a river of France, which rifes near Ernée, in the department of the Mayenne, paffes by Vitré, Chateaubourg, Rennes, Redon, Rieux, la Roche Bernard, &c. andruns into the Atlantic, g miles below the laft town. VILAINES, a town of France, in the department of the Céte d’Or; 8 miles S. of Chatillon fur Seine. VILAR de Belle, a town of France, in the department of the Aude; 12 miles S. of Carcaffonne. VILASAR, a town of Spain, on the fouth coaft of Catalonia; z miles W. of Matara. VILASK, a town of Hungary; 8 miles N. of Libeten. VILBEL, a town of Germany, in the county of Hanau- Munzenourg, on the Nidda; 4 miles N. of Franckfort on the Maine. VED VILBESTRE, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 43 miles S. of Salamanca. VILCABAMBA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Cufco; 60 miles N.N.W. of Cufco.—Alfo, a town of Peru; 70 miles S.S.E. of Cufco.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the province of Quito; 15 miles S. of Loxa. VILCAS CUAMAN, or Bircas, a town of Peru, and principal place of a jurifdi€tion of the fame name, in the bifhopric of Guamanga. The air is temperate, and the foil produces corn and fruit, and feeds abundance of cattle. The Indians are induftrious, and employed in manufaétures of different kinds of ftuff. EE es a town of Croatia; 6 miles S. of Sluin. : VILEPATTY, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 12 miles W.N.W. of Trinkamaly. VILEVO, a town of Sclavonia; 34 miles N.W. of Efzek. VILFA, in Botany, an arbitrary name of Adanfon’s, in his Fam. des Plantes, v. 2. 495, adopted by Mr. Kunth, in Humboldt’s Nov. Gen. "et Sp. Pl. v. 1. 137. We can- not account for this adoption, there being nothing to recom- mend the name. Happily the genus which it defignates is Mr. Brown’s Sporosotus. See that article. VILILLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Aragon, on the left fide of the Ebro; 27 miles S.E. of Saragofia. VILKIOT, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ; 23 miles N.W. of Calmar. VILL, Vitta. See VILLAGE. VILLA, a town of Etruria; 13 miles S.S.E. of Pon- tremoli.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the province of Paraguay ; go miles E. of Aflumption.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of Brafil. SS. lat. 20° gl. Vita, La, a town of New Grenada, on the Madalena ; 16 miles N. of Neyba.—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Veragua, fituated on the river Veragua, with a harbour fit to receive veflels of forty tons. Vitta Bella, a town of Brafil, in the government of Matto Groffo. Vitta Boa, a town of Brafil, and capital of the govern- ment of Goyas; 450 miles N.W. of Rio Janeiro. S. lat. 17°. W. long. 51° 24!. ViLLA Boim, atown of Portugal, in Alentejo; 4 miles S.W. of Elvas. Vitta Bona, a town of Spain, in Guipufcoa, on the Orio; 6 miles from Tolofa. : Vitua do Carmo, a town of Brafil, in the government of Minas Geraes; 20 miles E.N.E. of Villa Rica. S. lat. 20° 20'. W. long. 44° 30’. Vitta Cham, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 11 miles E. of Coimbra. Vitta Chan, a town of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho; 5 miles N.W. of Barcelos. Vitia Clara, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 20 miles N.W. of Spiritu Santo. Vitua de Conde, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Entre Duero e Minho, fituated on the N. fide of the river Aue; 9 miles E.S.E. of Barcelos. N. lat. 41° 23’. E. long. 8° 21!. Vita Diego, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, on the Pifuerga ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Burgos. Viuva Fallet, a town of France, in the department of the Stura; 5 miles N.N.W. of Coni. Vitta Fauftini, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great Britain, in the fifth Iter of the route of Antonine, between Colonia Wik Golonia or Colchefter, and Icianos or Chefterford. This ftation is placed by Camden, Gale, and Baxter, at St. Ed- mund’s Bury, in Suffolk; but Mr. Horfley prefers thofe copies of the Itinerary which have xxv for the numerals, and fixes it at Dunmow. Wherever it was fituated, it pro- bably derived its name from fome great Roman called Faultinus having a country feat there. Vitia Fernanda, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo; 14 miles E. of Eftremoz. Vitra Flor, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes; 12 miles S.E. of Mirandela.—ALfo, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 7 miles N.N.W. of Oo Crato Vitra de Frades, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 4 miles N. of Beja. ViiLa Franca, a town of Italy, in the department of the Benaco; 13 miles N. of Mantua.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; 13 miles N.E. of Cordova.— Alfo, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, on the Tormes; 25 miles S. of Avila.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ; 9 miles S. of Frias.—Alfo, atown of Spain, in Old Catftile ; io miles E. of Burgos.—Alfo, a fea-port, and capital of St. Michael, one of the Azores iflands. It is the moft ancient town in the whole ifland; and fo called from its being at firft a free port. Before its harbour lies an ifland, about a mile in circumference, and towards the fea the town is defended by a fort and fome other works. It confifts of 1813 hearths, has two parifh churches and two convents.— Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 12 miles N.W. of Ponferrada.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Leon; 35 miles W. of Aftorga.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan; 14 miles W. of Trevigio.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Dora; 3 miles S.E,. of Aofta.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Po; 16 miles S.S.W. of Turin.—Alfo, a fea-port town of France, in the department of the Maritime Alps, late the county of Nice, with two caftles. The harbour is theltered by fome lofty hills, founded in 1295 by Charles II. king of Naples, who was earl of Provence: the citadel was built by duke Emanuel Philibert; 3 miles E. of Nice. Vitra Franca de Panades, a town of Spain, in Cata- lonia, and principal place of a viguery ; 20 miles S.W. of Barcelona. Vitis Franca de Xira, a town of Portugal, in Eftrema- dura, on the N. fide of the Tagus; 15 miles N.E. of Lifbon. Vitra Frechos, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 7 miles W.N.W. of Riofeco. Vita Gaba, a town of Brafil, in the government of St. Paul; 95 miles N.N.E. of St. Paul. S. lat. 22° 15/. W. long. 46° 6'. ViLLA Garcia, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura; 4 miles N. of Llerena. VitLA Harta, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, on the left fide of the Guadiana; 36 miles W. of Civdad Real. Vitta Hermofa, or Dilla de Mofa, atown of Mexico, in the province of Tabafco, on a river navigable by boats to Tabafco ; chiefly inhabited by Indians ; 56 miles S.W. of Tabafco. N. lat. 17° 40o!, W. long. 94° 16/. VitLA Hermofa, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 15 miles W.S.W. of Alcaraz. Ao, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia; 24 miles N. of Segorbe. Vitia de Horta, the chief town of Fayal, one of the Azores iflands. It is fituated in the bottom of the bay of Payal, or De Horta, clofe to the edge of the fea, and is cetended by two caftles, one at each end of the town, and a wall of ftone-work, extending along the fea-fhore, from Vou. XXXVII. VIL the one to the other. But thefe works are in a ftate of decay, and feem more for fhow than ftrength. They brighten the profpeét of the city, which makes a fine appearance from the road; and if we except the Jefuits? college, the monafteries, and churches, there is not another building that has any thing to recommend it, within or with- out. ‘There is not a glafs window in the place, except thofe of the churches, and in a country-houfe which lately belonged to the Englifh conful; all the others being latticed, which to an Englifhman has the afpeét of prifons. This little city is crowded with religious buildings; it has three convents of men, and two of women, and eight churches. The Jefuits’ college is a fine ftru€ture, and is feated on an eminence in the pleafanteft part of the city. Since the expulfion of that order it is finking into decay, and will probably foon be completely ruined. The Fayal wine, as it is called, is raifed on the ifland Pico, and {hipped abroad from De Horta, chiefly to America; from which circumftance it derives itsname. Its bay or road of Fayal is fituated at the E. end of the ifle before the Villa de Horta, and facing the W. end of Pico. It is two miles broad, three-quarters of a mile deep, and has a femicircular form. N. lat. 38° 31! 55". W. long. 28° 38! 56". Viti d’Iglefias, or Villa di Glefia, a town of the ifland of Sardinia, and fee of a bifhop, in 1513 united to Cagliari; 36 miles S.W. of Cagliari. N. lat. 39° 28/. E. long. 8° 42!. Vitta Jmprenta, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio, on the Tione; 9 miles E. of Mantua. Vitxa Joiofa, or Joyfa, a town of Spain, in Valencia, on the coaft of the Mediterranean; 18 miles N.N.E. of Alicant. Vitra de Laguna, or Lagoa, a town of Brafil, in the jurifdiGtion of Rio de Janeiro. ; Vitta Magna, or Villa Privata, in Ancient Geography, a place of Africa Propria, upon the route from Carthage to ing i between Pontezita and Fifida Vicus. Anton. tin. Vitta Magna, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra; 51 miles S.E. of Civita di Chieti. Vitta Major, a town of Spain, in Galicia, on the coait of the Atlantic; 27 miles S.W. of St. Jago.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 12 miles S. of Saragofla. VitLta Martin, a town of Spain, in Seville; 12 miles N.E. of Arcos.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Leon; 22 miles E. of Leon. Vitta Mayor, a town of Spain, in Leon; 30 miles S. of Leon. Vitra de la Monclova, or Le Coagula, a town of New Mexico, in the province of New Leon. VittA Mofa. See Vitta Hermofa. Vitta de Motta, a town of Iftria; 3 miles S. of Capo d’ Iftria. Vitia Nova, a town of France, in the department of the Sefia; 3 miles S. of Vercellii—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Dora; 4 miles W. of Aofta. Vitwa Nova d’ Alvio, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 18 miles N. of Beja. Vitta Nova d’Angos, a town of Portugal, in Eftre- madura; 5 miles S. of Montemor o Velho. : Vitia Nova d’ Affi, a town of France, in the department of the Tanaro, fo called becaufe it was built by the in- habitants of Afti, from the ruins of fome neighbouring villages; and when they underftood the advantages of its fituation, they furrounded it with walls, baftions, ramparts, deep foffes filled with water, half-moons, and other ee Z t VIL Yt has befides two ancient towers, and two churehes; 11 miles E. of Turin. Vinita Nova de Barcarota, a town of Spain, in Eltre- madura; 27 miles S. of Badajos. Vitta Nova da Cervera, a town of Portugal, on the S. fide of the Minho, near its mouth, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho; 27 miles N.N.W. of Braga. N. lat. 41°'55'. “W. long. 8°27. : ; VILLA Nova de Ficalbo, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo, on the confines of Spain; 24 miles S.E. of Beja. Vitis Nova de Foffaa, a town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Beira; 12 miles S.E. of St. Joao da Pefqueira. Vitia Nova de Meya, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 13 miles N.N.E. of Balaguer. Vinita Nova de Milfontes, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo; 11 miles S. of Sines. Vitta Nowa de Moncarros, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 16 miles W. of Montemor o Velho. Vitis Nova de Portimao, a {ea-port town on the S. coaft of Portugal, and province of Algarve. It is a fortified town, built in the year 1463, and contains about 500 moftly {mall and poor houfes, furrounded by a high wall, beyond which is a {mall fuburb, and is garrifoned by two com- panies. The river of Villanova flows clofe to the walls, is here confiderably broad (next to the Guadiana, which is the largeft in Algarvia), and difcharges itfelf half a league from thence between high downs into the fea. The bar is dan- gerous, and the fand-banks fhifting, fo that the harbour cannot be very important ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Lagos. N. lat. 37° 5'. W. long. 8° 28/. Vitwa Nova de Porto, atown of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Entre Duero e Minho, on the left fide of the Duero, oppofite Oporto, built in the year 1255, and con- taining about 3000 inhabitants. Vitxa Nova del Principe, a town of Brafil, in the jurif- diGtion of Bahia. N. lat. 17° 10!. W. long. 42° 34). Vitia Nova del Rio, atown of Spain, in the province of Seville, near the Guadalquivir; 18 miles N.N.E. of Seville. Vitra Nueva, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the coaft of the Mediterranean. It has no harbour, but a good road; 24 miles W. of Barcelona.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Afturia; 43 miles W. of Oviedo. Vitta Nueva de Gallego, a town of Spain, in Aragon, on the Gallego ; 6 miles from Saragofla. Vitta Nueva de Jaro, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; 27 miles N.N.E. of Cordova. Vitra Nueva de los Infantes, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 12 miles S. of Orenfe. Vitra Nueva de la Serena, atown of Spain, in Eftre- madura ; 63 miles N. of Seville. Vitta Nuova, a town of Htria; 9 miles E.S.E. of Umago.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Sardinia ; 10 miles S. of Algeri.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po; 18 miles E. of Cremona.—Alfo, a town of the Popedom, inthe marquifate of Ancona, on the coaft of the Adriatic ; 10 miles E. of Macerata. VitLa Obleda, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 28 miles N. of Alcaraz. Vitia Ombrofa, a town of Etruria; 14 miles E. of Florence. Vizia del Ovo, a town of Brafil, in the jurifdiGtion of Matto Groflo. Vita do Ponte Trappa, a town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Beira; 18 miles N.E. of Vifeu. Vii del Principe, atown of the ifland of Cuba; 145 miles N.W. of St. Jago. N. lat. 21° 17’. W. long. 77° 45'. 9 VIL Vitra do Principe, a town of Brafil, in the government of Minas Geraes; 360 miles N. of Rio Janeiro. This town is fituated on the declivity of a lofty hill, the bafe of which is wafhed by a rivulet called Corvinha de quatro Vergtems. It was eftablifhed as a comarco, or diftri&, in the year 1730, when the gold-wafhings were moft produétive ; though it dates its origin about fifteen years earlier, when the place was difcovered by the Paulifts, at the commencement of their migration from Villa Rica and the adjacent fettle- ments. At prefent the town contains about 5000 in- habitants, moft of whom are fhop-keepers, and the reft attifans, farmers, miners, and labourers. As this town is fituated very near the confines of the Diamond diftri@, and on the high road leading to it, the paflage of all perfons thither is fubje€t to the ftri€teft regulations. ‘The country round is very fine and open, being free from thofe impene- trable woods, which occur fo frequently in other parts of the province. Its foil is in general very produétive, and the climate mild and falubrious. N. lat. 17° 6’. W. long. 42° 44! _ Vita Real, a town of Portugal, in the province of Algarve, built by Pombal, four leagues from Tavira. It is fituated at the mouth of the Guadiana, which is here a broad and fine ftream. It is built with perfe& regularity, the ftreets in which are the handfomett houfes being fituated on the bank of the river, and the {maller houfes at a greater diftance. The pavement is good, and in the middle of the town is a handfome fquare, in which the town-houfe ftands. But it is in a lamentable degree deftitute of inhabitants, and without a company of foldiers, the place would be quite empty- Poverty every where appears, the adjacent country being very fandy, and the foil in many places confifting entirely of quickfand: the downs are planted with fig-trees. The entrance of the harbour is broad but not very deep. The town derives all its fupplies, even of bread, from Ayamonte, the deftruétion of which was aimed at by the founder of this town—Alfo, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes, containing two churches, two hofpitals, three convents, and about 2400 inhabitants; 9 miles N. of Lamego.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Valencia; 20 miles E. of Segorbe.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Guipufcoa ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Placentia. Vitta Real de Conceicad, a town of Brafil, in the govern- ment of Minaes Geraes; 40 miles N.W. of Villa Rica. Vitra del Rey, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura, on the borders of Portugal, taken by the allies in the year 1706 ; 12 miles N. of Badajoz. Alo, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 22 miles S.E. of Orenfe. Vita dela Reyna, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura; 12 miles E. of Llerena. Vitta Rica, a town of Brafil, and capital of the jurifdiGtion of Minaes Geraes; 150 miles N. of Rio Janeiro. §. lat. 20° 25’. W. long. 44° 36’. The town ftands on a fteep and lofty eminence, connected with others forming an immenfe chain, of which it is one of the higheft. Moft of the ftreets, irregular and badly paved, range in fteeps from the bafe to the fummit, and are crofled by others which lead up the acclivity; but its environs exhibit few traces of cultivation. This town has been denominated the rich village; it is the capital of the pro- vince and the feat of its government, and has for many years been reputed the richeft in Brafil, as it was the depofitory of all the gold found in the extenfive furround- ing diftri&. This town is admirably fupplied with water, which is conduéted in a very convenient manner into almoft every houfe; and in the ftreets are many fountains that are well conftru@ted. One ciftern contains water having a {trong VIL ftrong tafte of fulphate of iron, which the natives confider as ferviceable in the cure of cutaneous difeafes, and in which they often bathe. The town is divided into two parifhes, and contains a population of about 20,000 inhabitants, of whom there are more whites than blacks. The climate is delightful, and fup- pofed to be equal to that of Naples ; and though the latitude is only 20° 3', yet on account of its elevated fituation, the temperature of the air is generally moderate. The ther- mometer never exceeds 82°in the fhade, and is rarely below 48°; but its ufual range is from 64° to 80° in fummer; and from 48° to 70° in winter. The greateft heats prevail in January. Here are frequent fhowers of rain, and thunder- ftorms are common, but not violent. The fun is fometimes clouded by dews and mift fo denfe, as not to fubfide until the forenoon is far advanced. The gardens in the vicinity of the town are laid out with great tafte, and prefent a curious {peétacle, by their arrangement on the declivity of the mountain. ‘They furnifh an ample fupply of vegetables of every kind, as artichokes, afparagus, ipinach, cabbage, kidney-beans, and potatoes. The peach, which is the only exotic fruit hitherto introduced, flourifhes in an aftonifhing degree. The town is of confiderable extent, but not fo well peopled as when the mines were rich. The fhop-keepers are a numerous clafs, and they are plentifully fupplied with all forts of Englifh merchandize, except earthenware, hams, rter, and butter, which articles are dear. The market is ill fupplied, notwithftanding the fertility of the furrounding diftri@. Poultry might be had at a moderate price, from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. per couple; beef was tolerable; pork very fine; but mutton utterly unknown. When Mr. Mawe vifited this town in the year 18c9, fome of the inhabitants told him that it ought now to be termed * Villa Pobra,”’ inftead of “ Villa Rica.’? Of above 2000 habita- tions which the town contained, a confiderable proportion were untenanted, and the rents of the reft were continually lowering. The mountain on which the town ftands appeared to be eight or nine miles in length, narrow and almoft infulated, being furrounded by deep ravines. It is compofed of argil- laceous fchiftus in almoft every gradation, migrating from the compaét blue flate into micaceous {chiftus. The firit difcovery of this once rich mountain was owing to the enter- prifing fpirit of the Paulifts, who, of all the colonies in Brafil, retained the largeft portion of that ardent and inde- fatigable zeal for difcovery which charaGterized the Lufi- tanians of former days. They penetrated from their capital, St. Paul’s, through impervious woods, and difputed every iuch of their progrefs with the barbarous Indians. Follow- ing the courfe of rivers, they occafionally found gold; till arriving at this mountain, its riches arrefted their progrefs, and erecting temporary houfes, they began their operations. They were foon joined by other adventurers from St. Paul’s and other places. Their wealth proved the occafion of con- tefts between the firft fettlers and new adventurers. When tranquillity was re-eftablifhed, a regular town began to be formed in 1711, and a code of laws enacted for the regulation of the mines. A fifth in weight of the gold-duft that was found was taken for the king, and the remainder purified, {melted into ingots at the expence of government, then afflayed, marked according to their value, and delivered to the owners, with a certificate to render them earneft : and for the convenience of trade, gold-duft was allowed to cir- culate for {mall payments. Smuggling, however, gained ound, and new regulations and provifions were adopted or reftraining it. Villa Rica foon enjoyed a confiderable VILE trade with Rio de Janeiro: the returns were negroes, iron, woollens, falt, provifions of various kinds, and wine, which then bore very high profits. About the year 1713, the royal fifth amounted to half a million fterling annually. Antonio Dias, the leader of the Paulifts, who difcovered this fource of wealth, and became very rich, built a fine church, and at his death endowed it with confiderable funds: it {til bears his name: five or fix others were begun and foon finithed. The town alfo underwent many improvements ; its ftreets were more regularly built, and the fide of the mountain le- velled for the fcite of new houfes and gardens ; refervoirs and fountains of water were con{tru@ted in different parts ; and the mint and {melting-houfes were enlarged. ‘The num- ber of inhabitants at this time amounted to 12,000, or up- wards. Between the year 1730 and 1750, the mines were in the height of their profperity ; the king’s fifth, as it is faid, amounting to at leaft a million iterling. At the prefent day, Villa Rica fearcely retains a fhadow of its former fplendour. Its inhabitants are unemployed, and the culture of the adjacent country negle&ted. Almoft every trade is now occupied either by mulattoes or negroes, both of which claffes feem fuperior in intelle& to their maf- ters, becaufe they make a better ufe of it. However, the vicinity furnifhes the means of acquiring wealth by its mines of gold, iron, and porcelain clay, &c. if the inhabitants i underftanding or application to convert them into real value. At the diftance of eight miles from Villa Rica is Mari- ana, feparated from it by a tremendous and almoft impaffable road, along a ridge of mountains. The Rio del Carmen runs through this town. This was made a bifhop’s fee about the year 1715, and called Cidade de Mariana, in honour of the then reigning queen of Portugal. This is a fmall, neat, well-built town, containing from 6000 to 7000 inhabitants. It has a college for the education of young men defigned for the church. This place has little trade, and depends chiefly on the mines and feams in its vicinity. Mawe’s Travels. Vitta Rica, a town of South America, in the province of Paraguay; 100 miles N.E. of Affumption.—Alfo, a town of Chili; 60 miles N.E. of Valdivia. S. lat. 38° so’. W. long. 73° 10. Vitra Rodrigo, a town of Spain, in the provinee of Leon ; 40 miles E. of Leon, Vitis Rubia, a town of Spain, in New Cattile ; 6 miles E, of Ocana. Vitta Rubia de los Ojos, atown of Spain, in New Cattile; 12 miles N. of Calatrava. Vitwa de los Santos. See SANTOS. ViLLA de Sapra, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 15 miles W. of Gemona. Vita Savary, La, a town of France, in the department of the Aude; 14 miles W. of Carcaffonne. Vita de Sul, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 5 miles W. of Vifeu, Vita del Valle, a town of South America, in the pro- vince of Chiquitos. Vitra de Valle Fertile, a town of South America, in the province of Cuyo; 80 miles S.E. of Juan de la Frontera. Vitta Vecchia, a town of the Ligurian Republic ; 12 miles N. of Genoa. Vitis Veja, atown of South America, in the govern- ment of Bahia, at firft called St. Salvador. Vitta Vella de Rodao, a town of Portugal, in Eftrema- dura; 17 miles S.S.W. of Caftel Branco. Vitta Vicento, atown of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 30 miles S. of Leon. Vitra Vigofa, or Villa Vizoga, or Villa Viciofa, a cap Lz ta) VIL of Portugal, in Alentejo, containing two parilh churches, eight convents, and about 3700 inhabitants. In the neighbour- hood is dug fome beautiful green marble. Near it is a royal palace, with a park; 97 miles N.E. of Evora, N. lat. 38° 39'. W. long. 7° 12!. Vita Viciofa, a town of Spain, in the province of Cor- dova; 25 miles N.N.W. of Cordova.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the province of Quito; 10 miles S.E. of Quito.—Alfo, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province of Afturias, fituated at the bottom of a bay of the Atlantic ; 30 miles N.E. of Oviedo. : Vitia Vieja, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile; 34 miles E. of Burgos. Vitta Regis, or Regia, a title anciently given to thofe villages where the kings of England had a royal feat, and held the manor in their own demefne ; having there com- monly a free chapel exempt from the bifhop’s jurifdiétion. VILLABAR, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tras os Montes; 15 miles S.E. of Miran- dela. VILLACANAS, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 32 miles E.S.E. of Toledo. VILLACASTIN, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ; 18 miles W.S.W. of Segovia. VILLACERYF, a town of France, in the department of the Aude; 8 miles N.W. of Troyes. VILLACH, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the right fide of the Drave. Near the town are fome medicinal baths ; 18 miles W. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46°43'. E. long. 13° 39). VILLACO, a town of the ifland of Corfica, in the diltri& of Corte. VILLACURI, a town of Peru, in the audience of Lima; 12 miles E.S.E. of Pifco. VILLADA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 27 miles N.W. of Palencia. VILLA: Prepositus. See PRepositus. VILLAFAFILA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 20 miles N.N.E. of Zamora. VILLAFELICHE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Aragon; 3 miles N. of Daroca. VILLAFREDDA, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 9 miles N.N.W. of Sezza. VILLAFRIA, atownof Spain, in Guipufcoa ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Trevigno. VILLAGE, Vita, or Vill, an affemblage of houfes, inhabited chiefly by peafants and farmers, having ufually a church, but no market. The word is French, tormed of wil, or wilis, low, mean, contempiible: or rather, from the Latin villa, a country-hou/e, or farm. The want of a market diftinguifhes a village from a town, as the church does from a green, ffrect, &c. Among our Saxon anceltors, vill, or village, was ufed in the fenfe of the Roman vi//a; viz. for a country farm, or feat, furnifhed with convenient outhoufes, &c. for repofiting the fruits thereof, Afterwards it came to be taken for a manor ; and then for part of a parifh, or the parifh itfelf. Hence, in feveral ancient law-books, vil// and parifh are the fame thing: accordingly, Fortefcue de Laudibus Leg. Ang. writes, “ That the boundaries of villages are not by houfes, ftreets, or walls ; but by a large circuit of ground, within which may be divers hamlets, waters, woods, &c.?” Fleta makes this difference between a manjion, a village and a manor; that a manfion may confift of one, or more houfes ; though there is only to be one dwelling-place, with- out any other very near it: for if other houfes be conti- ¥ A zuous, it is then a village. A manor may confiit of one or more villages. : For the better government of villages, the lord of ‘the foil has ufually a power to hold a court-baron every three weeks. The ftatute of Exeter, 14 Edw. I., makes frequent men- tion of entire-vills, demi-vills, and hamlets. Entire-vills, fir H. Spelman conje&tures to have confifted of ten freemen, or frank-pledges, demi-vills of five, and ham- lets of lefs than five. See Town. VitLacE Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft coaft of Africa. S. lat. 14° 25!. VILLAGRA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 17 miles N. of Rio Seco. , VILLAIN, or Vite, Villanus, in our Ancient Cuf- toms, the fame with bondman; called alfo, in Domefday- book, fervus, flave. A villain was one who held lands in wvillenage, or on con- dition of rendering bafe fervices to his lord. Under the Saxon government, there was, as fir William Temple fpeaks, a fort of people in condition of downright fervitude, employed in the moft fervile works, and belong- ing, they, their children and effeéts, to the lord of the foil, like the reft of the cattle or ftock upon it. Thefe feem to have been thofe who held what was called the folk-land, from which they were removeable at the lord’s pleafure. On the arrival of the Normans here, it feems not improbable, that they, who were ftrangers to any other than the feodal ftate, might give fome {parks of enfranchifement to fuch wretched perfons as fell to their fhare, by admitting them, as well as others, to the oath of fealty, which conferred a right of proteétion, and raifed the tenant toa kind of ftate fuperior to downright flavery, but inferior to every other condition. This they called villenage, and the tenants villains, either from the word vilis, or elfe, as fir Edward Coke tells us, @ villa, becaufe they lived chiefly in villages, and were em- ployed in ruftic works of the moft fordid kind: hence they were alfo denominated pagenfes and ruffici. ‘Thefe villains, belonging principally to lords of manors, were either villains regardant, by the civilians called glebe addiéi or afcriptitiz, that is, annexed to the manor or land; or elfe they were iz grofs, or at large, that is, annexed to the perfon of the lord, and transferrable from one owner to another. "They could not leave their lord without his permiffion; but if they ran away, or were purloined from him, might be claimed and recovered by action, like beafts or other chattels. They held indeed {mall portions of land by way of fuftaining themfelves and families; but it was at the mere will of the lord, who might difpoffefs them whenever he pleafed; and it was upon villain fervices, that is, to carry out dung, to hedge and ditch the lord’s demefnes, and any other the meanett offices ; and their fervices were not only bafe, but uncertain both as to time and quantity. A villain could acquire no property either in lands or goods; but if he purchafed either, the lord might enter upon them, ouft the villain, and feize them to his own ufe, unlefs he contrived to difpofe of them again before the lord had feized them ; for the lord had then loft his opportunity. In many places alfo, a fine was payable to the lord, if the villain prefumed to marry his daughter to any one without leave from the lord ; and by the common law, the lord alfo might bring an action again{t the hufband for damages in thus purloining his property. For the children of villains were alfo in the fame ftate of bondage with their parents; whence they are called in Latin nativi, whence the female appellation of a villain, who was called a neife. In cafe of a marriage be- tween a freeman and a neife, or a villain and a cea the VIL the ilfue followed the condition of the father, being free if che was free, and villain if he was villain; but no baftard could be born a villain. The law, however, protected the perfons of villains, as the king’s fubjeéts, againft atrocious injuries of the lord; for he might not kill, or maim his vil- lain; though he might beat him with impunity, fince the villain had no aétion or remedy at law againift his lord, but in cafe of the murder of his anceftor, or the maiming of his own perfon. Neifes indeed had alfo an appeal of rape, in cafe the lord violated them by force. Villains might be enfranchifed by manumiffion. Hence, and by other means, they gained in procefs of time confi- derable ground on their lords ; and in particular ftrengthened the tenure of their eftates to that degree, that they came to have in them an intereft in many places full as good, in others better than their lords, For the good-nature and benevolence of many lords of manors having, time out of mind, permitted their villains, and their children, to enjoy their poffeffions without interruption, in a regular courfe of defcent, the common law gave them title to prefcribe againft their lords; and, on performance of the fame fervices, to hold their lands, in fpite of any determination of the lord’s will. For though, in general, they are faid to hold their eftates at the will of the lord; yet it is fuch a will as is agreeable to the cuftoms of the manor; which cuftoms are preferved and evidenced by the rolls of the feveral courts- baron in which they are entered, or kept on foot by the conitant immemorial ufage of the feveral manors in which the lands lie. And, as fuch tenants had nothing to fhew for their eftates but thefe cuftoms, and admiffions in pur- fuance of them, entered on thofe rolls, or the copies of {uch entries witnefled by the fteward, they now began to be called zenants by copy of a court-roll, and their tenure itfelf a copy- hold. Copy-holders are, therefore, in truth no other but villains, who, by a long feries of immemorial encroachments on the lord, have at laft eftablifhed a cuftomary right to thofe eftates, which were before held abfolutely at the lord’s will, Thefe encroachments at length became fo univerfal, that when tenure in villenage was virtually abolifhed (though copy-holds were referved) by the ftatute of Charles IT. there was hardly a pure villain left in the nation. To this -purpofe fir Thomas Smith teftifies, that in all his time (and -he was fecretary to Edward VI.) he never knew any villain in grofs throughout the realm; and the few villains re- -gardant that were then remaining, were fuch only as had be- longed to bifhops, monafteries, and other ecclefiaftical cor- porations, in the preceding times of popery. By feveral means, the generality of villains in the kingdom have long ago {prouted up into copy-holders ; their perfons being en- franchifed by manumiffion, or long acquiefcence ; but their eftates, in ftri€tnefs, remaining fubje&t to the fame fervile conditions and forfeitures as before ; though, in general, the villain fervices are ufually commuted for a {mall pecu- niary quit-rent. Blackft. Com. book ii. See VILLENAGE. Vitiain Lffate, or Condition, is contradiftinguifhed to Free eftate. See Bast Tenure, and VILLENAGE. VILLAINAGE. See ViLiEeNnace. VILLAINE, in Geography, a town of France, and prin- cipal place of a diftri&, in the department of the Mayenne ; 12 miles E.N.E. of Mayenne. N,. lat. 48°21/. W. long. of asl. VILLAINOUS Jupemenr, is that which calts the re- proach and ftain of villainy and fhame on him againft whom itis given. As that againft a confpirator, &c. See Con- SPIRACY. Lambard calls it villainous punifoment ; and fays, it may well be called villainous, in regard the judgment, in fuch ‘King’s hands, their trees rooted up, Se) BF cale, fhall be like the ancient judgment in attaint, vie. that the criminals fhall not be of any credit afterwards: nor fhall it be lawful for them, in perfon, to approach the king’s court: that their lands and goods fhall be feized into the their bodies impri- foned, &c. This villainous judgment is now become obfolete ; it not having been pronaunced for fome ages: but inftead of it, the Sanaa are ufually fentenced to imprifonment, fine, and illory. VILLALAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 12 miles N.N.W. of Rio Seco. VILLALBA, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura; 32 miles S.E. of Badajoz.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 18 miles S.W. of Mondonedo. VILLALON, a town of Spain, in the provitice of Leon; 25 miles W.N.W. of Palencia. VILLALPANDA, Joun-Barrist, in Biography, a native of Cordova, entered the fociety of Jefus in 1571, and diftinguifhed himfelf by a learned and diffufe commentary on the book of Ezekiel, in three vols. fol. Rome, 1596. It contains an elaborate defcription of the city and temple of Jerufalem. He alfo publithed, in 1598, « Explanatio Epif tolarum Sanéti Pauli,” under the name of Remi of Rheims, to whom he found it afcribed in a manufcript dated in 1067. This Jefuit died in 1608. Dupin. VILLALPANDO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 33 miles S. of Leon. VILLALTA, a town of Italy, in the country of Friuli; 5 miles W. of Udina. VILLALVA, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 15 miles S. of Mondonedo. VILLAMBEA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 25 miles S.S.E. of Madrid. VILLAMEA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 4 miles S. of Lamego. VILLAMEDO, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura; 12 miles W.S.W. of Talavera la Vieja. VILLAMENA de la Jarra, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; 27 miles N.N.E. of Cordova. VILLAMIEL, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 43 miles S. of Ciudad Rodrigo. VILLANDRAUDT, or VizranpRaApE, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde ; 8 miles W.N.W. of Bazas. VILLANDRY, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 9 miles W.S.W. of Tours. VILLANELLA, in /talian Mujic, ruttic airs that were fung about the ftreets of Naples in the 16th century, in three and four parts, as ferenades. ‘They are fometimes called villotte and villanefche alla Napolitana. VILLANI, Giovannt, in Biography, a native of Flo- rence, was old enough in 1300 to vifit Rome at the jubilee, and is fuppofed to have afterwards travelled into France and Flanders. In 1316 and 1317 he was one of the magiftrates called priors at Florence, and alfo in the latter year official of the mint, to whom was due an exact regifter, {till extant, of all the money coined at Florence in and before his time. He ferved in the Florentine army in 1323, and in 1328 con- trived means for relieving his poor countrymen at a period of diftreffing fearcity. On occafion of the failure of the company of Bonaccorfi, in which he had a fhare, in 1345, and to which he was not acceffory, he was committed to the public prifon, and his life was terminated by the plague, which feverely vifited Florence in 1348. Villani bears the character of one of the moft polifhed writers of his age, and the moft converfant in the hiftory of his country. His Hittory VIL Hiftory records, in twelve books, the events occurring in Florence from its foundation till the year of his death, and comprehends alfo the principal changes that happened in the other Italian provinces. The early part of this Hiltory abounds with errors and fables; but in defcribing the oc- currences of Tufcany in his own time, he is deemed a fafe guide, allowing for his partiality to the Guelph intereit, and for his unacknowledged extracts from the Hiftory of Ricor- dano Malafpini. This Hittory, which has been always much efteemed, both for its matter and the elegance of its ftyle, was firft printed by the Giunti of Florence in 1537, and the lateft of feveral editions of it was that of Milan, in the col- JeGtion of Italian hiftorians. It was continued after his death by his brother, Marrro Visrant, who brought it down to 1363, in which year, whil{t he was writing the 11th book, he was carried off by the plague. His Hiftory is not held in equal eftimation with that of his brother, its ftyle being too diffufe ; but he was contemporary with the events which he relates. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. Viriant, Firreeo, fon of Matteo, was educated for the law, and was for many years chancellor to the municipality of Perugia. But he chiefly devoted himfelf to literary pur- fuits, and in 1404 delivered leGtures on the Commedia of Dante. He added forty-two chapters to his father’s Hiftory of Florence, thus completing the 11th book. He alfo com- pofed the “ Lives of illuftrious Florentines,” originally written in Latin, but tranflated into Italian, and publifhed in 1747 by Mazzuchelli, with copious annotations. The firft book of this work treated of the origin and antiquities of Florence. 'irabofchi. Gen. Biog. VILLANTERIA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po; g miles S.W. of Lodi. VILLAR, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc; 9 miles W. of Conflans. Vintar Mayor, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 5 miles N. of Alfayates. Virtar de Canas, a town of Spain, in New Cattile ; 25 miles S. of Huete. Vitrar de Toro, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 1o miles N. of Alfayates. VILLARA, a town of Spain, in the province of Bif- cay; 13 miles S. of Bilbao. VILLARCAYO, a town of Spain, in Old Caitile; 12 miles N. of Frias. VILLARD de Lans, Le; a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere; 8 miles S.S.W. of Grenoble. Virxarp St. Pancrace, a town of France, m the depart- ment of the Higher Alps; 3 miles S. of Briancon. VILLAREJORUEIA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 35 miles S.E. of Cuenca. VILLARESIA, in Botany, a genus named after Mat- thew Villares, a Spanifh botanift, im the Flora Peruviana, p: 28, according to De Theis. We have no account of its charaters. VILLARET, Cravne px, in Biography, was born at Paris in 1715, and liberally educated, but prevented, by the pernicious influence of youthful paffions, from duly availing himfelf of his acquifitions. After writing a novel and a piece for the theatre, he quitted Paris in 1748, and went upon ‘the ftage at Rouen, and other places. But renounc- ing this mode of life at Liege in 1756, he returned to Paris, and becoming firft clerk in the chamber of accounts, he was reclaimed from his diffipated courfe, and made himfelf ac- quainted with thofe fources of French hiftory to which his office gave him accefs. On the death of the abbe Veily in 1759, he'was feleGted for continuing his Hiftory; and at the fame time was made fecretary to the peerage. His early VIL imprudence and his fubfequent application to bufinefs ter- minated his life in 1766. His continuation of the ‘ Hif- toire de France’? commences in the 8th volume, with the reign of Philip VI. and concludes in the 17th volume: it abounds with interefting remarks and curious anecdotes, but the reader is diverted from the main objeé& by prolixity of detail in prefaces and digreffions. The ftyle however is elegant and animated, but too rhetorical for the fimplicity of hiftory. Villaret was alfo the author of ‘“‘ Confiderations fur Art du Theatre,”? 1758; and “ L’ Efprit de Voltaire,” 1759. Nouv. Dié&. Hitt. VILLARIA, in Botany, was intended by Schreber to commemorate the excellent author of the ‘ Hiftoire des Plantes de Dauphiné,’’ M. Villars, formerly phyfician to the military hofpital at Grenoble, who died profeffor of botany at Strafburgh, two or three years ago, where his bier was elegantly decorated with wreaths of his own Rofa rubrifolia; fee Rosa, n. 44. He publifhed there, in 1807, a “Catalogue Méthodique du Jardin de l’ Ecole de Méde- cine de Strafbourg,” in French, according to Juffieu’s fyf- tem, with a hiftorical, critical and practical preface. Villars was an excellent and indefatigable obferver of nature, well worthy of commemoration, which makes us regret our total want of information refpecting his genus, except the generic charaéters given by Schreber. As this author did not live to write a work on the fpecies of plants, and has left no account of the native country, number of fpecies, nor any other circumftance in the hiltory of his Villaria, the genus can never be properly adopted. We fhall only here remark, that the name ought certainly to be VitLarsta ; fee that article. —Clafs and order, Dioecia Pentandria. Nat. Ord. perhaps Rhamni or Sapindi of Juffieu. Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, in five deep, {preading, roundifh, obtufe, concave, coriaceous, nearly equal, fegments, thinner at the margin, permanent ; two of them interior. Cor. Petals five, oblong, obtufe, flat, fpreading, coriaceous, thinner at the margin, twice the length of the calyx, permanent. Stam. Filaments five, awl- fhaped, ereét, half as long as the calyx ; anthers roundith, two-lobed. Pi/?. Germen orbicular, depreffed (we prefume imperfe&t); ftyle very fhort ; ftigma capitate. Female, Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Neétary of five ovate, obtufe, ere&t, permanent leaves, alternate with the petals, and not fo long. P#f. Germen turbinate, fomewhat ovate ; ftyle very fhort, fcarcely any; ftigma capitate, flightly three-cleft. Peric. Berry nearly globular, pointed with the permanent ftyle, three-celled. Seeds folitary. Obf. This defcription is materially defeGtive, inafmuch as there is no mention of the germen being inferior or fu- perior, nor indeed any ufeful information with regard to the re{pective infertion of the parts; except the leaves of the nectary being alternate with the petals, which, if true, mi- litates againft our conjeétures as to the natural order of this genus. Neverthelefs, we fhall attempt an effential charac- ter, in hopes that thofe who have accefs to the learned Schreber’s herbarium, may difcover, and communicate to the world, a complete hiftory of the plant in queftion. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla of five petals. Neary none. Germen orbicular, imperfed. Female, Cal. and Pet. like the male. Neary of five leaves, alternate with the petals. Style one. Berry of three cells. Seeds folitary. VILLARINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon, on the E. fide of the Duero, and con- fines of Portugal; 38 miles W. of Salamanca. VILLARLUENGO, a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 21 miles S.W, of Alcaniz, VILLA- Se VIL ~VILLAROYA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Aragon ; 15 miles N.W. of Calataiud. VILLARRAMIEL, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 16 miles W. of Palencia. VILLARS, Lovuis-Hecror, duke of, and marfhal of France, in Biography, was born at Moulins, in Bourbon- nois, in 1653, and commenced a military life in his youth. He ferved in Holland in 1672, fignalized his courage at the fiece of Maeftricht in 1673, and was wounded at the battle of Senef in 1674. We cannot follow him through all his gradations of advancement and difplays of military talents ; ‘but we find, at the famous battle of Blenheim, that he was deftined by Lewis XIV. to check the progrefs of Marl- borough. With an inferior army he kept the victors at bay, fo that the campaign of 1705 paffed off without any further lofs to France. After various other fervices, in which he diftinguifhed himfelf, he was appointed to command in Flanders againft the allies in 1709; and marching to the re- lief of Mons, he was attacked by Marlborough and Eugene at Malplaquet. The engagement was long and bloody, and though the French were driven from the field, the greateft lofs of men was fuftained by the victors. To a wound which compelled Villars to withdraw from the field, he at- tributed the lofs of the battle. In reference to this gaf- conade (as fome would be difpofed to call it), Voltaire ob- ferves, “I know that the marfhal himfelf was perfuaded of it, but I alfo know, that few others were fo.’’ As a fur- ther reward for his fervices, he was made a peer of France, and lieutenant-general of the bifhoprics of Metz and Ver- dun. Although France was relieved by the feparation of England from the alliance in 1712, Eugene produced con- fternation at Paris by befieging Landrecy with a fuperior force. On this occafion, Villars attacked a part of the allied army at Denain, which he entirely broke up, and this fuccefs led to the recovery of all the places loft by the French in that quarter, at the reftoration of their fuperiority. The peace of Utrecht followed ; and the emperor having refufed to be comprehended in it, marfhal Villars and Eugene held conferences at Raditadt in 1714, for a treaty between their refpective fovereigns, which they condu&ted with the franknefs of military men, and foon brought to a conclufion. Villars, who had expetienced the attacks of envy and jea- loufy at his own court, faid to Eugene on this occafion : * Sir, we are not enemies ; your enemies are at Vienna, and mine at Verfailles.” After the death of Lewis XIV., Villars for fome time maintained his credit at court ; being made prefident of the council of warin 1715, and one of the council of regency in 1718. But when Lewis’s fyitem was in agitation, he thought it his duty to ftate to the regent the evils which, in his apprehenfion, would refult from it ; and he thus contri- buted to the difcharge of that financier, and to the appoint- ment of his fucceflor. When the regency devolved upon the duke of Bourbon, Villars was always confulted, who was then at the height of his fortune :—'a marfhal of France, a duke and peer, governor of Provence, a grandee of Spain, a knight of the golden fleece, and a member of the council. What more was wanting, to gratify ambition? When France was excluded from the treaty that was brought about by the intrigues of the principal courts of Europe between the emperor, Spain and England, a war broke out in 1733, and Villars, with the title of general of the camps and armies (dormant fince Turenne), was fent, at the age of eighty, to command in the Milanefe. But though he met with fome fuccefs, age and infirmities would not allow him to make more than one campaign. On his return to France, he was feized with a diforder that termi- VIL nated his life at Turin. When his confeffor obferved to him, that God had favoured him with more time to prepare for death than marfhal Berwick, who had juft been killed by a cannon-ball at the fiege of Philipfburg, « What! (faid he) has he ended his life in that manner? I always faid that he was more fortunate than I.” He foon after expired, in June 1734, in the eighty-firft year of his age. The chara&er of Villars is thus delineated by one of his biographers.‘ Marfhal Villars was a true military genius, full of courage and confidence, who raifed himfelf by per- fifting in always doing more than his duty. He was re- proached with having lefs modefty than valour, and with {peaking of himfelf as he had deferved that others fhould {peak of him. Nor was he {paring of cenfures on others, and he employed rather defiance than conciliation towards his enemies. Though poffefling integrity and lively parts, he was therefore never able to render himfelf popular, or to acquire friends. In aétion he was always prefent where the danger was greateft; and he held it as a maxim, ‘that a general ought to expofe himfelf as much as he expofes others.’ ”? Villars was admitted into the French Academy in 1714. ‘* Memoirs of the Marfhal de Villars’? were printed in Holland, in three vols. 1734-36, the firft of which alone was written by himfelf. A more interefting publication appeared in 1784, entitled “ La Vie du Maréchal de Villars, écrite par lui-méme, et donnée au Public par M. Anque- til,” four vols. r2mo. This work contains the letters, re- colle&tions, and journal of the marfhal, properly arranged by the editor. Moreri. Gen. Biog. VitLars DE Montraucon pr, a relation of the cele- brated father Montfaucon, was educated for the church, and came from Touloufe to Paris in order to obtain diftinc- tion as a preacher. He was received into the beft company, and made himfelf known by feveral works, efpecially by his ** Comte de Gabalis, ou Entretiens fur les Sciences fecretes,”’ firft printed at Paris in 1670. This work is a kind of joco-ferious view of the Rofycrucian philofophy, rendered amufing as a romance. From this fource Pope derived his machinery of the ** Rape of the Lock.’? Villars, in con- fequence of this work, which was thought to contain here- tical notions, was forbidden the pulpit. He added to it a fecond part, and it has been feveral times reprinted; the la{t time in 1742, two vols. 12mo. He was alfo the author of feveral other works. He was killed by a piftol-fhot, by one of his relations, on the road from Paris to Lyons, in 1675, when he was about thirty-five years of age. Bayle. Moreri. 2 Virrars, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Ain; 8 miles S.E. of St. Trivier. VILLARSIA, in Botany, a genus more correctly named, as to its orthography, than Vittarta, (fee that article,) but with refpeét to its diftin@ive charaGter, we fear, lefs certain. It confifts of fuch fpecies of the Lin- nean Menyanthes, as have the corolla only partially covered with hairs, and the margin of whofe fegments is thin, in- flexed in the bud. The leaves moreover are fimple, not ternate. Gmelin had long ago eftablifhed this fame genus, in the Peterfburgh Tranfa@tions for 1769, by the name of Limnanthemum ; and Wiggers in his Primitie Flore Hol- fatie, p. 20, publifhed in 1780, by that of Wald/chmidia. Yet in fpite of thefe prior claims, Ventenat, in his Choix de Plantes, t. 9, hag followed a more recent authority, if it may fo be called, in naming thefe plants Villarfia, and he is followed by Mr. Brown, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 456. The authority to which we allude is that of another Gmelin, late profeffor at Gottingen, who in his compiled edition of Linnzus’s Syftema, took upon him to beftow gratuitous appellations VIL appellations on numerous genera, which the modeft unpre- tending Walter, in his Flora Caroliniana, had left for the future examination and decifion of more experienced bo- tanifts. His Anonymos, n. 109, 1s the Villarfia of this pro- feffor Gmelin, in Linn. Syit. Nat. v. 2. 4475 neither of thefe authors feeming to have the leaft idea of the plant being already defcribed or named.—Notwithftanding what thefe writers have done, Mr. Dryander, in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. I. 312, has followed the example of Linnzus, Juffieu, Schreber, Willdenow, and the writer of this in his Fl. Brit. and Englifh Botany, in keeping all the fpecies, which con- ftitute Villarfia, in the genus MenvanTues; fee'that article. There we truft they may fafely remain, and perhaps the above authorities may at leaft neutralize each other, with refpe& to botanical difcrimination, as well as nomenclature. We muft not omit that Mr. Purfh, in his Flora Amer. Sept. 139, has adopted the prefent Villarfia, but without throwing any new light upon its charaéters. VILLARUM Nomina. See Nomina. VILLASANDINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile; 20 miles N.W. of Burgos. VILLASECA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the coaft of the Mediterranean ; 6 miles W. of Tarragona. VILLASIDRA, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; ro miles N.E. of Villa d’I¢lefias. VILLATTE, a town of France, in the department of the Creufe ; 10 miles N.W. of Gueret. VILLAVANEZ, a town of Spain, in the province ot Leon; 12 miles S. of Palencia. VILLAYER Ferrans, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Doubs; 5 miles S.S.W. of Ornans. VILLAZIM, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 23 miles $.S.E. of Vifeu. VILLE, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine; 8 miles N.W. of Schletftatt.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Marne ; g miles S.W. of Rheims.—Alfo, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Marne; 9 miles N.N.W. of St. Menehould. Vitwe aux Cleres, La, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Loire and Cher; 24 miles N.W. of Blois. VittE Comtal, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 11 miles S.W. of Mirande.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 18 miles W. of St. Genies de Rivedolt. VitLE Franche, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the Aveiron ; 24 miles W. of Rhodez. N. lat. 44° 21!. E. long. 2° 7!.W—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne ; 6 miles E. of Caftel Jaloux.—Alfo, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&t, in the department of the Upper Garonne, on the Garonne; 18 miles S.E. of Touloufe. N. lat. 43° 24’. E. long. 1° 49’.—Alfo, a town of France, and feat of a tribunal, in the department of the Rhéne and Loire, on the right bank of the Rhéne. It is furrounded with walls and ditches; 34 pofts N. of Lyons. N. lat. 46° 7!. E. long. 4° 48/.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 15 miles S.W. of Moulins.— Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Dor- dogne ; 15 miles S.W. of Mucidan. Vite Franche d’ Albigeots, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Tarn; 8 miles E.S.E. of Alby. Vite Franche d’ Aflarac, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gers ; 14 miles S. of Auch. Vite Franche de Conflans, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Eaftern Pyrenées; defended by a fort, erected in the reign of Louis KIV.; 27 miles W.S.W. of Perpignan. 7 VIL Witte Franche de Panat, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Aveiron; 6 miles W. of Milhau. Vitte Franche de Perigord, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 36 miles S.S.E. of Peri- gueux. Vizxe fur Iilon, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges; 9 miles W. of Epinal. Vitwe en Tardenois, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 10 miles S.W. of Rheims. Vitwx fur Tourbe, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 8 miles N.N.W. of St. Menehould. Vite Vaucance, a town of France, in the department of the Ardéche ; 14 miles N.N.W. of Tournon. Vittz Vien, La, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 8 miles S. of Poitiers. VILLEBERNIER, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mayne and Loire; 3 miles E. of Saumur. VILLEBOIS, a town of France, in the department of the Ain; 6 miles S. of St. Rambert. VILLEBOURG, or Vitte Boureau, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 18 miles N.N.W. of Tours. VILLEBRUMIER, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Upper Garonne; 15 miles S.E. of Caftel Sarafin. VILLECROSE, a town of France, in the department of the Var; 9 miles N.N.W. of Draguignan. ; VILLEDIEU, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; g miles N.W. of Chollet.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 12 miles §.S.E. of Poitiers.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Loire and Cher; 18 miles W. of Vendéme.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Channel; 8 miles N.N.E. of Avranches. VILLEFAGNAN, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Charente ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Ruffec. VILLEFLEUR, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine ; 2 miles N. of Cany. ’ VILLEFORE; Josrpu-Francois-BouRGOIN DE, in Biography, was born of a noble family at Paris in 1652, and liberally educated. In 1706 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Infcriptions ; but withdrew from it in 1708, becaufe he did not choofe to perform its burdenfome exercifes. He paffed the remainder of his life in the cloifter of the metropolitan church, and died in 1737, at the age of 85. His hiftorical and biographical works, the latter being chiefly religious, were numerous. He alfo made feveral tranflations from St. Auguftine, St. Bernard, and Cicero, which are faithful, and occafionally elegant. He was likewife the author of fome fmaller pieces in claffical literature. Moreri. VILLEFORT, in Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the Lozere ; 20 miles E. of Mende. N. lat. 44°27!. E. long. 3° 50!. VILLEHARDOUIN, Georrror px, in Biography, was marfhal of Champagne, an office held by his father and his defcendants. He took a principal part in the fourth crufade of 1198, which produced the capture of Conftan- tinople by the French and Venetians in 1204 ; and of this expedition he wrote or ditated a narrative, which is curious and interefting. The beft edition is that of Du-Cange, fol. 1657, with many notes. Moreri. VILLEIN Fuexrces, in our Statutes, are bad fleeces of wool, fhorn from feabby fheep. 31 Edw. III. cap. $. VILLEJUIF, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Paris ; 3 mules S. of Paris. VILLEL, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 17 miles N.N.W. VIL N.N.W. of Molina.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 15 miles S. of Molina. VILLELOIN, or Vitxexoup, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 9 miles E.N.E. of Loches. .VILLEMAUR, a town of France, in the department of the Aube ; 14 miles W.S.W. of Troyes. VILLEMONTOIS, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Rhéne and Loire; 8 miles S.W. of Roanne. VILLEMUR, a town of France, in the department of _ the Upper Garonne ; 17 miles N. of Touloufe. VILLENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia. In the neighbourhood is a morafs, from which they manu- faGture falt ; 41 miles N.N.E. of Murciz. N. lat. 38° 35. W. long. 1° 2'. VILLENAGE, or Vittainace, Villania, the quality or condition of a villain ; which fee. Villenage is more particularly ufed fora fervile kind of te- nure of lands or tenements ; by which the tenant was bound to do all fuch fervices as the lord commanded, or were fit for a yillain to perform: which Bracton exprefles by “ {ciri non poterit vefpere, quale fervitium fieri debet mane.” Villenage is divided into that dy blood, and that dy tenure. Tenure, in villenage, could make no freeman a villain, unlefs jt were continued time out of mind; nor could free land make a villain free. Villenage is alfo divided, by Bracton, into pure villenage, where the fervices to be performed were bafe in their nature, and indeterminate and arbitrary as to the time and quantity, as above expreffed ; from which ancient tenures have {prung our prefent copyhold tenures: and facage or privileged vil- lenage, where the fervice was bafe in its nature, but reduced to a certainty : which was to carry the lord’s dung into his fields, to plow his ground on certain days, to fow and reap his corn, &c. and even to empty his jakes: as the inhabitants of Bi&ton were bound to do to the lord of Cluncaftle, in Shropfhire; which was afterwards turned into a rent, now called Bidon filver ; and the villainous fer- vice excufed. This laft {pecies of villenage, fays Braéton, is fuch as has been held of the kings of England from the Conqueft downwards ; that the tenants herein villana faciunt fervitia, fed certa determinata; that they cannot alien or transfer their tenements by grant or feofiment, any more than pure villains can; but muit furrender them to the lord or his dteward, to be again granted out and held in villenage. From thefe circumftances, fays judge Blackitone, we may collec, that what he thus defcribes is no other than an exalted fpecies of copyhold fubfifting at this day, viz. the tenure in ancient demefne: to which, as partaking of the bafenefs of villenage in the nature of its fervices, and the freedom of focage in their certainty, he has given the compound name of villanum focagium. This ancient demefne, or demain, confilts of lands or manors, which, though now perhaps granted out to private fubjects, were a¢tually in the hands of the crown in the time of Edward the Confeffor, or William the Con- queror ; and fo appear to have been by the great furvey called Domefday-book. Some of the tenants of thefe lands continued for a long time pure and abfolute villains, dependent on the will of the lord ; and thofe who fucceeded them in their tenures now differ from common copyholders in a few points. Others were in a great meafure enfran- ehifed by royal favour; being only bound in refpeét of their lands to perform fome of the better fort of villain fer- vices, and thofe determinate and certain ; as, to plough the king’s land, to fupply his court with provifions, and the like; all of which are now changed into pecuniary rents; VoL. XX XVII. VIL and in confideration of thefe they had many privileges and immunities granted to them; as to try the right of their property in a peculiar court of their own, called a court of ancient demefne, by a peculiar procefs, denominated a writ of right clofe; not to pay toll or taxes ; not to contribute to the expences of knights of the fhire ; not to be put on juries, and the like. Thefe tenants, though their tenure be abfolutely copyhold, have an intereft equivalent toa freehold ; for their fervices were fixed, and they could not be com- pelled (like pure villains) to relinquifh thefe tenements at the lord’s will, or to hold them againft their own; and ideo, fays Bratton, dicuntur liberi. Britton alfo, from this their freedom, calls them abfolutely fokemans, and their tenure, fokemanries. The fame name is alfo given them in Fleta. Lands holden by this tenure are a fpecies of copy- hold, and as fuch, preferved and exempted from the opera- tion of the ftatute of Charles II.; yet they differ from common copyholds, principally in the privileges before- mentioned: as alfo they differ from freeholds by one fpecial mark and tinGture of villenage, noted by BraGton, and remaining to this day, viz. that they cannot be con- veyed from man to man by the general common law con- veyances of feoffment, and the reft ; but mutt pafs by fur- render to the lord or his fteward, in the manner of common copyholds : yet with this difference, that, in the furrenders of thefe lands in ancient demefne, it is not ufed to fay “ to hold at the will of the lord” in their copies ; but only “ to hold according to the cuftom of the manor.’? Blackftone’s Com. book ii. &e. VILLENEUVE, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, fituated at the ealtern extremity of the lake of Geneva, about three miles from the mouth of the Rhone; celebrated for its trout fifhery; 15 miles E.S.E. of Laufanne. N. lat. 46°25!. E. long. 6° 46.— ' Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Allier ; 8 miles N.W. of Moulins.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn; 8 miles N.W. of Alby.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Herault, on the Grand Canal; 3 miles S.E. of Beziers—Al{o, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron ; 6 miles N. of Villefranche.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife; g miles S.E. of Paris. VILLENEUVE d’ Agen, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri€, in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 12 miles N. of Agen. N. lat. 44° 24/. E. long. 48'. VILLENEUVE /’ Archévégque, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Yonne; 21 miles W.S.W. of Troyes. VILLENEUVE lez Avignon, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gard, on the weft fide of the Rhéne, op- pofite Avignon; 21 miles N.E. of Nifmes. ViLLENEUVE de Berg, a town of France, and feat of a tribunal, in the department of the Ardéche ; 12 miles S. of Privas. N. lat. 44° 32!. E. long. 4° 35). ViLLENEUVE la Garenne, a town of France, in the depart- ment of Paris ; 3 miles N. of Paris. VILLENEUVE /a Guyard, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Yonne; 15 miles N.N.W. of Sens. ViILLENEUVE de Marfan, a town of France, in the department of the Landes; 9 miles E. of Mont-de- Marfan. VILLENEUVE Fe Roy, or Villeneuve-fur-Yonne, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne, on the Yonne ; 2 poits N.W. of Joigny. VILLENEUVE St. George, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Yonne, on the Yonne, oppofite Villeneuve-le- Roy. Aa VILLE: VIL VILLENOCE, a town of France, in the department of the Aube; 10 miles N.E. of Provins. VILLENORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 10 miles W. of Pondicherry. VILLENOUVETTE, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Herault, on the Orb, anciently confiderable, and furrounded with walls. It at one time contained three arifhes, now only one ; 3 miles N. W. of Beziers. VILLENTROIS, a town of France, in the department ofthe Indre; 18 miles N.E. of Chatillon-fur-Indre. VILLEPEYS, or Vitiepats, a town of France, in the department of the Var, on the coaft of the bay of Frejus ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Frejus. VILLEPINTE, a town of France, in the department of the Aude ; 6 miles S.E. of Caftelnandary. ‘ “VILLEPREUX, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife ; 5 miles W. of Verfailles. VILLEQUIER, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, on the right bank of the Seine; 3 miles S.W. of Caudebec. : VILLEQUIERS, a town of France, in the department of the Cher ; 18 miles E. of Bourges. VILLEREAL, a town of France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 7 miles N. of Monflanquin. VILLEREST, a town of France, in the department of the Rhéne and Loire, on the Loire ; 5 miles S. of Roanne. VILLERS, a town of Brabant; 9 miles E. of Nivelle. VittERs Bocage, 2 town of France, in the department of the Somme ; 7 miles N. of Amiens. Vituers le Boccage, a town of France, in the department of the Calvados ; 12 miles S.W. of Caen. Vitters fous Chalamont, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Doubs ; 12 miles W. of Pontarlier. Vitters Cotterets, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne ; 12 miles S.W. of Soiffons. Vitters Parlay, a town of France, in the department of the Jura; 6 miles N. of Arbois. Vitiers la Montagne, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mofelle ; 3 miles S.E. of Longwy. VitwErs fous Perny, a town of France, in the department of the Meurte ; 3 miles N.W. of Pont-a-Mouffon. VILLERSEYSEL, or Viruzrsacey, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Sadne; g miles S. of Lure. VILLESHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 5 miles S.E. of Kitzingen. VILLETERTRE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Oife; 6 miles S.E. of Chaumont. VILLETTE d@’ Anton, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Tfere, on the Rhéne; 12 miles E. of Lyons. : Vitxerre d’ fflins, a town of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Vienne. VILLEVIEILLE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Higher Alps; 12 miles S.E. of Briangon. VILLI, Coarfe Hair, in Anatomy, is fometimes ufed in the fame fenfe as fibres, or fibrille. See Fisre. Vict, in Botany. See Vitvosus. ,VILLIE;,in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Rhéne and Loire ; 12 miles N. of’ Ville- franche, VILLIERS, Gerorez, in Biography, the firft duke of Buckingham, was defcended from an ancient family in Lei- cefterfhire, and born at Brookby in that county, A.D. 1592. His attention was dire€ted by his mother, who undertook the charge of his education, to ornamental rather than folid accomplifhments, which were further improved by a refi- VIL. dence of three years in France, whither he was fent at the ; age of eighteen. His graceful perfon and gay difpofition recommended him at court, to which he was introduced by fir John Graham, a gentleman of the king’s privy-chambert In 1613, James I. conferred upon him the office of his eup+ bearer. Upon the fall of the earl of Somerfet, Villiers took his place in the affeétion and confidence of the king, whe knighted him in 1615, and made him gentleman of the bed- chamber, with a penfion of 1ooo0/. a-year. He foon after became mafter of the horfe, and in 1616 was honoured with the garter, created a baron and vifcount, and in the following year advanced to the earldom of Buckingham, and. admitted into the privy-council. - After his return from Scotland, whi- ther he accompanied the king in 1617, he was created a mar- quis, and promoted to the dignities of lord high-admiral of England, chief juftice in eyre fouth of the Trent, mafter of the king’s-bench office, fteward of Weitminfter, and conftable of Windfor Caftle. He alfo employed his powerful intereft with the king for the advancement of his family and conne€tions. His character was that of an ardent friend and implacable enemy, infolent and arrogant to thofe who oppofed him, and regardlefs of real merit in thofe whom he patronifed. To his pufillanimous fovereign and to prince Charles he mani- fefted his arrogant difpofition ; but in order to engage the prince’s attachment, he propofed a vifit of refpeét to his in- tended bride, the infanta of Spain. The king, at firft averfe from this journey, at length granted to his importunity a re- lu€tant confent. His manners, however, difguited the Spanifh court, and he returned avowing his enmity to the prime mi- nifter Olivarez. Such was his powerful influence at home, that he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports: By mifreprefenting the negociations with Spain relating to the propofed marriage, he inflamed the nation againft the Spa- niards, and became popular ; and dreading the return of lord Briftol from his embafly, and a true ftatement of this bufinefs, he joined the oppofers of the court and promoted popular meafures. Upon the acceffion of Charles his influence was augmented, and he was fent to France, in order to conduct into England the royal bride, Henrietta-Maria. During his vifit to France, he had the affurance to declare his affeétion for Anne of Auftria, queen of Lewis XIII., and to profe- cute his addreffes; and with this view, he determined to pay her a private vifit. [he confequence would probably have been his affaffination ; but forewarned of his danger, he declined the execution of his purpofe ; {wearing, at the fame time, that he would fee and fpeak with that lady in fpite of the ftrength and power of France. To this circumftance lord Clarendon imputes his enmity againft the French court, and his attempt to alienate the affe¢tion of Charles from his queen. At length, his inordinate ufe of the power with which he had been entrufted rendered him an obje& of na- tional jealoufy and abhorrence; and in May 1626, the earl of Briftol, who at his inftigation had been committed to the Tower, and afterwards banifhed from the court, exhibited againft him a charge of high-treafon. He was alfo acenfed by the commons of high crimes and mifdemeanours ; but his matter averted the ftroke that was aimed againft him by the diffolution of parliament. In the war now fubfifting with Spain, he went to the Hague to concert a treaty with the States-general for the recovery of the Palatinate: but his conduét towards France foon produced a war with that country. At his folicitation, France was inyaded in 1627 by an expedition under his command ; and he landed on the ifle of Rhé, whence he was obliged to withdraw with great lofs. In order to recover his reputation after this difgrace, he advifed the calling of a new parliament ; which, fo far from anfwering his purpofe, charged him with being the author of ~ - all the evils and dangers brought upon the king and king- dom, and drew up a remonitrance, containing a itatement of the grievances of which he had been the caufe. Thefe pro- ceedings were ftaid by a prorogation, and in the mean while _ he made an effort for recovering the good-will of the country, i fitting out an expedition for the relief of the Rochellers, then under clofe fiege, in whofe fate the zealous Proteftants felt great intereft. Whilft he was at Portfmouth, preparing for this expedition, Felton, who had ferved under him as a - lieutenant in the army, moved by difcontent and a fanatical {pirit, gave him a ftab, which proved almoft initantly mor- tal, and of which he expired Auguft 23, 1628, having juit completed his 36th year. His tragical death, unpopular as he was, occafioned general commiferation. His public cha- | racer has been fufficiently delineated in the preceding fketch of his condu&. Poflefling fome qualities that excite vulgar applauie, a high fpirit, perfonal courage, ready elocution and generofity, he had no other title to the appellation of a great man, which fome have beftowed upon him, befides his advancement, by the erroneous judgment and partial favour of his fovereign, to place and power. He married lady Catharine Manners, daughter and fole heirefs of Francis, earl of Rutland, by whom he left two fons and a daughter. In domettic life, he was an affe€tionate, though not a faithful hufband, and kind to his family. With-him, it is faid, all- powerful favouritifm at the Englifh court terminated. Biog. Brit. Clarendon. Hume, &c. &c. Vixtiers, Grorce, fecond duke of Buckingham, was the fon of the preceding, and born A.D. 1627, at Wallingford- Houfe, Weftminiter. He and his brother Francis received the rudiments of education under the fame tutors with the king’s own children, and were both entered at Trinity col- lege, Cambridge, and afterwards fent upon their foreign travels. Upon their return the civil war had commenced ; and after having been prefented to the king at Oxford, they engaged in military fervice under prince Rupert and lord Gerard. Upon this their eftates were feized, but reftored on account of their nonage. They afterwards renewed their travels in France and Italy. In 1648, when the king was prifoner in the Ifle of Wight, they returned to England, and jomed the earl of Holland, who was in arms in Surrey; but in an engagement with the parliamentary troops at Nonfuch, lord Francis, who fought valiantly, was flan. The duke efcaped to St. Neot’s, and furrounded by the enemy, made way with fword in hand through the guard, and joined prince Charles in the Downs. By adhering to the royal caufe he forfeited his eltates, which were then amongtt the moft confiderable belonging to any Englifh fubje&. Whilft he was abroad, his chief fupport was derived from a fale at ' Antwerp of his father’s noble colletion of pictures, which a faithful fervant had fecured. He attended the exiled Charles in Scotland, and accompanied him at the fatal battle of Worcelter, when his efeape was no lefs extraordinary than that of hismafter. He afterwards ferved as a volunteer in the French army, and occafionally vifited the king’s little court in Flanders. When the duke was informed that lord Fairfax had retired from the army and refided on part of his eftate, which parliament had allotted to him, that he had aéted ge- neroufly with regard to other forfeitures, and that he had an only daughter, he determined to venture into England and try hisfortune. He foon gained the affeCtion of the daugh- ter, and they were married in 1657, at his lordihip’s feat of Nun-Appleton, near York; and Cowley is faid to have written an epithalamium on the occafion. He was feized, however, in 1658, and committed to the Tower, very much to the difpleafure of his father-in-law. After the death of Cromwell, he was allowed to confine himfelf at Windfor j | a . VILLIERS. Caftle, and upon the abdication of Richard he obtained his liberty. The Reftoration put him in pofleffion of all his eftates, and he lived in fplendour and magnificence, indulging in a profufion of expence, which was very injurious to his fortune, and which was not counterbalanced by the pofts of a lord of the bed-chamber, lord-lieutenant of Yorkthire, and matter of the horfe, which the king afligned him. Reduced to defperate circumftances, or inclined to fa@tion and intrigue, he was charged, as early as the year 1662, with treafonable defigns ; fo that in 1666 it became neceflary for him to ab- {cond ; and a proclamation was iflued for apprehending him. However, he voluntarily furrendered himfelf, and contrived fo to ingratiate himfelf with Charles, as to be reftored to his place in the bed-chamber and in the council. Always an adverfary to lord chancellor Clarendon, he ufed his influence to accelerate his fall. In 1668 he joined fir Orlando Bridge- man and fir Matthew Hale in the laudable {cheme of relaxing the feverities againft the Non-conformifts ; but their plan for this purpofe was defeated by the houfeof commons. Deiti- tute of fteady principle, the duke was feleéted, in 1670, to form one of the infamous party denominated the Cabal, (which fee, ) and he was deputed as ambaflador to the court of France, in order to diffolve the triple alliance, concerted by Temple and De Witt ; and being a favourite with the French king, he concurred in all the meafures of that court. He was fufpe&ted, on account of his profligate charaGter, with being acceflory to the attempt made upon the life of the duke of Ormond, by Blood; and his cowardice was fo contemptible, that he tamely bore from the duke’s fpirited fon, lord Offory, the imputation of this villainy, accompa- nied with a menace, in the royal prefence. He was eleéted, however, in 1671, by court-intereft, to the chancellorfhip of Cambridge ; and in the fame year was exnbited his comedy, called the ‘* Rehearfal,’? which is faid to have been a joint production. The fatire levelled againft Dryden, then made poet-laureat, was thought to be juit, but illiberal ; and it was retorted by the poet in the charaéter of the duke, under the name of Zimri, in “ Abfalom and Achitophel.’’ In 1672, the duke was fent to France to concert meafures for the war which was intended to ruin the Dutch common- wealth. In 1674, the condué of the Cabal being attacked in the houfe of commons, a motion was made for his im- peachment, and he was queftioned at the bar of the houfe. The refult of this bufinefs was, that the commons voted an addrefs for his removal. But as he was directed and reitrained in his condu& by no kind of principle, he joined the oppo- fition to the court with the earl of Shaftefbury. In 1680, having fold Wallingford-Houfe, he removed to the city, and there ‘concurred in the politics of the oppofition. Hume has delineated his charaéter very juftly, when he fays of him, * the leaft intereft could make him abandon his honour ; the {malleft pleafure could feduce him from his intereit ; the moft frivolous caprice was fufficient to counterbalance his pleafure. By his want of fecrecy and conttancy, he deftroyed his charaéter in public life; by his contempt of order and economy, he diflipated his private fortune; by riot and de- bauchery he ruined his health; and he remained at laft as incapable of doing hurt, as he had ever been little defirous of doing good to mankind.’? Such, notwithftanding this ap- propriate character, was his inconfiftency, that in 1685, he publifhed a popular work, containing fome juit and liberal fentiments, and entitled ‘* A fhort-Difcourfe upon the Rea- fonablenefs of Men’s having a Religion, or Worfhip of God.” Upon his retirement, in declining health, to his manor of Helmfley, in Yorkshire, and whilft he was amuling himfelf with rural {ports and company, he wrote a fhort effay, en- titled ** A Demonitration of the Deity.”? At length, om a Aaz2 Ox- We EYES -chace, he caught cold, which brought on a fever, that pare him in Es tenant’s houfe at Kirkby-moor-fide, where he was vifited by fome friends, and at their fuggeftion he received the facrament according to the rite of the chureh of England. On the third day of his illnefs he died, in April 1688, in the 61ft year of his age, and was interred in the family-vault at Weftminfter Abbey. He was an unfaith- ful hufband, and had no iffue by his wife. His amours were numerous; and of thefe, the principal was that with the countefs of Shrewfbury, who held his horfe while he killed her hufband ina duel. His writings, confifting of eflays, “poems, &c. have been colle&ted in 2 vols. 8vo. and have pafled through four editions. He is faid to have devoted himfelf to chemical, or rather alchemical purfuits, in which he was the dupe of interefted and defigning perfons ; and it is added, that he introduced the art of making eryftal-glafs from Venice. Biog. Brit. Hume. ViILLIERS DE L’IstE ADAM, Puivip pe, was a defcendant of an ancient French family, born in 1464, and eleéted grand- matter of the order of St. John of Jerufalem in 1521. In the year after his eleGtion, the ifland of Rhodes, where he refided, was invaded by 200,000 Turks, againft whom he defended it with fuch vigour, that fultan Solyman came in perfon to fuperintend the attack ; and after a fiege of fix months, in which the Turks are faid to have loft 100,000 men, he found it neceffary to furrender it. Solyman treated him with great refpe€t, declaring to one of his officers, that it was not without regret he obliged this Chriftian to leave his houfe at his age. Abandonmg Rhodes in 1523 with fifty veflels, his remaining knights, and about 4000 of the inhabitants, he arrived at Rome during the papacy of Cle- ment VII. ; who affigned to him for a prefent refidence the town of Viterbo. In 1527 the emperor Charles V. offered the ifland of Malta, which in a general chapter it was de- termined to accept. He then went to Syracufe, and in 1530 received the donation by letters-patent of Malta, Gozo, and Tripoli in Barbary. In this year he fortitied Malta ; and from that period, the knights of St.John aflumed the title of knights of Malta. After a life diftinguithed by piety, courage, and prudence, he died in 1534, at the age of 70. Upon his tomb was infcribed this appro- priate eulogy, “ Here repoies Virtue victorious over For- tune.’? Moreri. Vizuiers, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Céte d’Or; 6 miles N.N.W. of Chatillon- fur-Seine.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Loire and Cher ; 4 miles W. of Vendéme.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne; 6 miles N. of Chateau Gontier. Vittiers en Vecevre, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Eure; 15 miles E.S.E. of Evreux. Vituiers St. Benoit, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne ; 15 miles W. of Auxerre. VILLIMPENTA, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio ; 10 miles E. of Mantua. VILLINGEN, a town of the duchy of Baden, in the Brifgau. This place, by means of the mountains and narrow accefles leading to it, is extremely well fecured, and alfo fomewhat fortified by art. It has always ferved the Auf- trians as a magazine for thefe parts, as well for provifions as military ftores. In it is an abbey of Benedictines ; and its neighbourhood contains a good bath; 52 miles $.S.W. of Stuttgart. N.lat. 48° 4’. E. long. 8° 26!. VILLOA, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 10 miles S. of Piacenza. VILLOISON, Jonn-Baprist Gasparnp’ Anst pp, in Biography, was the def{cendant of a family originally Spanith, : 4 “VEL and born in 1750 at Corbeille-fur-Seine, and after receiving the rudiments of literature at feveral colleges, attended the . Greek leétures of M. le Beau at Paris, and enjoyed the higher inftruétion in this department of M.Capperonier, Greek profeffor in the royal college of France. Such were his talents and application, that with thefe advantages he became acquainted, at the age of fifteen, with almoft all the writers of antiquity in every clafs. In his refearches among MSS. in the library of St. Germain-des-Pres, he found a Greek lexicon of Homer by Apollonius, which he publifhed in 1773, with prolegomena and notes, that dif- played a very furprifing extent of erudition, confidering his early age, and that introduced him, out of the ufual form, into the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres. His next confiderable undertaking was an edition of the Paftoral of Longus, which was publifhed in 1778. In 1781 he ob- tained a miffion, at the king’s expence, to examine the library of St. Mark in Venice, where he found feveral inedited works of rhetoricians, philofophers, and grammarians, a col- leétion of which he publifhed in 2 vols. 4to. under the title of “* Anecdota Greca.’’? He alfo founda very valuable MS. of Homer’s Iliad, with fcholia by ancient grammarians, which he committed to the prefs in 1788, accompanied with learned prolegomena. About this time he received an invitation from the duke and duchefs of Saxe-Weimar, to vifit their court, the moft literary in Germany; and here. he collected various readings and emendations of the text of feveral Greek authors, which he printed at Zurich, under the title of ** Epiftole Vimarienfes.”? Another of his publi- cations is that of a tranflation of part of the Old Teftament, by a Jew of the ninth century, which he had found in the library of St. Mark; and of this he gave an edition, with notes, at Strafburghin 1781. Soon after his return to Paris, and his marriage of an interefting young woman, he formed the purpofe of fearching for MSS. in the Eaft, and in 1785 he vifited Conftantinople, and afterwards Smyrna, and feveral iflands in the Archipelago, and Greece ; and the refult of his refearches and obfervations was read before the Academy of Belles Lettres, on his return to Paris in 1787. At the commencement of the Revolution he retired to Orleans, for the purfuance of his literary plans; and the fruits of his con{ultations of ancient and modern authors were 15 large volumes in 4to. He alfo contemplated a larger work, which was a new edition of father Montfaucon’s ** Palzo- graphia Greca.’? When the revolutionary tempeft fubfided, ° he returned to Paris, with literary treafure, in amafling which he had expended three-fourths of his moderate fortune ; and he was therefore under a neceflity of commencing a courfe of leGtures in the Greck language, which proved unfucceff- ful. He therefore gladly accepted the profefforfhip of mo- dern Greek, which the government eftablifhed, and dif- charged its duties till it was fupprefled by Napoleon. From refpeét to his merit, a profefforfhip of ancient and mo- dern Gteek was created for him alone in the college of France; but he was carried off by a lingeritig malady in April 1805, at the age of 55 years. In verbal knowledge Villoifon was deemed a profound fcholar ; but to the higher qualities of intelle&t he is faid to have had no juft pretenfions. Gen. Biog. : VILLONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Leon; 13 miles E. of Salamanca. VILLOSLADA, a town of Spain, in Old Caitile ; 20 miles S.E. of Najera. ° VILLOSUS, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, ex- prefles that kind of hairinefs which is longifh, foft, and fhaggy, like wool, yet does not amount to the thick en- tangled coat of many plants, which is properly termed woolly, VIM woolly, as in VersAscum; fee that article: fee alfo Pu- wBEsceNcE and Luar. ‘ _ VILLOUS, Virtosa, is particularly applied to one of the coats or membranes of the ftomach, called cruffa villofu. It takes its name from innumerable villi, or fine fibrille, with which its inner furface is covered. - VILLURBANNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Ifere; 4 miles. E. of Lyons. VILMANSTRAND, or WizmanstRanp, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Viborg, on the fouth coatt of the lake Saima; 40 miles N.N.W. of Viborg. N. lat. 61° 20!. E. long. 27° 26!. VILMAR, a town of Germany, in the circle Lower Rhine; 24 miles N. of Mentz. VILMINOREU, a town of Italy, in the department of the Adda and Oglio; 28 miles N.E. of Bergamo. * VILMNITZ, a town of the ifland of Rugen; 7 miles S.E. of . Bergen. : VILOVATOSTANOVITSCHE, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government of Archangel, near the Frozen ocean ; 180 miles E.S.E. of Kola. N. lat. 68° go’. E. long. evra: VILS, a river of Bavaria, which paffes by Amberg, &c. and runs into the Nab, at Kalmunz.—Alfo, ariver of Wur- temberg, which rifes near Wiefenitug, paffes by Geiitingen, Coppingen, &c. and runs into the Neckar, 2 miles N. of Wendlingen. Vits, or Gros, a river of Germany, which runs into the Danube at Vilfhofen. Vits Biburg, a town of Bavaria; 8 miles S.E. of Land- fhut. ' VILSECK, a town of Bavaria, on the Vils ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Bayreuth. N. lat. 49° 36'. E. long. 11° 48/. ' VILSEN, a town of Gerniany, in the county of Hoya; 5 miles W. of Hoya. VILSHOFEN, a town of Bavaria, at the conflux of the Vils with the Danube; 11 miles W. of Paffau. N. Tat. 48° 29!._ E. long. 13° 11. VILTRUM, a word ufed fometimes alone to exprefs a filtre, inftead of the word filirum. But viltrum is more commonly joined with the word phi/ofophorum, and then ex- preffes the common alembic for diftillation. VILUI, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Lena, at Uft Viluifkoi. N. lat. 64°. E. long. 126° 14!. VILUISKOI, Nizwnet, atown of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk, on the Vilui. N. lat. 63° 45'. E. long. 122° 44!. Vituiskor, U/?, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, at the conflux of the Vilui and Lena; 128 miles N.W. of Yakutik. N. lat. 63° 50!. E. long. 126° 14! Vinuiskor, Verchnei, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk; 200 miles N. of Oleminfk. N. lat. 63°'44!. _E. long. 120° 24. VILVORDE, or Vitierorte, a town of France, in the department of the Dyle, fituated on the river Senne ; 6 miles S. of Malines. VIM, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in the government of Archangel, and runs into the Vitchegda, near Lialfkoi, in the province of Uftiug. VIMERCATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the Olona; 13 miles N.N.E. of Milan. VIMIEIRO, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 10 miles W. of Eftremoz. VIMINACIUM, or Viminarium, in Ancient Geogra- ‘of the VIM phy, a town of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Vacezi ; marked in the Itin. Anton, between Palentia and Lacobriga. VIMINALIS, in Mythology, an epithet of Jupiter. VIMINARIA, in Botany, was fo named by the writer of this article, from wimen, a {lender rod, or twig, in allufion to the habit of the plant.—Sm. in Sims and an Annals of Botany, vy. 1. 507. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 13. —Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Pa- pilionacea, Linn. Leguminofe, Juff. ; Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, fimple, of one leaf, bell-fhaped, angular, with five fhort equal teeth, permanent. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inverfely heart-fhaped, af- cending, with a fhort claw. Wings oblong, obtufe, con- verging, fhorter than the ftandard, each with a tooth at the bafe, on the lower fide, and a fhort flender claw. Keel nearly equal to the wings, of two combined petals, with diftin@ claws, concave, with a blunt tooth at each fide of the upper edge, at the bafe. Sam. Filaments ten, awl- fhaped, diftin@, rather afcending, the lower ones gradually longeft, the upper one fhorteft; anthers roundifh, two- lobed. Pi/f, Germen fuperior, oval, {mooth; ityle capil- lary, afcending, as long as the ftamens; ftigma fimple. Peric. Legume oval, half invefted by the calyx, acute, flightly comprefled, {mooth, coriaceous, of one cell, not burfting: Seed folitary, oval-kidneyfhaped, without any appendage. Eff. Ch. Calyx angular, fimple, five-toothed. Corolla papilionaceous. Style capillary. Stigma fimple, acute. Legume leathery, of one valye, not buriting, entirely filled with a fingle feed. a 1. V. denudata. Leaflefs Rufh-Broom. Sm. in Ann. of Bot. as above. Exot. Bot. vy. 1. 51. t.27. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v.g. 261. Ait. n.1. (Daviefia denudata; Venten. Choix de Plantes, t.6. Sophora juncea; Schrad. Sert. Hannoy. 9. t. 3. Pultenza juncea; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 506. Donn Cant. ed. 5. 101.)—The only known fpecies, a native of New Holland and Van Diemen’s ifland, faid to have been introduced .at Kew by fir Jofeph Banks, in 1789. It isa rather hardy greenhoufe fhrub, flowering in July. The /lem is branched, round and fmooth. Leaves only to be {een on the lower part of feedlings, or young plants, alternate, on long {mooth ftalks, ovate, entire, three- ribbed, fmooth, either acute or emarginate ; at firft fome- times ternate. The fost/falks on the greater part of the plant are leafiefs, cylindrical, f{mooth, with two or three minute fcales at the point; the lower ones fix inches, or more, in length; the upper gradually fhorter. Cluflers terminal, folitary, fimple, of many pretty yellow flowers, the difk of whole flandards is red. ach partial /la/k has a {mall brafea at the bafe. VIMINATIUM Lecio, in Ancient Geography, a town of Higher Mcefia, on the banks of the Danube, marked in the Itin. Anton. on the route from Mount d’Or to Con- ftantinople, between Municipium and Ideuminacum. VIMIOSO, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of T'ra los Montes; 15 miles W.N.W. of Mi- randa de Duero. N. lat. 41° 29'. E. long. 6° 14. VIMMALA, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by the people of the Eaft Indies to a kind of pyrites, of a brafly appearance, and of a cubic figure. They alfo give it in the fame place to the pyrite in ge- neral, when {mall, and of a fimple internal ftructure. VIMOUTIER, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Orne, on the Vic; 15 miles N.E. of Argentan. VIMY, a town of France, in the department of the Straits of Calais; 5 miles N. of Arras. VINA, VIN VINA, or Vena, in Hindoo Mythology, is the father of Prithu, who is fabled to have been an incarnation of the god Vifhnu. Vina is the correét mode of writing the name of a mufical inftrument of the Eaft, commonly called Been ; under which word we have given a defcription, and referred to one of our plates for a reprefentation of it. VINAGO, in Ornithology, a name given by fome au- thors to the wood-pigeon, from the colour of its breaft, fhoulders, and wings, refembling that of red wine. Its more ufual name among authors is venos. VINALHAVEN, in Geography, a, town of America, in the diftri& of Maine and county of Hancock, contain- ing 1052 inhabitants; 60 miles E.N.E. of Brunfwick. VINALIA, in Antiquity, a name common to two feafts among the ancient Romans; the one in honour of Jupiter, and the other of Venus. The firft was held on the 19th of Auguft; and the fecond on the rft of May. The Vinalia of the 19th of Auguft were called Vinalia ruffica; and were inftituted on oceafion of the war of the Latins againft Mezentius; in the courfe of which war, that people vowed a libation to Jupiter of all’ the wine in the fucceeding vintage. On the fame day likewife fell the dedication of a temple of Venus; whence fome authors have fallen into 2 miltake, that thefe Vinalia were facred to Venus. But Varro LLL.V. and Feftus, in verbo Ruflica, diftinguifh between the two ceremonies ; and exprefsly affert the Vinalia to be a feaft of Jupiter. VINARA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the province of Tucuman; 56 miles N.N.W. of St. Yago del Eftero. : VINAROZ, a town of Spain, in the province of Va- lencia, on the coaft of the Mediterranean; 5 miles N. of Penifcola. VINATA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the parent of the eagle of the Indian Jove, called Garuda, or Superna. He is allo parent of the Aurora of Eaftern fable, who is called Aruna, the driver of the car of Phebus, or Surya. Under Surya we have {poken of Vinata as the paternal anceftor of Superna and Aruna, but it is rather an equivocal parentage, as Kafyapa is fometimes faid to be their father, and Diti their mother. (See Kasyara.) The name of Vinata, or Vinava, feldom occurs in Hindoo books; though that of Vinateya, as a name of Superna, marking his parentage, is not very uncommon. VINATEYA, a name of the Hindoo mythological eagle, more commonly called Superna; which fee, and VINATA. VINAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere; 4 miles S. of St. Marcelin. VINAZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Pro- pria, upon the route from Tacapz to Grand Leptis, between Aurus and Thalatum. Anton. Itin. VINCA, in Botany, originally Pervinca, whence its Eng- lifh and French names, Periwinkle and Pervenche, is not fa- tisfactorily explained by any etymologifl. The beft deriva- tion of the word may perhaps be from vincio, to bind or wrap up, becaufe its long trailing or twining branches wind themfelves round, and entangle, every other plant in their way-— Linn. Gen. 115. Schreb. 163. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 1232. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 269. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 164. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 66. Juff. 144. Lamarck Illuftr. t.172. Gaertn. t.117. (Pervinca; Tourn. t. 45.) — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte, Linn. Apo- cinea, Jull. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five VIN deep, ereét, acute fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, falver-fhaped. ‘Tube longer than the calyx; cylin- drical in the lower part ; dilated and grooved with five lines in the upper; five-angled at the mouth. Limb horizontal, in five deep equal fegments, attached to the top of the tube, dilated. outwards, obliquely lopped at the extremity, and flightly twifted. Stam. Filaments five, inferted into the tube, very fhort, inflexed and then bent backward; an- thers membranous, obtufe, ere&, incurved, bearing pollen at each margin. /i/?. Germens two, roundifh, at whofe fides are two roundifh bodies; {tyle common to both ger- mens, fimple, cylindrical, the length of the ftamens; ftigma of two parts, the lower orbicular, flat, the upper capitate, concave. eric. Follicles two, long, cylindrical, pointed, ere&t, each of one valve burfting lengthwife. Seeds nume- rous, oblong, cylindrical, furrowed, without down or wing. Ei Ch. Corolla of one petal, contorted, falver-fhaped, inferior. Follicles two, erect. Seeds naked. 1. V. minor. Leffler Periwinkle. Linn. ‘Sp. Pl. 304. ‘Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n.1. Engl. Bot. t.917. Curt. Lond. fafe. 3. t. 16. (V. pervinca minor ; Ger. Em. 894, Clematis; Camer. Epit.694, 695. Matth. Valgr. y.2. 305.) — Stems procumbent. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, {mooth at the edges. Flowers ftalked. Calyx-teeth lan- ceolate.—Found in bufhy places, groves, and about hedges, in Germany, England, France, Switzerland, and various parts of Greece. There can be little doubt of this being the «Anuels of Diofcorides, as all authors have thought. He {peaks of it as a native of Egypt. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in Arcadia, as well as in the countries of Elis and Argolis. In England this pretty plant is feldom found wild, though in gardens and fhrubberies nothing is more commonly planted, particularly the double-flowered purple, and the white-flowered variegated kinds. They are all perennial, flowering in May. The root creeps extenfively. The ffems, erect while in flower, become trailing, creeping very far, and are round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves evergreen, oppofite, ftalked, entire, fmooth, fhining, about an inch long. Flowers axillary, folitary, alternate, flalked, erect, {centlefs, deep blue, white in the centre. We have never feen the fruit of this fpecies. 2. V. major. Greater Periwinkle. Lim. Sp. Pl. 304. Willd. n.2. Fl. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t. 514. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 19. (Pervinca vulgaris; Garidel Aix ; t. 81. Clematis daphnoides major; Ger. Em. 894.) — Stems nearly erect. Leaves ovate, fringed. Flowers ftalked. Calyx-teeth briftle-fhaped, elongated. — Native of thickets and groves, in rather moift fituations, in Eng- land, France, Spain, Switzerland, and Carniola, flowering in May, being lefs rare with us than the former, and no Jefs commonly cultivated for ornament in extenfive fhrub- beries, that will admit of its rambling mode of growth. There this {pecies compofes light, convex, evergreen tufts under trees and hedges. The /eaves are thrice the fize of V. minor, of a lighter green, and more ovate, or fomewhat heart-fhaped. Flowers larger, and rather more blue, with lefs of a violet tint. Seed-veffels an inch and a half long, recurved, pointed, with feldom more than two roughifh Jeeds, one above the other. 3. V. lutea. Yellow Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 304. Am. Acad. v. 4. 309, not 307. Willd. n.3. (‘ Apocy- num feandens, falicis folio, flore amplo plano; Catefb. Carol. v.2. 53. t- 53.’?)— Stem twining. Leaves ob- long.’’—Native of Carolina. This has the habit of an aie We are quite unacquainted with the plant, nor did Linnzus ever fee a fpecimen. 4V. OO VEN 4. V. rofea. Madagafcar Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. PI. go5- Willd. n. 4. Ait. mn. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 248. Vinca; Mill. Ic. 124. t. 186.) — Stem fhrubby, ered. Flowers feflile, in pairs. Leaves elliptic-oblong.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Cultivated here by Mr. Thomas Knowlton, before the year 1756. It is now become a very popular ftove-plant, flowering moft part of the year, and recom- mending itfelf to general admiration, by the beautiful colour of its ample 4/ofoms, whofe corolla is either of a bright rofe- colour, or pure white, the centre always of a peculiarly rich crimfon, with a yellow eye. The /fem is bufhy, quite ereét, about a yard high. Leaves entire, rather downy, two inches long, bluntifh. This fpecies is propagated eafily, either by feed or by cuttings, but will not endure much cold or wet, though it requires a free air in fummer. 5. V. parviflora. Small-flowered Periwinkle. Retz. Obf. fafc.2. 14. Ait.n.4. Willd.n.5. (V. pufilla; Murray in Comm. Goett. for 1772. 66. t.2. f.1. Linn. Suppl. 166.)—Stem ereét, herbaceous. Leaves lanceolate, acute.—Native of the Eaft Indies. plant, flowering in Auguit, whofe feeds were imported by fir Jofeph Banks in 1778. The /fem is about a {pan high; flightly branched. Leaves as long as the laft, being about two inches, but much narrower, and acute. Flowers fo- litary or in pairs, fmall, with not much pretenfion to beauty ; their corolla white, with a yellow eye, not ill compared by Willdenow to Litho/permum officinale. Vinca, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the fhrubby, evergreen, upright ‘and trailing kinds, among which the fpecies cultivated are, the fmall periwinkle (V. minor) ; the great periwinkle (V. major); and the Madagafcar eriwinkle (V. rofea). ; The firft has a perennial creeping root, and it varies in the colour of the flowers; with pale blue, with purple, and white, and with double flowers of thefe different co- lours; and the foliage is fometimes variegated either with white or yellow {tripes. The fecond fort is larger in all its parts than the preced- ing, having flowers of a purple-blueifh colour. It varies with white flowers. The third has an upright branching ftem, three or four feet high, having a long fucceffion of pale flefh-coloured flowers. It varies with flowers with purple eyes. Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are all capable of being increafed by layers, cuttings, and fuckers. In the firft method, when the layers of the trailing branches are put down into the ground, they readily take root at almoft any feafon. This is very much the cafe with the firft fort, as almoft every joint furnifhes plants in the eourfe of the fummer ready to be put out in the autumn. The cuttings may be made from the ftalks and branches, and be planted in fhady borders in the autumn or early fpring, when they will become well rooted by the following autumn. All the forts fucceed in this way. In the third fort, the cuttings fhould be made from the young fhoots and be planted in pots, plunging them in a hot-bed, or the bark-bed, where they will become perfeétly well rooted in the fame year, and may be potted off fepa- rately, being placed in the ftove, and fhifted as may be neceflary into large pots. This fort may likewife be raifed from feed, which fhould be fown in pots in the early fpring filled with light rich earth, covering them well in, and plunging the pots in the hot-bed, or the bark-bed of the ftove; and when the plants have a few inches growth, they fhould be pricked « An Annual ftove- VIN out into feparate pots, re-plunging them in a hot-bed, giving proper fhade and water, managing them afterwards as the cuttings. The fyckers may be taken off with root-fibres in the au- tumn or {pring, and planted where they are to grow. The two firft forts afford variety in the borders, clumps, &c. and they may be planted in thickets and wilderneffes under trees with perfect fuccefs; while the laft has a fine effect in ftove colleétions as an elegant evergreen and flower- ing fhrub. VINCAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Eaft Pyrenées; 4 miles E.N.E. of Prades. 4 VINCELLES, a town of France, in the department of the Jura; 6 miles $.S.W. of Lons le Saunier. VINCENNES, a town of France, in the department of Paris, in which was a royal palace, originally begun by Philip de Valois, but repaired and finifhed by Louis XIV.: the ancient towers ferved as a ftate prifon. At this place the duke d’Enghien fuffered death; 1 poft E. of Paris. VINCENNES, a town of America, the capital of the territory of Indiana and county of Knox, on the bank of the Wabath, 150 miles from its mouth; in a delightful fituation, furrounded by a prairie four miles long and one broad, moftly cultivated, and the remainder being a fine meadow which produces good grafs. The foil, which is not inferior to any in the United States, yields corn, rice, wheat, tobacco, hemp, hops, grapes, &c. The Wabath is navigable, almoft through the whole year, as far as this place. Commerce centres here, as the merchants bring their goods from Canada down the Wabafh, from Orleans up the Miffifippi, and from the eaftern ftates, down the Ohio and up the Wabafh. The fort, ereéted in 1787, ftands on the E. fide of Wabafh river. It is garrifoned by a major and two companies. ‘The inhabitants, prin- cipally of French extraGtion, amount to 670. It isa poft-town ; 743 miles from Wafhington.— Alfo, a town- fhip in the fame territory and county, containing 223 inhabitants. VINCENT, Wirtram, D.D. in Biography, dean of Wett- minfter and vicar of Iflip, Oxon, was a defcendant of a race of anceftors who officiated as clergymen of the eftablifhed church, ‘and belonged to that clafs of ecclefiaftics ufually denominated the ‘ High Church Party.’? They were feated at Shepey, in the county of Leicefter. The dean was the laft furviving fon of Mr. Giles Vincent, who acquired a fortune as a packer under Spanifh and’ Portugal merchants; but afterwards, by loffes and difappointments in his commercial conneétions, retired from trade without being enriched by it. He was born in London, November 2, 1739, and being defigned for the church, was entered at Weftminfter {chool in September, 1748, and in 1753 was admitted on the foundation. In 1757 he was elected to Trinity college, Cambridge, and fupported there by his elder brother, who continued the bu- finefs of a packer. He took his firft degree of B.A. in 1761, and in the following year was appointed teacher at Weftminfter fchool. In 1764 he was graduated M.A. ; in 1771 he became fecond matter; in1776, D.D. and one of his majefty’s chaplains; in 1788, head-mafter of the fchool ; and in 1798, prefident of Sion college. Having married in early life, his family rapidly increafed, and fome of his children were arrived at maturity before he obtained any confider- able preferments in the church, notwith{tanding the favour- able fituation which he occupied. In 1777 he was nominated by Dr. Markham, upon his elevation to the fee of York, fub- almoner to the king, an office which he held until his demife $ II an VINCENT. and in 1798 he was advanced to the rectory of Allballows, which in 1803 he refigned in favour of his eldeft fon. In 1801 he obtained a prebendal ftall in the collegiate church of St. Peter, Weftminfter, which preferment enabled him to refign the laborious office of head-mafter of the {chool; and in 1802 he became dean. In 1807 he took poffeffion of the reGtory of Iflip. .On the parfonage-houfe, rebuilt by Dr. South, he expended between two and three thoufand pounds, roool. of which arofe from dilapidations, and the remainder furnifhed by himfelf, fo as to render it a convenient and com- fortable refidence. It is mentioned as a remarkable circum- ftance in the life of this learned divine, that he paffed twice, with great applaufe, through Weftmintfter fchool; firft, from the loweft form to the higheft as a {cholar, and fecondly as an ufher : nor is it lefs fingular, that he almoft conftantly re- fided within the precinéts of the Abbey, from his eighth to his feventy-fixth year, or during the interval of fixty-eight years, allowing for his temporary abfence at Cambridge during his education, and on occafion of taking a degree. Notwithftanding his affiduous application to the’ duties of a fedentary profeffion, his life was prolonged to an advanced age; and after a fortnight’s illnefs, he died at his favourite refidence of the deanery, December 21ft, 1815, in the 77th year of his age ; leaving behind him two fons, both of whom are married and have children. Whilft he was unremitting in his attention to his office as tutor, and to his various clerical duties, he devoted a portion of his time to compofitions which have iffued from the prefs. Of thefe, the firft we fhall mention was ‘“* A Letter to Dr. Richard Watfon (afterwards Bifhop of Llandaff), King’s Profeffor in the Univerfity of Cambridge,” 8vo. 1780, in reply to fome obfervations introduced by this learned pre- late into a fermon preached before the univerfity of Cam- bridge, which was afterwards printed under the title of “The Principles of the Revolution vindicated,” and into another difcourfe ** On the Anniverfary of His Majefty’s Acceffion.” In 1787 he publifhed his traét on ‘* Parochial Mufic ;”” in 1789, a fermon delivered before the fons of the clergy ; and in 1792, a fermon preached at St. Margaret’s, Weltmintter, for the Grey-coat {chool of that parifh. Inthe latter difeourfe he noticed opinions, which were then preva- lent, re{peCting the do@trines of natural liberty and equality ; and more than 20,000 copies of it were printed and dif- perfed in and near the metropolis, and a great number was circulated through different parts of the kingdom. The next publication of Dr. Vincent was “ The Origination of the Greek Verb, an Hypothefis,”’ 8vo.; the title of which was altered in the fecond edition to “ The Greek Verb analyfed.””_ This work was criticifed with fome humour, and not without a degree of afperity, in a piece entitled *¢ Hermes unmafked.’? Our author’s next publication was an elaborate differtation on military affairs, entitled “ De Legione Manliana Queftio, ex Livio defumpta, et Rei Militaris Romane ttudiofis ‘propofita,” 1795. Six years afterwards appeared his principal performance, evincing his acquaintance. with both ancient and modern geogra- phy and navigation, under the title of “* The Voyage of Nearchus to the Euphrates; colleéted from the original Journal preferved by Arrian, and illuftrated by Authorities ancient and modern, containing an Account of the firft Na- vigation attempted by the Europeans in the Indian Ocean,” Ato. 1799; and this was foon after followed by ‘“‘ The Pe- riplus of the Erythrean Sea; containing an Account of the Navigation of the Ancients from the Red Sea to the Coatt of Zanquebar, with Differtations, Part I.’? ato. 1800. Our Jearned author was next engaged in a controverfy with Dr. Rennell, prebendary of Winchefter and mafter of the Tem- ple, occafioned by fome reflections on the negle& of religion in our public inftitutions, which were introduced in a fermon preached in 1799, before the Society for promoting Chriftian | Knowledge, at the annual meeting of all the charity-fchools of the metropolis, in the cathedral of St. Paul’s. To this fer- mon was annexed a note, in which the preacher declares his opinion, ‘* that there is fcarcely any internal danger which we fear, but what is to be afcribed to a Pagan education, under Chrifian eftablifhments, in a Chriftian country.” Dr. Viacent, then matter of the only great public {chool in the me- tropolis, feemed at firft to think that this attack was perfonal ; but in order to avoid public contention, he commenced a private correfpondence with Dr. Rennell, in the courfe of which ample and fatisfa€tory explanations were made. But at the next anniverfary, in 1800, Dr. O’ Beirne, bifhop of Meath, delivered a fermon, which was printed at. the re- queft of the Society, accompanied by a note, containing the fame obnoxious affertions, together with additional remarks of his own. Dr. Vincent applied to the Society for per- miffion to inclofe in the parcels, containing its annual com- munications, a juitification of the public inftru€tors of England; but the Society declining to take a part in the controverly by complying with this requelt, the author com- mitted to the prefs his ‘“* Defence of Public Education,’? addrefled to the bifhop of Meath, in which he makes an apology for the prefent fyftem, and exprefies himfelf in a high and indignant tone, im ref{pect to the diftinguifhed in- dividuals whofe fuppofed indifcretion had incurred his cen- fure. As no reply was made, the conteft terminated; and in order to prevent the recurrence of a fimilar event, the Society refolved, that the notes as well as the text of the annual fermon fhould for the future be fubmitted to its re- vifion and approbation, © In 1802, our author publifhed his thank{giving fermon, preached at St. Margaret’s, Weftminiter, before the ho- nourable houfe of commons; in 1805, the fecond part of «“ The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea;’? in 1809, ‘* The Voyage of Nearchus, and the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,”’ tranflated from the Greek ; and in Mr. Valpy’s claffical Journal, No. 18. Obfervations on the Geography of Sufiana.”? The dean alfo reviewed feveral articles in the Britifh Critic, particularly that relating to the controverfy about the Troad, and occationally contributed articles to the Gentleman’s Magazine. By {uch literary Jucubrations Dr. V. amufed himfelf in the intervals of his more laborious employments, paffing a long and honourable life by de- voting his mornings to reading and his evenings to tHe fociety of his friends; and towards the clofe of life, dividing his time between his deanery and his living of Iflip. “ Tn the bofom of his family,’? fays one of his biographers, “Dr. Vincent was feen to the greateft advantage.” In the tranquil and peaceful circle above briefly delineated, “« he endeared himfelf to all around him, by the benignity of his difpofition, the affability of his demeanour, and the charms of his converfation. Here were laid open that fin- glenefs of heart and fimplicity of mind, which none could appreciate juftly, but thofe who faw and were conver- fant with him in the free and familiar hours of domeftic privacy. With qualifications which would have conferred dignity on the higheft ftation in the church, and with an ambition, perhaps, not wholly averfe from rank and eleva- tion, Dr. V. neverthelefs loved quiet and retirement.”? We fhall clofe ‘this article with fome extraéts from a biogra- pher who has duly appreciated his talents and character. “ As a clergyman,”’ fays this writer, “ Dr. Vincent was regular and exemplary in the difcharge of his duties; ftriGly orthodox in point of faith; and a firm fupporter of all the doétrines, VIN do@rines, tenets, and pratices of the church of England. His perfon, as well as enunciation, were well fitted for pul- pit oratory : his voice, in particular, was fonorous ; his anima- tion produced a lively intereft in the hearts of his auditors, while a certain dignity of manner commanded their implicit ‘attention.””—‘ As a writer, he poffeffed all the neceffary re- quifites to gain the approbation of intelligent critics ; he was indefatigably induftrious ; addi&ed to refearch ; and learned in no common degree. While his literary labours evinced his intimate acquaintance with the ancients, his fermons were admirably adapted to the abilities and underftandings of an ordinary audience. In both capacities his language was chafte ; his compofition elegant: in fhort, he continually refleGted the images of a mind, richly imbued with learning, both human and divine.’’ «© As a controverfial writer, he fometimes bordered on afperity, and this, too, in refpeét of minor points ; while with certain perfons, from whom he differed in effentials, he exhibited no common fhare of moderation and liberality. Accordingly he did full juftice to the talents of a Tooke, a Porfon, and a Gibbon.”’ “ As a fchool-mafter, he muft be allowed to have had a number of diftinguifhed pupils,’ among whom we may reckon the late and prefent dukes of Bedford, fir Francis Burdett, and his fucceffor, as head-mafter, Dr. Carey ; and in this capacity he is faid to have been the acute, able, indefatigable, and ftrenuous affertor of the ancient difci- pline. Annual Biography and Obituary, for 1817, vol. 1. Gent. Mag. : Vincent, Tomas, a celebrated performer on the haut- bois, was a fcholar of the admirable San Martini; and, after his mafter- had ceafed to perform in public, and had furnifhed him with concertos, was an unrivalled favourite on his inftrument, till the arrival of Fifcher. In 1765 he became joint imprefario of the Opera with Gordon. Vincent, after the deceafe of San Martini, had been in at favour with his royal highnefs Frederic, prince of Wales, father to his prefent majefty ; had acquired a con- fiderable fum of money in his profeflion, which he aug- mented by marriage. However, the ambition of being at the head of fo froward a family as an opera vocal and initru- mental band, turned his head and his purfe infide out; in fhort, he foon became a bankrupt, and his colleagues, though they efcaped utter ruin, were not enriched by the conneétion. He ended his days in the evening of life, of which the morning had been fo brilliant, in poverty and ob- {curity, and paid dear for his ambition and imprudence. Vincent, RicHarp, who performed the firft hautbois at Vauxhall Gardens from the beginning of mufical per- formances there, and at Covent-Garden theatre more than thirty years. He was the father of the young mufician who married the celebrated Mifs Birchell, poffeffed with one of the fineft treble voices that was ever heard in public. After performing at Vauxhall with great and conftant applaufe, on the death of her hufband fhe went to the Eaft Indies, where fhe was {till more applauded than in England, and where fhe was married a fecond time to John Mills, efq., a gentleman of fortune and confideration, with whom fhe re- turned to her native country, and lived happily in a fplendid manner. She was buried in St. Pancras church-yard, where there is an honourable and affectionate epitaph in- {cribed on a tablet dedicated to her memory, by her fur- viving hufband. Vincent of Beauvais, a Dominican monk of the 13th century, was appointed by St. Lewis, king of France, infpeGtor of the education of his children. About the Vout. XXXVII. VIN year 1244, he compiled a kind of encyclopedia, entitled «© Speculum Majus,’’ which confifted of four parts, viz- «¢ Speculum Naturale, Dotrinale, Morale, et Hiftoriale.’’ Notwithftanding all its errors, it pafled through many edi-" tions ; the firft at Strafburg in 1476, and the laft at Douay in 1624. He was alfo the writer of a ‘* Letter to St. Lewis on the Death of his eldeft Son,”? and of a “ Treatife on the Education of Princes ;’”? and died in 1624. Brucker by Enfield. Vincent Ferner, or Ferrer, a Dominican, was born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1357; and having entered into the order of preachers in 1374, obtained the degree of doctor in wee! at Lerida in 1384. He was the chofen com- panion of cardinal de Luna, the pope’s legate to France ; and on his return was fummoned to Avignon, in 1394, by the fame cardinal, when he rofe to the papal chair under the name of Benedict XIII. Yielding to an imagined impulfe for preaching the word of God, he became a miffionary in 1397, and travelled through feveral countries, not excepting Britain and Ireland. He alfo exerted himfelf in terminating the difcord of the Romith church with regard to the papacy, and finding Benedié& unrelenting, he abandoned him, and affifted at the council of Conftance. In 1407 he accepted the invitation of John, duke of Brittany, and fixed the feat of his miffion at Vannes, where he died in 1410. After his death, miracles were faid to have been wrought at his tomb, and he was canonized by pope Calixtus III. He was the author of many devotional tratts ; and his “ Treatife on the fpiritual Life, or interior Man,’’ was frequently re- printed. Dupin. Moreri. Vincent of Lerins, was a native of Gaul in the fifth century, who abandoning the military profeffion, and adopt- ing a religious life, retired to the monaftery of Lerins in Provence, where he became a prieft. He was held in high eftimation for his piety and learning ; and after his death, in the reign of Theodofius and Valentinian, was canonized by the Roman church, to which he was thought to be entitled for his “‘ Commonitorium adverfus Hereticos,’? which was neatly written, and much applauded by the Roman Ca- tholics. Of this work Dr. Maclaine, deviating from the article of Mofheim, fays, that he can fee nothing in it but a blind veneration for ancient opinions. It has been printed in the “ Bibliotheca Patrum,” and has been publifhed fe- parately, particularly at Cambridge, in 1687. Dupin. Mofheim. VincENT pe, Paut, founder of the congregation of the “ Priefts of the Miffions,’’ (fee Mrsston, ) was born at Poui, or Poy, in the diocefe of Acqs, in the year 1576, and ad- vanced, on account of his extraordinary talents, and by a courfe of education at Acqs and Touloufe, from the humble condition of a fhepherd to the office of prieft in 1600. Having occafion foon afterwards to vifit Marfeilles, for the purpole of receiving a fmall property which devolved upon him by inheritance, he was, upon his return by fea to Nar- bonne, taken captive by a Barbary corfair, and fold for a flave at Tunis. Here he ferved feveral matters, the laft of whom, who was a Savoyard renegado, he was fuccefsful in reclaiming. "They both determined on making their efcape, and arrived fafely in a {mall boat at Aigues Mortes, in 1607. Upon his return to his native country, he was deputed by Peter Montorio, vice-legate of Avignon, on bufinefs of im- portance to the court of Rome; and here he was intrufted by the minifter of Henry IV. with a commiflion to that monarch in 1608. In return for this fervice, Lewis XIII. eonferred upon him the abbey of St. Leonard de Chaueme. Having been introduced as tutor to the family of M. de Goudy, general of the galleys, he conceived the defign of Bb founding Vie founding the congregation above-mentioned; and in the mean Eile wifhing to ferve the miferable objects that were under the care of his patron, he applied to court for the ap- pointment of almoner-general of the galleys, and obtained it in the year 1619. His affiduity in the difcharge of the duties of ‘his office, as well as the piety and benevolence of his difpofition, engaged the general efteem and refpect of the inhabitants of Marfeilles. Devoted to a&ts of com~ paffion and beneficence, he was entrufted, in the year 1620, with the direGtion and government of the order of the “ Daughters of Charity.”” His next obje€t was the accom- plifhment of his purpofe with regard to a new community, in which he obtained the concurrence of fome priefts, who made choice of him as their principal. This inftitution was profperous, and the number of the fociety having in- creafed, he accepted the great houfe of St. Lazarus, in the fuburb of St. Denis, which became the principal houfe of his order; and in 1632, its utility was acknowledged by. pope Urban VIII., who formed it into a regular congrega- tion, and appointed its founder as the firft fuperior general. The rule preferibed to the fociety enjoined, independently of attention to their own religious exercifes, the appropria- tion of eight months in the year to the inftruétion of the common people in the neighbouring parifhes, to the relief of the fick and indigent, to infpeGtion of feminaries in which young perfons were educated for holy orders, and to other aéts of private and public fervice. The fuperior con- duGed himfelf with fo much zeal and aétivity, that he ob- tained encouragement in the profecution of his plan, not only in all parts of France, but alfo in Italy, Scotland, Barbary, Madagafcar, &c. Not fatisfied with the fingle obje& to which his benevolent attention was firft direéted, he took a very active part in the conduct and fupport of many other inftitutions of a benevolent and ufeful kind. So highly was he efteemed on account of his piety and pru- dence, and his zeal for doing good, that he was engaged in regular attendance on Lewis XIII. during his laft ficknels ; and under the regency of Anne of Auftria, mother of Lewis XIV., he was the chief advifer in all the ecclefiattical affairs of the kingdom. For a period of ten years, during which he poffeffed this influence, he maintained the moft exemplary character in the difcharge of his public duties, as well as in his private conduét. He died in 1660, at the age of nearly 85 years. He was beatified by pope Bene- di& XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement XII. in 17373 and it muft be allowed, that he occupies a diftin- guifhed rank among the faints in the Romifh calendar. Moreri. Mofheim. Vincent, Grecory St. See Grecory St. VINCENT. Vincent, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of Pennfylvania, and county of Chefter, containing 1630 inhabitants; 25 miles W. of Philadelphia. Vincent, St., one of the Cape Verd iflands, being one of the four fituated towards the north-weft, about 30 miles in circumference ; the land of which is generally elevated, but towards the north-weft low and fandy ; fo that it is un- productive, and the ifland probably ftill uninhabited. It has good frefh water, which fprings up on digging a little way into the foil of the valley, but the hills are totally defti- tute of it; and, therefore, the ifland is improper for cattle. It has a fine large road called Porto Grande, with a rock like a tower in the centre. The bay, which is about a league and a half broad at the mouth, is furrounded with high mountains, and ftretching into the middle of the ifland, is thus fheltered from the weft and north-weft winds; and, therefore, itsis deemed the fafeft harbour in all the Cape Verd iflands ; but-difficult of accefs, on account of the im- f VIN , petuous winds that blow off the mountains along the coaft, fo as to endanger fhips before they can arrive at this place of fecurity. Befides this bay, there are feveral others on the fouth fide, in which fhips may anchor ; and thefe are gene- rally chofen by the Portuguefe for landing their hides. The fifh are numerous and excellent. The fouth part of the ifland is fituated in N. Tat. 16° 50! W.long. 25°. See Cape VERD. Vincent, St., one of the Charibbee iflands in the Weft Indies, about 40 miles in length, and to in breadth. Dr. Campbell fays, that the Spaniards called it by this name, becaufe they difcovered it upon the 22d of January, which, in their calendar, is St. Vincent’s day ; but it does not ap- pear that they ever, properly fpeaking, had poffeffion of it; as the Indians were very numerous here, on account of its being the rendezvous of their expeditions to the con- tinent. At length, however, ambition and avarice effeGted an eftablifhment for a clais of intruders, who were long dif- tinguifhed by the name of the black Charaibes, whom the native Charaibes regarded at firft with contempt and pity. Of the origin of thefe intruders Campbell gives the following account. In 1672, king Charles II. divided the govern- ments in the Weft Indies, and, by a new commiffion, ap- pointed lord Willoughby governor of Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Dominica; and fir William Stapleton governor of the other Leeward iflands, which feparation has ever fince fubfifted. On the demife of lord Wil- loughby, he was fucceeded by fir Jonathan Atkins, who continued governor until the year 1680, when the govern- ment was transferred to fir Richard Dutton; who, being fent for to England in 1685, appointed colonel Edwin Stade lieutenant-governor ; and he, with a view of afferting and maintaining the Britifh rights, by conftituting deputy- governors for the other iflands, exerted himfelf in prevent- ing the French from wooding and watering in this ifland without permiffion. At this time it was intimated to him, that the king had figned an a& of neutrality, and that com- miffioners were appointed by the two courts to fettle all differences relating to thefe iflands. Some years after, a fhip from Guinea, with a large cargo of flaves, was either wrecked or run afhore upon the ifland of St. Vincent, into the woods and mountains of which great numbers of the negroes efcaped, whom the Indians fuffered to remain. Partly by the acceffion of runaway flaves from Barbadoes, and partly by the children they had by the Indian women, thefe Africans became very numerous; fo that about the beginning of the 18th century, they conftrained the Indians to retire into the north-weit part of the ifland. Thefe people, as may be reafonably fuppofed, were much diffatis- fied with this treatment ; and complained of it occafionally both to the Englifh and to the French, that came to wood and water amongit them. The latter at lencth fuffered themfelves to be prevailed upon to attack thefe invaders. After much deliberation, in the year 1719, they came with confiderable force from Martinico, and landing without much oppofition, began to burn the negro huts, and deftroy their plantations, fuppofing that the Indians would have at- tacked them in the mountains ; which, if they had done, the blacks had probably been extirpated, or forced to fubmit, and become flaves. But either from fear or policy, the Indians did nothing, and the negroes fallying in the night, and retreating to inacceffible places by day, deftroyed fo many of the French, that they were forced to retire. When by this experiment they were convinced that force would not do, they had recourfe to fair means ; and by dint of perfua- fion and prefents, patched up a peace with the negroes as well as the Indians, from which they received great advan- tage. VIN tage. Things were in this fituation, when captain Uring came with a confiderable armament, to take poffeffion of St. Lucia and this ifland, in virtue of a grant of king George I. to the duke of Montague. When the French had diflodged _ this gentleman, by a fuperior force, from St. Lucia, he fent captain Braithwaite, in’ the year 1723, to try what could be done at the ifland of St. Vincent, in which he was not at all more fuccefsful. After this, the country became a theatre of favage hoftilities between the negroes and the Charaibes, in which it is believed that the former were generally vi€torious: it is certain they proved fo in the end, their numbers, in 1763, being computed at 2000; whereas of the red or native Charaibes, there were not left more than roo families, who retained only a mountainous diftri@, and moft of thefe are by this time faid to be exterminated. It is, however, worthy of remark, that the African intruders have adopted moft of the Charibbean manners and cuftoms : among the reft, the pra&tice of flattening the foreheads of their infants; and it was perhaps from this that they-ac- quired the appellation of black Charaibes. St. Vincent being ceded tothe Englifh by the peace of Paris, in the year 1763, as well as Dominica and Tobago, St. Lucia being affigned to France, (the Charaibes not being men- tioned in the whole tranfa€tion,) the firft meafure’ of the Englifh government was to difpofe of the lands, without any regard to the claims of the Charaibes of either race ; which, in truth, were confidered as of no confequence or validity. This gave rife toa war with the Charaibes, in the courfe of which it became the avowed intention of govern- ment to exterminate thofe miferable people altogether ; or by conveying them toa barren ifland on the coaft of Africa, confign them over to a lingering deftruction. By repeated proteits and reprefentations from the military oificers em- ployed in this difgraceful bufinefs, and the dread of parlia- mentary inquiry, adminiftration at length thought proper to defift ; and the Charaibes, after furrendering part of their lands, were permitted to enjoy the remainder unmolefted. On the 19th of June 1779, St. Vincent fhared the common fate of moft of the Britifh Weft Indian pofleflions, in that unfortunate war with America, which {wallowed up all the refources of the nation, being captured by a {mall body of troops from Martinico, confifting only of 450 men, com- manded by a lieutenant in the French navy. The terms of capitulation, however, were favourable, and the ifland was reftored to the dominion of Great Britain by the general pacificatién of 1783. It contained at that time 61 fugar eftates, 500 acres in coffee, 200 acres in cacao, 400 in cot- ton, 50 in indigo, and 500 in tobacco, befides land appro- priated to the raifing of provifions, fuch as plantains, yams, maize, &c. All the reft of the country, excepting the few {pots that had been cleared from time to time by the Cha- raibes, retained its native woods. St. Vincent contains about 84,000 acres, which are every where well watered; but the country is very generally mountainous and rugged : the intermediate valleys, however, are fertile in a high de- gree, the foil confifting chiefly of a fine mould, compofed of fand and clay, well adapted for fugar. The extent of country at prefent poffefled by the Britifh fubje&s is 23,605 acres; and about as much more is fuppofed to be held by the Charaibes. All the remainder is thought incapable of cultivation or improvement. The ifland, or rather the Bri- tifh territory within it, is divided into five parifhes, of which only one had a church, and this was blown down in the hur- ricane of 1780. There is one town called Kingfton, the capital of the ifland, and the feat of its government; and three villages that bear the name of towns, but they are in- contiderable hamlets, confifting each of a few houfes only. VIN The botanic garden.of St. Vincent confifts of 30 acres, of which no lefs than 16 are in high cultivation. In the frame of its government, and the adminiftration of executive juf- ~ tice, St. Vincent feems not to differ from Grenada. The council confifts of twelve members, the aflembly of feventeen. The falary of the governor is 2000/. fterling, half of which is raifed within the ifland, the other half being paid out of the exchequer of Great Britain. The military force, ac- cording to Mr. Edwards, confifted in his time of a regiment of infantry, and a company of artillery, fent from England, and a black corps raifed in the country. The militia in- cludes two regiments of foot, ferving without pay. The number of inhabitants, fays Mr. Edwards, amounts to 1450 whites, and 11,853 negroes. The feveral fmaller iflands dependent on the St. Vincent government are Bequia, containing 3700 acres, a {mall ifland, valuable for the com- modioufnefs of its bay, called Admiralty bay ; Union, con- taining 2150 acres; Canouane, containing 1777 acres; and Maftiqua, containing about 1200 acres. The negroes em- ployed in the cultivation of thefe iflands, being about 1400, are fuppofed to be included in the 11,853 before,mentioned. There are likewife the little iflets of Petit Martinique, Petit St. Vincent, Maillereau, and Bellefeau, each of which pro- duces alittle cotton. N. lat. 13° 10’. W. long. 61°. Ed- wards’s Weft India Iflands, vol. i. VINCENT, St., a town of United America, in the weftern territory of the Wabafh. N. lat. 38° 44!. W. long. 88° 6!. Vincent, St., a town of France, in the department of the Lot; 6 miles W. of Cahors. Vincent, St, a fea-port town of Brafil, in the govern- ment of St. Paul, fituated on the fea-coaft; 150 miles W. of Rio Janeiro, See Santos, St. Vicente, and VICENTE. Vincent, Sz., a river of Madagafcar, which runs into the Indian fea, on the eaft coaft, S. lat. 21° 48. E. long. 44°. Vincent, St., a town of Peru, in the diocefe of La Plata; 40 miles N.E. of Lipes. Vincent d’Ardentes, St., a town of France, in the de- partment of the Indre; 7 miles S.E. of Chateauroux. Vincent, Cape St., the fouth-weft point of Portugal, where commences a chain of lime-ftone mountains, which terminates at Tavira, N. lat. 37° 2'. W. long. 9° 5!. To- wards this cape the hills become flatter, and this promontory itfelf is a defert plain, confifting of a grey lime-ftone, fo naked and rough near the front, that it is very difficult to travel over it. In other parts it is nearly covered with fand. Toward the fea the rock is every where fra€tured, about 50 to 80 feet high, being of equal height with Cabo de Rocca, which it fomewhat refembles. At the utmoft ex- tremity in this defert country is a monaftery of Capuchins. Ships can approach very near the rock, fo that in fine weather the monks can {peak to the perfons on board. The famous naval engagement between the Spaniards and lord St. Vincent was diltin@tly feen from this monaftery. On another point of the rock, feparated by a creek from the extreme end, is the {mall fort of Sagres, within which no- thing is feen but the commandant’s dwelling, the foldiers’ barracks, and the works which are not allowed to be fur- veyed. Without the fort are only two houfes. At the time when the earthquake of 1755 deftroyed Lifbon, the fea {welled here, and pouring from the creek over the land, laid the country wafte. At Sagres a great quantity of fifh and mufcles is taken, and {mall ffhing-fmacks lie at anchor under the rock in the creek. ive {mall leagues from Cape St. Vincent is the city of Lagos, which is properly the chief town of Algarve, though it be no tonger the refidence of the governor of that province.—Alfo, a cape on the weit Bb 2 coait VIN coalt of Madagafear. S. lat. 25° 38/. E. long. 43° 50!.— Alfo, a cape on the eaft coaft of Terra del Fuego. S. lat. oats aS eae de Connozal, St., a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 14 miles W. of Perigueux. Vincent de Beira, St., a town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Beira; 15 miles W.N.W. of Caftel Branco. Vincent de la Barquera, St., a fea-port of Spain, in the province of Afturia; 9 miles W.S.W. of Santillana. Vincent de Rivedot, St., a town of France, in the de- partment of the Dordogne ; 6 miles S. of Riberac. Vincent’s Bay, St., a bay on the north coatt of Terra del Fuego, a little to the eaft of Cape St. Vincent. Before the anchorage ground, fays captain Cook, lie feveral rocky ledges that are covered with fea-weed; but not lefs than eight and nine fathoms over all of them. It appears ftrange that where weeds, which grow at the bottom, appear above the furface, there fhould be this depth of water; but the weeds which grow upon rocky ground in thefe countries, and which always diftinguifh it from fand and ooze, are of an enormous fize. ‘The leaves are four feet long, and fome of the ftalks, though not thicker than a man’s thumb, above 120. Mr. (fir Jofeph) Banks and Dr. Solander ex- amined fome of them, over which we founded and had 14 fathoms, which is $4 feet ; and as they made a very acute angle with the bottom, they were thought to be at leaft one half longer. The footitalks were {welled into an air-veffel, and thefe eminent naturalifts called this plant fucus giganteus. They went on fhore, and in about four hours returned with above a hundred different plants and flowers, all of them wholly unknown to the botanifts of Europe. They found the country about the bay to be in general flat, the bottom of it in particular was a plain, covered with grafs, which might eafily have been made into a large quantity of hay ; they found alfo abundance of good wood and water, and fowl in great plenty. Among other things, of which nature has been liberal in this place, is Winter’s bark, Winteranea aromatica ; which may eafily be known by its broad leaf, Shaped like the laurel, of a light green colour without, and inclining to blue within; the bark is eafily {tripped with a bone or a ftick. Vincent de la Pazes, St., or Onda, a town of Popayan, in Terra Firma, about 25 miles E. of St. Sebaftian’s, with a port, where canoes from Carthagena and St. Martha un- load their merchandize. Vincent, Port St., lies on the coaft of Chili, in the South Pacific ocean, 6 miles N.N.E. of the mouth of the river Bobio, with a fafe harbour, fecure againft all winds but that from the weit, which blows right into it. guana port is fix miles to the north of it. Vincent’s Rocks, St, rocks on each fide of the river Avon, about three miles below Briftol; at the bottom of which is the {pring from which rife what are called the Briftol waters. Vincenr Jfland, a {mall ifland in the North Pacific ocean, at the entrance into Portlock’s harbour. N. lat. 57° 48’. W. long. 136° 30!. VINCETOXICUM, in Botany, from vinco, to conquer, and foxicum, poifon, aname which firft occurs in Dodonzus, Pempt. 407, and which he fays had been recently given to the officinal A/clepias, (A. Vincetoxicum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 314. Cynanchum Vincetoxicum of Brown, in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 77.)—The plant thus denominated was fuppofed def- titute of the dangerous and acrid properties of the reft of its tribe, becaufe its juice is not milky. The root, whofe flavour and fcent refemble Valerian, has been ufed as a counter-poifon, in the place of Contrayerva, whofe name Talca- a SW bas the fame meaning, and each may have its ufe as a tonic, or ftimulant, however erroneous the idea may feem of a fpecifie, againft any poifon whatever, except by a chemical alteration of its qualities. Among plants, at leaft, no fuch marvellous power has hitherto been afcertained. The above root is f{carcely ever ufed in this country. ViINcETOxICUM, in the Materia Medica. Asa medicine, this root has been chiefly ufed in dropfical diforders, but its good effeéts are not fufficiently eftablifhed ; which is alfo the cafe with refpe& to Stahi’s pulvis antihydropicus, in which the vincetoxicum is an ingredient. It has been alfo re- commended in maligaant fevers, and even in the plague, by fome German authors ; and hence called ‘* Contrayerva Ger- manorum.”’ It is faid likewife to be ufeful in {mall-pox, {crophula, and uterine obftru@tions. The dofe, in powder, is from a fcruple to a drachm, or an infufion of three or four drachms. Woodville. VINCI, Lronarpo pA, in Biography, the illegitimate fon of Piero da Vinci, a notary of the fignoria of Florence, diftin- guifhed himfelf during his life as a man of {cience and of liter- ature, a philofopher, poet, painter, and mufician of the moft profound ftudy, and the moft exalted tafte. He was born at the caftle of Vinci, in the lower vale of the Arno, in 1452. From his earlieft years he tettified a more than ordinary fhare of ingenuity, and particularly exhibited an ardent defire for drawing. This at length became fo decided a preference above all other purfuits, that it determined his father to indulge and cultivate it ; and for this purpofe he placed him under the tuition of Andrea Verocchio, a fkilful defigner, and eminent as a fculptor, an archite&t, and a painter. The progrefs of Lionardo equalled the fanguine expectation his intelleCtual abilities had excited ; and whilft a youth, he furpafled his mafter in the pra¢tice of the art he had learnt of him. Verocchio had been employed by the monks of §. Salvi at Valombrofo, to paint the Baptifm of Chrift, as an altar-piece for their church, and having made his defigns, he entrufted the preparation of the parts to his difciples. Among them, the young Da Vinci was ordered to paint the figure of an angel, which he did with fo much tafte and fkill, and fo far furpaffing the work of his matter, that Verocchio, mortified at being excelled by a youth, abandoned the art, and from that time confined himfelf to f{culpture. The career of this extraordinary man, thus begun in ho- nour, was purfued with enthufiafm in all things relative to art and fcience. Nature had endowed him with the beauties of | body and of mind, and he cultivated the ufeful exercife of | both. His perfon was finely proportioned, and his features beautiful and expreffive ; he was dexterous in feats of arms, the management of the horfe, and all the favourite amufe- ments of the time. He was admirably fkilled in mechanics, was an able anatomift, and an architeét ; was learned in natural philofophy, optics, and geometry: in fhort, he had fteadily applied himfelf to acquire a thorough knowledge of the operations of nature; and was befides an excellent poet and mufician. Thus endowed, and conftituted to apply thefe endow- ments with energy to every ufeful and ornamental purpofe, fame crowned his portion of human felicity by fpreading the renown of his uncommon talents throughout Italy. His various application of them had however one evil at- tending it,—a certain portion of inftability : the impetuofity of his nature, leading him too rapidly to new projects, often prevented the completion of thofe already commenced. In his youth, Vafari fays, he invented mills and engines to ze by water for various purpofes, and contemplated {chemes for making the Arno navigable from Pifa to Florence he ; ena 9 plans VINCL. plans for roads, for raifing water, &c.: yet amidit thefe occupations he cultivated drawing moft affiduoufly from all kinds of obje&s of animated nature, in a ftyle of the moft laboured and exquifite finifhing, as if he never could attain too clofe an imitation of the obje& he had feleted. He always ftrove to make them appear as {ftrongly relieved as poffible ; their defe@ is, that not having hit upon the true nature of relieving objeéts, {uch as has been exemplified in the Dutch fchool fince his time, he laboured his works to blacknefs; and whilft his principal objets appeared illu- mined by the light of the day, his fhadows partook of the blacknefs of night. He delighted in obferving thofe whofe charaéter was ftrongly marked, who had any thing extravagant in the Style of their beards, their hair, or drefs, and would follow them till he had fixed their form fully in his mind, and then go home and draw them. By ftudies of this nature he be- came poffeffed of ftrong ideas of expreffion and of cha- raéter, and employed himfelf atively in the ufe of them in defigns ; though the finifhed works of his hand, which conjecture places at this period of his life, are not of a kind to exhibit much of their application. His life, Lanzi obferves, “‘may be divided into four pa the firft of which was, as we have feen, {pent in pro- ecuting his ftudies in art, and occafionally applymg them to practice in Florence: to this belong not only the head of Medufa, and the few works mentioned by Vafari, but pro- bably all thofe paintings of his which have lefs energy of fhade, lefs complicated drapery, and heads of forms rather delicate than exquifite, feemingly derived from the {chool of Verocchio. Such are the Maddalenas of the Pitti palace at Florence, and the Aldobrandini at Rome ; fome Madonnas or holy families in various galleries, as the Juftiniani and Borghefe ; fome heads of the Saviour and of the Baptift ; though the multitude of his imitators muft render all deci- fion on their originality ambiguous. Of a different clafs, however, and without a doubt of his hand, is the Bambino, who lies in a little ornamented bed, richly drefled and adorned with necklaces, which is in the apartment of the Gonfaloniére at Bologna.’’ _ After this firft period of his life, when he was forty-two, viz. in 1494, he was invited to Milan by the duke Ludo- vico Sforza, to whom Lionardo rendered himfelf more par- ticularly acceptable by playing upon the lyre, and upon one of a peculiar form, which he himfelf had made. ‘To this inftrument he fung alfo admirably, and recited verfes extem- poraneoufly, furpaffing all who attempted that fpecies of amufement. But the more effeétive caufe affigned for his going to the duke, was a defign entertained by that prince of erecting a monument of bronze to the memory of his father. Among the manuferipts ftill exifting of Lionardo, is a memorial prefented by him to the duke about 1490. In it he offers his fervices in various military mechanical con- trivances, for the purpofe of aiding in fieges, pafling rivers, &c. and alfo for the conducting water-courfes, feulpture in bronze or marble, and painting ; and in conclufion remarks, “that at the fame time that thele things are going on, the equeftrian ftatue to the memory of the duke’s father need not be neglected.””? So that it appears by this, that the modelling and ereétion of this {tatue were the primary objects for which he was carried to Milan ; and it was executed by him in bronze, and ereéted in the city, where it remained till it was demolifhed on the incurfion of the French, after the defeat of Ludovico. The duke appointed him direGtor of the academy of painting and {culpture, which he had re- cently revived with additional fplendour ; and under his inftruGions many pupils arofe, who increafed the love and renown of the arts, as he in great meafure banifhed the re- mains of the Gothic ftyle, and introduced his own new and more elevated one in its ftead. Here, by detire of the duke, he painted a Nativity, which was fent by him as a prefent to the emperor of Germany ; but if we except this, the portraits of the duke and duchefs, and his grandeft work in the art, the Laft Supper, painted on the walls of the refe€tory of the Dominican convent of the Madonna delle Grazie, he does not appear to have occu- pied much of the time he {pent at Milan (which was about five years) in painting. Indeed he fcarcely could devote more time to it, as the duke engaged him as an engineer to condué the waters of the Adda to the walls of Milan: an immente operation, in which, after much ftudy and labour, he had nearly fucceeded, when it was interrupted by the French. He alfo made many models of ingenious mechanical contrivances, and among them a lion, in compliment to the king of France, on his arrival at Milan, which, after ad- vancing by itfelf many paces to meet the monarch, fud- denly {topped when it came near him, reared upon its hinder legs, and threw open its breaft, which was filled with lilies. Whilft thefe various inventions fhewed the verfatility of his powers, the pi€ture above alluded to, the Laft Supper, gave immortality to the fame of the moment. Of this picture, one only character is given by all who have written or {poken of it,—that of fuperior excellence in all the moit admirable and exalted qualities of the art. Unfortunately, his knowledge in chemiftry was not equal to his love of novelty, or he would not have painted it with a vehicle and a ground totally. difeordant, which neceffarily led to a {peedy deftru@tion of the furface. He painted it with oil colours upon the plaftered wall, and in confequence the colour cracked and peeled off ; fo that in fifty years after it was painted, when Armenini vifited it, he fays ‘it was already half {poiled ;?? and Scannelli, who faw it in 1642, fays, that “the fubje&t was fcarcely difcernible.”? Lanzi, in {peaking of it recently, obferves, that ‘‘ what with the attempts to reftore it by oils and varnifhes, and with the re- painting which has accompanied thefe attempts, there now remain only three heads of the apoftles by the hand of Da Vinci, and thofe rather drawn than coloured.”? The affent, therefore, which may be now given to the high teftimony of contemporary authorities as to the merit of this great work, refts with the copies which were made when the picture was perfeét, (and they are many,) and the general character of Lionardo’s talent. There has lately been introduced into England, and is now exhibiting, (1817,) a copy as large in length as the original, faid to be the one painted by M. Uggione, a pupil of Da Vinci, for the convent of the Carthufians at Pavia: which in 1793, upon the breaking up of that order, was fold with the other effeéts of the convent, and is now brought here. In it there remains fufficient of the grandeur of ftyle adopted by its great author to fatisfy every beholder of the juttice fame has done to his talents. The fele&ion of matter, the general treatment of the fubje&t, the unequalled truth and variety of expreffion, the clofe attention paid to character and to nature, the depth, richnefs and brilliancy of its co- lour, with the high degree of finifh to which it was carried, —all are manifefted in this copy, though in fome parts imperfe@tly. In it alfo are feen the want of many points in chiaro-fcuro and in colour, which, if they could have beea combined with the matter it contains, (and they have fince then been combined by Titian and others,) would place the original of this pi€ture in every refpe@ at the head of all the pi¢tures which ever were painted. During VINCI During his refidence at Milan, Du Frefne fays he com- pofed his very ufeful work « Il Trattato della Pittura,”’ for the ufe of the pupils in the academy under his care ; and his ftidies for the equeftrian flatue doubtlefs gave rife to the curious and learned memoranda of the ftructure of that animal, as his former ftudies did to thofe concerning the human figure, which are found in the manufcript in the library of Buckingham-Houfe. It appears to have been his cuftomary practice to write his thoughts conftantly, and ac- company the paflages by appropriate illuftrations in draw- ing; and it would have been well for the art, if every emi- nent profeffor had adopted the fame habit: we fhould then have been in poffeffion of a mafs of information which would much alleviate the neceffities involved in praétice, and enable men to exprefs their thoughts and inventions without en- countering the difficulties which not unfrequently ftifle the moft beautiful and fublime conceptions in their birth. The aétivity and exertions of Lionardo, fupported by fuch uncommon talents, had already formed many fkilful artifts, who afterwards became renowned, and who would probably have rendered Milan the rival of Florence as a {chool of art, but for the difaftrous iffue of a conteft be- tween the duke and the king of France, in which, in 1500, the former was defeated, captured, and carried into the country of his enemy, where about ten years afterwards he died. By this event the progrefs of the arts at Milan was broken up, with its academy for a time, and its illuftrious prefident returned to Florence, where the arts were en- couraged by the houfe of Medici. In this third period of his life, his firft work was a defign for an altar-piece for the chapel of the college of the Annunciate, the fubjec of which was a group, of our Saviour with the Virgin and St. Anne, which was univerfally approved and admired ; yet it does not appear that the piéture was ever painted, at leaft to remain in Italy. It is faid, that by the defire of Francis I. he made a piéture from it, and certainly one is fhewn in the royal colleGion at Paris, painted from the defign, though in.a heavy and low tone of colour. He employed himfelf alfo about this time on a portrait of Mona Lifa, known by the name of La Gioconda, a Flo- rentine lady, wife of Francifco del Gioconda, for whom it was painted. This picture he is faid to have employed himfelf upon during four years, but we muft conceive it to mean only that it remained unfinifhed that length of time. It is in poffeffion of the king of France, and attefts, by its exquifite finifh, the laborious attention of its author. It has a very beautiful expreffion, particularly about the mouth ; but is black and heavy in the fhadows: in fact it is over- laboured, and had probably been far better had it left his ftudy fooner. In 1503, the council of Florence having determined to decorate their chamber with works of art, Lionardo was appointed to execute one fide of it; and M. Angelo, then only twenty-nine years of age, but whofe gigantic powers were already matured, was fele¢ted, as his competitor, to undertake the other. A moft unfortunate coalition, as the emulation it excited, aided and ftrengthened to bitternefs by the miftaken affection of admiring spartifans of either mafter, produced in the end the moft confirmed jealoufy, and even hatred, between thefe two great men, and divided Florence into parties, who embittered their difputes, without being able to reconcile their differences. Lionardo chofe for his fubje@ the battle of Nicolo Picinino againft Attila. He had prepared his cartoon, and proceeded in a certain degree with his piéture in oil colours, when to his great mortifica- tion he found, that owing to fome imperfeétion in the pre- paration of the ground, his colours began to pecl from the wall, and he abandoned the work. . PO The cartoon, however, of which we have one group pre- ferved to us in the Battle of the Standard, engraved by Ede- linck, had exalted his name highly among artifts and con- noifleurs, who flocked to Florence to fee it and its rival, which had been prepared by M. Angelo ; and among others Raffaelle, in 1504, was drawn there, allured by the defire of improving the tafte he had imbibed in the fchool of Peru- gino; and there, with the benefit he derived from thefe great works, and the inftruGion of Bartolomeo della Porta, he fhook off in a great degree the dry and Gothic manner of his mafter, and laid the foundation of his future fame. Lionardo appears to have divided his refidence at Flo- rence and at Milan till 1513, during which time he probably painted his own portrait, which is in the gallery at Florence, a head whofe energy leaves all the reft in the room far be- hind, and that perhaps which in many cabinets is called the portrait of Raffaelle. The half figure alfo of a young nun in the palace Nicolini; Chrift among the doétors, formerly in the Doria palace; the fuppofed portrait of queen Gio- vanna, adorned with beautiful architeCture ; that piéture in the Barberini of Vanity and Modetty, the beauty and fimfh of which no one has ever been able to convey in a copy ;— thefe appear, with many others, to belong to this period, when, free from other ferious occupations, he was at liberty to attend to painting with increafing power. . No work, however, of any confequence like his Laft Supper, was entrufted to him after the failure in the Hall at Florence, fo that his great and deferved renown in the art is principally upheld by that work, and the remnant of the cartoon above-mentioned, to which his minor works, though beautifully wrought, are but trifles. The ele€tion of cardinal Giovanni di Medici to the tiara under the title of Leo X. induced Lionardo to vifit Rome, which he had never feen: and from his previous knowledge of the pontiff, he hoped for honour and employment. He went there with his patron Giuliano di Medici, and was gracioufly received by Leo, who foon after Signified his in- tention of employing his pencil. Upon this Lionardo be to diftil his oils and prepare his varnifhes, which the pope e ing, and being unacquainted with the neceflities of the painter’s ftyle, he exclaimed with furprife, that nothing could be ex- peéted of an artift who thought of finifhing his works before he had begun them. This unlucky bon mot difconcerted the painter, and prevented him from proceeding: and probably he found the ground too firmly occupied by Raffaelle and M. Angelo, (who as the pope faid produced works while Lionardo gave words, ) to leave room for the expectation of honourable employment for himfelf. He therefore accepted an invitation from Francis I., king of France, to vifit his court, and left Rome in 1514 for that purpofé, having fpent his time there principally in the produétion of various fan- taftic and diverting mechanical contrivances, but in nothing of importance. This change of circumftances marks the fourth period into which Lanzi divides the life of this moft extraordinary man, and with its commencement terminated his career in art, as he appears to have been fo exhaufted by anxiety and ficknefs on his arrival in France, that he was never more able to ufe the pencil. For the five years that he continued to exift, it was but to ftruggle under an incurable com- plaint, during the continuance of which the king fre- quently vifited him; and it has been faid, that in one of thefe vifits Lionardo, exerting himfelf beyond his ftrength to fhew his fenfe of his majefty’s condefcenfion, was feized with a fainting fit, and that the king ftooping forwards to fupport fupport him, he expired in his arms. This event occurred on the 2d of May, 1519, at a place called Cloux, near Amboife, and in the 67th year of his age. _ There are fo many imitators of the ftyle of Da Vinci, that it is extremely difficult to know what to regard as his among the numerous minor produétions which are prefented to us as the produét of his eafel, Among thofe imitators, Bernardino Luini holds the firft rank, and his piétures are conftantly impofed upon us as thofe of Lionardo. Lorenzo di Credi is another who copied Lionardo with great exaétnefs. Antonio Sogliani alfo imitated and copied him as well as others; fo that no wonder there are fo many works brought to fale under the high pretenfion ef his name, by which our connoiffeurs are duped and our picture-dealers are enriched. The real character of Lionardo da Vinci as a painter is of the higheft quality, as we have before obferved. He is the parent of the chiaro-fcuro, upon which the fame of Cor- reggio principally depends ; and he firft attempted to com- bine high finifh with feleCtion of parts and grandeur of ftyle, particularly aiming to give intelligence to character and expreffion to features; in fa€t, to pourtray the mind: and in this no one has ever furpafled him, not even Raffaelle, who followed in this refpeét the road opened by Da Vinci. What is commonly called the beau-ideal, was not exaétly the form he appears to have fought ; but he had fo much the feeling which generated it, that he always took from his model the effential and charaéteriftic, leaving out the mean and ufelefs. Hence we find in his piéture of the Laft Supper fo great a variety of charaéter and of expreflion, which thofe who have attached themfelves to the antique as their guide have never given; the imitation having, as we conceive, always fuperfeded the original {pirit of fele€&tion which diated the tafte of the ancients. Two different manners are obfervable in his painting ; one with dark fhades, itrongly contrafting with the lights, the other more placid, and condu&ted with more of middle ‘teint. Grace of defign, expreffion of the mind, and fubtile management of the pencil, triumph in and adorn each; all is gay in his pictures, but efpecially the heads of his women and children. In thefe he con{tantly repeated one idea, giving a {mile to them which it is impoffible to be- hold without experiencing a fympathetic impulfe. Yet, if one may judge from the labour of his piétures, he rarely reached the point at which he aimed, having an impreffion in his own mind more full and complete than he could render by his pencil; and, like Protogenes of old with his Jalyfus, knew not, as Apelles faid of him, when to leave off, nor could be contented with good, when he afpired after the beft. As an author, Lionardo da Vinci has rendered effential fervice to art, particularly in his Treatife on Painting, which is the only one of his numerous compilations that has been given to the public, and which has been recently (in 1802) tranflated into Englifh by a member of our Royal Academy, J.¥. Rigaud, efq. Venturi {peaks of this work as having been compiled from various of his manufcripts, which were doubtlefs the produét of his every-day refleGtions, fet down as they occurred, and without attention to order or arrange- ment. It treats of proportion, anatomy, motion and equi- _poife of figures, perfpeétive, compofition, expreffion, light and fhade, colouring, &c. in 365 precepts, fome of which are confufed and not eafily to be unravelled, others are com- mon place, but moft are learned, ingenious, and ufeful. The reft of his mifcellaneous works, treating of the anatomy of the horfe and of the human fubject, of perfpeétive, optics, hydraulics, botany, &c. were left by him in his will to his friend and pupil T’rancifco Melzi, and confifted of fourteen i fT EE LIN s us volumes, large and {mall, which by various means found their way into the national library at Paris, and one is in pofleffion of our own fovereign. Venturi, who faw thefe at Paris, fays “that they contain fpeculations on thofe branches of natural philofophy neareft allied to geometry, are extremely mifcellaneous, and entered without regard to method or ar- rangement.’? Whether the change of events in the political world fince his time has reconveyed thefe remains to the Ambrofian library at Milan, we know not, but moft pro- bably they are again returned there. The one in the library at Buckingham-Honfe was the property of Pompeo Leoni, who obtained it, with two others fince returned, from H. Melzi, and it is probable it was acquired by the earl of Arundel for Charles I. It was found, foon after his prefent majefty’s acceflion, in the fame cabinet where queen Caro- line found the portraits of the court of Henry VIII. by H. Holbein. j : ' Viner, Leonarpo, an admirable opera compofer of the Neapolitan fchool, is faid to have run away from the con- fervatorio of Gli poveri in Giefu Crifto in that city, where he was the fcholar of Gaetano Greco, on account of a quar- rel with Porpora, a ftudent of the fame feminary. He began to diftinguifh himfelf in the year 1724, when he fet the opera of Farnafe for the Aliberti theatre at Rome. So great was the fuccefs of this drama, that he was called upon to furnifh at leaft one opera every year till 1730, when he compofed two, “* Artaferfe,”? and ‘¢ Aleffandro nell’ Indie,”? both written by Metaftafio. Thefe, as we were informed at Rome, he fet for half price, to gratify his enmity to Por- pora, who was then his rival, in that city. The vocal cumpofitions of Vinci form an era in dramatic mufic, as he was the firft among his countrymen who, fince the invention of recitative by Jacopo Peri, in 1600, feems to have occafioned any confiderable revolution in the mufical drama. The airs in the firft operas were few and fimple ; but as finging improved, and orcheftras became more crowded, the voice-parts were more laboured, and the ac- companiments more complicated. In procefs of time, how- ever, poetry feems to have fuffered as much as ever from the pedantry of muficians, who forgetting that the true charac- teriftic of dramatic mufic is clearnefs ; and that foiind being the vehicle of poetry and colouring of paffion, the inftant the bufinefs of the drama is forgotten, and the words are unintelligible, mufic is fo totally feparated from poetry, that it becomes merely inftrumental; and the voice-part may as well be performed by a flute or violin, in the orcheftra, as by one of the characters of the piece, on the flage. Vinci feems to have been the firft opera compofer who faw this abfurdity, and, without degrading his art, rendered it the friend, though not the flave to poetry, by fimplifying and. polifhing melody, and calling the attention of the audience chiefly to the voice-part, by difentangling it from fugue, complication, and laboured contrivance. In 1726, he fet Metaftafio’s ‘“‘ Didone Abandonata’”’ for Rome, which eftablifhed his reputation ; for in this exqui- fite drama, not only the airs were greatly applauded, but the recitative, particularly in the laft a€t, which being chiefly accompanied, had fuch an effe&t, that, according to count Algarotti, “ Virgil himfelf would have been pleafed to hear a compofition fo animated and fo terrible, in which the heart and foul were at once affailed by all the powers of mufic.”” Saggio fopra ’Opera in Mufica. We fhall mention the reft of this pleafing and intelligent compofer’s operas, the airs of which long ferved as models to other mafters, and are not yet become either ungraceful or inelegant. In 1727, he compofed ** Gifmondo, Re di Polonia ;” in 1728, VIN 1728, ‘ Catone in Utica ;” in 1729, “ Semiramide Rico- nofciuta;’” and in 1730, “ Aleffandro nell’ Indie,”” and “* Ar- taferfe,”’ all for the theatres in Rome. The celebrated air at the end of the firft a& of Artaferfe, “Vo foleando un mar crudele,’”’ originally compofed for Careftini, is well known, and is perhaps the only produ¢tion of Vinci by which his merits have been favourably eftimated in England. In the printed book of the words, Vinci is called ‘ Pro-vice maeftro della Real Capella di Napoli.” We have been able to find no more of his works after this period ; fo that he mutt either have begun late, or been cut off early in life, as his great and durable renown feems to have been acquired in the fhort fpace of fix years of his exiftence. ; Vinci began that free and truly dramatic ftyle of compo- fition, which Haffe and Pergolefi afterwards, perhaps, im- proved ; but it is a ftyle which no good compofer, except Gluck, has abandoned. It has been, indeed, embellifhed and rendered more elegant by the difciples of Durante: Piccini, Sacchini, Traetta, and Anfoffi; but they have all been guided by the outline of Vinci. i This juftly admired compofer died at Rome in 1731, dur- ing the firft run of his Artaferfe. Metaftafio, in a letter to the Romanina, makes a melancholy refleétion on the fub- jet: ‘ Poor Vinci! Now that merit will be known, which during his life was blafted by his enemies. <« What a miferable being is man! He thinks fame the only good that can render him happy; but alas! he mutt die ere he is allowed to enjoy it; and if he does not dic, envy will make him wretched for attempting to acquire it.” One of our own poets has made a fimilar reflection on the vanity of human withes for any other than pofthumous fame. ‘‘ For fuch the frailty is of human kind, Men toil for fame, which no man lives to find ; Long rip’ning under ground the china lies : Fame bears no fruit, till the vain planter dies.”’ Earl of Mulgrave. VINCIA, Vence, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, N. of Antipolis, and the capital of the Narufci. The town feems to have been confecrated to the god Mars, and Cybele was worfhipped there. VINCU-LO Matrimonii, Divorce a. See Divorce. VINCULUM, in Algebra, a character in form of a line, or ftroke drawn over a factor, divifor, dividend, when com- pounded of feveral letters, or quantities ; to connect them, and fhew that they are to be multiplied, or divided, &c. together, by the other term. Thus, d x a + 5 —c, fhews’ that d is to be multiplied into a + 6—c. VINCUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Ger-" many. Anton. Itin. VINDALIUM, Vénvknx, a village of Gallia Narbon- nenfis, upon the left of the Rhone, N.W. of Cyprefleta. VINDANA, a port of Gallia Lyonnenfis. Ptol. VINDELICIA, a country of Europe, N. of the Alps and S. of the Danube, near Rhetia. It has been conjec- tured that this name is formed of two words, which are the names of two rivers that water the country; one called Vindo (the Wertach, which paffes to Aug{burg), and the other Lichus (the Lech). Strabo and Ptolemy differ in their affign- ment of the bounds of this country. According to Strabo, the Vindelicians lived near the Salaffes, and inhabited a part of the mountains which regarded the eaft and turned towards the S. He adds that they were the limitrophes of the Hel- vetians and Boians. According to this author, the Rhe- VIN tians did not touch the lake of Conftance, except in a part of their borders, that is, between the Rhine and Bregentz 5 but this town, which Ptolemy affigns to the Rhetians, really belonged to the Vindelicians. The Helvetians and Vindeli- cians occupied a great part of the banks of the lake. Upon the whole we may conclude, from the obfervations of Strabo, Pliny, Tacitus, and Sextus Rufus, who have all taken a part in fettling the boundaries of Vindelicia, that in its an- cient {tate it had the Danube to the N., and that the river /Enus feparated it from Norica on the E. fide, and that on the W. it extended from the lake of Conftance to the Da- nube. Its boundaries on the S. are lefs fatisfaCtorily afcer- tained. Strabo fays that the Vindelicians pofleffed moun- tainous plains at the extremity of the Alps; and he repre- fents this country as contained between the Licus and the fEnus. M. D’Anville, jn his Ancient Geography, fays that the country of the Vindeliel extended from the town of Brigantia (Bregentz), on the lake of Conftance, to the Danube; and that the lower part of the courfe of the Anus or of the Inn feparated it from Morbihan. A powerful colony was eftablifhed in the angle formed by the two rivers Vindo and Licus, whence the nation feems to have derived the appellation of Vindelici; and Augulfta, given to this colony, preferves its name in that of Augfbourg, between the two rivers Lech and Wertach, the firft of which aétually feparates Suabia from Bavaria. Vindelicia, when it was fubjugated by the Romans, was joined to Rhetia, and the whole country, contained between the lake of Conftance, the Danube, the Inn, and the coun- try of the Carni, the Infubres and Venetians, was always called Rhetia, or Provincia Rhetia. Neverthelefs, the Rhetians and Vindelicians formed two feparate people, al-— though they inhabited the fame province. Accordingly Horace calls the inhabitants of Vindelicia, Rhzti Vindeli, to diftinguifh them from the inhabitants of Rhetia properly fo called. VINDELIS, or Vinpitis, an ifland placed by the Itinerary of Antonine between the Gauls and Great Bri- tain; but this is done in fo vague and indefinite a manner, that it is not poffible to fay what ifland is meant. Some authors think that it is the ifle of Portland. VINDEMIATING, formed of vindemia, vintage, the gathering of grapes, or other ripe fruits; as apples, pears, cherries, &c. VINDEMIATRIX, or VinvemraTor, a fixed ftar of the third magnitude, in the northern wing of the conftella- tion Virgo. { VINDENUTA, Vinponira, Vindimita, or Vindonitenfis infula, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of France, in de- pendence on the town of Nantes. It was to this ifland Friard is fuppofed to have retired in 560, to pafs the life of an indolent and ufelefs hermit; and he thus acquired the name of St. Friard. : VINDERIUS, a river of Hibernia, having, according to Ptolemy, its mouth on the eaftern coaft, between the promontory Ifamnium and the mouth of the river Logia. Scaled thought that it is the prefent bay of Knock- ergus. VINDIA, or VinbA, a town of Afia, in Galatia, upon the route from Peffinunte to Ancyra, between Germa and Papira. Anton. Itin. VINDICATION, Curaimine, in the Civil Law, an aétion arifing from the property a perfon has in any thing : or a permiffion to take or feize a thing, as one’s own, out of the hands of a perfon, whom the law has doomed not to be the true proprietor. VINDICATORY Part of a Law, See Law, ave VIN VINDICTA, among the Romans, the pretor’s rod or fwitch, with which he touched a flave’s head when he was enfranchifed. VINDINATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in Umbria. q VINDINUM, a town of Gallia Lyonnenfis, belonging to the Aulerci or Cenomani. Ptol.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in Umbria. VINDIUS or Vinnius Mons, one of the moft confi- derable mountains in Hifpania Citerior, according to Pto- lemy and Florus. The name is applicable to the chain of mountains which, detaching itfelf from the Pyrenees, tra- verfes Bifcay and the Afturias, and forms, at the entrance of Galicia, two branches, one extending itfelf to Cape Fi- nifterre, and the other, turning to the S., traverfes the coun- try of the ancient Bracares. Vinpius Mons, a mountain of India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptol. It extends from the S.W. to the N.E., S. of the country called Sandrabatis. VINDO, a river of Germany. See VinpELIcIA. _ VINDOBONA, Vienna in Auftria, a town of Superior Pannonia, fix miles from Cetium, according to the tables of Peutinger. It is marked in the Itinerary of Antonine upon the route from Sirmium to Treves, between Motanum and Comagenes. VINDOGLADIA, Vinnucrania, or Vindocladia, a town of Great Britain, in the 12th Iter of Antonine, on the route from Calleva to Uriconium, between Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum) and Durnovaria (Dorcheiter) ; fuppofed to be near Cranburn. Dr. Stukeley traced the Roman road all the way from Old Sarum, for 13 miles, to near Borof- ton, where he places Vindocladia. VINDOMAGUES, one of two towns mentioned by Pto- lemy, as belonging to the Voleez Arecomici: the other being Nemaufus. Although the precife fituation of Vindo- magus is not certainly known, the prefumption lies in favour of Vigan, becaufe it affords many monuments of antiquity, and has been mentioned under the name of Vicanus for 600 or 700 years. It is in the fame parallel with Nimes, and only about half a degree differing in longitude, and corre- {ponds in a variety of refpe&ts to the place marked out by Ptolemy. VINDOMIS, Vinpomum, or Vindonium, a town of Great Britain, in the 12th Iter of Antonine, on the route from Calleva to Uriconium, between Calleva (Silchelter) and Venta Belgarum (Winchefter). If Mr. Horfley has rightly placed Calleva at Silchefter, it is probable that he has fixed juftly on the fcite of Vindonis at Farnham. VINDOMORA, a town of Great Britain, in the 1 Iter of Antonine, on the route from the limit, vallum or wall to Pretorium (Broughton), between Corftopitum (Cowbridge) and Vinovia (Binchefter). The fituation of this place, fixed at Ebchefter, is evidently miftaken by Gale and Camden, the former fixing it at Dolande, within lefs than five miles of Cowbridge, and the other at Wall’s-End, which is altogether out of the way of this Iter, that pro- ceeds from N. to S. along the famous military road called Watling-ftreet. See Horfley’s Brit. Rom. p. 396. VINDONISSA, the ftation of the 21ft legion, accord- ing to Tacitus, the pofition of which unites many Roman ways. The diftance marked xxii in the Theodofian table, with refpe& to Augufta Rauracorum, is more fuitable than that of xxvii in the Itinerary of Antonine. Vindonifla is named Vindo in a panegyric of Conftantine by Eumenes ; and Caftrum Vindoniffenfe in the notitia of the provinces of Gaul lies in Maxima Sequanorum. This town. had been an epifcopal fee ; but having been ruined towards the Vou. XX¥XVII. VIN end of the fixth century, or the commencement of the feventh, this bifhopric became that of Conftance, and Mayence was recognifed as the metropolis, although Vindo- niffa, included in the Sequanois, fhould have acknow- ledged Befangon under this dignity. The place which it occupied upon the bank of the Ruds, near its junction with the Aar, is denominated Windifch. VINE, in Botany and Gardening. See Vitis. It is faid that vines were firft planted about the rivers Rhine, Maine, and Mofelle, and alfo in Hungary, and the northern part of Gaul, about the year 276. But with re- {peé& to the provinces of Gaul and Spain, which border on the Mediterranean fea, as well as to Italy, many are of opi- nion that vines grew fpontaneoufly there. Julius Cefar found vines growing in Gallia Narbonnenfis, i. e. Languedoc and Provence ; and Strabo remarks, that the faid province produced all the kinds of fruit which Italy afforded. ‘Mhe Phoenicians are faid in early times to have planted vines in the ifles of the Mediterranean fea, as well as in feveral parts of the continent both of Europe and Africa. It appears that there were real vineyards in England in 1140 and 1230. And. Com. vol.i. p. 16, and p. 81. Vine, Black. See Tournerortia Volubilis. Vine, Climbing five-leaved, of Canada, a fpecies of He- dera; which fee. Vine, Spanifh Arbor, a {pecies of Ipomea; which fee. Vine, Wild, or White Vine. See Cissus Sicyoides, and Acida. Vine, Culture of, in the Field or open Ground, in Rural Economy, the growth and management of it in fuch fitua- tions for the ufe of the grapes in making wine. It would feem probable that the cultivation of this plant might be conducted with advantage in this intention, in many fituations in the fouthern parts of this country ; efpecially as fome of them are well known to be nearly within the vinous latitude, which is found to extend between the twenty-fifth and fifty- firft degree in the northern hemifphere : and, as in Germany, it is found by experience, that all fuch vineyards as are fituated within the latter of thefe limits, are capable of being cultivated with confiderable profit; though where they ftretch much beyond it, their fuccefs is extremely doubt- ful. Proper cultivation and management are, therefore, all which appear neceffary in raifing crops of this fort. In {peaking of the means of eftablifhing vineyards in this country, Mr. Speechly has remarked, in his ufeful work on the fubje&t, that there are four things which ought to be materially confidered; namely, the fituation; the foil; the kinds of vines which are the moft fit and proper to be planted ; and the mode of their management. In regard to the firft, it is faid that an elevated fituation, where there is a gentle declivity to the fouth or fouth-eaft, is efteemed preferable to low grounds, which are generally fubje& to damps and fprin-frofts, even at times when the adjoining high grounds are entirely free from both. Vine- yards or grounds of this kind, too, fhould be well pro- teted and fheltered to the north, as well as to the north-weit and north-eaft. In a hilly country there are generally many favourable {pots, where nature has given important advan- tages, and which fhould be {till further improved by art for this purpofe. Plantations of foreft-trees, judicioufly formed, would, it is fuppofed, contribute much to give warmth and fhelter ; but thefe fhould not be placed too near the vine- yards, fo as to confine the air, as that would prove very injurious to them. In wine countries it is well known, that vineyards are often not only confined to gentle declivities, but that they are frequently formed on flopes, on the fides of ec hills VINE. hills and rocks, which-are fometimes fo fteep as even to bor- der upon precipices; and that vineyards thus fituated pro- duce grapes uncommonly rich, yielding wines of the moft excellent quality. Confequently, from the hills which border upon the Englifh Channel having declivities which tend towards the fouth, they would appear, it is thought, to be highly proper for the growth of the vine. And that the excavations in them, from which chalky ma- terials have been taken, where they have a fouthern expo- fure, would likewife feem well calculated to anfwer the fame purpofe. In what refpeéts the nature of the ground, it has been obferved that the vine delights in fuch gravelly and rocky foils as are frequently found on the fides of fteep hills and rocks, and that it has fometimes been known to flourifh among mere ftones and gravel. It grows moft favourably ina light, dry, fandy, or gravelly foil, which is perfectly free from ftagnant moifture ; confequently it may be noticed, that the introduGtion of the vine into this country would have no bad effeét in refpe&t to agriculture, as all ftrong and deep lands, which are beft adapted for tillage, are the moft unfuitable for the cultivation of the vine. But befides gentle declivities and light foils, vines, it is faid, grow in fituations and foils where the land could hardly be rendered profitable in any other way. And thus, though vines would not grow robuft on the fteeps of poor, gravelly, and rocky foils, ftill they would be more produc- tive than when planted on rich lands, and the fruit be greatly preferable. All fuch hills as have the above afpe& or expofure, and are compofed of either flate, gravel, {caly rock, or lime-ftone, are of courfe highly proper for being planted upon. It is therefore evident, that there is a confiderable portion of foil in the fouthern diftriéts of this kingdom that is well adapted for the growth of vines. However, the fuccefs of a vineyard in this country would, it is thought, moft effentially depend on the kinds of vines which are propagated and cultivated. It is believed that it has been a prevailing, though certainly an erroneous notion, that the {weet early kinds of grapes are the belt to plant for the purpofe of making wine in this country. And that moft or all of the modern trials in this way have been made from vines brought from France. It is not doubted by the above writer, but that there are, among the abundant va- viety of grapes, peculiar forts, which are by nature fingu- larly fuited to make wines in different climates and fituations. Thus the different forts of grapes propagated and grown in the Madeira and Canary iflands, might not, it is thought, be found, if tried, to make good wines ‘in France. It is hence concluded, that as the fouthern part of this ifland is almoft on the verge of the vinous latitude, it fhould feem reafonable to fuppofe, that there would be the greateft pro- bability of fuccefs from thofe kinds of grapes which have been known to thrive and profper beft in the moft northern latitudes. On this account, therefore, the kinds of vines cultivated in Germany are recommended, and particularly the fort producing the grapes of which the Rhenifh wine is made, in preference to any kind cultivated in France. It is noticed above, that the early fweet kinds of grapes are improper for making of wine in this country : the reafon of whic is this, it is fuppofed, that though fuch grapes yield a fweet juice, it is not calculated to undergo fer- mentation in a proper manner. It is found by experience, that good dodied, or generous. wines, can be made from grapes of an auftere che and that too even before they are quite arrived at a ftate of maturity. But then wine from fuch crude grapes requires to be kept to a good age. The cafe is fimilar, it is faid, in refpe& to apples. It is well il known that the fweet kinds of them, which ripen in the fummer months, are very unfit for making cyder. And that the nobleft liquor of this fort, fuch as that of the ftyre and cockagee, is made from apples not much better than wildings. Mr. Loudon, however, remarks, in {peaking of the culture of the vine in other intentions, that the general imperfeétion of Englifh grapes is their defe& of faecharine matter and want of {weetnefs. This is, perhaps, it is thought, in part owing to the humidity of the atmofphere, more than to its coldnefs, as very fweet grapes grow, and fpirituous wines are made, in much colder and_more northern latitudes than a great part of England. Another reafon why the fruit of Englifh vines potfeffes confiderable acidity, is the general tafte for large globular grapes, without regard fo much to the delicacy of their flayour as the grandeur of their appearance. "This fpecies of vine does not produce delicious grapes in the hotteft climates, it is faid, and con- fequently fhould not be fo generally cultivated in this. But the appearance in this intention is of little importance. The grapes moft abundant in faccharine matter, are, it is faid, always round, as thofe of the currant grape. It muft be confefled, however, that the more expofed the vine is to the intenfe meridian fun, fo much the fweeter will be the grape, and the greater the quantity of faccharine or fpiri- tuous juice that it will contain. The forts of vines moft fuitable for this purpofe may pro- bably be, the chaffilas, or common white mufcadine, the berries of which are not large, or very fweet. The morillon, noir hatif, a good fort of grape in this intention, which has a {mall round black berry, of a fugary juice, is much efteemed, as being early, ripening in September. The Malm- fey mufcadine, which fomewhat refembles the above, the juice of which is very fweet, and of a high flavour, is a good bearer, and a fine grape. ‘The black fweet-water has a {mall roundifh berry, of a fweet tafte; but which, being apt to'crack, is not in much repute. Birds are fond of it. It ripens in the fame month as the above. The {mall black clufter, which has fmall oval berries, and the leaves covered with a hoary down, is a very pleafant fruit. The early white grape from Teneriffe ; the berries of which are of a middling fize, and the flefh remarkably fweet and juicy: the Auverna, or true Burgundy grape, fometimes called the black morillon, which is an indifferent fruit for the table, but efteemed one of the belt for making wine from: and the white {weet-water, which has a large berry of a white colour, and very agreeable juice, is efteemed an excellent grape, and ripens in the above month :—it is fup- pofed that from fome of thefe, and perhaps a few others, the cultivator may probably find a proper grape for culti- vating in the intention of making wine in this country. In regard to the culture of the vine with this defign, as even the moft fouthern parts of this ifland are but nearly on the verge of the vinous latitude, as has been feen, every poffi- ble advantage fhould be confulted and had recourfe to in the formation and management of vineyards. _Thofe abroad, it is faid, are formed by planting the vines in rows, and by training them in a perpendicular dire&tion. The firft of the above writers would, however, in this country, greatly prefer the mode of training the vines in a lateral or horizontal form, fimilar to the method which is pra&ifed in Hol- land with vines in frames. There would, it is thought, be little difficulty in this method, as the vines might readily be trained along {mall poles, not thicker than thofe ufed for hops ; thefe poles being fixed nearly parallel to the ground. Vine$ thus trained, it is apprehended, would derive many advantages, not only by means of warmth and fhelter, but that they would moft eafily be proteGed alfo from {pring rolts, VINE. frofts, by applying the boughs of trees, particularly thofe of the evergreen kind. The grapes too, it is obferved, would be greatly benefited by the refleétion from the foil of the ground underneath them. It is fuggefted, that when vines are intended to be planted on the fteeps of hills, and on the fides of rocks, the ground fhould be prepared and formed in the manner of fteps, which it is particularly neceflary fhould be lower at the inner angles, as without this the vine-plants would lofe the ad- vantage of fuch rains as fall haftily and perpendicularly. It is eafy to conceive that much advantage would be gained from a fituation thus formed, as the back would be nearly equal toa wall. And the expence attending the formation of the ground could not be very confiderable. The work fhould be begun at the top, and the foil taken out be thrown down the hill. It would likewife be further beneficial to have a little good foil or earth put in at the angles, before the vines are planted. In refpe& to the plants, they may be provided either by feeds, cuttings, or layers, but the two laft are moftly the beft methods. When they are raifed from feed, after they have had a year’s growth, they fhould be planted out, about the latter end of March, or beginning of the following month, againft the poles or treillis to which they are to be trained, if from feeds ripened in this country; but when from fuch as are imported from the vine countries, too many fhould not be planted till their value be known. When they haye been thus planted, they fhould be cut at the third eye, if ftrong, but at the fecond, if weakly ; at the fame time rubbing off the lower end with the finger‘and thumb. When by cuttings, they fhould be chofen from fhoots that are beit ripened, and have the fhorteft joints ; always having one or two joints of the laft year’s wood to them, cutting each perfe€tly fmooth, and a little rounding at the lower end, and as near to a joint of the old wood as poffible. The upper end too fhould be cut fmooth, and floping to- wards the treillis or poles. They fhould afterwards be trained as circumftances may direé&t. It has been advifed too by fome, that choice fhould be made of cuttings after a warm and dry feafon, when the wood ripens well; each cutting having two inches of the old wood with one eye of the new. When the old vines are pruned, there is moftly great choice, they fhould therefore be then fele€ted of a middling fize, and tke wood round. In raifing vines for this purpofe in the layer manner, a method very ufually made ufe of is to lay the ftools down in an open fituation, in the fame mode as for foreft-trees and fhrubs ; though the beft way, in the opinion of fome, is to take layers from fuch vines as have been trained. They fhould be cut fo as to leave one or two ftrong eyes on each, and when the fhoots begin to run, be trained to the “treillis or poles. 'Thofe which have the ftrongeft and moft vigorous fhoots fhould be feleted and preferved for this pur- pofe. They fhould afterwards be carefully trained and pruned, as circumftances may require, always confidering that much of the goodnefs of the grapes in thefe cafes depends upon the living wood being itrong and well ripened. In planting the grounds, the vines may be fet in rows at fuitable diftances, according to the foil, fituation, and mode of training which is to be praétifed, but moftly about three or four feet diftant in the rows, and five, fix, or more from row to row. ‘The intervals between the rows are to be kept quite clean and free from weeds, by frequent hoeing and digging them over. After the vines have been thus raifed, and carefully pruned and trained for three years, they moftly produce crops of fruit, which, when for wine, fhould be well ripened before it is ufed, efpecially in this country. The mode of the culture of vines in Madeira may pro~ bably fuggeit fome hints for their growth in the open. grounds in this country. It is fated, that the belt feafon for planting them there, is from the middle of the month of November to the end of February; that the flips or cuttings are made from a foot and a half to two feet and a half in length; they are fet two feet in the ground, about three feet diftant, in ftraight rows or trenches, about four or five feet afunder. After one trench is opened, and the earth taken out and laid on one fide of it, fo as to form a bank, the butt ends of the vines are put into the bottom of the trench, and the fmall ends extended floping up the bank; the trench is then filled with earth dug from the found land the depth of it, breaking the clods, taking out the ftones, hawling all the earth towards the vines, and thus making a fecond trench, at the diftance noticed above, from the firlt ; proceeding to plant the whole vineyard or ground in the fame manner. By this means the ground is lightened all over, as well as where it touches the vines, and is cleared of ftones, the roots of trees, plants, fhrubs, and grafs, which are all carefully picked out. A vineyard or ground planted in this manner will, it is faid, laft there fifty or fixty years. Afterwards the young vines are not pruned until they have been two or three years planted. The feafon for pruning is nearly as above; in doing which, no part of the vine is cut but the new fhoots, which are cut off every year at the end of every fecond or third joint. The largett of thefe cuttings are faved for planting, and will keep for feveral weeks above ground ; but if cut early, and not planted till late, it is better to cover the butt-end with earth. The fupporting of the vines, and other fuch matters, is done to the height of three or four feet, by fticking ftakes in the ground from end to end of the rows, then lafhing long flender poles near the heads of them; and acrofs the poles are laid, both ways, reeds or canes, at the diftance of two or two and a half feet, which are tied to one another, and to the poles where they crofs, with fplit-willow twigs: thefe, if full grown and hard, will laft two or three years. In the fecond or third year after planting, the vines are raifed and faftened to the ftakes and poles by means of twigs, and the branches fpread open, and loofely tied to the poles or canes, fo that they may not be too thick in fome places and too thin in others. In the third year after the vines have been planted out, they commonly produce a pretty good crop of grapes fit for making wine. In which cafes, when they are almoft come to their full fize, they are gradually expofed to the fun, by frequently thinning the leaves till every branch lies open to the fun fome part of the day. But if this fhould be done while the fruit is green, or, all at once, when nearly ripe, it would wither the grapes, and the juice would never be rich. The grapes are here to hang until they are very ripe, and many, on almoft every branch, begin to turn to raifins, otherwife the wine will be weak, harfh, and rough, and without much flavour; hence it is evident the grapes fhould not be promifcuoufly gathered all at once, but two or three gatherings made, taking only what are ripe each time. It is likewife found, that in foils which are hot, dry, and poor in quality, the culture of vines in this country in the open ground may be conveniently accomplifhed in another manner; as by their growth being greatly limited and reftri¢ted in fuch cafes, their tendency to fruiting is con- Cez2 fiderable V iN fiderably increafed and expedited, they can, of courfe, be managed by being kept in a dwarf ftate, in fomewhat the manner of the currant, and in this way produce much fruit for the purpofe of wine. It is a method which feems to have anfwered well in fome cafes, and which is perfectly fuited to many fituations, where the vine might be culti- vated for the making of wine in the fouthern parts of this country. See Virisand Wine. It is evident from a variety of circumftances, that the cultivation of the vine in the open ground of this country, in the vtew of procuring wine from the fruit, fhould be more attended to than has hitherto been the cafe. In fome fituations it would probably afford a better profit and advan- tage than the hop, and with much lefs expence of cultiva- tion; while in others it is almoft the only plant that could be mtroduced with any chance of fuccefs. Vine Gall-Infed, an infec of the gall-infeé& clafs, prin- cipaily found’ on the vine, though capable of living on fome other trees, and fometimes found on them. It is much of the fame fhape, figure, and manner of life, with the other animals of this clafs; but differs from them in this, that as they lay their eggs all under their body, and continue ab- folutely to cover them till they are hatched, thefe pro- trude them from their body, and they are found in pro- digious abundance, lodged in a fort of cottony or filken bags, all over the ftalks and branches of the vines: the dead animal is fometimes found covering theni in part, but more frequently they are abfolutely naked, and often are fo numerous, as to appear like thin cobwebs hung one over another all over the vine. Thefe eggs might be eafily miftaken for thofe of {mall fpiders; they always hatch well, and come to maturity on the vines they are found on; but if removed to others, they feldom come to any thing, which is very fingular, fince the gall-infe&ts of almoft all other trees may be re- moved and propagated either on the fame or on different trees. Thefe vine-infeG&s are of the boat-fafhioned kind; but befide thefe, there are fome other f{pecies which lodge their eggs in a cottony neft of the fame kind. The common thorn affords a fhorter and more convex kind than this does; thefe are a very {mall {pecies; others are fomething larger; but the oak affords a fort equal in fize, if not ex- ceeding thofe of the vine; fome of thefe are brown, others blueifh, and others reddifh; and there are fome minute differences in their fhape. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. tom. iv. p- 61. Vine-Grubs, a name given by fome authors to the pucerons, or little infe&ts which are’ ufually of a green colour, and are found, often in’ prodigious numbers, itick- ing to the leaves of trees and plants, and to their young ftalks. M. Reaumur has been very curious in his inveftigation of the nature of this infect ; but the manner of propagating its fpecies was never clearly obferved, till Mr. Bonet dif- covered it. Reaumur obferves, that in every family of pucerons, there are fome that have wings, and fome that have not; and that, according to the ufual courfe of nature, the winged ones fhould be males, and the others fémales; but, on the con- trary, that both the winged and the unwinged vine-grubs are females, all being viviparous, and each kind producing a number of living young; fo that the males of thefe pucerons were never difcoyered, even by that careful ob- ferver; nor could he eyer find out what it was that im- pregnated the one and the other kind. He leaves us queries on this fubjeét, whether there is no copulation among them? 10 VIN and whether they are all hermaphrodites, each having in itfelf the organs of both fexes, as is the cafe of the river mufcles ? 0 Mr. Bonet, in order to inform himfelf of the procefs of nature in thefe creatures, brought up one of them in perfect folitude from its birth ; he had an opportunity of obferving it in the place where it was kept, and watched it very ftrifily for many months together. At the end of twelve days this creature, without having had any copulation with a male, began to breed. She produced in the whole ninety- five young ones, all alive, and conftantly under the eye of the obferver. This experiment was repeated feveral times with the fame fuccefs: and, at length, repeated upon the young ones produced in this manner, and they were found to breed at the fame period, and in the fame manner with their parent, without having had any copulation with a male, as far as to the fourth generation. A hafty obferver would immediately conclude from this, that there was no copulation among the pucerons; but farther enquiry proves that this is not the cafe; for thie famie obferver has found a fpecies of them in which there is copulation; fo that both the winged and the unowinged kinds are truly females, and the male is a fmall fly, of a very different fhape, as is the cafe in regard to many-other infe&s. This'male is the moft falacious creature imagin- able, copulating a vaft many times fucceflively, with the fame, and with different females. As this is the cafe in regard to one’ fpecies of this creature, it doubtlefs is fo alfo in regard to: the reft, though that has not yet been obferved: and the fingularity feems to be this, that after the male has copulated with the female, fhe not only becomes prolific, but her young ones are born ready im- pregnated, as far as the fourth generation ; after which, probably, there is a neceflity for the copulation with the male again. There is another very fingular obfervation alfo im the pro- dution of the youug pucerons; the females are properly viviparous, and ufually bring forth live young ;\ but they fometimes produce only a fort of fcetufes, which are laid in a long feries one befide the other, as the caterpillar eggs are laid by the butterfly; and they are left to hatch, as it were, afterwards, by the heat of the fun. Phil. Tranf. N° 469. ews Vine or Bine Hop, in Rural Economy, a term often applied to the fhoot of the hop-plant. After picking the hops, it is moftly the beit practice to tie up the vines, bines, or binds, into {mall bavins while perfeétly dry, in order to preferve them in fome way or other as fuel for different ufes, and to clear the ground for future operations. | ‘The work ufually cofts about fixpence the hundred. Vine-Pre/s, a fort of prefs and vat conftru€ted for the purpofe of fqueezing and receiving the liquor from the grapes, where wine is to be made fromthem. It may be formed of different fizes, as from fix to nine feet {quare, or more, according to the extent of the vineyard, being made of planks which are about eighteen or twenty inches in breadth, and two and a half or three inches in thicknefs, fo fixed to a bottom of the fame kind, or of greater thicknefs, that they may be capable of being preffed clofe to it, and to one another, at the corners, by the help of pofts or ftuds, with wedges and levers; it being caulked, where neceflary, in order to prevent the waite of the liquor.» On one fide a {pout is to be placed, on which a wicker bafket is to be hung during the operation, to {train the liquor through as it runs into a tub, which is often put half way in the ground, to accommodate it to the height of the vat. When the grapes are gathered, they are thrown into the vat of the prefs, a VIN prefs, and the {pout being ftopped, receive a gentle preflure ; and then the {pout is opened, and the juice drawn off as long as it will run without further preffing: when the {pout is again ftopped, the grapes are again fubjeéted to a ftron ger preflure, fomewhat in the manner of the cyder- prefs, and the liquor afterwards drawn off as before. In this manner the work proceeds until the liquor is wholly drawn off. gd tog T hefe preffles are perfe@tly fimple in their nature, being -merely fo contrived as to afford a proper degree of preflure, without doing too much injury to the grapes, which would probably hurt the flavour and quality of the wine. See WINE. VINEZ, in the Roman Art of War, were defenfive en- gines, compofed of wicker hurdles, laid for a roof on the tops of pofts, which the foldiers who went under it for fhelter bore up with their hands, Some fay that they had two roofs; the firft and lower of planks, and the upper ‘roof of hurdles, to break the force of any blows, without ‘difordering the machine. See ManrTeELets. -- VINEGAR, Acerum, an agreeable, acid, penetrating liquor, prepared from wine, cyder, beer, and other liquors, -and varying in hue from light red to brown ftraw-colour, malt vinegar being more highly coloured than that of wine: and of confiderable ufe, both asa medicine and a. fauce: or, vinegar is a vegetable acid liquor, produced by the fecond degree of fermentation, or that which fucceeds the Apirituous, and is called the acid or acetous fermentation. Every liquor, which has completely undergone the {piritu- ous fermentation, is fpontaneoufly and neceffarily difpofed to the acid fermentation. Accordingly, every vinous liquor does continually tend to become vinegar, and is ‘a€tually changed into it, fooner or later, according to cir- cumftances; unlefs this change be prevented. by fome obftacle to fermentation in general. If vinegar be long kept, and particularly if it be expofed to the air, it will become muddy and ropy, acquiring an unpleafant {mell, lofing its acidity, and putrefying. In order to preferve it for a longer time, it fhould be boiled for a few minutes, fo that the gluten may coagulate and feparate, on the prefence of which thefe changes depend, and alfo kept in well-corked bottles. The word is French, vinaigre; formed from vin, wine, and aigre, four. . . The method of making vinegar has long. been kept a fecret among the people of that profeflion ; who, it is faid, oblige themfelves to each other by oath not to reveal, it ; but, notwithftanding this, the. Philofophical ‘TranfaCtions, and fome other late writings, furnifh us with approved. ac- counts of it. .Whatever be the materials ufed in the pre- ‘paration of the liquor for producing vinegar, it is merely neceflary to admit air into the veffel in which it is kept, and to preferve it in a temperature fomewhat higher than that of the atmofphere in this climate, that is, from about. 75° to 80°. When a liquor already fermented is ufed, it is alfo of almoft indifpenfable importance that yeaft, or fome other ferment, be added, in order to haften the fermentation, or elfe the change will be too gradual to obtain vinegar in perfeétion, and the firft acetified portion will, turn mouldy before the laft has become four, But if the material em- ployed has not undergone fermentation, the whole procefs of the vinous and preceding acetous fermentation will go on without interruption, with the fame ferment which firtt fet it in action, as, ¢. g. in making vinegar from malt, or from fugar and water. It is neceffary alfo to ftop the procefs of the manufature in that ftage of. it, in which the, acid. has attained to its higheft degree of ftrength and perfeGtion, Viw after which the liquor would then {peedily be deteriorated, the acetous acid would gradually difappear, and an offenfive mouldy watery liquor remain, with (eee any acidity. It depends upon the {kill and experience of the manufa@turer to determine when his vinegar is in a fit ftate to be drawn off and clofely barrelled. Vinecar, Method of making Cyder. The cyder (the meaneft of which will ferve the purpofe) is firft to be drawn off fine into another veffel, anda quantity of the muift, or pouze of apples, to be added; the whole is then to be fet in the fun, if there be a conyeniency for the purpofe ; and, at a week or nine days end, it may be drawn off. Vinecar, Method of making Beer. "Take a middling fort of beer, indifferently well hopped; into which, when it has worked well, and is grown fine, put fome rape, or hufks of grapes, ufually brought home for that purpofe ; math them together in a tub; .then, letting the rape fettle, draw off the liquid part, put it into a cafk, and fet it in the fun as hot as may be; the bung-hole being only covered with a tile, or flate-ftone ; and in about thirty or forty days it will become a good vinegar, and may pafs in ufe as well as that made of wine, if it be refined, and kept from turning mutfty. Or, vinegar may be made thus: To every gallon of {pring- water, add three pounds of Malaga raifins; which put inte an earthen jar, and place them where they may haye the hotteft fun from .May. till Michaelmas ; then preffing all well, tun the liquor up in a very {trong iron-hooped veflel, to. prevent its burfting; it will. appear very thick and muddy, when newly preffed ; but it will refine in the veflel, and be as clear as wine. Thus let it remain untouched for three months, before it be drawn off, and it will prove ex- cellent vinegar. Vinecar, To make Wine. Any fort of vinous liquor, being mixed with its own faces, flowers, or ferment, and its tartar firft reduced to powder; or elfe with the acid and auttere ftalks of the vegetable from whence the wine was obtained, which hold a large proportion of tartar: and the whole being kept frequently ftirring in a yeflel which has formerly held vinegar, or fet in a warm place full of the {teams of the fame, will begin to ferment anew, and conceive heat, and will grow four by degrees, and foon after turn into, vinegar. The remote fubje&ts of acetous fermentation are the fame with thofe of vinous ; but the immediate fubjets of it are all kinds of yegetable juices, after they have once under- gone that fermentation which reduces them to wine; for it is abfolutely impoffible to make vinegar of mutt, the crude juice of grapes, or other ripe fruits, without the preyious affiftance of vinous fermentation. The proper ferments for this operation, by which vinegar 1s prepared, are, 1. The faces of all acid wines. 2. The lees of vinegar. .3. Pulverized tartar; efpecially that of Rhenifh wine, or the cream or cryftals, of it. 4. Vinegar itfelf.. 5. A wooden veiflel well drenched with vinegar, or one that has long been employed to contain it. 6. Wine that has often been. mixed -with its own feces. 7. The twigs of vines, and the italks of grapes, currants, cherries, or other vegetables of an) acid auftere tafte.. 8. Bakers’ leayen, after it is turned acid. 9.. All manner of ferments, compounded of thofe already. mentioned. Vinegar is no produ@tion of nature, but a mere creature of art: for verjuice, the) juices of citrons, lemons, and the like native acids, are improperly faid to be natural vinegars ; becaufe, when diftilled, they afford nothing but vapid water ; whereas it is the property of vinegar to yield an acid fpirit by diitillation. 1 1e VINEGAR. The wiae which is generally converted into vinegar, and which for its cheapnefs is commonly employed for this pur- pofe, is fuch as has already become four; although the better and the more fpirituous the wine, and alfo the more of the vinous fpirit that can be retained in the vinegar, the better and ftronger it will be. Becher fays, in his “ Phyfica Subterranea,”’ that having digefted wine in order to convert it into vinegar, in a bottle erihetically fealed, he found, that although a longer than the ordinary time was required, the vinegar produced was much ftronger than when free air is admitted. Mr. Cartheufer alfo affirms, that the ftrength of vinegar may be much increafed by adding fome aqua vite to the wine, before it is expofed to the acetous fermentation. Nothing more feems requifite in the prepa- ration of good vinegar than to employ good wine, and to condu& the fermentation in the moft advantageous method ; the principal part of the operation being performed by nature. Vinecar in France, Method of making. The French ufe a method of making vinegar different from that above defcribed. They take two very large oaken veilels, the larger the better, open at the top ; in each of which they place a wooden grate, within a foot of the bottom: upon thefe grates they firft lay twigs, or cuttings of vines, and afterwards the {talks of the clufters of grapes, without the grapes themfelves, or their ftones, called the rape, till the whole pile reaches within a foot of the brim of the veffels ; then they fill one of thefe veffels with wine to the very top, and half fill the other ; and with liquor drawn out of the full veffel, they fill up that which was only half full before ; daily repeating the fame operation, and pouring the liquor back from one veffel to the other ; fo that each. of them is full and half full by turns. When this procefs has been continued for two or three days, a degree of heat will arife in the veffel which is then but half full, and will increafe for feveral days fucceffively, without any appearance of the like in the veifel which hap- pens to be full during thofe days ; the liquor of which will itill remain cool: and as foon as the heat ceafes in the veffel that is half full, the vinegar is prepared ; which, in the fummer, happens on the fourteenth or fifteenth day from the beginning; but, in the winter, the fermentation pro- ceeds much flower ; fo that they are often obliged to for- ward it by artificial warmth, or the ufe of ftoves. When the weather is exceedingly hot, the liquor ought to be poured off from the full veffel into the other twice a day ; otherwife the liquor would be over-heated, and the fermentation would prove too ftrong ; whence the fpirituous parts would fly away, and leave a vapid wine, inftead of vinegar, behind. The full veffel is always to be left open at top; but the mouth of the other muft be clofed with a cover of wood, in order the better to keep down and fix the fpirit in the body of the liquor ; for, otherwife, it might eafily fly off in the heat of fermentation, The veffel that is only half full feems to grow hot, rather than the other, becaufe it con- tains a much greater quantity of the vine-twigs and ftalks than that, in proportion to the liquor ; above which the pile rifing to a confiderable height, conceives heat the more, and fo conveys it to the wine below. Boerhaave’s Elem. of Nee part i. p.143, &c. Phil. Tranf. vol. ii. P> O57* There is another method, by which a very good vinegar is commonly made at Paris from the lees of wine. A quantity of wine-lees is put into a large tun, and worked up with wine fufficient to render it very fluid. This is then put into cloth facks, which are arranged in a large iron-bound wooden vat, the heavy cover of which is laid over them, and ferves as a prefs, that is gradually ferewed down till all the liquor is prefled out. The wine, thus loaded with the extraGtive and tartareous matter of the lees, is diftributed in large cafks fet upright, through the heading of which a hole is cut, which is conftantly left open. In fummer thefe cafks are fimply fet in the fun; but in winter they are arranged in a ftoved room. The fermentation comes on in a day or two, and when it has got to its height, fo much heat is excited, that fometimes the hand can hardly be borne in it. In this cafe, it muft be checked by a cooler air, and by adding fome frefh wine to the cafks; and, indeed, it is in a due regulation of the heat that moft of the prac-. tical fill of the maker confifts. The procefs goes on in this way till the whole of the wine is thoroughly acidified, which requires about a fortnight in fummer and a month in winter ; after which the new vinegar is put into barrels, at the bottom of which are laid a good many chips of beech wood. Here it remains for about a fortnight, during which time it clarifies, and the clear part is then drawn off and kept in well-clofed cafks. 'Thefe beech chips may be ufed over and over again for feveral years. The natural colour of good wine-vinegar is a very pale red, but a higher colour is given, if defired, by the addition of eldér-berries. There are feveral flight variations in the mode of makin wine-vinegar, but which need not be detailed. They all confift in exciting a frefh fermentation in wine, and keeping it up in a moderate degree till acetification is complete. Many refufe parts of the vine are of ufe for this purpofe, fuch as the hufks, the four fucculent twigs, the mare or cake left in the wine-prefs, and the like; and after they have once ferved, they are ftill more valuable, as the acid which they naturally contain, or which is evolved by them, is more readily produced. Wine may alfo be converted to good vinegar without thefe additions, fimply by adding wine, efpecially when on the fret, to vinegar already made, and expofing it to a proper heat. In this way many manufacturers proceed, keeping their cafks always full, by taking out of them at intervals about a third or fourth part, replenifhing them with wine, and again bringing the contents to the ftate of vinegar. In this country vinegar is chiefly made from malt. The following is the ufual procefs im London. A mafh of malt and hot water is made, which, after infufion for an hour and a half, is conveyed into a cooler a few inches deep, and thence, when fufficiently cooled, into large and deep fer- menting tuns, where it is mixed with yeaft, and kept in fer- mentation for four or five days. The liquor (which is now a ftrong ale without hops) is then diftributed into fmaller barrels, fet clofe together in a ftoved chamber, and a mode- rate heat is kept up for about fix weeks, during which the fermentation goes on equally and uniformly till the whole is foured. This is then emptied into common barrels, which are fet in rows (often of many hundreds) in a field in the open air, the bung-hole being juft covered with a tile to keep off the wet, but to allow a free admiffion of air. Here the liquor remains for four or five months, according to the heat of the weather, a gentle fermentation being kept up, till it becomes perfe& vinegar. This is finifhed in the following way. Large tuns are employed, with a falfe bottom, on which is put a quantity of the refufe of raifins or other fruit left by the makers of raifin and other home-made wines, called technically rape. Thefe rape-tuns are worked by pairs ; one of them is quite filled with the vinegar from the barrels, and the other only three-quarters full, fo that the ferment- VINEGAR. fermentation is excited more eafily in the latter than the former, and every day a portion of the vinegar is laded from one to the other, till the whole is completely finifhed and fit for fale. Vinegar, as well as fruit-wines, is often made in {mall uantity for domeftic ufes, and the procefs is by no means difficult The materials may be either brown fugar and water alone, or fugar with raifins, currants, and efpecially ripe goofeberries. Thefe fhould be mixed in the propor- tions which would give a ftrong wine, put into a {mall barrel, which it fhould fill about three-fourths, and the bung-hole very loofely ftopped. Some yeait, or, what is better, a toaft fopped in yeaft, fhould be put in, and the barrel fet in the fun in fummer, or a little way from a fire in winter, and the fermentation will foon begin. This fhould be kept up conitant, but very moderate, till the tafte and {mell indicate that the vinegar is complete. It fhould be poured off clear and bottled carefully, and it will keep much better if it is boiled for a minute, cooled and {trained before bottling. In both the vinous and acetous fermentations, an inteftine motion, a {welling, a hiffing noife, and an ebullition, may be perceived; but the heat produced by the former is fcarcely fenfible, whereas that produced by the latter is very confiderable. Moreover, the vapour which exhales from vinegar, during fermentation, is not noxious, like that of fermenting wine: on the contrary, as the acid of vinegar difengages itfelf, it feems to acquire more power to bind and retain the inflammable principle, which is the truly dangerous part of thefe vapours. Befides, vinegar does not depofit tartar as wine does, even though it has been made with wine that had not depofited its tartar; but the fedi- ment of vinegar is a vifcid, oily, and very putrefcent matter ; which is ufed to cover the grape-ftalks that are employed in the making of vinegar, in order to promote the ferment- ation. The acid of the grape-ftalks, which are wafhed clean and preferved to promote the fermentation of more vinegar, a&ts powerfully as a leaven or ferment. The cafks which have been ufed are alfo to be cleanfed from the vifcid matter juft mentioned, and kept for the fame ufe, as they are fitter for the purpofe than new cafks. When the acetous ferment- ation is finifhed, the nature and character of the liquor that has undergone it are totally changed. The tafte and {mell of wine are partly fpirituous and partly acid; though in good wine the latter is fearcely perceptible: the tafte and mell of vinegar are alfo acid and {pirituous ; but the former quality prevails fo much, as almoft totally to conceal the latter. The properties of wine and vinegar prove, that the acetous fermentation unfolds in a very fingular manner the acid parts of wine, and intimately combines them with the inflammable fpirit ; fo that by changing wine into vinegar, the ardent fpirit is no longer perceptible, fo that it cannot affe& the head and intoxicate; and if it be diftilled, the firft liquor that rifes with a heat lefs than that of boiling water is not an ardent fpirit, as when wine is diftilled, unlefs the vinegar be too new, and the acetous fermentation has not been completely finifhed ; but when old vinegar is dif- tilled, the liquor that firft rifes is a flightly acid phlegm, which contains the moft volatile, the moft odoriferous, and the moft fpirituous part of the vinegar. When vinegar has run alittle beyond the acetous ftate, and begun to enter on the putrefactive, the putrefaction may be Stopped by quenching a red-hot iron in the liquor; and the acid, which has been loft, may in fome meafure be reftored, by the addition of a little {pirit of wine, rye-bread, muftard- feed, &c. The putrefaction of vinegar may alfo be pre- vented, by racking it off from the feculencies, and keeping it in a clofe-ftopped veffel, in a cool place. However, fuch as has once fuffered a confiderable heat, cannot long be pre- ferved from corruption. In England, the excife laws relating to vinegar are as follow : Every maker of vinegar for fale fhall take out a licence, for which he fhall pay 1o/.; and fhall renew the fame an- nually ten days at leaft before the end of the year; on pain of 5o/. 43 Geo. III. c.69. Sched. (A.) 24 Geo. III. C. 4I. But perfons in partnerfhip need only take out one licence for one houfe. By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. for all vinegar or verjuice im- at a certain duty fhall be paid per ton (quantity 252 gallons). By 43 Geo. III. c. 69. Sched. (A.) for every barrel of vinegar, vinegar beer, or liquors preparing for vinegar, which fhall be brewed or made in Great Britain for fale, fhall be paid by the maker a certain other duty. And upon every hogfhead of verjuice which fhall be made in Great Britain for fale, fhall be paid by the maker a cer- tain duty. And by 49 Geo. III. c. 98. a duty is impofed in lieu of all former duties of cuftoms. By 10 & 11 W. c. 21. thirty-four quarts fhall be ac- counted a gallon of vinegar, according to the ftandard ale quart. Every vinegar-maker fhall make entry with the officer of excife of the houfe or place where he intends to carry on the bufinefs ; and whether he intends to make vinegar from malt or corn, or molaffes or fugar, or from any and what other materials. 26 Geo. III. c. 73. Such officer may at all times by day and night (but if in the night, in the prefence of a conftable), enter into any places ufed by fuch perfons, and take an account of fuch liquors therein, and fhall make a report thereof in writing to the commiffioners, leaving a true copy thereof under his hand, with fuch maker, if demanded, in writing, under the penalty of ro, 7&8 W.c.30. 12 Geo. c. 28. 12 Ch. C. 24. By 10 & 11 W. c.21. no vinegar-maker fhall receive into his cuftody any liquors for making vinegar, nor deliver out any vinegar in cafks, or by the gallon, without notice firft given to the officer, unlefs from Sept. 29, to Mar. 25, yearly, between feven in the morning and five in the evening, and from Mar. 25, to Sept. 29, between five in the morning and feven in the evening ; on pain of 5o0/. On receiving fuch liquors into his cuftody, he fhall fhew the fame to the gauger before he mixes them with any other liquors, rape, or other materials ; on pain of 2o0/. If any vinegar-maker fhall, without giving notice at the next excife-oflice, or to one of the commiffioners, ufe any ftore-houfe, warehoufe, cellar, or other place, for making or keeping any vinegar beer, or liquor preparing for vinegar, he fhall forfeit 50/. If any maker of vinegar for fale fhall conceal any vinegar, or liquor preparing for vinegar, from the view of the gauger, he fhall for every barrel forfeit 40s. 7 & 8 W. C. 30. if fuch maker fhall, on demand made by fuch gauger in the day-time (or if by night, in the prefence of a conttable), refufe to permit him to enter his houfe, ftore-houfe, or other place ufed by him, and to take an account of the faid liquors, he fhall forfeit 15/. No perfon carrying on the trade of a vinegar-maker from molaffes or fugar, or other materials, (except malt or corn, ) fhall carry on (either .alone or in partnerfhip) the i a iller VINEGAR. : diftiller or re@tifier of {pirits in the fame premifes, or within two miles thereof; and all entries made by fuch perfon fhali be void. 26 Geo. III. c. 73. All ftale beer, returns of beer or ale, cyder, verjuice, or any other liquor proper to be made into vinegar, which fhall be found in the poffeflion of any common vinegar-maker, except fuch as are to be drunk in his family, and which fhall be kept feparate for that purpofe, fhall be deemed vinegar or liquors preparing for vinegar. 10 & 11 W. C.2iT Every fuch vinegar-maker fhall make entry once a month at the next excife-office of all liquors made within that month, and alfo within a month after fuch entry, fhall clear off the duties, on pain of double duty. 12 Ch. II. c.24. | All penalties and forfeitures are to be recovered, levied, and mitigated as by the excife laws. 43 Geo. III. c. 69. VinuGar, Chemical Properties of the pure Acid of the dif- ferent Kinds of. See Acrtous Acid. 4 : The quantity of fixt alkaline falt which vinegar is ca- pable of faturating, is one of the fureft criterions of its ftrength. The beft of the German vinegars, according to Stahl, faturate little more than , th of their own weight; the French vinegars, examined by Geoffroy, above ~ th; and fome of them no lefs than ~,th; the common diftilled vinegar of our fhops about 4th. By congelation, and diftillation from alkalies, and from fome metallic bodies, particularly copper, the acid may be fo far concentrated as to faturate nearly equal its own weight. The beft way of judging of the faturation, ac- cording to Dr. Lewis, is by trying the liquor from time to time with certain coloured vegetable juices, or on paper ftained with them. For this purpofe, a thick writing paper may be ftained pale blue on one fide with the blue prepara- tion of archil, commonly called lacmus ; and pale red on the other fide, by a mixture of the fame infufion with fo much diluted f{pirit of falt as is jult fufficient to redden it. If a {mall flip of this paper be dipped occafionally into the liquor to be tried, or a drop of the liquor be applied on both fides of the paper, the red fide turns blue as long as any of the alkali remains unfaturated ; the blue fide turns red, when the acid begins to prevail ; and no change at all is produced, when the faturation is complete. Where lacmus cannot be . procured, the paper may be coloured with the juices of violets, iris, cyanus, &c. or with the blue juice preffed out trom {crapings of the cortical part of common radifh roots ; with which it is fufficient to ftain the paper on one fide ; this one colour difcovering both acidity and alkalefcence, the former changing it red, and the latter green. The acetous acid differs effentially from all the others: from the native vegetable acid, in fubtility and volatility ; not being obtainable in the form of a concrete falt, which moft, perhaps all, of the native ones are, and rifing in dif- tillation with a moderate heat, which very few of the native ones have been found to do: from the mineral acids, in its habitude to different bodies, and the nature of the com- pounds which it forms with them, being much weaker than the mineral acids: thus, whatever alkaline, earthy, or me- tallic f{ubftance the acetous acid be combined with, the ad- dition of any mineral acid will disjoin them, the mineral taking the place of the acetous; neutral falts, compofed of the acetous acid and fixed alkalies, diffolve totally and plenti- fully in reétified fpirit of wine, whilft thofe compoied of the fame alkalies and mineral acids are not at all foluble in that menftruum: in this property, the acetous acid differs alfo from moft, perhaps from all, of the acids of its own kingdom ; and from all acids in general, in its peculiar odour. The acid of vinegar diffolves all fubftances upon whick other acids can at, and forms with them neutral falts, all which may be called acetous falts. With calcareous earth it forms falts, which in cryttallizing fhoot into filky ramifi- cations and vegetations: thefe falts are named, from their earthy bafes, falt of chalk, falt of crabs’ eyes, &c. (See Acetite of Lime, &c.) The folubility of calcareous earth in this acid, and its precipitability by that of vitriol, afford a ready method of difcovering the fophiftication of vinegar, faid to be fometimes peeiied, with vitriolic acid. If a faturated folution of any calcareous earth, as chalk, made in ftrong vinegar, be added to fuch as is fufpeéted of containing vitriolic acid, no change will enfue, if the vinegar was pure ; but if it contained even a minute portion of that acid, the mixture will immediately become milky, and, on ftanding for a little while, depofit a milky fediment: if the calcareous folution be gradually dropt in, fo long as it pro- duces any milkinefs or cloudinefs, all the vitriolic acid will be abforbed by the chalk ; and as this new compound is very {paringly diffoluble, nearly the whole of it will precipitate, fo as to leave the vinegar almoft pure. Its adulteration with vitriolic or fulphuric acid may alfo be deteéted by a folution of nitrate of barytes, which forms a white precipi- tate, when dropped into the fufpefted vinegar, infoluble in nitric acid, after having been expofed to a ftrong heat. With fixed vegetable alkali the acid of vinegar forms a very pungent and very deliquefcent falt, called Regencrated Tartar, or Terra foliata tartari; which fee. (See alfo AcetitTE of Pota/b.) With fixed mineral alkali it forms a neutral cryftallizable falt. With volatile alkali it forms an acetous ammoniacal falt, called /pirit of Mindererus. See AcetitTE of Ammonia. Vinegar diflolves, among metallic bodies, zinc and iron ; and the reft with difficulty, if at all. (See Acetous Acid. ) United with copper, it forms a verdigris and cryftals of Venus. With lead it forms ceruffe, and falt or fugar of lead; diffolving it more eafily when reduced to a calx than in its metallic ftate ; boiled even with the glafs of lead, or in the common glazed earthen veffels, in the glazing of which this metal is a principal ingredient, it extraéts fo much as to become {trongly tainted with the pernicious qua- lities of the lead. Gold, platina, filver, and quickfilver, are not affeéted by vinegar in their metallic ftate ; the two firft have not been obferved in any {tate to be affected by it. Silver precipitated from the nitrous acid, and thoroughly edulcorated with water, and mercury treated in the Rinne manner, or changed by fire into a red powder, flowly and fparingly diffolve in it. Of the affinities of this acid to dif- ferent metals, or its forfaking one to unite with another, few experiments have been made. Dr. Lewis obferves, that it depofits lead and copper upon adding iron. (See Tables of Arrintty.) It diflolves the vegetable infpiflated juices, and feveral of the gummy refins, and extraéts the virtues of fundry plants in tolerable perfe€&tion, fuperadding at the fame time a virtue of a different kind. However, it excellently affifts and coincides with fome drugs, as garlic, {quills, and ammoniacum ; and in many cafes, where this acid is principally to be depended upon, it may be advan- tageoufly impregnated with the flavour of certain vegetables. Vinegar very much concentrated, as the re@tified fpirit of Venus, or radical vmegar, being diftilled with equal parts of highly rectified {pirit of wine, furnifhes a liquor which has all the effential characters of ether, and is called acetous ether. It was difcovered by the count de Lauraguais. (See Hift. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1759.) It mingles equally with blood and jits ferum, and with moft of the fluids of animals ; not thickening or coagulating them, like the acids of VINEGAR. of the mineral kingdom, but tending rather, as Boerhaave juftly obferves, to attenuate and refolve coagulations. It is likew:ite, when taken internally, lefs ftimulating than the mineral acids, and lefs difpofed to affe&t the kidneys. Pro- feffor Cullen obferves, that it is lefs liable to undergo changes in the firft paflages than the native vegetable acids, which have yet to go through the procefs of fermentation. The ufe of vinegar as a condiment, and as an antifeptic for pickling and preferving dead animal and vegetable matter, is well known. : Vinecar, Medicinal Properties of. This mild, un€tuous acid is a medicine of great ufe in the different kinds of in- flammatory and putrid diftempers, both internal and external. Nothing is more extolled in many cafes of putrefaétion, and as an antidote againft venomous bites, by Diofcorides and Hippocrates, than oxycrate; and vinegar, when applied to fores in animal bodies, is known to ftimulate and refift putrefaGtion. When weak, it poffeifes the virtues of water ; when ftrong, its effe€ts approach to thofe of falts and acid fpirit. Med. Eff. Edinb. vol. v. art. 24. It is one of the moft certain antiphlogiftics and fudorifics in high fevers, and one of the beft prefervatives againft peftilential and other putredinous contagions. Accordingly Boerhaave informs us, that Francifcus de la Boe Sylvius vifited his patients in the plague with fafety, by drinking firft an ounce or two of vinegar. And itis now a common praCtice to wafh and fprinkle the rooms of hofpitals, the decks of fhips, &c. with vinegar, in order to purify the air. Dr. Hales (Ventilators, part i. p. 46.) recommends dipping many cloths in vinegar, and hanging them up in all proper vacancies between the decks of fhips, and in the chambers of fick perfons, by which great quantities of vinegar would intermix and float in the air; and he found by an experiment, mentioned in his Statical Effays, vol. 1. p- 266, that an air which paffes through fuch cloths, could be breathtd to and fro as long again, as the like quantity of air which was not impregnated with vinegar. Fainting, vomiting, lethargic and hyfteric paroxy{ms, are likewife frequently relieved by vinegar, applied to the mouth and nofe, or received into the ftomach. Lethargic perfons are often found to be excited more effeGtually by vinegar blown into the nofe, than by the far more pungent volatile {pirits. Boerhaave obferves, that this acid counteraéts, in a peculiar manner, the effets of fpirituous liquors. The daily ufe of vinegar with food is falutary in hot, bilious difpofitions, and where there is a tendency to inflammation or putrefac- tion. It is prejudicial to children, to aged, hyfterical, and hypochondriacal perfons ; in cold, pale, phlegmatic habits, where the veffels are lax, the circulation languid, and the power of digeftion weak. It tends in all cafes, if ufed freely, to prevent corpulence. Hoffman fufpeéts that it produces this effeé&t by impeding the formation of chyle, or deftroying the union of the unétuous and ferous fluids of which chyle is compofed ; an effet common to all acids, as appears from their coagulating milk and artificial emulfions. Dr, Lewis obferves, that he has known great corpulence reduced by the liberal ufe of vinegar, but not with im- punity: difeafes fucceeding, which eluded the power of medicines, and proved at length fatal. Combinations of vinegar with different earthy bodies, differ in virtue according to the nature of the earth. A folution of the aluminous earth in this acid is ftrongly ftyptic ; of vegetable earth, or magnefia alba, bitterifh and gently purgative: both thefe folutions are milder, and lefs ungrateful, than thofe of the fame earths made in the mineral acids; and, though as yet unknown in practice, certainly deferves, as Dr, Lewis fays, to be introduced. Solutions Vor. XXXVII. of different animal and the calcareous mineral earths are bit- terifh and fubauftere, in various degrees, and fuppofed to aG& as mild refolvents, fubaftringents, or diaphoretics. Combinations of vinegar with fixed alkaline falts are ufeful aperients, diuretics, and cathartics. Dr. Lewis has known two drachms of the alkali, diffolved in'as much vinegar as was fufficient to faturate it, occafion ten or twelve copious watery ftools, and a plentiful difcharge of urine, without griping or fatiguing the patient. Mixtures of alkali and diftilled vinegar, evaporated to a dry falt, are kept in the fhops ; either in a brownifh oily ftate, as obtained by fimple evaporation, or purified to perfeét whitenefe, by gentle fufion or folution in water. Thefe preparations are given in dofes of ten or twenty grains as mild aperients, and to/a drachm or two as purgatives and diuretics. See Tarrar, Regenerated, SAu Diureticus, Terra Folate, and Ar- caNnum Tartart. Combinations of vinegar with volatile alkaline falts, com- monly made with diftilled vinegar, added gradually to the falt, till the effervefcence ceafes, fearcely yield any folid falt ; the faline matter evaporating with the watery fluid, or even before it: on diftilling the mixture in a retort, a falt fometimes concretes about the fides of the receiver, but liquefies again as the veffels grow cold. ‘Thefe mixtures, called /piritus Mindereri, have little purgative virtue, but operate powerfully as aperients; by urine, if the patient walks about in the cool air; by perfpiration or fweat, if kept warm in bed. They are principally made ufe of in this laft intention, in dofes of half an ounce; and, as they act without irritation, they have place in inflammatory cafes, where the warm fudorifics, if they fail of exciting a {weat, aggravate the diflemper. Vinegar and honey, or oxymel, of the confiftence of a fyrup, fwallowed warm, is very good in many cafes of fore throats arifing from colds. A very important medicinal virtue has been attributed to vinegar, namely, that of curing the canine madnefs. See Hypro- pHoBIA, and MApnsss from the Bite of enraged Animals, M. Buchoz, in a work, entitled ‘¢ An hiftorical Treatife of Plants growing in Lorraine, &c.’’ affirms, that feveral fuccefsful trials have afcertained the efficacy of vinegar againft the ill effe€ts arifing from the bite of mad dogs, when it is given in the quantity of a pound each day, divided into three dofes; one to be taken in the morning, another at noon, and a third in the evening. Upon the whole we fhall here obferve, that vinegar, taken into the ftomach, aéts as a refrigerant, promotes diaphorefis and the difcharge of urine ; and is a powerful antinarcotic: exter- nally its a€tion on the living fibre is moderately ftimulant and aftringent. In inflammatory fevers it may be ufed to acidulate the ordinary beverage. It is given as a remedy in putrid difeafes and {curvy ; and is the moft eafily procured, and the beft means of counteraéting the fatal effeéts of over- dofes of opium, and other narcotic poifons ; for which pur- pofe it fhould be adminiftered in table {poonfuls, frequently repeated, after the ftomach has been emptied by a proper emetic. It is employed as a glyfter in obftinate coftivenefs ; and externally, in the form We fomentation, or of lotion, is applied in burns, bruifes, fprains, and chronic ophthalmia ; and diluted with water, itis the beft lotion for clearing the eye of {mall particles of lime, when they adhere to any part of the ball, or the lids. Its vapour is inhaled in putrid fore- throat ; and diffufed through fick rooms, with the view of neutralizing peftilential effuvia; but as a fumigation it has little efficacy. The dofe of vinegar is f5j to £31}; and the quantity given in clyfters f3j to £3ij. See on the fubject of this article, Boerhaave’s Elem. Chem. by Dallowe, part iii. p- 146, &c. Neumann’s Chem. by Lewis, p. 458, &c. Dd Did. VINEGAR. Di@. Chem. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Thomfon’s Lond. Difp. See alfo Aceric Acid, AcrriTE, Acerous Acid, and ACETUM. with Vinecar, in Rural Economy, is an acid or cooling liquid that may be made ufe of with confiderable benefit in dif- ferent forts of field labour, in mixture with water or other fluids, as quenching thirft very effeGtually, without flimu- lating or increafing the heat of the body too greatly. It has been ftated, on the authority of a manufcript paper found in poffeffion of fir William Pulteney on the ufe of vinegar, by the writer of the Corrected Report of the Agni- culture of the County of Middlefex, that during the firft American war, the interruption given by our cruizers to the trade of that country, and fome other circumftances, prevented the inhabitants of it from procuring proper fup- plies of molaffes for their diftilleries, and a diftrefs was ex- perienced, particularly in harveft-time, from the want of rum to mix with water, which was the drink of their labour- ers. It is commonly known, the writer thinks, that cold water is dangerous, when ufed by perfons heated with labour, or by any fevere exercife ; and yet it is neceflary to fupply the waite and exhauftion of perfpiration in fome mode or other. When rum or wine is added in {mall quan- tity to water, it may be ufed, even if cold, with little danger : it would, however, be fafer, it is fuppofed, if a little warm water were mixed and employed in fuch cafes. On this account, Dr. Rufh, of the fame country, after making proper experiments on the fubje€t, recommended in a publication, that inftead of rum, which could not then be had, the labourers in harveft fhould mix a very fmall pro- portion of vinegar with the water they made ufe of as drink. Some years afterwards, in another publication, the fame writer mentioned that the pra¢tice had been adopted, and had fucceeded even beyond his expeétations ; indeed fo much fo, that in many places vinegar was {till continued to be ufed, though rum could eafily be had. The preference of vinegar to rum is accounted for in this manner: fevere labour or exercife excites a degree of fever ; and that fever is increafed by fpirits or fermented liquor of any fort ; but vinegar, at the fame time that it prevents mifchief from drinking cold water during the heat and perfpiration occa- fioned by exercife, allays the fever ; and the labourers found themfelves more refrefhed and lefs exhaufted at night, when vinegar was ufed inftead of rum. é; The exact proportion of the vinegar is not known by the writer, but it is fuppofed that it was not more than about a tea-{poonful to half a pint of water. The difcovery, it is faid, was not altogether new, as the Romans ufed vinegar to mix with water for the drink of their foldiers. The writer of the above agricultural report adds to this, that M. Denon, a celebrated French draughtf{man, who accompanied their army while it was in Upper Egypt, experienced the advantage of vinegar mixed fomewhat in this way in that burning climate, which he relates in this manner: “I cooled the heat of my blood with vinegar, which I mixed with water and fugar, and drank of it largely.” Independently of this, however, the fame writer ftates, that the quality of water, which produces the ill effects above defcribed to perfons drinking it cold, when under any confiderable degree of perfpiration, may probably be corrected by the fimple addition of fkim-milk. The la- bourers in fome diftriéts of this kingdom, it is faid, during harveft, make ufe of no other beverage than milk and water, which is found to allay the fever, and quench the thirft, much more than beer. At the fame time, the labourers are 12 glad when they can get beer or ale, though they confefs that they are much fooner thirfty after drinking either, than they are after drinking milk and water, or it would feem than vinegar and water. As it is neceffary to have good and well-kept vinegar in this intention, as well as for fome domeftic and other pur- pofes, it may be proper to confider the nature of it, and the means of preferving and preventing the decompofition and injury of it in any way. Where good vinegar is wanted, wines of good quality are neceffary, as the beft kinds of it are thofe that have been made from generous wines. The more fpirituous the wine is, and the more of this vinous {pirit that can be retained in the vinegar, of courfe the better and ftronger it will be, and confequently the more fit for the above ufes. In regard to the means of its preferva- tion, they principally confift in defending it well againit the ation or influence of the external air, by keeping it in proper veflels, well clofed, and placed in cool fituations. Its alterations and injuries may likewife be further retarded, where neceflary, by depriving it of a portion of the water which it contains; for which purpofe, nothing more is wanted than to juft let it boil for an inftant ; but the veffels which are employed in this kind of bufinefs fhould obvioufly not be made of copper. The procefs too, which has been propofed by fome with a fimilar intention, is quife fimple ; it confifts in filling with this acid glafs veffels of a proper kind, which are to be then placed in boilers full of water ; the water being in this cafe made to boil for a full quarter of an hour, after which the vinegar in the veffels is taken out, when it may be kept for feveral years without undergoing any alteration or decompofition. Dhiitillation, too, has been advifed as a means of preferving vinegar; but befides the circumftance of its being a tedious and difficult procefs, it is apt to deprive the acid of the agreeable fmell and taite which are peculiar to it in its natural ftate, and which is always defirable, but more efpecially when for ufe in the above intention. And the fame is the cafe with vinegar that has been concentrated by freezing. ‘The acid by this fimple operation becomes much ftronger, and capable of being kept for a much greater length of time; but it ac- quires fomething of a burnt f{mell and tafte, which render it unfit for being employed for many domeftic purpofes, as well as that above ftated. There is another manner of accomplifhing this bufinefs by a faline fubftance, which is that of fea-falt, or muriate of foda, which is advifed by fome to be added to vinegar, as being able to preferve it, and which fucceeds well enough in fome cafes, though it is not without its inconveniences ; for the vinegars that contain this material grow turbid, and at length lofe their primitive qualities. But though it may not fucceed quite fo perfeétly as might be wifhed, it may {till be employed in certain cafes with advantage, efpe- cially if the quantity of falt that is neceflary to be added to the vinegar be not in too large a proportion. What refpeéts the figns by which vinegar may be known to be good, adulterated, or fpoiled, deferve confiderable attention, as nothing is more common than to meet with vinegars that are of bad quality. T'wo caufes principally contribute to their being in that ftate: the firft of which is, that they have been manufaétured or prepared with weak wines, or fuch as are already in a fpoiled condition ; the fecond, that they have been mixed with acrid fubftances, fuch as pimento and others; or that mineral acids, fuch as the fulphuric or muriatic, have been added to them. Nothing is, however, more eafy than to dete& fuch frauds and im- pofitions, it being fufficient for the purpofe to merely fatu- rate a given quantity of potafh with the vinegar which is fufpeGed VINEGAR. fufpefted of adulteration, and to compare the quantity of vinegar that has been obliged to be employed before a com- plete faturation could be obtained, with that confumed in a fimilar trial made with vinegar, the good quality of which is well known ; and by evaporating or reducing the fubftance of the folution nearly to drynefs afterwards, the nature of the material employed may be afcertained. And as to the acrid vegetable fubitances that may haye been mixed with it, they may be readily recognized by their tafte, which will be altogether different from that of the vinegar, and which will become the more perceptible, the more the acid has been concentrated or reduced by evapo- ration, or any other means. It may be noticed in general, that vinegar which has not been adulterated, or which has not been fpoiled ‘by an incipient decompofition, is readily and eafily known by its penetrating acid tafte, its tranfparency, and its agreeable {mell, which becomes {till more developed af fome of the vinegar be rubbed between the hands, or in any other way. In fome of thefe modes, vinegar that is fit for ufe in the sabove intention, and for other purpofes, may be readily known. Vinegar is frequently alfo of much utility and advantage ‘as an application in different cafes of bruifes and flight {wellings, arifing from blows and other accidents among different kinds of live-ftock or domeftic animals. VINEGAR of Antimony, is an acid fpirit, beft made by diftillation from the ore of antimony. See AnTIMony. Its ufe is recommended in continued and malignant fevers. VineGAR, Aromatic, of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by taking of rofemary tops dried, and fage leaves dried, of each 4 02. ; lavender flowers dried, 2 oz. ; cloves bruifed, 2 dr. ; and diftilled vinegar, 8 Ibs.: macerating thefe ingre- dients for feven days, and filtering. the exprefled liquor through paper. The odour of this liquid, which is a folu- tion of the volatile oils of the fubftance employed in vinegar, is pleafant, pungent, and aromatic ; and it isa grateful per- fume in fick rooms, but cannot be regarded as a pro- phylaétic from fever, or other contagions. The aromatic fpirit of vinegar, originally invented and fucceffively improved by the xe ingenious and refpect- able Mr. Henry of Manchefter, is compofed of highly concentrated vinegar, joined with the moft pleafant aromatic and efficacious antifeptics, and may be kept unimpaired for any length of time, and in any climate. Its fragrant odour adapts it for affording relief in head-aches, faintings, &c. and renders it peculiarly grateful and refrefhing in crowded rooms, places of public refort, and the apartments of the fick. Itis alfo faid to counteract the infeétion of con- tagious difeafes. Vinecar, Dijlilled, is the fpirituous acid of vinegar ob- tained by diftillation. The procefs of diftilling vinegar is very fimple. A quantity of good ordinary vinegar is put into a large cucurbit or ftill, which ought to be made of ftone-ware, and not of metal, as the acid of vinegar is ca- pable of a&ting upon moft metals. This cucurbit is funk in a deep furnace, fo that five or fix fingers’ breadth only near its neck appear. The neck is to be carefully luted with clay all round the furnace, that the capital may not be heated too much. A capital and a glafs receiver are then to be fitted, and the diftillation is to be begun with a very gentle heat. The acid fpirituous liquor pafles by drops into the receiver. This liquor is white, packet, penetrating, fomewhat empyreumatic, and difengaged from an acid, but aot {pirituous fubftance, and alfo born an extraétive fapo- naceous matter, both which are contained in ordinary vinegar. Thefe latter fubftances remain in the {till with the colouring matter, and form together an extremely acid ex- traét of vinegar. This refiduum contains alfo fome tartar, and by incineration yields much fixed alkali, as all matters belonging to vines, grapes, and wine do. The thicker vinegar is, the lefs fit it proves for diftil- ation, as there is always the greater danger of an empy- reuma, or burnt fmell, which would fpoil the whole pro- cefs, and as it ufually in this cafe comes over oleaginous. And the pureft white falt of tartar, faturated with this dif- tilled vinegar, being afterwards ignited, turns black, and yields a fmell extremely like that of crude tartar in the cal- cination. Shaw’s Chemical Effays. On the other hand, the more the vinegar is diluted im- mediately before diftillation, the lefs danger there is of burning ; and if the thick remaining mafs, when the thinner part is diftilled from it, be again diluted with water, it may, by a fecond diftillation, be brought to afford an acetous fubftance ; though this latter be by no means comparable to this former volatile part. This Vigani juftly fufpeéts to be a circumftance known but to very few. And even when the vinegar is diftilled with the utmoft labour and care, it {till has this effe€&t in a higher degree, and contains an immenfe quantity of phlegm, in proportion to its acid falt. In this cafe, the method of condenfation by freezing is of the utmoft fervice ; firft of all feparating the more aqueous part, and in the next place that which is fomewhat acetous, though not comparable to what remains behind ; fo that, by this means, a moft concentrated and fubtle {pirituous dif- tilled vinegar may be produced, viz. by freezing the whole parcel of diftilled phlegm and diftilled vinegar together, a thing of great moment to the curious in the chemia /ublimior, and particularly to thofe who underftand Hollandus. And when the vinegar is froze without diftillation, by this means you have a noble rob, or a rich concentrated vinegar, freed from its diftillating aqueous and ufelefs part. Vigani, Medull. Chem. The Lond. Ph. dire&ts the acetic acid to be diftilled from a gallon of vinegar in a glafs retort, placed in a fand- bath, into a glafs receiver kept cool; the firft pint to be thrown away, and the fix fucceeding pints which are dif- tilled to be preferved. The diftilled acetous acid of the Edinb. Ph. is prepared by diftilling 8 lbs. of the acetous acid in glafs veffels, with a gentle heat, rejecting the 2 lbs. which firft came over, as being too watery ; and the 4 lbs. that follow will be the diftilled acetous acid : the refidue is a ftronger acid, but too much burnt. The diftilled vinegar of the Dub. Ph. is obtained by taking of wine vinegar ten pints, and diftilling with a gentle heat fix pints: the dif- tillation isto be performed in a glafs veflel, and the firft pint which comes over rejected. The fpecific gravity of this acid is to that of water as 1006 or 1009§ to 1000. (See Acrtous Acid.) Darracq has afcertained (Annales de Chimie, xli. 264.) that diftilled vinegar differs from acetic acid, by containing fome uncombined anneleee and ex- tractive matter, but that the acids are otherwife the fame. To this extraGtive it is owing, that when diftilled vinegar is boiled with potafs, the folution has a deep reddifh-brown colour, and during evaporation carbonaceous matter is de- pofited. Sulphuric acid is dete&ted by a precipitate being produced on the addition of a folution of acetate of barytes ; lead, by a folution of fulphuretted hydrogen, forming a dark-coloured precipitate ; and copper, by its affuming a blue colour, when fuperfaturated with ammonia. The medical properties and ufes of diftilled vinegar are the fame with thofe of common vinegar; but, being purer, and lefs Ddz liable VIN liable to fpontaneous decompofition, it is fitter for pharma- ceutical purpofes. Thomfon’s Difp. Vinecar, Concentrated. See CONCENTRATION. Vinecar of Lead, is a liquer formed by digefting ceruffe or litharge, with a fufficient quantity to diffolve it perfectly. This ie called the acetum lithargyrites, and is prepared by di- gefting four ounces of litharge about three days in a fand heat, with a pint of ftrong vinegar, now and then fhaking the veffel. The liquer, filtered, will receive a ftrong im- pregnation from the litharge, and will be found to have dif- folved about one-tenth of it. When a faturated folution is required, the ceruffe is preferred to the litharge. This vine- gar is of the fame nature with folutions of faccharum fa- turni, and when diluted with a large quantity of water, it abates external inflammations, the itching and other unea- finefles in cancerous ulcers ; and before Mr. Goulard’s prac- tice, it was ufed for bathing inflammations in fcirrhous tu- mours, to prevent their becoming cancerous. Inflamma- tions and inflammatory tumours, in general, are difperfed by it. Dr. William Saunders has obferved, that the acetum lithargyrites, or Goulard’s extra&t, is not the fame in its operation and powers as the faccharum faturni, as medical practitioners have generally fuppofed. In the preparation of the former, the acid is fully faturated with lead ; but in that of the latter, the acid is in a much greater proportion to the lead. The former, when diluted by the pureft dif- tilled water, gives out a copious precipitation, which he finds, by experiment, to be cerufle. The latter remains diffolved in diftilled water, and is, therefore, applied topi- cally in a ftate more immediately aGtive, both on account of its greater proportion of acid, and its preferving its folubility under high degrees of dilution. He has alfo found by ex- periment, that, by adding a very {mall proportion of dif- tilled vinegar to the aqua faturnina of Goulard, the white precipitate is rediflolved, and that the folution procured in this manner is more active, but lefs adapted to remove in- flammation, and abate irritation, as a fedative, than the aqua faturnina itfelf. Dr. Saunders, however, is perfetly con- vinced that no degree of dilution of faccharum faturni will anfwer the many valuable purpofes obtained from the ufe of the acetum lithargyrites. Water alone, in the cafe of the aqua faturnina, proves a precipitant of lead, by attraCting the acid, and reducing the preparation to a ftate of cerufle, an intermediate {tate between lead and the faccharum faturni ; fo that ceruffe diffufed in water more nearly refembles the aqua faturnina of Goulard, than a folution of the faccharum faturni does. The faccharum faturni may be confidered as an union of ceruffe with vinegar ; whereas Goulard’s ace- tum lithargyrites is an union of lead with vinegar. See Per- cival’s Phil. Med. and Exp. Eff. 1776. Append. p. 323, &c. See alfo Leap. VINEGAR of Meadow Saffron, Acetum Colchict, is ordered by the London College to be prepared by taking of the mea- dow faffron root (bulb) fliced, 1 0z.; of acetic acid, a pint; and of proof-fpirit, a fluid-ounce; macerating the root with the vinegar in a covered glafs veffel for twenty-four hours, then exprefling, and fetting the liquor afide, that the fecu- lencies may fubfide, and adding the {pirit to the clear liquor. This is given as a diuretic in afcites and hydrothorax, but is lefs to be depended on than the fquill. The dofe is from F3{s to £3j, united with honey, or any bland fluid. See Coxtcnicum and Meadow Sarrron. Vinecar, Portable, a name given by the chemifts to a fort of vinegar-powder, or vinegar in a dry form. preparation of tartar with vinegar, and is made in this man- ner: Take white tartar, half a pound; let it be carefully wafhed, then dried and powdered ; infufe this powder in the Itisa VIN ftrongeft wine-vinegar ; then dry it, and infufe it again, re- peating this operation ten times: after this the dry powder is to be kept for ufe. At any time, a fort of extemporaneous vinegar may be made by diffolving a fmall quantity of this powder in any proper liquor. ' VinEGAR, Prophyladic. See Acetum Prophyladicum. Vinecar, Radical, is a name given to the acid of vinegar, highly concentrated, by diftilling verdigris, or cryitals of verdigris, &c. See Acetic Acid. M. de Laffone has lately found, that in the procefs of diftilling verdigris for this purpofe, a fluid efcapes of the nature of thofe called by the ancient chemifts gas, and by the moderns fixed air ; and he alfo obferved, that if the dif- tillation be fufpended the moment before the acid concen- trated vapours appear under a white form, copperifh flowers are obtained: before this period, the radical vinegar con- tains no copper; it only begins to contain fome, when the copperifh flowers, carried along by the acid vapours, mix themfelves with this vinegar: if itis then re@tified by a new diftillation, thefe flowers are no more fublimed, and, there- fore, a radical vinegar, exempt from copper, may be ex- traéted from verdigris. The copperifh flowers are in a high degree cauftic, and may be confidered asa violent poi- fon. Hift. Acad. Sc. Par. 1777. VinEGAR of Rofées. See Acetum Rofatum. VINEGAR of Squill. See SquiLt. Vivecar, Eels in. The common opinion, from the dif- covery of eels in vinegar, that its fharpnefs to the tafte was occafioned by thefe animals, caufed» the accurate Leeu- wenhoeck to attempt a careful examination of it by the microfcope. Some of the ftrongeft and fharpeft vinegar, after having been expofed for fome hours to the air, and afterwards exa- mined by the microfcope, entertains the fight with anumber - of corpufcles, called the falts of vinegar, which are acute at both extremities, and have many of them in the middle an oblong figure of a brownifh colour, and others were altoge- ther clear, pellucid, and bright as cryftal. Others of thefe particles appeared of an oval figure, and fome of the half of fuch a figure, hollowed like a {mall boat, or the half of a nut-fhell. The more perfe& figures, pointed at both ends, and pellucid, are fo very minute, that fome thoufands of them are comprehended in a {mall drop. Thefe feem to be what affe€t the tongue with the acid fharpnefs, when we tafte vinegar ; and it is very probable, that befide thefe, minute as they are, there are multitudes of others, equally pointed, and infinitely {maller than thefe. If vinegar be placed in an open glafs, and fuffered to re- main fome weeks, the furface of it will be found, on exa- mination with good glaffes, to be full of the fame figures, double-pointed, and very pellucid ; and in thefe, very often, there may be cavities plainly difcovered ; but examining the liquor a little deeper down, there are found numbers of mi- mute eels ; yet thefe, though minute, are prodigioufly larger than the falt particles, and can never be fuppofed to be the occafion of the fharpnefs of vinegar to the tafte, by any who rightly confider, fince it is not all vinegar that contains them; nay, the much greater part of vinegar is wholly without them, and in winter they all die ; yet vinegar is not lefs fharp at that feafon than in the fummer. Mr. Mentzelius was fo lucky as to fee thefe undergo their laft metamorphofis, and change into {mall flies ; and though this is a fingle inftance, in regard to the microfcopical world of animalcules, yet it is highly probable that the whole race of thofe, whofe appearance in medicated fluids we have been fo long puzzled to account for, may, like thefe, be the worm-ttate, of fome winged aerial infe&t, and have owed their VIN their origin, where we fee them, to the eggs of parent flies, too fall for our fight. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. iv. - If vinegar be impregnated with crab’s-eyes, or any other alkaline fubftance, which blunts, and in a great meafure de- ftroys its acidity, thefe double-pointed figures are no longer found in it, on a microfcopical infpection; but in their places we find others with an oblong quadrangular bafe, from which they fhoot up into pyramids, and appear like polithed diamonds. Thefe are alfo fo very minute, that fix thoufand of them are computed to be contained in a drop of the liquor, no larger than two corns of barley ; and thefe will be ufually found all of the fame fize, or very nearly fo, which is by no means the cafe with the other forts of vinegar in its natural ftate. See Microfcopic EExs. Vinecar-Hill, in Geography, an eminence near the town of Ennifcorthy, famous for being a ftation of the rebels in 1798. TTINER’s IsLAND, a {mall ifland in the fouth-weift part of James Bay, Hudfon’s Bay. VINERY, in Gardening, a fort of garden ere€tion, con- fifting of a wall twelve or fourteen feet in height, extending from eaft to welt, furnifhed with ftoves, and proper flues, with roof and lights of glafs, covering a border of fome extent ; as ten feet or more in width. When vines are to be forced at an early feafon, upright glaffes, two and a half or three feet in height, are often employed in front, to fup- port the roof, and to admit fun and light to the border, which is frequently occupied with low-growing vegetables : but when they are not wanted early, a low wall will anfwer equally well. In forcing vines, the following dimenfions are fuppofed to form an improved vinery, or houfe of this kind, and one that has been found to anfwer well in a&tual practice. In houfes of this fort, if the wall be twelve feet high, the breadth ten feet, and the height of the upright wall in front three feet, the roof will form an angle of about forty-three degrees ; which experience has fhewn to be a fuitable pitch for forcing vines with advantage. Thefe fortsof buildings may likewife be conftruéted on a plan fomewhat fimilar to that of a fingle-pitted pine-{tove, having the back wall fourteen feet high ; the roof flanting, and covering an extent of about fixteen feet; with a flue running from eaft to weft near the front wall. This is well fuited, not only for grapes, but early crops of melons, ftraw- berries, and other fimilar kinds of fruit. To fave the expence of glafs; where there are peach- houfes, the glafs frames may alfo be employed for the vinery, when conftructed with this intention, and good grapes may be obtained from vines trained againft walls about fix feet high, by means of melon-frame glafles, where a fmall flanting roof is made proper to receive them. But a {mall degree of fire-heat is of great advantage, and might be applied either by a flued wall, the flue running through the houfe, or by caft-iron pipes for the purpofe. Thefe forts of houfes, Mr. Nicol remarks, vary exceed- ingly in their conftru€tion ; and although fome lay great ftrefs on this article, (and there are extremes which ought not to be followed,) he is convinced the failure of fuccefs in the produGtion of the grape, is much lefs a confequence of bad conftruction in the houfe, than in the preparation of the border, the choice of the kinds, and the general manage- ment. It has fallen to his lot to have the conftruétion and management of three feveral and differently conitruéted grape-houfes in the fame garden, under his care for years, which have equally and uniformly produced excellent crops. This, in his opinion, is a proof of the neceflity of a greater nicenefs in the formation of the border being obferved, than in the conftruétion of the houfe; the fire-place and VIN flues excepted, which fhould always be particularly at- tended to. } He alfo thinks that the {cite of a vinery is an obje& of fuch confequence to the welfare of the plant, and fuccefsful cultivation and produétion of well-flavoured fruit, that the greateft care fhould be taken in the choice of it. A gentle hill, having a fouth afpe&, and confiderable declivity that way, the foil a ftrong brown loam of two feet, over a bot- tom of dry fand, gravel, or foft clay, is, he thinks, the moit defirable, and would be the leaft expenfive of all fituations. In this cafe the border requires no paving or draining ; and admits of a proper mixture of fandy loam, vegetable mould, marle, and dung, by the removal of two feet of the natural bottom, with the natural foil, to form a border, perfeGly adapted to the growth of the vine, in the following propor- tion; viz. one half {trong brown loam, a quarter light fandy loam, an eighth vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and an eighth ftable-dung ; to which add about a fiftieth part of fhell-marle. This is the compofition of the vine-borders at Wemyfs Caftle, none of which are lefs than four feet deep, and one (owing to the accidental fituation of the houfe) is fix. See Forcinc, Hor-Houfe, and Srove. See alfo Vitis. In order to form borders againft thefe hot-walls in other cafes, they fhould have the earth taken out two feet deep where the ground is dry, but in other cafes one foot will be fufficient, as in wet foils the borders fhould be raifed at leaft two feet above the level of the ground, to prevent the roots of the vines from being injured by the wet. The bottom of this trench fhould be filled with ftones, lime-rubbifh, &c. a foot and a half or two feet in thicknefs, which fhould be levelled and beaten down pretty hard, to prevent the roots from running downward. The trenches fhould be made five feet wide at leaft, otherwife the roots will, in a few years, extend themfelves beyond the rubbifh, and, finding an ealy paflage downwards, run into the moift ground, and be thereby much injured, or deftroyed ; but before the rubbifh is filled into the trench, it isa better method to raife a nine- inch wall at that diftance from the hot-wall, which will keep the rubbifh from intermixing with the neighbouring earth, and alfo confine the roots to the border in which they are planted. ‘This wall fhould be raifed to the height of the intended border, and may be ufeful to lay the plate of tim- ber of the frames upon, which will be neceflary to cover the vines with when they are forced ; and where the borders are raifed to any confiderable height above the level of the ground, thefe walls may preferve the earth of the borders from falling down into the walks ; but in carrying them up, it will be proper to leave little openings, about eight or ten feet diftant, to let the water pafs off by. As foon as the walls are finifhed and thoroughly dry, the rubbifh fhould be filled in, as direGted above, when there fhould be frefh light earth laid upon it two feet thick, which will be a fufficient depth of mould for the vines to root in. The borders fhould be prepared in this manner at leaft a month or fix weeks be- fere the vines are planted, in order that they may have time to fettle. See ViTIs. Improved and more economical modes of heating and {teaming the plants in vineries have lately been had recourfe to by Mr. Loudon and others, as by the ordinary fires, and the ufe of caft-iron plates, &c. Wineries have fometimes fteam-vaults under the ground, for fupplying occafional warmth to the roots of the vine plants. Houfes of thefe kinds are fometimes called graperies, and grape-houfes. See STove. VINET, E tas, in Biography, a learned man of the fix- teenth century, was born at Vinets, a village of Sinton II an VIN and having gained a {mall fum of money by tuition, he went to Paris for the ftudy of mathematics and improvement in claffical literature. He was invited to Bourdeaux in 1541, and appointed to a profeflorfhip by Govea, principal of the college in that city. He accompanied his patron to Co- imbra in 1547, but after his death returned to Bourdeaux, where he was appointed principal of the college in 1558. Having performed the duties of this office for twenty-five years, he was releafed from fervice in his advanced age, but retained his falary, and died in 1587, at the age of 78. Vinet edited various ancient authors; and befides his tran{- lations into French, he publifhed fome original works, fuch as “ The Art of making Dials ;’’ a treatife «« On Modera- tion ;”? the “ Antiquities of Saintes and Barbefieux,”” 4to. 15¥1; and “ Antiquities of Bourdeaux and Bourg,” 4to. 1574. Moreri. VINEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Loir and Cher, on the Couffon; 3 miles E. of Blois. VINEYARD, Vinertum, a plantation of vines. Vine. Vineyards were formerly common in England, but for a confiderable time the cultivation of them has been altogether neglected. There was a famous vineyard at Bath, planted with white Mufcadine and black clufter grapes, which, at one time, yielded fixty hogfheads of wine at a vintage, though, in 1721, it only yielded three hogfheads. Bradley alfo mentions a {mall vineyard of a private perfon at Rotherhithe, confifting only of a hundred vines, which yielded at a vintage ninety-five gallons of wine, that had the true Burgundy flavour, as being made of that fort of grape, and exceeded any made on this fide of Paris. Vineyarp, in Geography, a town of America, in the dif- triG of Vermont, and county of Grand Ifle ; containing 338 inhabitants. Vinevarp, Martha’s. See Martua’s Vineyard. Vineyarp, New, a townfhip in the diftriét of Maine, and county of Somerfet ; containing 484 inhabitants ; 60 miles N.W. of Brunfwick. Vineyarp Sound, anarrow fea, on the north-welt coaft of Martha’s Vineyard, feparated from Buzzard’s bay by Eli- zabeth iflands. VINFELD, a place of Weftphalia, in the county of Lippe, near Horn. VINGENNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gaul, which difcharges itfelf into the Loire. VINGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro- vince of Aggerhuus ; 12 miles §.S.E. of Berga. VINGORLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Concan, where the Dutch had a fettlement, from which they were driven by the natives in 1696. About ten miles to the weft-north-weft are fome rocks, in the Indian fea, called Vingorla Rocks. The town of Vingorla is fituated near the mouth of ariver ; 22 miles N.N.W. of Goa. N. lat. 15°53’. E. long. 73° 27!. VINHAES, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes; 12 miles W. of Braganca. VINJA CUTARIA, a town of Hindooftan, in Cutch ; 16 miles S. of Tahej. VINIE Lage, a lake of Norway, in the government of Aggerhuus; 45 miles W. of Confberg. VINIOLA, in Ancient Geography, a place in the ifle of Sardinia, on the route from Portus Tibulis to Caralis, be- tween Fanum Carifi and Sulci. Anton. Itin.—Alfo, a place of Spain, belonging to the Carpetani, between Accatucci and Mentefa Battia. See VIN VINITZA, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 12 miles W. of Varafdin. VINIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in the vicinity of the town of Cafinum, according to Varro, fup- pofed to be now known by the name of Fiume di San Ger- mano. VINKATTY CHILLUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 10 miles §. of Nellore. VINKENBOOMS, Davm, in Biography, a landfcape painter, born at Mechlin in 1578, was the fon of an obfcure painter in diftemper. His landfcapes, which are in the ftyle of Roland Savery and of John Breughel, are fometimes adorned with ftories from the Bible, but more frequently are convivial ; being fairs or merry-makings. He ventured occafionally on hiftory, with landfcape backgrounds; fuch is the picture of Chrift bearing his Crofs, in the colleétion of the elector palatine, and of Chrift healing the Blind, at Frankfort. His compofitions are ingenious, but his touch is petite and hard. VINKISH, the name of a difeafe in fheep. See Van- QUISH. UINMARSUCK, in Geography, an ifland near the eoaft of Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 60°40!. W.long. 45°45!. VINNA, a town of Hungary; 2 miles N.W. of Ungvar. VINNAS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Guamanga; o miles W. of Guanca Velica. VINNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Muntter ; 10 miles N.E. of Muntter. VINNET, in our Statutes, is ufed for a flower or border, which printers ufe to ornament printed leaves of books. See VIGNETTE. VINNIUS, (Vinnen,) Arnotp, in Biography, an eminent jurift, was born in Holland in 1588, ftudied at Ley- den, and taught the claffics at the Hague till the year 1633, when he became law-profeffor in the univerfity of Leyden, Whilft he occupied this office, he acquired diftin@ion by various works of jurifprudence, in an elegant and ornamented ftyle. The principal of his publications are, ‘* Commenta- rius Academicus et Forenfis in quatuor Libros Inftitu- tionum Imperialium,’’ Amft. 1642, often reprinted, and par- ticularly by Heineccius, with a preface and notes, Lugd, Bat. 1726, 4to.; Notz ad Inftitutiones,’? accompanying the preceding’; ‘* Introduétio ad Praxin Batavam,”? &c. &c, He died at Leyden in 1657, or, as fome fay, in 1668, Moreri. VINNY, in Agriculture, a term fignifying mouldy and fufty, when applied to hay and other fuch fubftances. We have thus vinny hay, &c. VINOVIA, Vinonta, or Viconia, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great Britain, in the 1ft Iter of Antonine, on the route from Vallum to Prztorium, is fixed at Binchefter on the Were, in the bifhopric of Durham, between Vin- domora (Ebchefter) and Cataractori (Catara&), on the fouth fide of the river Swale. Ptolemy afligns it to the Bri- antes. VINOUS, Vinosus, fomething that relates to wine; or that has the tafte and {mell of it. All vegetables, by a due treatment, afford a vinous liquor ; as corn, pulfe, nuts, apples, grapes, &c. A fecond fermentation, duly managed, turns any vinous liquor into an acetous one. The proper charaéter and effect of fermentation are, to produce either a vinous, or an acetous quality in the body fermented. Some of our countrymen, bound on a voyage to the Eait Indies, having filled feveral cafks with Thames water, to carry VIN carry along with them, obferved an inteftine motion in it when they came to the equator; and found it afterwards turned into a kind of vinous liquor, capable of affording an inflammable fpirit by diftillation. See PurreracTion of Water. VINSOBRES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Dréme ; 4 miles S.E. of Nions. VINTAGE, the crop of wine, or what is got from the vines each feafon. = The word is alfo ufed for'the time or feafon of gathering or prefling the grapes. In France, a decree or ordinance of the proper judge, and a folemn publication of it, are required, before the vintage can be begun. VINTAIN, or Bintan, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital of the kingdom of Fonia, on a river of the fame name, which runs into the Gambia. This town is much frequented by Europeans for the purchafe of wax, ivory, and fkins. VINTIMIGLIA, a fea-port town of Genoa, defended by acaftle. It is the fee of a bifhop, under the archbifhop of Milan; 13 miles N.E. of Nice. N. lat. 43° 48’. E. long. 7° 33. VINTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Ne- rufii, according to Ptolemy, recognized by infcriptions in honour of Gordian and Trajan-Decius, in which are read Crvir. Vint. In the Notitia of the provinces of Gaul, Ci- vitas Vintuntium is one of thofe of the Maritime Alps. In later times it was called Vincium, and this name is preferved in that of Vence. VINUESA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Old Caftile ; 13 miles N.W. of Soria. VINUM, a liquor, or drink, popularly called Wine ; which fee. Vixum, in Medicine, Vinum Medicamentum, is particularly applied to feveral medicated wines, i.e. medicinal prepara- tions, of which wine is the bafis.. Wine, asa folvent, is liable to the objeCtion of inequality of ftrength ; and on account of its fpontaneous decompofition by expofure to the air, it is more objectionable, this change being more likely to occur fooner when it is imbued with principles which tend to haften the fermentative procefs. In order to obviate thefe difadvan- tages, Parmentier (Annales de Chimie, li. 46.) propofes, that inftead of preparing medicated wines in the ulual way, the alcoholic tin@tures well prepared fhould be added to wine in given quantities ; by which means, he fays, the preparations are lefs naufeous, and always of a determinate ftrength. By the general term wine, the London College defignates fherry wine. 'Thefe medicated wines fhould be kept in very well- corked bottles, and in a cool fituation. Some of thefe are denominated from the ingredients ufed in them ; fome from the intentions with which they are prefcribed; and fome from their qualities, &c. Such are the Vinum Ab finthites, or Wormwood Wine ; made of the great or little abfinthium, by taking the apices, or tops, with the flowers, putting them in a facculus, or bag, and fufpending it in the middle of a veflel of wine ; which, fermenting, ex- traéts the tafte, {mell, and virtues, of the wormwood. See ABSINTHITES. Vinum Aloes, Wine of Aloes, is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph., by rubbing eight ounces of extra& of fpiked aloes te powder with white fand previoufly freed from any impurities, and alfo rubbing two ounces of canella bark into powder, and on thefe, mixed together, pouring fix pints of wine and two pints of proof-fpirit ; macerating for fourteen days, frequently fhaking the veffel containing the mixture, and afterwards ftraining. The Dub. Ph. direéts four VIN ounces of focotorine aloes and ‘one ounce of canella albs to be feparately reduced to powder, and mixed together, and then to pour over it three pints of Spanifh white wine, mixed with a pound of proof-fpirit; then to digeft for fourteen days, with frequent agitation, and laftly to ftrain the folution. » Vunum Aloes Socotorina, Wine of Socotorine Aloes, of the Edin. Ph., commonly called Sacred Tindure, is prepared by taking one ounce of focotorine aloes in powder, lefler cardamom- feeds bruifed, and ginger-root bruifed, of each a drachm, and two pounds of Spanifh white wine ; digefting for feven days, with frequent agitation, and then ftraining. This me- dicated wine is an excellent warm purgative and ftomachic ; and has been employed long and beneficially in cold phlegmatic habits, paralyfis, gout, dy{pepfia, and chlorofis ; the dofe is from f3j to f3ij as a ftomachic, and from f3j to £3ij as a purgative. Vinum Aloeticum Alkalinum, a form of medicine in the late London Difpenfatory, intended to ftand in the place of Helmont’s elixir proprietatis. It is prepared in this man- ner: Take of bay fixed alkaline falt, eight ounces; aloes, myrrh, and faffron, of each an ounce ; purified fal ammoniac, fix drachms; white wine, a quart; infufe them together without heat for a week, or longer, and then filter the wine through paper for ufe. Vinum Amarum, Bitter Wine, is aninfufion of certain bitter, ftomachic herbs, as gentian-root, juniper-berries, tops of centaury, orange and lemon-peel, in wine. This wine may be made by infufing for a week, without heat, gentian-root, and yellow rind of lemon-peel, of each one ounce, and two drachms of long-pepper, in two pints of mountain-wine, and ftraining out the wine for ufe. The Vinum Gentiane Compofitum, vulgo Vinum Amarum, or compound wine of gentian, commonly called Jitter wine, is obtained by flicing or bruifing half an ounce of gentian- root, one ounce of cinchona bark, two drachms of orange-peel dried, one drachm of canella alba, and pouring upon them four ounces of proof-fpirit, and, after twenty-four hours, adding two pounds and a half of Spanifh white wine; then macerating for feven days and ftraining. This wine, newly prepared, is ftomachic and tonic, but by keeping becomes acefcent. The dofe is from f3iv to f5vi, given two or three times a day. For other preparations, fee GENTIAN- Root. In complaints arifing from weaknefs of the ftomach, or indigeftion, a glafs of this wine may be taken an hour before dinner and fupper. Vinum Anthelminticum, Anthelmintic Wine, may be made by infufing, without heat, half an ounce of rhubarb, and an ounce of worm-feed, bruifed, in two pints of red Port wine, for a few days, and ftraining off the wine. As the ftomachs of perfons affli€ted with worms are always debili- tated, red wine alone will often prove ferviceable : it muit, however, have {till better effeéts when joined with bitter and purgative ingredients, as inthe above form, A glafs of this wine may be taken twice cr thrice a day. Vinum Antimoniale, Antimonial Wine, 1s made by digetting, without heat, halr an ounce of glafs of antimony, reduced to a fine powder, in eight ounces of Lifbon wine, for three or four days, occafionally fhaking the bottle, and afterwards filtering the wine through paper. The dofe of this wine varies according to the intention. As an alterative and dia- phoretic, it may be taken from ten to fifty or fixty drops. In a larger dofe it generally proves cathartic, or excites vomiting. The Liquor Antimonii Tartarizati, or folution of tartarized antimony of the Lond. Ph., is obtained by diffolving a feruple o VIN of tartarized antimony in four fluid-ounces, of boiling diftiled water, and then adding fix fluid-ounces of wine. The Vinum Tartritis Antimonii, formerly Vinum Aatimoniale, is had by mixing twenty-four grains of tartrate of antimony in one pound of Spanifh white wine, fo that the tartrate may be dif- folved. Thefe folutions are of equal ftrength ; £3] of either containing two grains of tartarized antimony. ‘They are dia- phoretic or emetic, according to the extent of the dofe. In dofes of x to f3j, in any proper vehicle, repeated every three or four hours, diaphorefis is ufually excited ; but this folution is principally ufed as an emetic for infants, a tea- {poonful being given every five minutes till it produces full vomiting. See ANTIMONY. ‘ Vinum Aromaticum, is made by infufing aromatics, or {pices, in new wine, or muft.: Vinum Benediftum, Bleffed Wine, is made of crocus me- tallorum and mars infufed in wine. This was formerly a celebrated emetic, but is now almoft out of ufe, on account of its roughnefs. Vinum Chalybeatum, Chalybeate Wine, is thus prepared : Take filings of iron, four ounces ; cinnamon and mace, of each half an ounce ; of Rhenifh wine, two quarts ; infufe a month without heat, often fhaking the veflel ; then filter it off for ufe. Some fuperadd a reddifh colour, by ufing a {mall quantity of cochineal. Fine iron wire, cut in pieces, is more eligible than the filings, as we may always depend on the wire being pure iron; and as it expofes a larger furface to the fluid, it is more eafily aéted upon. This wine is an excellent ftomachic and aperient ; it may be drank in the quantity of a common fpoonful, or even of a moderate glafs, once or twice a day, or mixed in apozems of the aperient vegetables. In obftruétions of the menfes, this preparation of iron may be taken in the dofe of half a wine-glafs twice or thrice a day. Dr. Buchan fays, that the medicine would probably . be as good if made with Lifbon wine, fharpened with half an ounce of cream of tartar, or a {mall quantity of the {pirit of vitriol. The Vinum Ferri, or Wine of Iron, is by the Lond. Ph. di- reéted to be prepared by mixing two ounces of filings of iron with two pints of wine, and fetting the mixture afide for a month, occafionally fhaking it ; and filtering it through paper. The Dub. Ph. orders four ounces of iron wire cut in pieces, and four pints of white Rhenifh wine ; and direéts to {prinkle a little of the wine over the iron filings, and expofmg them to the air, until they be covered with ruft, then to add the re- mainder of the wine ; to digeft for feven days, with frequent agitation, and laftly to filter. This is a vinous folution of tartrate of iron and potafs, and when prepared as the London College direéts, each pint contains about twenty-two grains of oxyd of iron. It is the leaft unpleafant of the preparations of iron ; chiefly employed in chlorofis, and the relaxed ha- bits of young females. The dofe is from £3j to f4vj, given twice or thrice a day. Vinum Cydonites, Quince Wine ; made of flices of that fruit, fteeped in muit, or new wine. Vinum Emeticum, Emetic Wine, is wine in which the glafs or regulus of antimony, or crocus metallorum, has been fteeped. See Emeric. This only takes a certain degree of efficacy from the mat- ters; nor 1s it found any ftronger at three months end, than at the end of three days. It purges both upwards and downwards. Vinum Enulatum, Elecampane Wine, is an infufion of the root of that plant, with fugar and currants, in white Port. It cleanfes the vifcera, prevents diforders and obitruétions VIN of the lungs, and is good in afthmatic cafes, cachexies, &c. See ELECAMPANE. Vinum Hippocraticum. See Hiprocras. Vinum Jpecacuanhe is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph., by macerating for fourteen days two ounces of the root of ipecacuanha bruifed in two pints of wine, and filter- ing; according to the Ed. Ph., by macerating for feven days one ounce of the root bruifed in fifteen ounces of Spanifh white wine, and filtering through paper; and ac- cording to the Dublin Ph., by digefting for feven days two ounces of the bruifed root in two pints of Spanifh white wine, and then filtering. As an emetic, this is equally efficacious, and milder in its operation than antimonial wine, and, therefore, better adapted for infants: for this purpofe, a tea-fpoonful, or £5fs, is given for a dofe, and repeated every ten minutes till it operates. In fmaller dofes it anfwers the fame purpofes as the powder, and is given in coughs, diarrhoea, dyfentery, and other complaints in which a determination to the {lin is indicated. Vinum Marinum, Sea-wine, is made by cafting fea-water on the grapes in the vat. Vinum Millepedum. See M1LLErepEs. Vinum Nieotiane Tabaci, Wine of Tobacco, of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by macerating for feven days one ounce of tobacco-leaves in one pound of Spanifh white wine, and filtering through paper. This is the only form in which tobacco can be conveniently adminiftered as an internal re- medy. It is given to produce diuretic and antifpafmodic effects in dropfies, colica pi€tonum, and ileus. The dofe is from 1x to 1 xxx, in any proper vehicle. Vinum Opii, Wine of Opium, is obtained, according to the Lond. Ph., by taking an ounce of extra& of opium, cinnamon bark bruifed and cloves bruifed, of each a drachm, and a pint of wine ; macerating for eight days, and filtering. Mr. Ware introduced the ufe of this tin@ture as a local ap- plication in the fecond {tage of ophthalmia, when the inflam- matory fymptoms have fubfided, and the. veflels of the conjunétiva remain turgid with red blood. T'wo or three drops are dropped into the eye every morning, until the rednefs be removed. Vinum Peéorale, PeGoral Wine, is prepared by liquorice, faffron, coriander-feeds, caraway, anife, falt of tartar, penny- royal, and hyffop leaves, digefted with Canary wine, and ftrained. It is a good expeétorant, helping to deterge and cleanfe the lungs, &c. Vinum Picatum, Pitched Wine, is made of pitch infufed in mutt. Vinum Rhei Palmati. See RHUBARB. Vinum Rofatum, Rofe Wine, is made by fteeping rofes for three months in wine. Vinum Scilliticum. See SQuiLts. Vinum Stomachicum, Stomachic Wine, is prepared by in- fufing an ounce of Peruvian bark, grofsly powdered, carda- mom-feeds, and orange-peel, bruifed, of each two drachms, in a bottle of white Port or Lifbon wine for five or fix days, and ftraining off the wine. This wine is not only of fervice in laxity and debility of the ftomach and inteftines, but may alfo be taken as a preventive, by perfons liable to the inter- mittent fever, or who refide in places where this difeafe pre- vails. It will be of ufe te thofe who recover flowly after fevers of any kind, as it aflifts digeftion, and helps to reftore the tone and vigour of the fyftem. A glafs of it may be taken two or three times a day. Vinum Strobilites, denotes pine-apple wine. Vinem ¢ Tartaro Antimoniali, is made by diflolving tartar emetic in white wine, in the proportion of twenty-four grains to a pound. VINUuM VIO _ Vinum Viperinum. See Virer-Wine. Vinum Efatum, in Chemifiry. See Essence of Wine. Vinum £xtemporaneum, a name given by ‘Dr. Shaw and others to a fort of extemporaneous vinous liquor, made without fermentation, from the melaffes fpirit, lemons, water, and fugar, in the following manner. Some good found lemons are to be cut in flices, rind and all, and put into a quantity of pure and fine melafles f{pirit ; when they have ftood in infufion three or four days, the liquor is to be ftrained clear off, and filtered ; and having before prepared a very thin fyrup of the fineft fugar diffolved in fpring-water, the two liquors are to be mixed together. The proportions of this mixture can only be hit by repeated trials; but when once found, it will be eafy to continue them; and a vinous Iiquor will thus be prepared not inferior to many foreign wines. VINZELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Galatia, belonging to the Te&tofages. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Pifidia. Ptolemy. VIO, in Biography. See Caseran. Vio, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 11 miles N.W. of Ainfi. VIOL, Vioxa, a mufical inftrument, of the fame form with the violin, but larger, and having fix ftrings; and ftruck, like that, with a bow. The viol played with a bow was very early in favour with the inhabitants of France, and is very different from the vielle (which fee), whofe tones.are produced by the fri€tion of a wheel, which performs the part of a bow. There are viols of divers kinds. The firft and principal among us is the éa/e-viol, called by the Italians viola di gamba, or the leg-viol; becaufe held between the legs. (See Gamepa.) It is the largeft of all, and is mounted with fix ftrings. Its neck is divided in half-notes, by feven frets fixed thereon. Its found is very deep, foft, and agreeable. ‘The tablature, or mufic for the bafe-viol, is laid down on fix lines, or rules. What the Italians call alto viola, is the counter-tenor of this; and their fenore viola, the tenor. They fometimes call it, fimply, the vio/: fome authors will have it the lyra, others the cithara, others the chelys, and others the teftudo, of the ancients. See Viova. 2. The love viol, viola d’amore, which is a kind of triple viol, or violin; having fix brafs or fteel ftrings, like thofe of the harpfichord. This yields a kind of filver found, which has fomething in it very agreeable. See Vrox @ Amour. 3. A large viol, with forty-four ftrings, called by the Italians viola di bardone ; but little known among us. 4. Viola baftarda, or baftard viol of the Italians; not VO ufed among us. Broffard takes it to bea kind of bafe-viol, mounted with fix or feven ftrings, and tuned as the com- mon one. 5. What the Italians call viola di braccio, arm viol; or, fimply, braccio, arm; is an inftrument anfwering to our counter-tenor, treble, and fifth violin. See Vioxa. 6. Their viola prima, or firft viol, is really the counter- tenor violin; at leaft, they commonly ufe the clef c-/ol-ut on the firft line, to denote the piece intended for this in- ftrument. 7. Viola fecunda is much the fame with our tenor violin ; having the clef of c-/ol-ut on the fecond line. 8. Viola terza is nearly our fifth violin; the clef c-/ol-ut on the third line. 9- Viola quarta, or fourth viol, is not known in England, or France ; though we frequently find it mentioned in the Italian compofitions ; the clef on the fourth line. Laftly, their violetta, or little viol, is, in reality, our triple viol; though ftrangers frequently confound the term with what we have faid of the viola prima, fecunda, terza, &c. Viox d’ Amour, an inftrument played with a bow, like the violin, of which it has the form. The only one we ever examined was many years ago in the hands of Giardini. It had but four itrings, tuned fifths like thofe of the violin ; but underneath thefe there were four metalline ftrings of {mall brafs or iron wire, which were called fympathetic {trings. Thefe were never touched by the bow, but were caufed to vibrate by the found of the ftrings over them, when played upon by the bow. In the Supplement to the firft Encyclopedia in folio, another viol d’amour is mentioned with twelve ftrings, fix upon the great bridge, and fix upon a fmaller bridge below. The fix inferior ftrings are of metal, and tuned oétaves to the fuperior. Vior d@’ Amour is alfo an inftrument with feven ftrings, in the fhape of a violin, but larger; it is played with a bow, but the finger-board is fretted. Its tone is fweet, but more feeble than the violin. Viox is a term ufed by mariners, when a hawfer, or {trand-rope, is bound faft with nippers to the eable, and brought to the jeer-capftan, for the better weighing of the anchor, where the main-capftan proves infufficient. VIOLA, and Alto Viola, the tenor violin. What the contralto is in vocal mufic, the alto viola is in inftrumental. The fame clef is ufed for both: the tenor on the third lines. The inftrumental tenor, or viol da braccio, as it is often called by the Italians, from its refting on the arm or fhoulder, to diftinguifh it from the viol da gamba, which refts on the leg, is an o€tave above the vicloncello, and five. notes below the violin. Scale of the Tenor. 4th String. 3d String. Thefe, with the femitones, are all the notes that were given to the tenor during the firft fifty years of the laft cen- tury, in the concertos of Corelli, Geminiani, and Handel; and the tenor was the inftrument to which great violinifts retreated, when the hand, and perhaps the eyes, failed. But during the lait fifty years of the preceding century, Vor. XXXVII. d 4 Open e r 2d String. 1ft String. when quartets, @ parti equali, came into favour, the tenor was made an important inftrument ; and when played by a Hindmarfh, a Shields, a Stamitz, and by Giardini himfelf, was as much and as defervedly applauded as the violins and violoncello. Vio1A, in Botany, the common and well-known Latin Ee name VIOLA. name of a charming flower, moft probably originated in its Greek fynonym iv. At leaft, the vague and forced ety- mologies of this word, for which Latin authors have ran- facked their own language, prove it not to have come from thence. Nor are the explanations of the Greek much more fatisfattory, though the fable of this plant having f{prung up on purpofe to be the food of the metamorphofed Io, is too poetical to be forgotten. The names of the Violet in modern languages all proceed from the Latin, or from the fame fource, whatever it may be. The poetry, the ro- mance, the fcenery, of every country, is embroidered with _ the violet, from Caledonia to Arcadia, and the very fame individual fpecies is, or has been, the object of homage in both thofe diftant countries. Yet it muft be remembered, that soy, Viola, and even the Englifh Violet, are names of more wide-extended and indefinite application, than thofe of perhaps any other flower, even the Rofe not excepted ; fo as to be nearly fynonimous with the word flower itfelf ; nor can any thing be more diflimilar from the true kind, or from each other, than the Calathian Violet, a GeNTIANA, or the Dame’s Violet, Husprris; the Dog’s-tooth Violet, ErytTHRoNIUM, or the Water Violet, Horronra. (See thofe articles.)—Linn. Gen. 457. Schreb. 597. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1159. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 244. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 145. Ait. Hort, Kew. y. 2. 43. Purfh 171. Juffl. 294. Tourn. t. 236. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 725. Poiret in Lam. Did. v. 8. 623. Gertn. t. 112.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Monogamia, Linn. Pentandria Monogynia, Smith, Willd., &c. Nat. Ord. Campanacee, Linn. Citi, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fhort, permanent, of five ovate-oblong, ere&t leaves, moft acute at the fummit, inferted above their bafe, which is obtufe; they are equal, but varioufly difpofed; two of them fubtending petal a, one each of the petals 6 and y, and the fifth the two petals 3 and: together. Cor. irregular, of five unequal petals ; of which petal a is at the top of the flower, the broadeft and moft obtufe of all, ftraight, looking downwards, emar- ginate, ending at the bafe in a horn-fhaped, obtufe Neétary, projeGing betwixt the calyx-leaves; @ and y are lateral, both alike, oppofite, obtufe, ftraight; 5 and « are the loweft of all, both alike, larger than the two former, re- flexed upward. Stam. Filaments five, very fmall, two of them adjoining to petal «, are furnifhed with two combined appendages, which enter the ne¢tary ; anthers converging, hardly connected, obtufe, with a terminal membrane to each. Piff. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle thread- fhaped, projeGting beyond the anthers; ftigma oblique, pointed or concave. Peric. Capfule ovate, triangular, obtufe, of one cell and three valves. Seeds feveral in each cell, ovate, polifhed, inferted into the valves. Recept. linear, running along the centre of each valve. Obf. The /ligma, in the Common March Violet, V. odorata, and its allies, is a fimple reflexed hook ; in the ¢ri- color, or Panfy, tribe, it is a hollow knob, perforated at the fummit, and more or lefs gaping occafionally. In the European fpecies, the flower is always inverted; in the Indian ones, moftly ere&t; hence the different afpect of the two. Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals, irregular, fpurred be- hind. Anthers fomewhat connected. Capfule fuperior, of three valves and one cell. Calyx of five leaves, extended at their bafe. Viola is a very numerous, almoft entirely herbaceous, genus, for the moft part of humble ftature, though of great clegance. "The /fem is either trailing, or ereé&t ; fometimes wanting. Leaves alternate, rarely oppofite, ftalked, fimple, 10 1 crenate, or ferrated, oceafionally deeply divided. Stipulas various and remarkable. #/owers on fimple ftalks, blue, or rather purplifh, whitish, or yellow ; in one inftance, at leaft, green ; very often ftreaked in a radiant manner, like thofe of Veronica. "The fpecies abound in cold or cool countries, fuch as Europe and North America, though fome are of tropical origin; but the habit of thefe latter is peculiar. One {pecies has but two perfec ftamens. The difcoveries of North American botanifts have, of late, greatly enriched this genus. New Holland likewife has contributed feveral new and curious f{pecies; but of thefe we fhall probably learn much more than is at prefent known, from Mr. Brown, whenever he continues. his valu- able Prodromus. Two feétions are moft commodious for the diftribution of the fpecies, others, which have been propofed, proving problematical or obfcure. Seé&t. 1. Without flems. 1. V. palmata. Palmated Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323- Willd. nox. Ait. n.1. Purfhn. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 535. (V. alba, folio fecuris amazoniez efligie, Floridana; Pluk. Amalth. 208. t. 447. f.9.)——Downy. Leaves heart- fhaped, lobed in a haftate or palmate manner, more or lefs notched. Calyx-leaves lanceolate, {mooth. Two lateral petals bearded at the bafe.—Native of North America, on dry hills and pafture ground, generally in a fandy foil. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Purfh. Hardy in our gardens, but rarely cultivated. The firft /eaves are kidney-fhaped, ferrated; the fubfequent ones deeply and varioufly palmate, five-lobed, an inch and a half or two inches long, occafionally {mooth. _Foot/alks ere&t, from two to fourincheslong. Flower-ftalks rather taller, fimple, and fingle-flowered, as in the whole genus, with a pair of oppofite awl-fhaped braéeas below the middle. Flowers an inch broad, light blue, whitifh at the bafe, inodorous. 2. V. pedata. Cut-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n.2. Purfh n. 1. Curt. Mag. t. 89. Andr. Repof. t. 153. (V. virginiana tricolor, foliis mul- tifidis, cauliculo aphyllo; Pluk. Phyt. t. 114. f. 7.)— Leaves pedate, fmooth, with feven or nine lanceolate, nearly entire, lobes.—Native of dry fandy hills and fields, from New England to Carolina. Perennial, flowering in May and June. Rare in our gardens. According to Mr. Curtis, it fhould be planted in a pot of loam mixed with bog earth, plunged into a north border, and kept in a frame through the winter. The truly pedate /aves diftinguifh this {pecies. "The flowers are larger than the preceding, pale blue, with prominent orange-coloured tips to their anthers. Purfh mentions a variety, whofe petals are very handfomely ornamented with a dark purple velvet at the - bottom, fimilar to V. tricolor. ‘This may be Plukenet’s plant, fo meanly figured, as ufual with him, . 3. V. digitata. Finger-leaved Violet. Purfh n. 2.— «* Leaves palmate, tapering down into the footftalk, of five or feven undivided lobes.”?—Native of Virginia. Leconte. Perennial, flowering in May. lowers pale blue. Pur/b. May not, this be nearly akin to the entire-lobed variety of the following ? 4. V. pinnata. Wing-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Allion. Ped. v. 2. 97. (V.. acaulis, foliis pinnatifidis; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 101. t. 49. f. 4. V.n. 561; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 241. V. montana, la- ciniato folio; Cluf. Hilt. v. 1. 309.) ‘A &. V. acaulis, foliis digitatis; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 100, t. 49. f. 3. (V. montana, folio multifido; Bauh. Hitt. Vs 3+ 544+) Leaves in many deep, toothed or jagged, fegments, , tapering a VIOLA. tapering at their bafe, fomewhat downy.—Native of Si- beria, as well as of the mountains of Switzerland and Savoy, flowering in the {pring. Cultivated by Miller in 1752, but we know not that it exifts at prefent in the Englifh col- le@tions. This f{pecies is rather fmaller than V. pedata. Leaves generally, as deeply divided, into about five feg- ments, which are either unequally three-cleft, or pinnatifid, as well as jagged, and very narrow; or, in the variety B, lanceolate and cnly fomewhat notched. Their ribs and edges are more or lefs downy. Flowers pale blue, with darker veins. Sometimes the /eaves are lefs deeply divided, in a pedate manner, with bluntifh lobes; but this variety does not feem confined to any particular country. Be V. fagitiata. Arvow-leaved Violet. Ajit. n. 4. illd. n. 4. Purfh n. 4.—Downy. Leaves oblong, acute, fomewhat ferrated ; heart-fhaped, cut, a little elon- gated, at the bafe. Calyx linear, fmooth. Three lower petals bearded at the bafe——On dry hills, from New Eng- land to Virginia. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Dr. Fothergill imported it from Pennfylvania in 1775. Linnzus confounded this fpecies with his Arta, an European plant, diftinguifhed by its uniformly heart-fhaped, regularly erenate, Jeaves. The /agittata has remarkably elongated leaves, very obfcurely ferrated, except towards the bafe, where they are more or lefs deeply toothed. Flower-flalks, in our fpecimens, much fhorter than the leaves; Mr. Purth fays longer. He defcribes the flowers, which we have not feen frefh, “‘ blue; lower petal white towards the bottom, with purple veins; the reft longer, narrower, and white towards the bafe.’”’ 6. V. dentata. Toothed-leaved Violet. Purfh n. 5.— Smooth. Leaves oblong, acute; abrupt, dilated, with large afcending teeth, at the bafe. Flower-ftalks fhorter than the leaves. Calyx linear, fmooth. Three lower petals bearded at the bafe.—Native of wet meadows and woods in Pennfylvania. Perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowers nearly the fame as the laft. Purfo. The - leaves are of a haftate figure, two to three inches long, fomewhat fhorter than the preceding. 7. WV. betonicifolia. Betony-leaved Violet. — Rather downy. Leaves linear-oblong, obtufe, crenate; heart- fhaped, and flightly dilated, at the bafe. Flower-ftalks taller than the leaves. Calyx lanceolate, fmooth. Petals all bearded at the bafe.—Native of New South Wales. Dr. White. The root is fomewhat woody, and doubtlefs perennial. Leaves the fize of the laft, but {mooth or flightly downy only, regularly crenate throughout ; not toothed, nor much dilated, at the bottom. Sva/#s generally, but not always, denfely downy for an inch and a half below the flowers. Calyx-leaves broader than in the two laft. Petals apparently light purple, not much veined. 8. V. lanceolata. Spear-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323. Willd.n.5. Ait.n.5. Purfhn.6. Forft. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 310.— Smooth. Leaves lanceolate, ‘obfeurely crenate; tapering at the bafe; rather fhorter than the flower-ftalks. Petals beardlefs.—In overfiowed meadows, from Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering in June and July. Perennial. The /eaves are an inch and half long ; their footflalks nearly twice as much. Flowers the fize of V. paluftris, white ; three of their petals marked with purple ribs. 9. V. fufiformis. Tap-rooted Siberian Violet. (V. acaulis, foliis lanceolatis, crenatis, hirfutis; Gmel. Sib. ¥. 4. 99- t. 49. f. 2.)— Leaves ovato-lanceolate, crenate, downy, longer than their footftalks, much fhorter than the flower-ftalks. Root tap-fhaped. — Native of Siberia, in rather dry places, flowering in autumn. Gmelin. Mr. Forfter, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v.6. 310, has long ago pointed out this Siberian Viola as a diftin@ fpecies from the North American /anceolata. We have never feen a fpecimen. The /eaves in the figure cited are above an inch long ; the flower-ffalks near three inches, with two lanceo- late bradeas, rather above the middle. #/owers larger than the laft, blue or purplifh. 10. V. microphylla. Small-leaved Yellow Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 11.—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, crenate, fomewhat downy, fhorter than their footftalks. “Root fcaly. Flower- ftalks taller than the leaves, fmooth, with two awl-fhaped bra€teas near the top.— Gathered by Commerion on hills on the Patagonian coatt, in the ftraits of Magellan. Poiret. Leaves feveral, radical, four or five lines long, and three broad. St¥ipulas two, narrow, membranous, at the bafe of each foot/falk. Flowers yellow; lip twice the fize of the other petals, emarginate, marked with purple lines, and ending behind in a fhort blunt /pur; two lateral petals bearded at the bafe. This feems nearly akin to 7. magella- nica of Fortter; fee n. 18. tt. V. pygmaa. Dwarf Linear-leaved Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 18.— Leaves feffile, linear, entire, fomewhat flefhy, fmooth, rather longer than the flower-ftalk. Root tap-fhaped.— Gathered in Peru, by Jofeph de juflieu. A very diftin& fpecies, according to the defcription of Poiret, hardly an inch high, with thick flefhy roots, crowned by tufts of narrow, linear, obtufe /eaves, having fealy, oval, pointed /ipulas at their bafe. Flowers {mall, drooping, pale blue, ftriated; the pefa/s obtufe, fearcely longer than the fharp, lanceolate, white-edged leaves of the caly-x. 12. V. obligua. Oblique-flowered Violet. Ait. n. 6. Willd. n.6. Purfh n. 8.—Smooth. Leaves heart-fhaped, acute, flattifh, acutely crenate, taller than the flower-ftalks. Flowers ere&. Petale obliquely twifted ; the lateral ones narroweft and longeft, bearded below the middle.—In fhady wet places, from Pennfylvania to Virginia, flowering from April to June. Perennial. Flowers white, with purple and yellow veins. Purfh. Leaves an inch and half long; their falks twice or thrice as much. Flower- ‘alks thread-fhaped, ufually the length of the footftalks. P y § Calyx {mooth. Petals oblong-ovate, ftraw-coloured ; blue at the bafe ; the uppermoft half an inch long, with blue ftreaks, beardlefs; two lateral ones rather narrower and longer, bearded below their middle; two loweft as long as thefe, and rather broader, beardlefs. Solander in Ait. H. Kew. 13. V. cucullata. WHollow-leaved Violet. Ait. n. 7. Willd. n.7. Purfhn.1o. Curt. Mag. t. 1795.—Smooth. Leaves heart-fhaped, acute, ferrated ; involute at the bafe. Petals twifted, obtufe ; the lateral ones bearded at their lower part.—Common in North America, in grafly wet places, flowering in May and June. A hardy perennial with us. Root tuberous. Leaves rather larger than our Sweet Violet, ereé&t and {modoth, remarkably rolled in at their bafe, fo as to form a fort of cup. F/owers alfo larger than in that fpecies, light purplifh-blue, with dark veins ; the centre white. The late Mr. Curtis, as Dr. Sims re- cords, obferved the {pring flowers to bear no feed; though later ones, on very fhort ftalks, without petals, were all prolific. Such is, more or lefs, the cafe with many of this fe&tion, as well as with the caulefcent V. mirabilis, hereafter defcribed. 14. V. fororia. White-rooted Violet. Willd. Hort. Berol. t. 72. Ait. n. 8. Purfh n. 11.—Leaves heart- fhaped, crenate, obtufe; downy beneath. Petals oblong ; the lower one bearded at the bafe.—Found in overflowed meadows of ‘Pennfylvania, and other parts of North ; Ee 2 America. VIOLA. America. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Flowers blue, white at the bottom; lower petal veined. Purfo. This fpecies was fent to Kew garden, in 1802, by the late Mr. Maffon, during his laft botanical expedition to North America. 15. V. primulifolia. Cowflip-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. g.—Smooth. Leaves ovate-heartfhaped, obfcurely crenate, obtufe, running down into the bordered footftalks. Calyx naked.—Native of Pennfylvania and Virginia, flowering in the fpring. We have fpecimens from the late Dr. Muhlenberg, exactly agreeing with thofe of Linneus. The root feems to be perennial and creeping. eaves an inch and half long, »on footfalks half as long again, and fometimes flightly downy, furnifhed with a narrow, leafy, entire border, gra- dually dilated upwards, till it unites with the leaf; hence the foliage of this plant is compared by Linneus to that of the Cowflip, not the Primrofe. The flowers are rather fmall, pale flefh-colourgd or blueifh ; the lower petal ttrongly and copioully veined with dark purple; the lateral ones bearded at the bafe. Calyx-leaves linear-lanceolate, unequal in breadth, always, as it appears to us, quite {mooth. 16. V. fimbriatula. Fringed Violet. (V. primulifolia ; Purfh n. 9, )—Leaves heart-fhaped, crenate, fringed, acute, running down into the bordered foot{talks; moft downy beneath. Calyx moftly ciliated—Sent from North Ame- rica, by Mr. Francis Boott, as the V. primulifolia of Purth, with whofe definition it agrees. That author {peaks of it as growing on dry hills, from Canada to Virginia; perennial, flowering from April to June. The appearance of this plant is very different from the laft. Root rather tuberous, not creeping. Leaves more heart-{haped and acute, fringed, and fomewhat downy on both fides, their length, like that of their bordered footfalks, about an inch. Flowers nume- rous, blue, thrice the fize of the preceding, with obovate petals, two of which are loofely bearded at the bafe. Calyx- leaves lanceolate, unequal in breadth, di{tantly but ftrongly fringed ; occafionally naked. 17. V. hirta. Hairy Violet. Willd. n.g. Fi. Brit. n.1. Engl. Bot. t. 894. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t.64. Fl. Dan. t.618. (V. martia major hirfuta inodora; Morif. fe&. 5. t. 35. f. 4. )—Leaves heart- fhaped, hairy as well as their footftalks. Calyx-leaves obtufe. Lateral petals marked with a hairy central line.— Native of groves and bufhy places, principally on a chalky lime-ftone Bil, in various parts of Europe, from Denmark to mount Athos, flowering in April and May. The whole ‘herb is of a hoary green, clothed with foft pubefcence. Stem none, except very fhort leafy feyons, which do not throw out roots, but compofe a denfe leafy tuft, lafting many years if undifturbed. F/ower-/lalks taller than the leaves, f{mooth, with a pair of lanceolate {mooth éraéeas below their middle. Flowers light greyifh-blue, ftreaked with black, feentlefs. Calyx {mooth. Anthers dittiné. V. campeftris, Marfch. a Bieb. Taurico-Caucaf. y. 1. 171. may poflibly be a fweet-{cented variety of this. 18. V. magellanica. Magellanic Violet. ‘* Fort. Com- ment. Soc. Goett. y. 6. 41. t.8.?? Willd. n. 10.—** Stem none. Leaves kidney-fhaped, wavy, villous.””—Native of boggy fituations, in Terra del Fuego. Perennial. Flower large, yellow, ftreaked with brown veins. orfler. Per- haps not diftin@ from V. microphylla, n. 10. We have not feen either. 19. V. papilionacea. Butterfly Violet. Purfh n. 12.— “ Leaves triangular-heartfhaped, acute, erenate, fomewhat hooded, nearly fmooth. Flower-ttalks the length of the leaves. Petals obovate: three lowey ones converging, Linn. Spy Pl. 1324. bearded below the middle; two upper reflexed.’?—Near Philadelphia, in wet places. Perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowers blue, elegantly ftriated, bearded with yellow down. Pur/fh. 20. V. clandeftina. Subterraneous Violet. Purfh n. 13. (V. rotundifolia; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 150? Muhlenb. Cat. 26?)—‘ Nearly fmooth. Leaves almoft orbicular, bluntifh ; heart-fhaped with converging lobes at the bafe; with blunt glandular ferratures at the margin. Flowers from lateral fhoots. Petals linear, hardly longer than the calyx.””—On the high mountains of Pennfylvania, in fhady beech woods, among rotten wood and rich vege- table mould. Perennial, flowering from June to September. This fingular fpecies differs from all the reft, in producing its flowers as it were under ground, they being always covered with rotten wood or leaves. They are very fmall, of a chocolate-brown. The /éed-veffel buries itfelf itill deeper in the ground, and is large in proportion to the plant. The inhabitants know it by the name of eal-all, being ufed by them to cure all kinds of wounds or fores. Purfh. 21. V.paluftris. Marth Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n.it. Fl. Brit. n.3. Engl. Bot. t. 444. Abbot Bedf. 190. _ t. 3. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 58. Fl. Dan. t.83. (V. pa- luitris rotundifolia glabra; Moorif. fect. 5. t. 35. £. 5.) — Leaves kidney-fhaped, fmooth. Root creeping. Two la- teral petals bearded.—Native of mofly bogs, in the colder parts of Europe, flowering in April or May. More fre- quent in Scotland, and the north of England, than in the fouth, growing on the moift parts of fandy or turfy heaths. The root is thread-fhaped, rather flefhy, creeping confider- ably. Herb fmocth. Leaves fhining, obfcurely crenate, generally abrupt, or emarginate, often purple beneath, on Stalks exceeding their own length. Flower-/alks longer than the leaves, with a pair of lanceolate braéeas about the middle, not always below that part. //owers {centlefs, fmaller than the Sweet Violet, of a very pale blue or flefh-colour, ftreaked partly with red, partly with dark purple ; the two lateral petals marked at the lower part with a central downy line. This is a very pretty fpecies, not eafily to be cultivated. Ray’s V.rubra ftriata Eboracenfis, Syn. ed. 3. 365, is fcarcely to be deemed a variety. 22. V. blanda. White-flowered American Violet. ‘* Willd. Hort. Berol. t. 24.” Ait. n.12. Purfh n. 7.— Leaves heart-fhaped, bluatifh, crenate, fmooth. Root creeping. Petals beardlefs.—In wet places, or boggy meadows, from New York to Carolina. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Flowers yellowifh-white ; lower petal marked with: blue ftripes and veins. Pur/b. Nearly akin to the laft, but the leaves, though variable in acutenefs, are not at all kidney- fhaped. The roots are very flender. Petals marked with fimilar veins to the foregoing fpecies, but they appear not to be hairy in any part. 23. V. hederacea. Ivy-leaved Violet. Labillard. Nov: Holl. v. 1. 66. t. g1.—Leaves heart-fhaped, wavy, nearly {mooth, running down into the flightly bordered footftalks. Root creeping. Flower-{talks folitary, much taller than the leaves. Two lateral petals bearded below the middle.— Found by Labillardiere, at the Cape of Van Diemen. We have the fame, or a very fimilar {pecies, from New South Wales, in which the flowers feem to be pale pink, witha purple eye ; the peta/s obovate, veiny, the lateral ones denfely hairy in their lower half. The /eaves however are larger, more kidney-fhaped, and more toothed, than in the figure above cited ; but it may be only a luxuriant variety. M. Labillardiere defcribes his with a trailing root, or runners, throwing up here and there folitary tufts of numerous heart- faaped, or rather kidney-fhaped, long-italked /eaves, half = inc VIOLA. iach broad, with copious awl-fhaped radical /ipulas. Each tuft bears one fower-/lalk, three inches high, with two awl- fhaped éraéeas towards the middle, and one fmall ereét Jlower, the fize of V. paluffris, whofe two lateral petals are villous near the bafe. The calyx-leaves projet but very little at the bafe, which is the cafe with our fpecimens above- mentioned, from New South Wales, and indeed with V. paluftris and blanda. Yet they all have enough of that charaéter to prove them true Viole. 24. V. odorata. Sweet Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 12. Fi. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t.619. Curt. Lond. fafe. 1. t.63. Fl. Dan. t. 309. Bulliard t. 169. Renealm. Spec. 141. t. 140. (V. nigra, five purpurea ; Ger. Em. 850. V. purpurea; Maith. Valgr. v. 2. 522. Camer. Epit. 910. )—Scyons creeping. Leaves heart-fhaped, crenate, {moothifh as well as the footftalks. Calyx obtufe. Two lateral petals with a hairy line.—Native of thickets, groves, and banks, throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in March. It appears, by Dr. Muhlen- berg’s catalogue, to be cultivated, not wild, in North Ame- rica. There can be no doubt of this being the so ropfuecc of Diofcorides, who {peaks of the ivy-like /eaves, and very fweet-fcented purple fowers, which he recommends for fore throats, and for children in the falling-ficknefs ; hence fyrup of violets is ftill kept in the fhops. The long trailing leafy runners, by which the plant is widely increafed, charatterize this fpecies. Thefe feldom bear flowers till the fecond year. Leaves truly heart-fhaped, dark green; flightly downy be- neath. Stipulas lanceolate, toothed, pale. FVoqwer-flalks taller than the leaves, with two lanceolate narrow bradeas, more than half way up. Flower nodding, twice the fize of V. paluftris, and about equal to that of hirta, whofe fcent refembles Orrice-root, or the flowers of Mignonette, or the Vine, and indeed is too generally known and efteemed to re- quire defcription. The colour is that dark purplifh-blue, peculiarly called a violet colour. There is a white variety, frequently found wild ; and a very double one cultivated in gardens, which requires a pure air. Whether the more early ' pale grey, and very fweet double Violet, be a variety, or a diftinct fpecies, we have had no opportunity of enquiring. The flamens of V. odorata are quite diftin&. Capfule foft, pale green, minutely dotted with red, like an unripe Cranberry. Leers, in his Fl. Herborn. 189, mentions having once found a curious flower of this {pecies which had five regular petals, all fpurred, refembling the netaries of an Aguilegia, ftripped ofits own petals. This was, as he fays, an inftance of PELo- RIA in Viola; fee that article. The petals are often want- ing in our wild, as well as garden, Violets. 25. V. pyrenaica. Pyrenean Violet. ‘ Decand. Franc. y. 4. 803.”’ Poiret in Lam. n. 19.—Leaves flightly heart- fhaped, crenate, fmooth. Footftalks dilated at the fum- mit. Calyx obtufe. Spur very fhort.—Found by M. Ra- mond, on the Pyrenees, in ftony ground. Perennial. This is faid to differ from V. odorata in having more woody roots, without runners. Svipulas greener, and narrower. Leaves fearcely heart-fhaped. Nedary fhorter, ftraighter and more obtufe. Flowers fmaller, lefs fragrant, the lip more ftrongly radiated. Decandolle and Poiret. Se&. 2. With leafy flems. 26. V.caninz. Dog’s Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 13. Fi. Brit. n.4. Engl. Bot. t.620. Curt. Lond. fafe. 2. t.61. (V.canina fylveftris ; Ger. Em. 851. V. canina czrulea inodora fylveftris ferotina; Lob. Ic. v. 1. 609. VV. inodora major; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 119.)— Stem at length afcending, channelled. Leaves oblong- heartfhaped. Calyx acute. Stipulas ferrated. Even more common throughout Europe than the Sweet Violet, being as abundant in Greece, and its neighbouring iflands and mountains, as it is in England or Sweden, flowering from April throughout moft part of the fummer, when eyery thicket, grove, bank, and barren heath abounds with its pale purple fcentlefs blofloms. The root is woody, though flen- der. The firft flowers are radical ; but feveral branched, angular or furrowed, {mooth, leafy /fems foon {pring forth, extremely variable in length, direction, and luxuriance, which continue growing, and bearing numerous, axillary, ftalked flowers, a feveral weeks. The /eaves vary no lefs in fize, and fomewhat in figure, but are always crenate, {meoth, heart-fhaped; more or lefs oblong. Foot/falks flightly dilated upwards. Svipulas not very deeply toothed. Braéeas above the middle of the flower-/talks. Cap/ule more oblong than in the VY. cdorata. See a {pecies nearly related per- haps to this at n. 63. Several varieties are mentioned by authors. white flower is lefs frequent than in VY. odorata. Can this be V. negleéa of the Fl. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1.172? The y of Fl. Brit., found by M. Du Bois about Mitcham, is {maller in all its parts, and faid by Dillenius to have a yel- lowifh, not a whitifh {pur, a very trifling difference indeed ! We have in Norfolk a diminutive, though truly fhrubby plant, firft noticed by the late Mr. Crowe, in which we can- not difcern any fpecific difference from V. canina, except fize, and perhaps a thicker texture of leaf. Yet it has re- mained unchanged in a garden, where the foil is manured, for above twelve years. This cannot be the d of Fl. Brit. (V. alpina; Hudf. ed. 1. 379. V. martia alpina, folio tenello circinato; Rati Syn. 366.) ‘The /eaves are exactly heart-fhaped, obtufe, {mooth, coriaceous, minutely crenate. Flowers like canina, but not half fo large. V. /armento/a, Fl. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 172, we have not feen, and there- fore mutt leave it in doubt. 27. V. laéea. Cream-coloured Violet. Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 445. Ait. n.15. (V. canina, var. 3; With. 262. V.Ruppu; Allion. Ped. v. 2. gg. t. 26. f.6. V. flore albo ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 120.)—Stem afcending, round. Leaves ovato-lanceolate. Stipulas deeply ferrated. —Native of moilt rather mountainous heaths, in the fouth of England. Mr. T. F. Forfter found it firft on the wolds at Tunbridge; Mr. Stackhoufe at Pendarvis, Cornwall. M. Reynier gathered {pecimens, now before us, in the bogs of Switzerland, but rarely, and he has indicated Rivinus’s figure, which, though taller and larger, refembles our plant. Neverthelefs we much doubt the permanency of the fpecies, and were only led by the great authority, in this genus, of our friend Mr. Forfter, to adopt it. The whole plant is fmaller than the ordinary canina, but the chief difference confifts in the /eaves being lanceolate or ovate, decurrent at the bafe, not heart-fhaped. The /fipulas are fuppofed to be more deeply cut, and éradeas broader. ‘The feta/s are nar- rower than in canina, obtufe, whitifh, ftreaked with purple lines exa@tly like sanina. ‘They even vary often to a light blue. 28. V. montana. Long-leaved Mountain Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Willd.n.14. Ait. n.16. (V. flore ceruleo longifolia; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. affurgens tri- color; Ger. Em. 854. V.arborefcens ; Camer. Epit. g11. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 523, bad. V. erecta, flore czruleo et albo ; Morif. fect. 5. t. 7. f. 7.)—Stems ereG&. Leaves ovate-oblong, fomewhat. heart-fhaped. Stipulas pinnatifid at one fide.—Native of the mountains of Lapland, Ges- many, Switzerland, and the north of Italy; a hardy pe- rennial in our gardens, flowering in May and June. ‘The name of arborefeens, given firft by Matthiolus, has been juftly thought abfurd. The numerous /lems are herbaceous 9 and That with a VIOLA. and annual, twelve or eighteen inches high, ereét, ftraight, fmooth, leafy, but little branched. Leaves two inches and a half long, and one broad, bluntly ferrated, fmooth. Foot- fralks an inch long. Stipulas for the moft part longer than the footftalks, lanceolate, obtufe; half-ovate at the bafe, and more or lefs pinnatifid at the outer, more rounded, margin. Flower-ftalks axillary, fhorter than the leaves, each with two awl-fhaped dra@eas above the middle, and a large, greyifh-blue, inodorous flower. Calyx-leaves acute, unequal in breadth; much elongated and toothed at the bafe. Cap- Jule oblong, triangular. Seeds oval. 29. V. concolor. Green-flowered Violet. Forfter Tr. of Linn. Soc. v, 6. 309. t. 28. Ait. n. 24. Purfh n. zr. Muhlenb. Cat. 26.—Stem ere&, downy. Leaves elliptic- lanceolate, tapering at each end. Stipulas linear-lanceolate, entire. —Native of lime-ftone rocks in Pennfylvania, flower- ing ia June and July. Purfb. Mr. Foriter received living plants from America before the year 1788. The root is fibrous, perennial. Stems fimple, ere€t, leafy, from one to two feet high, angular and furrowed, moft hairy in the upper part. Leaves three inches long, more or lefs, and above one broad, entire or fomewhat toothed, taper-pointed, ciliated, running down into fhortifh bordered foot/alks. Stipulas four, two f{maller than the reft. Flowers very {mall, green, on axillary ftalks, two together, one of them imperfeQ. The flowers are very rarély produced in a garden. Their diminutive fize, and green petals, are very peculiar, as is indeed the whole habit of this curious {pecies ; yet we fee no poflible reafon for feparating it from Viola. The capfule, figured, but not defcribed, by Mr. Forfter, appears rather large in proportion to the flower, elliptical, acute, with large, oval, not numerous, /éeds. 30. V. canadenfis. Canadian Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Wild. n. 17. Ait. n. 18. Purfh n. 14.—Stem nearly ere&t, partially hairy, almoft round. Leaves heart-fhaped, pointed, ferrated, {mooth. Stipulas flightly notched. Cap- fule downy.—In fhady woods, in rich moift fituations, on the mountains, from Canada to Carolina; perennial, flower- ing from June to Auguft. Flowers {weet-{cented ; on the outfide purplifh-blue ; on the infide white, elegantly veined. Purfo. The habit of the plant is fomewhat akin to 7. canina. Stem a{pan high, fimple, moft leafy in the upper part ; often marked partially, more or lefs diftin@ly, with a downy lateral line. Leaves ftalked, broad at the bafe, fomewhat deltoid, with about feven ribs; their length an inch and a half; breadth nearly as much. Svipulas ovato- lanceolate, rarely notched. Flower-ftalks about equal to the /eaves, angular, with one or two minute bra@eas towards the bottom. Calyx-leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth ; heart- fhaped, very little elongated, at the bafe. Corolla often white on both fides. Cap/ule globular, denfely villous, efpecially in an early ftate ; which we do not find noticed, but it appears to diftinguith the fpecies very fatisfa@torily. 31. V. firiata. Streaked Violet. Ait.n.1g. Willd. n.18. Purfh n. 15.—Stem nearly ere€t, femi-cylindrical. Leaves heart-fhaped, pointed, fmooth, ferrated. Stipulas with fringe-like ferratures. Capfule {mooth.—In fhady woods, from Pennfylvania to Virginia ; perennial, flowering from May to July. Flowers white, with purple veins. Pur/b. ‘This refembles the Jaft, but the flipulas, and if we miftake not, the fmoothnefs of the cap/ule, afford a clear {pecific diftin€tion between it and the lait. The floqwer-flalks bear a pair of very narrow awl-fhaped brafeas towards the top. ‘The calyx is confiderably elongated at the bafe. 32. V. debilis. Weak-ftalked Violet. Michaux Boreal.- Amer. v. 2. 150. Purfh n. 16.—Stem afcending. Leaves kidney-heartfhaped, fcarcely pointed, {mooth, crenate. Sti- pulas with fringe-like ferratures. Flower-ftalks twice the Jength of the leaves.—In low grounds, from Penn{ylvania to Carolina; perennial, flowering from May to July. About half the fize of the two preceding, with light-blue foqwers. Braéieas linear, on the upper part of the falks. Calyx de- cidedly elongated at the bafe. Cap/ule quite fmooth. Moft akin to V. frriata, but apparently diftin@. 33. V.rofirata. Larkfpur Violet. Purfh n. 17.—Stem afcending. Leaves roundifh-heartfhaped, ferrated, fmooth. Stipulas deeply fringed. Flower-ftalks twice the length of the leaves. Neétary longer than the petals:x—On fhady rocks, near Eaftown, Pennfylvania; perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowersblue. Pur/b. About the ftature of the laft. The Jeaves have a {mall blunt point. Stipulas often rather pinnatifid than fringed, almoft as long as the footfialks. Braéteas awl\-fhaped, above half way up the fealks. Flowers \arge, very much like Delphinium Confolida in fize, colour, and general afpe&t. Neary an inch long, ‘obtufe, flightly recurved. 34. V. pubefcens. Downy Yellow Violet. Ait. n. 20. Willd. n. 19. Purfh n.18. (V. penfylvanica; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 149.)—Stem ereét, fimple, downy, leafy at the top. Leaves triangular-heartfhaped; moft downy beneath. Stipulas ovate, notched at the extremity. —In fhady woods among rocks, particularly lime-ftone, from New York to Virginia; perennial, flowering in May and June. Purfh. Sent to Kew garden in 1772, by Mr. W. Young. We are indebted to Mr. Francis Boott, a young botanift oF great zeal and intelligence, for finer fpecimens of this, and many other North American plants, than have ever before been feen in Europe. The root has many long, ftout, fimple fibres. Herb rather fucculent, more or lefs clothed with fine fhort filky pubefcence. Stem fimple ; naked in the lower part ; with three or four /eaves at the top, which are two inches wide, ferrated, bright green, many- ribbed. Svipu/as fhorter than the loweft foot/fa/k, longer than the others. Flower-flalks downy, rather fhorter than the leaves, deftitute, as far as we can difcern, of braéeas. Flowers nearly as large as V. canina, yellow, with brown veins. Calyx {carcely elongated at the bafe. 35. V. baffata. Halberd-leaved Yellow Violet. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v.2.149- Purfhn.1g. Ait. Epit. 376.— Stem ereét, fimple, leafy at the top, {mooth as well as the haftate, nearly feffile, leaves. Stipulas minute, finely toothed.—On high mountains, from Pennfylvania to Caro- lina; perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowers yel- low. Purfh. Introduced at Kew, we prefume by Mr. Maffon, in 1803. ‘This feems nearly related to the laft, and indeed to the following, though all are fufficiently well dif- criminated. We have not feen fpecimens of this or the V. Nuttallii. It is much to be wifhed that fuch as are not yet figured, might find a place in fome periodical work. 36. V. Nuitallit. Yellow-Miffouri Violet. Purth n. 20. — Downy. Stem fimple, ere&t. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, ribbed, flightly toothed ; tapermg down into long footftalks. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided. Flower-ftalks the length of the leaves.””—-Found by Mr. Nuttall, on the banks of the Miffouri ; perennial, flowering in June. Flowers yellow. Purfh. 37. V. mirabilis. Broad-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Willd. n. 20. Ait: n.21. Jacq. Auftr. t. 19. Fl. Dan. t. 1045. (V. montana latifolia, flores ex radice, femina in cacumine ferens ; Dill. Elth. 408. t. 303.) —Stem ere&t, triangular, leaflefs in the middle. heartfhaped, acute, crenate, fmooth. Upper flowers with- out petals. Calyx much dilated at the bafe. Stipulas lan- ecolate, entire.—Native of woods and bufhy places in Swe- den Leaves kidney- | VIOLA. den and Germany. A hardy perennial, flowering in July and Auguft. The /fems are a foot high, leafy at the bottom and top only, fmooth. Leaves two or three inches broad, acute ; the radical, or lower, on very long ftalks ; the upper on yery fhort ones. Radical flowers the fize of V. odorata, light reddifh-purple, with a veiny lip: axillary ones about the top of the ftem, on fhorter ffalks, generally without petals, but alone, for the moft part, perfeGting feed. The bafe of the calyx-leaves in all is much dilated, abrupt, one- third as long as the reft of the calyx. Cap/ule large, rigid, veiny, fmooth. The fpecific name alludes to the fruit being produced by apparently imperfect flowers, not, as De Theis imagined, to their great fize or admirable beauty. Such a circumftance in the fruGtification of Violets occurs in feve- ral other {pecies. f 38. V. bifora. Two-flowered Yellow Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Willd. n. 21. Ait.n.22. Fl. Dan. t. 46. (V. flore luteo; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. montana prima ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 309. V. alpina rotundifolia minor ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 7.) Stem ereé&, about two-flowered. Leaves kidney-fhaped, ferrated, nearly fmooth. Stipulas ovate, entire.—Native of the mountains of Lapland, Auf- tria, Switzerland, and Savoy, but not of Britain. Some- times kept, with other alpine plants, in pots, under a frame, in our gardens, flowering in the {pring. This is a pretty delicate {pecies, three or four inches high, allied to feveral of the preceding, but perfeétly diftin@. The flender fimple bears three or four ftalked eaves, an inch or inch and half in diameter ; and ufually two diftant, axillary, flender- ftalked, fmall, yellow flowers, whofe lip is ftreaked with black. Braé&eas minute, about the middle of each ftalk. Calyx-leaves {carcely dilated or elongated, but rather gib- bous, at the bafe. Capfule {mooth, rigid. Seeds few, large. ay V. uniflora. Siberian Yellow Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. Willd. n. 22. Ait. 1.23. (V.n. 67; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 101. t. 48. f.5.)—-Stem fingle-flowered, leafy at the top only. Leaves heart-fhaped, toothed.—Native of Si- beria. Said to have been cultivated in 1774, by the late Mr. James Gordon ; but we prefume it would be as eafy to find one of the artificial golden flowers of the ancient Mexi- cans in our gardens at prefent, for its name does not even appear in Mr. Donn’s Cambridge catalogue. The root of ' this rare and very curious fpecies is thread-fhaped, toothed, ‘perennial, with long fimple fibres. Herd about the fize and habit of the Winter Aconite, Helleborus hyemalis, but ra- ther downy, efpecially the flem. Leaves two or three, crowded at the fummit of the ftem, on very fhort flalks, ovate or heart-fhaped, an inch long, fcarcely downy, coarfely toothed, with a blunt point; their bafe entire. aa fmall, lanceolate, with glandular teeth. Flowers yellow, larger than any of the preceding; their fe/als rounded, an inch long; two lateral ones bearded at the bafe. Calyx-leaves oblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped at their infertion, but hardly dilated or elongated. Gmelin’s figure is very incorrect. 40. V. decumbens. Narrow-leaved Cape Violet. Linn. Suppl. 397. Willd. n. 23. Thunb. Prodr. 41.—Stems procumbent, round. Leaves linear, crowded, acute, entire. Calyx fmooth. Petals of nearly equal length.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Stems {mooth, fomewhat branched, rather fhrubby, a fpan long. Leaves numeroufly crowded about the ends of the branches, alternate, an inch and halfilong, hardly a line broad; tapering at the bafe, where they.are united to a pair of minute lanceolate /fipulas. Flower-/lalks axillary, folitary on each branch, and rifing above its fummit, twice the length of the leaves, flender, with two awl-{haped braéeas about the middle. Flower blue, far more like V. canina than tricolor, to which Lin- nus compares it; but the calya-leaves are very flightly extended at the bafe. Nedary pale green. 41. V. arborefcens. Shrubby Dwarf Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Willd. n. go. Ait. n. 30. (V.- hifpanica fru- ticans; Barrel. Ic. t. 568.)—Stem afcending, fhrubby, branched. Leaves lanceolate, downy, entire. Calyx mi- nutely fringed. Petals of nearly equal length.—Native of the fouth of Spain, about Conil and Tariffa, flowering in February. Durand. A greenhoufe plant, cultivated by the late Mr. Blackburne, in his rich garden at Orford, Lancafhire, in 1779, as appears by his Catalogue ; but {carcely now, probably, exifting in any colle&tion. The root is long and woody, as are alfo the ffems, whofe extremities terminate in many denfe, crowded, leafy branches. Leaves refembling thofe of a Cheiranthus, more or lefs hoary, an inch long, tapering down into flender foot/lalks, each accom- panied by two longifh very narrow flipulas. Flowers fome- what like the laft, but the zeary is very fhort, and calyx- leaves more elongated at the bafe, each marked with three ribs. Poffibly ¥. cheiranthifolia, Poiret in Lam. n. 43, may not be diftin@ from this. 42. V. capenfis. Hoary Cape Violet. Thunb. Prodr. go. Willd. n. 29.—Stem fhrubby, ere&t, downy. Leaves obo- vate, crenate, hoary. Calyx-leaves ovate, hairy. Lower petal abrupt, thrice as long as the reft.—Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope by Thunberg, from whom we have an unnamed native {pecimen, which can belong to no: other {pecies. It is more or lefs downy in every part, efpecially the flower-falks, and calyx, which is not at all extended at the bafe. Leaves alternate, ftalked, an inch long. Svipulas ex- tremely minute, lanceolate. This is one of thofe fpecies of which the lower fetal, or lip, is fo much extended, or rather the other four petals fo diminifhed, as to have a very peculiar afpe@ ; added to which, the bafe of the calyze is quite fimple, not protra€ted beyond the infertion. Such fpecies have given occafion to the late M. Ventenat to eftablifh his genus Jonidium, in Jard. de la Malmaif. t. 27, of which the diftin@ive characters are, the want of a fpur to the corolla, and of appendages, or elongations, to the calyx-leaves. Thefe charaéters fhould feem to indicate a diftin@& genus from Viola; but there are fo many grada- tions, fome of which we have noted in their proper places, with refpe& to the calyx, and no lefs with regard to the neGary, that we cannot rely on either part; efpecially as the habit does not always concur with thefe differences. Several of the fuppofed {pecies of Jonidium have as evident afpur, though fhort, as any Viola. Their calyx, it muft be allowed, is more conftant, but feveral undoubted Viole have as little of a projeétion there. Ventenat was, moreover, but imperfe@ly converfant with the f{pecies of his fuppofed genus, as will appear in the courfe of our hiitory of them. 43. V. buwifolia. Box-leaved Madagafcar Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 56. (Jonidium buxifolium; Venten. Malmaif. under t. 27. )—Stems afcending, {mooth, herbaceous. Leaves obovate, fmooth, revolute, entire. Calyx-leaves ovate, naked. Lower petal abrupt, twice as long as the reft.— Gathered by Commerfon in Madagafear. Thouin. Allied very nearly to the laft, but {mooth, and lefs fhrubby. | The leaves ave rather {maller, and greatly refemble Box, or rather Polygala Chamabuxus. The root is woody. Stems fix inches long, fpreading every way, leafy, fcarcely branched. Stipulas minute, awl-fhaped. Flower-/talks twice the length of the leaves, with two fmall awl-fhaped braGeas towards the top. . Calyx-leaves broad at the bafe, efpecially the two lowermoft, which have membranous edges, and embrace the rounded VIOLA. : rounded {pur of the neéfary, which is extended a little be- yond them. Here a material charaGter of onidium fails us. Lateral petals veined, half as long as the fpatulate lip. Capfule ovate, fmooth. Seeds four in each cell, pale, oval, abrupt, beautifully ftriated longitudinally. ~44. V. enneafperma. Nine-feeded Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1327. Willd. n. 33, excluding the fynonym of Burmann. (lonidium enneafpermum ; Venten. Malmaif. under t. 27. I. heterophyllum ; ibid. according to the charaéters and fynonym. Viola furreéta maderafpatenfis, lini facie, rotun- dioribus imis foliis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 120. f. 8. “ Nelam- parenda; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 9. 117. t. 60.’?)—Stem ere&t, much branched from the bottom. Leaves lanceolate or linear, fomewhat revolute, {moothifh, flightly toothed. Calyx-leaves lanceolate, naked. Lower petal twice as long as the reft.—Native of Ceylon, Tranquebar, and Mada- afcar. The root is long, fimple, woody, perennial. Stems ara, branched chiefly in the lower part, ere¢t, fix inches high, angular, {mooth. Leaves rather glaucous, various in length and breadth, ftalked ; the lower ones fhorteft and roundeft ; none more than an inch, or an inch and _ half, long. Stipulas minute, awl-fhaped, {preading, like little prickles. F/ower-/lalks fhorter than the leaves. Flowers purplifh, very like the laft; but the calyx-/eaves are much narrower and more acute; /ip obovate, not fo abrupt. Seeds only three in each cell, ftriated in the fame manner, but rather larger. Such is the plant of the Linnzan her- barium, which muft be n. 317 of Linn. Fl. Zeyl. 149, though its /eaves are certainly not quite entire, nor in any fenfe linear; neither are the /fipulas wanting. Ventenat rightly finds fault with Willdenow for citing a plant of Burmann’s Fl. Zeyl. t. 85, which he alfo cites, more cor- re€tly, for Polygala theezans ; but the error is Linnzus’s, and Willdenow copies him without examination. V. Jini- folia, Poir.in Lam. n. 61, from Madagafcar, has perfectly linear, very narrow, /eaves, but is certainly a mere variety. 45. V. fuffruticofa. Madder-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. Fl. Zeyl. n. 318. 150. Willd. n. 34. (Ru- beola zeylanica, foliis latioribus, ratmul dita; Burm. Zeyl. 208. )—** Stem procumbent. Leaves lanceolate, crowded, fomewhat ferrated. Calyx even at the bafe.’?—Native of Ceylon. Herb procumbent, much branched, hard, like Ciftus Helianthemum. Leaves acute, fcarce evidently fer- rated, tapering down into foot/lalks. Stipulas awl-fhaped, hardifh, permanent ; hence the plant becomes rough, and in a manner prickly. F/owers as in the laft. Linn. in FI. Leyl. We have feen no f{pecimen of this. However the /lipulas may be, the procumbent /fem feems the mott ftriking dif- ference between thefe two fpecies. 46. V. verticillata. Whorlleaved Violet. ‘ Ortega Decad. 4. 50.” Ait. n.25. (Jonidium polygalefolium ; Venten. Malmaif. t.27.)— Stems procumbent. Leaves oppolite, lanceolate, entire, with lanceolate ftipulas, one- third of their length. Flower-ftalks drooping, as long as the leaves. Corolla without a fpur, nearly equal.—Native of South America. plant, brought from Spain, in 1397, by the late marchionefs of Bute. The inconfpicuous reddifh flowers are produced during fummer. This is related to feveral of the laft- defcribed, inafmuch as the ca/yx is not extended at the bafe ; but the corolla is alfo nearly, or quite, deftitute of a {pur, without any great difproportion between the feveral petals. The oppofite eaves are almoft unparalleled in this genus. They are erroneoufly called whorled, though the large /ipu- Jas, refembling leaves, give that appearance. The feeds ave »mooth, black, two in each cell: A greenhoufe perennial herbaceous | 47. V. firida. Stiff Oppofite-leaved Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 66. (Ionidium ftritum ; Venten. Malmaif. under t. 27.) —“ Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, entire. Stipulas very fhort. Flower-ftalks ereét, fhorter than the leaves.’’— Found in Hifpaniola by M. Poiteau. Ventenat. Stems above a foot high. Leaves an inch long. Flowers whitifh, with narrow obtufe petals. Poiret. It is faid to be related to Poiret’s V. linariefolia, a {pecies concerning which we have not fufficient information. 48. V. labiofa. Large-lipped Violet.— Stem ereét. Leaves oppofite, linear, revolute, {mooth. Stipulas minute. Flowers racemofe. Lower petal obovate, very large, with a fhort fpur.—Sent by Dr. White from New South Wales, among the firft fpecimens collected in that country. This very remarkable f{pecies is evidently akin to V. ennea/perma and verticillata, with their allies, but neverthelefs fo diftin& in many important charaéters, that we are at a lofs which to fele& for difcrimination. The ffems are from nine to twelve inches high, angular, ereét, rigid, fmooth like the reft of the herbage. Leaves an inch and half or two inches long, very narrow, acute, entire ; tapering at the bafe, fef- file ; fome of the lower ones fcattered, but the greater part oppofite. Stipulas hardly difcernible. Flowering branches like the reft of the ftem in thicknefs, but deftitute of leaves, bearing feveral rather diftant flowers, on fhort, drooping, partial flalks, fo as to conttitute a true clufler. Calyx very {mall ; its leaves lanceolate, acute ; the two lower ones gib- bous at the bafe, clafping the fpur. Four of the petals ovate, pointed, very little longer than the calyx, pale, with dark veins ; the two lateral ones much dilated and rounded at the lower fide: the fifth petal, or Ui, is difpropor- tionately large, an inch long, broadly obovate, abrupt or emarginate, veiny, apparently rofe-coloured ; its claw chan- nelled, the length of the other petals, ending behind in a rounded fpur, extending beyond the bafe of the calyx. Capfule ovate, fmooth. Seeds two in each cell, large, or- bicular, black and {mooth, as in V. verticillata; not fur- rowed, as in ennea/perma and buxifolia. 49. V. thefiifolia. Toad-flax-leaved Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 69.—Leaves alternate, linear, entire, fmooth, very long. Stipulasawl-fhaped. Flowers axillary, nearly feflile. — Gathered by Adanfon,in Senegal. ‘Roots flender. Stem ereét, herbaceous, f{earcely branched, cylindrical, or a little compreffed, fmooth. eaves two or three inches, or more, in length, a line or two broad. Stipulas very acute. Flowers very {mall. Calyx-leaves narrow, acute. Petals whitifh, hardly longer than the calyx. Cap/ule roundifh-oval, ob- tufe. Poiret. : 50. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Cayenne Violet. Poiret in Lam. n.68.—Stem fhrubby. Leaves lanceolate, fer- rated, very fmooth. Flowers folitary or aggregate, on capillary ftalks, hardly fo long as the awl-fhaped ne¢tary. —Native of Cayenne. Preferved in the herbarium of pro- feflor Desfontaines. Remarkable for the great fize of its Jeaves, which are four or five inches long, finely ferrated, and the fmallnefs of its fowers, which grow on capillary axillary Sfialks, fix lines at moft in length, either folitary, or feveral together. The calyx is {mooth, minute. Pefa/s whitifh, wath a ftraight awl-fhaped /pur, at leaft as long as the alk. We prefume, from Poiret’s authority, that this laft {pecies has no pofterior elongation of the calyx, though the Spur is {o confiderable. It may therefore, confidering the leaves, ferve to conne& the foregoing {pecies with the following. 51. V. glutinofa. Clammy Violet. Poiret in Lam. n.63. (Ionidium glutinofum ; Venten. Malmaif. ae f. 27. VIOLA. t. 27.)—Stem branched. Leaves ovate, ferrated, {mooth ; tapering at the bafe; the lower ones oppofite. Stipulas lanceolate, acute. Flower-ftalks the length of the leaves. Lip twice the length of the calyx, without a fpur.—Ga- thered by Commerfon, on rocks at Monte-Video. The ftem is perhaps fhrubby, apparently two feet at leaft in height, our {pecimen having feveral oppofite, angular, leafy branches, each a foot long, fomewhat downy. Both the fiem and leaves are faid to be covered with a glutinous moifture. The upper ‘eaves are chiefly alternate, an inch long, ftalked, veiny. Flowers numerous, axillary, folitary, not bigger than a large pin’s head, drooping, whitifh, with- out braéeas. Calyx-leaves ovate, acute, combined at the bafe, a little gibbous, but not elongated, in that part. Four of the fetals rather longer than the calyx : /ip twice as long, abrupt, with no protruding fpur. Cap/ile globofe. The form and ‘proportion of the pefals appear fimilar to V. ver- ticillata, n. 46. 52. V. parviflora. Small-flowered South American Violet. Linn. Suppl. 396. Willd. n.32. Poiret in Lam. n. 60. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 21.—Stem branched, diffufe, downy. Leaves ovate, ferrated, {mooth; obtufe at the bafe. Stipulas awl-fhaped. Flower-italks the length of the leaves. Lip twice the length of the calyx, without a {pur.—Native of Mexico. The root is woody. Siems fe- veral, fhrubby, branched, leafy, a foot or more in length. Leaves about half as long as the laft, but of a broader, more ovate, form, not at all tapering at the bafe ; their ferratures few and large. The lower ones are fometimes oppofite. The flowers are fo much like the preceding, that we can fearcely find any difference. Their /falks, about half an inch long, remain after the cap/ules are fallen off. The /ip has perhaps a flight rounded protuberance at its bafe, but not extending beyond the calyx. 53- V. oppofitifolia. Lanceolate Oppofite-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl1327. Willd. n. 36. (Calceolaria, n. 1; Leefl. It. 183.)—Stem fhrubby, crofs-branched, fmooth. Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, nearly feffile, acutely ferrated. Flowers racemofe.— Gathered by Leefling, in South America. Many circumftances, indicated by that author, fhew an affinity between this and ten or eleven of the fore- //f going f{pecies, efpecially perhaps the two laft. They all, in fome particular or other, form exceptions to the cha- racters or habit of a Viola. The ffems of that before us are defcribed as ereét, from a {pan to eighteen inches high, woody below, round, fmooth, with oppofite Jdranches. Loaves on very fhort ftalks; their ferratures long, not deep ; ‘the extremity entire. Flowers white, in folitary fpreading cluflers (fee n. 48.), their ftalks partly permanent. Calyx gibbous below. Lip {carcely fo broad as its claw, bent upwards, and revolute, at the end. Cap/ule triangu- lar. Seeds fomewhat angular. This plant has fomething of the habit of Veronica Anagallis, or V. feutellata. Lefiing. 54- V.Caleolaria. Shaggy Slipper Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. Willd. n. 35. (V. Itoubou; Aubl. Guian. 808. t. 318. Calceolaria, n. 2; Leefl. It. 184.)— Stems hairy, herbaceous. Leaves fcattered, nearly feffile, ovate, ferrated, very hairy as well as the lanceolate fti- pulas and braéteas. Calyx fhaggy with branched hairs. Lip kidney-fhaped.—Native of South America. Gathered by Aublet in Cayenne and Guiana, in fandy ground, flow- ering at various feafons. This is diftinguifhed by the co- pious, filky, fhaggy hairs, covering every part of the herbage. The flems are a foot high, fimple or branched, leafy. Leaves an inch long. Flowers folitary, ftalked, white or blue. Four fetals {mall, convoluted. Lip very Vor. XXXVII. large, briftly underneath. © Capfule hairy. Seeds oval, {mooth. 55. W. Ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanha Violet. Linn. Mant. 484. Suppl. 397. (V. grandiflora, veronicez folio villofo, Ipecacuanha alba diéta ; Searels Fr. equinox. 113. Pombalia Ipecacuanha; Wandelli Fafc. 7. t.1.)— Stem fhrubby, ereét. Leaves feattered, ovate, crenate; hairy underneath and at the margin. Calyx hairy. Lip very abrupt, twice as broad as long.—Native of Brafil. Culti- vated by Vandelli at Lifbon, where it flowered in O&ober, in the greenhoufe. The root is white, woody, with many cylindrical branches, and is reported to poffefs the qualities of the true Ipecacuanna (fee that article) ; though in a weaker degree. The jfem is two feet high. Leawes ftalked, an inch or inch and halflong. Flowers fragrant, pale red, with a very fhort but broad lip, near an inch wide, involute at each fide. Seeds roundifh, five or fix in each cell. 56. V. diandra. Diandrous Climbing Violet. Linn. Syit. Veg. ed. 13. 669. Willd. n. 39.—Stem herbaceous, trailing. Leaves oblong, remote. Stalks fingle-flowered. Nectary very long and twifted. Three of the ftamens abortive.—Native of Guiana. Stem thread-fhaped, climbing up hedges. Leaves alternate. Flower-/talks axillary, fo- htary, with a joint; {welling upwards. Braéeas two, minute. Calyx not at all prominent behind. Corolla white. Lip uppermoit, very large, with a long twifted fpur. Lateral petals a{cending ; two lower ones fmaller, deflexed. Two hinder /flamens only perfe&t. Allamand. 57- V. Hybanthus. Gibbous Climbing Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1328. Willd. n. 37, excluding Aublet’s fynonym. (V. n. 209; Loefl. It. 282? Hybanthus havanenfis ; Jacq. Amer.-77. t.175. f. 24, 25.)—Stem fhrubby, climbing, prickly. Leaves oblong, flightly ferrated, fmooth, aggregate. Flowers feveral on a italk. Lip fomewhat longer than the other petals, without a fpur.— Native of uncultivated hills about the Havannah. An in- elegant branching /brub, feven feet high, ere. Leaves feveral from one bud, an inch and half long, emarginate ; each tapering at the bafe into a fhort foot/falk. Flower- ‘alks one or two from the fame bud with the leaves, fhort, divided in the upper part, each bearing a few minute whitifh flowers, about the fize of V. glutinofa and parviflora, and nearly agreeing with thofe fpecies in ftru€ture, except that the /ip appears fhorter in proportion. Capfule the fize of a pea. Seeds few, globofe. We take our defcription from Jacquin, having feen no {pecimen of his plant, or of Lee- fling’s ; fo that we have no means of determining whether the Viola of the latter author, cited as above by Linnzus, be the plant in queftion, or whether Jacquin’s conjectural reference to Leefling’s Calceolaria frute/cens, It. 184, be more correét. We are only certain that Aublet’s V. Hybanthus is extremely different from the above ; fee the following fpecies. 58. V. Jaurifolia. Laurel-leaved Climbing Violet. Linn. fil. MSS. (V.Hybanthus ; Aubl. Guian. 814. t. 3193 ex- eluding Leefling’s fynonym.) —Stem fhrubby, Saris Leaves ovate, pointed, very obicurely crenate, {mooth, al- ternate. Flowers corymbofe. Neétary cylindrical, obtufe, thrice as long as the petals.—Found by Aublet, on the banks of waters in Guiana, flowering in April. The main trunk is three inches in diameter, and three or four feet high, fending forth long, round, twining branches, which climb the neighbouring trees. Leaves from four to fix inches long, veiny, very {mooth, entire, or flightly crenate towards the end, which Aublet’s figure expreffes too ftrongly. Footftalks si an inch long, fmooth. Flower- VIOLA. Flower-fialks axillary, long, corymbofe, rarely fimple and folitary, each bearing, about the middle, two minute oppo- fite bra@eas. Flowers pale yellow, {weet-fcented, not un- like fome {pecies of Jmpatiens, the neéary being full an inch long. Two lateral petals much larger than the others. The ftru€ture of the parts of frudification anfwer well to Viola, fo far at leaft as we can examine them. The calyx- leaves are, in fome degree, gibbous, or extended at their bafe, though Aublet notices it not. _ 59. V. flipularis. ‘Trailing Fringed Violet. Prodr. 117. Ind. Occ. 1956. Willd. n. 31. (V. per- ficariefolia; Poiret in Lam. n. 39.) — Stem creeping, round, fimple. Leaves ovate, crenate, fmooth ; tapering at each end. Stipulas fringed, longer than the footftalks. Flowers folitary, without a fpur. Calyx dilated at the bafe.— Gathered by Mr. Francis Maflon, on a lofty moun- tain called mount Mifery, in the ifland of St. Kit’s. Stem rather fhrubby, trailing probably to the extent of feveral feet, fmooth, taking root, and fending up fhort leafy branches, not above an inch long, from each joint. Leaves with their footfla/ks an inch and half or two inches long. Stipulas near an inch in length, crowded, ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed, membranous, deeply fringed with fine, long, capillary teeth. Flower-/lalks few, axillary, flender, fhorter than the-leaves; each with two awl-fhaped dradeas above the middle. Calyx-leaves awl-{haped, long and flender, gibbous or dilated at the bafe, and apparently longer than the {mall blue corolla. No fpur is difcernible. Poiret has taken an inadmiffible liberty, in changing the original name of this {pecies, in compliance with an error of Cavanilles; fee the following. 60. V. fetofa. Upright Fringed Violet. (V. ftipu- laris ; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 21. t. 531. f.2. Poiret in Lam. n. 38.)—Stem ereét, round, much branched. Leaves ovate, acute, ferrated ;jwunequal at the bafe. Stipulas fringed, longer than the footitalks. Flower-ftalks folitary, twice the length of the leaves.—Native of the neighbourhood of Talcahuano, in Chili. The femis fhrubby, a foot high ; we prefume it, from the plate, to be ereét, though nothing is faid by the author upon that fubje&, nor whether the /eaves be {mooth, the calyx dilated at the bafe, or the corolla fur- nifhed with a fpur. By the figure, the two latter cha- racters feem wanting, and the petals are drawn obovate, the lip being broader, and rather longer, than the reft. "The Slipulas are fringed with long prominent briftles, much like the preceding. Cavanilles did not perceive that the fpe- cific name he chofe had been long pre-engaged. We fhall here introduce fome new fpecies of this author, which, according to the incomplete information afforded by his work, feem naturally to follow what have juft been de- {cribed ; though fome effential particulars are negleéted, efpecially the itruéture of the calyx-leaves at their bafe. If the figures be faithful, thefe are not at all dilated beyond their infertion. The figure and defcription of V7. philippica, fi: 579. f.2, are fuch, that we dare not adopt that {pecies at all. 61. V. rubella. Little Red Violet. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 20. t. 531. f.1. Poiret in Lam. n. 37.—Stem ereé&, fhrubby. Leaves ovate, acute, ferrated. Stipulas fhorter than the footitalks, with briftly ferratures. Flower-ftalks folitary, fhorter than the leaves. Spur half as long as the petals.— Native of Chili, flowering in February. This appears to be [mooth, and the ffem round. Leaves thrice the fize of the lait, obtufe and equal at the bafe, on footfalks an inch long. Stipulas {earcely half fo long. . Flowers reddifh, much like the laft in fize and fhape, except the nefary, which is obtufe, projecting beyond the bafe of the calyx. 4 Swartz // 62. WV. maculata. Dotted-leaved Violet. Cavan. Ice y.6. 20. t. 530. (V.pyrolzfolia; Poiret in Lam. n, 32.) —Stem fimple, erect. Leaves elliptical, crenate ; acute at each end; dotted beneath. Stipulas pinnatifid. Elower- ftalks longer than the leaves. — Native of the Falkland iflands, flowering in December. This is certainly remark- able m its tribe for having yellow flowers. The dots on the /eaves occur in fome other fpecies, even in canina, yet furely the name ought not to be arbitrarily changed. The em is fix incheshigh. Leaves an inchand half long ; their Jralks ftill longer. — Stipulas hardly an inch in length, deeply and copioufly pinnatifid. /ower-ftalks axillary, rifing much above the ftem. lowers drooping, the fize of V. odorata, but yellow, their /pur projecting beyond the bafe of the calyx, whofe lanceolate taper-pointed leaves are reprefented a little gibbous at that fide. 63. V. adunca. Tooked Violet.—Stems fimple, afcend- ing. Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, obiufe, crenate, downy, dotted. Stipulas loofely fringed. Flower-ftalks longer than the leaves. Neary hooked.—Brought by Mr. Menzies from the weft coaft of North America. This {pecies has the fize and habit of V”. canina, and their flipulas, flower-fialks, and braGeas are fimilar. The calyx-leaves too are extended, in like manner, at the bafe. The whole of the herbage is minutely fpeckled, as in our laft fpecies, as well as in canina. But the plant is more or lefs downy, and clearly diftinguifhed by the ftrongly recuryed form of the Jpur, which if ftraight would be as long as the /ip. The two lateral petals are downy at the bafe. Perhaps this {pecies is more akin to canina than to any other, and ought to ftand near it; at leaft if the rubella and maculata have no elongation at the bafe of their calyx. 64. V. tricolor. Panfy Violet, or Heart’s-Eafe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Willd. n.24. Ait. n.26. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 1287. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t. 65. Woody. Suppl. t. 252. Fl. Dan. t. 623.. Ger. Em. 854. Re- nealm Spec. 144. t. 140. Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 122. Ebrh. Pl. Off. n. 278. (V. n. 568; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 244. Jaccea, five Flos Trinitatis ; Camer. Epit. 912.) B. V. arvenfis; Murray Prodr. Gotting. 73. Sibth. Oxon. 84. Sym. Syn. 61. (V. bicolor; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t..422- ) Ebrh.. Pl. Off. m..350.. buribon.225 mV. n, 569; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 244. V. tricolor petrea; Ger. Em. 854. Jacceaaltera; Camer. Epit. 913. Corn Panfie ; Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 37. f. 9.) Stem angular, diffufe, divided. Leaves oblong, deeply crenate. Stipulas lyrate, pinnatifid. Braéteas obfolete.— Native of cultivated ground throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, as well as in North America, flowering all fummer long. Root annual. Stems more or lefs branched, efpecially from the bottom, angular, moft hairy on one fide, extremely variable in luxuriance, when fimple nearly ere&. Leaves flalked, ufually ovate, deeply cre- nate; fometimes more oblong; and in the more ftarved plants of variety @ merely undulated. Stipulas always deeply pinnatifid, with narrow tongue-fhaped fegments; the terminal one very large, ovate, crenate. Flower-flalks axillary, folitary, firm, longer than the leaves, bearing to- wards the top a pair of extremely minute, clofe-preffed, fearcely vifible dradeas. Calyx-leaves greatly and unequally dilated at the bafe, lanceolate in front, acute, entire. Petals extremely variable in fize and colour, from the large, fplendid, velvet-like Panfy of the gardens, which if allowed to fow itfelf without attention, foon becomes fearcely dif- ferent from the wild plant; to the {mall pale-yellowith variety 8, whofe ultimate ftate of degeneracy, among the {corie of mount Etna, is the V. ztnica erecta bicolor ea uta VIOLA. futa minima, of Cupani’s Hort. Cath. 130, fent us by Baron Bivona. In general, however, there are two to- erably diffimilar wild varieties, as above indicated ; one with the petals longer than the calyx, the two uppermoft purple ; two lateral whitifh, ribbed with purple, hairy at the bafe ; Tip yellow, inverfely heart-fhaped, ftreaked with purple, ending behind in a fhort /pur; the other variety (@) has petals of a pale yellow, or cream-colour, hardly fo long as the calyx, but little marked with blue. The hairinefs of the calyx, like that of the herbage in general, is certainly variable. - 65. V. pilofa. Blue Hairy Heart’s-Eafe. Donn Cant. ed. 3. 40. ed. 5. 52. (WV. hifpida; Lamarck Franc. v. 2. 679. V.rothomagenfis; Poiret in Lam. n.45. ‘* Decand. Franc. v. 4. 809.”” Desfont. Tabl. 178. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1498. Ait. Epit. 376.)—Stem angular, zigzag, hairy, diffufe, branched. Leaves ovate, crenate, fringed. Stipulas pinnatifid, fomewhat lyrate. Braéteas lanceolate, toothed at the bafe.—Native of {tony hills near Rouen, as well as in other parts of France, and on the downs near Dunkirk ; perennial, flowering in the fpring. This plant has long been univerfally known in our gardens, under the apt name of V. pilofa, given by the late Mr. Curtis, who gave us a fpecimen, fo named, from his garden at Lambeth marfh, in May 1781. The date of its introduétion 1s, therefore, anterior, even to what the late Mr. Donn has re- corded, 1783. We had a {pecimen alfo of the fame as his V. pilofa, from the Cambridge garden in 1803; and we regret that Dr. Sims has followed lefs claflical authority and example, in the appellation he has retained, to the difpa- ragement, though undefigned, of his old friends and our’s. The plant in queftion is not very eafily diftinguifhable, by a definition, from fricolor, though unqueftionably a different fpecies. The root is perennial. ~Herb much more hairy. Flowers bright blue, the fide petals and lip itriped with black. Calyx and /pur much like tricolor. Braéeas nearer the top of the flower-/falés, and much larger, lanceolate, with two very evident teeth on each fide at the bafe. This charaéter feems material, though not yet mentioned. The reader of M. Poiret’s defcription may, at firft fight, fuppofe it to hava been found out by him, but a flight examina- tion will difcover that author to have written dradeas for Sipulas. 66. V. lutea. Yellow Mountain Panfy. Hudf. ed. 1. gore) Pl. Brit. n. 7... Engl. Bot. t. 721. Ait: n. 27. Poiret in Lam. n. 46. ‘ Decand. Franc. v. 4. 809.” Great Yellow Panfie; Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 37. f. 10. (V. grandiflora; Hudf. ed. 2. 380. Lightf. 508. Ait. ed. 1. v. 3. 291; but not of Linnezus. V. flore luteo majore; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. n. 566; Hall. Hift. y. 1. 243.)—Stem triangular, unbranched. Leaves ovate-oblong, crenate, fringed. Stipulas lobed, palmate. Braéteas minute, fcarcely toothed. Spur the length of the calyx.—This plant is found in: grafly mountainous paftures, flowering from May to September. It is frequent in fuch fituations, from Sweden, if we miftake not, (fee Linn. Lapland Tour, v. 1. 41.) to Britain, Switzerland, and France. A fpecimen before us, from the fon of the great Haller, fhews it to have been confounded, amongit other things, by that author, under his n. 566. The root is pe- rennial. Stem weak and decumbent at the bafe, fcarcely ever branched, three or four inchesthigh, a little downy, efpecially at one fide, leafy. Leaves ftalked; the lower- moft fmall, nearly orbicular. Stipulas large, deeply cut, their middle fegments largeft. FYowers one or two, on long folitary axillary flalés, rifing high above the leafy top of the flem, larger than in the common fricolor, to which their calyx is fimilar ; but their fee is fmaller, not extending be- yond the pofterior lobes of that part. Petals moftly yellow ; the’two lateral ones, and the lip, ftreaked with black, and all more or lefs downy at the bafe; two upper ones fome- times alfo ftreaked with black or purple, or partly fpotted with the latter colour ; not unfrequently they are purple all over; asin Engl. Bot. The fligma is club-fhaped, hairy, hollow, with a purple line underneath. M. Poiret has fhewn great practical knowledge in his remarks under this fpecies, adverting to V. grandiflora. We hope to remove his doubts in the next paragraph. 67. V. grandiflora. Great Mountain Panfy. Linn. Mant. 120. Willd. n. 25, excluding all the fynonyms. (V. altaica ; Pallas Herb. according to Dr. Sims. “ Ker, Bot. Regilt. 54.”” Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1776.)—Stem angular, unbranched. Leaves ovate-oblong, crenate. Sti- pulas pinnatifid, fomewhat lyrate. Braéteas minute, fcarcely toothed. Spur twice the length of the hind lobes of the calyx.—Native of Siberia. Pallas is faid to have gathered it on the Altay mountains. The Linnzan fpecimen feems of older date than the difcoveries of this eminent traveller, but has no mark to indicate where it grew. This {pecies is certainly more akin to the preceding than to the following, both which have been confounded with it. The habit and mode of growth agree with V. /utea, but every part is twice as large. The /fem, weak and decumbent at the bafe, is about a {pan high, fmooth, except a roughnefs on fome of the angles, or at one of the fides. Leaves on longith ftalks ; the upper ones ovate, or ovato-lanceolate, a little hairy, not fringed ; lower orbicular or heart-fhaped, fmooth. S¥- pulas very different from V. lutea, being oblong, pinnatifid in their lower half only, not palmate. Flower-ftalts two or three on each plant, axillary, folitary, ereét, five inches long, rifing high above the ftem. Braéeas an inch or more below the fummit, oppofite, membranous, lanceolate, ex~ tremely {mall, with a tooth on each fide at therbafe. Flowers: pale yellow, above twice the fize of V7. lutea, and of a rounder figure; their lateral petals hairy at the bafe, and marked, like the ip, with a tew black lines. Calyx much dilated and toothed at its bafe, but not reaching half the length of the /pur, which is cylindrical, rather flender, flightly curved, affording the moft decifive diftin@ion. The {pecimen reprefented in the Bot. Mag. feems to be the top of a plant, with rounder upper eaves than our wild f{pecimens exhibit. The flower is unfortunately drawn fo as not to fhew the calyx or /pur, but the defcription anfwers to our plant, except that the dried petals are not remarkably un- dulated. The Linnean ‘defcription is good, except that the ffem is not branched. Some naked flawer-flalts caufed this error. The remark that this and calcarata are the offspring of V. tricolor, is perfectly unauthorized. 68. V. calcarata. Dwarf Mountain Panfy. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 28. (V. n. 566 a; Hall. Hitt. v, 1. 243. t. 17. f. 1. V. alpina purpurea, exiguis foliis; Bauh, Pin. 199. Melanium montanum; Dalech. Hift. 1204.) 6. V.n. 566 8, n. 2; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 243. (V. Pal- lafii; Forft. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 311. VY. montana lutea, fubrotundo crenato folio; Barrel. Ic. t. 691, et V. montana cerulea tricolor, folio fubrotundo crenato; ibid. t. 692.)—Stems quite fimple, hardly fo long as the foot- ftalks. _ Leaves ovate, crenate. Stipulas three-cleft. Bratteas toothed at the bafe, fomewhat haftate. Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx.—Native of the mountains of Siberia, Auftria, Switzerland, Savoy, and the fouth of France, flowering in July and Auguft. Gene- rally known in gardens by the name of grandiflora, at leaft . Bite the VIOLA. the variety 6; which is confounded by Linnzus in his fynonyms with the true grandifora; by Haller with lutea. M. Poiret juftly obferves, that a f{pecific charaéter of the variety 8, when it was announced in Tr. of Linn, Soc. by the name of V, Pallafii, ought to have been given. That name, however, is now fuperfluous, for we are perfectly fatisfied that no {pecific difference exifts between the plant there intended and the original calearata. The root is pe- rennial, much branched under ground, and creeping ex- tenfively, each fhoot crowned with a short leafy ffem, much overtopped, not only by the generally folitary flower-/talk, but by its own crowded /eaves or their ftalks. The /eaves are {maller, thicker, blunter, more glaucous, and more uni- formly ovate, than in either of the two laft, with a few, flight and rounded, notches. Svipulas ufually longer than the foot/alks, in three deep fegments, fcarcely more, the middle one obovate, varying in breadth. They are well re- prefented by Barrelier. ‘The herb is often fmooth, ocea- fionally more or lefs downy. Flower—flalks rifing high above the leaves, two or three inches long, more or lefs. Braéieas above the middle, lanceolate, with feveral lateral teeth, as if palmate, or haftate. Flower generally light purple, with black lines at the bottom, larger than V’. lutea, fometimes parti-coloured, like that ; in 8 almoft the fize of grandiflora, with more remarkable black lines, and either yellow, parti-coloured, or all over violets The calyx in both varieties is elongated, dilated, and toothed, at the bafe. Spur long, flender, cylindrical, flightly curved. Haller’s figure is characteriftic, but fhews no part with critical pre- eifion. We have endeavoured to be explicit on the fubje& of the three laft fpecies, as no plants have been lefs under- ftood. 69. V. Zoyfi. Dwarf Carinthian Panfy. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 297. t. 11. f. 1. Willd. n. 26, exclud- ing the fynonym.—Stems quite fimple, hardly fo long as the footftalks. Leaves ovate, crenate, {mooth. Stipulas elliptic-lanceolate, undivided, nearly entire. Braétéas toothed at the bafe. _ Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx.—Native of the mountains of Carniola and Carinthia, communicated by Mr. Sieber. Wulfen received it from the Baron de Zoys, whom he commemorates in the name. His defcription and figure are complete, except that we cannot account for his citing, without feruple, t. 691 of Barrelier. M. Poiret makes V. Zoy/ii a variety of calcarata; but they are clearly diftinguifhed by their /fipulas, which in the pre- fent are always oval, never lobed, though in one or two in- ftances we find a flight lateral notch. ‘The plant moreover is {maller, more perfe@tly fmooth, green, not at all glaucous. Flower-fialks two or three inches high, angular. Braéeas minute. Petals large, yellow, with black lines at the bot- tom ; fometimes partly tinged with blue. Spur afcending, rather thicker than in calcarata, and not quite fo long. Wulfen might well be puzzled with the determination of this plant, grandiflora, &c. 70. V. cenifia, Violet of Mount Cenis. ‘Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. ‘Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 17. Allion. Pedem. v. 2. g8. t. 22. £6. Spec. 14. t.3. f. 4. Poiret in Lamarck n. 26. (V.n. 5655 Elalt. Hitt. v. 1. 242.) @. Poiret ibid. (V. valderia; Allion. Pedem. v. 2. 98. t. 24. f. 3.)—Stems fimple, procumbent. Leaves ovate, entire. Stipulas obovate, ftalked, undivided, unequal. Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx.—Native of the hill called Ronce, above the hofpital on Mount Cenis, where we gathered {pecimens, with Dr. Bellardi, in Augutt 1787. It alfo grows on the alps of Savoy and Switzerland. The roots are creeping. The whole plant bears a refem- blance to VY. calcarata and its allies, but has decumbent flems, two or three inches long ; flefhy entire Laves, either fmooth, or rough with fhort reflexed hairs; and very dif- ferent flipulas, on long ftalks. Flowers nearly the ufual fize of calcarata, blue. BraéGeas {mall, hardly toothed. V. valderia is furely a moft trifling variety. The /eaves are falfely defcribed finuated ; and the /fems are not more ere& than in the original cenifia. 71. V. arenaria. Sand Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 25. « Decand. Franc. vy. 4. 806.”’—‘ Stems fimple, diffufe, fomewhat downy. Leaves roundifh-heartfhaped, {moothifh, flightly crenate. Stipulas lanceolate, toothed. Calyx acute.’’— Native of fandy places, in the Lower Valais. Root {caly at the crown, fending out two or three {preading Jlems, two or three incheslong. Flower-/alks three or four times as long as the leaves. lowers pale blue, or whitifh, with a thick obtufe /pur. Bradieas linear, acute, four or five lines long, about an inch below the flower. Decandolle. Poiret. 72. V.minuta. Minute Bafil-leaved Violet. Marfch. a Bieberft. Fl. Taur.-Cauc. v. 1. 173. (V. orientalis mi- nima, ocymi folio; Tourn. Cor. 30?)—* Stems fimple, flaccid, fingle-flowered. Leaves roundifh, crenate, nearly fmooth, Stipulas ovate, entire.’’—Native of the Georgian region of Mount Caucafus. Root apparently creeping. Stems as long as the finger-nail. Leaves only two or three lines in length and breadth, broadly but flightly crenate. Footftalks about as long. Stipulas rough with hairs at the edges. Flower the fize and fhape of V. odorata, with a Jpur the length of the petals. Braéteas remote, yery minute. Akin perhaps to V. cenifia and alpina. Marfch. a Bicberft. It may poffibly be more related to the following, though the /tpulas do not agree. 73. V. nummularifolia. Money-wort-leaved Violet. Al- lion, Pedem. v. 2. 98. t.9. f.4. Willd. n. 15. (V. alpina minima, nummulariz folio; Bocce. Muf. 163. t. 127.) —Stems tufted, fimple. Leaves orbicular-heartfhaped, nearly entire, {mooth. Stipulas lanceolate, membranous, three-cleft. Spur rounded, rather longer than the dilated bafe of the calyx.—Native of the rocks of Corfica, Dau- phiny, and Piedmont. The long, flender, branching roots divide at the top into tufts of little, fmooth, leafy ffems, erect or decumbent, not branched. Leaves flefhy, a quarter of an inch in length and breadth, obtufe, occafionally cre- nate, on flender /fa/ks about twice as long. Svipulas half or quarter the length of the foot/falks, feffile, unconne@ed with them, pale, acute, with one or two taper teeth at each fide. Flowers blue, rather fmaller than VY. odorata, not unlike that fpecies in fhape. Very diftin@ from V. cenifia. 74. WV. alpina. Alpine Radical Violet. Jacq. Obf. part 1.) 21.t.n1.. FlicAuftr. vy. 3.024.) t. 242. » Poiret in Lam. n. 15. (WV. montana fecunda; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 309-)—Stem fcarcely any. Leaves nearly radical, orbi- cular-heartfhaped, flightly crenate, nearly fmooth. Stipulas lanceolate, membranous, entire, united to the bafe of the long footftalks. Spur rounded, twice as long as the dilated bafe of the calyx.—Native of the fummits of the loftieft mountains of Auftria, flowering in July and Auguft. Mr. Sieber, to whom we are obliged for wild fpecimens, exatly agreeing with fome from Jacquin, juftly obferves, that bo- tanifts in general have unaccountably negleGted this fpecies. It is not to be found in Linnzus, Murray, nor Willdenow ; yet none can be more diftinét. It ought perhaps to ftand in the firft fe@tion, as having much lefs of a /fem than fome which are placed there; but its affinity to feveral we have juft defcribed is fo great, that it more naturally ranges with ‘the Panfy tribe, of which it has the large concave oblique Sigma. ‘The fitpulas, being laterally united to the Socthates e VIOLA. like thofe of a rofe or bramble, though hitherto unnoticed, afford a moft ftriking and clear charater. The flowers are deep blue, ftriped or fpotted with black, or dark violet, nearly the fize of V. calcarata, but with a fhorter /pur, and much fhorter fower-/talks. 75. V. tenella. Little Syrian Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 53-—‘* Lower leaves oppofite, roundith, minute ; upper fomewhat alternate, oblong, obtufe; all f{mooth and entire. Flower-ftalks rather longer than the leaves.’’—Native of Syria; preferved in the herbarium of profeffor Desfontaines. A very {mall plant, two inches high at the utmoft. Roots fimple, thread-fhaped, whitifh. Stems ere&t, very {mooth, fimple, flender. Leaves ftalked. Flower {mall, on a foli- tary almoft capillary ftalk. Poiret. Nothing is faid of the Sripulas, brafteas, calyx, or fpur, fo that our knowledge of this fpecies is very incomplete, and, but for the remark- able circumftance of the partly oppofite /eaves, we fhould {earcely have ventured to admit it without examination of a fpecimen. 76. V. tridentata. Three-toothed Magellanic Violet— Stems procumbent. Leaves crowded, wedge-fhaped, with three terminal teeth. Flower-ftalks much longer than the leaves. Calyx obtufe.— Gathered by Mr. Menzies, in February 1787, on the mountains of Staten Land, growing among the fnow. This little {pecies is fo different in habit from all the reft, that we know not where to place it. The numerous /lems, an inch or two in length, compofe denfe tufts, and are thickly covered with alternate, clofely crowded, or imbricated, fiefhy, fhining, fmooth /eaves, a quarter of an inch long, more refembling a Saxifraga than a Viola, each ending in three broad blunt teeth, and fome- times notched alfo at the fides: the bafe tapers down into a fhort broad footfalk. We can difcern no ffipulas, except the imbricated fcales on the lower part of each branch may fo be called. Flowers {mall, drooping, on thick ffa/ks an inch high, rifing above the top of each ftem. Calyx-leaves ovate, obtufe, thick, fomewhat gibbous at the bafe. Spur fcarcely any. 97+ V. gracilis. Slender Mountain Violet. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth, n. 511. Fi. Grec. t. 222, unpublifhed. —Stem branched, angular, diffufe. Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat crenate; the upper ones crowded, oppofite. Stipulas deeply three-cleft. Spur much longer than the bafe of the calyx.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the fum- mit of the Bithynian Olympus. We have alfo fpecimens from mount “Etna, colle&ted by Baron Bivona. The roots are perennial, creeping, long and very flender, much divided at the top. Stems flender, angular, hardly a {pan long ; fubdivided at the bafe; leafy in the upper part; fimple, either quite fmooth or very finely downy. Leaves on longifh ftalks, lanceolate or obovate, very rarely and ob- fcurely crenate, {mooth or a little downy, fcarcely an inch long at the moft ; the lower ones alternate ; upper oppofite, and much crowded at the top of the ftem. Stipulas like the leaves, but about one third as large, in three deep, ftalked, obovate, entire fegments, the middle one rather the largeft. Flower-ftalks i > few, three or four inches long. Bra@eas rather above the middle, fmall, lanceolate, mem- branous, toothed at the bafe in a haftate manner. Flowers about the fize of V. lutea, but fomewhat more oblong, of a dull purplith-blue, occafionally yellow. Calyx-leaves bluntifh ; much elongated and toothed at the bafe. Spur flender, about the length of the peials. Capfule oblong. This is allied to the Panfy tribe, and perhaps more akin to V. “a than any other, but very diftin@, and remark- able for the oppofite /eaves ; a chara&ter occurring here and there ip fpecies otherwife little related to each other. 78. V. cornuta. Horned Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl). 1325. Willd. n. 28. Poiret in Lam. n. 48. Ait. n. 29, Curt. Mag. t. 791. (V. 0.570; Hall. Hift: v. 1. 244. V. pyrenaica, longids caudata, teucru folio; Tourn. Inft. 421.)—Stem afcending, angular, branched. Leaves heart- fhaped, crenate. Stipulas feffile, pinnatifid. Calyx-leaves awl-fhaped, taper-pointed; elongated and abrupt at the bafe, much fhorter than the fpur.—Native of the Besnees, and of mount Atlas. Ray is reported to have found this {pecies on the Jura; but Haller afferts there is no record of any perfon befides having met with it in Switzerland. Pro- feffor Ortega is faid to have firft introduced it at Kew in 1776. The plant is hardy and perennial, now frequent in gardens, flowering in May. The ffems form large lax tufts, producing abundance of fky-blue, or pale purple, inodorous fiawers, of the Panfy kind. Their /p has a {mall point. The /pur is flender, afcending, near an inch long. Calyx-leaves remarkably long, flender, and acute. The whole herb is fomewhat downy, of agreyifh-green. Stipulas broad, variable in fize, ufually about as long as the foot- fialks. Ray in his Hift. Plant. v. 3. 510, feems to indicate that fome of the /eaves, at leaft, are oppofite. We have feen no inftance of this. The arrangement of the {pecies of this ample and intereft- ing genus might, doubtlefs, be greatly improved, provided any able botanift could compare the leading ones together, in a fufficiently perfe&t ftate. The flower being reverfed in pofition, as in moft Eurepean and American Violets; in other words, the Jip being turned downwards, feems the natural pofture, though many of Indian growth are fup- pofed to have ere flowers. This charaéter is not eafy to afcertain in dried {pecimens, the only ones poffible to be ob- tained of feveral of the moft fingular or curious kinds. We have, therefore, fcarcely adverted to it. The intelligent reader will trace out the leading circumftances which haye made us {werve, in part, from Willdenow’s diftribu- tion, though we are confcious that much more remains to be done. Inthe admiffion of new fpecies, we have paffed over many American ones, mentioned by M. Poiret, becaufe they are probably fuperfeded by the labours of Mr. Purfh. We could not, therefore, undertake, nor did it appear re- quifite, to fettle their fynonymy: efpecially as we have reafon to think the American Viole are not yet all well known. We regret that the elaborate treatife on this genus, which, for near thirty years, has been meditated by our accurate friend Mr. Forfter, and which is, in fa, promifed in the fixth volume of the Linnzan Society’s Tranfa€tions, has never been accomplifhed. We are aware of the diffi- culty of the fubje&, and thofe who have ftudied it more © deeply, are perhaps ftill more fo ; but we do not fcruple to declare, that a full fcientific botanical eflay on Viola, might difplay as much {kill and learning, and be made fubfervient to as much philofophical illuftration of Botany, as any monographical fubje& that could be chofen. Viota. See Cnerrantuus, Lunaria, and TRropm- OLUM. VioLA Aquatilis. Viota Mariana. Viota Matronalis. See HEspPERIs. Vioia Palufris. See Horronta and PineuicuLa. Vioxva, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbaceous, fibrous-rooted, perennial kind, among which the {pecies cultivated are, the fweet-fcented March violet (V. odorata) ; the palmated violet (V. palmata) ; the multifid-leaved violet (V. pedata); and the panfy violet, or heart’s-eafe (V. tri- color), The See Horronia. See CAMPANULA. vy i0 The firft fort is a low creeping flower plant, which is in general very highly efteemed for its fragrance. ‘There are different varieties of it, as the fingle blue and white, the double blue and white, and the pale purple ; it is alfo found with white flowers; and it has been feen wild with double flowers. This variety is in much efteem, both for the fu- perior fize of the flowers, and their extreme fragrancy ; and as they appear later, they keep up the fucceffion. The fecond fort is curious, and rare in this country, having no fweet {cent to recommend it. The laft fort varies with more than two colours, as purple, blue, yellow, white, improved and enlarged by garden cul- ture. There is the low growing, with {mall flowers; the larger upright, with large flowers; large Dutch, with largeft flowers; variegated, yellow; purple and white flowered ; yellow-flowered, with purple {pots ; purple, with yellow or white {pots ; white, with yellow and purple {pots ; entire yellow; deep and pale yellow; purple-flowered ; {centlefs flowered ; {weet-fcented flowered. Method of Culture —The firft fort: may be increafed by feeds, or parting the roots. The feeds may be fown ina bed of light earth, foon after they become ripe, in the be- ginning of autumn; and when they have fome growth, be removed into a fhady border, until the autumn, when they may be fet out where they are to grow. The double- flowered forts afford no feed. The beft mode is, however, by parting the roots in the early autumn, or after they have flowered, and planting them out in the borders, or in beds at good diftances; at the latter feafon watering them well. When intended for flowers, they fhould not be parted oftener than once in three or four years. The fecond and third forts fucceed beft by being planted in pots filled with loam and bog-earth well mixed, plunging them in the mould of a north border, where they fhould be protected in winter, or removed under a common hot-bed frame. The fourth fort rifes readily from feattered feeds, and may be raifed by fowing the feed where the plants are to grow, in the autumn or fpring. They may likewife be increafed by planting out the off- fet flips of the large bufhy plants, taken off with root-fibres, in the autumn or f{pring, in the borders, or in beds for in- creafing their growth. The varieties may be preferved in this way with fafety. Thefe plants afford much variety in the borders, and other parts; and the firft fort is ufeful for the flowers. It is proper to be planted out on the verges of fhrubberies and wood-walks, as well as in tufts and patches in the borders, clumps, and other parts of pleafure-grounds ; but when cultivated for the purpofe of its flowers, it is beft planted out in rows in beds, or in the borders, at the diftance of a foot. ‘ Viota, in the Materia Medica. 'The common {weet violet, or viola odorata of Linneus, is perennial, grows wild in hedges and fhady places, and flowers in March. The flowers of the V. hirta, or hairy, fcentlefs March violet, are often fubftituted for the other in our markets: but this fort may be eafily diftinguifhed ; the herb, by its having ftalks, which trail on the ground, and bear both leaves and flowers, and by the young leaves being hairy ; the flower, by the three lower petals being {potted with white, and*by their want of fmell. The officinal violet is the Tov era» of Theophraftus, and the Toy worQueev of Diofcorides ; it was alfo well known to the Arabian phyficians, as Mefue com- mends its ufe highly in various inflammatory difeafes. Viola is likewife frequently mentioned by the Latin poets, who allude to its effects as a vulnerary, ‘The recent flowers only VIO are now received in the catalogues of the Materia Medica < they have an agreeable {weet {mell, and a mucilaginous bitterifh tafte ; when chewed, they tinge the faliva blue; to water they readily give out both their virtue and their fine flavour, but fcarcely impart any tin@ture to reétified fpirit, though they impregnate the fpirit with their flavour. Thefe flowers, taken in the quantity of a drachm or two, are faid to be gently purgative or laxative ; and according to Bergius, and fome others, they poffefe an anodyne and peétoral qua- lity. The officinal preparation of thefe flowers is a fyrup, which to young children anfwers the purpofe of a purgative. This fyrup is ufually prepared from the petals of the culti- vated violet; and Dr. Withering tells us, that at Stratford- upon-Avon, large quantities of the violet are cultivated for this purpofe ; but the London herb-fhops are chiefly fup-. plied from Kent. (See Syrurus.) ‘This fyrup is alfo found ufeful in many chemical inquiries, to deteét an acid or an alkali; the former changing the blue colour to a red, the latter to a green. The feeds of violets are reported to be ftrongly diuretic, and ufeful in gravelly complaints. The root powdered, in the dofe of a drachm, Proves both emetic and cathartic. j That fpecies of violet called panfy, or heart’s-eafe, the viola tricelor of Linneus, grows in corn-fields, wafte and uncultivated grounds, flowering all the fummer months. By the vivid colouring of its flowers, it often becomes very beautiful in gardens, where it is diftinguifhed by various names. ‘To the tafte, this plant, in its recent flate, is very glutinous or mucilaginous, accompanied with the common herbaceous flavour and roughnefs. By diftillation with water, according to Haafe, it affords a {mall quantity of odorous effential oil, of a fomewhat acrid tafte. The dried herb yields about half its weight of watery extract; the frefh plant about one-eighth. It was formerly reckoned a powerful medicine in pileaty; afthma, ulcers, {cabies, and cutaneous complaints; but its prefent character is owing to its having been recommended by Dr. Starck, a German phy- fician, and others, as a {pecific in the crufta la&tea of children. He dire&s a handful of the frefh, or half a drachm of the dried leaves, to be boiled two hours in half a pint of milk, which is to be {trained for ufe. ‘This dofe is repeated morning and evening. Bread, with this decoétion, is alfo to be formed into a poultice, and applied to the part. He obferves, that when it has been adminiftered eight days, the eruption ufually increafes confiderably, and the patient’s urine acquires a {mell like that of cats. When the medi- cine has been taken a fortnight, the fcurf begins to fall off in large feales, leaving the fkin clean. The ufe of the re- medy is to be perfiited in, till the fkin has refumed the natural appearance, and the urine ceafes to have any parti- cular {mell. Lewis. Woodville. Viota, FRANcisco DELLA, in Biography, maettro di cappella to Alfonfo d’Efte, duke of Ferrara, a difciple of Adrian Willaert, the mafter of Zarlino, and one of the in- terlocutors in his Ragionamente.”” He was the editor of a curious work by his mafter Willaert, publifhed at Ferrara, 1558, under the title of ** Mufica Nova.”’ VioLA, in Geography, a river of Spain, in Guipufcoa, which rifes in the mountains of Adrian, and runs into the fea, at Cumaja. Vioxa, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome authors have called the {melt. Viova Serotina, the late violet, in Botany, a name given by the ancients to a garden-flower, not properly of the violet kind, but to which we, as well as they, have connected the name violet, though with a diftingtive epithet, we call it viola matronalis, or dame’s violet. Pliny Vio _ Plinyis very exprefs in this diftinction, but is not fuffi-. ciently attended to in it ; and by this means is mifunderftood in fome other parts of his works, where he alludes to this flower in his defcription of the colour called by the Romans eonchylius, or conchyliaceus color; he fays that the deepeit degree of it was that of the flower of the viola ferotina. The commentators on his work have generally explained this into his faying, that the deepeft colour of this name was a blue purple, like that of the violet; but he only means that it is of a deeper red than the colour of the mal- low flower, and with a proportionate mixture of purple, as there is in that flower. VIOLARIS Lapis, in Natural Hiftory, a foffile body, called by the Germans viol//fein, and by many authors /apis odore violarum, from its having a {weet {mell when frefh broken, which has been foes to refemble that of the violet. The Germans have many ftones which have more or lefs of a {weet fmell when frefh broken, as they have many which ftink very ftrangely ; the latter of thefe they call all by the common name of /wine-/fone, and the former, all by that of violet-flone. The fubftance, however, which pofflefles this quality in the higheft degree of all others, and is, there- fore, moft proper to be called diftinGly by this name, is a {pecies of talc, of the genus of the bractearia, called by Dr. ill braGearium niveum lucidiffimum braceis undulatis, or the {now-white fhining braCtearium, with undulated fcales. This is found in mafles of an extremely rude and irregular ftruéture, but very compact and firm, ufually of a roundifh or oblong figure: thefe are of various fizes, from an inch or two, to a foot in diameter, and are compofed of almoft an infinite number of thin, extremely beautiful, and fnow-white plates, which are all broad, thin, and flaky, and of various fizes, and perfectly irregular in fhape and figure, and are naturally waved, bent, and curled: its fmell, when broken, is not like that of any of the known perfumes, but is a fort of mixed one, refembling that of rofes and violets together : it is very heavy, and will neither give fire with fteel, nor ferment with acid menftruums. It is common on the fhores of rivers in Italy, and in the mountains of Germany. Hill’s Hitt. of Foffils. VIOLATION, the aét of violating, i.e. forcing a wo- man, or committing a rape upon her. Amnon, David’s fon, violated his fifter, who was avenged by Abfalom; Tereus violated his fifter-in-law Philomela. To violate the queen, the king’s eldeft daughter, or the princefs of Wales, is high-treafon. VioLarion is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for a breach or infringement of a law, ordinance, or the like. Thus, we fay a violation of the law of nature, of the law of nations, of a treaty of peace, of one’s oath, &c. Vioxation is alfo ufed for a profanation. In which fenfe we fay, to violate a church, &c. VIOLENT, in the Schools, a thing done by force. which fenfe it ftands oppofed to fpontaneous, A thing is faid to be violent, when affected by fome ex- ternal principle; the body that undergoes it contributing nothing thereto, but ftruggling againft it. The body, in fuch cafe, is faid to ftruggle, becaufe whatever is violent, difcompofes and diftraéts a thing from its natural conftitution, and tends to deftroy it. The fchoolmen all allow, that man, as being endued with reafon, is capable of fuffering fuch violence ; but brute and inanimate* bodies are not: in brutum, &c. violentum non cadet. VioLent Motion. See Morton. Viorent Purging, or Cling, a difeafe in fheep of the In VIO more inveterate bowel kind, which not unfrequently attacks them in fome fituations, It is faid not to be peculiar to any foil, but appears moft frequently, and {preads moft rapidly, where the pafture is of a foft grafly nature. It is conftantly produced by im- proper management, fuch as working among the flocks in- confiderately in hot fultry weather, and in crowded folds. It is thought by fome to break out moft frequently in milk- ing time, where that practice is carried on, when the fheep lie, for fix or feyen weeks in the later warm fummer months, upon the fame {pot for fome time, during the morning and evening’ at the dough? or milking-place. Indeed, when fheep, from whatever caufe, lie upon the fame {pot until the ground turns foul, if the weather be foft, fultry, and warm, with thunder, or fhowers of that kind, this difeafe is much to be apprehended, and is often very {preading and fatal. The appearances of the difeafe are, that the fheep affeGted with it acquires a fickly look, the ears of it drop and hang low down, the eyes are languid, and the wool claps to the bedy of it. It continues for fome time to follow the flock, but moftly ftands in the fame pofition, looking to the ground. It often lies down, but foon rifes up again, and walks to a,fhort diftance, during which it commonly voids feces. The fkin is hot, dry, and fealy, and the pulfe and re{piration quick. It eats very little, and does not chew the cud, but feems to have an unquenchable thirft. ‘There is frequent rumbling heard in the bowels, followed by the difcharge of feces, which are thinner than ordinary, having little or no refemblance to the hard purl of healthy fheep. As the difeafe advances, the purging increafes, the difcharge becomes thinner, is firft mixed with blood, then flime and blood, and at laft is black and fetid, accompanied clearly with fevere gripes and ftraining. After a wet fummer, the difcharge is fometimes green, the grafs feeming to pafs with little change of colour, Inthe mean time, the fheep rapidly. waites away, and in a few days is reduced to a perfe& {ke- leton, with its belly drawn up to its back; it {eparates from the flock, wanders about in an unfteady manner, and hides itfelf among fern, heath, or bufhes, when they are prefent. Its eyes are fuffufed with red, its breathing becomes more laborious, an unpleafant fmell exhales from every part of its body, its feces are abfolutely putrid, it is quite overcome by the difeafe, and it continues ftraining and purging until it expires. It is faid, in the third volume of the Tranfactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, to be diftinguifhed from the ordinary diarrhceas and loofeneffes in thefe animals, by their chiefly attacking hogs, weak-gimmers and dinmonts, while this difeafe is frequent among older fheep; by their mollly occurring in the fpring and ceafing in the fummer, when this difeafe only commences; by their having no fever, ftraining, or pain before pafling the ftools, as is the cafe in this difeafe ; by the feces in them being loofe, but natural in other ref{pe¢ts, and without blood or flime, while in this difeafe they confift of hard lumps occafionally pafled, the reft being blood and flime ; by there not being that degree of fetor in the faces in them, that takes place in this dif- eafe; by the appetite being rather fharper than ufual in them, while in this difeafe it is wholly gone; by there being nothing infe@tious in them, while this difeafe is often greatly fo; by there being only a temporary {lop put to the thriving of the fheep, which afterwards becomes rapidly ftrong and vigorous in them, while in this difeafe the animal waltes fuddenly ; and by their having little danger in them for the moft part, except where there is much debility, while this difeafe is very commonly fatal. According to fome, if a fheep furvives this difeafe for a forte VIO fortnight, or even for a few days, it moftly recovers. In this cafe, there is either very little or no blood in the fzces, the flime dries up, and becomes mixed with hardened balls, the feverifh heat abates, the fkin gets moift, the vigour of the eye returns, the appetite increafes, and the wool rifes flowly, and affumes its natural appearance, though a great part of it frequently comes off. However, it grows again, and fheep which have had this difeafe commonly become very healthy and found, being feldom attacked by any other difeafe. In fome cafes there is the feverifh appearances without any flux at all, which is a lefs fatal 'and of courfe more favourable ftate of the difeafe. Notwithftanding the difeafe is always originally produced by improper management, it is often greatly infectious, and {preads rapidly among the fame flocks and to different ones. It is a very dangerous fort of diforder, which on foft foils deftroys the greater number of fheep attacked with it, but which on dry hard land is lefs fatal and lefs infeCtious. In preventing the difeafe, which is more certain and bene- ficial than any thing that can be done in the cure of it when it is formed, the principal circumftances to be regarded are, the difperfing the fheep as equally as poffible over the land ; the preventing their colleGting together in clumps and foul- ing the land; the having the fituations for the Joughis in milking time, high, dry and airy, fhifting them often, and dividing the fheep equally among them, to prevent their being too much thronged and heated; the changing thofe fituations frequently, where they lie, before they become foul; the removing the difeafed fheep immediately as they become affected to fome confiderable diftance ; the ufing of tar to the nofes and tails of the fheep, as well as in tubs where they are confined; and the falving of many of the fheep, and putting them in clean paftures, to lie at their eafe. The difeafe however fometimes continues, in fpite of thefe means, until the froft fets in, when it difappears flowly with much lofs. The cure of the difeafe is to be attempted, when the fheep are ftrong and in good condition, by cutting the tails acrofs, and afterwards caufing them to perfpire in fome way or other freely, not letting them be fuddenly expofed to cold after it. At the fame time the bowels are to be cleared by the ufe of a little rhubarb, as about half a drachm, or, what is better, by about four grains of ipecacuanha in powder, given until they purge freely. A quantity of thin flour-porridge well boiled, and barley or oatmeal, may then be given with a pint of {weet milk two or three times a day. If the difeafe be not foon removed by thefe means, reme- dies of the powerful aftringent kind muft be had recourfe to, with opium in {mall quantities, fuch as a decotion of logwood, bark, Japan earth, and chalk made with milk, and given in the proportion of a gill two or three times a day. Fifteen or twenty drops of the tin@ure of opium may be put in each dofe of the deco@tion. And it is often very ufeful when taken alone in a very little cold water. VIOLET, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia Me- dica. See Viowa. VioLtet, Bulbous, a name fometimes given to the fnow- drop, a plant which Linneus makes a diftin@ genus under the name galanthus ; but which Tournefort comprehends among the narciffo-leucoiums. VioLer, Calathian. See GentiaANna Pneumonanthe. Vioxert, Corn, a name fometimes applied to the Campanula hybrida. VIOLET, Damafe. See Hesprris. VioLet, Dame's, Rocket, or Queen’s Gilliflower. See HEspPrris, VIo This plant is an antifcorbutic and diaphoretic, and is very ferviceable in the afthma, coughs, and convulfions. The outward ufe of it is recommended in inflammations, can- cers, gangrenes, {phacelus, and contagious difeafes. Bruifed, it very potently refifts putrefaCtion ; and applied to peftilen- tial buboes in the arm-pits, it ripens and foftens them: James from Boerhaave. VioLet, Dog’s-tooth, the name by which fome call the dens canis of botanical writers. See EryYTHRONIUM.- VioteT, Water. See Horronta. VIOLIN, an inftrument of four ftrings, tuned fifths, and played bya bow. It has a neck like the treble viol, but the finger-board has no frets. This may be pronounced the moft powerful, the moft perfeét, and the moft ufeful inftrument that has ever been invented. It is in the power of the performer on this fovereign of the orcheftra, to make the intonation of all keys equally perfe&. We have not been able to trace its antiquity higher than the 16th century. In the beginning of the 17th century it was hardly known to the Englifh in fhape or name; and, there- fore, that fuperior power of expreffling oft all that a human voice can produce, except the articulation of words, feemed at this time fo utterly impoffible, that it was not thought a gentleman’s inftrument, or one that fhould be ad- mitted into good company. Viols of various fizes, with fix ftrings, and fretted like the guitar, began indeed to be admitted into chamber-concerts: for when the performance was public, thefe inftruments were too feeble for the obtufe organs of our Gothic anceftors; and the low ftate of our regal mufic in the time of Henry VIII. 1530, may be ga- thered from the accounts given in Hall’s and Hollingfhead’s Chronicles, of a mafque at cardinal Wolfey’s palace, White- hall, where the king was entertained with “a concert of drums and fifes.”? But this was foft mufic compared with that of his heroic daughter Elizabeth, who, according to Henxner, ufed to be regaled during dinner “ with twelve trumpets and two kettle-drums ; which, together with fifes, cornets, and fide-drums, made the hall ring for half an hour together.”? Itinerarium, edit. 1757, Strawberry-Hill. It has long been a difpute among the learned, whether the violin, or any inftrument of that kind, as now played with a bow, was known to the ancients. The little figure of Apollo, playing on a kind of violin, with fomething like a bow, in the grand duke’s tribuna at Florence, which Mr. Addifon and others fuppofed to be antique, has been proved to be modern by the abbé Winckelmann and Mr. Mings. So that as this was the only piece of feulpture reputed an- cient, in which any thing like a bow could be found, no- thing more remains to be difcufled relative to that point. With refpeé to an inftrument with a double neck, befides that on the broken obelifk at Rome, and one from a fepul- chral grotto in the ancient city of Tarquinia, there is an antique painting in the colletion of William Locke, efq. which confifts of a fingle figure, fuppofed to be a mufe, with an inftrument nearly in the form of a medern violin, but the neck is much longer, and neither bow nor ple@rum are difcoverable near it. This, as Dr. Burney apprehends, may have been a chelys, which was a fpecies of guitar, either thrummed by the fingers, or twanged with a quill. The ancients had, indeed, inftead of a bow, the pleGtrum ; but in all the reprefentations which painting and feulpture have preferved of this implement, it appears too clumfy to produce from the ftrings tones that had either the {weetnefs or brilliancy of fuch as are drawn from them by mieans of the bow or quill. Dr. Burney fuppofes, though it is repre- fented fo maflive, that it was a quill, or piece of ivory in imitation of one, rather than a ftick or blunt piece of wood 7 or VIOLIN. or ivory ; and, indeed, Virgil tells us, AEn. vi. 647, that it was made of ivory. Burney’s Hift. Muf. vol. i. The origin of the violin, according to the French ac- count, is unknown. It is only fuppofed to have been in- vented about the ninth or tenth century, to which opinion we fhould have fubfcribed, had not fome ancient monuments remained with an exaét reprefentation of its form. In the pitures of Philoftratus, p. 85, in an ancient grotto, may be feen many violins which are reprefented much like thofe of the prefent times, except that the neck is fhorter. Amphion is there reprefented, p. 76, playing upon a kind of viol or violin with five ftrings, and with a bow like our’s, and quite different from the plectrum of the ancients. It is believed that Atheneus means the bow, when he fays, * the fceptre is one thing and the pleétrum another.’’ It is imagined that by the {ceptre he means the bow, which is very probable, efpecially after the ancient monuments of which we have preferved the figure. The pit or grotto, on the walls of which we fee violins like the prefent, is found on filver medals which were ftruck by order of Scribonius Libo, a very confiderable perfonage at Rome. An account of thefe may be feen in Pierre Valerien, author of the Hieroglyphics, book 47. This is all that antiquity has preferved concerning the wiolin, and, fays the author, it is fo little, that we learn nothing from it. The rebec is the moft ancient violin in France; it had but three ftrings, and the romancers and troubadours fre- quently mention it. A figure of the minftrel Colin Mufet, is {till preferved at the entrance of the church of St. Julien des Menettriers, at Paris, playing on the rebec. The time is not known when a fourth itring was added to this inftrument. It is {till ufed in its primitive ftate as a trichord in Turkey and other Eaftern countries ; the oldett violins we have in France are not more ancient than the time of Charles IX. made at Cremona by the famous Amati, which are ftill of the beft model poffible. Laborde, tom. 1. The violin feems to have been brought into favour at the court of France before any honourable mention is made of it elfewhere, by the arrival of Baltazarini, a great performer on that inftrument ; who, at the head of a band of violin- players, was fent from, Piedmont by marfhal Briffac to Ca- tharine de Medicis, and appointed by that princefs her firft valet de chambre and fuperintendant of her mufic. Galilei (Dial. p. 147.) fays, that ** both the violin and bafe, or vio- loncello, were invented by the Italians, perhaps by the Neapolitans ;’’ and we are unable to confute that opinion. Corelli’s violin, long in the pofleffion of Giardini, was made in 1578, and the cafe painted by Annibal Caracci, probably feveral years after the violin was finifhed, at which time Anib. Carach was but eight years old. Montagne, who was at Verona in 1580, fays that there were organs and violins to accompany the mafs in the great church. Journ. du Voyage. The reftoration of monarchy and epifcopacy feems to have been not only favourable to facred mufic, but fecular ; for it may be afcribed to the particular pleafure which king Charles II. received from the gay and f{prightly found of the violin, that this inftrument was introduced at court, and the houfes of the nobility and gentry for any other purpofe than country-dances, and feftive mirth. Hitherto there feem to have been no public concerts ; and in the mufic of the chamber, in the performance of fancies on inftruments, which had taken place of vocal madrigals and motets, the violin had no admiffion, the whole bufinefs having been done by viols. Vor. XXXVII. After Charles had, in imitation of LewiseXIV., efta- blifhed a band of twenty-four violins, tenors, and bafes, in- ftead of the viols, lutes, and cornets, of which the court band ufed to confift, the violin family began to rife in reputa- tion, and had an honourable place affigned it in the mufic of the court, the theatres, and the chamber; and the fucceffion of performers and compofitions with which the nation was afterwards fupplied from Italy and elfewhere, ftimulated the practice and eftablifhed the character of that clafs of inftru- ments, which have ever fince been univerfally acknowledged to be the pillars of a well-ordered orcheftra. A generab paflion for this inftrument, and for pieces exprefsly com- pofed for it, as well as a tafte for Italian mufic, feem to have been excited in this country about the latter end of Charles II.’s reign, when French mufic and French politics became equally odious to a great part of the nation, The Hon. Mr. North, brother of the lord keeper North, who liftened critically to every kind of mufic, and left manufcript memoirs of the mufic of his time, ftill in the poffeffion of his family, fays, that the decay of French mufic, and favour of the Italian, came on by degrees. Its beginning was ac- cidental, and occafioned by the arrival of Nicola Matteis. During the laft century, almoft all the great violinifts of Europe, except Somis and Tartini, have vifited this coun- try ; but Giardini, at one time perhaps the beft performer in Europe, refiding here fo many years, formed a {chool which furnifhed our orcheftras with a greater number of able performers on that inftrument, than can be found in the capital of any other kingdom in Europe. And we ma venture to affert from our own knowledge, that the lowe ripieno in the opera orcheftra at prefent, has more hand, and is a better fight’s-man, than the leader of that band in Fefting’s time. The violin confifts, like moft other inftruments, of three parts; the neck, the table, and the foundboard. At the fide are two apertures, and fometimes a third to- wards the top, fhaped like a heart. Its bridge, which is below the apertures, bears up the {trings, which are faftened to the two extremes of the in- ftrument ; at one of them by a fcrew, which ftretches or loofens them at pleafure. The ftyle and found of the violin are the gayeft and moft {prightly of all other inftruments; and hence it is, of all inftruments, the fitteft for dancing. Yet there are ways of touching it, which render it grave, foft, languifhing, and fit for church or chamber mufic. It generally makes the treble, or higheft parts in concerts. Its harmony is from 5th to 5th. Its play is compofed of bafe, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble; to which may be added a fifth part: each part has four sths, which rife to a greater 17th. In compofitions of mufic, violin is exprefled by V: two V V denote two violins. The word violin, alone, ftands for treble violin: when the Italians prefix a/io, tenore, or baffo, it then expreffes the counter-tenor, tenor, or bafe violin. In compofitions where there are two, three, or more different violins, they make ufe of primo, fecundo, terzo, or of the chara&ers I° II° III°, or 1° 2° 3°, &c. to denote the difference. The violin has only four ftrings, each of a different thick- nefs, the {malleit of which makes the e fi mi of the higheft oétave of the organ; the fecond, a fifth below the firft, makes the a mila; the third, a fifth below the fecond, is dla re; laftly, the fourth, a fifth below the third, is ge re fol. Moft nations, ordinarily, ufe the clef ge re fol on the fecond line, to denote the mufic for the violin; only, in Gg France, Vio France, they ufe the fame clef as the firft line at bottom : the firft of thefe methods is beft, where the fong goes very low; the fecond where it goes very high. Merfennus {peaks of the tenor and contra-tenor violin, which, he fays, differ only in magnitude from the treble violin, But we have at prefent no fuch inftrument in ufe as the contra-tenor violin; the part proper to it being with eafe performed on the violin ; and accordingly in concertos, over- -tures, and other inftrumental compofitions of many parts, .the fecond violin is in reality the counter-tenor part. It is vio much to be doubted, fays fir John Hawkins (Hift. Maf. vol. iy. p. 115.) whether the counter-tenor violin ever came into England. Anth. Wood, fpeaking of the band of Charles I]., makes no mention of the contra-tenor violin, Before the reftoration of Charles II. fays he, and efpecially after, viols begun to be out of fafhion, and only violins ufed, as treble violin, tenor and bafe violin; and the king, according to the French mode, would have twenty-four violins playing before him while he was at meals, as being more airy and brifk than viols. Natural Scale for the Violin. Gomi. i 4 VIOLINO Picco to, Ital. a kit, or the pocket-violin of dancing-mafters. -Viotrxo Scordato, Ital., a fiddle out of tune. VIOLONCELLO, the diminutive of violone, contra- ~baffo, or double-bafe.. The violoncello is the natural bafe to the violin and tenor, and has been very much cultivated throughout Europe, and no where more fucce(sfully than in England, during the laft century, in proportion as the bafe- viol or fix-{tringed bafe loft its favour. The laft Englith performer on the viol di gamba, who was favourably no- -ticed, was Mifs Ford, afterwards Mrs. Thicknefs ; but fhe -made little more ufe of it than in accompanying her voice, which fhe did with great expreffion and effe&t. But Abel, in {pite of the natural defeéts of the inftrument, the tone of ‘which every one difliked, by his exquifite tafte, prodigious execution when he pleafed, genius, and profound knowledge of compofition, delighted all hearers, and made them forget, or at leaft forgive, its querulous and nafal quality of tone. The inftrument now is as dead as this great mufician, and feems to have departed this life at the fame time. —-s ee — Sauer meer EN wen Sirs cael ee ee ee cmarcss aon a aoe ee 4 The firft performer on the violoncello’ in our memory, who was always heard with pleafure, was Caporale, whofe chief excellence was his fine tone. Gordon and Paxton had confiderable merit of that kind. The elder Cervetto and Pafqualino, both defeétive in tone, had what was then thought confiderable execution and knowledge of the finger- board ; but Crofdil and the younger Cervetto became in all refpeéts the moft complete and delightful performers on the violoncello, which not only England but all Europe can boaft. So equally perfe& in all things elfe are thefe admi- rable artifts, that the fire of the one, and the vocal tone of the other, can alone diftinguifh them. But, to the great regret of the public, they have retired from all profeffional exercife of their talents. We have however many per- formers on the violoncello for general bufineis, who would have been thought wonderful players formerly ; and to con- fole us a little for the lofs of Cervetto and Crofdil, a Linley, ‘who in every requifite of a great player, may be pronounced wonderful at prefent (1804). Diatonic Scale of the Violoncello, without Shifts. one I sae we FAS > ra ee — Opener e Ath String. 3d String. at VIOLONE, a double-bafe, almoft twice as big as the common bafe-violin, and the ftrings bigger and longer, in proportion ; and, confequently, its found an o¢tave lower than that of our’ bafe-violin ; which has a noble effe@ in great concertos; but this depends upon the number of ftrings, and the manner of tuning them ; fome performers ufing four ftrings, and others three ; and in the tuning of thefe there is a confiderable difference. The true ufe of the violone is to fuftain the harmony, and in this refpeét it has a noble effe&t : divided bafes are improper for it, the ftrings not anfwering immediately to the percuflion of the bow: thefe can only be executed with a good effeé& on the violon- cello, the founds of which are more articulate and diftinét. VIOLONISTA, Ital., a performer on the violin. UJON, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chufiftan ; 35 miles N.N.W. of Eftachar. 4——=4- = Open 1 arg 2d String. ft String. VIOTTI, » in Biography, a good compofer and great performer on the violin. He isa native of Turin, and faid to be the fon of the prince de Carignan’s gardener, and intended by his father to be brought up to his own profef- fion, difcouraging as much as poflible his paffion for mufic, which he early difcovered ; and even complaining to the prince that he fhould never make a gardener of him, as he was always f{craping upon a bad fiddle. The prince advifed his father to fend him to Pugnani, and if he difcovered in him the feeds of genius and promifing talents, he would pre- vail on him to take the boy as a feholar or an apprentice. Pugnani immediately difcovered, that with proper culti- vation, he would foon diftinguifh himfelf among profeflors of the firft clafs ; an opinion which a few years confirmed. In 1783 he went to Paris, and firft performed at the con- cert f{pirituel, was extremely applauded, and increafed in favour i, MIP favour till the time of the Revolution, when the Convention invited foreigners to affift them with their counfel in framing a new government, and eleGted as deputies many itrangers ; among the reft, Viotti was chofen a member of the fenate, who. had mounted to great eminence in his profeffion, and was a favourite of the public. | He continued to a& as a deputy till Danton, Marat, and Roberfpierre had difgraced the caufe of liberty, and excited fuch horror as well as terror in every humane breatt, that he emigrated to England, where he was received as his profeffional merit deferved; till an information was lodged againft him at the duke of Portland’s office (per- haps by jacobinical emiffaries from Paris), that he at- tended jacobinical clubs, and was caballing again{t the ftate. He was ordered to quit the kingdom; but at the peace returned, though not as a mufician or a politi- cian, but eftablifhed himfelf in London as a wine-merchant, and has never been heard in public fince his fecond arrival, which is much lamented by the lovers of mufic. Yet, though he is no longer a public performer, we may, per- haps without impropriety, give our fentiments concerning his abilities as a compofer ; and confefs, that it has often ftruck us, in the midtt of our fincere admiration of Viotti’s great abilities, that his {Lyle of compofition was a mefcolanza del? antica e moderna; writing fometimes with all the fo- lidity of the great Italian mafters of the old fchool, and fometimes with the levity and frivolity of the French in modern times. He may perhaps have done this infenfibly, in trying to pleafe in a ftyle which was the moft certain of applaufe. We have fometimes, in his grave and elaborate moyements, thought he refembled Geminiani more than any ' other old mafter, with more rhythm and pathos, and indeed with more decided and meditated plans and fubjeéts ; but in his latter movements and finales, he generally degenerates into French naivété, or rather niai/erice, which makes us for- get that Viotti is a natiye of Italy, and a difciple of Pugnani, whom he greatly furpaffes, when he does his beft, both in hand and genius. He has been a confiderable publifher of pieces for his inftrument, which, though every one cannot play, yet all admire, when played. In 1786, he. publifhed at Paris, Berlin, and Amfterdam, twelve violin concertos, in nine and twelve parts ; and the next. year fix violin quartets. Moft of his pieces have been adapted tothe piano-forte by other mafters. The laft work which he publifhed at Paris, was fix duets for violins. VIOR, or Diur, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, according to Pliny and Ptolemy. Hardouin fays that it is now named Sus ; a river of which name is known on the confines of the kingdom of Morocco. VIORNA, in Botany, an old fynonym of our common Traveller’s Joy, Clematis Vitalba, and evidently of a fimilar meaning, being derived from via, a road, and orno, to adorn. Gerarde, who thus explains the word, declares himfelf the author of the Englifh name. Viorna is transferred by Lin- nzus to another {pecies of Clematis, with whieh it had ori- inally no connexion. See CLEMATIS. VIPACH, in Geography. See Wipacu. VIPALANKA, or Us Paranxka, a fortrefs of Hun- gary, in the bannat of Temefvar, on a {mall river which runs into the Danube; 50 miles S. of Temefvar. N. lat. 45°. E. long. 21°. VIPAO, a river of Carniola, which runs into the Lifonzo, in the county of Goritz. VIPATORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Baramaul ; 28 miles E. of Darempoury. VIPER, Virgra, in Natural Hiffory, the coluber berus of ee © Linnexus, famed not only for the exceeding yenomoufnefs of its bite, which is one of the moit dangerous poifons in the animal kingdom, but alfo for the great ufefulnefs of its fleth- in medicine; whence vipers come to make a confiderable article in the materia medica. We have defcribed the common viper, as well as fome other fpecies, under the article CoLuser, and have detailed fome of the moft. interefting particulars relating to this animal. Under the article Porson, we have confidered the nature of its venom, and fome of the ufual remedies applied as antidotes to its pernicious and ufually fatal effets. We fhall not here repeat the obfervations that may be found under thofe articles. The method of catching vipers is by putting a cleft-ftick on or near their head, after which they are feized by the tail, and put into a bag. ; Dr. Mead obferves, that the ancients efteemed the viper facred ; and that the kings of the Eaft Indies caufed cot- tages to be built for their entertainment, and their killers to be punifhed with death. On medals, the viper is frequently reprefented .as a fymbol of divine power; and, as fuch, given by way of attribute to the ancient phyficians. The ftory of the rattle-{nake’s charming its prey has been ferioufly difcredited or ridiculed by many, and by others the effe€ts of the animal’s fear have been fuppofed the refult of a previous bite ; but we have reafon to be lefs incredulous, if we advert to an experiment mentioned in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, of a like thing in regard to a viper. It is well known that no viper will feed while in con- finement, except a female which is with young, but that fuch a one will. A viper-catcher, who had more than fixty living vipers in a cheft, put a living moufe in among them ; there happened to be one female big with young among thefe, none of the others at all regarded the moufe, but fhe raifed up her head a little, and looked furioufly at it. The moufe was terrified, and ftood ftill for a confiderable time,. though the viper continued rolled up in a fpiral, only raifing up its head and looking at it, and vibrating its tongue ; the, moufe at length recovered from its fright, and began to move, but without running away, only walking in a terrified manner round and round the viper, and often {queaking ; at length fhe came before the head of the creature, which was {till raifed, and the mouth open. The moufe, after fome time, went up to the creature, and crept into its mouth, where fhe was gradually fwallowed without the viper’s altering its pofture. _ By Mr. Boyle’s experiments made upon vipers in vacuo, it appeared, that on the withdrawing of the air from the veflel where the viper was put, fhe began to {well, and after fome time, fhe opened her mouth very wide, and frequently ; but on continuing two hours and a half in the receiver, fhe did not appear to be quite dead. The gaping of the jaws was attended with a lofs of the fwelling, obferved at firft in her whole body ; but after every time clofing them fhe {welled again, and thus became lank and plump reciprocally many times in an hour. During the firft moments this creature crawled about, as if in fearch of air, and after- wards foamed at the mouth. The neck and body continued fwelled longer in a fecond experiment with another viper, and a blifter appeared on the back. This creature lived’ an hour and a half. The mouth remained vaftly diftended after death, and the in- ternal parts of it were much diftorted, and thruft forwards, After the admiffion of the air the mouth clofed, and opened again after.a time; and, in fine, on pinching the tail there was fome motion perceived in the body that feemed to argue life. The common fnake bears the exhaufted receiver Gg2 better VIPER. better than the viper, and, after many hours remaining in it, and feeming dead, will give figns of life on being warmed by bringing the glafs to the fire ; but a longer continuance in the rarefied air abfolutely kills it, as it does all other creatures. Phil. Tranf. No. 62. As to the manner in which the viper conveys its poifon, authors are a little difagreed. Francifco Redi, and Moife Charras, have each of them written very curious pieces on the fubje& ; but their refult is very different. Redi maintains, that all the venom of the viper is con- tained in the two veficule, or bags, which cover the bafe of the two canine teeth ; whence, upon biting, a yellowith liquor is fqueezed out into the wound ; where, mixing with the blood, and other juices, it produces thofe dreadful fymptoms. This hypothefis he maintains by a great number of experiments; as of animals, viz. cocks, &c. being bit with vipers, after thefe veficule and their juice had been taken out, without any figns of poifon, or any ill confequence at all. Charras, on the other hand, maintains, that this yellow liquor is not poifonous; that he has given it to pigeons as food, without their being at all difordered by it ; that the viper’s bite he has always found mortal to animals, even after the bag has been taken clear out, as well as before ; and laftly, that the poifon muft lie in the irritated {pirits of the viper, which it exhales in the ardor of its bitmg, and which are fo cold, that they curdle the blood, and ftop the circulation. The controverfy between thefe two ingenious authors is very extraordinary ; their fyftems are oppofite, yet both are maintained by a great number of well-attefted ex- periments. Dr. Mead fuppofes the fentiment of Sig. Redi to be the true one, in his effay on the poifon of the viper, and adds to Redi’s account, that the poifon in the viper’s bag is feparated from the blood by a conglomerate gland, lying in the lateral interior part of the os fincipitis, behind the orbit of the eye; from which gland there is a du& that conveys the poifon to the bags at the teeth. The teeth, he adds, are tubulated, for the conveyance and emiffion of the poifon into the wound; but their hollownefs does not reach to the apex, or tip of the tooth, but ends ina long flit below the point, out of which flit the poifon is emitted. Thefe flits, or perforations of the teeth, Galen tells us, the mountebanks of his days ufed to ftop with fome kind of pafte; after which they would publicly expofe them- felves to be bitten without danger. The abbé Fontana, in a treatife on the poifon of the viper, firft publifhed in Italian, in 1765, and, in 1776, tranflated into French by M. Darcet, who has made feveral additions to it, has given the refult of no lefs than fix thoufand experiments, in which upwards of four thoufand animals were bitten, and moft of them killed by the vipers. The viper, he fays, has fometimes four, feldom three, but ay) two canine teeth in each jaw, falcated and in- erted and fixed in a focket; at their bafes, and behind them, are fix or feven fmaller teeth, adhering by a mem- brane, which, it is thought, are intended to fupply the place of the larger teeth, fometimes loft in the act of biting. A fimilar conjecture, with refpect to the ufe of the fame kind of teeth in the rattletnake, was made by Dr. Bartram. Phil. Tranf. No. 456. p. 358; or Abr. vol. ix. p. 60. Each of thefe has two cavities; one tubular, beginning near the bafe, and proceeding along the convex fide nearly 12 to the end, and open at each end; the aperture near the bafe being almoft elliptical, and the other longitudinal ; the other cavity, fituated behind the former, and never before obferved, is broad at the bafe, and diminifhes as it ap- proaches towards the point. It has only one aperture at the infertion in the gum, through which the nerves and blood-veffels of the tooth are admitted. The fibrous fheath, that covers all thefe teeth, feems to be a continu- ation of the external membrane of the palate, being always open near the points of the teeth. The receptacle of the venom is a {mall bladder, a fpongy gland, fituated under the mufcles of the fide of the upper jaw, and feldom con- taining more than three or four drops of a yellow fluid, which is conveyed thence by an excretory du& to the focket of the canine teeth, whence it enters the lower aper- ture of the tube, and finds its way out again at the longi- tudinal orifice, near the point, into the internal part of the wound occafioned by the bite: this fluid receives its im- pulfe from a conftritor mufcle, which, however, never pro- pels at once the whole of the contents of the gland., For an account of the effeéts of the viper’s bite, we refer to Co- LUBER, Berus, and Porson. See alfo Wounpns. The cure of the venomous bites of vipers feems very un- fettled : Mr. Boyle found a hot iron held near the place very fuccefsful ; but it proved otherwife with M. Charras. Again, the fnake-root from the Eaft Indies, immediately applied to the place, is much commended; but fignor Redi and M. Charras found it of no ufe; yet Baglivi and Dr. Havers give inftances of its good fuccefs. Dr. Mead adds, that the {nake-ftone, dire@tly applied to a pigeon when bitten, faved its life four hours; whereas mott of the other pigeons bitten died in half an hour. This ftone is not natural, but fa¢titious ; its virtue lies in its porofity, which is fuppofed to imbibe the virus. The viper-catchers, Dr. Mead adds, have a {pecific, in which they can fo far confide as not to be afraid of being bitten. That fpecific is, the axungia of the viper prefently rubbed into the wound ; which,‘confifting of clammy, vifcid, pene- trating and a¢tive parts, fheathes the falts of the yirus. The fame author applying it to the noftrils of a dog bitten, found the creature well the next day: when this is not timely applied, and the virus has infinuated into the blood, the fal viper is excellent, given and repeated till f{weats be produced. This fucceeded well with M. Charras; and Dr. Mead relates, that it recovered one after the virus had induced an univerfal icterus. The bite of the viper having been fuppofed certainly curable by oil of olives, vulgarly called fallad-oil, alone ; and a viper-catcher in England having fuffered himfelf to be bitten by one of thefe creatures, and having recovered, after many dangerous fymptoms, and the cure being at- tributed to the oil alone, though other medicines were given him internally ; in confequence of which, Dr. Vater tried the fame remedy with fuccefs at Drefden: Meflrs. Geoffroy and Hunauld, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, made a number of experiments, in which this oil proved ineffe@tual ; and added to their accounts, fome other perfons bitten, in which all the dreadful confequences of that poifon are fhewn, and the remedies by which they were cured are mentioned. Philof. Tranf. N° 443, 444, 4453; or Abr. vol. ix. p. 60. ; Two inftances are mentioned, in which the fymptoms of the bite appeared much in the fame manner with thofe of the man who fuffered himfelf to be bitten in England, in order to be cured by the oil. The fleep came on in all the fame circumftances, and they were all cured, as well i who VIPER. who ufed no un€tuous application at all, as he who ufed the fat of the vipers, or the Englifhman who depended upon oil. The internal medicines given to them all were of much the fame kind; and all that can be concluded from the whole is, that either thefe bites would not have proved mortal in themfelves, or that the cordial medicines which they took internally, were the remedies that prevented the mifchief that would have enfued; and thefe feem to have acted not as fpecifics againft the bite of this animal, but merely as medicines that would ftop the fpreading of a gangrene ; the unprevented increafe of which is the thing that proves fatal from the creature’s bite. The diffeGtions of the animals which had died by the bite of the viper, whether they had or had not been rubbed with oil, afforded all the fame appearances. The limb which had received the wound was in all {welled and livid, and thefe fymptoms were ufually carried along the thigh to the belly, and fometimes up to the breaft. Incifions made along thefe parts always difcovered the cellules of the membrana adipofa full of bloody-coloured water, and the membrane itfelf was fwelled, blackifh, and gangrened. And this appeared always more plainly in the belly than in any other part : the membrana adipofa in all other parts of the body was in its natural ftate. The injured parts often had a cadaverous {mell; the mufcles of the wounded limb were alfo found of a brownith colour, and their fibres had loft their confiftence, and feemed ready to give way to the approaching gangrene. Nor is this effe&t confined to the external parts alone: a goofe that had been bitten had three gangrenous {pots on its heart, and all the indications of a beginning gangrene in other parts of it; the concave fide of the liver was alfo angrened, and had wholly loft its confiftence; and the ungs of a fowl, that had been bitten on the wing, were found in part gangrened. The effets, however, were different in degree, from the bite of the feveral vipers ; and there feems no reafon to doubt, but that the bites of differ- ent animals, though of the fame fpecies, under different circumftances, either in regard to the creature wounding, or the creature wounded, may be followed with very different confequences; fo that remedies are not to be depended on from their fuccefs in one or two trials. Mem. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1737. The poifon of the viper is only noxious when immedi- ately conyeyed into the blood. Nor is it mortal to eat the fleth of creatures killed by vipers, or to drink the wine in which they have been drowned, or to fuck the parts they have wounded. On the contrary, fignor Redi fays, fuck- ing the wound is a fovereign remedy againft the bite of vipers. This author denies what has been affirmed by Aniftotle and Galen, that the {pittle of a fafting perfon kills vipers. Phil. Tranf. N° 9g. p. 160. The praétice of fucking out poifons is very ancient, and indeed nothing can be more rational. Where the bite cannot be cut out, this is the moft likely way for extra@t- ing the poifon. There can be no danger in performing this office, as the poifon does no harm, unlefs it is taken into the body by a wound. The perfon who fucks the wound ought, however, to wath his mouth frequently with fallad-oil, which will fecure him from the leaft incon- venience. The Pfylli in Africa, and the Merfi in Italy, were famed for curing the bites of poifonous animals, by fucking the wound ; and we are told that the Indians in North America practife the fame at this day. When the wound is well fucked, it fhould be afterwards rubbed with warm fallad-oil. A poultice of bread and milk, foftened with fallad-oil, fhould likewife be applied to it, and the patient fhould drink freely of. vinegar-whey, or water-gruel with vinegar in it, to make him {weat. Vinegar is, indeed, one of the beft medicines which can be ufed in any kind of poifon, and ought to be taken very liberally: If the patient be fick, he may take a vomit. This courfe, fays Dr. Buchan, will be fufficient to curé the bite of any of the poifonous animals of this country. Dr. Brookes fays, that the following remedy, which was the invention of a negro, who for the difcovery obtained his freedom and a penfion for life of 100/. per annum, from the general aflembly of Carolina, has been found effectual for the bite of the rattle-fnake. The prefcription is as follows: Take of the roots of plantain and horehound in fummer, roots and branches together, a fufficient quantity ; bruife them in a mortar, and f{queeze out the juice, of which give, as foon as poffible, one large fpoonful ; if the patient be fwelled, force it down his throat. This generally will cure: but if he finds no relief an hour after, give him another {poonful, which is faid never to fail. If the roots are dried, they muft be moiftened with a little water. To the wound may be applied a leaf of good tobacco moiftened with rum. Mefirs. Juffieu and Le Sage ftrongly recommend the ufe of the volatile fluor alkali as an antidote againft the venom of vipers; but if the proofs alleged by the abbé Fontana, that the poifon of vipers is not of an acid nature, be ad- mitted, the utility of the alkali muft be precluded. The abbé adds, that cantharides, applied outwardly, always did mifchief by increafing the inflammation; when given in- wardly, they operated as an emetic, which is fometimes bene- ficial. Scarifications produced the fame effeéts with the external application of cantharides: Peruvian bark, theriaca, oils, the fuction of leeches, and of the mouth, were all found ineffeGtual. He alfo explodes, in this cafe, the boafted virtue of the Piedra de Cobras, as an alexipharmic. Quick- lime alfo, when applied to the wound in pigeons, has fome- times been of ufe, but not fo as to juftify any confidence in the remedy. Upon the whole this writer infers, that the greateft fecurity we have againit the bite of vipers in one {pecies, is the little probability of its being poifonous to the .degree that has been always imagined, and that has caufed fuch dreadful alarms, which alone are fufficient to irritate a tainted habit. He alfo doubts whether the bite of the rattle-fnake is a€tually fo venomous as is generally imagined. See Fontana fur les Poifons et fur le Corps Animal, &c. in 2 vols. 4to. Florence. Vipers make a confiderable article in medicine. Moft authors agree, that there is no part, humour, or excrement, not even the gall itfelf of a viper, but may be fwallowed without harm. Accordingly the ancients, and, as feveral authors affure us, the Indians, as well as many other people at this day, both of the Eaft and Welt, eat them as we do eels, Caro viperina, viper’s flefh, either roafted or boiled, the phyficians have unanimoufly prefcribed as an excellent reftorative ; and it has been particularly recommended in the elephantiafis, incurable con{umptions, leprofy, &c. ; and Dr. Mead thinks they might be lefs {paring in the quantity than they are: inftead of a little viper’s flefh, he recom- mends the broth or jelly of vipers; or, as the ancients did, to boil and eat them as fifh, or at leaft to drink vinum viperinum, i. e. wine in which they have been long infufed. Viper’s flefh, indeed, appears to be very nutritious, and therefore an ufeful reftorative in fome kinds of weaknefles and emaciated habits; but in fcrophulous, leprous, and other like diftempers, the good effeé&ts which have been afcribed ViP afcribed to it are more uncertain. . Dr. Lewis fays, that he has known a viper taken every day for above a month, in dif- orders of the leprous kind, without any apparent benefit. The form in which they are ufed to the beft advantage, ‘is that of broth, or jus viperinum. Viper’s flefh ufed to be an ingredient in feveral of our beft antidotes, as the theriaca Andromach. &c. The apothecaries alfo formerly fold the pulvis viperinus, which is only dried vipers pulverized, heart, liver, and all, and pafled through a fieve. This, to heighten the price, we fuppofe, they call animal bezoard. The falts of vipers, whether volatile or fixed, alfo their fat, or axungia, and their oil, chemically drawn, are drugs that have been in confiderable repute. The fat of the viper is accounted particularly ufeful in diforders of the eyes; but what advantages it has above other foft fats, is by no means clear. It was formerly fup- pofed to have fome fpecific power of refifting the poifon of the viper’s bite, by being rubbed immediately on the wounded part; but experience has now fhewn, that common oil is, in this intention, of equal efficacy. Lewis. See Cotuser Berus. Viper, Bites and Stings of, in Animals, the affections which it produces in thefe ways. The bites of fuch reptiles fhould conftantly be guarded againft as much as poffible, as they are not unfrequently attended with dangerous con- fequences. Animals of the neat-cattle kind are more liable to be bitten and ftung by thefe reptiles, than thofe of any other fort of live-ftock. Inftances have been known where the tongues of fuch cattle have even been bitten or ftung while grazing or feeding, which have proved fatal. Such ftock are, however, feldom attacked by reptiles of the adder kind, except in cafes where thefe are difturbed by the animals in pafturing or feeding; which is the main reafon why fo many of them are bitten or ftung about the head, and occa- fionally the feet. There are moftly much pain, inflammation, and {welling produced by thefe bites and ftings; the pro- grefs of which may commonly be checked or itopped, and the complaint removed, by the ufe of fuch means as are direGted below. A fort of foft liquid of the liniment kind may be pre- pared by mixing ftrong fpirit of hartfhorn, faponaceous liniment, fpirit of turpentine, and tinéture of opium, with olive-oil ; the former in the proportion of about two ounces each to three of the laft, incorporating them well together by fhaking them in a phial, which will be found very ufeful in many cafes. A proper quantity of it fhould be well rubbed upon the affe€ted part, two or three times in the courfe of the day, until the inflammation and {welling begin to difappear, after the bottle has been well fhaken. In the more dangerous cafes, it may often be advantageous to ufe fomentations to the affeéted parts, efpecially when about the head, with the above application ; fuch as thofe made by boiling white poppy-heads with the roots of the marfhmallow, the leaves of the large plantain, and the tops of wormwood, in the quantities of a few ounces of the firft, and a handful of each of the latter, when cut {mall, and bruifed in five or fix quarts of the ftale grounds of malt liquor. They may be applied frequently to the difeafed parts, rubbing them afterwards each time well with the above foft liquid liniment. Where there are feverith ap- pearances, as is often the cafe in the fummer feafon, a proper quantity of blood may fometimes be taken away with great benefit, and a {trong purge be afterwards given of the cool- ing kind with much ufe. In flight cafes of this kind, fome think the continued free ufe of {pirit of hartfhorn, given internally, and applied ex- II ViR ternally to the affected parts, is the beft remedy of any that is yet known. : As they are fo dangerous, thefe reptiles fhould always be deftroyed as much as poffible in all paftures and grazing grounds. Viver Wine, Vinum Viperinum, is a preparation of vipers infufed in wine. It is commonly made by macerating for a week, with a gentle heat, two ounces of the dried flefh in three pints of mountain. This has been deemed a great reftorative, and provocative to venery, and alfo good againft cutaneous eruptions, &c. i But Dr. Lewis obferves, that it cannot perhaps be affirmed from fair experience, that this wine has any great virtue. ? VirER’s Buglofs, in Botany. See Ecurum. The flowers of the viper’s buglofs are fuppofed to poffefs the virtue of cordials, in the fame degree with the borage and buglofs. Some authors greatly recommend a decoétion of the dried plant in epilepfies. It is faid that very fingular cures have been done by it. Virer’s Grafs. See ScoRZzONERA. The roots of the common viper’s grafs, or /corzonera Hifpanica of Linnzus, have been employed indifferently as alexipharmics, and in hypechondriacal diforders and obftruc- tions of the vifcera; but at prefent are more properly con- fidered as alimentary articles, in general falubrious, and moderately nutritious. ‘They abound with a milky juice, of a foft, fweetifh tafte, but which, in drying, contraéts a flight bitternefs. Extra€ts made from them by water are confiderably {weet and mucilaginous: extraéts made by reCtified {pirit have a lefs degree of {weetifhnefs, accom- panied with a flight grateful warmth. In Cartheufer’s experiments, the fpirituous extract amounted to one-third the weight of the root, and the watery to above one-half. Lewis. : Virer Key, in Geography, one of the Tortugas iflands. VIPERA Pizzata, or Vittata, in Zoology, a name by which fome authors have called a remarkable fpecies of Indian ferpent, more ufually known by the name of Cobra de capella. VIPERARIA, in Botany, a name authors to the /corzonera, or viper’s grafs. : VIPITANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ger- many, between Veldidana and Sublavio, thought to be the prefent Stortzingen, or rather Amoluz, a village at the foot of mount Brenner. VIPPACH, in Geography, a town of Germany,'in the territory of Erfurt ; 8 miles N. of Erfurt.—Alfo, a river of Thuringia, which runs into the Gram; 3 miles S. of Sommerda. s Vieracn, Marck, atown of Germany, in the principality of Eifenach ; 7 miles N.E. of Erfurt. VIPULZAN, a town of Auftria, in the county of Goritz ; 6 miles W. of Goritz. : VIQUE, or Vica, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Tarragona; 22 miles W.S.W. of Gerona. N. lat. 41°54/. E. long. 2° 8!. VIR, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain, the mouth of which, according to Ptolemy, is near the promontory on which was the altars of the fun. ? VIRABADRA, in Hindso Mythology, a warlike cha- raGer, ufually {poken of as a fon of Siva, the avenging form of the trimurti, or divine triad of that polytheiftic race. (See Srva and Trimurti.) Sometimes he is faid to be an incarnation of Siva. He is ufually reprefented four-armed ; holding a fword, fhield, bow, and arrow; and | in a threatening purfuing pofture, accompanied by Sivean attributes ; given by fome VIR ‘attributes ; fuch’ as collar of -fkulls, linga, &c. (See Linea and Sarva.) A human figure with a ram’s head, ' and a handfome female figure, are commonly feen befide him, in-the a& of adoration. Some account of Virabadra, with reprefentations of him from metallic cafts, may be feen in the Hindoo Pantheon. Virabadra is a perfonage of extenfive and ancient cele- brity. His exploits, parentage, &c. are recorded in the Sivpurana, and his name frequently occurs in other San- {crit works: (See Purana.) In the facred poem juft named, it is faid that he was produced from a drop of Siva’s fweat. Hevis underftood, as one of the offspring of Siva, to be included in the denomination of Bhairava; a word derived from dheru, meaning terrific or tremendous. It is written, and we believe more correétly pronounced, Vairava; which name is given to another fuppofed fon or incarnation of Siva. See VAIRAVA. > Sonnerat mentions Virabadra as a Carnatic deity ; calling him, in his inaccurate mode of writing Eaitern names, Vira- patrin. He calls him Siva’s fourth fon, produced with a thoufand heads and a thoufand arms, by the fweat of his body, to avert the effects of a facrifice. He is fometimes called alfo Bhir Bhadr. The other three fons of Siva, mentioned by Sonnerat, are, we fuppofe, Kartikya, Pollear, and Vairava. See thofe articles. VIRACELLUM, in Ancient: Geography, a town of Italy, in Liguria, S.E. of Apua. - VIRAGO, a woman of extraordinary ftature and courage, and’ who, with the female fex, has the mien and air of a man, and performs the actions and exercifes of men. The word is pure Latin, formed from wir, man, and is feldom ufed but inthe way of diverfion. Such were Semiramis and Penthefilea among the ancients ; and Jeanne la Pucelle, commonly called The Maid of Orleans, among the moderns. In the Vulgate verfion of the bible, Eve is called virago, becaufe made of the rib of man. The Latin tranflator by this, aimed to preferve the etymology as it is in the Hebrew, ' and of vir, formed virago ; as Adam, in the Hebrew text, called Eve [/cha, of ifch, man. ; ._ VIRAGUE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; 25 miles E. of Perinda. VIRAJ, in Hindoo Mythology, a very mytterious per- fonification, originating immediately ftom the godhead, in a manner not reconcileable to minds which have happily - fhaken off the trammels of idelatry and fuperftition. In the early portion of the Inftitutes of Menu (ch. i. v. 32.) it is faid, ‘ Having divided his own fubftance, the mighty power became half male, half female (or, fays the commen- tator, nature adive and pafpve) ; and from that female he pro- duced Viraj.’’ Menu next tells us that he himfelf was the perfon produced by the male power Viraj, and that he pro- duced her lords of created beings eminent in holinefs. ‘Thefe are ufually called Brahmadikas, or offspring of Brahma ; but the Puranas do not agree as to their number : fometimes nine, feven, and three only are mentioned. Con- fiderable difficulty is found in the attempt to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the hiftories of thefe early per- fonages ; who, it may be reafonably imagined, have had hiftorical exiftence, though fo much obfcured by the fi€tions of mythology. All travellers who have vifited the cavern temple, called ' by the Englifh Elephanta, have been ftruck with a coloffal one-breafted figure ; and various have been the conjeétures as to its allufion. The author of the Hindoo Pantheon, who has examined the temple in queftion, reafonably judges VIR it to be a reprefentation of Viraj, or nature aétive and paflive ; and*he gives feveral reprefentations of fimilar fub- jects from original pi@tures. (See Stva.) In our article ELepHanra we have noticed the fuppofition of fome tra- vellers, that the one-breafted armed female alluded to the fable of the Amazons. It is now found that the Hindoos alfo have fables of iflands inhabited only by warlike women, who are called, in the Perfian tranflations of thefe ftories, Hamazen ; which word means, in that language, all-qvomen. (See on this curious fubje&, Moor on Hindoo Infanticide, p. 82.) The whole ground-work of the Amazonian fable may, therefore, have come from India to the embellifhing Greeks, as well as the notion of male and female deities ; all originating poffibly in the myfterious fexual union, the fubjeét of this article. In the Hindoo mythology, the co-equality of the male and female power is afferted. There is lefs fexual con- fufion among the Hindoo than among the Greek deities. Among the latter, the fex of feveral is very dubious ; while others were both male and female. Authority can be pro- duced among weitern mythologifts, making both Minerva and Venus male as well as female. Thefe goddefles cor- refpond with the Parvati and Lakfhmi of the Yinddsh : the former of whom is feen in the biune figure Viraj ; and the latter in her charaéter of Sukra, or the planet Venus, is of the male fex. Scma, the moon of India, is alfo male, as he was among the Germans and Saxons. The Parthians faid that Venus was the moon, and a male deity ; as, agcording to Macrobius, did fome weftern mythologiits. See Soma. There are fables connected with the hiltory of Krifhna, in which he and his miitreffes, to conceal the fhame of the amorous deity from his enraged confort, were varioufly metamorphofed. On one occafion, as related in a Purana, “‘ when dete@ed dallying in a grove of fandal with Viraja, the figure of a quadruped concealed his fhame; and fhe was changed into a river.” This fable is noticed in our article RapHA. We know not if the nymph of the fandal grove have any conne@tion with the fubject of this article. VIRAMSHAMPETTA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; g miles S.W. of Terriore. VIRANDJIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 16 miles: W. of Kiutaja. VIRANSHEHR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na- tolia; 42 miles E.N.E. of Boli. VIRATARUPA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god Vifhnu ; and given alfo to his warlike incarnation in the perfon of Rama. See Rama and Visunu. VIRBIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, part of a moun- tain, now called “‘Mont Albano.’? The name Vir-bius (from vir, man, and éis, twice) is faid to have been given to this mountain in honour of Hippolytus, who, having been put to death by a monfter, had been reftored to life by Diana. From the Appian way anothér was detached, which led to a temple of Diana on this mount. ‘This mountain was on the Appian way, from which diverged two other ways, one of which led to the temple of Jupiter Latialis, on mount Albano, and the other to the temple of Diana, at the bottom of the centre of the lake of Armenia. VIRE, in Geography, a river of France, which rifes near Calvados, and runs into the Englifh Channel, to the north of Ifigny, between the departments of the Channel and the Calvados.—Alfo, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&, in the department of the Calvados; 27 miles S.W. of Caen. N. lat. 48° 51'. W. long. 48’. Ving, or Matraca, a cape of Arabia, on the coaft of the Indian fea; 16 miles N.N.E. of Haffek. VIREA, in Botany, Adanfon Fam. des Plantes, v. 2. 112, VIR 112, a name which feems to allude to the more green, and lefs hoary, herbage of the plants to which it is applied, compared with many of the fame tribe; like Vireo, the Latin name of the Green-finch. See Apareta, under the article THrRInciA. ee VIRECTA, a word derived from vireo, to be verdant, alluding ‘to the verdure of the plant, which however is not peculiarly ftriking, except in the dried {pecimens ; whofe colour, being better preferved than in fome of the fame natural order, might perhaps fuggeft to Linnzus the idea of the name. Vire@um occurs in fome copies of Virgil, for a green retreat ; but viretum is generally fup- pofed the true reading.—Linn, Suppl. 17. Schreb. Gen. 125. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 972. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. q. Juff. 200. , Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 8. 676. (Sipanea ; Aubl. Guian. 147. t. 56. Juff. 201, under Muffenda. Lamarck Tluftr. t. 151.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Siellate, Linn. Rubiaceae, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five narrow- awlfhaped, ereét, equal, permanent leaves, with as many folitary, glandular or briftly, intermediate teeth. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube thrice as long as the calyx, ere@, even; flender below; dilated in the upper half; limb horizontally f{preading, in five ovate, or lanceolate, entire, equal fegments, not half fo long as the tube. Stam. Filaments five, various in length, inferted into the middle of the tube ; anthers terminal, very long, linear-awlfhaped, con- vergingeither contained within the tube, or prominent. Piff. Germen inferior, globofe, crowned with an elevated rim within the calyx; ftyle thread-fhaped, fmooth, the length of the tube; ftigma in two fhort, acute, divaricated fegments. Peric. Capfule globofe with five furrows, hif- pid, crowned with the upright calyx, of two cells and two valves ; the partitions tran{verfe, from the centre of each valve. Recept. central, globofe, meeting the partitions. Seeds numerous, {mall, angular, dotted with minute depref- fions. Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Stamens inferted into the tube. Calyx of five leaves, with intermediate teeth. Stigma deeply divided. Capfule inferior, of two cells and two valves, with contrary partitions. Seeds numerous. Obf. Though Linnzus defcribed this genus with great care and minutenefs, he erred in attributing to it a capfule of only one cell. Hence M. Poiret juftly doubted the propriety of referring hither the Sipanea of Aublet, which has two cells, and if compared with the above defcription will be found to anfwer in every material point. The only difference indeed is, that Sipanea has five briftles between the calyx-leaves, inftead of the minute glands of the original Virecéa. A circumftance which confirms, rather than inva- lidates, that part of the generic character. 1. V. biflora. Twin-flowered Vire&ta. Linn. Suppl. 134. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 197. Willd. n.1. (V. virens; Wahl Symb. v. 2. 38. Rondeletia biflora; Rottb. Surin. 7. t.2. f.2,)—Stem creeping. Flower-ftalks unequal, ter- minal, in pairs. Corolla {mooth. Stamens within the tube. Leaves ovate, twice as long as their foot{talks.— Native of Surinam, in rather moift fituations, where it was gathered by Dalberg and Rolander. The root is fibrous, annual. S¥ems a foot or more in length, decumbent, throw- ing out roots from their lower joints, afcending at the extremity, fquare, a little hairy, leafy, forked. Leaves {talked, oppofite, near an inch long, fmooth, or nearly fo, vefembling fome Parietarie, or Urtice. Stipulas {mall, tri- angular, oppofite, connecting the bafes of the footftalks, Flower-fialks from the forks of the ftem, fome of them terminal, each bearing two reddifh flowers, about an inch VIR long, white in the centre; the loweft of them nearly feffifes Germen briftly. Calyx and Corolla quite {mooth. 2. V. procumbens. Procumbent Vireéta.—Stem procum- bent. Flowers terminal, aggregate. Corolla briftly. Stamens prominent. Leaves ovate, thrice as long as their foot- ftalks.—Difcovered at Sierra Leone, by Mr. Afzelius, to whom we are obliged for a {pecimen, and for the deter- mination of the genus. This is about the fize of the pre« ceding, but is more procumbent, and rather more hairy, efpecially the /lem and footfialks. Leaves fimilar, but fome- what fmaller, and more tapering from their broad bafe into the foot/falk. Flowers in {ome meafure capitate, at the end of the ftem or branches, not numerous, {maller than the firit {pecies ; their corolla with narrow, almoft linear, feg- ments, and clothed externally with fhining, briftly hairs. Filaments as long as the limb of the corolla, with fhort pur- plifh anthers. 3- V. pratenfis. Savanna Vire&ta. Wahl Eclog. fafe. 2. it. Schrad. Journ. v. 2. 333. (Sipanea pratenfis; Aubl. Guian. 148. t. 56.)—Stem ereét. Flowers terminal, ag- gregate. Corolla fmooth. Stamens within the tube. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ftalked.—A bundant in the meadows round the town of Cajenne, where it is almoft always to be found in flower and feed. Aublet fays this herb ferves to make aftringent decoétions, ufeful for wafhing wounds and ulcers, as well as in the gonorrhoea. The roof is fibrous; whether annual or otherwife we are not informed. Stems two feet or more in height, roundifh, with many oppofite ranches. Leaves about an inch and a half long, acute, rather tapering at the bafe, a little hairy, efpecially their ribs beneath, Footftalks rather fhort. Stipulas membranous, abrupt. Flowers five, fix, or feven, together, in little terminal tufts, white or rofe-coloured, about the fize of the firft {pecies. The corolla appears to be fmooth; its fegments broad, rounded or obovate. The fhort filaments, irfeebed into the middle of the tube, with their anthers of the fame length, are altogether concealed therein, and do not reach near fo high as the mouth. Ca/yx fringed with briftles, and fur- nifhed with {mall folitary hairs between its fegments; but thefe do not appear quite fo long in Aublet’s own fpecimen as in his figure. ‘The cap/ule relembles V. biflora. 4. V. multiflora. Many-flowered Vireéta.—Stem ere&, Flowers terminal, aggregate, numerous. Corolla briftly. Stamens and ftyle longer than the limb. Leaves ovato- lanceolate, nearly feffile—Found by Mr. Afzelius at Sierra Leone. Very like the laft in fize and habit, but the lem is rather more quadrangular, and purplifh. Leaves an inch and a half or two inches long, deflexed, rounded at the bafe, hairy, on fhort ftalks. S*ipulas lanceolate, hairy. Flowers many together, almoft feffile, in denfe, hairy, ter- minal heads. Calyx denfely fringed with long briftly hairs, fuch as clothe the outfide of the corolla. The fegments of the latter are very narrow, almoit linear. The /famens ex- tend beyond them, and are quite capillary, fmooth, with fhortifh terminal anthers. The /fyle is flender, till longer than the /lamens, with a {mall divided /figma. We have not feen the fruit. VIRELAY, the name of a fong among the Provengale ~ poets, which fucceeded the chants royaux, or royal fongs, fo called either becaufe Thibaut, compte de Champagne, and king of Navarre, was author of fo great a number, or to give them the dignity of poems the moft worthy to be fung at court. For different from the Vaudevilles which pafs from mouth to mouth, they were produced for the moft delicate ears, and performed by the moft able muficians of thofe times. From the chant royal, and from the balade, came the lay and virelay, the rondeau, the —, an VIR and all thofe little poems, of which the refrein, or burden, is the moft agreeable part. : - VIRET, Perer, in Biography, a famous Calviniftic divine, was born in 1511, at Orbe, in the canton of Berne, and during his ftudies at Paris formed an acquaintance with Farel, with whom he co-operated in propagating the doc- trines of the Reformation in feveral towns of Switzerland, and particularly at Geneva, whither he accompanied Farel in1§34. At Laufanne he exercifed his miniftry with great fatisfaGtion, fo that he declined the offer of being colleague with €alvin at Geneva. He is faid, in one of his vifits to Geneva, to have efcaped death by poifon, adminiftered to him by the inftigation of fome of the popifh canons of that church, which, though it did not prove inftantly fatal, in- jured his conftitution, which was delicate, and fhortened his life. From Laufanne he removed to Nifmes and Mont- pellier, and at length fettled at Lyons. But in 1653 he was obliged to quit his ftation, in confequence of the edict of Charles IX., which prohibited his fubje&ts of the re- formed religion from having miniiters that were not born in the kingdom. He then retired to Orange, and from thence, by the invitation of the queen of Navarre, to Berne. In 1569 he was in prifon, and exchanged for the governor of a town. His death happened, probably at Pau, in 1571, at the age of 6o. Viret poffefied a confiderable fhare of learning, and was an eloquent preacher. His works were numerous ; of thefe, feveral upon the doétrines and fuperftition of the Romifh church were written in a ftyle of ludicrous farcafm, but others 3 were ferious. His work “ On True and Falfe Religion,” publifhed at Geneva in 1560, difplays much reading on the fubjeét of fuperftition: but his largeft work is “ An Expofition of the Do@rine of the Chriftian Faith,” which Dupin depreciates, as he does his {mall traéts of controverfy. Bayle. Dupin. VIRGA. See Yarp. Virea is particularly fed in law for verge, or rod, fuch as fheriffs and bailiffs carry, as a badge of their office. «© Ranf. ap Howell, prepofitus de Lantiffin amerciatus pro eo quod habuit in manu fua eoram jutticiariis hic virgam nigram & inhoneftam, ubi habere debuiflet virgum album et honeftum certe longitudinis, prout decet.”? In feff. Itin. de Cardiff. 7 Hen. VI. Virea Aurea, in Botany. See Soripaco. Virca Pafloris, a name given by fome authors to dipfacus ; which fee. Where the name virga paftoris occurs in the tranflation of the Arabian writers, it is not to be fuppofed to mean the plant we call virga pattoris. It is, indeed, the literal tranflation of the haffalelrheir of Serapion and Avicenna ; but they called the common horfe- tail by this name, when they applied the adje€tive female to it; and when they added the male, they meant by it the common knot-grais. Virca Sanguinea, a name given by Matthiolus, and fome other"authors, to the cornus feemina, or dogberry-bufh, common in our hedges. See Cornus. Virc Lateralis Minimus, in Anatomy, a name given by fome writers to a mufcle, called by others levator ani parvus, and by fome tranfverfus ani. It is called by Albinus the tranfverfus perinzi, and by fome tranfverfalis penis. Virex, in Phyfiology, a meteor, called alfo columelle, and Sunes tentorii; being an aflemblage of feveral ftreams of light, reprefenting a bundle of rods or ropes. _It is fuppofed owing to the ftreaming of the fun-beams through certain rimulz, or chinks; at leaft through the Vou. XXXVII. aire . more lax and open parts of a watery cloud, happening chiefly in the morning and evening. There is alfo another kind, confifting not of ftreams of mere white light, but, as it were, painted of various colours, like thofe of the rainbow. VIRGANTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Segufians, according to Ammianus Marcellinus. Strabo names it Brigantium : itis fo called by Ptolemy and Anton. Itin. : it is the prefent Briancon. : VIRGAO A cpa, atown of Hifpania Citerior, called'in Anton. Itin. Ureao, Vircao, and Virgav, and marked be- tween Calpurniana and Iliturgis. VIRGATA Surura, a term ufed by fome anatomifts for the fagittal future of the cranium. VirGata Terre, or Virga Terra, a yard-land. VIRGATORES Servientes, in Fleta, are vergers, or tip-itaves, who attend the judges. See VERGER, and SERJEANT at Arms. if VIRGI, or Urca, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, upon the gulf Virginitanus Sinus. VIRGIL, Pusrius Vircitrus Maro, in Biography, a celebrated Roman poet, whofe name is familiar to every claf- fical {cholar, was born in the year B.C. 70 at Andes, a village near Mantua, and liberally educated at Cremona, Milan, and Naples. His teacher in philofophy was named Syro, and the philofophy in which he was inftru€ted was the Epicurean. From his firft eclogue, in which*he is fuppofed to have re- lated his own adventures under the appellation of Tityrus, it appears that he firft vifited Rome in his 30th year for the purpofe of recovering lands that were in the poffeffion of the military belonging to O@avius and Antony, after the war againft the republicans ; and having been introdueed to OGtavius by Pollio, or fome other perfon, and to his fub- fequent patron Mecenas, he fucceeded in the obje@ of his vifit by their influence. His life, however, was endangered by the violence of the veteran who occupied his farm, and who refifted the furrender of it, fo that he was obliged to feek redrefs by another vifit to Rome, and to obtain an order for his reinftatement. His eclogues, which were completed in his 33d or 34th year, were very favourably received ; and in his 34th year he was induced by Meczenas to commence his Georgics ; and during a period of feven years, which he employed in the profecution of them, he refided chiefly at Naples. The latter years of his life were devoted to the Aineid. At this time he was ranked among thofe friends, who were particularly diftinguifhed by the attention and confidence of Auguftus. After the death of Marcellus, in the year B. C.23, he paid that admirable tribute to his memory, which occurs in the fixth book of the AEneid, and concerning which Donatus fays, that when it was recited before Auguttus, in the prefence of O&avia, the mother of the deceafed, as foon as the words * Tu Marcellus eris’? were pronounced, fhe fainted away ; and afterwards rewarded the poet with ten fefterces (above 80/. ) for each line of the paflage. After the completion of his ZEneid, Virgil went to Greece, with the view of further po- lifhing it ; and on this occafion Horace is fuppofed to have addreffed him with the third ode of his firft book, beginning s Sic, te Diva potens Cypri,” in which he exprefles the warmeft affeétion for his brother poet. At Athens he met with Auguitus, and propofed returning in his company ; but at Megara he was feized with a diforder, which detained him, as fome fay, at Brundufium, or, according to others, at Tarentum, and which foon terminated his life in the year B.C. 19, in the 52d year of his age. His remains were conveyed, in purfuance of his requeft, to Naples, and in- H terred VIR terred on the Puteolan way. On his death-bed he is faid to have expreffed a wifh that his /Eneid, which he regarded as an imperfeét work, might be committed to the flames ; bit it was faved either by the interpofition of his friends Tucca and Varus, who prevailed upon him to bequeath it to them, on the condition that they fhould make no altera- tion in it, or by the injunétions of Auguttus to his executors. His modefty, indicated by this wifh, was combined with other fimilar qualities. ‘* He was mild and gentle in his manners, unafluming in converfation, fincere and faithful in friendfhip, fo that he was fingularly beloved by Auguftus, Mecznas, and all the moft diftinguifhed perfons of that period.”? His poetical talents, as well as general character, were highly appreciated by his contemporaries, infomuch that whenfoever his verfes were recited in the theatre whilft he was prefent, the audience rofe up and paid him the refpect which was ufually manifefted to theemperor. His eminent merit has been alfo acknowledged by ancient and modern critics, and though they have differed in opinion as to his eculiar and diftinguifhing excellencies, they have generally agreed, as one of his moft judicious biographers has faid, “ in placing him upon one of the higheft feats in Parnaffus.”” Of the faculty of inyention he feems to have poffeffed a very moderate fhare, infomuch that his Bucolics, Georgics, and fEneid, abound with traces of imitation, and even of tranfla- tion ; but it is * in the diétion and phrafeology of poetry, in all that conftitutes the artift, that his chief excellence confitts ; and his admirers will not allow that the Virgilian fplendour and majefty of ftyle have ever been equalled.’’—* In two {pecies of compofition Virgil has afforded models to almoft all fucceeding poets, the dida¢tic and the epic.” His fame has been teftified by the numerous editions df his works, as well as the commentaries and tranflations which they have produced. The learned profeflor Heyne has given an ac- count of the various MSS. and editions of Virgil in his edition of Leipfic, 1788, which has been confidered by com- petent judges as the moft complete and valuable. For a de- {cription and charaéter of the Aineid, fee Ainerp. Vita Virgilii Ruziet Heynii. Gen. Biog. Virart, in Geography, a pott-townfhip of America, in the province of New York, and S.W. corner of Courtlandt county ; 10 miles S. of Homer, and 155 miles W. of Albany. It is ten miles fquare, well watered, and furnifhed with good roads; the foil is excellent ; the timber is maple, beech, bafs, elm, butter-nut, &c. with fome pine and hem- lock. In 1810, the population was 913; the fenatorial eleétors 77; and the whole amount of taxable property 84,351 dollars. VIRGILIA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by Lamarck to the great Latin poet, whofe Georgics may well claim for him this fort of commemoration, has taken place of the Virgilia of L” Heritier, Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 71, called by Lamarck and others Galardia. We fhall fubmit to the general determination ; for though L’Heritier thought M. Gaillard unworthy of diftinétion, he may be fcreened by a hoft of names, which certainly confer lefs honour upon their authors than their owners, however fmall the merits of the latter may be.—Lamarck Illuftr. t. 326. Poiret in Lamarck Dic. v. 8. 677. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3-4. Purfh 309.—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell- fhaped, two-lipped ; upper lip in two lefs deeply feparated fegments ; lower in three {preading ones ; the tube breaking off circularly juft above the bale. Cor. papilionaceous ; ftandard oval, afcending, not reflexed at the fides, emar- ss i ° ginate: wings oblong, direét, rather fhorter than the ftandard ; keel of two elliptic-oblong petals, nearly the length of the wings. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, dif- tinét, afcending, converging, the length of the keel which enfolds them ; anthers oval, notched. Pi/?. Germen fupe- rior, oblong, comprefled ; ftyle curved, the length of the ftamens ; itigma obtufe, eich Peric. Legume ob- long, compreffed, of one cell and two valves. Seeds feveral, orbicular, compreffed. Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped, with five unequal teeth. Corolla papilionaceous, nearly equal ; ftandard not reflexed at the fides. Stigma beardlefs. Legume comprefled, ob- long, with many feeds. 1. V. capenfis. Vetch-leaved Virgilia. Poiret in Lam. n. 1. Lam. fig. 2. Ait. n. 3. (Podalyria capenfis ; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 501. Sophora capenfis ; Linn. Mant. 67. Thunb. Prodr, 79. Andr. Repof. t. 347. S. oro- boides; Berg. Cap. 142.)—Stamens deciduous; woolly at the bafe. Germen downy. Keel acute. Leaflets lan- ceolate, downy beneath. Legume filky.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. The late Thomas Cornwall, efq. an affiduous cultivator of exotic plants, is faid by Mr. Aiton to have firft introduced this fpecies in 1767. The feeds have often been imported fince the plant, being frequent near Cape Town. It flowers with us in July and Auguit, being fheltered in winter in the greenhoufe. This is a tall fhrub, or {mall tree, having alternate pinnate /eaves, with an odd leaflet, like the whole genus. The /eaflets are very numerous, uniform, about an inch long, acute; fhining, and nearly fmooth, on the upper fide. //owers in ftalked, axil- lary, downy clufters, fhorter than the leaves, each half the fize of a common Sweet-pea, white, with a pink, lunate {pot on the flandard. Legume downy, two inches long, 2. V. aurea. Great-flowered Virgilia. Poir. in Lam. n.2. Lam. fig. 1. Ait.n.1. (Podalyria aurea; Willd. Sp. Pl. v.2. 502. Robinia fubdecandra ; L’Herit. Stirp. Nov. 157. t. 75.)—Stamens permanent. Germen downy. Leaflets elliptical, obtufe, pointlefs. Legume {fmooth.— Native of Abyflinia. Sent to Kew in 1777, by M. Thouin. A greenhoufe fhrub, flowering in July. The J/eaflets are full as numerous as in the foregoing, and longer, more elliptical and obtufe, {mooth on both fides; paler, and a little glaucous, at the back. //owers yellow, according to L’Heritier ; Poiret {ays white: the fize of the former, in axillary clufters as long as the leaves. Legume two or three inches long, quite fmooth. 3. V. intrufa. Small-flowered Virgilia. Br. in Ait. n. 2- —‘‘ Stamens permanent. Germen fmooth. Calyx concave externally at the bafe. Leaflets oval, obtufe, with a {mall point.’’—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence it was fent to Kew garden, by Mr. Maflon, about the year 1790. A greenhoufe fhrub, flowering moft part of the fummer. Aiton. 4. V. fecundiflora. Unilateral-flowered Virgilia. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 1. t. 401. Poir. in Lam. n. 3. (* Brouflonetia fecundiflora; Ortega Dec. 5. 61. t.7.’?)—Germen and legume downy. Calyx tapering at the bafe. Leaflets oval, obtufe, pointlefs.—Native of New Spain. It flowered at Madrid in April. We have a fpecimen from Cavanilles, but the plant has not yet found its way into the Englifh greenhoufes. The /fem is fhrubby, three feet or more in height, with ftout, round, finely downy branches. Leaflets rather fewer than in any of the reft, coriaceous, veiny, fmooth or very flightly filky, an inch long, feflile, moftly alternate, on a channelled common ftalk. C/ujfer terminal, denfe, of numerous flowers all turned one way, fearcely fo. 8 large VIR large as in the firft or fecond fpecies. Calyx finely filky, with fhallow divifions. Petals blue; the ffandard much paler than the reft. Stamens {mooth. Germen very filky. 5. V. lutea. Yellow American Virgilia. Purfh n. 1.— “ Leaflets alternate, ovate, fhort-pointed, fmooth. Cluiters elongated, pendulous. Legumes ftalked, flat.”.—On moun- tains between Georgia and Tennaflee. A handfome tree, much like our Laburnum, flowering in June. The bark ives a beautiful yellow dye. Pur/b. - VIRGILIAN Huspanpry. See Huspanpry. VIRGILIANZ Sorres. See Sorters. VIRGIN, Vrrco, a female who has had no carnal com- merce with a man; or, more properly, who has {till the fies virginis, or maidenhood. ‘ By the Mofaic law, the priefts are enjoined to take none to wife but thofe that are virgins ; the widow, the divorced, and the harlot, are to be refrained from. In the Roman breviary there is a particular office for virgins departed, anfwering to thofe of faints, martyrs, and confeflors. Viren is alfo applied, by way of eminence, to Mary the mother of our Saviour. Many of the fathers, with the modern churches, hold, that the Virgin not only conceived, but brought forth, or was delivered without breach of her virginity; otherwife, faith St. Auguftine, it would be falfe which is faid in the creed, that he was born of a virgin. It is even alleged that fhe ftill remained a virgin to the end of her life; whence the Greeks always called her as wapSevoc, ever Virgin Mary; and after them the Latins, /emper virgo. Though, as this is not recorded in Holy Writ, many have denied it; and held that fhe had afterwards to do with Jofeph, and bore other children ; and this as early as the time of Origen. Tertullian himfelf is produced as one that denied the perpetual virginity ; and the like may be faid of Apollinaris and Eunomius, with their followers. See An- TIDICOMARIANITES and HELVIDIANS. Viren, Charity of the Holy. See Cuariry. Viren, Nativity of the. See Nativity. Vircin, Prefentation of the. See PRESENTATION. Vireins of Love. See Mission. Virern is alfo applied, figuratively, to feveral things that retain their abfolute purity, and have never been made ufe of. Thus, Vircin Copper. See Copper. Vircin Gold. See Gorn. Virein Oil. See Virgin Ow. Virew Parchment. See PARCHMENT. VirGin Quick/filver, is that found perfe&tly formed, and fluid in the veins of mines ; or at leaft fuch as is got from the mineral earth, by mere lotion, without fire. “Virain Sulphur. See Sutpuur. Vircin Wax. See Virgin Wax. Vircin’s Bower, in Botany. See CLEMATIS. The leaves and flowers of the upright virgin’s bower, or clematis ere@a of Linnzus, called alfo fammula Jovis, and diftinguifhed by its pinnated oval leaves and ereét italk, are extremely acrid; the former, when frefh, raifing blifters on the part to which they are applied. This is one of the new medicines introduced by Dr. Stoerck. He has publifhed feveral cafes of its efficacy in cancerous, venereal, and other malignant ulcers, obftinate pains of the head and bones, inveterate itch, and other dif- eafes proceeding from peculiar acrimony. It was ufed in- ternally, in infufion of the flowers or leaves, and extract of the plants ; and the powder was fprinkled on the ulcers ex- ternally, where it was found to aét as a moft excellent efcha- rotic and detergent. VIR The medicine is faid to have proved diuretic to fome pa- tients, and fudorific to others, but rarely to have moved the belly. Small dofes, of only half a grain of the extra&t, and half a drachm of the dried leaves in infufion, were at firft ex- hibited, which were gradually increafed. Lewis. Virein’s Milk, in the Materia Medica, is a name given to a folution of benzoin in fpirits, mixed with twenty times its quantity, or more, of water, which renders it milky. It is faid to be of great fervice in diforders of the breaft, for refolving obftruGtions of the pulmonary veflels, and pro- moting expectoration. It is alfo ufed as a cof{metic. Vircin’s Milk. See Virgin’s Mux. Virein’s Thread, a fort of meteor that flies in the air, like {mall untwifted filk, and which falling upon the ground, or open plants, changes itfelf into a fubftance like atpidetts web. In thefe northern climates it is moft frequent in fummer ; the days being then temperately warm, the earth not ex- ceeding dry, nor yet overcharged with moifture. This has formerly paffed for a fort of dew of an earthy flimy nature ; but naturalifts are now agreed, that the vir- gin’s threads are no other than fo many {piders’ webs. Viren, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the S.E. coaft of South America, at the entrance into the Straits of Magellan. It was fo called by Magellan, becaufe he difcovered it on the feait of St. Urfula. S. lat. 52°24! W. long. 67° 52!. Viren Jflands, a group of iflands in the Welt Indies, E. of Porto Rico, extending 60 miles in length and upwards of 36 in breadth ; dangerous to navigators, though in the midft of them there is a bafin, 18 or 20 miles long, and 9 or 12 broad, in which fhips may anchor and be fheltered from all winds, called the ‘* Bay of Sir Francis Drake,”’ from his having paffed through them to St. Domingo. Some have erroneoufly fuppofed that the name was beftowed upon them, in 1580, by fir Francis Drake, in honour of queen Eliza- beth; but the faé& is, that thefe iflands were named ** Las Virgines”’ by Columbus himfelf, who difcovered them in 1493, and gave them this appellation, in allufion to the well- known legend in the Romifh church of the 11,000 virgins. After having been long negleéted by the Spaniards, they were vifited in 1596 by the earl of Cumberland, in his way to Porto Rico; and the hiftorian of that voyage defcribes them as “a haunt of little iflands, wholly uninhabited, fandy, barren, and craggy.’”? The whole group comprehend’ about 40 iflands, iflets, and keys, and they are at prefent divided between the Englifh, the Spaniards, and Danes. The Eng- lifh hold Tortola, and Virgin-Gorda, called Pennifton, and corruptly Spanifh-Town, in which are two very good har- bours ; Jofvan Dykes, Guana ifle, Beef and Thatch iflands, Anegada, Nicker, Prickly Pear, Camane’s, Ginger, Cooper’s, Salt ifland, Peter’s ifland, and feveral others of little value. The Danes poffefs Santa Cruz, or Sta. Croix (which fee), St. Thomas, with about twelve fmaller dependent iflands, and St. John, having the beft harbour of any ifland to the leeward of Antigua: and the Spaniards claim Crab ifland, the Green or Serpent ifland, the Tropic Keys, and Great and Little Paflage. 'Thofe iflands which now belong to the Britifh government were firft poffefled by a party of Dutch Buccaneers, who fixed themfelves at Tortola (which fee), and the Englifh title has remained. The colony ftruggled with diifeultics until the year 1773; when a petition was prefented to his majefty, requefting that the governor and council might be permitted to frame proper laws for their government and welfare; pledging themfelves, in fuch cafe, to grant to his majefty, his heirs and fucceffors, an impoft of 4% per cent., in {pecie, upon all commodities the growth of thefe iflands, fimilar to that which Hh 2 was VIR was paid in the other Leeward iflands. This application fucceeded ; and an affembly was convened Feb. 1. 1774, which honourably complied withstheir engagement to the crown. *They afterwards paffed a grant of 4oo/. currency per annum, as their proportion towards the falary of the governor-general. Such was the price at which the Virgin iflands purchafed the eftablifhment of a conftitutional legif- lature, The chief and almoft the only ftaple produétions of thefe iflands are fugar and cotton. Thefe iflands lie in about N. lat. 18° 20'; and the paflage through them is fafe, at W. by N. and W.N.W. as far as to the W. end of the fourth ifland. Edwards’s Hift. of the Weft Indies, vol. i. ~ Viren Rocks, rocks in the Atlantic, 60 miles S.E. of Cape Race, on the coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 46° 20’. W. long. 50°. VIRGINAL, is a keyed mufical inftrument of one firing, jack, and quill to each note, like a fpinet ; but in fhape refembling the prefent {mall piano-forte. It has been imagined to. have been invented in England during the reign of queen Elizabeth, and to have been thus denominated in honour of that virgin princefs ; but we have here not only a proof of its ufe in this kingdom before fhe was queen, but a drawing and defcription of it appeared in Lufcinius’s Mufurgia, before fhe was born. Dr. Johnfon imagines that this enhenede had its name from being chiefly cultivated by young ladies. VireinaL-Book of Queen Elizabeth. See Queen Eliza- beth, and Brrp. Vircrnat-Book of Lady Nevil. See Birv. For the firft mufic that was printed for the virginal, fee PARTHENTA. VIRGINALE Crausrrum, in Anatomy, the fame as hymen. VIRGINES, Las, Bay of, in Geography, a bay on the coaft of New Albion, between Cape Colne and Point Zuniga. VIRGINEUS Morsvs, the Virgin’s difeafe; the green- ficknefs, or chlorofis. VIRGIN-GORDA, in Geography. See Spanrsu-Town. VIRGINIA, one of the United States of America, fituated between 36° 30’ and 40° 43! N. lat., and 1° 4o! E. and 6°20! W. long. from Wafhington ; and bounded on the N. by Maryland, Pennfylvania, and Ohio; on the S. by North Carolina and Tenneflee ; on the E. by Maryland and the Atlantic ocean; and on the W. by Kentucky and Ohio. Its extent from N.'to S. is 220 side and from E. to W. 370 miles ; and its area about 64,000 {quare miles, or 40,960,000 acres. The number of inhabitants, deduced from the cenfus of 1810, and ftated by Mr. Melifh, is 974,622, as in the followingy Topographical Table. Counties. No. of Inhabitants. Chief Towns. Accomack >) 153743 Drummond. Albemarle - 18,268 Charlottefville. Amelia - 9- 10,594 Ambherit = - 105,548 New Glafgow. Auguita + - 14,308 Staunton. Bat mil f= 4,837 Warm Springs. Bedford - = 16,148 Liberty. Berkley = = © 11,479 Martinfburg. Botetourt - = 13,301 Fincaftle - - 700 Brooke - = 53843 Charleftown, Brunfwick ~ 15,411 Buckingham - 20,059 New Canton. Campbell “| 11,003 Lynchburg. Caroline - > + 175544 Port Royal - 1500 Charles City = 5,186 Gounties, No. of Inhabitants. Charlotte - - 13,161 Chefterfield = - 93979 Cumberland - 9,992 Culpeper - - 18,967 Cabell = p= 2,717 Dinwiddie - 125524 Elizabeth City - 3,608 Effex = hae 95376 Faquier - - 223689 Fairfax. -\ =. 13,101 Fluvanna -— - 4775 Frederick = pu 22h. Franklin - - 10,724 Gloucefter =, 10,427 Goochland = 10,203 Grayfon - - 45941 Greenbriar - 53914 Greenfville - 6,858 Giles - = 35745 Halifax) y=), =9) (22,132 Hampbhhire - 95784 Hanover - - ~~ 15,082 Hardy = he 52525 Harrifon - - 9,958 Henrico -— - 93945 Henry mi hae 5,611 Ifle of Wight - 9,186 James City - 9,094. Jefferffon - - 11,851 Kanhaway - 3,866 King and Queen 10,988 King George - 6,454. King William - 93285 Lancatter - 53592 ee ie y=” 2 ie 4,694 Loudon - - 21,338 Louifa - = 11,900 Lunenburg - 12,265 Madifon - - 8,38% Matthews - - 4227 Mecklinburg - 18,. Middlefex = - ee Monongalia - 12,793 Monroe - - 55444 Montgomery - 8,409 Mafon es 1,991 Nanfemond - 10,324 New Kent - 6,478 Norfolk County 13,679 Northampton - 79474 Northumberland 8,308 Nottaway - 9,278 Nelfon - - 9,684 Oho. eS ain 8,175 Orange - = 12,323 Patrick - - 4,695 Pendleton - - 45239 Pittfylvania - 17,172 Powhatan - 8,073 Priace Edward 12,409 Princefs Anne - 92498 Prince William 11,311 Prince George - 8,050 Randolph - 2,854. Richmond - 6,214 Rockbridge - 10,318 VIR Chief Towns. Maryfville. Manchefter. Carterfville. Fairfax. Peterfburgh - Hampton. ‘Tappahannock 600 Warrentown. : Centreville. Columbia. Winchefter - 2500 Rocky Mount. Greenfville. Lewifburg. Hicksford. South Bofton. Romney. Hanover. Moorfields. Clarkefburg. Richmond = Martinfville. Smithfield. , Williamfburg . - Charles Town. Charles Town. Dunkirk. 9735 7599 Delaware. Kalmarnock. Jonefyille. 5 Leefburgh - 400 Hungary. Madifon. St. Tammany. Urbanna. Morgan Town. Union Town. Chriftianfburg. Point Pleafant. Suffolk - - 350 Cumberland. Norfolk - - Bridge Town. Wheeling. Stannard{yille. Franklin. Danville. James Town. Kempiville. Haymarket. Beverley. Lexington - 400 Rocking- VIRGINIA. Counties. No. of Inhabitants. Chief Towns. Rockingham - 12,753 Roffel - - 6,316 Franklin. Shenandoah - 13,646 Woodttock. Southampton - 13,497 Jerufalem. Spotfylvania - 13,296 Frederickfburg © 1500 Stafford - - 9,830 Falmouth. Surry mn se 6,855 Cobham. Suffex - - — 11,362 Tazewell - ~ 3,007 Jefferfonville. Tyler* Warwick - - 1,835 Wafhington - 12,136 Abingdon. Weftmoreland - 8,102 Leeds. Wood’ a 3,036 Newport. 5 8,356 Evanfham. York se 5,187 York = os 700 City of Richmond 9,735 Norfolk Borough 9,193 Peterfburgh - 5,668 * Laid out fince laft cenfus. The afpe& of the country is different in various parts of it. On the eaftern fhore it is level, interfperfed with fwamps and meadows. In the middle it is mountainous, with many rich valleys, and on the weft fide hilly. With regard to the mountains, it is obferved, that they are not folitary, and fcattered confufedly over the face of the coun- try ; but they commence at about 150 miles from the fea- coaft, and are difpofed in ridges one behind another, run- ning nearly parallel to the fea-coaft, but rather approach- ing as they advance towards the N.E. To the S.W. the mountains converge into a fingle ridge, which as it ap- proaches the gulf of Mexico fubfides into plain country, and gives rife to fome of the waters of that gulf, and par- ticularly to a river called Apalachicola. Hence the moun- tains were denommated the Apalachian mountains, being in reality the termination only of the great. ridges oe es through the continent. The name, however, has been extended by European geographers; fome giving it, after their feparation into diferent ridges, to the Blue Ridge, others to the North mountains, others to the Alleghany, and others to the Laurel Ridge. The veins of lime-{tone, eoal, and other minerals, lie generally in the fame direGtion. But the courfes of the great rivers are at right angles with thefe. James and Potomac penetrate through all the ridges of mountains E. of the dlleghany (which fee), which is broken by no water-courfe, but is in reality the {pine of the country, between the Atlantic on one fide, and the Mifii- fippi and St. Laurence on the other. The paflage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge exhibits one of the moft ftupendous fcenes in nature. The only remarkable cafcade in this country, is that of the Falling Spring in the county of Auguita, formed by a water of James river, here called Jackfon’s river ; but it bears no comparifon with that of Niagara. In the lime-ftone country, there are feveral ex- tenfive caverns ; the moft noted of which is called Madifon’s cave, on the N. fide of the Blue Ridge. It extends into the earth about 300 feet, and branches into fubordinate ca- verns. There are alfo fome others, fuch as that near the North mountain, in the county of Frederick, and the Blowing cave, in the ridge which divides the waters of the Cow and Calf pafture; befides another of the fame kind with this laft in Cumberland mountain. But of all nature’s works, the moft fublime is the Natural Bridge; lying on the afcent of a hill which feems to have been cloven through its whole length by fome great convulfion. The fifflure juft at the. bridge is reekoned to be 270 feet deep, about 45 wide at the bottom, and go at the top, which is of courfe the length of the bridge, and its height above the water. Its breadth in the middle is about 60 feet, and the thicknefs of the mafs at the fummit of the arch about 40 feet. This bridge is in the county of Rockbridge. The ftream paffing under it is called Cedar creek, which is a water of James river. The minerals of this ftate are iron, coal, lime-ftone, and fome copper, black-lead, and gold. The ore from which gold was extraGted was found on the N. fide of Rappa- hannock, about four miles below the Falls. On the Great Kanhaway, in the county of Montgomery, are mines of lead ; the ore containing a {mall portion of filver not worth the pains of feparation. A valuabledead-mine is alfo faid to have been difcovered in Cumberland, below the mouth of Red river. A mine of copper was once opened in the county of Amherft, but the difcovery was not profecuted. There are feveral mines of iron, particularly two in the valley between the Blue Ridge and the North mountain. Confiderable quantities of black-lead are taken occafionally for ufe from Winterham, in the county of Amelia. Mi- neral coal of a very excellent quality is abundantly fupplied by the country on James river, from fifteen to twenty miles above Richmond, and for feveral miles northward and fouth- ward; alfo by the weftern country in fo many places, that the whole tra between the Laurel mountain, Miflifippi, and the Ohio, has been fuppofed to yield coal. On James river, at the mouth of Rockfifh, there is great abundance of good marble. There is known only one vein of lime- ftone below the Blue Ridge; from the Blue Ridge weft- wardly, the whole country feems to be founded on a rock of lime-ftone, which is cut into beds, and range, like the mountains and fea-coaft, from S.W. to N.E., the lamina of each bed declining from the horizon towards a parallelifm with the axis of the earth. Near the weftern foot of the North mountain are immenfe bodies of {chift, which com tain impreffions of {hells in a variety of forms. Mineral fprings ace numerous; but the moft efficacious of thefe are two in Auguifta, near the firft fources of James river, where it is called Jackfon’s river. One is called the Warm fpring, the other the Hot fpring. The {weet {prings are in the county of Botetourt, at the eaftern foot of the Alleghany, about forty-two miles from the warm {prings. On Potomac river, in Berkley county, above the North mountain, are medicinal fprings that are much more frequented than thofe of Augufta. At Richmond there is a weak chalybeate ; and it is faid that there are fulphur fprings, one on Howard’s creek of Greenbriar, and another at Boonfborough, on Kentucky. There is alfo in the low grounds of the Great Kanhaway, feven miles above, the mouth of Elk river, and fixty-feven above that of the Kan- haway itfelf, a hole in the earth, capable of holding thirty or forty gallons, from which iffues a gas or bituminous va- pour in fo flrong a current, as to caufe the fand about its orifice to exhibit the motion which it has in a boiling {pring ; and on prefenting a candle or lighted torch to it, it flames up in a column of eighteen inches in diameter, and four or five feet in height, and burns for feveral days: there is an- other fimilar to it on Sandy river, with a column of flame twelve inches in diameter, and three feet high. In this country there are alfo feveral fyphon fountains. The rivers of Virginia are the Potomac or Potow- mack, Shenandoah, Rappahannock, Mattapony, Pamunky, York, James, Rivannah, Appomattox, Elizabeth, Notta- way, Meherrin, Staunton, Ohio, Sandy, Great Kanhaway, Little Kanhaway, Monongahela, and Cheat. Several of 9 thefe VIRGINIA. thefe are navigable for veffels of various fizes, and to confi- derable diftances. The principal of them are feparately noticed under their re{peétive names. The /oil in the low part of the ftate is fandy, but rich on the banks of rivers: between the head of tide-waters and the mountains it is pretty good. The mountains are poor, and in various places incapable of culture, but they are in- terfperfed with many fertile valleys. Weft of the moun- tains the foil is generally good. Of the produce of this ftate, wheat and tobacco are the ftaples ; corn, rye, barley, buckwheat, hemp, flax, roots, grafs, fruit, indigo, and fome filk, are alfo cultivated. As to the climate, in the low country, the fummers are hot, and winters mild ; in the upper country, and among the mountains, the air is pure, and the weather pleafant : towards the weit, temperate. With refpe& to the flate of /iterature in Virginia, the col- lege of William and Mary is the only public feminary of learning. (See Coxrrece.) Befides this, it has a number of flourifhing academies ; one in Prince Edward county, one at Alexandria, one at Norfolk, one at Hanover, and others at other places. Since the declaration of independ- ence, the laws have been revifed, and one objeét in this revifal was the diffufion of knowledge more generally through the mafs of the people. The bill for this purpofe propofed to lay off every county into fmall diftricts of five or fix miles {quare, called hundreds, and in each of them to eftablifh a {chool for inftru€tion in reading, writing, and arithmetic. A\s to the religion of Virginia, we may obferve, that the firft fettlers were emigrants from England, belonging to the Englifh church ; and though they were flying from per- fecution, they manifefted a confiderable degree of intoler- ance: which was alfo the cafe with their Prefbyterian brethren, who had emigrated to the northern government ; and the Quakers, who were feeking an afylum from perfe- cution, experienced the effects of this intolerance. At the commencement of the late revolution, two-thirds of the people are faid to have become diffenters of one defcription or another. The prefent denominations of Chriftians in Virginia are, Prefbyterians, who are the moft numerous, and inhabit the weftern parts of the ftate; Epifcopalians, or, as Mr. Jefferfon calls them, ‘ Anglicans,’? who are the moft ancient fettlers, and occupy the eaftern and firft fettled parts of the ftate; and intermingled with thefe, Baptifts and Me- thodifts in great numbers. With regard to the charaéer of the Virginians, it is ob- ferved, that as a political and military body, they rank among the firit in the page of hiftory ; fome of them having been moit active in effecting the revolutions in America, and influencing the great mafs of the people, who would otherwife have in- dulged their indolence and indifference. Valuing themfelves on their inheriting the ancient dominion, they have thought themfelves entitled to the firft rank in the union, and with- out doubt they have reafon to boatt of their Wafhington.”? But Virginia, though claiming priority of the northern flates in point of age, is far from being equal to fome of them as to literary, mechanical, nautical, agricultural, and manufactural improvements. Allowing for fome few in- ftances, the Virginians have made very little progrefs in the arts and {ciences. Before the revolution they were repre- fented by travellers who paffed through their country as in- dolent and inaétive, fond of fociety, addigted to convivial pleafures, and of courfe indifpofed for any enterprife that expofed them to fatigue and danger. The authority which they exercifed over their flaves rendered them vain and im- perilous, and ftrangers to that elegance of f{entiment which is peculiarly charaéteriftic of refined and polifhed nations. Hence they were led to extravagance, oftentation, a difre- gard of economy, and inattention to bufinefs: they were haughty and jealous of their liberties, impatient of reftraint, and averfe from being controuled by any fuperior power. They are, however, liberal and generous ; and are ready to furnifh neceflary fupplies for the fupport of government, as well as for the purpofes of hofpitality. Their women are, upon the whole, handfome, though in this refpeét inferior to thofe of England: having few advantages, their accom- plifhments are inconfiderable, and their temper referved. The only amufement to which they are much addiéted is dancing, and it is almoft the only one of which they parti- cipate. The Virginians, fays a difcerning traveller cited by Morfe, are rich, and in general fenfible, polite, and hof- pitable, and of an independent fpirit : the poor are ignorant and abje& : but all are of an inquifitive turn, and in many other ref{peéis very much refemble the people in the eaftern ftates. They differ from them, however, in their morals : the former being much addiéted to gaming, drinking, {wearing, horfe-racing, cock-fighting, and moft kinds of diffipation. There is a much greater difference between the rich and poor in Virginia than in any of the northern ftates. As to the conflitution, and judiciary adminiftratton of Vir- ginia,-we obferve, that the executive powers are lodged in the hands of a governor, annually chofen, and incapable of acting more than three years in feven. He is affifted by a council of eight members. ‘The judiciary powers are di- vided among feveral courts. Legiflation 1s exercifed by two houfes of affembly ; the one called the houfe of delegates, compofed of two members from each county, chofen an- nually by the citizens poffeffing an eftate for life in 100 acres of uninhabited land, or 25 acres with a houfe upon it, orin a houfe or lot in fome town: the other called the fenate, confifting of twenty-four members, chofen qua- driennially by the fame eleGors, who for this purpofe are diftributed into twenty-four diftri€ts. The concurrence of both houfes is neceffary for pafling a law. There are three fuperior courts, to which appeals lie from the courts below ; viz. the high court of chancery, the general court, and the court of admiralty. There is one fupreme court, called the court of appeals, compofed of the judges of the three fu- perior courts, aflembling twice a year, at ftated times, at Richmond. It receives appeals in all civil cafes from each of the fuperior courts, and finally determines them ; but has no original juri{di@tion. In 1785, the aflembly ena¢ted that no man fhould be compelled to fupport any religious worfhip, place, or minifter whatfoever, nor be enforced, reftrained, molefted, or burdened in his body or goods, nor otherwife fuffer on account of his religious opinions or belief ; but that all men fhould be free to profefs, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion ; and that the fame fhould in no wife diminifh, enlarge, or affeét their civil capacities. In O@ober 1786, an att was pafled by the aflembly, prohibiting the importation of flaves into the com- monwealth, upon penalty of the forfeiture of the fum of 1000/. for every flave. And every flave imported contrary to the true intent and meaning of this aét, becomes free, Hiftory of Virginia.—In the year 1584, two patents were granted by queen Elizabeth, one to Adrian Gilbert (Feb. 6), the other to fir Walter Raleigh (March 25), for lands not poffefled by any Chriftian prince. Under the direGtion of fir Walter, two fhips were fent out, and in July, 1585, arrived on the coaft, anchoring in a harbour feven leagues W. of the Roanoke. On the 15th of July they took formal poffeffion of the country, and in honour of their virgin queen Eliza- beth, called it Virginia. Before this event the country was known VIR known by the general name of Florida ; afterwards Virginia became the common name for the whole of North America. In 1586, acolony ef more than one hundred people was fta- tioned at Roanoke, under the dire€&tion of captain Ralph Lane ; which colony endured extreme hardfhips, and mult have perifhed, if fir Francis Drake had not fortunately re- turned to Virginia, and carried them to England. In 1587, fir Walter fent another company to Virginia, under governor White, with a charter and twelve affiftants ; and in July this colony arrived at Roanoke, where 115 people were left at the old fettlement. In 1590, governor White came over again to Virginia, with fupplies and recruits for his colony ; but not a man was to be found, all having perifhed either by famine, or maffacred by the Indians. Some further unfuc- cefsful attempts were made for fettling this province. At length, in 1606, James I., by patent, divided Virginia into two colonies. The firft, under the name of South Virginia, was granted to the London company ; the northern, called the fecond colony, and known by the general name of North Virginia, was ghhated to the Plymouth company ; and each of thefe colonies had a council of thirteen men to govern them. The Plymouth colony broke up, after enduring many hardfhips, in 1608. In 1610, the South Virginia or Lon- don company fealed a patent to lord De la War, or De- laware, conftituting him governor and captain-general of South Virginia, and he foon after embarked for America with 150 men, in three fhips. From this time we may date the effetual fettlement of Virginia. By a marriage in April, 1613, of Mr. John Rolfe, a worthy young gentle- man, with Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, a fa- mous Indian chief, the conneétion, equally agreeable to the Englifh and the Indians, laid the foundation of a friendly and advantageous commerce between them. The defcendants of Pocahontas became the heads of fome of the moft refpeétable families in Virginia. Her brother-in-law, Tomocomo, ac- companied her to England, and on his return, being afked by Powhatan how many people there were in England, re- plied, “ count the {tars in the fy, the leaves on the trees, and the fands on the fea-fhore ; for fuch is the number of the people in England.” The government of Virginia was fet- tled in confequence of a charter obtained in 1609, on the 24th of July, 1621 ; but diflenfions afterwards occurred be- . tween the company to which the charter was granted and the king: infomuch that, partly by law, and partly by force, the company was outted of all its rights, without retribu- tion, after having expended 100,000/. in eftablifhing the co- lony. King James fufpended their powers by proclamation, July 15, 1624, and Charles I. took the government into his own hands. But this ftate of things did not continue for any long time ; for the northern parts of the country were granted away from the original proprietors to the lords Bal- timore and Fairfax, the firit of thefe obtaining the rights of feparate jurifdiGion and government. In 1650, the parlia- ment, conceiving itfelf as occupying the place and powers of the depofed king, began to affume and exercife a right over the colonies, by pafling an a& for prohibiting their trade with foreign nations. This colony, having maintained its oppofition to Cromwell and the parliament, was induced, in 1651, to lay down its arms, on condition of previoufly fecuring their moft effential rights by a folemn convention. This convention, as the colony imagined, enfured the an- cient limits of the country, its free trade, its exemption from taxation, except by its own aflembly, and exclufion of military forces. But this convention was violated in every particular by fubfequent kings and parliaments, until at laft refiftance on the part of this and of the other colonies terminated in an appeal-to arms; and this appeal being VIR ‘ crowned with fuccefs, they ifflued a declaration of their independence, in July 1776, and the fubfequent eftablifh- ment of their ‘** federal conftitution,”? to which Virginia ac- ceded after confiderable oppofition. See America and Unitep States. VirGinIA, a pott-town of the county of Cavan, Ireland, fituated on Lough Ramor ; 402 miles N.W. from Dublin. VIRGINIAN Acacia, in Botany. See Rosrnta. VirGINIAN Creeper. See CLEMATIS. VirGINIAN Guelder-Rofe. See Serra Opulifolia. VireIntaAn Poke. See Puyroracca Decandra. Virermian Silk. See Pertptoca. VIRGINIANA Botus, is a pure earth, of a compact texture, hard and heavy, of a pale red or rofe colour, va- riegated with veins of deep red, and often with large {pots and veins of bright yellow: it is of a glofly furface, does not colour the hands, adheres firmly to the tongue, melts with difficulty in the mouth, is of a rough aftringent tafte, leaves no grittinefs in the teeth, and is diffufible with diffi- culty in water. It burns in the fire to an almoft ftony hardnefs, without any change of colour. It is the produé of Pennfylvania, and moft parts of America. This kind of bole has not yet been ufed in medicine. VIRGINIS, Spica. See Spica. VIRGINITY, Virarniras, the teft or criterion of a virgin ; or that which entitles her to the denomination. In the firft ages of the Chriftian church, virginity grew into great honour and efteem, infomuch that the women were admitted to make folemn vows of it in public. Yet was it held infamious among the Jews for a woman to die a maid. Theveftals among the ancients, and the nuns or religious among the moderns, found guilty of a breach of the vow of virginity, are allotted a fevere punifhment ; the firft to be buried alive, the latter to be immured. The phyficians, both ancient and modern, are exceedingly divided upon the fubje& of virginity, fome holding that there are no certain marks or teftimonies of it ; and others that there are. Solomon fays exprefsly, there are four things too wonderful for him to know: “ the way of an eagle in the air; of a ferpent on the rock ; of a fhip in the midft of the fea; and the way of a man in a maid;”’ which our tranflators have rendered, lefs juftly, the way of a man with a maid. , Yet Mofes eftablifhed a teft, which was to be conclufive among the Jews. The nuptial fheets, it feems, were to be viewed by the relations on both fides : and the maid’s parents were to preferve them as a token of her virginity, to be produced, in cafe her hufband fhould ever reproach her on that feore. In cafe the token of virginity was not found on them, fhe was to be ftoned to death at her father’s door. This teft of virginity has occafioned abundance of fpecu- lation about the parts concerned; but the niceft enquiries cannot fettle any thing certain about them. Dr. Drake fays exprefsly, that, whatever might be expeted among the Jews, there is not the fame reafon to expeét thofe tokens of virginity in thefe countries; for, befides that the He- brews married extremely young, as is the cuftom in all the Ealtern countries, there are feveral circumftances which may here fruftrate fuch expe€tations, even in virgins not yitiated either by any male conta&t, or any wantonnefs of their own. In effe&, in thefe northern climates, the inclemency of the air expofes the fex to fuch checks of per{piration, as gives a great turn to the courfe of the humours, and drives fo much humidity through the parts, as may extraordinarily fupple : VIR fupple and relax thofe membranes from which «he refiftance is expected ; and from which, in hotter countries, it might more reafonably be depended on. What moft commonly paffes among us for the teft of vir- ginity 1s the hymen (which fee) ; and yet the moft curious among the anatomifts are greatly divided, not only about the figure, fubftance, place, and perforations of this famous membrane, but even about the exiftence of it, fome pofi- tively affirming, and others as flatly denying it. See Grne- RATION. As nice a point as that of virginity is among anatomitts, the midwives and matrons treat it with lefs diffidence. In the ftatutes of the fworn matrons, or midwives of Paris, containing likewife divers formulas of reports and depofitions made in court, upon their being called to vifit girls that made their complaint of being deflowered, they laid down four- teen marks on which to form a judgment. Laur. Joubart, a famous phyfician of Montpelier, has tranfcribed three of thefe reports ; one made to the provoft of Paris, another in Languedoc, and a third in Berne. Thefe reports are very confiftent with each other, and con- tain fourteen marks of virginity, expreffed in their proper terms, fuch as were received among the women in that pro- feffion, and authorized in court. M. Joubart does not explain thofe terms, nor do we find any explanation of them any where, but in another report, of the 23d of OGober, 1672, inferted in the Picture of Love of Vennette, a phyfician of Rochel. In Peru, and feveral other provinces in South America, we are aflured by Pedro de Cieca, m the hiftory of the Incas, &c. that the men never marry but on condition that the next relation or friend of the maid fhall undertake to en- joy her before him, and take away her virginity. And our countryman, Lawfon, relates the like 6f fome of the Indian nations of Carolind. So little is the flos virginis valued in fome places, VIRGINIUS RUFUS, L., in Biography, a diftin- guifhed Roman citizen and commander, whofe merit raifed him to the confulate in the reign of Nero, A.D. 63. When the Gauls revolted under Vindex, A.D. 68, he marched to Befancon, in order to refift his defigns. On this occafion the legions proclaimed him emperor, but he refufed the title, alleging that the difpoful of the empire belonged not to them, but to the fenate and people. After the death ef Nero, and the fucceffion of Galba, he was again foli- cited by the army to become a candidate for the empire, and he was threatened with death by one of the tribunes if he did not comply with the wifhes of the foldiers. But he refo- lutely refifted, and prevailed with them to acknowledge the new emperor. When Otho acquired temporary dominion, he endeavoured to engage the attachment of the Germanic legion, by conferring a fecond confulate, A.D. 69, on Vir- ginius, their old commander; and after his death, he was a third time urged by the foldiery to accept the empire, but he perfifted in refufing the offer. Upon Vitellius’s entrance into Rome, Virginius was very unjuftly fufpe@ed of a defign to affaffinate him ; and though Vitellius had no doubt of his innocence, it was not without great difficulty that he pre- ferved his life. From this time till the reign of Nerva he lived in retirement, calling the place of his retreat near Alaium “ the reft of his old age.’”? T'o Pliny the younger he was guardian, and was always regarded by him with filial veneration ; and at Rome he was refpected as one of the moft excellent of its citizens. ‘ He read,” according to the account given of him by Pliny, “ verfes and hiftories of which he was the fubjeét, and lived, as it were, with his own potterity ;” and Pliny relates the following inftance of VIR his love of hiftorical fidelity. Cluvius Rufus, an eminent hiftorian, faid to him, “ You are fenfible, Virginius, of the fidelity required in a writer of hiftory ; if, therefore, you meet with any thing in my work which is difpleafing to you, I requeft that you will pardon it.” He replied, “ Are you ignorant, Cluvius, that my purpofe, in doing what I have done, was that you writers might freely fay what you fhould think fit.”” In his eighty-third year Nerva honoured him by advanoing him to a third confulate, as his own colleague in that office. On this occafion he intended to deliver a dif- courfe, and whilft he was preparing at home for the recita- tion of it, a large book fell from Fis hand upon the floor ; and, in ftooping for it, his foot flipped, and in the fall he broke his thigh. The fraéture occafioned his death, A.D. 97. His remains were honoured with a public fune- ral, and his eulogy was pronounced by Cornelius Tacitus. The epitaph which he had written for himfelf was comprifed in two lines, and merely recorded one of the principal actions of his life, with its motive : a « Hic fitus eft Rufus, pulfo qui Vindice quondam Imperium afferuit, non fibi, fed patrie.”’ “¢ Here Rufus lies, who, by the repulfe of Vindex, fecured the empire, not for himfelf, but for his country.’? Crevier. Plin. Epift. Gen. Biog. VIRGO, in Afronomy, one of the figns or conftellations of the zodiac, into which the fun enters in the middle of Auguft. See ConsreLLation. The ftars in the conftellation Virgo, in Ptolemy’s cata- logue, are 32; in Tycho’s, 33 ; in Hevelius’s, 50; and in the Britannic, rro. VIRGULA, in Grammar, aterm which Latin, French, and fome other authors ufe for a point in writing, ufually called by us, comma. Virgulas, F. Simon obferves, are an invention of the mo- dern grammarians, to give the greater clearnefs to difcourfe. The ufe of them was unkifown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who wrote all without taking off the pen, fo that their books lie all together, without any diftin@tion of points and virgulas. Vircuta, or Virgola, in Mufic, the tail or ftem to a note. The firft notes in the old time-table had no tails till the minim was invented, which had a tail to diftinguifh it from the femi- breve, as the crotchet had a black head to diftinguifh it from the minim, of which the head is white, and the quaver a hook to the tail, to diftinguifh it from the crotchet, of which the tail was ftraight, &c. Vircura Divina, or Baculus divinatorius, aforked branch in form of a Y, cut ‘off a hazle-tree, by means of which people have pretended to difcover mines, {prings, &c. under round. The method of ufing it is this: the perfon who bears it walking very flowly over the places where he fufpe&ts mines or {prings may be, the effluvia exhaling from the metals, or vapour from the water, impregnating the wood, makes it dip or incline, which isa fignof a difcovery. We find no mention made of this virgula in any author before the 11th century ; but from that time it has been in frequent ufe. Divers fine names have been invented for it, fome calling it caduceus, others Aaron’s rod, &c. Some difpute the matter of fa&, and deny it to be pof- fible ; others, convinced by the great number of experi- ments alleged in its behalf, look out for the natural caufes of them. The corpufcles, fay thefe authors, rifing from the fprings, or minerals, entering the rod, determine it to bow down, in order to render it parallel to the yertical lines which the effuvia defcribe in their rife, ; n VIR In effe&t, the mineral or watery particles are fuppofed to be emitted by means of the fubterrancous heat, or of the fer- mentations-in the entrails of the earth : and the virgula, being of a light porous wood, gives an eafy paflage to thofe par- ticles, which are alfo very fine and fubtile ; the effluvia then driven forwards by thofe that follow them, and oppreffed, at the fame time, by the atmofphere incumbent on them, are forced to enter the little interftices at the fibres of the wood; and, by that effort, they oblige it to incline or dip down perpendicularly, to become parallel with the little columns which thofe vapours form in their rife. A late writer has recited no lefs than fix hundred experi- ments, made with all poffible attention and circumfpeétion, and feveral of which are very curious and extraordinary, in order to afcertain the facts attributed to the divining rod ; and he has alfo undertaken to unfold their refemblance to the admirable and uniform phenomena of eleGricity and mag- netifm. See M. Thouvenel’s Memoire Phyfique et Medi- cinale Montrant des Reports evidens entre les Phenomenes de la Baguette divinatoire, &c. 12mo. Paris, 1781. Mr. Pryce has colleGted feveral obfervations on the nature and ufe of the virgula divinatoria, in his Mineralog. Cornub. lib. iii. cap. 1. _ VIRGULARIA, in Botany, fo called from virga, in allufion to its flender wand-like branches, by the authors of the Flora Peruviana.—Poiret in'Lamarck Did. v. 8. 679.— Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scrophularie, Jul. - Gen, Ch. Ga/. Perianth inferior, bell-fhaped, permanent, fomewhat two-lipped, with ten angles, and five fharp {pread- ing teeth ; the two lowermoft a little diftant. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped, irregular ; tube a little recurved ; mouth inflated, gibbous: limb in five roundifh, concave fegments ; the two uppermoft fhorteft, afcending ; three lowermoft f{preading, the middle one narroweft. Stam. Filaments four, thread-fhaped, compreffed, hairy at their bafe, inferted into the tube, two of them fhorter than the reft; anthers in- elining, arrow-fhaped, of two cells. Pi? Germen fupe- vior, obovate ; ftyle awl-fhaped, recurved, as long as the corolla; ftigma oblong, comprefled, of two lobes, the uppermoft channelled, half fheathing the lewer. Peric. Cap- fule inyefted with the calyx, oval, obtufe with a point, with two furrows, two cloven valves, and two cells, the partition contrary. Seeds numerous, very {mall, inferted into a convex central receptacle, attached to each fide of the partition. - Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed, with ten angles. Corolla fomewhat bell-fhaped, irregular, recurved. Stigma with one lobe fheathing the other. Capfule of two cells, two valves, and a tran{verfe partition. Seeds numerous. This genus appears to come near Buddlea. It is faid to confift of only two known fpecies, natives of Peru, of a fhrubby habit, with numerous flender twigs. Neither of the {pecies has as yet been defcribed. VIRGULTUM, in our ancient Law-Books, is ufed for an holt, or plantation of twigs, or ofiers. Sometimes, alfo, for a coppice of young wood. “Et preterea concedo virgultum meum, et totam communiam dominii mei.’ Mon. Angl. In’asother place of the fame work, virgultum, or rather virgulta, may be taken for virgata; viz. “ Dedit prediGz ecclefie unam yirgultum terre in manerio de Crumptone.” See Yarp-Land. VIRIBALLUM, in Ancient Geography, 2 promontory on the wettern fide of the ifle of Corfica, between the gulf Cafulus and the mouth of the river Cicidius: fuppofed to be Punta di Adiazza. VoL. XX¥XVII. VIR VIRICONIUM. See Uniconium. VIRIDARIO Etntcenpo, in Law, a writ that lies for the choice of a verderor in the foreft. See VERDEROR. VIRIDE iris, the fame as zrugo, or verdigreafe, which fee. VIRIDELLUS, a word ufed by fome medical writers to exprefs the epilepfy, and, by fome of the chemical ones, as a name for the common green vitriol. VIRIEU, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere; 6 miles S.S.E. of La Tour du Pin. Virieu le Grand, a town of France, in the department of the Ain; 6 miles N. of Belley. VIRILE, fomething that belongs, or is peculiar to man, or the male fex. Thus, virile member, membrum virile, is frequently ufed for the penis. ViriLe Age, “tas virilis, is the flrength and vigour of a man’s age, viz. from thirty to forty-five years, which is an age in which we are equally removed from the extremes of youth and old age. See AcE. The civil lawyers.only make one age of youth and virility, and yet their different temperatures feem to require a diftinc- tion, for which reafon fome compare youth to fummer, and virility to autumn. At Rome, the youth quitted the pretexta at fourteen or fifteen years of age, and took the virile gown, toga virilis, to fhew, it feems, that they then entered on a ferious age. M. Dacier will have it, that children de not take the pra- texta till thirteen years of age, nor quit it for the toga virilis till feventeen. VIRILIA, a man’s genitals, or privy members, including the penis and teftes. See GENERATION. The cutting off the virilia, according to Braéton, was fe- lony by common law ; and that whether the party were confenting or not. “ Henricus Hall et A. uxor ejus capti et detentiin prifona de Evilchefter, eo quod reGtati fuerunt, quod ipfi abfcide- runt virilia Johannis Monachi, quem idem Henricus de- prehendit cum predié&ta A. uxore ejus.” Rot. Clauf. 13 Hen. III. VIRILIS Te/is Mufeulus, in Anatomy, a name given by Vefalius and others, to the mufcle generally known by the name of the crematter. ‘ VIRIMGAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 55 miles W. of Amedabad. , VIRITES, a name by which the writers of the middle ages have called the pyrites. 3 VIRIVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 12 miles N.N.W. of St. Mar- cellin. VIRNENBURG, a town of France, in the department of the Rhine and Mofelle, late capital of a county, to which it gave name; 20 miles W. of Coblentz. N. lat. 0° 27'. E. long. 6° 58). i VIROLA, in Botany, the vernacular name in Guiana of a fort of baftard Nutmeg-tree ; Aubl. Guian. goq. t- 345+ Juff. 81. (See Mynistica.) Aublet calls it VW. /ebifera, and deferibes it as a tree from thirty to fixty feet high, and above two feet in diameter, with numerous {preading branches. eaves alternate, ftalked, oblong, acute, entire, wavy, eight inches long; downy beneath. Flowers dioe- cious, in compound, denfe, axillary panicles. Anthers but three. Cap/ule globofe, pointed, coriaceous, of two valves, containing a /éed like a nutmeg, enveloped in a many-cleft tunic, like mace, and yielding a copious oily acrid fubftance, ufed for making candles.—This tree is common in Cayenne and Guiana. Swartz in his Fl. Ind. Occ 1129, and , li wil VaR Willd. in Sp, Pl. v. 4. 872, have referred it to Myriflica, by the fpecific name of febifera, where, notwithftanding our learned friend Mr. Brown’s doubts, we fhould think it ought to-remain. VIROSIDUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great Britain, thought by Camden to be Warwick, in Cumber- land. VIROVESSA, a town of Hifpania Citerior, S.E. of Julio-Brigduna, one of the ten cities of the Autrigones, ac- cording to Pliny. In the Itin. Anton. it is marked on the route from the Gauls to the place named Ad Legionem Geminum, between Segafamundum and Segefamona. Pto- lemy calls it Vireufta, and it is now named Briviefca. VIROVIACUM, a place marked in the Itin. Anton. between Caftellum and Turnacum, or Caflel and Tournai, at the fame diftance from both places. ¥ VIROUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Tinevelly 5.57 miles N.N.E. of Neermul. VIRPRINACH, a town of Iitria; g miles E.N.E. of Pea TRREIES, three {mall iflands among the Philippines. Ni lat. 13° 18.” E. long. 121° 48!. VIRSBO, a town of Sweden, in Weftmanland; 24 miles N. of Stroemfholm. VIRTON, atown of France, in the department of the Forefts; 10 miles S.W. of Arlon. “ VIRTSUNGIANUS Ductus, or Dudus Virt/ungit, fo called from the inventor, Virtfungius, a profeffor at Padua, in Anatomy, a canal, more ufually called dudus pancreaticus. See Pancreas and PANCREATIC Juice. VIRTU;, Ital. force, talents. VIRTUAL, Porentiat, fomething that has a power, or virtue, of aéting, or doing. The term is chiefly under‘tood of fomething that acts by a fecret invifible caufe, in oppofition to a@ual and /enfible. VirtvaL Focus, in Optics. See Focus. VIRTUALITY, Virtuatiras, inthe Schools, denotes fome mode or analogy in an objeét, which, in reality, is the fame with fome other mode, but, out of regard to contra- ditory predicates, is confidered as if diftin& from it. Andhence arife what we call virtual diftinGions, by which one virtuality is diftinguifhed from another, not one thing from another. : ‘Rhus it is, the divine nature is diftinguifhed from the di- vine perfon; and the divine underftanding from the divine will. VIRTUALLY, Virtuatirer, is applied to a mode of exiftence. A thing is faid to be virtually any where, when it is deemed to be there by fome virtue, influence, or other effe&t, produced by it. ‘Thus the fun is virtually on earth, 4. ¢. by his light, heat, &c. : A thing is alfo faid to be virtually prefent, when the vir- tues, or properties, belonging toit, and ifluing from it, fe- main.. In which fenfe, the forms of the elements are held to be virtually in mixed bodies. : A thing is alfo faid to be a caufe virtually, or a virtual eaufe, and that two ways : the firft, when there is no real diftinG@tion between it and the effeé& attributed to it; and yet it is conceived by us as if it were really the caufe of it. Thus, immutability in God is the caufe of eternity. Secondly, when any effet is not of the fame kind with the caufe, and yet the caufe has the power or virtue of pro- ducing the effe&t ; thus the fun is not formally, but vir- tually hot; and fire is not contained formally, but vir- tually, in heat. VIRTUE, Virtus, a term ufed in various fignifica- tions. In the general, it denotes power, or perfecion, of VDE any thing, whether natural or fupernatural, animate of inanimate, effential or acceffary. Hence the virtues, that is, the powers of God, angels, men, plants, eles ments, &c. } 2 By VirTUE, in its more proper and reftrained fenfe, is ufed by fome writers to fignify an habit, which improves and perfects the poffeffor and his 2@tions. Accordingly, in this fenfe of the term, virtue is a principle of ating or doing well and readily 5; ands there are two faculties or powers im man from which all his aGtions proceed, viz, the under- ftanding and the will, fo the virtue (as thefe authors fay}, by which he is perfe€ted, or by which he is difpofed ‘to do all things rightly, and to live happily, muft be two-fold ; the one of the underftanding, the other of the will. That which improves the underftanding, is called inte/le@ual, or dianoetic ; and that, the will, moral, or ethical. For, fince there are two things required in order to live aright, viz. to know what fhould be done, and, when known, readily to perform it; and fince man is apt to err various ways in each refpe@, unlefs regulated by difcipline, &c. he alone can deport him< felf rightly in his whole courfe of life, whofe underftanding and will have attained their utmoft perfe€tion. : = Virtue, Jntelle@ual, then, according to Ariftotle, is an habit of the reafonable foul, by which it conceives or {peaks the truth, either in affirming or denying. ; “ The virtues which come under this clafs are divided into Speculative, which are thofe converfant about neceflary things, that can only be known or contemplated ; and prac= tical, which are converfant about contingent things, that may likewife be praGtifed. Ariftotle has another divifion of intelleQual virtue, derived from the fubje&t; as fome of them are feated in the erisnuovxn, OF contemplative part ; viz. thofe converfant about- neceflary things, as /cience, wifdom, intelligence: and others ix the aoyisixn, or pradical part, {uch as thofe converfant about contingent things, as prudence, art, Xc. Hb tly Virtue, Moral, is defined by Ariftotle to be an ele@tive habit, placed in a mediocrity, determined by reafon, and as a prudent man would determine. See the fequel of this article. a We fhall here fubjoin as concife an account as poffible of the principal fyftems of morality or ethics that have been propofed by different writers, both ancient and modern, who have treated of this fubje@ ; from which the reader will be able to difcover the opinions that have chiefly pre- vailed with regard to the nature, foundation, and obligation of virtue, referring for a more extended and elaborate ac- count of the fubject to the article (Moral Puttosopuy. ~ * It may be proper to premife, that virtue has been diftin= guifhed into ab/fra& or abfolute, and relative or pra@ical virtue. Ab/rad virtue is, moft properly, a quality of the external action or event; and denotes what an aétion is, confidered independently of the fenfe of the agent; or what, in itfelf and abfolutely, it is right fuch an agent, in fuch circumftances, fhould do, and what, if he judged truly, he would judge he ought to do: PraGical virtue, on the contrary, has a neceffary relation to, and dependence upon, the fenfe and opinion of the agent concerning his aétions = or it fignifies what he ought to do, upon fuppofition of his having fuch and fuch fentiments of things. Agreeably to this diftin@tion, good actions have been by fome divided into fuch as are materially good, and fuch as are formally fo. The enquiry concerning the foundation of virtue refers to abfolute virtue : and if it be afked what the foundation of virtue is, we may mean either, what is the true account or reafon that fuch and fuch aétions are right, or apprehended as fuch by us; or, what are the primary ie at and ; eads VIRTUE. heads of virtue, 7. ¢. the confiderations inferring obligation in particular cafes, and rendering particular actions right and fit to be done; or, moreover, what are the motives, caufes, and reafons, which engage or attach us to it, and fupport the practice of it in the world. In this laft fenfe the term maft be ufed by thofe who reprefent the will of God, felf-intereft, the reafons of things, and the moral fenfe, as all diftin@ and coincident foundations of virtue. - An ingenious writer, in forming his arrangement of the different fyftems of moral philofophy, of which we fhall here avail ourfelves, obferves, that in treating of the princi- ples of morals, there are two queftions to be confidered ; firft, wherein does virtue confift, or what, in temper and condu&, conftitutes the excellent and laudable character ? and fecondly, by what power of the mind is this character, whatever it be, recommended to us? The firft queftion is examined when we confider whether virtue confifts in bene- volence, as Dr. Hutchefon imagines ; or in aéting fuitably to the different relations of perfons and things, as Dr. Clarke fuppofes ; or in a conformity to the will of God ; or in the prudent purfuit of our own true happinefs, as others have maintained. In reference to the fecond queftion we confider, whether the virtuous charaéter, whatever it confifts in, be recommended to us by felf-love, which makes us perceive that this chara¢ter, both in ourfelves and others, tends moft to. promote our own private intereft; or by reafon, which points. out to us the difference between one charaGter and another, in the fame manner as it does that between truth and falfehood; or by a peculiar power of perception, called a moral fenfe, which this virtuous cha- ra¢ter gratifies and pleafes, as the contrary difgufts and dif- pleafes it; or laftly, by fome other principle in human nature, fuch as the modification of fympathy, or the like. _ The different accounts which have been given of the nature of virtue, may be reduced to three different clafles. According to fome, virtue, or the virtuous temper of mind, does not confift in any one f{pecies of affeGtions, but in the proper government and direétion of all our affections, which may be either virtuous or vicious, according to the objecis which they purfue, the principles and motives that direét the purfuit of them, and the degree of vehemence with which they purfue them. According to thefe authors, therefore, virtue confifts in propriety. _ According to others, virtue confifts in the judicious pur- {uit of our own private intereft and happinefs, or in the proper government and dire€tion of thofe felfifh affeétions which aim folely at this end. In the opinion of thefe authors, virtue confilts in prudence. ; Others again make virtue confift in thofe affeCtions only which aim at the happinefs of others, not in thofe which aim at our own. According to them, therefore, difin- terefted beneyolence is the only motive which can ftamp upon any aétion the charaéter of virtue. According to Plato, Ariftotle, and Zeno, virtue confifts in propriety of conduét, or in the fuitablenefs of the af- feGtion from which we a& to the objeét which excites it. In the fyftem of Plato, reafon is the judging and ruling faculty ; and virtue, according to him, confifts in that ftate of mind in which every faculty confines itfelf. within its proper fphere, without encroaching on that of any other, and performs its proper office with that precife degree of vigour which belongs to it : or, in other words, virtue con- fifts in propriety of condud. ai Virtue, according to Amftotle, (as we have already fiated,) confifts in the habit of mediocrity, according to vight reafon ; every particular virtue lying in a kind of medium between two oppofite vices; and thus, by making . good ations ; and the habit, after them. virtue to confit in practical habits, he probably had in view to oppofe the doGtring of Plato, who feems to have thought that juft fentiments concerning what was fit to be done.or avoided were of themfelves fufficient to conftitute the moft perfect virtue. Ariftotle, on the contrary, was of opinion, ~ that no conviétion of the underftanding was capable of getting the better of inveterate habits, and that good morals arofe not from knowledge but from ation. Others difallow the Peripatetic notion of virtuc, as placed in a habit: for a habit, or hability, fay they, in- cludes two things ; a cuftom, and facility ; the firft as a caufe, and the fecond as an effet: fo that a habit is. nothing but a facility acquired by cuftom. They, there- fore, who make virtue a habit of doing well, muft, of ne- ceflity, afcribe it to a frequent ee a of good actions. But this cannot be; for the virtue muft be before the Indeed, whence fhould the actions proceed, but from yirtue? . Virtue, therefore, is before the good aétions, and, certainly, before a habit, refulting from a frequency of good actions. Hence, they define virtue to be a firm purpofe, or refolution, of doing whatever right reafon demands to be done. — For, though a cuftom of doing well be required to make a perfon efteemed good among men; yet it does not follow that that cuftom, or habit, is the formal caufe of that de- nomination, or the goodnefs itfelf. . Befides, from the definition of Ariftotle, none can know what virtue is ; for what mediocrity is, or what an extreme, in which he fuppofes vice to confift, can never be deter- mined, till we know what is agreeable to the nature of things ; and, moreover, the definition is faulty, becaufe there are fome branches of virtue which cannot be carried to an extreme. In this conne@tion we may obferve, that as on various oc- cafions mankind a& more from habit than refleétion, and that they are in a great degree paffive under their habits, the exercife of virtue, the guilt of vice, or the ufe of moral and religious knowledge, confift in forming and contracting thefe habits. Hence it appears, that it is in many cafesa very important and ufeful principle of virtue (fee Hazrr) ; and we fhall thus be able to explain the nature of Aabitual virtue. Whatever definition of virtue we may adopt, a man may, in fact, perform many aéts that jultly merit the denomination of virtuous, without thinking at. the time of the principle from which he aéts ; whether it be reCtitude, benevolence, a regard to the will of God, or a view to his own happinefs. According to Zeno and the Stoics, virtue confifted in choofing and rejeéting all different objeéts and circum- {tances according as they were by nature rendered more or lefs the objets of choice or rejection; in feleGing thofe which were moft to be chofen, when all could not be ob- tained ; and in feleGting thofe which were leaft to be avoided, when all could not be avoided. This conftituted the effence of virtue, and was what the Stoics called to live confiftently, to live according to nature, and to obey thofe laws which nature, or the Author of nature, preferibed for our conduét : and in this courfe, they required the. moft perfe&t apathy, and confidered every emotion which might in the {malleft degree difturb the tranquillity of the mind, as the effeét of levity and folly. Befides thefe ancient there are fome modern fyftems, ac-~ cording to which virtue confilts in propriety ; or in the fuitablenefs of the affe€tion from which we aét, to the caufe or objeét which excites it. ,The fyftem of Dr. Clarke, Mr. Balguy, and other writers, which places virtue in aGting according to the relations of perfons and liz things, VIRTUE, things, in regulating our conduct according to the fitnefs or incongruity which there may be in the application of certain aétions to certain things, or to certain relations : that of Mr. Grove and others, who explain virtue by faying, that it is the conformity of our actions to rea- fon or wifdom ; that of many others, who reprefent it as originating in a regard to the will of God; that of Mr. Wollafton, which places it in a€ting according to the truth of things, actions as well as words having a language, fo that when this aGtion is agreeable to the nature of things, the action is virtuous, and when it implies a falfe affertion, wicious ; that of lord Shaftefbury, which places it in main- taining a proper balance of the affeGtions, and allowing no paffion to go beyond its proper {phere, or in a certain juft difpofition of a rational creature towards the moral obje&s of right and wrong : are all of them reducible to the fame fundamental idea of propriety, as it has been explained. The moft ancient of thofe fyftems, which make virtue confift in prudence, is that of Epiourus, who maintained that bodily pleafure and pain were the fole ultimate objects of natural defire and averfion, and were the fources of thofe of the mind ; and who placed the moft perfeé& happinefs which man was capable of enjoying in eafe of body, and in tran- quillity of mind. According to him, virtue did not deferve to be purfued for its own fake, nor was itfelf one of the ultimate objeéts of natural appetite, but was eligible on account of its tendency to prevent pain, and to procure eafe and pleafure. Among our modern writers on the fub- je& of morality, there have been fome who have placed all virtue in a aye regard to our own intereft : this feems to have been the opinion of Dr. Waterland, Dr. Rutherford, &c. The fyftem which makes virtue confift in benevolence, feems to have been the doétrine of moft of thofe philofo- phers who, about and after the age of Auguitus, called themfelves Ecle&tics, who pretended to follow chiefly the epinions of Plato and Pythagoras, and who are commonly known by the name of the later Platonifts. In the divine nature, according to them, benevolence was the fole princi- ple of ation, and direéted the exertion of all the other at- tributes. The wifdom of the Deity was employed in finding out the means for bringing about thofe ends which his good- nefs fuggefted, as his infinite power was exerted to execute them. Benevolence, however, was a fupreme and governing attribute, to which the others were fubfervient, and from which the whole excellency of the divine operations was ultimately derived. The whole perfection and virtue of the human mind confifted in fome refemblance and participation of the divine perfe@tions, and, confequently, in being filled with the fame principle of benevolence, which influenced all the ations of the Deity. This fyftem, as it was much efteemed by many of the ancient fathers of the church, was, after the Reformation, adopted by feveral divines of the moft eminent piety and learning, and of the moft amiable manners ; particularly by Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Dr. Henry More, and Mr. John Smith, of Cambridge. Mr. Bayes has alfo more lately confidered benevolence as the fpring of the divine ations ; whilft Mr. Balguy referred them all to rec- titude, and Mr. Grove to wifdom. The fubjeét was ably canvafled by thefe writers, and feveral excellent pamphlets publifhed on the occafion, But of all the patrons of the le of benevolence, the late Dr. Hutchefon purfued it to the greateft extent, and with diftinguifhed acutenefs and ac- curacy. Accordingly, he defines moral goodnefs to be a quality apprehended in fome aétions, which produces appro- bation and love towards the a@tor, from thofe who recéive no benefit from the a€tion ; and he obferves, that the mix- 12 ture of any felfifh motive diminifhes or altogether deftroys the merit which would otherwife have belonged to any ac- tion, and, therefore, that virtue muft confift in pure and dif- interefted benevolence alone. Others, and particularly Dr. Cumberland, in his Law of Nature, have placed the whole of virtue in the love of God and our fellow-creatures: to this purpofe he obferves (De Legat. Nat. cap. i. fe&. 4.), the foundation of all natural law is this, that the greateft benevolence of every rational agent towards all forms the happieft {tate of every and of all the benevolent, as far as is in their power, and is neceffarily requifite to the happieft ftate which they can attain; and, therefore, the common good is the fupreme law. Archdeacon Paley, defervedly efteemed as one of our moft popular modern writers, defines virtue to be ‘ the doing good to mankind, in obedience te the will of God, and for the fake of everlafting happinefs.”? Accord- ing to this definition, in our judgment partly juft and partly erroneous (fee Moral Puttosorny ), but comprehending the fentiments of thofe who refer virtue to benevolence, to the will of God, and to a regard to their own happinefs, the good of mankind is the fubjeét, the will of God the rule, and everlafting happinefs the motive of human virtue. The three ace above recited comprehend the principal accounts which have been given of the nature of virtue. Teo one or other of thefe, all the other definitions or defcriptions of virtue, how different foever they may appear, are eafily reducible. That fyftem which places virtue in obedience to the will of the Deity, may be counted among thofe which makes it confift in prudence, or among thofe which make it confift in propriety. When it is afked, why we ought to obey the will of the Deity, the queftion can admit but of two different anfwers. It muft either be faid, that we ought to obey the will of the Deity becaufe he is a being of infinite power, who will recompence or punifh: or it muft be faid, that, independent of any regard to our own happinefs, or to rewards and punifhments of any kind, there is a congruity and fitnefs that a creature fhould sj its Creator, and a limited imperfeét being fubmit to one of in- finite perfe€tion. In the firft cafe, virtue confifts in pru- dence, or in the proper purfuit of our own final and fu- preme intereft ; fince it is upon this account that we are obliged to obey the will of the Deity : and in the latter cafe, virtue muft confift in propriety ; fince the ground of our obligation to obedience is the fuitablenefs or congruity of the fentiments of humility and fubmiffion to the fuperiority of the objet which excites them. That fyftem which places virtue in utility, coincides too with that which makes it con- fift in propriety. All the fyftems above recited fuppofe, that there is a real and effential diftinétion between virtue and vice, whatever thefe qualities may confift in. There is a real and effential difference between the propriety and impropriety of any affe€tion ; between benevolence and any other principle of action ; between real prudence and fhort-fighted folly or precipitate rafhnefs. And the general tendency of all thefe fyftems is to encourage the beit and moft laudable difpo- fitions and habits. There are, however, fome other fyftems, which feem alto- gether to annihilate the diftin@tion between vice and virtue, and the tendency of which is, therefore, wholly pernicious ; fuch are the fyftems of Rochefoucault, and Mandeville, who afcribes a€tions commonly accounted virtuous to the fri- volous motive of vanity: treating every thing as vanity that has any reference to what are, or ought to be the fentiments of others; and by means of {uch fophiftry he eftablifhes his favourite conclufion, that private vices are public benefits. After the enquiry concerning the nature of virtue, the next VIRTUE. flext queftion of importance in moral philofophy concerns the principle of approbation (which fee), or that faculty of the mind which renders certain charaGters agreeable or dif- agreeable to us, makes us prefer one tenor of conduét to another, denominate the one right and the other wrong, and confider the one as the obje&t of approbation, honour, and reverence, and the other as that of blame, cenfure, and pu- nifhment. Three different accounts have been given of this principle of approbation. According to fome, we approve and difapprove both of our own aétions and of thofe of others, from felf-love only, or from fome view of their ten- dency to our own happinefs or difadvantage. (See Uri- tity.) According to others, reafon, the fame faculty by which we diftinguifh between truth and falfehood, enables us to diftinguifh between what is fit and unfit both in actions and affeétions ; according to others, this diftinétion is alto- gether the effef&t of immediate fentiment and feeling, and arifes from the fatisfa@tion or difguft with which the view of certain actions or affeCtion infpires us. Thofe who account for the principle of approbation from felf-love, differ in their reprefentation of its influence. Ac- cording to Mr. Hobbes, and many of his followers, man is driven to take refuge in fociety, not by any natural love which he bears to his own kind, but becaufe without the affiftance of others, he is incapable of fubfifting with eafe or fafety : virtue being the great fupport, and vice the great difturber of human fociety, whence the former ea pleafes, and the latter is as naturally offenfive. Moreover, a Rate of nature, according to Mr. Hobbes, being a ftate of war, fo that antecedent to the conftitution of civil go- - vernment, there could be no fafe and peaceable fociety among men; to preferve fociety, was to fupport civil govern- ment, and the fupport of civil government depends upon the obedience that is paid to the fupreme magiltrate ; hence it was inferred, that the laws of the civil magiftrate ought to be regarded as the fole ultimate ftandard of what was jul and unjuft, right and wrong. See Hossism. In order to confute fo odious a doétrine, it was neceflary to prove, that antecedent to all law or pofitive inftitution, the mind was naturally endowed with a faculty, by which it diftinguifhed in certain aGtions and affeCtions the qualities of right, laudable, and virtuous, and in others, thofe of wrong, blameable, and vicious. This faculty was reafon, which pointed out the difference between right and wrong, in the fame manner in which it did between truth and falfehood. Right and wrong, it is argued, denote fimple ideas, and are, therefore, to be afcribed to fome immediate power of per- ception in the human mind, which power is the underftand- ing. Befides, all aétions have a nature ; fome character be- longs to them, and there is fomething that may be affirmed of them, i. ¢. fome are right and others wrong. But if our ations are, in themfelves, either right or wrong, or any thing of a moral and obligatory nature, which can be an object to the underftanding, it muft follow that in themfelves they are all indifferent. From fuch reafoning it follows, that morality is eternal and immutable: becaufe right and wrong denote what adtions are; and whatever any thing is, that it is not by will, or decree, or power, but by nature and neceffity. No will can render any thing good and obligatory, which was not fo antecedently and from eternity ; or any aétion right, that is not fo in itfelf. In this view of it, morality appears not to be, in any fenfe, faétitious, or the arbitrary produGtion of any power, human or divine; but equally everlafting and neceflary with all truth and reafon. Some have fuppofed, however, that, in men, the rational principle, or the intelle€tual difcernment of right and wrong, fhould be aided by fomewhat inftin@tive. Of this number is Dr. Price, who, in his reafoning concerning the original of our ideas of the beauty and deformity of actions, obferves, that in contem- plating the aétions and affections of moral agents, we have both a perception of the underftanding, and a feeling of the heart ; and that the latter, or the effects in us accompanying our moral perceptions, are deducible from two {prings; they partly depend on the pofitive conftitution of our natures, but the moft fteady and univerfal ground of them is the effential congruity or incongruity between the obje@& and faculty ; in other words, placet /uapte natura—virtus: Sens or, Etiamfi @ nullo laudetur, natura eft laudabile. Tully. See Common SENSE. This leads us to mention thofe fyftems which make fen- timent the principle of approbation; thefe may be diftri- buted into two different claffes. : According to fome, the principle of approbation is founded upon a fentiment of a peculiar nature, upon a par- ticular power of perception exerted by the mind at the view of certain a€tions and affeCtions; fome of which affecting this faculty in an agreeable, and others in a difagreeable manner, the former are ftamped with the charaéters of right, laudable, and virtuous ; the latter with thofe of wrong, blameable, and vicious. This feptiment being of a peculiar nature, diftin& from every other, and the effe& of a particular poWer of percep- tion, they give it a particular name, and call’ it a moral fenfe. Dr. Hutchefon, having taken great pains to prove that the principle of approbation was not founded on felf-love, and that it could not arife from any operation of reafon, fuppofed it to be a faculty of a peculiar kind, with which nature had endowed the human mind, in order to produce this particular and important effet. This power, which he called a moral fenfe, he fuppofed to be fomewhat analogous to the external fenfes. According to his fyftem, the various fenfes or powers of perception, from which the human mind derives all its fimple ideas, were of two different kinds, of which one were called the dire€&t or antecedent, the other the reflex or confequent fenfes. The dire&t fenfes were thofe faculties from which the mind derived the perception of fuch {pecies of things, e. gr. founds and colours, as did not pre-fuppofe the ante- cedent perception of any other quality or obje&t. The re- flex or confequent fenfes, were thofe faculties from which the mind derived the perception of fuch {pecies of things as pre-fuppofed the antecedent perception of fome other ; fuch as harmony and beauty. The moral fenfe was confidered as a faculty of this kind. That faculty, which Mr. Locke calls reflection, and from which he derived the fimple ideas of the different paffions and emotions of the human mind, was according to Dr. Hutchefon a dire& internal fenfe. That faculty again, by which we perceived the beauty or deformity, the virtue or vice of thofe different paflions and emotions, was a reflex internal fenfe. Dr. Hutchefon endeavoured ftill farther to fupport this doétrine, by fhewing that it was agreeable to the analogy of nature, and that the mind was endowed with a variety of other reflex fenfes exaétly fimilar to the moral fenfe; fuch as a fenfe of beauty and deformity in external objets; 2 public fenfe, by which we fympathize with the happinefs or mifery of our fellow-creatures; a fenfe of fhame and ho- nefty, and a fenfe of ridicule. To this fyftem it has been objeted, that it makes virtue an arbitrary thing, depending on the pofitive conftitution of our minds ; that right and wrong are only qualities of oar minds and fenfations, depending on the particular frame and ftructure VIRTUE. ftruGure of our natures, which have no other meafure or ftandard befides every one’s private ftruéture of mind and fenfations ; that it implies, that a creature with intelligence, reafon, and liberty, could not have performed one good ac- tion, without that inftin@tive affeGtion to which Dr. Hutche- fon afcribes every good aGtion; that it makes brutes capa- ble of virtue, becaufe they are capable of affe€tions ; that it eftimates the excellency of charaéters by the ftrength of paflions, by no means in our power; and that, upon the whole, it gives us a much lefs honourable idea of virtue than other fyftems, which make it to confift in the agreement of the actions of an intelligent being, with the nature, circum- ftances, and relations of things, and of which reafon is the judge. : We fhall only add, that the opinion of thofe who maintain our ideas of morality to be derived from fenfe, is far from being entirely modern. There were, among the ancients, philofophers, particularly Protagoras and his followers, who entertained a like opinion, but extended it much farther, that is, to all fcience, denying all abfolute and immutable truth, and afferting every thing to be relative to perception. According to others, who afcribe the principle of appro- bation to fentiment, there is no occafion for fuppofing any new power of perception; nature acting in this, as in other cafes, with the ftri€teft economy, and producing amul- titude of effects from one and the fame caufe; and there- fore, fympathy, they fay, a power which has always been taken notice of, and with which the mind is manifeftly en- dowed, is fufficient to account for all the effets afcribed to this peculiar faculty.’ Of this number is Dr. Adam Smith. (See Sympatuy.) See alfo Smith’s Theory of Moral Sen- timents, paflim; and particularly part i. feét. 1, 2, 3. The term ob/igation of virtue, or moral obligation, fre- quently occurs among moral writers; and it is very differ- ently defined and explained. Mr. Balguy defines obligation to be a ftate of the mind into which it is brought by per- ceiving a reafon for action ; but an excellent writer obferves, that this is the effet of obligation perceived, rather than obligation itfelf. Other writers, with Dr. Cumberland, have defined obliga- tion the neceflity of doing a thing in order to be happy : but if this be the only fenfe of obligation, what is meant when we fay, a man is obliged to ftudy his own happinefs? In this cafe we can-only mean, that it is right to ftudy our own happinefs, and wrong to negleé it. Dr. Warburton maintains, that moral obligation always denotes fome object of will or law, or implies fome obliger ; and accordingly, the word obligation fignifies only the par- ticular fitnefs of obeying the divine will, and cannot pro- perly be applied to any other fitnefs, which is reftraining the fenfe of the word in a manner unwarranted by the common ufe of it. Moral obligation, fays Dr. Paley, is like all other obliga- tions ; and all obligation is nothing more than an inducement of fufficient ftrength, and refulting, in fome way, from the command of another. As the willof God is our rule, to inquire what is our duty, or what we are obliged to do, in any ‘inftance, is, in effe@t, to inquire, what is the will of God in that inftance? Thisis to be determined either by his exprefs declarations, which muft be fought for in {cripture, or by the light of nature, i. e. what we can difcover of his defigns and difpofition from his works ; and therefore it is abfurd to feparate natural and revealed religion from one another. ‘ Mr. Hume, in his fourth Appendix to his Principles of Morals, has been pleafed to complain of the modern {cheme of uniting ethics with the Chriftian theology. They who find themfelves difpofed to join in this complaint will do well to obferve what Mr. Hume himfelf has been able to make of morality without this union. And for that pur- pofe, let them read the fecond part of the ninth fe@tion of the above eflay ; which part contains the pratical applica- tion of the whole treatife,—a treatife, which Mr. Hume declares to be ‘* incomparably the belt he ever wrote.?? When they have read it over, let them confider, whether any motives there propofed are likely to be found fufficient to withhold men from the gratification of luft, revenge, envy, ambition, avarice, or to prevent the exiftence of thefe paflions. Unlefs they rife up from this celebrated eflay, fays archdeacon Paley, with ftronger impreflions upon their. minds, than it ever left upon mine, they will acknowledge the neceffity of additional fan@tions. But the neceffity of thefe fan€tions is not now the queftion. If they be ia fa@ eftablifoed, if the rewards and punifhments held forth in the gofpel will aGtually come to pafs,' they muff be confidered. Such as reje&t the Chriftian religion are to make the beft fhift they can to build up a fyitem, and lay the founda- tions of morality without it. But it appears to be a great inconfiftency in thofe who receive Chriftianity, and expe& fomething to come of it, to endeavour to keep all fuch ex- pectations out of fight in their reafonings concerning huma duty. Dr. Hutchefon fays, a perfon is obliged to an attion, when every fpectator, or he himfelf, upon refie€tion, muft approve his a¢tion, and difapprove omitting it. Obligation to act, however, and reflex approbation or difapprobation, do, in one fenfe, always accompany and imply one another ; yet they feem as different as an aét and an objet of the mind, or as perception and the truth perceived. After all it'may be obferved, that however varioufly and loofely this word may be ufed, its primary and original fignification coincides with rectitude ; right implies duty in its idea, fo that to perceive an a¢tion to be right, is to fee a reafon for the doing it in the aétion itfelf, abftrafted from all other confiderations whatever ; and this perception, this acknowledged reGtitude in the ation, is the very eflence of this obligation, or that which commands the approbation and choice, or binds the confcience of every rational being. See Price’s Review of the Principal Queftions, &c. in Morals, chap. vi. ; Adams’s Sermon on the Nature and Obligation of Virtue ; and Paley’s Principles of Moral and Political Philofophy, vol. i. Moralifts ufually diftinguith four principal, or, as they are vulgarly called, cardinal virtues; viz. prudence, juftice, fortitude, and temperance: the reafon of which divifion is founded in this: that, for a man to live virtuoufly and honeftly, it is neceflary he know what is fit to be done ; which is the bufi- nefs of prudence. ‘That he have a conftant and firm will to do what he judges beft ; which will perfeét the man, either as it reftrains too violent perturbations, the office of #emper- ance: or as it fpurs and urges on thofe that are too flow and languid, which is the bufinefs of fortitude: or, laftly, comparatively, and with regard to human fociety ; which is the obje& of juffice. : To thefe four all the other virtues are referred, either as parts, or as concomitants. Some ethical writers divide virtue into denevolences pru- dence, fortitude, and temperance ; by others it is diflingmfhed into two branches only, prudence and benevolence ; the former attentive to our own intereft, and the latter to that of our fellow-creatures, both directed to the increafe of happinefs, and taking equal concern in the future as in the prefent : but the divifion that is now moft common, is into duties towards God, as piety, reverence, refignation, gratitude, &c. 5 to- wards other men (relative duties), as juftice, charity, fidelity, loyalty, 7 VIR loyalty, &c. ; towards our/élves, as chaftity, fobriety, tem- perance, prefervation of life, of health, &c. ‘Virtues, in the Celflial Hierarchy, the third rank, or choir, of angels, being’ that in order between dominations and powers. : TS thefe is attributed the power of working miracles, and of ftrengthening and reinforcing the inferior angels in the exercife of their funétions. Virtues of Plants, in the hiftory of Botany, are generally underftood to be certain qualities, appropriated to every plant, and inherent in its conititution, by which it is rendered effeGtual in the cure of particular difeafes. The difcovery of fuch qualities was, doubtlefs, at firft, in every country, cafual, or empirical ; and the hiftory or knowledge of them traditionary. Such knowledge, acquired to any confider- able extent, rendered its poffeflor an important perfonage in human fociety ; and when combined with fkill in the difcri- mination of difeafes themfelves, completed the character of a phyfician. Such was the fcience of Hippocrates and Diof- corides ; the former having been beft verfed in the know- ledge of difeafes ; the latter in a praétical acquaintance with their reputed remedies. This kind of practical knowledge makes up the whole hiftory of ancient medicine. How foon hypothetical enquiries, or opinions, may have arifen, it is feareely poffible to learn, or even to conjecture. Among thefe, the fuppofed influence of the heayenly bodies upon the properties of plants, particularly with refpe& to the time when they ought to be gathered in order to be the moft effe&tual, feems one of the moft ancient hypothefes. When the imagination was once let loofe, and theory took place of experience, mankind were difpofed to run headlong into this, like every other fuperitition or folly. The com- plete hiftory of fuch, is buried in the darknefs of antiquity ; but its traces are abundantly vifible in the medical records of every ancient nation, efpecially of China, Hindooftan, Ara- bia, and Greece, nor are they quite effaced among the moft enlightened people. Into thefe itis by no means our prefent purpofe to enter. ~ At that memorable era in the hiftery of mankind, em- phatically termed the revival of learning, the firft obje& of learned phyficians was to inform themf{elves of the opinions of the ancients, on every fubje& connefted with their {ci- ence, and above all, on the Medical Virtues of Plants. No ene prefumed to have an opinion which was not authorized by a Greek or Latin, or perhaps an Arabian, writer. So that here the fcience of medicine, philofophically confidered, made a complete ftand, and became once more traditional and empirical. We have, under the article OpontitEs, fpoken of one method, which was fy{tematically ufed, to inveftigate the gualities of plants; a comparifon of their outward form with certain parts of the human body, on which they were fuppofed fpecifically to a&. Some traces of this notion may be found in Diofcorides ; in his account of the Orchis, for inftance ; which plant is indeed fo remarkable for the figure of its root, that one cannot wonder at any fancies it may have excited, nor that fuppofed qualities, founded thereon, fhould have been handed down to our times. The celebrated reftorative properties of Salep reft, we believe, on no firmer foundation, whatever may be the effe& of the wine, fugar, or aromatics added to make that mucilaginous fubftance palatable, or whatever nutriment it may, as a mu- cilage, contain. If however there be, in this inftance, fome cafual coincidence between the fhape and the fpecific virtue of the plant, the fame will fcarcely be believed to exift be- tween heartehaped leaves, or roots, and the human heart ; or between herbs with capillary ftalks, like ferns or moffes, ae Ge and the hair of our heads. A perfon raging with the tooth- ache would not twice recur for a cure, to the various kinds of Toothwort, becaufe of their notched roots, though one of them, Lathrea Squamaria, be ever fo good an imitation of the fore teeth. Yet thefe, and many other vain ima- ginations, are found in the elaborate book~ of Baptifta Porta. So far we might take him for an honeft enthufiaft. But when he purpofely delineates the roots of Doronicum or Arnica, with the precife fhape of afcorpion, to prove the plants a cure for its {ting ; we can fearcely believe he intended to deceive himfelf, and therefore he muft have had fome other aim, not worth inquiring into. Few perfons will be led by this author, to believe in any conneétion be- tween the hooked prickles of a Bramble, and the teeth of a Viper, or the fcales of a Lily-root, and thofe of a Fith. We fhall detain the reader no longer on this part of our fubje&. Chemical analyfis has proved abfolutely ufelefs to de- te&t the properties of plants. The world is obliged to Geoffroy, Chomel, and their pupils, who with this aim have analyfed nearly two thoufand different {pecies ; becaufe their labours, haying led to no difcovery whatever, except of their own futility, no man in future will have any inducement to waite his time in this purfuit. f Linnzus was, if we miftake not, the firft perfon who fug- gefted an enquiry into the qualities of plants, on the prin- ciple of botanical affinity, or technical charaéters. That vegetables of one great obvious natural clafs, fuch as Graffes, Leguminous or Umbelliferous plants, fhould have a gene- ral agreement with each other, is probable at firft fight. Each clafs may be expeéted to be throughout falutary or dangerous, and they generally prove fo, with certain limit- ations. The Darnel is almoft a folitary inftance of any thing pernicious among Grafles; Umbellate plants in a dry foil are aromatic and wholefome ; in a wet one, acrid and highly dangerous. The Convoloulus genus affords feveral eminently purgative roots, nor would any rational botanift venture to ufe them without caution; though the opera- tions of cookery render one of this genus, C. Batatas, whole- fome and delicious. The acrid qualities of one fpecies of Luphorbia, as being a moft decidedly marked, and very pe- culiar, genus, are found in more or lefs a€tivity, in all. Agreement in the parts of fru@tification is therefore, with great reafon, fet forth by the learned author of the fexual fyftem, as the index to a fimilarity of properties. Thus the Stellate are diuretic, the A/perifolie emollient, the Luride narcotic and dangerous, the Bicornes aftringent, the Verticil- late fragrant and harmlefs, the Compojfite bitter, greatly meliorated by culture and cookery. All thefe, though named from various chara¢ters, are diftinguifhed by their fruGtification. The different infertion of parts fometimes indicates a difference of quality, of which the clafs Lcofandria is a memorable and often repeated example. The infertion of its flamens into the calyx, is attended with a wholefome fruit, and the fame infertion in other clafles, may be fafely trufted in that refpe&t. Plants which have a ned@ary diftin&. from the petals, are always to be miftrufted. So are milky plants in general, yet not without exception. A dry foil ufually renders plants aromatic and wholefome, and abounds moft with fuch; moifture, or much wet, nourifhes virofe, acrid, poifonous tribes, of various defcriptions. Sweet- fmelling and agreeably-flavoured vegetables are, for the moft part, wholefome, for it were a fort of treachery in Na- ture to have made them otherwife. Fetid herbs and nau- feous fruits are revolting to our fenfes, and warn us of danger. Linneus obferves that a pale colour indicates infipidtty, at leaft in the herbage ; yellow is a fign of bitternels or acri- mony $ VIR meny ; red, of acidity or aftringency; black, of a noxious quality. Even this laft however is overruled by the infertion of the ftamens into the calyx ; witnefs Prunus and Riles. Such are a few of the hints given by Linnzus. They are well worthy of confideration, and may be extended or modi- fied by praGical obfervation. Exceptions, of courfe, will prefent themfelves, but fearcely more than occur in any other department of natural fcience. It is hardly neceffary to fay that the above rules relate exclufively to the human conftitution. Some animals feed on what are fatal poifons to others. The Goat and Deer browze on the Clematis, which would blifter our throat, or even our fkin ; and delight in the naufeous virulent feed of the Horfe Chefnut. Infets thrive on the moft bitter or burning milky herbs or fhrubs, which no quadruped could tafte with impunity. Nature teaches every animal what is falutary to itfelf, and what is dangerous ; but man is capable of reafon and {cience, to make experiments and obfervations, and to enlarge the {phere of his knowledge by drawing eneral conclufions. VIRTUOSO, A man poffeffed of talents in any of the fine arts is called a virtuofo, but particularly in mufic, where it ufually implies a profeffor of talents. Among us, the term feems appropriated to thofe who apply themfelves to fome curious and quaint, rather than immediately ufeful art or ftudy: as antiquaries, collectors of rarities of any kind, microfcopical obfervers, &c. VIRTZ, in Geography, a lake of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Riga, about forty miles in circumference ; 96 miles N.N.E. of Riga. VIRUCINATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Vindelicia, denominated Rucinates by Hardouin, who is juf- tified in this reading by Ptolemy. VIRUELA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Aragon ; 6 miles from Tarracona. VIRVESCA. See Birvissca. VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a virus, that is, a contagious or malignant pus. The gonorrhea virulenta is what we popularly call a clap. VIRUNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany, placed by Ptolemy with the Teutonari, between the country of the Saxons and that of the Suevi. VIRUNUM, a town fituated in the northern part of Germany, probably belonging to the Viruni, and fuppofed by Cluvier to be the prefent Waren, in Mecklenburg.— Alfo, a town of Norica, or ifle of Norica, in the middle of the Danube, upon the route from Aquileia to Lauriacum, between Santicum and Candalica, according to Anton. Itin. Jn the table of Peutinger it isnamed Varenum. It is thought that the emperor Claudius eftablifhed a colony in this place. Cellarius fuppofes that this is the prefent Volckmarck, in Carinthia. VIRUPAKSHA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo deity Siva ; which fee. It ts faid to mean with three eyes, fimilar to Trilokan ; which fee. The epithet Sri, or divine, iscommonly prefixed to this name. See Sri and Sri- VIRUPAKSHA. VIS, or Visay, in Commerce, a weight in the Eaft Indies, which is the eighth part of the maund, See Maunp. Vis, in Phyfiology, a term employed to denote the vital powers : thus, vis infita is the contractile power of a mufcle, fo named becaufe it is inherent in the organization of the part, and not dependent on any other influence ; it is equi- valent to wis irritabilis. Vis nervea is that power of contrac- tion which depends on the nerves. Vis vite is a general expreffion for the vital power altogether. See Lire, Mus- cLeE, and Nervous Sy/em. VIR Vis, a Latin word, fignifying force or pewer ; adopted phyfical writers, to axpbete diedes ikinds! of natural aes or faculties. See Force. : This is active and paflive ; the vis a@iva is the power of producing motion; the vis pafiva, that of receiving or lofing it. The vis a@iva is again fubdivided into vis viva and vis mortua. : Vis Abfoluta, or abfolute force, is that kind of centripetal force which is meafured by the motion that would be gener- ated by it in a given body, at a given diftance, and depends on the efficacy of the caufe producing it. ei Vis Acceleratrix, or accelerating force, is that centri- petal force which produces an accelerated motion, and is proportional to the velocity which it generates in ‘a given time. : This is different at different diftances from the fame cen- tral body ; and depends not on the quantity of matter: that gravitates, being equal in all forts of bodies at equal diftances from the centre. See ACCELERATION. a Vis Jmpreffa is defined by fir Ifaac Newton to: be the aétion exercifed on any body to change its ftate, either of reft or moving uniformly in a right line. This force confifts altogether in the a€tion ; and has no place in the body after the ation has ceafed. For the body perfeveres in every new ftate by the vis inertie alone. The vis impreffa may arife from divers caufes ; as from percuffion, preffion, and centripetal force. f Vis Inertia, power of inaéivity, is defined by fir Tfaac Newton to be a power implanted in all matter, by which it refifts any change endeavoured to be made in its ftate, 7. ¢. whereby it becomes difficult to alter its ftate, either of reit or motion. This power, then, coincides with the vir refifeudi, power of refifting, by which every body endeavours, as much as it can, to perfevere in its own ftate, whether of reft or uni- form retilinear motion ; which power is ftill proportional to the body, and only differs from the wis inertie of the mafs, in the manner of conceiving it. : Bodies only exert this power in changes brought on their ftate by fome vis impreffa, force imprefled on them. And the exercife of this power is, in different refpeéts, both re- fiftance and impetus ; refiftance, as the body oppofes aforce impreffed on it to change its ftate ; and impetus, as the fame body endeavours to change the ftate of the refifting obftacle. Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. lib. i. 1 The vis inertiz, the fame great author elfewhere obferves, is a paflive principle, by which bodies perfift in their motion, or reft, receive motion, in proportion to the force imprefling it, and refift as much as they are refifted. For the effe& of the vis incrtiz, in refitting and retarding the motion of bodies, &c. fee RESISTANCE, Vis Jnfita, or innate force of matter, is a power of refitting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavours to perfevere in its prefent ftate, whether of reft or of moving uniformly forward in a right line, This force is ever proportional to that body whofe force it is, and differs nothing from the vis inerfie but in our man> ner of conceiving it. _ Vis Centripeta. See CeNTRIPETAL Foree. Vis Centrifuga. See CenTRIFUGAL Force, Vis Motrix, or moving force, of a centripetal body, is the tendency of the whole body towards the centre, refulting from the tendency of all the parts, and is proportional to the motion which it generates in a given time, fo that the vis motrix is to the vis acceleratrix, as the motion to the cele- rity: and as the quantity of motion in a body is eftimated by the produét of the celerity into the quantity of gor LL EE EE VIS the vis motrix arifes from the’ vis acceleratrix, multiplied by the quantity of matter. The followers of Leibnitz ufe the term wis motrix for the force of a body in motion, in the fame fenfe as the Newto- nians ufe the term vis inertia; this latter they allow to be inherent in a body at reft ; but the former, or vis motrix, is a force inherent in the fame body whilft in motion, which aGtually carries it from place to place, by acting upon it always with the fame intenfity in every phyfical part of the line which it defcribes. See Force and Motion. Vis Viva, in Mechanics, a term ufed by Leibnitz and his difciples for force, (which fee,)} which they diftinguifh into two kinds, vis mortua, and vis viva; underftanding by the former any kind of preffure, or an endeavour to move, infuffi- cient to produce aétual motion, unlefs its action on a body be continued for fome time, and by the latter, that force or wer of ating which refides in a body in motion. -VISAKNA, or Satzpure, in Geography, a town of Tranfylvania, famous for its falt-works; 4 miles N. of Hermanttadt. VISANDONE, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 5 miles S.W. of Udina. . VISBECK, or Fiscusecx, a town of Weftphalia, in the county of Schauenburg, with an imperial free Lutheran abbey for ladies, on the Wefer ; 8 miles E. of Rinteln. VISBURGII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger- many, N. of the Hercynian foreft. Ptol. According to luvier, they are the fame people with thofe placed by tolemy in Sarmatia, and named Burgiones. He thinks they inhabited the mountains of Sarmatia and the Viftula, and that from the name of this river they were called Thi- Wiffelburges, which the Latins corrupted into Vifburgi, and others into Burgiones. _ VISCAGO, in Botany, from vi/cum, bird-lime, and ago, to produce or bear, a name borrowed by Dillenius, in Hort. Elth. 416, from Czfalpinus and Camerarius, and applied to fuch fpecies of the old genus of Lychnis, as have feveral cells in the capfule. Thefe come chiefly under Sirene; fee that article. The above name alludes to the vifcidity of thefe plants, and is fynonimous with their Englifh appella- tion, Catchfly. Viscaco is alfo ufed by fome pharmaceutic writers to exprefs a mucilage. - VISCARDO, in Geography, a fea-port town on the N. coaft of Cephalonia, oppofite to the ifland of Teaki, which ives name to a narrow {trait that feparates the two iflands. VISCARIA, in Botany, a word of the fame import as A pea fee that article: It was originally applied by abernemontanus to the common Lobel’s Catchfly, Silene Armeria; and has been retained by Linnzus, as the {pecific name of the German Catchfly, Lychnis Vifcaria. We always wrote it with a capital letter, as if it had previoufly been ufed for a generic or proper name, which not being the cafe, it had better have been confidered as an adjective, and made vi/cata. VISCERA, in Anatomy, a term originally applied to the bowels or inteftines, but now ufed indifcriminately for the organs contained in any cavity of the body. Thus, the heart, lungs, &c. are called the thoracic vifcera; the liver, f{pleen, pancreas, ftomach, and inteftines, the abdominal vifcera, &c. The term is formed of ve/ci, to feed ; by reafon eatables, called in Latin vefca, undergo divers preparations in the vifcera.. _ ~The word is alfo frequently ufed fingularly, vi/cus, to exprefs fome particular part of the entrails, becaufe the word entrails has no fingular. Vout. XXXVIT. Vis The different internal organs, comprifed under the general defignation of vifcera, are defcribed under their refpective heads: fee Heart, Lunes, Tuymus, Sromacu, InTEs- tines, Liver, SpLeeN, Pancreas, EpipLoon, and GE- NERATION. We have only to add, in the prefent article, an explana- tion of the references in the plates reprefenting the anatomy of the vifcera. Anatomy (Vifeera). Plate I. Fig. 1. is a front view of the cheft and abdomen in a newly born child; the fternum and neighbouring part of the ribs, with the correfponding pleurz, the front of the abdominal parietes and diaphragm, having been cut through and removed. 1. Os hyoides. . Portion of the fterno-hyoideus and omo-hyoideus mutcles. 3. 3- Portion of the fterno-thyroideus turned back. 4. Thyroid cartilage. 5- 5. Hyo-thyroideus. 6. 6. Thyroid gland. 4. Trachea. 8. Portion of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus. . Clavicle. . Firft rib. - Ninth rib. . Thymus. ; . Right lung: 13. Its fuperior lobe; 14. Middle lobe ; 15. Inferior lobe. 16. 17. Left lung: 16. The fuperior lobe; 17. The inferior lobe. 18. Pericardium. 19. 19. Diaphragm. 20. 21. Liver: 20. Theright lobe; 21. The left lobe. 22. Sufpenfory ligament of the liver. 23. The umbilical vein turned back. 24. The {pleen. ; ; 25. 26. Great omentum: 25. Its portion lying on the mefocolon ; 26. Loofe portion. b 27. 27. Arch of the colon. 28. Left portion of the colon. 29. The right portion. : ; 30. 30. 30. The jejunum, filled partly with meconium, partly with air. 31. 31. 31. The ileum. 32. Urinary bladder, with its fundus turned forwards. 33- 33- Umbilical artery. 34. Urachus. 5 35. Internal furface of the peritoneum. 36. 36. Internal jugular vein. 37- 37- Thyroid vein. 38. 38. Subclavian vein. 39. 39. Common carotid artery. 40. 40. Subclavian artery. 41. C&fophagus. Fig. 2. exhibits the fame view as the laft, except that the thymus and pericardium have been removed, and the liver turned up towards the right, fo as to expofe the ftomach. 1—4. The heart: 1. Appendix of the right auricle ; 2. Pulmonary ventricle ; 3. Appendix of the left auricle; 4. Aortic ventricle. (The outline of the heart is marked by a dotted line on the fur- face of the liver. ) 5. Pulmonary artery. Kk 6. Aorta. VISCERA. 6. Aorta. 7. Left fubclavian artery. 8. Left carotid. g. Arteria innominata. to. Right carotid. 11. Right fubclavian artery. 12. Superior vena cava. : 4: Sa 13. 14. Right internal jugular vein: 13. Portion in the cheft; 14. Portion in the neck, 15. Right fubclavian vein, 16. 17. Let internal jugular vein : 17. Cervical portion. 18. Left fubclavian vein. . Concave or under furface of the liver: 19. Right lobe; 20. Square portion; 21. Left lobe ; 22. Lobulus Spigelii, feen through the {mall omentum. 23: Part of the fuperior or convex furface. 24. 24. 24. Thin edge. 25. 25. Thick edge. : . Umbilical vein cut through and turned back. 27. The pons covering the notch of the umbilical vein. 28. Gall-bladder. . Part of the diaphragm. . Spleen. 31. Gifophagus entering the flomach. . Cfophagus in the neck. 33. Stomach. . Pylorus. 35- Duodenum. . 36. Tranfverfe portion of the colon. 37. Right portion of the colon. The other parts are the fame as in the preceding figure. Anatomy (Vifcera). Plate U1. Two views from a fubjeéct of the fame age, as that from which the figures of PlateI. are taken, to fhew the more deeply feated parts. Fig.1. The heart and large veffels only are feen in the cheft, the other parts having been removed. The {mall inteftine is removed from the abdomen, and the arch of the colon is turned upwards. 1. Right or pulmonary ventricle of the heart. 2. Aortic or left ventricle. 3. Appendix of the right auricle. 4. Appendix of the left auricle. 5. Pulmonary artery. 6 ze 8 16. Thoracic portion ; 36. . Aorta. . Arteria innominata. - Right carotid. 9. Right fubclavian. 10. Left carotid. 11. Left fubclavian. 12. Inferior vena cava covered by the pericardium, 13. Superior vena cava. 14. Right internal jugular vein. Left internal jugular vein. ¥6. Trachea. 17.17. Thyroid gland. 18. Thyroid cartilage. - 19. 19. Thyro-hyoideus. 20. 20. Sterno-thyroideus detached and turned back. (The fterno-hyoideus is removed. ) Part of the fterno-cleido-maftoidens. 22. 22. Clavicle. 23. 23. Firft rib. 24. 24 Second rib. 21.21. 25. 25. Cut edge of the diaphragm. 26. Arch of the colon. 27. Right portion of the colon. 28. Part of the left colon. zg. Tranfverfe mefocolon. 30. Stomach feen obfcurely through the mefecolor. 31. Left or great extremity of the ftomack. 32. Spleen. 33- Right kidney. 34. Right portion of the colon. 35. Caecum and appendix vermiformis. 36. End of the ileum. 37. Commencement of the jejunum. 38. Mefentery. 39. 39. Sigmoid flexure of the colon. 40. Its mefocolon. 41. Rectum. i 42. Urinary bladder turned forwards and downwards. 43. Umbilical arteries. 44. Urachus. Fig. 2. All the thoracic vifcera are removed; alfo the diaphragm, and the {mall inteftine, excepting the duodenum. The peritoneum is cleared from the kidney and larger veflels. 43: 1. 1. Thyroid gland. 2. 2. Portion of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus. . Sterno-thyroideus detached and turned back. (The {terno-hyoideus is removed. ) 4. Thyro-hyoideus. . Thyroid cartilage. z. Cliticle. 4. Trachea. 8. CEfophagus; its longitudinal mufcular fibres are expofed. . Stomach moderately diftended. g. The cardia. 10. The blind pouch. 11. Pylorus. . Duodenum: 12. The firft curvature; 13. The fecond ; 14. The third. 15. Pancreas. 16. Spleen. 17. Right kidney. 18. Left ‘ighey! 1g. Right renal capfule. . Portion of diaphragm. 21. Arch of the aorta with its three great branches. See fig. 1. N°7. 10. 11. 22. Canalis arteriofus. 23. Defcending thoracic aorta. . Defcending abdominal aorta. 25. Right iliac artery. . Left iliac artery. 30. 30. Spermatic artery and vein. 31. 31. Ureter. . The cut orifice of the re@um. 33. Urinary bladder turned down. . Umbilical artery. 35. Urachus. . Firft rib. Anatomy (Viftera). 34: 36. Plate Til. Views of the thoracic and abdominal vifcera from be- hind. Fig. 1. The mufcles of the neck and back, the back of VISCERA. of the ribs, and the {pimous: procefles of the vertebra, are 40. Left kidney. removed. 41. Right kidney. q. 1. Firk'rib. 42. Left ureter. 2. 2. Eleventh rib. 43- Right ureter. 3- 3- ‘Lwelfth rib, with the diaphragm and abdominal 44. 44- Spermatic veffels. mufcles ftill attached. The ribs are gently drawn 45+ Left portion of the colon. afide, to expofe the lungs 46. Sigmoid flexure. 4. 4. Sixth cervical vertebra. AT. Part of the jejunum feen through the peritoneum. 5. 5. Sacrum. 48. Re&um. ? 6. 6. dca ae 49- Portion of the ileum. 7. 7- Gluteus medius. ; 8. 8. 8. The vertebral theca of the dura mater. ¢ Anatomy (Vifcera). Plate 1V. 9. The fame, covering the cauda equina. Four views of the heart, two of which reprefent its exter- 10. 10. The feapulz a little drawn afide. nal appearance ; the other two, its cavities laid open. Di 12: cin left lung: 11. Superior lobe; 12. Inferior Fig. 1. The convex or fuperior furface. Are ; : - Right auricle. 13—15. Right lung: 13. Superior lobe; 14. Middle Boe: ; lobe; 1 ¢ tater lobe. sy a eae 16—18. Diaphragm: 16. Covering the left lobe of the liver, 3- Its . are ftomach, and {pleen ; 17. Covering the right lobe ; Py eae aa : 18. 18. Attached to the twelfth mb. as Bie altan capes de . Right renal capfule. ; rT) 2 Lét Lidhey. i 8. Place on which the pulmonary artery has been 21. Right kidney. Aiea 22. Inferior furface of the right lobe of the liver. 9 aes . : 23. Left part OF the cdlun: to. Arteria innominata. 24, Sigmoid flexure of the colon. TE Hee eis area : 95-,sorson oF the Metta. in = beeper ate arter . y e Fig. 2. The vertebral column, together with part of the 14. Left or fuperior coronary arter : 8 P P y Y os innominatum, is removed. 16. Anterior branch of the great coronary vein. Fe ERO Sb 17. A {mall vein of the heart opening into the right 2. 2. Eleventh rib. auricle. 3- 3. Scapula drawn afide. Fig. 3. The heart and its blood-veffels {een on the in- 4. 3 ot eee ferior or flat furface. 5. 5. Common carotid artery. ; : 6. 6. Subclavian artery. rap ey auricle. : 7.7. Inferior thyroid artery. 2. Inferior vena cava cut off and tied. 8. Part of the aortic arch. 3- Sup fat oGe aah 9. 10. Defcending aorta: 9. Thoracic; 10. Abdominal. 4. Left auricle, 11. Divifion of the aorta into the common iliacs. 5+ Its appendix. ; 12. Middle facral artery. The intercoftal, renal, and 6. 7. Right pulmonary veins. , lumbar arteries are not numbered. 8. One of the left pulmonary veins: 13. Vena azygos cut off, 9- Right coronary artery. 14. Inferior vena cava. 10. Circumflex branch of the left coronary artery. 15. Left renal vein. 12. Great pofterior branch of the great coronary vein. 16. Right renal vein, double in this fubje@. 13. 14. Smaller pofterior branches. 17- Union of the iliac veins to form the inferior cava. 15. Small branch from the right auricle, 190 98) Pit vacum, 16. Trunk of the great coronary vein ending in the 19. 19- Thyroid gland; the blood-veffels are drawn afide right auricle. by a hook on the left fide. Fig. 3. The left fide of the heart expofed. hanks ae ae 114. VISCUS, and Viscosrry. See ViscerA and ViscipITyY. VISEGLIA, in Geography. See BisEGiia. VISENTIUM, or Visenrum, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Etruria, upon the weftern bank of the lake Thrafimené. Pliny fuggefts that this town belonged to the Vifentini who inhabited the vicinity of the Vulcinian lake: it is the prefent Bifentio. VISET, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Ourthe, fituated on the E. fide of the Meufe. It was furrounded with walls in the year 1338, by Adolphus de Ja Mark, bifhop of Liege. John de Heinfberg, the fifty-fecond bifhop, granted it many privileges, in the year 1429; among others, the liberty of choofing their own ma~- giftrates ; 6 miles S. of Maeftricht. VISEU, a town of Portugal} in the province of Beira. This town was founded by the Romans, and by them called “Vifontium.”? It is the fee of a bifhop, contains three parifh churches, an hofpital, and three convents. In 1027, Alphonfo V. king of Leon, was killed by an arrow before this VIS this town, as he attempted to take it from the Moors; 27 miles S. of Lamego. N. lat. 40° 45’. W. long. 7° 46!. VISHIANARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Tinevelly ; 18 miles $.S.E. of Palamcotta. VISHNU, in Mythology, is one of the chief deities of the Hindoo trimurti or triad. He is reckoned the fecond perfon of this myfterious unity, being a perfonification of the preferving power of the deity. On the whole, Vifhnu may be called the chief of the Hindoo gods; as either in himfelf, or through his confort, or active energy, Lakfhmi, or in his various incarnations, he is, perhaps, the god moft extenfively worfhipped: if the numerous feéts that indi- re€tly adore him be included, he certainly is. Like the gods and goddefles of other polytheiftic people, all the deities of the Hindoo Pantheon are refolvable ultimately into one ; that one is the fun, and he, the Hindoo theolo- ians affirm, is merely a fymbol of that “ infinitely greater light which alone can irradiate our intelle&ts.’”’ This efoteric doétrine is of courfe unknown to the multitude who addrefs and adore Vifhnu, as well as the other deities, in the groff- nefs of idolatrous fuperttition. Under the article Siva it is fhewn that Vifhnu, in a ftri€tly mythological view, is the preferving attribute : he reprefents alfo the wi/dom of the deity, as Brahm does his power, and Siva his jujlice. Extending our view, we find that Vifhnu metaphyfically is a perfonification of /pace ; matter and time being affignable to his coeternal affociates in the Hindoo triad. In phyfics, Vifhnu is water, or the humid principle generally : thus he is the air ; and ina degree of relationfhip lefs intimate, he is the earth. He is alfo time; and, as before faid, the fun. See Laxsumi, the name of the fakti, or confort of Vifhnu; Saraswari, the confort of the creative Brahma; and Parvati, the active energy of the deffroying Siva, for farther particulars of this preferving attribute of the infeparable Hindoo triad. Thefe female divinities, which we indiferiminately call the active energy, or power, or confort of their refpe€tive lords, are generally termed their Sakti; which fee. See alfo Marri. As well as wives, or aétive helpmates, the Hindoo gods have feverally vehicles afligned them. Thefe are termed Vahan; which fee. . Vifhnu, the Jove of India, has his eagle, like his brother of Greece and Rome. The Hindoo bird is named Garuda and Superna. Under the latter word an ac- count of him will be found. The whole race of Hindoos may be theologically compre- hended under thetwo denominationsof Saivas and Vai/bnavas, or worfhippers of Siva and Vifhnu; either direétly of the god himfelf, or of his fakti ; or indire&tly of a fymbol, or through the intervention of an incarnation. This, how- ever, opens a door to diverfity and fchifm. Under the article Sects of Hindoos, we have endeavoured to clafs them in a triple arrangement, of theological, civil, and philofophical fe&tarifts. To that article, to Sarva, VAIsHNAVA, and PutLosopnuy of the Hindoos, with others therein referred to, conne€ed with and farther explaining them, we beg to refer the reader inquifitive on points relating to this branch of the mythology of the Hindoos. See alfo the Hindoo Pantheon. Reprefentations of Vifhnu are very common in all parte of India; in metallic cafts, in carvings in wood, ftone, or ivory, and in pictures. See the plates of the work juft named. When in his own perfon, he is depicted young and handfome ; fometimes two, but commonly four-handed. In his hands are ufually feen a club or mace, called gada, a fhell or fhank, a lotos or padma, and a difcus or quoit, called chakra or vajra. The chakra is a difcus or quoit, with a hole in its centre, on which Vifhnu is fabled to turn it round his fore-finger fo VIS vehemently, that irrefiftible fire flames from its periphery. It is faid to bea miffile {till ufed; but whatever mythologi- cal mifchief may have enfued from its effects, it does not feem capable of producing much fent from a mortal finger. With the Hindoos now, as with the Egyptians of old, this is avery myfterious fymbol; the word in Sanfcrit means a wheel, or fomething rotatory; and has a like meaning in feveral {poken diale&ts of India. Chakra-varti, or the Chakra-whirler, is a name of Vifhnu, and is fometimes given to other deities and mythological heroes. The notion of incarnations of their deities is very common among the Hindoos. This terreftrial manifeftation they call avatara, meaning a defcent. The avataras of Vilhnu have been very numerous; but ten of them are of great celebrity ; and the hiftories of them form the principal fub- ject of feveral of the facred poems called Purana (which fee), and of a great many books in all the languages of the Eaft. We fubjoin the names of thefe ten defcents, or da/a- vatara, as they are called in Sanferit ; with fome incidental remarks in addition to what we have offered under feveral of their names. 1. Matfyavatara. This, as the name implies, was a defcent in the form of a fi/h; and is reprefented by a figure of Vifhnu, half man half fifth; reminding us ftrongly of the pifciform god of the A ffyrians ; ‘‘ fea-moniter, Dagon named, upwards man and downwards fifh,”’ as well defcribed by Milton. This incarnation and the next are fuppofed to have allufion to the flood, and reprefentations of half man half fifh to Noah. 2. Kurmavatara, or the defcent in the form of a fortoife. 3. Varahavatara, in the form of a boar. 4. Narafingha, or man-lion. 5. Vamana, or the dwarf. 6. Parafu Rama, a hero fo named. 7. Rama, furnamed Chandra. 8. Krifhna. 9. Boodh or Budha, or Sakya. 10. Kalki is the laft, and is yet to come, when Vifhnu will appear mounted on a white horfe ; and, as mentioned under the article Kaxxr, end the prefent iron or kali age, and renovate the creation with an era of purity, called Satya or Sati. See Karr and Surrer. Thefe are the chief of the defcents of Vifhnu, called pre- eminently dafavatara. The reader will fee them very in- genioufly difcuffed in Maurice’s Indian Antiquities and An- cient Hiftory of India. ° Befides thefe grand incarnations, Vifhnu has defcended in various places and times, ufually accompanied by his fakti or confort Lakfhmi, alfo incarnated for that purpofe ; fome- times retaining her own name and fometimes taking another. In the fpirit of Grecian mythology, thefe avataras, as the Hindoos more decoroufly defcribe them, would appear as the fons of Jove. But we have not convenience to purfue, in this place, thefe analogies of eaftern and weftern fable. Vifhnu, like Siva, and others of the Hindoo deities, has many names. He is faid to have a thoufand ; but this may mean merely a great many. ‘They are ftrung together in a fort of metrical arrangement, and are mentally recited in fome fpecies of worfhip ; the votary fometimes holding in his hand a rofary, and dropping a bead as each name and the excited idea occur: to aid abftraétion, the hand and rofary are put into a bag. This filent adoration is called jap ; which | fee. Among the names of Vifhnu are the following : Janardana, {aid to mean the devourer or abforber of fouls. Vifhnu being the fun, this may have fome folar allufion : otherwife we do not fee its applicability to the pre/erwing energy. Heri, aname alfo of Krifhna, who is, indeed, by fe€taries, identified with Vifhnu. Heriprya, meaning be- loved of Heri, isaname of Lakfhmi. In other avataras, a portion only of his effence is faid to haye been incarnated ; put in that of Krifhna the whole deity, in all his plenitude of potentiality. Bhagavan, alliding to the lord of nature; Bhaga Vis Bhaga and Bharga are names of Siva, of like allufion. Pad- manabha, meaning lord of Padma; the latter being a name of Lakfhmi, and of the lotos, the appropriate fymbol of a deity who is a perfonification of the humid principle. Lakfhmi is the queen of beauty, and the lotos is the pro- verbial type of female lovelinefs. (See Loros and PapMa.) Prabhu: this name may allude to Vifhnu’s /olar godhead ; for a word of the fame root, Prabha, implies brightne/s, Splendour, effulgence ; and is a name of the confort of the fun. See PrasHa and Surya ; in which laft article, being the name of the Hindoo Phebus, are many particulars expla- natory of the folar Vifhnu. Narayana, meaning moving on or abiding in the waters, is a name applied to Vifhnu by his feGtaries, and to other deities by theirs. (See Sects of fHindoos.) Although Vifhnu hath this aqueous name and cha- raéter, he does not agree with the Neptune of the Weft fo intimately as Siva. (See Siva, Trisuta, and VaRUNA.) Sri is a name or epithet meaning holy or divine, given to gods, goddefles, and men; among them to Vifhnu ;’ but it is not difcriminative. Ke/ava is a name of Krifhna and Vifhnu, faid to allude to the finenefs of the hair of the in- carnated deity. Madhava is derived from a giant named Madhu, deftroyed by Vifhnu: it is a name alfo of Krifhna, as is Murari of both. Trivikera, or Trivi- krama, alluding to three fleps, taken by Vifhnu in the Vama- navatara, is a defignation by which he is not unfrequently called. Pitamba, or Pitamber, de{criptive of a yellow co- loured garment worn by Krifhna, is fométimes given’ as a name to him and to Vifhnu.” See Prirnu, for fome ac- count of that name and form of the deity now under our confideration, and Wirtoga for another. SAyamula, mean- ing black-faced, is a name applied to Parvati as well as to Vifhnu, in his form of Krifhna, who is ufually black or blue-faced. Syama has the like derivation. Vinkatyeith, Vinkatramna, Viratarupa, and Yadava, are other names of Vifhnu. Yama, the judge of departed fouls, is fometimes called an emanation of him. The name Vifhnu is faid to come from the root vis, which means to penetrate or pervade ; and may allude to him more particularly in his form of Surya, or the fun. (See Surya.) All thefe names of Vifhnu, and a great many others, are difcuffed, as to their derivation and myftical properties, in a Sanfcrit poem called «© Sahafra Nama.” The name of this important mythological perfonage is varioufly pronounced in different parts of India, and va- rioufly written by Europeans: Bifhen, Vifnu, Vifhnoo, &c. Thefe may fuffice of the names of Vifhnu. Like other Hindoo gods, he has a particular abode affigned him : his is called Vaikontha; which fee. VISHWARUPA, is the father of the two wives of Ganefa, the god of prudence and policy ; called’ alfo Pollear, which fee. The names of thefe wives were Sidi and Budhi. ise Sipi.) Vifhwarupa, or Vifwarupa, is faid to be the on of Twafbta, or Vifewakarma. See thofe articles. VISIAPOUR, in Geography. See BEJAPOUR. VIsIAPoUR, Vifapour, or Bejapour, a country, and ata former period a confiderable kingdom, of Hindooftan, bounded on the N. by Dowlatabad, on the E. by Golconda, on the S. by Myfore, and on the W. by the Gauts, or mountains which feparate it from Concan : formerly governed by kings of the Patan race; afterwards conquered by Au- rungzebe, and now in poffeffion of the Mahrattas. . VISIBLE, Visreire, fomething that is an objet of fight, or vifion ; or fomething by which the eye is affe@ted, fo as to produce a fenfation. See Sigur and Vision. The {chool philofophers make two kinds of vifibles, or vilible objects ; the one proper, or adequate, which are fuch 10 Vis as are no other way perceivable but by fight alone ; the other common, which ate fubjeé to divers lent as the fight, hearing, feeling, &c. : Again, the firft, or proper obje@ of vifion, is of two kinds, viz. light and colour ; for thefe two are only fenfible by fight. The firft, and primary, viz. light, they make the formal, and colour, the material objet. are The Cartefians think they philofophize better, when they fay that light alone is the proper objeé of vifion; whether it flow from a luminous body through a tranfparent medium, and retains its firft name, /ight, or whether it be ‘reflected from opaque bodies, under a certain new modification, or ha- bitude, and exhibit their images; or, laftly, whether in being refleGted, it is likewife refraGted, after this or that manner, and affeéts the eye with the appearance of colour. But, agreeable to fir Ifaac Newton’s fentiments, colour alone is the proper objeé& of fight; colour being that pro- perty of light by which the light itfelf is vifible, and by which the images of opaque bodies are painted on the retina. Ariftotle (De Anima, lib. ii») enumerates five kinds of common vifibles, which are ufually received for fuch in the {chools, viz. motion, refl, number, figure, and magnitude. Others maintain nine, as in the verfes : “ Sunt obje@a novem vifus communia : quantum, Inde figura, locus, fequitur diftantia, fitus, Continuumque et difcretum, motufque, quiefque.’’ Authors reafon very varioufly as to thefe common obje&s of vifion; there are two principal opinions among the {choolmen. : The adherents to the firft hold, that the common vifibles produce proper reprefentations of themfelves, by fome pe- culiar fpecies, or image, by which they are formally per- ceived, independently of the proper vifibles. } But the fecond opinion prevails moft, which imports, that the common vifibles have not any fuch formal peculiar {pecies to become vifible by ; but that the proper objeéts are fufficient to throw themfelves in this or that place or fitua- tion, and inthis or that diftance, figure, magnitude, &c. by the circumftances of their conveyance to the fenfory. In effect, fince thefe common vifibles cannot be repre- fented alone (for whoever faw place, diftance, figure, fitua- tion, &c. of itfelf?), but are always conveyed along with the images of light and colour to the organ; what neceffity is there to conceive any {uch proper images by which the com- mon vifibles fhould be formally perceived by the foul? It is much more probable, that from the peculiar manner in which the fenfitive faculty perceives a proper object, it is apprized of its being in this or that fituation or place ; in this or that figure, magnitude, &c. How this is effe&ted may be conceived from what follows : I. The fituation and place of vifible objeéts are perceived without any intentional fpecies of them, merely by the impulfe being made from a certain place and fituation, either above or below, on the right or left, before or behind, by which the rays of the proper vifibles are thrown upon the retina, and their impreffion is conveyed to the fenfory. For, fince an object is feen by thofe rays which c its image to the retina, and in that place to which the vifible power is dire¢ted by the rays it receives, as it perceives the impulfe of the rays to come from any place, &c. it is abundantly admonifhed of the objeéts being in that place and fituation. See Apparent Pract. Philofophers, in general, had formerly taken for granted, that the place to. which the eye refers any vifible object, feen by refleGtion or refraction, is that in which the vifual ray meets a perpendicular from the objeét upon the reflecting a e VISIBLE. the refra@ting plane. That this is the cafe with refpe& to plane mirrors is univerfally acknowledged ; and fome expe- riments with mirrors of other forms feem to favour the fame conclufion, and thereby afford reafon for extending the ana- logy to all cafes of vifion. If a right line be held perpendi- oulbely over a convex or concave mirror, its image feems to make one line with it. The fame is the cafe with a right line held perpendicularly within water; for the part which is within the water feems to be a continuation of that which is without, at leaft when it is viewed with no more than com- mon attention, and in fome pofitions But Dr. Barrow called in queftion this method of judging of the place of an objeGt, and thereby opened a new field of enquiry and debate in this branch of fcience. This, with other optical inveltigations, he publifhed in his Optical Leétures, firft printed in 1674. Having, as he imagined, refuted the com- mon hypothefis concerning the place of vifible objeéts, he fubftitutes another rule, by which, he fays, our judgments are aétually direCted in this cafe. According to him, we refer every point of an objeé&t to the place from which the pencils of light, that give us the image of it, iffue, or from which they would have iffued, if no refleGting or refraéting fubftance intervened. Purfuing this principle, Dr. Barrow proceeded to inveftigate the place, in which the rays, iffuing from each of the points of an object, and which reach the eye after one reflection or refraétion, meet ; and he found, that if the refraGting furface was plane, and the refra¢tion was made from a denfer medium into a rarer, thofe rays would always meet in a place between the eye and a per- pendicular to the point of incidence. If a convex mirror be ufed, the cafe will be the fame ; but if the mirror be plane, the rays will meet in the perpen- dicular, and beyond it if it be concave. He alfo determined, according to thefe principles, what \form the image of a right line will take when it is prefented in different manners toa fpherical mirror, or when it is feen through a refraGting medium. Dr. Barrow, however, mentions an objection againft the maxim which he endeavoured to eftablifh, concerning the fuppofed place of vifible objeéts, and candidly owns that he was not able to give a fatista¢tory folution of it. The ob- jection is this ; let an object be placed beyond the focus of a convex lens, and if.the eye he clofe to the lens, it will ap- pear confufed, but very near to its true place. If the eye be a little withdrawn, the confufion will increafe, and the objec will feem to come nearer ; and when the eye is very near the focus, the confufion will be exceedingly great, and the obje& willfeem to be clofe to the eye. But in this ex- periment the eye receives no rays but thofe that are con- verging ; and the point from which they iffue is fo far from being nearer than the objet, that it is beyond it; notwith- ftanding which, the obje& is conceived to be much nearer than it is, though no very diftin& idea can be formed of its precife diftance. The firft perfon who took much notice of Dr. Barrow’s hypothefis, and the difficulty attending it, was Dr. Berke- ley, who, in his Effay on a New Theory of Vifion, p. 30, obferves, that the circle formed upon the retina by the rays which donot come to a focus, produces the fame confufion in the eye, whether they crofs one another before they reach the retina, or tend to it afterwards: and therefore, that the judgment concerning diftances will be the fame in both the cafes, without any regard to the place from which the rays originally iffued ; fo that in this cafe, as, by receding from the lens, the confufion, which always accompanies the near- nels of an objeé&, increafes, the mind will judge that the object comes nearer, See Apparent Distance, Vor. XXXVII. M. Bouguer, an ingenious writer on Optics, in’ his Traite d’Optique, p. 104, adopts the general maxim of Dr. Barrow, in fuppofing that we refer objets to the place from which the pencils of rays feemingly converge at their entrance into the pupil. But when rays iffue from below- the furface of a veffel of water, or any other refraGting me- - dium, he finds that there are always two different places of this feeming convergence : one of them of the rays that iffue from it in the fame vertical circle, and, therefore, fall with different degrees of obliquity upon the furface of the refra&ting medium, and another of thofe that fall upon the furface with the fame degree of obliquity, entering the eye laterally with refpe& to one another. Sometimes, he fays, one of thefe images is attended to by the mind, and fome- times the other ; and different images may be obferved by dif- ferent perfons. An object, plunged into water, affords an example, he fays, of this duplicity of images. G. W. Krafft has ably fupported the opinion of Dr. Bar- row, that the place of any point feen by refleGion from the furface of any medium, is that in which rays ifluing from it, infinitely near to one another, would meet; and confidering the cafe of a diftant obje&, viewed in a concave mirror by an eye very near to it, when the image, according to Euclid and other writers, would be between the eye and the obje&t, and the rule of Dr. Barrow cannot be applied ; he fays, that in this cafe, the {peculum may be confidered as a plane, the effe& being the fame, only that the image is more obfcure. Com. Petropol. vol. xii. p. 252. 256. See Prieftley’s Hift. of Light, &c. p. 89. 688, &e. From the principle above illuftrated, feveral remarkable phenomena of vifion are accounted for: as, 1. That if the diftance between two vifible objets be an angle that is infenfible, the diftant bodies will appear as if contiguous : whence a continuous body being the refult of feveral contiguous ones; if the diftances between feveral vifibles fubtend infenfible angles, they will appear one con- tinuous body ; which gives a pretty Wluftration of the notion of a continuum. Hence parallel lines, and long viftae, confifting of paral- lel rows of trees, feem to converge more and more, the farther they are extended from the eye ; becaufe the apparent magnitudes of their perpendicular intervals are perpetuall diminifhing, while, at the fame time, we miftake their ait. tance. When two parallel rows of trees ftand upon an afcent, the more remote parts appear farther off than they really are, becaufe the line that meafures the length of the viftas now appears under a greater angle than when it was hori- zontal ; the trees, in fuch a cafe, feeming to converge lefs, and fometimes, inftead of converging, feeming to diverge. See PARALLELLISM of Rows of Trees. j The proper method of drawing the appearance of two rows of trees that fhall appear parallel to the eye, is 2 problem that has exercifed the ingenuity of feveral philo- fophers and mathematicians. That the apparent magni- tude of objeéis decreafes with the angle under which they are feen, has always been acknowledged; and it is alfo acknowledged, that we learn to form a judgment both of magnitudes and diitances only by cuftom and experience ; but in the application of thefe maxims to the above men- tioned problem, all perfons, before M. Bouguer, made ufe of the real diflance inftead of the apparent one, by which only the mind can form its judgment. And it is manifeft, that if any circumftances contribute to make the diftance appear otherwife than it is in reality, the apparent magni- tude of the object will be affected by it, for the fame reafon, that if the magnitude be mifapprehended, the idea of the diftance will yary. For want of attending te this dif- Ll tinction, VISIBLE. tin@tion, Tacquet pretended to demontftrate, that nothing can give the idea of two parallel lines to an eye fituated at one of their extremities, but two hyperbolical curves, turned the contrary way; and M. Varignon maintained, that, in order to make z vifta appear of the fame width, it muft be made narrower, inftead of wider, as it recedes from the eye. M. Bouguer obferves, that very great dif- tances, and thofe that are confiderably lefs, make nearly the fame impreflion upon the eye. We, therefore, imagine great diftances to be lefs than they are, and on this account the ground plan of a vifta always appears to rife. The vifual rays come in a determinate dire@tion, but as we imagine they terminate fooner than they do, we neceflarily conceive that the place from which they iffued is elevated. Every large plane, therefore, as A B (Plate XX. Optics, fig. 5.) viewed by an eye at O, will feem to lie in fuch direc- tion as A 4; and confequently lines, in order to appear truly parallel, on the plane A B, muft be drawn fo as that they would appear parallel on the plane A 4, and be from thence projected to the plane AB. To determine the inclination of the apparent ground plane A 4 to the true ground plane AB, M. Bouguer direéts us to draw upon a piece of level ground two ftraight lines of a fufficient length, making an angle of three or four degrees with one another. Then a perfon placing himfelf within the angle, with his back towards the angular point, muft walk backwards and for- wards till he can fancy the lines to be parallel. In this fituation, a line, drawn from the point of the angle through the place of his eye, will contain the fame angle with the true ground plane which this does with the apparent one. M. Bouguer alfo fhews other more geometrical methods of determining this inclination, and fays, that by thefe means, he-has often found it to be four or five degrees, though fometimes only two, or two and a half degrees ; the determination of this angle being variable, and depend- ing upon the manner in which the ground is illuminated, and the intenfity of the light, the colour of the foil, the conformation of the eye, and the part of the eye on which the obje& is painted. In looking towards a rifing ground, the difference be- tween the apparent ground plane and the true one, he fays, will be much more confiderable, fo that they will fome- times make an angle of 25 or 30 degrees. Ac. Par. 1755: M. 156. 2. If the eye be placed above an horizontal plane, obje&s, the more remote they are, the higher will they ap- near, till the laft be feen in a level with the eye. Whence it is that the fea, to perfons ftanding afhore, feems to rife higher and higher the farther they look. . opp bt any number of objeé&s be placed below the eye, the moft remote will appear the higheft.; if they be above the eye, the moft remote will appear the lowelt. Thus the remoter parts of a horizontal walk, or long floor, will appear to afcend gradually ; whereas, the cieling of a long gallery appears to defcend. - Bouguer obferves, that when a man ftands upon a level plane, it does not feem to rife fenfibly, but at fome diftance from him: the apparent plane, therefore, has a curvature in it, the form of which is not very eafy to de- termine ; fo that a man ftanding upon a level plane of in- finite extent, will imagine that he ftands in the centre of a bafon. The cafe is the fame with a perfon ftanding upon the level of the fea. 4. The upper parts of high obje&ts appear to ftoop, or incline forwards ; as the front of churches, towers, &c. And ftatues at the tops of buildings, to appear upright, 9 muft incline, or bend backwards. See farther under the articles of Rurraction and Horizon. ee If. The mind perceives the diftance of vifible objeéts, from the different configurations of the eye, and the man- ner in which the rays ftrike the eye, and in which the image is imprefled on it. For the eye difpofes itfelf differently, according to the different diftances it. is to fee; viz. for remote objects the pupil is dilated, and the cryftalline brought nearer the retina, and the whole eye is made more globular ; on the contrary, for near objects, the pupil is contracted, the cryftalline thruft forwards, and the eye lengthened. Philofophers are agreed, that we have a power of alteri the form of our eyes, fo as to make the rays of any cooill to converge at different diftances from the pupil: and hence we are capable of viewing objets with almoft equal diftin€tnefs, though they are placed at confiderably dif- ferent diftances ; but with regard to the alteration that takes place in the eye, and the mechanifm by which it is produced, different accounts have been given. ; It was the opinion of Kepler, that the contraétion of the proceffus ciliares changes the form of the eye, and by the elongation of it, places the cryftalline at a greatersdif- tance from the retina; whereas Des Cartes imagined, that the curvature of the cryftalline itfelf fuffers an alteration by the contra€tion of thofe ligaments. : " M. dela Hire maintained that, in order to view objeés at different diftances, there is no alteration but in the fize of the pupil, or the aperture of the eye; and he made a curious experiment, which, he thought, proved his affertion. M. Le Roi, a member of the Royal Academy at Mont- pelier, has lately attempted to defend the opinion of M. de la Hire, which had long been exploded by all philofophers ; and he fays, that the accommodation of the eye to the view of objets, placed at different diftances, by the con- tration or dilatation of the pupil only, does not confift in the change of the place of the cryftalline, by means of the ligamenta ciliaria, the ftrength of which is inade- quate to the purpofe. Befides, he obferves, that they are not attached to the edge of the capfula, as has been fuppofed, but that they extend a confiderable way along the interior furface of it, without any clofe adherence to it. He is alfo of opinion that thefe fibres are not mufcular, but aresonly ramified yeflels, which, according to all appearance, he fays, anfwer no other purpofe than that of fecreting an aqueous humour, to lubricate the fur- face of the cryftalline. ; That nothing is requifite but the contraétion of the pupil in order to view the neareft objeéts with diftin€inefs, is evident, he fays, from experiment. For when an object is placed fo near, that the eye cannot bear as great a degree of contraftion as is neceflary for viewing it dif- tinély, the fame end is obtained by an antstieial pupil. For if a {mall hole be made in a card, the neareft objec may be viewed through it with the greatelt eafe and diftin&tinefs. i That the variation of the pupil is fufficient for the purpofe of viewing obje¢ts at all diftances, he alfo thought he could demonftrate by experiment with an artificial eye; for when, with a large aperture, the images of near objects were confufed, and ill defined upon the re- tina of this» inftrument, they became very diftin&, and well defined, by contrafting the aperture. Ac. Paris, 1755: M. p.920. — , ] , But the moft fatisfactory difcuffion of this fubje& we owe to Dr. Porterfield, who proved, by a feries of experi- ments, VISIBLE. nts, in which an objet was viewed through {mall flits thin plate of iron, at a lefs diftance than the diameter of the pupil (which, therefore, was of no ufe in this cafe), that we are poffefled of a power of changing the conform- ation of our eyes, and of adapting them to various dif- tances; and that this change always follows a fimilar motion in the axes of vifion, with which it has been con- neéted by ufe dnd’cuftom. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. i. Po: 415. 421. ~ owever, among thofe who fuppofe a conformation of ~ the eye for this purpofe, independent of a variation in the aperture, it is by no means agreed in what it confilts. Some have faid, that the cryftalline becomes more or lefs ‘convex for this purpofe, by the action of certain mufcular fibres which enter into its compofition. But Dr. Porter- + ile fupra, p. 442.) obferves that, though the cryf- ‘talline, when dry, appears to confift of many thin concen- tric laminz, or fcales, their difpofition is but ill qualified for changing the figure of the cryftalline ; or if they. were fo, ‘it is not eafy, he fays, to prove that thefe fibres are mufcu- lar, and capable of contraétion. His own opinion is, that the cryftalline has a motion by means of the ligamentum ciliare, by which the diftance between it and the retina is increafed or diminifhed, ac- cording to the different diftances of obje&ts. The ftruc- ture and difpofition of the ligamentum ciliare, he fays, ex- cellently qualify it for changing the fituation of the cryf- talline, and removing it to a greater diftance from the ‘retina, when objeéts are too near for us; becaufe, when it contracts, it will not only draw the cryftalline forward, but alfo comprefs the vitreous humour lying behind it, fo that it muft prefs upon the cryftalline, and pufh it towards the retina. He adds, that the cryftalline, being moved forwards, muft, at the fame time, prefs the aqueous humour againtt the cornea; by which means that membrane, which is flexible, will be rendered more convex, and enable us ftill better to fee near objeéts diftin@ly. That the fituation of the cryftalline is made ufe of in conforming the eye to the diftin& view of obje&ts placed at different diftances, Dr. Porterfield thinks, is very evident from what is obferved concerning perfons who have ca- tara&ts couched ; for the fame lens is not ufeful to them for feeing all objeéts diftin@ly, but they are obliged to make ufe of glaffes of different degrees of convexity, in propor- tion to the nearnefs of the object. To the objetion of M. de la Hire, and others, among whom are the celebrated anatomifts Haller and Zinn, that the ciliary ligament is not mufcular, and confequently has no power of contrattion, he obferves, that they have been led into this miftake by apprehending that the colour of mufcles is always red ; whereas this is not the cafe uni- verfally, for the mufcular fibres of the inteftines and ftomach have hardly any rednefs in their colour. It is alfo cer- tain, he fays, that the pupil contraéts and dilates itfelf ac- cording as objets are more or lefs luminous, and yet none of the fibres which perform that action are in the leaft red. Ubi fupra, vol. ti. p. 434. 447. 450. Dr. Jurin (Eff. on diftin&, &c. Vifion, p. 143.) fup- pofes, that when the eye is to be fuited to greater dif- tances than fifteen or fixteen inches, the ligamentum ciliare contraéts, fo as to draw part of the anterior furface of the capfula of the cryftalline, into which the fibres of it are inferted, a little forwards and outwards, on which the water within the capfula muft flow from under the middle towards the elevated part of it; and the aqueous humour muft fow from above the elevated part of the capfula to the middle. Tn confequence of this, the whole auterior furface, within the infertion of the ciliary ligament, will be reduced to.a lefs convexity. When this contraGtion ceafes, the capfula will return to its former fituation, by its own elafticity. To this hypothefis it has been objeéted, that unlefs the water within the capfula has a greater refractive power than the aqueous humour, the retiring of it from one plaee to another to make room for that humour, will have no effe& upon the pencils of rays. Dr. Jurin, however, not attending to this circumftance, and feeming to confider the water within the capfula as having the fame refraétive power with the cryftalline itfelf, attempts to fhew by calculation, that this change in the convexity of it is quite fufficient to extend the natural diftance of diftin& vifion from fifteen inches to fourteen feet five inches, without the leaft motion of the cryftalline itfelf, and a very {mall one of the anterior furface of the capfula. M. Mufchenbroeck, or rather Albinus (whofe Anatomical Obfervations on the Eye he has publifhed in his Introd. ad Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p.'759.), fuppofes, that the change of con- formation in the eye is performed by means of the zona cili- aris, in the following manner. In viewing a very near ob- jet, in confequence of which the pencils of rays tend to a focus beyond the retina, the zona ciliaris, and the anterior membrane of the capfula, as alfo the vitreous humour, being driven forward by the compreffion of the coats of the eye, puth the cryftalline, and make it recede from the retina. At the fame time the cryftalline, pufhing the aqueous humour into the cornea, makes it more prominent. Perhaps, alfo, he fays, the cryftalline may be made rounder, fo that, on thefe accounts, the pencils will come to their foci fooner than otherwife. * On the other hand, when the obje& is too remote for diftiné& vifion, fo that the pencils come to their foci too foon, the zona ciliaris becomes tenfe, and, with the anterior membrane of the capfula, pufhes the cryftalline far- ther within the vitreous humour. By this preflure the cryf- talline becomes flatter, fo that, on thefe feveral accounts, the foci of the pencils are carried farther. The zona cili- aris, and the anterior membrane of the capfula, can only pufh the cryftalline into the vitreous humour one half of its own thickné{fs, which he fhews is not fufficient to make vifion diftin& at a competent diftance, and therefore concludes, that fome change mutt take place in the form of the cryf{- talline, as, he fays, Dr. Pemberton has well demonftrated. He fuppofes, that the provifion for fuiting the eye to dif- ferent diftances is the fame in all animals, and does not de- pend on the change of the f{clerotica in any of them, which is hard, and incapable of being compreffed. Prieftley’s Hift. of Light, &c. p. 638—652. See Apparent Distance. See alfo Ever. It feems to be now pretty generally allowed, that the change, by which the eye accommodates itfelf to different diftances, 1s produced by an increafe of the convexity of the cryftalline lens, arifing from an internal caufe. The argu- ments in favour of this conclufion are of two kinds ; fome of them are negative, derived from the impoffibility of ima- gining any other mode of performing the accommodation, without exceediing the limits of the aétual dimenfions of the eye, and from the examination of the eye in its dif- ferent ftates by feveral tefts, capable of deteQing any other changes if they had exifted: for example, by the application of water to the cornea, which completely re- moves the effet of its convexity, without impairing the power of altering the focus, and by holding the whole eye, when turned inwards, in fuch a manner as to render any ma- terial alteration of its length utterly impoffible. Other ar- Liz guments VISIBLE. gaments are deduced from pofitive evidence of the change of form of the cryftalline, furnifhed by the particular ef- fe&s of refraétion and aberration which are obfervable in the different ftates of the eye; effeéts which furnifh a direct proof that the figure of the lens muft-vary ; its furfaces, which are nearly {pherical in the quiefcent form of the lens, affuming a different determinable curvature when it is called into exertion. ‘The objeétions which have been made to this couclufion are founded only on the appearance of a flight alteration of focal length in an eye from which the cryftal- line had been extraGted; but the fact is neither fufficiently afcertained, nor was the apparent change at all confiderable: and even if it were proved that an eye without the lens is capable of a certain {mall alteration, it would by no means follow that it could undergo a change five times or ten times as great. The motion of the optical axes ferves likewife, as we have already obferved, to affift us in judging of the diftance of objeéts. Thefe axes, or the direétions of the rays falling on the points of moft perfect vifion, naturally meet at a great diftance ; that is, they are nearly parallel to each other; and in looking at a nearer object, we make them converge to- wards it, wherever it may be fituated, by means of the external mufcles of the eye; while in perfe& eyes the refractive powers are altered, at the fame time, by an involuntary fympathy, fo as to form a diftin& image of an object at a given diftance. This correfpondence of the fituation of the axes with the focal length is in moft cafes unalterable ; but fome have perhaps a power of deranging it in a flight degree, and in others the adjuftment is imperfect: but the eyes feem to be in moft perfons infeparably conneéted together with re- {pe& to the changes that their refractive powers undergo, although it fometimes happens that thofe powers are ori- ginally very different in the oppofite eyes. Thefe motions enable us to judge pretty accurately, within certain limits, of the diftance of an obje&; and be- yond thefe limits, the degree of diftin€tnefs or confufion of the image ftill continues to affift the judgment. We efti- mate aaleances much lefs accurately with one eye than with both, fince we are deprived of the affiftance ufually afforded by the relative fituation of the optical axes ; thus we feldom fucceed at once in attempting to pafs a finger or a hooked rod fideways through a ring, with one eye fhut. Our idea of diftance is ufually regulated by a knowledge of the real magnitude of an object, while we obferve its angular sao tude; and on the other hand, a knowledge of the real or imaginary diftance of the objeé& often directs our judgment of its a€tual magnitude. The quantity of light intercepted by the air interpofed, and the intenfity of the blue tint which it occafions, are alfo elements of our involuntary calculation : hence, in a mift, the obfcurity increafes the apparent dif- tance, and confequently the fuppofed magnitude of an un- known object. We naturally obferve, in eftimating a dif- tance, the number and extent of the intervening objects; fo that a diftant church in a woody and hilly country ap- pears more remote than if it were fituated in a plain; and for a fimilar reafon, the apparent diftance of an obje& feen at fea, is fmaller than its true diftance.. Young’s Courfe of Leétures on Natural Philofophy, &c. vol. i. Accordingly, in judging of the diftance of a vifible object, we muft take into our account the angle which the object makes, with the diftin& or confufed reprefentation of the object ; and the brifknefs or feeblenefs, or the rarity or {piflitude of the rays. To this it is owing, 1. That objects which appear ob- fcure, or confufed, are judged to be more remote ; a princi- ple which the painters ae to make fome of their figures 4 appear farther diftant than others on the fanie plane. ‘Thus, fuppofing the eye to be accommodated to a given diltance, objects at all other diftances may be reprefented with a cer- tain indiftinétnefs of outline, which would accompany the images of the objeéts themfelves on the retina: and. this indiltinétnefs is fo generally neceffary,» that its abfence has the difagreeable effect called hardnefs. The apparent magnitude of the fubjeéts of our defign, and the relative fituations of the intervening objeéts, may be fo imitated by the rules of geometrical perfpeétive as to agree per- feétly with nature, and we may full further improve the re- prefentation of diftance by attending to the art of aeriak perfpective, which confifts in a due obfervation of the lofs of light, and the blueifh tinge, occafioned by the interpofi- tion of a greater or lefs depth of air betweea us and the different parts of the {cenery. “We cannot indeed fo arrange the piéture, that either the focal length of the eye, or the pofition of the optical axes, may be fuch as would be required by the aétual objeé&s: but we may place the pidiure at fuch a diftance, that neither of thefe criterions can have much power in deteéting the fallacy ; or, by the interpofition of a large lens, we may produce nearly the fame effets in the rays of light, as if they proceeded from a picture at any required diftance. In the panorama, which has lately been exhibited in many parts of Europe, the effeéts of natural fcenery are very clofely imitated: the deception is favoured by the abfence of all other vifible objeéts, and by the faintnefs of the light, which affifts in concealing the defeéts of the reprefentation, and for which the eye is ufually prepared, by being long detained in the dark winding paflages which lead to the place of exhibi- tion. Young, whi fupra. See Apparent MAGNITUDE. 2. To this it is likewife owing, that rooms, whofe walls are whitened, appear the {maller; that fields covered with fnow, or white flowers, fhew lefs than when clothed with grafs that mountains covered with fnow, in the night-time, appear the nearer ; and that opaque bodies appear the mare remote in the twilight. ; Il]. The magnitude or quantity of vifible obje&s is known chiefly by the angle comprehended between two rays drawn from the two extremes of the objeé to the cen- tre of the eye. An objeét appears to be as large as the angle it fubtends ; or bodies feen under a greater angle ap- pear greater ; and thofe under a lefs, lefs, &c. Hence the {ame thing appears now bigger, and now lefs, as it is lefs or more diftant from the eye. ‘his we call the Apparent Mac- NITUDE ; which fee. Now, to judge of the real magnitude of an obje&, we confider the diftance ; for, fince a near and remote obje& may appear under equal angles, the diftance muft neceflarily be eftimated ; that if it be great, and the optic angle {mall, the remote object may be judged great ; and vice ver/a. The magnitude of vifible objeéts is brought under certain laws, demonitrated by the mathematicians ; as, 1. That the apparent magnitudes of a remote object are as the diftances reciprocally ; or rather, in a fomewhat le{s ratio. 2. That the co-tangents of half the apparent magnitudes of the fame objeéts, are as the diftances ; hence the apparent magnitude and diftance being given, we have a method of determining the true magnitude ; the canon is this. As the whole fine is to the tangent of half the apparent magnitude, fo is the given diftance to half the real magnitude. The fame canon, inverted, will, from the diftance and magnitude given, determine the apparent one. 3. Objeéts feen under the fame angle, have their mag- nitudes proportional to their diftances. 4. The VISIBLE. _ 4. The fubtenfe A B ( Plate XX. Optics, fig. 6.) of any are of acircle appears of equal magnitude in all the points DCEG, though one point be vaftly nearer than another ; and the diameter D G appears of the fame magnitude in all the points of the periphery of the circle. Hence fome have derived a hint for the moft commodious form of theatres. 5. If the eye be fixed in A (fg. 7.), and the right line B C be moved in fuch manner, as that the extremes of it always fall on the periphery, it will always appear of the fame magnitude. Hence the eye, being placed in any angle ‘of a regular polygon, the fides will appear equal. 6. if the magnitude of an obje& dire¢ily oppofite to the eye be equal to its diftance from the eye, the whole obje& will be taken in by the eye, but nothing more. Whence spemearcr you approach an objeét, the lefs part you fee of it. IV. The figure of vifible objeGts is eftimated, chiefly, from our opinion of the fituation of the feveral parts of it. This opinion of the fituation, &c. enables the mind to apprehend an external obje& under this or that figure, more juitly than any fimilitude of the images ia the retina, with the obje&, can; the images being frequently elliptical, oblong, &c. when the objeés they exhibit to the mind are circles, {quares, &c. ; The laws of vifion, with regard to the figures of vifible objects, are : 1. That if the centre of the pupil be exaétly againit, or in the direGtion of a right line, the line will appear as one oint. : 2. If the eye be placed in a direGtion of a furface, fo that only one line of the perimeter can radiate on it, it will appear as a line. 3. If a body be oppofed direftly towards the eye, fo as only one plane of the furface can radiate on it, it will appear as a furface. 4. A remote arc, yiewed by an eye in the fame plane, will appear as a right line. ; 5- A {phere, viewed at a diftance, appears a circle. 6. Angular figures, at a diftance, appear round. : 7- If the eye look obliquely on the centre of a regular figure, or a circle, the true figure will not be feen; but the circle will appear oval, &c. See Apparent FicuRe. V. The number of vifible obje&ts is perceived, not only by one or more images formed in the fund of the eye; but alfo by fuch a polition of thofe parts of the brain whence the optic nerves {pring, as the mind has been ufed to, in attending to a certain place; and that either fingle or manifold. Accordingly, when either of the eyes, with the contiguous part of the brain, are forced out of their juft parallelifm, with the other, v. gr. by prefling it with the finger, &c. all things appear double; but when they are in the requifite parallelifm, though there be two images in the fund of the two eyes, yet the obje& will appear fingle. Again, one thing may appear double, or even manifold, not only with both eyes, but even with only one of them open; by reafon the common concourfe of the cones of rays refle&ted from the objec to the eye, either falls fhort of the retina, or goes much beyond it. VI. Motion and reft are feen when the images of objeéts reprefented in the eye, and propagated to the brain, are either moved, or at reft ; and the mind perceives thefe images either moving or at reft, by comparing the moved image to another, with ref{peét to which it changes place; or by the fituation of the eye to the obje& being continually changed. So that motion is only perceived, by perceiving the images to be in different places and fituations; nor are thefe changes perceived unlefs effected in time. So that to per- _ceive motion, a fenfible time is required. But reft is pes- ceived by the vifual faculty, from the reception of the image in the fame place of the retina, and the fame fituation for fome fenfible time. : Hence the reafon, why bodies moving exceedingly faft appear at reft; thus, a live coal, fwung brifkly round, ap- pears a continual circle of fire; the motion not being com- menfurate with vifible time, but much fwifter than the fame ; fo that, in the time the foul requires to judge of any change of fituation of the image on the retina, or that it is moved from this place to that, the thing itfelf performs its whole circuit, and is in its own place again. Laws of vifion, with regard to the motion of vifibles, are : 1. That if two objeéts unequally diftant from the eye move from it with equal velocity, the more remote one will appear the flower ; or, if their celerities are proportionable to their diftances, they will appear to move equally {wift. 2. If two objeés, unequally diftant from the eye, move with unequal velocities in the fame dire€tion, their apparent velocities are in a ratio compounded of the dire& ratio of their true velocities, and the reciprocal one of their diftances from the eye. 3. A vifible obje&, moving with any velocity, appears to be at reft, if the {pace defcribed in the interval of one fecond be imperceptible at the diftance of the eye. Hence it is, that a near object, moving very flowly, as the index of a clock ; or a remote one very {wiftly, asa planet; feem at reft. 4. An obje& moving with any degree of velocity, will appear to reft, if the {pace it runs over in a fecond of time be to its diftance from the eye, as I to 1400: nay, in fat, if it be as 1 to 1300. 5. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to another, a lateral obje¢t, not too far off, either on the right or left, will feem to move the contrary way: the eye, in this cafe, being fenfible of its motion, diftant obje&s will feem to move the fame way, and with the fame velocity. 6. If the eye and the obje& move both the fame way, only the eye much fwifter than the obje&, that lait will appear to go backwards. 7. If two or more obje&ts move with the fame velocity, and a third remain at reft, the moveables will appear fixed, and the quiefcent in motion the contrary way. Thus, clouds moving very fwiftly, their parts feem to preferve their fituation, and the moon to move the contrary way. 8. If the eye be moved with a great velecity, lateral objets at reft appear to move the contrary way. Thus, to a perfon fitting in a coach, riding brifkly through a wood, the trees feem to retire the contrary way; and to people in a fhip, &c. the fhores feem to recede. g. An objeé moving very fwiftly is not feen, unlefs it be very luminous. Thus, a cannon-ball is not feen, if it is viewed tran{verfely ; but if it be viewed according to the line it defcribes, it may be feen, becaufe its pi€ture con- tinues long on the fame place of the retina, which, therefore, receives a more fenfible impreffion from the obje&. 10. A live coal fwung brifkly round in a circle, appears a continued circle of fire, becaufe the impreffions made on the retina of light being of a vibratory, and confequently of a lafting nature, do not prefently perifh, but continue till the coal performs its whole circuit, and returns again to its former place. 11. If a perfon turns {wiftly round, without changmg his place, all objeéts about him will feem to move round in a circle the contrary way ; and this deception continues ue only VIS ' only while the perfon himfelf moves round, but, which is more furprifing, it alfo continues for fome time after he ceafes to move, when the eye, as well as the objet, is at abfolute reft. Nap Bor ‘jt ai ype The reafon why objeéts appear to move round the con- trary way, when the eye turns round, is not fo difficult to explain ; for though, properly fpeaking, motion is not feen, as not being itfelf the immediate objeét of fight, yet by the fight we eafily know when the image changes its place on the retina, and thence conclude that either the object, or the eye, or both, are moved. But by the fight alone we can. never determine how far this motion belongs to the object, how far to the eye, or how far to both. If we imagine the eye at reft, we afcribe the whole motion to the object, though it be truly at reft. If we imagine the object at reft, we afcribe the whole motion to the eye, though it belongs entirely to the obje& : and when the eye is in motion, though we are fenfible of its motion, yet if we do not imagine that it moves fo fwiftly as it really does, we afcribe only a part of the motion to the eye, and the reft of it we afcribe to the obje&, though it be truly at reft. This laft, fays Dr. Porterfield, is what happens in the prefent cafe, when the eye turns round ; for though we are {enfible of the motion of the eye, yet we. do not apprehend that it moves fo faft as it really does; and, therefore, the bodies about appear to move the contrary way, as is agree- able to experience. But the great difficulty ftill remains, viz. why, after the eye ceafes to move, objeéts fhould, for fome time, fill appear to continue in motion, though their pictures on the retina be truly at reft, and do not at all change their lace. : This, Dr. Porterfield imagined, proceeds from a miftake with refpeét to the eye, which, though it be abfolutely at reft, we neverthelefs conceive it as moving the contrary way to that in which it moved before ; from which miftake, with refpect to the motion of the eye, the objets at reft will appear to move the fame way which the eye is imagined to move; and confequently will feem to continue their motion for fome time after the eye is at reft. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. il. p. 422. 424. VistBLE Horizon, Place, and Species. See the fubftantives. VISIER, Vizier, or Vifir, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman empire, of which there are two kinds; the firit called by the Turks vifir azem, that is, grand vifir, firft created in 1370, by Amurath I., in order to eafe him- felf of the chief and weighter affairs of the government. The grand, or prime vifir, is the prime minifter of ftate of the whole empire, and prefides at the divan, or great council. Being the lieutenant of the fultan, in whofe name he governs, and from whom he holds the feal, invefted with the greateft authority, and entrufted with all the power of execution, the vifir may ftrike off the heads of perfons re- ceiving falaries who oppofe the progrefs of the government, who throw obftacles in the way of its adminiftration, who do not obey its orders, or do not execute them according to its pleafure ; he commands the armies in perfon ; he dil- pofes of the finances ; he names, or caufes perfons to be named, to all the adminiftrative and military employments. Nothing, in a word, 1s foreign to his powers, but the inter- pretation of the law entrufted to the ulemas. But the greater the power of the grand vifir, the greater is his refponfibility. He is accountable, both to the fove- reign and to the people, for the aéts of injuftice which he commits, for the unfortunate refult of his adminiftration, for the extortions which he does not reprefs ; he is account- able, above all, for the unexpected dearnefs of provifions, for vy VIS too frequent fires, and for the defeats of the armies: all the misfortunes of the ftate are attributed to him. The fword, always fufpended over his head, ftrikes him equally whether he difpleafe the people, or difoblige the fultan. ~ In the frequent excurfions which he makes incog. im the city, for the purpofe of having an eye to good order, of informing himfelf of the {tate of the articles of food, examining the weights and meafures, and infpeCting the condu& of agents appointed for the diftribution of provi- fions, the vifir, accompanied by a public executioner, amd fome officers difouifed like himfelf, orders delinquents to be apprehended and punifhed on the fpot: he calls out, if neceflary, the guard of the quarter ; he direéts the baftinado to be given to the fhop-keepers who vend aliments of bad quality ; he caufes him who is found with falfe weights to be nailed by the ear againft the door of the fhop ; he even punifhes with death relapfes or malverfations of too ferious anature. During fires, he orders to be ftruck off the head of the thief caught in the very fact; but, in thofe cafes, the law has pronounced before-hand the penalty of death, Charged to liften to the complaints of individuals, to caufe juitice to be done to all, the vifir cannot, under any pre- text, difpofe legally of the life and fortune of citizens. It is not that he does not too frequently abufe his authority ; it is not that he does not fometimes yield to perfidious advice, that he does not fuffer himfelf to be led away by motives of hatred and revenge, that the thirft of gold does not impel him to arbitrary ats ; but woe be to him if his in- juftice be too revolting! When he too frequently puts himfelf above the laws, the people, in their turn, trample him under foot, unlefs the fultan be expeditious in adminif- tering juftice. Thus circumftanced, it is extremely rare for a vifir to grow old in the poft which he occupies. The title of vifir is given to all the pachas with three tails. Six of thefe ordinary vifirs, whofe reputation for wifdom and intelligence was univerfally allowed, formerly compofed the divan or council of the grand vifir. The vifir afked their opinion when he thought it neceflary. Soon after the acceffion of Selim to the throne, he compofed this council of twelve perfons the moft diftinguifhed by their office. The vifir and the mufti are prefidents of it; the one in his quality of lieutenant-general of the empire for temporal affairs ; the other as vicar of the fultan for the interpretation and depofitory of the laws. The other ten members are the kiaya-bey, the reis-effendi, the tefterdar-effendi, the tchélébi-effendi, the terfana-émini, the tchiaoux-bachi, two ex-reis-effendi, and two ex-tefterdars-effendi. See BasHaw, Bry, Kiaya-pey, &c. The firft of thofe above enumerated is the lieutenant of the vifir; the fecond is fecretary of ftate, or high chancellor of the empire ; the third is the minifter of the finances; the fourth is the receiver-general of the tax on wine, eatables, and moft articles of merchandize, and the adminiftrator of thefe funds, &c.; the fifth is the minifter of marine; the fixth fecretary of ftate. Renegado Chriftians have been fometimes raifed to the vifirate ; fuch were Khairedain, furnamed Barbarofla; Ulug Ali, Cuproli, &c. , VISIGAPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooftan, in the cirear of Cicacole, on the coaft. Near the town is a pagoda, dedicated to monkeys, which abound in the neighbourhood: they are fed by the priefts, and regu- larly affemble at certain hours ; 50 miles S.W. of Cicacole. N. lat. 17° 40’. E. long. 83° 301. VISIGNANO, a town of Iitria; 11 miles N. of Rovigno. VISINA, a town of Iftria ; 42 miles S.E. of Umago. VISION, VISION. _ VISION, Visto, the a@ of feeing, or perceiving exter- nal objets by the organ of fight. SAT AAS Vifion is well defined to be a fenfation, by which, from a certain motion of the optic nerve, made in the bottom of the eye by the rays of light emitted or refleGted from objeG&s, and hence conveyed to the common fenfory in the brain, the mind perceives the luminous objeét, its quantity, quality, figure, &c. The phenomena of vifion, the caufes of it, and the manner in which it is effected, make one of the greateft and moft important articles in the whole fyftem of natural knowledge. Indeed, a great part of the phyfical, mathe- matical, and anatomical difcoveries and improvements of the moderns, terminate here, and only tend to fet the bufinefs of vifion in a clearer light. - Hitherto refer what fir Ifaac Newton and others have difeovered of the nature of light and colours ;, the laws of infletion, reflection, and refra€tion of the rays, the ftruéture of the eye, particularly the retina and optic nerves, &c. | It is not neceflary we fhould here give a minute detail of the procefs of vifion from its firft principles ; the greateft part is already delivered under the refpeétive articles. The eye, the organ of vifion, we have deferibed under the article Eye ;- and its feveral parts, tunics, humours, &c. under their proper heads, Cornea, CrysTALLine, &c. ' The immediate and principal organ of vifion, viz. the retina, according to fome, and the choroides, according to others, are alfo diftin@ly confidered ; as alfo the ftruéture of the optic nerve, which conveys the impreflion to the brain; and the texture and difpofition of the brain itfelf, which receives them, and reprefents them to the foul. See Retina, Cuoroipes, Optic Nerves, BRatn, Sensory, &c. ‘ By means of this arrangement of the various refracting fubitances, many peculiar advantages are procured. The furface of the cornea only, if it had been more convex, could not have collected the lateral rays of a dire& pencil to a perfe&t focus, without’a different curvature near its édges ; and then the oblique pencils would have been fub- jeGted to greater aberration, nor could they have been made to converge to any focus on the retinas A fecond refrac- tion performs both thefe offices much more completely, and has alfo the advantage of admitting a greater quantity of light. If alfo the furfaces of the cryftalline lens, thus interpofed, had been abrupt, there would have been a re- fleGtion at each, and an apparent hazinefs would have inter- fered with the diftin& view of every luminous objet; but this inconvenience is avoided by the gradual increafe of den- fity in approaching the centre, which alfo makes the cryftal- line equivalent to a much more refraétive fub{tance of equal magnitude ; while, at the fame time, the fmaller denfity of the lateral parts prevents the ufual aberration of {pherical farfaces, occafioned by the too great refraétion of the Jateral rays of dire& pencils, and’ caufes alfo the focus of each oblique pencil to fall either accurately, or very nearly, on the concave furface of the retina, throughout its extent. ' Again, the nature of light, which is the medium or vehicle by which objeéts are carried to the eye, is laid down at large under the articles Ligur and Cotours; and the chief properties thereof concerned in vifion, under Rerrec- TION, ReFraction, &c.; and alfo many of its circum- flances under Ray, Mepium, &c. What remains for this article, therefore, is only to give a general idea of the whole procefs, in which all the feveral parts are concerned. Vision, different Opinions or Syftems of. 'The Platomifts and Stoics held vifion to be effe&ted by the emiflion of rays out of the eyes; conceiving that there was a fort of light thus darted out ; which, with the light of the external air, taking, as it were, hold of the objeéts, rendered them vifible; and thus returning back again to the eye, altered’ and new modified by the conta&t of the obje&, made -an- eon on the pupil, which gave the fenfation of the object. : ; 4 . a The reafons by which they maintain their opinions are derived, 1. From the brightnefs and luftre of tle eye. 2. From our feeing a remote cloud, without feeing one with which we are encompaffed (the rays being fuppofed too brifk and penetrating to be {topped by the near cloud, but growing languid at a greater diftance, are returned to the eye). 3. From our not feeing an obje& laid on the pupil. 4. From the eye’s being weary with feeing ; i.e. by emit- ting great quantities of rays. And laftly, from animals which fee in the night, as cats, lions, moles, owls, and fome men. Our own countryman, Roger Bacon, diftinguifhed as he was in a variety of refpects, does not hefitate to affent to the opinion that vifual rays proceed from the eye; giving this reafon for it, that every thing in nature is qualified to difcharge its proper fun@tions by its own powers, in the fame manner as the fun, and other celeflial bodies. Opus Majus, p. 289. The Epicureans held vifion to be performed by the emz- nation of corporeal fpecies, or images from objeéts; or a ort of atomical effuvia continually flying off from the inti- mate parts of objedts to the eye. Their chief reafons are, 1. That the objeéts muft necef- farily be united to the vifive faculty ; and fince it is not united by itfelf, it muft be fo by fome fpecies that reprefents it, and that is continually flowing from bodies. (2, "That it frequently happens, that old men fee remote objects better than near ones; the diftance making the fpecies thinner, and more commenturate to the debility of their organ. The Peripatetics hold, with Epicurus, that vifion is per- formed by the reception of f{pecies; but they differ from him in the circumitances: for they will have the f{pecies (which they call intentionales) to be incorporeal. It is true, Ariftotle’s doétrine of vifion, delivered in his chapter “ De Afpeétu,”? amounts to no more than this ; that objets muft move fome intermediate body, that by this they may move the organ of fight. To which he adds, in another place, that when we perceive bodies, it is their fpecies, not their matter, that we perceive ; as a feal makes an impreffion on wax, without the wax’s retaining any thing of the feal. But this vague and obfcure account the Peripatetics have thought fit to improve. Accordingly, what their mafter called /pecies, the difciples underftanding of real proper fpecies, affert, that every vifible objet expreffes a perfect image of itfelf, in the air contiguous to it; and this image another, fomewhat lefs in the next air; and the third, an- other, &c. till the laft image arrives at the cryftalline, which they hold for the chief organ of fight, or that which immediately moves’ the foul. Thefe images they call inten- tional {pecies. ' The modern philofophers, as the Cartefians and New- tonians, give a better account of vifion. They all agree, that it is performed by rays of light tefleted from the fe- veral points of objeéts received in at the pupil, refracted and colleéted in their paffage, through the coats and hu- mours, to the retina; and thus ftriking, or making an im- preflion, on fo many points thereof; which impreffion is conveyed, by the correfpondent capillaments of the optic nerve, to the brain, &c. Baptifta Porta’s experiments with the camera obf{cura, about the middle of the 16th century, convinced him, that vifion VISION. vifion is performed by, the intermiffion of fomething into the eye, and not by vifual rays, proceeding from the eye, as had been the general opinion before his time; and he was the firft who fully fatisfied himfelf and others upon this fub- je&, though feveral philofophers ftill adhered to the old opinion. 4 As for the Peripatetic feries or chain of images, it is a mere chimera; and Ariftotle’s meaning is better underftood without than,with them. In effe&, fetting thefe afide, the Ariftotelian, Cartefian, and Newtonian doétrines of vifion are very confiftent; for fir Ifaac Newton imagines, that vifion is performed chiefly by the vibrations of a fine me- dium, which penetrates all bodies excited in the bottom of the eye by the rays of light, and propagated through the capillaments of the optic nerves, to the fenforium. And Defcartes maintains, that the fun prefling the materia fub- tilis, with which the world is filled every way, the vibrations and pulfes of this matter refleéted from objeéts are communi- cated to the eye, and thence to the fenfory ; fo that the ation or vibration of a medium is equally fuppofed in all. Vision, Modern Theory of. In order to vifion, we are certain, it is required, that the rays of light be thrown from the vifible objects to the eye. What befalls them in the eye will be conceived from what follows. Suppofe, e gr. Z the eye, and ABC the obje& (Platz XX. Optics, fig 8.); now, though every point of an objet be a radiant point, that is, though there be rays reflected from every point of the object to every point of the circumambient fpace, each carrying with it its refpe@tive colour, (which we falfely imagine to be thofe of the objeé, ) yet, as only thofe rays which pafs through the pupil of the eye affect the fenfe, we fhall here confider none elfe but thefe. And again, though there be a great number of rays pafling from one radiant point, as B, through the pupil; yet we fhall only confider the a€tion of a few of them, as BD, BE, BE. Now, then, the ray B D, falling perpendicularly on the furface EDF, will pafs out of the air into the aqueous humour, without any refra¢tion, and proceed right to H, where, falling perpendicularly on the furface of the cryftal- line humour, it will go on, without any refraction, to M; where, again falling perpendicularly on the furface of the vitreous humour, it will proceed ftraight to the point O, in the fund or bottom of the eye. Again, the ray BE, paffing obliquely out of the air upon the furface of the watery humour ED F, will be re- fraéted, and approach towards the perpendicular E P; and thus, proceeding to the point G, in the furface of the cryf- talline, it will be there refracted {till nearer to the perpendi- cular. So alfo EG, falling obliquely out of air into an harder body, will be refraéted towards the perpendicular GR, and, falling on the point L of the furface of the vitreous humour, it will ftill be brought nearer to M. Laftly, GL, falling obliquely out of a denfer, upon the furface of a rarer body L MN, will be refra@ted, and re- cede from the perpendicular LT ; in receding from which, it is evident, it approaches towards the ray BDO, and may be fo refrated, as to meet the other in O. In like manner, the ray BF, being refraéted in B, will turn to I, and thence to N, and thence to the others in O. But the rays between BE and BF, being fomewhat lefs refracted, will not meet precifely in the fame point O. Thus will the radiant point B affe& the fund of the eye, in the fame manner as if the pupil had no breadth, or as if the radiant itfelf had only emitted one fingle ray, fuch as vere equal in power to all thofe between B E and BF, In like manner, the rays proceeding from the point A, will be fo refraéted in pafling through the humours of the; eye, as to meet near the point X; and the rays from ary intermediate point between A and B, will nearly meet in fome other point in the fund of the eye between K and O. Upon the whole, it may be aflerted univerfally, that every point of an obje& affects one point in the fund of the eye; and, on the contrary, that every point in the fund of the eye only receives rays from one point of the objeé&. Though this is not to be underftood with the utmoft rigour. Now, if the obje& recede from the eye, in fuch manner as that the radiant point B does not decline from the line BD; the rays which would proceed from B, not enough divaricated, would be fo refra€ted in pafling the three fur- faces, as that they would meet before they reached the point O ; on the contrary, if the object fhould be brought nearer the eye, the rays pafling from the point to the pupil, being too much divaricated, would be refraéted fo, as not to meet till beyond the point O: nay, the obje&t may be fo near, that the rays proceeding from any point may be fo divaricated, as that they fhall never meet at all. In all which cafes, there would be no point of the objeét but would. move a pretty large portion of the fund of the eye; and thus the ation of each point would be confounded with that of the contiguous one. And this would commonly be the cafe, but that nature has provided againft it; either by contriving the eye fo that its bulk may be lengthened, or fhortened, as objeéts may be more or lefs diftant ; or, as others will have it, fo as that the cryftalline may be made more convex, or more flat; or, ac- cording to others, fo as that the diftance between the cry{- talline and the retina may be lengthened or fhortened. The firft expedient has been thought by fome to be the moft probable; on the footing of which, when we dire& our eyes to an objeét fo remote, as that it cannot be dif- tinGtly viewed by the eye in its accuftomed figure, the eye is drawn back into a flatter figure, by the contraétion of four mufcles ; by which means the retina, becoming nearer the cryftalline humour, receives the rays fooner; and, on the other hand, when we view an object too near, the eye, being comprefled by the two oblique muicles, is rendered more globular ; by which means the retina, being fet farther off from the cryftalline, does not receive the rays of any point before they meet. See VISIBLE. Thofe who maintain the opinion now ftated farther allege, that this accefs and recefs of the cryftalline is fo neceflary to vifion, that whereas, in fome birds, the coats of the eye are of fuch a bony confiftence, that mufcles would not have been able to contra& and diftend them; nature has taken other means, by binding the cryftalline down to the retina, with a kind of blackifh threads not found in the eyes .of other animals. Nor muft it be omitted, that of the three refractions above-mentioned, the firft is wanting in fifhes ; and that, to remedy this, their cryftalline is not lenticular, as in other animals, but globular. Liatftly, fince the eyes of old people are generally worn flatter than thofe of young ones, fo that the rays from any point fall on the retina be-. fore they become colleéted into one, they muft exhibit the objeét fomewhat confufedly ; nor can fuch eyes fee any but remote objeéts diftin@ly. In others, whofe eyes are too globular, the cafe is juit the reverfe. See Prespyra and Myors. From what has been fhewn, that every point of an obje& moves only. one poit of the bottom of the eye ; and, onthe contrary, that every point in the fund of the eye only re~ eeiyes ray8 from one point of the objet, it is eafy to con~ ceive, that the whole objet mayes a certain part of the retina 5 VISION. retina; that in this part there is a diftin@ and vivid collec- tion of all the rays received in at the pupil ; and that as each ray carries its proper colour along with it, there are as many ints painted in the fund of the eye as there were points vifible in the obje&. Thus is there a {pecies, or picture, on the retina, exaétly like the obje€t: all the difference be- tween them is, that a body is here reprefented by a furface, a furface frequently by a line, and a line by a point; that the image is inverted, the right-hand anfwering to the left of the obje&, &c. and that it is exceedingly {mall; and ftill the more fo, as the objeé is more remote. What we have fhewn, under other articles, of the nature of light and colours, readily accounts for this painting of the abjegt on the retina. The matter of faé&t is proved by an eafy experiment, long fince tried by Des Cartes, thus : the windows of a chamber being fhut, and light only ad- mitted at one little aperture ; to that aperture apply the eye of fome animal newly killed, having firft dexteroufly pulled off the membranes that cover the bottom of the vitreous humour, viz. the hind part of the fclerotica, choroides, and even part of the retina; then will the images of all the objets, without doors, be feen diftinétly painted on any white body, as on an egg-fhell, that the eye is laid upon. And the fame thing is better fhewn by an artificial eye, or a camera obfcura. The images of objects, then, are reprefented on the retina; which is fhaped, fomewhat comprefled, branched ; branches pinnate, with numerous, parallel, Iinear, fhining fegments.—Ga- ._ thered by Mr. Hudfon on the Devonfhire coaft ; by Mr. W. Borrer at Brighthelmftone ; and by Mr. Woodward at Cro- mer, in little rocky pools, filled daily by the fea. This fpecies is f{uppofed to be perennial; it occurs throughout the fummer and autumn. ‘lhe fronds are three inches high, ere@t ;. when frefh of a bright, uniform, very beautiful green; but the colouring matter foon colleéts towards the fin, leaving the middle part vacant, and of a glaffy tranf- parency. The dranches are numerous ; naked at their bafe ; copioufly feathered above, with crowded, two-ranked, linear, obtufe, entire fegments, gradually fhorter towards the point. Nothing is known of the fru@tification. The habit of the lant, and the mode in which the green colouring matter tubfides, accord with one tribe of the Conferve ; but there are no joints, nor internal partitions. 34. U. protuberans. Prominent-feeded Laver. Engl. Bot. t. 2583.—Frond gelatinous, thick, angular, green. Seeds elliptical, at length prominent and deciduous.—Dif- covered by Mr. W. Borrer, growing amongit mofs, on wet fhady parts of the fand-rocks, at Uckfield, Suffex, in Sep- tember 1813. his is fo fingular a produétion, that much doubt may arife concerning its real genus. The whole is an aflemblage of thick, flefhy, juicy, angular or wrinkled, obtufe lobes, about half an inch high, a light, pellucid, grafs green. Copious elliptical uniform /eeds, about the fize of red poppy-feed, are lodged feparately throughout the whole fubftance, the external feries projecting beyond the furface, and when ripe eafily feparating from it if touched. According to our prefent itate of knowledge therefore, this plant can be referred only to Ulva, though, like a few other f{pecies, it is not of marine origin. Some doubtful fpecies require to be mentioned, and of thefe we fhall take a compendious notice. U. confervoides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1632. (Coaferva marina fiftulofa; Dill. Mufc. 34. t. 6. f. 39.), has all the appear- ance of a branched Conferva, but Dillenius deferibes it as pervious throughout, admitting water freely along the ftem and branches. Hence Linneus made the plant an U/va, but our knowledge of many Conferve renders the propriety of {uch a determination doubtful. He adopted this fpecies folely on the authority of the Hifforia Mufcorum, what he {ubfequently referred to it in his herbarium being very different. U. latiffima, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1632, we have already men- tioned under n. 12, as not at all different from Fucus fac- charinus, which the original Gothland fpecimen clearly fhews. U. labyrinthiformis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1633, found by Van- delli in warm baths near Padua, and defcribed, with a good figure annexed, in that author’s Tradatus de Thermis Agri Patavini, 120. t. 2, fhould feem to belong rather to Tre- mella, no feeds having been obferved. U. lumbricalis, Linn, Mant. 311, may be found under MERTENSIA. U. papillofa, ibid. is probably a Fucus, near to the Lin- nean F. /pinofus, and perhaps the fame with F. /firiatus, Turn. Hiit. Fucor, 32. t. 16. U. pruniformis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1633, and U. incraffata, Hud{. 572, are {pecies of RivuLaria ; fee that article. : Vou. XXXVII. ULV Y. granulata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1633,.is Tremella:granulatay Engl. Bot. t. 324. gens U. flellata, Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 1. 351. Prodr. FI, Gree. n. 2522, very nearly related to Lichenoides gelatino- fum tenue reticulatum. . Dill. Mufc. 138. t. 19. f. 21, if not the very fame; is likewife next akin to Conferva umbili- cata of Col. Velley, Tranf: of Linn. Soc.,v. 5. 169. t. 7- Thefe plants are fo peculiar in ftruéture, that their fructifi- cation, when difcovered, will probably eftablifh them as a. genus by themfelves.' At’ leaft they could be referred to Ulva, or to Conferva, for the prefent only, nor are they reconcileable to the generic charaéter, or habit, of either. ULva, in Geography, one of the Weftern iflands of Scot- land, about feven miles in circumference, near the W. coait of Mull. N. lat. 56° 28'.. W. long. 6° 13). ULUA, ariver of Honduras, which runs into the bay, N. lat. 15° 48’. . W. long. 88° 38/. Uua, or Sol, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Mexico. N. lat. 15° 4o!. ULUBRA, in Ancient Geography, a borough of Italy, in Latium, in the vicinity of Velitre and of Suefla Pometia- it was a Roman colony. Horace fays of it (Epift. ii. Wer2Se) ce Navibus atque Quadrigis petimus bene vivere ; quod petis, hic eft, Eft Ulubris ; animus fi te non deficit equus.”” But we learn from Juvenal (Sat. x. v. 101.) that this place became defert : « Et de menfura jus dicere, vafa minora Frangere pannofus vacuis Aidilis Ulibris.” ULUCITRA, a town of Thrace, in the province of Rhodope. ULVERSTON, in Geography, an ancient market-town in the hundred of North Lonfdale, and county palatine of Lan- cafter, England, is fituated within the diftri@ of Furnefs, at the diftance of 20 miles N. W. from the county-town, and 270 miles N.W. by N. from London. Edward I., in the eighth year of his reign, granted a charter to this town for a weekly market and annual fair: but the benefit derived from this grant was inconfiderable, while Furnef{s abbey was inhabited by the monks, as the great mart of this diftri€ was Dalton, which, from its contiguity and conneétion with the abbey, fuperfeded all the vicinal towns. After the diffolution of that monaftery, Dalton loft its importance, and Ulverfton,, from its convenient and central fituation, became the em- porium of the diftrit. The fair granted by king Edward has grown into difufe, but two others are annually held. Monday is the market-day. The principal trade of this town is in iron-ore, pig and bar iron, lime-{tone, blue flate, oats, barley, and beans : the manufa€tures are cotton, check, canvas, and hats. Within the laft fixty years, great im- provements have taken place in the appearance of the town; the ftreets are fpacious and clean; and the houfes, which, from the advance of trade, rapidly increafe in number, are well built: in the return of the year 1811, they were efti- mated at 728, the population at 3378. At the interfeGtion of two principal ftreets, in the centre of the moft ancient part of the town, is an old crofs, The church, which {tands in a field at a {mall diftance from the town, was al- moit wholly rebuilt in 1804: it is a plain, neat edifice ; has three aifles and a fquare tower. A {mall theatre, an af- fembly-room, and a public fubfcription library, have been recently eftablifhed. A canal, about a mile and a quarter in length, was cut in 1795, to form a communication from Yy the ULU the eaft fide of the tgwn to the channel of the river Leven: it is well fupplied with water, has a {pacious bafin, with a warehoufe, and has been navigated by fhips of 400 tons burden. It was made after the plans of J. Rennie, efq. In the vicinity of this town is Conifhead, the feat of Wilfon Bradyll, efq. The houfe ftands on the {cite of the ancient priory of Conifhead: the fouth front is modern, with an ornamental arcade; the north front has a piazza and wings. About half a mile from Ulverfton is Swartmoor-Hall, to which fome degree of celebrity has attached from its having been the refidence and property of George Fox, one of the founders of the fe&t of Quakers. He made a convert of the former proprictor, Thomas Fell, one of the Welfh judges, and married his widow. Fox died in 1691.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lancafhire, by J. Britton, F.S.A. ULUGH-BEIGH, in Biography, a learned and power- ful Tartarian prince, was born in the year 1393. He was the grandfon of the celebrated Timur; and his real name was Mohammed Taragai, Ulugh-Beigh being an epithet which fignifies a great lord or prince. He entered upon the government of Iran and Turan, that is of Perfia and Tartary, during his father’s life, in 1407, and conduéted himfelf in a manner that fecured univerfal efteem. His lei- fure hours he devoted to reading, and thus acquired a knowledge of various fciences. He was famed for a very retentive memory, and having written a book or journal of all the animals which he had killed in hunting, which book was accidentally loft, he di€tated the contents of it to a tranfcriber; and upon comparing this tranfcript with the original when it was found, it was correét except in four places. Among other inftitutions for the promotion of {cience, he eftablifhed a gymnafium at Samarcand, his capital, which accommodated a hundred ftudents, received into it for education. His chief attention, however, was devoted to mathematics and aftronomy ; and for the im- provement of the latter {cience, he invited to Samarcand a great number of aftronomers, and conftruéted an obferva- tory, which he furnifhed with the beft aftronomical inftru- ments. Here he affifted in perfon, employing in his obfer- vations, as fome have faid, a gnomon one hundred and eighty Roman feet in height. His principal affiftant was Salah-Eddin, his preceptor, and a Chriftian, who was the dire€tor of this aftronomical academy, and who co-operated with Ulugh-Beigh in the conftruétion of the tables which he intended to publifh; but as he died before their com- pletion, the prince himfelf engaged in the laborious under- taking, and feleGed for his coadjutors Alicufhi, the fon of Salah-Eddin, and the aftronomer Ali Ben-Gaiat-Eddin Mohammed Jamchid. To this work, which has never been printed entire, we are indebted for thofe tables that pafs under the name of Ulugh-Beigh. A fourth part of it was publifhed by the learned Hyde, with an ample com- mentary. This was a catalogue of the fixed ftars, formed upon the Obfervations made at Samarcand, and completed in 1437. Its title is “'Tabule Longitudinis et Latitudinis Stellarum fixarum, ex Obfervatione Ulugbeighi, Tamerlanis M. Nepotis, Regionum ultra citraque Giihun (Oxum) Prin- cipis potentiflimi, ex tribus invicem collatis MSS. Perficis, jam primum luce et latio donavit, et Commentariis illuftravit, Thomas Hyde, A.M. e Coll. Regin. Oxon.; in calce accefferunt Mohammedis Tizini Tabule Declinationum et Re&tarum Afcenfionum. Additur Elenchus Nominum Stel- larum,”? Oxon. 1665, 4to. Thefe aftronomical tables were fcarcely completed, when a difference occurred between ULZ Ulugh-Beigh and his eldeft fon. Addicted, like other orientals, to aftrology, he calculated his fon’s nativity ; and hence portending fome great misfortune, he gave the pre- ference to his younger fon, fo that the eldeft, being flighted, rebelled againft him. A civil war took place, an in a bloody battle near Samarcand the father was defeated, and was obliged to fave himfelf by flight. Returning after- wards to Samarcand, hoping that his fon would have com- paffion upon him, he was at firft kindly received ; but foon afterwards a mandate was iffued for his execution, which tragical event occurred near Samarcand, according to Flam- {tead, in the year 1449; but, as Herbelot fays, in 1450. Two other learned works, which ferve for the illuftra- tion of the eaftern geography and hiftory, written by this prince, were publifhed by Mr. Greaves; viz. “ Bine Tabule Geographice, una Naffir Eddini, altera Ulug- Beighi, Opera et Studio J. Gravii nunc primum pub- licatee et Commentariis ex Abulfeda aliifque Arabum Geo- graphis illuftrate,’? Lond. 1648, 4to.: and alfo “ Epochz celebriores Aftronomis, Hiftoricis, Chronologis, Cha- taiorum, Syro-Grzcorum, Arabum, Perfarum, Choraf= miorum ufitate ; ex Traditione Ulug-Beighi Indiz citra extraque Gangem Principis, eas primum publicayit, recen- fuit, et Commentariis iluftravit J. Gravius,”? Lond. 1650, combined, in Arabic and Latin, in J. Hudfon Geogr. Vet. Script. Minores, tom. ii. Montucla. Gen. Biog. ULVISON, in Geography, a river of Sweden, which runs into the Mzler lake. : ULULA, in Ornithology. See Srrrx. ULULEUS, in Ancient Geography, a river which fur- nifhed Dyrrhachium with water; now called Argentea. ULYSSEA, a town of Hifpania, in Beetica, fituated on the mountains, above Abdera, according to Strabo ; who fays that here was a temple dedicated to Minerva, and that it contained many monuments of the voyages of Ulyfles. ULYSSES, in Geography, a townfhip of New York, in America, in the S.E. corner of Seneca county, 14 miles S.E. of Ovid, and 180 W. of Albany, with two poft- offices, Ithaca and Tremain; bounded N. by Ovid, N.E2 and E. by Cayuga county, S. by Cayuta in Tioga county, and W. by Heétor. On the E. it embraces the half of the S. end of Cayuga lake, an extent of eight miles, where it receives Cayuga creek, or the main inlet; Six-mile and Fall creeks, which furnifh many mill-feats in this part of the town; and it has fome fmall ftreams that fall into the W. fide, and fupply mill-feats in the N. part of the town. The fouth part is hilly, and the foil lefs valuable than the north, which is fufficiently level, with a very good foil. It has been fettled fince the year 1789, at firft by Yankees, or New England people, and fince by Dutch from New Jerfey. It has one Methodift meeting-houfe, and a con- gregation of Prefbyterians. ‘The town has a confiderable quantity of white pine, which is very valuable. Ithaca is a handfome pott-village at the S. end of Cayuga lake, con- taining 40 houfes, with a confiderable trade ; and Tremain is a poft-village, rr miles N.W. of Ithaca, containing 10 or 12 houfes. ULYSSIS Portus, in Ancient Geography, a port on the eaftern fide of Sicily, near Catana. It was an ancient opinion that Ulyffes had landed in this place. However, if we admit the recitals of Homer in the Odyflee, Ulyffes had landed on the promontory of Pachynum. ULYSSOPOLIS, a town of Thrace, faid to be the Odiffus of Ptolemy. ULZEN, in Geography. See ULTzEn. UMA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo goddefs Parvati, UM B Parvati, under which article'an ample account is given cf this important many-named deity. Uma is ftated to be an igcarnation of Parvati. 5 _ Umais a name ftill given to Hindoo females, in common with feveral others of this and other goddefles; fuch as Lakfhmi, Parvati, Bhavani, &c. UMAGNO, in Geography, a town of Etruria; 5 miles N. of Volterra. UMAGO, a fea-port town of Iftria. Here is a fpacious harbour at the mouth of a river, but the fituation being unhealthy, the town is but thinly inhabited ; 16 miles E. of Venice. N,. lat. 45° 35',, E. long. 13° 43!. UMAPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Culia- can; 10 miles E. of Culiacan. UMARYI, in Botany, the Brafilian name of a tree, rudely figured in Marcgrave’s Hi/f. Plant. 121. See Georrrma. - UMARRAH,, in Geography, atown of Nubia ; 85 miles S. of Syene. UMATAG, or Umaray, a town of the ifland of Guam, in the Eaft Indian fea, where veffels ftop to refit. UMBA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Arch- angel, on the White fea. N.lat.66°45'. E. long. 29° 14/. Uma, Lower, a middle province of Matamba. Umea, Upper, the moft northerly province of Matamba. UMBAA, a town of Abyflinia; too miles S.S.W. of ‘Gondar. _ UMBAGOG Lakg, a lake of New Hampphire. lat. 44° 38'. W. long. 70° 59’. UMBALLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sirhind ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Sirhind. UMBEL, Umpecra, in Botany, a Latin word, for a little fhade, or umbrella, is ufed to defignate a particular mode of inflorefcence, thence called umbellate. (See Um- BELLAT.) The umbella was formerly named in Englifh rundle, probably from its round fhape; but umbel is now univerfally adopted. This mode of inflorefcence confifts of feveral flower-ftalks; or rays, nearly equal in length, {preading from a common point or centre, their fummits forming a level, convex, fometimes globofe, furface ; more rarely, as in the Carrot, a concave one. When each ray is fimple, and bears a folitary flower, the umbel is denominated fimple, as in the Ivy and Cowflip, as well as in Afrantia, Eriocalia, and Hydrocotyle. A compound umbel, properly fo called, has each of its principal rays terminating in an- other fmaller umbel. Such, at leaft, is the cafe with thofe plants conftituting the natural order of UmpBeLtat=; few of which, befides the three genera juft mentioned, have fimple umbels. Inftances of compound ones are familiar in the Hemlock, Carrot, Parfley, &c. There are indeed other kinds of compound umbels, found in various other tribes of plants; as in Euphorbia, whofe general umbel, in moft of the fpecies, is repeatedly fubdivided, either in a threefold, or a forked manner. A Cyne (fee that article) is in the firft inftance a general umbel, though its partial ftalks are irregularly fubdivided. On the contrary, a panicle, whofe primary ramifications are alternate, or irre- gular, fometimes has its ultimate ones umbellate, of which examples occur in Vitis and Aralia. We refer the reader to Cymer, INFLORESCENCE, and Genus, for remarks on the different conceptions of authors, refpeéting the nature ‘of an umbel, referving further confiderations of that kind for the article Umpertatm. We have here only to add, that an umbel is fometimes naked, but much more generally accompanied by éraéeas, or by a fimple or compound in- volucrum, not always conitant, or uniformly prefent, even in the fame fpecies. The rays themfelves are ufually per- N. UMB pai feldom deciduous, till long after the feeds have allen. UMBELLATA, a very natural order of plants, fo named from its mode of inflorefcence, (fee Umpr,) and conftituting the forty-fifth order among the Fragmenta of Linneus. It is exaétly equivalent to the Umlellifere of other writers, at leaft of fuch as are correé&t, bein the fixtieth order in Juffieu’s fyftem, or the fecond of his twelfth clafs. The charaéters of that clafs are thefe. A fuperior calyx of one leaf. Petals feveral, definite, in- ferted upon the piftil, or upon the border of a gland crown- ing the germen. Svamens definite, diftin&, inferted into the fame part, being alternate with the petals, and equal to them in number. Germen inferior, fimple; ftyles feveral, definite ; ftigmas as many. Seeds agreeing in number with the ftyles, either naked, or rarely inclofed in a feed-veffel, having a fimilar number of cells. Corculum minute, oblong, at the top of a woody albumen. /owers umbellate, that is, fupported fingly on numerous ftalks, fpringing from the fame point. Umdbel either naked, or furrounded by a many- leaved involucrum: and either fimple, or compofed of leffer, or partial, umbels, which likewife are fometimes naked, fometimes furnifhed with a partial involucrum. The orders are two; 1. ARALI#, whofe petals, ftyles, and feeds, are numerous, their fruit capfular cr pulpy: and z. UMBELLI- FER, of which we are about to treat. ; Juffieu thus diftinguifhes the order in queftion. Calyx either entire or five-toothed. Petals five. Stamens five. Styles and ftigmas two. Fruit perpendicularly feparable into two feeds, various in fhape, hanging by their f{ummits to a central, thread-fhaped, often deeply divided, axis or re- ceptacle. Flowers difpofed in little umbels, which are moftly colle&ted into general umbels, each being either naked or furnifhed with involucrums, and for the moft part regular, in a few inftances anomalous. The /fem is often herbaceous, rarely fhrubby. Leaves alternate, with fheath- ing footitalks ; and either fimple, or moft frequently com- pound, with repeated fubdivifions. The colour of the flowers is ufually white, fometimes reddifh or purplith ; in a few inftances yellow. Lagoecia, and we may add £rio- calia, are remarkable for a folitary feed, the ftyle alfo being folitary in the former. We may add alfo, that Eryngium is fingular for having the umbel condenfed into a head, the flowers having no footftalks, forming the only exception to the umbellate inflorefcence of the whole order. Linneus fixes the chara&ter of his Umbellate in the five ftamens, two ityles, and two feeds, all umbellate flowers not being comprehended therein. But as Zryngium is not excluded, though deftitute of a proper umbel, fo neither are Lagoecia and Eriocalia, though having only folitary feeds. His general idea of the order agrees with Juffieu’s, but he held a peculiar opinion of the umbel being in itfelf an aggre- gaté flower. On this fubje& we have already faid all that is neceflary, under Cymr. We proceed to the generic dif- tin@tions in this order, a fubje& of the greateft difficulty, becaufe the order itfelf is fo very natural. The fpecies, as Haller obferves, are eafily difcriminated. This author, and his pupil Crantz, follow Tournefort, in defining the genera by the feeds. Linnzus holds this principle rather too cheap, adopting the plan of his friend Artedi, who firft fuggefted the ufe of the general and partial involucrum for the purpofe required. Hence he diftributes the Umbellate into three fetions. Thofe which have a general as well as partial in- volucrum ; thofe which have only a partial one ; and thofe which have neither. Juffieu follows the fame arrangement, only reverfing the fe€tions. The author of the Flora Bri- ve y 2 tanntca UM B tannica hae not undertaken to reform this fubje&, though he has always obje€ted to the principle on which it is founded. Like other Linnzan botanifts, he adopts it, with many things befides, for prefent ufe. Gzertner, as might be ex- pected, recurs to the feeds, but not with the happieit fuccefs. Two ingenious writers have of late taken up this depart- ment of botany afrefh, independent of each other ; profeffor Hoffmann, late of Gottingen, now of Mofcow; and pro- feffor Sprengel of Halle. ‘The former founds his genera on the feeds and petals; the latter on the feeds alone, carrying into execution the principles of the late M. Cuffon of Mont- pellier, whofe premature death deprived the world of the fruit of his laborious ftudies on this fubject. Mr. Sprengel’s fe€tions are as follows. 1. Fruit com- prefled, flat. 2. Fruit rather folid, winged. 3. Fruit bladdery. 4. Fruit coated. 5. Fruit armed. 6. Fruit folid, naked, This laft fetion is fubdivided into thofe whofe fruit is linear-lanceolate, and thofe in which it is oblong-ovate, or quite ovate. Subordinate charaéters are afforded by the ribs of the feeds, and their interftices, which, after Cuffon, are termed vallecule. Latufcula of thefe authors are the floping fides of each feed, from the back to the commiffura, or feam, where the edges of the wo feeds meet. Profeffor Sprengel eftablifhes 63 genera, and 371 {pecies, in his Prodromus; publifhed at Halle in i813. The Umbellate hitherto known are chiefly found in the ‘temperate climates of the northern hemifphere, as Mr. Brown obferves in his General Remarks on the Botany of Terra Auttralis, fubjoined to captain Flinders’s Voyage. Very few occur within the tropics, but the eminent botanift juft quoted informs his readers, that thofe of Terra Auf- tralis, including a few dralie, exceed fifty fpecies. Thefe are moftly new. The fingular genus Eriocarta, (fee that article,) adopted in Sprengel’s Prodr. 27, is one of them. Mr. Brown fpeaks of another genus, by the name of Leu- colena, * worthy of notice on account of the great apparent differences of inflorefcence, exifting among its {pecies ;” which, however, prove, by his luminous explanation, to be only apparent. We think it hardly neceffary to mention the polysamous charaéter of the flowers in fome of this order, though that chara&ter is made to enter into the Linnzan generic dif- tinétions. ‘The central flowers, or central partial umbels, are moit inclined to be male, the furrounding ones female, or at leaft moft fertile. The petals of the latter are alfo moit radiant, or dilated outwards. Linnezus remarks, that the principal qualities of thefe plants refide in their roots, (often biennial, ) and their feeds ; the herbage, for the moit part, being inaétive. They con- tain an acrid aromatic, or cauftic principle. Such as grow in dry places are moft wholefome or fafe, as well as moft agreeable in favour; thofe found in watery places are among the moft virulent of all vegetable poifons; witnefs Cicuta virofa and Oenanthe crocata. Cultivation, in a dry or manured foil, renders fome aquatic umbellate fafe and whole- fome, particularly the Apium graveolens of our ditches, which becomes, under proper treatment, the garden Celery. UMBELLIFERAE. See Umprrtare. UMBELLIFEROUS Pranrs, a name given to cer- tain kinds, as all fuch as form and produce their flowers in the manner of an umbel, and which are principally of the herbaceous kinds, with fome few of the tree fort, having the flowers in this mode either in the fimple or compound form, rifing with erect hollow ftalks in the firft defcription, UMB and moftly branching in the alternate method, and either fimple-fingered, or winged. The chief forts in the garden herb clafs are thofe of angelica, the different carrot kinds, the parfnip, parfley, the various kinds of celery, common fennel, dill, giant fennel, alexanders, coriander, carraway; Macedonian parfley, famphire, eringo, &c. But befides thefe efculents for different culinary purpofes, it belongs to fome of the medicinal fort, and others which do not relate to the bufinefs of gardening. See KrrcuHEen-Garden Plants, and Mepreinat Plants. : UMBELULUS, in Ornithology, afpecies of Tetrao ; which ee. ; UMBER, Omsnos, or Umbros, in Ancient Geography, a lake of Italy, in Umbria ; which, according to Scaliger, is the fame with the Vadimonis lacus of Livy. Unser, or Umbre, in Natural Hiftory, a foflile brown or blackifh fubftance, ufed in painting, fo called from Ombria, the ancient name of the duchy of Spoleto, in Italy, whence it was firft obtained; diluted with water, it ferves to make a dark-brown colour, ufually called with us an hair-colour. Dr. Hill and M. Da Cofta confider it as an earth of the ochre kind. It is found in Egypt, Italy, Spain, and Ger- many ; in Cyprus alfo it is found in large quantities ; but what we have brought into England is principally from different parts of the Turkifh dominions. But it might be found in confiderable plenty alfo in England and Ireland, if properly looked after, feveral large maffes of it having been thrown up:in digging on Mendip-hills, in Somerfet- fhire, and in the county of Wexford, in Ireland: it is alfo fometimes found in the veins of lead-ore, both in Derby- fhire and Flintfhire. Mineralogifts mention two kinds of umber; the one called ‘* Cologne earth,’ which is a variety of peat or earthy-brown coal. In the vicinity of Cologne they work large beds of it, principally for fuel, and a confiderable quantity is imported into Holland, where it is ufed for the adulteration of fnuff, and a {maller quantity is employed by the paint-makers. Its colour is a fomewhat pinkifh- brown, and it is ufeful to the painter in water-colours. The fecond kind is known by the name of “ Turkifh umber,” and appears to be a variety of the iron-ore, called brown iron-ftone ochre. Klaproth analyfed a f{pecimen from Cy- prus, and found that it contained 48 oxyd of iron. 20 oxyd of manganefe. 13 filex. 5 alumine. 14 water. 100 Wallerius ranks the umber as a humus or mould, appre- hending, by its immediately flaming in the fire, and by the fmell which it emits, that it owes its colour to an admixture of bituminous parts. But M. le Baron de Hupfel (Berlin, Mem. 1771) has difcovered it to be a foffile wood, filled with a bituminous juice. It 1s found in two different ftates, firit, as retaining the form of wood, which it has preferved by means of a bituminous matter that has prevented. the rotting of the wood ; and fecondly, as a powder, like that into which the frft kind, that itill retains the form of the wood, eafily crumbles. It 1s certain, however, fays Mr. Kirwan, that the name hath been alfo given to a fort of brown ochre, which be- comes UMB comes red when flightly heated, but ia a ftronger heat is again brown and magnetic, and ina ftill ftronger, melts into a black glafs. It does not effervefce with acids before roafting, but after that the martial part is foluble. Elem. Mineral, p. 78. - : d This. fubftance, when burnt, makes a good fhade for gold. It need only be put into the naked fire in large lumps, which fhould not be taken out till they be thoroughly red-hot. Unser, or Ombre, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name for a fifh of the truttaceous kind, more commonly called the grayling, and by the authors in ichthyography, thymallus, a frefh-water fifth of a very fine tafte. UMBERPATTONS, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooitan, in Boggilcund ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Rewah. UMBERSTON Crerk, a river of Virginia, which runs'into the Potomack, N. lat. 39° 35’. W. long. 78° 6. UMBILICAL, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to the arteries and veins which pa{s through the umbilicus. See Empryo. Umetricat Region, is that part of the abdomen lying round the umbilicus, or navel. Umericat Rupture, a rupture or protrufion of the bowels at the navel. The difeafe is frequently called by furgeons exomphalos; which fee. See alfo Hernta. Umeiricatis Funiculus, popularly called the navel-fring. See Emsryo, Funis, and Larour. Umpiricat Poinis, in Mathematics, the fame with foci. See Focus. Umairicat Veffels of Vegetables, in Agriculture and Gar- dening, a term lately applied by fome writers, as Darwin, to the {mail veffels which pafs from the heart part of the feed into the fide feed-lobes, and there imbibe the folution of faccharine, farinaceous, or oily matter, which is prepared and depofited in them for the nourifhment and fupport of the new vegetable in its germination and infant growth. They are confequently fuppofed to perform the important office of Tele nutrition to the young plant, and of oxygenating, or affording the oxygene principle of the air to the vegetable juice, fap, or blood, and thereby to be of very material ufe in the {prouting and vegetation of grain, feeds, and buds. See VEGETATION, and VITAL Air. UMBILICARIA, in Botany, a genus of the Lichen family, fo called by Hoffmann, from the rounded deprefled figure of its frond, whofe centre is firmly attached to the rocks, by a central root, like an umbilical cord. This genus confilts of the Lichenes umbilicate of Linneus, and is now called Gyropuora ; fee that article. Nineteen fpecies are defcribed in the moft recent publication of profeffor Acharius, Synopfis Methodi Lichenum, p. 63—69. UMBILICATED, in Gardening, a term which fignifies and is applied to thofe forts of fruit and leaves which are navel-fhaped, or formed in the manner of that part. This is the cafe in fruit of the apple and pear kinds, as well as fome others, in which one or both ends are hollowed in a navel-like manner. Alfo in fome leaves, as thofe of the peltate or target-formed fort, which are falhioned or fhaped in a manner fomewhat fimilar to that of the navel, at the part or place where the footitalk is inferted, which is commonly about the middle, on the under fide, but in fome inftances above. UMBILICUS, in Anatemy, the navel, a round opening in the linea alba, for the paflage of the umbilical veffels of the foetus. Its fituation 1s marked by a deprefflion, after the cord has feparated, produced by the inflection of the cinteguments. See Osiiquus. Daiticus, in Mathematics, the fame with focus. UMB Umaiticus Marinus, a name given to a {mall oval body of a fhelly matter, from its refemblanee to the human navel. It is properly the operculum of a fhell-fith, ferving to clofe up the aperture of the fhell in the buccinum, and other turbinated fhells ; and to that purpofe it is fixed to the anterior extremity of the body of the animal; fo that when it retracts its body into the fhell, this naturally fills up the mouth of it: it is convex on one fide, and flat on the other ; the convex fide is plain ‘and white, the flat fide is yellowifh or reddifh, and marked with a fpiral line. See Concnotocy. It is faid by authors to have great virtues as an abforbent and aitringent ; but it is not ufed at prefent in the fhops, though it holds a place in the catalogues of the Materia Medica, as well of our own as other nations. Umpiticus Veneris, in Botany. \(See Coryiepon.) The Englifh name of the fame import, Venus’s Navel-wort, is applied to the Cynogloffum linifolium, on account of the little hollow, or depreffion, in each of its beautiful feeds. ) UMBINUS, among the Ancients, a kind of coin current in Gallia Narbonnenfis. UMBLA, or, as fome write it, Umbra, in Ichthyology, the name of a fith of the truttaceous kind, and nearly allied to the falmon. It is the falmo umdla of Linneus, with the lateral lines bent upward, and a bifurcated tail. See Satmo. There are four f{pecies of this fifh mentioned among nata- ralifts ; but the umbla prior and umbla altera of Rondeletius, which are two of them, feem only to be the different fexes of the fame fith. Thefe are confiderably large, very like the common falmon, but have blue backs and yellow bellies. The third is the fifh commonly called the /a/velin, or falmo Jalvelinus of Linnzus, with the upper jaw longer than the other: and the fourth is the red charr. Willughby’s Hitt. Pifc. p. 198. ’ UMBO, in Antiquity, the round protuberant part of a fhield. Umno, in Geography, a lake of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Archangel. _N. lat. 67° go. E. long. 29° 14/. UMBONE, or Horn, among Floriffs, fignifies any pointed ftyle, or piftil, in the middle of a flower. : There is alfo an umbone called double-pointed, or biparted, as in the peony ; and fometimes the umbone has four fharp points, in which cafe it is termed, an umbone divided into fo many heads, or cut into three or four parts. UMBOYNA, in Geography, a town of Nubia; 50 miles S. of Goos. UMBRA, Suapow. See Licut, SHADow, PENUMBRA, &c. Umpra, in Ancient Geography, a {mall river of Italy, in Etruria. Umepra, in Geography, a river of America, which runs into the Wabafh, N. lat. 38° 38’. W. long. 88° 12’. Umara, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-fifh caught in the Mediterranean, and brought to the markets in Italy and other places ; called by fome chromis, and by the Venetians corvo. Its ufual fize at market is about twelve or fourteen inches in length; but it grows to fixty pounds weight, and to the length of five or fix feet. It is of a fomewhat flatted figure, and its back is ridged and rifes up from the head. It fome- thing refembles the carp in its general figure, but is broader. It is very elegantly coloured, for there are a number of long ablique lines covering its whole fides, which are alternately of a fine pale blue, and a beautiful yellow. Its fcales are moderately large, and its coverings of the gills, and great part of its very head, as well as its body, are covered with thefe ; its head is moderately large, but its mouth fmall, and It UMB it has a fingle beard hanging down from its chin. Rondelet. de Pifc. p. 182. See Scimna. Umer, in Zoology, a {pecies-of lacerta. See Lizarp. UMBRATILIS Puena, the fighting with one’s own fhadow. This was one of the kinds of exercife much recommended by the ancient phyficians ; they ordered the perfon who ufed it, not only to box, but to wreftle, with his fhadow ; that is, not only to ufe his arms, but his legs alfo, and often to put himfelf into a leaping pofture, and throw his body violently forward, and often to retreat haftily backwards. The cuftom feems to have been of ancient date; Plato ex- prefsly mentions it, and St. Paul feems to allude to it in the paflage where, glorying in the reality of his confli€ts, he fays he does not fight as one who beats the air. The phyficians greatly recommended this exercife to people of fedentary lives, and to thofe who had weak nerves, and were afflicted with tremors. They efteemed it ufeful alfo in difeafes of the kidneys, and of the thorax. UMBRE, in Mineralogy. See Umesr. Umpre, in Ornithology. See Scopus. UMBRELLA, in Rural Economy, a well-known fhade or guard from the fun or rain, formed by ftretching filk, canvas, or any other linen or woollen ftuff, over elaftic ftrips of whalebone, fo difpofed as to diverge from a central point and make a circular covering, which may by means of a rod or ftaff paffing through the centre be held over the head, when occafion requires it, or which may be drawn up round this rod and conveniently carried in the hand. Thefe temporary guards from heat or wet have not long been introduced into our country, but they have been found fo convenient and ufeful that they are now become very com- mon. They feem to have been of much more ancient ufe ‘in the Eaft. M. de la Loubere, who was envoy extraordi- nary for the French king to the king of Siam, in the years 1687 and 1688, informs us in his ** New Hiftorical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam,” a tranflation of which into Eng- lifh was printed at London in 1693, that the ufe of um- brellas, in Siamefe Roum, was a favour which the king of Siam did not grant to all his fubjeéts, although the umbrella be permitted to all the Europeans. Thofe which are like to ours, or which have only one round, were the leaft honourable, and were ufed by moft of the Mandarins. Thofe that had more rounds about the fame handle, as if they were feveral umbrellas fixed one upon another, were for the king alone. Thofe which the Siamefe called “ clot,’? and which had only one round, having two or three painted cloths fufpended from them, one lower than the other, were granted by the king of Siam to the ‘* Sancrats,”’ or {uperiors of the “* Ta- lapoins.”? Thofe which he gave to the king’s ambafladors were of this laft fort, and had three cloth hangings. The Talapoins had umbrellas in the form of a fcreen, which they carried in their hands. ‘They were formed of a kind of palmetto leaf cut round and folded, and the folds were tied with a thread near the ftem, and the ftem was made crooked like an S, and ferved for a handle. In the Siamefe language they called them ‘* Talapat,”’ and it is probable, fays Lou- bere, that from hence comes the name of “ Talapoi’ or “ Talapoin,”’ which is in ‘ufe only among foreigners, and which is unknown to the Talapoins themfelves, whofe Sia- mefe name is “¢ Tchaou-cou.”? An‘umbrella, held in a proper pofition over the head, may ferve to colleé the force of a diftant found by reflec- tion, in the manner of a hearing-trumpet ; but its fubftance is too flight to refle&t any found very perfeétly, unlefs the found fall upon it in a very oblique dire@ion. The whif- pering gallery at St. Paul’s produces an effet nearly fimilar, UME by a continual repetition of refleGions. Mr. Charles’s pa- radoxical exhibition of the invifible girl has alfo been faid to depend on the reflection of found; but the deception is really performed by conveying the found through pipes, artfully concealed and opening oppofite to the mouth of the trumpet from which it feems to proceed. Young’s Philofophy. , UmBRELLA-Tree, in Gardening, the common Englifh name of a very ornamental tree. See Macnoria. UMBRETTA, in Ornithology. See Scorus. UMBRIA, in Ancient Geography, a ee country of Italy, bounded on the N. by a part of Gallia Cifpadana, on the N.E. by the Adriatic gulf, on the E. by Picenum, and on the W. by the Apennines, which feparated it from Etruria. This country, which was very mountainous, con- tained in its northern part the Senonois. It was divided into two parts by the Apennines, and took its name, as fome have faid, from the Greek Oufeo:, Jmber, becaufe, as they fay, without fufficient reafon, rain inundates this coun- try. Propertius fays of it: ‘« Proxima fuppofito contingens Umbria campo Me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.’’ Ptolemy mentions feveral towns as belonging to this coun- try, the names of feveral of which are now unknown. To the N. of this country lies the Rubicon, which ferves as a boundary to Italy, properly fo called. Umpria, in Geography. See SroLeto. UMBRIATICO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of St. Severina; 57 miles E. of Cofenza. N. lat. 39° 27'. E. long. 17° 6). UMBRINO, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by fome au- thors for the coracinus, or umbra, as {ome call it. The um- brino has by fome been efteemed a diftin& fpecies of fith from the coracinus ; but they feem to differ no other way than as the one is the older, the other the younger fifh. Willughby’s Hitt. Pifc. p. 330. UMBRO, Ompro, or Omprone, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Etruria, commencing N.E. of Sena, and difcharging itfelf into the fea near Ruflellz. UMBUNCULUS, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by ancient authors to the {mall prominences on the fur- faces of certain ftones. It was originally derived from the word umbo, which expreffes the prominent knob, or round lump in the centre of a fhield ; and its firft ufe that we find in the naturalifts is, in exprefling a very fimilar thing ; that is, the prominent part of the zmilampis. This was a ftone of the nature of what we call oculis deli, or bellochio, and was of a white ground, and roundifh figure, fomewhat re- fembling an eye. It was found in the Euphrates, and other rivers, and had always an umbunculus of a glaucous or blueifh colour. This umbunculus was a prominent round fpot, fuch as we fee in our oéuli beli, and call the pupil. - It was afterwards ufed to exprefs the inequalities on the fur- faces of flints and agates, which frequently are roundifh and obtufe, and reprefent a kind of umbones. UMDOOM, in Geography, a town of Nubia; 10 miles N. of Chiggré. UMEA, a fea-port town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia, at the mouth of a river of the fame name, in the gulf of Bothnia, built by Guftavus Adolphus, with a good harbour. This town was twice burned by the Ruffians in the begin- ning of the r8th century. N. lat. 63° 52'. E. long. 20° 4!. UMEABY, a town of Sweden; 60 miles N.W. of Umea. UMELHEDEGI, a town of Africa, in the country of Tafilet ; 66 miles S.W. of Sugulmeffa. UMEL- UMR “UMELHEFEL, a town of Africa, in the country of Tafilet ; 40 miles S.W. of Sugulmeffa. UMEMGIVEAIBE, a town of Africa, in the king- dom of Fez. ; UMENAK, an ifland on the W. coaft of Eaft Green- land. N. lat. 60° 35’. W. long. 45° 30'.— Alfo, an ifland on the S.W. coaft of Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 59° 43’. W. long. 43° 20!.—Alfo, an ifland near the W. coaft of Weft Greenland. N. lat. 61° 55'. W. long. 48° 25!. UMIAK, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Viatka, 20 miles S. of Marmalifch, in the government of Kazan. UMMA, or Amma, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Afher. Jofh. xix. 30. UMMANTZ, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, near the W. coaft of the ifland of Rugen. N. lat. 54° 30’. E. long. 13° 14. UMMENDORF, a town of Weftphalia, in the duchy of Magdeburg; 24 miles W. of Magdeburg. UMMERSTADT, a town of the principality of Co- burg; 5 miles W. of Coburg. UMPIRE, a third perfon, chofen to decide a contro- verfy, left to an arbitration, in cafe the arbitrators cannot agree. See ARBITRATOR. Minfhew fuppofes the word formed of the French un pére, a father. Some call him a fur-arbitrator. UMPLE, in our Statutes, fignifies fine linen. 3 Ed. 1V. cap. 5- Blount. UMREVISKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tobolfk, on the Oby; 88 miles S.W. of Tomfk. UMRITA, or Amnpira, the Sanfcrit name of a precious elixir, that, according to Hindoo fabulifts, con- fers immortality on thofe who quaff it- This word, and the legends conneéted with it, remind us ftrongly of the Ambrofia of Weitern poets. There can, indeed, be little doubt of a common derivation, or of one being borrowed from the other. In the Sanfcrit language its root is trace- able to mrit, meaning mortality : a being a privative particle. Immortal is, therefore, a flri&t tranflation of the compound. With the Hindoos, as with the Greeks, the fubje& of this article furnifhes an endlefs fource of poetical allufion. Both people had the notign that the'moon was a vafe of this quinteffence, which both fometimes confound with amber and amberegris. (See Soma.) Under our article Kurma- VATARA, a brief relation is given of the churning of the ocean by gods and demons for the purpofe of recovering the beverage of immortality, which appears to have been loft by the iniquities of the antediluvian world. For farther information as to the fabulous origin and hiftory of the Am- rita, we refer to the notes to Wilkins’s Gita, and the fecond article of the 11th vol. of the Afiatic Refearches, by major Wilford. When the gods fhared among themfelves the precious things gained in the churning procefs above alluded to, Indra, regent of the firmament, obtained the Umrita, hence probably the name of his city Umravati; for we find feve- ral places ftill fimilarly named: Umrapura, the metropolis of Ava (fee Ava); Umritfir, or Amritfar, the capital of the Sikh nations, and others, might be inftanced. Perhaps too the cave and village of Amboly, on the ifland of Sal- fette, may be hence derived. This beautiful cavern temple is faft mouldering to decay, and no good defcription of it has yet been given. There is alfo a refpetable town about 40 miles S.E. from Poonah called Amravaty. UMRUT, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu- zerat; 18 miles E. of Pernalla. 12 UNB UMSEQUIR, a town of Africa, in the defert of Barea ; 20 miles E. of Siwah. UMSTADT, a town of Heffe Darmftadt; 10 miles E. of Darmftadt. 3 UNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, in Mau- ritania Tingitana, the mouth of which, according to Ptolemy, is between Suriga and the outlet of the river Agna. Una, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu- zerat ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Chitpour.— Alfo, a town of Brafil, in the government of St. Paul; 50 miles S.E. of St. Paul. UNADILLA, a poft-townfhip of America, in New York, fituated in the extreme fouthern angle of Otfego county, 100 miles S. by W. from Albany ; bounded N. by Butternuts and Otego; E. by Otego; S.E. by Sufquehanna river, or the county of Delaware; and W« by the Unadilla, or the county of Chenango. Its area is fuppofed to be about 65 fquare miles. The furface is hilly and uneven, but along the itreams that form the boundaries, and alfo fome fmaller ones, the land is very good and pro- ductive. The uplands and hills alfo afford fine grazing and meadow lands. Several {mall ftreams furnifh mill-feats, which are numerous. Here are a quarry of {tones ufed for grind- ing, fixteen faw-mills that prepare lumber conveyed to the Baltimore market on rafts upon the Sufquehanna, five grain- mills, an oil-mill, and other water-works, and five diftilleries of whifkey. Here are one epifcopal church, and fourteen {chool-houfes. In 1810, the whole population confifted of 1426 perfons, with 116 fenatorial electors, 341 taxable in- habitants, and 141,896 dollars of taxable property. Unadilla Village is pleafantly fituated on the Sufque- hanna, and contains an epifcopal church and 30 dwellings, befides ftores, &c. , UNALASHKA. See OonarasHKa. UNALGA, one of the Fox iflands; 15 miles S.E. of Unalathka. UNAMAK. See Oonamax. UNAMIS, a tribe of Delaware Indians. : UNAMPELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 15 miles S.W. of Gooty. UNANIMITY of Juries. See Jury. UNANNEALED Borrtzs, or Bologna Bottles, a kind of unannealed glafs bottles made at Bologna, and many other places, in the year 1742, which, though appearing very ftrong, yet are to be broken by a fragment of flint, fearce larger than a grain of fand, thrown into them, _ See Annealing of Gass. UNARA, in Geography, a river of South America, which ferves for a line of divifion between the governments of Caraccas and Cumana. It is navigable as far as the village of San Antonia de Clarinas, fix leagues from the fea. Its courfe extends about 30 leagues from S. to N. UNAROTA, among the Ancients, a carriage with only one wheel. UNAU, in Zoology, a name given by Buffon to the Brapypus dida@ylus ; which fee. See alfo StoaTu ; UNAWA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu» zerat; 12 miles S.E. of Puttan. UNBALLAST, To, in Sea Language, is to difcharge the ballait of a fhip. UNBENDING,, generally implies the a& of taking off the fails from their yards and ftays; of cafting loofe the anchors from their cables, or of untying one rope from another. UNBIAK, or Semisoxoscunot, in Geography, one of the Fox iflands, in the North Pacific ocean, about 72 miles in circumference. N. Jat. 53° 40’. E. long. 179° 14’. UNBIT- UNC UNBITTING, in Sea Language, denotes the operation of removing the turns of a cable from off the bitts. : UNCARIA, in Botany, fo named by Schreber, from uncus, a hook, alluding to the hooked prickles of the ftem in one fpecies. See NAUCLEA. UNCASING, among Hunters, the cutting up or flaying of a fox. UNCASTILLO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon, on the Riguel; 12 miles N. of Exea. UNCATA, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the ftramonium, or thorn-apple. UNCEASESATH, in our Old Writers, an obfolete word, ufed where one killed a thief, and made oath that he did it as he was flying for the fa&t, and thereupon parentibus ipfius occifi suret unceafefath, viz. that his kindred would not revenge his death; or they {wore that there fhould be no contention about it. Du-Cange derives the word from the negative particle un and the Saxon ceath; which latt fignifies the fame with affithment in the law of Scotland. UNCERTAIN, in the Manege. We call a horfe uncer- tain that is naturally reftlefs and turbulent, and 1s confounded in the manege he is put to, fo that he works with trouble and uncertainty. UNCHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Affyria, about two ftages from the road of the ftraits at the entrance into this province. Quintus Curtius. UNCHASAITR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of Delhi; 10 miles S.S.E of Secundara. UNCIA, a term generally ufed for the twelfth part of a thing. In which fenfe it occurs in Latin writers, both for a weight called by us an ounce, and a meafure called an inch. See Ounce. See alfo Mrasure and WEIGHT. Uncia, in Zoology, a {pecies of Felis ; which fee. Uncra Terra, or Agri, is a phrafe frequently met with in the ancient charters of the Britifh kings; but what the quantity of ground was is a little obfcure. All that we know for certain is, that it fignified a large quantity, as much as twelve modii, which modius fome conjecture to have been an hundred feet {quare. UNCLA, in Algebra, are the numbers prefixed to the letter of the members of any power produced from a ‘binomial, refidual, or multinomial root : now ufually called co-efficients. Thus, in the fourth power of a + 4, that is, aaaa + 4aaab+6aabhb564+4abb66+4b5bb4, the unciz are 456, 4. Sir Ifaac Newton gives a rule for finding the uncie of any power arifing from a binomial root. Thus: let the index of the power be called m, then will the uncie arife m—oO from fuch a continual multiplication as this, viz. 1 x mot x 77? 723 x ZF we... Thus, if the 2 3 4 unciz of the biquadrate or fourth power were required ; the rule is, 1 x #—*(=4) x - 2 (EO) eee (Sao (= 1); which thews that the unciz are 43 4 1, 4, 6, 4, I. Or thus: The terms of any powers are compounded of certain little faétums, with numbers, called unciz, pre- fixed ; and the factums are found by making two geo- metrical progreflions; the firft of them beginning: from UNC the required power of the firft part of the root, and end- ing in unity; and the fecond beginning with unity, and’ ending in the required power of the fecond part ; thus, for a fixth power of a + 4; shy a°aiataa’a’® firft feties.- 1 bb? 434 b5 5° fecénd feries. And multiplying the terms of the fame order in either feries into one another; as a° + a5 4+ a* 5? + a? 3 + a* b+ +4 ab° + 5°, out of which the fixth power of a +B is compounded. ee +. The unciz, then, are found by writing the exponents of the powers of the fecond feries, i. z. of b, under the ex- ponents of the powers of the firft feries, 7 e. of a; and taking the firft figure of the upper feries for the numera- tor, and the firlt of the lower for the denominator of a fra€@tion, which is equal to the uncia of the fecond term, and fo for the reft.. Thus, for the fixth power, we hayc, 65 4.3 2 1 12.3 4 5 6 . 6 ’ : | Accordingly, — = 6is the uncia of the fecond term of the I fixth power ; a = 3 = 15, the uncia of the third term ; Se “ = 20, the uncia of the fourth term; ae Be OEE oe oa = owe: pa ai 15, the uncia of the fifth term ; nRIAY Gin sam OL 2 Gu Sutaiged: 130) = 6, the uncia of the fixth term; Iez gels Ssejo Cae See i A TARA = 1, the uncia of the laft power. Brnomiat Theorem. UNCIAL, Unctatis, an epithet which antiquaries give to certain large-fized letters, or charaéters, anciently ufed in infcriptions and epitaphs. ' The word is formed from the Latin uncia, the twelfth part of any thing, and which, in geometrical meafure, fignified the twelfth part of a foot, viz. an inch; which was fuppofed to be the thicknefs of the ftem of one of thefe letters. UNCIFORME Os, in the carpus, is the fourth bone of the fecond row; it has its-name from the Latin uncus, a hook, and is compofed of a body, and a hooked, or unciform,.- apophyfis. See Carpus, under EXTREMITIES. UNCINARIA, in Zoology, a genus of the Vermes In- teftina, the characters of which are, that the body is filiform and elaftic, obfoletely nodulous forward; with angulated. membranaceous lips; the tail of the female is aciculated, and that of the male armed with two cufpidated hooks in- clofed in a pellucid bladder. ‘There are two fpecies, one, lodging in the thick inteftines of the badger, and the other in thofe of the fox. UNCINIA, in Botany, from uncus, a hook, becaufe of the barbed or hooked awn, on which the generic diftinGtion is founded.—‘* Perf. Syn. v.2. 534.”? Brown Progr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 241.—Clafs and order, Monoecia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Calamaria, Linn. Cyperoidea, Juff. Cyperacea, Brown. ; Eff. Ch. Male, Glumes imbricated every way, fingle- flowered. Corolla none. Female, in the lower part of the fame fpike, Glumes im- bricated every way, fingle-flowered. Corolla of one leaf, capfular, UNC capfular, contra&ted at the mouth, fcarcely divided, per- manent. Awn inferted inte the receptacle, beneath the germen, longer than the corolla, hooked. Nut inclofed in the enlarged corolla. Mt phe ; Mr. Brown obferves, that this genus differs from Carex merely in the prefence of the awn, which by no means ori- ginates from the bafe of each feale, as deferibed by Will- denow, Sp. Pl. v.4. 209, and by Perfoon; but from the receptacle, within the corolla, termed by Mr. Brown pe- rianth, on the outermoit fide. Hence, we would remark, a new difficulty occurs re{pe€ting the true denomination of the part here called by us corolla, which we have always taken for a tunic, ari/lus, but which cannot be fuch, if fe+ . parated from the feed by the awn, a part belonging to the flower. /1. U. compada. Br. n. 1. — Spike: oblong, denfe, many-flowered. Loweft fcale awned: Fruit denfely im- bricated, perfe&ly fmooth. Stem fmooth. Leaves flat, ftraight.””—Found by Mr. Brown, in Yan Diemen’s ifland. 2. U. riparia. Br. n. 2.—‘ Spike thread-fhaped, rather loofe, of few flowers. Loweft feale like the reft. Fruit alternate, half-imbricated, lanceolate, ribbed, perfectly fmooth. Angles of the ftem rough. Leaves flat, flaccid.’”’ —From the fame country. 3. U. auffralis. Br. under'n. 2? (Carex uncinata; Linn. Suppl. 413. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.4. 209. See CAREX, n. 12.) — Spike thread-fheped, denfe, many-flowered. Loweft feale leafy-pointed. Fruit lanceolate, fcarcely ribbed. Stem fmooth. Leaves flat. Awn twice the length of the glume.—Native of New Zeeland. We prefume this mutt be what Mr. Brown means by U. auffralis, though we can find no pubefcence about the top of the fruit, which he in- dicates as the chief diftin@ion between this fpecies and the lait, except its longer /pike. 4: U. philecides. (Carex phleoides ; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 40. t. 464. f. 1. C. hamata; Swartz Prodr. 18. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 209. C. uncinata 6; Swartz Ind. Occ. 84. Schkuhr Car. 13. t. G. f. 30. See Carex, n. 11, by mif- take printed Aumata.)—Spike thread-fhaped, elongated, denfe, many-flowered. Fruit oblong, with three fringed angles. Awn thrice the length of the glume.—Native of Jamaica, Chili, and the ifland of Mauritius. 5. U. erinacea. (Carex erinacea; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 40. t'464. f.2. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 210. See Carex, n. 13.)—Spike cylindrical, denfe. Fruit roundifh, trian- gular, fmooth. Awn five times the length of the glume. —Native of Chili, and Brafil near Montevideo. The /pike meafures about an inch and a half, being only about one- third the length of the laft, though full as thick as in that 3 é {pecies. 6. U. tenella. Br. n. 3.—“ Spike thread-fhaped, of few flowers. Scales uniform, deciduous. Fruit fomewhat im- bricated, lanceolate, {mooth. Stem flender, with fmooth angles. Leaves flaccid, nearly briftle-fhaped.’’—Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the ifland of Van Diemen. UNCINUS, in Surgery, the name of a {mall hooked in- ftrument, ferving for many purpofes. UNCKEL, in Geography, a town of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine; 2 miles N. of Lintz. UNCORE, or Unaues Prift, fill ready, in Law, a plea for the defendant, being fued for a debt due on a bond at a day paft, to fave the forfeiture of his bond, &c. by affirm- ing that he tendered the debt at the time and place, and that there was none to receive it; and that he is yet alfo ready to pay the fame. UNCTION, Uncrio, the a& of anointing, or rubbing with oil, or other fatty matter. Vor. XXXVII. UNC. Mercurial un&ion, properly applied, brings on a fakiva- tion. The furgeons cure divers wounds, ulcers, &c. by repeated unctions, with oils, unguents, cerates, &c. Uncrion, in Matters of Religion, is ufed for the cha- raéter conferred on facred things by anointing them with oil. , Anciently in the eaftern countries, which abounded fo much in oil and odoriferous f{pices, it was the cuftom to feparate perfons and things defigned for extraordinary offices or ufes, by anointing them with ointments compofed of fuch ingredients ; fymbolizing thereby, both an effufion of the neceflary gifts to qualify them for their office, and a diffufion of the good and grateful effets expeCted from them. There were three forts of perfons to whom this union, or confecration, efpecially belonged, kings, priefts, and prophets; who, therefore, are all of them ({ays Barrow) ftyled in feripture the Lord’s anoinied. The unétion of kings is {uppofed to be a ceremony intro- duced very late among Chriftian princes: Onuphrius fays, none of the emperors were ever anointed before Juftinian, or Juftin. The emperors of Germany took up the practice from thofe of the eaftern empire. King Pepin of France was the firlt king who received the unétion. Un@tion, although we have no fcripture warrant for it, is one of thofe rites that fucceeded baptifm in the ancient church. Of un@ion, or chrifmation, Tertullian (De Bap- tifm.) fays,,. as foon’as we are baptized, we are anointed with the bleffed unétion,—an external unétion is poured upon us, but it is fpiritually profitable.” And Cyprian alfo fays (Epift. 70. § 3.), “he that is baptized muft of neceflity be anointed, that having received the chrifm or unétion, he may be the anointed of God, and have in him the grace of Chrift.”” Under this chrifmation was compre- hended fignation, or the figning of the baptized perfon with the fign of the crofs, which the minifter performed with this ointment or chrifm. See Tertullian, de Refurreét. Carnis, and Cyprian, de Un&. Ecclef. § 16. To fignation fuc- ceeded impofition of hands, or that which is now termed confirmation ; which fee. The ceremony of un&tion was derived from the Jewifh rites, and was employed in the inftalment of the high prieft, to denote his facerdotal con- fecration to the fervice of God. The unétion of Chrilt by God the father, in confequence of which he was called Chrift, or anointed, was urged as a plea for this carnal and external un@tion by Tertullian, ubi fupra. In the Romifh church, befides an unétion at baptifm, on the forehead, and at confirmation, on the head (fee Curism, ) they have an extreme un&tion, given to people in the pangs of death, on the parts where the five fenfes refide, being the parts by which the perfon is fuppofed to have finned. The firft mention that is made of this ceremony is by pope Innocent I. Sacred oil, indeed, was held in great veneration fo early as the fourth century,’ and ‘eftcemed as an univerfal remedy ; for which purpofe it was either prepared and difpenfed by priefts and monks, or was taken from the lamps which were kept burning before the relics of the martyrs. But in none’ of the lives of the faints before the ninth century is there any mention made of their receiving extreme unétion, though their deaths are Jome- times particularly related, and their receiving the eucharift is often mentioned. But from the feventh century to the twelfth, they began to ufe this anointing of the fick, and a peculiar office was made for it; but the prayer that was ufed in it plainly fhews that it was with a view to’ their recovery, for which purpofe it is ftill ufed in the Greek church. But becaufe it failed fo often, that the oredit as Zz this UND this rite was in danger of fuffering much in the efteem of the world, they began, in the tenth century, to fay that it did good to the foul, even when the body was no better for it ; and then they applied it to the feveral parts of the body, after having originally applied it to the difeafed parts only. In this manner was the rite performed in the eleventh cen- tury. In the twelfth, the prayers that had been made before for the foul of the fick perfon, though only as a part of the office (the pardon of fin being fuppofed to be pre- paratory to their recovery) came to be confidered as the’ moft effential part of it. After this the fchoolmen brought it into fhape, and then it was decreed to be a facrament by pope Eugenius; and it was finally eftablifhed at the coun- cil of Trent. Burnet on the Articles, p. 268. See Ex- TREAM UnGion. UNCTORES, among the Romans, fervants whofe em- ployment it was to anoint their mafter when he bathed. UNCTUARIUM, aroom in the ancient baths, where people were anointed before they went away. UNCUS, among the Romans, an inftrument ufed in tor- turing criminals. It was a kind of club, bent and inclined to one fide. UNCUTH, Unknown, is ufed in the ancient Saxon laws, for him that comes to an inn, gueft-wife, and lies there but one night. In which cafe, his hoft was not bound to anfwer for any offence he committed, of which he was guiltlefs himfelf. «Prima noéte poteft dici uncuth; fecunda yero, guett ; tertia no¢te hogenhine.”? Braéton, lib. iii, See THirp night awn hynd. UNDALUS, in Ancient Geography, a town, according to Strabo, of Gallia Narbonnenfis, at the place where the river Selge (Sorgue) difcharges itfelf into the Rhéne. Livy calls it Vindalium, which probably is the true name, and Undalus a corruption. UNDE, Unpeg, or Undy, in Heraldry. Unpe nihil habet, in Law, a writ of dower. unde nihil habet. UNDEARCORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ruttunpour; 40 miles S.W. of Ruttun- pour. UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon of eleven fides. UNDECIMVIR, a magiftrate among the ancient Athenians, who had ten other colleagues, or aflociates, joined with him in the fame commiffion. The fundtions of the undecimviri at Athens were much the fame as thofe of the prevéts de marechauflé in France. They took care of the apprehending of criminals ; fecured them in the hands of juftice; and when they were condemned, took them again into cuftody, that the fentence might be executed on them. They were chofen by the tribes, each tribe naming its own; and as the number of tribes, after Callifthenes, was but ten, which made ten members, a fcribe or notary was added, which made the number eleven.—Whence their name, ct evdexa, or undecimviri, as Cornelius Nepos calls them in the life of Phocion. In Julius Pollux they are denomi- nated exaeyoi, and vouoPvaaxece See NOMOPHYLACES. UNDENAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 81 miles E.N.E. of Uddevalla. UNDER the Sea, in the Sea Language. A fhip is faid to be fo, when fhe lies ftill, or waits for fome other fhips, with her helm lafhed, or tied up a-lee. See Lyine under the Sea. UNDER-CHAMBERLAINS, or Deputy-Chamber- lains of the Exchequer, officers there, who cleave the tallies, and read the fame; fo that the clerk of the pell, and the comptrollers of it, may fee that the entries are true. I See WAVED. See Dore UND They alfo make fearches for all records in the treafury, and have the cuftody of Domefday-book. UNDER-CURRENT. See Under-Curnents. UNDERDENGARDE, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooftan, in Coimbetore ; 40 miles W. of Ardenelli. UNDER-DITCHING, in Agriculture, a term applied in fome diftri€ts, as that of the county of Effex, to fuch ditches as are formed for the purpofe of taking away the furface wetnefs of land. In fome places it is called land- ditching by the farmers. It is faid to be one of the moft beneficial and permanent modes of improving land that is not commonly known. It is much praétifed in different parts of the above county, and with perfe& fuccefs, there being no fort of hufbandry from which the land derives greater advantage. So that it is not unufual for the farmer to extend the praétice over almoft the whole of his land, in this diftri&t. Where this practice is intended, it is firft to be confidered, whether the foil be fufficiently open and porous for receiving a benefit adequate to the expence of performing it, as in very ftrong land this fort of ditching is not found to anfwer. However, in cafes where the wetnels can fink in a ready manner to eighteen or twenty inches in the land, the farmer may fafely draw a furrow from the higheft to the loweft part of the field, then dig out a {pit of earth below, and again with a tool three inches wide, con- trived for the purpofe, work fourteen or fifteen inches deeper, and with the bent fcraper, for this ufe, take out all the loofe earth at the bottom; thus making a narrow channel along the centre of the furrow, leaving fufficient fupport on each fide to keep up the materials ufed in filling, and prevent the replaced earth from falling into the narrow opening left for taking off the wetnefs. ‘This fort of ditch. ing is done at different diftances and depths, as there may be a neceffity for them, and as the nature of the foil through which the wetnefs has to pafs into them may be, making them fo as to empty themfelves into deep ditches at the bottoms of the fields ; or where the fields are large, forming one or more leading ditches fufficiently large to receive the wetnefs from feveral of the fmaller ones, which are fo con- trived as to fall into them. In order to make thefe ditches of the moft permanent ufe, they fhould be cut perfeétly ftraight, and the paflage for the wetnefs be made of an equal depth throughout, otherwife it will be ftopped in the loweft parts, and occafion the fides to fall in and choak up the ditch. In cafe the foil be adapted to it, this fort of work will laft twenty years, but where there are {quails, ~ with fand or drift gravel, the paflages are liable to choak in a fhort time. The ploughs, carts, waggons, and other car- riages, go over thefe ditches without injuring them in the leaft; and in park grounds, and old paftures, it is not un- common merely to turn the fod over the water-channel, without ufing any other materials; and the ditches are feen to work, or draw, as it is termed, as well after running thirty years, as they did at firft. The improved appear- ance and better ftate of the land are particularly evi- dent after this method of ditching has been had recourfe to, and fufficiently prove its. utility and importance in different cafes. The pra¢tice is more fully explained in the fecond volume of the Effex Report on Agriculture. See this work, and Surracr-Drain. See allo SuRFACE- Draining. UNDER-DRAIN and Drarnine, terms fometimes employed to fignify that fort of drain, or opening and drain- ing, which is cut and made to fome confiderable depth in the earth or foil, and calculated to convey and carry off in- ternal water and wetnefs, or that proceeding from fprings, in contradiftinétion to that of furface-drain and cena ec UND “See Sprine-Drain and Sprinc-Draining. See alfo Drarw- NG of Land. UNDER-FURROVW, a term ufed to fignify any fort of operation or thing that is dane under the furrow-flice of the plough which is juft turned down or over, fuch, for in- ftance, as the putting in certain kinds of grain, feeds, or other crops, in particular circumftances and forts of foil or land, the turning in particular forts of manure, green crops and other things, and many other procefles of a fimilar nature. _ Unper-ruRRow Sowing, a term applied to that mode of introducing the feed mto the ground, which is per- formed by depofiting it in the bottom of the preceding furrow of the plough, and turning the next furrow-flice upon it. In all cafes of under-furrow fowing, however, great care is to be taken that the feed be not depofited to too great a depth in the foil, fo as by excluding it from the aétion of the oxygene principle of the air, to prevent or retard its germination and early growth, and thereby incur the rifk of its rotting and being deftroyed. The depth of three or four inches, as the nature of the land may be, is, for the moft part, fully fufficient for this fort of fowing. See the next article. Unver-FuRROW Sowing-Plough, that fort of plough, tool, or machine, which is particularly contrived for this manner ‘of putting feed into the ground. An imple- ment of this kind was not long ago invented with feven fhares, fo fet at fuitable diftances, as to correétly execute the work in that number of furrows at the fame time. It is conftructed with a roller {omewhat on the fame principle, and in the fame manner, as the fowing roller ; which is oe fed to be an admirable mode of communicating motion in fuch forts of machinery. See Sowinc-Roller. A plough of this nature has {till more lately been invented and conitructed, which is faid to be fimple and convenient, and to anfwer well in practice, but of the particular nature of its conftruétion, or the manner of its operating in performing the work, we are not informed. A tool of this fort, which would execute the bufinefs with fufficient accuracy, expedition, and exaétnefs, would be a matter of great utility and importance to the farmer, and prevent much injury and inconvenience in different refpects. UNDERGROWTH, in Rural Economy, a term ap- plied to any fort of young wood of the {mall or bruth kind, which grows under any kind of trees, or tall plants of the wood fort. It is a defcription of wood which is conftantly cut down, in what may be faid to be the feafon or flage of youth, fooner or later, as the nature of the fort, and the purpofe for which it is raifed, may be. See UNpERWoop. UNDERHILL, in Geography, a town of America, in the ftate of Vermont, and county of Chittenden, containing 490 inhabitants ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Newhaven. - UNDER-LEAF Appte-rrer, a fort of apple-tree which is valuable, as producing good fruit for the purpofe of cyder. It is faid to be an excellent bearer, and in which the infide of the tree is moftly full of fruit. Some, how- ever, think that the cyder afforded by it, though pleafant, is inclined to be rather thin and weak. A good tree of this fort is aflerted to often earry twenty feam of apples. It is common in the apple-grounds of Gloucefterfhire. UNDERLETTING Lawn, in Agriculture, the prac- tice of reletting lands or farms, or the letting of them again by the tenants. It is a matter of much importance to the public, and to the advancement of hufbandry, that tenants fhould have the power of underletting or affigning the farms UND they may hold, in different circumftances and fituations. And it has been remarked, in a late periodical work on farming, that, by the law of England, leafes are not only affignable, but the proprietor of the land or farm muft, on the affignment of the leafe, declare his eleGtion, whether he inclines to hold the original leflee bound for his rent, or trufts to the aflignee, as he cannot have both; and that, on the whole, a leafe, whether granted for a long or a fhort term of years, feemsto be held there under as ample powers as the proprietor could have poffeffed the ground himfelf by, for the period it has to run. But that in Scotland, from the prefent interpretation of the laws, by the decifions of the court of feffion, a leafe or tack of lands there does not imply a power either to aflign, or even to underlet or fub- {et ; although, in the latter cafe, both the principal leflee and fubtenant were always underftood to be bound for the rent to the landlord. It may be noticed, it is faid, that thefe leafes or tacks, in general, are, by the commentaries of their lawyers, con- fidered as unaflignable, from their being fuppofed to imply an eleGtion or choice of the perfon of the tenant by the landlord ; yet it is admitted, that a life-rent leafe or tack is aflignable, which furely, it is thought, implies more of fuch eleGion or choice than any other. That all leafes or tacks, too, that are to fubfift for a great length of time, are alfo affignable, as well as fubfettable; but that, rather unfortunately, the length of indurance that is neceflary for conferring this privilege has not been legally fixed. By a late decifion, in one cafe, it was found, it is faid, that a power of fubfetting was implied in a leafe of thirty-eight years. With due fubmiffion to the opinions of others, how- ever, there feems, it is contended, to be no folid ground for any diftinGtion, in judging a leafe or tack affignable or un- aflignable, as derived from the length of its duration merely. It is faid in addition likewife, that, by the feudal law, this right of eleétion or choice was carried fo far, that even an heir was not permitted to enjoy the leafe or tack of his father, unlefs it was fo expreffed in the leafe-deed. What an obftacle was this to the improvement of the foil! And it is afled, does not the exclufion of affignees, in leafes or tacks, {till remain an obftacle of the fame nature? What an incentive, on the other hand, would it be to induftry, if a tenant, who had fucceflively improved one farm, had it in his power to affign his leafe or tack, and remove to another, to a new and wider field for exercifing his talents! _ Nor does there feem, it is faid, to be any found reafon why a tenant, who now-a-days generally buys his leafe or tack, as the higheft bidder, at a public or private fale, fhould not have it in his power to fell it again, to avoid lofs, or obtain profit, to any perfon able to pay the rent, as freely as a proprietor of lands fells his property, when he finds it does not fuit his views. This plan, itis thought, would be much more reafonable, than that the law fhould force a tenant to remain in a farm he cannot manage, until he is utterly ruined ; as is but too often the cafe. And that, moreover, if a tenant does become bankrupt, it is hardly to be expected that an adjudger, who enters to his farm from neceflity, and is accountable as a faétor, will do any thing for the improve- ment of it: for it is held as law, that a leafe or tack, which bears no power to affign, may yet be adjudged by a creditor of the tenant. Expediency may, therefore, in every view, be ftrongly urged in favour of a more unlimited power in afligning leafes or tacks in that part of the country. The notion of the right of ele€&tion, or choice of the tenant by the landlord, ferns, it is thought, to have arifen from circumftances of a temporary nature, which are now no longer of any confequence: from the rudenefs of the fy Aa age, UND age, landlords then relying more on the fidelity of their tenants and retainers than on the protection of the laws, from the municipal regulations of the country, which ren- dered proprietors of the land refponfible for the condu&t of thofe who refided upon their eftates ; and alfo from the na- ture of the freflations then exigible from tenants, which, confifting almoft entirely of perfonal fervices, brought them nearer the ftate of menial fervants than that of modern farmers. Hence it was, it is faid, that a leafe, during thefe periods, was confidered as a contract /fridi juris. If given to a woman, it fell by her fubfequent marriage ; if to a man, it became void by his death. It was alike incapable of vo- luntary, as of judicial tranfmiffion. But, for more than a century paft, this contraét having been treated by the legiflature, and wifely enforced by the judges there, in con- formity to the fenfe of the country, has, it is afferted, re- genes much of its original nature. It is no longer the per- onal fervices of the tenant, or his peculiar qualifications, but the rent in money which he can afford to pay, which a landlord has in view. Accordingly, the court of feffion there has found, that the principle of law, regarding leafes or tacks not bearing to aflignees, being unaffignable without the confent of the heritor, does not apply to urban tene- ments, and made decifions in conformity to it. And that as to {ubtacks or leafes, it has been obferved, that there was not the fame reafon againft fuftaining them as againft fuf- taining affignations; becaufe, by a fubfet or underletting there, the principal tenant or tack{man is not changed. On that principle, the power of granting them feems to have been ever, until of late, recognifed as implied in a leafe, by the law of Scotland, as it was by that of the Roman. This power. was, however, queftioned in the years 1686 and 1687. The firft cafe was that of a leafe or tack of nineteen years let to a perfon, fecluding his affignees. It was con- tended, that the exclufion of affignees implied the exclufion of fubtenants, or underletting ; but the court of feffion there decided that the leafe or tack might be fubfet. And it ad- hered to the fame judgment, in a fimilar cafe, decided in the following year. It may be noticed, that this implied power in leafes or tacks, of fubfetting or underletting, appears to have been underftood to be a fettled principle of law there until lately ; and that that material point of public policy was not altered by any act of the legiflature, but by a decifion of the above court. It was firft confidered on general grounds, it is faid, in the cafe of a miffive of a leafe or tack, to endure mineteen years, which made no mention of affignees or fub- tenants, and was found by it neither capable of being af- figned or fubfet. And there have fince bzen feveral decifions to the fame purpofe ; but that as none of them have pro- bably yet been appealed, and received the judgment of the houfe of peers, until then it may be underftood that the law is as interpreted in the above cafes. Upon the whole, it can hardly be doubted that it would be more conducive to the improvement of the country, and its agriculture, if all reftri@ions againft afligning and fub- fetting or underletting were abolifhed and done away with, than that the free difpofal of property of the farm kind fhould receive, by implication, additional fetters. The ne- ceffity and utility of this muft indeed be evident in a great many different points of confideration. See Farm, Lease, and Tacx. UNDER-LOCKS, in Sheep Hufbandry, the locks of foiled wool which hang under the bellies of the fheep, efpe- cially about their udders and tails. The operation of re- moving fuch locks is termed under-locking in moft fheep diftri4ts. See Sumzp. UND UNDERMINING. See Sap. UNDER-RUN, 7s, in Sea Language, is to pafs under, or examine any part of a cable or other rope, in order to difcover whether it is damaged or entangled. It is ufual to under-run the cables in particular harbours, as well to cleanfe them with brooms and brufhes from any filth, ooze, fhells, &c. colleéted in the ftream, as to examine whether they have fuftained any injury under the furface of the water; as from rocky ground, or by the friétion againft other cables or anchors. Unper-run a Tackle, To, is to feparate the feveral parts of which it is compofed, and range them in order, from one block to the other; fo that the general effort may not be interrupted, when it is put in motion. Falconer. UNDER-SAIL, denotes the ftate of a fhip when fhe is loofened from her moorings, and under the government of her fails and rudder. UNDER-SHERIFF, Sub-vice-comes. See SHERIFF. UNDER-SHOOT and Sprout, in Agriculture and Gardening, that fort of fhoot or fprout which rifes from the under-part of a tree or vegetable of any kind. The under- fhoots of trees and fhrubs are often liable to be weak, and to want vigour, unlefs they are kept well thinned in their branches, and, of courfe, to beanjurious and unfightly in the growth of the plants. Butin fome field and culinary vegetables, under-{prouts frequently form a fweet, tender, and ufeful food. See SHoor and Sprout. - UNDER-SHRUB. See Surrrurex. ; UNDER-SITTER, an inmate. See INMATEs. UNDERSTANDING, Inretzectus, is defined, by the Peripatetics, to be a faculty of the reafonable foul, con- verfant about intelligible things, confidered as intelligible. They alfo make it twofold; wiz. aéive and paffve. UnpveErstanpiInG, dive, Intelledus Agens, they hold that faculty of the foul, by which the fpecies and images of intelligible things are framed, on occafion of the prefence of phantafms or appearances thereof. For, maintaining the intellect to be immaterial, they hold it impoifible it fhould be difpofed to think by ‘any difproportionate phantafms of mere body ; and, therefore, that it is obliged to frame other proportionate fpecies of itfelf; and hence its denomination adlive. UNDERSTANDING, Paffive, IJntelle@us Patiens, is that which, receiving the f{pecies framed by the aétive under- {tanding, breaks forth into-aétual knowledge. The moderns fet afide the Peripatetic notion of an aGtive underftanding. The Cartefians define the underftanding to be that faculty, by which the mind, converfing with, and, as it were, intent on itfelf, evidently knows what is true in any thing not exceeding its capacity. The Corpufcular philofophers define the underitanding to be a faculty, expreflive of things which ftrike on the ex- ternal fenfes, either by their images, or their effe€ts, and fo enter the mind. Their great dottrine is, Nihil effe in intel- leétu, quod non prius fuerit in fenfu; and to this doétrine our famous Mr. Locke, and moit of the lateft Englifh philo- fophers, fubfcribe. The Cartefians exclaim much againft it; and between thefe and the Corpufcularians there is this farther difference, that the latter make the judgment to belong to the under- flanding ; but the former to the will. Hence, according to the moft approved opinion of the Corpufcularians, the underftanding has two offices, viz. perception and judgment ; according to the Cartelians, it has only one, viz. perception. ' UNDERSTANDING is alfo ufed for the aét, exercife, or 4 exertion, UND exertion, of this faculty ; or the ation by which the mind knows things, or reprefents them in idea to itfelf. - UNDERSTRATUM, in Agriculiure, a term fignify- ing much the fame as fubfoil and fubftratum. It is the bed or layer of fome fort of material, upon which the furface or upper foil or mould refts, or is placed. It is of much ufe in many cafes of land to have an open underftratum. See Sor. UNDERTAKERS were anciently fuch perfons as were employed by the king’s purveyors, and aéted as their deputies. At prefent, the name is chiefly ufed for upholders, or perfons who furnifh out funerals; and alfo for fuch as undertake any ‘great work, as the draining of fens, &c. Stat. 43 Eliz. UNDER-TREASURER of England, Vice-thefaurarius Angliz, an officer mentioned in ftat. 39 Eliz. c. 7. and whom feveral other ftatutes confound with treafurer of the Exchequer. He chefted up the king’s treafure at the end of every term, and noted the content of money in each cheft, and faw it carried tothe king’s treafury in the Tower, for the eafé of the lord treafurer, &c. In the vacancy of the lord treafurer’s office, he alfo did every thing in the receipt, that the’ lord treafurer himfelf does. See TREASURER. ‘ UNDERWALDEN, or Unrerwatpsy, in Geography, a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the north by Lucern and Waldftatter lake, on the eaft by mountains which fepa- rate it from Uri, on the fouth by Bern, and on the weft by Lucern. It meafures about eight leagues each way, and is divided into two valleys, Upper and Lower, by a foreft called ** Kernwald,’? which croffes the canton from north to fouth. Thefe valleys are called in German “ Unterwald ob dem Wald,’”? and “ Unterwald nid dem Wald ;”? that is, “* Underwald over the Forett,’? and ** Underwald under the Foreft.”? Each of them forms a feparate regency. The canton itfelf is fmall, but abounds in fruit and cattle. The mountains are covered with rich paitures, and the fields in the fertile valleys, in one year, yield feveral advantages : for in fpring time, when the fnow is off the ground, they are full of cattle; afterwards, the cattle being driven up the Alps, the herbage fhoots again in fuch a manner as often to be mowed twice in the fummer; and in autumn, the cattle, on their return from the Alps, meet again with plenty of fodder in them, till the fnow fets in a-new. All the lower parts of the country produce an exuberance of very fine fruits ; and with wood this canton is fo well provided, that without any detriment to it, feveral {pots might be afforted and improved into meadow or arable land. Of wheat it has little or none, and grows no wine. The Underwalders are univerfally Roman Catholics, and have ever enjoyed the like liberties with the people of Uri and Schweitz. In conjunc- tion alfo with them, in the year 1308, they fhook off the Auftrian yoke. Arnold de Melchtal, a native of this canton, was one of the four heroes who firft reared the ftandard of Swifs liberty ; and in 1315, they entered into a perpetual alliance with the faid ftates. At the conclufion of the war with Charles the Bold, Friburgh and Soleure hav- ing contraéted an ‘alliance with Zuric, Bern, and Lucern, the treaty was confidered by Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden, Zug, and Glarus, as a breach of the former union. - After various difputes and fruitlefs conferences, the deputies of the eight confederate cantons affembled, in 1481, at Stantz, in order to compromife the differences. When the deputies failed to effe€& a reconciliation, and a civil war appeared to be inevitable, Nicholas de Flue, a celebrated faint and UND patriot, born at Saxelon in 1417, quitted the hermitage to which, in his soth year, he had retired, .and in his 64th year, after having travelled during the night, arrived at Stantz juft at the moment when the deputies were departing. The conference was renewed by his perfuafion, and all dif- ferences were adjufted. Among the confederate body, they are reckoned the fixth ; but among the fix landern or leffer cantons, the third. The government of this canton is purely democratical, the landefgemeind being the depofitary of the whole fupreme power, and in which all ‘males above fixteen have a right of admittance. As the country, However, con- fifts of two vales, viz. Oberwald'‘and Underwald, each of them forming a feparate republic, fo they have’ both their own particular landefgemeind and officers; but in the ge- neral affairs of the thirteen cantons they form only one. Of all the people of Switzerland, thofe of Underwald are the moft honoured and moft loved by the other cantons; their courage and love of liberty being joined by a ftri€ concord, and an amiable fimplicity of manners. In the late conteft with the French, the inhabitants of Schweitz and’ Under~ walden manifefted a noble fpirit, and an ardent defire: of in- dependence ; and at length fubmitted with great reluCtance. (See Scuwettz.) | Satne or Sarnen (which fee) is the capital burgh of the Upper Vale, or Oberwalden; and here the land-rath, as fupreme court of judicature, affembles, for the purpofe of deciding civil and criminal proceffes. This tribunal is compofed of fifty-eight judges, chofen by the people, and continued in office for life. Stantz or Stanz (which fee) is the capital of the Lower Vale, or Underwalden, and is the feat of civil and criminal judi- cature ; and it is worthy of notice, that every male, of the age of thirty years, is permitted to give his vote for the acquittance or condemnation of a criminal. This town is fituated in a beautiful plain of pafture, about two or three miles in breadth, at the foot of the Stantzberg, and at a little diftance from the lake of Lucern. The town and environs, which’ are delightfully {prinkled with cottages, are’ extremely populous, containing perhaps not lefs’ than 5000 perfons. UNDERWICK, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland ; 30 miles W.S.W. of Hudwickfwall. UNDERWOOD, in Rural Economy ad Planting, a term applied to {mall coppice, or any fort of low wood that is not accounted timber. It is moftly ufed for that which rifes and grows under fome fort of wood of the tree kind; aid which is capable of being ufed for a great variety of little ‘purpofes, fuch as hoops, faggots, and many others, as will be feen below. In Suffex, where wood is well known to grow remarkably well,’ the mode of managing the underwoods is, according to the Correéted Report on Agriculture for that county, to cut them at from eleven or twelve to fifteen or fixteen years’ growth; as, upon favourable well-growing foils, from eleven to thirteen; and upon poor grounds, on which: wood rifes more imperfeétly, from fifteen to eighteen. But as the age of cutting materially depends upon the qualities of the foil, and the application of the crop or produce, no fixed rule can evidently be laid down, other than the above ftated general one. ‘The underwoods of fome, as thofe of the earl of Egremont, are cut at from twelve to fixteen years of age, in cafes where the growth confilts of oak, beech, alder, and willow: the underwood is then, it is faid, the moft valuable part of the converfion, except in the v1- cinity of hop-plantations, where the pdles afford a much better price; but in the cafes where the underwoods abound with birch, afh, hazel, and willow, of which hoops are ufually made, at from ten to twelve years of age. Newly planted UNDERWOOD. planted grounds are always earlier cut; the fhoots are more rapid and flrong. It is noticed as worthy of remark and deferving of atten- tion, that underwoods, at twelve or thirteen years’ growth, are as valuable upon fome foils, as they would be, if cut down or over at a later age, efpecially if they are advan- tageoufly planted in the neighbourhood of hop-grounds ; as poles of that age and fize are equally as good, and anfwer all the purpofes of larger: as when underwood has exceeded the fize of poles, its utility, it is faid, is there not otherwife effentially ferviceable than as it is valuable for fuel. The younger, therefore, it is cut there, if fit for the market, the more produétive it will turn out, and the fooner the fuc- ceeding crop will be ready for fale; for when underwoods are left too long before they are cut, befides growing flower, the intereft of the money is loft for which they might have been fold. The under or {mall wood upon the moft grow- ing foils, as the difference that exifts is confiderable in this relpect, is worth from eight to ten or eleven pounds the acre; but that to gain fuch a product, the land, it is ob- ferved, muft be exceedingly kindly for the growth of wood. The beech underwoods of the county of Oxford moftly confift of trees or plants growing on their own ftems, pro- duced by the falling of the beech maft ; as very little is there permitted to grow on the old ftools, which are commonly ubbed up. They are occafionally drawn out, but never elled all at one time, except in particular inftances of con- verting the land into tillage, which is lately become more eommon.' The beech underwood drawn in this manner is moftly either fold in long lengths, called poles, or, when cut fhort in billet lengths, for ay It requires contiderable judgment, it is faid, to thin thefe underwoods in fuch a way that the prefent ftock may not hang too much over the young feedlings; at the fame time, too, in a fouthern af- pect, an injury may take place, by expofing the foil or furface of the land too much to the fun: for it is to be obferved, that the north fide of a hill will produce ' better growth of beech than the fouth fide; the very reverfe of which is the cafe in regard to corn. In beech underwoods alfo, the fucceffion of young trees is greatly injured by ad- mitting fheep or other cattle into them; and though it is fuppofed by fome, that fheep do no damage in winter, when the leaf is off, but find confiderable feed from the grafs and other plants abounding in fuch underwoods, yet it is the opinion of others, that the wool which is left hanging on the young ftocks is prejudicial to their growth, allowing, what is doubtful, that the fheep do not crop them. Some improvement might probably be produced by keeping better fences, e{pecially againft commons, where a wide ditch is often an effential part of the mound; and alfo by tranfplanting the young beech from thofe parts of an under- wood where they are too thick, fo as that they would be deftroyed, by the ftrongeft overpowering the weakeft, to thofe places where they may not ftand. fufficiently thick, there being moftly {pots of both thefe forts to be found in all underwoods of thjs kind. In Cornwall and fome other fouthern counties, the under- woods are moftly of the common oak, and are ufually cut at from twenty to thirty years’ growth, felling at from twenty to fixty pounds the acre, the chief profit depending upon the bark. Some of the tvood is converted into poles, for farm and other purpofes; but.the greateft part 1s com- monly charred, for the ufe of the blowing-houfes, and do- meftic purpofes ; the brufhwood being fold for fuel. Such are the advantages of this fort of wood for different ufes in thefe places, that inftances of the grubbing up of under- woods are very rafe. In the felling of underwoods, in thefe fituations, a great advantage has lately been found, in more attention being paid to the refervation of faplings as ftand- ards, than was formerly the cafe. The land producing underwood of this kind, in thefe diftriéts, is found to be more valuable than that in the ftate of tillage, in many cafes. In fome of the more northern counties, much advantage is derived, in different cafes, from underwoods of the afh kind, when cut at about fourteen years’ growth, for ya- rious ufes, It may be noticed that underwoods, in many fituations, are greatly negleéted, and managed in a very indifferent manner ; but they require a good deal of attention in dif- ferent refpe&ts, to have them in good perfeétion ; and it is neceflary, in many cafes, to grub up the old decayed ftubs at every time of felling the wood, when frefh plants will come forth of the different kinds, before the next felling, which will keep the underwood in a perfe& and proper ftate of cultivation and growth. The proper foils for the growth of underwood muft ne- ceffarily vary with the nature of the plants ; but for the oak and afh, thofe of a rather ftrong ftiff quality are found the moft fuitable. In Suffex, the eae rifes with aftonifhing rapidity in a fort of red clay. ‘The chefnut, hazel, and fome others, require a more light and free foil; and the willow, one that inclines to moifture. But they all allow of confiderable variety in the qualities of the foils on which they grow. Underwoods in many cafes rife naturally from the ftubs and feeds of the old wood, and they are formed and planted in different ways, according to circumftances, and the ne- ture of the plants. For raifing chefnut underwood, which is the beft and moft lafting wood for ftakes, hop-poles, and fome other ufes, Mr. Forfyth advifes the following method as the moft advantageous. ‘To prepare the land well by ploughing or trenching, and fummer-fallowing, planting the young trees in the quincunx order, in rows fix feet apart, and at the diftance of fix feet from plant to plant in the rows. In forming large extents of fuch underwoods, it is the moft expeditious way to plant after the plough, tread- ing the mould firmly about the roots of the plants. Bafins fhould be formed round the plants on the furface, in order to mulch them, in cafe the firft fummer feafon after put- ting them in be dry. It may fave time, too, to put the plants in loofely at firft, in order to keep up with the plough, returning afterwards to tread the earth about them, and form the bafins for mulching. When the trees are be- come fit for poles, every other one is to be cut down nearly clofe to the ground, throughout the whole, conftantly cut- ting them in a floping manner, and as near to an eye or bud as may be. ‘Thofe intended to ftand fhould be left in every other row, which will leave them twelve feet apart every way: if the foil be, however, rich and deep, they may be left twenty-four feet apart. As in many counties, particularly Hertfordfhire, the underwood is more valuable than the other; in that cafe it will be moft judicious, it is faid, to leave but few ftandards; in the meantime the under- wood will amply repay the expence of planting and other things, as well as the rent of the ground, while at the fame time a fufficient produce of timber-trees is had upon the land. In the county of Kent, it is remarked, they com- monly plant out chefnuts and afh for hop-poles at three years old, and cut them fourteen years afterwards, which makes in all feventeen years before they are fit to cut ; and they bring from one guinea and a half to two guineas’ the hundred ; but if they were raifed from large fools, it = aldy UND faid, properly cut and prepared, they would be fit for cut- ting in lefs than one-third of that time ; and confequently the value of the land be tripled. In Suffex, it is remarked, that in the newly planted under- woods of the firft cuttings, which are made at feven or eight years’ growth, the profit is little or nothing: that -in the fecond it is {till inconfiderable ; fo that for fourteen or fixteen years the return from young planted underwoods is but trifling, which is not very encouraging to the planter of fuch wood: the third is the moft profitable cutting, as the underwood has now reached its ultimate perfection : the fourth often equals the third; but after this the under- wood advancesnomore. The effet of the young ftandard- trees is now vifibly apparent to the prejudice of the under- wood, which in fixty years, if the trees be left to ftand fo long, it is faid, is deftroyed. The application and ufes to which underwood is converted in the above, and fome other diftri€ts, are various ; as poles for hop-grounds, bavins, fpray-faggots for lime-kilns, cord-wood for coaling, and hoops for the ufe of the coopers, befides affording large {upplies of wood for fuel and other purpofes of that kind. Afh is fuppofed, of all the various fpecies of underwood, with the exception per- haps of alder, to be the moft profitable ; the {malleft pieces being of ufe in fome fhape or other,. and fuited to a greater number of purpofes than moft other forts. But the point of view in which this fort of wood is confidered as fo par- ticularly valuable, is the ufe to which the fhiverers convert it in quartering it into middlings, long and fhort hoops, as its value in thefe ways is ely well known. Birch is rapid in its growth, and pays well on poor moiit foils; but on all foils, where the alder is in plenty, as it forms the beft charcoal for the gunpowder-makers, it is the moft valuable underwood, being converted to patten poles and powder- wood. Cutting of the former is paid two fhillings for the hundred in the above county; they meafure in common from three-fourths to a foot each, and fell for five-pence the foot. The cutting and ftripping of the powder-wood are moftly three fhillings and fixpence the load, which is fold for twenty-four fhillings. The value of underwoods, as in the cafe of moft other produéts, has increafed here, as well as in moft other places, confiderably in their price of late years. In fome parts they have doubled their value in twenty years. Va- rious new demands for them have been created; fo that fome think underwood lands are the moft profitable of any whatever. See Woops. Unperwoon, Stealing of. See Larceny. UNDERWRITERS are perfons who fubfcribe their names to policies of infurance, and become anfwerable for the fums annexed, in cafe of lofs or damage of the fhip, goods, &c. thus infured by them to the owner. Serjeant Marfhall obferves, that there are many reafons why an agent or broker ought not to be an infurer.. He becomes too much interefted to fettle with fairnefs the rate of premium, the amount of partial loffes, &c. And though he fhould not, himfelf, create any unneceffary delay or obftacle to the payment of a lofs, he will not be over anxious to remove the doubts of others. Befides, he ought not, by underwriting the policy, to deprive the parties of his unbiaffed teftimony, in cafe of difpute. For though there may be no legal objeétion to his competency, as a witnefs for the other underwriters, it is impoflible that his credit fhould be altogether free from fufpicion. The principal, in fhort, can never place any reliance in one who makes himfelf an adverfe party, and who is, at the fame time, above all others, in a capacity to abufe his confideuce. UND It has been determined in general, that an underwriter cannot be a witnefs in an action ona policy; but if the broker, who effe&ts a policy, fubfcribe it himfelf, after the other underwriters have fubfcribed it, he may be a witnefe for the other underwriters, if they releafe him from all con-> tribution for cofts, though an aétion be depending againft him, and he has joined in a bill of equity. againft the infured, for a difcovery. Marfhall on the Law of Infurance. UNDETERMINED, in Mathematics, is fometimes ufed for indeterminate. UNDIMIA, in Surgery, the name of a kind of cede- matous tumour, the matter contained in which is glutinous and ropy, like the white of an egg. UNDIVIDED, in Botany, applied to leaves, or other parts of a plant, means that they are not lobed, cloven, or branched, this term having no reference to the margin of a leaf, which, when deftitute of all notches or indentations, is called entire, integerrimus ; the leaf itfelf being either undi- vided or lobed, as it may happen. ‘The earher tranflators of Linnzus, fuch as Mr. Rofe, rendered folia integra, by entire, and folia integerrima, by very entire; which, though corre&t in language, is not the true meaning, the former being fynonimous with undivided, and the latter regarding the margin only. UNDRET, in Geography, a town of Baglana; 45 miles S. of Tolnani. UNDULAGO, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by Mr. Lhuyd to a {pecies of fungites found foffile, and ufually of a fort of undulated figure. See Funcitz. UNDULATED Lear, among Boranifis. See Lrav. UNDULATION, in Acouflics, Mechanics, Optics, &c. is nearly fynonimous with Vibration ; which fee. z Dr. Young, in the illuftration and eftablifhment of his theory of light and colours, ufes the term undulation in preference to vibration; becaufe vibration is generally un- derftood as implying a motion which is continued alternately backwards and forwards, by a combination of the mo- mentum of the body with an accelerating force, and which is naturally more or lefs permanent; but an undulation is fuppofed to confift in a vibratory motion, tranfmitted fue- ceflively through different parts of a medium, without any tendency in each particle to continue its motion, except in confequence of the tranfmiffion of fucceeding undulations, from a diftin@ vibrating body ; as, in the air, the vibrations of a chord produce the undulations conftituting found. Dr. Young commences the explanation of his theory with premifing a number of hypothefes, and with fhewing how far they agree with the fyftem of Newton, and in what re- fpeéts they differ from it. He affumes, 1ft, with Newton, (fee our article Zrner, ) that a luminiferous ether pervades the univerfe, which is in a high degree rare and elaftic. 2dly. Undulations are excited in this ether, whenever a body becomes luminous. 3dly. The fenfation of different colours depends on the different frequency of vibrations, excited by light in the retina. The three hypothefes above recited, and which, according to Young, may be called effential, are literally parts of the more complicated fy{ftem of Newton. 4thly. All material bodies are to be con- fidered, with refpeét to the phenomena of light, as confift- ing of particles fo remote from each other, as to allow the ethereal medium to pervade them with perfect freedom, and either to retain it ina ftate of greater denfity and of equal elafticity, or to conftitute, together with the medium, an aggregate, which may be confidered as denfer, but not more elaftic. Our author next proceeds to unfold and eftablifh his theory by a feries of propofitions, which our limits will allow us merely to tranfcribe. Pror. UN'D Prop. I. All impulfes are propagated in a homogeneous elaftic medium with an equable velocity. In different mediums, the velocity will vary in the fubduplicate ratio of the force dire@tly, and of the denfity inyerfely. From the phenomena of elaftic bodies and of founds it appears, that the undula- tions may crofs each other without interruption. Prop. IT. An undulation, conceived to originate from the vibration of a fingle particle, muft expand through a homogeneous medium in a fpherical form, but with different quantities of motion in different parts. Prop. III. A portion of a fpherical undulation, admitted through an aperture into a quiefcent medium, will proceed to be further propagated retilinearly in concentric fuperficies, terminated laterally by weak and irregular portions of nearly diverging undulations. This propofition, though:the principle of it is objected to by Newton, is, according to our author, per- feétly confiftent with analogy and experiment. Prop. IV. When an undulation arrives at a furface which is the limit of mediums of different denfities, a partial reflection takes place, proportionate in force to the difference of the denfities. Prop. V. When an undulation is tranfmitted through a furface ter- minating different mediums, it proceeds in fuch a direétion, that the fines of the angles of incidence and refra€tion are in the conftant ratio of the velocity of propagation in the two mediums. The demonftration of this propofition will prove the equality of the angles of refleGion and incidence. Prop. VI. When an undulation falls on the furface of a rarer medium, fo obliquely that it cannot be regularly refraéted, it is totally refle&ed, at an angle equal to that. of its incidence. Pror. VII. If equidiftant undulations be fuppofed to pafs through a medium, of which the parts are fufceptible of permanent vibrations, fomewhat flower than the undulations, their ve- locity will be fomewhat leffened by their vibratory tendency ; and in the fame medium, the more, as the undulations are more frequent. Prop. VIII. When two undulations, from different origins, coincide either perfectly or very nearly in direGtion, their joint effe& is a combination of the motions belonging to each. PROR. lox Radiant light confifts in undulations of the luminiferous ether. For the illuftration and proof of thefe propofitions, the corollaries deducible from. them, -as particularly appli- cable to the colours of flriated furfaces, thin and thick plates, and thofe by infleétion, and a reply to the objec- tions that may be urged againft the author’s theory, we refer to Young’s Philofophy, vol. ii. See alfo Phil. 'Tranf. for 1800. UND Unputation, in Phyfics, a kind of tremulous motion or vibration, obfervable in a liquid; by which it alternatel rifes and falls, like the waves of the fea; and hence it is that the term takes its rife, from unda, wave. See WAVE. This undulatory motion, if the liquid be fmooth, and at reft, is propagated in concentric circles, as moft people have obferved upon throwing a ftone, or other matter, upon the furface of a ftagnant water, or even upon touching the furface of the water lightly with the finger, or the like. The caufe of thefe circular undulations is, that, by touching the furface with the finger, there is produced a depreffion of the water in the place of conta&. By this de- preffion, the fubjacent parts are moved fucceffively out of their place, and the other adjacent parts thruft upwards, which, lying \fucceffively on the defcending liquid, follow it; and thus the parts of the liquid are alternately raifed and deprefled, and that circularly. When a ftone is thrown into the liquid, the reciprocal vibrations are more confpicuous : here the water in the place of immerfion rifing higher, by means of the impulfe or re- bound, till it comes to fall again, gives an impulfe to the adjoining liquid, by which means that is likewife raifed about the place of the ftone, as about a centre, and forms the firft undulous circle; this falling again, gives another impulfe to the fluid next to it farther from the centre, which rifes likewife in a circle; and thus, fucceffively, greater and greater circles are produced. Unburarion, in Medicine, the term ufed by fome to exprefs an uneafy fenfation in the heart, of an undulatory motion, which may fometimes be perceived externally. Unpbvutation, or Beat, in Mujic, is ufed’ for that rat- tling or jarring of founds, which is obferved, chiefly, when difcordant notes are founded together. See Brats. The phenomenon is more’ fully defcribed thus, by Dr. Smith. In tuning moufical inftruments, efpecially organs, it is a known thing, that while a confonance is imperfect, it is not {mooth and uniform, as when perfeét, but interrupted with very fenfible undulations or beats; which, while the two founds continue at the fame pitch, fucceed one another in equal times, and in longer and longer times, while either of the founds ‘approach gradually to a perfeé confonance with the other, till at laft the undulations vanifh, and leave fmooth, uniform confonance.. Smith’s Harmonics, p. 107. See Harmonics. This learned author obferves farther, that quicker undu- lations are beats, and are remarkably difagreeable in a ¢on- cert of ftrong, treble voices, when fome of them are out of tune; or in a ring of bells ill tuned, the hearer bemg near the fteeple ; or in a full organ badly tuned. Nor can the beft tuning wholly prevent that difagreeable battering of the ears with a conftant rattling noife of beats, quite different from all mufical founds, and deftructive of them, and chiefly caufed by the compound ftops called the cornet and fefqui- alter, and by all other loud itops of a high pitch, when mixed with the reft. But if we be content with compofi- tions of unifons and oaves to the diapafon, whatever be the quality of their founds, the beft manner of tuning will render the noife of their beats inoffenfive, if not imperceptible. The doGtor has with great ingenuity deduced the theory of thefe undulations from his principles, and has applied ‘his doétrine to the tuning of initruments; by which he has fhewn, that a perfon of no ear at all for mufic may foon learn to tune an organ, according to any propofed tempera- ment of the feale, and to any defired degree of exaétnefs, far beyond what the niceft ear, unaffifted by theory, can poflibly attain to. This may be done by counting the number of undulations in a certain time, fuch as fifteen feconds. UsNuG feconds. See the treatife before cited, prop. xv. p. 215. and the Table, p. 244. plate 20. From this ingenious theory the learned author has de- monftrated feveral errors in what monfieur Sauveur has delivered concerning thefe undulations or beats. See Har- monics, Scholium 2.’ p. 115. In the fame treatife we find fome curious obfervations relating to the analogy of audible and vifible undulations. See p. 128. 273. Unvutation is alfo ufed in Surgery, for a motion en- f{uing in the matter contained in an abfcefs, upon fqueezing it. A tumour is faid to be in a condition for opening, when one perceives the undulation. UNDULATORY Morton is applied to a motion in the air, by which its parts are agitated after the like manner as waves in the fea; as is f{uppofed to be the cafe when the itring of a mufical inftrument is flruck. ; This undulatory motion of the air is fuppofed the matter . or caufe of found; which fee. Inftead of the undulatory, fome authors choofe to call this a vibratory motion. UNDULATUM Forium, in Botany. See Luar. UNDULLEE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 5 miles S.of Doefa. - UNDY, in Heraldry. See Waven. UNEDO, in Botany, the name of a fruit, fo called, ac- cording to Pliny, book 25. chap. 24, becaufe one only was _ tobeeaten. He gives Arbutus as afynonym. The mean- ing of the above name feems to be, that the fruit in queftion might, by its beauty, tempt any perfon to eat it once, but that. its infipidity would prevent any further inclination to tafte it. We have, neverthelefs, found this fruit gratefully refrefhing and wholefome in our fatiguing botanical excur- fions in the fouth of France, and have eaten it plentifully. (See Arsutus Unedo.) This tree, figured in Engl. Bot. t. 2377, is found about the lake of Killarney, in Ireland, in a naturalized, if not a wild, ftate. The Comaron of the Greeks, mentioned by Pliny, is not this, but rbutus An- drachne ; fee Prodr. Fl.,Grac. v. 1. 274. . UNELLI, or VENgELLI, in Ancient Geography, a people mentioned by Czfar among other inhabitants of Armorica, and not belonging to Brittany. Ptolemy defcribed their capital under the name of Crociatonum, the pofition of which is that of Valognes. In the Notitia of the provinces of Gaul, Civitas Conftantia, from which the appellation of Co- tentin is derived, was the capital of the canton occupied by the Unelli. UNEQUAL, in Botany, applied to a leaf, means that the two halves, feparated by the mid-rib, are of evidently different dimenfions, and efpecially that their bafes are not parallel. Inftances occur in the Elm, (fee Utmus,) as well as in the fine exotic genera of Begonia and Eucalyptus. The furface of a leaf or /lem is termed unequal, when it is rugged, not even or {mooth, without any reference to the pubefcence. An unequal corolla has fome fegments, or petals, alternately {maller than the others, fo as not to interfere with the regu- larity of its figure. This may occur in fome fpecies of a genus only, nor does it neceffarily mark a generic difference. —Stamens are unequal in the claflies Didynamia and Tetrady- namia, with refpe@ to their proportion only. Unequat Courfes. See Masonry. Unequat Hours. See Hour. UNEVEN Numser. See Numser. UNG, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which rifes in the Crapack mountains, and runs into the Latoreza, 7 miles N. of Zemplin.—Alfo, one of two fmall ftreams which form the river Laubach, in Carniola. Vor. XXXVII. UNG UNGELD, compounded of the negative un, and gildan, to pay, in our Ancient Cufloms,a perfon out of the proteétion of the law ; fo that if he were murdered, no geld, or fine, was to be paid in the way of compenfation by him that killed him. See Grxp, and AEstimMatTio capitis. Si Frithman, i.e. homo pacis, fugiat et repugnet, et 2 nolit indicare ; fi occidatur, jaceat ungeld, i. e. NO pecuniary com- penfation fhall be made for his death. Skinner. Ungilda_ akere, mentioned in Brompton, has much the fame fignification ; viz. where any man was killed, attempt- ing any felony, he was to lie in the field unburied, and no pecuniary compenfation was to be made for his death. UNGHA, in Geography, a town and cattle on the eait coaft of Tunis, furrounded by morafles, but without a har- bour, or road ; 76 miles S. of Cairoan. UNGVAR, a town and fort of Hungary, on the Ung. This town was feized by the malecontents; but, in 1685, recovered by the Imperialifis, with count Tekeli’s treafure and jewels ; 22 miles N. of Munckacz. ; UNGUENT, Uncuentum, Ointment, in Surgery, a to- pical remedy, or compofition, chiefly ufed in the drefling of wounds and ulcers. Unguents, liniments, and cerates, are external forms, ap- plied on divers parts of the body, both to cure, and to eafe and relieve them. They only differ from each other in their confiftence ; with regard to which, unguents hold the medinm ; being ftiffer than liniments, but fofter than cerates. Oils are ordinarily the bafes of all three; to which are added wax, axungia, and feveral parts of plants, animals, and minerals ; both on account of the virtues they furnifh, and to give a confiftence to the oils, and to keep them longer on the part, that they may have more time to act. Many extravagant encomiums have been beftowed on the efficacy of different preparations of this kind in the cure of wounds, fores, &c. and yet it is unqueftionable, that the mott proper application to a green wound is dry lint. But though ointments do not heal wounds and fores, they ferve, however, to defend them from the external air, and to retain fuch fubftances as may be neceflary for drying, deterging, deftroying proud flefh, and fuch purpofes. We fhall here enumerate and deferibe the principal cerates. The common cerate of the Lond. Pharm. is formed by adding four fluid-ounces of olive oil to four ounces of yellow wax, and mixing them. For the calamine cerate of the Lond. Ph. fee CrratumM epuloticum. The cerate of impure carbonate of zinc, formerly cerate of calamine ftone, Edinb. Ph., is compounded of five parts of fimple cerate, and one part of prepared impure carbonate of zinc. Thefe cerates, long known in pra¢tice under the name of “ Turner’s cerate,”? are ufeful dreflings in excoriations and ulcers ; and as they are in a certain degree defiécative, they are applied to burns after the inflammation is abated, and to the eye-lids in ophthalmia tarfi. For cerate of bliftering flies, ceratum Lytte, or ceratum cantharidis, fee CerAtum. This cerate is intended to pro- mote a purulent difcharge from a bliftered furface, and it generally anfwers this purpofe without much irritation. But in fome habits it occafions ftrangury, great pain of the part, {wellings of the lymphatics, and fuch a degree of general irritation, as to produce cedematous fwellings, and eryfi- pelas of the neighbouring parts. It is obferved, that cerates or ointments for keeping open iflues are beft fpread on lint ; and that the dreffings fhould in all cafes be renewed once in twenty-four hours. Cerate of fuperacetate of ‘* of the Lond Ph. is cs 3 0 UNGUENT. ef two drachms of fuperacetate of lead in powder, two ounces of white wax, and half a pint of olive oil, by melting the wax in feven fluid-ounces of the oil, then adding gra- dually the fuperacetate of lead, feparately rubbed down with the remaining oil, and ftirring with a wooden fpatula, until they be thoroughly incorporated. This is an excel- lent cooling cerate Por burns, excoriations, and other in- flamed fores. For the compound cerate of lead, fee Ceratum lithargyrt acetati compofitum. This is a mode of applying lead in the form of ointment, long known under the name of ‘ Gou- lard’s cerate,’’ and is ufed in the fame cafes as the former cerate. The name, fays Mr. B. 'T. Thomfon, is very im- proper; and ought to have been ceratum plumbi acetatis, as the virtue of the compofition altogether depends on the acetate of lead. For the mercurial cerate, fee CERATUM mercuriale. The refin cerate of the Lond. Ph. is formed by mixing a pound of yellow refin and the fame quantity of yellow wax together by a flow fire, and then adding a pint of olive oil, and ftraining the cerate while it is hot through a linen cloth. See CERATUM refine flave. Cerate of favine of Lond. Ph. is obtained by melting two pounds of prepared lard and half a pound of yellow wax to- gether, and boiling a pound of the frefh leaves of favine, bruifed, m the mixture, and then ftraining through a linen cloth. The fimple cerate of the Edinb. Ph. is prepared of fix parts of olive oil, three parts of white wax, and one part of {permaceti. For the foap cerate, fee Ceratum faponis. ‘The efficacy of this cerate depends on the acetate of lead, which is formed in the firft ftage of the procefs ; the foap anfwering {carcely any other purpofe than that of giving confiftence and adhefivenefs. It is occafionally ufed as a cooling drefling. For cerate of /permaceti, fee Crratum fpermatis ceti. "This and the fimple cerate are foft cooling dreflings. Liniments are, in general, more aétive remedies than ce- rates or ointments; and a as local {ftimulants, relieving deep-feated inflammations and pains. For an account of the liniments of the Lond. Ph., fee Liniment. See alfo OXYMEL eruginis. The ammoniated oil, commonly called volatile liniment of Edinb. Ph., is prepared by mixing two ounces of olive oil with two drachms of water of ammonia. The liniment of ammonia of the Dub. Ph. is obtained by mixing two fluid-drachms of cauftic water of ammonia with two fluid-ounces of olive oil. The liniment of lime-water, or oleum lini cum calce, Edinb. is prepared by mixing equal parts of linfeed-oil and lime- water. Liniment of lime of Dub. Ph. is formed by mixing lime- water and olive oil, of each three fluid-ounces. ‘Thefe are folutions of earthy foap, refulting from the chemical union of the lime and oil; and being devoid of acrimony, they are beneficially applied to burns and fcalds. As the} foapy matter feparates from the water when it is kept for fome time, it is always beft to prepare this mixture when it i9 wanted. The camphorated oil of the Edinb. Ph. is obtained by mix- ing two ounces of olive oil and half an ounce of camphor, fo as to diflolve the camphor. , The camphorated oil of the Dub. Ph. is had by rubbing together half an ounce of camphor with two fluid-ounces of olive oil. (See Linrmentum camphora.) Thefe folutions of camphor in fixed oil are very ufeful embrocations to glan- dular fwellings, fprains, bruifes, and to joints affected with rheumatic pains. ‘The late Mr. Ware recommended it with the addition of half an ounce of the folution of fubcarbonate ~ of potafs, to be applied to the eye-lids night and morning, in incipient amaurofis. The compound liniment of cam- phor is an ufeful ftimulant application to {prains, bruifes, and rheumatic pains. It is alfo an excellent vehicle for intro- ducing opium into the habit by means of fri€tion. An em- brocation compofed of f£3jf{s of this liniment, and f3fs of tin€@ture, warmed and rubbed over the furface of the abdo- men, very quickly allays the pains of flatulent colic. The Liniment of foap, or tin€ture of foap of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by digefting four ounces of foap fliced in two pounds of alcohol for three days, then adding two ounces of camphor, and half an ounce of volatile oil of rofemary, frequently fhaking the mixture. The anodyne liniment, or tinéture of foap and opium, is made in the fame manner, and of the fame ingredients as the other tin€ture of foap, only adding, at the beginning of the procefs, an ounce of opium. The principal unguents, or ointments, are enumerated in the fequel of this article. Pomatums are alfo ranked in the number of unguents. See Pomatum. In the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia we have the following general rule for the preparation of unguents, applicable alfo to cerates: let the fatty matters and the refin be melted by a gentle heat, and then conftantly ftirred, fprinkling in the dry ingredients, if there be any, reduced to very fine powder, until the mixture, by cooling, becomes firm. Onguentum acidi nitrofi, ointment of nitrous acid, Edinb. Ph., is obtained by mixing fix drachms of nitrous acid gra- dually with one pound of melted hog’s-lard, and beating the mixture affiduoufly as it cools. The Dub. College dire&ts a pound of olive oil to be melted in a glafs veflel, and an ounce by weight of nitrous acid to be added to it; then to expofe them to a medium heat in a water-bath for a quarter of an hour; then to remove them from the bath, and to ftir them conftantly with a glafs rod until they become firm. This ointment is faid to have been inyented by Alyon, who found it ufeful in fyphilitic and herpetic ulcers. It has been occafionally ufed in this country for the fame purpofes ; but it is lefs effeCtual than the ointment of nitrate of mercury. U. album. See U. oxidi plumbi albi, infra. U. ex erugine. See VERDEGREASE. The ointment of fubacetate of copper, formerly ointment of verdigris, Edinb. is compounded of fifteen parts of refinous ointment, and one part of fubacetate of copper. The U. eruginis, or ointment of verdigris of Dub. Ph., is formed by making one pound of ointment of white wax and half an ounce of prepared verdigris into an ointment. Thefe oint- ments are efcharotic and detergent; they are occafionally ufed as dreflings to foul, flabby.ulcers, and as an applica- tion to fcrophulous ulcerations of the tarfi. In the undi- luted ftate they can fcarcely be ufed, unlefs to a& asa cauf- tic for taking down fungous flefh. U. arcei.. See Exvems and Linimentum arcei. U. bafilicum viride, a form of medicine preferibed in the late London Pharmacopeia, and ordered to be made thus: Take of yellow bafilicon, eight ounces ; oil of olives, three ounces; verdigris, in fine powder, one ounce; mix the whole into an ointment. U. bafilicum flavum, or yellow bafilicon ointment, may be made by melting yellow wax, white refin, and frankincenfe, of each a quarter of a pound, over a gentle fire; and then adding of hog’s-lard prepared, one pound ; ftrain the oint- ment while warm, This 1s employed for cleanfing and heal- ing UNGUENT. ing wounds and wulcers. See Basittcon, Ceratum Re- Sine, and U. refine, &c. U. calaminare, or epuloticum, commonly called Turaer’s ce- rate. See Calamine cerate, fupra, and CERATUM epuloticum. U. cere flave, ointment of yellow wax of Dub. Ph., confifts of a pound of purified yellow wax, and four pounds of prepared hog’s-lard, formed into an ointment. U. cere albe, ointment of white wax of Dub. Ph., is prepared in the fame manner as the former, with the fubfti- tution of white for yellow wax. Thefe are ufeful dreflings to benign ulcers and excoriations. U. cetacei, or {permaceti ointment of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by mixing together fix drachms of fpermaceti and two drachms of white wax, over a flow fire, and ftirring them continually till they be cold.» The U. fpermatis ceti of the Dub. Ph. is compofed of half a pound of white wax, a pound of fpermaceti, and three pounds of prepared lard, mixed into an ointment. Thefe ointments form the ordinary dreffings for healing bliftered furfaces and excoriations. U. citrinum is a mercurial ointment. See U. nitratis hydrargyri fortius, infra. U. dialthee. See DIALTHEA. U. elemi compofitum, compound ointment of elemi of the Lond. Ph., is compofed of a pound of elemi, ten ounces of common turpentine, two pounds of prepared fuet, and two fluid-ounces of olive oil. The elemi is melted with the fuet ; then removed from the fire, and mixed immediately with the turpentine and the oil; and then the mixture is ftrained through a linen cloth. The U. elemi of the Dub. Ph. confifts of a pound of elemi refin, half a pound of white wax, and four pounds of prepared hog’s-lard: thefe are formed into an ointment, which is to be {trained through a fieve while it is hot. Thefe ointments are ftimulant and digeftive: they are ufed to keep open iffues and fetons ; and as a dreffing to ulcers which ‘do not admit of the appli- cation of the adhefive ftraps. U. emolliens, or emollient ointment, may be made by taking of palm oil, two pounds; of olive oil, a¥pint and a half; of yellow wax, half a pound; and of Venice turpentine, a quarter of a pound; melting the wax in the oils over a gentle fire, then mixing in the turpentine, and {training the ointment. This fupplies the place of althea ointment, and may be ufed for anointing inflamed parts, &c. U. epifpafticum. See U. veficatorium, infra. U. hydrargyri fortius, or trong mercurial ointment of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by firft rubbing two pounds of pu- rified mercury with an ounce of prepared fuet, and a {mall quantity of twenty-three ounces of prepared lard, until the lobules difappear, and then adding the remainder of the ft and mixing. Two drachms of this ointment contain one drachm of mercury. U. hydrargyri, or vulgarly, U. ceruleum, Edinb., mer- curial ointment, is compounded of one part of mercury, one part of mutton fuet, and three parts of hog’s-lard ; and it is formed by rubbing the mercury diligently in a mortar with a little of the hog’s-lard until the globules difappear, then adding the remainder of the lard. One drachm of this ointment contains twelve grains of mercury. It may alfo be made with double or triple the quantity of mercury. The Dublin College dire&ts equal parts of purified mercury and prepared hog’s-lard to be rubbed together in a marble or iron mortar, until the globules difappear. One drachm of this ointment contains thirty grains of mercury. U. hydrargyri mitius of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., milder mercurial ointment, is prepared by taking of the {tronger mer- curial ointment, a pound; and prepared lard, two pounds ; and mixing them. One drachm of this ointment contains ten grains of mercury; but prepared according to the Dub. Ph., with two parts of lard to one of Mercury, one drachm contains a feruple of mercury. The preparation of the ftronger mercurial ointments requires much labour, care, and patience. When newly prepared, mercurial ointment has a light grey or blueifh colour, owing to its containing fome unox- idized metal, which feparates in globules when it is liquefied by a gentle heat: when kept for fome time, the colour is much deepened, and lefs metallic mercury fubfides, owing to the more complete oxidizement of the metal. It is pro- bable, therefore, that long kept mercurial ointment contains, befides the oxyd, a febate of mercury. The {trong mercurial ointment rubbed upon the {kin is the ordinary mode of introducing a large quantity of oxyd of mercury into the fyftem. About 3j is rubbed upon‘the infide of the thighs, or any other part of the body where the cuticle is thin, every night and morning until the fyftem is affeGted. The oxyd contained in the ointment is ab- forbed during the friction, and carried into the habit ; where it produces the fame effets as arife from taking the remedy by the mouth, without the unpleafant affe€tion of the bowels that very commonly follows the introdu@tion of preparations of mercury into the tomach. In order, however, to pro- duce the full effe& of the fri@ion, it muft be continued untit every particle of the ointment difappears ; and the operation fhould be performed by the patient himfelf. The ftronger mercurial ointment is ufed in this form as an antifyphilitic, as a deobftruent in hepatic affeGtions, and to excite the abforb- ents in hydrocephalus. The weaker ointment is ufed only as a topical drefling in venereal fores. During a courfe of mercurials the patient fhould be kept in a moderately warm and dry, but airy chamber ; and his diet fhould be chiefly weak broths, milk, and gruel. The following table, extra€ted from Thomfon’s Difpen- fatory, exhibits the quantity of mercury contained in each of the different ointments ordered by the Britifh colleges. & int. i - e Barer ea ftronger oint. contains of merc. 30 grs 8 ; weaker oint. 10 +3 ¢ of the Edin. common oint. 12 Bo ae theal ail: ftronger oint. 30 fo) weaker oint. 20 U. oxidi hydrargyri cinerei, or ointment of grey oxyd of mercury, Edinb. is prepared by mixing one part of grey oxyd of mercury with three parts of hog’s-lard. U. hydrargyri nitratis, or ointment of nitrate of mercury of the Lond. Ph., is compofed of an ounce of purified mer- cury, two fluid-ounces of nitric acid, fix ounces of pre- pared lard, and four fluid-ounces of olive oil; and is pre- pared by firft diffolving the mercury in the acid, then mixing the folution, while it is hot, with the lard and oil melted together. U. nitratis hydrargyri fortius, vulgo U. citrinum of Edinb. Ph., is obtained by diffelving one part of purified mercury in two parts of nitrous acid; then beating up the folution ftrongly with the lard and oil previoufly melted together, and nearly cold, in a glafs mortar, fo as to form an ointment. U. fupernitratis hydrargyri of Dub. Ph. is prepared by diffolving an ounce of purified mercury in two ounces by weight of nitrous acid ; then mixing the folutien with the oil and lard previoufly melted together, and forming an oint- ment in the fame manner as the ointment of nitrous acid. U. nitratis hydrargyri mitius, or milder ointment of nitrate of mercury of Edinb. Ph., is made in the fame manner as the ftronger ointment, with a triple proportion of oil and lard. 3A 2 This UNGUENT. This ointment it ftimulant and detergent. When moderately diluted with lard, it is a local remedy of great efficacy in herpetic eruptions, tinea capitis, and other cutaneous erup- tions. The weaker ointment may almoft be regarded as a {pecific in pforophthalmia, in the purulent ophthalmia of in- fants producing e€tropium, and in ulcerations of the tarfi. It is applied by taking a little on the finger, liquefying it by the fire or the flame of a candle, and applying it along the inner part of the eye-lids. U. hydrargyri nitrico-oxidi is obtained by melting together two ounces of white wax and fix ounces of prepared lard, then adding to the mixture an ounce of the nitric oxyd of mercury in very fine powder, and mixing. U. oxidi hydrargyri rubri, ointment of red oxyd of mer- cury of Edinb. Ph., is compounded of one part of red oxyd of mercury by nitric acid, and eight parts of hog’s- lard. : U. fubnitratis hydrargyri confifts of half a pound of white wax and half an ounce of fubnitrate of mercury, which are formed into an ointment. Thefe are excellent ftimulant ointments, well adapted for giving energy to in- dolent foul ulcers.’ They are alfo very beneficial in inflam- mation of the conjunétiva, with a thickening of the inner membrane of the palpebrez: and to fpecks of the cornea. ‘They fhould be applied in the fame manner as the ointment of nitrate of mercury. U. hydrargyri precipitati albi of Lond. Ph. is formed by adding a drachm of white precipitate of mercury to an ounce and a half of prepared lard, previoufly melted by a gentle heat, and mixing. , U. fubmuriatis hydrargyri ammoniati of Dub. Ph. is ob- tained by forming one pound of ointment of white wax, and an ounce and half of ammoniated fubmuriate of mercury, into an ointment. Thefe ointments are ftimulant and detergent. They are recommended by fome German authors as a re- medy for the itch, which may be fafely ufed on infants: but they have not been employed in this country. U. e japanica terra. See Japan Larth. U. linarie. See ANTIRRHINUM. U. mercuriale, or mercurial ointment. See U. hydrargyri, fupra. YT. infufi meloes veficatorii, ointment of infufion of blif- tering flies of Edinb. Ph., is prepared of bliftering flies, refin, yellow wax, of each one part; Venice turpentine, hog’s-lard, of each two parts ; and boiling water, four parts; by macerating the flies in the water for a night, and ftrain- ing the liquor, ftrongly expreffing it ; then adding the liquor to the fat, and boiling until the water be evaporated ; after- wards adding the wax and the refin, and when thefe are melted, removing the mixture from the fire and adding the Venice turpentine. This ointment is fufficiently mild, but does not always keep open a bliftered furface, fo that it does not anfwer the purpofe for which it is defigned. The acrimony of the flies is nearly deftroyed by the heat employed for the eva- poration of the water. U. nardinum. See NARDINUM unguentum. U. nutritum is the name of an oimtment of lead, made by grinding two ounces of litharge, and adding alter- nately, and by little and little, two ounces of vinegar, and fix of oil. This unguent, though now expunged from our Difpenfatories, is an excellent application in many cafes. Tt fhould not be long kept, but made frefh as wanted. Lewis. See U. faturninum. U. ocult, or eye-ointment. infra. U. owidi plumbi albi, valgo, U. album, ointment of white See U. omidi inci impuri, &c. oxyd of lead of Edinb. Ph., confifts of five parts of fimple. ointment, and one part of white oxyd of lead. U. ceruffe, five fubacetatis plumbi, ointment of ceruffa, or fubacetate of lead of Dub. Ph., is compounded by forming, a pound of ointment of white wax and two ounces of cerufla, reduced to a very fine powder, into an ointment. Thefe are cooling, deficcative ointments, chiefly employed as dreflings for burns. U. oxidi zinci impuri, olim, U. tutie, Edinb., ointment of impure oxyd of zinc, formerly ointment of tutty, is compounded of five parts of fimple liniment, and one part of prepared impure oxyd of zinc. U. tutie, ointment of tutty of Dub. Ph., is prepared by forming ten ounces of ointment of white wax, and two ounces of prepared tutty, into an ointment. Thefe ointments were formerly much ufed in ophthalmia tarfi, but they are now feldom employed. U. picis aride, pitch ointment of the Lond. Ph., is pre- pared by melting together pitch, yellow wax, and yellow refin, of each nine ounces, and a pint of olive oil; and {training the mixture through a linen cloth. U. picis liquide, tar ointment of the Lond. Ph., is ob- tained by melting together tar and prepared fuet, of each a pound, and {training the mixture through a linen cloth. U. picis, tar ointment of the Edinb. Ph., is compounded of five parts of tar, and two parts of yellow wax. U. picis liquide, tar ointment of Dub. Ph. confifts of tar and mutton fuet, of each half a pound, which are melted to- gether, and then the mixture is ftrained through a fieve, The pitch and tar ointments are applicable to the fame pur- pofes ; being ufed with advantage as detergents in feabby foul eruptions and tinea capitis. U. piperis nigri, ointment of black pepper, is obtained by forming a pound of prepared hog’s-lard and four ounces of black pepper in powder, into an ointment. es pala: See PopuLEUM. . pulveris meloes veficatorii, olim, U. epifpafticum fortius, ointment of the epee of bliftering ries acs iffue ointment, confifts of feven parts of refinous ointment, and one part of powdered bliftering flies. U. cantharidis, ointment of bliftering flies of Dub. Ph., is compounded of half a pound of ointment of yellow wax, and one ounce of bliftering flies in powder, formed into an ointment. Thefe ointments anfwer the purpofe of promot- ing a purulent difcharge from bliftered furfaces, when the irritation excited by them, which is fometimes intolerable, can be endured. The flies fhould be very finely pulverized, and very intimately mixed with the omtment. U. refine albe, ointment of white refin of Dub. Ph., is compofed of a pound of yellow wax, two pounds of white refin, and four pounds of prepared hog’s-lard, which are made into an ointment, and this is to be itrained, while it is hot, through a fieve. U. refinofum, refinous ointment of Edinb. Ph., is compounded of eight parts of hog’s-lard, five parts of refin, and two parts of yellow wax. (See CeERATUM re- jing.) Thefe ointments are ftimulant, digeitive, and cleanf- ing ; and therefore form an excellent drefling for foul and indolent ulcers. See Basiiicon. U. fabine, favine ointment of Dub. Ph., is obtained by taking frefh leaves of favine freed from the ftalks and bruifed, half a pound; prepared hog’s-lard, two pounds ; yellow wax, half a pound ; boiling the leaves with the lard until they become crifp, then {training with expreflion, and laftly adding the wax, and melting them together. (See Crratum fabine.) This ointment is very difficult of pre- paration. ‘The frefh leaves are preferable to thofe = ry> UNG dry, becaufe by drying their acrimony is impaired. When good, the colour of the ointment is a beautiful deep green, and its odour is that of the frefh bruifed herb. It fhould be kept in clofely covered pots, as it will foon lofe its virtue by expofure to the air. Savine ointment, which is faid by Mr. Thomfon to have been firft defcribed by Mr. Crow- ther in his “© Obfervations on White Swelling,” ferves for keeping up a‘ purulent difcharge from a bliltered fur- Yace; and this it does as effe@tually and with much lefs ir- ritation than the ointment of blittering flies. U. fambuci, elder ointment of Lond. Ph., is formed by boiling two pounds of elder flowers in two pounds of pre- pared lard, until they become crifp, then ftraining the oint- ment through a linen cloth. The Dublin College dire&s three pounds of frefh elder flowers, four pounds of prepared hog’s-lard, and two pounds of mutton {uet, in the manner preicribed for the favine ointment. Thefe ointments are fimply emollient, and poffefs no ad- vantages fuperior to thofe of the fimple ointment. U. faturninum. See Compound cerate of lead, fupra. JU. fimplex, fimple ointment of Edin. Ph., is formed of five parts of olive oil and two parts of white wax. This is an ufeful emollient ointment for foftening the fkin. U. a is alfo a name given to the compofition com- monly called pomatum ; which fee. U. fubacetitis cupri, olim, U. eruginis of the Edinb. Ph., is formed of fifteen parts of refinous ointment, and one part of fubacetate of copper. See VERDEGREASE and Lint ent. U. fulphuris, fulphur ointment of the Lond. Ph., ts obtained by mixing three ounces of fublimed fulphur, with half a pound of prepared lard. The Edinb. Ph. direéts to take of hog’s-lard four parts, and one part of fublimed ful- phur ; and to add to each pound of the ointment, of volatile oil of lemon or volatile oil of lavender, half a drachm. The Dub. College orders four pounds of prepared hog’s-lard, and a pound of fublimed fulphur, to be formed into an oimtment. Thefe ointments are fpecific in itch, They fhould be rubbed on the body every night until the difeafe be cured ; but not more than one-fourth of the body fhould be rubbed with it at a time. U. fulphuris compofitum, compound ointment of fulphur of the Lond. Ph., is a compofition of fublimed fulphur, half a pound ; white hellebore root in powder, two ounces; nitrate of potafs, a drachm; foft foap, half a pound; and prepared lard, a pound and a half ; which ingredients are to be mixed. This ointment is employed like the fimple one, and in the fame cafes ; it is f{uppofed to derive additional efficacy from the white hellebore ; but it often excites too much irritation. U. tripharmacum, is prepared by boiling and ftirring over a gentle fire four ounces of the common platter, with one of vinegar, and two of oil, where a thick unguent is re- quired ; or four of oil, for a fofter liniment. U. veratri, ointment of white hellebore of Lond. Ph., is obtained by mixing two ounces of white hellebore root powdered, eight ounces of prepared lard, and twenty minims of oil of lemon. U. hellebori albi, ointment of white hellebore of Dub. Ph., is compounded of a pound of prepared lard, and three ounces of white hellebore root in powder, which are made into an ointment. Thefe ointments are fometimes ufed for the cure of pfora, when there is an objeétion to the fmell of the fulphur ; but as remedies, they are lefs certain. U. veficatorium, bliftering ointment. See the appropriate articles, fupra. UNG U. viride, the green ointment, a form of medicine pre- {cribed in the late Lond. Ph., and ordered to be made by melting ten ounces of yellow wax in three pounds of the oleum viride, or green oil of the fame PHarmacopeia. Uz. zinci, zinc ointment of the Lond. Ph., is formed by mixing an ounce of oxyd of zinc, with fix ounces of pre- pared lard. See Zinc, Thomfon’s Difpenfatory. UNGUICULI, in Botany, is ufed for the ends of the peels of rofes, or other flowers, where they adhere to the plant. UNGUIN, a name given by the people of Guinea to a plant, of which they are very fond, on account of its medicinal virtues: they boil it in water, and give the decoc- tion in large draughts for pains in the back. The leaves of this plant grow alternately on pedicles of an inch long, and have the exa& fhape and fize of thofe of the common bay- tree ; but they have neither its tafte nor {mell, nor any thing approaching to either. Phil. Tranf. N° 232. . Uneuiy, or Ungar, in Geography, a {mall ifland near th W. coatt of Alafhka, in the North Pacific ocean; about 20 miles long, rifing in the interior into lofty mountains, but near the fea more level, and covered with brufhwood, producing no vegetable food, except berries, and a root from which the Ruffians make the liquor called quafs. The ifland abounds with deer. The fettlement confifts of one Ruffian and about thirty Indian families, which latter occupied huts conftruéted of mud, in the form of bee-hives, with a hole at the top inftead of a door. They have no fire-places, but warm themfelves by means of lamps made out of flat hollow ftones, with rufh wicks, which they placed under their frocks. This ifland is feparated from the main land by a {trait nearly ten miles wide at high water. 7 UNGUIS, a Latin term, fignifying a nail of the hand or oot. Uneults, in Botany, the claw, is the elongated bafe of a petal, confpicuous in the Pink, Dianthus, and in the Wall- flower and Stock, Cheiranthus, being diltinguifhed by its taper form, and pale colour, from the border, /amina, which it fupports. The claws of petals are, for the moft part, inclofed in the perianth of the flower, though not invariably. Uneuis Cati, Cat’s-claw, the name of a {pecies of Mimofa, Linn. Sp. PI. 1499, alluding to its fharp hooked thorns. Uneuis Offa, in Anatomy, a {mall bone on each fide of the head, fituated in the inner corner of the eye. See Cra- NIUM. Uneults, in Surgery, an abfcefs of the cornea, or of the anterior chamber of the eye, fhaped like a nail. Uneuts, in Natura! Hiffory, a name given by authors to a genus of fhells, more ufually called /olen. Uneuts Qdoratus, in the Materia Medica, a thin, flat, teftaceous fubftance, of an oval or oblong figure, rounded at both ends, and marked on the furface with three or four concentric circles, or oval lines. Its colour is a dufky brown, with fome mixture of the orange, fometimes of a purplifh tinge. Its ufual fize is that of a full grown nail of a man’s thumb ; and its thicknefs rather lefs than that of the nail. It is tough, flexile, and elaftic ; and has no pecu~ liar {mell or tafte, The want of fmell might feem to argue this to be a dif- ferent fubftance from the unguis odoratus of the ancients, but the truth is, that their’s owed all its {weet flavour to its being brought over among aromatic drugs. There were two kinds of it, the largeit of which they had from the Red fea, and the other from Babylon; and both were the opercula of two {pecies of murex fhells. Diofcorides tells us, that this ungués was the operculum II or UNG or poma of the fhell, which flopped the mouth at pleafure, and from under which the creature thruft out its Ld to feed ; and he adds, that the fhell-fifh to which it be onged was taken in the marfhes of India, when the waters were dried away ; and that the Indian fpikenard growing in great abundance in thefe. marfhes, the creature became fweet- {cented in every part, by feeding on it. However, he con- cludes with telling us, that there were only two kinds brought into Greece in his time, the one from the Red fea, the other from Babylon. The truth is, that fpikenard grows neither in the Red fea, nor any where about Babylon, but only in India, be- yond the Ganges, or about its banks. The f{pikenard alfo does not grow in the water, but only in marfhy places, and therefore can never be in the way of feeding fhell-fith. Avicenna, perceiving the abfurdity and contradiétion of Diofcorides’s account, fays that the fhell-fifh was found in an ifland in the Indies, on which ifland the fpikenard alfo grew in great abundance. But this account fuppofes that the fhell-fifh, to which the unguis odoratus belongs, may be found on dry land; whereas it is certain, that no fhell-fith, living in the water, can fubfift without fome means of clofing up its cavity, fo as to keep out the water at plea- fure; this is done in the bivalve kinds, by clofing the two valves ; but in the ftromboide ones, by drawing down this operculum, which is the unguis odoratus, to the mouth of the fhell. A land-fhell, therefore, can have no occafion for fuch a part as the poma or operculum, and no fuch drug as the unguis odoratus can be found about it. But it is to be obferved, that Avicenna did not know that the unguis odoratus was a covering or operculum of the mouth of a fhell, but thought that it was only a fragment cut or broken indeterminately from any part of the fhell. This therefore might appear no abfurdity to him; and the thin and flat ungues he faw might appear fragments artificially cut from fome of the thin-fhelled kind of land-fnails. See BLATTA Byxantina. UNGULA, in Geometry, is the fetion of a cylinder, cut off by a plane paffing obliquely through the plane of the bafe, and part of the cylindric furface. Or, more generally, an ungula, or hoof, is a part cut off a folid by a plane oblique to the bafe.—To find the curve furface of the ungula DEAGD of a cylinder ( Plate XV. Geometry, fig. 19.) put h = the height AD, wv = the verfed fine of AE, d= the diameter A B, a = the arc EAG of the bafe, s = the right fine F G, and ds—ac c = the cofine of the half arc; then x A is the convex furface: 7. e. from the produé& of the diameter and fine, fubtraét the produ@ of the are and cefine, and multi- ply the difference by the height, and divide by the verfed ine. Note 1.—When F is the centre of the bafe, then v = s = 3d, and c = 0; in which cafe the theorem becomes d 4, viz. the produ€t of the diameter and height equal to the curve furface. Note 2.—When A F exceeds 3A B, then ac muft be added. For the demonftration of this theorem, draw HI, I K parallel to F A and A D refpeétively, and join the points H, K; fince it is evident that the furface is generated by the motion of I K along the arc AIG, KI x the fluxion of IA will be the fluxion of the furface. Therefore put z= Al, x = its fine IL, and y = its cofine; then HI = y — ¢; and, by fimilar triangles, FA: AD:; HI UNG x (y—c) and hence the fluxion of the fur- pp aig v : ge é p b face, or = X IK, is — x (eee) x (Ede — cz): the fluent of which is = — x (£dx —cz) = (when Al =AG)= x (4ds— ac); the double of which is = x (ds — ac) = the whole convex furface DEAGD Cor. 1.—If F be the centre; then v =s = 4d, and c = 0; and then the theorem becomes barely dh = 4 times the triangle FD A. Cor. 2.—When A F exceeds 3 d, c is negative, and then — ac becomes + ac. Cor. 3.—If F coincide with B; then s = 0, and c= — Bei and the theorem becomes ah = the furface of the half cylinder. Example t.—Let the diameter A B (d) be too, the height AD (4) 140, and the verfed fine AF (v) 10. Then $d —v=50—10=40=c; and Vidd—cc = 2500—1600 = V900= 30=4, But 75 =it=i= -6 is the fine 2 reduced to the radius 1, to which, in a table of fines, belong 36° 52.268! = 36.87113 degrees. Then by the rule given under Arc of a Circle, the length of the arc a will-be 01745329 X 36.87113 x 100 = 64.352252. Whence ds—ac X 6= (3000 — 2574.09008) x 14 = 425.90992 X 14 = 5962-73888 = the convex furface required. Ex. 2.—If the diameter and height be 100 and 140, as before, and the fe€tion be made through the centre of the bafe, or v = 3d = 50; what is the convex furface? Here, by note 1, dh = 100 x 140 = 14000 = the con- vex furface required. £x. 3.—Suppofing d and / ftill the fame, and v = 905 to find the convex furface. Here $d —- v= 50— 90 = — 40 =c, s = 30, the fame as before, but it is here the fine of the fupplemental arc, which therefore is 180 — 36.87113 = 143.12887 degrees. Hence .01745329 X 143-12887 x 100 = 249.807013 = the arc a. Or, the arc may be fooner found by only fub- tracting the arc in the firft example, viz. 64.352252, from 314.159265, the whole circumference. ds+ac v Then, by note 2, 4 = 5 (3000 + 9992-28052) = 1; X 12992.28052 = 20210.21414, the convex furface required. To jind the Solidity of the Hoof of a Cylinder.—From 2 of the cube of the right fine, fubtra& the produ& of the bafe and cofine of half the arc of the bafe; then multiply the difference by the height, and divide by the verfed fine, the quotient will be the folidity required. That is, putting, as before, 4 = the height AD, v= the verfed fine A F, s = the right fine FG, c = the cofne = 3 AB—AFP, a re & = the bafe or area of the fee. GA EG; then como x A= the folidity. Note 1.—If F be the centre, that is, if the bafe be equal to the femicircle, then vw = s, and c = 0; and therefore 2hss=tddh is the folidity in that cafe. Noie UNG Note 2.—If v exceed $d, that is, if the bafe exceed the femicircle, then c is negative, and 6c mutt be added. This theorem may be demonitrated in the following man- ner. The fluxion of the folid is = the A HI K drawn into the fluxion of LI, which fluxion will, therefore, be mix o x HI? (ufing the fame chara&ers as in the de- v hx ibe monttration of the laft problem) = Sats (y—cp= ets (yy — acy ec) = x (f{dd—xx—2cy+ec)= : he OF ($dd— ex —deaex AL + ee) === x (ss —xx—2¢ x FL); whofe fluent, = xX (ss—Fex) = Be x area F AIH, when I coincides with G, is = x v (453 — dc), the double of which is “= x (453 — bc) = the content of the folid DEA GD required. Cor. 1.—If F fall in the centre of the bafe, then c= 0, and s = v = 3d, and the rule will be ddd. Cor. 2.—If A F exceed F B, ¢ will be negative, and then — bcwill become + dc. Cor. 3.—Ilf F fall in B, s = 0, and c = — $0; and then the theorem becomes 44/4 = half the cylinder. £x. 1.—If the diameter AB be 50, the height AD 120, and the verfed fine A F 1©; what is the folidity of the hoof ? Or, fuppofing a cylindric veffel A BCD, containing a fluid, to be placed in fuch a pofition that the furface of the fluid, difpofing itfelf parallel to the horizon, may cut the bafe in GE, leaving 40 inches of the diameter dry, and the fide of the cylinder in D, 120 inches diftant from the bafe ; to find how many ale gallons are in it, the diameter of the bafe being 50 inches. Then 3d—v Here 4 = 120, d= 50, and v = 10. = 25 —10=15 =¢, and Widd—cc= WV 257 — 15? = AO LO —= 20 = 5. And, to find the bafe by the table of fegments, = = £3 = .2; this being found in the column of verfed fines, oppofite to it is the area .1118238: hence 50 x 50 x -1118238 = 279.5595 = 4 is the fegment or bafe. 253 — bc Then h=12 x (4 x 8000— 15 x 279.5595) = 12 x (5333 } — 4193-3925) = 12 x 1139.9408 = 13679.2896 = the folidity in inches; which, divided by 282, the inches in a gallon, give 48.50939 ale gallons for the content. £x. 2.—Suppofe the cylinder fo placed, that the furface of the liquor may bifeét the bafe, and rife up the fide to the fame diftance of 120 inches from the bafe: to find the content. Here, by note 1, we have} ddh=50 x 50 x 20 = e000 folid inches = 177.3049645 gallons, for the content in this cafe. Ex. 3.—Suppofe, now, the fame veffel fo placed, as that the furface of the liquor may leave only 10 inches of the diameter dry, {till rifing to the fame diftance of 120 inches along the fide ; to find the content. 9 UNA Here the part of the cylinder’s bafe left dry, is equal to the bafe in the firft example, wiz. 279.5595, which, there- fore, taken from 50 x 50 x .78539816 = 1963-4954, the whole circle, leaves 168 3-9359 = 4, the bafe of the ungula in this example. Now wv = 40, ¢ = — 15, and s = 20. 293 — be Whence =~ v h = (2 x 8000 + 25259.0385) 12° = 30592.3718 x 3 = 91777-1154 folid inches = 325.45076 gallons, the content in this cafe. For the method of finding the folidity of the ungule or hoofs of other folids, we mutt refer to Hutton’s Menfura- tion, part iii. § 1. Uneuta, in Natural Hiffory, the claw, or hoof, of a quadruped. Uneuta Alcis, the elk’s claw. See Exx. Uneuta, a technical name formerly applied to an abfcefs of the cornea, when the difeafe was fancied to refemble a hoof in its fhape. Uneutra, or Hamus, among Surgeons, a fort of hooked inftrument, with which to extra a dead fcetus out. of the womb. . UNGULUS, in Antiquity, a remarkable kind of bracelet. UNHACA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea, at the entrance of the bay of Lorenzo Marques. N. lat. 26° 5!. UNHALTER, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to unhalter himfelf that turns off his halter. UNHOST, or Aunnost, in Geography,.a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan; 8 miles S. of Schlan. N. lat. 50° 6!. E. long. 14° 15). UNIA, a {mall ifland in the Adriatic, W. of Ofero, N. lat. 44° 52!. E. long. 14° 26!. UNIAK, or Unrmax. See OoneMAk. UNIARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Rantampour ; 18 miles S. of Rantampour. UNICORN, in Affronomy. See Monoceros. Unicorn, in Geography, a poft-town of Pennfylvania, in Lancafter county ; 124 miles from Wafhington. Unicorn, in Natural Hiffory, an animal famous among the Greek authors, under the name of povoxsews 3 and among the Latins, under that of unicorn. Both thefe names it takes from its diftinguifhing charac- teriftic, the having one horn only. See RuiNocERos. The firft author who wrote of the unicorn, was one Ctefius, whom Ariftotle mentions as a very fufpicious author. /Blian {peaks of it in very doubtful terms. The other writers on the fubjet are Philoftratus and Solinus ; fEneas Sylvius, who is pope PiusI1; Marcus Paulus, Aleofius, Gefner, Garcias ab Orta, And. Marinus, &c. Of thefe, fome fay it refembles a horfe, others an afs, others a goat, by its beard; others an elephant, others a rhino- ceros, others a greyhound, &c. Munfter and Thevet will have it an amphibious animal, and its horn to be moveable at pleafure. Others make ail its ftrength to confift in its horn; and add, that when purfued by the hunters, it precipitates itfelf from the tops of the higheft rocks, and pitches upon its horn; which fuf- tains the whole effort of its fall, fo that it receives no damage thereby. In reality, the feveral authors do all give different accounts of the figure and colour, both of the animal and of its horn, and all its parts. And hence many among the moderns have fuppofed it to be a merely fabulous animal. The legend adds, that it is wonderfully fond of challe perfons; and therefore, in order to take it, a virgin is placed in UNI {n its way ; whom when the unicorn fpies, he lies down by her, and lays his head on her lap, and foon falls afleep ; upon which the virgin makes a fignal, the hunters come in, and take the beaft; which could never be caught any other way, becaufe it would either caft itfelf headlong from the rock, or die. For an account of the animal to which the appellation of the unicorn has been applied, fee Ruro- CEROS, What ordinarily paffes among us for unicorn’s horn, and is fhewn for fuch in the collection of curiofities, and ufed for fuch by feveral phyficians, we are aflured by Pereyra, in his account of Greenland, &c. is the tooth of a large fifh of the whale kind, called by the iflanders narwal ; frequent enough in the icy fea. The tooth or horn, turned, chan- nelled, and terminating in a point, as it is, fprings out of the middle of the fore-part of the upper jaw, where it has a root a foot long, as thick as the horn itfelf: it is the only tooth the animal has in the upper jaw, and ferves it as a weapon of defence, with which it dares to attack the largeft whale. There is a fine horn of this kind preferved in the repofitory of St. Denis at Paris, given by And. Thevet, and pretended to have been a prefent to him from the king of Monomo- tapa, who carried him to hunt the unicorn; which is fre- quent in that country: this horn fome have fufpeéted to be an elephant’s tooth, carved in that manner. At Strafburgh there is another between feven and eight feet long. In the repofitory at Venice there is a good number ; all different from each other. The ancients held the unicorn’s horn to be a counter- poifon ; and that the animal ufed to dip it in the water, to purify and {weeten it, ere it would drink : it is added, that for the fame reafon other beafts wait to fee this creature drink before them. Thence, as alfo from the rarity of the thing, people have taken occafion to attribute divers medi- cinal virtues to it. But Amb. Paré has proved it a mere piece of charleta- nery, and all the virtues attributed to it to be falfe; and yet the price it has borne is almoft incredible. Andrea Racci, a phyfician of Florence, affirms the pound of fixteen qunces to have been at one time fold, in the apothecaries’ fhops, for fifteen hundred and thirty-fix crowns, when the fame weight of gold was only worth one hundred and forty-eight crowns. See Rutvoceros. The unicorn is one of the fupporters of the arms of Eng- land. This beaft is reprefented, by heralds, paffant, and fometimes rampant. When in this laft ation, as in the Englifh arms, it is properly faid to be faillant. Argent, an unicorn fejant fable, armed and unguled, or, borne by the name of Harding. Unicorn, Sea, the name of a fifh of the whale kind, called alfo zarhual, or narwal, remarkable for having a horn growing out at its nofe, in the manner of the fuppofed unicorn’s horn, as defcribed by many too credulous authors. It is the only fpecies of monodon in the Linnean fy{tem. This fifh feeds on flefh, or other fifh, and is not only found in the main fea, but fometimes gets up into large rivers. In the year 1736 there was a large one caught in the river Ofte, near its difcharging itfelf into the Elbe, in the duchy of Bremen ; this place is four German miles from the fea. The fkin of this fifk was {potted with dark-brown {pots upon a white ground ; the epidermis was tranfparent ; and under it was another fkin very thin and fpotted; but the true fkin was brown, and near an inch in thicknefs. On the top of the head there is only a femi-lunar hole, as in the porpoifes; this hole opens into the two channels, which run through the fkull to the palate, and are called the du€tus hydragogi. The people who examined this DAN creature were not able to find any aperture in the body for the difcharge of the excrements ; whence it has been generally believed, that the creature voids them through this paflage in the head. ' Authors have differed in the name of the procefs iffuing from the head ; fome calling it a horn, others a tooth ; fome are of opinion that it ferves to break the ice for air; but others pretend that it is an offenfive weapon, with which it wounds the common whale, and other large fith ; and that when it has plunged it up to the head in the whale’s body, it fucks the juices of that animal. The fifth was near twenty feet long, and about four feet in diameter. The horn ftood on the fore-part of the head, jufl above the mouth, and was fix feet long, white like ivory, and curioufly wreathed or twilted. The body was {mooth and flippery, like that of an eel; the head, in pro- portion to the body, was fmall, not exceeding fixteen inches in length, and the fame in diameter ; the eyes not larger than a fixpence. It had, on each fide of the neck, two black fins, one above another at a {mall diftance; thefe were two feet long, of the breadth of a hand, and about half an inch in thicknefs. See the account of this fifh by Dr. Steigertahl, and Dr. Hampe, in Phil. Tranf. N° 447. p: 157, and p. 149. or Abr. vol. ix. p. 71, &c. This unicorn’s horn has been fo common in the Danifh and neighbouring feas, that there was a magnificent throne built only of them in that kingdom ; the horns are from ten to fifteen feet in length, and are all white, and furrowed with a {piral lime. Unicorn’s horn has the fame medicinal virtues with hart’s horn and ivory ; but at prefent is only kept as an ornament in druggifts’ fhops. Unicorn, Sea, is alfo a name given to two forts of fmall fifh caught in the American feas, and known among authors under the name of Monoceros piftis. Unicornu Foffile, Foffile Unicorn’s Horn, the name of a fubftance much ufed in medicine in fome parts of the world, but which feems to have been very little underftood by many who have written of it. Dr. Hill, from the examin- ation of the feveral varieties of fhapes it is found in, and trying it by the feveral tefts which fix the criterions of foffils, has determined it to be no other than a terrene cruf- taceous fpar, not’ very different from the ofteocolla, and other bodies of that genus, which he has called the cibdelo- placia ; and has diftinguifhed this peculiar fpecies by the name cibdeloplacium allido-fubcinereum, friabile, fuperficie levi, or the whitifh-grey friable cruftaceous fpar, with a {mooth furface. It differs principally from the ofteocolla in its foftnefs, and the {moothnefs of its furface; but from its having, like many other of the cruftaceous terrene fpars, the pro- perty of encrufting, and fometimes even permeating the pores of bodies, and in a manner petrifying them, it has obtained the names of the things it thus lodges itfelf in and about, which being ufually bone, and fome of them bones of an extraordinary fize and figure, have been taken for the bones and horns of unicorns; and the name and nature of the body itfelf wholly loft and negleéted, and that of the horn, with that of its imaginary animal, only pre- ferved. They are, however, now fenfible in Germany, that it is not the horn, but this fubitance, which is lodged about Jit, which is the medicine ; for they never ufe the foffile bones which are petrified in the common way, but only fuch as are impregnated with this fparry fubftance ; and even ufe all fubftances whatever, which are impregnated with this, whether bones or wood, under the fame name, calling es natur UrNe natural tubular pieces of it, which are very common, and alfo the pieces of branches of trees impregnated with it, by the common name of unicorn’s horn, while they allow ' plain bones, petrified in the common way, no fuch name. So that the word is now become a mere technical term, and fignifies either this {par in its pure ftate, or any fubftance whatever which is impregnated with it. It is a lax and fpongy terrene fpar, and is naturally of a regular form, in fome degree like that of the ofteocolla, being always found, where it has concreted pure, and. not been in the way of any extraneous fubftance, an oblong and moderately thick, cylindric, tubular body, frequently narrower at one end than the other, and approaching to a comic form. Ufually its hollow is empty, but fometimes itis found filled up with a fubftance of the fame nature with itfelf, only compofed of a larger proportion of earth with lefs {par, and therefore more crumbly and foft. Thefe are found of various fizes, from an inch to three feet long. The larger fpecimens are moft frequent; and it is very probable, that the ignorance ef the firft ages, which brought it into ufe in medicine, might take thefe natural concretions for unicorns’ horns. It is found in other parts of the world befides Germany, and is in great efteem in many places as a fudorific and aftringent ; and is given in fevers, attended with diarrhceas, with great fuccefs. Hill. Dr. Ebrens, in his Natural Hiftory of Hartz Foreft, in Germany, gives a particular account of this foffile. He fays that it is dug up of different fhapes; fometimes like a ftraight horn, {kull, jaw-bone, fhoulder-blade, back-bone, rib, tooth, thigh-bones, or other bones of men and beatts ; and fometimes like an unfhaped lump or mafs of ftone, having no refemblance to bone. Conrigius, and Otto Guerick, have maintained that this foffile is petrified bone ; others, as Sennertus, Schreder, Baufchius, &c. not being able to comprehend how bones of fuch fize and in fuch quantities fhould be colleéted together, and diffatisfied with the account given by naturalifts of the manner of their petrifaction, reckon it among the minerals. Some think, with Labayius, that it is a bituminous earth ; others fay that it is a kind of agate; but Dr. Ebrens apprehends, that it is formed of a clayey or fattifh earth, called marga or matle, common in that country, hardened by petri- fying water, and afluming different fhapes and fizes, accord - ing to the fituation in which this earth lies under ground. It is commonly of a light grey, black, or yellowifh colour, and feldom perfeétly white ; fometimes it is as hard as a itone, and fometimes foft as clay, and hardens by being expofed to the air. It has commonly neither f{mell nor tafte ;, though in fome cafes it has been found with a {cent hke that of quinces, which Dr. Ebrens afcribes to a bitu- minous fubftance mixed with the petrifying water. The whiteft and melloweft is reckoned the belt for medical pur- pofes. It operates, he fays, like the terra figillata, abforb- ing, aftringing, and promoting perfpiration ; and is one of the ingredients of the bezoardic powder, defcribed by Ludo- vici in his ‘* Pharmacopeeia Moderno fzculo applicanda,’’ and produces a very good effet, unlefs a fymptomatic cof- tiyenefs forbids the ufe of it. Externally it ferves in puf- tulary eruptions and erofions about the pudendum and fun- dament in children, and in eye-waters. Hoffman advifes people to try the foffile unicorn firft upon a dog, before it is ufed in medicine; becaufe he thinks it is fometimes of a poifonous nature, but this is never obferved in any foffile of this kind found in or near Hartz Forett. UNICZOW, or Maurisu Neusrapr, in Geography, Vou, XXXVII, UNI a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz; 12 miles N.N.W. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 42’. E. long. 17°. UNIEGOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 18 miles S.W. of Lenczicz. UNIEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 40 miles E. of Samfoum. . UNIEJOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 15 miles N.N.E. of Siradia. UNIENOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 20 miles E.S.E. of Kalifch. UNIFOLIUM, in Botany, Dill. Nov. Gen. 138. t. 7, is fo called, not becaufe it bears a fingle leaf only, which is not the cafe, but becaufe it f{prings out of the ground with a folitary leaf, and is fome time before it acquires more. The plant in queftion is Convallaria bifolia of Linneus, whofe flowers are four-cleft, or rather have four petals and four ftamens only. , UNIFORM, Unirormis, denotes a thing to be fimilar, or confiftent either with another thing, or with itfelf, in refpeét of figure, ftruéture, propartion, and the like. In which fenfe it itands oppofed to difform. Unirorm, in a Miltary Senfe, fignifies the ornamental parts of a foldier’s drefs, by which one regiment is diftin- guifhed from another. See REGIMENTALS. Unirorm or Equable Motion. See Morton. UnirorM Flowers of Plants. See PoLyreTa.ous Flowers. Unirorm Matter, in Natural Philofophy, that which is all of the fame kind and texture. ~ Unrrorm Temperament. See TEMPERAMENT. UNIFORMITY, Recurariry, a fimilitude or refem- blance between the parts of a whole. Such is that we meet with in figures of many fides, and angles refpectively equal, and anfwerable to each other. A late ingenious author makes beauty to confift in uni- formity, joined or combined with variety. Where the uniformity is equal in two objeéts, the beauty, he contends, is as the variety ; and where the variety is equal, the beauty is as the uniformity. See Braury. UnirorMiry is particularly ufed for one and the fame form of public prayers, and adminiftration of facraments, and other rites, &c. of the church of England, preferibed by the famous ftat. 1 Eliz. and 13 & 14 Car. IL. cap. 4. called the “ Act of Uniformity.’? See Livurey. Although it is declared in the A&t of Uniformity, “ that nothing conduceth more to the fettling of the peace of the nation, nor to the honour of our religion, and the propaga- tion thereof, than an univerfal agreement in the public wor- fhip of God,”’ it has been contended, that f{triét uniformity with regard to points of doétrine and forms of worfhip is not effential to the peace of fociety, and to the honour and prevalence of true religion; and that fuch an uniformity is inconfiftent with the prefent itate of mankind, poffefling different faculties and talents, and different opportunities and means of inquiry ; and that it 1s, therefore, altogether unattainable, It has been alfo maintained, that, in the pro- vince of religion, every man has a right to exercife his own judgment, and to fatisfy his own confcience, under the beft illumination which he is able to obtain; and that the civil magiftrate, however exalted his rank and extenfive his in- fluence in the community over which he prefides, ought not to interfere in controuling this right, and obftruéting the exercife of it. It has been alleged, that every attempt to enforce uniformity of religious faith and worfhip by priva- tions and penalties of a civil and fecular nature, is a mifap- plication of the authority with which he is invefted, and an extenfion of it beyond its proper’ provigce, inconfiftent mie B the UNIFORMITY. the dostrines and fpirit of Chriftianity, and injurious to the rights and claims of peaceable and loyal fubje&s. Thofe perfons to whom we now refer objet to the fundamental principle and profeffed defign of the A& of Uniformity, and they concur with many others in. difapproving and con- demning the mode and time of its introduétion, its per- nicious influence in caufing a fchifm or feparation among Britifh Proteftants, and the indigence and diftrefs to which it reduced a great number of meritorious perfons, whofe confcientious fcruples, exemplary charaéter, and ufeful fer- vices, entitled them to proteétion and encouragement. ‘To this purpofe it has been faid, that the conditions of exer- cifing the Chriftian miniftry, which the A& of Uniformity impofed, are fuch as no civil authority can juftifiably enjoin ; and that it requires fubfcription to articles of faith, which Chrift, who, as they fay, is the fupreme head of the Chriftian church, never eftablifhed; and unfeigned affent and confent to rites and forms of worfhip, which neither he nor his apoftles ever ordained. Befides, this A& required the clergy to fubfcribe and declare, ‘* that it is not lawful, upon any pretence whatfoever, to take arms againft the king, or any commiffioned by him ;” a pofition, as it has been conceived, abfolutely fubverfive of the Britifh confti- tution, and which the nation, foon after the a&t of king Charles II., openly acknowledged to be traitorous, de- teftable, fcandalous, and falfe; and which, if adimitted, would have precluded us from enjoying the benefits of the giorious revolution, and our prefent happy government. By this A& the Puritans, extolled even by Hume as a fed, though their principles appear, in his view of them, fo fri- yolous, and habits fo ridiculous, to which the Englifh owe the whole freedom of their conftitution, were lamentably feparated from the Englifh church ; and many of them were thus recompenfed by Charles II. for their aGtivity and zeal in reftoring him to the Britifh throne. When Charles IT. came to Scotland, fays lord Clarendon, (Hilt. of the Rebellion, vol. vi. p. 374) 375+ 733) 734) expe€ting force from that kingdom to reftore him “ to his father’s throne, and the parliament of England refolved to fend an army againft him, a// the Prefbyterian party greatly oppofed it: they were bold in contraditing Cromwell in the houfe, and crofling all his defigns in the city.’? See Rapin’s Hift. of England, vol. xiii. p. 227. 241, 242. Bifhop Burnet fays, ‘thefe five following perfons, all Prefbyterians, had the chief hand in the reftoration: fir Ant. Afhley Cooper, afterwards earl of Shaftefbury ; fir Arthur Annefley, afterwards earl of Anglefey ; Denzil Hollis, created lord Hollis; the earl of Manchefter; and lord Roberts.”—‘ The Prefbyterians and the Royalifts,’’ fays Hume, “ being united, formed the voice of the nation, which called for the king’s reftoration.”” Moreover, the Prefbyterians, (whom the king, with too much truth perhaps, ufed to call God’s filly people,) trufting to his declaration from Breda, folemnly promiling “liberty to tender confciences, and that no man fhould be difquieted for differences of opinion in matters of religion, which did not difturb the peace of the kingdom ;”’ and, relying upon the fair fpeeches and affurances of his friends, and fome of them perhaps duped by the low cunning of the king, who (a committee of their minifters being fent to him at Breda) ordered them to be in waiting whilft he hypocritically with- drew to perform his private devotions, in which his heart was fo enlarged, that his voice was diftinétly heard, as he intended it fhould be, by the minifters in the ante-chamber, de- voutly thanking God that he was a covenanted king, (allud- ing to the folemn league and covenant, to which he had bound 12 himfelf by the moft facred of oaths,) and that he hoped the Lord would give him a humble, meek, and forgiving fpirit. Whether the Prefbyterians were deluded by the far promifes of the king and his treacherous friends, or were prefled by the civil difcord which at that time fubfifted, and alarmed at the dreadful diforders inte which they apprehended the na- tion was again running,—be this as it may, they were fo in- fatuated as to truft to the honour of CharlesII., and, without previoufly fettling any conditions, they were highly inftru- mental in reftoring him to the throne. Their folly was only equalled by the bafe ingratitude with which he requited them. Two years had fcarcely elapfed before the AG of Uni- formity was, by a {mall majority, pafled into a law, which not only caft out of their livings two thoufand minifters, fome of whom had helped forward his reftoration, but ex- pofed them and their diftrefled families to numerous fuf- ferings. The gaols were foon filled with the unhappy reftorers of this ungrateful king ; their houfes were pillaged ; their families reduced to beggary and want. An eftimate was publifhed of near eight thoufand Proteftant diffenters, who perifhed in prifon by their fufferings on a religious ac- count, in the reign of this perjured, perfidious prince ; and, by the fevere penalties infli@ed on them, for no other crime but that of aflembling to worfhip God, they fuffered in their trades and eftates, in the compafs of a few years, at leaft, it is faid, two millions. Crit. Hift. of England. Neal’s Hift. of the Puritans, vol. iv. This was the king who had himfelf three feveral times taken the Scots covenant, declared folemnly his deteftation of Popery and Prelacy, vowed never to tolerate them in any part of his dominions, and, in the moft folemn manner, {wore, by the eternal and almighty God, who liveth and reigneth for ever, that he would not only enjoin the cove- nant, but fully eftablifh Prefbyterian government, and their direGtory for worfhip, and obferve them in his own praétice and family, and never oppofe them, nor endeavour any change. Belides, we may here adduce the hiftorical fa&, that the Puritan or Prefbyterian clergy were the only body of men in the whole kingdom, who had the courage to oppofe and to proteft openly againft the trial and condemnation of Charles I. Their long and fpirited proteft was figned by above fifty of the principal Prefbyterian minifters in and about London, and prefented Jan. 18, 1648-9. See Bur- net’s Hift. of his own Times, vol. ii. p. 31. Echard’s Hift. of England, p. 654. 708. See alfo the hiitories of Clarendon, Rapin, &c. &c. “« Bartholomew day,” fays Mr. Locke, * was fatal to our church and religion, by throwing out a very great number (about two thoufand) of worthy, learned, pious, orthodox divines, who could not come up to this oath, and other things in that at. And fo great was the zeal m carrying on this church affair, and fo blind in the obedience required, that if you compute the time of pafling this a& with that allowed for the clergy to fubferibe the book of Common Prayer thereby eftablifhed, you will find it could not be printed and diftributed fo as that one man in forty could have feen and read the book they did fo perfeGtly aflent and confent to.’’—‘ The matter was driven on,” fays bifhop Burnet ( Hift of his Times, vol. i. p. 212, 8vo.) * with fo much precipitation, that it feemed expeéted the clergy fhould fubfecribe implicitly to a book they had never feen. This was done by too many, as the bishops themfelves in- formed me.’?’ Among thefe were feveral, who, according to Mr. Locke’s defcription of them, were “ taught rather to obey than to underftand.’”? : t UIN« It has been much lamented by many, eminently learned and ftriGly confcientious, members of the church, both clergy and laity, that the obligation to fubfcribe affent and confent to a variety of articles of faith and forms of worthip, of doubtful and difputable evidence and utility, enjoined and enforced by the A& of Uniformity, fhould fill remain as an indifpenfable condition of obtaining honourable and ufeful offices both in the church and ftate ; more efpecially at a period when liberal fentiments, with regard to controverfial fubjeéts, are generally entertained both by clergy and laity ; when the right of private judg- ment and free inquiry is univerfally acknowledged; and when the governors of the church and the legiflature of the ftate feem difpofed to uphold and promote the interefts of religious liberty. Attempts have been made to widen the door of admiffion into the church, and to remove the im- pediments that lie in the way of advancement to civil offices of truft and profit. Hitherto they have proved ineffe@tual ; but when it fhall be perceived that neither the eftablifhed religion of the country nor the fafety of the ftate can fuffer any detriment from a greater latitude in this refpe&, {cru- pulous confciences will be relieved, the church will gain an acceffion of ornament and fupport, and an union of many interefts and fervices give ftrength and ftability to the conttitution and government of the country. On the ge- neral fubje& which has now engaged attention, different opinions have been maintained; and the Editor hopes that the candid reader will find them impartially ftated, as far as the limits of this work allow, under the articles CHuRcH, Crerey, Lirurcy, Renicion, SusscrieTion, Trst, To- LERATION, &c. &c. UNIGENITUS, called alfo the Canffitution, in Ecclefi- aflical Hiftory, a famous bull, deriving its denomination from the firft word of it, which was iflued in 1713 by pope Cle- ment XI., and in which Quenel’s book, entitled ‘* Moral Reflections on the New Teitament,’’ was condemned, and a hundred and one propofitions contained in it were pro- nounced heretical. ‘This bull gave a favourable turn to the affairs of the Jefuits; but it was highly detrimental to the interefts of the Romifh church, as many of the wifer mem- bers of that community candidly acknowledge. For it not only confirmed the Proteftants in their feparation, by con- vincing them that the church of Rome was refolved to ad- here to its ancient fuperftitions and corruptions, but alfo offended many of the Roman Catholics, who had no peculiar attachment to the doétrines of Janfenius, again{t which this bull was levelled, and were only bent on the purfuit of truth, and the advancement of piety. See JANSENISM. The diffenfions and tumults excited in France by this edi& were in the higheit degree violent. A confiderable number of bifhops, among whom was the cardinal de No- ailles, archbifhop of Paris, and a large body, compofed of perfons eminently diftinguifhed for their piety and erudition, both among the clergy and laity, appealed ee the bull to a general council ; and hence thofe who reje&t the authority of the bull are called appellants ; which fee. However, the iffue of this famous conteft was favourable to the bull, which was at length rendered valid by the authority of the parlia- ment, and was regiftered among the laws of the ftate. Mo- fheim’s Eccl. Hiit. vol. v. 8vo. UNJIGAH, or Peace River, in Geography. See Peace River. UNILOCULAR Capsutz, among Boranifls. CAPSULE. UNIOLA, was fo named by Linnzus, as he himfelf informs us, Phil. Bot. 166, from the union, or rather the aggregation, of feveral glumes in the calyx; of which, in See ’ Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 8. 183. UW? Hort. Clif. 23, he {peaks as the very remarkable character of this genus of graffes, one fpecies only of which had then come under his notice. —Linn. Gen. 35. Am, Acad. v. 7- 195. t. 3. f. 40. Schreb. 49. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 406. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 159. Purfh 82. Juff. 32. Beauvois Agroft. 74. t. 15. £6, (Briza; Lamarck Illuftr. t. 45. f. 3.)—Clafs and order, Zriandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina. Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume many-flowered, of from three to fix nearly awl-fhaped, comprefled, boat-like, minutely keeled valves, alternately imbricated in two. rows, each valve clofely embracing the next, the upper pair largett, fubtending the many-flowered, ovate, greatly comprefled, fharp-edged fpikelet. Cor. of two lanceolate, compreffed valves, refembling the calyx, but larger, cloven, acute, without awns. Nedétary of two wedge-fhaped cloven fcales. Stam. Filaments three, rarely but one, capillary ; anthers oblong, linear. Pif?. Germen fuperior, conical ; ftyles two, ereét, fimple; ftigmas downy. eric. none, except the permanent corolla. Seed folitary, ovate-oblong, fome- what cylindrical, unconneéted with the corolla. Eff. Ch. Calyx of feveral valves, many-flowered. Spikelet ovate, awnlefs, keeled. Seed fomewhat cylin- drical, unconneéted. 1. U. paniculata. Panicled Spike-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 103. Willd. p. 1, excluding Catefby’s fynonym. Purfh n. 2. Muhlenb. Cat.12. (U. maritima; Michaux Boreal.- Amer. v. 1.71. Uniola; Linn. Hort. Cliff. 23. Gramen HUAcixoPogoy ofuGvAAoY carolinianum ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 32- f, 6.) —Panicle repeatedly compound ; partial {talks fhorter than the fpikelets. Calyx of fix valves. Keel of the florets {mooth. Leaves involute.—Native of the fandy fea-fhores of North America, from Virginia to Florida, perennial, flowering in June and July. Pur/h. One of the largeft and moft magnificent of grafles. ‘The /lem is from four to fix feet high, ereé&t, round, jointed, {mooth, leafy in the lower part, terminating in an ample panicle eighteen inches long, whofe drooping, fmooth, compound branches fpread in every diretion, and bear innumerable, pendent, light brown, or ftraw-coloured, fhining, ovate, very flat f{pikelets, full an inch long, half an inch broad; fome of them nearly feffile. Florets about fourteen; the inner valve of their corolla a little downy at the edges ; keel of the outer fome- times, though rarely, a little rough, not fringed. 2. U. latifolia. Broad-leaved Spike-grafs. _ Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 76. Muhlenb. Cat. 12. Purfhn. 1. (U. paniculata; Ait. n. 1. Gramen myloicophoron oxy- phyllon carolinianum ; Catefb. Car. v. 1. t. 32-)—Panicle loofe, with capillary ftalks, moftly longer than the fpikelets. Calyx of three valves. Keel of the florets fringed. Stamen folitary. Leaves lanceolate, flat,—Native of fhady woods among rocks, on the Allegany mountains, perennial, flower- ing in June. Michaux, Purfb. Near Lancafter, Penn- fylvania, flowering in Auguft. Muhlenburgh. One of Catefby’s original {pecimens, now in our hands, fettles his fynonym, hitherto always applied to the foregoing, and is inferibed, in his hand-writing, as follows. ‘“ This odd plant or grafs growed in a rich bottom, by a creek-fide up the weft branch of Sufgueannah river. I obferved but a little {pot of it in all my journey.’”? Nothing can be more diftin@ from the real paniculata above defcribed, which is a fea-fide plant. The {pecific charaéters are abundantly clear. The prefent is of more flender and lefs elevated growth, with broad, many-ribbed /eaves, glaucous beneath, Panicle capillary, much lefs branched. Spikelets green or glaucous, of fewer and broader forcis, which, according to Michaux, 3B2 are UNI aré monandrous': their keel is rough with fhort hairs, as well as fringed more or lefs with longer ones. The calyx confifts of three unéqual valves. : ; 3. U. racemofa. Jamaica Spike-grafs.—Clufter cylin- drical, compound. ‘Spikelets nearly feffile, Calyx of about four valves. Keel of the florets minutely downy. Leaves involute, taper-pointed.—Gathered in Jamaica by Mr. Maflon, one of whofe f{pecimens was communicated, probably by fir Jofeph Banks, to the younger Linneus. We know not how fo fine a fpecies of this elegant genus efcaped the notice of Dr. Swartz. It has the afpe&t of a fea-fide grafs, having a very ftout /fem, leafy to the very fummit. The aves are involute, rigid, with a long very flender point, and broad ‘fheathing bafe, crowned with a hairy ffipula’: the upper ones, two feet in length, rife high above the flowers. "The panicle is terminal, folitary, cylm- drical, fix inches long, with numerous, fhort, toothed, fimple, downy, many-flowered branches, each bearing fix or eight alternate, nearly feffile, flat, ovate Spikelets, half an inch long, variegated with green and white. The florets are about twelve, ovate, compreffed;, finely downy at the edges and keel, having three green ribs at each fide extend- ing half way down from their point. 4. U. mucronata. Pointed Spike-grafs. ' Linn. Sp. PI. 104. Willd. n. 2.— Spike two-ranked. Spikelets ovate. Calyx fomewhat awned.”’—Native of the Eaft Indies. Burmann. Stem a foot high, {mooth. Leaves narrow, fmooth, with ftriated fheaths. Spike of eleven or twelve Spikelets, which are alternate, in two rows, nearly feffile, ovate, {mooth, feven-flowered. The calyx is fo much pointed as to be almoft awned. Linneus. We have feen no f{pecimen. The defcription was probably made from Burmann’s herbarium. 5. U. fpicata. Two-ranked Spike-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 104. Willd. n. 3. — Bigelow Boft. 23. Ait. n. 2. (Feftuca diftichophylla; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 67. Purfh 84, excluding the reference to Plukenet.)—Spike unilateral, denfe. Spikelets tumid, feffile, fmooth. Leaves involute, pointed, rigid.—Native of {alt meadows in North America; common along the coaft from Canada to Florida ; perennial, flowering in July and Auguift. Purfh. ‘The _jffem is much branched, and thickly clothed with rigid, pun- gent, fmooth, fheathing, alternate /eaves, two or three inches long, rifing above the /pikes, which are terminal, folitary, feffile, about an inch in length. Each /pikelet confifts of four or five broad clofe florets, and the two prin- cipal calyx-valves are fometimes accompanied by one or two fmaller external glumes, which may excufe Linneus for placing this fpecies here, but we confefs it to be a bad Uniola. - Plukenet’s t. 33. f. 4, cited doubtingly by Purth, bears much refemblance to our plant, but is an Englifh Triticum ! 6. U. gracilis. Slender Spike-grafs. Michaux Boreal.- Amer. v. 1. 71. ~ Purfh n: 3. (Holcuslaxus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1486. © Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 934.)— Panicle elon- gated, fomewhat fpiked, with fhort clofe-preffed branches. Spikelets nearly feffile. Florets monandrots, divaricated, pointed, fmooth. Calyx of three valves. Leaves flattith ; their fheaths fmooth and comprefled, like the ftem.””—In fhady rocky fituations, from Virginia to Georgia ; perennial, flowering in July. Pur/h. Linnzus compares the habit of the grafs to Aira, or Melica, cerulea. The flems are weak, two feet high, a little drooping. Labillardiere, Nov. Holl. v. 1. 21. t. 24, has an U. diftichophylla, very nearly related to our /picata, but referred to Poa by Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 182. UNION, a jun@ion, coalition, or affemblage of two or UNI more different things in one. Philofophers are mach per- plexed in accounting for the manner of the union of foul and body, or by what medium it is that two fuch heterogeneous beings are kept clofely together. ; It is one of the great laws of this union, that fuch and fuch an impreflion on the brain be followed by fuch and fuch a fenfation, or perception, in the foul. Union, in a philofophical fenfe, is ufed by Dr. Grew for one of the three ways of mixture ; being the joining to- gether of atoms, or infenfible particles, fo as to touch in a plane ; as is fuppofed to be the cafe in the cryftallizations of falts and the like bodies. : Union, among Painiers, exprefles a fymmetry and agree- ment between the feveral parts of a painting ; when, e. gr. there is a confiderable degree of relation and connection be- tween them, both as to the figuring and the colouring ; fo that they apparently confpire to form one thing. f Union, in Archite@ure, may denote a harmony between the colours in the materials of a building. Union, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, denotes a combining or confolidating of two or more churches into one. This is not to be done without the confent both of the bifhop, the patron, and the incumbent. The canonifts diftinguifh three kinds of union; that of acceffion, that of confufion, and that of equality. Union of Acceffion is the moft ufual; by this the united benefice becomes a member, and acceflory of the principal. Union by Confufion, is that where the two titles are fupprefled, and a new one created, including both. Union of Equality, is that where the two titles fubfift, but are equal and independent. or The union or confolidation of churches ought to be founded upon good canonical reafons; and the principal reafons affigned by the canon law are, for hofpitality, near- nefs of the places, want of inhabitants, poverty or fmallnefs of the living. Thefe feveral circumftances muit be inquired into before the union; and fome, or all of them, are recited in the preamble to the ac of union. ; In fuch cafe, by the common law of the realm, the or- dinaries, patrons, and incumbents, may make a confolidation or union of the two churches into one. (1 Salk. 165. Hughes, c. 28.) -Moreover, in fuch cafe, it is faid, that the confent of the king is not at all neceflary, although he hath an intereft in the churches in the cafe of lapfe. For by the ancient canon law, the licence of the pope was not neceffary ; nor has the licence of the king been thought ne- ceffary fince the reformation. In fome inftances, however, it has been defired and obtained for the greater caution. Cro. Eliz. 500. Gibfon. Watfon. By tat. 37 Hen. VIII. c. 21. it is enaéted, that an union or confolidation of two churches, or of a church and chapel, into one, may be admitted, provided the annual value of one of them, in the king’s books, doth not exceed 6/., and the diftance between them be not above one mile. This union fuppofes the affent of the ordinary and or- dinaries of the diocefe where fuch churches and chapels ftand, and the affent of the incumbents of them, and of all fuch as have a juft right, title, and intereft to the patronage of the fame churches and chapels, being then of full age. This union fhall be available in the Jaw, to continue for ever ; provided that where the inhabitants of any fuch poor parifh, or the more part of them, within one year next after the union or confolidation of the fame parifh by their writing fufficient in the law, fhall affure the incumbent of the faid parifh, for the yearly payment of fo much money as with the fum that the faid parifh is rated and valued at in the court of firft fruits and tenths, fhall amount to the full fum of ee UNI tof 8h, 0 be levied and paid yearly by the faid inhabitants te the faid incumbent and his fucceffors ; all fuch unions or confolidations made of any fuch poor parifh as aforefaid, fhall be void and of none effe&t. By the fame ftatute, it is provided, that all unions and confolidations, to be made of any church or chapel within any city or town corporate, without the aflent of the mayor, fheriffs, and commonalty of fuch city, or without the affent of the body corporate of other towns corporate, by the names of their corporations in writing under their common feal, fhall be void. By 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. f. g. if any perfon having one benefice with cure, of the yearly value of 8/., or above, take any other with cure, and be induéted in poffeffion of the fame ; then immediately after fuch poffeffion, the firft bene- fice fhall be void. And by f. ro. it fhall be lawful for the patron to prefent ; any licence, union, or other difpenfation, to the contrary thereof notwithftanding. By which word anion there is meant not a perpetual, but a temporary union during the life of anincumbent. (Gibf. Cod. 970. art. 7.) And this is there clearly proved, firft by the words of the union, and alfo by the cafe of Page v. Bp. of London. Cro. El. 719, 720. And by another ftat. 17 Car. II. c. 3. it is enaéted, that the union of two churches, or chapels, in any city or town, by the bifhop, patron, and chief magiftrate of the town, fhall be valid, unlefs the value of the churches fo united ex- ceed 100/. By the union the two churches are become fo much one, that a fecond benefice may be taken by difpenfation within the ftatute of pluralities. (Cro. Eliz. 720. Gibfon 920.) If any queftion arife concerning the union, after it is efta- blifhed, this may not be tried in the temporal, but only in the fpiritual court ; unlefs it be fuch union as is reftrained by the aforefaid ftatutes. Watf. c. 16. Union, Hypoffatical. See Hyrosraricat. Union, or The Union, by way-of eminence, is more par- ticularly ufed, among us, to exprefs the at by which the two feparate kingdoms of England and Scotland were in- corporated into one, under the title of the Kingdom of Great Britain. The kingdom of Scotland, notwithitanding the union of the crowns on the acceffion of their king James VI. to that of England in 1603, continued an entirely feparate and dif- tint kingdom for above a century more, though an union had been long projeéted ; which was judged to be the more eafy to be done, as both kingdoms were anciently under the fame government, and {till retained a very great refemblance, though far from an identity, in their laws. By an a& of parliament (1 Jac. I. cap. 1.) it is declared, that thefe two mighty, famous, and ancient kingdoms, were formerly one. And fir Edward Coke obferves, how marvellous a con- formity there was, not only in the religion and language of the two nations, but alfo in their ancient laws, the defcent of the crown, their parliaments, their titles of nobility, their officers of {tate and of juftice, their writs, their cuf- toms, and even the language of their laws: upon which account he fuppofes the common law of each to have been originally the fame. However, fir Edward Coke, and the politicians of that time, conceived great difficulties in carry- ing on the projected union; but thefe were at length over- come, and the great work was happily effected in the year 1707, by the general confent of the queen, and the eftates of each realm. The aé& or treaty of union confifts of twenty-five arti- cles ; which eleven Englifh commiffioners, and eleven Scotch UNI ones, examined, approved, and figned on the 3d of Auguit? 1706. ‘The parliament of Scotland approved it on the 4th of February 1707, and the parliament of England on the 1oth of March in the fame year. On the 17th following the queen went to parliament, where fhe approved the fame treaty, with the act of ratification. ; The purport of the moft confiderable articles is as fol- lows: 1. That on the rift of May, 1707, and for ever after the kingdoms of England and Scotland fhall be united into one kingdom, by the name of Great Britain. 2. The fuc- ceflion to the monarchy of Great Britain fhall be the fame as was before fettled with regard to that of England. 3. The united kingdom fhall be reprefented by one parlia- ment. 4. There fhall be a communication of all rights and privileges between the fubje&ts of both kingdoms, except where it is otherwife agreed. 9. When England raifes 2,000,000/. by a land-tax, Scotland fhall raife 48,000/. 16, 17. The ftandards of the coin, of weights and meafures, fhall be reduced to thofe of England throughout the united kingdoms. 18. The laws relating to trade, cuftoms, and the excife, fhall be the fame in Scotland as in England, But all the other laws in Scotland fhall remain in force, but alterable by the parliament of Great Britain; yet with this caution, that laws relating to public policy are alterable at the difcretion of the parliament ; laws relating to private right are not to be altered, but for the evident utility of the people of Scotland. 22. Sixteen peers are to be chofen to reprefent the peerage of Scotland in parliament, and forty- five members to fit in the houfe of commons. 23. The fixteen peers of Scotland fhall have all privileges of parlia- ment ; and all peers of Scotland fhall be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after thofe of the fame degree at the time of the union, and fhall have all privileges of peers, except fitting in the houfe of lords, and voting on the trial of a peer. Thefe are the principal of the twenty-five articles of union, which are ratified and confirmed by ftatute 5 Anne, cap. 8. in which ftatute there are alfo two aéts of parliament recited ; the one of Scotland, by which the church of Scot- land, and all the four univerfities of that kingdom, are eftablifhed for ever, and all fucceeding fovereigns are to take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame; the other of England, 5 Anne, cap. 6. by which the aéts of uniformity of 13 Eliz. and 13 Car. II. (except as the fame had been altered by parliament at that time), and all other aéts then in force for the prefervation of the church of England, be declared perpetual ; and it is ftipulated, that every fubfe- quent king and queen fhall take an oath inviolably to main- tain the fame within England, Ireland, Wales, and the town of Berwick-upon-T weed ; and it is enaéted, that thefe two acts fhall for ever be obferved as fundamental and effential conditions of the union. The great oflicers of the crown of Scotland, before the union, were, the lord high chancellor, lord high treafurer, or treafurer, lord privy feal, and lord regifter, or fecretary. Their lefs officers of ftate were, the lord regifter, lord ad- vocate, lord treafurer depute, and lord inftice clerk. Since the union, the officers of ftate in Scotland are the keeper of the great feal, lord privy fel, lord regifter, lord vice-admiral, lord juftice general, lord prefident, lord chief baron of the exchequer, lord advocate, lord juftice clerk, . lord high conftable, heretable royal ftandard bearer, knight marefchal, heretable keeper of the king’s houfhold, heretable carver, and heretable ufher of the white rod. The privy coun- cil of Scotland is funk in the parliament and privy council of Great Britain, and the civil and criminal caufes are chiefly 3 cognizable UNION. eognizable by two courts of judicature, vz. the college of juttice, or the court of feffion, and the jufticiary court, under the direGtion of the lord juftice general, the lord juftice clerk, five commiffioners, his majefty’s advocate, three deputy advocates, a folicitor-general, &c. Befides thefe two great courts of law, the Scots, by the articles of union, have a court of exchequer, under the direétion of a lord chief baron, and four barons. The court of admiralty in Scotland is a fupreme court in all cafes competent to its jurifdiction, and under the direétion of the lord vice-admiral, a judge, procurator fifcal, &c. The courts of commiflaries in Scotland anfwer to thofe of the Englifh diocefan chan- cellors; the higheft of which is kept at. Edinburgh, in which, before four judges, aétions are pleaded concerning wills, the right of patronage to ecclefiaftical benefices, tithes, divorces, and fuch caufes. The office of privy feal is under the dire&tion of the lord privy feal, a deputy writer to the privy feal, and his deputy. ‘The great {eal office is under the direGtion of the lord keeper, and deputy and king’s writer. The lord regifter’s office is under the fuperin- tendance of the lord regifter, and fix deputies. The chan- cery is under the adminiftration of a diretor, deputy, and principal clerk. See Cottxce of Heralds, and Unt- VERSITY. Under this article of union we may obferve, with refpeét to Wales, that very early in our hiftory, we find its princes doing homage to the crown of England; till at length, in the reign of Edward I. the line of its ancient princes was abolifhed ; and the king of England’s eldeft fon became, as a matter of courfe, their titular prince; the territory of Wales being then entirely annexed (by a kind of feudal refumption) to the dominion of the crown of England. (to Edw. I.) By 12 Edw. I. and other fubfequent ftatutes, their provincial immunities were farther abridged ; but the finifhing ftroke to their independency was given by the fta- tute 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 26. which at the fame time ad- mitted them to a thorough communication of laws with the fubjects of England. By this ftatute it is enacted, 1. That the dominion of Wales fhall be for ever united to the king- dom of England. 2. That all Welfhmen born fhall have the fame liberties as the other king’s fubjets. 3. That lands in Wales fhall be inheritable according to the Englifh tenures and rules of defcent. 4. That the laws of England, and no other, fhall be ufed in Wales; befides many other regulations of the police of the principality. And the fta- tute 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 26. confirms the fame, adds farther regulations, divides it into twelve fhires, and, in fhort, reduces it into. the fame order in which it ftands at this day ; differing from the kingdom of England in only a few particulars, and thofe too of the nature of privileges (fuch as having courts within itfelf, independent of the pro- cefs of Weftmintfter-hall), and fome other immaterial pecu- liarities, hardly more than are to be found in many counties of England itfelf. The town of Berwick-upon-Tweed was originally part of the kingdom of Scotland; and as fuch was for a time reduced by king Edward I. into the poffeffion of the crown of England; and during its fubje¢tion, it received from that prince a charter, which (after its fubfequent ceffion by Edward Baliol, to be for ever united to the crown and realm of England) was confirmed by king Edward III. with fome additions, particularly that it fhould be governed by the laws and ufages which it enjoyed before its redu€tion by Edward [. Its conftitution was new-modelled, and put on an Englifh footing by a charter of king James I.; and all its liberties, franchifes, and cuftoms, were confirmed in par- liament by the ftatutes 22 Edw. IV. cap. 8. and 2 Jac. I. cap. 28. Though, therefore, it has fome local peculiarities, derived from the ancient laws of Scotland, yet it is clearly part of the realm of England, being reprefented by bur- geffes in the houfe of commons, and bound by all aé&s of the Britifh parliament, whether fpecially named or other- wife. Accordingly it was declared by ftatute 20 Geo, II. cap. 24. that, where England is only mentioned in any a& of parliament, the fame notwithftanding hath and fhall be deemed to comprehend the dominion of Wales, and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. And though certain of the king’s writs or proceffes of the courts of Weftminfter do not ufually run into Berwick, any more than the principality of Wales, yet it hath been folemnly adjudged, that all preroga- tive writs (as thofe of mandamus, prohibition, habeas cor- pus, certiorari, &c.) may iffue to Berwick, as well as to every other of the dominions of the crown of England ; and that indi€tments, and other local matters arifing in the town of Berwick, may be tried by a jury in the county of Northumberland. Union, Legiflative, between Great Britain and Ireland. Amongift the important events which will in future times diftinguifh the reign of George III. and the adminiftration of William Pitt, is the legiflative union which this ftatefman effeted between Great Britain and Ireland; a meafure which, in the opinion of its advocates, has confolidated the ftrength of the empire, and thus contributed to its pro- {perity ; whilft by others it is fuppofed to have deftroyed the independence of ‘one country, and to have added to the in- fluence of the crown or its minifters in the other. To pafs over fuch a meafure without fome account of the circum- ftances which attended it, would be a defe&t in a work of this nature; yet to treat it fo as to give general fatisfaGtion cannot be expected, whilit many who took an aétive part in promoting or oppofing it are ftill alive, and whilft all the meatures likely to refult from it have not yet taken effe&. The firft confideration in forming an opinion on this quef- tion, is the previous ftate of legiflation in Ireland, and the nature of the conneétion between the two countries. Under the article IRELAND there is a brief hiftorical detail of the manner in which Ireland became connected with England, and of the fucceeding events, to which the reader is referred. From this account it is evident that Ireland was always con- fidered as a dependent country ; and whether the right was derived from voluntary fubmiffion, from conqueft, or from colonization, it has been long regarded as an axiom in Irifh politics, that whofoever is king of England, the fame is ipfo facto king of Ireland. It was entitled the dominion, or lordfhip of Ireland, ftat. Hiberniz, 14 Hen. III. and the king’s ftyle was no other than dominus Hibernia, lord of Treland, till the 33d year of king Henry VIII. when he aflumed the title of king, which is recognized by a& of par- liament 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 3. With a view to fecure this authority in its fulleft extent, Poynings’ law was eftablifhed in the reign of Henry VII. by which no law could be ena&ted in Ireland, which had not been previoufly fubmitted to the king and his council in England, approved by them, and certified under the great feal of the realm. (See Poynines? Law.) This was found neceflary at firit to check the king’s reprefentatives, who had often a private intereit at variance with that of their mafter; and it was afterwards thought expedient to prevent the defcendants of the Englifh colonifts from purfuing their own intereft at the expence of that of the mother-country. But though the dependance ‘of Ireland, in a political point of view, was thus apparent, it was referved for the reign of George I. to affert legiflative authority, UNION. authority, which was done firft by the reverfion of a fen- tence of the Irifh houfe of lords by the Englith houfe, as a fuperior court of judicature, and then by a folemn declara- tion of a right, not only to make fuch reverfions in all cafes of appeal, but alfo that the king’s majefty, with the con- fent of the lords and commons of Great Britain in parlia- ment, had power to make laws to bind the people of Ire- land. When the prefent king, George III., afcended the throne in 1760, two-thirds of the people of Ireland, de- preffed by fevere penal laws, not only were not reprefented in the parliament by which they were taxed, but were con- fidered as aliens, undeferving of any protection. The re- maining third was reprefented by three hundred members, of which about one hundred were chofen by counties or large towns, and the remainder by boroughs, moft of which had been conftituted in the time of the Stewarts, to create a Proteftant majority of the houfe of commons, and had become the property of a few individuals. "The members thus chofen fat for their own lives, or that of the fovereign ; no general eleCtion taking place except on the demife of the crown. The executive government was committed nomi- nally to a viceroy, but effentially to lords juftices, felected from the principal ftate officers of the country, who were entrufted with the conduét of what was called the king’s bufinefs, but which might with more propriety have been called the bufinefs of the lords juftices. -The viceroy came to Ireland for a few months only in two years, and the lords juftices in his abfence had the means of confolidating an ariftocratic influence, which made them the neceffary in- ftruments of the Englifh government. As no aéts could pafs without the previous approbation of the king in his Englifh council, it was ufual to agree with fome of the Irith leaders on a compromife that the minifter would forward their local objeéts, provided they undertook to carry through parliament thofe bills which he required. What could be expe&ted from fuch a fyftem of government? What but a fyftem of peculation and oppreffion, fuch as perhaps was fcarcely ever witneffed in any other country? The obje&, it may be faid the miftaken policy of the Britifh govern- ment, was, in the words of Mr. Pitt, ‘‘to debar Ireland from the enjoyment and ufe of her own refources, and to make her completely fubfervient to the interefts and opu- lence of Britain ;?’ and whatever refiftance might be occa- fionally fhewn, the general tenor of conduc of the Irifh parliament was to promote the deftrudtive views of Britain, which the members made conducive to their own individual interefts. The inevitable final refult of this unpropitious combination,”’ to ufe the words of Mr. Newenham in his View of the Natural, Political, and Commercial Circum- ftances of Ireland, publifhed in 1809, “ was a very fcanty and difproportionate acquifition of commercial wealth on the part of Ireland, and an almoft utter extintion of a fpirit of induftry therein. To cramp, obftruét, and render abortive the induftry of the Irifh, were the obje&ts of the Britifh trader. To gratify commercial avarice, to ferve Britain at the expence of Ireland, or to facilitate the go- vernment of the latter, were the varying objets of the Bri- tifh minifter. To keep down the Papifts, coft what it would, and to augment their own revenues by the public money, inftead of urging the adoption of wife, liberal, and patriotic meafures calculated to quadruple the rents of their eftates, were the objeéts of the reputed reprefentatives of the Irifh people ; and to fecure themfelves from retaliations on the part of the Roman Catholics, whom they were en- couraged to perfecute and taught to dread, was the general object of the Irith gentry.”? To this deplorable ftate of Ire- land, we have to add the non-refidence of the principialanded proprietors, and the frequent difturbances which under va- rious pretences were raifed in different parts of the country, In fhort, Ireland was in a ftate which could hardly be ren- dered worfe, and which required fome fpeedy melioration. The meafure of a legiflative union had occurred to fe- veral as the beft mode of rendering Ireland a valuable part of the Britifh empire. Oliver Cromwell, during the period of his ufurped power, aétually carried it into effe@: in the reign of queen Anne, the Irith houfe of lords petitioned for fuch an incorporation ; and the great earl of Chatham is faid to have regarded it as a favourite obje&. Now, though he and others might have had the intereit of England imme- diately in view, yet it is an undoubted fa@, that the interefts of both countries are fo clofely united, that it is impoffible to make Ireland contribute to the welfare of England without promoting its internal profperity. The avowed obje&, it is faid, was an objeét of taxation ; but he muft be a ftatef- man of a very different caft from lord Chatham, who could expect to derive revenue from an impoverifhed country like Ireland, until he had awakened a fpirit of induftry, had civi- lized, improved, and enriched the people. Thofe, how- ever, who derived benefit from the fyftem then aéted on, fuch as the parliamentary leaders, were not backward in exprefling their diflike of a union, and they were fupported by thofe whofe vanity was pleafed by the name of an inde- pendent legiflature, as well as by thofe unfriendly to Britifh connection. So odious was the meafure, that in 1759, at a time when Ireland was threatened by a French invafion, the bare fufpicion of its being in contemplation caufed a fpirit of diflatisfation to break out with extraordinary violence among the populace of Dublin. It was reprefented that Treland would be deprived of its parliament and independ- ence, and be fubjected to the fame taxes that are levied upon the people of England. On this occafion both houfes of parliament, efpecially the lords, were grofsly infulted ; the members were compelled to take an oath that they would never confent to fuch a meafure ; and, at laft, military in- terference was found neceflary to the reftoration of order. This mode of influencing parliamentary proceedings by the threatenings of a mob, which was not unufual at a much later period in the Irifh capital, proves the neceflity of fome change in the fyftem of legiflation, In the reign of George III. many meafures were adopted which contri- buted to give weight to the anti-union party, and which certainly promoted the improvement and profperity of the country. Parliaments were rendered oétennial, and their feffions annual ; many penal laws were repealed or modified ; agriculture was encouraged ; and a fpirit of induftry ex- cited. In the mean time, Britain was weakened by its con- tefl with its American colonies; and the demands of the Irifh parliament, backed by 40,000 volunteers, procured a liberation of trade from unjuft reftriGtions, and the eftablifh- ment of legiflative independenge. This independence, how- ever, was merely nominal; the influence of the Britifh minilter ftill direéted the meafures of the Irifh parliament at a greater expence to the nation, and there were many difficulties from the want of fome regular mode of con- fidering the commercial interefts of both countries: ‘* fome bpasal fuperintending authority,” as Mr. Fox faid, “to embrace and comprehend the whole fyftem of the naviga- tion of the empire.”? In 1785, Mr. Pitt attempted to re- medy this evil by a commercial arrangement, which, whilft it held out great advantages to Ireland, ftipulated that fo long as Ireland continued to trade with the Britifh colonies and plantations, the would adopt the regulations of pace an UNION. and navigation impofed by the Britifh parliament on Britith -fubje&ts in carrying on the fame trade. This interference _with the independence of Ireland defeated the meafure of .the Britifh minifter, though he was affifted on this oceafion by the talents and knowledge of Mr. Fofter, then chan- cellor of the Irifh exchequer. On this occafion, lord Sackville, better known perhaps as lord George Germaine, the title he bore when in office, earneftly recommended a legiflative union as the only mode of fettling the jarring in- terefts of the two countries ; and it is thought that from that time the meafure became a favourite objeét of the Britifh miniftry. Several political writers had indeed warmly re- commended it. Dean Tucker obferved, that ‘ to incorpo- rate both the Britifh ifles together, and make one kingdom, in all refpeis, as to parliament, trade, and taxes, had long been the with of every generous difinterefted patriot of both kingdoms :”’ and in 1785, after the rejeGtion of the com- mercial propofitions, he faid, ‘‘refpeGting Ireland, one or other of the fame confequences (union or feparation) mutt inevitably follow. For after tropes and figures have been let off without number, after torrents of eloquence have -been poured forth, much paper blotted, and much ink {pilled,—recourfe muft be had, at laft, either to a /eparation, or to a union; for plainly there is no other alternative ; no other medium to be difcovered, or cement which can laft for any length of time.’”? The refult of Arthur Young’s ex- amination into the ftate of Ireland, feems to have been a fimilar conviction; and the diftinguifhed author of the Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of Nations, book vy. chap. 3, after {peaking of the commercial advantages refulting from a union, fays, that Ireland would: gain other advantages much more important. ‘The greater part of the people of all ranks would gain a complete deli- verance from an ariftocracy, not founded in the natural and refpectable diftinG@ions of birth and fortune, but in thofe of religious and political prejudices: diftinétions which, more than any other, animate both the infolence of the oppreflors, and the hatred and indignation of the opprefied ; and which commonly render the inhabitants of the fame country more hoftile to one another, than thofe of different countries ever are.—The fpirit of party prevails lefs in Scotland than in England. In the cafe of a union, it would probably pre- vail lefs in Ireland than in Scotland. Without a union with Great Britain, the inhabitants of Ireland are not likely for many ages to confider themfelves as one people.’? From an anecdote recorded by fir John Dalrymple, and quoted by Mr. Goold, one of the many writers againft the union, it appears that in 1776, the earl of Rochford being offered the lord lieutenancy of Ireland, was willing to accept the office if he could do fome great good there, and get fome great fame, and that two objeéts occurred to him, the one to pro- cure a repeal of the penal laws againft Roman Catholics, and the other to bring about a union with England. He fent to confult lord Harcourt, then lord lieutenant, and his intimate friend, about thefe meafures; and though lord Rochford had at firft deemed them vifionary, and lord Harcourt pointed out fuch difficulties as prevented his friend from undertaking them, ftill it is evident that both noblemen regarded them as meafures calculated to promote the general welfare. ‘The oppofition to a union, which lord Harcourt apprehended in 1776, would have been greater in 1785. -“ To carry this into effet,’ fays Mr. Newenham, ‘‘was an achievement which required much time ;, much addrefs ; much vigilance, with regard to op- pertunities; much difcernment, with regard to feleGtion ; much promptitude, and much energy during the feafon of ation ; for the parliament of Irelarid had become attached to its ariftocracy ; and the people of Ireland had been ren- dered enthufiaftic in behalf of national independence, and - exemption from the paralyfing controul of Britain. Indeed, as the writer well remembers, it was confidered as almoft amounting to treafon againft the nation, to utter a fyllable in favour of a union. The parliament was {tudious to pre- ferve independence, chiefly on account of its tendency to enhance the fervices of individual members. The people were ftudious to preferve it, becaufe it afforded them a better profpe€t of patriotic meafures than they had before. But they were alfo anxious to reform the parliament, in order to: infure the adoption of thofe meafures which the private interefts of a majority of the members induced them to oppofe.”” In 1785, then, all parties would have joined in rejeting a union with abhorrence ; and the minifter found it neceflary to give up his commercial fyftem, though beneficial to Ire- land, becaufe it involved a partial furrender of legiflative in- dependence. Circumftances however occurred, which rendered fome means of {trengthening the conneétion be- tween the two countries abfolutely neceflary. In 1788 it pleafed God to afi our good and beloved king with a malady which difabled him ea exercifing his royal funétions. he parliament of Great Britain deter- mined, after long deliberations, to appoint the prince of Wales regent, with reftrictions ; and whilft their deliber- ations depended, the parliament of Ireland met, and almoft inftantaneoufly refolved that an addrefs fhould be prefented to the prince, requefting him to take upon himfelf the go- vernment during his majefty’s indifpofition, under the ityle and title of prince regent of Ireland. There was here a choice of a regent before the Britifh parliament had come to a decifion, and though the choice fell on the fame perfon- age, yet that perfonage would have had different powers in the two kingdoms. It was a proof indeed of independ- ence, but it was inconfiftent with the conneétion; for if Ireland could choofe her regent, her choice might fall on a different individual from the regent of Great Britain. The convalefcence of the king prevented any evil; but the con- dué& of the Irifh parliament fupplied the advocates of union with a powerful argument : andif Mr. Pitt had been before undecided, this would probably determine him to take the firft opportunity of carrying it into effeét. In the mean time many circumitances prepared the way. The dif- turbances ref{pe¢cting tithes contributed to religious diffen- tions ; the Proteftants became alarmed at the idea of a Popifh parliament ; and the Catholics were irritated at what they conceived their juft rights being withheld. In 1792 the Catholics prefented two petitions to the houfe of commons, the firft of which was withdrawn, and the fecond was re- jected on a divifion of 228 to 25; and it was complained that the Catholics of Ireland had not influence to induce any one member of parliament to patronize their petition, fo faint was the fupport given to it, even by thofe who voted for receiving it. Yet in the next feffion of parliament, without any change of circumftances in the country, the fame houfe of commons, which had refufed to allow the petition of three-fourths of their countrymen to lie on their table, on the recommendation of the crown paffed a bill, granting every privilege for which the Catholics had peti- tioned, and even without the reftriGions on the right of voting, which they had themfelves propofed. Could any proceeding have tended more to deitroy the confidence of the people in their reprefentatives ? In 1795; during the viceroyalty of lord Fitzwilliam, the Catholics SS UNION. Catholics were led by the friends of that’ noblémah in Tre- land to bring forward their demand for a full emancipation with a profpe& of fuccefs ; and foon after, in confequence either of the Englifh cabinet having changed their opinion, or of his lordfhip having gone beyond his agreement with them, he was recatled, and a confiderable irritation of the Catholic body was the confequence. This was taken ad- vantage of by thofe who had revolutionary feelings, and who well knew how to avail themfelves of the popular ferment. Inftigated by the fuccefs of the French, and maintaining a fecret communication with the republican government, an organization of the people took place; a _diretory was formed, which confifted of leading members of the fociety of united Irifhmen ; and in 1798, a rebellion broke out, which, though foon fubdued, was attended by circumftances that left the country in a very diftracted ftate. If the firft French expedition, in 1796, had not been difperfed by a ftorm; and the fecond, in 1798, been too late to a& in concert with the rebels, Ireland would, in all probability, have felt the evils of feparation from England, and of French conneétion, and the people would have learned from bitter experience to value the privileges of Britith fubjeéts ; but difappointed of foreign aid, the rebels were fhortly reduced, and it became the arduous tafk of govern- ment, by a combination of vigour and of mercy, to reftore tranquillity. It has indeed been afferted, that government could have fuppreffed the rebellion without any effort, or rather have entirely prevented it; but that they facilitated its growth, and accelerated its explofion, with a view to bring about their favourite meafure of union. The con- feffion of the members of the Irifh directory, and other leaders, afford ample proof to every candid perfon that fuch a charge is unfounded ; and that if minitters had aéted in the manner recommended by their parliamentary opponents, all exertion to fave the country would have been in vain. Such a charge is equally the refult of party virulence, as that which attributed to Mr. Grattan and his Whig friends a participation in the rebellion. But though it would be uncandid to fuppofe that government excited or facilitated the rebellion with a view of bringing about the union, it is certain, that when this auf{picious conjunéture did occur, the minifter loft no time in bringing it forward. ‘The rebellion took place in 1798, and in the fucceeding feflion of parlia- ment the union was difcufled. Previous, however, to the meeting of parliament, a pam- phlet publifhed in favour of the meafure, which was attri- buted to Edward Cooke, efq. one of the under-fecretaries, produced a controverfy, which was carried on with much {pirit. The repugnance to the meafure was very great; fome of the principal officers of the crown declared their determination to oppofe it, and loft their fituations in confe- quence ; the majority of the gentlemen of the bar took the fame fide, and feveral meetings of counties and large towns were held for the purpofe of inftruGting their reprefent- atives to oppofe it. Some of thefe were influenced by the utter incompatibility of the union with their private in- terefts, and others by high notions of Irifh independence, as fettled in 1782. ; On the 22d of January, 1799, the queftion of union was regularly brought before parliament by the marquis Corn- wallis, the lord lieutenant, who concluded his fpeech from the throne in thefe words ; “* The more I have reflected on the fituation and circumftances of this kingdom, confidering on the one hand the ftrength and ftability of Great Britain, and on the other thofe divifions which have fhaken Ireland to its foundation, the more anxious I am for fome permanent adjuttment, which may extend the advantages enjoyed by our Vou. XXXVII. fitter kingdom to every part of this ifland. ‘The unremitting induftry with which our enemies perfevere in their avowed defign of endeavouring to effeé&t a feparation of this kingdom from Great Britain, muft have engaged your particular at- tention ; and his majefty commands me to exprefs his anxious hope that this confideration, joined to the fentiment of mu- tual affection and common intereft, may difpofe the parlia- ments in both kingdoms to provide the moft effeGtual means of maintaining and improving a conneétion, effential to their common fecurity, and of confolidating, as far as poflible, into one firm and lafting fabric, the itrength, the power, and the refources of the Britifh empire.”’ The addrefs, which was moved by the earl of Tyrone, eldeft fon of the marquis of Waterford, the head of the Beresford family, and feconded by colonel Uniacke Fitz- gerald, one of the members for the county of Cork, only intimated a readinefs to difcufs any meafure likely to cement and {trengthen the conneétion, but the oppofers of it would not allow even of this. An amendment was accordingly moved by Mr. George Ponfonby, an eminent barrifter, who fince filled the high office of lord chancellor of Ireland during the lieutenancy of the duke of Bedford, and on retiring from it, became leader of the oppofition in the Britifh parliament, a man of great talents united with great moderation and judgment, and feconded by fir Laurence Parfons, now earl of Rofs, and one of the poftmafters-general. The amend- ment was, that after the paflage which declares the willing- nefs of the houfe to enter on a confideration of what mea- fures may beft tend to confirm the common ftrength of the empire, fhould be inferted, ‘* maintaining, however, the un- doubted birth-right of the people of Ireland to have a refi- dent and independent legiflature, fuch as it was recognifed by the Britifh legiflature in 1782, and was finally fettled’at the adjuftment of all differences between the two countries.’? This amendment was fupported by fir John Parnell and Mr. J. Fitzgerald, who had been juft removed from the offices of chancellor of the exchequer and prime ferjeant, by the friends of Mr. Fotter, the fpeaker, by Mr. Plunket, and many others, diftinguifhed for their talents, or their influence in the country. A legiflative union was however approved by feveral who could not be juitly fufpeted of improper motives, and amongft others by the right ho- nourable Thomas Conolly, who ufed the {trong expreflion, “‘ that the conftitution of 1782 could not work, two inde- pendent legiflatures in one empire being as abfurd and mon- {trous as two heads on one pair of fhoulders.’”? This was indeed a ftriking reafon for a union of legiflatures, or fome other expedient, if any other could be devifed, which would preclude all poffible future collifions of fuppofed national interefts, e{pecially with regard to commercial matters. In this debate, however, the advocates for a union chiefly con fined themfelves to urging the propriety of difcufling the meafure coolly and impartially, when it. had been recom- mended by the crown. The oppofers of it took a wider range. Almoft all the lawyers who {poke denied the competence of parliament to entertain the queftion. In 1785, Mr. Grattan had maintained ‘ that parliament was not omnipotent to accomplifh their own deftruction, and propagate death to their fucceffors; that they, the limited truftees of delegated powers, born for a particular pur- pofe, confined toa particular time, and bearing an invio- lable relationfhip to the people who fent-them to parliament, could not break that relationfhip, counteraét that purpofe, or derogate from thofe privileges they lived but to preferve.’? This opinion was maintained by feveral, and Mr. Plunket, one of the moft eloquent fpeakers, as well as one.of the ableft lawyers the country has produced, in exprefs terms denied 3C the UNION. the competency of parliament. ‘‘ I warn you,” faid he, «¢ do not dare to Jay your hand on the conftitution ; I tell you, that if, circumftanced as you are, you pafs this aét, it will be a mere nullity, and that no man in Ireland will be bound to obey it; I make the aflertion deliberately, I re- peat it, and 1 call on any man who hears me to take down my words ; you have not been eleéted for this purpofe; you are appointed to make laws and not legiflatures ; you are appointed to a&t under the conftitution, and not to alter it ; you are appointed to exercife the fun€tions of legiflators, and not to transfer them ; and if you do fo, your aét is a diffolution of the government ; you refolve fociety into its original elements, and no man in the land is bound to obey you.”’ Such is the ftrong language with which this gentle- man is reported to have oppoied the union; yet fince it has taken -place, he has not difdairied to be a reprefentative of Ireland in the imperial parliament, and has been heard with that attention and admiration to which he is entitled. The ableft advocate for the competency of parliament was Mr. William Smith, fon of the mafter of the rolls, and fince one of the barons of the exchequer, who maintained that a con- trary ‘ doGtrine would not only impugn the exprefs autho- rity of Coke and Black{tone, and other conftitutional writers, but would fhake the fabric of our rights and liberties to its foundation ; would go to cancel the title-deed of 1706, by virtue of which his majefty holds his Scottifh crown ; would queftion the legitimacy of that mixed affembly, which was formed by the coalition of the Scotch and Englifh legif- latures; and impeach the force of every ftatute which has been enaéted fince their junétion: and would confound and violate the very elements of our conftitution, by transferring the fupreme authority from the parliament to the people.’ Whilft on this particular fubje& it may be obferved, that the competence of parliament was alfo maintained by that emi- nent lawyer Barry, lord Yelverton, who had taken a lead in the meafures of 1782. ‘* Union,”’ fays he, ‘‘ is only a law common to two ftates ; and to fay that the parliaments of both are incompetent to frame fuch a law, is to fay that they are incompetent to anfwer the ends of their inftitution. For a diftinGtion is to be made between the phyfical and moral power of parliaments. ‘They can do any act, but there are certain aéts which they ought not to do ; and therefore every gueftion of competence, ultimately refolves itfelf into a quef- tion of expediency. And furely it will not be argued, that though Great Britain and Ireland fhould ftand on the preci- pice of deftru€tion; that though their diftin€tnefs muft be productive of mifery in the extreme, and union be ever fo neceflary to their happinefs; that they muft continue dif- tin& for want of power to unite: in other words, that though the meafure fhould be ever fo expedient, the parlia- ments of the two countries are yet incompetent to enaét it. Tt is a wretched argument, and fuch as no man in his fenfes can contend for. ‘The bare idea of a ftate,’ fays judge Black- ftone, ‘ without a power fomewhere vefted to alter every part of (8 laws, (and it is the laws of every country which make its conftitution,) is the height of political abfurdity.”” When nen of the greateft knowledge and abilities have held fuch oppofite opinions on this queftion, it would be prefump- tuous in the writer of this article'to do more than record their opinions ; but he may be permitted to inquire how it has happened that fuch difference could exift. It appears to him, that thofe who deny the competence, refer to fome original compact or conftitution, fuch as the National Con vention eftablifhed in France, from which there is no power of departing, without the confent of an affembly, chofen for this purer ; but where is fuch compa to be found ? Was there ever a period when the government of England or of Ireland was to be fet up anew, and when it was réferred to any fingle perfor, or aflembly or committee to frame a charter for the future government of the country, or when a conftitution fo prepared and digefted, was by common confent received and eftablifhed? The advocates of the competence of parliament, on the other Hand, evidently con- fider the conftitution to be founded on aéts of parliament, on decifions of courts of law, and on immemorial ufages. As therefore parliaments had united Wales and Scotland to England, and as the power of parliament to do whatever it deemed expedient had not been queftioned in former times; they faw no folid obje€tion to the competence of the inde- pendent parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland to form. a junction for the common benefit. The conttitution of England has grown out of occafion and emergency, from the flu€tuating policy of different ages ; from the contentions, fucceffes, interefts, and opportunities of different orders and parties of men in the community. There is no regular plan to be referred to, and therefore Paine faid that we had no conttitution. To return to the debate on Mr. Ponfonby’s amendment, after feventy-three members had given their opinion for or againft it, a divifion took place, and it was loft by a majority of one only. Encouraged by fucha clofe divifion, the oppolition ufed greater exertions ; and when, two days after, the amendment was again moved on this report, it was carried by 109 to 104. This prevented the further direé&t difcuffion of the queftion during that feffion, the minifter declaring it would not be again brought forward until its introduétion fhould be juftified by public fentiment. In the houfe of lords, feveral amendments were propofed, but the original addrefs was carried by 52 to 17. In the minority was James, earl of Charlemont, a nobleman whofe conduét was ever guided by what he deemed the intereft of Ireland, and whom no felfifh motives could fwerve. The proteft he figned on this occafion was one of the laft a&ts of his public life, as he died on the 4th of Augult, 1799, before the meafure could be again brought forward. As one of the arguments in favour of a union was the condué of the Iriffy parliament during the king’s illnefs, which might have led to two feparate and diftin€&t governments, Mr. Ponfonby brought in a bill to regulate the appointment of a regent, the difcuffions on which included the queftion of union. This bill went to ena& that the regal power of the two kingdoms fhould refide in the fame perfon, and that the regent of Ireland fhould be fubjeé to the fame reftri€tions as the regent of England, thus giving up the fupremacy of the Inifh legiflature. The bill was oppofed by lord Cattle- reagh, on the ground that it was incomplete, and that the danger of feparation could not be cured by half-meafures, and it was finally loft. In the committee on it, however, the fpeaker, Mr. Fofter, had the firft opportunity of deliver- ing his fentiments againft the union, which he availed him felf of in a fpeech which was publifhed, and which by its able details contributed very much to confirm members in their oppofition to the meafure. At the clofe of the feffion; the lord lieutenant again introduced the fubje& ; and, after noticing the joint addrefs of the two houfes of parliament of Great Britain, recommending a complete and entire union be- tween Great Britain and Ireland, faid, ‘‘that his majefty, as the common father of his people, muft look forward with earneft anxiety to the moment when, in conformity to the fenti- ments, wifhes, and real interefts of his fubjeéts in Great Britain and Ireland, they may all be infeparably united in the full enjoyment of the bleffings of a free conftitution, in the fupport of the honour and dignity of his majefty’s crown, and in the prefervation and advancement of the welfare and profperity of the whole Britifh empire.” . * The UNION. The proceedings ia the parliament of Great Britain will now demand our attention. On the 22d of January, 1799, the fame day on which it was brought before the Irifh par- liament, a meflage from the king was delivered to the houfe -of lords, by lord Grenville, one of the fecretaries of ftate, and to the houfe of commons by Mr. Dundas, the other fecretary, recommending it to both houfes to confider of the moft effeCtual means of finally defeating the defign of fepa- rating Ireland from England, and of fettling fuch a com- plete and final adjuftment as would beft tend to improve and perpetuate a connetion effential for their common fecurity, and to confolidate the ftrength, power, and refources of the Britifh empire. In the lords, an addrefs exprefling a readi- nefs to concur in any meafure which might be found necef- fary or expedient towards the confolidation of the general interefts of the Britifh empire, was carried without oppo- fition; but in the commons, a fimilar addrefs was warmly oppofed by Mr. Sheridan, who ufed arguments of the fame nature as thofe of the Irifh oppofition. He particularly dwelt upon its being a breach of what he called the final arrangement in 1782, and it was much difputed, whether this had been intended to be final or not. General Fitz- patrick, who had been fecretary to the duke of Portland, lord lieutenant at that time, as well as Mr. Grattan and others, maintained that it was fo underftood ; whilft the duke of Portland himfelf and lord Yelverton afferted that further meafures were in contemplation. It feems a matter of little confequence in what manner it was regarded at that time, but as the veracity of neither party can be called in queftion,’ it affords a ftriking proof of the difficulty of afcertaining the views by which public men are a€tuated. Mr. Sheridan moved an amendment, but it was feebly fupported, and finally withdrawn. On the 31{t of January, notwithftanding the amendment adverfe to a union, which had been carried in Ireland, Mr. Pitt brought forward eight refolutions in a committee of the houfe, which were to form a ground-work for articles of union. He did not difpute the competence of the parliament of Ireland to accept or rejeét any pro- pofition, but he had a right, as a member of the parlia- ment of Great Britain, ‘* to exprefs the general nature and outline of the plan, which, in his eftimation, would tend to infure the fafety and the happinefs of the two kingdoms.”’ In the courfe of a very eloquent {peech, Mr. Pitt faid, “‘ in anfwer to the queftion, what are the pofitive advantages that Ireland is to derive from a union, I might enumerate the general advantages which Ireland would de- rive from the effects of the arrangement, the proteCtion which fhe will fecure to herfelf in the hour of danger; the moft effe€tual means of increafing her commerce, and im- proving her agriculture ; the command of Englifh capital ; the infufion of Englifh manners and Englifh induftry, ne- ceffarily tending to ameliorate her condition, to accelerate the progrefs af: internal civilization, and to terminate thofe feuds and diffenfions, which now diftra@ the country, and which fhe does not poffefs, within herfelf, the power either to controul or to extinguifh. She would fee the avenue to honours, to diftin@tions, and exalted fituations in the general feat of empire, opened to all thofe whofe abilities and talents enable them to indulge an honourable and lau- dable ambition. But, independent of all thefe advantages, I might alfo anfwer, that the queftion is not what Ire- land is to gain, but what fhe is to preferve; not merely how fhe may beft improve her fituation, but how fhe is to. avert a prefling and immediate danger. In this view, what fhe gains is the prefervation of all thofe bleflings arifing from the Britifh conititution, and which are infepa- rable from her conne€tion with Great Britain.” The right honourable gentleman then proceeded to tate, that a union would be the means of fecuring permanently to Ireland the great commercial advantages which fhe then held at the difcretion of Great Britain, while it would open a more free and complete commercial intercourfe; and intimated, that “ if ever the overbearing power of Prejudice and paffion fhould produce that fatal confequence (feparation), it would too late be perceived and acknow- eee that all the great commercial advantages which Ireland at prefent enjoys, and which are continually in- creafing, were to be afcribed to the liberal condu&, the fof- tering care, of the, Britifh empire, extended to the fifter kingdom as to a part of ourfelves, and not to any thing which had been done, or could be done, by the independent power of her own feparate legiflature.” After enlarging upon fome other points, and replying to fome objections, he concluded with moving that the refolutions be referred to a committee of the whole houfe. Mr. Sheridan urged that, “under the prefent circumftances of the convulfed and difordered fyftem of policy and general government of Ire- land, it was not only impolitic, but even unfafe, to agitate the difcuffion of topics, the iffues of which were to lay the moft hardy and flout-hearted proftrate at the feet of a Britifh minifter.”” This indeed feemed to be the principal objection urged again{ft the refolutions, that the difcuffion would tend to inflame Ireland, already in a ftate of confiderable irritation. When the houfe divided on the quettion of the fpeaker’s leaving the chair, the ayes were 140, the noes 15. Onthe 7th of February, the day fixed for confidering the refolutions, Mr. Sheridan, after fome prefatory remarks on the ftate of Ireland, in the courfe of which he afferted that all the advantages propofed might take place without a union, moved the following refolutions : “¢ That no meafures could have a tendency to improve and perpetuate the ties of amity and conne¢tion, now exifting be- tween Great Britain and Ireland, which have not for their bafis the manifeft, fair, and free confent of the two countries. That whoever fhall endeavour to obtain the appearance of fuch confent and approbation, in either country, by em- ploying the influence of government for the purpofes of corruption and intimidation, is an enemy to his majefty and the conftitution.’’ In the latter refolution, Mr. Sheridan particularly al- luded to the difmiffal of the chancellor of the exchequer and prime ferjeant, becaufe they would not fupport the union ; but Mr. Pitt maintained, that if many gentlemen were conneGted together with the fair intention of aéting for the fervice of their country, it would be neceflary, in order to preferve aunity of action, that they fhould agree in their fyitem. The previous queftion was carried by 141 to 25. In the debate which followed on the motion for the {peaker’s leaving the chair, Mr. Grey (now earl Grey ) urged, that the calamities of Ireland were not caufed by the independence of her legiflature, but had been in great meafure owing to the condu& of government. ‘ Look,’’ faid he, ‘ at the hif- tory of Ireland, and you will find, that if it had not been for the interference of Britifh councils, and of Britifh in- trigue, none, or but few of the evils which were felt would ever have taken place: evils of which government was the parent, and which were now made the reafon for taking away all the femblance of liberty among the Irifh people. All the feuds and religious animofities and diffefifions which had. diftra&ted Ireland had been caufed by government, and yet government was making ufe of thefe evils as a pretext for taking away the liberty of the people of Ireland.” The motion was carried by 149 to.24.3 but from the tench 3C 2 0 UNION. of the hour, the confideration of the refolutions was de- ferred. On the 11th of February another long debate took place, in which the topics chiefly difcufled were, the con- du& of the minifter to the Catholics in.1795, and the fet- tlement of 1782, which rendered it neceflary to put off the main fubjeé till the following day, on which the houfe went into a committee. The firft refolution, ftating the utility of uniting the two kingdoms, was oppofed by Mr. (now fir B.) Hobhoufe, and Mr. Bankes, and fupported in a very able fpeech by the {peaker (now lord vifcount Sid- -mouth). The debate was not long, and all the refolutions were adopted without any divifion, On the 16th of Fe- bruary, on the queftion being put that the report be brought up, there was an animated debate, m which feveral members delivered their opinions, chiefly in favour of the meafure : after which the refolutions were agreed to /eriatim, and fent to the houfe of lords. The arguments ufed in that houfe were fimilar to thofe in the commons; the oppofition was chiefly made by the earls Fitzwilliam and Moira, and lord Holland, but no divifion took place. Several able fpeeches were delivered in favour of a union, fome of which, parti- cularly thofe of lords Auckland and Minto, were printed fe- parately, and circulated throughout Ireland. The marquis of Lanfdowne, and the bifhop of Llandaff (Dr. Watfon), though not in the habit of fupporting minifters, were fa- vourable to the meafure. On the refolutions being returned by the houfe of lords, with an addrefs to his majefty, in which the concurrence of the commons was requefted, Mr. Pitt moved that concurrence on the 22d of April, and after a debate, in which nothing was advanced, the addrefs was agreed to. : \ The refolutions thus agreed to were, 1. “ That in order to promote and fecure the effential interefts of Great Britain and Ireland, and to confolidate the frength, power, and re- fources of the Britifh empire, it will be advifable to concur in fuch meafures as may beft tend to unite the two kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland into one kingdom, in fuch -manner, and on fuch terms and conditions, as may be efta- blithed by aéts of the refpeétive parliaments of his majefty’s faid kingdoms. 2. That it would be fit to propofe, as the firft article, to ferve as a bafis of the faid union, that the {aid kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland fhall, upon a day to be agreed upon, be united into one kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 3. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that the fucceffion to the monarchy and the imperial crown of the faid united kingdom, fhall continue limited and fet- tled in the fame manner as the imperial crown of the faid kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland now {tands limited and fettled, according to the exifting laws, and to the terms of the union between England and Scot- land. 4. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to pro- pofe, that the faid united kingdom be reprefented in one and the fame parliament, to be ftyled the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Treland ; and that fuch anumber of lords, fpiritual and temporal, and fuch a num- ber of members of the houfe of commons, as fhall be here- after agreed upon by aéts of the refpective parliaments as aforefaid, fhall fit and vote in the faid parliament on the part of Ireland, and fhall be fummoned, chofen, and returned, in fuch manner as fhall be fixed by an a& of parliament of Ireland previous to the faid union ; and that every member hereafter to fit and vote in the faid parliament of the united kingdom fhall, until the faid parliament fhall otherwife provide, take and fubfcribe the fame oaths, and make the fame declarations, as are by law required to be taken, fubfcribed, and made by the members of the parliaments of Great Britain and 7 Ireland. 5. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that the churches of that part of Great Britain called England, and of that part of Great Britain called Scotland, and of Ireland, and the do&trine, worfhip, difci- pline, and government thereof, fhall be preferved as now by law eftablifhed. 6. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that his majefty’s fubjeéts in Ireland fhall at all times hereafter be entitled to the fame privileges, and be on the fame footing in refpeét of trade and navigation in all ports and places belonging to Great Britain, and in all cafes with refpect to which treaties fhall be made by his majefty, his heirs and fucceflors, with any foreign power, as his ma- jefty’s fubje&ts in Great Britain; that no duty fhall be im- pofed-on the import or export between Great Britain and Ireland, of any articles now duty free; and that on other articles there fhall be eftablifhed, for a time to be limited, fuch a moderate rate of equal duties, as fhall, previous to the union, be agreed upon and approved by the refpeGtive parliaments, fubje@, after the expiration of fuch limited time, to be diminifhed equally with refpe& to both king- doms, but in no cafe to be increafed; that all articles which may at any time hereafter be imported into Great Britain from foreign parts, fhall be importable through either kingdom into the other, fubjeét to the like duties and regu- lations, as if the fame were imported dire¢tly from foreign parts: that where any articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of either kingdom, are fubje@ to any internal duty in one kingdom, fuch countervailing duties (over and above any duties on import, to be fixed as aforefaid) fhall be impofed as fhall be neceflary, to prevent any inequality in that refpeét. And that all other matters of trade and com- merce, other than the foregoing, and than fuch others as may before the unien be fpecially agreed upon for the due encouragement of the agriculture and manufactures of the re{peétive kingdoms, fhall remain to be regulated from time to time by the united parliament. 7. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that the charge arifing from the payment of the intereft or finking fund for the re- duétion of the principal of the debt incurred in either king- dom before the union, fhall continue to be feparately de- frayed by Great Britain and Ireland refpeétively. That for a number of years to be limited, the future expences of the united kingdom, in peace or war, fhall be defrayed by Great Britain and Ireland jointly, according to fuch propor- tions as fhall be eftablifhed by the refpeétive parliaments pre- vious to the union ; and that after the expiration of the time to be fo limited, the mode of jointly defraying fuch expences fhall be regulated according to fuch rules and principles as fhall be in like manner agreed upon previous to the union, for the purpofe of eftablifhing gradually an uniform fyftem of taxation through every part of the united kingdom. 8. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that all laws in force at the time of the union, and all the courts of civil or ecclefiaftical jurifdiction within the refpeétive kingdoms, fhall remain as now by law eftablifhed within the fame, fubje& only to fuch alterations or regulations, from time to time, as circumftances may appear to the parliament of the united kingdom to require.”” Such were the refolutions fubmitted by the lords and com- mons of Great Britain to the king, as beft calculated to form the bafis of a union, and which were afterwards laid before the Irifh parliament. The fixth and feventh propofitions contain much matter for difcuffion, in fettling the duties and proportions ; but the general outline appears to be founded on equal and liberal principles. The next object was to fe- cure fuch a majority in the Irifh houfe of commens, and fuch declarations in favour of it, as would enable the Irifh government UNION. government to bring it before parliament in the enfuing fef- fion. During the fummer of 1799, the lord lieutenant vifited many parts of Ireland, with a view to conciliate jarring interefts, and was received with great marks of refpect. This nobleman had, by his conciliating humanity, en- raged the affections, and by his exalted virtues and great mi- ae talents, had attraéted the efteem and the confidence of the nation. He was therefore peculiarly qualified for fuch a purpofe. Addreffes were prefented to him by public “bodies, wherever he direéted his courfe, moft of which exprefled or implied approbation of a union, and the papers were crowded with declarations in favour of that meafure, figned by the principal landed proprietors. The fecretary, lord Caitlereagh, alfo, was not idle; feveral who had been adverfe to the union were induced either to change ‘their opinion, or to refign their feats ; and it was generally fuppofed that the minifter would not be again in a minority. Much has been faid of the corruption ufed on this occafion ; it has been charged repeatedly in parliament, and but faintly denied, yet charges of this kind are not eafily eftablifhed. This is certain, that either from gratitude for their fupport, or by a previous arrangement, the relatives of many gentlemen -who voted for this meafure were promoted in various ways ; and that for years after, what were called union engagements obftruéted almoft any other preferment at the bar, in the church, or in the revenue and ftate offices. Some have vin- dicated this as neceffary to the attainment of a great benefit, ‘but the true patriot will never admit that a good end will juftify difhoneft means ; and whatever pofterity may think of the meafure itfelf, the impartial inquirer will be compelled to acknowledge that it had not the unbiaffed {upport of a ma- ‘jority of the two houfes of parliament, and that it was re- garded with abhorrence by the great body of the people. At the fame time, no exertions were {pared by the oppofers of the meafure ; feats were vacated to bring in active com- batants; money was faid to be fubfcribed to purchafe bo- roughs ; and other means, perhaps not ftri€tly conftitutional, were reforted to. Forty-eight members were brought in by one fide or the other, in place of gentlemen who retired, and eight or nine were re-eleGted, on being appointed to lu- erative places under the crown. On the 15th of January, 1800, the lord lieutenant opened the feffion, by a fpeech from the throne, in which no mention was made of the union, and of courfe it was unnoticed in the addrefs propofed by the friends of adminiftration ; but Mr. Ponfonby, having required the {peech of the lord lieutenant at the clofe of the laft feffion, in which he noticed the proceedings of the Britifh parlia- ment, to be read, moved as an amendment to the addrefs, ** humbly to aflure his majefty, that this kingdom is infepa- rably united with Great Britain, and that it is the fenti- ments, wifhes, and real interefts of all his majefty’s fub- ‘jets, that it ever fhall continue fo united, in the full en- -joyment of the bleffings of a free conftitution, in the fup- port of the honour and dignity of his majefty’s crown, and in the prefervation and advancement of the welfare and profperity of the whole empire, which bleffings of a free conftitution we owe to the fpirited affertion of this king- dom of its birth-right to a free and independent parlia- ‘ment refident within it, and to the parental kindnefs of your majefty, and the liberality of the Britifh parliament, -ratifying the fame in the year 1782, and which we have at all times felt, and do now particularly feel it our bounden duty to maintain.”? Ninety-fix members voted for this amendment, and one hundred and thirty-eight againft it, fo that the minifter had a majority of forty-two, on that queftion, on which, in the preceding feffion, there was a majority of five againft him. On the 5th of February, after a number of petitions again{t the union had been laid on the table, the bufinefs was formally introduced by a mef- fage from the lord lieutenant, in which his excellency flated that he had it in command from his majefty to lay before both houfes of legiflature the refolutions of the Britifh parlia- ment, and to recommend to their confideration the great ob- jets they embrace. _ A long and fpirited debate took place, in confequence of which the houfe did not adjourn till half paft twelve on the following day, when a motion for referring the lord lieu- tenant’s meflage to a committee was carried by a majority of 43 ; the ayes, including the tellers, being 158, and the noes 1173 fo that, reckoning the {peaker, 276 members were prefent at the divifion. The great abilities of Mr. Grattan, which had been voluntarily caft into obfcurity, by his retiring from parliament, were once more brought before the public on this interefting occafion. Mr. Saurin and Mr. Bufhe, who now fill the important fituations of attor- ney and folicitor general, alfo diftinguifhed themfelves in oppofition to the meafure, in addition to the gentlemen who {poke in the preceding feffion; fo that lord Caftlereagh, with very inadequate Thapar, had to withftand a combi- nation of men of talents, fuch as have feldom co-operated on any other occafion. It feemed as if in this laft ftruggle for independence, Ireland had united all her powers of elo- quence, farcafm, and inveétive, to refift her fuppofed enemies. In a debate which took place in the committee of the whole houfe, on the firft article of the union, Mr. Grattan oppofed the meafure with fuch a degree of vehe- mence, that the chancellor of the exchequer (Mr. Ifaac Corry) accufed him of affociating with traitors, and of dif- affection to the government. The reply of Mr. Grattan to this harfh and unwarrantable charge was fo pointed and fevere, that Mr. Corry conceived himfelf under a neceffity of refenting it by a challenge. A meeting enfued, and Mr. Corry was wounded. The queftion, however, was carried by a majority of 161 againft 115 ; and as the difcuffion pro- ceeded, the numbers of oppofition appeared to diminifh. There was, however, no relaxation of the energy with which the union was oppofed. The table of the houfe was crowded with petitions, the debates were frequently protracted through the whole night, and ‘the minifter was harafled by frequent divifions. On the 13th of March, be- fore the committee had gone through the refolutions, fir John Parnell moved, ‘* That an humble addrefs be prefented to his majefty, praying that he will be gracioufly pleafed to diflolve the prefent parliament, and call a new one, before any final meafure fhall be concluded refpe@ting a le- giflative union between Great Britain and Ireland.’? This motion was, of courfe, fupported by all the force of the anti-unionifts; but on the divifion it was loft by a majority of 46. A fimilar divifion, after a very long de- bate, took place on the queftion for receiving the report of the committee, which was delivered on the 21{t of March, and being agreed to by the houfe, was fent to the lords for their concurrence. On the 27th of March, the refolutions were returned with fome amendments, the leading articles having been carried in the upper houfe by a majority of 75 to 26. On the 2d of April, the refolutions, as they finally pafled the Irith parliament, were laid before the Britifh houfe, in which, though there were feveral {pirited debates, the meafure was carried by a great majority. In the lords, the principle was carried by 82 to 3, and the final divifion was 75 for and 7 againft. In the commons, a motion of Mr. Grey’s for an addrefs to his majefty, « That he would be UNION. be gracioufly pleafed to fufpend all proceedings on the Trifh union till the fentiments of the Irifh people refpeting that meafure could be afcertained ;”” was rejected by 236 to go. The bill founded on thefe refolutions received the royal affent in England on the 2d of July, and in Ireland on the 1ft of Auguft, when the lord lieutenant, on proro- guing parliament, congratulated it on the accomplifhment of this great work. As the general outline of the meafure, already ftated in the refolutions of the Britifh parliament, was not departed from, and as much of the detail muft be uninterefting, it will be fufficient here briefly to {tate the articles, enlarging only pn thofe points which have not been before noticed. The firft article was, That the two kingdoms fhould be united for ever from rft Jan. 1801; the fecond, That the fucceffion to the crown fhould continue as at prefent; the third, That the united kingdom fhould be reprefented in one parliament ; the fourth, That four lords fpiritual, by rota- tion of feffions, and twenty-eight lords temporal, elected for life by the peers of Ireland, fhould fit in the houfe of lords of the parliament of the united kingdom; and that. one hundred commoners (two for each county of Ireland, two for the city of Dublin, two for the city of Cork, one for the univerfity of Dublin, and one for each of the thirty-one moft confiderable cities, towns, and boroughs, ) fhould be the number to fit and vote on the part of Ireland in the houfe of commons of the united kingdom. Under the fourth article were contained pro- vifions, that the Reprefentation A& of the Irifh parlia- ment fhould form part of the treaty of union; that the rotation and eleGtion of the lords fpiritual and temporal fhould be according to a form prefcribed ; that Irifh peers, who are not ele¢ted to ferve as peers, may ferve as Britifh commoners, during which time they are not to have any privilege of peerage ; that the crown may create new Irifh peers on the extin¢tion of others, under certain regulations, fo that one hundred may be kept up over and above thofe entitled to an hereditary feat in the houfe of lords of the united kingdom ; that peerages in abeyance fhall be confi- dered as exifting peerages; that queftions touching the eleétion of Irifh commoners fhall be decided in the fame manner as thofe touching Englifh ones, fubje& to fuch particular regulations as local circumfltances may require, and the united parliament deem expedient ; that qualifica- tions as to property fhall be the fame in both parts of the united kingdom; that the king may conftitute the lords and commons of the prefent parliament of Great Britain, members of the refpective houfes of the firft parliament of the united kingdom, on the part of Great Britain, to fit with thofe returned for Ireland ; that no more than twenty Trifh commoners holding places fhall fit in the united parlia- ment ; that the lords of parliament on the part of Ireland, fall have the fame privileges as thofe of Great Britain, and take precedency next to thofe of the fame rank ; and that the peers of Ireland, not reprefentatives, fhall have all pri- vileges of peerage, except the right and privilege of fitting in the houfe of lords, and on the trial of peers. The fifth article provided for the union of the churches of England and Ireland, fo that the prefervation of the faid united church fhould be deemed an effential and fundamental part of the union. By the fixth article, his majefty’s fubjeéts of Great Britain and Ireland are from the rit of January, 180r, entitled to the fame privileges, and are to be on the fame footing as to encouragements and bounties on the like articles, and in refpeét of trade and navigation in all places in the united kingdom and its dependencies ; there is to be no duty or bounty on exportation of the produce of one coyntry to the other ; but there hall be countervailing duties on fe. veral articles enumerated, fome for twenty years only, and others as the united parliament may dire€t, but never to ex- ceed thofe paid at the time of the.umion. By the feventh article, the charges for debts incurred by either kingdom be- fore the union fhall be feparately defrayed ; for twenty years the contribution towards the expenditure of Great Britain and Ireland fhall be as fifteen to two, after which the ex- penditure fhall be defrayed in fuch proportion as the parlia- ment of the united kingdom fhall deem juft and reafonable, according to a fyftem detailed in the article ; the revenues of Ireland fhall be a confolidated fund, which fhall be charged in the firft inftance with the intereft of the debt of Ireland, and with the finking fund applicable to the reduétion of the faid debt, and the remainder fhall be applied towards defray- ing the proportion of the expenditure of the united king-° dom to which Ireland may be liable in each year. Under this head it is provided, that no article fhall be more highly taxed in Ireland than in England ; that any furplus of the revenues of Ireland fhall be applied to the peculiar benefit of that country ; that all monies raifed after the union fhall be a joint debt ; and that premiums for the internal encov- ragement of agriculture or manufaCtures, or for maintaining inftitutions for pious and charitable purpofes, fhall be con- tinued for twenty years in Ireland. By the eighth article, all civil and ecclefiaftical laws and courts fhall remain as eftablifhed at the time, fubjeét to future alterations; all writs of error and appeals fhall be decided by the lords of the united kingdom ; and there fhall be a court of admiralty in Ireland, with an appeal to the court of chancery in Ireland. Such were the provifions of the AG of Union, as it was finally pafled. We fhall now add an addrefs moved in the houfe of commons of Ireland on the 6th of June 1800, the purpofe of which was to record the objec- tions to this meafure on the journals of parliament. When we confider the great abilities of the members who drew up and fupported it, a Grattan, a Fofter, a Ponfonby, a Plunket, and many others of diftinguifhed talents, we may fuppofe that every thing has been urged which ingenuity could devife, or an acquaintance with the affairs and interefts of Ireland could fuggeft ; and, therefore, it fhould be read by every perfon wifhing to form an opinion on the fubje&. It was moved that the following addrefs be prefented to his majeity. “We, your majeity’s loyal and dutiful fubjeés, the commons of Ireland, at all times fenfible of the numerous and effential advantages which we, in common with your fubjeéts in Ireland, have derived under your aufpicious reign, beg leave to aflure you, that none have more impreffed the hearts of your majefty’s fubjeGts, than the adjuftment, at your majeity’s gracious recommendation, entered into by the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland in 1782, thereby forming the moft folemn compaé& which can fubfilt between two countries under a common fovereign ; that the refult of that compact was the increafe of our trade and of our revenue, together with the harmony of the two parliaments, and the fupport of the connection ; that the faid compaé& on the part of your majefty’s parliament of Ireland has been religioufly and beneficially adhered to, infomuch that a final termination of all conftitutional queftions between the two nations took place, and the commercial points which at that time remained to be fettled, have fince, with- out agitation or ferment, been gradually and fatisfatorily difpofed of. “That under thefe circumftances, it is with the deepeft concern and the greateft furprife we have feen a meafure propounded, under the name of Union, to fet afide im mof UNION. moft important and facred covenant, to deprive this country of her parliament in time to come, and in lieu thereof to introduce an innovation, confifting of a feparate Irifh go- vernment without an Irifh parliament, whofe power is to be transferred to a Britifh parliament without dn availing Trifh reprefentation therein, an innovation fuch as may impair and corrupt the conititution of Britain, without preferving the liberties of Ireland, fo that this country fhall be in time to come taxed without being duly reprefented, and legiflated for by a body out of the realm, incapable of applying proper remedies, and remote from the means of owing her wants, her wifhes, and her interefts. «© Phat giving the name of Union to the meafure is a de- lufion ; the two kingdoms are already united to each other in one common empire, one in unity of intereft, and unity of conftitution, as has been emphatically pronounced from the throne by your majefty’s former viceroy ; bound toge- ther by law, and, what is more effectual than law, by mutual intereft, mutual affetion, and mutual duty, to promote the common profperity of the empire, and it is our glory and our happinefs that we form an infeparable part of it. ‘* That this union has ftood the teft of ages, unbroken by the many foreign wars, civil commotions, and rebellions which have affailed it ; and we dread the rafh and defperate innovation which now would wantonly and unneceflarily put it to the hazard, an innovation which does not affe& to ftrengthen the unalterable intereft of each country in fup- ak the revolution that placed your majefty’s illuftrious amily on the throne, for that intereft cannot be increafed by any law ; it is implanted in our hearts, it is interwoven with our profperity, it grows with our growth, and ftrengthens with our ftrength. * Neither does it aries to create an intereft in either country to preferve their conneétion together, becaufe that intereft already exifts, and we know and feel that fuch con- neGtion includes all that is dear to us, and is effential to the common happinefs, and to the exiftence of both nations. We therefore do, with all humility, implore your majefty’s proteGtion of that glorious revolution, and of that effential conneétion againft the perfeverance of your majefty’s mi- nifters in their endeavours to force this ruinous meafure. «¢ Their avowed objet is a union of the two nations, but the only union they attempt is a union of the two parlia- ments, and the articles which are to attend their partial and defective union are all fo many enumerations of exifting diftin& interefts in the two kingdoms, which it cannot identify, and which require feparate parliaments refident in each duly to attend to them. In refpe& to taxes, the purfe of each nation is vefted in its own houfe of commons by the principles of the conftitution ; the fecurity of our liberty, and the great conftitutional balance of the powers of the ftate, lie in its being left there ; but the articles ac- knowledge a feparate purfe, and a feparate intereft in that purl, by providing for a feparate proportion of expence, eparate modes and laws of taxation, feparate debts, fepa- rate finking funds, feparate treafury, feparate exchequer, feparate accounts of revenue to be kept, and feparate arti- cles. of produce to be placed in the way of debtor and creditor between the two kingdoms, as between two uncon- ne&ted parties ; and though they ftate, acknowledge, and attempt to form regulations for all thefe many diftin in- terefts, which no laws can identify or confolidate; and though even the legal intereft of money remains different in the two kingdoms without their attempting to affimilate it, yet they take away the Irifh parliament, which thefe diftinétneffes ought rather to have fuggefted the creation of, I if it did not exiil, and they lay the foundation of diftrefs; difcontent, and jealoufies in this kingdom, if not of worfe evils, and tend to familiarize ideas of feparation inftead of union, to the utter ruin of this your ancient kingdom, and your loyal fubjeéts therein. ‘« In regard to manufa&tures, they acknowledge the inte- refts in them to be fo diftin@, that they are forced to provide in exprefs terms againft a free intercourfe being allowed between the two kingdoms, in more than twenty general denominations, and they eftablifh countervailing duties on the mutual import of at leaft twenty-four f{pecies of goods, on account of the neceflary difference in taxation, and the diftin&tnefs of revenue, which, from the feparate interefts of the two kingdoms in them, will not admit of confolidation. “ On the mutual interchange of corn, that great neceflary of life, they not only continue duties, but they provide for retaining prohibitions and bounties, and inftead of even al- leging an identity of intereft in fo important and general an article, they avow fuch feparate interefts to exift in it as law cannot remove ; and an interdi& is neceflary to be laid on its free communication between the two kingdoms, which your majefty’s minifters have at the fame time the hardinefs to tell us, their project is to unite, identify, and confolidate, throughout all their interefts. s¢ We fee with them that thefe interefts are diflin@, and we, therefore, raife up our voices to your majefty againft their impraCticable attempt to confolidate them ; an attempt which they themfelves acknowledge to be fo, by their many provifions, all intended to fecure a continuance of their diftinétnefs. ‘¢ But however feparate thefe interefts are in taxes, in re- venue, in trade, and in manufaétures ; and however incapable of being identified, we have the happinefs of knowing that in the great point of conititution no difference exifts: both nations have a full right to all the bleffings of the Britith conftitution ; and we have an identity, not a diftinétnefs of intereft, in the pofleffion of it. Yet fuch is the ftrange paffion of your’ majefty’s minifters for innovation, that not finding any fuch diftinétnefs, they do by thefe articles create feveral highly alarming to us, and to all your ma- jefty’s fubje&ts of this kingdom, who claim an equal right with Great Britain in the full and free enjoyment of that conftitution. All the Irifh temporal lords, except twenty- eight, are to be incapacitated by this meafure from exer- cifing their rights and duties as peers and hereditary coun- fellors, while every Britifh temporal lord is to retain his full funGions. Four fpiritual lords only are to have a fhare in the legiflature, while all the Britifh fpiritual lords are to continue theirs ; and two-thirds of the Irifh commoners are to be difqualified, while every Britifh commoner remains. The articles further declare, that all Irifh peerages fhall be confidered as peerages of the united kingdom, whereby the Irifh peers, who are to be incapacitated from legiflating as peers, are to continue peers, and may legiflate as com- moners, againft every known principle and eftablifhed prac- tice of the conftitution: nay, even when chofen commoners, they are not to reprefent any place in Ireland, the country from which they derive their honours, although their voices as commoners will extend equally with that of every other commoner to all the concerns of this kingdom ; and thus the Irifh purfe will be eventually put into the hands of the Irifh peerage, in dire& defiance of a great and fundamental principle of the conftitution. “ All thefe degrading, dangerous, and unconftitutional diftinGtions are not only created in the Irifh peerage, but are to remain for ever, without power of alteration, by a pro- vifion being made in the articles for a conftant creation of peers UNION. peers for Ireland. That the Itith peerage is to be kept for ever a diftin& body from the Britifh, though the projeé& profeffes a union of the two kingdoms of Britain and [re- land, and attempts a union of the two parliaments, of which the peerage is a conftituent part ; and this continuance of a feparate Irith peerage, ftripped as it will be of all parlia- mentary funtion, perpetuates a diftinétion infulting and degrading to this kingdom, which our minifters, if they had folely in view, without any regard to influence, a lafting union of the parliaments, to which this continuance no way contributes, would have avoided, by providing that the Irifh peers, when reduced to the propofed number of twenty-eight, fhould be declared peers of the united empire equally with the Britifh ; and thus would have diffolved all national diftinétions between them for the time to come. «¢ But it is not in trade, revenue, and manufa¢tures only that difting& interefts are declared to exift, nor in conftitu- tion alone that feparate interefts are to be created; the fame diftin€tnefs is to be preferved in the adminiftration of juitice : every difference of law, every variation of practice and of regulation which now prevails, is to be allowed to diftin- gulfh the civil and ecclefiaftical courts, with this one excep- tion only, that, in the ultimate appeal, every Irifh fuitor is to be again at the expence and hazard of going to Weft- minfter, inftead of having a court in Dublin to refort to. “< We enlarge the more on thefe feveral enumerations of feparate interefts, avowed or created by your majefty’s minifters, becaufe the many provifions they propofe for their future regulation are fo many acknowledgments that no force of law can identify them, fo as to admit of their -eonfolidation ; provifions all in themfelves prefumptuous and infufficient, inafmuch as it is not in the power of human wifdom to forefee the events of time, and provide now, by a fyftem declared immutable, for the varying changes which mutt naturally take place in the lapfe of years. “© Under the fame conviétion, though they profefs a union of the two parliaments, they do not attempt to form out of them one with equal and common powers for both king- .doms: it is to be free in all its funétions in refpe&t to Bri- tain, but fhackled and bound up by reftriCtions as to Ireland. In this they deprive your majefty’s Irifh fubjeéts of a par- liament, fuch only as the Britifh conftitution acknowledges, free in its deliberations for every part of the empire it is to legiflate for; fuch as we have a right to enjoy, equally un- reitrained in its powers, and unfettered in its proceedings, as to the interefts of this your majefty’s kingdom; and fuch a one, free and independent in all its funétions, as we folemnly claimed to be our birth-right in 1782, and as your majefty, in your wifdom and juftice, did then gracioufly confirm to this kingdom for ever ; but which claim and gracious con- firmation your minifters now feek to take away from the Aingdom for ever. apa, « That having thus fhewn to your majefty how very inef- ficient the project of your minifters is to anfwer even the purpofe it avows, and how very ruinous its operation mutt be, if you fhall not be gracioufly pleafed to interfere, we feel it our further duty to expofe fully to your majeity’s view, not only the.artful delufions which thofe minifters have prefumed to hold out of fuppofed advantages in com- merce, in revenue, in taxes, and in manufactures, to deceive the people into an approbation of their fecheme, but the corrupt and unconftitutional means which they have ufed, the undue manner in which they have employed the influence of the crown, and the mifreprefentations which they have made of the fenfe of your majefty’s people of Ireland on the meafure. Were all the advantages, which without any fpundation they have declared that this meafure offers, to be its inftant and immediate confequence, we do not hefitate to fay exprefsly, that we could not harbour the thought of accepting them in exchange for our parliament, or that we could or would barter our freedom for commerce, or our conftitution for revenue. But the offers are mere impofi- tions ;- and we ftate with the firmeft confidence, that in commerce or trade their meafure confers no one advantage, nor can it confer any: for by your majefty’s gracious and paternal attention to this your ancient realm of Ireland, every reftri€tion under which its commerce laboured has been removed during your majefty’s aufpicious reign, and we are now as free to trade to all the world as Britain is. ‘« In manufactures, any attempt it makes to offer any be- nefit which we do not now enjoy is vain and delufive ; and wherever it is to have efle&, that effe@ will be to our in- jury. Moft of the duties on import, which operate as pro- teétions to our manufactures, are under its provifions, either to be removed or reduced immediately ; and thofe which will be reduced are to ceafe entirely at a limited time ; though many of our manufaétures owe their exiftence to the protection of thofe duties, and though it is not in the power of human wifdom to forefee any precife time when they may be able to thrive without them. “ Your majefty’s faithful commons feel more than an or- dinary intereft in laying this fa&t before you, becaufe they have, under your majefty’s approbation, raifed up and nurfed many of 'thofe manufaétures ; and by fo doing, have encouraged much capital to be vefted in them, the pro- prietors of which are now to be left unprotefted, and to be deprived of the parliament on whofe faith they embarked themfelves, their families, and properties, in the under- taking. ; ‘In revenue we fhall not only lofe the amount of the duties which are thus to be removed or lowered, ‘and which the papers, laid before us by the lord lieutenant, fhew to amount to the immediate annual fum of 50,000/., but we fhall be deprived of nearly as much more by the annihilation of various export duties, which have {ubfifted for above a century on other articles of intercourfe, without being felt or complained of by us; and this whole revenue of 50,000/., which operated beneficially to our manufaéture, and of near 50,000/. more, which oppreffed no manufa€ture, is to be wantonly given up, without the defire or wifh of either na- tion, ata time when our income is more than ever unequal to our expences, and when the difficulty of raifing new taxes to fupply its place is alarmingly increafed, by our having been obliged, in this very feffion, to impofe new burthens to the eftimated amount of 300,000/. a year ; and we cannot but remark, that in this arrangement, while we give up this revenue of near 100,Q00/, a year, Great Britain is to give up one not amounting quite to 40,000/. 5 an in- equality no way confonant with the impartiality or juftice profeffed by your majeity’s miniflers, nor any wife confiftent with the comparative abilities of the two countries to replace the lofs. > “ But the impofition of your majefty’s minifters is ftill more glaring, in their having prefumed to fix a proportion of contribution towards the general future expences, to be obferved by the two kingdoms, in the ratio of one part by Ireland for every feven parts and a half by Britain. If they had any plaufible grounds whereon they calculated this proportion, they have not deigned to lay them before your parliament ; and the ufual and eftablifhed forms of com- mittees, to inyeftigate into matters of fuch intricate and extended calculation, have been fuperfeded by them. Your majefty’s faithful commons are fatisfied that the cal- culation is extremely erroneous, and that, on a juft and fair inquiry inquiry into the comparative means of each country, this kingdom ought not and is not able to contribute in any thing like that proportion. They feel it a duty, too, to proteft moft folemnly againft any arrangement of taxation, -on which they have had no documents, or made any inquiry _to guide their judgment, and in which they under{tand no confideration whatever has beenvhad to the different legal 4antereft of money in this kingdom, which caufes a difad-’ ‘wantage of 201. per cent. in procuring capital, nor, to the relative quantity of fhipping poffeffed and ufed by each “country, nor to the export trade in foreign articles, nor to ‘the extent of manufature for home confumption, nor to the balance of trade, which fhews the annual increafe of its clear “profit, and of courfe the annual increafeyof the fund it creates to contribute from; in all of which, the means of Britain very far exceed the foregoing proportion, and par- ‘ticularly in the balance of trade, which in, Ireland amounts to little more than half a million with all the world, but is tated by authority to have amounted to fourteen millions eight hundred thoufand pounds in Britain, exclufive of an annual influx of money from the Eait and Weft Indies to ‘the amount of four millions to the proprietors refident in Britain, and of two millions from Ireland to the proprietors of Irifh eftates refident there, and of another million from Ireland for the charges of her debt due in Britain ; whereas the only known or vifible influx of money into Ireland is the above balance of trade of half a million only: and thefe two fums of two millions and one million, while they add to the means and wealth of Britain, unfortunately take away in the fame amount from the ability of Ireland. « Thus, had a due inveftigation been made, and a fair in- quiry gone into, with a view to obtain a true knowledge of fa&ts whereon to ground a juft calculation, it would have appeared that this proportion for Ireland is not only unjutt, but far beyond what it will be in her power to difcharge ; and the rafhnefs of your majefty’s minifters, in hazarding fuch a meafure, is the more'to be lamented or wondered at, becaufe fhould Ireland engage to pay more than fhe is able to anfwer, the neceflary confequence muft be a rapid de- creafe of her capital, the decline of her trade, a failure in the produce of her taxes, and, in the end, her total bank- ruptcy. But under {uch circumftances, fhe cannot be alone a bankrupt ; and fhould fhe fatally become fo, by an inju- dicious or avaricious apportionment of conititution, Great Britain muft fhare in her ruin, and our great and glorious empire be brought to the brink of deftruction, by an inno- vating attempt to take from Ireland its conftitution, and fubftitute a theoretic, vifionary, and untried fyftem in its room. We fhould, therefore, ‘earneftly fupplicate your majefty to oblige your minifters to defer the meafure, until a full and fatisfactory invettigation fhould be made, if we did not feel that it ought to be entirely relinquifhed, and that the injuries and dangers attending on it could not be removed by any change of that proportion, or reconciled by any modification of detail whatfoever. Subordinate, how- ever, as the confideration of it is, we cannot omit remarking to your otajefty, that there is cunningly and infidioufly an- nexed to it a provifion for its ceafing, even within the fhort period of three years, fhould the war continue fo long; and that when we fhall-increafe our debt, fo as that it fhall bear the like proportion to the permanent debt of Britain, all the delufive benefit held out by this proportion. is to ceafe, and ‘we are to undergo common taxes with Britain. We lament that-fuch delufion fhould be reforted to ;-it is too palpable not tobe feen; and inftead of the confidence which ought to attend every arrangement between the kingdoms, fuch conduct mutt excite diflidence and diftruft. Vou. XX XVII. Printed by A. Strahan. UNION. ** ‘This proportion of their refpeétive permanent debts is to be attained by increafing our debt, which we muit do, and by Britain leffening her’s, which fhe is in the aétual courfe of reducing, as rapidly at leaft as that of Ireland increafes. The abfurdity, therefore, of the pofition is felf-evident ; for it fays,; that Ireland by increafing her debt, and its annual charges, will become more wealthy, and more able to bear equal taxes with Britain; but that Britain, by decreafing her’s, will be lefs able to defray her contribution, and can only pay equal taxes. Another delufion (omitted, how- ever, in the articles propofed) has been alfo planfibly offered, ftill further to deceive your majefty’s fubjeGis of Ireland into an approbation of this deftructive meafure, and a promife has been authoritatively announced or artfully in- finuated by your minifters in this kingdom, that Ireland is to fave by it, or that Great Britain is to give her a million a year of revenue in time of war, and half a million a year in time of peace. But we know that during a war like the prefent, fuch a promife is impracticable; and both king- doms mutt ftrain every.nerve, and draw forth every refource. We feek not to load our filter kingdom unneceflarily, by leffening our own burden; and our loyalty forbids us to liften to arguments, which offer to fave our purfe at the ex- pence of Britain. But it is all a delufion, for we fee nothing in the uniting of the two parliaments, which can change the courfe of the war, or leflen the total mafs of ex- pence of both nations ; and we affert moft confidently, thet mo gift can be made, or faving enfue in our expences, by the union, however they may be attempted to be increafed by the unfounded and unfair proportion. afcertained for us to bear of the general expenditure. , But were the offer founded, were it effeftual and defirable, its advantages reft on the misfortunes of war ; and we fhould feel ourfelves un- worthy of the truft repofed in us, if we could fuffer a hope, arifing from the continuation of fuch a dreadful-calamity, to dire& our condu& in any meafure, much lefs in one which calls on us to give up our conftitution for ever. “ Neither can we look forward to any propofed faving from the union in peace ; for we are not told, nor could we believe it, if your majefty’s minifters did tell us, that a bill profeffing to unite the two kingdoms, infeparably united without a bill, can have an influence on the fituation of the affairs of Europe, or that it can allow us, during the next peace, to difpenfe with keeping up the fame military force as during the laft ; and we are further given to underftand, that your majefty’s royal court, and all its eftablifhments, the courts of law, the exchequer, and all the revenue ex- pences, are to be continued without the parliament equally as with it. But were the faving praéticable, we feel it is our own duty to make it without a union; and we know that no parliament can do it for Ireland with the fame knowledge, the fame efficacy, and the fame fafety, as the refident parliament of Ireland. ‘ « But it is not only in re{pe& to thefe delufions held out as to trade and revenue, that we feel it our duty to lay before your majeity the conduct of your minifters on this meafure : we mutt ftate the means by which they have endeavoured to carry it. That in the firft inftance, admitting the ne- ceflity of conforming to the fenfe of the parliament and the people, they took the fenfe of the commons, and found that fenfe to be againit it; that they then affected to appeal againft the parliament to the people, at the fame time endeavouring by their choice of fheriffs to obftruct the re- gular and conftitutional mode whereby the fenfe of the people has been ufually. collected: that, on the contrary, they did ufe or:abet and encourage the ufing of various arts and ftratagems to procure from individuals of the loweit 2D order, 2 UNION. order, fome of whom were their prifoners and felons, fcan- dalous fignatures againft the conftitution 2 that, notwith- {tanding thefe attempts to procure a fallacious appearance of ftrength and mufter againft parliament, the people have expreffed their fentiments decidedly againft the union ; and twenty-one counties at public meetings legally convened, and alfo many other counties by petitions figned by the freeholders, and many cities and towns, have expreffed either to your majefty, or to this houfe, or to both, their de- cided and unalterable hoftility to this union; yet your minif- ters have, as we believe, taken upon them to ftate to your majefty and your minifters in Britain, in defiance of all thefe faéts, that the fenfe of the nation is not adverfe to the mea- fure: that if there could be any doubt that your majefty’s minifters in the appointment of fheriffs did confider how they might obftru& the people in delivering their opinion regarding the union, that doubt is fully explained by their continuing in office the fheriff of the former year in more than one inftance, whence it alfo appears how decidedly the fenfe of the country is againit this meafure, when your majefty’s minifters found it difficult to procure any perfon to ferve the office of fheriff who was properly qualified, and was alfo a friend to the meafure: that, finding the fenfe of the people as well as the parliament to be againft it, your majefty’s minifters attempted to change the parliament itfelf, and refufing to take the fenfe of the nation by a general eleGtion, they procured a partial diffolution, and did fo pub- licly abufe the difqualifying claufe in the place-bill (which was enacted for the exprefs purpofe of preferving the free- dom and independence of parliament), that by vacating feats under its authority, very many new returns were made to this houfe for the purpofe of carrying it; and thus did they change the parliament without reforting to the people : that before the miniftry had perverted the place-bill, the fenfe of parliament was againft their union; and if that bill had not been fo perverted, that fenfe had remained unaltered : that of thofe who voted for the union, we beg leave to inform your majefty, feventy-fix had places or penfions under the crown, and others were under the immediate influence of conftituents who held great offices under the crown: that the practices of influence above-mentioned, were accompa- nied by the removal from office of various fervants of the crown who had feats in parliament, particularly the chan- cellor of the exchequer, the prime ferjeant, three commif- fioners of the revenue, a commiffioner of accounts, a com- miffioner of barracks, and the curfitor of the court of chancery, becaufe they would not vote away the parliament ; alfo by their withdrawing their confidence from others of your majefty’s faithful and able counfellors for the fame rea- fon: that they procured or encouraged the purchafe of feats in this houfe to return members to vote for the union; alfo the introduétion of perfons unconneéted with this country to vote away her parliament: that they have alfo attempted to proftitute the peerage by promifing to perfons, not even commoners in parliament, her facred honours, if they would come into this houfe and vote for the union: and that, finally, they have annexed to their plan of union an artful device, whereby a million and a half of money is to be given to private perfons poffefling returns, who are to re- “ceive faid fum on the event of the union, for the carrying of which to fuch an amount faid perfons are to be paid ; and this nation is to make good the fale by which fhe is thus difinherited of her parliament, and is to be taxed for ever to raife the whole amount, although, if your minifters fhall perfevere in fuch a flagrant, unconftitutional {cheme, and the money is to be raifed, it is for the union, and being therefore an imperial concern, ought to be borne in the pro- portion already laid down for imperial expences, that is, two feventeenths by Ireland, and fifteen feventeenths by Britain : that under thefe unconftitutional cireumftances your ma- jefty’s minifters have endeavoured, againft the declared fenfe of the people, to impofe upon them a new conftitution, fub- verting the old one. «© That when we confider the peculiar fituation of this king- dom, with the annual drains of money from it by perfons poffefling property in it, who do not refide, to the eftimated amount of at leaft two millions annually; when we advert to the further inevitable drain of a million a year by the public revenue, to be remitted to Britain for the annual charges of our public debt ; and that to coustervail thefe great and tre- mendous iffues of money, amounting to three millions, we have only ourlWeneral balance of trade, not 600,000/. a year, to fet againft them; we look with dread at a meafure which muft on the one hand neceflarily add to thofe drains, by adding a new and large portion of our wealthieft fellow- fubjeéts to the prefent abfentees, and which muft on the other hand decreafe that balance, by encouraging and pro- moting new imports of manufaéture in the room of thofe which will decline here. We look to it with the more dread, becaufe, notwith{tanding the great loans from Eng- land, to the amount of fix millions in the laft three years, we have not been able to counterbalance the exifting drains from hence, and the exchange has been and ftill continues regularly and uniformly againft us. And further, becaufe our inability to raife the neceffary loans within this kingdom, even to the {mall extent that has been expected, is unfortu- nately now too evident ; and the continuing to fupply our treafury by loans from Britain, po it may afford fome temporary relief, will regularly increafe the evil. Your ma- jefty’s minifters, therefore, if they promife to themfelves or to the Britifh nation any eafement to their own taxes, from the fuppofed acceffion of power over our wealth and over our refources, will find themfelves moft thoroughly difappointed ; and if the difficulty of remittance fhall increafe, the manu- fa€turers of Britain, who have hitherto fupplied this king- dom, will find the demand for their goods decreafe in pro- portion as that difficulty fhall rife. ‘‘ That we underftand one benefit which they hold out from the propofed meafure is, what your minifters affe€t to call tranquillizing Ireland ; but that when we look to our parlia- ment, and fee with what efficacy and promptnefs it has con- tributed to put down the late unfortunate rebellion, how inadequate a parliament not refident would have been ; when we refle@ that in a kingdom containing four and a half mil- lions of people, a refident parliament muft poffefs the quick and authoritative means of giving energy to the executive, which a parliament in another country cannot have; that the removing of the parliament tends to remove with it from the kingdom thofe men of large property and influence, of talents and refpe@ability, whofe prefence is at all times effential to tranquillity, and may at fome conjuncture be alone capable of preferving it; that their abfence will leave room for political agitators and men of talents, without principle or property, to difturb and irritate the public mind ; we tremble for the confequences of a meafure at once the moft rafh and unneceflary, that ever was brought for- ward by any minifters, and at a time moft fitted to produce every evil dreaded, and leaft fitted to promote any one be- nefit held forth.’ “‘ That when we confider the time chofen to introduce fuch a meafure, we feel additional repugnance, it being the mo- ment of our weaknefs and diftrefs, when the country is of courfe lefs free to deliver its full and heartfelt fentiments againft the illiberality of fuch an attempt ; peculiarly mor- tifying UNION. tifying to thofe of your majeity’s fubjeéts who had recently exerted themfelves in defence of that conftitution which they are now called upon to furrender, and at a time too when the fpirit of innovation is abroad, and likely to be much en- couraged by the example of your majefty’s minifters in this their proceeding againft the ancient liberties of the people, who may be rendered an unprofitable or dangerous part of the Britifh empire, whether in confequence of this union they become flavifh and abje@, or reftlefs and diflatisfied. «¢ That when we refleét on the great value of the aéts for trying controverted eleétions, how eminently and effectually they have been framed for preferving the purity of election, without which the purity of parliament cannot exift ; and when we fee that your minifters, well knowing the value we fet on them, have propofed various means to continue thofe bene- fits to us in the few eleétions which will remain to be held here after the union, and have withdrawn them all from their inefficacy and infufficiency almoft as foon as they were pro- pofed, and have now abandoned all hope of framing any ; we forefee and dread the formidable power which the mea- fure of union will give to the minifter in all Irifh elections, by deftroying the beneficial operation of thefe aéts ; for the expence, trouble, and delay of trying controverted Irifh eleGtions in London, will deter many candidates entitled to be returned from feeking redrefs; the fheriffs, who are all appointed by the minifter, will in fact nominate the members, and many of them having already obeyed the wifhes of the minifter in endeavouring to {tifle the conftitutional voice of the people, give us too fure an omen of the conduét which may be expected from them in eleétions. «© That whether we reft on this incontrovertible and felf- evident truth, that no parliament in another kingdom can have the local information or knowledge of the manners, habits, wants or wifhes of the nation, which its own parlia- ment naturally poffeffes, and which is neceffary for beneficial legiflation, nor can be fupplied with the neceffary informa- tion, either as promptly or accurately ; or whether we look to the clear proofs of that truth which the progrefs of this meafure has afforded, by your minifters having called to their affiftance in London the great officers of this kingdom moft likely from their ftation to give full information for framing their meafure, and though all their talents and all their own information, and what they obtained by letters while it was pending, were employed for months there, yet when they brought it back, a few hours or rather a few mi- nutes inquiry on the fpot in Dublin, forced them to alter their project in very many articles, complete and perfeé as they thought it ;-we have {trong additional reafon to feel and to reprefent the manifeft and irreparable injuries which this kingdom muft fuitain by the want of a refident parlia- ment, and the impoflibility of legiflation being carried on for it as it ought to be. “ Therefore, inafmuch as the meafure of a union is an un- neceffary innovation, and innovation at all times hazardous, and rendered peculiarly fo now by the awful fituation of the times ; inafmuch too, as far from being an innocent experi- ment, it is replete with changes injurious to our trade and manufactures and our revenues; inaf{much alfo, as it de- ftroys our conftitution which has worked well, and fubfti- tutes a new one, the benefits of which we cannot fee, but the numerous evils and dangers of which are apparent, and which in every change it offers militates again{t {ome known and eftablifhed principle of the Britifh conftitution ; inaf- much alfo, as it fo far endangers the conftitution of Britain, as not to leave us the certainty of enjoying a free conftitu- tion there when our own fhall be deftroyed ; inafmuch as it tends to impoverifh and {fubjugate Ireland, without giving wealth or ftrength to Britain; inafmuch a8 it tends to raife and perpetuate difcontent and jealoufies, to.create new and ftrengthen old diftinétnefles of interefts in our concerns of trade, manufa¢tures, revenue, and conftitution ; and inftead of increafing the conneétion between the two kingdoms, may tend to their feparation, to our confequent ruin, and to the deftru€tion or difmemberment of the empire ; inafmuch as it endangers inftead of promoting or fecuring the tran- quillity of ireland, as it degrades the national pride and cha- raGter, debafes its rank from a kingdom to that of a de- pendant province, yet leaves us every expence and mark of a kingdom but the great effential one of a parliament ; inaf- much as it has been propofed and hitherto carried againft the decided and expreffed fenfe of the people, notwith{tanding the improper means reforted to, to prevent that fenfe being declared and to mifreprefent it when known; inafmuch as it is not grounded in all its intricate and momentous parts on that folemn and full inveftigation which ought to attend every meafure of great moment, and has been introduced and conduéted with various delufions and impofitions, and with an unbecoming and fufpicious hatte; inafmuch as it provides for fending one hundred of the prefent reprefent- atives to legiflate in another kingdom, though eleéted only to fit in the parliament in this, and does not give the people an opportunity, by a new eleétion, to exercile their difcre- tion in a new choice of perfons for fuch a new altered and increafed truft ; inafmuch as it leaves to the chance of draw- ing lots the choice of thirty-two members to reprefent as many great cities and towns with a levity which tends to turn into ridicule the facred and ferious truft of a reprefent- ative ; and while it commits to one perfon the office which the conftitution commits to two, of {peaking the voice of the people and granting their money, it does not allow the electors to choofe which of the two they will intruft with that power; and inafmuch as means the moit unconftitu- tional, influence the moft undue, and bribes openly avowed, have been reforted to, to carry it againft the known fenfe of the commons and people during the exiftence of martial law throughout the land ;—we feel it our bounden duty to our- felves, our country, and our pofterity, to lay this our moft folemn proteft and prayer before your majefty, that you will be gracioufly pleafed to extend your paternal prote€tion to your faithful and loyal fubje&ts, and to fave them from the danger threatened by your majefty’s miniiters in this their ruinous and deftru€tive project, humbly declaring, with the moft cordial and warm fincerity, that we are actuated therein by an irrefiftible fenfe of duty, by an unfhaken loyalty to your majefty, by a veneration for the Britifh name, by an ardent attachment to the Britifh nation, with whom we have fo often declared we will ftand or fall, and by a determination to preferve for ever the connection between the two kingdoms on which the happinefs, the power and the {trength of each irrevocably and unalterably depend.” Such was the proteft which the Irifh parliamentary oppo- fition had recorded on the journals of the houfe; a proteit which deferves the attention of the political enquirer, as well on account of the obje€tions it dwells upon, as on ac-. count of the weaknefs of fome of its arguments, fhewing how men of the firft talents and information may be biafled by prejudice and paffion. To this it will be uteful to add an extra€&t from a work already referred to, (Mr. Newen- ham’s View of the Circumftances of Ireland, ) a work which may be fafely recommended, as containing much valuable ftatiftical information refpe&ting the country, being the pro- duétion of a gentleman who fpares no exertions to obtain the moft authentic accounts, and whofe honourable charaéter 2D) 2 places UNION. places him far above the fufpicion of wilful mifreprefent- ation. Mr. Newenham was in parliament when the meafure was brought forward and difcafled, and from his conneétions had the beft means of knowing the fentiments of many leading perfons at that time. ‘ Of thofe who fupported the union,’” fays he, ‘ few appeared to be duly impreffed with the real expediency of that meafure ; which confifted, rather in precluding all poffible future collifions of fuppofed national interefts, efpecially with regard to commercial mat- ters; and in the admiffion of the Roman Catholics to an equal participation with the Proteftants of all the political benefits of the conftitution, without endangering the poli- tical power of the latter, or even affording them the {malleft ground for apprehenfion, than in any other confiderations. And yet that a legiflative union of the two kingdoms, or fome compact, involving a limited and occafional acqui- efcence of the legiflature of one in the decifions of that of the other, was requifite to preclude the hoftile effects which might very poffibly refult from thofe accidental collifions ; and‘that an incorporation of the Britifh and Irifh legifla- tures was neceflary to remove thofe groundlefs, but prevail- ing apprehenfions which operated in excluding the Roman Catholics from parliament, and confequently had the effect of keeping them in a perpetual and dangerous ftate of dif- content and irritation, were truths by which, it might reafon- ably have been expected, every unbiaffed man, after due re- fleGtion, would be fufficiently governed. In oppofing or fupporting fuch a meafure, a man who had the welfare of his country, and alfo that of the empire at heart, would naturally have been governed entirely by his perception of the benefit or inconvenience likely to accrue from the dif- ferent” articles propofed as conf{tituent parts thereof. If thefe articles did not appear equally beneficial to both of the contracting countries; if they were not ftriétly fuited to the refpeétive circumftances of each; if they were not fuf- ceptible of fuch modifications as future variations of thefe circumftances might require ; if they appeared calculated to create or continue diflatisfaction in either country ; if they were not fuch as to enfure the permanence of the contrat, the diflolution whereof might occafion much more extentive and ferious mifchiefs than thofe which the projeétors of it aimed at precluding,—the duty of every true Irifh patriot, and of every fincere advocate for the welfare of the empire, certainly required him to oppofe it. On the contrary, if thefe articles were evidently calculated to diffufe future general fatisfaction, by fecuring, under all changes and emer- gencies, an equitable participation of commercial and poli- tical benefits to the people of both countries, true patrioti{m unqueftionably required the facrifice of that ridiculous na- tional pride which was to be outraged by a furrender of le- giflative independence. ‘‘ Inftead of patiently and prudently difcufling the pro- pofed contract, with reference to its conftituent ftipulations, which pofitively was the only method by which its real eligi- bility could be afcertained, the Irifh houfe of commons pre- pofteroufly entered, in the firft {tage of the bufinefs, into violent and declamatory debates on the meafure in the ab- ftraét ; and fuffered themfelves to be governed more by na- tional pride, individual intereft, and fpeculative political notions, than by confiderations of national benefit. The confequence of which was, that the minifter, having a ma- jority in favour of the meafure in the abftraét, found it eventually an eafy matter to fecure a fufficient concurrence in its feveral articles; for thofe who had been {wayed to fupport it at large, and had pledged themfelves to do fo, would have been guilty of unufual tergiverfation by refift- ing it in detail. Had the affent of parliament been fuf- pended, until the different articles of the contrat were thoroughly inveftigated, in all their bearings and effects ; had each article been made the fubje& of a fees debate ; it is not unreafonable to fuppofe that the union might have been rendered much more advantageous to Ireland; and, in the end, more beneficial to the empire. For, fooner than have his long meditated and indeed expedient proje& de- feated, the minifter of Britain would probably have conceded much to the defires of the Irifh parliament, as he had before done to the Britifh oppofition, in the cafe of the commercial propofitions. ‘To the impatience and precipitancy therefore of the parliament of Ireland, which the mimifter ought, in prudence, rather to have reftrained than encouraged, we muft impute the defeéts of the a& of union, and the pro- bable future diffatisfaGtion of the Irifh, confequent thereon.”? Thefe defects, in Mr. Newenham’s opinion, are, 1. That Ire- land fhould have had fome appropriate advantages in com- penfation for the lofs of a local legiflature. 2. That the commercial arrangement between the two countries ought to have been regulated by the confideration that much of the wealth acquired in Ireland would neceflarily flow into Britain and remain there, while none of that acquired by the latter would finally be fixed in the former. 3. That Ireland fhould have had fome indemnification for the in- creafed preffure of taxes from the increafe of abfentees. 4. That there fhould have been the fame prote€tion to other manufactures as to the cotton manufacture. 5. That the Catholics fhould by an article of the union have acquired the right of fitting in parliament; and laftly, That the number of reprefentatives was not as great as it ought, on fair prin- ciples, to have been. It is a melancholy fa&t that domettic tranquillity has not hitherto been produced by the union, but it would be unfair to attribute the continuance of dif- turbance to that meafure, and it would be perhaps too foon to defpair of thofe advantages refulting which many un- biafled men expected from it, and which in a great degree reconciled them to the obje€tionable manner in which it was carried. One effet it has produced ; we fee Irifhmen filling the higheft departments of the united kingdom; and we mutt allow that government has fhewn a general difpofition to promote the interefts of Ireland. It is to be defired that Englifh members may not be prevented by falfe delicacy or indifference, from taking a part in the internal regulations of Ireland, as it was a benefit which many looked for from the union, that it would take legiflation out of the hands of an Irifh party. On the whole, it may be faid that the union might have been and {till may be rendered extremely bene- ficial to Ireland, confiftently with the welfare of .Britain, but that hitherto it cannot be confidered, even by its moft fanguine advocates, as having afforded matter of congratula- tion to the people of Ireland. Journals of the Lords and Commons of Ireland. Various Pamphlets refpecting the Union. Newenham’s View of the Natural, Political, and Commercial Circumftances of Ireland. Annual Regiiter. Wakefield’s Account of Ireland, &c. &c. Union, in the Manege, denotes the action by which a horfe draws together and aflembles the parts of his body, and his ftrength, in diftributing it equally upon his fore- legs, and in reuniting and drawing them together; as we ourfelves do when we are going to jump, or perform any other action which demands ftrength and agility, This pof- ture alone is fufficient to fettle and place the head of the animal, to lighten and render his fhoulders and legs active, which, from the ftruéture of his body, fupport and govern the greateft part of his weight. Being then, by thefe means, made fteady, and his head well placed, you will perceive in every motion which he makes a furprifing cor~ refpondence UNION. refpondence of the parts of the whole. The legs and fhoulders of a horfe fupport, as we have faid, the greatelt part of his weight; and, therefore, his fore-part, either when he is in motion, or in a ftate of reft, is always em- ployed, and confequently needs the afliftance of art to eafe it ; and in this confifts the union or putting together, which, by fetting the horfe upon his haunches, counterbalances and relieves his fore-part. Befides, the union not only helps and relieves the part of the horfe that is the weakeft, but it is fo neceffary to every horfe, that no horfe that is difunited can go freely: he can neither leap nor gallop with agility and lightnefs, nor run without being in manifeft danger of falling, and pitching himfelf headlong ; becaufe his motions have no harmony nor agreement with one another. The trot is very efficacious in bringing a horfe to this union ; i. e. the trot, in which he is fupported and kept together, and yet fuppled at the fame time: this compels the horfe to put himfelf together, and to colleé and unite his ftrength. In order to fupport the horfe in this trot, the horfeman fhould hold his hand near his body, keeping his horfe to- gether a little, and having his legs near his fides. The effet of the hand is to confine and raife the fore-parts of the horfe ; the effect of the legs is to pufh and drive for- ward the hinder parts. Now, if the fore-parte are kept back or confined, and the hinder parts are driven forward, the horfe, in a quick motion, fuch as the trot, mutt necef- farily fit down upon his haunches, and unite and put him- felf together. For the fame reafon, the making of your horfe to launch out vigoroufly in his trot, and the quicken- ing of his cadence from time to time, the putting of him to make pefades, the {topping of him, and making him to go backward, will all contribute towards his acquiring the union. If your horfe trots, prefs him a little; in the in- ftant when he redoubles and quickens his a¢tion, moderate and fhorten the hurry of his pace; and the more he preffes to go forward, the more will his being checked and confined tend to unite his limbs, and the union will be owing to op- pofite caufes; viz. on the one hand, to the ardour of the horfe who preffes to go forward, and to the diligence and attention of the horfeman on the other, who, by holding him in, flackens the pace, and raifes the fore-parts of the creature, and at the fame time diftributes his ftrength equally to all his limbs. The aétion of a horfe, when going back- ward, is dire&tly oppofite to his abandoning himfelf upon his fhoulders: by this he is compelled to put himfelf upon his haunches ; and this leffon is fo much the more effectual, as the caufe of a horfe’s being difunited is often owing to the pain he feels in bending his haunches. The pefades have not lefs effe&, efpecially upon horfes that are clumfy and heavy-fhouldered ; becaufe they are thus taught to ufe them and raife them up; and when they raife them up, it neceffarily follows, that their whole weight muit be thrown upon their haunches. A light and gentle hand, then, and the aids of the legs, judicioufly managed, are capable of giving a horfe the union ; but before a horfe is put upon his haunches, his fore-part muft be lightened, and he mutt acquire that fupplenefs, which is the fource of light and free aétion. Nothing can fupple the fhoulder more than the working of a horfe upon large circles; walk him firft round the circle, in order to make him know his ground ; afterwards try to draw his head in, or towards the centre, by means of your inner rein and inner leg: ¢. gr. I work my horfe upon a circle; and I go to the right; I draw his head to the right, by pulling the right rein; I bring in his outward fhoulder by means of the left rein; and I fupport him at the fame time with my inner leg. Thus the horfe has bis head in the centre, although the 3 croupe is at liberty. The right leg croffes over the left leg’ and the right fhoulder is fingbled, while the left leg fupports the whole weight of the horfe in the aétion, In working him to the left hand, and following the fame me- thod, the left fhoulder is fuppled, and the right is prefled and confined. When this leffon, which tends not only to fupple the fhoulders, but likewife to give an appui, is well comprehended by the horfe, let him be led along the fide of the wall. Having placed his head, the horfeman is to make ufe of the inner rein, which draws in his head, and to bring in his outward fhoulder by means of the other rein. | In this pofture the horfeman fupports him with his inner leg,: and he goes along the wall; his croupe being out, and at liberty, and his inner leg pafling over and crofling his outward leg at every ftep he makes. By this his neck and fhoulders are fuppled, his haunches worked, and he is taught to know the heels. ‘The haunches are thus worked, though the croupe of the horfe is at liberty; becaufe it is from the fore-parts only that a horfe can be upon his .haunches.. In effet, after having placed his head, draw it in, and yon will lengthen his croupe: if you raife him higher before than behind, his legs come under his belly, and confequently he bends his haunches. It is the fame when he eomes down hill, his croupe, being higher than his fore-parts, is pufhed under him, and the horfe is upon his haunches; fince it is evident, that the hinder fupport all the fore-parts; there- fore, in going along the fide of the wall, by means of the inner rein, the horfe is put together and united. When a horfe has acquired union, he becomes able to undertake and execute, with juitnefs and grace, whatever the horfeman demands of him, conformably to his ftrength and difpofi- tion. Berenger’s Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. ii. ehap. 7. Union by the firft Intention, in Surgery, denotes the pro- cefs by which the oppofite furfaces of recent wounds grow together and unite without fuppuration, when they are kept in contaét with each other. It is obferved by profeffor Thomfon, that among the various powers inherent in living animals, there is none more interefting to the furgeon, nor more remarkable in the eyes of a philofophical obferver, than that by which wounds are healed, or by which the dif- ferent parts of animal bodies, that have been recently di- vided, either by accident or defign, are made to reunite with each other. This is a power, the effeéts of which in the human body are fo obvious and important, that it would not fail at a very early period to attra¢t, in fome degree, the at- tention of every obferver of nature; and accordingly we find, from the records of medicine, that the various circum- ftances which promote, retard, or prevent the healing of wounds, have at all times been more or lefs known to the practitioners of the healing art. A very flight degree of obfervation, however, mult foon have been fufficient to con- vince them, that the phenomena which the healing of wounds exhibits, are neither fimple in their nature, nor upi- form in the order of their appearance ; but variable accord- ing to the kind of wound, and the mode of treatment, which, in the different external and internal conditions of the body, is employed for its cure. In flight wounds, infli&ed by the fharper kinds of inftru- ments, ie the fame author, even the moft inattentive me- dical pra¢titioners muft have feen, that a reunion is often {peedily effeSted merely by keeping the edges of the wound in contaé with each other ; whereas in wounds in which the divided furfaces ate much torn or bruifed, or where, from retraction, or lofs of fubftance, they cannot be brought into contaét, the healing is always accomplifhed in a much flower, more uncertain, and more complicated manner. Thefe di- verfities in the procefs of reunion (continues Dr. Thomfon ), are UNION. are taken notice of by the earlieft writers upon phyfic and furgery ; and diftinguifhed from one another by different appellations or terms of art. Union by the firft intention was the term which Galen employed to exprefs that mode of healing wounds, in which the union is {fpeedily produced merely by keeping their edges in conta&: an operation of nature, now frequently denominated healing by the procefs of adhefion ; while union by the fecond intention was a term employed by the fame phyfician to indicate the feries of phenomena which occur in that flower mode of healing wounds, in which their edges coalefce more flowly ; pheno- mena to which modern furgeons now ufually give the name of healing by the procefs of granulation. See Leétures on Inflammation, p. 206, 207. We have alfo examples of an union, very fimilar to that by the firft intention, in bones which have been fraétured ; in tendons which have been ruptured; and even fometimes in mufcles which have been wholly or partially torn afunder, without any divifion having been produced in the fkin which covers fuch parts. In the fudden and violent divifion of thefe textures, a greater or lefs quantity of blood is always effufed into the line of feparation between the divided parts, and a quantity of that fluid is at the fame time poured out alfo into the cellular membrane contiguous to or immedi- ately furrounding the folution of continuity. When the blood which is effufed is not very confiderable in quantity, and when the parts from which it has been effufed have not been too feverely injured, it is obferved to be gradually ab- forbed ; and in proportion as the effufed blood is abforbed, the divided parts feem to approach nearer together. If the divided furfaces be examined a few hours after the divifion, or folution of continuity, has been produced, they will be found to be covered with a fubftance, which, in its appear- ance and other properties, refembles very exaétly the coagu- ps Lia or, as it is now often termed, the fibrin of the blood. This coagulable lymph appears to be effufed very foon after the injury. Profeflor Thomfon found, that in animals, a diftin& layer of it was effufed over their wounds in lefs than four hours. (P. 209.) But, fays he, whatever may be the period at which it is firft formed, it is now well afcertained, that in healthy fubje@&ts, when fratured, torn, or ruptured furfaces, to which the external air has not been admitted, are properly covered with this layer of coagulable lymph, and come into contact, they {peedily coalefce, and that, by this lymph becoming a living intermedium, the continuity of the divided part is at length reftored. Appearances, precifely fimilar to thofe occurring in divi- fions without communication with the external air, take place in fimple incifed wounds, the edges of which have been brought together before, or foon after the bleeding from the divided veffels has ceafed. If a wound of this kind be torn open foon.after its reunion, the furfaces which had been united are feen covered with a fubftance refembling an animal jelly. This is the coagulable lymph or fibrin of the blood. It has been fuppofed, that the lymph is poured out from the fmaller veffels which are divided ; but profeffor Thomfon thinks it more probable that it is chiefly, if not wholly, formed by the fecreting ation of the capillary veffels of divided furfaces. The coagulable lymph, foon after its exudation, becomes penetrated with blood-veffels, which proceed from the divided furfaces, appear to join in the procefs of reunion by open extremities, or, in other words, to inofculate with one an- other. The blood now circulates freely through the newly formed channels of communication eftablifhed between the veflels which penetrate the lymph effufed upon the furfaces formerly divided. ‘This is the flate or flage of reunion, which Mr. Hunter has denominated the adhefive inflamma- tion. The veffels which fhoot into the coagulable lymph often acquire, in the courfe of a few hours, a fize rendering them capable of being injeCted. The precife manner in which the veffels are extended into the coagulable lymph is ftill unknown. It has not been po- fitively fettled, whether it is the divided veffels which pene- trate the lymph. The extremities of the larger branches are clofed with the effufed lymph, and removed by means of it, and their natural elafticity, to a diftance from each other. Dr. Thomfon conceives, that thefe circumftances are infur- mountable bars to their immediate inofculation ; and he ob- ferves, that if it be the clofed veflels which are prolonged into the lymph, each {mall artery, it is obvious, muft have its correfponding vein. And though the veffels from the oppofite divided furfaces may by prolongation pafs each other in a wound, it is not eafy to conceive the manner in which they will join, or inofculate, nor how the artery becomes afterwards conneéted with the vein. But the inofculation, or'dire& union of the {mall blood-veffels, from the oppofite furfaces of wounds, however difficult to conceive or explain, is a truth undeniably eftablifhed. Thomfon, p. 212. Duhamel made an experiment, which fully proves, that in the reunion of parts which have been divided, the blood- veffels from the oppofite furfaces inofculate dire@ly, and do not merely pafs one another. He broke the legs of fix chickens, and after the bones had reunited, he cut through about one-third of the foft parts, covering the callus, or new bone. When the wound had healed up, he divided an- other third part, and, in the fame manner, the remaining third part, {paring neither blood-veffel, tendon, nor nerve. Only one of the fix chickens furvived thefe cruel operations ; but upon injeéting the artery at the upper part of the thigh, the inje€tion was found to have penetrated to the loweft part of the leg. ‘I cannot fay (Duhamel remarks) whether the large veffels, filled by the injeGtion, were dilated capillary veffels, or the large veflel of the leg itfelf, which had been reunited ; but the experiment proves irrefragably the inofcu- lation of the blood-veffels.”’? Later obfervations than thofe of Duhamel (fays profeflor Thomfon) have fhewn that it is by the fmall veflels, and not by the larger trunks, that the in- ofculations are formed by which the divided parts in a limb are fupplied with blood. Mr. Hunter conceived that he had certainly fucceeded in obferving inofculation on the tunica conjunétiva of the tye, the veffels of which are frequently divided by furgeons in cafes of ophthalmy. He ftates, that the two ends of the cut veffel are feen to fhrink ; but, after a little while, they are perceived to unite, and the circulation is carried on as before. (Hunter on the Blood, &c. p.193.) Dr. Thom- fon’s experiments and obfervations lead him, however, to be- lieve, that it is not the divided extremities of the arteries that again unite, but the folds of fmall branches, that are prolonged into the intermediate fpace, which become the channels of communication between the larger trunks that had been divided, but the extremities of which had been previoufly clofed. Mr. Hunter was of opinion that blood fometimes ferved as a medium of reunion, or vital bond of conneétion between parts which have been divided, and that blood-veflels formed and inofculated with each other in this effufed or extrava- fated blood. The practical furgeon, however, finds the inter- pofition of this fluid between the furfaces of a wound difad- vantageous, and if any material quantity be fo fituated, it always becomes a certain impediment to union by the firit intention. There are, it is true, fome initances in bias II this UNION. his procefs is not prevented by the prefence of inconfiderable effufion of blood; but even in thefe cafes, profefflor Thom- fon doubts whether the blood be not abforbed before adhe- fion takes place. The lymph which is thrown out during adhefive inflamma- tion, profeffor Thomfon and the generality of modern fur- gical writers confider to be invariably formed by a procefs analogous to fecretion or exhalation. ; * Our knowledge of the procefs of adhefion, or of union by the firft intention, has been confiderably extended by the attempts which have at different times been made to repair and improve thofe parts of the human body which had been cut off, or otherwife mutilated. Celfus treats profefledly of the method of repairing mutilations of the ears, lips, and nofe; but the only praétice of this kind with which he was acquainted, confifted fimply in paring off the callous edges of mutilated parts, in raifing thefe edges by difleGtion from the parts below them, in drawing them nearer to each other, and retaining them together with futures and adhefive plafters. Early in the fixteenth century, a new mode of repairing mutilated parts began to be firft praCtifed in Italy. Alex- ander Beneditus, who publifhed about the year 1527, par- ticularly mentions, that fome ingenious men had difcovered a way of correéting the deformities occafioned by the muti- lations of the nofe. The plan confifted in raifing a flap of fkin from the arm, ftitching it to the mutilated part, and after dividing this fap from the arm, modelling it as much as poffible into the fhape of the nofe. Thefe new nofes, Benedi€tus remarks, bear ill the cold of winter, and he gives fome wholefome advice about not rafhly or feverely pulling them, left they yield and come away. This curious fubje& was afterwards noticed by Gourmelin in 1566, by Vefaliusin 1569, and by Ambrofe Paré in 1582. The two latter erred in fuppofing it a neceffary part of the operation to cut out a portion of the biceps mufcle. But, fays profefflor Thomfon, the beft, and by far the moft interefting account that is any where to be found of this mode of repairing mutilated parts, is that which is contained in the elaborate and not inelegant, though certainly prolix work of the celebrated Gafpar Taliacotius, entitled “* De Curtorum Chirurgia per Infitionem,”’ printed at Venice 1597. He de- {cribes moft minutely and circumftantially his manner of re- ftoring, by engraftment, nofes, lips, and ears, which had been cut off. He gives a full account of the mode of pre- paring the flap of fkin upon the arm ; the manner in which it was to be marked out, and a flip of cloth inferted under it for fome days; of the divifion of the upper extremity of this flap from the arm; of paring the mutilated part, and fewing, with mathematical precifion, the flap to the nofe ; of the apparatus neceflary for retaining it in this pofition ; of the divifion of the lower end of the flap from the arm, after a union had taken place between the nofe and the flap; of the modelling, or configuration of the feptum ; of the plaf- ters and bandages to be applied in this ftage of the procefs ; and of the means to be ufed for fome time to defend the nofe from accidental injury. He then treats, in feparate chapters, of the repair of the upper and lower lips, and of the forma- tion of new ears. The inftruments to be employed, and the progrefs of the artift in the different ftages of his work, are likewife illuftrated in twenty-two plates. In the repair of the upper lip, this part was joined, like the nofe, to the upper extremity of the flap ; but in that of the lower lip, it became necefflary to divide the lower end of the flap firft from the arm, and conneé it with the lip, fo that the fkin of the engrafted part might always be outermoft. The occafions for imitating the mode of practice fo fully defcribed by Taliacotius, now feldom occur in Europe ; but in India, where the punifhments are in fome places fimi- lar to thofe which were inflifted in Europe in the time of ‘Taliacotius, the art of reftoring nofes is ftill held in confi- derable repute. ‘The Indian method differs from the Talia- cotian chiefly in taking the flap of fkin of which the new nofe is to be formed, from the forehead inftead of the arm. See Gent. Mag. O&. 1794. Alfo, An Account of Two fuccefsful Operations for reftoring a loft Nofe from the In- teguments of the Forehead, &c. by J. C. Carpue. Boyer mentions, that the late M. Chopart had employed a piece of the fkin of the neck to fill up a void fpace left after an operation for a cancerous lip. The union took place, and a tolerably well-formed lip was procured. It has been a queftion, whether parts which have been com- pletely feparated from the reft of the body can be again united. This reunion, fays profeflor Thomfon, was long conceived to be in every inftance impofflible ; but the fuc- cefs which in fome cafes has attended the tranfplantation of the teeth, has clearly fhewn, that in one inftance at leaft, in the human body, this reunion is poffible. Of the poffibility of this mode of reunion in brute animals, numerous exam- ples are to be found in authors. Duhamel mentions, that it was a very common praétice in the poultry yards in France, to engraft the {puts of young cocks upon their combs, and that, in this fituation, the {purs were obferved to grow to a larger fize than when they were allowed to remain on their legs. From a variety of ex- periments and diffetions, Duhamel deduces the following conclufions.. “ We fee then (fays he) that an organized part, detached front the leg of a cock, when it was not bigger than a hemp-feed, and placed upon the head of the fame animal, forms there an union fufficiently intimate to become {everal inches in length, while it preferves in this new fitua- tion its original organization in every refpect, except in the mere circumitance of becoming larger.. This, there- fore, isa true engraftment performed upon an animal. Se- condly ; we fee a bony nucleus, covered firft with a periof- teum, and then with a horny fubftance ; in a word, a horn fimilar to that of oxen, and which grows in the fame man- ner, conneéted to the cartilaginous ring by the ligamentous bands which have been already mentioned. Thirdly ; this horn, by its fize, and by the continual motions of the head, being prevented from uniting firmly, or, in other words, from anchylofing with the cranium, forms a kind of joint, furnifhed with feveral ligaments fufficiently {trong to fupport it. But thefe organs are not to be found in the natural ftate, either under the comb of the cock, or in the neigh- bourhood of their {purs ; at leaft, I have never been able to perceive them there. Nature in this manner choofes to fup- ply her own wants by the developement of new organs.”’ Duhamel in Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1746. The experiments of Duhamel were repeated by Mr. Hunter with fimilar refults; and he even profecuted the enquiry further. Amongit other points, he endeavoured to afcertain whether parts peculiar to the male would grow on the female ; and if the parts of the female, on the contrary, would grow on the male. He took the fpur from the leg of a young cock, and placed it in the fituation of a {pur in the leg of a hen chicken; it took root: the chicken grew to a hen; but, at firft, no {pur grew ; while the fpur which was left on the other leg of the cock grew as ufual. ‘ This experiment (fays Mr. Hunter) I have repeated feveral times in the fame fummer with the fame effects, which led me to conceive, that the {pur of a cock would not grow upon a hen, and that they were therefore to be confidered as 6 tin UNI tin@ animals, having very diftin& powers. In order to afcertain this, I took the fpurs of hen chickens, and placed them on the legs of young cocks. I found that thofe which took root grew nearly as faft, and to as large a fize as the natural fpur on the other leg, which appeared to be a con- tradiétion to my former experiments. Upon another exa- mination of my hens, however, I found that the fpurs had grown confiderably, although they had taken feveral years to do it; for I found that the fame quantity of growth in the {pur of the cock, while on the cock, during one year, was as much as that of the cock’s {pur on the hen in the courfe of three or four years ; or as three or four to one.”? Mr. Hunter alfo inferted a human tooth into the comb of a cock, and there are preparations in his mufeum, fully proving that a vafcular union was formed between thefe parts, as the membrane of the cavity of the tooth is feen beautifully co- loured with red injection. The fame diftinguifhed obferver likewife, undertook experiments, with a view of learning whether the -tefticles of the cock would unite to the inner furface of the peritoneum of the abdomen of the hen. The attempt often failed ; but four fpecimens are preferved in his mafeum, marked N° 54, 5, 6, and 7, in which a vafcular union has aétually taken place ; andin which, though the fize of the tefticles does not appear to have received any addition after their attachment to the parietes of the abdomen of the hen, {till their vitality had been completely preferved by the communication of blood-veffels which had been formed. The experiment of engrafting the parts of one animal upon another, has been frequently performed on the human body in the well-known practice of tranfplanting teeth. That a vafcular reunion may take place between the veffels of the tooth and thofe of the focket, feems proved by the experiments of Mr. Hunter and Mr. A. Cooper, in which the veffels of the membrane lining the cavity of the tooth, and probably the only veffels which the tooth has, were filled from the veffels of the comb, into which the tooth had been inferted. From fome faéts related in the article CRAN1uM, how- ever, it appears, that if a dead tooth, or, in other words, one that has been for a long time pulled, be inferted into the comb of acock, it will adhere, as well as a living or recently pulled tooth. The ingenious author of that article had feen an example of a dead tooth adhering firmly in the comb of a cock, where it had been placed by the late Mr. Moore, a dentift and leG@turer in London. It is known, alfo, that a tooth dead in every refpe& may be fixed with- out any external mechanical means in the living focket, fo as not only to remain there for months, or for years, but to become fo. firmly fixed as not to admit of being readily pulled out, and to ferve very well for the purpofe of matti- cation. _ Profeffor Thomfon informs us, that this fa@& was firft mentioned by M. Fauchard, and the obfervation’ has been confirmed by cafes, related by M. Bourdet in his book on the Art of the Dentilt, p. 199. The union of the dead tooth to the living focket mutt be effeéted in all probability by the contra¢tion of the focket around the inequalities of the fang and neck of the tooth; for the art of fixing a dry tooth principally confifts in making feveral notches on its root with a file, before it is introduced into the focket. Bourdet remarks, that though this operation often fuc- ceeds, it does fo lefs frequently than the tran{plantation of frefh teeth. f Tf we. exclude from confideration the tranfplantation of teeth, the inftances of the reunion of parts which have been entirely feparated, are very rare in the human body ; fo rare indeed, fays Dr. Thomfon, that moft practitioners full treat swith difbelief and ridicule the few inftances which UNI : have been put upon record. But, he properly obferves, that the different fa€ts which have been learned refpecting the tranfplantation of the teeth, together with the experi- ments of Duhamel and Mr. Hunter, prove indifputably the poffibility of paxts being reunited, which have been completely feparated from the animal fyftem, to which they belonged, and in which the circulation of the biood mutt neceflarily have ceafed for atime. The reader will find a variety of cafes, proving the aceuracy of this ftatement, col- le&ted in profeffor Thomfon’s valuable Leétures on Inflam- mation, p. 239, &c. It is to be acknowledged, at the fame time, that when furgeons have attempted to reunite parts which had been entirely feparated from the body, they have generally failed. But fhould the part retain the conne€tion of only a few fibres, before it is replaced for the purpofe of union, the circumftance makes an important difference ; and union is then more frequently accomplifhed. The writer of this article was lately informed of a cafe, in which an ear, entirely feparated, with the exception of a very flender piece of fkin, was fuccefsfully reunited to the head again. For moft of the preceding obfervations, we are indebted to profeffor Thomfon’s Leétures, a work which difplays a profound knowledge of all the moft important doGrines of furgery. Some additional obfervations on unton by the firft inten- tion, and on the beft means of promoting it, will be found in the article Wounps. ; Union, in Geography, one of the Grenadine iflands, in the Weft Indies. N. lat. 12° 30! W. long. 61° 2o!. Union, a town of America, in the diftrid&t of Maine and county of Lincoln, containing 1266 inhabitants; 50 miles N.E. of Brunfwick.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Con- né@icut, in the county of Tolland, containing 752 in- habitants; 12 miles E. of Tolland.—Alfo, a village of New York, in the townfhip of Naffau, and county of Renffelaer, fituated on the turnpike road to New Lebanon, 112 miles about S.E. from Albany; with 50 houfes and ftores, a church, and a poft-office of the {ame name, and in- corporated as a village.—Alfo, a village of New York, in Greenwich, Wafhington county, fituated on the Battenkill, 34 miles N. of Albany, and incorporated as a village; con- taining 48 houfes and ftores, two meeting-houfes, an aca- demy, two extenfive cotton, and 12 woollen manufactures, feveral mills, a trip-hammer, a manufaétory of files and of caft-fteel, and about 500 inhabitants.—Alfo, a village of Albany county, in the townfhip of Bern, 21-miles from Albany, on the road to Schoharie, from which it is diftant 14.miles. It contains about 26 dwellings, feveral ftores, &c. and a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe.—Alo, a village of New York, in Clinton county, pleafantly fituated on a handfome plain, in the townfhip of Para, 3 miles N. of the bridge acrofs the Table river ; 150 miles N. of Albany ; in which are a poft-office, 45 houfes and ftores, a Quaker meeting- houfe, and fome other buildings.—Alfo, a town of Effex county, in New Jerfey, containing 1428 inhabitants.— Alfo, a townfhip of Berks county, in Pennfylvania, con- taining 766 inhabitants.—Alo, a townfhip of Huntingdon county, in Penniylvania, containing 706 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Fayette county, containing 1$21 inhabitants. —Alfo, atownfhip of Mifflin county, Pennfylyania, con- taining 1114 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town‘hip of Belmont county, in Ohio, containing 1514 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Champaign county, in Ohio, containing 861 in- habitants. —Alfo, a townfhip of Delaware county, in Ohio, containing 165 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Fayette county, in Ohio, containing 503 inhabitants—Alo, a townthip in Gallia county, Ohio, containing 367 inha- bitants. t UNI bitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Highland county, Ohio, containing 744 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip in Knox county, Ohio, containing 431 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town- fhip in Licking county, Ohio, containing 375 inhabitants. ' —Alfo, a townfhip in Madifon county, Ohio, containing 250 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip in Miam county, Ohio, containing 683 inhabitants—Alfo, a townfhip in Muf- kingum county, containing 430 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town- dhip in Rofs county, Ohio, containing 2273 inhabitants.— Alfo, atownfhip in Scioto county, Ohio, containing 541 iahabitants.—Alfo, a diftri& of South Carolina, containing 10,995 inhabitants. Unton Borough, 2 town in Fayette county, Pennfylvania, containing 999 inhabitants. Union River, a river of the diftri of Maine, which runs into Penobfcot bay. Unton Springs, a poft-office in the fouth-weft corner of Aurelius, in Cayuga county. Union Fire-Ofice. See INSURANCE. ‘UNIONS, Uniongs, in Phyfilogy, the fame with mar- arite, or pearls. See PEARL. UNIQUE is fometimes anglified, and ufed to denote a thing ‘which is the only one of its kind. UNISETA, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a fpecies of fly, found frequently fitting on the ammi or bifhops weed, and diftinguifhed by having one long hair or brittle rowing out at its tail. See HenoTrurix. UNISON, in Muj/ic, is the effe&t of two founds, which are equal, in degree of tune, or in point of gravity and acutenefs. : Unifon may be defined a confonance of two founds, pro- duced by two ftrings, or other bodies of the fame matter, length, thicknefs, and tenfion, equally firuck and at the fame time ; fo that they yield the fame tone or note. Or it isthe union of two founds, fo like each other, that the ear, perceiving no difference, receives them as one and the fame found. See Sounn. What conftitutes wnifonance is the equality of the number of ‘vibrations of the two fonorous bodies in equal times ; where there is an inequality in that refpe€&t, and, of confe- quence, an inequality in degree of tune, the unequal founds conftitute an interval. : Since ifochronous vibrations produce founds that are mufical, and that are faid to continue at the fame pitch, and flower vibrations produce graver, flatter, or lower founds, and quicker vibrations produce founds that are acuter, Sharper, or higher ; it follows, that if feveral ftrings, how- ever different in length, thicknefs, denfity, and tenfion, or -other founding bodies, vibrate all together in equal times, their founds will have one and the fame pitch, however they may differ in loudnefs, or other qualities, and are, therefore, called unifons; 2nd, on the contrary, the vibrations of unifons are ifochronous. This obfervation reduces the theory of all forts of mufical founds to that of the founds of a fingle ftring, with refpe€@ to gravity or acutenefs, Con- fequently, the wider and narrower vibrations of a mnfical ftring, or of any other body founding mufically, are all ifochronous very nearly: otherwife, while the vibrations decreafe in breadth till they ceafe, the pitch of the found could not continue the fame as we perceive it does, if the firft vibrations be not too large; in which cafe, the found ‘as a little acuter at the beginning than afterwards. In like manner, fince the pitch of the found of a ftring or bell, or other vibrating body, does not fenfibly alter, while the hearer varies his diftance from it ; it follows, that the larger and leffer vibrations of the particles of air, at fmaller and greater diftances from the founding body, are all ifo- chronous ; and confequently, that the little fpaces deferibed Vor. XXXVII. UNI by the vibrating particles are every where proportional to the celerity and force of their motions, as in a pendulum; and this difference of force, at different diftances from the founding body, caufes a difference in the loudnefs of the found, but not in its pitch. It follows alfo, that the har- mony of two or more founds, according as it is perfect or imperfeét at any one diftance, will alfo be perfe& or im- perfe& at any other diftance; and this is a known faG, e. gr. inaring of bells. Iftwo mufical ftrings (fee Srrinc) have the fame thicknefs, denfity, and tenfion, and differ in length only, mathematicians have demonftrated, that the times of their fingle vibrations are proportional to their dengths. Hence, if a ftring of a mufical inftrument be ftopped in the middle, and the found of the half be com- pared with that of the whole, we may acquire the idea of the interval of two founds, whofe fingle vibrations (7. e. the times) are in the ratio of 1 to 2; and by comparing the founds of 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 1%» &c. of the ftring with the found of the whole, we may acquire the ideas of the in- tervals of two founds, whofe fingle vibrations are in the ratio of 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 3 to 5, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 8 tog, and gto to, &e. See CHorp. Smith’s Harmonics, p. 2, &e. Unifon is the firft and greateft of concords, and the foundation, or, as fome call it, the mother of all the reit ; yet others deny it to be any concord at all, maintaining it to be only that in founds, which unity is in numbers. Thefe reftrain the word concord to intervals, and make it include a difference of tune: but this is precarious ; for as the word concord fignifies an agreement of founds, it is cer- tainly applicable to unifons in the firft degree. But though unifonance, or an equality of tune, makes the moft perfeét agreement of found, it is not true that the nearer any two founds come to an equality of tune, they are the more agreeable. The mind is delighted with va- riety ; and the reafon of the agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of two founds muft be afcribed to fome other caufe than the equality or inequality of the number of their vibrations. It is a famed phenomenon in mufic, that an intenfe found being raifed, either with the voice, or a fonorous body, another fonoreus body near it, whofe tune is either unifon, or o€tave to that found, will found its proper note unifon, or oétave, to the given note. The experiment is eafily tried by the ftrings of two in- ftruments ; or by a voice and an harpfichord ; or a bell, or even a drinking-glafs. This our philofophers account for thus: one ftring being ftruck, and the air put in motion thereby; every other {tring, within the reach of that motion, will receive fome impreffion therefrom : but each ftring can only move with a determinate velocity of recourfes or vibrations ; and all uni- fons proceed from equal, or equidiurnal vibrations; and other concords from other proportions. The unifon ftring, then, keeping equal pace with the founded ftring, as having the fame meafure of vibrations, muft have its motion con- tinued, and {till improved, till its motion become fenfible, and it give a diftin@ found. Other concording ftrings have their motions propagated in different degrees, according to the frequency of the coincidence of their vibrations with thofe of the founded ftring: the ofave, therefore, moft fenfibly ; then the fifth; after which, the croffing of the motions prevents any effec. This they illuftrate (as Galileo firft fuggeited) by the pendulum, which being fet a moving, the motion may be continued and augmented, by making frequent, light, coin- cident impulfes ; as blowing on it when the vibration is juft finifhed: but if it be touched by any crofs or oppofite mo- tion, and this, too, frequently, the motion will be inter- rupted, and ceafe altogether. So of two unifon ftrings, if 3E the UNT the one be forcibly ftruck, it communicates motion, by the air, to the other ; and both being equidiurnal in their vibra- tions, that is, finifhing them precifely together, the motion of that other will be improved and heightened, by the fre- quent impulfes received from the vibrations of the firft, becaufe given precifely when that other has finifhed its vibration, and is ready to return: but if the vibration of the chords be unequal in duration, there will be a crofling of motions, lefs or more, according to the proportion of the inequality ; by which the motion of the untouched ftring will be fo checked, as never to be fenfible. And this we find to be the cafe in all confonances, except unifon, o€tave, and the fifth. See CHorp. : UNISSONI, Ital. This word written at full length, or abridged over an empty ftaff in a {core, if over the fecond violin, implies that it is to play in unifon with the firlt ; if over the firft violin in vocal mufic, that it is to play in unifon with the voice. UNIT, Unire, or Unity, in Arithmetic, the number one, or one fingle individual part of difcrete quantity. See NuMsER. If a number confifts of four or five places, that which is outermoft towards the right end, is called the place of units. Number, in general, is by Euclid defined to be povedwy mocornc, a multitude, or aggregate of units; but, in this fenfe, unity is not a number. UNITARIANS, in Ecclefiaftical Hiffory, a name given to thofe who confine the glory and attribute of divinity to the One, only great and fupreme God, and father of our Lord Jefus Chrift ; and who maintain, that this one fupreme God is the only objeé of religious worthip. This denomination is fometimes applied to thofe that are otherwife called Arians; but it is now more commonly ap- propriated tothe Socinians, who maintain that the Father alone is the God of the univerfe, the only true God ; that our Lord Jefus Chrift was a mere man, with a reafonable foul and human body, who had no exiftence before he was born, either in the ordinary courfe of nature, or by the immediate operation and miraculous powersof God, at Bethlehem, and who, in the courfe of his life and miniftry, death, refurre€tion, and exalta- tion, was honoured with peculiar and extraordinary tokens of the divine influence and favour ; and that the Holy Spirit was not a perfon, or diftiné& intelligent agent, but only the power, influence, and energy of God. Some, in imitation of Socinus, allow that Chrilt is an obje&t of worfhip ; but moft of the mo- dern Unitarians reftri€t prayer and divine worfhip to God alone : and this conftitutes the drftin@ion between Unitarians and other Chriftians, though many of the modern Socinians, renouncing that difcriminating diltmétion, have appropriated the appellation, without fufficient reafon, to themfelves. For an account of the progrefs of Unitarianifm in our own country, fee an Hiftorical View of the State of the Unitarian Doétrine and Worfhip from the Reformation to our own Times, by Mr. Lindfey, 8vo. 1783. ~ UNITAS Frarrum, or United Brethren, a name dif- tinguifhing thofe Chriftians who are frequently called abroad Herrnhuters, and with us Moravians. To thofe who are acquainted with the hiftory of this fe&, it is well known, that their moft approved writers have taken great pains to derive their origin from thofe formerly diftinguifhed by the appellation of Moravian or Bohemian Brethren, and who were afterwards denominated Huflites. Mofheim, however, obferves, that they may be faid with more propriety to imitate the example of that famous com- munity, than to defcend from thofe who compofed it : for, he adds, it is well known, that there are very few Bohemians and Moravians in the fraternity of the Herrnhuters ; and it is extremely doubtful, whether even this fmall number fhould 9 UNI be confidered as the pofterity of the ancient Bohemian brethren that diftinguifhed themfelves fo early by their zeal for the Reformation. But from the Moravian writers, and from Crantz in particular, ubi infra, we are furnifhed with | a circumftantial account of the rife and progrefs of this fe& from the ninth century, when the Bohemians and Mo- ravians, and the whole Sclavonian nation, were firlt pro- felyted to the faith of Chriftianity, to the revival of it by count Zinzendorff. To this purpofe they allege, that when by the inftrumentality of Methodius and Cyrillus, two Greek monks, Bogaris, king of Bulgaria, and king Suatopluck, in Moravia, were converted, they and their ref{pedtive coun- tries united with the Greek church; Methodius being the firft bifhop, and Cyrillus having tranflated the bible into the Sclavonian language. After various ftruggles, the Greek Chriftians were conf{trained to fubmit to the fee of Rome. Some few, however, {till adhered to the rites of the Greek church, who, in 1176, being joined by the Waldenfes and inftruéted by them, affociated in aéts of worfhip, and fent miffionaries into many countries. In this ftate they con- tinued for more than two hundred years, till a fevere perfe- cution was commenced againft them in 1391. In the be- ginning of the next century they acquired the denomination of Huffites, and were alfo called at different periods Fratres Legis Chrifti, or Brethren of the Law of Chrift; Unitas Fratrum, or the Unity of the Brethren ; or Fratres Unitatis, United Brethren. Notwithftanding very fevere treatment, they maintained ftri¢t church difcipline among themfelves ; and, at the fynod of Lhota in 1467, chofe twenty, and out of thefe nine perfons, of whom they appointed three by lot for elders. Having, at this time, no bifhops of the Bohemian church who had not fubmitted to the fee of Rome, they obtained confecration for three of their priefts of Stephen, bifhop of the Waldenfes in Auftria; and thefe, on their return, or- dained ten co-bifhops, or confeniors, from among the reft of the prefbyters. After many intervals of perfecution and of peace, towards the beginning of the fixteenth century, there were two hundred congregations in Bohemia and Mo- ravia, which had the bible tranflated into the Bohemian tongue, firft from the Vulgate, and afterwards another from the original text. In 1523, after the dawn of the Reformation, a friendly correfpondence commenced between the Brethren and Luther, and afterwards with Calvin, and others of the re- formers. This correfpondence involved them in a feyere perfecution, which greatly opprefled and difpirited them. The diffenfions alfo that prevailed amongft themfelves threatened their ruin, which were, at length, happily ter- minated at the fynod of Sendomir, in 1570, when the three Tropuffes, (i. e. thofe who held different tenets and rites with regard to non-eflentials,) wiz. the epifcopal brethren, the Lutheran, and reformed, or followers of Calvin, agreed that they would perform divine fervice and communicate to- gether. In 1575 they obtained an edi&t for the public exercife of their religion, which was confirmed in 1609, when they obtained leave to ere new churches. But, in 1612, a civil war broke out in Bohemia; and, in 1621, a violent perfecution occafioned the difperfion of their mi- nifters, and great diftrefs to the Brethren in general. Among the minifters was one John Amos Comenius, bifhop of the church of the Brethren. Crantz has given the fucceflion of the Bohemian, Moravian, and Polifh bifhops from Ste- phen, in 1467, to the renewal of the church of the United Brethren in this century. In 1662, Comenius confecrated Peter Figulus, commonly called Jabloniky ; and, in 1699, his fon, Daniel Erneft Jablonfky, was confecrated bifhop ;, and by him, it is faid, the epifcopal ordination has been com- ee eee UNITAS FRATRUM. committed to the prefent Unity of the Brethren, adhering to the Augfburg confeffion, renewed by the emigration of many out of Bohemia and Moravia. This emigration was .fo confiderable, and fuch numbers of others conformed to the rites of the church of Rome, that, at, the clofe of the feventeenth century, it was apprehended that this ancient church was become utterly extin&. Several, however, it is faid, continued in Bohemia and Moravia, and retained their principles in fecret ; and from thefe the Moravian writers derive the prefent church, known by the name of Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren, which, they fay, is a renewal and continuation of the.an- cient church. About the year 1720, the revival com- menced among the pofterity of the Brethren about Fulneck in Moravia, and Leutomifchel in Bohemia. In. Moravia, one Chriftian David had been the chief inftrument of the edification of his brethren, and the inftruGtions which he received from minifters, whofe names were Schoefer and Schwedler, he communicated, in 1717, to the defcendants of the ancient Brethren. But being perfecuted in their na- tive country, fome of them migrated under the condutt of Chriftian David, and, in 1722, put themfelves under the protection of Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorff, in Upper Lufatia; where they built houfes upon the hill called the Huthberg, Huth des Herrn, i.e. the Watch Hill, and hence the new fettlement was called Herrnhut, i.e. the Watch of the Lord, and the Brethren were denominated Herrnhuters. ‘The count foon after removed to Bertholf- dorff, and fuperintended their rifing fettlement. Count Zinzendorff fays of himfelf, that he had formed a defign, when only ten years old, of colleéting a {mall fociety of be- lievers, who fhould altogether employ themfelves in exercifes of devotion under his dire@tion. Accordingly, when he became of age, in the year 1721, he fettled at Bertholfdorff, and was foon after joined by a number of profelytes. In 1724, more emigrants arrived at Herrnhut from Moravia, juft as the Brethren were beginning to lay the foundation of an edifice intended for the education of the children of the noblefle, for printing cheap bibles, and preparing medicines for their neighbours, in which building was alfo to be a chapel. It would far exceed our limits to recount the fucceffive emigrations to Herrnhut, and the additions that were made by the means of the preaching of the Rev. Mr. Rothe, minifter at Bertholfdorff, and the zeal of Chriftian David. Among thefe fettlers there were perfons of different opinions, which engaged the attention of count Zinzendorff, who en- deavoured to eftablifh an union among them in the funda- mental truths of the Proteftant religion, and, in 1727, formed ftatutes for their government in conformity to thefe truths. From this period in particular, when elders and wardens were chofen, and an union eftablifhed between the Brethren from Moravia, both among themfelves, and with their Lutheran and reformed Brethren, the Moravian writers date the renewal of the Unity of the Brethren. The whole congregation was divided into claffes of married men, married women, widowers, widows, maids, bachelors, and children, called choirs ; and one of their own fex and {tation in life appointed to have the fpecial care of each choir, under the infpeGtion of the elders. The officers were appointed by lot, which has continued to be the cafe to the prefent day. Particular attention was paid by thefe feveral clafles to the inftru€tion of youth; and as a great part of their wor- fhip confifted in finging, they propofed to inftruét their children in their religion by hymns. There are fome per- fons of both fexes appointed by rotation to pray for the fociety, who are faid to be admonifhed of their duty by an inward feeling ; and to determine the divine will in particular cafes by cafting lots. All matrimonial contraéts are fubje& to the direGtion and approbation of the elders. Such was the origin of the new fe&, denominated Herrnhuters ; or, as others fay, the revival of that of the Moravian Brethren. In procefs of time, however, it became very confiderable and extenfive ; and it adopted tenets and practices of a very fingular kind. Some have charged it with adopting very pernicious notions, and with recommending very unwar- rantable practices ; fuch as disfigure the truths of the gofpel, and fap the foundations of morality. The count is accufed of {peaking in very derogatory terms of the fcripture, and with expreisly aflerting that the reading of the fcripture appears to him to be more dangerous than ufeful to the fociety. To avoid idolatry, he fays, people ought to be taken from the Father and Holy Ghoft, and conduéed to Chrift, with whom alone we have to do. The Holy Ghoft is called by the Herrnhuters the eternal wife of God, the mother of Chrift, the mother of the faithful, and of the church. The language of their devotion has been charged with obfcenity, and with exciting ideas not very chafke and decorous. Count Zinzendorff has incurred juft cenfure by” declaring, that the law is not a rule of life to a believer ; that the word now belongs only to the Jews; and that a converted perfon cannot fin againit light. It has been faid, that no example can be found of a fanaticifm more extrava- gant, and a myfticifm more grofs and fcandalons, than thofe of the Herrnhuters. Thefe charges principally depend upon the authority of Rimius, in his Candid Narrative of the Rife and Progrefs of the Herrnhuters, commonly called Moravians, or Unitas Fratrum, &c. 1753, and Supplement, &c. publifhed in 1755, fan€tioned by the recital of Mo- fheim (Eccl. Hift. vol. v.), and bifhop Warburton, in his “ Doétrine of Grace,” vol. ii. We are perfuaded, how- ever, by unqueftionable teftimonies communicated to us by the Rey. B. Latrobe, a very refpeGtable minifter among the Moravians in London, that the irregularities in prin- ciple and praétice that have been charged upon them are much exaggerated ; and that the accufation has been chiefly owing to fome unguarded expreflions introduced into their difcourfes and forms of devotion, which, as Mr. Crantz, their hiftorian, candidly acknowledges, ‘ being not clear and determinate enough, and in part unreftrained, proved offen- five to many divines both in and out of their congregations.”? From the year 1727 to 1731, deputations were fent from Herrnhut to Denmark, Sweden, England, Livonia, Swit- zerland, and other places in Germany; and thus the re- newed unity of the Brethren became more known. In 1729, a deed was figned by feveral, and ratified by the count and Mr. Rothe, in which they declare that they are neither Separatifts, nor a new fect, but defcendants of the Moravian Brethren, &c. We acknowledge, fay they, no vifible congregation of Chrift, but where the word of God is taught in fimplicity and purity, and the members lead a holy life; yet we will not feparate from any one of any other Chriftian denomina- tion who truly believes in Chrift, though he gives a dif- ferent expofition to this or the other text of Scripture, &c. They guard againft latitudinarianifm in religion; they determine to maintain their ancient church difcipline, with- out forfaking divine fervice in the Proteftant parifh church at Bertholfdorff; they agree to the confeflion of Augfburg : they will not be called Huflites or Lutherans, but retain their ancient name, The Brethren ; thus hoping for the pro- tetion of their fovereign, and that their whole cafe might be examined by government. t The count’s journey to Copenhagen to the coronation of Chriitian VI. in 1731, where he heard of the miferable con- dition of the negroes in the ifland of St. Thomas, was the occafion of the firft miffion of the Brethren among the 3E2 heathen, UNITAS FRATRUM. heathen, fo that two Brethren went thither in the year 17 32, and the miffion to Greenland commenced in 1733. In 1732, the count determined to devote himfelf to the mi- niftry of the gofpel, and accepted the office of warden, which he had held before, in 1733. In 1734, the firft Brethren went to America. The count having been ex- amined and received into the clerical order, by the theo- logical faculty of Tubingen, correfponded with Jablonfky, eldeft bifhop of the Brethren’s unity, about the renewal of epifcopal ordination; and he confecrated a bifhop for the church of the Brethren of Berlin, with the concurrence of his colleague, the fenior, or bifhop of Liffa, in Poland, in 1735. And in 1737, the count himfelf was confecrated a bifhop of the Unitas Fratrum by thefe three bifhops ; hav- ing previoufly obtained the opinion of Dr. Potter, arch- bifhop of Canterbury, that the Moravian Brethren were an apottolical’ and epifcopal church, not maintaining any doc- trines repugnant to the thirty-nine articles of the church of England: and he afterwards received a congratulatory letter from the archbifhop on his confecration. From this time the count is called the ordinary of the Brethren. The count feems to have been zealous and: indefatigable in his la- bours; and it appears that, in 1739, the Brethren were difperfed in about forty places, moft of which were mif- fionaries among the heathen. New fettlements were made in Europe and America; inftitutions for the education of children were eftablifhed in many places; and many regula- tions were adopted for mutual edification, in conformity to the conftitution of the ancient church of the Brethren. In 1748, a formal and very re{peCtable commiffion, confifting of three counts, two doétors of law, and:three divines, was appointed to examine the charges that had been urged againft the principles and praétice of the Brethren, the re- fult of which was very favourable to them. In confequence of the report of the commiffioners, the bailiwick and palace of Barby, where the college and feminary of the Brethren are now eftablifhed, were ceded in leafe to count Henry, twenty-eighth Reufs, and his conforts, and the chapel of the palace given to the Brethren. In 1749, a royal mandate was publifhed, importing, that the congregations of the Proteftant Moravian Brethren, avowing the unaltered Auguttan confeffion, fhould be te- ceived in all Saxony, in the fame manner as in Upper Lu- fatia and the county of Barby. An eminent divine of Saxony, dean of the king’s chapel,. became this year, with the approbation of the fovereign,. honorary prefident of the Lutheran Tropus in the Unity of the Brethren; Dr. Cochius, dean of the king of Pruflia’s chapel, was, with the approbation of the king, introduced as honorary prefident of the reformed Tropus in the Unity, to which he had’ been appointed in 1746, and after his death, in'1749, was fucceeded in that office by Dr. Thomas Wilfon, bifhop of Sodor and Man. After the ftate of the Brethren’s church had been deliberately examined by the Britifh parliament, an a& paffed on the 6th of June, 1749, in behalf of the ancient epifcopal church known by the name of Unitas Fratrum. i In the mean time, as their number mereafed, and their local congregations became more numerous, men of different connections and principles were introduced. amone them ; fome of whom had imbibed extravagant notions, which they zealoufly propagated. This occafioned what they called a time of fifting in dotrine and in coudu&. Their phrafeo- logy in expounding divine truths often bordered upon error ; and the paflions being warmed, a kind of joy took place, which produced extravagant ations. Crantz, however, ob- ferves, that this fifting did not arife from irreligious prin- ciples, nor did it end in immoral praGtices. Many among (2 the Brethren were offended, and their adverfaries took o¢- cafion to reproach them. ‘The count, it is faid, interpofed- with fuch fuccefs, that in the years-1750 and 1751, almoft all that had been chargeable with thefe exceffes, in do&trine and practice, acknowledged their error with fhame ;. thofe who did not retra& deferted. them; and thofe, whofe re- lapfe was dreaded, were difmiffed from their offices. The confequence of thefe exceffes was, indeed, in another re- f{pe&t, more ferious and alarming; for the count of, Bue- dingen was fo prejudiced againit them, that an edit was publifhed, requiring the inhabitants of Herrnhaag, who would not renounce the count and the minifters of the Brethren’s church, to leave the country; whereas thofe who complied were allowed to remain im their habitations, under the prote&tion of the reigning count. On this occa- fion, more than a thoufand perfons, from 1750 to 1753,, left a beautiful village, which they had ereéted at a great ex- pence, and were difperfed in other congregations in Germany,, Holland, England, and America; and the French reformed Brethren and Sifters, who lived at Herrnhaag, formed a fettle- ment at Neuwied, which is now in a flourifhing condition. The increafe of the Brethren, their new fettlements, and numerous journies and miffions, involved the fociety in-a great expence, and threatened ruin. Their debts were many and great, difcouraged their friends, and gave their enemies: occafion for cenfure.. The count, however, be-. came fecurity for their whole debt, which, at a ftipulated time, was difcharged.. As foon as they were extricated from thefe difficulties, new regulations were adopted to prevent future diftrefs of a fimilar kind. We cannly add, that the count lived to fee congregations and mifiions fettled in the four quarters of the globe ; and thefe, it has-been urged, were the moft effetua! apologies and defences of the principles and praétice of the Brethren. In 1760 the count died, with:aimemorial among the Bre- thren of having been their patron, and theinftrument by whom God reftored and built up the church of the Brethren, But though they counted him a diftinguifhed fervant of God, yet they did not regard him as their head; for they acknowledged, from-the beginning, no other head and elder but the Lord Jefus Chrifl, and no other father but the Father in heaven. At the firft fynod of the Unity, after his deceafe, in 1764, anumber of Brethren were chofen to have colletively, the fuperintendency of the whole Unity; and, in the fol- lowing fynods, the arrangement then made was continued with fome amendments. ‘This company is called the Elders Conference of the Unity, and confifts of thirteen Brethren, who are chofen at every fynod of the whole Unity. The Brethren appeal to their lives for a refutation of the calumnies that have been circulated againft them, profeffin themfelves to be a people who walk in honefty and godlinefs as followers of the Lord Jefus Chrift: and, as to doétrine, they avowedly: adhere to the Aug{burg, or Auguiian confef- fion; and, with refpe& to this, the public, we are informed, may read an expofition of Chriltian do¢trine as taught in the church known by the name of Unitas Fratrum. In England, the congregations belonging to the Unitas Fratrum are the following: viz. two in London; one at Bedford, where are houfes belonging to the fingle Brethren and fingle Sifters, to which belong their chapels and focieties at Northampton, Rifely, &c.; one at Ockbrook, near Derby ; one at Fulneck, near Pudfey, in Yorkthire, where are houfes for the fingle Brethren, and Sifters, and widows, and {chools for children; to this the members of the fo- cieties near Leeds and Bradford belong ; one at Wyke, near Halifax, another at Merfield, and another at Little Gum- merfal; one at Duckentfield, in Chefhire, where they have two. UNI two choir houfes, one for the fingle Brethren, and one for the fingle Sifters; one at Leominfter, in Herefordfhire ; one at Briftol, where are houfes for the fingle Brethren and Sifters, to which belongs that at Kingfwood ; one at Bath; one at Tetherton, in Wiltfhire, to which the chapel at Malmefbury belongs: a congregation was alfo collefted, in 1759, at Haverfordweft, in Pembrokefhire. Befides thefe congregations, the Brethren have chapels in feveral parts of England ; viz. at Apperly, in Gloucetterfhire ; Frome, in Somerfetfhire ; Plymouth, in Devonfhire; Eden and Cul- worth, in Northamptonfhire. The wild enthufiafm of this fe€t forms as fingular a con- traft with the wifdom and perfeverance of their attempts to convert and civilize the heathens, as the fmallnefs of their own numbers does with the variety and diftant fcenes of their miffionary undertakings. Their numbers did not ex- _ ceed 600, when they firft began their attempt to convert the heathens; and, in the period of eight or nine years, they fent miffionaries to Greenland, to St. Thomas’s, to St. Croix, to Surinam, to the Rio de Berbice, to the In- dians of North America, to the negroes of South Carolina, to Lapland, to Tartary, to Algiers, to Guinea, to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the ifland of Ceylon. We cannot follow Dr. Brown (wi infra) through his details of thefe mif- fions, which he has derived from the well-kuown works of Crantz, and the periodical accounts. In Greenland, where they have three fettlements, viz. at New Hernhuth, Lichten- fels, and Lichtenau, the number of Chriftians, in the year 1810, was 998 ; but it appears to be diminifhing, not fo much from their defection to Paganifm, as from a general decreafe in the population of this inhofpitableregion. In St.Thomas’s, where their number, in 1812, was 2285, and St. Croix, where they have three congregations, confifting in 1812 of 8443 per- fons, they have been favoured by the ruling powers, and have been very fuccefsful ; in Jamaica, their undertaking has been viewed with jealoufy, and they have made little progrefs ; while in Antigua they have eftablifhed the moft flourifhing of all their miffions, and reckon 11,824 members of their different congregations. Their efforts on the continent of America, both North and South, have been almott uniformly unpro- ~ fperous; at Berbice the fettlement was broken up in 1763, by arebellion of the negroes ; at Hope, on the river Corentyn, in Surinam, after feveral partial calamities, they were difperfed in 1808, in confequence of the burning of their fettlement ; and at Bambey and Paramaribo their eftablifhments appear to be on the point of diffolution. The miffions to North America have been almoft without exception difaftrous. However, they have five fettlements among the Indians. Their late miffions, excepting the one that went to the Cape, appear to have been undertaken with very little pru- dence, and attended with no fuccefs. In the year 1812, according to an eftimate by Mr. Latrobe, they had 33 fettle- ments among the heathen, under whofe care were 27,000 converts. From the account given of their method of con- verfion, it fhould feem that argument and evidence have no- thing to do with it; fince they never enter into any difcuf- fions concerning the feveral truths or doétrines of religion, till the favages appear to. delieve in Chrif?, and to feel the transforming influence of the gofpel on their hearts and lives. Stripped of its technical language, the meaning of this ftatement is that the paffions, and not the judgment, are the channel by which conviétion is brought to the mind ; and that converfion muft begin by exciting terror or fym- pathy, before any knowledge of the caufe of either can be acquired. he ultimate effe&t, however, is good, though the procefs is abfurd; and perhaps no alternative prefents itfelf but that of beginning, like the Quakers in America, with cultivating the underftanding before the evidence of UNI Chrithianity is propoled to it; or operating by impaffioned oratory and awful denunciations, on thofe feelings and fym- pathies which man in every condition carries within him, and which are even moft povserful where the leaft of intelleGtual culture exifts. For other particulars relating to the fentiments, difcipline, mode of worfhip, &c. of the Unitas Fratrum, we muft refer to Crantz’s Ancient and Modern Hiltory of the Brethren, 8vo. publithed in 1780,sby the Rev. B. La- trobe; and to a Concife Hittorical Account of the prefent Conttitution of the Unitas Fratrum, tranflated from a work entitled Neuefte Religions Gefchichte, by Dr. Walch, of Goettingen, and publifhed in 1775, by Mr. Latrobe. See alfo Crantz’s Hiftory of Greenland, &c. publifhed in 2 vols. 8vo. 1767. A Succiné& View of the Miflions eftablifhed among the Heathen by the Church of the Brethren, in a’ Letter to a Friend, by M. Latrobe, in 1771; and a Brief Account of the Miffion eftablifhed among the Efquimaux | Indians, on the Coaft of Labrador, in 1774. Brown’s , Hittory of the Propagation of Chriftianity among the Heathen, fince the Reformation, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1817. UNITE, inthe Manege. See UNton- UNITED Arrecrion. See AFFECTION. Unirep Flowers, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, are fuch as are furnifhed with ftamens and piltils in the fame flower. This term has been thought more commodious and unexceptionable, in Englifh, than any tranflation of the Greek iguxQeodio, however jult and proper the latter may be in fcientific or learned works. Mott flowers come under the above defcription, the feparation of the ftamens and piftils, either in diftin@ flowers on the fame plant, or upon different plants, of the fame fpecies, being far lefs common. Such ‘a feparation, however, when it does occur, prefents one of the ftrongeft evidences in favour of the Linnzan doétrine of impregnation ; and decidedly refutes the opinion of Tournefort, that the anthers were deftined to carry off excrementitious matter from the germen and young feeds, as the kidneys of animals fecrete urine. The reniform ftrn€ture of the anthers, in many cafes, may offer an apology, it cannot be called a reafon, in favour of fuch a doGirine- See FrcunpaTIon of Plants. The advantage of the union of both organs of impregn2~ tion in the fame flower, as vegetables are not endowed with voluntary motion, is obvious. ~ But nature feems occa- fionally under fome difadvantage in bringing both to per- feétion; and one or other is rendered, by circum(ftances, deficient in its ufual power. Thus in Mentha and Lilium, the increafe by root, being inordinate, the ftamens become imperfeé in fome flowers, the piftils in others. In Rhodiola, which fearcely differs in any material refpeét from Sedum, they are always fo, on diitin& plants. Polygamous flowers (fee PotyGamra) exhibit a fort of precaution in nature, to guard againft any cafual imperfection, from ftarvation, in either organ of united flowers. This is eflected by pro- viding a fuperfluous ftock of ftamens, for thefe generally predominate, in feparate individuals, whofe vigour is not impeded by the maintenance of any piftil of their own, and which are, therefore, at full liberty to fupply the deficiencies of their neighbours. Unirep Proviaces, in Geography, a name given to the feven Proteftant ftates of the Netherlands, which threw off the yoke of Spain, and became independent. (See Houianpand Neruertanps.) Thefe now forma diftin& kingdom, and by an arrangement which :has taken ; place fince the French revolution, William Frederick, pone duke of Luxemburgh, and prince of Orange and Naflau, is king of the Netherlands. This prince married princels Frederica Sophia of Pruffia, OGtober 14, 1791, hy whom ie UNI he has iffue, William Frederick, hereditary prince, a general in the Britifh army, married Feb. 21, 1816, to the grand duchefs Anne, fifter to the emperor of Ruffia; and Frederick. Unrrep States, comprehend zn extenfive portion of North America, fituated between 25° 50! and 49° 37! N. lat., and between 10° E. and 48° 20! W. long. from Wafhington. The moft northern part is bounded by a line running due W. from the N.W. corner of the Lake of the Woods, and the fouthern extremity is the outlet of the Rio del Norte. The eaftern extremity is the great Menan ifland, on the coaft of Maine, and the weftern is Cape Flattery, N. of Columbia river, on the Pacific ocean. The greateft extent of the country from N. to S. is 1650 miles, and from E. to W. 2700. ‘The area is about 2,379,350 {quare miles, or 1,522,784,000 acres. The population by the laft cenfus was 7,239,903, being lefs than three to each fquare mile of territory, fo that every in- habitant has nearly 200 acres of land. The United States are bounded on the E. by the Atlantic ocean, and the Britifh province of New Brunfwick; on the N. by the Britifh poffeflions of Lower and Upper Canada, and the large unfettled country to the weftward of thofe provinces ; on the W. by the Pacific ocean; on the S.W. by the Spanifh internal provinces and the Rio del Norte ; and on the S. by the gulf of Mexico and Florida. In the definitive treaty of peace between the United States and Britain, exe- cuted at Paris on the 3d of September, 1783, the northern and eaftern boundaries are defcribed as follows, viz. “From the N.W. angle of Nova Scotia; viz. that angle which is formed by a line drawn due N. from the fource' of St. Croix river to the Highlands; along the faid High- lands which divide thofe rivers that empty themfelves into the river St. Lawrence, from thofe which fall into the Atlantic ocean, to the north-wefternmoft head of Con- neéticut river; thence down along the middle of that river, to the 45th degree of N. lat.; from thence by a line due weit on faid latitude, until it ftrikes the river Iroquois or Cataraquy ; thence along the middle of faid river into lake Ontario, through the middle of faid lake until it ftrikes the communication by water between that lake and lake Erie ; thence along the middle of faid communication into lake Erie, through the middle of faid lake until it arrives at the water communication between that lake and lake Huron; thence along the middle of faid water communication into lake Huron ; thence through the middle of faid lake to the water communication between that lake and lake Superior ; thence through lake Superior northward of the ifles Royal and Philipeaux, to the Long Lake; thence through the middle of faid Long Lake and the water com- munication between it and the Lake of the Woods, to the faid Lake of the Woods ; thence through the faid lake to the moft north-weftern point thereof, and from thence on a due weft courfe to the river Miffiffippi. Eaft by a line to be drawn along the middle of the river St. Croix, from its mouth in the Bay of Fundy to its fource, and from its fource dire&tly N. to the aforefaid Highlands which divide the rivers that fall into the Atlantic ocean from thofe which fall into the river St. Lawrence ; comprehending all iflands within twenty leagues of any part of the fhores of the United States, and lying between lines to be drawn due E. from the points where the aforefaid boundaries between Nova Scotia on the one part, and Eaft Florida on the other, fhall refpeétively touch the bay of Fundy and the Atlantic ocean ; excepting fuch iflands as now are, or heretofore have been, within the limits of the {aid province of Nova Scotia.” As to the country welt of the Lake of the Woods, it is evident that the commiffioners were of opinion, that it fhould be part of the territory of the United States, as UNI high as a line to be run due W. from the N.W. corner of that lake until it reached as far W. as the Mifliffippi; which was at that period the weftern boundary of the United States. Subfequent events have annexed the whole of Louifiana to the country, fo that the northern boundary of it behoves to be afcertained, as it was poffeffed by France; but the country never having been fettled, the boundary has not been accurately defined. The bett courfe, fays Mr. Melifh, in the conftruétion of his map, has appeared to be to run the boundary line due W. from the N.W. corner of the Lake of the Woods to the gulf of Georgia, and thence along that gulf, and the {traits of Juan de Fuco, to the Pacific ocean. As the French were the firft fettlers in Louifiana, maps founded on their claims furnifh evidence as to the wettern limits of Louifiana of undifputable authority, and fix the boundary line on the W. fide of the Rio del Norte, to the Rio Salado, correfponding to the Rio Puerco of more modern maps: and it is continued along that river nearly to its fource. From thence it pafles to the E. of Santa Fé, to between the 37th and 38th degrees of N. lat., where it croffes the Rio del Norte, and is fo continued to about half a degree W. of that river ; then along that river to its fource, where the limits of Louifiana are undefined. Towards the Pacific ocean, we have no very correct data, fays Mr. Melifh, for forming an opinion as to the bounda- ries. The following view of the fubjeét, he fays, is the refult of the beft information that can be obtained. The Miffouri and its waters are unqueftionably part of the United States territory, in virtue of the purchafe of Louifiana ; and it is prefumed, that the title is equally un- queftionable as to the Columbia and its waters, to a line drawn due W. from the N.W. corner of the Lake of the Woods. This includes the Multnomah on the S., but leaves the queftion undetermined in the unexplored country between that river and the bay of St. Francifco. From the lateft accounts, it appears that the Spaniards have no fettle- ments above that bay, and probably will have none, fo that the country may be confidered virtually a part of the United States territory, provided they fhould confider it of importance to take pofleffion, and fettle it. The face of the country in the United States prefents every variety. The north-eaftern part on the coaft is broken and hilly and is remarkably indented with nume- rous bays and inlets. Towards the S., and along the gulf of Mexico, the land is level and fandy, interfperfed with many f{wamps, and numerous iflands and inlets. At the outlets of many of the rivers, there is a large portion of al- luvial land, which is particularly the cafe along the Mif- fiffippi. Beyond the head of tide waters, there is a tole- rably rich and agreeably uneven country, which extends to the mountains. The mountainous diftri@, on the Atlantic fide of the country, is about 150 miles in breadth, and 1200 miles in length; extending in large ridges from N.E. to S.W. Thefe ridges are generally known by the name of the Allegany mountains, and are of various elevations, from 2000 to 4000 feet. The higheft point feems to be the White Hills, in New Hamphhire, which rifes to the elevation of nearly gooo feet. “Beyond the mountains we have a view of the great valley of the Mifliffippi and its tributary ftreams, prefenting a body of the fineft land in the world, and pofleffing great natural advantages. ‘To the weftward of this valley are the mountains of Louifiana, prefenting features fingularly bold and grand. The rocky mountains, in particular, are very majettic ; and the va(t variety pro- duced by the great mafs of waters forming the tributary ftreams of the Miffouri and Columbia, muft render the fce- nery in that region fingularly interefting. Beyond thefe the principal UNITED STATES. _ principal feature is the great confluence of waters at the outlet of the Columbia river, and the bold fhores of the Pacific ocean. The principal rivers of the United States are the St. Law- rence and its waters, the Columbia and its waters, the St. Francifco, the Rio del Norte, and the Miffouri and Miffiffippi, and the waters that flow into them. The river St. Lawrence is formed by the waters that are colleéted about lake Superior, from which they iffue into lake Huron through the ftraits of St. Mary, and from it, by the {traits sf that name about forty miles long, into lake St. Clair. From this lake the waters pafs into lake Erie, through the ftraits of Detroit, an important and beautiful paflage, about 30 miles long. (See Detroit.) Between Buffalo on one fide and Fort Erie on the’ other, the water is difcharged from the lake, and by a rapid courfe runs towards lake Ontario, through the paflage called Niagara river. About five miles below lake Erie, the ftream is divided by Grand ifland, below which is Navy ifland, where it expands to a confiderable breadth, above the falls of Niagara; which fee, Below the falls the river runs very rapidly for nine miles, through a deep chafm, and is navigable to lake Ontario, a diftance of feven miles. From lake Ontario the river iffues through a great number of iflands, fituated between Kingfton and Sackett’s Harbour. Here it affumes the name of St. Lawrence, though from the lake to Montreal it is frequently deno- minated Cadaraqui. In its progrefs it expands into a con- fiderable lake, called St. Francis ; and when it reaches Mon- treal, it receives the Utawas, or Grand river, which forms the boundary between the two Canadas. Below Montreal, it receives the Richelieu, or Sorel river, from lake Champlain, and in fucceffion the St. Francis, St. Maurice, and Chau- diere, below which, at a {mall diftance, ftands Quebec, and below this city the river is divided into two branches by the ifland of Orleans. Beyond this ifland it gradually expands into the fpacious bay and gulf of St. Lawrence, which com- municates with the ocean by the ftraits of Belleifle, and what is called the South Entrance. See St. LAWRENCE. Columbia river is fuppofed to take its rife about 300 miles N.E. of the point at which it interlocks with the head waters of the Unjigah or Peace river. It was firft difcovered by the enterprifing Britifh traveller, Mr. M‘Kenzie, in N. lat. 54° 40!. W. long. 120°25', from London ; and he defcended it about 150 miles, and then leaving it, traverfed the country to the ocean, From the point where he left it, its courfe is unknown till it is joined by Clark’s river, where it is a large ftream. About feventy miles below Clark’s river, after receiving fome tributary ftreams, the Columbia forms a junétion with Lewis’s river, formed of many branches, which rife in the Rocky moun- tains, where, like Clark’s river, they interlock with the head waters of the Miffouri. Below Lewis’s river, the Columbia bends to the S. and E., and then paffes through the moun- tains; and about. 300 miles below are the Great Falls. About twenty miles below the falls, the river makes a con- fiderable bend, and paffes through another chain of moun- tains; below which, about 60 miles, it receives from the S.E. the large and important river called the Multnomah. From the Multnomah, fuppofed to rife near the head waters of the Rio del Norte, to the ocean, which is a diftance of about 90 miles, it is all tide-water, through good land, with many Indian fettlements. The waters of the Columbia are clear, and abound with every variety of fifh. The St. Franci/co river is a very large ftream, 270 miles in the interior of the country ; a part of it being formed by the Rio Buenaventura, and its waters, which interlock with the waters of the Rio del Norte and La Platte, and open- ing, in procefs of time, an excellent communication with the fettlements on the W. coaft of America. ’ The Rio del Norte rifes among the mountains betwee N. lat. 44° and 42°, and 33° and 34° W. long. Its head waters interlock with thofe of the Miffouri, Columbia, La Platte, Arkanfas, Multnomah, and Francifco: and the waters of the Rio Colorado of the weft, which fall into the gulf of California, approach near it. In a progrefs of about 300 miles to the point where the traveller Pike and his party firft encamped upon it, it is prefumed to be the S.W. boundary of Louifiana. About too miles below this is Santa Fé, an interefting Spanifh fettlement : below Santa Fé, the river runs about 450 miles in a dire€tion E. of S., without any material augmentation, when the Rio Conchos falls into it from the S.W. Below this it makes a bend of about 100 miles, and receives the Rio Puerco from the N. Att this river the Rio del Norte again becomes the S.W. boundary of Louifiana. Below this it purfues an E. courfe of between 50 and 6o miles, when it receives a confiderable ftream from the N. ; and from hence, without much increafe, its courfe is nearly S.E., about 400 miles, to the gulf of Mexico. See Rio. The Miffouri and Miffiffippi, with their numerous branches, water the interior of the United States. The higheft fource of the Miffouri (which fee) lies on Jefferfon’s river, a little above the 44th degree of latitude, and near the 35th degree of W. longitude, 3000 miles from the Miffiffippi. From this point, in defcending it, we arrive in fucceffion at Philanthropy river, Wifdom river, Philofophy river, Madifon’s river, Gallatin’s river, Ordway river, Dearborn’s river, and Smith’s river, and then reach the falls of the Miffouri, which are perpendicular defcents, and partly rapids, the river falling no lefs than 365 feet in the courfe of 18 miles. The higheft pitch is 87 feet, the next 47, and the next 26. Pafling the falls, we arrive at Portage river, Snow river, Maria’s river, Stone-wall creek, Slaughter river, Big Horn river, Judith river, Turtle creek, Windfor creek, North Mountain creek, others of lefs note, Bralton’s creek, Milk creek, Porcupine creek, and Martha’s creek, and then come to the Yellow- ftone river, which flows in from the S.W. The Yellow- ftone is a large river, the main branch of which rifes in lake Euftus, and after receiving numerous tributary ftreams, the Big Horn, a river nearly equal to it in fize, which rifes in lake Biddle, falls in from the fouthward; and the ftreams thus united and augmented by others, particularly the Tongue river, form a confluence with the Miffouri, in N. lat. 48°. W. long. 27°. Beyond this, at a {mall diftance, the Mif- fouri reaches its northern extremity in N. lat. 48° 22', where it receives the White-earth river, and beyond this the head waters of the Moofe river approach within one mile of the main ftream of the Miffouri. Below this, the river is aug- mented by the Little Miffouri, and after paffing the Knife river, we arrive at Fort Mandan. Between 43° and 44°, there is a great bend in the river; and below it the river receives a number of pretty large ftreams, before we reach the La Platte, a little above N. lat. 41°. "This is a very large ftream, extending through feveral ridges of the rocky mountains, the head waters of which are higher than either the Arkanfas or Rio del Norte. Paffing the La Platte, the Miffouri receives many tributary ftreams, before it reaches the Kanfes, a large river, which falls in from the W., a little above the 39th degree of N. lat. Below this it is aug- mented by {ome important ftreams from the N., and after- wards the beautiful Ofage river falls in from the S.W. Below this river, about 120 miles, the Miffouri joins the Mifliflippi, aboye St. Louis; from whence the united ftreams flow with majeftic rapidity to the ocean. i e UNITED STATES. The Mififippi (which fee) rifes, fays Mr. Melith, in Turtle lake, N. lat. 47° 47!, and after receiving feveral tributary ftreams, reaches the falls of St. Anthony in N. lat. 44°, which falls are 16 feet perpendicular, with a rapid below of 58 feet. Below the falls, St. Peter’s river forms a jun&tion with the Miffiffippi from the W., and a little further, St. Croix river falls in from the E. About 15 miles below this, the river {preads out into a beautiful fheet of water, called lake Pepin, at the lower end of which it re- ceives the waters of the Chippeway river. About go miles below this river, the Ouifconfin falls in from the eaftward, which river approaches within 13 mile of the Fox river, which falls into lake Michigan. At the mouth of the Ouifconfin river is Prairie du Chien, where the United States have lately formed a military eftablifhment, which will un- doubtedly be very important to the fettlements of this part of the country. After pafling the Ouifconfin river, the Miffiffippi makes a confiderable bend to the eaftward, and meets the northern boundary of the Illinois territory ; then bending weftward about 30 miles, it receives Stony river. About 80 or go miles below this,. the Riviere des Moines falls in from the weftward, and then the Illinois falls in from the eaftward, a little above the junétion of the Miffiffippi and the Miffouri. The Illinois is a large river, the head waters of which interlock fo clofely with thofe falling into lake Michigan, that canoes, it is faid, have fometimes in the wet feafon paffed from the one tothe other. About 12 miles below the confluence of the Illinois with the Mif- fifippi, we arrive at the junction of the Miffiffippi and Miffouri: the former of which is, according to Mr. Melifh, inferior in importance to the latter. The Miflouri, he fays, is the main ftream, and the Mifliffippi only a tri- butary branch. The former is in length double the latter, and receives before its jun€tion with it, the waters of many ftreams, one of which, the La Platte, is longer than. the Mifiifippi. The Arkanfas and Red river are alfo much longer ; and the Ohio, allowing for its great bends, is alfo longer ; and taken in conneétion with the Cumberland and Tennaffee, is a river of much greater importance. After leaving St. Louis, we pafs along the Miffiffippi about 80 miles to Kafkafkia, where the Kafkaflia, a con- fiderable ftream, falls in from the eaftward ; and about go miles further below this, the Ohio river, augmented by its numerous branches, joins the Miflifippi. About 350 miles below the Ohio, the White river, a beautiful ftream, falls in from the weftward: 14 miles below this river, the Arkanfas, a very large and important river, having its fources in the mountains above Santa Fé, falls in from the weftward. Below the Arkanfas river, 190 miles, the Yazoo falls in from the eaftward: the Big Black river alfo falls into the Miffiffippi 63 miles by water, but only 30 in a dire& line by land, below the Yazoo. A few miles below this, we pafs the 31ft degree of N. lat., which forms the boundary between the ftate of Louifiana and the Mifliffippi territory ; after which the river bends to the weftward, and receives the waters of the Red river. The Red river rifes in the mountains, E. of Santa Fé, between 37° and 38° of N.at., and purfuing moftly a S.E. courfe, makes feveral bends, and receives no confiderable ftreams until it joins the Wachitta, and its great mafs of waters, a few miles before it reaches the Mifiiflippi. The latter paffes to the fea by New Orleans and the Red river, through the Atchafalaya. ’ Ass this river receives no ftreams of importance after paffing the Atchafalaya, it may be confidered as having reached its maximum ; and it may be viewed in its progrefs from hence to the ocean, as having an average breadth of 800 yards, its depth about 120 feet, and the velocity of its current about one mile per-hour. Aecordingly, it runs en with majeftic f{way, and pafles St. Francifville, Baton-Rouge, Donaldfon- ville, Manchac, and, 250 miles below the Atchafalaya, reaches New Orleans, where it makes a confiderable bend to the S. and E. After paffing the Englifh Turn, a con- fiderable bend in the river, 16 miles below New Orleans, fituated on its northern bank, we next meet fort St. Philip, or Placquemines, diftant 54 miles. Below this, at the in- terval of 19 miles, the river feparates into three grand divi- fions, viz. the South-eaft or Main Pafs, the South Pafs, and the South-weft Pafs. Four miles below the Forks, on the Main Pafs, a ftream iffues to the N.E., called Pafs a la Loutre, and the Main Pafs is divided into two parts at the outlet, one called the North and the other the South-eaft Pafs. The South-weft Pafs is alfo divided into two parts at the outlet; the weftern one being called the Weft Pafs. On all thefe paffes there are bars at the outlet, with the water comparatively fhallow: the Main Pafs has about 13 feet ; the South-welt Pafs 12; the Weft Pafs 9; and the South Pafs 8. The courfe of the river may be traced to a confiderable diftance from the fhore, when it is finally loft in the mafs of waters forming the gulf of Mexico. : Mr. Darby, in his valuable work on Louifiana, has given the following calculation of the quantity of water difcharged by the Miffiffippi. In one foot longitudinal feGtion of the river, it is eftimated that there are 141,372 cubic feet of water, the mean velocity being one mile fer hour ; and as the mile contains 5280 feet, the river will of courfe dif- charge 5280 times 141,372, or 746,444,160 cubic feet of water every hour. ‘This being reduced to gallons, gives 455732938,000, being upwards of 76 millions of gallons ix a minute, and of 1270 thoufand gallons in every fecond of time. ‘The magnitude and importance of this river are ex- hibited by Mr. Melifh in another pomt of view, thus: the eaftern extremity of the waters of this river is the head waters of the Allegany, which are fituated in Pennfyl- vania, about 190 miles N.W. of Philadelphia: the weftern extremity is the head waters of Jefferfon’s river, about 540 miles from the Pacific ocean ; and the diftance between thefe two extremities, in a dire& line, is about 1700 miles. The northern extremity is a branch of the Miffouri, in 50° 42! N. lat., 550 miles W. by N. of the Lake of the Woods: the fouthern extremity is the fouth pafs into’ the gulf of Mexico, 29° N. lat., go miles below New Orleans ; and the diftance between thefe two extremities, in a dire& line, is 1680 miles. Henceit appears, by a fubjoined ftatement, that the river and its branches fpread over nearly 1,500,000 f{quare miles, or above two-thirds of the whole territory of the United States. The Jakes of the United States are fome of the largeit in the world. The principal of thefe lie in a chain along their northern boundary, upon the Canada line, and are, lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, Ontario, Champlain, George, Memphremagog, Umbagog, Chilma- cook, and Moofehead, &c. &c. The chief of thefe are defcribed under their appropriate names, qnd others under the account of the {tates to which they belong. Of the minerals, foil, produce, and climate of the United States, it is needlefs to give in this place more than a gene- ral ftatement, as they are mentioned under the appellations of the refpeGtive ftates and territories to which they pertain. As to minerals, iron, lime-ftone, and free-ftone abound through the country. Coal is plentiful in the weftern terri- tories, and is found in feveral diftri&s in the Atlantic flates. Lead abounds in the diftri@ near St. Louis, where the mines are extenfive and valuable. Copper mines are alfo found in feveral places, and it is faid that gold and filver, in great profufion, exiftin Upper Lovifiana. In this province mar- ble UNITED ble is abundant, and forms the bed of the White river for 300 miles. In the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, and in other places, the benefit derived from the marble quarries is very confiderable. Quickfilver, zinc, faltpetre, and fulphur, are plentiful. Upper Lovifiana affords great quantities of antimony, and the whole weftern territory abounds with falt- fprings. The foil in this extenfive country is various. On the Atlantic coaft, to the N. and E., it is ftony, and towards the S. fandy ; but in both fituations, intermixed with much alluvial land. Towards the mountains the foil improves, and is in many places very fertile. On the mountains it 1s light and thin, but in the valleys rich. Beyond the moun- tains, in the valleys of Ohio, Miffiffippi, and Miflouri, feve- ral tra€ts of land are exceedingly rich and fertile. ‘Towards the S.W. parts of the Miffouri territory, the foil is light, thin, and fandy. The mountainous region to the N.W. is fimilar to the Allegany mountains, but the hills are more lofty, and the foil more variable. Beyond thefe mountains there is much good foil, as far as the Pacific ocean. _ The produce confifts of every variety that can be named ; wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley, rice, and other grain ; apples, pears, cherries, peaches, grapes, currants, goofeber- ries, plums, and other fruit, and a vaft variety of vegetables. Lemons, oranges, and fome other tropical fruits, are raifed in Louifiana and fome of the other fouthern countries. Hops, flax, and hemp are abundant. Tobacco is an article of ex- tenfive cultivation in Virginia, Maryland, and other dif- triéts. Cotton is a ftaple commodity in the fouthern ftates, Indigo is produced in Louifiana, and fugar is a commodity much cultivated in that country, and in fome places along the Atlantic coaft. Thenorthern and eaftern ftates, and the moun- tains in the interior, are fine grazing countries, and furnifh a great number of cattle and fheep, and abundance of butter and cheefe. The Merino breed of fheep have been intro- duced, and are faid to thrive as well as they do in Spain. Horfes for draught and faddle abound, and fome of them are excellent, particularly in Pennfylvania. Other domeftic animals, as afles, goats, hogs and dogs, are plentiful. Of tame fowl, the United States have turkeys, geefe, ducks, common poultry, pigeons, peacocks, and guinea fowls. The wild animals are numerous ; among which may be enu- merated the bifon or wild ox, moofe, deer, bear, wolf, fox, lynx, panther, weafel, ermine, martin, mink, otter, opof- fum, hare, fquirrel, moufe, bat, rat, beaver, feal, &c. The game and wild fowl peculiar to the country are turkeys, pheafants, partridges, woodcocks, f{nipes, wild fwans, wild geefe, wild ducks, pigeons, teal, plovers, widgeons, rail, &c. The other birds are eagles, hawks, vultures, turkey- buzzards, ftarlings, blue birds, red birds, humming-birds, &c. Of fifhes, thefe ftates have the whale, dolphin, por- poife, grampus, fkate, fhark, fturgeon, cod, flounder, perch, whiting, falmon, trout, roach, fhad, drum, black fifth, and many others, with which the feas, interior lakes, and rivers abound. Among the amphibious reptiles we may reckon the tortoife, frog, lizards of various fpecies, the alligator, &c. To the clafs of ferpents belong the fnakes and vipers, which abound in the United States. Of natural timber the United States have various kinds ; but fome of the moft ufeful are the elm, cherry, locuft, oak, beech, pine, cedar, cyprefs, willow, hickory, afh, walnut, chefnut, birch, maple, &c. The climate muft vary in the different parts of the United States. In the N.E. parts the winters are very cold, and the fummers hot, changing as you proceed fouthward. In the S.E. and along the gulf of Mexico, the fummers are very hot, and the winters mild and pleafant. Among the moun- tains it is cold towards the N., and temperate in the S. Be- yond the mountains, in the rich valleys of Ohio, Mifliffippi, Vou, XXXVII. STATES. and Miffouri, the climate is temperate and delightful, till we approach the Rocky mountains, when it is fubjeet to ex- tremes, the winters being very cold. ‘The climate mutt be chilled among mountains conftantly covered with fnow. Welt of thefe mountains the climate changes, until we reach the fhores of the Pacific ocean, where it refembles that of the weftern parts of Europe. The prevailing winds are from the weft, and as they pafs over a wide expanfe of water, they cool the air in fummer, and in winter deluge the coun- try with frequent rain. The Aifory of the United States has been already given, during the rife and progrefs, and to the termination of that difpute which feparated them from this country, under America. From the time of their firft fettlement to J uly 1776, they continued to be Britifh colonies; but in that month Congrefs declared them to be independent ftates. At this period their number was thirteen, and they contained about three millions of inhabitants. Since that time they have increafed in an aftonifhing degree, and now amount to nineteen ftates, and five territories, containing, by the cen- fus of 1810, 7,239,903 inhabitants: and it is faid by Melifh (1816) that about 253,400 may be added as the annual increafe fince that year. This writer obferves, that the progrefs of agriculture, manufaétures, and the mechanic arts, 1s more remarkable than that of the population. At the period of the revolution the fettlements were almoft wholly confined to the eaftward of the mountains, and prin- cipally along the fea-board, depending on Britain for manu- factures, and many of the neceflaries of life. The fettle- ments now extend acrofs the Miffiffippi, the interior being ftudded with towns, villages, and farm-houfes ; and abound- ing with grift-mills, fulling-mills, carding and roving ma- chines, paper-mills, cotton-mills, iron founderies and forges, tan-works, glafs-works, in fuch profufion, and increafing fo rapidly, that the internal manufactures will foon be fuffi- cient not only to fupply the demand at home, but to furnifh vait quantities of cotton yarn and cloth, and of hemp arti- cles, for exportation. he eftimated amount of manufac- tures in 1810, was 120,000,000 dollars. The increafe fince that time has been fo great, that they may be now eftimated at upwards of 200,000,000. The United States have hereto- fore exported flour, wheat, Indian corn, rice, afhes, cotton, indigo, tobacco, timber, fifh, live-ftock, tar, turpentine, &c. In 1812, the amount was 45,294,043 dollars. They have imported dry goods, groceries, tea, coffee, fugar, wine, brandy, &c. In 1812, the amount of the imports was nearly equal to the exports. ‘The {tate of commerce, it is faid, is rapidly changing from external to internal trade. The government of the United States is a federal republic. Each ftate has a conftitution for the management of its in- ternal affairs, and they are all formed into one united body by the ‘ federal conititution.”’ By this conftitution the le- iflative power is vefted in a congrefs of delegates from the al ftates, divided into two diftiné& bodies, the ** fenate,”’ and “ houfe of reprefentatives.’? The members of the latter are ele&ed every two years by the people, and the fenators are elected every fix years by the ftate legiflatures. The executive power is velted in a prefident (which fee), chofen every four years, by a number of delegates in each {tate, appointed in fuch manner as the {tate legiflatures may direct, and equal to the number of members which they refpectively fend to both branches of congrefs. The coniftitution gua- rantees for ever freedom of fpeech and liberty of the prefs. In the eye of the law all the inhabitants are equal. All mutt bear arms, or pay an equivalent ; and all are equally interefted in the defence of the country. The military ftrength of the country is a well-difciplined militia; and here is alfo an in- 3 F creafing UNITED STATES. creafing navy, to the maintenance of which the fifhing trade is peculiarly important. Trial by jury is to be preferved inviolate. A republican form of government is guaranteed to all the itates, and hereditary titles and diftin&tions are pro- hibited. With regard to the religion of the United States, it is ft1- pulated that no law fhall ever be paffed to eftablifh any par- ticular form of religion, or to prevent the free exercife of it: and no religious teft fhall be required as a qualification to any office of public truft under the United States. The following denominations of Chriftians are more or lefs nu- merous ; viz. Congregationalifts, Prefbyterians, Epifcopa- lians, Dutch reformed church, Baptifts, Quakers or Friends, Methodifts, Roman Catholics, German Lutherans, German Calvinifts, Moravians, or brethren of the epifcopal church. The Congregationalifts are faid to be the moft numerous, particularly in New England, and alfo in the middle and fouthern ftates. Next to thefe are the Prefbyterians, who inhabit chiefly the middle and fouthern ftates, and they are united under the fame conftitution. In 1796 thefe were di- vided into five fynods, viz. thofe of New York, Philadel- phia, Virginia, Carolinas, each of which four meet an- nually: and befides, they have a joint mecting, by their commiffioners, once a year, in general aflembly at Philadel- phia. The Prefbyterian churches are governed by congre- gational, prefbyterial, and fynodical affemblies ; but thefe aflemblies poffefs no civil jurifdi€tion. The Dutch reformed churches maintain the doétrine of the fynod of Dort, held in 1618, and conttitute fix claffes, which form one fynod, ftyled “ the Dutch reformed Synod of New York and New Jerfey.”’ The claffes confift of minifters and ruling elders ; each clafs delegating two minifters and an elder, to reprefent them in fynod. The number of Proteftant epifcopal churches is not afcertained. ‘There are fome in New Eng- land, but they are moft numerous in the fouthern ftates. The Baptifts are chiefly upon the Calviniftic plan as to doc- trines, and Independents as to church government and difci- pline. The Friends or Quakers went to America about the year 1656; the firft fettlers of Pennfylvania being of this defcription. The Methodifts are Arminian and Calvinittic. The Roman Catholics are principally fettled in Maryland, where they have a bifhop. The German inhabitants in thefe {tates principally belong to Pennfylvania and New York, and are divided into a variety of feéts, the principal of which are Lutherans, Calvinifts, Moravians, Tunkers, and Mennonites. But the German Lutherans are the moft numerous. The Moravians are difperfed over Pennfylvania, at Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Litiz ; and they have alfo other fettlements in New Jerfey, North Carolina, Rhode ifland, New York, &c. The Tunkers appeared in 1719, and landing in Philadelphia, difperfed themfelves in various parts of Pennfylvania; they are General Baptifts, and believe in univerfal redemption and falvation. Their principal fettle- ment is at Ephrata, called Tunker’s-town, in Lancafter county. The Mennonites are chiefly fettled in Pennfyl- vania. The Univerfalifts, who maintain the doftrine of the ultimate falvation of all men, are faid not to be numerous. The Unitarians are an increafing body. The Shakers form afmall body. There are fome few Jews, and many Deifts. Provifion is made for education and the improvement of the mind throughout the United States. Accounts in the United States were formerly kept in pounds, fhillings, and pence currency, which practice is ftill retained on fome occafions; but the value of the cur- rency is not the fame in different ftates. In Pennfylvania, New Jerfey, Delaware, and Maryland, che ratio of currency to fterling is as 3 to 5: and therefore 10 1. fterling = 1/. 135. 4d. currency ; or 1/. currency = 12s. fterling. In New Hampfhire, Maffachufetts, Conneéticut, Rhode Ifland, and Virginia, the ratio is as 3 to 4; and therefore r/. fterling = 1/. 6s. 8d. currency ; or 1/. currency = 155, fterling. In New York and North Carolina, the ratio is as 9 to 16 ; and therefore 1/. fterling = 1/. 15s. 62d. currency; or 1/. currency = 11s. 3d. fterling. In South Carolina and Georgia, the ratio is as 27 to 28; and therefore 1/. fterling = 1/. os. 8$d. currency ; or 1/, currency = 19gs. 33d. fterling. Hence the exchange between England and the United States is at par, when, for every 100/. fterling, Pennfyl- vania, Maryland, &c. give 166/. 13s. 4d. currency ; New England and Virginia, 133/. 6s. 8d. do.; New York and North Carolina, 177/. 15s. 62d. do.; Georgia and South Carolina, 103/. 14s. o$d. Moft of the European coins pafs in the United States, but Spanifh dollars are moft common: hence the value of other European monies is commonly expreffed in dollars, and hundredth parts of a dollar, called cents. The dollar is valued in the different {tates according to the currency of each place. Thus in Pennfylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and Jerfey, it paffes for 7s. 6d.; in New Eng- land and Virginia, for 6s.; in New York and North Caro- lina, for 8s.; in South Carolina and Georgia, for 4s. 8d. An uniform way of keeping accounts has been eftablifhed in the United States (by an aét of Congrefs in 1789) namely, in dollars of 10 dimes, 100 cents, or 1000 mills ; and this method is ufed in all public accounts. The American government, at the fame time, eftablifhed a mint, and ordered money to be coined, in gold, filver, and copper, according to the following denominations and values ; viz. Eagles, each to be of the value of to dollars, or units, and to contain 2474 grains of pure, or 270 grains of ftandard, gold, the ftandard being 22 carats, or 44 fine. Its intrin- fic value in Englifh gold is, therefore, 2/. 3s. 8d. nearly. Half eagles and quarter eagles were alfo ordered to be coined in the fame proportion. Dollars or units, each to be of the value of a Spanifh milled dollar, and to contain 3714 grains of pure, or 416 grains of ftandard, filver, the ftandard being +234 fine, or 100z. 14 dwts. nearly. Its intrinfic value in Englifh filver is, therefore, 4s. 33d. nearly. Half dollars, quarter dol- lars, dimes, or tenths of dollars, and half dimes, were alfo ordered to be coined in the fame proportion. Hence the pro- portion of gold to filver is as 4160 to 270, or as 153}to I. Cents, each to be of the value of the one-hundredth part of a dollar, and to contain 208 grains of copper. Half cents were ordered to be coined in the fame proportion. The remedy of the mint is one part in 144. In the public bank eftablifhed at Philadelphia in 1790, chartered by Congrefs, and empowered to appoint branch- banks in the different ftates, the capital was fixed at ten millions of dollars, and divided into 25,000 fhares, of 400 dollars each ; none of the fubfcribers were to hold more than 1000 fhares ; one-fourth of the fubfcription was to be paid in {pecie, and three-fourths in public ftock. Thefe fhares are transferrable, and yield a dividend, payable half yearly, of 7 or 8 per cent. per ann. The conftitution and govern- ment of this bank are nearly on the plan of the bank of England. The bank difcounts, at 6 per cent per ann., bills and notes that have no more than 65 days to run; the three days of grace are included, and difcount allowed for them. Bills or UNITED or notes intended to be offered for difcount mutt be delivered at the bank on the preceding day, inclofed under a cover, and direéted to the cafhier, mentioning the name of the holder of the bill. , Money depofited in the bank may be drawn out again at pleafure, free of expence ; but no money is paid to any perfon beyond the balance of his account. Other banks have been eftablifhed in Philadelphia, as well as in Bofton, New York, Baltimore, Alexandria, and Charleftown, fome of which were prior to the bank of Phi- ladelphia, called the “ United States’ Bank ;”’ but they are chartered only by their refpeétive ftates. Kelly’s Cambitt. The United States comprife three grand divifions : deno- minated Northern, or more properly Eaffern, Middle, and Southern ftates. The firit divifion (the Northern or Eaftern States) comprehends Vermont, Maflachufetts Proper, New Hamphhire, Rhode Ifland, Diftri& of Maine, Conneticut. (belonging to Maffachufetts ) STATES. Thefe are called the New England States, and compre- hend that part of America which, fince the year 1614, has been known by the name of New England. The fecond divifion (the Middle States ) comprehends New York, Ohio, New Jerfey, Indiana Territory, Pennfylvania, Michigan Territory. Delaware, The third divifion (the Southern States) comprehends Maryland, Tenneflee, Virginia, South Carolina, Kentucky, Georgia, North Carolina, To which we may now add Louifiana. The ftates, diftri€ts, and tetritories of the United States are defcribed under their appropriate appellations : but the area, extent, population, chief towns, &c. of each, are ex- hibited in one view of them in the following Miffiffippi Territory. ToroGRAPHICAL TABLE. Medium. States and Territories. [ kenedh ie N.and S, | E.and W. Maine - . - 216 162 Maffachufetts ° - 70 140 New Hampfhire - - 160 70 Vermont - - - 152 60 Rhode Ifland - - 48 42 Conneticut - - 50 80 New York -—— - - 198 256 New Jerfey - - - 138 50 Pennfylvania - - 153 273 Delaware - - - go 25 Maryland -~ - - 108 198 | Virginia - - - 220 370 Ohio - - - - 204. 210 Kentucky - . - 138 300 Tenneffee - - ‘ 102 420 } North Carolina - - 120 345 | South Carolina - - 162 216 Georgia - - - 300 240 Louifiana- - - 240 210 Indiana - - - 240 138 Diftri& of Columbia - 10 10 Miffiffippi Territory - 312 324 Hlinois Territory - - 306 210 Michigan Territory = - 234 138 North-weft Territory - 360 456 Miffouri Territory - 1380 1680 Area in Population Seat of a eb Square Miles. | aft Cenfus, Government. gress. 31,750 228,705 | Portland 565 8,500 472,040 | Bofton : 8,500 214,460 | Concord - 6 8,700 217,895 | Montpellier - 6 1,500 76,931 Providence - 2 4,000 261,942 Hartford - 7 46,000 959,049 | Albany = 27 6,600 245,562 | Trenton - 6 42,500 810,091 | Harrifburg - 23 1,700 72,674.| Dover - - 2 10,800 380,546 | Annapolis - 9 64,000 974,622 | Richmond - 23 39,000 230,760 | Columbus - 6 39,000 | 406,511 | Frankfort’ - 10 40,000 261,727 | Natfhville - 6 45,000 5553500 | Raleigh - - 15 28,700 415,115 | Columbia - 9 58,000 252,433 | Milledgeville - 6 48,000 765556 New Orleans - I 34,000 24,520 | Corydon* - fo) 100 24,023 | Wathington - ° 89,000 40,352 | Wafhington - ° 50,000 12,282 | Kafkafkia - ° 27,000 4,762 | Detroit - ~ ° 147,000 1,580,000 20,845 | St. Louis - ° 254595350 ! 7,239,903 182 Each {tate fends two fenators 36 Total legiflature | 218 * Indiana is about to be conftituted into a ftate, when it will fend two fenators, and one reprefentative, a2 From UNITED From this table it appears, that if we refer the diftri@ of Maine to Maffachufetts, and,admit Indiana, the number of ftates is now nineteen; of diftriéts, two; and of territories, four. Their re{peCtive topographical tables, extraéted from Mr. Melifh’s valuable publication, appear either in the fe- quel of this article, or under the appellation to which we refer. The diftri@ of Maine, according to the ftatement of Melifh, is fituated between 43° 5! and 47°45! N. lat., and 5° 55’ and 10° E. long. from Wafhington ; extending from N. to S. about 216 miles, from E. to W. 162, and compre- hending about 31,750 {quare miles, or 19,720,000 acres. For other particulars; fee Marne. Topographical Table. Counties. Townfhips. Population. Chief Towns. Cumberland 24 42,831 PortLanp 7,169 Hancock 76 30,031 Caftine 1,036 Kennebeck 33 32,564 Hallowell 2,068 Lincoln 36 = 42,992 Wilcaffet 2,083 @xford 37 17,630 Paris. Somerfet 3 12,910 Norridgewock 880 Wafhington 24 7,870 Machias 1,570 York 21 41,877 York 3,046 288 228,705 The ftate of Maffachufetts is fituated between 41° 13! and 42° 52'N, lat., and 3° 20! and 6° 55! E. long. from Wafhington, extending from N. to S. 70 miles, from E. to W. 140 miles, and comprehending 8500 f{quare miles, or 5»440,000 acres. See MAssACHUSETTS. Topographical Table. Counties. Townfhips: Population. Chief Towns. Barnftaple DAN A 2252 0 Barnftaple. Berkthire 32 352907 Stockbridge 1,261 Briftol 16 37,168 Taunton. Duke’s 3 3,290 Edgarton 1,365 Salem 12,612 Bu 73 (ae Newbury Port 1,634 Franklin.* Hampden.* Hamp fhire 64° 76,275 Springfield 2,767 Middlefex 44 52,789 Concord 1,633 Nantucket I 6,807 Sherburne. Norfolk 22 31,245 Dedham 2,172 Plymouth 18 35,169 Plymouth 4,228 Suffolk 2 34,381 Boston 335250 Worcetter 51 64,910 Worcetter 25577 290 472,040 * Laid out fince laft cenfus. The ftate of New Hampjhire is fituated between 42° 42! and 45° 13! N. lat., and 4° 23! and 6° 10! E. long. from Wathington ; extending from N. to S. 160 miles, from E. to W. 70, and comprehending 8500 fquare miles, or 5440,000 acres. See HAmpsHire. STATES, Topographical Table. Counties. Townthips. Population. Chief Towns, Chefhire 35 40,988 Keene tp. 1,646 Coos 24 3,991 Lancafter tp. 17 Grafton 35 28,462 Haverhill tp. 1,105 Hillfborough 42 49,249 Amhertt tp. 1,554 Concorp tp. 2,393 Rockingham 46 50,175 Portfmouth 6,934 Exeter tp. 1,759 Strafford 31 441,595 Dover tp. 2,288 213 214,460 For an account of the ftate of Vermont, fee VERMONT. The ftate of Rhode Ifland is fituated between 41°22! and 42°. lat., and 5° and 5° so! E. long. from Wafhington ; extending from N. to S. 48 miies, from E. to W. 42, and comprehending 1500 fquare miles, or 960,000 acres. See Ruope J/land. Topographical Table. Counties. Townfhips. Population. Chief Towns. Briftol 3 52972 Briftol 2,692 Kent 4 93834 Warwick. Newport 7 16,294 Newport 7,907 Providence 10 30,769 PROVIDENCE 10,071 Wathington ) 14,962 S. Kingfton. 31 76,931 The flate of Conneéficut is fituated between 41° and 42° N. lat., and 3° 20! and 5° E. long. from Wafhington; ex- tending from N. to S. 50 miles, from E. to W. 80, and comprehending 4000 {quare miles, or 2,560,000 acres. See ConNECTIGUT. Topographical Table. Counties. Townfhips. Population. Chief Towns. Fairfield 17 40,950 Fairfield. Hartford 18 44,733 Harrrorp 39995 Litchfield 22) it Alls 715 Litchfield. Middlefex 7 20,723 Middletown 2,014 New Haven 17 37,064. NEWHAVEN 5,772 New London 13 34,73)7 New London 3,238 Tolland 10 13,779 Tolland 1,638 Windham Ts 0 ze,Ox6 Windham 500 11g 261,942 For an account of the ftate of New York, fee New York. The ftate of New Jerfey is fituated between 38° 56! and 41° 20! N. lat., and 1° 33! and 3° 5! E. long. from Wath- ington ; extending 138 miles in length and 50 miles in breadth, and comprehending 6600 fquare miles, or 4,224,000 acres. See New JERSEY. Topo- Counties. Townhhips. Bergen Burlington Cape May Cumberland Effex Gloucefter Hunterdon Middlefex Monmouth Morris Salem Somerfet Suffex 7 12 3 8 Io ub) 116 The ftate of Penn/y/vania is fituated between 39° 43! and 42°N. lat., and 2° 20! E. and 3° 30! W. long. from Wathing- ton; extending from N.to S. 153 miles, from E. to W. 273, and comprehending 24,500 fquare miles, or 27,200,000 See PENNSYLVANIA. acres. UNITED STATES. Topographical Table. Population. Chief Towns. 16,603 Hackenfack tp. 1,958 243979 Burlington tp. 2,419 3,632 C.H. 12,670 Bridgetown. 25,984 Newark tp. 8,008 19,744 Gloucefter tp. 1,726 245553 TRENTONtp. 3,002 20,381 N. Brunfwick tp. 6,312 22,150 Freehold tp. 4,784. 21,828 Morriftown tp. 3,753 12,761 Salem 929 14,728 Boundbrook. 255549 Newtown tp. 2,082 2455562 Couaties. Townfhips. Population. Adams 18 Alleghany 15 Armftrong 7 Beaver 12 Bedford - 15 Berks 33 Bradford.* Bucks 29 Butler 13 Cambria 3 Centre It Chefter 40 Clearfield I Columbia.* Crawford 14 Cumberland 18 Dauphin. 15 Delaware 21 Erie 14 Fayette 19 Franklin 14 Greene 10 Huntingdon 18 Indiana 7 Jefferfon I Lancafter 25 Lebanon.* Lehigh.* Luzerne 29 Lycoming 18 M‘Kean I Mercer 16 Mifflin 9 Montgomery 30 Northampton 32 Northumberl. 26 Philadelphia 18 Carry up 551 Topographical Table. Chief Towns. 15,152 Gettyfburg. 255317 Pittfourg 4,768 6,143 Kitaning 309 12,168 Beaver 426 155746 Bedford 547 43,146 Reading tp. 3,462 32,371 Newton 790 75346 Butler tp. 458 2,117 Ebenfburg 75 10,681 Bellefont 303 395596 Welt Chefter 471 875 Clearfield tp. 875 6,178 Meadville 457 265757 Carlifle 2,491 31,883 HARRISBURG tp. 2,287 145734 Cheiter 1,056 3758 Erie 394 24,714 Union 999 23,083 Chamberfburg 2,000 12,544 Greene tp. 1,708 14,778 Huntingdon 676 6,214 Indiana 200 161 Jefferfon tp. 161 539927 Lancafter 5405 18,109 Wilkefbarre 1,225 11,006 Williamsport 344 142 Smethport. 8,277 Mercer. 125132 Lewiftown 474 29,703 Norriftown 1,330 38,145 Eafton. 365327 Northumberl. tp. 627 Philadel. Cit 2,866 111,200 Do. Gonnty, reaad 6945440 Counties. Townfhips. Brought up 551 Potter I Pike* I Schuylkill.* Somerfet 15 Sufquehanna.* Tioga 2 Union.* Venango 8 Warren 2 Wafhington 23 Wayne 12 Wetltmoreland 14 York 22 Population. Chief Towne. 6942440 29 Cowdersport. Milford 83 11,284 Somerfet 489 1,687 Wellfborough. 3,060 Franklin 159 82 Warren. 36,289 Wafhington 1,301 4,125 Bethany. 26,392 Greenfburg 685 31,958 York 2,847 810,091 * Laid out fince laft cenfus. The ftate of Delaware is fituated between 38° 29! and 39° 48'N. lat., and 1° 18! and 1° 58! E. long. from Wabh- ington ; extending from N. to S. go miles, from E. to W. 25, and comprehending about 1700 fquare miles, or 1,088,000 acres. See DELAWARE. Topographical Table. Counties. Hundreds, Population. Chief Towns. Kent 5- _ 20,495 Dover 800 New Caftle 9 24,429 Wilmington 4,406 Suffex II 273750 Georgetown 400 725674 25 The ftate of Maryland is fituated between 38° and 39° 43? N. lat., and 2° E. and 2° 30! W. long. from Wafhington ; extending from N. to S. go miles, from E. to W. 198, and comprehending 10, See MARYLAND. Counties. Alleghany - Ann Arundel - Baltimore - Ditto City = E. precin&s of do. W.do. - - Cecil - Calvert - Caroline - Charles - Dorchefter Frederick Harford - Kent - Montgomery Prince George Queen Ann’s St. Mary’s Somerfet - Talbot - Wafhington Worcetter 800 {quare miles, or 6,912,000 acres. Topographical Table. Population. Chief Towns. 6,909 Cumberland. 26,668 ANNAPOLIS 2,000 299255 ss Baltimore - 46,556 6,922 13,066 Elkton. 8,005 St. Leonard’s. 9,458 Denton. 20,245 Port Tobacco. 18,108 Cambridge. 34,437 Fredericktown 4,500 21,258 Harford. 11,450 Chetter. 17,980 Unity. 20,589 Marlborough. 16,648 Centreville. 12,794 Leonard T. 175195 Princefs Ann. 14,230 Eafton. 18,730 Elizabeth-town. 16,971 Snow Hill. 380,546 For UNITED STATES. For an account of the diftri€& of Columbia, fee Trrrt- roRY, CoLumBIA, and WASHINGTON. For an account of the ftate of Virginia, fee Vircinia. The ftate of Ohio is fituated between 38° 30! and 42° N. lat., and 3°32! and 7° 40! W. long. from Wafhington ; ex- tending from N. to S. 204 miles, and from E. to W. 210, and comprehending about 39,000 {quare miles, or 24,960,000 acres. See OHIo. : Topographical Table. Counties. Townfhips. Population. Chief Towns. Adams 9:434 Weft Union 224 A fhtabula.* Jefferfon. Athens 4 2,791 Athens tp. - 840 Belmont 11 11,097 St. Clairfville. Butler 9 11,150 Hamilton. Cayahoga 4 1,459 Cleveland tp. 547 Champaign 9g 9303 Urbanna. Clark.* Greenville. Clermont 8 9,965 Williamfburg tp. 1,251 Clinton 3 2,674 Wilmington. Columbiana 17 40,878 New Lifbon. Cofhoéton.* Cofhoon. Dark.* Delaware 4 2,000 Delaware. Erie.* Fairfield 15 11,361 New Lancatter. Fayette 4 1,854 Le at . : ranklnton tp. gI Franklin 8 3,486 { Canuuaas P At Gallia 12 4,181 Gallipolis. . Geauga 8 2,917 Chardon. Guernfey 9 3,051 Cambridge. Green 6 5,870 Zenia tp. 15429 Hamilton It 15,258 Cincinnati tp. 2,540 Harrifon.* Highland 7 5766 Hillfborough. Huron.* Jefferfon 15 17,260 Steubenville tp. 1,617 Johnfon.* Knox 5 2,149 Mount Vernon. Licking 7 3,852 Newark tp. 539 Madifon 6 1,603 New London. Medina.* Miami 6 3,941 Troy. Monroe.* Montgomery 7 75722 Dayton tp. 1,746 Mufkingum 11 10,036 Zanefville tp. 2,154. Pickaway 10 75124 Circleville. Portage 9 25995 Ravenna. Preble 7 35304 Eaton. Richland.* Mansfield. Rofs 16 155514 Chillicothe tp. 1,369 Scioto 9 35399 Port{mouth. Stark 7 25734. Canton tp. 846 Trumbull 19 8,671 Warren tp. 875 Tufcarawa 3,045 New Philadelphia. Warren 5 93925 Lebanon. Wafhington 12 5,991 Marietta tp. 1,463 Wayne.* Wootter. 320 230,760 * Laid out fince the laft cenfus, The ftate of Kentucky is fituated between 36° 30! and 39° 5! N. lat., and 4° 48! and 12° 20! W. long. from Washington ; extending from N. to S. 138 miles, from E. to W. 300, and comprehending 39,000 fquare miles, or See Kentucky. 24,960,000 acres, Topographical Table. Counties, © Population. Chief Towns. Adair - - 6,011 Columbia - 175 Barren - - 11,286 Glafgow - 244 Bath.* Boone - - 3,608 : Bracken - - 3.451 Augutta - 255 Breckenridge - 31430 Bourbon - 18,009 Paris = . 838 Butler - - 2,181 Bullet - - As31I " Clarke - - 11,519 Winchefter - 538 Cafey - - 3,285 ‘Liberty - - 33 Campbell - 3,060 Newport - 413 Chriftian - 11,020 Hopkinfonville 131 Cumberland - 6,191 Burkefville - 106 ay - - 2,398 Caldwell - 4,268 Eftil - - 2,082 Fayette - - 21,370 Lexington - 45326 Franklin i wis eigy FRANKFORT - 1,099 Fleming . 8,947 t Floyd) - = 3,485 Preftonville - 32 Gallatin - 35307 Port William 120 Greenup - 2,369 Green - - 6,735 Greenfburg - 132 Grayfon - 2,301 Garrard - 9,186 Lancafter - 260 Henry - - 6,777 Newcattle - 125 Harrifon - 75752 Cynthiana - 369 Henderfon = 45703 Henderfon - 159 Harden - - 95531 Elizabeth Town — 181 Hopkins - 2,964. Madifonville 37 Jeffamine - 8,377 Nicholafville 158 Jefferfon - 135399 Louifville - 1,357 Knox - - 59875 Barbourfville 55 Lexington. * Livingfton - 3,674 Smithland - 99 Lewis - - 25357 Lincoln - - 8,676 Logan - - 12,123 Ruffelville - 532 Maion - - 12,459 Wathington - 815 Mercer - : 12,630 Danville - - 432 Madifon - 155540 Richmond - 366 Muhlenburg - 4,181 Greenville - 75 Montgomery - 12,975 Mountfterling - 325 Nicholas - 4,898 Nelfon - - 14,078 Beardftown - 821 Ohio - - 3,682 Hartford - 110 Puolafi - - 6,897 Pendleton - 3,061 Falmouth - 121 Rockcaftle - 1,731 Scott - - 12,419 Georgetown - 529 Shelby - - 14,837 Shelbyville - 424 Union.* Wayne - - 52430 Monticello - 37 Wathington - 13,248 Springfield. - 249 Warren - 11,937 Bowling-green 154 Woodford - 9,659 Verfailles - 488 406,511 * Laid out fince the laft cenfus was taken. For EE UNITED For an account of the ftate of Tenneffee, fee TENNESSEE. The ftate of North Carolina is fituated between 33° 45! and 36° 30! N. lat., and 1° E. and 6° 50! W. long. from _ Wafhington ; extending from N. to S. 120 miles, and from - E. to W. 345, and comprehending 45,000 fquare miles, or See North CAROLINA. STATES. Counties, Brought u Suen - , Surry - Tyrrel - Wake - Warren - Wahhington Wayne - Wilkes - Population. Chief Towns. Upper Sara. Salem - A Elizabethtown. RALEIGH - Warrenton - Plymouth. Waynefboro’. Wilkes C. H. The ftate of South Carolina is fituated between 32° 6! and 35° N. lat., and 1° 30! and 6° 25° W. long. from Wafh- ington; extending from N. to S. 162 miles, from E. to W. 216, and comprehending 28,700 fquare miles, or 18,368,000 28,800,000 acres. Topographical Table. Counties, Population. Chief Towns. Anfon - - 8,831 Wadefborough. Afh - - 33694 Beaufort - 75203 Wafhington - 600 Bertie - - 11,218 Windfor. Bladen -— - 53671 Elizabethtown. Bruniwick- 4,778 Brunfwick. Buncombe - 95277 Afhville. Burke -— - 11,007 Morgantown. Cabarras - 6,158 Concord. Camden - 59347 Jonefburg. Carteret - 4,823 Beauford. Cafwell- - 11,757 Leafburg. Chatham - 12,977 Pittfborough. Chowan - 53297 Edenton - 1,500 Columbus = - 3,022 Whitefville. Craven - - 12,676 Newbern - 2,467 Cumberland - 95382 Fayetteville - 1,800 Currituck = - 6,985 Indiantown. Duplin - - 7,863 Sareéto. Edgecomb - 12,423 Tarborough 600 Franklin - 10,166 Louifburg. Gates - - 53965 (@n uk & Granville - 155576 Williamfborough. Green - - 4,867 CoH. Guilford - 11,420 Martinville - 300 Halifax - “ 15,620 Halifax. Haywood - 2,780 Hertford = 6,052 Wynton. Hyde - % 6,029 Germantown. Tredel - - 10,972 Statefville. Johnfon - 6,867 Smithfield. Jones - - 4,968 Trenton. Lenoir - - 55572 Kington. Lincoln - - 16,359 Lincolnton. Martin -~ - 5,987 Williamfton. Mecklinburg - 14,272 Charlotte. Moore - - 6,367 Alfordftown. Montgomery - 8,430 Henderfon. Nah - - 75268 Grr: New Hanover 11,465 Wilmington. 1,689 Northampton - 13,082 C.H. Onflow - - 6,669 Swanfborough. Orange - - 205135 Hillfborough. Pafquotank - 7,674. Nixonton. Perfon - - 6,642 Roxboro’. Pitt - - 9,169 Greenville. Perquimans - 6,052 Hartford. Randolph - 10,112 Cc. H. Richmond - 6,695 Rockingham. Robefon - 75528 Lumberton - 208 Rockingham - 10,316 Danbury. Rowan - - 21,543 Salifbury - 500 Rutherford - 13,202 Rutherfordton. Sampfon - 6,620 CoH: Carry up 480,830 acres. See South CAROLINA. Topographical Table. Difiri&s. Population. Chief Towns, Abbeville = 21,150 Abbeville. All Saints.* Barnwell - 12,280 Beaufort - 25,887 Beaufort = 1,000 Charlefton city 24,711 Charlefton diftriat 38,468 Chefter - - 11,479 Chefter. Cheiterfield - 51564. Claremont.* Clarendon.* Colleton - 26,359 Darlington - 9,047 Edgefield - 23,160 Fairfield - 11,857 Fairfield. Georgetown - 15,679 Georgetown - 2,000 Greenville = - 135133 Greenville. Horry, Sas 41349 Kerfhaw - 9,867 Camden - 1,000 Lancatter - 6,318 Laurens - 14,982 Laurens. Lexington’ - 6,641 Liberty.* Marion.* Marlborough - 4,966 Marlborough. Mafon - - 8,884: Newbury - 13,964 Newbury. Orange - = 13,229 Orangeburg. Pendleton . 22,897 Pendleton. Pinckney.* Richland - 9,029 CoLuMBIA - 1,500 Spartan - 145259 Spartanburg. St. Peters.* Sumpter - 19,054. Statefburg. Union - - 10,995 Union. Williamfburg - 6,871 Williamfburg. Yorks) =e 10,052 York. 415,115 * Laid out fince the laft cenfus. The UNITED The ftate of Georgia is fituated between 30° 30! and 35° N. lat., and 3° 50! and 9° 5’ W. long. from Washington ; extending from N. to S. 300 miles, and from E. to W. 240, and comprehending about 58,000 {quare miles, or 37,120,000 aeres. See GEORGIA. Topographical Table. Counties. Population. Chief Towns. Baldwin - - 6,356 MILLEDEGVILLE, 1257 Bryan - + 2,827 Aste Bullock - - 25305 Statefburgh Burke - - 10,858 Waynefborough 224 Camden- — - 3,941 St.Mary’s - 585 Chatham - 13,540 Savannah - 5,215 Clarke - - 7,628 Athens - - 273 Columbia - 11,242 Applington. Effingham - 2,586 Ebenezer - 19 Elbert - - 12,156 Peterfburg - 3 32 Emanuel.* Franklin - 10,815 Carnefville = - 78 Glynn - - 3,417 Brunfwick. Greene - - 11,679 Greenfborough 41t Hancock - 135330 Sparta - - 317 Jackfon- - 10,569 Jefferfonton - 70 Jafper - - 15573 Monticello - 220 Jefferfon - 6,111 Louifville - 524 Jones - - 8,597 Clinton - - 85 Laurens - - 2,210 Dublin. Liberty - - 6,228 Riceboro’. Lincoln - - 45555 Lincolnton - 108 Madifon.* Danielfville. M‘Intofh - 35739 Darien - - 206 Montgomery - 2,954 C. H. Morgan - - 8,369 Madifon - - 229 Oglethorpe - 12,297 Lexington aian222 Pulafki - - 2,093 Hartford. Putnam - - 10,029 Eatonton - 180 Richmond = 6,189 Augutta - - 2,476 Scriven - - 45477 Jackfonborough 20 ‘Tattnal - - 2,206 (Gmlet Telfair - - 744 C. H. Twiggs - - 32405 Marion. Walton - - 1,026 Warren - - 8,725 Warrenton - 123 Wafhington - 9,940 Saunderfville Wayne - - 676 Cc. H. Wilkes - - 14,887 Wafhington - 596 Wilkinfon - 2,154 Irwinton. 2545433 * Laid out fince the laft cenfus. STATES. The ftate of Louifiana is fituated between 29° and 33° N. lat., and 12° and 17° W. long. from Washington ; extend- ing from N. to S. 240 miles, from E. to W. 210, and com- prehending 48,000 {quare miles, or 30,540,000 acres. See Louistana. Topographical Table. Parifhes. Population. Chief Towns. Afcenfion - 2,219 Donaldfonville - 200 Affumption - 25472 Avoyelles - 1,109 Baton Rouge Weft 1,463 ; Concordia - 2,875 Concordia - 200 Iberville - 2,679 Interior of La Fourche 15995 Natchitoches - 2,870 Natchitoches - 606 Ouachitta - 1,077 Ocatahoola - 1,164 Orleans - 245552 New ORLEANS 17,242 Plaquemines - 1,549 Point Coupee 45539 Rapides- = - 25300 Alexandria - 300 St. Bernard - 1,020 St. Charles - 3,291 St. John Baptifte 2,990 St. aan - 33955 Ouaaae - 5,048 Opeloufas - 150 St. Mary’s and St. Martin’s Acet 75369 St. Martin’s - 150 capas - - 764556 Add the four Pa- rifhes from the Miffiffippi Terri- tory. Baton Rouge E. Baton Rouge - ~ 800 New Feliciana St. Francifville 400 St. Helena ma Springfield - 150 St. Tammany C..EX. $6,556 The ftate of Louifiana is divided into twenty-five parifhes, whofe naturat pofitions are, fix north of 31° N. lat.; three fouth of 31° N. lat. and weft of Atchafalaya river ; and fixteen eaft of Atchafalaya. Their refpective extent in {quare miles, and population in 1810, is exhibited by the following table. Statiftical UNI UNI Statiftical Tawre of the Extent of the Parifhes of the State of Louifiana, and their Population in 1810. Parifhes. Square Miles. Acres. Population in Plaquemines - Orleans - St. Bernard - St. Charles - St. John Baptifte St. James - Afcenfion - 1,500 1,300 400 300 150 170 350 960,000 832,000 256,000 192,000 96,000 108,800 224,000 Arpents. 1,134,300 983,060 302,480 226,860 Sash) 128,554 264,670 1810. 15549 245552 1,020 35291 2,990 39955 25219 if cutee AU SEP Affumption - Interior of La Fourche Iberville - - Welt Baton Rouge Point Coupée = a ~ = St. Mary’s and St. Martin’s Attacapas St. Landré, Opeloufas = Natchitoches Quachitta Rapides Ocatahoola Concordia Avoyelles - New Feliciana Eaft Baton Rouge St. Helena - St. Tammany Pew re Oe ot 48,220 For an account of the ftate of Jndiana, fee TERRITORY and InpIANA. For an account of the Mififippi Territory, fee TERRITORY and Mississippi. For the J/linois Territory, fee TeRRirory and ILLinots. For the North-Weft Territory, fee TERRITORY. For the Miffourt Territory, fee Territory and Mis- SOURI. For the Michigan Territory, fee Territory and Dr- TROIT. The territory of Orleans comprehends the county of Or- leans, the German coaft, Acadia, Lafourche, Iberville, Point Coupee, Concordia, Ouachitta, Rapides, Natchi- toches, Opeloufas, and Attacapan; and by the cenfus of 1810, its whole population confifted of 76,556 perfons. (See Orteans and Louisiana). Melith’s Geographical Defcription of the United States. Philadelphia. 1816. Morfe’s Geography. To the preceding general account of the United States, the Editor fubjoins the pleafing information with which he is furnifhed by the 13th report of the Britifh and Foreign Bible Society (1817), that 130, or upwards, of fuch focie- ties have been eftablifhed in thefe States, among which are nu- merous female inftitutions: and that, in confequence of a convention of delegates from different Bible focieties, held in the city of New York, in May 1816, a fociety was inftituted under the name of ‘* The American Bible Society,’’ of which the fole obje&t fhould be to encourage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures, without note or comment. Several of the American focieties have received pecuniary aid from the Britifh and Foreign Bible Society. Uniten States’ Saline, a townfhip of the Tllinois terri- tory, in the county of Randolph, containing 845 inha- bitants. Vou. XXXVII 500 2,500 350 850 600 5,100 7,600 10,600 4,000 25300 2,000 2,100 700 1,050 500 1,300 2,000 320,000 1,600,000 224,000 544,000 384,000 3,264,000 4,864,000 6,784,000 2,560,000 15472,000 1,280,000 1,344,000 448,000 672,000 320,000 832,000 1,280,000 378,100 1,890,500 264,670 642,770 453720 3,856,620 597472120 8,015,720 3,024,800 15739:260 1,512,400 1,588,020 $292340 794,010 378,000 983,060 1,512,400 25472 15995 2,679 1,463 45539 72369 5,048 2,870 1,077 2,300 1,164 30,860,800 36,463,964 UNITY, Uniras, the abftra&, or quality, which con- flitutes, or denominates a thing wuum, or one. The f{chool philofophers generally define unity, by a thing’s being undivided in itfelf, and divided from every thing elfe. Others, more accurately, define it, a mode of being, by which it agrees to any particular being, once : thefe make two kinds of unity, viz. unity of fimplicity, which is both undivided and indivifible; fuch as that of God, angels, and human fouls: the other, union of compo- fition, which, though undivided, is divifible in the being, as confifting of divers parts ; fuch is that of man, &c. Hence, unity is alfo divided into that ger /e, which agrees to any being whofe parts are colleéted into one fubftratum : and unity per accidens, whofe parts are not united into one fubftratum, as that of a flock of fheep, &c. Some alfo make a fingular, or numerical unity, andan univerfal unity ; a real, and an imaginary unity, &c. It is difputed among mathematicians, whether or not unity be a number? The generality of authors hold the negative, and make unity to be only inceptive of number, or the principle of it; as a point is of magnitude, and an unifon of concord. Stevinus is very angry with the maintainers of this opinion: and yet, if number be defined a multitude of units joined together, as many authors define it, it is evi- dent that unity is not itfelf a number. It is to be obferved in algebra, that unity itfelf has three different expreffions of its cube root, one real, and the other two impoffible, or imaginary. Thus the three cube roots of AE PELL OEDE Cy te ee 2 2 I, are I, This is. fometimes of ufe in finding the cube roots of quantities, appearing under impoffible expreffions. 3G The UNI The two impoffible expreffions of the 3/1 may be thus found: let «= 1, then x3 = 1, or x3 —1=0, andx—1I =o. Divide x3 — 1 by x — 1, the quotient is xx + x + r=0, orxx+x=—r1 Refolve this quadratic equa- tion, by adding 7 to both fides. Thenxx + x+4+i= — 3, and extracting the {quare root, x + = /—2= a Therefore * = —44 s—i2= atew as That is, Abe re e/a A ia te 5 2 2 laurin’s Algebra, p. 128. 226. Unity, among Divines. The Romanifts, and the re- formed, difpute, whether or not the church be one fingle body, all the members of which are joined together, either really, or in inclination; fo that whatever does not apper- tain to that body, is no part of the church; which is what they call the unity of the church; and which the Romanitts maintain to be reftrained to one fingle fociety, or one com- munion, under one vifible head ; and out of which the Pro- teftants are excluded. Thefe lait, on the contrary, hold, that the unity of the church may ftill fubfift, without the members being united under any one vifible head ; it being fufficient, that all Chriftians be united by the bonds of mu- tual love and charity ; and that they be agreed in the funda- mental points of etn _ _ All the difficulty is, to fix what thofe fundamentals are ; fome inclining to make the door of the church wider than others. See Untrormiry. Uniry, in Poetry. In the drama there are three unities to be obferved ; the unity of aéion, that of time, and that of place. ; In the epic poem, the great and almoft only unity is that of the aétion. Some regard, indeed, ought to be had to that of time: but that of place there is no room for. The unity of charaéter is not reckoned among the unities. The unity of the dramatic a&tion confifts in the unity of the intrigue in comedy, and that of the danger in tragedy ; and this not only in the plan of the fable, but alfo in the fable extended and filled with epifodes. The epifodes are to be worked in, without corrupting the unity, or forming a double aétion; and the feveral members are to be fo conneéted together, as to be con- fiftent with that continuity of aétion fo neceflary to the body ; and which Horace prefcribes, when he fays, “ fit quodyis fimplex duntaxat et unum.” The unity of the epic aGtion, M. Dacier obferves, does not confift in the unity of the hero, or in the unity of his charaéter and manners; though thofe be circumftances ne- ceflary to it. The unity of adion requires, that there be but one principal aétion, of which all the reft are to be in- cidents, or dependencies. F. Boflu affigns three things requifite to it: the firft, that no epifode be ufed, but what is fetched from the plan and ground of the aétion, and which is a natural member of that body: the fecond, that thefe epifodes and members be well conneéted with each other : the third is, not to finifh any epifode, fo as it may appear a whole a@tion; but to let each be always feen in its quality of member of the body, and an unfinifhed part. The fame excellent critic examines the /Eneid, Iliad, and Odyfley, with refpeé& to thefe rules, and finds them ftri€tly obferved. Indeed, it was from the condu& of thofe divine poems, that he took the hint of the rules themfelves. In- See Mac- UNE {tances in which thefe rules are all negle&ted, he gives us 10 Statius’s Thebaid. To the unity of time, it is required, in the drama, that the aétion be included in the fpace of a day. Ariftotle fays exprefsly, it muft not exceed: the time the fun employs in making one revolution, which is a natural day, under pain of irregularity : fome critics will even have it included in the {pace of twelve hours, or an artificial day. Indeed, the ancient tragic poets fometimes difpenfed with this rule ; and many of the modern Englifh ones difallow it: and very few of them praétife it. In the epic poem, the unity of time is ftill lefs eftablifhed. In effe&t, there is no fixing the time of its duration; in re- gard, the warmer and more violent the a¢tion is, the lefs mutt be its continuance; whence it is, that the Iliad, re-~ prefenting the anger of Achilles, only contains forty-feven days at moft; whereas the action of the Odyfley holds eight years and a half, and that of the ineid almoft feven ears. , But the length of the poem Ariftotle gives us a rule for; which is, that it be fuch as that it may be read over in one day: pretending, that if it exceeds that compafs, the ima- gination will be bewildered in it, and that one cannot fee the end, without having loft the idea of the beginning. As to the unity of place and /cene, neither Horace nor Ariftotle give us any rules relating to them. It were to be wifhed, indeed, that what is prefented to the audience on the fame ftage, which is never fhifted, might be fuppofed to have paffed in the fame houfe, and the fame apartment. But as fuch a conftraint would cramp the poet too much; and as fuch an uniformity would fuit very ill with abundance” of fubjeéts ; it has been agreed, that what paffes any where in the fame town or city, fhall be allowed for unity of place. At leaft, if two different places be unavoidable ; yet the place is never to be changed in the fame aé&. Shak{peare, it is well known, paid no regard to: the unities of time and place. On this fubje& Dr. Johnfon obferves, in the preface to his edition of Shak{peare’s plays, that perhaps a nearer view of the principles on which they ftand will diminifh their value, and withdraw from them the veneration which, from the time of Corneille, they have very generally received, by difcovering that they have given more trouble to the poet than pleafure to the auditor. As nothing is eflential to the fable but unity of ation, and as the unities of time and place arife evidently from falfe affumptions, and by circum{cribing the extent of the drama, leffens its variety, Dr. Johnfon does not think we need much lament their not beg known or not obferved by Shakfpeare. He adds,-as the refult of -his enquiries, that the unities of time and place are not effential to a juit drama; that though they may fometimes conduce to pleafure, they are always to be facrificed to the nobler beauties of variety and inftruGtion ; and that a play written with nice obfervations of critical rules, is to. be contemplated as an elaborate curiofity, as the produ€t of fuperfluous and oftentatious art, by which is fhewn rather what is poffible than what is neceflary. ; He that, without diminution of any other excellence fhall preferve all the unities unbroken, deferves the like ap- plaufe with the architect, who fhall difplay all the orders of archite&ture in a citadel, without any deduGion from its {trength ; but the principal beauty of a citadel is to exclude the enemy ; and the greateft graces of a play are to copy nature and inftruét life. Unity of Poffeffion, in Law, fignifies a joint pofleffion of two rights, by feveral titles. Thus, UNI Thus, if I take a leafe of land upon a certain rent, and afterwards buy the fee fimple ; this is an unity of poffeffion, -by which the leafe is extinguifhed: by reafon I, who before had only the occupation for my rent, am now become lord of the fame, and am to pay rent to none but myfelf. Unity of poffeffion amounts to the fame with what civi- lians called con/olidation; which fee. The unity of a joint eftate is fourfold, viz. unity of in- tereft, the unity of title, the unity of time, and the unity of poffeffion ; or, in other words, joint-tenants have one and the fame intereft, accruing by one and the fame con- veyance, commencing at one and the fame time, and held by one and the fame undivided poffeffion. See Blackft. Com. b. ii. ~ Unity of a Sentence, in Grammar and Rhetoric. STYLE: * 5 Unity of Melody. This is an ingenious idea, which we think merits a place among mufical defiderata: it was firft fuggefted and recommended by Rouffeau, in his Letter on French Mufic, 1751, and afterwards enforced in his Mufi- cal DiGtionary, in the following manner. ‘ There is in all the fine arts fome obje& of unity, or fymmetry, the fource of intelleGtual pleafure: for attention divided by two dif- ferent objects, has no repofe ; and when two objects occupy us at once, it is a proof that the mind is fatisfied with neither. (Baretti ufed to fay that two misfortunes were better than one, beccaufe they divided the attention.) There is in mufic a fucceffive unity with refpe& to the fub- je&, by which all the paris well combined conftitute a whole, whence we perceive the en/emé/e and all its relations. “¢ But there is another more refined and more fimultaneous object of unity, whence there infenfibly arifes the energy of mufic and farce of its expreffions. “When I hear our pfalms fung in four parts, I begin to liften with great delight at the full and nervous harmony ; and the firft chords, when they are perfeétly in tune, affe& me even to fhivering ; but before I have liftened many mi- nutes to the reft, my attention diminifhes, till by degrees I am ftunned with the noife; I become indifferent, and, at length, tired with hearing nothing but chords. “This does not happen when I hear good modern mufic, though the harmony is not fo vigorous ; and I remember at the opera in Venice, a beautiful air well executed never tired me, whatever was its length; and if repeated, my at- tention was renewed, and I heard it with more intereft the fecond time than the firft. *¢ This difference arifes from the chara¢ter of the two mufics, of which one is only a fucceffion of chords, and the other a feries of fingle founds in melody. Now the pleafure which we receive from harmony, is only that of pure fenfation, and the enjoyment of the fenfes is always fhort. Satiety and fatigue follow each other very clofely ; but the pleafure from melody, is an interefting pleafure of fentiment which fpeaks to the heart, and which an artift may always fuftain and renew by force of genius. * Mufic ought therefore neceffarily to fing, in order to in- tereft, pleafe, and fupport the attention. But in our fyf- tems of chords and mere harmony, can mufic fing, or have any interefting melody? If each part has its own melody, all thefe melodies heard at once, mutually deftroy each other, and annihilate all melody: if all the parts perferm the fame melody, we fhall have no harmony, and the con- cert will be wholly in unifon. *‘The manner in which a mufical inftin@, a certain im- ~pulfe of genius, has vanquifhed this difficulty without feeing it, and at the fame time turned it to advantage, is very re- markable. Harmony, which, abufed, would fuffocate me- See UNI lody, animates, enforces, and gives it a charaGter: the dif- ferent parts, judicioufly arranged, concur in producing the fame effe@, and though each feems to have a melody of its own, from all thefe parts united, we hear only one and the fame melody. This is what I call unity of melody. . “ Let us now explain how harmony itfelf, far from injur- ing, concurs in fupporting this unity. Our melodies are charaéterifed by our keys and meafures, and our keys are governed by harmony. Whenever the harmony enforces and determines the fentiment of the mode or key and the modulation, it adds to the expreffion of the melody, pro- vided it does not cover and render it infignificant. “The compofer’s art, therefore, after rendering himfelf a mafter of harmony and modulation, fhould be principally pointed to the unity of melody. 1/2 When the key is not fufficiently determined in the melody, to render it more cer- tain by the harmony. 2. To fele&t and ufe his chords in fuch a manner, that the moft interefting found fhould be always in the principal melody, and that its intereft fhould arife from the bafe. 3. To add to the energy of each paflage by harfh chords, if the expreffion is harfh, and by pleafing chords, if the expreffion is fweet. 4. 'To pay attention in the ftyle of the accompaniment to the piano and forte of the melody: and 5. To contrive that the melody of the parts of accompaniment do not counteraé the principal, but fuftain, fecond, and give it a more lively and marked accent. ‘“* The unity of melody particularly requires that two me- lodies equally interefting fhould not be heard at the fame time, but not that the melody fhould never pafs from one part to another. (In the quartets of Haydn, Mozart and Pleyel, there is nothing more amufing to the hearers, or more flattering to the performers, than giving the melody alternately to the different parts, in the way of dialogue. } But a treatife would be neceffary to fhew in detail the appli- cation of this principle to duos, trios, quartets, chorufes, and fymphonies. Men of genius will difcover its extent and ufe, and their works will inftru& others. I therefore conclude by afferting, upon the principle which I have been trying to eftablifh ; firit, that all mufic which does not fing is tirefome, in whatever harmony it may be clothed ; fe- condly, that all mufie in which many different fimultaneous parts are diftinguifhed, is bad, and that there refults from it the fame effe@ as from two or more people {peaking upon different fubje€&ts at the fame time. From this opinion, which admits of no exception, will be pointed out what we ought to think of thofe wonderful compofitions, where one air ferves for an accompaniment to another. ‘* It is from this principle of the unity of melody, which the Italians have felt and followed without knowing it, ‘but which the French have neither known nor followed ; it is, I repeat it, from this grand principle, that the effential dif- ference of the two mufics arifes; and it is, I believe, what every impartial judge will allow, who fhall liften to both with equal attention, if however that is poflible.”’ Uniry, in Geography, a town of America, in the diftri@ of Maine and county of Kennebeck, containing 793 inha- bitants; 60 miles N. of Brunfwick.—Alfo, a town of New Hamphhire, in the county of Chefhire, containing 1044 in- habitants: N.E. of Charleftown.—Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Weftmoreland county, containing 2174 in- habitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Columbiana, containing 827 inhabitants. Unity Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 57°8!. W. long. 61° 30!. UNIVALVE, in Conchology, 2 genus of fhells. See Concuoxocy and SHELLS. 3G2 UNI- UNIVERSALS. UNIVERSAL, fomething that is common to many things ; or, it is one thing belonging to many, or all things. The word, according to fome, is compounded of unum verfus alia. “There are univerfal inftruments, for meafuring all kinds of diftances, as heights, lengths, &c. called alfo pantometers and holometers. An univerfal dial is that by which the hour may be found by the fun all over the earth; or under any elevation of the pole. See Univerfal Diau. Several learned authors have had it in view to eftablifh an univerfal charaéter; by which the different nations might underftand each other’s writings, without learning their language. See Univerfal CHARACTER. The Romanifts are divided among themfelves about the title of univerfal bifbop, which fome of the popes have arro- gated to themfelves ; though others of them have declined it. Baronius holds the appellation to belong to the pope jure divino ; and yet St. Gregory, oppofing the fame qua- lity given by a council in 586 to John, patriarch of Con- ftantinople, afferted exprefsly, that it did not belong to any bifhop ; and that the bifhops of Rome neither could, nor ought to take it. Accordingly, St. Leo refufed to accept it, when offered him by the council of Chalcedon ; for fear, left, giving fomething particular to one bifhop, they fhould take from all the reft ; fince there could not be an uni- verfal bifhop, but the authority of the reft muft be diminifhed. Universal, Univerfale, in Logic, is either complex or in- complex. A complex univerfal, is either an univerfal propofition, as, ‘‘ Every whole is greater than its parts ;’”? or whatever raifes a manifold conception in the mind; as the definition of a reafonable animal. An incomplex univerfal, is what produces one only con- ception in the mind, and is a fimple thing, refpeGting many ; as human nature, which relates to every individual in which it is found, Now in an univerfal, two things are diftinguifhed ; the matter, called the material univerfal, univerfale materiale, which is the one nature multipliable into many ; as hu- manity in Peter, Paul, &c. ; and the form, called the formal univerfal, which is the unity of that nature. Wherefore, to conftitute an univerfal, it is requifite the nature be one, yet» multipliable ; but what fuch a nature is thas proved matter of great controverfy, both among the ancient and modern philofophers. The Platonifts will have univerfals to be nothing but di- vine ideas. By idea, they mean the pattern or form which the artificer has in view when he makes any thing; but as this is twofold ; internal, which is a fort of image of the thing to be done, which the artificer frames in himfelf ; and external, which is fomething out of himfelf, which the arti- ficer imitates ; the philofophers have been infinitely per- plexed to find which of the two Plato meant. The Peripa- tetics infift he meant the external; but the Platonifts, and moft of the Chriftian divines, were advocates for the internal. The Peripatetic fyftem of {pecies and phantafms, as well as the Platonic fyftem of ideas, is grounded, fays Dr. Reid, in his reafoning againft the ideal theory (fee Ipza), upon this principle, that in every kind of thought, there mutt be fome objec that really exilts ; in every operation of the will, fomething to work upon. Whether this immediate obje& be called an idea with Plato, or a phantafm or {pecies with Ariftotle ; whether it be eternal and uncreated, or pro- duced by the impreffions of external obje¢ts, is, as he thinks, of no confequence in the prefent argument. 9 The Stoics and Nominalifts maintain this in common with the Platonifts, that univerfals are not in the things them- felves, but out of them. The Stoics particularly, for uni- verfals, put a kind of formal conceptions, or a€&ts of know~ ing; by reafon they reprefent many things at the fame time ; ¢. g. knowledge, reprefenting all men, is, according to the Stoics, an univerfal. The Nominalifts make words univerfals; becaufe the fame word reprefents many things, as the word man repre- fents all men ; but both Stoics and Nominalifts make uni- verfals to be fomething extrinfic to things themfelves ; al- leging that whatever exifts, or is produced, is fingular ; fo that there is no univerfal really in things. See NomInALs and REAListTs. The Peripatetics, however, contend, that there are uni- verfal and common natures in things themfelves ; or that things and natures like each other forma material univerfal. But as to the manner in which they are univerfal, or whence they derive their univerfality, that is, their unity and apti- tude of being in many, whether from nature, or. from our underftanding, is great matter of difpute among them. If they derive that unity in which their univerfal form is placed from nature, then there is an univerfal @ parte rei ; which is the opinion of the Scotifts. If they do not derive it from nature, but only from our minds or underftandings, then the doétrine of the Thomitts is allowed, who contend, that a formal univerfal has no other exiftence, but by an act of the intellect. ¢¢ Asin all the ancient metaphyfical {yftems,”’ faysthe inge- nious profeflor Dugald Stewart, ‘it was taken for granted, that every exertion of thought implies the exiflence of an obje& diftin& from the thinking being ; it naturally oc- curred, as a curious queftion, What is the immediate object of our attention, when we are engaged in any general fpecu- lation ? or, in other words, what is the nature of the idea correfponding to a general term ???—‘‘In anfwer to this queftion,” fays the profeffor, ‘the Platonifts, and, at an earlier period, the Pythagoreans, taught, that although thefe univerfal ideas are not copied from any obje&ts per- ceivable by fenfe, yet that they have an exiftence independ- ent of the human mind, and are no more to be confounded with the underftanding, of which they are the proper ob- jects, than material things are to be confounded with our powers of external perception: that as all the individuals which compofe a genus, mult poffefs fomething in common ; and as it is in confequence of this, that they belong to that genus, and are diftinguifhed by that name, the common thing forms the eflence of each ; and is the object of the un- derftanding, when we reafon concerning the genus. They maintained alfo, that this common eflence, notwithftanding its infeparable union with a multitude of different indi- viduals, is in itfelf one and indivifible.’’ tutes the term effence for idea, as more intelligible to the modern reader, and more fuited to convey the true import of Plato’s expreffions. (See Essence.) On moft of thefe points, the philofophy of Ariftotle very nearly agreed with that of Plato; though they ufed different language in developing their ref{peétive opinions. Plato, fond of the marvellous and myfterious, maintained the incomprehenfible union of the fame idea or eflence, with a number of indi- viduals, without multiplication or divifion. Ariftotle, aim- ing at greater perfpicuity, contented himfelf with faying, that all individuals are compofed of matter and form ; and that in confequence of poffefling a common form, different individuals belong to the fame genus. “ But they both agreed, that, as the matter, or the individual natures of ob- jects were perceived by fenfe ; fo the general idea, or effence, or Our author fubfti- © UNIVERSALS. or form, was perceived by the intelle& ; and that, as the attention of the vulgar was chiefly engroffed with the former, fo the latter furnifhed to the philofopher the mate- rials of his {peculations. “ The chief difference between the opinions of Plato and Ariftotle on the fubje&t of ideas, related to the mode of their exiftence. That the matter of which all things are made, exifted from eternity, was a principle which both ad- mitted ; but Plato farther taught, that, of every fpecies of things, there is an idea or form which alfo exifted from eternity ; and that this idea is the exemplar or model ac- cording to which the individuals of the {pecies were made ; whereas Ariftotle held, that, although matter may exift without form, yet that forms could not exift without matter. “The doGtrine of the Stoics concerning univerfals, differed widely from thofe both of Plato and Ariftotle, and feems to have approached to a fpeculation which is commonly fup- ofed to be of a more recent origin, and which an eminent philofopher of the prefent age has ranked among the dif- coyeries which do the greateit honour to modern genius.” See Hume’s Treatife of Human Nature, book i. part i. feét. 7. Our author’s preceding ftatement of Ariftotle’s doc- trine, as far as it is commonly fuppofed to differ from that of Plato, is founded on the authority of Brucker, whom we have cited under the appropriate titles ; though Harris, in his “ Hermes,” and the author of the ‘* Origin and Progrefs of Language,” give a different account of the difference fubfifting between them. The opinion which generally prevailed among the Scho- laftics in the dark .ages was, “that univerfals do not exift before things, nor after things, but in things; that is, uni- verfal ideas have not (as Plato thought) an exiftence fepa- rable from individual objects ; and, therefore, they could not have exifted prior to them in the order of time ; nor yet, (according to the doGtrine of the Stoics,) are they mere conceptions of the mind, formed in confequence of an examination and comparifon of particulars ; but thefe ideas or forms are from eternity united infeparably with that matter of which things confift; or, as the Ariftotelians fometimes exprefs themfelves, the forms of things are from eternity immerfed in matter.’’ This opinion concerning the nature of univerfals was ge- nerally maintained till the eleventh century, when a new doétrine, borrowed from the fchool of Zeno, was propofed by Rofcelinus, and propagated by Abelard. According to thefe philofophers, there are no exiftences in nature corre- fponding to general terms, and the objeéts of our attention in all our general fpeculations, are not ideas, but words. The Scholaitics from this time formed themfelves into two fe&s, viz. the Nominalifts and Realifts : the former attach- ing itfelf to the opinions of Rofcelinus and Abelard, and the latter to the principles of Ariftotle. See Nominats and REAtists. Our: author’s opinion coincides with that of the Nomi- nalifts ; and from his elaborate ftatement of the procefs of the mind, in purfuing general fpeculations, he infers, ‘that idea, which the ancient philofophers confidered as the effence of an individual, is nothing more than the particular quality or qualities in which it refembles other individuals of the fame clafs ; and in confequence of which, a generic name is applied to it. itis the poffeffion of this quality, that en- titles the individual to the generic appellation ; and which, therefore, may be faid to be effential to its claflification with that particular genus ; but as all claffifications are to a cer- tain degree arbitrary, it does not neceffarily follow, that it is more effential to its exiftence as an individual, than yarious other qualities which we are accuftomed to regard as acci- dental. In other words (if I may borrow the language of modern philofophy), this quality forms its nominal, but not its real effence.”? See CLASSIFICATION, ABSTRACTION, and GENERALIZATION. After the death of Abelard, the Realifts began to revive ; the fe of the Nominalifts declined, and in the fourteenth century was almoft completely extin@. Their do&trine was equally reprobated by the two great parties which then divided the fchools ; the followers of Duns Scotus and of Thomas Aquinas. (See Scorists and THomists.) At length, William Occam vindicated the long-abandoned phi- lofophy of Rofcelinus. See Nomrnats. Although the names, of the contending parties no longer exift, the fubjeét of controverfy between them has at a very late period interefted the attention of philofophers. The moft diftinguifhed advocates for the doCtrine of the Nomi- nalifts, fince the revival of letters, are Hobbes, Berkeley, and Hume. “The univerfality of one name to many things,” fays Hobbes (Tripos, chap. v. § 6.) “ hath been the caufe that men think the things themfelves are univerfal ; and fo fe- rioufly contend, that befides Peter and John, and all the reft of the men that are, have been, or fhall be, in the world, there is yet fomething elfe that we call man, viz. man in general ; deceiving themfelves, by taking the univerfal, or general appellation, for the thing it fignifieth: for if one fhould defire the painter to make him the pi€ture of a man, which is as much as to fay, of a man in general; he meaneth no more, but that the painter fhould chufe what man he pleafeth to draw, which muft needs be fome of them that are, or have been, or may be; none of which are univerfal. But when he would have him to draw the picture of the king, or any particular perfon, he limiteth the painter to that one perfon he chufes. It is plain, therefore, that there is nothing univerfal but names; which are therefore called indefinite, becaufe we limit them not ourfelves, but leave them to be applied by the hearer : whereas a fingular name is limited and reftrained to one of the many things it fig- nifieth ; as when we fay, this man, pointing to him, or giving him his proper name, or by fome fuch other way.’” Berkeley and Hume do not materially differ from one another. ‘ A very natural queftion,”’ fays the latter, (‘Trea- tife of Human Nature, book i. part i. § 7.), “has been ftarted concerning abftra&t or general ideas: Whether they be general or particular in the mind’s conception of them ? A great philofopher has difputed the received opinion in this particular ; and has afferted, that all general ideas are nothing but particular ones annexed to a certain term, which gives them a more extenfive fignification, and makes them recall, upon occafion, other individuals, which are fimilar to them. As I look upon this to be one of the greateft and moft valuable difcoveries that have been made of late years in the republic of letters, I fhall here en- deavour to confirm it by fome arguments, which, I hope; will put it beyond all doubt and controverfy.”’ Leibnitz has alfo declared himfelf a partifan of this fe&, in a differtation entitled “De Stilo Philofophico Marii Nizolii.”? Dr. Campbell, in his ‘ Philofophy of Rhetoric,”’ has founded an interefting {peculation on the principles of Berkeley and Hume. See AssTRAcTION. ‘ Attempts have been made, fays our author, for reviving the fyftem of the Realifts ; and he reckons among the ableft of thefe that of the excellent Dr. Price, to whom he pays a tribute of merited refpe&. This approved writer employed, he fays, his ingenuity in fupport of fome of « re UNI ald tenets of the Platonic fchool, and has even gone fo far as to follow Plato’s example, in conneéting the {peculation about univerfals, with the fublime queftions of natural theology. His reafonings, he adds, ‘in proof of the ex- iftence of univerfals, are the more curious, as he acquiefces in fome of Dr. Reid’s conclufions with regard to the ideal theory of perception. ‘That there are in the mind images or refemblances of things external, he grants to be impof- fible; but ftill he feems to fuppofe, that in every exertion of thought, there is /omething immediately prefent to the mind, which is the objeét of its attention.”? Too this pur- pofe, Dr. Price reafons in the following manner: “ The word idea is fometimes ufed to fignify the immediate object of the mind in thinking, confidered as fomething in the mind, which reprefents the real objeét, but is different from it. This fenfe of an idea is derived from the notion, that when we think of any external exiftence, there is fome- thing immediately prefent to the mind, which it con- templates diftin& from the abject itfelf, that being at a dif- tance. But what is this? It is bad language to call it an image in the mind of the objeét. Shall we fay then, that there is indeed no fuch thing? But would not this be the fame as to fay that, when the mind is employed in viewing and examining any object, which is either not prefent to it, or does not exift, it is employed in viewing and examining nothing, and therefore does not then think at all? When abftraét truth is contemplated, is not the very object itfelf prefent to the mind? When millions of intelleéts contem- plate the equality of every angle in a femicircle to a right angle, have they not all the fame obje& in view? Is this obje& nothing? Or is it only an image or kind of {hadow? —Thefe inquiries carry our thoughts high.’ To the difficulty fuggefted by Dr. Price, our author fays, ‘‘ I have no anfwer to make, but by repeating the fact which I have already endeavoured to eftablifth ; that there are only two ways in which we can poffibly {peculate about clafles of objects ; the one, by means of a word or generic term; the other, by means of one particular individual of the clafs which we confider as the reprefentative of the reft ; and that thefe two methods of carrying on our general {peculations, are at bottom fo much the fame, as to authorife us to lay down as a principle, that, without the ufe of figns, all our thoughts muft have related to individuals. When we reafon, therefore, concerning clafles or genera, the objets of our attention are merely figns ; or if, in any inftance, the generic word fhould recall {ome individual, this cireumftance is to be regarded only as the confequence of an accidental affociation, which has rather a tendency to difturb, than to affift us in our reafoning.”’ For the opinions of a fet that may be regarded as inter- mediate between the Nominalifts and Realifts, we refer to ConcePTionaLists. See Stewart’s Elements of the Phi- lofophy of the Human Mind. See alfo Mental Puttosopuy. Universat Caufé, Charaders, Confumption, Geography, Gravity, Joint, Maps, Pally, Propofition, Rheumatifm, Ring-dial, Syftem, and Theorem. See the fubftantives. UNIVERSALISTS, in Polemical Divinity, an appel- lation given to fuch as hold an univerfal grace ; in like man- ner as the denomination Particularifts is given to thofe who hold a particular and efficacious grace. The Arminians are particularly denominated Univerfalifts. Universatists, Hypothetical, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, an appellation given to thofe doétors of Saumur, who attempted to reconcile the doétrine of predeftination, as it had been taught at Geneva, and eonfirmed at Dort, with the fentiments of thofe who reprefent the Deity as offering the difplays of his goodnefs and mercy to all mankind. The firft perfon who OU Net “ made this attempt was John Cameron (fee CAMERONTANS}, whofe fentiments were fupported, and farther illuftrated, by Mofes Amyraut, a man of uncommon fagacity and erudi- tion. The latter applied himfelf, from 1634, with fucla zeal to this work, that he produced no {mall changes in the doétrine commonly received among the reformed in France. The form of doétrine which he propofed with this view may be fummed up in the following propofitions ; viz. that God defires the happinefs of all men, and that no mortal is ex- cluded, by any divine decree, from the benefits that are procured by the death, fufferings, and gofpel of Chrift ; that, however, no one can be made a partaker of the blef- fings of the Gofpel, and of eternal falvation, unlefs he be- lieve in Jefus Chrift ; that fuch is the immenfe and univerfat goodnefs of the Supreme Being, that he refufes to none the power of believing ; though he does not grant unto all his affiflance and fuccour, that they may wifely improve this power to the attainment of everlafting falvation; and that, in confequence of this, multitudes perifh through their ows fault, and not from any want of goodnefs in God. Thofe who embraced this doétrine were called Univerfalifts, be- caufe they reprefented God as willing to fhew mercy to all mankind ;. and hypothetical Univerfalifts, becaufe the condi- tion of faith in Chrift was neceflary to render them obje&ts of his mercy. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. 8vo. UNIVERSALITY, the quality that denominates a thing univerfal. The Catholics affert the univerfality of their church, both as to time and perfons; and maintain this to be a note or mark of the true church, which diftinguifhes it from all other focieties that pretend to the name. UNIVERSALITY, in the Schools. Logicians made two kinds of univeriality, the one metaphyfical, the other moral. Universa.ity, Metaphyfical, is that which excepts no- thing ; as this propofition, ‘* Every man is mortal.” UNIVERSALITY, Moral, is that which admits of fome exception ; as, * All old men praife the times paft.”’ In fuch like propofitions, it is enough that the thing be ordinarily fo; it not being ftriGly required, that every old man fhould be of that difpofition. See PREDICABLE. ‘UNIVERSE, a colleétive name, fignifying the affem- blage of heaven and earth, with all things in them, called by the Greeks zo ax», and by the Latins mundus. The ancients, and after them the Cartefians, imagine the univerfe to be infinite. The reafon they give is, that it implies a contradiétion to fuppofe it finite or bounded ; fince it is impoffible not to conceive {pace beyond any limits that can be afligned it; which fpace, according to the Cartefians, is body, and confequently part of the univerfe. But that the univerfe is finite, appears from the two follow- ing confiderations : 1. That whatever confifts of parts can- not be infinite, fince the parts that compofe it muft be finite, either in number or magnitude; which, if they be, what they compofe muft be fo too: or, 2. They mutt be infi- nite, either in number or magnitude ; but an infinite num- ber is a contradiction; and to fuppofe the parts infinitely big, is to fuppofe feveral infinities, one bigger than another ; which, though it may pafs among mathematicians, who only argue about infinities, in foffé, or in imagination, will not be allowed in philofophy. UNIVERSITY, Universiras, a colleGtive term, ap- plied to an aflemblage of feveral colleges eitablifhed in a city, or town, in which are profeffors in the feveral {ciences, — appointed to teach them to ftudents ; and where degrees, or certificates of ftudy in the divers faculties, are taken up. In each univerfity four faculties are ufually taught ; theo- logy, medicine, law, and the arts and fciences. They ~ They are called univerfities, or univerful fchools, becaufe the four faculties are fuppofed to make the grand world, or whole compafs of ftudy ; or rather, becaufe they form one whole out of many individuals. In the eye of the law, an univerfity is held a mere lay body, or community; though, in reality, it be a mixed body, compofed partly of laymen, and partly of eccle- fiaftics. See Corporation. . The definition of the term univerfitas, by foreign civi- lians, anfwers nearly to our common law term of body po- litic or corporate ; and fuch towns as had this appellation in Germany, &c. might hold lands and rents in common, and do all other aéts as one aggregate body. And in this fenfe, the word univerfitas came to be applied to fuch academies for learning as were incorporated, which archbifhop Uther thinks began about the year 1250. Univerfities had their firft rife in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thofe of Paris and Bologna pretend to be the firft that were fet on foot ; but then they were on a very dif- ferent footing from the univerfities among us. The univerfity of Paris is faid to have commenced under Charlemagne, and to owe its rife to four Englifhmen, difci- ples of Venerable Bede, who, going to that city, made a propofal to fet up and fell learning, and accordingly held their firft le€tures in places affigned them by that prince : fuch is the account given by Gaguin, Gilles, De Bauvais, &c. Though the authors who wrote in thofe days, as Eginhard, Aimon, Reginon, Sigebert, &c. make not the leait mention of this memorable faét. Add, that Pafquier, Du Tillet, &c. declare openly againft the opinion; and affert, that the firft foundations were not laid till the time of Lewis the Young, and Philip Augutte, in the twelfth century. The earlieft mention we find made of the univerfity of Paris, is in Regordus, who lived in that age, and who was contemporary with Peter Lombard, the mafter of the fentences, the great glory of that univerfity ; in memory of whom an anniverfary has been long obferved by that body in the church of St. Marcel, where he lies buried. F But it is certain it was not eftablifhed all at once ; it ap- pears to have been at firft no other than a public fchool in the cathedral church ; from which it grew, by little and little, under the favour and protetion of the kings, into a regular body. Our own univerfities, Oxford and Cambridge, feem inti- tled to the greateft antiquity of any in the world; and Uni- verfity, Baliol, and Merton colleges in Oxford, and Peter’s in Cambridge, all made colleges in the thirteenth century, may be faid to beithe firft regular endowments of this kind in Europe. j For though Univerfity college in Oxford had been a place for ftudents eVer fince the year 872, yet this, like many of the other ancient colleges beyond fea, and Leyden to this day, was no proper college; but the ftudents, with- out any diftinction of habits, lived in citizen’s houfes, having only meeting-places to hear lectures, and to difpute. Tn after-times, there were houfes built for the ftudents to live in fociety ; only each to be at his own charge, as in the inns of court. Thefe, at firft, were called inns, but now halls. At laft plentiful revenues were fettled on feveral of thefe halls, to maintain the ftudents in diet, apparel, &c. and thefe: were then called colleges. The univerfities of Oxford and Cambridge are governed, next under the king, by a chancellor, who is to take care of the government of the whole univerfity, to maintain its liberties, &c. UNIVERSITY. Under the chancellor is the high-iteward, whofe officeis tu affiit the chancellor, and other officers, when required, in the execution of their offices, and to hear and determine capital caufes, according to the laws of the land, and the privileges of the univerfity. See Univerfity Court. The next officer is the vice-chancellor, who officiates for the chancellor in his abfence. In the univerfity of Oxford there are four pro-vice-chan- cellors : in the univerfity of Cambridge, the vice-chancellor, and five others, conftitute the caput, which every univerfity grace mutt pafs before it can be introduced into the fenate. There are alfo two proétors, who affift inthe government of the univerfity, particularly in the bufinefs of {chool-exer- cife, the taking up degrees, punifhing violators of the fta- tutes, &c. In the univerfity of Cambridge there are alfo two mode- rators, two ferutators, and two taxors. In this univerfity there are nineteen profeffors, befides lady Margaret’s preacher: in that of Oxford there are twenty-one profef- fors, including the readersin anatomy and chemiftry. Add to thefe a public orator, keeper of records, librarians, regif- ter, ef{quire and yeoman beadles, clerk, and verger. See Coriece. See alfo CAmBrinGE and Oxrorp. For the degrees taken up in each faculty, with the exer- cifes, &c. requifite to them, fee DecrrEE. ais The univerfities of Scotland are four, viz. that of St. An- drew’s, that of Glafgow, that of Aberdeen, and that of Edin- burgh. See each place refpedtively, and alfo ScoTLann. In noticing the different European univerfities, under the names of the ref{petive cities and towns in which they are eltablifhed, we have detailed the hiftories and prominent events of each. Under the prefent head it was our intention to have inquired into the progreffive and prefent ftate of claffical learning and fcience, as thefe have been oftenfibly influenced by the univerlities; and at the time of writing the account of Oxford, for a previous volume, it was our» with to have inveftigated, with caution and candour, the ftate of difcipline and tuition of the moft eminent univer- fities of Europe. The fubje& is certainly of intereft and importance ; and it is rather fingular, that in the vaft range of literary inquiry and difquifition which characterizes the prefent age, we have not a work devoted to a compara- tive view and impartial elucidation of the practical fy{tems of the national fchools. For fome centuries paft thefe have been regarded as effential to complete the ftudies of the {cholar and gentleman: to thefe nearly all the national efta- blifhments, and even the legiflative aflemblies, have looked with re{pe& bordering on reverence. Laws have conferred on them many important dignities, privileges, and immuni- ties ; their riches and influence have progreflively increafed ; and their powers of direéting the minds and talents of, their refpetive pupils, and confequently the countries in which they are placed, are of the higheft refponfibility. ‘To elu- cidate thefe facts with any degree of fatisfaction, would oc- cupy alarge volume. We mutt defpair of effecting it in a work like the prefent, and therefore content ourfelves with a few remarks and references. By examining the contti- tutions of the Britifh univerfities, and the ftatutes of the different colleges, we fhall obferve that a laudable and liberal {pirit actuated the original founders ; and we {hall alfo readily perceive that they have produced great and good effects on the morals and literature of the country. But it will alfo appear, that many of their ordinances and laws, having been adaptedto an age and ftate of fociety very different from the prefent, are now become either obfolete, ufelefs, or, what is much worfe, injurious, Thefe fhould be remodelled : for as the natural tendency of mankind is to advance in know- 10 ledge, UNIVERSITY. ledge, it fhould be the practice of organized learned bodies to dire& the youthful mind in the beft and readieft way to learn- ing ; to point out the path that fhould be purfued, rather than follow in a beaten track. An univerfity has been long re- garded as the fountain of fcience and literature, and hence it becomes an imperious duty of its guardians to preferve its ftreams frefh and pure. Within the laft half century many great revolutions and changes have been produced in the civilized world. Em- pires, kingdoms, and fuberdinate ftates, have been created and have fallen; have been difmembered, torn afunder, overrun with armies, and, in various degrees, affected by political caufes. Univerfities and academies muft have been materially influenced by thefe events: and hence it is not the leaft difficulty of the hiftorian to afcertain their recent and prefent ftates. In fome of the cities on the continent they have been entirely altered. Their old foundations have been either abrogated, or remodelled on a new and broader bafis. The revolution of France was not merely political, but it produced extenfive effeéts on the old eftablifhments in arts, {cience, and literature. Many pamphlets and eflays were, foon after that event, publifhed on the latter fubjets : fome vindicating and recommending the old fyftems, others urging the neceffity of modifications, and others contending for the adoption of entirely new eftablifhments. Thefe controverfies produced the ‘* National Inftitute,”’ the confti- tution and novelties of which have excited much general at- tention, and produced great changes in the difcipline of public fchools. (See Paris, Literary Inflitutions.) Other univerfities on the continent have been roufed by the fhock of that revolution, and have endeavoured to adapt their routine of ftudies, and the fubje&ts of them, to the demands of the age. ‘ All the north of Germany,”’ obferves baronefs Stael, in her recent work on Germany, * is filled with the moft learned univerfities in Europe. In no country, not even in England, have the people fo many means of in- ftru€ting themfelves, and bringing their faculties to perfec- tion. Intelle€tual education is perfe€&t in Germany ; but every thing pafles into theory: pra€tical education depends folely on things aétually exifting : it is by a¢tion alone that the charaéter acquires that firmnefs which is neceflary to di- rect the condué of life. The German univerfities poflefs an ancient reputation, of a date feveral ages antecedent to the Reformation. Since that epoch the Proteftant univer- fities have been inconteftibly fuperior to the Catholic, and the literary glory of Germany depends altogether upon thefe inftitutions. A fketch of thefe is prefented in a work juft publifhed by M. de Villers, an author who is always found at the head of all noble and generous opinions. The Eng- lifh univerfities have fingularly contributed to diffufe among the people of England that knowledge of ancient languages and literature which gives to their orators and ftatefmen an information fo liberal and fo brilliant. It is a mark of good tafte to be acquainted with other things befides matters of bu- finefs, when one is thoroughly acquainted with them ; and, be- fides, the eloquence of free nations attaches itfelf to the hiftory of the Greeks and Romans, as to that of ancient fellow- countrymen. But the German univerfities, although founded on principles analogous to thofe of Oxford and Cambridge, yet differ from them in many refpeéts: the multitude of ftudents affembled together in Gottingen, Halle, Jena, &c. formed a kind of free body in the ftate : the rich and poor fcholars were diftinguifhed from each other only by perfonal merit ; and the ftrangers, who re- paired from all parts of the world, fubmitted themfelves with pleafure to an equality which natural fuperiority alone could difturb.”” Although there are no univerfities in Belgium, yet the college of Ghent is inftituted for the fame purpofe, and cal- culated to produce very beneficial effets. Its planof edu- cation, and general regulations, are worthy of imitation. The funétionaries confift of a regent, two fub-regents, and fix profeffors in Greek and Latin poetry, and in rhetoric ; befides fix other profeffors in French, Englifh, German, drawing, and mathematics. Thefe have not only the charge of educating the pupils, but of watching their morals and manners. ‘They are required to make monthly reports to the mayor, and to the parents of the refpe€tive children. See a full and interefting account of this feminary in Mit- chell’s “* Tour through Belgium,” &c. 8vo. 1816; in which work is alfo contained, a review of the fyftem of education in the college of Bruffels, the central {chools of France, the univerfity of Leyden, and the univerfity of Utrecht. ae In Great Britain, fome ufeful and effential improvements have been adopted in the prefent century : but they do not appear to have been produced fo much from rivalry with fo- reign {chools, as by the general emulation excited by metro- politan and provincial inititutions. Within the laft twenty years, London has prefented nearly all the advantages, with- out any of the fetters, of eftablifhed univerfities ; for in this vaft city, many literary and fcientific inftitutions have been formed, and many courfes of leétures delivered, all calcu- lated to improve the rifing generation. (See Lonpon, Li- terary Inflitutions; LiverrooL, and MancuEstER.) Hence the emulous mind has exhauitlefs fources of learning : and hence a new era has been created in the annals of England. In no one fubjeét, perhaps, is the advantage of a free prefs more apparent than in that now under confideration. But for this, many ufeful plans would never have been car- ried into effect ; many errors of the dark ages would have continued and increafed; many eftablifhments would have defcended in utility, whilft they afcended in wealth and power. Public difcuffion on thefe fubjeé&ts occafions a mi- nute inveftigation into the principles and practices of old eftablifhments ; places them in a {tate of comparifon with new ; and caufes a deliberate enquiry into the utility and practicability of new theories, before they have gone through the routine of experience. Many authors have thus been induced to publifh their opinions and animadver- fions on the difcipline and practices of the old univerlities of England; and thefe have produced ufeful effeéts, Still, however, fome of the writers contend that the old efta- blifhments do not fufficiently attend to the demands and im- provements of the age: but that they perfift in ftudies which are ufelefs and obfolete, to the negle& of thofe which are neceflary, and which are calculated to be practically ufeful. Gibbon, in his “« Life and Opinions,” fays, “ The {chools of Oxford and Cambridge were founded in a dark age of falfe and barbarous fcience ; and they are ftill tainted with the vices of their origin. Their primitive difcipline was adapted to the education of priefts and monks ; and the government ftill remains in the hands of the clergy, an order of men whofe manners are remote from the prefent world, and whofe eyes are dazzled by the light of philofophy.”? The fame learned and eloquent writer enters into a difquifition on the prejudices, errors, and wrong difcipline of thefe fchools. Dr. Knox alfo, in his “ Moral and Literary Effays,”’ the Edinburgh Review, vol. xvi. and other writers, have publifhed their opinions on the fame fubje&. In reply to which, and in vindication of the prefent pra&tice, Mr. Cop- pleftone of Oxford publifhed a pamphlet in 1810. Other members of the refpective univerfities have alfo come for- ward in defence of their fchools; and hence the fubje& is brought UNI brought before the public tribunal, the ultimate decifion of which is generally juft and found. See alfo Monthly Re- view, vol. Ixxviii. p. 277. The Oxford and Cambridge Univerfity Calendars, for 1816 and 1817. Chalmers’s Account of the Colleges and Halls of Oxford, 2 vols. 8vo. Dyer’s Hiftory of the Univerfity and Colleges of Cam- bridge, 2 vols. 8vo. The chief foreign univerfities are thofe of Abo, in Fin- ‘land, frequented by ftudents from Ruffia, and, in number, equalling that of Upfal ; of Auftria, at Vienna, founded in 2237, and improved fince 1752; at Prague, founded in 1347; at Infpruck, dated from 1677; and at Gratz, from 1585; of Benares, in Hindooftan; of Buda, in Hungary ; and of Calcutta, eftablifhed by the marquis of Wellefley, the plan of which is extenfive and liberal. Befides Hindoo, Mahomedan, and Englifh law, and the local regulations, it was defigned to have profeffors of civil jurifprudence, poli- tical economy, geography, hiftory, &c. The languages to be taught were Arabic, Perfian, Sanfcrit, Hindooftannee, Bengal, Telinga, Maratta, Tamula, and Canara. But this in- ftitution has declined. We may mention alfo the univerfities of Coimbra in Portugal, of Copenhagen, of Debritzin, and of Erlau. France formerly boafted of twenty-one univerfities ; viz, in the North Douay, Caen, Paris, Rheims, Nancy, Straf- burgh ; in the middle provinces, Nantes, Angers, Poitiers, Orleans, Bourges, Dijon, Befancgon ; and in the fouth, Bour- deaux, Pau, Perpignan, Touloufe, Montpellier, Aix, Orange, and Valence. Of thefe, the Sorbonne of Paris was the moft celebrated, though fomewhat degraded by its tendency to prolong the reign of {cholaftic theology. The univerfity of Georgia, in America, founded at Louifville in 1801, though Dr. Morfe fays it had its charter in 1785, and poffeffing funds to the amount of 50,000 acres of land. The univerfity of Gottingen, in Hanover, was founded by George IT. in 1734, folemnly opened in 1737, and has ac- quired confiderable celebrity. Harward univerfity, in Cam- bridge, Maflachufetts, founded in 1638, is the moft an- cient literary eftablifhment in North America. The uni- verfities of Holland are thofe of Leyden, formerly much celebrated and frequented, but fomewhat declined, on ac- count of certain commercial regulations ; of Utrecht, of Harderwyck, of Franche, and Groningen. Ingolftadt has an univerfity, and fo has Kiel, in Denmark. The uni- verfity of St. Mark, in Lima, was founded in 1576, and is conduéted on the plan of the Spanifh univerfities. The univerfity of Lunden, in Sweden, accommodates about 300 ftudents. The univerfities of Heffe, in Germany, are thofe of Marburg and Rindeln, and that of Gieffen, belong- ing to Heffe-Darmftadt. In Mexico an univerfity was founded in 1551, and it is ftyled royal and pontifical ; and the cloifter is compofed of 251 doors, of all forts of faculties. Its library was colle&ted about forty years ago, and confifts of many old books of divinity, but few modern publications. The univerfities of the Netherlands were formerly numerous, confidering the extent of the country. Exclufive of Tournay (Dornick), which has been long fub- je& to the French, there were others at Douay and St. Omer, much frequented by the Englifh Catholics ; afd one of ftill greater celebrity at Louvain, founded in 1425. Their illuftrious profeffors, though celebrated by Guicciardini, _nephew of the great hiftorian, have been long fince forgot- ten. The univerfities of Parma and Placentia need only be mentioned. The univerfity of Pavia is in high reputation, and is regarded as the firft in Italy. Its profeffors have dif- tinguifhed themfelves in natural hiftory. ‘The univerfity of Pennfylyania was founded at Philadelphia during the war, VoL. XXXVII. UNI and having been fince united with the college, is become a refpeGtable feat of learning. Roftock, in the duchy of Mecklenburg, has an univerfity. In Portugal, befides the univerfity of Coimbra already mentioned, there is that of Evora, founded in 1553. Pruffia has feveral univerfities, that of Frankfort on the Oder, founded in 1516, and that of Konigfberg, in 1544. Of the Polifh univerfities, Cracow, founded in 1364, has fallen to Auftria ; and Wilna, founded in 1570, to Ruifia. Pofna or Pofen has become fubje& to Pruffia. The univerfity of Peterfburgh was founded by the late emprefs Catharine II. The univerfities of Spain are computed at upwards of 20; but the moit noted is that of Salamanca, founded in 1200. The univerfities of Sweden are thofe of Upfal, Lunden, and Abo. The univerfity of Tubingen on the Neckar was founded in 1477; that of Turin was founded in 1405 ; that of Vienna has been already mentioned. In the province of Yemen, in Arabia, there are two univerfities or celebrated academies, one at Zebid, for the Sunnis, and another at Damar, for the Zeidites. University Courts. See Univerfity Court, and Uni- VERSITY, fupra. UNIUM, the Odiel, in Ancient Geography, a river of Hifpania, in Beetica, which united with the Luxia. UNIVOCAL, in the Schools, is applied to two or more names, or terms, that have but one fignification: in oppoti- tion to eguivocal, which is, where one term has two or more fignifications. Or, univocal terms are fuch whofe name, as well as nature, is the fame; in oppofition to equivocals, whofe names are the fame, but their natures very different. _ For a thing to be predicated univocally of any others, it 1s to be attributed to all of them alike, and in the fame pro- per fenfe. See Prepicare and PrepicaBLe. Univocat Generation. The do&rine of the ancients, with refpe& to propagation, was, that all perfe& animals were produced by univocal generation, that is, by the fole union, or copulation, of a male and female of the fame fpe- cies, or denomination ; and that infeéts were produced by equivocal generation, without any feed, and merely of the corruption of the earth exalted, and, as it were, impregnated by the fun’s rays; but this is wholly erroneous. Some philofophers make a kind of intermediate genera- tion between equivocal and univocal, which they call ana- logous generation. See GENERATION. Univocat AGion. See Action. Univocar Caufe. See Cause. UNIVOCALS, called by the Greeks Jynonyma, are defined by Ariftotle to be thofe things whofe name is common, and alfo the reafon correfponding to the name ; that is, the definition of the idea affixed to it the fame. Thus, under the name and definition of animal, man and brute are equally included; and circle and fquare, in the reafon or definition of a figure. Here, the word, as figure, they ufe to call univocum uni- wocans, oY univocating univocal ; and the things included un- der the univocal name, as circle and {quare, wnivoca univo- cata, univocated univocals. UNIVOCATION, in Logic and Metaphyfics. The f{choolmen have long difputed about the univocation of being, i. e. whether the general idea of Jeng agree in the fame manner, and in the fame fenfe, to the fubitance, and the accident, to God and the creature ? UNIVOQUE, Fr., in Mufic. Univocal concords are the o€tave, and its recurrences or repetitions above or be- ~ low, as they never change their name or effet. Ptolemy was the firlt who gave them this appellation. 3H UNKA, UNO UNKA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro- vince of Smaland ; 85 miles N. of Calmar. UNKEI-TENKY, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 7 miles N.E. of Chandor. UNKEL. See Uncket. UNKENACH, a town of Auttria; 6 miles W. of Schwanattatt. UNLACING, in Sea Language, the a&t of loofening and taking off the bonnet of a fail from its principal part. UNLAWFUL, Itrecat, fomething prohibited by, or contrary to the terms of a law, either divine or human. Untawrut Afembly, the meeting of three or more per- fons together, by force to commit fome unlawful a& ; as, to affault any perfon, to enter his houfe, or land, &c. and thus abiding together, whether they attempt the execution or not. See Resexiious Afembly, Riot, and Rout. By the ftat. 16 Car. II. if five perfons, or more, fhall be affembled together, above thofe of the family, at any con- venticle, or meeting, under colour of any exercife of reli- gion, it is unlawful, and punifhable by fines, and otherwife, as in that ftatute is provided. See CoNVENTICLE. UNLIKE Quantities and Signs, in Algebra. See Like Signs and Quantities. UNLIMITED, or Indeterminate Problem, is fuch a one as is capable of infinite folutions. As, to divide a triangle given into two equal parts; to make a circle pafs through two points afligned, &c. See DiopHantine and INDE- TERMINATE. UNLUTING, in Chemifiry, the taking away of the lute, loam, or clay, with which a veflel was before clofed, joined to another, or covered. UNMOOR, To, in Sea Language, is to reduce a fhip to the ftate of riding by a fingle anchor and cable, after fhe has been moored or faftened by two or more cables. UNNA, in Geography, a river which rifes in Bofnia, on the borders of Croatia; 28 miles S. of Bihacs, and runs nto the Save, 16 miles N.W. of Gradifca.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of Mark. This place is in rank the fecond town of the county, and lies ina fine plain, on a rivulet named the Kottelbecke. It has a Lutheran parifh- church, and a hofpital church, which the Calvinifts ufe for their worfhip, but in which alfo on Saturdays worfhip is performed by a Lutheran preacher ; as alfo a nunnery, to- gether with a chapel, and a Lutheran fchool. This town is poffeffed of a very extenfive and profitable territory. Formerly it conftituted one of the Hanfe towns. So early as the year 103z, Unna was aconfiderable village, and, to- gether with its extent of territory, belonged to the arch- bifhop of Cologn. In the year 1250, it was environed with walls, and endowed with the immunities of a town; 23 miles S. of Munfter. N. lat. 51° 33’. E. long. 7° 48!. UNNAP-POUPPY, a town of Meckley; 75 miles §.S.E. of Munnypour. UNNARY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ; 43 miles W.of Wexio. UNONA, in Botany, a name evidently contrived to pre- ferve an analogy with Annona, to which the genus which bears it isnearly related. Perhaps Linnzus had in view the union of the feist with the germen, in the formation of this name.—Linn. Suppl. 44. Schreb. Gen. 375, 834. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.1271. Mart. Mill. DiG&. v. 4. Juff. 283.—Clafs and order, Polyandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Coadunate, Linn. Annone, Julf. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of three fmall, acute, clofe-preffed leaves. Cor. Petals fix, lanceolate, feffile, gibbous at the bafe externally, and concave at the fame part UNS within. Stam. Filaments none ; anthers nnumerable, ob- long, colleéted into a denfe ball, within the hollow of the bafe of the corolla. Pi/?. Germens feveral, clofely covered by the anthers ; ftyles about ten, briftle-fhaped, crowded, rather longer than the anthers; ftigmas.... Peric. Berries fe- veral, ftalked, ovate, gibbous, compofing a {preading umbel. Seeds two, one above the other, ovate, very {mooth, abrupt at the bafe. Eff. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals fix. Berries feveral, ftalked, each with two feeds. Obf. Linneus fuggefts that this genus ought to be re- ferred to Gynandria, and he has led the writer of the prefent article into the fame miftake, concerning Wymphea, in Prodr. Fl. Grec. v. 1. 360, correéted in v. 2. 359, of the fame work. Weare now convinced, that no genus can be fafely termed gynandrous, except the ftamens are inferted into the piftil above the germen. Unona is clofely conneéted in cha- racter and habit with Uvaria, and perhaps ought to be united therewith. Willdenow has referred hither two {pe- cies of De/mos of Loureiro, and Uvaria zeylanica of Au- blet ; but having no original information relative to thefe three plants, we prefer retaining the Linnean Unona by itfelf. 1. U. difereta. Linn. Suppl. 270.—Gathered by Dahl- berg in Surinam, where it is called Peyricoboom. ‘his is a tree with flender, flexible, round, alternate dranches, clothed when young with rufty down. Leaves alternate, willow- like, on fhort ftalks, lanceolate, two inches long, taper- pointed, bluntifh, entire ; {mooth above; beautifully filky beneath. Flowers axillary, folitary, on fhort ftalks. Pe- tals externally filky. Fruit the fize of a large pea. Ina dried ftate it feems rather a cap/ule than a berry. UN POCO, in Italian Mufic, alittle ; as, un poco pix alle- gro, alittle quicker ; un poco piu Jargo, a little flower. UNQUES Prist, Always ready. See Uncore Prijt. ~UNRECLAIMED Hawk, one that is untamed. UNREEVING a Rope. See Reevine. UNREST, in Geography. See OnrRust. UNRIGGING of a Ship, is the taking away of the ftanding and running rigging. UNSEELING, in Falconry, a taking away of the thread that runs through the hawk’s eye-lids, and hinders her fight. See Hawk. Drawing the ftrings of the hood, to be in readinefs to pull off, is called unffriking the hood. UNSER FRAU, in Geography, a town of Auttria; 1 mile N. of Weitra. UNS FRAU NAZARETH, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 10 miles S.W. of Windifch Gratz. UNS FRAU WEISTEN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 11 miles W. of Marburg. UNST, is the moft northern of the Shetland ifles, and the moft northern territory of the Britifh empire, being fituated in the latitude of 61°. Its form is of an irregular oblong fquare, extending in length about ten miles, and in breadth from two to four. In comparifon with the other Shetland ifles, Unft may be confidered level, yet its fur- face is diverfified by feveral extenfive ridges of hills ; the moft remarkable are, Vallafield, which rifes to the height of 600 feet, and Saxaforth, elevated 700 feet above the level of the fea. The ifland is not interfeGted by rivers, but contains feveral frefh-water lakes ; loch Cliff, the largeft, is two miles long, and about half a mile in breadth. The fea- fhores are remarkably indented with bays and creeks, having many {mall iflands and pafture holmes {cattered around. Along the coaft are feveral natural caves, of confiderable . extent 5 / UNX extent ; one of which, under a promontory of the hill of Saxaforth, penetrates at leaft 300 feet under ground. In general, the foil is tolerably fertile, even under the worft modes of culture ; and the pafture-grounds are moftly co- vered with a fhort tender heath, which affords excellent feeding for fheep, of which about 7000 are kept here, with about 2000 cows, and 1000 horfes. Hogs are alfo fed in great numbers ; and rabbits are very abundant. Fifhing is an important branch of the induftry of the inhabitants, and about eighty tons of cured fifh are annually exported. Unit abounds in iron-ftone, and poffefles many large veins of jafper: rock-cryftals have fometimes been found, and free- ftone is abundant. The parifh-church, which was built in 1764, ftands at a place called Balcafta, at the diftance of three miles from the minifter’s refidence. Formerly there were twenty-four chapels on the ifland, the remains of which may fill be diftinG@ly traced. Unit conftitutes a parifh of itfelf ; and according to the return of the year 1811, contains a population of 2288, occupying 385 houfes. Here is no pott-office ; the only office in Shetland is forty miles diftant from hence : fo that, from its remote fituation, and its little in- tercourfe, efpecially during winter, with the mother coun- try, the inhabitants of Unft are frequently ftrangers, for many weeks, to the greateft national occurrences. In this ifland, the longeit day is nineteen hours fifteen minutes, and confequently, the fhorteft day is four hours forty-five minutes.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Shetland, 1808. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlifle’s Topographical Ditionary of Scotland, 1813. UNSTRUT, a river which rifes four miles W. of Din- gelitadt, im the territory of Eichsfeld, and joins the Saal, about two miles N. of Naumburg. UNSUMMED, aterm ufed by falconers for a hawk’s feathers before they have arrived at their full length. UNTERART, or Art, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwitz, at the fouthern ex- tremity of the lake of Zug; 7 miles N. of Schwitz. UNTERBIRG, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ; 1 mile S. of Plauen. UNTERMDORFF, a town of Autftria; 6 miles N. of Agefpach. UNTERSEE, a lake in the duchy of Carinthia; 10 miles W. of Velach. UNTERSEEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 5 miles N.W. of Pinnenberg.—Alfo, a town of Switzer- land, in the canton of Berne, purchafed of the counts of Hohenzollern. This town is fituated between the lakes of Brientz and Thun; 26 miles S.E. of Berne. UNTOORAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Goondwana ; 60 miles W. of Nagpour. UNTZINA, a town of Walachia; 30 miles N.E. of Bucharett. UNUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Pro- pria, upon the route from Carthage to Cefarea, between Carthage and Sicilibra. Anton. Itin. UNUNGE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of Upland; .28 miles E. of Upfal. UNXIA, in Botany, from ungo, unxt, to anoint, becaufe of its falve-like odour, and its external, as well as internal, ufe as a {udorific.—Linn. Suppl 56. Schreb. Gen. 554. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2339. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Julfl. 186. Lamarck Illuftr. t.699. Gertn. v. 2. 421.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-neceffaria. Nat. Ord. Com- pofite oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jull. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx roundifh, of five ovate, nearly equal, concave leaves, in a fimple row. Cor. compound, radiated ; florets of the difk five, or more, male, funnel. VOA fhaped, in five equal fegments ; thofe of the radius five, or more, female, fmall, lanceolate. Séam. Filaments, in the florets of the difk, five, capillary ; anthers united into a pen- tagonal tube, rather longer than the corolla. Pi/?. in the fame florets imperfe& ; in thofe of the radius, Germen ovate ; ityle fimple; ftigma cloven. Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds in the circumference only, ovate, abrupt, hard, without any feed-down, or crown. Recept. naked, flat. Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked, flat. Calyx of five leaves, fimple. Obf. Schreber was led by the difagreement between the defcription of this genus, and the place allotted to it by Linnzus in his fyftem, to make fome correGtions, without feeing the plant. The above, taken from the original {pe- cimen, will be found nearer the truth. Unxia, in fa@, belongs, as truly as Calendula, to the order of Polygamia- neceffaria, the florets of the difk having no more of a ger- men than is neceflary to ferve as a partial ftalk. 1. U. camphorata. Camphorated Balfam-weed. Linn. Suppl. 368. Willd. n. 1.—Leaves lanceolate. Young branches downy.—Gathered by Dahlberg, in fandy fitua- tions in Surinam, where it goes by the name of Camphert- plant, being remarkable for a ftrong camphor-like fmell. A watery decoétion of this herb, taken internally, is efteemed an excellent and powerful fudorific, in the obftinate lumbago which prevails at Surinam. The dry plant, applied out- wardly, is fuppofed ufeful in reftoring perfpiration. The root is probably annual. Stem herbaceous, two feet high, round, flender, ftriated, forked; the young branches fhaggy, with foft hairs. Leaves oppofite at each fork of the ftem, feflile, lanceolate, an inch and a half long, {paringly toothed, five-ribbed, clothed on both fides with foft hoary’ hairs. Flowers from the forks of the ftem, moftly folitary, on hairy ftalks of various lengths. Calyx the fize of a pea, nearly {mooth. Corolla yellow. Seeds tumid, angular, half the length of the calyx, of apale grey. Lamarck’s figure is the only one extant of this genus, and is fufficiently ex- preflive of the original fpecies here defcribed. With the following we are unacquainted. 2. U. hirfuta. airy Balfam-weed. Richard Aes de la Soc. d’Hiit. Nat. de Paris, v. 1. 112. (not 105.) Willd. n. 2.—‘ Leaves oblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped, hairy. Stem villous.’’—Native of Cayenne. This is faid to be ex- tremely hairy in every part. eaves bluntifh, fomewhat ovate. Florets numerous. Root annual. The habit and charaGers of Unxia approach Eciirra ; fee that article. UNZA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the govern- ment of Koftrom ; and capital of a province on a river of the fame name ; 92 miles E.N.E. of Koltrom. N. lat. 57° 56’. E. long. 44° 14/.—Alfo, a province of Ruffia, form- ing a part, and the largeft part, of the government of Kof- trom, 160 miles in length, and from 80 to 112 in breadth ; bounded on the north by the government of Vologda, on the eaft by the government of Viatka, on the fouth by the go- vernment of Nizegorod, and on the weft by the province of Koftrom.—Alfo, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Volga, near Jurev Povolfkoi, in the government of Koftrom. VOAM-TCHIM Horun, a town of Corea; 642 miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 43° 3! EE. long. 129° 44!. VOAN-TSUSEN, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Pe-tche-li; 22 miles N.N.W. of Suen-hoa. r VOARCHADUMIA, a kind of cabala, or enigmatic art relative to metals, which propofes the exaltation of gold pele? by Seed-down none. Voce by cementations, and other methods ; among which, charms made of the Hebrew letters have their place. VOBARNO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Benaco; 5 miles N.W. of Salo. VOBERGA, or Vosisca, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania Citerior, in a hunting country, according to Martial, 1. i. epig. 52. v. 74. “ Preftabit illic ipfa fingendas prope, Vobifca prandenti feras.”’ VOBERNA, or Vosernum, a town of Gallia Tranf- padana, upon the banks of the river Clufius (the Chiefa). VOBRIX, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauri- tania Tingitana ; now faid to be Lempta, in the kingdom of Fez, with confiderable ruins. VOCA, a town of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Callaici Lucenfes. Ptolemy. Voca, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza, and fome other writers, to the fifh called doops by the generality of writers. It is a fpecies of the fpari, and is diftinguifhed from the reft by having four longitudinal parallel lines of a bright yellow and white colour, refembling gold and filver, on its fides. VOCABULARY, VocazuLarium, formed of voca- bulum, word, in Grammar, denotes the colle&ion of the words of a language, with their fignifications; otherwife called a diGionary, lexicon, or oneself The vocabulary is, properly, a lefs kind of diGtionary, which does not enter fo minutely into the origins, and dif- ferent acceptations of words. ‘Though the Italian vocabu- lary of the Academy de la Crufca feems to be an exception from this diftin@ion, as being a copious and exaét work, in three volumes folio, faid to have been forty years in com- piling. And the like holds of the Vocabulario Portuguez of F. Bluteau, in ten volumes folio : in the titles of both thefe books the word is ufed in a larger fenfe. VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or fpeech. Thus, vocal prayer is that which is fpoken out, or deli- vered in words, in contradiftinGtion to mental prayer. In our ancient cuftoms, vocalis is frequently ufed for /o called: “ poft hec Merganus de tribu Walenfium, &c. alter nomine Madocus vocalis princeps eorum.”” Matt.. Paris. Vocaz is fometimes alfo ufed fubftantively, in {peaking of matters of eleétion, to fignify a perfon who has a right to vote. Thus the Romanifts fay, a man muft have been a religious a certain number of years tobe vocal. Vocat Mufic, is mufic fet to words, efpecially verfes, and to be performed with the voice : in contradiftinGion to ene mufic, compofed only for inftruments, without inging. Poetry then makes a neceffary part of vocal mufic ; and this appears to have been the chief, if not the only practice of the ancients, from the definitions which they give us. of mufic. Their vocal mufic feems to-have had fome advantage over ours, in that the Greek and Latin languages were better contrived to pleafe the ear than the modern ones. Ineffe&, Voflius taxes all the later languages as unfit for mufic ; and fays, ‘* We fhall never have any good vocal mufic till our poets learn to make verfes on the model of the ancients ;”’ ze. till the ancient metrical feet and quantities are re- ftored. But it is to be obferved, that the rhythmus of their vocal mufic was only that of their poetry, and had no other forms: and mutations than what the metrical art afforded. Their changes were no other than from one kind of me- VOC trum or verfe to another, as from iambic to choraic. Measure and RuyTumus. Their vocal mufic, then, confifted of verfes fet to mufi- cal tunes, and fung by one or more voices, in chorus, or alternately ; fometimes with, and fometimes without the ac- companiments of inftruments. As for inftrumental mufic, in the manner we have defined it, itis not very clear that they ever had any. See Sy- NAULIA, &c. VOCANUS Acer, in Ancient Geography, a territory of Africa Propria, in the vicinity of the town of Acholla, and of that of Thapfus. Livy. VOCATES, a people of Gallia Adquitanica, of the number of thofe who were fubjugated by Craffus, accord- ing to Cefar. VOCATION, Cattine, among Divines, the grace or favour which God does any one in calling him out of the way of death, and putting him into:the way of falvation. In this fenfe we fay, the vocation of the Jews, the vocation of the Gentiles, &c. There are two kinds of vocation, the one external, the other internal. The firft confifts in a fimple and naked propofing of objeéts to the will; the fecond is that which renders the firft effectual, by difpofing our facul- ties to receive thofe objeGs. é Vocation is alfo ufed for a deftination to any ftate or profeffion. It is a rule that none are to enter the eccle- fiaftic or monattic ftate, without a particular vocation, or call. The Romanifts hold the vocation of the reformed divines null and invalid. Among ourfelves, fome hold an uninter- rupted fucceffion neceffary to the validity of the vocation of a priett. VOCATIVE, in Grammar, the fifth cafe, or ftate of nouns. When we name the perfon we are {peaking to, or addrefs ourfelves to the thing we are fpeaking of, as if it were a perfon, the noun or name acquires a new relation, which the Latins and Greeks exprefs by a new termination, called the vocative. Thus, of Dominus, Lord, in the nominative, the Latins have made Domine, O Lord, in the vocative; of 4ntonius; Antoni, &c. But as-this was a thing not abfolutely necef- fary, and as the nominative cafe might very well ferve on fuch occafions, this new cafe, or termination, was not uni- verfal = in the plural, for inftance, it was the fame with the nominative ; and even in the fingvlar, it was only praétifed in the fecond declenfion among the Latins; and in Greek, where it is the moft common, it is frequently neglected, and the nominative ufed inftead of it; as in that paflage in the Greek Pfalms, quoted by St. Paul, @poxs ca o Oxo:, thy throne, O God. In Englifh, and moft of the modern tongues, this cafe is ordinarily expreffed in nouns that have an article in the no- minative, by fuppreffing that article; as, the Lord is my pi apa thou art my hope! though on many oecafions we ufe an interjeCtion. VOCATORES, among the Romans, were fervants whofe bufinefs it was to call the guefts, receive them, and affign every onea place according to his dignity. VOCAYAMO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 15 miles N.W.. of Meaco. VOCE Sota, in the Jtalian. Mufic, denotes a piece compofed for a fingle voice, generally accompanied with a thorough-bafe on the harpfichord or organ, without other inftruments. But if, befides that it is to be accompanied by other inftruments, they add, ¢on violini, with violins; duo violini, e violoncello, e baffo per Porgano, i.e. with two violins, 12 a bafe: See VOE a bafe violin, and a thorough-bafe on the organ ; con violint o flromenti, 7. e. with violins or inftruments ; parti con, parti énza violini, i. e. part with, part without violins, &c. VOCETIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain mentioned by Tacitus, in Helvetia, applicable to a branch of mount Jura, which approaches the Rhine above Augufta Rauracorum. VOCHY, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 18. t. 6. Poiret in Lam Did. v. 8. 681, the Caribbean name of a fine tree in Guiana. (See Cucutrarta.) It is f{carcely cre- dible that Juffieu and Lamarck fhould have attempted to render the above name admiffible, or have thought they improved it, by changing it to Vochifia; Jufl. Gen. 424. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 11. The natural order of this genus remains doubtful. VOCIFERATIO, in our old Law-Books, the fame with hue and cry. ; «Qui furem plegi tum dimiferit, qui ei obviaverit, et atis fine vociferatione dimiferit, &c.’? Leg. Hen. I. VOCLADE, in Ancient Geography, a place of Gallia Aquitanica, belonging to the Piétavii, celebrated by the defeat of Alaric, flain by Clovis. VOCOKIURA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ; 33 miles N. of Nangafaki. VOCONIAN Law, in Roman Antiquity, a teftamentary law prepared by Q. Voconius, tribune of the people, which prohibited every citizen from making any woman univerfal legatee, not excepting an only daughter, and enjoined a daughter’s fortune, after her father’s death, to be propor- tioned to his eftate, according to the eftimation of prudent men;,and this proportion was ufually one-fourth of her father’s eftate ; and, moreover, that all the legacies of the teftator fhould not exceed one half of hiseftate. This was intended as a fupplement to the Furian law ; the time of its pafling is fixed by Cicero, de Seneét. to the year of Rome 584, when Q. Marcius Philippus, and Cn. Servilius Czpio, were confuls. It was revoked by Auguftus in favour of Livia, to whom he was refolved to devife by will a great part of his eftate. However, though, by the abrogation of this law, married women were not reftrained from receiving any seeacies above a certain fum, yet Auguftus beftowed on fuch women as had vowed perpetual virginity the fame rewards and privileges as upon mothers. VOCONTII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia Narbonnenfis, N. of the Memini. According to Strabo, they extended themfelves to the frontier of the Allobroges, in valleys that were deep and difficult of accefs. Mela men- tions them, and Vafio their capital. The Vocontii were go- verned by their own peculiar laws. They appear to have occupied not only the diocefes of Vaifon and of Die, but a part of the diocefe of Gap and of that of Sifteron. VODABLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Déme; 4 miles S.W. of Iffoire. VODANA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman, on the Moiefur ; 40 miles S.W. of Oman. VODERKAMBP, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 31 miles E. of Lutkenborg. VODEA, a river of Ruffia, which runs from lake Vodlo, and enters lake Onezfkoe, near Pudoga. VODLITZA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into lake Ladoga; 16 miles N.W. of Olonetz. VODLO, a lake of Ruflia, in the government of Olo- netz ; 16 miles N. of Pudoga. VOECA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania Ci- terior, belonging to the Callaici Lucenfes. Ptolemy. VOEGLARBY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia ; 17 miles S. of Fahlun. VOG VOEN, a river of China, which runs into the Hoai, 10 miles E.N.E. of Ngan-kieou, in the province of Chan- tong. F VOERDEN. See Vornen. VOET, Gispert, in Biography, an eminent Dutch di- vine, was born at Heufden in the year 1589; and after having purfued his ftudies at Leyden for feven years, and fuperintending fome churches taken from the Catholics, he fettled in 1617 in his native place, where he exercifed his miniftry with exemplary diligence. In. 1634 he was ad~ vanced to the chair of theology and the oriental languages in the univerfity of Utrecht, and became co-paftor in one of the churches. About this time the Cartefian philofo- phy engaged attention, and its progrefs fo alarmed Voet, that, in 1639, he made a public attack upon its principles, charging them with an atheiftical tendency ; and in this at- tack, though Des Cartes defended himfelf with acutenefs, and not without treating his adverfary with fome degree of contempt, Voet was fupported by the majority of the Dutch clergy, and alfo by the States of Holland. Befides his writings againft Des Cartes, he wrote alfo feveral theo- logical works ; and continued in the exercife of his various funGtions at Utrecht till his death in 1677, at the advanced age of eighty-eight years. His fon, Paux Vort, was born in 161g, and became profeffor of law at Utrecht, where he publifhed various works in the department of his profeffion. He died in 1667. JouNn Voer, the fon of Paul, was a profeffor of law at Leyden, and the author of a highly valued “* Commentary on the Pandeéts,’? 2 vols. folio, 1698—1704. He died in1714. Moreri. Mofheim. VOG, in Commerce, a weight in Denmark, containing three bifmerponds, or thirty-fix pounds. VOGEL, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft In- dian fea. S. lat. 5° 12!. E. long. 130° 46'..—Alfo, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Traun, $ miles S.W. of Wels. ’ VocEeL Jflands, « clufter of {mall iflands near the W. coaft of Siam. N. lat. 7°38’. E. long. 98° 55/. VOGELIFA, in Botany, bears that name, doubtlefs, im memory either of Benedi& Chriftian Vogel, profeffor’ at Altorf, born in 1744, who publifhed in 1768, a {malF aca- demical eflay, on the Generation of Plants; or of Rudolph Auguftin Vogel, profeffor at Gottingen, who died in 17745 aged 50, having written on the fleep of plants, on the balfam of Mecca, and on various mineralogical fubjeéts. —Lamarck. Illuftr. v. 1. 376, t. 149.—Clafs and order; Pentandria Mo- nogyma. Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, of five- ovate, folded, tranf- verfely corrugated leaves. Corolla- of one petal, tubular; plaited, five-cleft. Stigma in five capillary fegments. The figure reprefents a branched plant, with {mall, al: ternate, nearly feffile, inverfely heart-fhaped, entire /eaves, each tipped with a {mall: point, and dotted on the furface. Flowers in folitary terminal /pikes near two inches long. Corolla an inch long.. Stamens within the tube, equal, ca- pillary. Germen ovate. Style capillary. —The letter-prefs of Lamarck’s work has not extended to this, his 4osth genus, except fo far as to give its effential' charaGter, nor do we find any traces of Vogelia in his or Poiret’s part of their Diftionary. We are therefore in the dark as to the number of fpecies of this genus, its native country, or any other particular in its hiltory. The plate above quoted is in Plumier’s {tyle. Vogelia is alfo a fynonymn of TrreteRELLA ; fee that article. VOGELSANG, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, on the Frifch Nerung ; 13 miles N. of Elbing. VOGESUS;,, VOG VOGESUS, or Vosrcus, Mons, in Ancient Geography, a chain of mountains, which commenced on the confines of the Lingones ; and after having covered the northern part of the country of the Sequani, prolonged itfelf towards the N., between the Leuci and Mediomatreci on one fide, and the Triboci and Nemetes on the other. VOGHERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Pavefe; 12 miles S. of Pavia. VOGIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in the interior of Beetica, belonging to the Turduli. Ptol. VOGLABRUCK, in Geography, a town. of Auitria, on the river Vogel. This place enjoys the privilege of granting protection to all flaves, and its burghers and mer- chants, together with their wares, are toll free throughout all the eatin countries; 27 miles S.S.E. of Paffau. N. lat. 48° 1'. E. long. 13° 35/. VOGLAMARCK, a town of Auftria; 3 miles S.W. of Voglabruck. VOGLER, George Josrru, the Abbé, in Biography, honoured by the pope with the order of the Speron d’oro, or golden {pur, was born at Murzburg in1t749. He ftu- died compofition at Padua under Padre Valotti, and became early in his life a very learned and ingenious practical mu- fician. He travelled all over Europe, exhibiting in almoft every capital and great city his talents on the organ, -an in- ftrument which he had made his peculiar ftudy, particularly in the ufe of the pedals, and in producing new effeéts by the crefcendo and diminuendo, not by the ufual method of a common {well with pipes inclofed in a particular cheft, but by boxing up the whole inftrument, and increafing and diminifhing the tone, not only of fingle ftops, but of the entire chorus or full organ. In 1776, he opened a mufic-fchool at Manheim, for organ-playing, for the harpfichord, and for compofition. In 1780 he began his travels, went to Paris, performed to the king, queen, and royal family at Verfailles, compofed operas, and had feveral of his choral compofitions performed at the concert fpirituel. In 1786 he was appointed maeftro di capella to the king of Sweden at Stockholm. But in 1790, after vifiting Denmark, Germany, and Holland, he arrived in London, where he had pedals put to the organ in the Pantheon, before that beautiful building was burned down, and a general fwell contrived for the whole inftru- ment ; and in a feries of morning performances on that or- gan, fhewed his dexterity in the ufe of the pedals, not only in the cre/cendo and diminuendo, but in innumerable imitations, many of which were thought imaginary, and but for the ample promifes and defcription in his bills of fare, would perhaps not have been difcovered. The feience of this extraordinary mufician was thought by fome to degenerate into pedantry, and the {plendid pro- mifes in his advertifements to border on charletanerie; fo that his fuccefs was not equal in our country to his real merit. Had he promifed and attempted lefs, the public would have been more juft and even generous in the eftima- tion of his talents; but having injudicioufly promifed feem- ing impoffibilities, what was poffible, and what he really did perform, was fullenly heard with an unwillingnefs to be pleafed. What he really did achieve was often uncommon and well deferving of applaufe, though perhaps not fo much as he expected. His publications in different parts of Europe are innu- merable ; but thofe in theory favour fo much of the mar- vellous, that, on the continent, they are become proverbial. So that when any thing extraordinary in mufic was propofed or advertifed, muficians ufed to cry out, oh! this is 2 /a Vogler! VOG His advertifement in Holland, concerning an organ of his own conftru€tion, which he denominated an orche/frion, furpaffes the marvellous of all the magnificent mufical pro- mifes that we remember. “The abbé Vogler, dire€tor of the Royal Academy of Mufic to his Swedifh majefty, has conftru€ed, after his own invention and defign, (and at his own expence,) an organ with four rows of keys, fixty-three ftops, thirty-nine pedals, and three fwells, with proper refources to modify the found : of which the firft opens and fhuts the general cafe of the pipes; the fecond, which is a pneumatic meafure, ftops the wind ; the third divides and reunites the refources propor- tionably to the harmonic progreffion. The breadth, height, and depth of this organ is nine feet ; the temperament of it is beyond conception exaét. With refpe& to the body of tone, when in full chorus, it is equal to a church organ of fixteen feet. In depth of found, it furpaffes thofe of thirty- two feet; in {weetnefs, the armonica. Its crefcendo governs all it plays ; its diminuendo is qualified by the moft minute gra- dations ; and with refpeét to variety, the connoifleurs have declared, that a concert given by the abbé on his orche/frion, being a combination of all the inftruments in Europe, and the refult of thirty years’ travelling, is the utmoft extent of perfetion poffible in the art of playing and conftruéting organs.”” His theoretical works are the following: 1. The Know- ledge of Harmony, and its Ufe in Concert, Manheim, 1776, 8vo. 2. The Tuning Art, or Syftem of Temperament. 3. His Courfe of Leétures delivered in his Harmonic School during three years. 4. A praétical work for the Catholic church, entitled «* Paradigma Modorum Ecclefiafticarum.’” 5- Ecce Panis, Chorus. 6. German Mats for the Orgar. 7. Sufcipit Ifrael, compofed for the Concert Spirituel at Paris. 8. Four-part Fugues, upon the Stabat Mater of Pergolefi. 9. Pfalmum Miferere decantandus 4 Vocib. cum Organ. et Bafflis. S.D. Pio VI. pontifici compofitus. Spire. 10. Vefpere Chorales. Spire. For the theatre, The Mer- chant of Smyrna, an operette ; and fix more operas, ferious and comic, to French words, at Paris. And works for the organ and piano forte, publifhed throughout Europe, innumerable. We believe that this ative and indefatigable mufician has at length become ftationary in Denmark, and in the capital of that kingdom has been {ome time projeCting new plans for the cultivation and improvement of mufic as a fcience, as well as a liberal and praétical art. - VOGOGNA, in Geography. See Ucocna. VOGTLAND, a country included in the kingdom of Saxony, fituated between the territory of Erzgebirg, Bo- hemia, the eleétorate of Saxony, and the principality of Culmbach. It is very hilly, and abounds in woods, but the former cannot be faid to be altogether unfruitful, as producing either trees and plants, or being improved by tillage. In fome parts likewife they yield copper, iron, lead, and filver, with other minerals, fuch as alum. Here is alfo no want of any kind of provifions; the fields afford- ing grain and efculent herbs ; the fine paftures in the valleys droves of excellent cattle, the woods plenty of venifon and game, and the waters a variety of fifh. The principal rivers are the Elfter and the Saal. The name of Vogtland fignifies the country pofleffed by the ancient advocates of the empire, who were predeceffors to the prefent counts of Reuffen. But the counts of Reuffen at prefent enjoy only. a part of it. The greateit part of this country belongs to the eletoral houfe of Saxony. The margraves of Bran- denburg Culmbach are poffefled of the lordfhip of Hof, and the lordfhip of Ronneburg is vefted in the ho of I axe VOl Saxe Gotha. What the name and dignity of a vogt im- ported in thofe ancient vogts of the empire is not yet agreed among the learned. One of the moft probable conjetures is, that this dignity of a vogt was an hereditary office be- longing to the empire, and the vogts themfelves fubordinate to the palatine of the Rhine, as arch-vogt of the empire. No lefs uncertainty exiits concerning the epocha of this title, though it appears to have been ufed in the 11th century, the ancient ftatutes of the town of Weyda having been given to it in the year 1027, by Henry, vogt of Weyda. Towards the middle of the 14th century this title was dif- continued. VOGULES, a tribe or nation of Finns, who inhabit the weltern, and, in a greater degree, the eaftern part of the northern Ural, and nomadize chiefly about the rivers which unite with the Irtyfh and the Oby to the Frozen ocean, or with the Kama and the Volga into the Cafpian, and there- fore principally in the governments of Perma and Tobolfk : they call themfelves Voguli, or according to M. Georgi Manfi, and are denominated by the Ruffians Vogulit{chi, They allege their traditions in evidence of their having always refided where they are now found: and they came under the Ruffian fovereignty previoufly to the conqueft of Siberia, at which time they were fo brave and warlike, that they were with difficulty fubdued. For fome time they were thought to be the fame with the Oftiaks ; but in exift- ing documents, which are more than 300 years old, they are {pecified as a diftin@ nation. All the ftems of the Vo- gules, difperfed in various diftriéts, taken colle@tively, com- pofe a numerous nation, of unafcertained population. The Vogules nomadizing in the circle of T{cherdyn, in the go- vernment of Perma, amounted in the year 1783 to no more than 111 perfons, compofing nine families, and fo nearly related in confanguinity, that they were obliged to fetch women to be their wives from other races. Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. i. VOHBURG, a town of Bavaria; io miles E. of In- golditadt. VOHEMARO Bay, a bay on the ifland of Madagaf- car. S. lat. 12°25’. E. long. 51° 8!. VOHENSTRAUS, or Fouenstraus, a town of Ba- varia, in the principality of Sulzbach; 8 miles E. of Weiden. VOHIRIA, in Botany, Jufl. Gen. 141, a barbarous name, altered, if not improved, from Aublet’s Voyria. See Lita. VOHL, or Vouteg, in Geography, a town of Hefle Cailel; 5 miles W. of Waldeck. VOHLENBACH, a river which runs into the Lau- chart, 2 miles N. of Voringen, in the principallity of Ho- henzollern. VOICE, Vox, in Phyfiology, a found produced in the throat and mouth of an animal, by an apparatus of inftru- ments for that purpofe: or, it is the found produced by the paflage of the air through the rima glottidis of the larynx. Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Voices, Articulate, are thofe of which feveral confpire together to form {ome affemblage, or little fy{tem of founds. Such are the voices expreffing the letters of an alphabet, numbers of which, joined together, form words. Vorces, Jnarticulate, are {uch as are not organized, or afflembled into words; fuch is the barking of dogs, the braying of affes, the hifling of ferpents, the finging of birds, &c. The formation of the human voice, with all its varieties obferved in fpeech, mufic, &c. makes a very curious article VO! of inveltigation ; and. the apparatus and organifm of ‘the vocal parts which contribute to the formation of mufical tones, conftitute a very complicated and furprifing anatomi- cal article of enquiry. The ftru€ture and mechanifm of the larynx adapted to this purpofe are defcribed under Larynx; which fee. But as the fubje& is curious and important, we fhall here refume it, and furnifh the reader with a conneéted detail of fome obfervations, that may ferve farther to elucidate this opera- tion of nature. The human voice depends principally on the vibrations of the membranes of the glottis, excited by a current of air, which they alternately interrupt and fuffer to pafs ; the founds being alfo modified in their fubfequent progrefs through the mouth. The parts fubfervient to the formation of found are, the érachea, or wind-pipe, through: which the air paffes and repafles into the lungs ; and which ferves, as it were, for a bellows; the Jarynx, which is a fhort cylindrical canal, at the head of the trachea, particu- larly defcribed, with its cartilages, &c. under that article ; and the glottis, which is a little oval cleft, or chink, oyer which the epiglottis inclines backwards, as it afcends from its origin at the upper part of the thyroid cartilage. Within the glottis are extended its ligaments, contiguous to each other before, where they are inferted into the thyroid carti- lage, and capable of diverging confiderably behind when- ever the aretynoid cartilages feparate. Thefe ligaments, as they vary their tenfion, in confequence of the motions of the aretynoid cartilages, are fufceptible of vibrations of various frequency, and as they vibrate, produce a continuous found. Properly fpeaking, there are two ligaments on each fide ; but this modé of operation is not fully underftood ; probably one pair only performs the vibrations, and the other affifts, by means of the little cavity interpofed, in enabling the air to a&t readily on them, and in communi- cating the vibrations again to the air. The long. canal of the trachea, terminated at the top with the glottis, appears fo like a flute, that the ancients made no doubt but the trachea contributed the fame to the voice, as the body of the flute does to the found of that in- ftrument. Galen himfelf fell, in fome meafure, into the miftake: he perceived, indeed, that the principal organ of voice was the glottis; but he ftill allowed the trachea a con- fiderable fhare in the produétion of found. Galen’s opinion was followed by all the ancients after him, and even by all the moderns, before M. Dodart. But that author obferves, that we do not either fpeak or fing, when we infpire, or take in the air, but only when we ex- pire, or expel it ; and that the air, coming out of the lungs, pafles always out of the minuter veficles of that part into larger; and at laft into the trachea itfelf, which is the largeft of all: that thus its paflage becoming {till more free and eafy, and this more than ever in the trachea, it can never undergo fuch a violence, and acquire fuch a velocity in that canal, as is required to the produétion of found ; but that, as the aperture of the glottis is very {mall, im comparifon with the width of the trachea, the air can never get out of the trachea by the glottis, without a vaft com- preffion, and augmentation of its velocity ; and that, by this means, in pafling, it communicates a brifk agitation to the minute parts of the two lips of the glottis, and gives them a kind of f{pring, and occafions them to make vibra- tions; which, communicated to the pafling air, are what really occafion the found. , This found, thus formed, proceeds into the cavity of the mouth and noftrils, where it is reflected and refounds; and on this refonance, M. Dodart fhews, it is, that the agree- ablenefs of the voice entirely depends. The different con- fftencies, VOICE. filtencies, forms, &c. of the divers parts of the mouth, contribute to the refonance, each in their way; and from this mixture of fo many different refonances in their due proportion, there refults a melody in the human voice fupe- rior and more affe@ting than it is in the power of the greateft mufician to equal upon inflruments. Hence it is, that when any of thefe parts are difordered, e. gr. when the nofe is ftopped, the voice becomes difpleafing. The refonance in the cavity of the mouth does not feem to confift in a fimple refle€tion, fuch as that of a vault, &c. but in a refonance proportionate to the tones of the found fent into the mouth from the glottis; and, accordingly, we find this cavity to lengthen and fhorten itfelf, according to the depth, or acutenefs, of the tone. Now, for the trachea to effet this refonance, as it was the common opinion it did, it would be required, that the air, after its being modified, and turned into found, by the glottis, inftead of continuing its courfe from within out- wards, fhould return from without inwards, and thus ftrike on the fide of the trachea; which can never happen, except in thofe who have a violent cough, and in ventriloquous per- fons. Indeed, in moft river-fowl, which have a very ftrong voice, the trachea does refound; but the reafon is, that in them the glottis is placed at the bottom of the trachea, and not at the top, as in men. The canal, then, which at firft paffed for the principal organ of voice, is now found not to be fo much as the fe- condary one, i. e. not that whieh occafions the refonance. It does not ferve the glottis, as the body of the flute does its plug ; but, inftead of that, the mouth ferves the lottis, as the body of fome other wind-inftrument not yet known in mufic. In effeG&t, the office of the trachea is no other than that of the port-vent in an organ; viz. to furnifh wind. The vowels and femivowels are continuous founds, chiefly formed by this apparatus in the glottis, and modified either in their origin or in their progrefs by the various arrange- ments of the different parts of the mouth. Of fimple vowels, fixteen or eighteen may be enumerated in different languages: in the French nafal vowels, the found is in part tranfmitted through the noftrils, by means of the depreffion of the foft palate: the perfe€t femivowels differ from the vowels only in the greater refiftance which the air _under- goes in its paflage through the mouth ; there are alfo nafal and feminafal femivowels. ‘The perfeét confonants may be either explofive, fufurrant, or mute; the explofive confo- nants begin or end with a found formed in the Jarynx, the others are either whifpers, or mere noifes, without any vocal found. By attending to the various pofitions of the organ, and by making experiments on the effeéts of pipes of dif- ferent forms, it is poffible to conftru€& a machine which fhall imitate very accurately many of the founds of the hu- man voice; and this has indeed been a¢tually performed by ’ Kratzenftein and by Kempelen. A kind of experimental analyfis of the voice may be thus exhibited. By drawing in the breath, and at the fame time properly contraéting the larynx, a flow vibration of the li- gaments of the glottis may be produced, making a diftiné clicking found: upon increafing the tenfion, and the velo- city of the breath, this clicking is loft, and the found be- comes continuous, but of an extremely grave pitch: it may, by a good car, be diftinguifhed two oétaves below the lowett A of acommon bafe voice, confifting in that cafe of about twenty-fix vibrations in a fecond. The fame found may be raifed nearly to the pitch of the common voice; but it is never fmooth and clear, except perhaps in fome of thofe perfons called ventriloquifts. When the pitch is raifed {till higher, the upper orifice of the larynx, formed by the fum- mits of the aretynoid cartilages and the epiglottis, feems to fucceed to the office of the ligaments of the glottis, and to produce a retrograde falfetto, which is capable of a very great degree of acutenefs. The fame difference probably takes place between the natural voice and the common fal- fetto: the rimula glottidis being too long to admit of a fufficient degree of tenfion for very acute founds, either the upper orifice of the larynx fupplies its place, or fome other fimilar change is produced; hence, taking a note within the compafs of either voice, it may be held, with the fame expence of air, two or three times as long in a falfetto as in a natural voice; hence, too, arifes the diffi- culty of pafling {moothly from the one voice to the other. It has been remarked, that the larynx is always elevated when the found ia acute: but this elevation is only necef- fary in rapid tranfitions, as in a fhake; and then probably becaufe, by the contraétion of the capacity of the trachea, an increafe of the preflure of the breath can be more rapidly affefted this way, than by the ation of the abdo- minal mufcles alone. The refle&tion of the found, thus produced from the various parts of the cavity of the mouth and noftrils, mixing at various intervals with the portions of the vibrations dire&tly proceeding from the larynx, mutt, according to the temporary form of the parts, varioufly affeét the laws of the motion of the air in each vibration ; or, according to Euler’s expreffion, the equation of the curve conceived to correfpond with this motion, and thus produce the various chara¢ters of the vowels and femi- vowels. The principal founding-board feems to be the bony palate: the nofe, except in nafal letters, affords but little refonance; for the nafal paflage may be clofed, by applying the finger to the foft palate, without much alter- ing the found of vowels not nafal. A good ear may dif- tin@ly obferve, efpecially in a loud bafe voice, befides the fundamental note, at leaft four harmonic founds, in the order of the natural numbers; and, the more reedy the tone of the voice, the more eafily they are heard. Faint as they are, their origin is by no means eafy to be explained. This obfervation is precifely confirmed, in a late differtation of M. Knecht, publifhed in the mufical newfpaper of Leipfic. Perhaps, by a clofe attention to the harmonics entering into the conftitution of various founds, more may be done in their analyfis than could otherwife be expeéted. Young’s Philofophy, vols. i. and ii. Voice, For the Caufe of the different Tones of. As the ‘organs that form the voice make a kind of wind-inftrument, we might expeé to find in this inftrument fome provifion an{werable to that which produces the differences of tones in fome other wind-inftruments. The tone, therefore, muft be attributed either to the mouth and noftrils, which occa- fion the refonance, or to the glottis, which produces the found; and as all the different tones are produced in man by the fame inftrument, it follows, that the part which pro- duces them muft be capable of fimilar inftrumental changes. Now, for a grave tone, we know there is more: air re- quired than for an acute one. The trachea, therefore, to let this greater quantity pafs, muft dilate and fhorten itfelf ; by which fhortening, the external canal, that is, the canal of the mouth and nofe, reckoned from the glottis to the lips, or noftrils, is lengthened. For, the fhortening of the internal canal, i.e. of the trachea, brings the larynx and glottis lower down; and, of confequence, makes its dif- ¢ance from the mouth, &c. greater; and there is a change in the length of each canal, for every change of tone and femitone. Accordingly, it is eafy to obferve, that the knot of the larynx alternately rifes and falls in all divifions, fhakes, VOICE. fhakes, or rapid changes of intervals in finging, however {mall may be the difference of tone. Hence, as the depth of the tone of an hautbois is anfwer- able to the length of. the inftrument; the longeit fibres of the wood, whofe vibrations make the refonance, makin always the floweft vibrations, and confequently the deepett tone, it may appear probable, that the concavity of the mouth, by its lengthening for grave tones, and fhortening for acute ones, might ferve very well for the production of the divers tones; but M. Dodart obferves, that in the ftop of the organ called the Auman voice, the longeft pipe is fix inches; and yet, with all that length, it does not make any difference of tone; but the tone of the pipe is precifely that of the plug: whereas the concavity of the mouth of a man of the graveit voice, not being above fix inches deep, it is evident that cannot modify, vary, and give the tone. It is the glottis, then, that forms the tone, as well as the found ; and the manner of forming the various tones is by varying its aperture: a piece of mechanifm too admirable not to be here particularly inquired into. The human glottis, then, reprefented in Plate XXIV. Mifcellany, fig.9. is only capable of one proper motion ; viz. that of an approach of its lips ADB, and ADB. Accordingly, the dotted lines AEB, AFB, AGB, exhibit three different degrees of approach. Thefe different apertures of the glottis anatomifts ufually attribute to the action of the mufcles of the larynx ; but M. Dodart fhews, from their pofition, direétion, &c. that they have other ufes; and that the opening and fhutting of the glottis is effected by other means, viz. by two tendinous cords, or firings, inclofed in the two lips of that aperture. In effe&, each of the two femicircular membranes, whofe interftice forms the glottis, is doubled back upon itfelf; and within each duplicature there is a cord, or ftring, which is faftened at one end of the fore-part of the larynx, and to the hind-part at the other. It is true, they appear more like ligaments than mufcles, as confifting of white and mem- branous fibres, not of red and flefhy ones; but the vatt number of minute changes in this aperture neceflary to form the vaft variety of tones, make an extraordinary kind of mufcle, by whofe contraétion they fhould be effeéted, ab- folutely neceflary. Common fiefhy fibres, in which the blood is received in large quantity, had been infinitely too coarfe for fuch delicate motions. Thefe ftrings, which, in their ftate of relaxation, make each a little arc of an ellipfis, as they contra€t more and more, become longer, but lefs and lefs curve; and at lalt, with the greateft contraction they are capable of, they de- enerate into two right lines, applied clofe to each other ; é clofe, and fo firm, that an atom of air cannot efcape out of the lungs, how full foever they may be, and how great an effort foever all the mufcles of the lower venter may make againft the diaphragm, and, by the diaphragm, againit thefe two little mufcles. The different apertures of the lips of the glottis, then, produce all the different tones in the feveral vocal parts of maufic; viz. bafe, bariteno, tenor, counter-tenor, and trebles ; and the manner is thus: The voice, we have fhewn, can only be formed by the glottis; but the tones of the voice are modifications of the voice ; and thefe can only be produced by the modifications of the glottis. Now the glottis is only capable of one modi- fication, which is the mutual approach, or recefs of its lips: it is this, therefore, that produces the different tones. Now that modification includes two circumftances: the firft and principal is, that the lips are ftretched more and more, from VoL. XXXVII. the loweft tone to the higheft ; the fecond is, that the more they are ftretched, the nearer they approach. From the firft it follows, that their vibrations will be fo much the quicker, as they come nearer their higheft tone ; and that the voice will be juft, when the two lips are equally ftretched ; and falfe, when they are unequally ; which agrees perfe&tly well with the nature of ftringed-inflruments. From the fecond it follows, that the higher the tones are, the nearer will they approach to each other; which agrees perfeeily well with wind-inftruments governed by reeds or plugs. The degrees of tenfion of the lips are the firft and prin- cipal caufe of tones; but their differences are infenfible. The degrees of approach are only confequences of that ten- fion ; but their differences are more eafily afligned. To give a precife idea of the thing, therefore, we had beft keep to that, and fay, that this modification confifts in a tenfion, from whence~refults a very numerous fubdivifion of a very {mall interval: which yet, {mall as it is, is capable, phyfically {peaking, of being fubdivided infinitely. The doGrine is confirmed from the different apertures found in diffeGting perfons of different ages, of both fexes. The aperture is lefs, and the exterior canal always fhallower, in the fex and ages fitteft to fing treble. Add, that the reed of a hautbois, feparated from the body of the inftru- ment, being a little preffed between the lips, will yield a tone fomewhat higher than its natural one; and if prefled ftill more, will yield another itill higher: and thus an able mufician may run fucceflively through all the tones and femi- tones of an o¢tave. They are different apertures, then, that produce, or, at leaft, that accompany, different tones, both in natural wind-inftruments and artificial ones; and the di- minution of the aperture raifes the tones both of the glottis, and the reed. The reafon why leffening the aperture heightens the tone is, that the wind paffes through it with the greater velocity ; and from the fame caufe it is, that if any reed or plug, of an inftrument, be too weakly blown, its tone will be lower than ordinary. Indeed the contraétions and dilatations of the glottis muft be infinitely delicate: by an exa& calculation of the in- genious author above-mentioned, it appears, that to per- form all the tones and femitones of a common voice, which 1s computed to reach twelve tones; to perform all the par- ticles and fubdivifions of thofe tones into commas, and other minuter, though ftill fenfible parts; to perform all the fhakes, or the differences in a tone when founded more or lefs ftrong, without changing the tone; the little diameter of the glottis, which does not exceed one-tenth of an inch, but which varies within that extent at every change, muit be actually divided into 9632 parts; which parts are yet very unequal, and, therefore, many of them much lefs than the sy<'ryath part of an inch: a delicacy fcarcely to be matched by any thing but a good ear, which has fo juit a fenfe of found, as, naked, to perceive differences in all thefe tones; even thofe whofe origin is much lefs than the 963200th part of an inch. With refpe& to the organ of voice, Roufleau, in 1768, when he publifhed his Mufical Di€tionary, was able to find no more fatisfaétory account than that which he has given from Duclos and Dodart ; nor have we fince been able to find that any further progrefs has been made into this myf{. tery of nature. We have converfed with the late Dr. William Hunter, and his brother, the great anatomift, Mr. John Hunter, on the fubje&t, who agreed that there was no work of nature more fubtile and inexplicable than the form- 31 ation VOICE. ation of a fine mufical voice; and agreed, that it was im- poffible, from any external appearance or diffeGtion, to difcover the leaft difference in the vocal organ of an indi- vidual who had been poffeffed of a fine voice, and of one who had no voice at all, but for fpeech; of a voice of high pitch or low; of a voice of extenfive or contracted compafs. The great Haller combated the fyftem of Dodart, and gave a very {cientific and anatomical theory of his own; but not more intelligible and fatisfa€tory to common readers than that of Dodart. Buffon was of opinion, that thofe who fung out of tune heard better with one ear than the other; that thofe who fung in falfet clofed the larynx, and narrowed the paflage of the voice ; by which means oftaves were produced, as in the flute and hautbois, by blowing with more force for the high notes than the low, with the fame ventages open or clofed. The falfet voice is literally voce da teffa, and formed in the throat ; never like the notes formed in the cheft, called voce di petto. This fubje&, one of the moft curious in phyfiology, has tempted us to extend the article beyond our intention or ufual limits: we muft not yet, however, quit the fubje@. The organ of voice had been always regarded by ana- tomifts and natural philofophers as a wind-inftrument, till the time of M. Ferrein, who, in 1741, prefented a memoir to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, to prove it to be a ftringed inftrument, played on by the wind, which ferves as a bow. An allufion, however, to the Aolian harp would have been more happy, than to a violin. The Aolian harp (fee Hoxus’s Harp) was well known in England about this time. An idea of it, too, might have been feen in Kircher’s Mufurgia, quoted by M. Ferrein for other purpofes ; and it was thence that Thomfon the poet took it, who wrote an ode on this aerial inftrument, which was fet to mufic, and performed at a morning concert at vifcountefs Townfhend’s, mother of the prefent marquis. The ode is in Dodfley’s Colle&tion, and in Thomfon’s Works. Ofwald, the cele- brated player of old Scots tunes on the violoncello, and compofer of many new, paffed for the inventor of the £olian harp ; but as he was unable to read the account of it in the Mufurgia, written in Latin, Thomfon gave him the defcription of it in Englifh, and let it pafs for his in- vention, in order to give him a better title to the fale of the inftrument at his mufic-fhop in St. Martin’s Church-yard. M. Ferrein was of opinion, that there are ftrings in the lips of the glottis, capable of lengthening and fhortening, and vibrating and founding, like thofe of ftringed inftruments. His opinion furprifes at firft, and feems paradoxical ; but he has fupported it by experiments, which cannot eafily be eluded. According to him, the organ of voice is at once a ftringed and a wind-mftrument. The air which comes from the lungs, and which paffes through the glottis, performing the office of a bow upon the tendinous fibres of its lips, M. Ferrein calls vocal firings or ribands of the glottis. By the violent collifion of the air againft thefe vocal ftrings, they are put in motion ; and it is by their quick and flow vibra- tions that they produce tones differing in gravity and acute- nefs, in proportion as they are more or lefs extended, ac- cording to the common and well-known laws of ftringed initruments. M. Ferrein has made a thoufand experiments before the Academy, and individuals, in confirmation of his doétrine, as well upon the human fubje& as upon different animals. He took the trachea arteria trom the dead body of a man ‘ deftined for diffe€tion, with his larynx, and blew into the trachea, holding at the fame time the ribands, as he calls them, of the glottis lengthened or fhortened, and the human voice was heard to rife or fall in tone, or remain ftationary, in proportion to thefe circumftances. And it is very remarkable, that, contrary to the ex- peCtation of M. Ferrein, the different voices produced, in the courfe of thefe experiments, were fo like thofe of the particular animals upon whofe organs they were made, that they were always to be difcovered and diftinguifhed one from the other. The roaring of a bull, the cry of a dog in pain, &c. were conftantly difcoverable, notwithftanding the want of innumerable parts ufed in modifying thefe founds in living animals, fuch as the palate, the teeth, lips, &c. The larynx torn from the animal was ufually mutilated, and fometimes without the epiglottis, as well as all the bits of cartilages furrounding or covering the glottis and vocal ‘ ftrings, which were removed in order to exhibit more plainly the vifible play and vibrations of thefe ftrings; and not- withftanding all thefe defeéts, the voice of each animal pre- ferved almoft every peculiarity of found which diftinguifhes it from that of other animals. M. Ferrein fays, that the neceffary tenfion, or lengthen- ing and fhortening of the vocal ftrings, for the purpofe of forming the whole extent of the human voice, is not above two or three lines, or twelfth parts of an inch. In common ftringed inftruments, lengthening a ftring makes it flatter, or of a tone more grave ; and fhortening it has a contrary effe&: but with refpe& to thefe vocal ftrings it is quite different ; for they are rendered more acute by being lengthened, as at the fame time their tenfion is in- creafed. Many have gone through M. Ferrein’s experiments with fuccefs; though Haller fays that he himfelf was not fo happy, not having been able to produce different voices of animals, as others had done, by blowing on the ribands. (See Eloge de M. Ferrein, in the Hift. de Acad. Royal des Sciences for the year 1769, publifhed 1772, p. 15.) M. Ferrein was a phyfician-and profeffor of anatomy and furgery, who died at Paris in 1769. If a pipe could be formed to refemble the vocal organ, as defcribed by M. Ferrein, we might hope for a true and exa¢t imitation of the human voice, which has never yet been attained, owing perhaps to the miftaken notion of the voice being a kind of flute or mere wind-inftrument. Voice, in Grammar, is a circumftance in verbs, by which they come to be confidered as either aétive or paflive, 7. e. either as expreffing an a¢tion imprefled on another fubje& ; as, J beat: or receiving it from another ; as, J am beaten. The Greeks have a third voice, called medial, becaufe it has fometimes an a¢tive, and fometimes a paffive fignifica- tion. Voice, in matters of election, denotes a vore, or /uffrage. In this fenfe, a man is faid to have a deliberative voice, when he has a right to give his advice and opinion in a matter of debate, and his fuffrage is taken ; an aGive voice, when he gives his vote for the eleCtion of any one; and a pa/five voice, when the fuffrages may fall on himfelf to be eleéted ; an excitative voice, when he may aé to procure another to be elected ; a confultative voice, when he can only offer rea- fons and remonftrances, on which the chief, or head, deter- mines at his own difcretion: fuch the cardinals have, with regard to the pope ; and the matters in chancery, with re- gard to the lord chancellor, &c. Voice, in Oratory, is one of the parts of pronunciation, upon the proper regulation of which much of the orator’s fuccefs VOICE. fuccefs depends. For this purpofe it will be right to ob- ferve, in general, what nature does, when free and uncon- ftrained. As perfons are differently affeCted when they f{peak, fo they naturally alter the tone of their voice: it rifes, finks, and has various inflexions given it, according to the prefent ftate and difpofition of the mind. When the mind is calm and fedate, the voice is moderate and even; when the former is dejected with forrow, the latter is lan- guid; and when that is inflamed by paflion, this is raifed and elevated. It is the orator’s bufinefs, therefore, to follow nature, and to endeavour that the tone of his voice appear natural and unaffeG@ted: and for this end, he mutt take care to fuit it to the nature of the fubje& ; but ftill fo as to be always grave and decent. The principal affeétions or properties of the voice may be referred either to quantity or quality. The quantity of the voice confifts in its highnefs or lownefs, {wiftnefs or flow- nefs, and the intermediate degrees between them. Every perfon who {peaks in public fhould endeavour, if he can, to fill the place where he fpeaks, without exceeding the natural key of his voice; in which cafe it will be either harfh and rough, or too fhrill and fqueaking ; nor will he be able to give every fyllable its full and diftiné: found, and to infleé& it properly. He fhould alfo take care, that it does not fink too low, which will give him pain to raife it again to its proper pitch, and be no lefs offenfive to the hearers. The laft word of a fentence ought, in a particular manner, to be exprefied diftintly, becaufe the meaning of the whole fentence often depends upon it. The medium between thefe two is a moderate and even voice, which every perfon muft regulate by the natural key of his own voice. But this equality of voice muft be accompanied with a variety of in- flexions and changes within the fame pitch; and the grada- tions, whether higher or lower, muft be gentle and regular ; the voice moving from one key to another, fo as rather to glide like a gentle ftream than pour down like a rapid tor- rent ; and the degree of thefe inflexions and various tones of voice fhould differ according to the nature of the fubjeét, and defign of the fpeaker. The next property of the voice is fwiftnefs; and with regard to this, care fhould be taken to avoid the two ex- tremes of hurrying precipitately without paufing, which deftroys not only the neceffary diftin@tion between fentence and fentence, but likewife between the feveral words of the fame fentence ; and of fpeaking fo flowly, as to argue a heavinefs in the {fpeaker, and to render the difcourfe flat and lifelefs. In order to avoid both thefe extremes, the voice ought to be fedate and diftin& ; for which purpofe it is neceflary, not only that each word and fyllable fhould have its full and jut found, both as to time and accent, but likewife that every fentence, and part of a fentence, fhould be feparated by its proper paufe and interval. See Pause. Thofe properties of the voice, that ref{pe& its qualities, are chiefly ftrength or weaknefs, clearnefs or ob{curenefs, fullnefs or {mallnefs, fmoothnefs or roughnefs. Temperance is a great prefervative of the voice in all thefe refpects, and all excefs is highly prejudicial to it. A ftrong voice is very ferviceable to the orator, becaufe, if he wants fome other advantages, he is however able to make himfelf heard; and if he is een to ftrain it, he is lefs in danger of its failing him, before he has finifhed his difcourfe. But he who has a weak voice fhould be careful not to ftrain it, efpecially at firft: he ought to begin low, and rife gradually to fuch a pitch, as the key of his voice will carry him, without being obliged to fink again afterwards. Frequent inflexions of the voice will likewife relieve him ; and he fhould {peak de- liberately, and eafe his voice, by allowing due time for refpiration at all the proper paufes. A voice is faid to be clear, when the organs of {peech are fuited to give every fingle letter, and all the combinations of them in fyllables and words, their proper and diftin@ found. Such a voice is agreeable to the hearers, and ad- vantageous to the fpeaker ; as by {peaking moderately, he may be diftin@ly heard, and thus be able to modulate his voice at pleafure. An obfcure and confufed voice is fometimes owing to a deficiency in the organ, but often it is the effect of bad habit, acquired either by mifplacing the accent, confounding the found of the letters, or huddling the fyllables one upon another, fo as to render what is faid unintelligible. When this confufed voice arifes from a natural defeét, it may be remedied, as well as weaknefs of voice, in the manner pur- fued by Demofthenes. See PronuncIATION. But the moft likely way of mending faults proceeding from bad habit, is to {peak deliberately. A full voice is not the fame as a ftrong or a loud voice ; it fills the ear, but it is often not pleafant ; and, therefore, to render it fo, as well as audible, it fhould be frequently varied. Thofe who have the misfortune of a very {mall voice, fhould be cautious of raifing it to too high a pitch, efpecially at once ; becawe the fudden compreflure of the organ is apt to occafion a fqueaking and very difagreeable found. A foft and {mooth voice is of all the moft mufical, efpecially if it be flexible ; and, on the contrary, nothing is lefs harmonious than a voice that is harfh and rough. Upon the whole, we may conclude that voice to be the beft or fitteft for an orator, which is moderate, diftin&, firm, clear, and fmooth, and alfo eafily flexible to the feveral degrees and variations of found, which every part of the difcourfe may require. The different parts of a difcourfe require correfponding modulations of the voice. The orator fhould fpeak low at firft, becaufe this has the appear- ance of modefty, engages attention, and is beft for the voice. In the narration, the voice ought to be raifed to fomewhat a higher pitch. The propofition, or fubje& of the difcourfe, fhould be delivered with a very clear and audible voice. The confirmation admits of great variety, both of the voice and geftures: in reafoning, the voice is quick and pungent, and fhould be enforced with fuitable actions ; and in defcriptions, whilft the orator is pointing out the images of things, he fhould fo endeavour to adapt both his voice, and the motions of his body, particularly the turn of his eyes, and aétion of his hands, as may beit help the imagination of his hearers. Where he introduces ano- ther perfon fpeaking, or addreffes an abfent perfon, it fhould be with fome degree of imitation ; and in dialogue, the voice fhould alter with the parts. When he diverts from his fubje& by any digreffion, his voice fhould be lively and cheerful ; fince that is rather defigned for entertainment than inftruétion. In confutation, the arguments of the adverfe party ought firft to be repeated in a plain and dif- tiné& manner, unlefs they appear unworthy of a ferious anfwer ; and then a facetious manner, both of expreffion and gefture, may be the moft proper way to confute them. In the conclufion, both the voice and gefture fhould he brifk and {prightly. There are fometimes certain words, which require an emphafis and diftinGtion of the voice: fuch are often pro- nouns, as this is the man; and many words that denote the circumftances and qualities of a thing, fome of which heightening or magnifying the idea of the thing to which they are joined, elevate the voice, and others debafing or lef- fening it, deprefs the voice, or at leaft protract the tone, Bt 2 Some W201 Some tropes likewife, as metaphors, and verbal figures, which confift in the repetition of a fingle word, fhould have a particular emphafis. , In fentences, regard fhould be had to their length, and the number of their parts, in order to diftinguifh them by proper paufes. The frame and ftru€ture of the period ought likewife to be confidered, that the voice may be fo managed, as to give it the moft mufical accent. Unlefs there be fome fpecial reafon for the contrary, it fhould end louder than it begins. In an antithefis, one contrary muft be louder than the other; in a climax, or gradation, the voice fhould rife with it. . : As to the paffions, it is evident that each of them requires a different voice and aétion. Love and efteem are exprefled in a fmooth and cheerful tone ; but anger and refentment with a rough, harfh, and interrupted voice. Joy raifes and dilates the voice ; as forrow finks and contraéts it. Fear occafions a tremor and hefitation of the voice ; and aflurance gives it ftrength and firmnefs. Admiration elevates the voice, and fhould be expreffed with pomp and magnificence ; the expreflion of it being often accompanied with an ele- vation both of the eyes and hands: on the contrary, con- tempt finks and protraéts the voice. Il exclamations fhould be violent. When we addrefs inanimate things, the voice fhould be higher than when we addrefs animated beings ;*and appeals to heaven mutt be made in a loftier tone than thofe to men. After all, it is impoffible to gain a juft and decent pro- nunciation of voice and gefture, merely from rules, without practice, and an imitation of the beft examples. Ward’s Orat. vol. ii. le&t. 48. and leét. 50. Voice, Part of the,in Mufic. See Parr. Voice of a Singer, Accidents and Diforders to which it is liable. The air received in the lungs, and expelled by com- preffion of the cheft, paffing through the aperture of the larynx gently clofed, produces a found, which afterwards, by the modulation of the tongue and other parts of the mouth, form the voice of a finger ; and as many things concur in this formation, fuch as the breaft, the diaphragm, the lungs, the wind-pipe, the uvula, or palate, the tongue, the teeth, and the mucofity which lubricates the feveral:parts, all fub- je& to a number of acute and chrontcal diforders, which, though it may not be neceflary to fpecify here, it feems ex- pedient that vocal performers fhould be apprifed of the ac- cidents to which the voice is liable, to put them on their guard ; and the public, to incline them to pity and tolerate what the utmoft care cannot always avoid. Natural defeéts in the voice are incurable, fuch as being of a coarfe quality, hufky, inflexible, and out of tune. VOID, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Meufe ; 10 miles W. of Toul. Voip, in Common Law. See ANNULLING. Voip Baftion. See Bastion. Vor Space, in Phyfics. See Vacuum; &c. VOIDANCE, Vacancy, in the Canon Law, a want of an incumbent upona benefice. See Vacancy, &c. This is twofold ; either in law, de jure ; as when one holds feveral benefices that are incompatible ; or de fado, in deed ; as when the incumbent is dead, or refigns, or is a¢tually deprived. VOIDED, Vuinr, in Heraldry, is underitood of an or- dinary whofe inner or middle part is cut out, leaving nothing but its edges to fhew its form; fo that the field appears through it. Hence, it is needlefs to exprefs the colour, or metal, of the voided part; becaufe it muft, of courfe, be that of the field. Vomwep, The Crofs, differs from the crofs fimbriated, in VION that this latter does not fhew the field through it, as the other does. And the fame obtains in other ordinaries. VOIDER, one of the ordinaries, whofe figure is much like that of the flafque, or flanch ; only that it doth not bend fo much. This armoury, they fay, is properly the reward of a gen=_ tlewoman that has well ferved her prince. It is always borne by pairs. VoIpeER, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied, in fome inftances, to a fort of open-work fhallow bafket or fieve, in which different articles of farm produce are’ put, in order to be out of the way. 1 VOIDING, Evacuatine,in Medicine. (See Evacu- ation.) In the Philofophical Tranfa@tions we have an ac- count of one Matt. Milford, who voided a worm by urine, fuppofed to nave come from the kidneys. Dr. Lifter mentions true caterpillars voided by a boy of nine years old. Mr. Jeflop faw hexapods vomited up by a irl. Catharina Geilaria, who died in 1662, in the hofpital of Altenburg, for twenty years voided, they fay, by vomit and ftool, toads and lizards. Ephem. German. tom. i. obf. 103. td In the fame Ephem. is alfo a ftory of a kitten, bred in: the ftomach, and vomited up ; and others of whelps, frogs, lacerte aquatice, and other animals, bred and voided the like way. Bartholine gives us an inftance of a worm bred in the brain, and voided by the nofe of O. W. See Worms. VOIGTIA, in Botany, Rothin Roem. and Utt. Mag: fafec. 10. 17,196. Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 8.683 ; fee Rorura. VOIGTSBERG, in Geography, a tewn and citadel of Saxony, which gives name to a prefeéturate in the Vogt- land ; 1 mile N. of Oelnitz. } VOIR Dire, in Law. When, upon a trial at’ law, it is prayed, that a witnefs may be {worn upon a voir dire, the meaning is, that he fhall, upon his oath, {peak or declare the truth, whether he fhall get or lofe by the matter in’ con- troverfy. If he be unconcerned, his teftimony is allowed, otherwife not. VOIRE, ‘in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Aube, near Chalette. . VOIRON, a town of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 10 miles.N.W. of Grenoble. VOISENON, CraupEe Henry bE Fusfte pu, in Bio- graphy, a literary perfon of fingular chara¢ter, was born at the chateau of Voifenon, near Melun, in 1708, and educated for the ecclefiaftical profeflion. . He commenced his career of advancement by being grand-vicar to the fee of Boulogne ; but having fought a duel, he afterwards contented himfelf with the abbacy of Jard, which was probably a family benefice. He was of a lively, humorous difpofition, and as he knew how to trifle agreeably, he was admitted into fafhionable fociety. As ,a writer, he publifhed feveral ro- mances, the beft of which is faid to be a kind of moral tale, entitled “ L’Hiftoire de la Felicité.”? His comedies of “ Marriages affortis,”? 1744, and ‘La Coquette fixée,”’ 1746, are reckoned to contain {trokes of humour which would not have been difavowed even by Moliere. He was alfo the author of many fugitive pieces. His literary re- putation caufed him to be elected into the French Academy ; aud the duke of Choifeul fettled.on him a pentfion of 6000 livres to write a French hiltory. He died in 1775, and his works were colleéted in 1782 by his friend, Mad: de Turpin, in 5 vols. 8vo. Nouv. Dié. Hilt. be VOISEY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Upper Marne; 6 miles S.E. of Bourbon les Bains. VOISHA, “flattened his.”’ » VOT ’ VOISHA, a town of Servia; 48 miles W. of Jeni- bafar. Pret VOISIN, JosePx Ee, in Biography, a theological writer, was born at Bourdeaux, of a family diftinguifhed in the de- partment of Jaw, but his difpofition being devotional, he abandoned the legal for the ecclefiaftical profeffion, and ob- tained prieft’s orders, and the degree of doétor in theo- logy. He was a good Hebrew {cholar, and very converfant with Rabbinical literature. In 1635 he publifhed a Latin tranflation of a Rabbinical work on the foul ; and in 1647 he gave to the public “* Theology of the Jews,” in Latin, 4to., and afterwards a “Treatife on the Jewifh Jubilee,” and other works of a fimilar kind. He was the editor, and -partly author, of the work of the prince of Conti againft theatrical fpe€tacles, 1666; and after the death of that prince, of a defence of it againft the abbé d’Aubignac. His tranflation of the Roman Miffal into French was printed in ‘1660; but at the inftigation of cardinal Mazarin, it was condemned by an affembly of the French clergy, though it had obtained the fan&tion of fome bifhops and doors in theology. The plea urged againit it was its being an at- tempt to prepare for the celebration of mafs in French, and it was fuppreffed by a decree of the council. The grand- vicar of Paris fanétioned the printing and fale of the work ; but the king enforced the pope’s brief, which prohibited a tranflation of the Miffal. Voifin'afterwards obtained a royal privilege for its impreffion. This learned and pious per- fon died in 1685. Moreri. VOISINNES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne; 6 miles W. of Langres. VOITEUR, a town of France, in the department of the Jura ; 6 miles N. of Lons le Saunier. VOITSBERG, or WorrssperG, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on the Kainach; 20 miles W.S.W. of Gratz. We lat. 49° 4!) EE: long: 15°. VOITURE, Vincent, in Biography, born at Amiens in the year 1598, was a lively French writer, and an agree- able companion in the fafhionable circles. At the court of Lewis XIII. he was: well received, whofe brother, Gafton, duke of Orleans, made him matter of the cere- monies, and introducer of foreign ambaffadors, and whom he followed in his retirement to Languedoc. In 1634 he was admitted into the French Academy, of which he was 4a dif- “tinguifhed member, as he was well acquainted with the Latin, Italian, and Spanifh languages. He held the office of interpreter to the queen-mother, and was employed in feveral court commiffions. At Madrid he ingratiated him- felf with the count d’Olivares, and for the gratification of his curiofity made a tour to Africa. His Spanifh verfes awere taken for thofe of Lopez de Vega ; and at Rome he was eleGted, on account of his Italian literature, a member of the Academy degli Umorifti.. On his return to France, he was appointed maitre d’hotel to the king; and M. d’Avaux, fuperintendant of the finances, gave him the fine- cure place of his “‘ commis.’? ~But all his preferments and “penfions were not a fufficient fund for fupplying him with the means of gaming and of gallantry. Being naturally feeble ‘in his conftitution, his various indulgencies were the occa- fion of terminating his life, in 1648, at the age of 50 years. His heart was good, but he was vain and irritable ; and he had the meannefs to be afhamed of his defcent from a father who was a wine-merchant, fo that he could not bear plea- fantries that referred to his origin: and it was therefore faid of him, that “‘‘wine, which raifed other people’s {pirits, Againit thofe whom he provoked by his farcafms, he had not courage to defend himfelf ; and there- fore, when he once offended a court lord, and was ordered VOL to draw his {word, he replied, ‘the match is not equal : you are tall, and I am fhort; you are brave, and I am a pol- troon ; you want to kill me: well then! I reckon myfelf dead.”? By this kind of apology he difarmed his antago- nifts. His peculiar excellence, like that of Balzac, con- filed in letter-writing, which he was very flow in exe- cuting, and in which he difplayed much wit and pleafantry, often degenerating into affe€tation, and fometimes into in- delicacy. His letters, however, notwithitanding their im- perfeGtions and faults, were much admired, and ferved as a paffport into the politeft companies. His poems were of a fimilar charafter to that of his letters. They confift of epiftles, elegies, fonnets, rondeaus, ballads, and fongs. For want of nature and corre& tafte, his works have funk into oblivion. The lateft edition is that of Paris, in 2 vols. 12mo. 1759. Moreri. VOIVRE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges ; 9 miles E. of Remberviller. VOJUSSA, a river of European Turkey, which ‘runs into the Adriatic ; 7 miles N. of Valona. VOKINOSAMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo; 18 miles N. of Funai. VOKSA, ariver of Ruffia, which runs from lake Saima to lake Ladoga, in the government of Viborg. VOKSCHA,a river of Ruffia, which rifes in the pro- vince of Uftiug, and joins the Mezen, in the government of Archangel; 16 miles N. of Olenfkoi. VOIX Cerzstine, in Mujfic, a ftop in the organ, an oGtave above the vox humana. : VOL, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, S. of Carthage, between the rivers Bagradas and ‘Triton. Ptolemy. Vor, among Heralds, fignifies the two wings of a fowl joined together, borne in armoury ; as being the whole that makes the flight. Accordingly, a demi-volis a fingle wing. VOLA, the palm, or infide of the hand, comprehended between the fingers and the wrift. VOLANA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gallia Cifalpina, called alfo Podi Volana.—Alfo, a town’of Italy, in Samnium. VOLANDUM, a fortified place of Afia, in Armenia, and the ftrongeft in the country. It was taken by Corbulo without the lofs of a fingle man, and all the inhabitants above the age of fourteen years were configned to the edge of the fword. ; VOLANDO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Italy, in the Ferrarefe, at the mouth of the fouthern branch of the Po, which is called Po di Volano ; 23 miles E. of Ferrara. VOLANS. See Draco, and Piscis. VOLANT, in Heraldry, is when a bird, in a coat of arms, is drawn flying, or having its wings {pread out. Votant, Pafs. See PAss-VOLANT. Vorant, Pont. See PontT-VOLANT. VOLAR, in Geography, ‘a town of Tranfylvania; 4 miles S. of Hunyad. VOLATA, Ital., in Mufic, a flight, rapid divifion, a rapid extemporaneous paflage at a clofe, or paufe. VOLATERRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ita- ly, in Etruria, at a certain diftance from the fea, fituated on a mountain, which, according to Strabo, was fifteen ftadia in height. It is placed by fome authors in the rank of the twelve cities of Etruria. After its fubjeétion to the Ro- mans, it remained faithful. In the time of Sylla’s proferip- tions, it was unfuccefsfully befieged for two years. Its in- habitants obtained the right of Roman citizenfhip. Atthe fall of the empire it pafled under the power of the Vandals, Huns, and Goths ; but was retaken by Narfes, in the year . 553° VOL 553- Some authors fay that for a certain time the Lom- bards fixed their court there. VOLATERRANA Vana, a town or borough of Italy, in Etruria, with a port at the mouth of the Gecinna, according to Pliny. It is now called Vadi. VOLATICA, in Medicine, aname given by authors to a fort of wandering pain, attended with a tumour, and affecting, at different times, different parts of the body. It is by fome accounted a fpecies of the fcurvy ; by others, of the leprofy. VOLATILE, in Phyfics, is commonly ufed to denote a mixt body, whofe integral parts are eafily diflipated by fire or heat ; but it is more properly ufed for bodies whofe elements, or firft component parts, are eafily feparated from each other, and difperfed in air. As thofe bodies which by heat fuffer no diminution of their weight are faid to be fixed, fo thofe which do lofe of their weight are faid to be volatile ; and they are faid to be more or lefs volatile, according as a greater or lefs degree of heat is requifite for producing a feparation of their parts. Perhaps, indeed, every body is, rigoroufly fpeaking, volatile: but as there are fome, the volatility of which can be only rendered fenfible by the aétion of a fire much more violent than any which we can produce, we confider thefe bodies as being fixed, or not volatile. Minerals, for the generality, are lefs volatile than vege- tables ; and vegetables are lefs fo than animals. The chemifts diftinguifh between volatile falts and fixt falts. The capitals of aludels ftop and colle€& the volatile parts of fubftances, in fublimation, and make what we call flowers. “< The particles of fluids which do not cohere very ftrongly together, and are of fuch fmallnefs as renders them molt fufeeptible of thofe agitations which keep liquors ina fluor, are eafily rarefied into vapour ; and, in the language of the chemifts, are volatile. ‘Thofe which are groffer, and by that means lefs fufceptible of alterations, or which cohere by a ftronger heat, or, perhaps, not without fermentation ; thefe are what the chvmifts call fixt bodies.’? Newton’s Optics, p. 371. Wovatite Alkali. See ALKALI. VoraTiLe Salt of Amber. See AMBER. Voratite Oil, in Rural Economy, is that fort which has a fragrant aromatic fmell, and which is fometimes called cffential oil. It is ftated by fir Humphrey Davy to differ from fixed oil, in being capable of evaporation by a much lower degree of heat, in being foluble in alcohol, and in poffeffing a yery flight degree of folubility in water. There is a great number of this fort of oils, diftinguifhed by their {mell, their tafte, their fpecific gravity, and other fen- fible qualities. A ftrong and peculiar odour may, however, be confidered as the great chara¢teriftic of each fort ; the volatile oils inflame with more facility than the fixed oils, and afford by their combuition different proportions of the fame fubftances, water, carbonic acid, and carbon. It is faid that the peculiar odours of plants feem, in almoft all cafes, to depend upon the peculiar oils of this fort they contain. All the perfumed diitilled waters owe their pecu- liar properties to the volatile oils they holdin folution. By colleéting the aromatic oils, the fragrance of flowers, fo fugitive in the common courfe of nature, is as it were em- bodied and made permanent. It cannot be doubted, it is faid, that the volatile oils confift of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; but no accurate experiments have as yet been made on the proportions in which thefe elements are combined. As the fragrance of flowers depends upon the volatile oils they contain ; and thefe oils, by their conftant evaporation, VOL furround the flower with a kind of odorous atmofphere ; which, at the fame time that it entices larger infe&ts, may probably preferve the parts of fruétification from the ravages of f{maller ones ; volatile oils, or odorous fubftances, feem, it is faid, particularly deftru€tive to thefe minute infects and animalcules which feed on the fubftance of vegetables : thoufands of aphides may be ufually feen in the ftalk and leaves of the rofe ; but none of them are ever obferved on the flower. Camphor is the fubftance ufed to preferve the colleétions of naturalifts. The woods that contain aromatic oils are remarkable for their indeftruétibility, and for their exemption from the attacks of infe&ts: this is particularly the cafe with the cedar, rofe-wood, and cyprefs. The gates of Conftantinople, which were made of this lait fort of wood, ftood entire, it is faid, fromthe time of Conftan- tine, their founder, to that of pope Eugene IV., a period of 1100 years. This fort of oils is afforded by diftillation, coming over with the water, and floating on the top of it in {mail glo- bules. It is colleGted by pouring a quantity of the diltilled water with the oil, as it comes over into a veflel, fo con- {tru€ted as to fuffer the watery part to efcape by a ftop- cock near the bottom ; the veffel or apparatus is again filled, and when fettled, the water is again let out ; in this manner the oil is colleéted in great quantities, floating as above. This effential or etherial oil refides, it is fuppofed by fome, in a particular part of the plant, but which is different in different forts. And it is faid that the oils vary in their nature or properties in different forts of plants. It is noticed by the above writer, that the volatile oils have never been ufed as articles of food ; many of them are em- ployed inthe arts, in the manufacture of pigments and yar- nifhes ; but that their moft extenfive application is as per- fumes in the hands of the perfumer, and manufaéturer in that way. On the contrary, the fixed oils are very nutritive fub- flances, and are of great importance in their applications te the purpoles of life. See Orn. VouaTite, Sal Oleofum. See Sau. VovatTite Salt. See SALT. VOLATILISATION, or Votatitization, the a& of rendering fixt bodies volatile, or refolving them, by fire, into a fine, fubtle vapour, or fpirit, which eafily diffipates, and flies away. All bodies, even the moft fixt, as gold, may be volati- lized, either of themfelves, or with the admixture of fome volatile fubftance, or fpirit ; by diftillation, or fublimation. In the Memoirs of the Royal Academy we have a dif- courfe on the volatilization of the fixed falts of plants, by M. Homberg. ; VOLATILITY, in Chemifry, is a property that many bodies have of being reduced into light vapours, which ex- hale when they are expofed to the a€tion of fire. This qua- lity is oppofed to fixity, and is owing to the greater or lefs dilatability which bodies have, when expofed to fire, See VoLaTILE, SUBLIMATION, &c. VOLCZ Arercomici, in Ancient Geography, contradifl- tinguifhed from the Teéo/ages, were a branch of a people, who occupied, in the Narbonnefe province, the whole fpace that lies between the Rhone and the Garonne. The Are- comici were fituated near the Rhone, and extended along the fea in that territory which % now called Lower Lan- guedoc. When Hannibal traverfed the fouthern part of Gaul, in his way to Italy, the Arecomici were not bounded by the Rhone, but poffeffed territory on both fides of the river. The chain of Mons Aberna feparated the Areco- mici from the Ruteni and the Gabati. But their limits with regard to the Teétofages are not eafily afcértained. Ac- cording VOL cording to Strabo, Narbonne was a part of the territory of the Arecomici; but Ptolemy extends the territory of the Teétofages, fo as to aflign to them the towns of Narbonne, Beziers, and Ceffero upon the Arur. Before the Romans made Narbonne the capital of their firft province conquered in Gaul, this city might have belonged to the Arecomici rather than to the Teétofages, agreeably to Strabo’s ac- count. But when Narbonne was elevated to this dignity, it found itfelf independent of both claffes of the Volez, and appropriated to itfelf a diftin& and feparate territory. This territory is indicated by the pofition of Fines, between Car- caffonne and Touloufe. Ptolemy, however, not duly re- garding the diftinGtion between thefe feveral people, adjudged Narbonne and fome other towns to the Tectofages rather than to the Arecomici, whofe diftri@ was thus reduced to that of the capital, or of Nemaufus in particular. The Volcz Teétofages merit a particular diftin@ion on account of the expeditions in which they engaged. They penetrated, according to Cefar, into Germany, and eftablifhed themfelves in cantons of the foreft of Herinia, acquiring the reputation of juftice as well as of courage in war. Juftin reports that a body of the Tetolfages penetrated into Illyria, and fixed itfelfin Pannonia. But their moft celebrated eftablifhment was that in Phrygia, where they preferved their own name. They alfo occupied Ancyra, the principal town of the country, which took the name of Galatia. The Teétofages of the Narbonnefe, according to Strabo, approached the Pyrenées, and attained one extreme of the declivity of mount Commenus or Cebanna. Their limit, with regard to the Arecomici, feems to have been determined by the pofi- tion of Fines, of which we have already fpoken. VOLCANO, in Geography. See VuLcano. Voicano, in Geology, is an opening made by fub- terranean fire in the furface of the earth, through which vapour, fmoke, flames, and ftones are ejected, with ftreams of melted itone, called lava. Some volcanoes throw out boiling water and mud. OF all geological phenomena, volcanoes are the moft im- preffive, as they not unfrequently change the appearance of a whole diftri& in the courfe of a few days; and the only inftances we have of the formation of rocks in our own times, are thofe produced by the agency of volcanic fires. In a former ftate of the globe, thefe fires appear to have been ftill more aGtively and extenfively operative : this is proved by the numerous remains of extin& volcanoes of immenfe fize, {cattered over various parts of the world, and by the ex- iftence of rocks nearly refembling volcanic produéts, found in almoft every country that has yet been explored. It is only within a fhort period that thefe phenomena have been attentively and accurately examined. We fhall com- mence our account with a defcription of the external ftruc- ture of volcanoes. Many volcanoes are lofty mountains, furmounted by a truncated cone, having an aperture at the fummit, nearly circular, and of greater or lefs depth, called the crater, from which the eruptions iffue ; but not unfrequently the eruptions burft from the fide or the foot of the mountain, and they fometimes break forth at a great depth under the fea. The greateft number of ative volcanoes are fituated near the fea or large lakes, from which circum- flance it has been fuppofed, by fome geologifts, that water is an agent in all volcanic eruptions. Mott ifolated volcanic mountains have a pyramidal or conical form, afcending at a moderate angle of inclination from the bafe to an elevated plain, from the centre of which rifes the cone in which the principal crater is fituated. The fides of this cone are generally fteep, and are covered with volcanic fand, pumice, 9 VOL or {corie. The matter of which it is compofed, as well aé the fhape, evidently indicate that it has been formed by fubftances thrown out of the volcano in a perpendicular di- rection, which in their defcent have accumulated round the aperture, and from the laws of gravity have aflumed a co- nical form. The fhape of the cone is changed during great eruptions, fometimes they have been known to fink down and difappear, new volcanic cones forming in other parts of the mountain. A confiderable part of the cone of Vefuvius fell down during the eruption of 1794. In 1727, when M. d’ Orville vifited Vulcano, one of the Lipari or AZolian ifles, there were two diftin€@ volcanic cones, each placed on an eminence, and containing a crater in a {tate of active erup- tion ; whereas, at prefent, there is but one cone confpicuous in the ifland, the fummit being fingle. Spallanzani, who vifited thefe iflands about fixty years after M. d’Orville, made inquiries of fome of the oldeft inhabitants re- fpe&ting the double cone and crater of Vulcano, and he found fome few perfons who retained a recolle€tion of it. The regular conical form does not charaéterize all vol- canoes. The volcanic mountains in America, according to Humboldt, prefent a confiderable diverfity, both in fhape and fituation, from thofe in the old world. : In Europe and in Afia, as far as the interior of the latter continent is known, no burning volcano is fituated in a chain of mountains ; all being at a greater or lefs diftance from thefe chains. In the new world, on the contrary, the volcanoes, the mofl ftupendous for their maffes, form a part of the Cordilleras themfelyes. The mountains of mica- flate and gniefs, in Peru and New Granada, immediately touch the voleanic porphyries of the province of Quito and Pafto. To the fouth and north of thefe countries, in Chili and in the kingdom of Guatimala, the aétive yok canoes are grouped in rows. They are the continuation of the chains of primitive rocks; and if the volcanic fire has ~ broken out in fome plains far from the Cordilleras, as in mount Sangay and Jorullo, we muft confider this pheno- menon as an exception to the law which nature feems to have impofed on thefe regions. The Peak of Teneriffe forms a pyramidal mafs like Etna, Tungurahua, and Popocatapetl, but this charater is far from being common to all volcanoes. We have feen, fays Humboldt, fome in the fouthern hemifphere, which, inftead of having the form of a cone or bell, are lengthened in one dire&tion, having the ridge fometimes {mooth, at others rough, with {mall pointed rocks. This ftructure is peculiar to Antifan and Pichinca, two burning mountains of the province of Quito, and the abfence of the conical form ought never to be confidered as oppofed to a volcanic origin. M. Humboldt deduces the following inferences from his obfervations on the fhape of different volcanoes. That mountains with flender conical peaks, are thofe which are fubje& to eruptions of the greateft violence, and at the near- eft periods toeach other. Mountains with lengthened fum- mits, rugged, with {mall ftony mafles, are very old volcanoes nearly extinguifhed. Rounded fummits, in the form of domes or bells, indicate thofe doubtful kinds of porphyries which are fuppofed to have been heated in their original place, and forced up in a foftened ftate without ever having flowed as lavas. ‘I’o the firft of thefe mountains belong Cotopaxi, the Peak of Teneriffe, and that of Orizaya, in Mexico. The fecond is common to Carguarazo and Pichinca, in the province of Quito, and to the volcano of Puracey, near Popayan, and perhaps alfo to Hecla, in Ice- land. The third and laft form is feen in the majeftic figure of Chimborazo, and in the great Sarcony, im Aurcsants VOLCANO. In order to form a more exa& idea of the external ftruture of yolcanoes, it is important to compare their perpendicular height with their circumference ; but this can only be done witi: ifolated mountains placed on a plain which is nearly on a level with the fea. The height of the Peak of Tene- riffe is one twenty-eighth of the circumference of its bafe ; that of Vefuvius, according to Von Buch, is a thirty-third ; and of Etna, a thirty-fourth. Ifolated volcanoes, in the molt diltant regions, are very analogous in their external ftru@ture. All have elevated plains, in the middle of which rifes a cone perfeétly circular. The greater the quantity of matter that has iffued from the crater of a volcano, the more elevated is its cone of afhes, in proportion to the perpen- dicular height of the mountain.. Nothing is more ftriking than the difference in this refpeét, fays Humboldt, between Wefuvius, the Peak of Teneriffe, and Pichinca. The cone of Cotopaxi, the form of which is the moft regular and ele- gant of any hitherto known, is 540 toifes in height, but it is impoffible to decide whether the whole of this mafs is covered with afhes. Cone covered with Athes. Toifes. Toifes. Vefuvins, height of 606 200 + Peak of Teneriffe 1904 84. at Pichinca - 2490 240 a The latter column fhews the proportion of the cone to the total height of the mountain. In moft volcanic mountains, the cone, or fugar-loaf, as it has been not unaptly called, preferves its conic figure to the very fummit; the whole of the declivity is inclined the fame number of degrees, and is uniformly covered with layers of volcanic fand or powder. When we reach the top, nothing obitruéts the view of the bottom of the crater. The Peak of Teneriffe and Cotopaxi, on the contrary, have a different conftruG@tion. Their fummits have a circular wall, furrounding the brink of the crater, which appears at a diftance like a fmall cylinder placed on a truncated cone. According to Humboldt, this peculiar conftruétion of Cotopaxi, is vifible to the naked eye at the diftance of nearly three leagues. No perfon has reached the crater of this voleano. On the Peak of Teneriffe, the wall that fur- rounds the erater is fo high, that it would be impoffible to enter, if there were not a breach which feems to have been made by the flowing of an ancient current of lava. The fhape of volcanic craters is generally that of a funnel, either circular or elliptical, the fides fhelving down to the bottom, which is a plain of greater or lefs extent, having apertures or fiffures, through which fmoke and_ heated vapour are exhaled. At the bottom of many volcanic craters are one or more {mall cones, which during erup- tions enlarge, and fometimes fill up the crater, and rife above its brim. The prefent cone of Vefuvius is fuppofed to have been raifed within a crater of much larger fize, of which mount Somma forms part of the remaining wall. (See Vesuvius.) The fize of the crater does not depend on the height and mafs of the mountain, of which it forms the principal vent. Vefuvius, which is but a {mall hill compared with the Peak of Teneriffe, has a crater with a diameter, five times larger than that of the latter mountain ; and the prefent crater of Vulcano equals or exceeds that of Vefuvius, though the eight of the cone is not more than 1500 feet above the level of the fea. When we reflect, fays Humboldt, that very lofty volcanoes throw out lefs matter by their fummits than by lateral openings, we fhould be led to conclude that the lower volcanoes are, their force and activity being the fame, the more confiderable ought to be the fize of their craters. There are immenfe volcanoes in the Andes, which have but very {mall open- ings, and we might eftablifh it as a geological principle, that the molt lofty volcanoes have eraters of fmall extent at their fummits, if the Cordilleras did not offer many inftances. to the contrary. The great volcanoes of Cotopaxi and Rucupichinca have craters, which, according to the admea- {urement of this indefatigable traveller, exceed half and three-quarters of a mile in diameter. In a volcano like Vefuvius, the a€tivity of which is prin- cipally direéted towards the fummit, the depth of the crater. varies before and after every eruption; but at the Peak of Teneriffe, the depth of the crater appears to have been fta- tionary for a long time. In 1715, it was eftimated by Mr. Eden at one hundred and fifteen feet ; in 1805, by M. Cordier, at one hundred and ten feet ; and fubfequently, by. Humboldt, it was conjetured to have rather lefs depth. The infide of the crater indicates a voleano, which for alon period has emitted no fire at the fummit. From the lapfe of time, and the ation of vapours, the infide walls have fallen in, and have covered the bafin with great blocks of lava. For an account of the cone and crater of mount&tna, fee AETNA. Among the various changes that have taken place in this volcano, it is highly probable that the partition between the upper and lower crater may have been fre- quently removed. Lieut.-general Cockburn, who vifited Etna in 1810, deferibes only one crater, though he afeended the higheft pinnacle. This crater, he eftimates at nearly two miles in circumference. At that time the bottom of the crater, which he diftin&tly faw, was not flat; it con- tained feveral minor mountains and their craters, fome fmoking like the moft violent glafs-furnace, or fteam- engine. Cockburn’s Trayels in Sicily, vol. i. p. 137. he whole cone of a volcano is fometimes fwallowed up during an eruption, leaving a circular crater of a larger diameter and at a much lower level; which, when the volcanic fire becomes extiné&t, or remains dormant for ages, may forma lake. ‘The celebrated lake of Avernus, near Naples, and the neighbouring lake Agano, are the craters of extinét volcanoes, the. cones of which have pro- bably been buried after a great eruption, or by an earth- quake... Numerous circular lakes exiit in voleanic countries which have had the fame origin. Nor need we be furprifed at the difappearance of a volcanic cone, however large, as it muft ftand and have its foundation on the brink of a much larger abyf{s, from which it has been thrown out, as we fhall have occafion to remark in defcribing the formation of fome of thefe cones, which have taken place in modern times. The crater of a volcano can only be approached when the fire is in a dormant or nearly quiefcent ftate ; but as the in- tervals between voleanic eruptions fometimes laft for many years, and even centuries, opportunities are offered for ex- ploring their ftru€ture. The floor of the crater appears in many inftances to be only a thin congealed cruft, and returns a hollow found when {truck upon with a ftone or any hard. fubftance. This is the cafe at the Solfaterra, which ap- pears to be the floor of an extin@ crater. See SoLra- TERRA. 4 When M. de Luc walked over the bottom of the crater of Vulcano in 1757, it returned a hollow found. The Jargeft diameter of the crater was then above three-quarters of a mile, and the depth nearly a thoufand feet. In 1781 it was vilited by M. Dolomieu, who found it impoffible to enter the crater ; its depth he eftimated at half a mile from the brink, and the bottom not more than two hundred and fifty feet in diameter. He threw in fome large {tones a : 10 e VOLCANO. the edge of the crater, which he perceived funk in fome fluid when they reached the bottom. This fluid could not be aqueous, fince it would foon have been evaporated by ex- ceflive heat ; he fuppofed it to be melted fulphur, as he faw that fubftance trickle down the fides, againft which it had fublimed. With a good telefcope he could difcover at the bottom two {mall pools, which he fuppofed to be full of the fame combultible matter. He likewife obferved, that the fumes which in the day-time appeared white, were by night {plendent, but placid flames, that rofe above the mountain, and diffufed their light to fome diftance. Spallanzani, who vifited Vulcano feven years after Dolo- mieu, found the bottom only about a quarter of a mile deep, but intolerably hot. The changes which took place in this interval, were pro- bably occafioned by a violent commotion which occurred in the month of March 1786, during which the crater threw out a prodigious quantity of volcanic powder or fand with immenfe volumes of {moke and flame. This eruption lafted fifteen days. That the bottom of the crater fhould vary confiderably in depth after every eruption will not appear furprifing, if we reflect that this bottom is a cruft of congealed lava, more or lefs covered with loofe materials, which have fallen upon it. When the lava which has been forced up near to the brink of the crater, remains ftationary at the clofe of an eruption, and folidifies, the melted lava will gradually fink -down as the intenfity of the volcanic fire diminifhes at the furface, thus leaving a cruft of greater or lefs thicknefs over a hollow fpace below. The depth of this floor from the brink will depend on the quantity of lava which remains in the crater towards the end of an eruption. The phenomena preceding and attending volcanic erup- tions, vary according to the fituation in which they break forth, and the magnitude or intenfity of the volcanic fire. An eruption may proceed from ancient volcanoes, which have been dormant for a longer or fhorter period, or it may break out from a new opening or from under the fea. The phenomena moft common to each of thefe fituations we fhall briefly defcribe. The indications of an approaching erup- tion from a dormant volcano, are the increafe of {moke ‘from the fummit of the crater, which fometimes rifes to a vatt height, branching in the form of a pine-tree. This was the cafe in the memorable eruption of Vefuvius, -defcribed by Pliny, in the year 79 of the Chriftian era. The caufe of this appearance is probably the violent efcape of elattic gas driving up the volatile materials into the higher regions of the atmofphere, which in their defcent float at different heights, according to their {pecific gravity, the heavieft ftratum floating over a larger {pace. Tremendous explo- fions, ike the firing of artillery, commence after the in- ereafe of {moke, accompanied with tremors of the earth, more or lefs violent, and by eruptions of red-coloured flame and ftones from the crater; after which, in moft violent erup- tions, currents of melted ftone, called lava, flow either over the brink of the crater, or break through the fides of the mountain. Thefe currents, when on foliated by cooling, frequently form a ftratum thirty or forty miles in length, feveral miles broad, and feveral yards thick, equalling in extent any continuous ftratum, among the regular forma- tions of fecondary ftrata. The eruption of lava has been known to continue for feveral months. Black clouds, com- pofed of dark-coloured fand or powder, improperly called afhes, are thrown out of the crater after the lava ceafes to flow. During one eruption of Etna, a {pace of one hun- dred and fifty fquare miles was covered with this {and twelve ‘feet thick. Stones or globiform mafles of melted lava are Vor. XXXVII. thrown out at the fame time, and fall at a greater or lefs diftance, according to their fize, and the force with which they are ejected, the larger maffes falling neareft to the mouth of the voleano. The fmoke and vapour are highly eleGtrical, and vivid violent flafhes of lightning dart from it, which frequently occafion much mifchief. Towards the conclufion of the eruption, the colour of the volcanic fand changes to white; it confifts of pumice in a finely commi- nuted ftate. It is obferved, that when the lava flows freely, the tremors of the earth and the explofion become lefs fre- quent, which proves that they were occafioned by the con- finement of the gafeous and folid matter that is afterwards difcharged. Moft of the phenomena here mentioned occur in the eruptions of mount Vefuvius, near Naples. The firft erup- tion of this mountain recorded in hiftory, is that which happened in the time of Vefpafian, A.D. 79; on which occafion, fays Dion Caffius, great quantities of afhes and fulphureous fmoke were carried not only to Rome, but alfo beyond the Mediterranean, into Africa, and even to Egypt. Birds were fuffocated in the air, and fell down dead upon the ground, and fifhes perifhed in the neighbouring waters, which were made hot, and infeGted by it. Sir William Hamilton reckons, that the eruption in 1767 was the twenty- feventh from that in the time of Titus. Since 1767 the eruptions have been frequent. Bifhop Berkeley has given a particular account of the eruption in 17173 for which, fee Phil. Tranf. N° 354. p- 708, or the Life of Berkeley, in the Biographia Brt- tannica, by Dr. Kippis. We have an account of mount Vefuvius, and of the eruption from it in 1737, by the prince of Caffano, in the Philofophical Tranfactions, N° 435. fect. 1, 2. The matter thrown out flowed like melted lead, and moved about half a mile in an hour, which was then con- fidered as an unufual velocity. The trees touched by this matter, immediately took fire, and fell. Glafs in houfes was melted into a patte. Sir William Hamilton has given an accurate and circum- ftantial defcription of the eruptions in 1766, 1767, and 1779. See Phil. Tranf. vol. lvii. p. 192, vol. lviii. p. 1, &c. vol. lix. p. 18, &c. vol. Ixx. part i. p. 42, &c. We hall fele& his account of the latter. During the whole month of July the mountain continued in a ftate of fermentation. Subterraneous explofions and rumbling noifes were heard, quantities of {moke were thrown up with great violence, fometimes with red-hot ftones, fcoriz, and afhes; and to- wards the end of the month thefe fymptoms increafed to fuch a degree, as to exhibit in the night-time the moit beau- tiful fire-works that can be imagined. On Thurfday, the 5th of Augutft, the volcano appeared moft violently agitated; a white ‘and fulphureous fmoke iffued continually and impetuoufly from its crater, one puff feeming to impel another, fo that a mafs of them was foon aceumulated, to appearance four times the height and fize of the volcano itfelf. Thefe clouds of {moke were exceed- ingly white, fo that the whole refembled an immenfe accu- mulation of bales of the whiteft cotton. In the midi{t of this very white fmoke, vait quantities of ftones, {corie, and afhes were thrown up to the height of two thoufand feet, and a quantity of liquid lava, feemingly very heavy, was lifted up juft high enough to clear the rim of the crater, and take its way down the fides of the mountain. This lava having run violently for fome hours, fuddenly, ceafed, juft before it had reached the cultivated parts of the moun- tain, near four miles from the {pot whence it iffued. The heat all this day was intolerable at the towns of Somma and 3K Ottaiano, VOLCANO. Ottaiano, and was fenfibly felt at Palma and Lauri, which are much farther off. Reddifh afhes fell fo thick on the two former towns, that the air was darkened, fo that ob- jeéts could not be diftinguifhed at the diftance of ten feet. Long filaments of a vitrified matter, like fpun glafs, were mixed and fell with thefe afhes ; feveral birds in cages were -fuffocated, and the leaves of the trees in the neighbourhood of Somma were covered with a white and very corrofive falt. About twelve at night on the 7th, the fermentation of the mountain feemed greatly to increafe. Our author was watching the motion of the volcano from the mole at Naples, which has a full view of it. Several glorious pic- turefque effets had been obferved from the reflection of the deep red fire within the crater of Vefuvius, and which mounted high amongft thofe huge clouds on the top of it ; when a fummer ftorm (called in that country a tropea), came on fuddenly, and blended its heavy watery clouds with the fulphureous and mineral ones, which were already like fo many other mountains, piled up on the top of the voleano. At this moment a fountain of fire was fhot up to an incre- dible height, cafting fo bright a light, that the {malleft ob- jeG&ts were clearly diftinguifhable, at any place within fix miles or more from Vefuvius. The black ftormy clouds paffing {wiftly over, and at times covering the whole or a part of the bright column of fire, at other times clearing away and giving a full view of it, with the various tints pro- duced by its reverberated light on the white clouds above it, in contraft with the pale flafhes of forked lightning that at- tended the tropea, formed fuch a {cene as no power of art can exprefs. One of his Sicilian majefty’s game-keepers, who was out in the fields near Ottaiano whillt ‘the ftorm was at its height, was furprifed to find the drops of rain feald his face and hands, a phenomenon probably occafioned by the clouds having acquired a great degree of heat in pafling through the above-mentioned column of fire. On the 8th, the mountain was quiet till towards fix o’clock in the evening, when a great {moke began to gather over its crater ; and about an hour afterwards, a fubterraneous noife was heard in the neighbourhood of the volcano; the ufval throws of red-hot ftones and fcorie began and inereafed every inftant. The crater, viewed through a telefcope, feemed much enlarged by the violence of lait night’s explo- fions, and the little mountain on the top was entirely gone. About nine o’clock a moft violent report was heard at Por- tici and its neighbourhood, which fhook the houfes to fuch a degree, as made the inhabitants run out into the ftreets. Many windows were broken and walls cracked by the con- cuffion of the air on this occafion, though the noife was but faintly heard at Naples. In an inftant, a fountain of hiquid tranfparent fire began to rife, and gradually increaf- ing, arrived at laft at the amazing height of ten thoufand feet and upwards. _ Puffs of fmoke, as black as can poffibly be imagined, fucceeded one another haitily, and accom- panied the red-hot tranfparent and liquid lava, interrupting its {plendid brightnefs here and there, by patches of the darkeft hue. Within thefe puffs of {moke, at the very moment of emiffion, a bright but pale eletrical fire was obferved playing brifkly about in zig-zag lines. ‘The wind was fouth-weft, and though gentle, was fufficient to carry thefe puffs of {moke out of the column of fire, and a col- Je&tion of them by degrees formed a black and extenfive curtain behind it. In other parts of the fky it was perfe@ly clear, and the ftars bright. The fiery fountain, of fuch im- menfe magnitude, on the dark ground jut mentioned, made the fineft contraft imaginable ; and the blaze of it refle&ed from the furface of the fea, which was at that time per- feGily fmooth, added greatly to this fublime view. 7 The lava, mixed with ftones and fcoriz, having rifea to the amazing height already mentioned, was partly direGted by the wind towards Ottaiano, and partly falling, ftill red- hot and liquid, upon the top of Vefuyius, covered its whole cone, part of the fammit of Somma, and the valley between them. . The falling matter, being nearly as much inflamed and vivid as that which was continually ifluing frefh from the crater, formed with it one complete body of fire, which could not be lefs than two miles and a half in breadth, and at the extraordinary height above ftated, caft a heat to the diftance of at leaft fix miles round. The brufh-wood on the moun- tain of Somma was foon in a blaze, and the flame being of a different colour from the deep red thrown out by the yol- cano, and from the filvery blue of the eleétrical fire, ftill added to the contraft of this moft extraordinary {cene. The black cloud, increafing greatly, once bent towards Naples, and threatened the city with fpeedy deftrution ; foreit was charged with ele&trical fire, which kept conftantly darting about in bright zigzag lines, like thofe deferibed by Pliny the younger, in his letter to Tacitus, and which accompanied the great eruption of Vefuvius that proved fatal to his uncle. This fire, however, rarely quitted the cloud, but ufually returned to the great column of fire whence it proceeded ; though once or twice it was feen to fall on the top of Somma. Fortunately the wind carried back the cloud, juft as it reached the city, and had begun to occafion great alarm. The column of fire, however, ftill continued, and diffufed fuch a ftrong light, that the moft minute objets could be difcerned at the diftance of ten miles or more from the mountain. Mr. Morris informed our author, that at Sorrento, which is twelve miles diftant from Vefuvius, he read the title-page of a book by that volcanic light. Whilft the eruption lafted, a mixed {mell, like that of fulphur, with the vapours of an iron-foundery, was fenfible. The air, after one day’s eruption, was filled at night for many hours with meteors, fuch as are vulgarly called falling ftars, which fhot generally in a horizontal dire@tion, leaving behind them a luminous trace, which quickly difappeared. Many fmall volcanic {tones and cinders were afterwards found to have fallen more than thirty miles from Vefuyius, and minute afhes fell in great abundance at the diftance of a hundred miles. During the eruption, the miferable inhabitants of Ot- taiano were involved in the utmott diftrefs and danger, by the fhowers of ftones which fell upon them, and which, had the eruption continued for a longer time, would moft certainly have reduced their town to the fame fituation with Her- culaneum and Pompeii. The mountain of Somma, at the foot of which the town of Ottaiano is jituated, hides Ve- fuvius from the view of its inhabitants; fo that till the eruption became confiderable, it was not vifible to them. On Sunday night, when the noife increafed, and the fire began to appear above the mountain of Somma, many of the inhabitants flew to the churches, and others were pre- paring to quit the town, when a fudden and violent report was heard, foon after which they found themfelves involved in a thick cloud of {moke and afhes: a horrid clafhing noife was heard in the air, and prefently fell a vaft fhower of {tones and large pieces of {coria, fome of which were of the diameter of feven or eight feet, and muft have weighed more than a hundred pounds before they were broken, as fome of the fragments which fir W. Hamilton found in the ftreets fill weighed upwards of fixty pounds., When thofe large vitrified mafles either ftruck againft one another m the air, or fell on the ground, they broke in many pieces, and covered a large fpace of ground with vivid {parks of fire, which VOLCANO. which ignited every thing that was combuitible. Thefe mafles were formed of liquid lava: their exterior parts were become black and porous, by cooling during their fall through fuch a vait {pace, whilft the interior retained an ex- treme heat, and were perfeétly red. To add to the horror of the fcene, inceflant volcanic lightning darted from the black clouds that furrounded the inhabitants, and the ful- phureous {mell and heat would fcarcely allow them to breathe: In this fituation they remained about twenty-five minutes, when the volcanic ftorm ceafed all at once, and Vefuvius remained fullen and filent. Moft volcanoes are obferved to have intervals of repofe of longer or fhorter duration. WVefuvius has been known to remain ina€tive for many centuries. (See VEsUVIUS.) The’ periods of intermiffion of Etna and the Peak of Tene- riffe have extended to near a century. According to Hum- boldt, the long intervals of repofe appear to charaéterife volcanoes highly elevated ; and he adduces feveral infances in favour of this opinion; but other inftances might be ftated which oppofe it: thus, the periods of repofe of Ve- fuvius have been much longer than thofe of Etna; and Vulcano, which is far lower than Vefuvius, had no eruption from the fourth to the fifteenth century, or during a period of eleven hundred years. The volcano of Stromboli is the only one at prefent known, which appears to bein a ftate of conftant activity. The moft ancient accounts of the conflagrations of Strom- boli, tranfmitted by hiftory, are prior to the Chriftian era abeut two hundred and ninety-two years ; but at what time the eruptions firft commenced we are entirely ignorant. Stromboli was burning in the time of Augultus and Ti- berius ; but for want of documents, we are unacquainted with the ftate of this volcano for a feries of years after- wards. We know, however, from various public tefti- monies, that the continued eruptions have lafted fome cen- turies. The crater is fituated on the fide of the mountain. Spallanzani, who looked into it from an eminence immedi- ately above it, fays that it has a circular conical form, and is about three hundred and forty feet in circumference at the brink. To a’certain height the crater is filled with liquid red-hot matter, refembling melted brafs: this is the fluid lava. It appeared to be agitated by two diftin@ motions: the one inteftine, whirling, and tumultuous; by the other motion it was impelled upwards. The liquid matter is raifed fometimes with more and fometimes with lefs rapidity within the crater ; and when it has reached the diftance of twenty-five feet from the upper edge, a found is heard not unlike a very fhort clap of thunder; while, at the fame in- ftant, a portion of the lava, feparated into a thoufand pieces, is thrown up with indefcribable fwiftnefs, accom- panied with copious eruptions of {moke and fand. A few moments before the report, the furface of the lava is inflated and covered with large bubbles, fome of which are feveral feet in diameter. On the burfting of thefe bubbles, the detonation and fiery fhower take place. After the ex- plofion, the lava finks within the crater, but foon rifes as before, and new bubbles appear, which again burft, and produce new explofions. When the lava finks, it produces little or no found ; but when it rifes, and begins to be in- flated with bubbles, it is accompanied with a found like that of liquor boiling vehemently in a cauldron, but greater in proportion to the magnitude of the crater. In the fmaller and moderate eje€tions, the ftones fell into the crater, and, at their collifion with the lava, produced a found fimilar to that of water ftruck by a number of ftaves; but in the greater ejections, a confiderable quantity of them fell with- out the mouth of the crater. The rednefs of the larger {tones was vifible in the air, notwithitanding the light of the fun. The lava, when it rofe or fell, emitted but little {moke ; but a great quantity iffued from the fiffures, when it. exploded. This difappeared almoft inftantly after the explofion, like the fmoke from the firing of gunpowder. Though the ejeétion of the larger and heavier ftones have fhort intermiffions, thofe of the leffer have fcarcely any. Did not the eye perceive from whence thefe fhowers of ftone originate, they might be fuppofed to fall from the fky. The noife of the more violent eruptions, and the darknefs from the afcending [moke, prefent together the image of a tempeft. During the night, the red-hot ftones {pread like a fheaf, and have the appearance of a beautiful fire-work. It has been obferved of Stromboli, that thé inflammation is in general more confiderable in winter than in fummer, and more intenfe on the approach of, or during, ftorms than in calm weather. The materials which fupply the erup- tions appear to be inexhauftible ; and there is reafon to be- lieve that the volcanic fires of Stromboli and Vulcano have an internal communication with thofe of AXtna and more diftant countries, as we fhall prefently have occafion to notice. Boiling water and mud are occafionally thrown out of volcanoes, but more frequently from the American vol- canoes than from thofe in Europe. This phenomenon is very different from that of mud volcanoes, more properly fo called, the water ejected. from which is cold. The water ejeGted from fire volcanoes is probably what finds accefs to the deep mafs of melted lava, either from the fea in the vicinity, or from the neighbouring lakes. Ve- fuvius is ftated at one time to have thrown out a confider- able quantity of falt water. The moft remarkable circumftance attending the volcanic eruptions in America is that ftated by Humboldt, who in- forms us that great quantities of fifh are fometimes ejected from the crater at the top, and fometimes from the fides of the mountain, through lateral openings ; but always from an elevation more than fifteen thoufand feet above the level of the fea. M. Humboldt has given the name of pimelodus cyclopum to this {pecies of fifh. Some of them are found living in the rivers on the fides of the mountains, and in all probability they exift in fubterranean lakes, the fides of which are broken down during violent commotions, or melted by heat: hence the water finds its way to the crater, and is ejeéted with other materials. From this accefs of water, the mud or flime thrown out, called by the Indians moya, is probably formed. In many inftances, however, the torrents of water which iflue from volcanoes arife from the rapid thawing of the fnow on the fummit. According to Humboldt, the coloffal volcanic cones in the Andes, covered with fnow, have be- come fo hot in a fingle night as to melt the whole of the {now, and occafion the moft extenfive and fatal inundations. Torrents of water iffued from Etna, in the eruption of 17553 but, according to Ferrara, they did not flow out of the crater, but from the fnow and ice on the furface fud- denly thawed by the lava. A mafs of this ice, partially melted by the lava, left a pile in the midft. ftanding like a fuperb palace of cryttal. It is only by obfervations made m or near the crater, when a volcano is in a quiefcent flate, that we can gain any knowledge of the faline or inflammable matter, which may either have ferved as fuel. to the volcano, or have been pro- duced by the eruption, or been fubfequently fublimed. Of thefe we fhall {peak more particularly, in deferibing Volcanic Produéis, infra. The rapidity and extent of a current of 3K 2 lava VOLCANO. lave will depend on its fluidity, the quantity thrown out, and on the more or lefs rapid declivity of the mountain. From various experiments made by Spallanzani and others, on the melting of lavas, it appears that they are fufceptible of different degrees of fluidity, according to the degrees of temperature to which they are fubjeGted. Thefe gradations of fluidity, proportioned to the degree of heat, take place in other ftones or fubftances fufible by fire, as may be obferved in the flag from our furnaces. In fome inftances, the lava appears to have the perfe& fluidity of water. According to profeffor Bottis, who was an eye- witnefs in 1776, the lava {pouted from three fmall cones or apertures on Vefuvius, precifely like water, forming three beautiful fountains of fire, which defcribed curves of dif- ferent dimenfions as they fell. He fays alfo, that he has twice feen the inflamed matter break forth and difgorge in the Atrio del Cavallo, at the foot of the volcanic cone of Vefuvius. From its great fluidity, it refembled water ifuing with violence from under the earth, and inundating the adjacent country. The current of lava, which flowed from this mountain in 1776, ftruck upon the lava of 1771, and rebounded into the air, congealing in various figures, terminating in thin fharp points like needles. In the erup- tion of 1754, the lava formed two branches, which flowed thirty feet in forty-five feconds, or above half a mile an hour; and uniting lower down, proceeded at the rate of thirty-three feet in fifty feconds. In 1765, the lava is flated to have flowed at the rate of a mile an hour. An- other branch of the fame lava is faid by fir William Hamil- ton to have had a velocity equal to that of the river Severn at Briftol. In 1776, a torrent of lava from the fummit of Vefuvius was obferved to flow a mile and a half in four- teen minutes. When the declivity is very gentle, the mo- tion is flow, if the current is not preffled forward by new fupplies of melted matter. Notwithftanding the velocity of torrents of lava, their tenacity is much greater than might at firft have been expeGted. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the lava of Vefuvius in 1765, which flowed a mile an hour, almoft refifted any impreffion made on it with a long pole ; and fome large ftones, thrown upon it with great force, did not fink, but making only a flight impreffion, fwam upon its furface. ‘The tenacity and refittance of lavas, even when flowing, is, fays Spallanzani, an evident confe- quence of the aGtion of the cold atmofphere. The lofs of heat fo occafioned is incomparably greater on the furface than in the internal parts, in which the lava ftill retains a confiderable degree of fluidity, as appears on breaking the eruft. The different currents of lava from Etna have flowed to the diftance of fifteen, twenty, and even thirty miles from their fource; and the current of lava, which flowed during the volcanic eruption of 1783 in Iceland, ex- tended nearly fixty miles in length. New Volcanoes.—When a volcano breaks out in a new fituation, the phenomena are generally fomewhat different ; but it may be proper to remark, that we have no inftances of volcanoes breaking out on land, in countries that are not or have not formerly been volcanic. New openings have indeed been made, at the diftance of feveral miles from any exifting volcano ; but they have taken place in a volcanic or bafaltic foil. From prefent appearances we are warranted in the conclufion, that all volcanoes were originally fub- marine. The moft remarkable inftance of the Panation of a range of volcanic mountains in a new fituation is that recorded by Humboldt of the volcano of Jorullo, and the adjoining hills, in the intendancy of Valladolid, or Me- choacan, in New Spain, on the zoth of September, 1759. A vaft plain extends from the hills of Aguafarco nearly > to the villages of Teipa and Petathan. This plain is in fome parts not more than two thoufand fix hundred feet above the level of the fea: it contains various conical hills of bafalt and porphyry, crowned with evergreen oaks and palm-trees. Till the middle of the eighteenth century, part of the plain was cultivated with fugar-canes and indigo. It was bounded by bafaltic mountains, the ftruéture of which indicated that, at a very remote period, this country had feveral times been convulfed by volcanoes. Thefe fields, watered by artificial means, belonged to the plantation of San Pedro de Jorullo, one of the largeft and richeft in the country. In the month of June, 1759, hollow fubterranean noifes of a moft alarm- ing kind were accompanied by earthquakes, which fucceeded each other for fixty days, to the great confternation of the inhabitants. After the commencement of September, tran- quillity appeared re-eftablifhed; but on the nights of the 29th and 30th, the horrible fubterranean noifes were re- newed. The affrighted inhabitants fled to the mountains of Aguafarco. A tra& of ground, ten Englifh milesin extent, rofe up in the fhape of a bladder above the old level of the plain. Near the edges it is only thirty-nine feet above the plain ; but towards the centre, the convexity of the ground rifes to the height of five hundred and thirty-four feet above its former level. This part of the ground is called Malpays. Thofe who witneffed the fcene from the top of Aguafarco affert that flames were feen to iffue forth from an extent of more than half a league, that fragments of burning rocks were thrown to a prodigious height, and that the fofeved furface of the earth feemed to {well like an agitated fea. The rivers Cuitambo and San Pedro precipitated themfelves into the burning abyfs, and appeared to invigorate the flames. Torrents of mud and clay, enveloping balls of bafalt in concentric layers, were thrown out. Thoufands of {mall cones rofe up in the Malpays, from each of which a thick vapour afcended. In the midft of thefe cones was opened a large chafm, from which were thrown out fix large maffes or mountains, from thirteen to fixteen hundred feet in height above the level of the plain: the moft elevated of thefe is the volcano of Jorullo. Here we have a range of volcanic hills formed in a few days, in the fame manner as the Monte Nuovo near Naples, but of an extent and eleva- tion” exceeding that of the Malvern hills in Worcefterfhire, or the Pentland hills near Edinburgh. ‘The volcano of Jorullo is ftill continually burning, and according to M. Humboldt’s account, who vifited it im 1803, it has thrown up on the north fide an immenfe quan- tity of fcoriz and bafaltic lavas, containing fragments of primitive rocks. The firft great eruption continued to the year 1760; in the following years, the explofions became gradually lefs frequent. The traveller is {till fhewn where the rivers Cuitambo and San Pedro difappeared on the night of September 29, 1759. About one mile and a half lower down now rife up two rivers, impregnated with mineral matter, having a temperature of 126° Fahrenheit. There is one circumitance attending this great eruption, which feems peculiar to the formation of new volcanoes or volcanic cones. An immenfe rent is made in the furface, through the whole of which the matter is ejeéted, until the chafm becomes choaked up in different parts, and the erup- tions are confined to a few openings, round which the matter is accumulated, forming a feries of craters or mountains, ranged in one line. A fimilar range of voleanic cones was formed on the fide of Etna, nearett Lingua Grofla, in the year 1809. In this eruption, nine new bocecas or craters were formed in the fame line, near to each other. The an- cient voleanoes in Auvergne, which are ranged in a line of fixty VOLCANO. fixty miles, and alfo other volcanic ranges of great extent, have probably been formed. by enormous chafms, partially choaked up in the fame manner. Indeed the new volcanic range, of which Jorullo forms a part, is placed in the dire& line of a volcanic range of vaft extent, which this erup- tion appears to have partially re-opened. Humboldt ob- ferves, that in New Spain there is a narrow zone placed between latitude 18° 59/ and 19° 12!/, in which the lofty voleanoes that ftill continue to burn, or which from their form and the nature of the rocks may be inferred to have been once volcanic, are fituated. In receding from the At- lantic, we find in the fame line, ranging eaft and weft, the Pic d’Orizaba, the two volcanoes of Le Puebla, the Ne- vada de Toluca, and the volcano of Colima. The parallel of their greateft elevation ranges nearly at right angles with the chain of mountains that form the Cordillera of Anahuac ; and it is worthy of obfervation, that the volcano of Jorullo forms a prolongation of that line, on the fame parallel with the ancient Mexican volcanoes. Do not thefe analogies, he adds, entitle us to fuppofe that in this part of Mexico there exifts, at a great depth in the earth, a chafm, extending in a dire&tion from eaft to weft one hundred and thirty-feven leagues, along which the volcanic fire, at different epochas, has burft through the porphyritic cruft, from the gulf of Mexico to the South fea? This chafm may alfo extend to the group of iflands called the Archipelago of Revellegedo, placed in the fame parallel of latitude, around which pumice- ftone has been feen floating. For an account of the volcanic eruption which formed Monte Roffo on Etna, fee Erna. A tremendous noife and violent concuffions of the earth preceded the repeated difcharges of {corie and fand in this eruption ; yet during all ee convulfions, the fummit of Etna was perfe€tly quiet, and only emitted a light fmoke, which had iffued with the fame tranquillity before the eruption. A range of volcanic hills was formed in a fimilar manner near the foot of Vefuvius, in 1760. After repeated concuffions of the earth, which were felt fifteen miles round the mountain, a vaft opening was made in the territory of Torre del Greco, from which fifteen volcanoes arofe ; eight of thefe were foon covered by a torrent of lava, which rufhed from one of them; the other feven remaining entire, and inceffantly eje€ting from their mouths vaft quantities of ignited fubftances, which falling almoft perpendicularly round the new volcanoes, produced in ten days feven {mall mountains of various heights, difpofed in a right line. During the eruption, the noifes fometimes refembled violent thunder, at others the difcharge of artillery ; large ftones were thrown to the height of nine hundred and fixty feet. After the tenth day, the eryption ceafed, and the newly- formed mountains gradually cooling, permitted a nearer ap- proach ; fome of them had at their fummits a cavity refembling a funnel, others a hollow of greater or lefs depth. The Lipari iflands extend in a right line about fifty miles from eaft to weft, except Vulcano, which makes a fmall angle. Thefe iflands, as well as the volcanic ifles of the Moluccas, which form a chain in the Indian ocean, pro- bably originated from enormous chafms, like thofe which formed Jorullo, and the ranges on the fides of Etna and Vefuvius. Thefe chafms were in all probability firft opened ander the ocean. When a voleano opens in a new fituation, the commo- tions which precede it will be greater than when the erup- tion takes place from craters already formed. The re- ‘iftance occafioned by the congelation of lava in the mouth and paffages of the principal crater, may be greater than from other parts of the {urface, in which cafe the liquid lava, confined and compreffed by the expanfive force of heat and elaftic vapour, may be driven laterally to a great diftance between the feams and fiffures of the ftrata, up- heaving the furface in fome parts, and foftening it or melt- ing it in others, producing earthquakes in countries far re- mote from the principal crater, which will continue til] a new opening is made. It is related by Strabo, that the ifland of Eubcea had been for a long time violently agitated by earthquakes, when a large rent opened in the plain of Lelantum, from which was ejeCted a river of fiery mud ; after this the earthquake ceafed. Other inftances of violent earth. quakes, felt at the diftance of many hundred miles from the place of eruption, are not uncommon, as we fhall foon have occafion to notice. The lateral preflure occafioned by a column of lava two miles in height, muft be enormoutly great, and from this caufe alone we might expeét; that in very lofty volcanoes, like Etna, the eruptions fhould be more frequent from the fides than the fummit, which is found to be the fa&t. The fudden retiring of the fea from the fhore before an eruption has frequently been noticed. This can only be fatisfaétorily explained by the upheaving of the foftened furface of the ground; and during violent earthquakes, the anchors let down at a diftance ae the fhore have been obferved to be heated, proving the ftate of the ground below. Submarine Volcanoes.—When a volcano breaks out under the furface of the fea, the phenomena attending the erup- tion vary confiderably from thofe obferved on land, owing to the oppofition of conflicting elements, the refiftance made to the eruption, and the more fudden cooling of the matter ejefted. It is the opinion of Humboldt, that in all fub- marine volcanoes, the cruft of the earth is foftened and {welled by fubterranean heat, till it rifes above the furface of the ocean even from great depths, before any eruption takes place. From the narrative of eye-witnefles, we have reafon to believe that in many inftances the opinion of Hum- boldt is correét. There are, however, volcanic eruptions which undoubtedly take place at the bottom of the fea, and the ap- pearance of new land is caufed by the ftones and fcoriz thrown up from thence: the more rapid cooling of the cruft of the lava may alfo accelerate the formation of a new ifland. We ” have alfo inftances of immenfe quantities of pumice floatin in the ocean fome hundred leagues from land, which could only proceed from the eruption of volcanoes at fo great a depth under the fea as to prefent no other volcanic phe- nomena on its furface. The fubmarine volcanoes which have been obferved fince the records of authentic hiftory are not very numerous, nor will this appear furprifing, when we confider that the ocean has not been extenfively traverfed by civilized men more than a few hundred years. The nu- merous volcanic iflands fcattered over the globe, which are evidently formed by fubterranean fire, may however con- vince us, that the phenomena of fubmarine volcanoes have been not unfrequent in a former condition of the globe. The fubmarine volcanoes of which we have the earlieft ac- count, are thofe in the Grecian Archipelago, near the ifland of Santorini. This ifland forms a triangle with the ifland of Melo, which is volcamc, and with Paros, fo celebrated for its marble. The fides of the triangle are about fifteen leagues each. Santorini, formerly Thera, and afterwards St. Irene, was furnamed by the Greeks Keio, or burnt, and fo in fact the foil is. There is a tradition, fays Pliny, (lib. ii. cap. 87.) ‘that it rofe out of the fea in a very remote but unknown period.” The fea is very deep near Santorini, there being 20 VOLCANO. no ground for anchorage near it. The ancients have left us the following account of the eruption’ in its vicinity. In the fourth year of the 135th Olympiad, or 236 B.C., the ifland of Therafia rofe in the midft of fire from the fea ; it is feparated from Santorini by a ftrait of a mile and a half in breadth. A hundred and thirty years afterwards, the ifland of Automate, called alfo Hiera, rofe near it ; and one hundred and ten years after this, another ifland, called Thia, rofe two hundred and fifty paces from Hiera. Thefe three erup- tions are recorded by Pliny, in the place above cited; by Strabo, lib. i. ; and by Seneca, in the Quzftiones Naturales, lib. vi. cap. 21. Since the Chriftian eta, we have the following accounts of the fubmarine eruptions near Santorini. é In the year 726, Thia was joined to Hiera by a quantity of lava ejeGted, together with afhes and red-hot rocks. } In 1457, the ifland was {till farther increafed by a fimilar eruption. This event and the date are attefted by an in- {cription on a marble ftone erected near the gate of fort Scaumo, in Santorini. A fixth eruption, in 1576, produced a new ifland, called ° the Little Kamenoi. According to the account of Kircher, a cotemporary author, there was an eruption in 1650, which lafted a twelvemonth, from the 24th of September to the gth of Oétober in the following year. ‘ The fea rofe to the height of forty-five feet, and that at fuch a diftance, that fome gal- leys of the grand feignor’s were wrecked in the port of Candia, fituated more than eighty miles from Santorini, and Smyrna and Conttantinople were incommoded with the afhes, which rufhed out of the fea in whirlwinds of flame. Another great eruption took place in 1707 and 1708, whereby the Little Kamenoi was increafed, and is now more than three leagues in circumference. On the 23d of May, 1707, after an earthquake that happened the night before, a new ifland was difcoyered by fome feamen, who taking it for a wreck, rowed immediately toward it, but finding rocks and earth, inftead of the remains of a fhip, haftened back, and {pread the news of what they had feen in Santorini. How reat foever the apprehenfions of the inhabitants were at the Frit fight, their furprife foon abated ; and in a few days, feeing no appearance of fire or fmoke, fome of them ven- tured to land on the new ifland. Their curiofity led them from rock to rock, where they found a kind of white ftone, that cut like bread, which it nearly refembled in its form and confiftence. They alfo found many oyfters fticking to the rocks ; but while they were employed in gathering them, the ifland moved and fhook under their feet, upon which they ran with precipitation to their boats. With thefe motions and tremblings the ifland increafed not only in height, but in length and breadth ; yet fometimes, while it was raifed and extended on one fide, it funk and diminifhed on the other. “ Our author obferved a rock rife out of the fea forty or fifty paces from the ifland, which having continued four days, funk, and appeared-no more; but feveral others appeared and difappeared alternately, till at laft they remained fixed and unmoved. In the mean tyme, the colour of the fur- rounding fea was changed : at firft it was of a light green, then reddifh, and afterwards of a pale yellow, accompanied with a noifome ftench, which fpread itfelf over part of Santorini. «On the 16th of July the {moke firft appeared, not indeed from the ifland, but from a ridge of black ftones which fud- denly rofe about fixty paces from it, where the depth of the fea was unfathomable. Thus there were two feparate iflands, one called the White and the other the Black ifland, from their different appearances. This thick f{moke was of a whitifh colour, like that of.a lime-kiln, and was carried by: the wind to Santorini, where it penetrated the houfes of the inhabitants. “In the night between the 19th and zothof July, flames began to iffue with the {moke, to the great terror of the in- habitants of Santorini, efpecially thofe of the caftle of Scaro, who were not above a mile and a half diftant from the burning ifland, which now increafed very faft, large rocks daily fpringing up, which fometimes added to its length, and fometimes to its breadth. The fmoke alfo in- creafed, and there being no wind, it afcended fo high as to be feen at Candia and other diftant iflands. During the night it refembled a column of fire, fifteen or twenty feet high ; and the fea was then covered with a fcurf or froth, in fome places reddifh, and in others yellowifh, from which proceeded fuch a ftench, that the inhabitants throughout the whole ifland of Santorini burnt perfumes in their houfes, and made fires in the ftreets to prevent infe€tion.' This indeed did not laft above a day or two, for a ftrong gale of wind difperfed the froth, but drove the {moke upon the vineyards of Santorini, by which the grapes in one night were parched up and deftroyed. This fmoke alfo caufed violent head-aches, attended with retchings. “ On the 31ft of July, the fea fmoked and bubbled in two different places near the ifland, where the water formed a perfe& circle, and looked like oil when ready to boil. This continued above a month, during which many fifh were found dead on the fhore of Santorini. The following night a dull hollow noife was heard, like the diftant report of feveral cannon, which was’ inftantly followed by flames of fire, fhooting up to a great height in the air, where they fud- denly difappeared. ‘The next day the fame hollow found was feveral times heard, and fucceeded by a blackifh fmoke, which, notwithftanding a frefh gale blew at that time, rofe up in the form of a column to a prodigious height, and would probably in the night have appeared asif on fire. “ On the 7th of Auguft the noife was different, it re- fembled that of large ftones thrown all together into a deep well. This noife having lafted fome days, was fucceeded by another much louder, fo nearly refembling thunder, as hardly to be diftinguifhed from three or four real claps that happened at the fame time. “* On the 21ft, the fire and fmoke very confiderably dimi- nifhed, but the next morning they broke out with greater fury than before. The {moke was red and very thick ; and the heat was fo intenfe, that all around the ifland the fea {moked and bubbled in a furprifing manner. At night, our author viewing with a telefcope a large furnace upon the higheft part of the ifland, difcovered fixty {maller openings or funnels, all emitting a very bright flame ; and he ima- gined there might be many more on the other fide of the great volcano. On the 23d of Auguit, in the morning, the ifland was much higher than the day before, and its breadth was increafed by a chain of rocks, {prung up in the night almoft fifty feet above the water. The fea was alfo again covered with reddifh froth, which always appeared when the ifland received any confiderable additions, and oc- cafioned an intolerable ftench, tillit was difperfed by the wind and the motion of the waves. “© Onthe 5th of September the fire opened another vent at thexextremity of Black ifland, from which it iflued for feveral days, during which but little was difcharged from the large furnace: and from this new paflage the aftonifhed {petators beheld the fire dart up three feveral times, to a vait height, refembling fo many prodigious fky-rockets, of a glowing VOLCANO. glowing lively red. The following night the fubterraneous fire made a terrible noife, and immediately after, a thoufand theayes of fire blew up into the air, where breaking and dif- perfing, they fell like a fhower of ftars upon the ifland, which appeared all in a blaze, prefenting to the amazed A{peCtators at once a moft dreadful and beautiful illumination. To thefe natural fire-works fucceeded a kind of meteor, which for fome time hung over the caftle of Scaro, which is feated on a high rock in the ifland of Santorini, a meteor mot unlike a fiery fword, and which ferved to increafe the terror of the inhabitants. ** Onthe gth of September, the White and Black iflands united, after which the weftern end of the ifland daily in- -creafed. There were now only four openings that emitted ‘flames, which iffued forth with great impetuofity, fometimes attended with noife like that of a large organ-pipe, and fometimes like the howling of wild beafts. On the 12th, the fubterraneous noife became much augmented, having never been fo frequent or fo dreadful as on that and the following day. The burits of this fubterranean thunder, like a gene- ral difcharge of the artillery of an army, were repeated ten or twelve times within twenty-four hours ; aud immediately -after each clap, the large furnace threw up huge red-hot ftones, which fell into the fea at a great diftance. Thefe claps were always followed by a thick {moke, which f{pread clouds of afhes over the fea and the neighbouring iflands. « On the 18th of September an earthquake was felt at Santorini, but did no great damage, though it confiderably enlarged the burning ifland, and in feveral places gave vent to the fire and fmoke. The claps were alfo more terrible than ever, and in the midift of a thick {moke, that appeared like a mountain, large pieces of rock were thrown up with as much noife and force as balls from the mouth of acannon, ewhich afterwards fell upon the ifland, or into the fea. One of the fmall neighbouring iflands was feveral times covered -with thefe fiery ftones, which being thinly crufted over with fulphur, gave a bright light, and continued burning till that was confumed. “On the anit, after a dreadful clap of fubterraneous thunder, very great lightnings enfued, and at the fame in- ftant the new ifland was fo violently fhaken, that part of the great furnace came tumbling down, and huge burning rocks were thrown to the diftance of two miles and upwards. This feemed to be the laft effort of the volcano, and to have ex- ‘hautted the combuftible matter, as all was quiet for feveral days after. But on the 25th the fire broke out again, with itill greater fury, and among the claps was one fo terrible, that the churches of Santorini were foon filled with crowds of people, expe&ting every moment would be their laft ; and the caftle and town of Scaro fuffered fuch a fhock, that the doors and windows of the houfes flew open. The volcano continued to rage during the remainder of the year ; and in the month of January 1708, the large furnace without inter- miffion threw out ftones and flames at leaft once or twice, but generally five or fix times a day. «© On the 10th of February, in the morning, a pretty flrong earthquake was felt at Santorini, which the inhabit- ants confidered as a prelude to greater commotions in the burning ifland: nor were they deceived ; for foon after, the fire and {moke iffued in prodigious quantities ; the claps like thunder were redoubled ; and nothing appeared but ob- jets of horror and confufion. Rocks of an amazing fize were railed up to a great height above the water, and the fea raged and boiled to fuch a degree, that it occafioned great coniternation. The fubterraneous bellowings were heard without intermiffion, and fometimes, in lefs than a quarter of an hour, there were fix or feven eruptions from the large furnace. The noife of the repeated claps, the quantity of huge ftones that flew on every fide, the houfes tottering to their very foundations, and the fire which now appeared in open day, furpaffed all that had hitherto happened, and formed a fcene aftonifhing beyond defcription: © The 15th of April was rendered remarkable by the number and violence of the bellowings and eruptions, by one of which near a hundred large ftones were thrown up all together into the air, and fell again into the fea, at about two miles diftance. From this time to the 23d of May, which might be called the anniverfary of the birth of the new ifland, things continued much in the fame ftate; but afterwards the fire and fmoke by degrees fubfided, and the fubterraneous thunders became lefs terrible. “On the sth of July, 1709, our author, accompanied by the Romifh bifhop of Santorini and fome other eccle- fiattics, hired a boat to take a near view of the ifland. They made directly towards it, on that fide where the fea did not bubble, but where it fmoked very much. Being got into this vapour, they felt a clofe fuffocating heat, and found the water very hot and fultry. Having encompaffed the ifland, and furveyed it carefully from an adjacent one, they judged it to be two hundred feet above the fea, about a mile broad, and five miles in circumference; byt not being thoroughly fatisfied, they refolved to attempt to land, and accordingly rowed toward that part of the ifland where they perceived neither fire nor fmoke ; but when they got within a hundred yards of it, the great furnace difcharged itfelf with its ufual fury, and the wind blew upon them a thick {moke, and a fhower of afhes, which obliged them to quit their defign. Having retired alittle, they let down a plum- met, with a line ninety-five fathoms long, but it. was too fhort to reach the bottom. On their return to Santorini, they obferved that the heat of the water had melted moft of the pitch from their boat, which was before grown very leaky. For feveral years afterwards the ifland continued to increafe, and the fire and fubterranean noifes abated.?? Another eruption, almoft equally violent, took place in 1767, in the month of June, and a new ifland was formed between the Little Kamenoi and the ifland of Hiera. It is named the Black ifland, and is twice as large as the Little Kamenoi. There have been nine of thefe {ubmarine eruptions recorded in the {pace of twenty-one centuries, and probably many others have occurred at great depths, without raifing new iflands. Thevenot, a refpeétable tra- veller, who vifited Santorini in 1655, {tates that eighteen years before his arrival in the ifland, a violent noife was heard there, and even at Chios, though diftant two hundred miles, and was at firft fuppofed to be occafioned by an action between the Venetian and Turkifh fleets. A fhort time after, a vaft quantity of pumice-ftone rofe from the bottom of the fea, near the harbour, with fuch violence and noife, as to refemble repeated difcharges of artillery, which fo infected the air, that feveral perfons died at Santorin}, and others loft their fight. The infe@ion extended to Chios and Smyrna. The pumices thrown up covered the fea in fuch a manner, that when certain winds prevailed, the har- bours were fo blocked up with them, that not even the {malleft veflels could get out, till a way was made for them, by removing the pumices with long poles; and they were fill, in 1655, feen {cattered over the whole Mediterranean. Voyages de M. Thevenot, prem. part. Various fubmarine volcanoes have broken out near the iflands called Azores or 'Terceras, and have raifed feveral new iflands. he phenomena attending their formation were fimilar to thofe which took place at Santorini. hele erup- tions have occurred fince the Azores were firft vifited by Europeans. VOLCANO. Europeans. The Azores, indeed, appear to have been all formed in a fimilar manner at a remote period. Moft of the newly formed iflands have funk down fome months after their emerfion. So recently as 1811, a {mall ifland was raifed by a fubmarine eruption, at a little diftance from St. Michael’s. It was a mafs of black rock, defcribed by the captain of the Sabrina frigate, who witneffed its formation, to be equal in height to Matlock High Tor, in Derbythire. In 181 it had difappeared, and there is now eighty fathoms water in the place. In 1783, about the end of January, flames broke out from the fea, at the diftance of thirty miles from Cape Reckianes, at the fouth-weft extremity of Iceland, and continued to burft forth during feveral months. - In June earthquakes fhook the whole of Iceland, and the flames from the fea difappeared. A dreadful eruption then com- menced from the Shaptaa Jokul, nearly two hundred miles diftant from the place where the fubmarine volcano broke out. This eruption is one of the greateft recorded in hif- tory. The inhabitants of Iceland never faw the fun during the remaining part of the fummer, and black volcanic fand fell in the Orkney iflands, and was called black fnow. The whole of Europe was covered with a haze, which caopelh obfcured the atmofphere when no clouds were pre- ent. It was in the fummer of the fame year that the dread- ful earthquakes in Sicily took place, which nearly deftroyed the harbour of Meffina, and did incalculable damage in va- rious parts of Calabria. According to the account of fir George Mackenzie, the volcano of Heckla is nearly in a direét line between the fubmarine volcano and the Shaptaa Jokul, which indicates that a communication fubfifted between them: hence, fays he, we may conjecture, “that the depth of the fource from whence they both proceeded was very great.’? Were we to admit that the fource of the motion which produced the earthquakes in Calabria was the fame with that of the volcanic fires in Iceland, we mutt place it fome thoufand miles below the furface, if not in the centre of the globe itfelf. Mud V olcanoes.—Befides the volcanoes already defcribed, there are others refembling them in many circumftances, but differing in this important one, that inftead of fire, they throw out water and mud. They are much lefs common than fire volcanoes. There is one in the ifland of Sicily ; there are others in the Crimea and its vicinity ; and one alfo in the ifland of Java. Maccaluba, in Sicily, is fituated between Arragona and Girgenti, formerly Agrigentum. In its vicinity is a coni- cal hill truncated, and forming a plain at the fummit of half a mile in circumference. The whole furface of this plain is a thick mud, yet not fo firm, but that it fometimes occafions a fear of finking into it. There is not the flighteft fign of vegetation upon it. The depth of the mud is unknown, but it is fuppofed to be immente. In the courfe of the year this plain prefents two different appearances. In the rainy feafon the mud is much foftened ; it has an aven furface, on which there is nothing more to be feen than a general ebullition, accompanied with a very fen- fible rumbling noife. At this time it is dangerous to go upon the {pot. In the dry feafon the fcene changes, the mud acquires greater confiftency, but without ceafing its motion ; the plain aflumes a form flightly convex, anda number of little cones are thrown up, which, however, rarely rife to the height of two feet. Each of them has its crater, where a black mud is feen in conftant agitation, and inceflantly emitting bubbles of air. With thefe the matter infenfibly rifes. As foon as the crater is full of it, it dif. gorges: the refidue finks, and the cone has a free crater until a new emiffion. In this feafon alfo, to the weft of this {mall plain, there appear fome cavities full of muddy falt- water, from which likewife bubbles of air are thrown up ; but here it is without noife ; whereas in the cones, the air makes acrackling, as when it proceeds from water that boils violently. Such are the regular ftates of this extraordinary hill in the courfe of the year. It would probably have obtained but little attention, had thefe been the only phenomena it prefents. But at times the hill affumes quite another charaéter, being fubje& to convulfions alarming to all its environs. They are denoted by earthquakes, which are felt at the diftance of two or three miles. Internal noifes, refemblin the rolling of fubterranean thunder, are heard ; they preaes 4 for feveral days, and then end in an eruption of a prodigious fountain of mud, earth,and ftones, which rifes two or three hun- dred feet into the air. This explofion is fometimes repeated twice or thrice in the courfe of the twenty-four hours. Some years the mount has no eruptions. Of the eruption in 1777, Ferrara gives the following account. ‘ Dreadful noifes were heard all around, and from the midft of the plain an immenfe column of mud arofe to the height of about one hundred feet, which, on defcending, aflumed the ap- pearance of a tree at the top. Stones ar all kinds and fizes were darted up violently and vertically within the body of the column. ‘This terrible explofion lafted half an hour, when it became quiet ; but after a few minutes refumed its courfe, and with thefe intermiffions, continued all the day. During the time of this phenomenon, a pungent fmell of fulphuretted hydrogen gas was perceived at a great diftance. On the following day the new orifices had ejeéted feveral ftreams of calcareous earth (called by Ferrara chalk) ; this had covered with a cruft of many feet all the furround- ing f{pace, filling the cavities and chinks. The hard fub- ftances ejefted were fragments of calcareous tufa, of cryf- tallized gypfum, pieces of quartz and of iron pyrites, which had loft their luftre, and were broken to pieces. The apparent boiling of the mud proceeds from the efcape of bubbles of gas, for the mud does not feel warm, and the thermometer, on being immerfed in it, fell three de- grees. Of the other mud volcano, we have the following account by Pallas, Tableau Phyfique de la Taurida, 1794. The ifland of Taman is fituated near the peninfula of Kenha, and is feparated from it by one of the mouths of the river Cuban, on the fouth-eaft of Little Tartary, now Taurida. The country is flat, and covered with beds of flime, mixed with mud, and with fome beds of marle and fea-fhells. Copious fprings of petroleum are found in fe- veral places, alfo pools of greater or fmaller dimenfions, from moft of which a briny mud is difgorged with bubbles. There are three of thefe pools in the peninfula, and feven or eight in Taman. One of the latter, feveral fathoms in diameter, fituated on the fide of a hill, fhews by its inceffant bubbling the abundance of gas that keeps it working ; the liquid river is conftantly falling over the brim of it, and flowing off flowly. On the top of the fame hill are feen three {mall eminences, which are evidently formed by the mud vomited by three fimilar pools, formerly open. At the foot are two little lakes of falt-water, which fmell of pe- troleim. ‘ Perfons fettled at Yenikoul for fifteen or twenty years paft, remember an explofion on this hill, accompanied with circumftances fimilar to what took place in a different part of the ifland, fix months previous to the author’s ourney. This laft eruption occurred in February, 1794. It - the VOLCANO. the greateft and moft copious ever known. It happened at the top of a hill, fituated at the north point of Taman, near the bay of the fame name. The appearance of the place feems to indicate that there had been a fimilar eruption at a remote period, for the ground that was not covered over by the lait eruption, is of the fame nature as the more recent fediments, being the fame foil, with the difference only which vegetation and atmofpheric influence muft neceflarily produce. The place where the new gulf opened was a pool where the fnow and rain-water ufually remained for a long time. The explofion took place with a noife like that of thunder, and with the appearance of a mafs of fire in the form of a fheaf, which lafted only about half an hour, accompanied by a thick fmoke. The ebullition, which threw up a part of the liquid mud, lafted till next day, after which the mud con- tinued running over flowly, and formed fix ftreams, which made their way from the top of the hill to the plain. The body of mud colleted by thefe ftreams is from fix to ten feet deep, and may be reckoned more than a hundred thou- fand cubic fathoms! In July, the time when M. Pallas vifited the place, the furface of thofe beds of mud was dry, extremely uneven, and cracked like clayey ground. The gulf that had vomited them was ftopped up with the mud, which was likewife dry. It was not dangerous to walk over it, but it was frightful, as the horrid bubbling, which was then ftill heard in the interior of the hill, fhewed that it was not fo tranquil as at the furface. The mud thus dif- charged is always a foft clay of a blueifh-afh colour, every where of the fame nature, mixed with brilliant {parks of mica, and with fragments of marly, calcareous and fandy fchift, which feem torn from the beds direétly over the re- fervoir whence the explofion proceeds. Some cryftals and f{parkling lamine of pyrites, found in thefe fragments, prove that the heat of the refervoir was not fufficiently powerful to affe&t the beds which contained thofe pyrites, nor was the mud difcharged from the gulf more than luke-warm. The appearance of fire, which M. Pallas heard defcribed as accompanying the eruption, was probably inflamed hydrogen gas. He fuppofes that a bed of coal has for ages been on fire under Kercha and ‘Taman, and that the fea at times breaking into the cavities, produces a quantity of fteam, the expanfion of which, and the generation of hydrogen gas, force open a paflage for the mud, and drive it upwards in its afcent. This opinion we fhall confider when we treat of the probable caufes of volcanic eruptions in the prefent article. In the Penang Gazette of February 10, 1816, there is an account of a mud volcano of great extent in the ifland of Java, refembling in all the important particulars thofe defcribed in Sicily and Taman. It is fituated in the plains of Grobogno, N.E. of Solo, near the village of Kuhoo. The mud volcano, if it may be fo called, forms an elevated plain, about two miles in circumference, which may be regarded as the crater. In the centre of this plain very large bubbles of mud rofe, and {welled up to the height of ten or fifteen feet, which on buriting emitted volumes of denfe white fmoke. Thefe large bubbles, of which there were two, continued to rife and burft feven or eight times in a minute, and often threw up two or three tons of mud. The fmoke had the fmell of fulphuretted hydrogen, or, as it is defcribed, like the wafhing of a gun-barrel. As the bub- bles burft, they threw out the mud round the centre with a noife occafioned by the falling of the mud on the plain, com- pofed of the fame mud. Smaller bubbles rofe from fome parts of the plain: from other parts round the large bub- bles {mall quantities of fand were occafionally fhot up to the height of twenty or thirty feet, unaccompanied with {moke. Vou. XXXVII, This was in parts where the mud was of too ftiff a con- fiftency to rife in bubbles. The mud in every part felt cold. The water which drains from the mud is colleéted by the Javanefe, and expofed to the fun in the hollows of {plit bamboos, where it depofits common falt in cryftals. This falt is referved exclufively for the ufe of the emperor. In wet weather the brine is Iefs ftrong than when the wea- ther is ae The phenomena attending all mud eruptions are very fimilar ; in all of them, the muriate of foda (com- mon falt) is either produced, or is itfelf an agent in’ pro- ducing the fermentation which is the immediate caufe of the eruption. Though the great volcanoes in America fome- times throw out water and mud, as before noticed, they are properly fire volcanoes, into which water finds accefs. “The water is generally hot, and its ejection only occafional. Pfeudo-V olcanoes.—The German geologifts have given the name of pfeudo or falfe volcanoes to thofe cafual inflamma- tions of beds of coal, that occafionally occur in coal diftri@s, and continue in greater or lefs activity for many years. Thefe inflammations are too trifling in extent or intenfity, to be compared with true volcanic eruptions, nor do they prefent the fame phenomena ; for we have never feen a torrent of lava, however fmall, thrown out by any of thefe pfeudo- volcanoes. Beds of coal of confiderable extent have been burning for many years near Bilfton, in Staffordfhire. By the continued aétion of fire on the ftrata of clay and fhale which accompany coal, fome fingular effeéts are pro- duced, the clay becomes indurated, approaching to the ftate of jafper ; and what is called porcellanous jafper is, in fome initances, formed by thefe fires. From fome beds of coal, great quantities of carburetted hydrogen gas are evolved, which, when lighted, will con- tinue to burn for a long time. In fome parts of the world, itreams of ignited inflammable air are emitted conftantly, or at intervals, which poffefs the property of taking fire {pon- taneoufly on their accefs to atmofpheric air: in all proba- bility, thefe currents contain phof{phuretted hydrogen gas, from which the ‘property is derived. We confider thefe phenomena as diftiné from volcanic fires. On the fouth-eaft of Natolia, the mountain Climax, the Chimera of the ancients, fituated near the Mediterranean fea, conftantly emits flames from an aperture on the northern fide. This appearance is unaccompanied by any detonation. It is very ancient, being mentioned in the Periplus of Scylax as continually burning. The flames that are obferved to iffue occafionally during earthquakes, can fearcely be clafled with volcanic phe- nomena; they appear to proceed from the fudden difen- gagement of hydrogen gas, combined with phofphorus, naphtha, and other fubftances, which may difpofe it to ignite {fpontaneoufly. During the great earthquakes which defo- lated Thrace; Afia Minor, and Syria, in the fourth and fifth centuries, flames were feen to burft from the earth over a vaft extent of ground. On the 26th of January, A.D. 447, fubterranean noifes were heard from the Black to the Red fea, and the earth was convulfed without inter- miffion for the fpace of fix months; in many places the air appeared on fire. ‘Towns, large traéts of ground, and mountains, were fwallowed up in Phrygia. On the zoth of May, A.D. 520, Antioch was overturned by a dreadful earthquake, and two hundred and fifty thoufand of its in- habitants were crufhed in the ruins. A raging fire covered the ground on which the town was built, and the diftri&t around, fpreading over an extent of forty-two miles in diameter, and a furfaee of fourteen hundred fquare miles. Numerous inftances of a fimilar kind are recorded by the 3L hiftorians VOLCANO. biftorians of that. period. Flames were alfo obferved to burft from the neighbouring mountains during the earth- quake at Lifbon in 1755. ‘Though thefe phenomena may proceed from fubterranean fire as the primary caufe, yet they differ from volcanic fires, as the latter throw out their contents in an ignited ftate ; but the flames which ac- company earthquakes, appear to arife from the ignition of vapour at the furface. Burning and Extin Volcanoes.—When we take a general view of the terreftrial globe, we obferve volcanoes in every parallel of latitude, from Iceland and Kamtfchatka, in the north, to Terra del Fuego in the fouth. They are more abundantly feattered over the ocean than the continent, and are more numerous in America than in the old world. They are found at every degree of elevation, from the depths of the fea to the fummits of the Andes. Ancient volcanic craters, which have been for ages extin& or dormant, have left undoubted veftiges of their prior flate of attivity in various countries where no volcanoes at prefent exift ; and volcanic rocks are found even where all veftiges of volcanic craters have been long obliterated. Our knowledge of volcanic geography is at prefent im- perfeét, as a large portion of the earth’s furface has not yet been examined ; and our knowledge of volcanic iflands in the Indian and Pacific oceans is confined to thofe which were in a ftate of a@tive eruption at the time they were pafled by navigators. Of the fubmarine volcanoes f{cattered over the bed of the ocean we have no account, and it is only when they occur in the vicinity of civilized countries, that we can afcertain their locality. At the beginning of the prefent century, the active volcanoes then known were ftated at about two hundred. ‘Travellers and navigators have fince enlarged the number. Perhaps it would not be exceeding the faét, were we to eftimate the number of aétive volcanoes in the world at one thoufand, including all thofe which ftill preferve a confiderable degree of heat, and prefent. other indications that they are not extinguifhed, but dormant. The only aétive volcano on the continent of Europe is Vefuvius. ‘T'he Solfatara and Monte Nuovo in the vicinity may be regarded as dormant. Hitftory mentions a volcano in Albania, which deftroyed Durazzo in 1269. Of the European iflands, Iceland is the moft extenfively voleanic, the whole foil of that country is apparently the produét of fire. It contains fix large aétive volcanoes, be- fides numerous {maller ones, and boiling {prings. Sicily contains Etna and the various voleanic mountains on its fides, with the mud volcano of Maccaluba. Three of the Lipari iflands are at prefent aétive : Strom- boli, Vuleano, and Vulcanello. Santorini and the neighbouring ifles are evidently placed near or over a great fubmarine volcano, by which they have at different times been formed. The ifland of Milo, about twenty leagues to the eaft of Santorini, has a voleano in an aétive ftate ; the whole of the ifland is alfo {tated to be volcanic. The extin@ or dormant volcanoes in Europe are far more numerous than thofe which are at prefent aGtive. In Cam- pania alone, between Naples and Cumea, in the fpace of twenty miles in length and ten in breadth, according to Breiflak, there are no lefs than fixty craters, without rec- koning thofe in the neighbouring iflands, which are nu- merous. Some of the craters are larger than that of Vefu- vius. Etna; its diameter is nearly two miles. The crater on which the ancient city of Cumeais fituated, has threwn out a torrent of lava nine hundred feet broad, and from twenty- five to thirty feet in depth. The crater of Quarto even greatly exceeds that of This crater belongs to a volcano extin& from the moft remote ages. ‘The foundation of Cumea was about twelve hundred years prior to the Chriftian era, hence Breiflak adds, the laft eruptions muft have taken place more than three thoufand years fince, as the Greeks would not have founded their city on the mouth of an ative volcano. The other parts of Italy, from the Veronefe and the Vi- centin territory, with that of Padua, to the extremity of Calabria, are covered with the inconteftible veftiges of ancient volcanoes. Sicily prefents a great number of extin& volcanoes, with- out reckoning thofe on the fides of Etna, of which fome are equal to Vefuvius. Many of the Mediterranean iflands, at prefent in a ftate of repofe, have formerly been volcanic, as the iflands of Elba, Sardinia, Ifchia, Procita, the whole of the Lipari iflands, with the greater part of the iflands in the Grecian Archipelago. Lemnos was formerly regarded as the arfenal of Vulcan. MAEM In Spain and Portugal there are volcanic craters ftill to be traced. The Souffriere of Conilla, near Cadiz, is an ancient volcano. The environs of Burgos are entirely com- pofed of lava, pumice, and other volcanic produéts. ‘The famous falt-mine of Pofa, rear Burgos, is ftated to be fituated in the mid{t of an immenfe crater. In France there are numerous extin¢t volcanoes, as thofe of the Vivarais and Velay, defcribed by Faujas St. Fond ; and thofe of Auvergne, defcribed by Daubuiffon. The ex- tinét volcanoes in Languedoc and Provence are faid to be very numerous. The alps of Dauphiny, according to La- manon, contain a crater of large extent. There are entire chains of volcanic mountains on the banks of the Rhine, in the Brifgau, and the environs of Andernach. The northern countries of Europe poflefs fewer indu- bitable veftiges of volcanic craters, though voleanic pro- duéts and rocks, nearly allied to lavas, exift in various parts of Germany and Hungary, and are fuppofed by many geo- logifts to be formed by fubterranean fire, at a very remote period. | According to the Italian geologift Breiflak, the famous gold and tellurium mine of Nagyag is fituated in the crater of an extinét voleano, See Terrurtum Mines. In Great Britain, on the weftern fide, particularly in the mountains of North Wales and Cumberland, are various circular cavities, partly filled with water, which bear a near refemblance to extin@ craters, The rocks by which they are furrounded are generally a porphyritic trap, a rock which is fuppofed by many geologifts to haye had an igneous origin. See Trap, and Rowrry-Rag. ; Above the village of Buttermere, in Cumberland, be- tween the f{ummits of the mountains called Redpike and Highftile, there is a large elevated crater of this kind, con- tainmg in its centre a {mall tarn or lake. The rocks which furround it confift of clink-ftone-porphyry which melts with great facility, and porphyritic red felfpar, and are in fome parts rudely columnar. ‘The fide neareit the lake is broken down. We have no doubt, from an examination of the place, that it would be defcribed by many geologitts on the continent, as the well-defined crater of an extin& volcano. Von Buch, whofe acquaintance with volcanoes is extenfive, after a recent tour through this part of England, informed us that many of the mountains in Cumberland re- femble thofe in Auvergne, and other parts of the world, which are fuppofed to have been foftened and elevated by fubterranean heat, without ever having flowed as lavas. The bafaltic hills of many parts of Scotland have been deferibed by Faujas St. Fond as volcanic, and the bafaltic mountains ——— VOLCANO. mountains and ranges in Ireland are fuppoféd to have had a fimilar origin. It is however doubted, by geologifts of great repute, whether bafaltic rocks have all been formed by fire, and fome deny altogether the igneous origin of thefe rocks. See Systems of Geology, BasaLt, TRap, and WHIN- STONE. The iflands of Faroe, near Iceland, prefent more un- doubted marks of their former volcanic ftate. On the continent of Afia, few a@tive volcanoes are known. According to the traveller Morier, there are feveral moun- tains in Perfia that conftantly emit {moke. Ancient geo- graphers alfo mention volcanoes in Thibet and Camboya. The mountain of Cophante, at the fouth-eaft extremity of the Cafpian fea, is ftated to be voleanic. There is a volcano at the entrance of the Red fea, and another at the entrance of the Perfian gulf. From thence to Kamtfchatka we are not acquainted with any active voleano; but in this peninfula, according to count Beniow‘ki, there are not lefs than twenty, five of which are of immenfe fize, called Awatcha, Joupanou- fkaia, Chevelitche, Tobatchia, and Kamtchatka’ia. The three former are faid to be connected, and to have fimultaneous eruptions; the latter ejects a great quantity of vitrified fub- ftances, which are found in its neighbourhood. It is of an immenfe height: the philofophers who accompanied Pe- roufe were three days in reaching the crater, and it is faid to be vifible at the diftance of three hundred miles. In the month of September 1737, torrents of burning matter flow- ing down'on every fide, prefented to the fight the whole of the mountain as red-hot. Almofit all the {prings and lakes in this peninfula are more or lefs warm, hence they are never entirely frozen over, notwithitanding the rigour of the climate. The chain of the Kurile iflands, which may be confidered as a continuation of Kamtfchatka, contains nine active volcanoes. Kempfer, in his Hiftory of Japan, defcribes eighteen volcanoes in that and the neighbouring iflands, and La Pe- roufe difcovered two others. In the Marianas, or Ladrone iflands, nine volcanoes have been defcribed. The Philippine iflands, which are faid to exceed twelve hundred, are many of them volcanic. There are three volcanoes in Luzon, the principal ifland. The archipelago of the Molucca iflands abounds with volcanoes. Machian, one of thefe valuable fpice iflands, contains a remarkable volcanic mountain, which in 1646 was completely rent from the fummit to the bafe, by the violence of its eruptions, and at prefent forms two diftin@ moun- tains, ftanding near each other. In the ifland of Ceylon, the peak of Adam is celebrated for its height and its volcanic eruptions. In Sumatra there are four gigantic volcanoes, the higheft of which is thirteen thoufand eight hundred and forty-two feet above the level of the fea. The others are nearly of equal height. Several volcanoes occur in the ifland of Java. The ifland of Ternate affords alfo a volcano on the top of a mountain very difficult of accefs, but opening with a vaft mouth, and very terrible when it burns. The feveral violent eruptions of this mountain have given it, within the mouth or crater, the appearance of an am- phitheatre, conitructed for holding people at the time of fome public fhow, feveral circles appearing in it one above an- other, formed with a fort of regularity that is furprifing. Modern navigators have difcovered numerous volcanic iflands {cattered over the Yellow Sea and in the Pacific Ocean, from Avia to the weftern coafts of America. Of the extin& volcanoes of Afia, excepting the northern parts, we have no accounts whatever. Patrin, an eminent French mineralogift, who vifited part of northern Afia, fays that hills of lava were feen after he had eroffed the lake of Baikal, fifteen leagues to the eaft of the city of Oudinfl,, near the river Kourba.. All the country between Chilka and Argoune, which forms the river Amour, prefents traces of volcanoes: The mines of Gazemour are in the vicinity of an immenfe crater, the bottom of which is at prefent nearly on a level with the river. It is flat, and covered with blocks of fcorified lava, from whence rife feveral fmall vol- canic cones. On pafling over this plain it returned a hollow found to the horfes’ feet, as if they were travelling over a vault. There are other larger craters on the fummits of vol- canic mountains, near the river Kourba, fome of which are converted into lakes. Vaft currents of lava defcend from thefe craters; fome of them are at prefent empty, others refemble thofe of Oberftein and Deux Ponts, and are filled with chalcedonies and amygdaloidal ftones. When Hanno, the Carthaginian, coafted Africa, he faw in the night-time fires afcending from a lofty mountain called the Car of the Gods. Kircher, in his Mundus Sub- terraneus, mentions eight burning volcanoes on that conti- nent, and the remains of many extin& ones. Our know- ledge of the interior of this country is very imperfe&, and no active volcanoes are at prefent known there. From the accounts of fome of the mountains near the Cape of Good Hope, we may infer that they have formerly. been volcanic. All the African iflands are volcanic, or contain veftiges of their igneous origin. No lefs than forty-two aétive or dormant volcanoes are found in the Azores. The iflands of Lanzerotta, Palma, and Teneriffe, contain burning volcanoes, and the other Canary ifles are volcanic. The Cape Verd iflands are alfo volcanic, but Fuego is the only one in which the fire is at prefent aétive. The ifland of Afcenfion, and the ifle of Bourbon, con- tain volcanoes. St. Helena and the Madeira iflands prefent undoubted marks of their igneous formation. The volcanoes on the continent of America are numerous, and of an immenfe fize and height. They are principally fituated near the weftern coaft. Ancient navigators men- tion volcanoes in Greenland with boiling {prings, announc- ing a volcanic foil, fimilar to that of Iceland. On the north-weft coaft of America, Capt. Cook faw a volcano in lat. 61°, and another of amazing height in lat. 55°, at the point of Alafka. Another higher than the Peak of Tene- riffe was difcovered in lat. 59°. Others have been feen in various parts of the coaft between Alafka and California’; but of the volcanoes in the interior, in thefe latitudes, we are unacquainted. Five volcanoes are enumerated in Cali- fornia. Proceeding fouthwards, along the chain of moun- tains that forms the Cordilleras, we find the voleanoes ranged in rows nearly north and fouth along a line of five thoufand miles in length, from the tropic of Cancer to Terra deb Fuego. In the province of Quito the volcanic mountains diverge from this line eaft and weft, being feattered over a {pace of feven hundred fquare leagues, which is regarded by Humboldt as one enormous volcanic abyfs, covered with a cruft of volcanic matter, and fending forth eruptions from the numerous lofty craters, which are only different vents to the fame internal fire. In New Spain alfo, there is a vol- canic range, interfeGting the Cordilleras in lat. 19°, and ex- tending eaft and weft from the gulf of Mexico to the Pa- cific ocean. In this range, Colima and other ancient vol- canoes, with the new volcano of Jorullo, are placed. : Fromthe province of Quito the volcanoes are eontinued along the Cordilleras, in a direct line to the fouthern ex- tremity of America. The number of aétive volcanoes on this continent can fcarcely be lefs than one hundred. 3L2 Eighty- VOLCANO. Eighty-feven have been enumerated by former geographers, wae Humboldt had extended our knowledge of the new world. From twenty-five to thirty were defcribed as exitt- ing on the weftern fide of Mexico, before the new volcanic range of Jorullo was thrown up. Sixteen of the higheft mountains in the world, in the province of Quito, are vol- canic, but it is remarkable that they do not eje& lava, but torrents of mud, which in drying form earthy {trata of many hundred {quare miles in extent. Of the extin& volcanoes in America we have little know- ledge. La Condamine faw feveral extin@ craters in Peru. It is thought by travellers, that fome of the lakes in North America occupy the craters of extinét volcanoes of vait extent ; this can only be determined by an examination of the rocks that furround thefe lakes. Extinét volcanoes are faid to occur in fome parts of Canada. J The volcanoes in the American iflands are very numerous. The long range of iflands extending weft from point Alafka is altogether volcanic, according to the relation given by Sauer of the voyage of commodore Billings. One of thefe iflands, called by the Ruffians Semi/opiahnoi, or the feven mountains, contains feven volcanoes. The group of iflands called Revil- lagedo are fuppofed to be volcanic, from the pumice found on the fhores. The iflands of Gallipagos are chiefly com- pofed of {coriaceous lava, as we are informed by a gentle- man who recently-vifited them, and who favoured us with {pecimens. On the eaftern fide, among the Antilles, the iflands of St. Chriftopher, Guadaloupe, Nevis, and St. Vincent’s, contain volcanoes; and many of the other Weft Indian ifles appear to be volcanic, though they have had no eruptions fince they were firft vifited by Europeans. The volcanoes {cattered in the Southern Pacific ocean can {carcely be claffed with thofe of the American iflands. There are three very lofty volcanoes in the Friendly ifles, and among a multitude of ifles difperfed over that vaft ex- panfe of water, doubtlefs numerous volcanoes exift which are at prefent unknown, We have no account of volcanoes in New Holland. This general outline of volcanic geography may fuffice to fhew how large a portion of the globe is at prefent, or has been formerly, fubjeGted to the action of fubter- ranean fire. It is the opinion of fome geologilts, that many of the ancient volcanoes which exifted prior to the formation of the upper ftrata, have been entirely covered by them and hid from human obfervation. In other inftances, the craters of ancient volcanoes have been buried by the lavas of more recent eruptions, and in the great revolutions which have changed the appearance of the globe, volcanic diftriéts of vait extent have been broken down and the furface {wept away, leaving only detached ifolated caps of volcanic matter on the fummits of diftant mountains, the folitary monuments of the former dominion of fire. Even volcanic mountains of Jater date have had their craters en- tirely obliterated by the united agency of mountain torrents and the eruptions of fmaller volcanoes. In the ifland of Lipari, according to the defcription of Spallanzani, the volcanic fires have raged fo near to each other, that they have produced in every part confufion and diforder, which is feen in the groups of broken and half deftroyed moun- tains. The fubftances ejected from the numerous eruptions have interfeted each other, and intermingled fo much, that no diftin@ volcanic crater can be traced at prefent. This confufion has been further increafed by torrents of rain, and by gradual difintegration during a long feries of years. From. the volcanized foil of Lipari, from the prefent ftate of the neighbouring iflands, as well as from ancient tradition, we may with certainty infer that this ifland has been the former feat of volcanoes, though their craters are nearly obliterated. No geologift, who has vifited Lipari, ever entertained the leaft doubt of its igneous formation. Vol- canic glafs and pumice, with which it abounds, are found on the Peak of Teneriffe, in Iceland, Kamtfchatka, and other volcanic countries ; yet the followers of Werner have doubted or denied the igneous origin of thefe fubftances, becaufe they exift in bafaltic diftriéts, where no trace of a volcanic crater remains. This appears to be taking a limited view of the fubje&t ; for when we contemplate the prefent extenfive effects of fire in every quarter of the globe, and the great changes which have taken place on its furface, we may reafonably infer the former exiftence of volcanoes in all countries where the produéts of fubterranean fire are found as native rocks, though no veftige of a crater may remain, and the date of the eruption may be for ever loft in the darknefs of paft ages, which preceded the emerfion of our prefent continents from the ocean. Since the preceding article was written, we have feen the Hiftory of Java, by lieutenant-governor Raffles, recently publifhed ; from which it appears that the whole of that large ifland, and moft of the neighbouring ifles, are vol- canic. There are no lefs than thirty-eight large volcanic mountains in Java, fome of which are at prefent in an ative ftate. Thefe mountains all rife from a plain, little elevated above the fea. They are detached from each other, and though fome of them are covered by the vegetation of many ages, the indications of their former eruptions are numerous and unequivocal. From the apertures in their craters, many of them continue to difcharge fmoke and fulphureous vapours. The following account is truly remarkable, as it is the only recorded inttance of the natural death, if we may be allowed the expreffion, of a large volcano. ‘* The Papandayang, fituated on the welftern part of the diftri&t of Cheribon, in the province of Suka-pura, was formerly one of the largeft volcanoes in the ifland of Java ; but the greateft part of it was fwallowed up in the earth, after a fhort but very fevere combuttion, in the year 1772. The account which has remained of this event afferts, that near midnight, between the rath and 12th of Auguit, there was obferved about the mountain an uncom- monly luminous cloud, by which it appeared to be com- pletely enveloped. The inhabitants, as well about the foot as on the declivities of the mountain, alarmed by this ap- pearance, betook themfelves to flight; but before they could all fave themfelves, the mountain began to give way, and the greateft part of it a€tually fe//in, and difappeared in the earth. At the fame time a tremendous noife was heard, refembling the difcharge of the heavieft cannon. Immente quantities of volcanic fubftances, which were thrown out at the fame time, and f{pread in every dire€tion, propagated the effects of the explofion through the fpace of many miles. ‘It is eftimated that an extent of ground, of the mountain itfelf, and its immediate environs, fifteen miles long, and full fix broad, was by this commotion fwallowed up in the bowels of the earth. Several perfons fent to examine the condition of the neighbourhood, made report that they found it impoffible to approach the place where the moun- tain ftood, ow account of the heat of the fubftances which covered its circumference, and which were piled on each other to the height of three feet; although this was the 24th of September, full fix weeks after the cataf- trophe. It is alfo mentioned, that forty villages, partly {wallowed up by the ground, and partly covered by the fubftances thrown out, were deftroyed on this occalion, and that 2957 of the inhabitants perifhed. A proportionate number of cattle was alfo deftroyed, and moit of the plant- ations O_O VOLCANO. ations of cotton, indigo, and coffee in the adjacent diftris were buried under the volcanic matter. The effeéts of this vie pes are ftill very apparent on the remains of this volcano.”” : We have before ftated that feveral circular lakes, of con- fiderable extent, are fuppofed to have been formed in the craters of extin& volcanoes, but it feems more probable ‘that thefe lakes cover the places where former volcanic cones, or whole mountains, have funk down. We have feveral in- ftances of the partial deftruction of the cone of a volcano, -and fome traditions are preferved of the entire difappearance -of volcanic mountains, but the above is the only authentic recerd of fuch an event in modern times. The following narrative, extracted from the fame work, defcribes one of the moft aftonifhing volcanic eruptions of which we have any knowledge. It took place in Sumbawa, one of the Molucca iflands, in April, 1815. ‘«‘ This eruption extended perceptible evidences of its ex- iftence over the whole of the Molucea iflands, over Java, a -confiderable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo, to a circumference of a thoufand ftatute miles from its centre, by tremulous motions, and the report of explofions ; while within the range of its more immediate aétivity, embracing a fpace of three hundred miles around, it produced the moft aftonifhing effets, and excited the moft alarming ap- prehenfions. In Java, at the diftance of three hundred miles, it feemed to be awefully prefent. The {ky was over- caft at noon-day with clouds of afhes; the fun was enve- loped in an atmofphere, whofe ‘ palpable’ denfity the obferver was unable to penetrate ; fhowers of afhes covered the houfes, the ftreets, and the fields, to the depth of feveral inches ; and amid this darknefs, explofions were heard at intervals like the report of artillery, or the noife of diftant thunder. So fully did the refemblance of the noifes to the report of cannon imprefs the minds of fome officers, that from an ap- prehenfion of pirates on the coalt, veffels were difpatched to afford relief. Superftition, on the other hand, was bufily at work on the minds of the natives, and attributed the reports to an artillery of a different defcription to that of pirates. All conceived that the effects experienced might be caufed by eruptions of fome of the numerous volcanoes on the ifland ; but no one could have conjectured that the fhowers of afhes which darkened the air and covered the ground of the eaftern diftriéts of Java, could have proceeded from a mountain in Sumbawa, at the diftance of feyeral hundred miles.”’ The lieutenant-governor of Java direted a circular to the different refidents, requiring them to tranfmit to the go- vernment a {tatement of the faéts and circumitances con- nected with this eruption, which occurred within their own knowledge. From their replies, the narrative drawn up by Mr. Affey, and printed in the ninth volume of the Batavian Tranfactions, was collefted: the following is an extract from that paper. «* The firft explofions were heard on this ifland (Java) in the evening of the sth of April; they were noticed in every quarter, and continued at intervals until the following -day. The noife was, in the firit inftance, univerfally at- tributed to diftant cannon ; fo much fo, that a detachment “of troops was marched from Djocjocarta, under the appre- henfion that a neighbouring poft had been attacked : and along the coaft boats were in two initances difpatched in quett of fuppofed fhips in diftrefs. On the following morning, however, a flight fall of afhes removed all doubt as to the caufe of the found ; and it is worthy of remark, that as the eruption continued, the found appeared to be fo clofe, that in each diftrict it feemed near at hand, and was generally at- tributed to an eruption, either from the mountains Merapi, -Klut, or Bromo. From the 6th the fun became obfcured ; it had every where the appearance of being enveloped in a fog. The weather was fultry, and the atmo{phere clofe and ftill; the fun feemed fhorn of its rays, and the general ftillnefs and preffure of the atmofphere feemed to forebode an earthquake. This lafted feveral days. The explofions continued occafionally, but lefs violently, and lefs frequently than at firft. Volcanic afhes alfo began to fall, but in {mall quantities, and fo flightly, as to be hardly perceptible in the weftern diftri@s. This appearance of the atmofphere con- tinued, with little variation, until the oth of April; and till then it does not appear that the volcano attra¢ted much obfervation, or was confidered of greater importance than thofe which had occafionally burft forth in Java. But on the evening of the 1oth, the eruptions were heard more loud and more frequent ; from Cheribon eaftward the air became darkened by the quantity of falling afhes ; the fun was nearly darkened ; and in fome fituations many faid they felt a tremulous motion of the earth. An unufual thick darknefs was remarked all the following night, and the greater part of the next day. At Solo, candles were lighted at 4 p.m. of the 12th; at Magellan, objeéts could not be feen at three hundred yards diftance. In other diftri€s more eaftward, it was dark as night, and this faturated ftate of the atmofphere leflened as the cloud of afhes paffed along, and difcharged itfelf on its way. ‘Thus the afhes that were eight inches deep at Banyuwangi, were but two inches in depth at Sumenap, and lefs in Grifik ; and the fun does not feem to have been a€tually obfcured in any diftri&t weit of Semarang. © All reports concur in ftating, that fo violent and exten- five an eruption has not happened within the memory of the oldeft inhabitant, nor within tradition. They {peak of fin- guy effects in a lefler degree, when an eruption took place rom the volcano of Karang Afam, in Bali, about feven years ago, and it was at firft {uppofed that this mountain was the feat of the eruption. The Balinefe of Java attributed the event to a recent difpute between the two rajahs of Bali Baliling, which terminated in the death of the younger rajah by order of his brother. * From Sumbawato the part of Sumatra where the found was noticed, is about nine hundred and feventy geographical miles in a direét line. From Sumbawa to Ternate is a diftance of about feven hundred and twenty miles. The diftance alfo to which the cloud of afhes was carried fo quickly as to pro- duce utter darknefs, was clearly pointed out to have been the ifland of Celebes, and the diftriéts of Grifik or Java ; the former is two hundred and feventeen nautical miles dif- tant from the feat of the volcano ; the latter, in a dire&t line, more than three hundred geographical miles.”? On this narrative we fhall remark, that the greateft known diftance at which volcanic eruptions had been heard before this of Sumbawa, was fix hundred miles. According to Hum- boldt, the reports of Cotopaxi during fome of its moft vio- lent explofions, have been heard at a diftance equal to that of Dijon in France, from Vefuvius. A more accurate and extended knowledge of the effects of fubterranean fire throughout the Afiatic ifles and thofe of the Pacific ocean, would probably demonttrate that the intenfity of this powerful agent is not diminifhed, as fome philofophers have fuppofed, though its prefent effects on the old continents may be lefs extenfive than in former ages. Pein Fire.—The queftions which have divided the opinion of geologifts re{pecting volcanic fire are, firlt, What is the intenfity of the heat?—Secondly, Where fe the VOLCANO. the fource of heat fituated >—And, laftly, From what caufe does it originate? Some philofophers contend, that vol- canic heat greatly exceeds that of our common furnaces ; whilft others affert that it {earcely exceeds that of a culinary fire. The arguments in favour of the low degree of heat of volcanic fire are founded on the experiments made upon lava jn a common furnace, which was obferved to vitrify them more completely than volcanoes, and to melt many of the imbedded cryftals, which were fuppofed to have been left infufible by volcanic heat. M. Sage and Deluc firft fup- ported the hypothefis of the low degree of volcanic heat. M. Dolomieu endeavoured to prove it to be ftill lefs. His principal argument is the following. “ It cannot be too frequently inculcated that lavas are not vitrifications ; their fluidity is fimilar to that of metals reduced to fufion: when they ceafe to flow, they ref{ume, like metals, the grain, texture, and all the charaéters of their primitive bafe ; effects which we cannot produce on ftones in our furnaces, fince we know not how to foften them by fire, without changing the manner in which they are aggregated. The fire of vol- canoes has not that intenfity which is fuppofed: the effeét is produced rather by its extenfion and duration than by its activity.” We greatly refpe&t the labours of this intelli- gent obferver ; but we mutt notice, that in the above ftate- ment he has not appreciated the important difference between the effeéts of volcanic fire and that of a furnace, refulting from the more rapid cooling of the materials in the latter cafe. It has been proved by the important experiments of fir James Hall, that vitrification depends not on the degree of heat fo muchas on the rapid cooling of ftoné or lava in a ftate of fufion; and that lava, vitrified in the furnace, af- fumes its ftony texture again, if itis remelted, and the heat be very gradually diminifhed. It was proved alfo by the interefting experiments of Mr. G. Watt, that if this procefs of cooling be continued for a ftill longer time, a cryltalline arrangement of the particles takes place. It was an opinion long entertained, that the cry ftals ex- ifting in lava, whether of fel/par, augite, olivine, leucite, (fee thefe articles,) or other minerals, were original cryftals, exifting in rocks which had been fubjeéted to volcanic heat ; and that this heat, though fufficient to melt the rock itfelf, was not powerful enough to melt the imbedded cryftals. It was fuppofed alfo, that fome of thefe cryftals, previoufly exifting, were found detached by the lava in its courfe, and buried in it. Thefe opinions, fo unphilofophical and impro- bable, are giving place to a more correét and enlarged view of thefe operations of nature. The cryftals in lava did not previoufly exift, but were formed during the flow confolidation of the materials, which admitted the elementary particles to enter into different com- binations, according to the laws of elective affinity and cryftalline arrangement, precifely in the fame way that dif- ferent falts in the fame folution feparate from each other, and cryftallize. In the flags from our furnaces we may frequently obferve the fame procefs more or lefs perfeél completed ; and we have feen cryftals refembling felfpar, found in a mafs of coal-fhale or bituminous flate-clay, which had been fufed and run down from the large ignited heaps, in the vicinity of Newcaftle-upon-Tyne. The faéts ad- duced to prove the low degree of heat in volcanic fires, prove only its long continued action, and not its original degree of intenfity. Dolomieu indeed admits, that a great difference muft refult from the different periods of the con- tinuance of heat. This was fubfequently demonitrated by the experiments of Spallanzani. He took feveral ftones, which had been found refra€tory, when expoled to a certain degree of heat for two or three days, and placed them in a glafs furnace where the fame degree of heat, was continued equally for more than fix weeks; during which time they were all more or lefs foftened by fire, and the vitrification, which began on the furface, extended deeper and deeper into the ftone, in proportion tothe time. Hence, fays he, we may learn, that along continued heat of lefs ftrength is as effi- cacious in the fufion of bodies as a ftronger heat of a fhorter duration. Dolomieu further conjetured, that the extreme fluidity of fome lavas was occafioned by the prefence of fulphur, which aéted as a flux, in the fame manner as a bar of iron, when brought nearly to a white heat, will inftantly melt, if it be rubbed with fulphur ; but this opinion was not confirmed by experiment. Spallanzani found that fulphur produced no effe&t, when mixed with ftone or lava, and ex- pofed to heat; nor did the lava melt fooner than in other crucibles, in which it was expofed to the fame degree of heat. The refult was the fame, whether he employed common fulphur or iron pyrites. The faéts, therefore, adduced for the low degree of heat in volcanic fire, prove nothing ; and it is only from the aétual ftate of the lava itfelf, that its greater or leffer degree of intenfity can be afcertained. The extreme liquidity of lava flowing from the crater, in fome inftances, has been fhewn in a former part of this ar- ticle, where it is defcribed as {pouting up, and forming curves like a fountain of water. Profeffor Bottis relates, that on the 10th of September, 1776, he obferved a {mall hill on the fide of Vefuvius, formed of feoriz, and fur- rounded by lava recently ejefted. In this hill was a fmall circular gulf, about three palms in diameter, and two in depth. From this gulf proceeded a low noife, fimilar to that of oil or any other fat fubftance fimmering over the fire ; which found was doubtlefs produced, he fays, by fub- ftances fufing within it. The fire was fo ftrong, that fome {coriz being caft into it, immediately became red-hot, and melted, producing the appearance of boiling pitch, Spal- lanzani fays, that the fame kind of ftone required to be half an hour in the furnace before it was foftened ; and in a re- verberating furnace, it required a heat equal to the melting of iron, to obtain a fpeedy fufion of thefe ftones. It is likewife evident, that the heat in this {mall gulf, communi- cating with the cold air above, mutt be lefs intenfe than in the internal part, fince this was only a fpiracle or vent to the great mafs of lava which boiled in the deep recefles of the mountain. Spallanzani alfo obferved, that when the lava, placed in a common furnace, had been fufed feveral hours, and boiled over the edge of the crucible, its tenacity was {till fo great, that he could fearcely with all his force immerge a pointed iron-wire to the bottom; and when he took away the iron, the impreffion remained fome minutes, though the crucible ftill continued in the furnace. When the fame lavas were expofed to the intenfe heat of the reverberating furnace, they were more liquid, and might be penetrated with greater eafe. From thefe experiments and obfervations we are war- ranted in concluding, that the heat of volcanic fires fome- times exceeds that of our moft violent furnaces, but that the lava of different eruptions may poflefs different degrees of fluidity and heat. It may alfo be worthy of notice, that the lavas were confiderably reduced in weight by remaining long in the furnace, the particles having been volatilized and fublimed. Another argument for the intenfity of volcanic fire is derived from the long continued heat of certain cur- rents of lava. Spallanzani fays, when he pafled a detached current of lava near the fummit of Etna, which had flowed eleven VOLCANO. eleven months before, it ftill retained a réd heat, which was’ very confpicuous in fome of the apertures even in the day- time; and a ftaff being placed upon it, immediately took fire. Ferrara ftates, that when the current, which flowed from Monte Roffo on Etna in 1669, was perforated at Ca- tania in 1709, flames broke out, and it continued to {moke on the furface after rain, at the beginning of the prefent century. Now whatever may be the mafs of a current of lava, the heat could not remain fo great after fuch long in- tervals of time, were it not prodigioufly more powerful when it firft flowed. It is obvious that the heat of the in- ternal fire cannot be lefs than that of the lava which flows from it, which, we have before obferved, is fometimes equal at leaft to the heat of the moft powerful reverberatory fur- nace. Where the lava pofleffes a much lefs degree of heat, we are not warranted in afferting that the internal fire was lefs intenfe ; for various circumitances may modify and di- minifh the heat of the lava itfelf, fuch as the accefs of water near the furface, which may mix with it in the crater, and produce a torrent of mud, or may cool it fo much as to in- creafe its tenacity, until it can fcarcely flow when it firft iflues from the crater. The following circumftance is well deferving attention. On opening fome of the houfes in Torre del Greco, which were nearly buried in the lava that flowed from the foot of Vefuvius in 1794, various ftriking effe€ts were obferved, which could only have been produced by the long continued agency of intenfe heat ; effe&ts which we have at prefent no means of imitating. Among others, even iron utenfils had been partly vola- tilized, and cryftals of fpecular iron-ore were formed on the furface. For a knowledge of this important fa&t, the public is indebted to the honourable H. G. Bennet, who brought away various fpecimens from the newly opened houfes. The queftion refpeting the fituation of volcanic fires may be thus ftated :—Does the fire in volcanic mountains ori- ginate in the mountain itfelf, or is it fituated at a great depth beneath the furface? It has been an opinion com- monly entertained, that volcanoes originally break out in mountains already formed, and cover them with lava and feoriz. Hence it is fuppofed by fome philofophers, that there exifted primitive or fecondary mountains, where we now obferve the Peak of Teneriffe and Etna, or Vefuvius, and that volcanic fire has merely covered the furface with its produts, or effected a change in the external form of thefe mountains. On the other hand, it is contended that volcanic mountains are either entirely the products of fub- terranean fire, and have been formed by the lava and fcoriz thrown up, as was the cafe with the volcanic range of Jorullo in New Spain, and Monte Nuovo near Naples; or that they have been raifed by fubterranean heat, which has foftened and upheaved the regular beds and ftrata that form the cruft of the globe, as was the cafe at Malpays, already deferibed ; and on this upraifed furface a volcanic cone has been formed, when the eruption of the volcano took place. To determine thefe queftions, where hiftory is filent refpee- ing the formation of volcanoes, we muit examine their ftruc- ture at the bafe and the fummit, and attend to the pheno- mena which accompany the eruptions. Some volcanic hills are fo entirely compofed of feorie and lava, that we can have no hefitation in believing that they have been formed by eruptions. This might be afferted of Jorullo, of Monte Roffo, and Monte Nuovo, if even we had no well authenti- cated accounts of their formation ; and hence we may infer thatthe fource of the fire is fituated far below the bafe of thefe hills. Other volcanic mountains of larger fize are partly compofed of beds and ftrata, to which we cannot fe) afcribe a volcanic origin. According to the obfervations of ~ Mr. Leckie, during his refidence in Sicily, calcareous ftrata, with marine organic remains, reft on beds of volcanic tufa, on the eaftern fide of Etna, and dip towards the fea. (Bakewell’s Introduétion to Geology, 2d edit. p. 316.) Hence we may infer that the primeval eruptions took place under the fea, and that their produéts of tufa were covered with marine depofits, before the mountain emerged from the ocean. In other words, the exiftence of the volcano preceded that of the mountain itfelf, the firft eruptions taking place under the fea, the whole mafs of the bafe hay- ing been upraifed at a fubfequent period. Calcareous beds occur in fome of the Canary iflands, which are all volcanic ; and though the bafe of the Peak of Teneriffe, according to Humboldt, rifes amidft a feries of bafalts and old lavas, he does not confider thefe as a progreffive accumulation of lavas, but as having been formed under and elevated from the fea. On attending to the circumftances which accom- pany the formation of new iflands, he fays, we find that thefe extraordinary eruptions are generally preceded by a {welling of the foftened cruft of the globe. Rocks appear above the water, before the flames find their way or lava iffues from the crater. We mutt, therefore, diftinguifh be- tween the nucleus raifed up, and the mafs of fcorie and lava thrown upon it. This, as we have before obferved, is the cafe in fome inftances: there are others, however, in which pumice and fcoriz have been thrown up from under the fea ; but both phenomena prove that the fource of volcanic fire is feated at great depths below the furface of the ground. Were the fource of volcanic fire feated in the mountain from which the eruption takes place, it is impoflible to conceive that it could continue burning for fome thoufand years, without the mountain falling in; and when the fire was once extinét, it does not appear probable that it fhould ever burft forth again in the fame place, M. Werner and his fol- lowers have placed the feat of volcanic fire in beds of coal ; but as thefe occupy the upper ftrata of the globe, being fituated above the primary and lower fecondary beds, they can have no great comparative depth, and the objeétions juft flated apply to this theory in full force. For if beds of coal were once burned out,. or extinguifhed in one place, we can affign no conceivable reafon why volcanic fires fhould break out in the fame place again, after a ceffation of feven hundred years, and fhould continue to burn for many hundred years afterwards, as was the cafe with Ve- fuvius. Indeed, the opinion of volcanic fire being derived from the ignition of coal-beds, appears to us a fuppofition altogether madequate to explain their origin, and the extent of their operations. Mr. Whitehurft, in his “ Inquiry into the original State and Formation of the Earth,” 4to. 1778, apprehends, that fubterraneous fire muft at different times have exifted uni- verfally in the bowels of the earth, and that in union with water, or by the expanfive power of fteam, it has produced the immenfe continents, as well as the mountains of our globe, and alfo the univerfal deluge. When thefe fires were firft kindled, by what fort of fuel they are ftill maintained, at what depths below the furface of the earth they are placed, whether they have a mutual communication, of what dimenfions they confift, and how long they may con- tinue, are queftions which ‘do not admit an eafy decifion. Some, with M. Buffon, have placed the feat of the fire of volcanoes towards the centre, or near the fummit of the mountains, which they fuppofe to furnifh the matter emitted. But if this were the cafe, that part of the mountain which is fituated above the fuppofed feat of the fire, muft be de- itroyed or diflipated in a fhort time; whereas an eruption ulually VOLCANO. ufually adds to the height and bulk of a volcano ; and the matter difcharged by it for many ages would be fufficient to form three fuch mountains as the fimple cone or mountain of the exifting volcano. + We have hitherto confined our account of volcanic phe- nomena to thofe circumftances which accompany the erup- tion in its immediate vicinity ; but in order to form any ra- tional or probable conjecture refpeéting the feat and origin of volcanic fires, we muft take a more enlarged view of the fubje€t, and contemplate volcanic fires in conneétion with each other, or in their effets on remote parts of the globe. Volcanoes and earthquakes are regarded as diftin&t pheno- mena, but they are only different effects of the fame caufe. Volcanoes are the vents through which is difcharged the elaftic vapour, and other materials, that, in a confined ftate, are the principal caufes of earthquakes. Whenever thefe vents are by any means choaked up for a long time, violent commotions of the earth may be expected, until the former vents are re-opened, or new paflages made for the confined materials toefcape. This view of the fubje€t may be illuf- trated by the following facts, which prove the immediate conneétion of earthquakes with volcanic fires. The great earthquakes which have fhaken Sicily and Ca- labria, have generally been accompanied with volcanic erup- tions from Etna or the Lipari ifles. In the year 1169, every houfe in Catania was thrown down by a violent earth- quake, which occurred at the fame time with a great eruption of Etna. The earthquakes of 1634 and 1635, which nearly de- ftroyed Meffina, accompanied the memorable eruption from the fame mountain, in which part of the volcanic cone fell down. ‘The lava formed a torrent eighteen miles long, two miles broad, and twenty-four feet high. Immediately pre- ceding the earthquake which deftroyed Euphemia in 1633, Kircher, who was an eye-witnefs, fays that Stromboli threw out an immenfe quantity of flames, accompanied witha noife which could be diftin@ly heard at the diftance of fixty miles. The common eruptions from this volcano are comparatively feeble. ‘ Near the time of the great earthquakes which deftroyed Lifbon in 1755 and 1761, Europe, Africa, and America were repeatedly agitated by fubterranean commotions, accounts of which may be feen by referring to the journals of that period. A few hours after the great fhock of the former earthquake, the waters of Switzerland, Northern Europe, Canada, and the Weft India iflands, were violently agitated, and fire was {een to rife from the midft of the Atlantic ocean. Thefe efforts, nearly fimultaneous, prove that the fource of the commotion was feated deep within the globe. The earthquakes of Cumana, in New Andalufia, are con- neéted, fays Humboldt, with thofe of the Weft India iflands ; and it has even been fuppofed that they have fome conneétion with the diftant volcanic phenomena of the Andes. On the 4th of November, 1797, the province of Quito fuffered fuch a deftru€tive commotion, that even in that thinly inhabited country, forty thoufand of the natives perifhed, buried under the ruins of their houfes, fwallowed up in the fiffures, or drowned in lakes that were fuddenly formed. At the fame period, the inhabitants of the Eaftern Antilles were alarmed by fhocks which continued eight months, when the volcano of Guadaloupe threw out pumice- ftones, afhes, and gufts of fulphureous vapours, This erup- tion, during which long fubterranean noifes were heard, took place on the 27th of September, and was followed on the 14th of December by the great earthquake at Cumana, The city of Caraccas was entirely deftroyed by an earth~ quake on the 24th of March, 1812: violent ofcillations of the ground were felt for thirty-five days after, both in the Welt India iflands, and on Terra Firma. At this time the volcano in St. Vincent’s, which had been dormant for near a century, broke out with great fury, covering the neighbour- ing iflands with its afhes. On the night in which the cities of Lima and Callao were deftroyed by an earthquake, four new volcanoes broke out in the Andes. Humboldt alfo ftates, that a column of denfe black {moke, that had iffued for feveral months from a volcano on the fhore near Pafto, in 1797, difappeared at the very hour when the towns of Riobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga, fixty leagues to the fouth, were overturned by a moft violent fhock. Numerous other inftances might be cited, were it necef- fary, to prove the conneétion exifting between the phe- nomena of earthquakes and diftant volcanoes. The inha- bitants in the vicinity of volcanoes are fo well aware of this conneétion, that at Meffina and Naples, and at the foot of Cotopaxi and Tungurahua, earthquakes are only dreaded when flames and vapours ceafe to iffue from the craters ; and what, fays Humboldt, is very remarkable, the fhocks appear to be ftronger, as the country is more diftant from burning volcanoes. The globe, it may be faid, is agitated with greater force, in proportion as the furface has a {maller number of funnels communicating with the interior. The cataftrophe of Riobamba, in Quito, before ftated, has led feveral well-informed perfons to think that this un- fortunate country would be lefs frequently defolated, were the fubterranean fire to break the porphyritic dome of Chimborazo, and this coloffal mountain were to become an aétive volcano. The conne&tion which diftant volcanoes have with eack other, and the vatt extent to which the agitations of the ground are felt during eruptions, offer fatisfatory proofs that the fource of heat is not fituated in the middle of vol- canic mountains, but is placed far below them; or to fpeak familiarly, a volcanic mountain is not the fire-place, but the chimney-top. Our ideas of volcanic operations will be en- larged by contemplating the immenfe craters of ancient vol- canoes which are either become extin@, or nearly fo. From experiments made by Spallanzani to draw up the ftones from the bottom of the fea between the iflands of Lipari, Vulcano, and Salene, he learned that the ground was one continued mafs of volcanic fubftances, precifely of the fame kind as thofe on the fhores of thefe iflands. Hence he in- fers, that all the fubmarine ground between them has fuf- fered the aétion of fire, in the fame manner as that which is expofed to view, and thefe three iflands are one continued group of volcanized fubftances, and have originally been formed by one central conflagration. ‘That this eruption has been fubfequently confined to three diftin€&t mouths, which gave birth to the three iflands. Humboldt has drawn nearly the fame inference re{peGting the whole of the mountainous part of the province of Quito, which, he fays, may be confidered as one immenfe volcano, occupying feven hundred {quare leagues of furface, and throwing out flames by different cones, known under the denomination of diftiné& volcanoes, as Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, and Pichinca. In like manner, he adds, the whole group of the Canary iflands is placed as it were over one immenfe fubmarine volcano. The fire makes its way fometimes through one, and fome- times through another of thefe iflands in different parts. Now if we confider this opinion as corre&t, how vatt and deep mutt be the volcanic aby{s to which the mountains of Quito are only the different chimneys, placed over a thick cruft of confolidated porphyritic lava. The volcanic cruit which fupports the Canary ifles, muft cover an aby{s not lefs in extent and depth than that of Quito. 5 The VOLCANO. ‘The range of volcanoes in the Andes, to the fouth of Quito, extends in a right line nearly two thoufand miles ; and if thefe have originally rifen from one va{t chafm, like the voleanic ranges of whofe origin we have authentic re- cords, it would not appear extravagant to fuppofe that this chafm may defcend to the very centre of the globe. Some philofophers, indeed, contend for the exiftence of central heat in our planet, which gives rife to all the different phe- nomena of earthquakes and volcanoes. (See Sysrems of Geology.) We fhall advert to this opinion in treating of the various explanations which have been given of the ori- gin and fupport of volcanic fires. In contemplating the impreffive phenomena of volcanoes, and the great changes they have produced on the furface of the globe, we cannot be furprifed that philofophers, ancient and modern, fhould have been anxious to difcover the origin of thefe fires, and the means by which they are fupported, but from the nature of the fubje&t, their theories can be en- titled to little more than the appellation of probable con- jeGures. In all inquiries of this kind, it is important to bear in mind the effential diftinf@tion between the caufe of any natural phenomenon, and the mode in which that caufe operates. With the latter we may become well acquainted by attentive obfervation, while we remain ptofoundly ig- norant of the former. Thus, when in volcanic operations we obferve the expanfive effe€ts of heat, forcing a vent for the difcharge of aeriform, fluid, or folid matter, we may infer that thefe effeéts do not differ in kind, but in degree only, from the fame effeéts of heat when fubjeGted to the controul of human agency ; but we can draw no certain inference from hence refpe€ting the origin of volcanic fire, or the fubftances by which they are kept burning for thoufands of years with increafed or diminifhed intenfity. The opinion formerly moft prevalent refpeGting the origin of volcanic fire, was that it proceeded from the fubterranean fermentation of certain materials which were difpofed to inflame and explode fpontaneoufly. When the decompo- fition of iron pyrites by water, and the fpontaneous inflam- mation attending it was firft obferved, and particularly when the experiment of Lemery was known, where inflammation is produced by a mixture of iron-filings, fulphur, and water, it was imagined that a fatisfaCtory explanation of the caufe of volcanic fire was difcovered. In this experiment he mixed twenty-five pounds of pow- dered fulphur with an equal weight of iron-filings: and having made with water a pafte of the mixture, he put it into an iron pot, covered it with a cloth, and buried it a foot under ground. In about eight or nine hours time the earth fwelled, became warm, and cracked: hot ful- phureous vapours were perceived ; a flame which dilated the cracks was obferved; the fuperincumbent earth was eovered with a yellow and black powder; and, in fhort, a fubterraneous fire, producing a volcano in miniature, was fpontaneoufly lighted up from the reciprocal a€tions of fulphur, iron, and water. See Artificial EARTHQUAKES. The above experiment has been often repeated ; and it has been obferved, that large quantities of the materials are not requifite to make the experiment fucceed, pro- vided there be a due proportion of water: half a pound of fteel-filings, half a pound of flower of brimftone, and fourteen ounces of water, will, when well mixed, ac- quire heat enough to make the mafs take fire. But it was known long before the time of Lemery, that natu- ral mixtures of fulphur and iron would {pontaneoufly take fire. Thefe fubftances, it is well known, are fupplied by the pyrites ; a {mall quantity of which is fufficient to kindle a fire; a proper portion of water (for too great a VoL. XXXVII. quantity would extinguifh the fubterraneous fire) may be derived either from fiffures and channels communicating with the fea, or from fources in the earth, wherein it is known to abound ; and air, if it fhould be thought abfo- lutely neceffary to the fpontaneous firing of the pyrites, may be conceived either to accompany the water, or to defcend into the innermoft parts of the earth through the fiffures which are found on its furface. Or, if we fuppofe the heated pyrites to have been in conta& with the oxyd of manga- nefe and petrol, the flame may arife, as it is produced by art, from the deficcation of that fubitance, and its mixture with the mineral oil. That ore when heated affords oxygen gas, of which a very {mall quantity is fufficient to produce flame ; and the flame, when once produced, may be fupported by pure air from other ores, as Dr. Prieftley has fhewn (Obf. on Air, vol.iv. p. 210, &c.) ; and the inflammable matter, ac- cording to his fyftem, may be fupplied by pyrites, bituminous {chiftus, bitumen, and coal. After the eruption in any place, the volcanoes themfelves ferve for {piracles or atr-holes, by which the fubterranean fire may receive neceflary fupplies; fo that thefe may ferve to keep the magazines of internal fire in a due ftate, as well as to difcharge the {moke and other matters with which it would otherwife be choaked up and extinguifhed. Many of the regular ftrata are impregnated with iron and fulphur in the form of pyrites, and it was only neceffary to provide for the accefs of water and air, to produce fpon- taneous inflammation. ‘Thus the cliffs near Charmouth, in Dorfetihire, abound in pyrites, and after a very hot fummer and heavy rains, they took fire, and continued burning flowly for a long time. Thefe cliffs are principally com- pofed of pyritous clay, forming part of the great flratum, called lias, in the weft of England. See Strata. The abundant evolution of fulphuretted hydrogen gas from the decompofition of pyrites, tended further to confirm the opinion that afcribed to this caufe the origin of volcanic fire. We conceive, however, that this theory is quite inadequate to explain volcanic phenomenaon a great f{cale, fuch as the eon- netion which diftant volcanoes have with each other, the long continuance of the fire, and its breaking forth again in the fame place, after it has ceafed to burn for ages. Some phenomena, however, which are nearly allied to volcanic, and appear to be local, may be produced by pyritous de- compofition. The eruptions of mud in the Crimea, and at Maccaluba in Sicily, may derive their origin from this caufe, particularly as the matter thrown out is obferved to contain particles of pyrites, whereas they have rarely, if ever, been obferved in the matter erupted from fire volcanoes. The inflammation of fulphur and bitumen has been fup- pofed by fome philofophers to occafion the various phe- nomena of volcanoes, but where do thefe fubftances derive the oxygen neceflary to fupport their combuftion? Spal- lanzani has conje@tured that this may be obtained from va- rious faline ingredients which yield their oxygen to heat, or it may be derived from the decompofition of water; but here we meet again with the fame difficulty as before ; how are the combuftible materials renewed for ages in the fame place? This would feem to require currents of liquid ful- phur and bitumen to circulate through the interior of the globe, a circumftance which the theory of Spallanzani has not provided for, but which does not appear to us very 1m- probable. This induftrious obferver could not detec the flighteft {mell of bitumen in the volcanic fmoke of Strom- boli, but according to Dolomieu and Humboldt, it is very perceptible in Vefuvius, and bitumen is even found in the recently erupted lava of that mountain. Sulphur, in its different combinations, is a conftant product of all volcanoes. According to the opinion of Spallanzani and others, the 3M lava VOLCANO. lava and earthy produdts of volcanoes are formed of ‘the in- ternal beds of rock, which are melted by the inflammation of fulphur or bitumen, and thrown up by the violent pref- fure of elaftic vapour, either from {team or more per- manently elaftic fluids. From fome ingenious experiments, he afcertained that even the lava itfelf, at a certain tempera- ture, partly affumes an aeriform ftate, and may then further contribute to the violence of thefe explofions, by which it is ejected from the crater. It was the opinion of bifhop Berkeley, that a vacuum was made within the body of the earth by a vaft body of inflammable matter taking fire, and that the water, by com- munication with the fea, rufhed in, and was converted into fteam. However this be, it is certain, that by the procefs above explained, a vapour would be produced, whofe elaftic force is known to be feveral times greater than that of gun- powder ; and, therefore, if the fuperincumbent weight were not too great, it might caufe earthquakes; and it would propel the matter melted by the fubterraneous fire laterally towards the mouth of the volcano, where meeting with leatt refiftance, it would expel it, together with all the unmelted ftony maffes which it found in its paflage. It is eafy to conceive, that before the denfe matter is ejected, the dilated air of the volcano will be firft forced out, and carry with it the afhes and loofer {tones adhering to the fides and crater of the volcano, in the manner obferved and defcribed by fir William Hamilton. That {team is one of the moft important agents in lifting up torrents of lava to fuch prodigious heights, has been ge- nerally fuppofed : it is even afferted that the fea has been obferved to retire in the bay of Naples previoufly to erup- tions from Vefuvius ; but this may, with more probability, be afcribed to the upheaving of the ground, than to the fudden abforption of water. Were the water to be ab- forbed ever fo rapidly, other water would inftantly flow on to fupply its place, fo that the apparent level of the fea from this caufe could not perceptibly vary, except for a few minutes. But if the ground were foftened and raifed up by fubterranean heat, the effet might continue for a longer time ; and fhould even a {mall quantity of water find accefs through fiffures to the deep recefles of melted lava, this, by its rapid expanfion, might force up part of the lava to the fummit of the volcano, and produce the moft tremendous commotions. According to the experiments of Spallanzani, water poured on the furface of melted lava, produced little effe&, but when introduced under the furface, it occafioned a moft violent explofion. Similar effeéts are often feen in founde- ries ; for if the moulds contain the leaft moifture when the melted metal is poured in, it is driven back with a loud re- port, and is violently difperfed in every diretion. Thefe experiments, and the reafonings founded upon them, apply rather to the mode in which volcanic fires operate, than to the caufe of thefe fires. It feems exceedingly probable, that the fudden accefs of water, and the generation of im- menfe volumes of elaftic vapour, may be the immediate caufe of moft volcanic eruptions. An explanation of the eruption of Etna, nearly fimilar to this, is given by the poet Lucretius. “ Preterea, magna ex parte mare montis ad ejus Radices frangit flu€tus, eftumque refolvit. Ex hoc ufque mare fpelunce montis ad altas Perveniunt fubter fauces: hac ire, fatendum eft, Et penetrare, mari, penitus res cogit, aperto : Atque ecflare foras ; ideoque extollere flammas, Saxaque fubjectare, et arenz tollere nimbos.” Lib. vi. l. 694, &c. We have ftill however.to feek for the origin of the fire itfelf, which this illuftration does not explain. The caufe of volcanic fire muft probably be fought in the chemical combination of the elementary matter, of which mineral fubftances are compofed, and not in the combuttion of any inflammable materials like thofe which exift on the earth’s furface. The folid produéts ejeéted from volcanoes are compofed of the different earths and alkalies; thefe are not fimple fubftances, but confilt of metalline bafes and oxy- gen. Some of thefe metalline bafes, or metalloids, (as they have been called,) inftantly inflame on contaé with water, and abforb the oxygen from it, whereby they are con- verted into earths or alkalies, having all the properties which the fame bodies poffefs in their natural ftate. (See Poras- sium.) This important difcovery of fir H. Davy has been applied to explain the origin of volcanic fires. It has been fuppofed that the furface of the globe, formed of the dif- ferent earths, may be regarded as its oxyded cruft, but that the internal parts are principally compofed of the metalline bafes of thefe earths; and whenever water finds accefs to them, they oxydate rapidly, and inflame, and are thrown up in the form of éarthy lavas, &c. giving rife to all the various phenomena attending volcanic eruptions. This hy- pothefis, though fimple and ingenious, is not free from va- rious objections. It is exceedingly difficult to conceive how fubftances fo inflammable and oxydable could remain for ages in a metallic ftate, protected from the accefs of moif- ture. Perhaps the difficulty we feel in admitting this may arife from our having ebferved in the inflammation of potaf- fium by water, that the whole was almoft inftantly burned and diflolved ; but were we to fuppofe a compact mafs of this fubftance to exift in the earth, of a mile or more in thicknefs, on the accefs of a limited quantity of water, the furface would inflame, and be reduced to an alkali, and form a cruft, which would proteé the internal part from inflamma- tion. Another current of water might diffolve this crutt, and again inflame the potaflium. By a fucceflion of fuch currents, the metalline beds in the earth may be fuppofed to be repeatedly inflamed, until the whole mafs was oxydized, when the volcanic fires would there be for ever extin& ; unlefs we can conceive a procefs of deoxydation to take place, and reduce the earths and alkalies once more to a me- tallic ftate. The currents of eleétric light at the north and fouth poles may lead us to fufpeét that eleGtric agency is operative im the interior of the globe, and it would not ap- pear contrary to analogies, were we to fuppofe that it may perform an important part in the procefs of deoxydation, and other chemical changes, which produce metallic veins, vol- canic eruptions, and other geological phenomena. When the attention of philofophers was ftrongly drawn to the phenomena of eleétricity by the difcovery of the Leyden phial, in the middle of the lait century, it was fuppofed that this powerful and myfterious agent was the principal caufe of the phenomena of earthquakes. Ingenious and plaufible theories were framed, to explain its mode of opera- tion, and its agency was extended to account for volcanic fires alfo. The quantity of ele&tric matter eyolved ‘from volcanic fmoke in the thunders and lightnings which accom- panied eruptions, were fuppofed to indicate that the difen- gagement of eleétric matter gave rife to all the phenomena of volcanoes. It may be obferved that the data on which thefe theories were formed was defective : the eletric matter evolved from the f{moke and vapour of volcanoes was the neceflary effe& of the fudden formation and expanfion of aeriform fluids : this is. rendered fenfible when.a fingle drop of water is converted into fteam, and muift be moft powerful when immenfe volumes of vapour are inftantly generated. In our fpeculations refpecting the origin of volcanic fires, it VOLCANO. it is important to confider whether volcanoes are accidental appendages, or neceflary parts of the terreftrial fyftem, for <‘ were we,” as Mr. Bakewell obferves in his Introduétion to Geology, “ to regard volcanic craters merely as the vents for fubterranean fires, a further inquiry would arife refpeét- ing the utility of thefe fires. We cannot fuppofe that the interior motions of our planet are not directed to fome defi- nite purpofe, with the fame wifdom and defign which are dif- played in the external univerfe. The craters of ancient vol- canoes greatly exceed any that are now active ; and the quantity of matter thrown out muft have been commenfu- rate with the mighty openings through which it was ejected. Now thefe immenfe volcanoes, whofe craters are many fquare leagues in extent, had doubtlefs an important office to per- form in the economy of nature. It cannot, therefore, be unreafonable to fuppofe that the earth itfelf contains the great laboratory and ftorehoufe, where the materials that form its furface are prepared, and from whence they were thrown up at different times, through thefe vaft openings, éither in the ftate of mud, or in chemical folution, or in the form of lava, or in the comminuted ftate of powders or fand. The only inftances we have at prefent of rock formations are volcanic ; the vaft volcanoes in America throw out torrents of mud, which form ftrata of fome hundred fquare miles in extent, and of confiderable depth. And according to Humboldt, the further we trace back the ancient currents of lava, the greater fimilarity we find be- tween them and thofe rocks, which are confidered as primi- tive. Thefe primeval eruptions took place when our prefent éontinents were covered by the fea or by large lakes, at the bottom of which they probably fpread, and enveloped the remains of animals or vegetables, which’ we find buried in the different ftrata. Long intervals of repofe might allow time for the growth of other tribes of animals, which were buried in the matter of fucceeding eruptions. ‘The internal fire ating with greater or lefs force on the flrata already formed, might occafion thefe diflocations and contortions fo frequently obferved in primary and fecondary rocks.’* This view of the fubjeé is confiftent with that fyitem of geology which fuppofes the exiftence of acentral fire in the globe, and it affigns to that fire its ufe in the vaft chemical labora- tory of nature. The exiftence of numerous active or ex- tin& volcanoes proves the exiftence of this fire, their con- neétion leads us to infer the great depth at which it is placed, and the produétion of new land offers no obfcure indication of the final caufe. The caufes by which this fire is called into greater a¢tivity at certain periods, will probably for ever re- main unknown; butt is important to keep in mind the effen- tial difference between combuttion andignition. A fubftance may remain red-hot for ages without undergoing any change, if it be deprived of air, or the prefence of other fubftances with which it is difpofed to combine ; but by combutftion a chemical change is produced. A mafs of melted iron or laya, inclofed within the globe, might remain unchanged for any conceivable time, if proteéted from air or water by a folid cruft of the fame material ; and it is only on the con- ta& of other fubftances, permeating or breaking through the cruft, that the common effects of fire would be pro- duced. Granting a fufficient final caufe for the exiftence of fire in the earth, the fat will not be more furprifing than the emiffion of light and heat from the fun; of the manner in which either are generated, we are profoundly ignorant, as we aré alfo of the nature and effence of heat itfelf. We are equally ignorant refpe@ting the caufes which have increafed or diminifhed the intenfity of fubterranean fires at certain periods, and dire¢ted them to certain parts of the earth’s furface. The variation of magnetic polarity may lead us to infer that there are regular proceffes taking place in the earth ; and that it is not an inert mafs, but a well-conftru@ed machine, containing within it the materials and the means ofits future renovation, dire&ted by the fame wifdom which guides its path in the heavens, and circulates the fluids through all the various forms of organic exiftence that inhabit its furface. Whether a time may arrive when the central fire, encreafing its activity, fhall again reduce the prefent continents under its dominion, we have no natural means of afcertaining. The ancient Stoics, and many of the oriental philofophers, maintained the doGtrine of the deftru€tion and renovation of the world by fire; the facred writers not unfrequently refer to the fame event, announcing a period when “ the earth Hs be burned up, and the elements fhall melt with fervent eat.” Dr. Hooke formerly had maintained, that all land was raifed out of the fea by earthquakes ; and many modern philo- fophers feem to admit his hypothefis, though not, perhaps, in its utmoft latitude. Von Troil ( Letters on Iceland, p. 222.) is of opinion that this ifland has been produced by volcanoes in the courfe of feveral centuries. Dr. Forfter, in his Ob- fervations made during a Voyage round the World, p. I5I- after giving an ingenious conjecture concerning the origin of all the tropical low ifles in the South Sea, affures us, that of the higher ifles there is hardly one of them which has not itrong veltiges of its having undergone fome violent altera- tion by a volcano. Some of them have volcanoes ftill fub- fitting ; others, among which are Otaheite and Huaheine, feem to have been elevated, in remote ages, from the bot- tom of the fea by fubterraneous fires. Sir William Hamil- ton is confident, that the ifland of Ifchia, the whole bafis of which is lava, rofe out of the fea in the fame manner as fome of the Azores. Dr. Prieftley (Obf. on Air, vol. i. p. 263.) thinks it not improbable that the volcanoes, with which there are evident traces of almoft the whole furface of the earth haying been overfpread, may have been the origin of our atmofphere, as well as (according to the opinion of fome) of all the folid land. The fuperfiuous phlogifton of the air, in the ftate in which it iffues from volcanoes, may have been imbibed by the waters of the fea, which it is probable covered the fur- face of the earth, though part of it might have united with the acid vapour exhaled from the fea, and by this union have made a confiderable and valuable addition to the common mafs of air; and the remainder of this overcharge of phlo- gifton may have been imbibed by plants as foon as the earth was furnifhed with them. The beds of lava are deepeft and narroweft in the proxi- mity of the crater, and broader and fhallower as they are more diftant, unlefs fome valley intervenes; fcoriz and afhes lie {till more diitant. From thefe obfervations extinguifhed volcanoes are traced. Many excellent in- vettigations of this fort may be feen in M. Soulavie’s Hiftory of the South of France. For further information re{pect- ing volcanoes we refer to Erna, SrromBOLI, SysTEMS of Geology, Vesuvius, and VuLcANo. Volcanic Produés.—The fubftances thrown out of vol- canoes, or found in the crater, are inflammable, faline, me- tallic, and earthy, without water, and may be claffed as aeri- form, fluid, or folid. Aeriform Fluids.—Steam, or vapour, is frequently emitted in a quiefcent ftate of the volcano, and is fuppofed to per- form an important part during the moft violent eruptions. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is thrown out in great abundance from all volcanoes. Carbonic acid gas is emitted from fome volcanoes in a quiefcent ftate. Of the other gafeous or volatile 3M 2 fubftances VOLCANO. {ubftances emitted during an aétive ftate of the volcano, we can only infer the exiftence from the {mell or from their being found in combination with the folid produés of volcanoes ; the principal of thefe are ammoniaeal gas, muriatic acid as, and fulphureous acid gas. Probably almoft every mineral Fpianbe which can be rendered volatile by heat, may be emitted in an aeriform ftate during violent eruptions; even the earthy matter of lavas is volatilized at a high temperature, as was proved in the experiments of Dr. Prieftley and Spallanzani. Volcanic fubftances fluid at a heat below 212° Fahren- heit are water, which is fometimes thrown out in tor- rents; and fulphuric acid, found in fome volcanic water and bitumen, which has been obferved exuding from lavas at Vefuvius. Sulphuric acid, that abounds in fome water near volcanic mountains, is probably formed during a quiefcent ftate of a volcano, from the combuftion of fulphur in the crater, or in the upper receffes of the mountain. It is not difficult to conceive how the acid may become diffufed in the rain-water, or in that from melted fnow, which may permeate the porous rocks, and defcend. in“ ftreams from a lofty volcano. The folid fubftances ejected from volcanoes, or formed by chemical combination in the crater, comprife inflam- mable, faline, metallic, and earthy minerals. ‘The three former are by far the leaft confiderable in bulk. Sulphur is found in abundance in the craters of dormant volcanoes ; its formation is attributed to the gradual decom- pofition of fulphuretted hydrogen gas, exhaled copioufly through fiffures from below. See SoprareRna and Sour- FIRERE. Phofphorus is tooinflammable to be found folid among apa- tite volcanic produéts ; it is only from the white colour of the {moke, from its peculiar fmell, and from its combination with lime in the mineral called apatite, found near fome vol- canoes, that we can infer its exiftence as a volcanic fubftance. See APATITE. Solid carbon has only been found in {mall quantities, in concrete bitumen in fome volcanic produ€ts. Carbonized wood and vegetable matter have been found occafionally in lava or tufa; in all probability they were enveloped during an eruption, and cannot therefore be regarded as volcanic fubftances. Carbon, in the ftate of mineral coal, has been fuppofed by M. Werner and his followers to be the prin- cipal fupport and caufe of volcanic fires ; but this opinion is deftitute of all proof, and is at variance with all geological analogies. The faline fubftances found in the craters of volcanoes, or formed by volcanic fire, are numerous, though not very abundant. Muriate of ammonia (fal ammoniac) forms an incruftation on many lavas foon after they cool. Muriate of foda (common falt) is found in fome volcanoes in confi- derable quantities, even entire beds of rock-falt are found in volcanic craters, as at Pofa, near Burgos. Mount Cologero, near Sciacca, in Sicily, appears to be a volcanic mountain, impregnated throughout with common falt. Muriate of copper and of iron are found in fome volcanoes, as that of Vefuvius. Sulphate of iron and fulphate of copper, or green and blue vitriol, alum, gypfum, and fulphate of magnefia may alfo be enumerated among the faline fubftances found in volcanoes. See SuLPHATEof Iron, &c. The metallic fubftances found in volcanoes, or among their produéts, are antimony, copper, gold, manganefe, mercury, yron, tellurium, and titanium. Antimony is found combined with fulphur. Copper is found native, and combined with fulphur, with 7 iron, and with the muriatic and fulphuric acids, as before ftated. Gold is faid to be found in fome volcanic produés, and the gold-mine of Nagyag is ftated by Breizlak to be laced in the crater of a volcano. There is a gold-mine in the ifland of Ifchia, which is entirely volcanic. Manganefe exifts in a {mall proportion combined with iron in obfidian and lava. Mercury is found at Guanca Velua in great quantities, and it is faid the mine is fituated in the crater of a volcano. M. Patrin fuppofes that fome of the Cinnabar mines in Afia have a fimilar fituation. Iron is abundantly diffufed through all volcanic rocks, which have a dark-brown, a black, or red colour. It forms one-eighth part of the fubftance of moft lavas. Iron exifts alfo in craters in the form of fpecular iron ore. Tellurium is found with gold in the mines of Nagyag. See TeLLurium Mines. Titanium, combined with iron, appears, from the obferva- tions of Cordier, to be a conftituent part of almoit all dark- coloured volcanic rocks. The earthy produéts of volcanoes confift principally of lava, obfidian, pumice, volcanic flags or fcorie, with vol- canic fand, tufa, and we may alfo enumerate the earthy tufa formed of the indurated mud thrown out of the American volcanoes. Many geologifts enumerate bafalt and wacke among volcanic produéts, which they refemble both in ap- pearance and in the nature of their conftituent parts. Va- rious cryftallized minerals are found imbedded in lava, par- ticularly augite, cryfolite, or olivine, felfpar, leucite, Ve- fuvian, and zeolite. (See AuciTE, &c.) Under the articles Lava, Obfidian, &c. are given fome account of thefe minerals. The {tones firft thrown out of volcanoes are frequently pieces of granite or other primitive rocks, either untouched or only partially changed by fire. ‘This circumftance proves that the feat of volcanic fire is far below thefe rocks. Scoriz or volcanic flags are generally thrown out before the eruption of lava. Thefe flags are more or lefs vitrified; they fometimes take a globofe form in the air, and become confolidated before they cool. Thefe have been called volcanic bombs. Immenfe black clouds, confifting of pieces of feorix and minute fragments and particles, fimilar to the {eorix, are thrown out with it. Some volcanic eruptions confift entirely of thefe powders or fand, which are driven to vaft diftances, and have been carried by currents of air more than five hun- dred miles from the volcano. - Vefuvius threw out {coriz and powders without any lava, for many centuries after the eruption in 79 A.D. Lava.—Currents of melted ftone or lava, of twenty or thirty miles in length, from two to four miles in breadth, and from twenty to forty feet in depth, are found in vol- canic diftri&s, equalling in fize fome of the regular ftrata of the globe. The upper furface of thefe lavas is gene- rally more or lefs veficular and {coriaceous ; and it is only where the beds have been broken or cut through, that the compaét fiony fubftance of the lava can be feen. From this circumftance alone many philofophers have been led to doubt the volcanic origin of more compact rocks; but, as M. Cordier obferves, in a paper recently publifhed, ‘* to judge of the fubftance of a current of lava, from what ap- pears on the furface, would be like judging of a vat of wine from the froth with which it was covered.” The cryftals imbedded in lavas were {uppofed by many geologifts to haye exifted previoufly in the rocks which formed the lava, but were too infufible to be melted by the volcanic fire. On this erroneous fuppofition, they concluded that volcanic ae muf VOLCANO. nuit have poffefled but a low degree of heat, as the fame eryftals may be melted in a common furnace. The forma- tion of cryftals does not depend upon the degree of heat, but on the circumftances under which the fubitance cools ; a long ftate of quiefcent fluidity being as neceffary to the for- mation of perfe& cryftals by igneous fufion, as it is known to be in aqueous folutions. Inattention to this circumftance has rendered many of the conclufions from the laborious re- fearches of Spallanzani invalid.. M. Cordier, an ingenious eologift in France, has devifed a new mode of analyfing vas. He very properly obferves, that the attention of geologifts has been hitherto direéted more to the imbedded eryftals in lava, than to the pafte or bafe of the lava itfelf ; and it has been admitted, without fufficient proof, that the bafe of lava was either hornblende or felfpar, or a mixture of thefe two minerals. On attentively examining the fubftance of lava and vol- canic fcoriz, with a very high magnifying power of the microfcope, he difcovered that it was not homogeneous, but confifted of a congeries of minute cryitals of different mi- nerals, which were principally fimilar to the larger imbedded cryftals. To afcertain more decidedly the nature of thefe {mall cryftals, he endeavoured to difunite them by com- preffion, then felecting particles of the fame fize feparated them, according to their relative denfity, by wafhing. The ifolated particles were afterwards examined with the micro- {eope, and compared with the particles of the cryftals moft commonly found in volcanic rocks, fuch as felfpar, cryfo- lite, olivme, iron-fand, and menakanite. He commenced with the examination of compaé or {tony lavas, beginnin with thofe from burning volcanoes, then proceeding to thole from extin& volcanoes, and laftly to thofe whofe volcanic origin has been doubted by geologifts, fuch as bafalt and wacke. The refult of thefe examinations have led him to conclude, that all thefe rocks, from whatever diftri& they come, are compofed nearly in the fame manner, and are all granular, confifting of very different diftin@ cryftalline grains, interlaced with each other, fo that all {tony lavas may be regarded as minutely granitic, when viewed with the mi- erofcope. There fometimes exift minute pores between the ins, which however do not occupy one-fixtieth part of the bulk: thefe pores are more common in modern than in ancient lavas. There are five forts of thefe grains diftinguifhable by their colour; 1. white more or ie tranfparent ; 2. bottle- green; 3. black and perfe&tly opaque; 4. a clear brown; 5- and laftly, very {mall grains of reddifh-brown. Thefe five forts of grains are fufceptible of further fubdivifion, according to their. phyfical or chemical properties. The white grains belong to three diftin€& minerals. The motft common are thofe which melt into a white enamel; thefe are felfpar. The more infufible are cryfolite, and thofe which are perfeétly infufible are leucite. According to the prevalence of felfpar, the lava poffeffes different charaéters. Thofe which contain from forty-five to fifty-five per cent. of felfpar, melt into a black glafs, the minute edges of which are bottle-green, black, or greyifh- black ; bafalts are of this kind. Thofe lavas which contain from fifty-five to feventy per sent. of felfpar, melt into a bottle-green enamel, fuch are the greenifh, greyifh, and dark-coloured bafalts. Stony lavas, which contain ninety per cent. of felfpar, melt into a white glafs. Such are the petrofiliceous or com- pa& felfpar lavas and clink-ftone. The yellowifh or greenifh grains belong to augite or to hornblende, which are fometimes difficult to be diftinguifhed from each other. According to Cordier, the grains of augite are rounded and irregular, with a vitreous fra@ure and {plen- dent luftre. The grains of hornblende are long, and affume a prifmatic form: they prefent indications of their laminar ftru@ture, and have dittle luftre except in the direGtion of the laminz. The greateft proportion of augite in lava is forty-five per cent. "Thefe lavas melt into a black glafs. Thofe lavas which melt into a white glafs only contain one per cent. of augite. The black opaque grains confift of titanium combined with iron, as iron-fand, fer titané, or as me- nakanite. The iron-fand contains only o.5 of titanium, the particles have a perfe&t metallic luftre, and conchoi dal fra&ture, and are attracted by the magnet. The greateft proportion in which they exift in ftony lavas that melt into a black glafs, is fifteen per cent. ‘The grains of menakanite exift in a much {maller proportion, they are dif- ficult to melt, and are not attracted by the magnet. The grains of iron ore, fer oligiffe, may be known by the red colour of the powder when they are pounded. Thefe are very rare in lavas. From an examination of a great number of lavas, it ap- pears that there are only two prevailing minerals which com- pofe the greater part of their bafe. Thefe are augite and felfpar. All the reft are in a very fmall proportion ; and hornblende, which has been admitted without examina- tion into all yolcanic rocks, exifts but in a very few, and thofe are fuch as abound in felfpar. In the latter the eryf- tals of hornblende, which are diffeminated, are very diftin&. Bafaltic rocks, which have hitherto been ftated to confift of hornblende and felfpar, according to Cordier, are principally compofed of augite and felfpar. Stony lavas may therefore be claffed into two kinds, thofe which melt into a white glafs, and thofe which melt into a black glafs. The former M. Cordier denominates leu- coftine, the latter bafalt. Leucoftine comprifes thofe fub- ftances called, by Dolomieu, petrofiliceous lavas ; by Hauy, compa fonorous felfpar ; by Karften, domite, and lava with a horn-ftone bafe; and by Werner, clink-fone. The latter comprifes the ferruginous lavas of Dolomieu ; the bafaltic lava of Hauy, Jes laves bafaltiques uniformes ; and the bafalt and lava of Werner. The refult of thefe obfervations con- firms the fimilarity of compofition between ftony lavas of recent volcanoes and bafaltic rocks, whofe igneous origin has been contefted. In the fame manner M. Cordier has examined the com- pofition of volcanic fcorie and volcanic glafs, volcanic cin- ders and tufa. Thefe are all compofed of the fame fub- ftances as the ftony lava. Obfidians, or volcanic glaffes, may be divided into two kinds like lava, according as they yield a black or white glafs to the blow-pipe. In the vitreous pafte of both may be difcovered by the microfcope, the fame cryftals as in lava, grains of felfpar are feen in thofe glafles which become white before the blow-pipe ; grains of augite in thofe which melt into a black glafs. In certain inftances, we fee the tranfition of obfidian into a compaé black bafalt, and alfo into pumice. Thefe obfervations of Cordier tend to eftablifh the iden- tity of bafaltic rocks with thofe of volcanic origin, whiltt at the fame time they diftinguifh them from the beds of hornblende and trap, which occur in primary mountains. The latter differ in compofition from bafalts and lavas, and alfo in the nature of the imbedded cryftals which they con- tain. All volcanic rocks, even thofe which appear the moft homogeneous, are compofed in a great part of microfcopic eryftals, belonging to a {mall number of minerals, parti- cularly augite, felfpar, olivine, and iron-fand. ere rocks VOLCANO. rocks of every age and country, that have flowed as lavas, or been ejected during fiery eruptions, are compofed of the fame mineral fubftances, and are different in their compofi- tion and internal ftru€ture from rocks which form the regu- lar ftrata:.of the globe. The external ficare of lava is much diverfified, owing, in all probability, to the different circumftances under which it has cooled. Some lava is porous, fome contains large cavities or is veficular, whilft other lavas are appa- rently compaét, and affume a prifmatic form. According to the obfervations of fir G. S. Mackenzie in Iceland, there are beds of lava of great extent, which appear never to have flowed in currents, but to have been completely fufed in the fituations where they occur. ‘This lava was columnar in many places, the columns varying in fize from a few inches to feveral feet in diameter. ‘The furface of the lava was heaved up into large blifters and bubbles, fome of which were round, and from a few feet to forty or fifty in dia- meter, others were long, and fome were waved. A great many of the bubbles had burft, and difplayed caverns of confiderable depth. On this account fir G. Mackenzie denominates it cavernous lava. Currents of lava, which had flowed from volcanoes, covered the cavernous lava in many parts, but prefented very diftin& chara&ers. In the com- mon ftreams of lava, no defined approach to a columnar form was obferved ; but nothing was more common than the columnar ftru€ture in the cavernous lava. In fome parts of Iceland were feen beds of amygdaloid, from ten to forty feet in thicknefs, alternating with tufa. The upper part of thefe beds did not indicate the aétion of fire, but the under part of each was a complete volcanic flag. From the fituation of thefe beds, and other circumftances, it was in- ferred that they were lavas which had flowed under the fea. Some of the beds were very compact in the upper part. Another feries of beds occur near Krifuvick, which was flaggy at the bottom, but fo compact above as to refemble porphyry flate. Beds of very compact bafalt, with the under furface flaggy, were alfo obferved ; and an extenfive and beautiful range of lofty columns at Stappen prefent the fame appearance, and have flaggy maffes included in them. Sir George Mackenzie explains thefe appearances, by fup- pofing the lava to have originally flowed over a cold wet furface at the bottom of the fea. An abundance of fteam would conftantly be produced from the upper furface, which would feparate the hot lava from the water, in the fame manner as a drop of water is kept detached from a plate of red-hot iron. Thus, no water could enter the fub- fiance of the lava from above, but the moifture below would operate very differently. From its converfion into fteam, and the tendency to afcend, it would penetrate the fluid lava, and produce the porofity obferved in the above rocks, and render the lava more or lefs veficular, according to its degree of fluidity. When the lava is very hot and liquid, the fteam will have lefs difficulty in penetrating it. In fome inftances it may allow the whole of the moifture to efcape through it in the form of elaftic vapour, fo that the lava may become folid. According as the lava is more or lefs vifeid, the {team may be more or Jefs confined, making the {tone porous or veficular; and, lattly, the lava may be fo tough, that the exertions of the elaftic vapour may be con- fined to the lower furface of the beds. In the firit cafe, a mafs of compact ftone would be formed, having no appear- ance of the a@ion of fire. In the fecond cafe, the lava would form an amygdaloidal or veficular mafs. In the latt cafe would refult a mafs entirely compact, except in the under-fyrface. (Travels in Iceland, by fir G. S. Mac- kenzite.) In the formation of volcanic rocks, which have I flowed as lava under the fea, very different refults would take place from the formation of fimilar rocks on land, owing to the great difference which the fuperincumbent preflure of a deep volume of water would occafion; and as moft of the ancient currents of lava have in all probability been ori- galls fubmarine, we may expeé& them to vary in ftruéture rom the lavas of more recent eruptions. In the Tranfac- tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh are feveral valuable papers of fir James Hall, detailing a feries of the moft in- terefting and inftrutive experiments on the effeéts of heat modified by compreffion. Thefe experiments merit the profound attention of every one who would endeavour to form a juft and comprehenfive view of the agency of fubter- ranean fire on the different rocks which form the cruft of the globe. For the refult of fome of thefe experiments, we refer to Systems of Geology; but we particularly recom- mend our readers to perufe the original papers, which are well illuftrated bya feries of plates. The minerals which line or fill the cavities of veficular lava are principally varieties of zeolites, chalcedonies, and calcareous fpar. Quartz cryftals abound in fome of the veficular lavas of Lipari. All thefe minerals are fuppofed, with much probability, to be of pofterior formation to the lava itfelf, and to derive their origin from the infiltration of water, holding the conftituent parts in folution or fufpen- fion. Spallanzani conjeétures that the particles are fepa- rated from the lava itfelf, by the decompofing effeéts of fulphureous acid. Lava is fubjeé&t to decompofition from atmofpheric agency, according as it is more or lefs vitreous. Some lavas are known to have refifted all tendency to decompofe for many centuries; other lavas decompofe rapidly, and form a pro- duétive foil. Particular vegetables poflefs the property of reducing lava to vegetable mould with great rapidity. The Indian fig, or, as it is commonly called, the prickly pear, has this property in a remarkable degree. According to the account of it given by General Cockburn, in his ‘ 'T'ra- vels through Sicily,’’ this plant pulverifes the hardeft rocks, and forms the moit luxuriant foil. The inhabitants bring a little earth to any crevice of lava, and plant a prickly pear- tree in it, which {preads and fplits the rocks in about feyen years, A thick plantation is thus formed, and a very little earth being added, in about ten years more the rock is pul. verifed for fome inches deep. Vol. ii. p. 163. Obfidian or black volcanic glafs appears to be a vitreous modification of ftony lava, produced by its fudden re- frigeration. According to the obfervations of Cordier before ftated, it may confift either of felfpar or augite, as forming the principal part of the bafe. The volcanic origin of this mineral has been denied by fome geologiits without any apparent reafon, except an attachment to theory ; for this fubftance may be traced flowing from the craters of volcanoes, and paffing into compaét black lava or bafalt, and alfo into white {pongy pumice. Sir James Hall and Dr. Home vifited a mountain in Lipari, that had efcaped the attention of Dolomieu. From feveral openings in this mountain a ftream of obfidian and pumice might be traced : they gradually pafled into each other. The pumice had evidently flowed with the obfidian, as it formed the upper furface of the ftream. ‘The greateft breadth of the ftream was about two miles and a half, and its length three miles. It feemed to have been produced by the lait effort of the voleano. Sir G. Mackenzie difcovered a ftream of obfidian in Iceland, filling up a valley to the depth of thirty feet, and vifible for more than twe miles in extent. The furface was in many parts covered with pumice. Obfidian is found flreaming from the crater of Vulcano: it exifts in abun- dance VOLCANO. dance at Teneriffe, Kamtfchatka, and various volcanic countries ; but it is by no means fo common a produ& as itony lava. : The objeCtions to the volcanic origin of obfidian, founded on its lofs of colour, and its tumefaétion at a low degree of heac, are deprived of their force by the difcoveries of fir James Hall before mentioned. Thefe experiments prove, that a ftone, which was not fufible under a heat of thirty- eight degrees of Wedgewood’s pyrometer, yields a glafs that foftens at fourteen degrees; and when this glafs is re- melted, and acquires a ftony texture by flow cooling, it ~ cannot be fufed again with a lefs degree of heat than thirty- five degrees. vod Pitch-ftone (fee Prrcu-Stone), though lefs vitreous in its appearance than obfidian, yet, viewed by the geologift as it exifts in nature, cannot be feparated from it, but muft be claffed as a different mode of the fame fubftance, or as vitreous lava. ‘The bafe of the Peak of Teneriffe, to the plain of Ketama, is buried under fcorie and heaps of pu- mice reduced to powder. From thence to the fummit of the mountain, or from fifteen hundred to nineteen hundred toifes in height, the volcano exhibits only vitreous lavas, compofed of obfidian and pitch-ftone more or lefs porphy- ritic: they are of blackifh-brown, often varying to the deepett olive-green; they contain large cryftals of felfpar. The analogy of thefe decidedly volcanic fubftances with the pitch-ftone porphyries of the valley of Turbach in Saxony is, fays Humboldt, very remarkable; but the latter contain quartz, which is wanting in the modern lava. When the lava changes from pitch-ftone to obfidian, the colour is paler; fometimes both varieties occur in the fame fragment. Among the pitch-ftone and lava, near the fummit, were found blocks of real greenifh clink-ftone porphyry, fimilar to the porphyry-flate of the mountain of Belin, in Bohemia. Thefe fa&ts further prove the conneétion between rocks of the trap formation and volcanic produéts. (See Trap.) Obfidian and pitch-ftone are found in Hungary, in Mexico, and in Quito, at a great diftance from burning volcanoes. Pitch-ftone exifts abundantly in fome of the Scotch He- brides, particularly in the ifle of Eigg. In South America, obfidian is fcattered over the fields in angular pieces, and fometimes forms ifolated rocks. The Mexicans dug ob- fidian in mines, and made knives, fword-blades, and razors of this mineral. The Guanches in Teneriffe made {pear- heads of obfidian; it was alfo employed by them, and by the Mexicans, in the fabrication of mirrors and ornaments for the women. Various volcanic glaffes, differing in colour and from obfidian, occur in fome volcanoes, particularly that of the ifle of Bourbon. Thefe may, however, all be clafled with vitreous lavas, as it appears from the experi- ments of M. Cordier, that the conttituent parts of all are the fame, being principally compofed of varying propor- tions of augite and felfpar. Pumice (fee Pumice) is an abundant produét of vol- canoes :. it may be confidered as light fpongy lava, under which term is comprifed a great variety of volcanic fub- ftances, differing in porofity, in texture, and in colour. The term pumice-/tone indicates a capillary or fibrous texture of lava. It appears to be the produ@ of intenfe heat, operating either on lava or obfidian; the lighter coloured pumices being formed of thofe volcanic rocks which abound in felfpar, or rather it is the elements of thefe rocks in a ca- pillary form. As fome obfidian fwells greatly, and lofes its colour by heat, it was inferred that all pumice has been formed from this mineral ; but the conclufion is too general. There are numerous inftances in which obfidian may be traced pafling into pumice ; but there are other inftances in which ftony lava, abounding in felfpar, may alfo be traced pafling into pumice-ftone. Some experiments made by Humboldt prove that different obfidians fwell very un- equally, when expofed to the moderate fire of a forge. Thofe from the Peak of Teneriffe, and the black varieties from Cotopaxi, increafed in bulk more than five times. The red varieties from the Andes, on the contrary, were not much tumefied by heat. We have already ftated in- ftances of currents of obfidian covered with pumice, and of mafles of obfidian paffing into pumice, fo as to leave no doubt of the formation of pumice from obfidian. Nor are there wanting inftances as decifive of lava pafling into pu- mice. This cannot, on refle€tion, appear furprifing, as obfidian and lavas are effentially the fame fubftances in a vitreous and ftony form. Spallanzani deferibes a lava with a bafe of felfpar, which is {pread over a part of Lipari, rifing in rocks and craggs of enormous fize: it is of a grey colour. On attentively examining this: lava, the gradual tranfition into pumice may be diftin@ily perceived. It is not uncom- mon to find mafles of this lava, which on one fide retain the character of felfpar, and on the other are changed into white pumice, exa€tly refembling that of Campo Bianco in colour, lightnefs, {truéture, and other chara¢ters. Some of the white pumices of Campo Bianco are fo compaét, that the {malleft pore’ is not vifible to the eye; but when viewed through a lens with a ftrong light, they refemble an irre- gular accumulation of flakes of ice: their compaétnefs, however, does not prevent their fwimming on water. Other pumices were full of pores and vacuities of a larger fize, and their texture is formed by filaments arranged parallel to each other, and of a filvery whitenefs: both thefe varieties may fometimes be feen in the fame ftone; hence we may infer that the difference arifes from the aétion of elaftic fluids producing different degrees of dilatation, when the mafs was ina fluid ftate. There is a black pumice in Lipari, compofed of parallel filaments, that all lie in one direétion, which is that of the bed defcending from the mountain to the fea. This, fays Spallanzani, may be confidered as a true current of pumice. The black colour he fuppofed to proceed from fome bituminous fubftance, as a ftrong {mell of bitumen is emitted, when two pieces of this pumice are rubbed to- gether. The black colour was entirely loft by expofure to heat for fome time in the furnace, which reduced it to a vitreous pafte. Humboldt conjectures that the dark colour of fome obfidians is caufed by a hydruret of carbon. Nature, fays Humboldt, probably employs different means to produce the fpongy and vitreous pumices of ‘Feneriffe, the pumices with parallel fibres fram the Lipari iflands, and the capillary vitrifications of the ifles of Bourbon, which fometimes refemble a fpider’s web. Thefe differ- ences probably confift in the different degrees of heat, in the different preffure under which the fire aéts, and in the nature of the rocks altered by it. Above all, fays the fame traveller, the preffure which obfidians undergo in their fufion, explains why thefe fubftances, with fome exceptions, are never found whitened. . Thofe pumices, which have the appearance of having been formed at great depths, are fibrous, and of a filky luftre. Blocks of this kind on the Andes, of eight or ten toifes in length, have the fibres exactly parallel with each other, and perpendicular to the direction of the beds. Several volcanoes do not throw out any pumice ; and thofe that do, eject them only by their crater after the flowing of the lavas. Volcanic Sand.—The white powders which, have been called afhes are generally thrown out the lait, and indicate the end of the eruption; they confift entirely of white pumice ground to powder. The black powders iffue the ah eh cing VOLCANO. being driven with greater force, are carried to a greater diftance from the mountain. ‘Thefe powders are called by the Italians black and white rapilli. Volcanic fcorie or flags differ from pumice by their greater denfity ; they are properly maffes of cellular lava, and are more or lefs vitreous or ftony, according to the degree of heat to which they have been fubjeGted, and the circumftances under which they have cooled. ‘The upper part of modern currents of lava, that have flowed in conta with the atmofphere, are generally compofed of fcoriz. The compofition of fcorie is the fame as that of lava, and varies with the different lavas from which it is formed. Volcanic tufa appears to be formed of the loofe fand or powders, together with the fmaller fragments thrown out of volcanoes, which are f{pread over the furface of the ground, and afterwards become partly confolidated by water and preffure. In all fubmarine volcanoes, thefe pow- ders muft be mixed with water as foon as they are dif- charged from the mouth of the crater, and muit therefore fall as a muddy fediment over the bed of the ocean, and form ftrata of tufa of greater or lefs extent according to the quantity of matter ejected. The materials of which the powders are formed, may alfo have been mixed with water in the deep recefles of the volcano, and have been difcharged in torrents of mud like thofe which iffue from the American volcanoes. In this way beds of tufa of great extent have pro- bably been formed, and as they fometimes take the fame fhape as the original inequalities of the ground, it has been fuppofed that they have flowed as lavas. Spallanzani defcribes a bed of tufa in Lipari which covers the furface of the hills and valleys nearly equally ; but it would be difficult to conceive how a ftream of mud could afcend a hill, were it ever fo te- macious. If the matter were depofited from the turbid waves of the ocean, we fhould have no difficulty in account- ing for its prefent appearance, and alfo for the ftratifaCtion of tufa alternating with beds of lava. Volcanic tufa, in its more indurated ftate, is ufed as building ftone ; foft or inco- herent tufa has received the names of puzzolana, tarras, &c. See PuzzoLana. Volcanic tufa compofes the principal foil of many vol- canic diftri@s. A great part of mount Etna and the mountains on its fides are compofed of this tufa. Hills of tufa, according to fir G. Mackenzie, invariably accompany lava in Iceland. Whole ranges of mountains are formed of it, and wherever eruptions have occurred, thefe hills of tufa may be feen. It clofely refembles the tufa of Sicily and Italy. The tufa of Iceland often alternates with fubmarine lava, and then it invariably includes mafles of lava and flags, more or lefs rounded by the aétion of water. ‘The beds of tufa are fometimes not lefs than forty feet in thicknefs. When tufa alternates with beds of amygdaloid trap and greenftone, it includes maffes of thefe fubftances. ‘The fubmarine lavas which alternate with tufa, are always above the beds of trap and greenftone alternating with the fame fubftance. Sir G. Mackenzie conjectures that they are all the products of fubmarine volcanoes, but that the beds of trap and greenftohe were firft erupted at a greater depth under the fea, and under a greater compref- five force ; to which caufe the difference in their ftru€ture from that of the upper beds is to be attributed : hence the lower beds, being more compreffed and compaét, have loft the appearance of the immediate ation of fire which is fo vifible in the cellular lava and flags nearer the furface. Mountains of tufa, one thoufand feet in height, occur in Iceland, and even whole mountain ranges are compofed of the fame material ; in thefe there is no appearance of regu- darity, but all the mafs is heaped upin confufion. The pre- vailing colour of the pafte of this tufa is yellow ; and, in a defcription given by Mr. Stephenfon of an eruption from one of the Icelandic volcanoes, called the Kattlagian Jokul, we have an inftance of its a€tual formation. “* The fand which fell afterwards united, and covered the meadows with a yellow-coloured cruft, quite compaé.”” The mud thrown out of the American volcanoes, when indurated, may be claffed with tufa ; but befides the earthy ingredients, it contains a portion of carbonaceous and faline matter. To fome intermixture of this kind, the fertilizing properties, afcribed to the fine fand or powder recently ejected from the volcano at St. Vincent’s, may perhaps be attributed. Puzzolana and terras are thofe foft tufas which are fer- ruginous, and poffefs the property of confolidating under water when mixed with lime as a cement. This property is derived from the iron, and is common to many of the ar- gillaceous limeftones of England that abound in iron. From the experiments and obfervations of M. Cordier before ftated, it appears that the different earthy produéts of volcanoes, whether as ftone in the form of compact, veficular, or amygdaloidal lavas, or in a ftate of perfe& vitrification as obfidian, or lefs perfe€tly vitrified, as fcoriz, or in the earthy form of wacke or volcanic tufa, or in beds of fand formed of minute detached grains or particles, are all compofed princi- pally of augite and felfpar in different proportions. This view of the fubje& tends greatly to fimplify our knowledge of volcanic produéts, as all the earthy maffes and rocks eje€ted from volcanoes, however differing in ftruc- ture, denfity, and colour, are to be regarded only as differ- ent aggregations of the fame mineral fubftances, modified by the various effeéts of heat and compreffion, and the operation of thefe caufes to which they have been fubjeéted fince their firft eruption. Various rocks which have been claffed under the un- {cientific denominations of fletz trap rocks and greenftone are alfo compofed of the fame mineral fubftances aggre- gated in a fimilar manner; hence we may infer that they have had a fimilar origin. 'Thefe rocks are very extenfively fpread both in volcanic diftri€ts, and in countries remote from any ative volcanoes; they ferve as monuments to elucidate the natural hiftory of the globe, and to mark the boundaries of the ancient dominion of fire over the prefent continents. Voucanoss in the Moon. Dr. Herfchel, now fo well known and univerfally celebrated, on account of his va- rious aftronomical obfervations, difcovered, on the fourth of May, 1783, a burning volcano in the moon. This difcovery confirms the conjeétures formed by M. /&pi- nus, in 1778, and publifhed in a memoir printed at Ber- lin in 1781, concerning the volcanic origin of the ine- qualities in the moon’s furface. Similar ideas occurred to profeflor Beccaria, of Turin, nearly at the fame time, and alfo to profeffor Lichtenberg, of Gottingen. The nephew of profeffor Beccaria difcovered, O&. 11, 1772, a lumin- ous {pot on the moon, during its total eclipfe of that night, in or near the place marked Copernicus ; and from this time the profeffor mentioned this obfervation in his public lec- tures, as an evidence that the round cavities on the furface of the moon were fo many craters of diftinét volcanoes ; adding, that he confidered thofe ftraight radiations, or bright paths, which are obferved particularly on the place of the moon marked Tycho, as fo many torrents of the lava, which ‘{pouted off in fome former conflagration of a volcano. The reader may fee this account, given by the profeffor himfelf, in a letter concerning the luminous appearanee ob- ferved by don Ulloa on the moon, during the total eclipfe of the Vv Ow the fun, June 24, 1778; in which he maintains, that fuch a luminous fpot was an aétual burning volcano, and not a real hole through the mafs of the moon, as Don Ulloa -afferted it to be. Phyfique for the month of June, 1781. M. /Epinus ob- ferves, that the opinion of volcanoes in the moon was firft fuggefted by Dr. Hooke; in his Micrographia, printed at London in 1665; in the twentieth chapter of which work he {peaks at large concerning this opinion. . Dr. Herfchel, on the 4th of May, 1783, difcovered two {mall conical mountzias in the very fame {pot where he had obferved the volcano: thefe are fituated in the Mons Porphyrites of Hevelius, juft by a third mountain, much Jarger, which Dr. Herfchel had often obferved before. (See Gent. Mag. for Auguit, 1784, p. 563, &c.) Onthe tgth of April, 1787, the fame ingenious and indefatigable obferver difcovered three volcanoes in different places of the dark part of the new moon.*, Two of them were nearly exting, or ina ftate ready to break out.. The third fhewed an actual eruption of fire, or luminous matter. From an- other obfervation he infers, that the diameter of this vol- cano cannot be lefs than 3", and that the diameter of its burning part is equa! to at leaft twice that of the third fatel- lite of Jupiter, with which it. was compared. Hence the fhining or burning matter is computed to be above three miles in diameter. Phil. Tranf. vol. lxxvii. part i. p.230. VOLCHOVA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in the Ilmen lake, and runs into lake Ladoga, at Nov Ladoga. VOLCHOVSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern. ment of Tobolfl ; 32 miles E. of Surgut. VOLCLI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the interior of Etruria. Prtol. Vorcr. See Vorsctr. VOLCIANTI, or Votscrant, a people of Hifpania Ci- terior, celebrated on account of the determined reply which they made to the Roman ambafladors, when they folicited them to renounce their alliance with the Carthaginians. VOLCKACH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the Maine; 11 miles N.E. of Wurzburg. N. lat. 49° 54/. E. long. 10° 14!. VOLCKERSBERG, a town of Weitphalia, in the bifhopric of Fulda; 12 miles S. of Fulda. VOLCKMANNSDORYF, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Neifle ; 6 miles E. of Neiffe. VOLCONDA, atown of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; miles S. of Arcot. N. lat. 11° 10!. E. long. 79° 1o!. VOLCZINCY, a town of European Turkey, in Mace- donia; 25 miles W. of Orhei. VOLENGO, a town of Italy; 23 miles W. Mantua. VOLERIUS, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Corfica, whofe mouth was on the northern coaft. Ptolemy. VOLERY, a great bird-cage, fo large that the birds have room to fly up and down in it. VOLGA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, fometimes called by ancient writers Rha, and fometimes Araxis, is de- nominated by the Tartars Jdel, Adal, or Edel, denoting plenty, and by the Moravians is ‘:ll called Rhau. It is formed by two ftreams, one iffluing from lake Seliger, in the government of Tver; the other froma fmaller lake, eight miles from lake Seliger, which unite together, N. lat. 56° 40’. E. long. 51° 20!. Its waters iffue from feveral lakes in the Valday frontier mountains. After their union, the river then takes a fouth-eaft courfe to Zobtzov ; it then changes to north-eaft, paffes Staritza, Tver, and Mologa ; near which laft place it changes its courfe to fouth-eait, pafles Vor, XXXVII. of This letter is inferted in the Journal de- VOL Jaroflavl, or Yaroflaf, Koftroma, Penza, and Kazan; after which its courfe is more fouth, pafling by Spafk, Simbirfk, Sa- mara, &c.. At Samarait inclines a little to the weit, pafling by Sizran, Chvalinfk, Volfk, Kurdium, Saratof, Kamlif- chin, Tzaritzin, &c.; at Tzaritzin it takes its courfe fouth- eait, and pafling by Tchernoiyar, and a number of other towns, forts, &c. in the governments of Tver, Yaroflaf, Koftroma, Nifhney-Novgorod, Kazan,, Simbirfk, Saratof, and Caucafus; it enters the Cafpian fea at Aitrachan, by feveral large mouths, two only of which are navigable for veffels of r50 tons. It is faid to diftribute itfelf into 70 branches, and to form a multitude of iflands before its dif- charge into the Cafpian.. This is fuppofed to be the largeft river in Europe, and in its courfe of 4000 verlts, is joined by many other rivers ; a canal is made from it to the Neva, which opens a navigable communication between the Caf- pian fea and the Baltic. “The Volga purfues its courfe through many fertile re- gions, and in the inferior part of it, pafles by beauti- ful forefts of oak. It very much overflows in the f{pring, and is then navigable in certain parts, which at other times are not navigable. Its chief navigation commences at Tver. It has no cataracts, nor other dangerous places ; and it is faid to become fhallower from time to time, fo as to afford reafon for apprehending that it will ceafe to be navigable for veffels of any tolerable fize. It abounds with fifh, parti- cularly fterlet, fturgeon, &c. The principal rivers which join it in its courfe are the Kamma and the Okka ; which fee re{pectively. The Volga teems with a vaft variety of fifh, which not only fupplies the parts adjacent, but the greater part of the empire, with the feveral forts of fturgeons, with kaviar, and. with an incredible number of different kinds of {maller fifh. This ftore of wealth, which no other river in Europe pof- feffes in an equal degree, induces the countrymen about the Volga to negle& agriculture, and to devote themfelves to the fifhery. Among the fifh peculiar to the Volga, which feldom or never come into the collateral rivers, are the be- luga, the fturgeon, the fterlet, the fevruga, the falmon, and white falmon. But of all the fifh of the Volga, the feveral kinds of fturgeons, and the white falmon (falmo nelma), are the beft. The beluga is from 20 to 25 {pans in length, and weighs between 30 and 45 poods. Sturgeons are from 5 to 8 {pans long, and from 20 pounds to 2 poods in weight ; the fevruga holds the middle ftation between the beluga and the fturgeon ; the red falmon is obferved here only in the two laft months of the year, and then but feldom; the white falmon {wim againft the ftream in great numbers, from the beginning of January to fome time in July; both thefe are from 3 to 5 fpans long, and at moft weigh 30 pounds. The barbel is often larger and heavier, and the fturgeons the largeft after the beluga. Of all the fubordinate rivers that fall into the Volga, the Kamma is the wealthieft in fifh, and the fith of the Kamma are held to be the beft flavoured of allin Ruffia; atleaft its fturgeon, fterlet, and white fal- mon, are preferable to thofe of the Volga. Befides thefe three kinds, a principal fifh of the Kammais a {mall falmon, called in Rufs Krafnaya reba, red or beautiful fifth (falmo eriox, or falmo alpinus), commonly 14 or 2 arfhines long. There is fearcely any place in the world where fuch a variety of contrivgnces and inftruments are ufed for the capture of fifh as on the Volga, and particularly in the confines of Aftrachan. Thefe inventions may be reduced to three, one comprifing the fifh-weirs, or ut{chiugs, the fecond the angle, and the third the net. The utfchiugs are various ; but the fort molt in ufe isthat called Saboika. Inthe lower regions of the Volga, a fifh-trap called gorodba is generally em- 3N ployed ; VOL ployed; confifting of a weir carried acrofs the ftream, and provided with feveral chambers, in which the fifh are caught. ‘The utfchiugs are generally conftruéted only in the territory of Aftrachan, where the fifhery on the Volga is a very im- portant objet of induftry and traffic. ‘The Tartarian word utfchiug properly fignifies that kind of dam called Saboika ; but at prefent it implies a whole fifhing ftation, ufually much larger than a vataga. (See Fisnery and Caspian Sea.) Every utfchiug, befides a number of buildings appropriate to it, has alfo a church and dwelling-houfe, for the la- bourers and their families. Since the year 1763, thefe utfchiugs have been granted to the merchants of Aftrachan, in confideration of a {mall tribute ; andthe revenues are ma- naged by what is called the fith-comptoir, the dire¢tors and members of which are eleéted from the body of A ftrachan burghers. The profits, after deduGting the very mode- rate tribute to the crown, muft be divided in equal portions among the merchants ; but by feveral reports it appears, that the fifh-comptoir are fo arrogant and arbitrary in their pro- ceedings, that the generous abandonment of her prerogative by the late emprefs, who intended that the benefit fhould ex- tend over the whole, is only advantageous to certain privi- leged perfons, who enrich themfelves at the common ex- pence. Befides the a€tual inhabitants of Aftrachan, who are eniployed in the fifhery, every fpring about 10,000 fifhing-canoes come thither, having in each at leaft two people, fo that the number of ftrangers who follow this trade at Aftrachan far exceeds 20,000. Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. iil. VOLGAIC Cossacks. See Cossacks. VOLGANSK, atown of Ruffia, in the government of Charkoy, on the Donetz ; 40 miles N.E. of Charkov. VOLGIVOD, a river of Ruffia, which rifes near Bachmut, in the government of Ekaterinoflavy, and runs into the Dnieper, 12 miles above Ekaterinoflav. VOLHYNIA, a palatinate of Ruffian Poland, bounded on the north by the palatinate of Brzefc, on the eaft by Kiev, on the fouth by the palatinate of Kaminiec, and on the weft by the palatinates of Chelm and Belcz ; about 180 miles in length, and from 80 to 120 in breadth. This country is fo fertile, as to fupply the inhabitants with a large furplus of grain ; rofemary, afparagus, &c. grow wild in the woods, and can {carcely be diltinguifhed from thofe cul- tivated in the gardens. WVolhynia was annexed to Poland in a diet held at Lublin in 1659. The artars, befides a great booty, carried off 30,000 perfons out of this country, to be fold as flaves, in the year 1618. It is now added to Roffia. VOLI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa, in Mau- ritania Tingitana. Ptol. VOLIBA, a town of Great Britain, afligned by Pto- lemy to the Danmonii, or Dunmonii. It is placed by Cam- den and Baxter at Grampound ; but Horfley thinks it was fituated at Leftwithiel. VOLISSO, in Geography, a fea-port town on the weit coait of the ifland of Scio, faid to take its name from Beli- farius, called there ‘¢ Velifarius,’’? who built the caftle. It is fituated at the fide of a hill, about two miles from the fea. It has a large bay, but no harbour. N. lat. 38° 27/. E. long. 25° 56!. VOLITION, the aé& of willing. See Wiz. VOLITIVE Turyxine.. See Turxine. VOLKAMERIA, in Botany, was dedicated by Lin- neus to the memory of Dr. John George Volckamer, a diftinguifhed phyfician, and profeffor of medicine, at Nu- remberg, who was bora May 7th, 1662, and died June 8th, 1744. He publifhed, in 1700, a very rich defcriptive cata- 6 VOL logue, in quarto, with many good plates, of the native as well as cultivated plants known in that neighbourhood, with the title of Flora Noribergenfis. He was the botanical correfpondent of Tournefort, Boerhaave, Sherard, Trium- fetti, Commelin, aud other eminent men of his time, and has been recently commemorated by his countrymen the Panzers, in an academical diflertation, printed at Nurem- berg in 1802.—Linn. Gen. 325. Schreb. 425. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 383. Mart. Mill. Dig. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 62. Jufl. 107. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 544. Gertn. t. 56. (Duglaflia; Reliq. Houtt. t. 13.)—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Vitices, Jufl. Gen. Verbenacea, Juil. in Ann. du Muf. vy. 7. 63. Brown Prodr. 510. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate, with five, nearly equal, acute fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringent. ‘Tube cylindrical, twice the length of the calyx. Limb flat, in five deep, nearly equal, reflexed fegments, all nearly turned one way, and moft widely feparated at the upper fide. Sram. Filaments four, thread-fhaped, very long, at the gaping fide of the corolla; anthers fimple. Pifl. Germen fuperior, quadrangular ; ftyle thread-fhaped, nearly the length of the ftamens; ftigma cloven, one feg- ment acute, more confpicuous than the other. Peric. Berry roundifh, of two cells. Seeds. Nuts folitary, furrowed, each of two cells, with two kernels. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla with a cylindrical tube, and deeply five-cleft limb, rather turned to one fide. Stamens prominent, afcending. Berry with two bilocular feeds. Obf. This genus ought probably, as Mr. Brown ob- ferves, to be funk in CLERopENPRUM, (fee that article, ) to which he has in Ait. Hort. Kew, removed all our garden {pecies, except one, not without a juft expreffion of doubt re{pecting that alfo. The only pretended diftinétions are, ift, the ferments of the corolla being turned one way, not equally {preading ; and, 2d, the Berry having two feeds, each with two cells, inftead of four feeds, each of one cell. The fpecies we are about to defcribe, however, having this charaGter in the fruit at leaft, and being the original Volka- meria, may as well be retained as fuch. Several of the others, popularly placed along with it, we have long ago found to have the characters of Clerodendrum altogether. 1. V.aculeata. Prickly Volkameria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 889. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n.3. Jacq. Amer. 185. t. 227, (Clerodendrum n. 1; Browne Jam. 262. t. 30, not t. 20. f. 2. Liguftrum aculeatum, fruétu tefticulato; Plum. Ic; 156. t. 164. f. 2, not f. 1.)—Native of the Weft Indies. Browne {peaks of it as one of the moft common plants in the low lands of Jamaica, in a dry gravelly foil. Miller culti- vated this fhrub before the year 1739. Mr. Aiton fays it flowers in the ftove from Auguft to OGober. The bufhy flem is five or fix feet high, with round rather warty branches; the ultimate ones often whorled; and all befet with fhort fharp prickles, originating in the permanent bafes of laft year’s footftalks. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, lanceo- late, bluntifh, entire, an inch and a half or two inches long, nearly fmooth ; paler and minutely dotted beneath. Stalés axillary, three-flowered, a little downy. Corolla cream- coloured, with purple flamens. Willdenow has three errors of the prefs among the fynonyms of this {pecies, all copied from Linnzus, in the references to three common books, which he ought furely to have examined. Some fpecies referred to Clerodendrum, particularly V7. inermis of Linneus ; as alfo ”. liguffrina of Willdenow ; fo nearly agree in habit with the above plant, that we cannot but miftruft any generic diftin€tion which feparates them. VoLka- VOL VoikamertiA, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the ex- otic tree kind, among which the fpecies cultivated are, the prickly volkameria (V. aculeata); and the ovate-leaved {mooth volkameria (V. inermis). The firft is a rather tall fpiny fhrubby plant. And the fecond fort has much the fame appearance, but ‘more white, and without fpines. Method of Culture —Thefe plants are increafed by cut- tings, which fhould be planted in pots filled with light good mould in the fummer feafon, plunging them in a moderate hot-bed, covering them clofe with hand-glaffes. When they are well rooted, they fhould be removed into feparate {mall pots, replunging them in the hot-bed till they are frefh rooted; then gradually inure them to the open air in warm weather, continuing them in warm fheltered jituations in the open air till the approach of frofts, when they mutt be taken into the houfe, where there is a moderate heat. They will not fucceed in a common green-houfe. They afford ornament among other more, hardy ftove- lants in pots. VOLKENMARCK, or Volkel Markt, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the north fide of the Drave; 12 miles E. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46° 41’. E. long. 12° 20!. VOLKERODE, a town of Germany, in the princi- pality of Gotha; 20 miles N. of Gotha. VOLKMARSEN, or VotmarsHEIM, a town of the duchy of Weitphalia; 18 milesS.E of Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 23'. E. long. 9° 8!. VOLL, a town of Norway, in the province of Agger- huus, on the Glomme; so miles N.E. of Chriftiania. VOLLENAY, a town of France, in the department of the Céte d’Or; 3 miles S.W. of Beaune. VOLLENHOVEN, a town of Holland, and capital of a diftri&, in the department of Overiflel, fituated near the Zuyder See. It is not large, but carries on a con- fiderable trade. N. lat. 52°44'. E. long. 5° 41!. VOLLEY, a military falute, made by difcharging a reat number of fire-arms at the fame time. VOLLORE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Déme; 5 miles S.S.E. of Thiers. VOLMAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Riga; 56 miles N.N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 57° 36’. E. long. 25° 14!. VOLME, a river which rifes about eight miles fouth of Lunfchede, in the county of Mark, and joins the Roer, 4 miles S.W. of Schwiert. VOLMER, a town of the principality of Culmbach; 3 miles S.E. of Berneck, VOLMESTEIN, a town of Germany, in the county of Mark; 8 miles S.W. of Schwiert. VOLMUNSTER, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mofelle; 9 miles E. of Sarguemine. VOLO, a fea-port town of European Turkey, in Thef- faly, fituated in a gulf, to which it gives name; 38 miles N.W. of Larifla. N. lat. 39° 28. E. long. 23° 12!. Voxro, in Antiquity, a name which the Romans gave the flaves who, in the fecond Punic war, offered themfelves to ferye in the army, upon a want of a fufficient number of citizens. The name volo, volones, they are faid to have had from their offering themfelves voluntarily. Feftus fays, it was after the battle of Cannz that this happened. Macrobius, Sat. lib. i. cap. 2. places it before that battle. Capitolinus tells us, that Marcus Aurelius formed troops, or legions, of flaves, which he called woluntarii ; and that the like forces, in the fecond Punic war, had been called VOL volones. But before M. Aurelius, Auguftus had given the name voluntarii to forces which he had raifed out of liberti, or freedmen ; as we are affured by Macrobius, Sat. lib. i. cap. 2. : The wvolones were afterwards called evocati. VOLOGDA, in Geography, a city of Ruffia, and capital of a government, on the river Suchona, near lake Ku- benfkoe, the. fee of an archbifhop. This city contains about 1700 houfes, and a great many churches. The prin- cipal trade is in hemp, matting, Ruffia leather, and tallow ; 320 miles S. of Archangel. N. lat. 59° ro’. E. long. 40° r4!, VOLOGESIA, a town of the Arabian Irak, and pachalic of Bagdat, built by Vologufa, one of the Parthian kings, contemporary with Nero and Vefpafian, and men- tioned by the ancient geographers as an inconfiderable place ; but fince the death of Hoffein, the fon of Ali, by Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, who was flain near it, and is here interred, it has increafed in magnitude, and become more famous from the numerous bodies of pilgrims of the feét of Ali, who continually flock to it from all quarters, but in particular from Perfia, to pay their devo- tions at the fhrine. It is now large and populous, and ealled “* Kerbela,’”? or “ Mefhed-Hoffein,”? fituated 7 fur- fungs N.W. of Hilleh, the fcite of ancient Babylon, at the extremity of a very noble canal drawn from the Eu- phrates. The environs of the town and borders of the canal are fhaded by extenfive plantations of palm-trees ; and the walks, which are upwards of two miles in circumference, have lately been repaired, to fecure the riches of the holy city againit the predatory incurfions of the Wahabees, by whom it was plundered fome years ago. Kerbela has five gates, a well-fupplied bazaar, and feven khans or caravanferas ; but the chief, and, indeed, only ornaments of the city are the tomb of Hoffein, which is adorned with a lofty cupola, gilded by Nadir Shah, and a noble mofque, confecrated to the memory of Abbas, the half-brother of the Imam. Al- though Mefhed-Hoffein is fubje&t to the Turks, the in- habitants are for the moft part Perfians. The canal of Kerbela, or Nahr Sares, though it now bears the name of Hoffeini, is more ancient than the days of Alexander, and is f{uppofed at one time to have been conneéted with Bahr Wijiff. The modern town of Hilleh ftands on the banks of the Euphrates, in N. lat. 32° 25', and about 54 miles from Bagdat ; covering a very {mall portion of the {pace occupied by the ancient capital of Affyria. See BABYLON. Kinneir’s Geog. Mem. of the Perfian Empire. VOLOGINA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutik ; 40 miles S.W. of Kirenfk. VOLOGODSKOI, a government of Ruffia, which in- cludes the province of Uitrug ; bounded on the north by the government of Archangel, on the eait by the govern- ment of Tobolik, on the fouth by the governments of Per, Viatka, Koftroma, and Jaroflavl or Yaroflaf, and on the wett by the governments of Olonetz and Novgorod ; rather more than 600 mles in length, and about 240 in breadth, N. lat. 58° 30!sto 65° 20'. E. long. 39° to 59°. VOLOGZANOVA, a town of Ruflia, inethe govern- ment of Irkutfk ; 18 miles N. of Ilimfk. VOLONE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Samnium. VoLone, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Alps; 6 miles S.S.E. of Siftéron. VOLOUSKA, a town of Iftria; 15 miles N. of Lau- rana. VOLPI, GranAnTonio, in Biography, an elegant Latin poet, was defcended from a noble family, and born at Como in 1514. Having ftudied jurifprudence in the univerfity of 3N 2 Pavia, VOL Pavia, and purfued it with reputation at his native place ; with a view to preferment, he vifited Rome; but difap- pointed in his expeétations, he returned to Como, and fuc- ceeded Bernardine della Croce, bifhop of the church in» 1559, the offices of which ftation he afliduoufly difcharged for 30 years, until his death in 1588. His poems were colleéted, and publifhed at Padua in 1725. ‘They have been much praifed for their elegance, and in the fatires he is faid to have happily imitated the ftyle of Horace. Gen. Biog. VOLPIANO, in Geography, atown of France, in the department of the Po; 9 miles N.N.E. of Turin. VOLSAS Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a bay men- tioned by Ptolemy, iituated on the northern fide of Great Britain: it is Loch-bay, in Rofsfhire. VOLSBACH, in Geography, a town of the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 3 miles N.E. of Weifchenfeld. VOLSCI, or Voucr, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in Latium. They were defcended from the ancient Ofci: they had among them Coriolanus in the year 264 ; and in the year 310 they fubmitted to the Romans. Their territory lay from the fea of Antium as far as the fource of the Liris, and beyond it. The extent of their country in- duced Mela to diftinguifh it from Latium, from which it was actually feparated. VOLSINENSIS or Vutstnensis Lacus, a lake of Italy, in Etruria, according to Pliny: He fpeaks vaguely and unphilofophically of two floating iflands, the form of which was occafionally changed by the winds into triangular and round. Upon it, however, was one ifland, called the ifle of S. Giacomo, to which the princefs Amalafouth, queen of the Goths, was exiled by Theodotus, who in a few days caufed her to be itrangled, A.D. 534. VOLSK, in Geography, a town of Rulffia, in the govern- ment of Saratov, on the Volga; 76 miles N.E. of Saratov. N. lat. 52° 15'. E. long. 47° 44!. VOLTA, atown of Afiatic Turkey, on the fouth coaft of Natolia. N. lat. 36° 46!. E. long. 27° 16!.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio; ro miles N. of Mantua. Vora, or Rio Volta, a river of Africa, which feparates the Gold Coaft from the Slave Coaft, and runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 5° 50’. W. long. 45’. q Vorra, inthe Stalian’ Mufic, thews that the part is to be repeated one, two, or more times, according to the numeral adjeGtive joined with it: thus, /7 replica una volta, intimates to play that part once over again. ; Vora is alfo a fort of dance of Italian origin, in which the man turns the woman feveral times, and then affifts her to make a leap or jump. It is a {pecies of galliard. VOLTAGGIO, or Orracio, in Geography, a town of the Ligurian republic ; 15 miles N. of Genoa. VOLTAIRE, Manig Francois Arourt pz, in Bio- graphy, was born at Chatenay, near Paris, in the year 1694, and in his earlielt youth indicated a partial fondnefs for verfe, which was cherifhed by the recital of La Fontaine’s fables. He was alfo conftrained to commit to memory a poem, entitled ** La Moifade,’’ and thus he is faid to have imbibed a prepoffeffion againft the Mofaic hiftory. In pur- fuing his literary education at the Jefuits’ college of Lonis- le-Grand, he had for his preceptor father Porée; and at the age of 12, diftinguifhed himfelf by compofitions: above his years. The celebrated Ninon del’ Enclos, to whom he was prefented, left him a legacy of 2000 livres, which he def- tined for a juvenile library. Diffatisfied with law, for the profeffion of which his father defigned him, he devoted his whole attention to poetry, which was rendered invincible by a fociety of wits and Epicureans, into which he was ad- mitted. His father made an attempt to divert him from his 9 VOL favourite purfuit, by fending him as a page in the fuite of the marquis de Chateauneuf, ambaflador from France to Holland ; but falling in love with the daughter of Mad. du Noyer, a refugee, he was fent back to Paris, and excluded from his father’s houfe. In this pitiable fituation he was taken under the proteétion of M. de Caumartin, his father’s friend; and at his country-houfe he had the advantage of converfing with the elder Caumartin, who infpired him with his own enthufiaftic admiration of Henry IV.*and Sully. He ftill indulged his difpofition for writing lampoons ;_ and for one of thefe, aimed at the government, he was impri- foned for a year in the Baftille. Ac this time he had com- pofed his tragedy of ** Gidipe,’’ which was brought on the ittage in 1718, and much applauded. The regent was alfo highly pleafed with it, and granted him permiflion to return to Paris, after his releafe from the Battille. His father, much interefted in his favour by attending at one of the re- prefentations of his tragedy, was reconciled to him, and gave up all thoughts of making him a lawyer. At Bruffels, which he vifited in 1722, he became acquainted with the poet Rouffeau; but in confequence of this interview, they became enemies for life. On his return, his ** Mariamne’’ was exhibited, and did not fucceed. In 1726 he was again lodged in the Baftille, in confequence of a quarrel with the chevalier de Rohan; and obtained liberation, after a con- finement of fix months, upon condition of leaving the king- dom. England was the country of his choice, and he brought. with him his poem of the ‘* Henriade.”? It was printed in London by fubfeription, patronized by king George I. and Caroline princefs of Wales, and yielded a profit which laid the foundation of his fortune. His man- ners, however, did not {uit thofe of England, and his con- verfation was unfufferably licentious. Having obtained permiflion to return to France in 1728, he put his money into a lottery, and engaged in other lucrative {peculations, and thus amafled a large capital, which he augmented by his economy. His tragedy of ‘ Brutus,’ brought on the ftage in 1730, was not very popular; and as his dramatic reputation was ambiguous, he was advifed by Fontenelle and La Motte to abandon this fpecies of compofition, alleging that it was not adapted to his genius. His reply was the produétion of his ‘¢ Zaire,’”? which was regarded as the moft affe€ting piece on the French ftage, after the *¢ Phedre”’ of Racine. On account of his * Lettres Philo- fophiques,”’ he was confidered as an avowed enemy to re- velation and ecclefiaftical authority ; and the parliament of Paris iffued a decree, which ordered his work to be com- mitted to the flames, and his perfon to be arrefted. Upon this he quitted the capital, and retired to Cyrei, near Vafii, in Champagne, the feat of the marquis du Chatelet, where they employed themfelves in making experiments, and where Voltaire wrote his “ Elements of-the Newtontan Philofophy.”? He alfo continued to write tragedies, fo that his ‘ Alzire’’ appeared in 1736, and his ‘* Mahomet’? in 17413 but the latter, charged with being an attack upon religion, was withdrawn from the ftage. His ** Merope,”’ exhibited’ in 1743, was received with the greateit applaufe. Before this time he had made his peace at court by a po- litical fervice, which it is not neceflary for us to relate; and he farther ingratiated himfelf with the royal family by his piece for the feftivities on the marriage of the Dauphin, en- titled ‘* La Princeffe de Navarre.’? Received at court, he became gentleman of the chamber in ordinary, and hiftorio- grapher of France; and, under the latter character, drew u his hiftory of the war of 174.1, which then fubfifted. He alfo engaged in other courtly oflices, and wrote the manifelto of the French court in favour of the Pretender, on his expedi- tion to Scotland. In 1746 he was admitted into the French VOLTAIRE. French academy. In confequence of urgent invitations on the part of the king of Pruffia, and aflurance of a penfion of 22,000 livres, with other benefits, he arrived at Potfdam in June, 1750; and was received by the king with the moft flattering tokens of refpeét. Here it was his practice to yend two hours in the day with his majefty, during which he employed himfelf in corre@ting his works; and the reft ofhis time was at his own difpofal. His tranquillity, how- eve, was foon interrupted, on occafion of a difpute between Maipertuis and Koenig ; for though the king defired him not 0 interfere, he took part againft Maupertuis, and Fre- dericfent him his difmiffion. During his abfence on a vifit to the duchefs of Saxe-Gotha, Maupertuis, as he fays, ufed lis influence to lower him in the king’s eftimation ; and, therefore, inftead of returning to Berlin, he proceeded towards France; but at Frankfort he was arrefted by the King’s o:der, and obliged to reftore his poems, with which he had been intrufted for correGtion, together with his key, crofs, and the brevet for his penfion. _ It was now his with to refide et Paris; but he could not obtain permiflion for this purpofe, as he had publifhed a very indecent and licen- tious:poem, “ La Pucelle d’Orleans,”? which had raifed “a violent outery againft him; and, therefore, after a year’s itay at Colmar, he purchafed a country-houfe near Geneva ; and having gratified his petulant difpofition by interfering in the political difputes of this place, he thought proper to remove, and bought an eftate at Ferney, in the Pays de Gex. Here he lived, as one of his biographers has faid, “like a petty prince in his own territory ;”?—‘ improving his own village by encouraging colonifts, and introducing manufactures, which through his influence obtained a fale in many countries of the continent.’’—‘* A declared enemy to tyranny and oppreffion of every kind, he undertook the pro- tection of feveral fufferers from injultice, among whom were the family of Calas, a noted viGtim of religious bigotry. He made.the enormity of thefe abufes of power known through- out Europe, and fet himfelf up as a kind of general cenfor, to whofe tribunal the higheft ranks were amenable.” All his.motives his biographer does not attempt to juftify. He likewife poured forth from this retreat a variety of works, which were fought after and generally read, direGting ‘the fentiments and influencing the conduét of many who perufed them, whether always to their own honour and advantage we leave others who are acquainted with them to determine. In general, his extended {way over the opinions of the civilized part of mankind, {ays the biographer of whofe obfervations we avail ourfelves in the compilation of this article, ‘* was dire@ted to the fubverfion of both civil and.ecclefiaftical tyranny ; but his attacks on the latter in- cluded hoftilities againft religion in general, at leaft of the revealed clafs: and, whilft he admitted natural religion, he deitroyed its moral efficacy.’? In his retreat he was vifited by the moft diftinguifhed perfons who came near his abode, and he correfponded with fome of the chief fovereigns of Europe. Neverthelefs he was not happy. Impatient and reftlefs in his difpofition, and irritable in his temper, he was felf-tormented. In advanced life he wifhed again to emerge from obfcurity ; and in February, 1778, he vifited Paris, where he had many admirers, and where he was regarded alfo with averfion and alarm. Here his vanity and love of admiration and praife muft be fully gratified, by the manner in which he was received at the theatre, after the exhibition of his ** Irene,’? which he had brought with him. As foon as he was feated in his box, after having received repeated plaudits in his way to it, an ator placed a crown on his head. When the play was concluded, the drawing up of the curtain difplayed all the a¢tors and aétrefles’ furrounding a buft of Voltaire, and by turns covering it with garlands of laurel ; and Mad. Veftris, advancing to the front of the itage, pronounced fome verfes to his praife, compofed on the {pot by a nobleman, amid the fhouts of the audience. This reception produced effeéts on his feeble frame, which probably haftened its diffolution. Of this Voltaire himfelf feems to have been apprifed, when he faid in a tone of deep melancholy, “ I am come to Paris to find glory and a tomb.”? Unable to fleep, it is thought that he accelerated his death by taking too large a dofe of opium. When he was thought to be near his laft moments, the marquis de Villette, with whom he refided, fent for the re@tor of St. Sulpice to adminifter the laft offices which are thought ef~ fential to the fafety of a Catholic Chriftian. What pafled between Voltaire and the reétor on this occafion has been differently {tated ; but it is certain that he died, without the laft facraments, on the 30th of May, 1778, in the 85th year of his age. It is faid that the archbifhop of Paris ab- folutely refufed to allow him Chriftian burial, and that his body was fecretly conveyed for interment to Sellieres, an abbey of Bernardines, between Nogent and Troyes. ° It was thence brought, by a decree of the national aflembly in 1791, to be repofited in St. Genevieve’s at Paris. “The phyfiognomy of Voltaire,” fays his biographer, “* was isdicative of his difpofition. It is faid to have par- taken of the eagle and the monkey; and to the fire and rapidity of the former animal, he united the mifchievous and malicious propenfities of the latter. With {trong percep- tions of moral excellence and elevation, he was little and mean in conduét, a vidtim to petty paffions and caprices; never at reft either in mind or body, never tranquil or fedate. If he was a philofopher, it was in his opinions, not in his a€tions. He had been accuftomed from his youth to pay as much homage to rank and wealth as his vanity would permit ; his taftes of life were vitiated, and his manners cor- rupted: he could not, therefore, be a confiltent friend to virtue and liberty, though he might occafionally be capti- vated with their charms, and even zealous in their {upport. He was habitually avaricious, though he performed fome generous acts, which, however, he took care to make known. He was too felfifh to infpire love, and too capri- cious to merit efteem. He had numerous admirers, but probably not one friend.’’ ‘As a poetical writer, he was diftinguifhed by his “ Hen- riade,”? which was confidered as the principal epic poem in the French language, and by his tragedies, which are faid to have more variety of ftyle and fubje& than thofe of Cor- neille and Racine; but in comedy and lyric compofition he was not equally fuccefsful. The morality of his moral epiltles, which are excellent in their manner, is liable to many objections. As a profe writer, Voltaire has been commended for that kind of middle ftyle, which is pure, unaffected, lively, precife, and always in good tafte. In the department of hiltory, his principal works are the “ Effai fur Hiftoire generale,” and the ‘ Siécles de Louis XIV. et de Louis: XV.” His ‘ Hiftoire de Charles XII.” is a model of royal biography. Of his witty writings, which are very numerous, we may obferve in general, that they are’ not only depreciated in real value, but rendered per- nicious in their tendency and effet, by his frequently re- curring attacks and farcafms, levelled againft revealed religion : nor fhall we be thought deficient in candour if we add, that, whatever inftruction or amufement his produc- tions of the latter clafs afford, they have done greater injury, in a moral and religious view of them, particularly among perfons of little reflection, than thofe of any other author. All the works of Voltaire amount to +30 vols. 4to. of the Genevan edition, and 71 vols. 8vo. in the more complete edition of Bafil. Gen, Biog. by Aikin. ‘The v.04 The univerfality of Voltaire’s genius extended to mufic, though no mufician. And in fpite of his partiality to his own country, he did the writings of Metaftafio, and the Italian opera, more juftice than any of his countrymen. And though he gained lefs applaufe by his lyric poetry than his other poetical compofition, he produced feveral pieces for mufic, and frequently made admirable refleétions on the lyric theatre. Voltaire has never planted his farcaftic artillery againft Italian mufic or finging. And though neither a connoifleur nor paffionately fond of mufic, he feems inftinétively to have felt a fuperiority in the mufic of Italy to that of France ; and has been always juft to the writings of Metaf- tafio. For though a defender of Quinault again{t the in- juftice of Boileau, he has never fet him up as a writer for mufic fuperior to the imperial laureat. The truth is, that Voltaire, with all the black fpots in his character, had a natural good tafte when his judgment was not warped by envy, or his paffions inflamed by the attacks of his enemies. He early faw and celebrated the fcience of Newton and genius of Shak{fpeare. And it was not till the latter had been more noticed, and the tranflation of his worls more patronized than his own, that, in felf-defence, he abufed them. VOLTAISM. That branch of eleérical fcience which has its fource in the chemical a¢tion between metals and dif- ferent liquids, and in the proofs which eftablifh its identity with common ele¢tricity, the world owe principally to dif- coveries made by fignor Volta. Its remarkable influence upon animals, which firft brought it into notice, was firft obferved by Galvani. Hence it was firft called Galvam{m and afterwards Voltaifm. We fhould have treated this fub- je& wholly under Gatvanism, which was then more than half completed, but the latter was not finifhed in time to be then publifhed. Hence the prefent article muft rather be confidered as a continuation of Galvanifm, than a diftiné& treatife. Galvanifm concludes with a lift of the different galvanic combinations, which will be terminated in this article, and the reft will be treated in fucceffion. We have alfo given fome account of all fuch faéts as have tranfpired fince the time of the publication of the firft part. Taste fhewing the relative quantity of bubbles upon the negative wire, by immerfing a compound arc, of zinc and platina, into different faline folutions at a boiling heat, and at the common temperature. Effect. <1 Hot. Cold. Solution. Remarks. ot. Muriate of ammonia 633 Muriate of foda' - . 2 1 Super-tartrate of potafh 4 o In this and other cafes, where the cypher is placed, it does not mean that no effet was pro- duced, but that no bub- bles could be feen, In this experiment two combined arcs were ufed which juft produced a fenfible effea. Nitrate of potafh = - wis ° Phofphate of foda Alum - - Sulphate of potafh - Sulphate of foda - Sulphate of magnefia - 000 O©OooNn In the three laft two com- bined arcs were tried, butno bubbles appeared. VOL The two preceding tables will give fome idea of the rela- tive power of different combinations of metals, and of the comparative action of different fluids, The moft powerful of the metallic combinations will br feen to be zinc with platina, gold, and filver ; bus zine witi copper is fo little inferior, that in point of economy it val always be preferred. Zinc with iron is, however, fo near to zinc with coper, that iron might be ufed to great advantage where cheamefs is defirable. Zinc and copper are, in the prefent ftate of Galvnifm, generally employed for the contftruétion of galvant bat- teries. In the trough invented by Cruickfhank, the zne and copper plates were foldered together in pairs, fo aso form fo many compound plates. Thefe plates are cemented intoa wooden box, which is lined with the fame cement, zt fuch a diftance from each other, as to divide the trough info diftiné cells about half wide. The order of the plates fhould be fuch that all the zinc plates face one way, and the copper ones the contrary. A great improvement has been made upon the trough of Cruickfhank, by forming the cells in the trough with plates of glafs. The plates of metal are foldered together by their edges, and bent at the joining, till the oppofite fides become parallel, and feparate from each other about half an inch. Each of thefe compound arcs is fo placed in the trough with glafs plates, that the zinc plate of each arc may be on one fide of the glafs, and the copper on the other, and in fuch order, that the zinc plate of one arc, and the copper of another, may be in each of the cells. A fecond improvement has been made upon this trough. Initead of a wooden trough, divided into cells with glafs plates, the whole trough is made of earthenware, each trough confiit- ing of ten cells. All the plates are fitted to a piece of wood of the length of the trough, fo that they can be taken out or put into the trough all together. When they are taken out, the fluid is fuffered to remain in the trough, and the plates are fufpended over it upon a gibbet attached to the frame in which the earthen trough is placed. An immenfe battery upon this conftruétion, confiftng of 2000 pairs of four-inch plates, has been lately made for the Royal Inftitution. The experiments made upon it were in- conceivably brilliant. The {park was fo intenfe as to ftrike through a {pace of fome lines of air, and of fuch dazzling fplendour as to refemble the fun. Many fubftances were fufed by the heat it produced, which had not been fufed before, among which were the metal called fredium, and the earths zircon and alumine. Charcoal was made to evapo rate, and plumbago to fufe in vacuo. A large eleétrical battery was charged by inftant contact. Since the trial of this battery, one of immenfe furface has been conftru&ted by J.G.Children, efq. It confifted of twenty pairs of plates of copper and zinc, each plate being fix feet fquare, the whole exhibiting a zinc and copper furface equal to 720 fquare feet. Each of the pairs of plates was united at the top by {trips of lead bent into an arch, and fo as to allow the plates to be exaly parallel to each other. The cells were diftin@ and made of wood; each pair of plates entered two cells, having the wooden divifion between them. The plates were all fufpended from a beam above, and counterpoifed to admit of their being eafily let down into the liquid in the cells. The liquid con- fifted of water with one-fixtieth of a mixture of the ful- phuric and nitric acids, which was afterwards gradually in- creafed to one-thirtieth. Leaden pipes were conyeyed from the ends of the battery to an adjoining fhade out of doors, where the experiments were made. This battery, as a fource of heat, furpafled any thing ever VOLTAISM. éver before heard of. It melted platinum with the greateft facility. Trifhum, which had not been before melted, was fufed into a globule. Charcoal was kept at a white heat in chlorine gas and phofgene gas, without any change being produced in the gas. It ignited fix feet of platina wire. It was obferved, that when the wire was lefs than a certain diameter, a lefs length was ignited.. A view of one of the before mentioned troughs is fhewn in fig. 1. Since this plan is likely to become general, from its great advantage both in economy and convenience, we fhall venture to fuggeft feveral improvements. For making all the variety of galvanic experiments, it has always been a defideratum to have a battery, the furface of which may be increafed in any proportion, to a certain limit, without affeGting the feries or number of combinations. This has not hitherto appeared pra¢ticable by any other means than that of ufing diftin@ batteries of different fizes. A battery on the plan above defcribed, having loofe plates, will admit of the advantage here alluded to, without any other increafe of expence than that of the additional plates which are meant to increafe the furface at pleafure. The cells in the earthen trough fhould be about an inch and a half from one dividing furface to the other, and ca- pable of receiving plates of four inches fquare. Each of the cells may occafionally contain four plates, two of zinc and two of copper. The form of the plates for this battery is reprefented in Jig. 2. Plate I. having a wire ftaple, ab, of the fame metal with the plate. The ftaples muft be made accurately of the fame fize for all the plates. A piece of wood, aJ, ( fig.3.) is made to pafs through all the ftaples of the plates. This bearer, or fufpender, is divided into as many tranfverfe grooves as there are plates, of a depth capable of receiving one-half of the diameter of the wire ftaple. In the fame bearer are alfo two longitudinal grooves, A A, BB, about one-tenth of an inch wide and a quarter of an inch deep. A number of fliding pieces of brafs, a a, are introduced into the latter grooves, equal to the number of combinations, one half of the pieces being in one groove, and the other half in the other. Thefe pieces of metal, after being placed in proper fituations, are filed down with the tranfverfe grooves, leaving the metal above the wood, where the {taple of a plate is intended to touch the metal, and filing the metal away lower than the wood, where the ftaple is not meant to be in contaét. After the plates are arranged upon the bearer, alternately copper and zinc, the pieces of fliding metal are made to communicate with them, that the zinc plates of one cell may communicate with the copper of the fucceeding cell, the zinc of the laft with the copper of the next, and fo on throughout the feries. The plates being all in their places and properly conneéted, a fecond piece of wood, cd, (fig. 4.) is laid upon the bearer, with correfpondent grooves to fit the ftaples. It is covered on the under fide with woollen cloth, fo that when it is ferewed to the bearer it ferves to keep the plates fecure, and at the fame time pre- ferves the conneéting parts from the fumes of the acid employed in the battery. A feétion of the bearer, ftaples, &c. are feen in fig. 4. The whole of the apparatus com- plete is reprefented in fig. 5, as drawn out of the cell. Fig. 6. is an end view of the apparatus. In this battery, the maximum of furface is when every cell contains two plates each of zinc and copper. When it is required to reduce the furface, nothing more is necef- fary than to take off the top part of the bearer, while the plates are refting in the trough, and then drawing out the lower part. If the two end plates of each cell, one of copper and the other of zinc, be taken away throughout the whole, the bearer may be again introduced to its ori- ae fituation. The battery will now confift of the fame eries and half the furface. If a mean quantity of furface be required, it is done by taking the end plates away from a part of the cells. It appears, from an experiment detailed in Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. xxvi. p. 72, that the copper furface may be increafed to advantage above that of the zinc, ‘The experi- ment is as follows: If an arc of copper and zinc be made to conneét two glafs cups containing dilute muriatic acid, the zinc part of the arc being in one cup and the copper in the other, and if the conneétion be made between the two cups, to compleat the circuit by an arc of copper wire, a quantity of bubbles will be evolved from the copper wire of the compound arc. If, however, inftead of the copper wire the conneétion be made with a conical flip of copper, a very different effect will be obferved, as the broad or pointed end of the flip may be next to the zinc wire. When the broad end is placed in the cup where the zinc wire is placed, a much greater quantity of bubbles appears upon the copper of the compound arc, than when the {mall end is placed next to the zinc. Hence it would appear, that the copper furface fhould be greater than that of the zinc. This may be very eafily effeéted, by dividing the copper furface into {mall grooves, the fides of which make an angle of 60°, the furface will by this means be doubled. This figure might be given to the copper furface by means of a pair of fluted rollers. It will be obvious, that if the grooves are not very {mall, the different parts of the copper furface will not be uniformly contiguous to the zinc furface, which is a matter of fome importance. Having defcribed the moft convenient and economical method of conftruting a battery, we fhall now confider the means of exerting the galvanic energy fo far as relates to the interpofing fluid. In the galvanic battery, there appear to be two fources from which the eleftricity is obtained. The one is that which arifes from the conta&t of the metals, and the other from the chemical ation between the interpofing fluid and the zinc furface. The firft does not require even the prefence of moifture, as is fhewn in the eleétric column of De Luc. The fecond is rendered greatly confpicuous by introducing between the oppofite furfaces any fubftance ca~ pable of oxydating and diflolving the zinc. , Acids, as appears from the preceding table, are the great+ eft promoters of the energy afforded by chemical aétion, be- caufe they diffolve the zinc after it has been oxydated by the oxygen of the water. This is more efpecially the cafe with the fulphuric and muriatic acids, becaufe thefe acids are not decompofed by the zinc. The nitric acid produces a flill greater galvanic effe&, becaufe the acid is decompofed, and oxydates the zinc with greater facility than water. The water is alfo decompofed when this acid is ufed. Zinc hy- drogen is always evolved. The aétion is always increafed when the conduéting power of the fluid is increafed. Hence it would be proper to ufe fome cheap faline folution with the acid, which will not be decompofed by the fame. The faline folutions, alone, are very inferior to any of the acids. But from what has been obferved, we may eafily point out fuch falts as are beft fitted for the purpofe. All the fuper-falts, from their excefs of acid, will anfwer this purpofe ; or fuch falts as are decompofed by zinc. All thofe falts which a& upon metals by forming triple falts, fuch as muriate of ammonia and muriate of foda, are found to act very well in the galvanic battery. : t VOLTAISM. It will be proper to obferve here, that the interpofed ‘fluid does not afford a quantity of eleétricity proportionate to the rapidity of the oxydation, or at leaft the quantity ot galvanic energy cannot be appreciated beyond a certain limit. If the quantity of the concentrated acid be much more than from 51, to ;!; the weight of the water, the power of the battery will not be found to increafe but from another caufe, which we fhall hereafter explain ; the power is much fooner exhaufted than when a {maller dofe is ufed. The zinc is oxydated fo flowly by faline bodies, that they may be ufed in faturated folutions. Potafh, in a cauttic ftate, ‘even when much.diluted with water, might be ufed to great advantage. At the fame time that it fcarcely appears to oxydate the zinc, when a fingle pair of wires of copper and zinc are ufed, the copper wire affords as much hydrogen during the contaét, as could be expected from the agency of an acid. It is, therefore, highly probable, that potafh or foda will be fubftituted for acids in galvanic experiments, as well for the fake of economy as from its being lefs offen- five to the operator. It poffeffes another advantage fall reater, in not deftroying the zinc plates like acid Pigious ‘ From what has been faid regAOR the interpofed fluid, it will be eafy to infer that the greateft part of the galvanic energy, which is electricity excited by chemical ation, de- pends upon the prefence of the water, and fome fub{tance which can diflolve the zinc, and at the fame time give a greater conducting power to the water. The effect is not, as fir Humphrey Davy has fuppofed, produced by the oppofite eleétrical ftates of the elements of the compounds conitituting the fluid medium, fince the hypothefis is contra- di&ted by experiment. If there wanted another experiment to decide, that the galvanic effe& is as the chemical effect, the following would {uffice. Take two wine-glaffes, con- taining dilute muriatic acid, and conneét them by an arc made of two wires, one of zinc and the other of platina, fol- dered or tied together, the zinc being in one glafs and the copper in the other. If the circuit be complicated between the glafles by an arc of platina wire, no appearance of bub- bles will be obferved upon the platina wire of the compound arc. _ If, however, a {mall quantity of nitric acid be poured into the glafs containing this wire, hydrogen gas will be immediately evolved from it, and at the fame time the other platina wire in the fame glafs will become oxydated. This effe& is rot caufed by the electrical agency of the nitric acid, which is decompofed ; becaufe when copper is ufed inftead of platina, with the pure muriatic acid, the fame effeét takes place. It appears, therefore, that the increafed effe&t would be attributed only to the oxydation of the wire of the homogeneous arc, in the glafs containing the negative wire of the compound arc. In every galvanic procefs, from a fingle combination to an unlimited feries, no effeét is obferved till the circuit is com- plete ; and during this, a current of ele&tricity is efta- blifhed from the zinc furface of one combination to the copper of the fucceeding. While it is pafling through a metal, whatever be its length, it obeys the laws of elec- tricity very ftrictly, but when it pafles through a humid con- duétor, it appears to poflefs rather anomalous properties. It is proper to obferve here, that conduétors of Galvanifm are of two kinds ; the one we fhall call dry conductors, and the other humid, ‘The firft clafs comprifes all the metals, well burnt charcoal, plumbage, and the fulphurets of metals. Water appears to be effential to the fecond kind, holding in folution acids, alkalies, or neutral falts. Simple water has its conduéting power increafed by the {malleft quantity of any acid, alkali, or falt. When the conducting wires of a gal- vanic battery are made to terminate in a veflel of pure water the water will be obferved to be decompofed, the oxygen being given out at the pofitive wire, or that coming from the zinc fide of the battery, and the hydrogen from the ne- gative or oppofite wire. If the fmalleft quantity of aw acid, a falt, or an alkali, be added to the water, the rapidity of the decompofition will be increafed very confpicuoufly. As it is of fome importance to know the relative con- du&ting power of water, and its different compounds, the following apparatus has been contrived for this purpofe, re- prefented in fig. 7. Let eg be a {mall cup of wood var- nifhed, or, what is much better, glafs ; and zc two wires of platina diftin@tly inferted in the bottom of the cup, fo as to be water tight. A glafs tube, of, filled with the fluid, is inverted in the cup to receive the gas which arifes from the wires x c, while the fluid defcends, and is contained in the cup. If the cup eg be made larger, and of an oval fhape, two glafs tubes may be inverted over each wire, and the gafes may be obtained feparately. fig. 8. ABCD, is a frame fupporting one of the cups. [he parts G and F are of glafs or varnifhed dry wood, cemented into the parts ABCD, whichare of brafs, fo that the two fides H and I of the frame are detached. ‘The apparatus, fig. 7. with four others fimilar, are to be placed in the frame, the wire z being inferted into one fide of the frame, and the other, c, refting upon the other fide. When the glafs tubes of each are filled with different fluids, the fide H is connected with one end of the battery, and that of I with the other. Since the galvanic current mutt neceflarily take the beft condu@or, the aétion will commence through that fluid having the greateft conduéting power. If a thin bit of baked wood or glafs be put under the refting part c, in that where the action commenced, the current will be transferred to the next inferior conduétor, and fo on to all the reft. By this means an accurate table, fhewing the relative condu€ting powers of fluids, may be eafily obtained. Since the quantity of gas is the teft of the conducting power, fome allowance mutt be made when the muriates are the fubjeét of experiment. Almoft all the oxygen gas dif- appears in converting the muriatic into oxymuriatic acid. In a fimilar way the hydrogen does not appear when certain metallic folutions are employed, fince it combines with the oxygen of the metallic oxyd, and the metal is re- duced. When the battery is in full power, and of great extent, the relative condu@ting power of the fluids may be exprefled by the time required for the afcending gas to dif- place the liquid in the glafs tube. In all thofe experiments where the elements of bodies are transferred to different fides, the transfer takes place through any of the moift con- duétors, but not through any of the dry ones. No transfer can therefore be made through folid bodies, except the body be permeable to moifture. Sir Humphrey Davy, in his ex- periments, made ufe of the fibrous afbeflus moiftened with water. Where the fluids are required to be ftri€tly fepa- rate, bladder anfwers very well as a feparating medium. Anirhal and vegetable fubftances, however, abound with fo many elements, that in nice experiments they would be objeGtionable. A veffel divided into a proper number of cells of earthenware, in the ftate of bifcuit, would be betft calculated for thefe experiments. This veflel fhould be made of pure filex and pure alumina. Should it ever be- come an object of manufaéture to feparate acids and alkalies from neutral falts, a veffel of wood, with a feparation in the middle, of unglazed earthenware, would anfwer very well. We fhall here mention fome curious facts conneéted with the interpofition of metals, in different condu€ting media, When the wires, coming from the two ends of a galvanic battery, VOLTAISM. battery, are brought into feparate veflels containing any fluid which is a conduétor. If a wire of platina, in the form of an arc, connect the two glaffes together, that end of the conneéting arc in the pofitive glafs will afford hy- drogen gas, while that in the negative glafs will furnifh oxygen gas ; or, if we take all the four ends of the wires in the circuit, the pofitive wire from the battery will give oxygen, and that oppofite to it, in the fame glafs, hydrogen. In the other glafs, the negative wire will afford hydrogen, and the oppofite wire oxygen, fo that the water appears to be decompofed in each glafs, fince oxygen and hydrogen are furnifhed feparately by each glafs. If a number of giaffes be arranged fimilarly, having conneéting arcs of pla- tina, and if the wires of the battery be introduced in the extreme glaffes, all the ends of the wires will alternately furnifh oxygen and hydrogen. No theory yet brought for- ward will {fatisfa&torily account for thefe phenomena. _ Sir Humphrey Davy would affert, that each of the wires from the battery induced an oppofite flate of eleGtricity in the wires oppofed to them; and that in confequence the one attra&ted oxygen and the other hydrogen. Another theo- rift might hold that the eleétricity, which enters the firft elafs from the pofitive fide, decompofes the water, and com- bining with the hydrogen, fets the oxygen free. ‘The elec- tricity and the hydrogen pafs through the fluid to the op- pofite wire, when the electricity deferts the hydrogen, and afling through the platina arc, decompofes the water in the Fecond glafs. The oxygen is again evolved, and the hy- drogen carried to the next wire, and fo on through the re- mainder of the glaffes. A very curious experiment of the above kind rather tends to confirm the latter, than the former hypothefis. We, however, give thefe faéts to the common ftock, for the ad- vantage of other labourers in this field of inquiry ; ftrongly convinced that every hypothefis yet advanced falls very fhort of explaining all the phenomena of Galvanifm. ¢ Let the wires of a galvanic battery be made to terminate in a flat-bottomed veflel, containing pure water, about an inch and a half from each other; and if now another wire, of an inch in length, be laid longitudinally between them, but not to touch them, each end of the intermediate wire, if of gold or platina, will afford gas. That end oppofite the negative wire will give oxygen, and the other end of the fame will furnifh hydrogen; and if any number of bits of wire be placed between the principal wires, at the fame time they do not touch each other, oxygen and hydrogen will be alternately furnifhed by the ends of the wires. When the principal wires are brought nearer together, and a platina wire placed tranfverfely between them, one fide of the in- termediate wire will furnifh oxygen, and the other hydro- gen. This fact is put in a more ftriking point of view, by placing a plate of platina in a veflel of water edgeways, and bringing the wires of the battery oppofite to each other, and perpendicular to the fides of the plate. If the battery em- ployed confift of 50 plates three inches {quare, a circular fpot will be obferved on each fide the plate, oppofite the wires. This appearance is caufed by the evolution of gas from thofe parts of the plate only. It is fingular, that in all the experiments where the con- ne€ting wire was immerfed in the water, if any fubftance, capable of increafing the conducting power of the water, be very gradually added to it, the gafes given out by the intermediate wire will diminifh, till they entirely ceafe to be produced. The wire which was tranf{verfely placed fooner ceafed to afford gas, than when it was in a longitudinal po- fition ; and the effe& fooner ceafed with the wire than with Vor. XX XVII. the plate ; and in different plates, the continuance was as the fize of the plate. If the plate, however, be cut fo as to divide the veffel into two portions, and the edges fo completely cemented to the fides of the veffel that no liquid communication exifts be- tween the two portions, each fide of the plate will furnifh as much gas as the wires, whatever may be the conducting power of the fluid. If the power, which induces the plate or immerfed wires to give out gas, depended upon the in- duction of the oppofite wires, why is it not as great before the fluid is divided as afterwards? and why is it the fame when pure water is ufed, whether the intermediate wire be immerfed in the water, or is made to conne& two portions of water together? Thefe are faéts which, in the prefent ftate of knowledge, do not admit of eafy folution. They, however, fhew us the neceffity of having the cells of our galvanic batteries perfeGly diftin& from each other. It appears pretty clear, that that which conduéts the oxygen or the hydrogen, or perhaps both, paffes with greater faci- lity through a good moift conduétor than through a metal. Decompofition of Bodies in general.—The decompofition of water and of metallic oxyds was known to Cruickfhank, the hiftory of whofe experiments we have already giyen ; and in a very early ftage of galvanic progrefs, it was obferved that the alkali was feparated from muriate of foda in the gal- vanic battery. In fubje¢ting muriate of foda to the galvanic power in a glafs tube, it has alfo been obferved that oxy- muriatic acid was produced. The fubjeét of the decom- pofition of falts, however, has been clearly made out, and eftablifhed on true principles, by fir Humphrey Davy, whofe experiments have been detailed under GALVANISM. The chemical agency of bodies, arifing from their relative eleétric ftates, is no doubt the caufe of the decompofitions of falts, and of all other bodies to a certain extent; although there are many decompofitions, particularly the metallic oxyds and water, which are to be attributed to fome other caufe much more aétive and expeditious. We fhall here venture to draw a line of diftin@tion between the decompofi- tion effeéted by the eleétrical intenfity arifing from the con- taét of the bodies, and that produced by the ele@tricity, and the hydrogen developed by the chemical agency of the oxydable metal, and the oxydating fluid. If we take a fingle combination, for inftance, a zinc wire connected with a sistinn wire, the eleGtrical intenfity arifin from contaé is fo exceeding fmall, that it could hardly be appreciated by the acid of the condenfer. If this com- bination be immerfed in water, no galvanic appearance takes place, however near the immerfed ends be brought to each other. If, however, we add to the water about one-tenth its weight of muriatic acid, an immenfe quantity of hy- drogen immediately appears upon the platina wire, and con- tinues to be evolved fo long as the conta is formed, till the acid is expended. The ele¢trical intenfity, however, is the fame with the water as with the dilute acid; yet the quantity of hydrogen upon the platina wire, when the acid was ufed, which can be attributed only to galvanifm of chemical ation, is much more than eould be obtained by the moft powerful electric machine. It can readily be ad- mitted, from experiments in which Dr. Wollafton decom- pofed water by the eleétric machine, and from the eleétric effe&ts of Deluc’s column, that fome water would be de- compofed by the fingle combination, independently of the chemical aétion ; but the difference is fo glaring as to pro- duce the ftrongeft conviGion, that the decompofition of water and the tranfmiffion of hydrogen are not dependent on the mere eleétric ftates of the wires. That the hydrogen is 30 tranf{mitted VOLTAISM. tranfmitted from the zine to platina, during the chemical aétion, many experiments feem to prove; and that the hy- drogen fo tranfmitted, by its chemical agency, and in its nafcent ftate, is capable of effeting many decompofitions, which, under other circumftances, would be impoffible. In the fingle combination above alluded to, if the dilute acid be feparated from a folution of acetate of lead, or fulphate ‘of copper, by a piece of bladder, the zinc being immerfed into the acid part, and the platina into the metallic folution, no hydrogen will be afforded by the platina, but the metal becomes reduced in proportion to the quantity of hydrogen which has difappeared: yet no perceptible quantity of this effe€t can be attributed to the electricity of contaét, but to the mere chemical agency of hydrogen in its nafcent ‘{tate. Hence we are inclined to think, that the decompofitions by the galvanic battery arife from two caufes. Water princi- pally owes its decompofition to the chemical aétion, and the agency of the electricity upon the hydrogen. Metallic oxyds are principally decompofed by the prefence of the nafcent hydrogen, fo colleéted and tran{mitted by the elec- tricity. The decompofition of faline bodies, however, is to be attributed alone to the eleétrical attra€tion produced by the conta&t of the bodies employed, which can be made fo great as to overcome the chemical attra¢tion of the bodies decompofed. Of the latter of thefe powers of decompofi- tion we have given fome account, in detailing the ingenious experiments of fir Humphrey Davy; of the two former means of decompofition we fhall fay fomething in a practical point of view. Many very anomalous fa¢ts were known in chemiftry long previous to the difcovery of Galvanifm. All thofe chemical phenomena, under which the appearance called ar- borefcence was obferved, were inexplicable, till it was fhewn from fome experiments, publifhed in Nicholfon’s Journal, ‘vol. xv. p. 94, that Galvanifm is the caufe of thefe fingular phenomena. In the experiment where lead is fo beautifully precipitated, by fufpending a piece of zinc in a folution of acetate of lead, the zinc firft reduces a {mall portion of lead, which, with the zinc, forms a galvanic combination. The lead, if no folution of lead were prefent, would now give out hydrogen gas; but the hydrogen, inftead of ap- pearing in that form, combines with the oxygen of the oxyd, ahd the metallic lead is formed at the fame point, Hence the lead appears to grow from the laft point formed, which gives the appearance of vegetation. ‘That this effect does not depend upon the prefence of zinc, may be proved by the following experiment. ‘Tie on one end of a glafs tube, about half an inch wide, a piece of bladder, fo that it may hold water, and fill it with a folution of acetate of lead. Into the other end infert a cork loofely, and through _ the cork let a platina wire pafs within about half an inch of the bladder. Into a wine-glafs put fome dilute muriatic acid, in which place a zinc wire. When the tube with the bladder is immerfed in the wine-glafs, if that part of the zinc wire without the glafs be brought into contaét with that part of the platina wire without the tube, beautiful crytftals of metallic lead will foon appear upon the platina wire. If ithe acetate of lead be removed, and a dilute acid be put in its place, bubbles of hydrogen will appear upon the platina wire, Another experiment, fimilar to that of the lead-tree, and equally anomalous, has been long known in chemittry. If a plate of glafs be fmeared over with a folution of nitrate of filver, and a brafs pin or a piece of zinc wire be laid in the middle of the plate, beautiful ramifications of filver will foon appear as if growing out of the pin, very much refembling vegetation. By obferving the procefs with a magnifymg lafs, each branch of this arborefcence may be feen to grow fon the end or fide of another ; which proves that the filver forming the vegetative appearance is not reduced by the oxydable metal laid on the plate, but by fomething at the fucceflive points of the filver branches. With a view to afcertain this faét, one half of the plate fhould be fmeared with nitrate of filver, and the other half with dilute muriatic acid. If a piece of zinc wire be tied to a piece of, platina wire, and the compound wire fo bent that the zinc may touch the dilute acid, and the platina the nitrate of filver, the ramifications of filver will foon appear upon the platina wire. That the filver is reduced by the hydrogen carried in the galvanic current, is probable from varying the ex- periment as follows: If, inftead of fmearing the plate with nitrate of filver, the whole be covered with dilute acid, and the fame compound arc be laid upon it, the platina will give out bubbles of hydrogen. In the common way of making this experiment with the pin, as well as the variation above itated, it appears that the procefs is kept up by the galvanic current, which furnifhes the hydrogen. The pin firft reduces a {mall portion of filver, which forms a gal- yvanic combination with the pin. The hydrogen which, but for the prefence of the remaining nitrate of filver, would appear in the gafeaus form, is employed in depriving the filver of its oxygen. With the compound arc, the zinc does not require to touch the nitrate of filver, becaufe the platina with zinc is already a galvanic combination. The theory of whitening common pins can be explained only on this principle. The tin, in a {mall proportion, is diffolved in the tartrate of potafh; pieces of metallic tin, with the pins, are alfo prefent. The two latter form the galvanic combination, and a portion of tin is reduced from the folu- tion upon the pins, to which they owe their whitenefs. We may generally conclude, that in all inftances where one metal becomes the precipitant of another, the precipitation is much facilitated by the agency of the galvanic combina- tion, formed between the precipitating and the precipitated metals, and the confequent prefence of hydrogen. If a piece of zinc be introduced into a folution of fulphate of copper, the zinc in the firft inftance becomes covered with copper, and the effect appears to ftop. If, however, a very {mall excefs of fulphuric acid be added, the procefs will go on with fuch rapidity, that the copper becomes precipitated in a very little time. By minutely obferving the procefs, the copper will be feen to be reduced upon that already produced, which is a proof that it is not done by the mere agency of the zinc. It appears very evident, that when a galvanic combina- tion of zinc with any lefler oxydable metal is placed in a dilute acid, that a much larger quantity of hydrogen will be evolved from the leffer oxydable wire, than could poffibly be produced by any eleétrical intenfity generated by, the contaét of the bodies employed ; but that independent of this, there is an immenfe quantity of eleGtricity generated during the chemical aGtion, by which the hydrogen is tranf- ported from the greater oxydable furface to the leffer one. If the quantity of hydrogen produced depended upon the attraGion of the wires for the elements of the water, this power would depend upon the eleétrical intenfity’alone, and of courfe upon the feries in the galyanic battery, whatever might be its furface ; but it is found that the power of Gal- vanifm to decompofe water is much increafed by an increafe of furface only. Galvani/m as a Source of Heat-—When the wires comin from the ends of a galvanic battery of confiderable furface are VOL are brought into conta, a brilliant fpark is produced, and the wires ftick together with confiderable force, as if they were welded, or united by fufion. If the parts in contaét be held with the fingers, a confiderable heat will be per- ceived, which will be greater as the battery is more power- ful, and inverfely as the thicknefs of the wires. Small wires feem to affect the ele&tric fluid in a manner fimilar to that in which light is affeted by a convex lens, or a concave mirror, by concentrating and compelling a large quantity of eleétricity to pafs through a {mall channel. This appears to be the cafe with common eletricity, as well as galvanifm, fince by difcharging the ele¢trical battery through very {mall wires, the metals become fufed and oxydated. On the galvanic battery this experiment fhould be made as follows: at each end of the battery fhould be placed a rod of metal, with a clean ball at the top of each. Between the two balls muft be ftretched a piece of very {mall wire, not, exceeding ;j}5th of an inch in diameter, while the circuit is interrupted in fome other part of the battery. As foon as the wire is fixed, the circuit muft be completed where it was broken, and the current will inftantly be determined through the {mall wire, which will in canfequence become ignited. It was difcovered by Dr. Wollafton, that, in the ignition of wire by the voltaic battery, there was one certain diame- ter of the wire, in which the length ignited was the greatett, above or below which the length was lefs. This does not arife from more heat being fent through the wire in which the greateft length was ignited, but from the ratio of the fur- face of the very {mall wire being fo much greater to its foli- dity than in thicker wire, by which a greater proportion of heat is carried off by radiation ; but when the diameter is beyond a certain extent, then a lefs length is ignited, from the heat being lefs concentrated. It has alfo been found, that very different lengths of wire are heated of different metals when their diameters are equal. This appears to take place from the relative conductive powers of the different metals for eleGtricity, which appears to be as their conduéting powers for heat. Platina, being the worlt conductor, has a greater length heated ; and {filver, which is known to be a good conduétor, has a lefs length heated. If the battery be very powerful, it will be fufed and oxy- dated. When a connection is formed between the two ends of the battery, by means of the very thin foils of metals, fuch as leaf-gold, the metals undergo brilliant combutftion, exhibiting different coloured flames. Charcoal and plum- bago, prefented by fharp angles, are fimilarly deflagrated. If the ends of the two wires coming from the battery be made to touch each fide of a {mall globule of mercury, the latter will inflame with a bright flafh. This heat, furnifhed in the’galvanic current, is alfo very apparent while it is paffing through moift conductors. Different fluids fubjeGted to de- compolition in the circuit, in glafs tubes, become confider- ably heated, and this will be found the cafe, as the diameter of the tube is lefs. Sir H. Davy attributes this heat to the decompofition, which muit ftrike any one as being an error. Heat we al- ways find to be evolved during combination ; the very re- verfe of which ought to take place during decompofition. Adiion of Galvanifm upon Animals. — All animal fub- ftances, either dead or living, if not deprived of their moif- ture, are tolerably humid conduétors of Galvanifm. In the living fubje&, independent of its conduéting power, it has the property of being affefted in a peculiar manner. All thofe animals which poflefs excitability are affeéted by Gal- VOL vanifm as they would be affected by any other violent fti- mulus ; and if the excitable part be at all mufcular, the fibres are vigoroufly contracted. This caufes, in a living and confcious animal, a fenfation not unlike an eleS&tric fhock. The fhock is more like that of common eleCtricity, as the plates of the battery are fmaller and more numerous. When the plates are of very large furface, a fort of vibra- tory motion is felt through the part attended with a fenfa- tion of heat ; and this, in a powerful battery, is felt fo long as the conne€tion is kept up. The beft mode of taking the fhock is firft to moiften the hands, or the part where the effe& is to be applied ; grafp in each hand a piece of metal, {uch as two {poons, and touch each end of the battery with the other ends of the fpoons at the fame time. If it is in- tended to be applied to any other part, let two plates, of about two inches in diameter, be each attached to the wires coming from the battery, and let the plates be applied to fome two parts: if the effeét be too fevere, let fome inferior con- ductor be placed between the plate and the {kin. Sir H. Davy found, that when an animal fubftance was placed in the circuit of a galvanic battery, the different com- pounds contained in it were decompofed. This was more efpecially the cafe with the faline bodies contained in the ani- mal fluids ; the acids of the falts were found on the pofitive fide of the battery, and the bafes of the falts on the negative. Should it be afcertained that any redundancy of faline mat- ter is the caufe of difeafe, Galvanifm might be employed with great fuccefs in feparating thofe bodies from the fyitem. Dr. Wollafton has given fome hints in Nicholfon’s Jour- nal, from which it appears probable that the power of the glands in fecreting different fluids is dependent upon the eleGtrical {tate of the glands ; by which they are induced to attraét all bodies in a contrary ftate to themfelves. The opi- nion of this ingenious gentleman has been ftrongly corrobo- rated by fome experiments made by Meflrs. Home and Brandt. Phil. Tranf. Thefe, however, are f{peculations on which we cannot at prefent place ftrict reliance. The fame conje&ture which is applied to fecretion may be applied to the oxygenation, or rather the decarbonization of the blood in the lungs ; fince the carbon appears to be transferred through the membranes between the pulmonary arteries and the interior of the lungs. The fame theory may be alfo applied to account for the change of the colour of the blood between the foetus and the mother. Maufcular excitability may perhaps arife from a certain eleétric {tate of the mufcular fibre caufed and kept up by the arterial blood ; and if we may be allowed to carry the conjecture ftill further, mufcular motion may perhaps be caufed by the relative eleGtric ftates of the mufcles, and the brain and nerves. VOLTANA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Ara- on; 5 miles N.W. of Ainfa. VOLTARE, Ital. in Mufic-books, to turn over ; whence volti, turn, volti fubito, turn quick, and often only the ini- tials of thefe words V.S. Si volti, at the end of a move- ment, denote, the leaf is to be turned over to another move- ment. And, in courtefy, it is fometimes faid, volti fe piace, turn over if you pleafe. VOLTE, in the Manege, fignifies a round or circular motion, confifting of a gait of two treads, made by a horfe going fideways round a centre; the two treads making parallel tracks, one by the fore-feet, larger, and the other by the hind-feet, fmaller; the fhoulder bearing outwards, and the croup approaching towards the centre. Vorte, Demi, is a half-round of one tread, or two, made by the horfe at one of the angles, or corners, of the volte, or at the end of the Kne of the paflade ; fo as when 302 he VOL he is near the end of this line, or near one of the corners of the volte, he changes hands, to return by a femicircle. Voite, Reverted, or Inverted, is a track of two treads, which the horfe makes with his head to the centre, and his croup out; going fideways upon a walk, trot, or gallop ; and tracing out a larger circumference with his fhoulders, and a {maller with his croup. See on this fubje&t Berenger’s Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. ii. p. 83, &c. VoLTE, in Fencing, denotes a fudden movement or leap, which is made to avoid the thruft of an antagonift. VOLTERRA, Daniete v1, in Biography, the cogno- men of an artift of great renown, whofe real name was Daniele Ricciarelli. He was a native of Volterra, and born in 1509, and was firft a difciple of Giovanni Antonio Razzi, called Il Sodoma, and afterwards of Baldaffare Peruzzi. Unemployed in his native city, and without means of im- provement, he went to Rome, and wrought fome time for cardinal Trivulzi, to whom a picture of the Flagellation he had brought with him ferved as a recommendation. He af- terwards affifted Pierino del Vaga in the capella Maffimi at the Trinita da Monti: and in San Marcello, where he finifhed, from the defigns of del Vaga, the four Evangelifts, with various other figures, and ornamental enrichments. From defigns of the fame mafter he alfo painted a frieze in the hall of the palazzo Maffimi, and thefe works combined gave him fo much renown, that fignora Elena Orfina was induced to employ him to adorn her family chapel in the church of the Trinita da Monti. He had in the mean time cultivated the friendfhip of Mi- chel Angiolo and Sebaftian del Piombo, and by their com- munion, and the ftudy of their works, aggrandized his ftyle and formed his manner ; and the work which he produced in the capella Orfini, the Defcent from the Crofs, teftified how worthy he was of fuch fociety. The work of this chapel, which was adorned not only with an altar-piece, but alfo with various other defigns hiftorical and ornamental, and all in frefeo, occupied him feven years. The merit of the principal pi€ture above-mentioned, has placed it, in public eftimation, on a level with the Transfiguration by Raffaelle, and the Communion of S. Jerome by Dominichino ; and in- duced the French, in their rage for fpoliation, to attempt the removal of it from the wall. And they effected it, though they never tranfported it to France, but in doing fo, they cut away fo much of the angles of the chapel that the roof fell in, but not till the pi€ture had been removed out of danger. It was afterwards turned, fo that its face was made vifible, and an attempt was made by fome ignorant pretender to enliyen the colours by means of oil or varnifh: the con- fequence has been, that the furface is become black, and the fisures fcarcely difcernible ; and thus this grand work, one of the principal features of modern Rome, one of the greateft monuments of human ingenuity, and the fupport of the well-earned renown of an artift ranked among the beft, has been facrificed to ambition, vanity, and folly. Happily the compofition is preferved by Dorigny’s print, and there is a great number of copies of it. Lanzi 1s of opi- nion, that M. Angelo muft have aided Volterra in this great work, particularly in the compofition, as the other parts in the chapel are fo far inferior to it. He is known to have been partial to him, and on terms of intimacy. One day calling in his abfence at his ftudy, he left behind a fketch of a coloffal head, which Volterra never would permit to be removed, and which remains to this day. And when Pierino del Vaga died, and Angelo had the works of the Vatican affigned to him, he interefted himfelf for and procured the appointment of Volterra to fupply his place. ‘To him alfo, with the confent of Angelo, pope Paul III. intrufted the VOL flight clothing which is thrown over the nudities in the Laft Judgment in the Siftini chapel, for which fervice how- ever he was branded with the ludicrous name of J] Brachet- tone, the breeches-maker. After his appointment in the Vatican, he was ordered to compleat the paintings in the Sala Regia begun by his pre- deceffor, which he did, but not, as Vafari fays, with fkill equal to that he had exhibited in the chapel Orfini. When Julius III. mounted the papal throne, he difmiffed Volterra from his fuperintendance, but afterwards affigned to him one half of a hall to paint, of which Salviati had the other part, but Volterra did little or nothing in it, hav- rg been difappointed in not finding the whole intrufted to im. He added, by means of his difciples, feveral other defigns to the works in the Trinita da Monti, but turned his own mind principally to {culpture, and painted but little after this time. He died at Rome in 1566, aged 57. VoLTERRA, in Geography, a town of Etruria. This was one of the ancient twelve cities, now a lonely, mean place, though it reckons 25 churches, chapels, and oratories, and about 20 convents and religious fraternities. It ftands on a mountain, but the air is unwholefome: entire villages in the neighbourhood lie in ruins, and uninhabited, and the coun- try all round is overrun with weeds and bufhes, which un- queftionably contribute to render the abode unhealthful. It has rich copper-mines, but not worked ; 29 miles E.S.E. of Leghorn. N. lat. 43°23/. E. long. 10° 52’. VOLTOEGA, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia; 5 miles W. of Vique. VOLTORE, a mountain of Naples, in Capitanata, E. of Monteverde. VOLTRI, a town of the Ligurian Republic ; 6 miles W. of Genoa. VOLTUMNA, or Vorturna, in Mythology, a rural divinity of the Tufcans. Livy frequently mentions a temple belonging to her near the lake Ciminius, where the people debated concerning their affairs. VOLTURARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra; 15 miles W. of Conza. VoituraArA, or Vulturara, a town of Naples, in Capi- tanata, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Benevento; 38 miles W.S.W. of Manfredonia. N. lat. 41°28’, E. long. Bbc. > VOLTURENA, a town of the Grifons, on the lake of Como. VOLTURNALIA, among the Romans, a feftival kept in honour of the god Volturnus, on the fixth of the calends of September, or 26th of Auguft. VOLTURNO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavora, on a river of the {ame name, near its mouth; 12 miles W. of Capua.—Alfo, a river of Naples, which runs into the gulf of Gaeta, near Caftel a Mare. VOLTZHEIM, a town of Saxony, in the principality of Rueffen, near Gera, where Henry IV. gained a vidtory over Rodolphus, duke of Swabia, in the year 1080. VOLVA, in Botany, the Wrapper, or covering, of the Fungus tribe, is ufed in two fenfes by Linneus. In its ori- ginal and moft legitimate meaning, as explained in the Pdilo- Jophia Botanica, p. 52, this term is appropriated to the mem- branous web, which conceals the unexpanded gills of an Agaric; and in many fpecies, as the Common Muthroom, Agaricus campeftris, feparates at length from the margin of the head, and forms a permanent ring round the ftalk. This fort of Volva is enumerated among the kinds of Caryx, and perhaps not improperly ; fee that article. The more ufual idea of a Yolva is that of an external covering, which enfolds VOL enfolds the whole fungus, in an early ftate of growth. In the genus Phallus it refembles a hen’s egg; and is nearly fimilar in the Agaricus volvaceus, Sowerby’s Fungi, t. 1. In the ftarry and vaulted Puff-balls this part is of a leathery texture when dry, more brittle when frefh. (See Gras- trum.) Inthe Lycoperdon phalloides of Smith’s Spicilegium, Sowerb. Fung. t. 390, now made a diftin& genus, called Batarrea, by Perfoon, the outer Volva, which remains in the ground, is filamentous. Votva is alfo a word ufed by Scribonius Largus, and fome other authors, to exprefs the central part, or, as we eall it, the core of the apple, in which the feeds are placed. He prefcribes this in weaknefles of the ftomach, and retch- ings to vomit. VOLUBILE, or Votusiwate Stem or Stalk, in Gar- dening, a name given to thofe of many plants, as all thofe the ftems or ftalks of which are of a twining or winding climb- ing nature. They are commonly fuch as climb or afcend in * tal Fairal manner round the ftems, ftalks, or branches of other plants, which happen to be fituate near to them, round thofe of one another, or round fticks or ftalks fet for the purpofe, and any thing of a fimilar kind that they may meet with in the courfe of their extending growth. The honey- fuckle, the hop, the running kinds of kidney beans, and many other plants, are of this defcription. The ftems or ftalks of this fort, in different kinds of plants, wind round or twiit about others, or other fub- ftances, in different direGtions, either to the right or the left, according to the apparent diurnal motion of the earth in refpeét to the fun. The honey-fuckle and the hop among garden plants turning to the left, while the different kinds of twining kidney beans turn to the right. In garden culture, all thofe kinds of plants fhould be con- ftantly fuffered to take their own natural directions, and not be in any way thwarted in their modes of growth, as they never fucceed well where that is the cafe, or afford fo good a produce. And their fupports, of whatever na- ture they may be, fhould always be fully adequate, and be well and firmly fet into the ground, that they may not be in danger of giving way while the plants are rifing upon them. It will feldom be neceffary to ftop the plants from running too high, but this may be occafionally of ufe in preventing their running up too weak. VOLUBILES, or Votusitis, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, upon the route, according to Anton. Itin. from Tocologida to Tingis, be- tween Tocologida and Aqua Dacica; it was a Roman co- lony. Pliny calls it Volubile Oppidum, and gives an erro- neous account of it. Hlardouin differs from other geogra- phers, who confider Fez as the ancient Volubilis, without fufficient reafon. _ See Frz. VOLUBILIS Cavtis, in Botany and Pegetable Phyfio- logy, a Twining Stem, (fee Cauxis and Stem, ) is one which fupports itfelf on other plants, independent of tendrils, by afluming a fpiral direGion, and embracing every thing that comes in its way. Each fpecies of twining plant has its appropriate direCtion, in fome to the right, in others to the left, nor can that direétion be counteraéted, or impeded, by any mechanical force. Many tendrils, on the contrary, make a greater number of convolutions in one dire&tion, than in another, the better to enfure a fupport for the plant that is furnifhed with them. VOLUCE, or Votuwca, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania Citerior, E. of Clunia and S.W. of Nu- mace. VOLVENS Ocuu1, in Anatomy, a name given by Spi- VOL gelius and fome others, to one of the mufcles of the eye, called by Cowper and Albinus, ob/iquus inferior. VOLUERA, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Po; 7 miles S.W. of Trino. VOLVIC, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Déme; 3 miles S.W. of Riom. VOLVICARA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; g miles E.S.E. of Scalea. VOLUME, Votumen, a book, or writing, of a fit bulk to be bound by itfelf. The word has its rife 2 volvendo, rolling, or winding; the ancient way of making up books being in rolls of bark, or parchment. This manner lafted till Cicero’s time, and long after paper was invented, and books written upon it. The feve- ral fheets were glued, or pafted, end to end, written only on one fide; and at the bottom a ftick was faftened, called umbilicus ; and at the other end a piece of parchment, on which was the title of the book in letters of gold. And yet, we are affured, king Attalus, or rather Eumenes, had, long before, done up fome of his books in the fquare form ; as having found the fecret of parchment, which would bear writing on both fides. The library of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, contained, ac- cording to Aulus Gellius, 300,000 volumes; and, accord- ing to Sabellicus, 700,000. Raymund Lully wrote about 4000 volumes; of which we have divers catalogues extant. It is held, that Trifme- giftus wrote 6525 volumes; others fay, 36,529: but it is much more rational to fuppofe, with La Croix, that it was the cuftom with the Egyptians to put all the books they compofed under the name of Tri/megi/fus. At prefent, volume is chiefly ufed in the fame fenfe with tome, for a part, or divifion, of a work, bound feparately. In this fenfe we fay, ‘The Councils are printed at the Louvre, in thirty-feven volumes.”? See Tomer. Votume of a Body is alfo ufed among foreign philofo- phers, for its bulk, or the fpace inclofed within its fuper- ficies. Vo.umeE de Voix, in French Mufic, is the compais or extent of a voice from its loweft, or moft grave found, to the moft acute. According to Rouffeau, the common com- pafs of voices is only eight or nine notes. ‘There have been voices that have extended to two oGtaves of real voice, voce di petto; and Agujari, with the addition of two or three notes in falfet, had a compafs of three o€taves. There is another expreflive acceptation of the word volume in {peaking of a great voice: as it was juftly faid of Man- zoli’s vocal organ, that it was a volume of voice. VOLUMUS, in Law, the firft word of a claufe in one fpecies of the king’s writs of protetion, and letters patent. VOLUNT, Votwnras, is when a tenant holds lands, &c. at the will of the leffor, or lord of the manor. VOLUNTARY, in the Schools. The generality of phi- lofophers ufe voluntary in the fame fenfe with fpontaneous ; and apply it to any thing arifing from an internal principle, attended with a due knowledge of it. Arittotle, and his followers, reftrain the term voluntary to thofe aGtions that proceed from an inward principle, which knows all the circumftances of the action. There are two things, therefore, required to the volun- tarinefs of an a@ion: the firft, that it proceeds from an inward principle ; thus, walking for pleafure-fake, is a vo- luntary ation ; as arifing from the will commanding, and the moving faculty obeying, which are both internal. a the VOL the contrary, the motion of a man dragged to prifon is not voluntary. The fecond, that the action be performed with a perfect intelligence of the end, and circumt{tances of it; in which fenfe the ations of brutes, children, fleeping people, &c. are not properly voluntary. Anatomitts diftinguifh between the voluntary and natural or involuntary motions in the body. Of the latter kind are thofe of the heart, lungs, pulfe, &c. Votuntary, in Mujfic, a piece played by a mufician ex- tempore, according to his fancy. This is often ufed before he begins to fet himfelf to play any particular compofition, to try the inftrument, and to lead him into the key of the piece he intends to perform. See RESEARCH. In thefe performances, we have frequently heard great players produce paflages and effects in fits of enthufiafm and infpiration, that have never appeared on paper. In thefe happy moments « Such founds efcape the daring artift’s hand As meditation never could command ; And though the flaves to frigid rules may ftart, They penetrate and charm the feeling heart.” In the Philofophical Tranfa&tions, N° 483. feét. 2. we have a method of writing down extemporary voluntaries, or other pieces of mulic, as faft as any mafter can play them on the organ, or harpfichord; and that in a manner ex- preffive of all the varieties thofe inftruments are capable of. This is performed by a cylinder, turning equally upon its axis, under the keys of an organ, and by having points under the heads of the keys. Hence, when they are prefled down, they will make a {cratch or mark on the cylinder, which may fhew the duration of the note; and the fituation of this mark on the cylinder will fhew what note was touched. For farther particulars we refer the curious to the TranfaGtion itfelf. VoLuUNTARY Agent, Efcape, Homicide, Novation; fee the fubftantives. VOLUNTEERS, in the Military Art, perfons who enter of their own accord to ferve in the army. See Lisrine. On occafion of danger from invafion, the people have been invited to form themfelves into volunteer corps for their own prolechog: A plan for this purpofe was propofed by earl helburne, then fecretary of ftate, in 1782, when the French threatened an invafion of this country ; but as peace foon took place, the plan was not put in execution. In fimilar circum{tances of preparations on the part of the enemy, and menaces of a defcent in 1797, a propofal of the fame kind was made by Mr. Dundas, and accepted in every part of the kingdom with the utmoft alacrity and zeal; and in a very few months a new army of citizens was enrolled and muftered, in appearance equal to the regular and militia forces, and in the difcipline of the parade very little inferior. Previoufly to this, from the very commencement of the war, volunteer companies had been raifed in different parts of England among the refident inhabitants, particularly in the towns contiguous to the fea-coaft. At the fame time troops of horfe were levied among the gentlemen and yeomen of the country, upon the fame principle with the volunteer companies. Thefe were called the yeomanry cavalry. Of thefe volunteer corps, both of horfe and foot, fome ferved without any pay from government; others received pay and allowances, under certain regulations. The provifions and regulations, pertaining to voluntears, whilft their corps 10 VOL exifted, were eftablifhed by the 44 Geo. [I]. c.54. But it is now needlefs to enlarge on this fubject. VOLUNTII, in Ancient Geography, a people who in- habited the E. coaft of Hibernia, S. of the Daunii- Ptol. VOLUNTOWN, in Geography, a town of ConneGticut, was fettled in 1696, containing 1016 inhabitants; 20 miles N.E. of Norwich. VOLVOX, in the Linnzan fyftem of Natural Hiflory, a genus of the order of Infuforia, in the clafs of Vermes. Its charaéters are, that it is inconfpicuous with a naked eye, very fimple, pellucid, and fpherical. The body of this ani- mal is {mooth, gelatinous, roundifh, without joints, and formed for a whirling or vertiginous motion. Its young are roundifh, and lodged in fmall holes in different parts of the body. Of this genus, Gmelin enumerates ten fpecies: viz. the bulba, pileus, globator, dimidiatus, [pherula, uva, lunula, confirdor, pilula, and globulus. See VeRMES. See alfo GLoBE Animalcule and BEROE. VOLUPIA, in Alythology, the goddefs of pleafure, the feigned daughter of Cupid and Pfyche, who had a temple at Rome, in which was her ftatue ; and a feftival in honour of her was celebrated annually on the 21{t of December. VOLURA, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Po, during the French revolution; 7 miles W. of Turin. VOLUSENUS, Frorentius, FLorENcE WItson, in Biography,a diftinguifhed poet of the 16th century, profecuted his ftudies, firft at Aberdeen, and afterwards at Paris, where he was intrufted with the tuition of cardinal Wolfey’s ne- phew. After the uncle’s death, he was patronized by two other cardinals, Jean de Lorraine and Jean de Bellay. As he was proceeding with the latter towards Rome, in 1538, he was feized with an indifpofition which detained him at Carpentras. Here he waited on cardinal Sadolet, then bifhop of the fee; who was fo delighted with his literary accomplifhments and elegant manners, that he placed him at the head of a claffical feminary in that city. Wilfon af- terwards intended to revifit his native country, but death overtook him at Vienna, in the year 1546. F. Wilfon was a {cholar whom Buchanan has celebrated as dear to the Mufes. He is known as the author of a claffical dialogue on tranquillity of mind, entitled ** De Animi Tranquilitate Dialogus :’? Lugd. apud Gnyphium 1543, 4to. VOLUSPA, q. d. the oracle of the prophete/s, in Mytho- logy, a poem of about four hundred verfes, forming part of the ancient Edda; which fee. The Edda is a colle€tion of various odes, which, as fome have fuggefted, are the fragments only of a much larger work, long loft to the world. It has been generally afcribed, as we have mentioned under the article Eppa, to Semund Sigfufon, an eminent Icelander, born A.D. 1056 or 1057, who, from his knowledge, writings, and various acquire- ments, has been called by fucceeding authors, Frode, or the learned. His claims, however, have been contefted; and ftrong reafons have been urged for believing that Semund did not compofe, perhaps not even compile, the Edda which is afcribed to him. The principal opponent of Semund’s claim to the firft Edda is Arnas Magnus; whofe recondite in- quiries into the early literature of Iceland have given him much celebrity. See his Life of Semund Frode, prefixed to the Edda Semundzr, Hafniz, 1787, cited by fir George Steuart Mackenzie, bart. in his “* Travels in the Ifland of Iceland,”’ 1810. VOLUTA, the Yolute, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a genus of fhells, for an account of which fee ConcHoLoey, Gmelin enumerates 141 fpecies. VOLUTE, VOL VOLUTE, Votura, in Architedure, a kind of fpiral {croll, ufed in the Ionic and Compofite capitals ; of which it makes the principal charaéteriftic and ornament. Some call it the ram’s horn, from its figure, which bears a near refemblance to it. Mott archite&ts fuppofe, that the ancients intended the volute to reprefent the bark or rind of a tree, laid under the abacus, and twifted thus at each extreme, where it is at liberty : others will have it a fort of pillow or bolfter, laid between the abacus and echinus, to prevent the latter being broken by the weight of the former, and the entablature over it; and, accordingly, they call it pulvinus. Others, after Vitruvius, will have it to reprefent the curls, or trefles, of a woman’s hair. The number of volutes in the Ionic order is four; in the Compofite, eight. There are alfo eight angular volutes in the Corinthian capital, accompanied with eight other fmaller ones, called helices. There are feveral diverfities praétifed in the volute. In fome, the lift or edge, throughout all the circumvolutions, is in the fame line or plane: fuch are the antique Ionic vo- lutes, and thofe of Vignola. In others, the {pires or cir- cumyolutions fall back; in others, they project, or ftand out. Again, in fome, the circumvolutions are oval; in others, the canal of one circumvolution is detached from the lift of another, by a vacuity or aperture. In others, the rind is parallel to the abacus, and fprings out from be- hind the flower of it. In others, it feems to {pring out of the vafe, from behind the ovum, and rifes to the abacus, as in moft of the fine Compofite capitals. The yolute is a part of great importance to the beauty of the column. Hence, architeéts have invented divers ways of delineating it. The principal are that of Vitruvius, which was long loft, and at laft reftored by Goldman; and that of Palladio. Daviler prefers the former as the eafier. The manner of which is as follows: Draw the cathetus FC (Plate XV. Geometry, fig. 19.) whofe length muft be half a module, and from the point C defcribe the eye of the volute A EBD, of which the dia- meter is to be 34 minutes; divide it into four equal fe€tors by the diameters A B, D E: bifec& the radii CA, CB, in 4 and 4; conftruG a {quare 1, 2, 3, 4, from the centre C to the angles 2, 3; draw the diagonal C 2, C 3, and divide the fide of the {quare 1, 4, into fix equal parts, at 5, 9, C, 12, 8; then through the points 5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines 5> 6, 9, 10, 12, 11, 8, 7, parallel to the diameter E D, which will cut the diagonals in 6, 7, 10, 11, and the points Ay 25 35 45 5 65 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, will be the centres of the volute. From the firft centre 1, with the interval I F, defcribe the quadrant F G, from the fecond centre 2, with the interval 2 G, deferibe the quadrant G H, and continu- ing the fame operation from all the twelve centres, the con- tour of the volute will be completed. ‘The centres for defcribing the fillet are found in this manner: conitruct atrigngle, of which the fide AF ( fig. 20.) is equal to the part of the cathetus contained between A F, and the fide FV equal to C1; on the fide AF, place the diftance F S from F towards A, equal to F S, the breadth of the fillet, and through the point S draw the line ST, which will be to C1 in the fame proportion as AS is to AF; place this line on each fide of the centre C, on the diameter of the eye A B; divide it into three equal parts ; and through the points of divilion, draw lines parallel to the diameter E D, which will cut the diagonals C 2, C 3, and you will have twalve new centres, from whence the interior VOM contour of the fillet may be defcribed, in the fame manner as the exterior one was from the firft centres. ; - Confoles, modillions, and other forts of ornaments, have likewife their volutes, or fcrolls. VotutE, Canal of the. . See CANAL. VotuTE, Lye of the. See Eye. : VOLUTELLA, in Botany, Forfk. igypt.-Arab. 84, fo called on account of its twining and flender habit, is rightly pointed out by Juffieu, Gen. 440, on the authority of Vahl, as a Cafyiha. Linneus has marked it fo in his own copy of Forfkall’s work. We prefume it to be the identical C. filiformis. Forfkall {peaks of this plant as not uncommon in Arabia, where it climbs trees, entangling their branches very much. - The /fem is exceedingly flender, without branches or /eaves ; the flowers {earcely vifible ; the berries, which are eaten by children, are infipid, with a flavour of pepper, but no acrimony. Are there any con- fiderable points of agreement between this obfcure genus and Afarum? VOLUTINA, in Myrhology, a rural goddefs of the Romans, whom they invoked, for the coat that covers the ear of corn. VOLVULA, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an ex- traneous foffile body, nearly allied to the entrochus, being compofed of the fame fubftance, and being like that of a cylindric column, made up of feveral joints; the commif- {ures of the joints are, however, much lefs vifible in the volvulz than in the entrochi, and they are not ftriated, as in the entrochus, from the centre to the circumference. The volvule are of various figures; fome refemble in fhape a little bottle, and are called volvule utriculate, and of thefe fome have, and others have not, a ftar marked on their bottom; others of them {well out in the middle, and taper a little toward each end; and thefe, from their re- femblance in fhape to a little barrel, are called dolioli, or volvule doliate. There is great reafon, from the analogy thefe bear to the entrochi, and other foffils which owe their form to animal remains, to fuppofe thefe of the fame origin ; but we yet know not to what animal it is that they have be- longed. Hill’s Hitt. Foil. VOLVULUS, in Botany, a name given by Dalefchamp, and fome others, to the upright narrow-leaved or toad-flax- leaved bind-weed. See ConvoLvuLus. VotvuLus, in Conchology, a {pecies of Helix, which fee. ‘ VoLvuLus, in Entomology, a {pecies of Cerambyx, which ee. VoxLvueus, in Medicine, a name which fome authors give to the iliac paflion, by others called chordap/us; and by others, miferere mei. VOLX, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Alps; 6 miles S.E. of Forcalquier. VOLZANA, a town of the duchy of Carniola, on the Lifonzo ; 12 miles S.W. of Feldes. VOMANO, a river of Naples, which runs into the Adriatic, 5 miles N.N.E. of Atri. VOMANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Picenum, {till called Vomano. VOMAS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Allier; 18 miles E.S.E. of Moulins. VOMER, in Anatomy, a bone of the nofe. See Cra- NIUM. VomeEr, in Ichthyology, afpecies of zeus, with a forked tail and {pine recumbent before the anal and dorfal fin. This is an American fifh. VOMICA, in Natural Hiflory, a word ufed by the an- cients to exprefs one of the blemifhes to which cryttals and the VOM the precious ftones are fubje&. This is a dufky foulnefs lying deep in the ftone, and giving a dufky colour and tinge to the whole. Both the luftre and tranfparence of the ftone are much hurt by this accident. When the vomica was of a blueifh or blackifh colour, the Romans expreffed it by the word plumbago. Vomica, in Medicine, an abfcefs, or collection of purulent matter in the fubftance of the lungs. This, like all other abfceffes, is the refult of previous inflammation in the part which it occupies, and is, therefore, one of the terminations of peripneumony, of which, in that cafe, it conftitutes the laft ftage. (See Pertpreumony.) If a vomica burfts through the exterior furface of the lungs, and the matter confequently efcapes into the cavity of the thorax, the dif- eafe is then called empyema. Vomica, Nux, Vomic Nut. See Nux Vomica. VOMIER, in Botany, Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 8. 692, a French name, whofe derivation or meaning we can- not trace, applied by this author to our Errostemon ; fee that article. VOMIT, Brack, in Medicine, an appellation given by the firft writers on the difeafes of tropical climates to the yellow fever, the moft formidable and fatal fymptom of which is a vomiting of a black matter, confifting of grumous blood and bile. This fymptom, however early it appeared, was generally foon followed by death, and being the moft remarkable and diftrefling charaéter of the difeafe, its name was given to the whole fever: it is obferved, however, in the bilious remittents of more northern latitudes, as of Spain and Egypt, and was noticed by Hippocrates as a fatal fymptom of the caufos, or ardent fever, endemic in his time in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. See Fever, Yellow. VOMITING, in Animals, is the inverted aétion of the ftomach, or the aét of difcharging the contents of it by the mouth. » Of this the horfe is incapable or deprived, on ac- count of a peculiarity of ftruéture in the parts; but dogs, cats, and other animals, vomit very readily, and are often much benefited in this way, by the ufe of proper medicines, in different difeafes with which they are affected. VomitrnG, in Medicine, the a& of ejecting the contents of the ftomach through the gullet and mouth, commonly preceded by a fenfation of nau/fea. It has been a queftion much difcuffed by phyfiologifts, how the matters contained in the fac of the ftomach are thus forcibly expelled in a retrograde dire¢tion ? fome fuppofing that this was effeéted by the retrograde aétion of the muf- cular coat of the ftomach itfelf, and others contending that the aétion of the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles was the principal force employed in the aé&t. This queftion has been amply expounded, and the affirmative of the latter opinion fhewn to be corre& under the head of Sromacu, to which we refer the reader. Vomiting is not to be confidered as itfelf a diftin& fpecies of difeafe, but merely as a fymptom of various morbid af- fe€tions, either of the ftomach itfelf, or of fome other organ of the body with which it is conneéted by fympathy. As a fymptom, however, which is always diftrefling, and often very urgent, it frequently becomes the object of medical treatment, and it is therefore important to diftinguifh the caufes from which it originates in different inftances, in order that the appropriate remedies may be felected. The firlt fet of caufes of vomiting, to which we have alluded, are thofe which affe& the ftomach itfelf. There are various morbid conditions of that organ, or the irritation of fubftances introduced into it. Thus vomiting is a fymp- 7 o VOM tom of inflammation of the coats of the ftomach (fee Gas- TRITIS), which are rendered fo irritable as to reject every thing introduced within its cavity. A fcirrhous or can- cerous ftate of the ftomach is alfo attended by vomiting, efpecially when that difeafe diminifhes the aperture of the pylorus, and prevents the paflage of the aliment into the in- teftines. Vomiting is likewife often a fymptom of dy/pepfia, or indigeftion, and is then occafioned either by the irritation of undigefted food, or the acrimony of fluids generated during the imperfeé procefs of digeftion: whence the mat- ters vomited are often acid or acrimonious, irritating the gullet and fauces as they pafs. Sometimes in thefe cafes the vomiting is excited by the regurgitation of the bile, when it is fuperabundant ; but moft commonly that fluid is only vomited after repeated and fevere retchings, by which the bile is brought into the ftomach from the upper intef- tine. Vomiting is fometimes alfo a fymptom of the ftomach colic, or cramp in that organ, in which cafe, as in the in- flammation, it is accompanied by intenfe pain. The cure of the vomiting in thefe cafes will depend upon the removal of the refpeétive difeafed conditions of the fto- mach of which it is fymptomatic. In gaffritis, it can only be removed by copious blood-letting, bliftering, or cupping the region of the ftomach, or applying leeches; for it is in vain to attempt to introduce medicine into an inflamed fto- mach ; and opium would, if it could be retained, aggravate the original difeafe. In the cramp of the ftomach, on the other hand, opium largely given, with hot fomentations, would be the moft effeétual remedy. In cancer or fcirrhus, alleviation of the ficknefs is all that can be expe@ed; and opium or hyofcyamus affords the beft means of foothing that malady. In a ftate of indigeftion, vomiting will be cured by adhering to a light and digeftible diet ; by the ufe of ab- forbents, fuch as magnefia or chalk, with light aromatics, efpecially where the vomitings are acid; and by whatever ftrengthens the tone of the ftomach, and improves the di- geftive funétion; fuch as bitters, horfe-exercife, cold- bath, &c. When vomiting is produced by fubftances taken into the ftomach, and immediately irritating its fenfible furface, fuch as the metallic or other poifons ; the obvious remedy will be to get rid of the irritating fubitance, if poflible, to dilute and weaken its acrimonious quality, or to change or decom- pofe it by chemical means. In all fuch cafes, the copious introduction of tepid fluids fhould be immediately reforted to. The fecond fet of caufes of vomiting, which we have mentioned above, are thofe which influence the ftomach only by fympathy, the actual feat of the irritation being in fome other, even diftant organ; the varieties of the caufes producing vomiting in this indireét way are, therefore, as numerous as the fympathies of that important organ with almoft every other organ in the body. Many affeGtions of the head are attended with vomiting. Vertigo, or giddinefs, from whatever caufe it originates, is liable to induce naufea, and even that mofl violent and dif- trefling fpecies of vomiting, fea-fickne/s. (See VERTIGO. ) Blows on the head, inflammation of the brain or its mem- branes, fra€tures and depreffions of the fkull, are almoft constantly produ€tive of vomiting ; which, in fuch cafes, can of courfe only be relieved by removing the preflure or curing the inflammation of the brain. With almoft every organ of the abdomen the ftomach fympathifes fo clofely, that violent vomiting is the confe- quence of irritations in moft of them. The kidneys are feldom affe€ted with difeafe, without preducing ficknefs in . the ¥ O'N the ftomach, and the moft violent and unremitting retching is occafioned by the exiftence of a {mall calculus in the pel- vis of the kidney, or its paflage along the ureter into the bladder. With both colic, or fpafmodic conitri@tion, and inflammation of the inteftinal canal, vomiting is a conftant attendant ; and it often accompanies difeafes of the liver. AffeGtions of the uterus in women very frequently occafion ficknefs, and among the firft fymptoms of the diftenfion of that organ in pregnancy, naufea and vomiting frequently occur. Although thefe fympathetic vomitings are manifeftly de- pendent on other irritations, the removal or alleviation of which will be the only effeGtual cure, by means adapted to them refpectively ; yet fome alleviation of thefe ficknefles is often attainable by diminifhing the irritability of the fto- mach itfelf. The carbonic acid, or fixed air, appears to have this quality in a certain degree, whence foda-water, or the faline draught, fwallowed during the effervefcence, will fometimes materially allay thefe fympathetic vomitings. This is alfo occafionally effeGted by an abforbent, with a light aromatic, or a cordial diflilled water. Thus a little magne- fia in peppermint or pimento water will fometimes allay fuch a ficknefs. An opiate, or the extraét of hop or hen- bane, may be now and then added to thefe medicines with advantage, as they tend to leffen the irritability, and render the ftomach lefs fenfible to the irritation. Vomitine of Blood. See Hamaremesis. VomiTine excited by Medicine. See Emerics. Vomitine Julep. See JuLEp. VOMITIVES, or Vomitive Medicines. See EmeErics. VONA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Sivas; 70 miles W. of Trebifond. N. lat. 41° 1o!. E. long. 38°. VONC, a town of France, in the department of the ‘Ardennes; 6 miles N. of Vouziers. VONDEL, Joost Vanpem, in Biosraphy, a Dutch poet, was the fon of parents who belonged to the feét of Mennonites, and born at Cologne in the year 1587. His education was merely adapted to trade, and having married in 1610, he commenced bufinefs as a hofier at Amfterdam ; but with talents fuperior to his ftation, he entrufted his wife with the condué of his trade, and direéted his attention to literary and religious fpeculations. In the difputes between the Arminians and Gomaritts, he took part with the former, and joined their communion. His firft poetical productions were the mere fruits of untaught genius; but apprehending that he might derive advantage from thofe fources of in- formation to which he had no accefs, on account of his igno- rance of the learned languages, he began, at the age of 30 years, to learn the Latin and French, and to ftudy lege Attached to the Arminian party, he expofed the injuftice of the fentence againft Barneveldt in an allegorical tragedy, entitled “‘ Palamedes, or Innocence opprefled,’’ for which he was profecuted and fined. Conceiving prejudices againft the reformed religion, probably on account of the attach- ment of the Dutch minifters to the Orange faétion, he be- came a Roman Catholic; and afterwards publifhed a tra- gedy, intitled ‘‘ Gifbert Van Amitel,” or the capture of Amfterdam by Florence V. count of Holland; and many other poems, one on the fubje&t of “* The Myfteries, or the Secrets of the Altar.”” He alfo tranflated into Dutch verfe Virgil, Horace, and Ovid’s Metamorphofes, by which he gained confiderable reputation. But, like many authors, he negleéted his affairs, and fuffered pecuniary embarrafl- ments. He lived however to a great age, and clofed life in $679, in his 92d year ; having acquired the honour of being Vou. XXXVII. VOR regarded as one of the principal ornaments of his country, His works amount to nine vols. 4to. Moreri. VONJASH, in Geography, a town of Abafcia, on the Black fea; 30 miles N.W. of Mamak. VONITZA, a town of European Turkey, in Albania ; 62 miles N.W. of Lepanto. N. lat. 39° 15’. E. long. Ai PAE. VOOR, in Agriculture, a term applied to fallow land, or fuch as is frequently ploughed over, in different cafes. See FaLtow. VOORN, or Oost-Voorn, in Geography, an ifland of Holland, fituated at the mouth of the Meufe; about 20 miles in length, and 5 in breadth. This ifland, with Goree and Overflakee, form the territory called Voornland; which formerly belonged to Zealand: Briel is the capital. Voorn, a {mall ifland at the union of the Wahal and the Meufe, with a fort belonging to the ftate of Utrecht; 9 miles N.N.E. of Bois le Duc. VOPISCUS, a Latin term, ufed in refpe& to twins in the womb, for that which comes to the perfe@ birth; the other being before excluded abortive. Voriscus, Fravius, in Biography, a Latin hiftorian, was a native of Syracufe, and flourifhed about A.D. 304. He began his hiftory with the reign of Aurelian, which he profecuted with thofe of Tacitus and his brother Flavianus, and Probus. He then publifhed an account of the four tyrants, Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonofus, and alfo of the three emperors Carus, Numerianus, and Carinus. Thefe are extant, and are contained in the ** Hiftorie Au- gufte Scriptores.”” Among the beft of thefe is Vopifcus, who excelled in learning, and alfo in chronological arrange- ment. He is faid to have given credit to the wonderful works of Apollonius Tyaneus, whofe life he had an inten- tion of writing. VOPOKAS, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Uftiug, on the Vitchegda. N. lat. 63° 10!. E. long. 54° 14!. : VORALBERG, a tra& of country, containing fome lordfhips, S.E. of the lake of Conftance; fo called from the mountain of Alberg, near which it is fituated ; ceded to Bavaria by the peace of Prefburg. VORALEN, a town of Hinder Pomerania; 10 miles S.W. of New Stettin. VORAU, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 7 miles N.W. of Hardberg. VORBACH Zommern, a town of the county of Ho- henloe ; 3 miles E.S.E. of Weickerfheim, ; VORCHEIM. See Forcuerm. VORCLUT, a cape of the ifland of Jerfey; 5 miles N.E. of St. Helier. VORDEN, or Voerpen, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhopric of Paderborn; 17 miles E.N.E. of Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 45’. E. long, 9° 18/. VorpDEN, a town of Weitphalia, in the bifhopric of Of- nabruck. Both the Roman Catholics and Lutherans have a church here in common; 10 miles N.N.E. of Ofnabruck, N. lat. 52° 29!. E. long. 8°4/. VORDENBURG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 4 miles N. of Leoben. VORDENSES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia Narbonnenfis, W. of the Vulgientes. They are placed by fome on the fcite of the town of Gordes, near that of Apt. VORE, in Agriculture, a term fometimes ufed to fignify the narrow ftrip of ground which is left whole, for turning the furrow-flice upon, in fome modes of paring and burning. BUR It yor It is alfo applied to the head of the teazle plant, which does not become ripe and run until the third year, fuch heads being called vores. VOREDA, in Ancient Geography, a Roman ftation, marked in the fecond Iter.of Antonine between Lugvallium (Carlifle) and Brovonacis (Kirbythure), fituated at Old Penrith. This, without doubt, was the place where this ftation was fituated, at the N.W. end of Plumpton wall, about 4 miles to the N. of the prefent town of Penrith, on a noble military way, which is there in the higheft pre- fervation. VOREPPE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere; 8 miles N.N.W. of Grenoble. VORGANIUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the Ofifmii, who occupied the weftern part of Brittany, through its whole extent. VORINGEN, or Stadt Voringen, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the principality of Hohen Zollern, on the Lauchart, formerly the chief place of a county, now ex- tin&; 10 miles S.E. of Hohen Zollern. N. lat. 48° 11'. E. long. 9° 15/. VORMS, called Vormffaari, and in modern charts Ormfon, an ifland of the Baltic, 14 verfts in length, in breadth rather more than g verifts, and of a nearly quadran- gular fhape. VOROCHITA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Perfian gulf, upon the coaft of Carmania. Ptolemy. VORONEZ, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and ca- pital of a government, called ‘ Voronezfkoi,”’ fituated at the conflux oF a {mall river, called by the fame name, with the Don; and furrounded with wooden walls. The citadel is on the oppofite fide of the Voronez river, furnifhed with 150 pieces of cannon, and a large garrifon. Here are docks for building veflels, large and fmall, good warehoufes for naval ftores, &c. It is the fee of a bifhop, and a place of confiderable trade. ‘The number of inhabitants is about 12,000; 256 miles S. of Mofcow. N. lat. 51° 36’. E. long, 39°. Voronez, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Don at Voronez. VORONEZSKOI, a government of Ruffia, bounded on the north-eaft by Tambovikoe, on the fouth and fouth- eaft by the country of the Coffacks, on the north-weft by Orloyfkoe, on the weft by Kurfkoe and Charkovfkoe ; about 260 miles in length, and 104 in its mean breadth. N. lat. 48° 50! to 53° 16’. E. long. 37° to 42°. VORRACH, a town of Bavaria, in the territory of Nuremberg ; 4 miles 'N. of Nuremberg. VORRAGE, in Agriculture, a term applied to the earth or mould which is colleéted and provided for ‘ milling’? or mixing with lime, in the making of compofts. VORSE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Oife, near Noyon. VORSKLA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Dnieper, 20 miles E. of Kreumengug. VORST, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 6 miles E. of Schweinfurt. VORSTIUS, Conrap, (Von Dem Vorsr,) in Bio- graphy, an eminent Arminian divine, was born at Cologne in 1569, and finifhed his claffical inftruGtion at Duffeldorp. Having been entered at the college of St. Lawrence in Cologne in 1587, he left it without taking a degree, be- caufe his confcience would not allow his {wearing adherence to the decrees of the council of Trent. At this time the circumftances of his family rendered it expedient for him to turn his attention to trade, for which he qualified himfelf by 5+ VOR learning arithmetic, and the French and Italian languages. However, he afterwards, viz. in 1589, refumed his ftudies at Herborn ; and in 1593 he accompanied fome young per- fons of rank as their tutor to Heidelberg. Here he was created a doctor of divinity, and he then vifited the aca- demies of Switzerland and Geneva. At Geneva he read leGtures on theology, and was offered a profefforfhip; but declining this, he accepted a fimilar office at Steinfurt in 1596, where he gained fuch reputation as to induce other Proteftant univerfities to invite him to the theological chair, His orthodoxy being fufpected, he repaired to Heidelberg for a certificate of his foundnefs in the faith, protefting again{ft the opinions of Socinus, and apologifing for fome expreffions which he had ufed in their favour. In 1610 he removed from Steinfurt, to fueceed Arminius as theolegical profeffor at Leyden. Here the Gomarifts, or rigorous Calvinifts, appealing to his work, intitled ‘ TraGtatus Theo- logicus de Deo, five de Natura et Attributis Dei,” charged him with many herefies; and not only engaged feveral fo- reign univerfities in their party, but induced our royal pedant, James I., to aid them with his concurrence. The king, acute in difcovering theological errors, and fond of exercifing his authority in fupprefling them, fent to his refident at the Hague a lift of various herefies, which he had by an hour’s reading found in Vorftius’s book ; and notified to the ftates how much he detefted thefe errors, and the perfons who tolerated them. In order to maintain confiftency of con- du&, his majefty ordered feveral copies of Vorftius’s book to be committed to the flames at London, Oxford, and Cambridge. He alfo wrote to the ftates, vehemently urging them to difmifs the profeffor, whofe blafphemies, if he con- tinued to maintain them, would juftify his being burnt; and at the fame time menacing, that unlefs they were ardent in extirpating ‘ thefe germs of atheifm, he would publicly, fe- parate from fuch falfe and heretical churches; and, as de- fender of the faith, exhort all other reformed churches to take common council for extinguifhing and fending back to hell thefe abominable herefies ; and would forbid all his own fubje&ts to haunt fo infeCted a {pot as the univerfity of Ley- den.”? James alfo wielded his pen againft Voriftius, who refifted the attack by a fhort and refpeGtful reply. The States were not much moved by the threats of the authori- tative and incenfed monarch; for, though they fufpended the profeffor till he had an opportunity of exculpating him- felf, they appointed a conference at the Hague, in April, 1611, between fix minifters of both of the oppofite parties, in prefence of the curators of the univerfity of Leyden, be- fore whom Vorftius pleaded his own caufe, and they de- termined in his favour. ‘The triumph of Voriftius would have been complete, if he had not been implicated in a fuf- picion of herefy, occafioned by the publication, on the part of fome of his difciples, of a {mall tra, intitled “* De Officio Chriftiani Hominis,’’ which contained Anti-Trinitarian doGtrines. Vorftius, though he figned a confeffion of faith conformable to the Trinitarian fyftem, found it expedient to relinquifh his profefforfhip, and to remove from Leyden till the ftorm fubfided. Accordingly he withdrew to Tergou in 1612, and refided there for feven years, without a fhade on his charaGter. In 1619 a fynod was held at Dordrecht, in which the Anti-Arminian party was predominant. This fynod condemned Vorttius, unheard, as unworthy of the pro- fefforfhip ; and in confequence of this judgment, the States deprived him of it, and for ever banifhed him from their territories. He lived two years longer in fecrecy, but not without apprehenfion for the fafety of his life. At length the duke of Holftein collefted the difperfed relics of the Arminians, VOR Arminians, and gave them a place for building a town, to which Vorftius repaired in 1622; but being foon taken ill, he died at Tonningen, in September, at the age of 53 years, with every token of pious refignation. His remains were interred at Fridrichftadt, the new Arminian fettlement, with great folemnity. He is known as the author of feveral theological writings, chiefly relating to the controverfy be- tween the Roman Catholics and his Proteftant antagonifts. His fon, William Henry Vorflius, publifhed fome works in rabbinical literature. Bayle. Vorstius, Jonn, a German theologian, was born at Ditmarth, in Holftein, and joining the Calvinift church, though a native Lutheran, became librarian to the eleétor of Brandenburg, in which conneétion he died in 1676. He was fkilled in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, and publifhed feveral learned works. The earlieft of thefe was printed at Roftock in 1641, and intitled “ Quedam de Stylo Novi Teftamenti excogitata.”” The firft part of this work, on the Hebraifms of the New Teftament, was printed at Leyden, in 1658, gto. under the title of ‘ Phi- lologia Sacra;’’ and the fecond part at Amfterdam, in 1665, 2 vols. 4to., and at Frankfort in 1705. Other traéts on f{eriptural topics were publifhed in the ‘ Fafciculus Opufculorum Hiltoricorum et Philologicorum,’’ Rotterd. 1693- Moreri. VORTEX, Wuarrtwinp, in Meteorology, a {udden, rapid, violent motion of the air, in gyres, or circles. See Wurri-Wind. Vortex, Vorago, is alfo ufed for an eddy, or whirl- pool, or a body of water, in certain feas and rivers, which runs rapidly round, forming a fort of cavity in the middle. The ordinary courfe of thefe vortices is a gulf or outlet, by which the water of the fea, &c. is abforbed, or pre- cipitates itfelf into fome other receptacle: fometimes to fome other communicant fea; and fometimes, perhaps, into the vaft abyfs of central water. Vortex, an Artificial, expreffive of the phenomena of the natural ones, may be made witha cylindric veffel, placed immoveable on an horizontal plane, and filled to a certain height with water. In this water a ftick being plunged, and turned round as brifkly as may be, the water is necef- farily put into a pretty rapid circular motion, and rifes to the very edge of the veffel ; and, when there arrived, ceafes to be farther agitated. The water thus raifed forms a cavity in the middle, whofe figure is that of a truncated cone ; its bafe is the fame with the upper cavity of the veffel; and its vortex in the axis of the cylinder. What raifes the water at the fide of the veffel, which oc- cafions the cavity in the middle, is its centrifugal force. For the motion of the water being circular, it refpe&s a centre taken in the axis of the veffel; or, which is the fame, in the axis of the vortex formed by the water; the fame velocity, then, being impreffed on all the water, the circumference of a {maller circle of water, or a circle lefs remote from the axis, has a greater centrifugal force than another that is greater or more remote from the axis. The fmaller circle, therefore, drives the greater towards the fide of the veffel; and from this preflion, or impulfion, which all the circles receive from the {maller ones that precede them, and convey to the greater which follow them, arifes that elevation of the water along the edge of the veffel to the very top, where we fuppofe the motion to ceafe. With a vortex thus formed, Mr. Saulmon, of the Royal Academy of Sciences, made divers experiments, by putting feveral folid bodies therein, to acquire the fame circular motion, with intent to difcover which of them, in making VOR their revolution round the axis of the vortex, approach to- ward, or recede from it, and with what velocity. The re- fult was, that the heavier the body, {till the greater was its rece{s from the axis. Mr. Saulmon’s view, in this attempt, was to fhew how the laws of mechanies produce the celeftial motions, and that it is probably to thofe motions that the gravity or weight of bodies is owing. But, unhappily, the experi- ments fhew jult the contrary of what they fhould do, to confirm the Cartefian do@trine of gravity. See WHIRLING Table. Vortex, in the Cartefian Philofophy, is a fyftem or col- leGtion of particles of matter moving the fame way, and round the fame axis. Such vortices are the grand machines by which thefe phi- lofophers folve moft of the motions, and other phenomena of the heavenly bodies. Accordingly, the doétrine of thefe vortices makes a great part of the Cartefian philofophy. The matter of the world they hold to have been divided at the beginning into innumerable little equal particles, each endowed with an equal degree of motion, both about its own centre, and feparately, fo as to conftitute a fluid. Several fyftems, or colletions of this matter, they farther hold to have been endowed with a common motion about certain points, as common centres, placed at equal diftances, and that the matter, moving round thefe, compofed fo many vortices. Then, the primitive particles of the matter they fuppofe, by thefe inteftine motions, to become, as it were, ground into fpherical figures, and fo to compofe globules of divers magnitudes ; which they call the matter of the fecond element : and the particles rubbed, or ground off them, to bring them to that form, they call the matter of the firft element. And fince there would be more of this firft element than would fuffice to fill all the vacuities between the globules of the fecond, they fuppofe the remaining part to be driven towards the centre of the vortex, by the circular motion of the globules ; and that being there amaffed into a {phere, it would produce a body like the fun. This fun being thus formed, and moving about its own axis with the common matter of the vortex, would necef- farily throw out fome parts of its matter, through the va- cuities of the globules of the fecond element conftituting the vortex ; and this efpecially at fuch places as are fartheft from its poles; receiving, at the fame time, in, by thefe poles, as much as it lofes in its equatorial parts. And, by this means, it would be able to carry round with it thofe globules that are neareft with the greater velocity ; and the remoter with lefs. And, by this means, thofe globules which are neareft the centre of the fun, muft be {malleft ; becaufe, were they greater, or equal, they would, by rea- fon of their velocity, have a greater centrifugal force, and recede from the centre. If it fhould happen, that any of thefe fun-like bodies, in the centres of the feveral vortices, fhould be fo incruftated and weakened, as to be carried about in the vortex of the true fun; if it were of lefs folidity, or had lefs motion, than the globules towards the extremity of the /olar vortex, it would defcend towards the fun, till it met with globules of the fame folidity, and fufceptible of the fame degree of motions with itfelf; and thus, being fixed there, it would be for ever after carried about by the motion of the vortex, without either approaching any nearer to, or receding from, the fun; and fo would become a planet. Suppofing then all this, we are next to imagine, that our fyftem was at firft divided into feveral vortices, in the centré of each of which was:a lucid fpherical body ; and that fome 3 P 2 of VOR of thefe, being gradually incruftated, were fwallowed up by others which were larger, and more powerful, till at laft they were all deftroyed, and {wallowed up, by the biggeft folar vortex ; except fome few which were thrown off in right lines from one vortex to another, and fo become comets. See Carrestan Philofophy. But this doctrine of vortices is, at beft, merely hypo- thetical. It does not pretend to fhew by what laws and means the celeftial motions are really effe€ted, fo much as by what means they poffibly might, in cafe it fhould have fo pleafed the Creator. But we have another principle which accounts for the fame phenomena as well, nay better than that of vortices ; and which we plainly find has an actual exiftence in the nature of things: and this is gravity, or the weight of bodies. : The yortices, then, fhould be excluded from philofophy, were it only that two different adequate caufes of the fame phenomena are inconfiftent. But we have other objections againft them. For, 1. If the bodies of the planets and comets be carried round the fun in vortices, the bodies of the parts of the vortex im- mediately invefting them, muft move with the fame velocity, and in the fame direGtion; and befides, they muft have the fame denfity, or the fame vis inertie. But it is evident, that the planets and comets move in the very fame parts of the heavens with different velocity, and in different direc- tions. It follows, therefore, that thofe parts of the vortex muft revolve at the fame time, in different dire¢tions, and with different velocities; fince one velocity and dire¢tion will be required for the paffage of the planets, and another for that of the comets. 2. If it were granted, that feveral vortices are contained in the fame fpace, and do penetrate each other, and revolve with divers motions; fince thofe motions muft be conform- able to thofe of the bodies, which are perfe@ly regular, and performed in conic feétions ; it may be afked, How they fhould have been preferved entire fo many ages, and not dif- turbed and confounded by the adverfe actions and fhocks of fo much matter as they muft meet with? 3. The number of comets is very great, and their motions are perfe@tly regular, obferving the fame laws with the planets, and moving in orbits that are exceedingly eccen- tric. Accordingly, they move every way, and to all parts of the heavens, freely pervading the planetary regions, and going frequently contrary to the order of the figns ; which would be impoflible, unlefs thefe vortices were removed. 4. If the planets move round the fun in vortices, thofe parts of the vortices next the planets, we have already ob- ferved, would be equally denfe with the planets themfelves : confequently the vortical matter contiguous to the peri- meter to the earth’s orbit, would be as denfe as the earth itfelf: and that between the orbits of the earth and Saturn mutt be as denfe, or denfer. For a vortex cannot maintain itfelf, unlefs the more denfe parts be ia the centre, and the lefs denfe towards the circumference: and fince the pe- riodical times of the planets are in a fefquialterate ratio of their diftances from the fun, the parts of the vortex muft be in the fame ratio. Whence it follows, that the centrifugal forces of the parts will be reciprocally as the {quares of the diftances. Such, therefore, as are at a greater diftance from the centre, will endeavour to recede with the lefs force. Accordingly, if they be lefs denfe, they muft give way to the greater force, by which the parts nearer the centre en- deavour to rife. ‘Thus, the more denfe will rife, and the lefs denfe defcend ; and thus there will be a change of places, till the whole fluid matter of the vortex be fo ad- julted, as that it may reft in equilibrio. VOS Thus will the greateft part of the vortex without tlie earth’s orbit have a degree of denfity and inaétiyity, not lefs than that of the earth itfelf. Whence the comets muft meet with a very great refiftance, which is contrary to all appearances. Cotef. Pref. ad Newt. Princ. The doétrine of vortices, fir Ifaac Newton obferves, labours under many difficulties: for a planet to defcribe areas proportional to the times, the periodical times of the vortex fhould be in a duplicate ratio of their diftances from the fun; and for the periodical times of the planets to be in a fefquiplicate pro- portion of their diftances from the fun, the periodical times of the parts of the vortex fhould be in the fame proportion of their diftances: and, laftly, for the lefs vortices about Jupiter, Saturn, and the other planets, to be preferved, and {wim fecurely in the fun’s vortex, the periodical times of the parts of the fun’s vortex fhould be equal. None of which proportions are found to obtain in the revolutions of the fun and planets around their axes. Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. apud Schol. Gen. in Calce. Befides, the planets, according to this hypothefis, being carried about the fun in ellipfes, and having the fun in the umbilicus of each figure, by lines drawn from them- felves to the fun, do always defcribe areas proportion- able to the times of their revolutions, which that author fhews the parts of no vortex can do. Schol. prop. ult. lib. ii. Princip. Again, Dr. Keill proves, in his Examination of Burnet’s Theory, that if the earth were carried in a vortex, it would move fafter in the proportion. of three to two when it is in Virgo than when it is in Pifces; which all experience proves to be falfe. We have, in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, a phyfico- mathematical demonitration of the impoffibility and in- fufliciency of vortices to account for the celeftial phenomena by Monf. de Sigorne. See No. 457. fect. vi. p. 409. eq. This author endeavours to fhew, that the mechanical generation of a vortex is impoflible; that it has only an axifugal, and not a centrifugal and centripetal force ; that itis not fufficient for explaining gravity and its pro- perties ; that it deftroys Kepler’s aftronomical laws ; and therefore concludes with fir Ifaac Newton, that the hy- pothefis of vortices is fitter to difturb than explain the celeftial motions. We muit refer to the differtation it- felf for the proof of thefe affertions. See CARTESIAN Philofophy. VORTICELLA, ia the Linnean fyftem of Zoology, a genus of Vermes Infuforia, the characters of which are, that the body is naked and contraétile, with a rotatory or whirl- ing motion. (Gmelin enumerates fifty-one fpecies. See VERMES. p VORTITZA, or Vostirza, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea, on the S. coaft of the gulf of Lepanto ; 40 miles N.W. of Corinth. VOS, Martin bk, in Biography, an eminent Flemifh painter, fon of Peter de Vos, who was himfelf an artift and member of the academy at Antwerp. He was bornat Ant- werp in 1520. His father initiated him in the art, but he after- wards ftudied under F. Floris until he was twenty-three, and then purfued the cultivation of his mind in Italy. The refi- dence he made at Venice introduced him to the acquaintance of Tintoretto, who not only inftruéted him in the principles of his practice, but employed him to paint landfcapes in his pic- tures. Hence De Vos became an admirable colourift, and gained confiderable reputation and employment. He painted portraits of the family of the Medici, and fome hiftorical pie- tures for them; and after an abfence of eight years re- turned VOS turned to Flanders. - His celebrity accompanied him, and procured him feveral commiffions to paint pictures for churches at Antwerp, and at other places in the Nether- lands. In portraiture alfo he was much employed, and he certainly advanced beyond his contemporaries, in the nature _ and truth which he gave to his produétions. His principal works in the cathedral of Antwerp, are the Marriage of Cana; the Incredulity of Thomas; the Miracle of the Loaves ; and the Refurreétion ; and a fine picture of his of the Laft Supper is in the church of St. James. He became a member of the academy at Antwerp in 1559, and died, at the age of 84, in 1604. He had a brother, Peter de Vos, who alfo painted hiftory, but whofe works are not much known ; a nephew alfo of his was a painter, William de Vos, who had confiderable talents, and gained much em- ployment and reputation. Vos, Paur pk, another painter of that name, but of a different family, was born at Aloft in 1600. His works of animals and birds are very much in the ftyle of Snyders, and are defervedly efteemed. There are many of them in the royal collection in Spain. Vos, Simon vz, born at Antwerp in 1643, was a pupil of Rubens, and became eminent as a painter both of hiltory and portraits. Some of his paintings in the churches of Antwerp have been miftaken for the produétion of his great mafter. Sir Jofhua Reynolds {peaks highly of his picture of St. Norbert receiving the Sacrament, in the church of St. Michel, in which he fays, “a great number of portraits are introduced extremely well painted,’ and afterwards commends him as a portrait-painter ; particu- larly {peaking of his own portrait in the poorhoufe of Ant- werp, painted by himfelf in black, leaning on the back of a chair, with a fcroll of blue paper in his hand, fo highly finifhed in the broad manner of Corregio, that nothing can exceed it. S. de Vos was living in 1662. VOSAVIA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Belgic Gaul, upon the route from Antunnacum to Mayence, be- tween Bontobrice and Bingium, according to the table of Peutinger. VOSGES, in Geography, a large chain of mountains, which formerly occupied the S.E. part of Lorrain, and now gives name to a department of France. It was for- merly covered with wood, and harboured abundance of -game and wild beatts, and has long been famous for mines of filver, copper, and lead. Vosces, one of the ten departments of the N.E. region of France, formerly the S. part of Lorrain, weft of Upper Rhine, in N. lat. 48° 15'; bounded on the N. by the de- partments of the Meufe, the Meurte, and the Lower Rhine, on the E. by the department of the Upper and Lower Rhine, on the S. by the department of the Upper Sadne, and on the W. by the department of the Upper Marne, containing 65224 kiliometres, or 3296 leagues, and 308,052 inhabitants. It comprehends 5 diltrifts, 30 cantons, and 550 communes. Its circles are Neufchateau, containing 55247 inhabitants; Mirecourt, 66,649; Epinal, the ca- pital, 62,592; St. Die, 75,298 ; and Ramiremont, 48,270. According to Haflenfratz, this department is 26 French leagues long, and 16 broad, and is divided into nine circles and communes, and contains 289,054 inhabitants. The contributions in the 11th year of the French era amounted to 1,839,254 fr., and the expences of adminiftration, of juftice, and of public inftru€tion, were 242,372 fr. VOSKRESENSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Mofcow ; 32 miles N.W. of Mofcow. N..lat. 56°. E. long. 36° 44’. VOSKRESENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- VOS ment of Pfkoy, on the Lovat; 20 miles N. of Cholm.— Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Peterfburg, on the E. coaft of lake Ladoga; 80 miles N.E. of Peterf- burg.—Alfo, atown of Ruflia, in the government of Upha3; 80 miles S. of Upha.—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the pro- vince of Uftiug, on the river Vitchegda; 28 miles S.W. of Yarenfk. VOSPOR, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Taurus; 112 miles E.S.E. of Perekop. N. lat. 45° 20!. E. long. 36° 26!. VOSPRESENSKOI, atown of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Vologda; 44 miles E. of T’otma. VOSSIUS, GeraArp Joun, in Biography, was born near Heidelberg in 1577, and perfeéted himfelf in the claffics, mathematics, philofophy, and theology, at Leyden. Availing himfelf of a copious library left him by his father, he became dire€tor of the college at Dordrecht, where he married twice, and had a numerous family, In 1614, he was appointed director of the college of Leyden, and afterwards profeffor of eloquence and chronology in the univerfity. By avowing himfelf favourable to the {entiments of the Remonttrants, he became obnoxious to the Gomarifts, and at the fynod in Ter- gou, in 1620, he was deprived of his profefforfhip ; but in con- {equence of the prevalence of Arminianifm in England, he obtained the office of prebend in the church of Canterbury. After his return to Holland, he accepted the chair of hiftory: in the {chola illuftris of Amfterdam in 1633, which he oc- cupied till his death in 1649, at the age of 72. The mott ufeful of his writings are two books in Greek and Latin poetry. Among his other works are ‘* De Origine Idola- trie ;’? ‘De Scientiis Mathematicis ;?? “De quatuor Artibus popularibus ;” ‘ Hiftoria Pelagiana ;’’ “ Inftitu- tiones Rhetorice, Grammatice, Poetice ;’? “ Etymologi- con Linguz Latin ;’? ‘« De Vitiis Sermonis ;”? “* De Phi- lofophorum Seétis.”” A colleétion of thefe were printed at Amtterdam, in 6 vols. fol. 1695.—1701. Moreri. This learned and laborious author, in his Theolo« gia Gentili,” and other works, frequently {peaks of mufic and has a diftnét chapter on the fubjeét in his treatife on the four popular arts, grammar, gymnaitics, mufic, and painting. Yet he tells us little concerning ancient or modern mutic after the time of Guido ; contenting himfelf with giving definitions of the terms ufed in the ancient mufic of the Greeks. He heaps quotation on quotation, telling us how highly the Greeks eftimated mufic; but attempts not to explain any of their do¢trines. Like Mr. Bryant, he tries to fhake our faith in what antiquity firmly believed. In writing “‘ De Art. Poet. Nat.’? cap. xiii. he doubts whether Orpheus, Mufzus, or Linus ever exifted ; and rather thinks that thefe ideal names are derived from the Pheenician language ufed by Cadmus and his defcendants. Vosstus, Isaac, younger fon of the preceding, was born at Leyden in 1618, and in confequence of his natural talents, and the advantage of education under his father, acquired early reputation among the learned. Queen Chriftina, pre- pofleffed by report in his favour, invited him to her court, and acquired under his inftruétion a knowledge of the Greek language. On the death of his father in 1649, he quitted the court of Chriftina, and employed himfelf in the com- pofition of various learned works. In 1670he vifited Eng- land, and received the degree of LL.D. at Oxford; and in 1673, he was prefented by Charles II. with a canonry of Windfor, and in this fituation he paffed the refidue of his days. His credulity led king Charles to fay of him, * that he would believe any thing but the Bible.”” When he was on his death-bed, he was vifited by Dr. Hafcard, dean of Windfor, who urged him to receive the facraments, if not for VOSs for the love of God, at leaft for the honour of the chapter : he replied, “I wifh you would inftruét me how to compel the farmers to pay what they owe me ; that is the fervice I defire of you at prefent.’”? Thus difpofed, he left the world in February, 1688, at the age of feventy. His very va- luable library was purchafed by the univerfity of Leyden. Of his numerous publications the moft important are the following : “ Periplus Scylacis Caryandenfis, et Anonymi Periplus ponti Euxini,” Gr. et Lat. cum notis, Amft. 1639, ato. “ Juftini Hiftoria cum Notis,’”” Leyd. 1640; “ Ignatii Epiftole et Barnabi Epiftola,”” Amit. 1646, 4to. ; “ Differ- tatio de vera /Etate Mundi ;’? “¢ Pomponius Mela de Situ Orbis,” Hage, Com. 1658 and 1659; ‘De Septuaginta Interpretibus eorumque Tranflatione et Chronologia Differ- tationes,’? 1661, in which he attempted to eftablifh the pre- ference of the chronology of the Septuagint to that of the Hebrew text ; which he defended in other traéts; ‘* De Poe- matum Cantu et Viribus Rhythmi,’? Oxon. 1675; ‘ De Sy- billinis aliifque que Chrifti natalem preceffere Oraculis,”’ ib. 1679; “ Variarum Obfervationum Liber,” Lond. 1685, ato. ; “ Catulli Opera cum Comment,” ib. 1684. Moreri. He was an enthufiaftic and redoubted champion for the mufic of the ancient Greeks, and from his belle Latinité and prejudices in its favour, is more frequently quoted by im- plicit believers in its perfe€tion, than any other modern who has treated the fubje&. Voffius, in his celebrated book “ De Poematum Cantu et Virib. Rhythmi,”’ publifhed 1675, Oxon., feems more ready to grant every poffible and impoffible excellence to the Greek muficians, than, when alive, they could have been to afk. None of the poetical fables, or mythological allego- ries, relative to the power and excellence of their mufic, put the leaft violence upon his credulity. A religious bigot, who infifts upon our {wallowing implicitly every thing, however hard of digeftion, is lefs likely to make converts to his opinions, than he who puts our faith to few trials ; and Voffius overcharged his creed fo much, that it is of no au- thority. He does not attribute the efficacy of the Greek and Roman mufic to the richnefs of its harmony, or the ele- gance, the fpirit, or pathos of its melody, but wholly to the force of rhythm. “As long,” fays he, p. 75, ‘as mufic flourifhed in this rhythmical form, fo long flourifhed that power which was fo adapted to excite and calm the paf- fions.”? According to this opinion there was no occafion for mellifluous founds, or lengthened tones ; a drum, cym- bal, or the violent ftrokes of the Curetes and Salii on their fhields, as they would have marked the time more articu- lately, fo they would have produced more miraculous effets than the fweeteft voice, or moft polifhed inftrument. In another place he tells us, that ‘ to build cities, furround them with walls, to aflemble or difmifs the people, to cele- brate the praifes of gods and men, to govern fleets and armies, to accompany all the funétions and ceremonies of peace and war, and to temper the human paffions, were the original offices of mufic: in fhort, ancient Greece may be faid to have been wholly governed by the lyre.” It appears from this paffage, and from the tenor of his whole book, that this author will not allow us to doubt of a fingle circumftance, be it ever fo marvellous, relative to the perfection and power of ancient mufic ; the probable and the improbable are equally articles of his belief; fo that with fuch a lively faith, it is eafy to imagine that he ranks it among mortal fins to doubt of the ancients having in- vented and practifed counterpoint ; and he confequently {peaks with the higheft indignation againft the moderns, for daring to deny that they were in poffeffion of a fmultaneous VY Ore harmony, though, according to him, they ufed it with fuch intelligence and difcretion, as never to injure the poetry by reser fhortening, or repeating words and fyllables at their pleafure, nor by that moft abfurd of all cuftoms, finging different words to feveral different airs at the fame time. This author’s remarks, however, on the little attention that was paid by the compofers of his time to profody, merit fome refpe&t. See RuyTHm. ‘ VOSTANI, in Geography, the middle of Egypt. VOSTERMAN, Joun, in Biography, was born at Bom- mel in 1643, the fon of a portrait-painter, who taught him the firft rudiments of defign, but afterwards he received the in- ftru€tions of Zachtleven. He became renowned for his inge- nuity and his vanity. At Paris he affumed the ftyle and title of baron, but foon found his honours were too dear to be fupported. He returned to his native country, and was employed by the marquis de Bethema to paint views on the Rhine, and alfo as a colle€tor of works of art. He came to England in the time of Charles II. and was engaged by the king to paint a view of Windfor ; but was not much em- ployed, and being extravagant, foon got into confinement, from which he was releafed by a contribution from his countrymen. He accompanied fir W. Soames on his miffion to Conftan- tinople, intending to take views of all the principal places by the way ; but fir W.dying on the road, his plan was broken up, and it is not known exaétly what became of him afterwards. The fcenery of his pi€tures is generally taken from the borders of the Rhine, and painted with chafte and agreeable colour, and admirable aerial perfpec- tive; and his figures and fmall boats are touched with {pirit and neatnefs. VOSTISSA, in Geography, a town and port of the Morea, containing 800 houfes, churches, and public edi- fices. This town was almoft entirely deftroyed by an earthquake, which took place on the 23d of Auguft, 1817, and 65 of the inhabitants perifhedin the ruins. Four villages in the neighbourhood were alfo deftroyed, and the cape at the mouth of the river Gaidouroupniati fell into the fea, after threwing up a thick fmoke. The fea, which at firft receded to a confiderable diftance, leaving the veffels in the harbour aground, returned with great violence, inundating the land to the extent of half a league. VOTE, or Voice. See Surrrace, and Voice. In the houfe of peers, they give their votes or fuffrages, beginning at the puifne, or loweft baron, and fo to the reft, feriatim, every one anfwering apart, content, or not content. In the houfe of commons, they vote by yeas and noes, promifcuoufly. See PARLIAMENT. Votes of the houfe of commons firft began to be printed by a refolution of the laft parliament of Charles IT. at Oxford, in 1681. VOTGINSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Uftiug, on the Sula; 40 miles S. of Uft Sifolk. ; VOTIAKS, or Votes, a tribe or nation of Finns, fituated in Ruffia, upon the river Vietka, in the govern- ments of Vietka and Ufa. They call themfelves Ud or Udi (feeming to be the fame with the Ruffian Vote), alfo Mord, i. e. Man or Udmord. As they live in a great de- gree fecluded from other people, their language continues to be a pure Finnifh diale@. They alfo {till retain their old diftribution into ftems, and give their villages additional names accordingly ; their noble families, however, are partly extin& divifion VOU extin& and partly mingled with the populace. ‘They were formerly under Tartar proteétion; but in changing their old mafters for the Ruffian fovereignty, they alfo quitted their paftoral life for the occupations of fettled hufbandry, and turned their tents into permanent houfes. Their num- ber is not inconfiderable : in the government of Ufa, there are about 15,000, and in that of Viztka, 30,000 males. Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. i. : VOTIVE Medals, are thofe on which the vows of the people for the emperors, or empreffes, are expreffed. The public vows, made every five, ten, or twenty years, are more often found round the edges of medals, than on the faces of it, at leaft under the weftern empire ; for in the eaftern the cafe is different: witnefs the medal of M. Aurelius the younger, where the reverfe reprefents the vows made at the time of his marriage, VoTA PuBLICA. Andon Greek medals, AHMOT EYXAI, which they fometimes exprefs by the two initial letters, A.E. according to F. Hardouin’s conjeGture, which may be admitted in cer- tain medals, where the AHM. Es. that is, AHMAPXIKHE EZOY2IA®, does not wellagree. Witnefs alfo the medal of Antonine, VOTA SUSCEPTA DECENNALIA. The origin of vows, and votive medals, is given by M. Du Cange thus; Auguftus feigning himfelf willing to quit the empire, and having twice, at the prayers of the fenate, condefcended to hold it for ten years longer, it grew into a cuftom to make frefh public prayers, facrifices, and games, for his continuing it, at the ten years’ end; and thefe they called decennalia, or vota decennalia. Under the eaftern emperors, thefe vows were repeated every five years: hence it is, that, after Dioclefian’s time, we find on medals votis v. xv. &c. which practice continued till the time of Theodofius, when Chriftianity being well eftablifhed, a ceremony that had fome remains of heathenifm in it was fet afide. So that the voris MULTIS, on a medal of Majorianus, muft be a very different thing ; and no other, doubtlefs, than a kind of acclamation, like that PLURA NATALIA FELICITER. Votive Mafs. See Mass. VOTOKLI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ; 25 miles N.W. of Funai. VOTOMITA, in Botany, from Votomit, the Indian name of the tree, Aubl. Guian. go. t. 35. Jufl. Gen. 382. See Grossoma. . VOTUM, Vow. See Vow. Vorum, in our Ancient Law Books, is ufed for nuptia, or marriage: fo, dies votorum'is the wedding-day, Feta, lib. iv. cap. 2. part 16. ‘¢ Si donatarius ad alia vota convo- laverit, &c.”? See MARRIAGE. VOUACAPOUDA, in Botany, the Caribbean name of a tree in Aublet’s fupplement, p. 10. t. 373, thought by that author the fame as the Andira, or Angelin, of Pifo and Marcgraye, in their hiltories of Brafil, p. 81. of the for- mer, and roo. of the latter. Juffieu, in his Gen. Pl. 363, feems to think both very near to Grorrrma, fee that article. Aublet defcribes his plant as a very lofty tree, whofe trunk is 60 feet, or more, in height, and two feet, at leaft, in diameter. The wood is yellowifh-white, deep red at the heart, which turns black in drying. ‘The head is formed of numerous branches, {preading every way, with alternate, ftalked, pinnate /eaves, compofed of from two to four pair of ovate, pointed, entire leaflets, with an odd one, all finely downy beneath, about four inches long and two broad. Svipulas in pairs, deciduous. Aublet could never meet with the flowers. The fruit grows in large clutters, being an obovate bivalve cap/ule, or perhaps legume, flefhy VOU when young, dry, but thick and firm, when ripe ; externally downy ; reddifh within. Seed folitary, large, oval, with a thin brown {kin ; its cotyledons firm, whitifh, bitter. The wood is very hard and durable, much ufed in building and fences. ‘The heart is employed in cabinet-work, and ferves even to make peftles and mortars. VOUAH, in Commerce, along meafure at Siam, in the Eaft Indies; which is one inch fhorter than the French toife, and therefore meafures 6 feet 33 inches Englihh. Two foks make 1 ken; two kens 1 vouah; 20 vouahs 1 fen; 100 fens, or 2000 vouahs, here make 1 league, called roeneng, which is 4204 Englifh yards, or 24 miles nearly. VOUAPA, in Botany, a Caribbean name, Aubl. Guian. 25. t. 7,8. See Macro.tosium, VOUARANA, a Caribbean name, Aubl. Guian. fuppl. 12. t. 374, a tree whofe flowers have not come under the infpe¢tion of botanifts, but whofe fruit is an inverfely heart-fhaped, bivalve cap/ule, with two cells, and a feedin each, which is round and {mooth. It appears to belong to Juf- fieu’s order of Sapindi ; but whether moft nearly akin, as he fuppofes, to OrniTropHE, (fee that article, ) or to any other genus, we want materials to decide. The tree is of a mo- derate fize, with large alternately pinnate leaves. VOUCH. A perion is faid to wouch for another, when he undertakes to maintain, or warrant him in any thing, or paffes his word in his behalf. In law, to vouch, is to call fucha perfon, or vouchee, into court, to make good his warrant. VOUCHEE, a perfon who is to warranty, or vouch for another, who, in refpec&t hereof, is called voucher. See VoucHer and WarRRANTY. VOUCHER, in Law, the tenant in a writ of right, who calls another perfon into court, bound to warranty him, and either to defend his right againft the demandant, or to yield him other lands, &c. to the value. ‘ This feems in fome meafure to agree to the contrat in the civil law, by which the vendee binds the vendor, fometimes in the fimple value of the things bought, fometimes in the double, to warrant the fecure enjoying of the thing bought. Yet there is this difference between the civil and common law, in this point, that the civil law binds every man to war-. rant the fecurity of that which he felleth ; which the com- mon law doth not, unlefs it be {pecially covenanted. The procefs, by which the vouchee is called, is a /um- moneas ad warrantifandum; and if the fheriff return upon that writ, that the party hath nothing by which he may be fummoned, then goes out another writ, called JSequatur fub fuo periculo. A recovery with a fingle voucher, is when there is but one voucher ; and with a double voucher, is when the youchege voucheth over, and fo a treble voucher. There is alfo a foreign voucher, when the tenant impleaded in a particular jurifdiGion, voucheth one to warranty in fome other county, out of the jurifdiCtion of that court, and prays he may be fummoned, &c. This were more perti- nently called a voucher of a foreigner. Voucuer alfo fignifies a ledger-book, or book of ac- compts, in which are entered the warrants for the accompt- ant’s difcharge. VOUDSE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas; 140 miles W. of Medina. VOVES, a town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Janyille. VOUET, Simon, in Biography, an eminent painter of the French fchool, born at Paris in 1582, was the fon of Lawrence Vouet, a painter of little celebrity. When he was about twenty years old, he accompanied the baron de Sanfy VOU Sanfy to Conftantinople, where he painted from recollec- tion the picture of the grand feignior. On his return he ftaid at Rome, and obtained the patronage of pope Urban VIII. and his nephew the cardinal, by whom he was em- ployed in St. Peter’s, and the Barberini palace. Here he refided 14 years, and was ele¢ted head of the academy of St. Luke in 1624. Louis XIII. appointed him, on his return to Paris in 1627, his principal painter ; and employed him munificently in moft of his palaces. He alfo painted piftures for many churches in Paris. He died there in 1641. Vouet at firft was careful and rich in his defigns and his execution; but as his engagements increafed in number, he adopted a ftyle flimfy and even carelefs; fluttered in the parts, and without grandeur in the conception. He is the father of the French fchool before the revolution, and cor- rupted the art by its delufive facility. He was the teacher of Le Brun, Mignard, and others, but had more honour in having trained Le Sueur to the praétice of art ; who, ne- verthelefs, had the fenfe to aim at the tafte of defign feen in the works of Raffaelle rather than in thofe of his matter. VOUGA, in Geography, a town. of Portugal, in the province of Beira, on a river of the fame name; 10 miles E.N.E. of Aveiro.—Alfo, ariverof Portugal, which rifes about 15 miles N.E. of Vifeu, and runs into the Atlantic, 5 miles N. of Aveiro, forming a large bay at its mouth, full of iflands. VOU-HOUCI, acity of China, of the fecond rank, in Kiang-nan 5 532 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 31° 22/. E. long. 117° 29!. VOUILLE, atown of France, in the department of the Vienne. In 507, near this town, Clovis, king of France, obtained a victory over the Vifigoths, in which their king Alaric was flain; 8 miles N.W. of Poitiers. VOULTE, La, a town of France, in the department of the Ardéche ; 11 miles S.S.W. of Valence: VOUNEUIL sur Vienne, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 12 miles N.N.E. of Poitiers. VOURA, a river of European Turkey, which fepa- rates Theflaly from Albania, and runs into the gulf of Arta. VOURLA, a fea-port of Afiatic Turkey, in Nato- lia, on the feite of Clazomene, one of the twelve cities of Ionia. It is built on two eminences, one pofleffed by the Turks, the other by Chriftians, who have about 500 houfes and two churches. The harbour is about a league from the town. The archbifhop of Ephefus refides here about three months of the year; there are but very {mall appearances of its ancient grandeur ; 20 miles W. of Smyrna. N. lat. 38° 24'. E. long. 26° 4o!. VOURLOTES, a town of the ifland of Samos; 4 miles N.E. of Carlovafii. VOUSSOIR, Vaurt-stonr, or Key-/lone, in Architec- ture, a ftone proper to form the fweep of an arch, being cut fomewhat in the manner of a truncated cone, whofe fides, were they prolonged, would terminate in a centre, to which all the ftones of the vault are direéted. See Key and VAULT. VOUTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ardéche, on the right fide of the Rhone ; 18 miles N. of Viviers. Voutr, La, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Loire ; 9 miles S. of Brioude. VOUTEZAT, atown of France, in the department of the Correze ;.9 miles N.W.of Brive. YOUTIN, ariver of China, which rifes in Chinefe Tar- 7t VOw tary, and runs into the Hoang, 25 miles S.E. of Soui-te, in Chen-fi. VOU-TING, or Ou-kuen, a city of China, of the fe- cond rank, in Yun-nan; 1145 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 25° 34’. E. long. 102° 2o0!. Vou-TING, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-tong ; 162 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 35/. E. long. 117° 19). ; VOUVANT, a town of France, in the department of the Vendée ; 6 miles N.N.E. of Fontenay le Comte.. VOUVRAY, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire ; 4 miles E. of Tours. VOUX, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Marne; 11 miles E. of Nemours. VOUZAILLES, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 12 miles N.E. of Poiétiers. VOUZIERS, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the Ardennes ; 5 pofts S.W. of Stenay. N. lat. 49° 23/. E. long. 4° 42!. VOW, Vorum, a folemn promife, or offering of a man’s felf, or other thing, to God. A perfon is conftituted a religious, by taking three vows, that of poverty, that of chaftity, and that of obe- dience. Authors are divided as to the antiquity of thefe vows. It is agreed, the ancient anchorets, and hermits of the The- baid, made none; they did not confecrate themfelves to God by any indiffoluble obligation, but were at liberty to quit their retirement, and return into the world, whenever the fervour, that drove them out of it, came to abate. Vows were not introduced till long after; and that to fix the too frequent inconftancy of fuch as, after retiring from the world, repented themfelves too foon, or too flightly ; and by that means feandalized'the church, and difturbed the quiet of families by their return. Erafmus will have it, that folemn vows were not intro- duced till the thirteenth century, under the pontificate of Boniface VIII. Others hold them to be as ancient as the council of Chalcedon: but the truth is, before Boniface VIII. there were none but fimple vows, and fuch as might be difpenfed withal. ‘Their vows, till that time, were not deemed eternal chains ; they were not indiffoluble. It is true, they were obligatory promifes, as to confcience ; and the inconitancy of fuch as violated them was held an odious defertion : but, as to the law, the perfons were not held to be civilly dead, fo as, upon their return, to render them in- capable of all adts of civil fuciety. The moft common vow was that of poverty, but this only regarded the convent; on account of which, every perfon divefted himfelf of all property: but the making of vows did not at all exclude them from the rights of blood, or render them incapable of inheriting. No religious, it is true, acquired the property of the effects that fell to him; they all belonged to the monaftery, in favour of which he had divefted himfelf of every thing ; and the monaftery only left him the ufufruit and dire@tion of them. The popes have frequently confirmed this privi- lege to divers orders, and permitted the monks to in- herit, as much as if they were feculars, and had made no vows. At prefent, the civil death of a religious is dated from the day he makes the vows; and from that time he is utterly in- capable of inheriting. A religious may reclaim, or protett againft his vows within five years; but, after that, it is” no longer admitted. The failures in the profeffion are efteemed to be purged, by his filence and perfeverance for five years. Indeed, to be relieved from his vows, it is not enough VOW enough the party reclaim within the five years; but he muft likewife prove that he was forced to take the habit. Vows, Vota, among the Romans, fignify facrifices, offer- ings, prefents, and prayers, made for the emperors and Cz- fars, particularly for their profperity, and the duration of their empire. _Thefe were, at firft, made every five years, then every fif- teen, and then every twenty, called guinguennalia, decennalia, and vicennalia. In divers antique medals and infcriptions, we read, Vot. X. Wot. XX. Vot. mult. fignifying votis decennalibus, vicen- nalibus, multis, &c. See DECENNALIA. Vows, in a moral and religious fenfe, are promifes to God ; and therefore, according to archdeacon Paley, the obligation cannot be made out upon the fame principle as that of other promifes. The violation of them, neverthelefs, implies a want of reverence to the Supreme Being ; which is fufficient to make it finful. There appears no command or encou- ragement in the Chriftian {eriptures to make vows ; much lefs any authority to break through them when they are made. The few inftances of vows which occur in the New Teftament were religioufly obferved. (See Ads, Xvili. 18. xxi. 23.) The rules that pertain to promifes are applicable to vows. ‘Thus Jephthah’s vow, taken in the fenfe in which that tranfa€tion is commonly underftood, was not binding ; becaufe the performance, in that contingency, be- came unlawful. From this and other inftances, it appears that rafh vows are not only imprudent, but culpable. See PRomisE. VOWEL, Voca is, in Grammar, a letter which affords a complete found of itfelf, or a letter fo fimple, as only to need a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and to form a diftin& voice. Such are a, e, i, 0, u; which are called vocales, vowels, in contradiftin@tion to certain other letters, which, depend- ing on a particular application of fome part of the mouth, as the teeth, lips, or palate, can make no perfe&t found with- out an opening of the mouth, that is, without the addition of a vowel ; and are therefore called confonants. Though we ordinarily only reckon five vowels, yet, befides that each of thefe may be either long or fhort, which occa- fions a confiderable variety in the found ; if we confider only their differences refulting from the different apertures of the mouth, we might add four or five more vowels to the number. For the e open, and the e clofe, are different enough to make two vowels, as in fea, and depth; fo alfo the o open, and o clofe, in hoff, and organ. Add, that the xz pronounced ow, as the Latins did, and as the Italians and Spaniards ftill do, has a very different found from the u, as pronounced by the Greeks, and, as at this day, by the Englifh and French. Again, eo, in people, make but one fimple found, though we write it with two vowels. Laftly, the ¢ mute is, originally, no more than a furd joined to a confonant, when that is to be pronounced with- out a vowel, as when it is immediately followed by other confonants. This is what the Hebrews call /cheva, efpe- cially when it begins the fyllable: and this /eheva is found in all languages, though overlooked in many of them, parti- eularly in the Englifh, Latin, &c. by reafon it has no pro- per chara¢ter to denote it; though, in fome of the vulgar tongues, particularly French and High Dutch, it is exprefled by the vowel e adding its found to the reft. Thus, without regarding the differences of the fame found or vowel, as to length or fhortnefs, one may diftinguifh ten feveral vowels, exprefled by the following characters, a, e, &y iy 0, Gy €Uy Ou, u, e Mute. To thefe we may add 4, which, as the learned Dr. Lowth VoL. XXXVII. UPE obferves, is formed by the opening of the mouth, without any motion or contaét of the parts, and has every property of a vowel, and not one of a confonant. Lowth’s Gram. p- 20. n. 1. _ Mr. Sheridan, who makes the number of fimple founds in our language to be twenty-eight, reckons nine vowels, Ma Dia, wayt ies BMS? Jo, GEN 35) | mud viz. hall, hat, hate, beer, note, noofe, bet, fit, but. Rhet. Gram. p. 9. VoweL-Points, in the Hebrew Language. See Vowel- Points. VOX, in Law. Vocem non habere, is a-phrafe ufed by Bracton and Fleta for an infamous perfon ; one who is not admitted to be a witnefs. Vox Humana, Lat., Voix Humaine, Fr., a ftop in the organ; thus named from its being an imitation of the human voice. It is a reed ftop, in unifon with the open diapafon : it is a fhort metal pipe, of a wide globular form at the top, refembling a human mouth. This is a celebrated ftop in the famous organ at Haerlem; in hearing which we were fomewhat difappointed, as it does not at all refemble a hu- man voice, though a very good {top of the kind. But the world is very apt to be impofed upon by names. The in- ftant a common hearer is told that an organift is playing upon a {top that refembles a human voice, he fuppofes it to be very fine, and never inquires into the propriety of the name, or exa¢tnefs of the imitation. However, with re- {peé&t to our own feelings, we muft confefs, that of all the ftops which we have yet heard, that have been honoured with the appellation of vox humana, no one, in the treble part, has ever reminded us of any thing human, fo much as the cracked voice of an old woman of ninety; or, in the lower notes, of Punch finging through a comb. VOXTORP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ; 29 miles N.W. of Wexio. VOYAGE, denotes a journey by fea. VOYAL, a large rope formerly ufed to unmoor or heave up the anchor of a fhip, by tranfmitting the effort of the capitan to the cable; but moftly ufed when the fore-jeer capftan was employed for this purpofe. ‘I'he voyal reeved through a large block lafhed to the main-maft, and then communicated to the fore-jeer capftan: but meflengers are now chiefly ufed inftead of it. VoyaL, Shifting the. See SHIFTING. VOZ, in Geography, a lake of Ruffia, in the province of Novgorod, about 60 miles in circumference. N. lat. 60° 30'. E. long. 38° 54!. VOZGA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Noy- gorod, near lake Voz; 48 miles N.N.E. of Bielozerfk. VOZIA, a town of European Turkey, in Beffarabia, on the Black fea; 26 miles W. of Otchakov. VOZNESENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, on the Angara 5 20 miles N.N.W. of Irkutfk. UPA, a river of Ruffia, which nifes near Epiphan, pafles by Tula, and runs into the Oka, near Lichvin, in the go- vernment of Kaluga. UPAIX, a town of France, in the department of the Higher Alps; 11 miles S.E. of Serres. UPANEMA, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Ailantic, S. lat. 4° 30!. W. long. 37° 32!. UPATCHAWANAN, or TemiscAMaAin, ment in Canada. N. lat. 47° 17. UPBO, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 20 miles S.S.E. of Fahlun. UPELLA, a town’of Hindooftan, in Golconda; 1$ miles N.N.W. of Warangole. 3Q a fettle- UPELLA WPS Urrita Chanderaghery, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol- conda; 16 miles N. of Warangole. UPENDRA, a name of the Hindoo deity Vifhnu. (See Visunu.) It has been fuppofed to imply inferiority to Endra, or Indra, the regent of the firmament. See INDRA. ; UPHA, in Geography, 2 town of Ruffia, and capital of a government, on the Bielaia; 452 miles W.S.W. of To- bolfk. N. lat. 54° 35/. E. long. 56° 2'—Alfo, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Bielaia, at Upha. UPHIMSKOI, a-government of Ruflia, of a triangular form, bounded on the north by the governments of Perm aud Viatka; on the weft by the governments of Caucafus, Saratov, Simbirfk, and Kazan, the part immediately fouth by the Cafpian fea, and the part immediately eaft by the government of Tobolfk; to the north it extends from eaft to weft about 440 miles, and to the fouth from eaft to weft only 64; weltward from north to fouth it meafures about 520, eaftward only 160. In this government is a famous mine of falt, fituated near the river Ilek. The falt of this pit is moft beautiful, and of the beft quality. It is taken from a kind of rock about four verfts from the river. The length of the rock is 800 fathoms, and the breadth about 500. It is fo folid, that it has not yet been poffible to found it. With a miner’s wimble, however, they have penetrated to the depth of 27 fathoms; but time and inftruments have not afcertained a complete knowledge of the depth of this mafs. From 1784 till 1787, more than 30,000,000 pounds of falt were taken from this rock, and tranfported into dif- ferent parts of the empire, by the Volga, the Bielaia, and the Kama. This falt is fold in the country at 25 or 30 co- pecks the pood, which is about a halfpenny the Englifh pound. It is calculated that this pit may yet furnifh falt for near two centuries, fuppofing the depth to be no greater than it is already known to be. In order to render the working more produétive, and lefs expenfive, the govern- ment has lately made an agreement with fome Coflacks, who are to dig 50,000 poods a year, and tranfport them to the magazines of Orenburg. There are in the neighbourhood of this pit fome very deep lakes of falt water, to which great virtue is afligned by the Kirghis, and in which they bathe of their own accord, when afflicted with the leait difeafe. Their phyficians, who have had an opportunity of judging of thefe baths, all agree, that they are good for all pedi- cular difeafes. There is one aftonifhing circumftance at- tending thefe waters, namely, that their furface is as cold as ice, while the deeper you plunge, the warmer you be- come; at the bottom it is faid no perfon can flay more than two or three feconds. N. lat. 47° to 56°. E. long. 50° to 64°. UPHOLDER is ufed in the fame fenfe with under- taker, as the denomination of a tradef{man who provides for funerals. Urnotper, or Upholflerer, denotes alfo a perfon who furnifhes houfes, fitting up apartments with beds, and other furniture. See Appraiser and Bep. UPIERCWIZA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania ; 3 miles E. of Minfk. UPINGE, a kind of fong confecrated to Diana by the Greeks. Roufleau. UPINISHAD, or Upanisnan, in Hindoo Literature, is the title of a portion of their {cripture comprifed in the Veda. Each Veda contains feveral portions, bearing this common denomination. On thefe Upanifhads the whole of the Indian theology, efpecially the Vedanta theory, is pro- fefledly founded. See Vepa and Vepanta. The proper meaning of the word Upanifhad, according UgP¥L to Mr. Colebrooke (Af. Ref. vol. viii. art. 8.), is © divine {cience, or the knowledge of God; and it is equally appli- cable to theology itfelf, and to a book in which this fcience istaught. The fenfe properly deducible from its etymology invariably points to the knowledge of the divine perfeétions, and to the confequent attainment of beatitude, through ex- emption from paffions.”? The word, by fome writers, has been thought to mean fomething hidden or myfterious ; but Mr. Colebrooke fays, that ‘ neither the etymology nor acceptation of the word has any direét conneGtion with the idea of fecrecy, conceal- ment, or myttery.’”’ (Ib.) It feems rather indeed to mean revelation. In the curious article above referred to, a lift of the Upanifhads is given; with much important and intereft- ing information refpeéting them, and the extraordinary vo- lumes through which they are interfperfed. An extraé& from it is given under our article Munt. UPLAND, in Geography, a province of Sweden, bounded on the north by the gulf of Bothnia, on the eaft by the Baltic, on the fouth by the Melar lake, and on the weit by Weftmanland ; about 75 miles in length from north to fouth, and where wideft, 55 from eaft to weft. It is fertile in corn, and the lakes and rivers abound in fifh. Some of the beft iron-mines of Sweden are found in this province. Stockholm jis fituated in Upland. Urranp, or Upland Paftures, in Agriculture, all fuch land and paftures as are fituated in a high elevation, or which are much expofed in confequence of the height to which they are raifed above the other furrounding grounds, Such land and paftures are moftly found particularly ufeful in fome forts of hufbandry and farming, as thofe of the fheep kind, as they are commonly hard, firm, and dry, during the winter and more wet feafons of the year, when this fort of ftock is moft in danger in many fituations. In the northern parts of the ifland, the extenfive highland tracts of thefe lands and paftures are for the moft part con- verted to the purpofe of fheep-walks ; in which management. they are fuppofed by many to be by far the moft advan- tageous. But fome have lately fuggefted that black cattle and planting may be combined with thefe, fo as to afford a ftill greater benefit. The Rev. Mr. Singers, in an able effay in the third volume of the Tranfactions of the High- land Society of Scotland, has remarked on the upland and pafture fheep-farming of that diftri€t, that ‘ it has not yet been clearly afcertained what effets the introdu@ion of fheep hufbandry into the Highlands has really. produced, or how far that mode of farming ought to be carried,”’ or is proper ; neither has it been accurately determined, it is faid what forts of fheep are adapted to the refpective fheep-walks in that extenfive tra&t of upland and pafture. It is a point, too, ftill undecided, how far fheep and black cattle are con- fiftent as joint or feparate ftocks, on the fame upland farm ; and which of them is entitled to the preference, to a certain extent ; or whether the proper extent can be pointed out. Doubts alfo are entertained in refpeé to foreft trees, how far it is proper to attend to the rearing of them, on farms producing fheep as the ftaple article; and that a fimilar queition has been put, whether it is profitable to cultivate any part of the foil, when flocks of fheep are fed in the neighbourhood, and under the difadvantages of a climate very moift and uncertain ? It is fuppofed that thefe points lie at the foundation of the profperity of the upland or Highland traéts of the country ; and that, of courfe, they are clofely conneéted with the general profperity of the Britifh empire: it will confequently be admitted, that every thing is of importance which may tend to throw a ray of light upon any one of them. UPLAND. them. In this intention, this view of a comprehenfive fyf- tem of hufbandry, which has been had recourfe to with great fuccefs by intelligent individuals, in a foil and climate greatly refembling thofe of the uplands and paftures of the Highlands ; fheep, it is faid, are unqueftionably to be confidered as the ftaple {tock over the Highlands of Scot- land ; but to rear fheep as the fole produce of the foil is, it is thought, an error of the worft kind. It was naturally to be expected, that when fheep were introduced upon thefe uplands, and found to be a fafe and profitable fort of ftock, they would probably go too far, before the true balance fhould be found. But it is capable of being eftablifhed, it is faid, on reafon and clear teftimony, that woods, cattle, and cultivation, judicioufly managed, are friendly to fheep, on fuch uplands, in the higheft degree ; while the folid in- terefts, comforts, and benefits of fociety are greatly pro- moted by a proper intermixture of them all in fuch cafes. The effets of fheep-farming on thefe uplands are, it is obferved, firft, a great rife in the rents, which is not, how- ever, to be wholly imputed to fheep, but many other canfes. The true light in which the fuperiority of fheep, in fuch cafes, is to be confidered, is, it is faid, that by means of them a farmer can pafture a large extent of inacceffible grafs land, not fafe for black cattle ; that he can maintain a ftock, with lefs danger of heavy loffes by famine, in winter and fpring ; and that fheep, as a ftock, are managed at lefs ex- pence, and are more marketable than any other. It is con- ceded indeed, that, by means of goats, the moft rugged pafturage might be confumed; but thefe animals, in point of flefh, as well as coat, would be a wretched fubftitute for fheep in fuch cafes, in any market whatever. It muft be allowed by all, that a ftock of fheep enables the farmer to occupy a larger portion of the foil than he could do by a flock of black cattle; that fheep, too, are more adapted to the greater part of an extenfive and rugged upland farm than any fort of black cattle; that a fuller ttock of them may be fafely put on the grounds, without incurring fo much rifk of famine; and that no ftock is eafier managed, or more mar- ketable. Thefe are important confiderations ; and they are decifive in favour of fheep, as the principal article, it is fup- pofed, over the uplands of the Highlands, that a farm can produce. ' Secondly, a valuable fupply of wool has been furnifhed the country, from the upland paftures of the Highlands; that though moft of fuch wool is coarfe, and that wool has not declined in price in confequence of this large acceffion to the trade, it muft be remembered that coarfe wool was the ar- ticle moft wanted by manufaGurers; and alfo, that many large upland traéts of the Highlands are well adapted to rear fine wool, when the farmers fhall find it their intereft to follow that plan. And in regard to the increafed price of wool, it may be afked, it is faid, what muft have been the prices, or where the manufaCturers mutt have looked for it, if there had not been any raifed on the uplands of the High- lands of late years? Probably, it is fuppofed, the diftin- guifhed fuccefs of that capital branch, the woollen trade, may have depended in no {mall degree on the vaft fupplies of wool from that quarter. - Thirdly, the reduction of the numbers of black cattle mutt inevitably, it is believed, follow the introdution of fheep, and alfo the reduétion of the extent of cultivated grounds. But tt does not of neceffity, it is faid, follow, that black cattle and culture fhould be altogether abandoned. There is a good medium in thefe matters, it is fuppofed, which is fafer than either extreme. To people not well acquainted with the economy of a produétive fyftem, embracing fheep as the principal article, and a proper number of cattle, and extent of cultivation, it may appear to be the eafieft ex- pedient to lay the whole of their farms into fheep-wattes but more experienced farmers would, it is thought, {mile at the pretence which want of fkill has fo often advanced for going into this moft injudicious extreme ; well knowing that every intelligent ftore-mafter calculates.on rendering his fheep much better, and infuring their fafety in a greater de- gree, by means of judicious cultivation. It is therefore to be obferved, that the banifhment.of black cattle and of cul- ture out of the upland fheep-farms in the Highlands are effe€ts which do not neceffarily follow the introduction of fheep, but have arifen from an inconfiderate extreme, the refult of error and want of experience in the eftablifhed modes of fheep management, efpecially on fuch uplands. Fourthly, depopulation is the worft effet, it is faid, which has followed the introduétion of fheep hufbandry on the up- lands and paftures in the Highlands. It is, however, un- deniably the fa&t, that fuch an effect has been produced, and that to a great extent. But it cannot be fo readily ad- mitted, it is thought, that this effe€t was neceflarily con- neted with the fheep hufbandry ; for it arofe more properly from the total negle& of culture, and of black cattle, than from the change of ftocks. It is afked, if we find that the fheep ftocks of England, or of the fouth of Scotland, necef- farily occafion depopulation? If a due proportion were maintained on fuch lands of the Highlands, between fheep and other important articles, fuch as cattle, corn, green crops, and inclofures and plantations of trees, to fay no- thing of the fifheries, the roads, and other public matters, employment would, it is fuppofed,’ be furnifhed for the in- habitants, at leaft as ample and produétive as they ever pof- fefled, when black cattle were their ftock, and a proportion of goats, inflead of fheep, But the truth is, it is faid, that unfortunate circumftances of a complicated nature com- bined in depopulating the Highlands, when fheep were in- troduced, as are fully fhewn in the Effay, to which we muit refer the reader. Still, however, the fheep fyftem is thought to be right upon thefe uplands ; and though it may have gone to an ex- treme, it was what was to be dreaded and expected. To that extreme, and not to the nature of the ftock introduced, ought, it is fuppofed, to be imputed moft of the evils com- plained of ; while the beneficial effects of fheep hufbandry on fuch uplands appear to be neceffarily conneéted with it, and therefore to give it a fteady and well-founded fuperi- ority. The evils of it may, it is thought, be obviated or countera¢ted by judicious management ; and that fheep, as the principal article of produce, are entitled to an evident preference over the whole of the uplands and pattures of the Highlands; but that, at the fame time, it is unwife and im- politic in every view to make them the fole produce on the lands. In thefe upland traéts nature feems, it is faid, to have laid out extenfive fheep-walks on almoft every farm ; and that as it is found that fheep are the fafeft ftock, the moft eafily and cheaply managed, having accefs to the largeft part of the paftures, and always marketable and produé¢tive to the farmer, it is undeniable, the writer fuppofes, that they fhould be reared as the main article of farm produce throughout the upland traéts of the Highlands. But it can never be admitted, it is thought, by any man of fenfe, that this immenfe diftri& fhould be turned wholly into a fheep- waite. Other articles of produce fucceed as well as fheep, and fhould be reared to a proper extent: fome are eflential to the comforts, and even fubfiftence of the inhabitants ; while they return as ample profits as fheep, and are of ex- ceedinghy great value to the fheep-(tocks ; not to mention 3Q2 theiy WP their importance in other refpeéts. If the fheep hufbandry of thefe traéts, inftead of engrofling all the attention of the farmers, and all the foil, were to be confidered as the chief article, but at the fame time intermixed with a due propor- tion of black cattle, of corn, and of green crops; and if proprietors would alfo introduce into the fyftem judicious plantations of foreft trees, incalculable advantages would certainly, it is thought, be obtained. This beautiful fyf- tem, it is faid, is not ideal. It is found by experience to be admiffible in every point of view ; comfort, beauty, and profit, going hand in hand. The ite advantages of black cattle, the culture of corn and green crops, and the planting of foreft trees, in connection with fheep, on thefe uplands and paftures, are then particularly pointed out and explained, when the writer fuggefts the proper fort of management for the fheep and the black cattle that fhould be purfued in fuch cafes, and Shews the comparative value of each in a very clear manner ; concluding by obferving, that all thefe branches are mu- tually fubfervient to each other: all of them are adapted, each on its own feale, to the climate and the foil of the country ; and that they all contribute to the folid comforts and pro- {perity of the people in all ftations, the proprietors, the farmers, and the people at large. Thefe upland tracts are laid out, it is faid, for pafturage by the hand of nature, and fheep are the true ftaple: but the country is likewife na- turally laid out for every part of the mixed hufbandry that has been advifed above ; all the neceffary materials abound- ing ; and every part, like the links of a golden chain; being conneéted with, and depending on one another. Cattle alone are not, and cannot, it is faid, be a fafe ftock ; fheep reared exclufively turn all into a wafte. Trees, if fuffered to overfpread the country, would convert it into a wilder- nefs ; and cropping on a large fcale is more than hazardous, it is impraCticable. The mixed fyftem is, therefore, the moft proper and beneficial for fuch tracts, in many different points of view. See the paper. In fome of the fouthern parts of the kingdom, too, the uplands and paftures are found very beneficial in the fup- porting of fheep-ftock. In the Romney-Marfh fyftem of fheep management, it is the ufual praétice to fend the lamb- ftock in the beginning of the autumn, in vaft quantities, to be fupported and kept by the hill or upland farmers in the neighbourhood, through the winter, which is found to anf{wer well under proper care and attention. In the South-Down, and other upland diftri€ts, the high grounds and paftures are likewife moftly occupied with fheep as a principal ftock, to the greateft advantage. See SHEEP. The uplands and paftures in many parts of the country are, however, in a very indifferent and unprofitable ftate, from the want of fuitable manuring, feeding, and ftocking, whatever may be the purpofe to which they are applied. See Pasture and Pasture-Land. UPLOPER, a name given to one particular fpecies of pigeon, called by Moore, columba gutturofa faliens. It was firft brought to England from Holland, and much refembles that kind of pigeon called the Englifh powter, but that it is {maller. Its crop is very round, and in this it buries its bill. Its legs are very fmall and flender, and its toes are fhort, and clofe together, on which it treads fo nicely, that when moving, any {mall thing might be put under the ball of its foot. The pigeons of this fpecies are eenerally all blue, all black, or all white; feldom or never pyed. They are very fearce in England, and in Holland have been valued at five and twenty guineas a pair. They have their name from the Dutch word oplopen, 10 Ui Pe: * which fignifies to leap up, and it was thus named from its manner of approaching the hen, which is always by leaping upon her. Moore’s Columbarium, p. 67. UPNOR Casrzz, in Geography, a fortrefs of England, in the county of Kent, on the left bank of the Medway, near Chatham. UPPARAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Rajamundry ; 30 miles E. of Rajamundry. UPPER Descx, in a Ship, the higheft of thofe decks which are continued throughout the whole of a fhip of war, or merchantman, without any interruption of fteps or irre- gular afcents. Uprer-Breadth Sweeps, in Ship-Building, the centre of which is in the line reprefenting the upper height of breadth of the timber. This fweep, defcribed upwards, forms the lower part of the top-timber. See SxHip-BUILDING. Uerer Height of Breadth, the upper curved line on the fheer plan, defcribing the greateft height of the main-breadth or broadeft part of the fhip at each timber. See Suir- BUILDING. Upper Strake, in Boats, a ftrake thicker than thofe of the bottom, wrought round the gunwale. Uprer Works, im Naval Archite@ure, a general name given to all that part of a fhip which is above the furface of the water when fhe is properly balanced for a fea voyage: or it is that part which is feparated from the bottom by the main wale. Uprer Hemifphere, Ocean, Polar Dial, and Region. See the fubftantives. Upper Slope of a Canal, is the face of the bank K P ( Plate 1. Canals, fig. 3.) in fide-laying ground ; or A B and K P (fg. 6.) in deep-cutting. Urrer Lake, in Geography, a lake of Ireland, in the county of Kerry, 4 miles from Lough Lane, with which it communicates by a river, which runs between Tore moun- tain and Gleenaa mountain. UPPINGHAM, a market-town in the hundred of Martinfley and county of Rutland, England, is fituated 6 miles S. by E. from Oakham, and 89 miles N.N.W. from London. It is confidered as the fecond town in the county, and in fome refpects fuperior to Oakham, the county-town : the ftreets are well paved ; the houfes, which in general are well built, are difpofed in the form of a fquare, with one long ftreet leading to the weft end. The church, which {tands on the fouth fide of the fquare, has a lofty fpire, and the church-yard commands an extenfive profpe&: it alfo contains fome well-executed monuments, particularly one of the date of 1653, in honour of Everard Fawkener, efq., who had been fheriff of the county, and was a great bene- fa€tor to the town, having paved the ftreets at his own ex- pence. Adjoining to the church-yard is a free-{chool, founded on a very extenfive plan, for general education, and even for the preparing of youth for the univerfities. It was built about the year 1584, by the Rev. Robert Johnfon, archdeacon of Leicefter, who was alfo the founder of a fimilar inftitution at Oakham. The expences of the ereétion were defrayed partly from his own purfe, affifted by the produce of concealed church lands which he begged from queen Elizabeth. It isa plain neat edifice, and has over the door, in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, ** Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth.”? Here is alfo an hof- pital, built at the fame time, and out of the fame funds, by the benevolent archdeacon, for the maintenance of thirteen poor men and one woman. A weekly market and an annual fair were granted in 1280 by Edward I., to Peter de Mont- fort, then lord of this manor, and his heirs for ever, with the exprefs provifion that the fair fhould not operate to the detriment UPS detriment of any fair of older date in the vicinity: the market-day is Monday, and here are now two fairs yearly, for horfes, cattle, fheep, coarfe linen, homefpun cloth, &c. This town has the privilege, by grant of 11 Henry VII. to keep the ftandards of weights and meafures for the county. In the return of the year 1811, the population of Upping- ham was ftated to be 1484, inhabiting 292 houfes.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii. Rutlandhire. ' UPRIGHT, in Archite@ure, a reprefentation or draught of the front of a building ; called alfo an elevation, or ortho- graphy. Upnricnt, in Heraldry, is ufed in refpe& of fhell-fifhes, as crevices, &c. when ftanding ereé&t in a coat. Inafmuch as they want fins, they cannot, according to Guillim, be properly faid to be Aauriant; that being a term appropriated to {caly fifhes. Upricut, in Sea Language, the pofition of a fhip when the neither inclines to one fide nor to the other. Hence any thing is faid to be upright when fquare with, or perpendicu- _lar to the keel. As the fhip when building lies with a declivity for the purpofe of launching, it is evident that every thing within her intended to be upright when a-float, muft be fet fquare from the inclination of the fhip. Upricut, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the E. end of Gore ifland, in the North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 60° 30’. W. long. 172° 13'.—Alfo, a cape in the {traits of Magel- lan. S. lat. 53° 6'. W. long. 75° 38!. Upricut Bay, a bay near the weftern extremity of the Straits of Magellan. S. lat. 53° 8’. W. long. 75° 35’. Upricut Bent-Gra/s, in Agriculture, a fort of this kind of grafs, which is found, by the trials made at Woburn under the dire€tion of the duke of Bedford, to afford at the time the feed is ripe, on a foil of the boggy fort, upwards of 7486 pounds weight of grafs upon the acre, which, when dry, weighed more than 2713 pounds, and which loft in the operation of drying about 4772 pounds. The quan- tity of nutritive matter that is afforded by it, is about 175 pounds on the fame fpace of land. See Acrostis StriGa. It feems not to be a grafs of any great value to the farmer. Upricst Perennial Broom-Grafs, a fort of this kind of fs, which has been found, at the time of flowering, on a rich fandy foil, to produce 12,931, and rather more, pounds of grafs on the acre, which weighed when dry about 5819 pounds, and which loft in drying 7112 pounds and rather more. It is a grafs that affords nutritive matter about 555 pounds on the fhe {pace of ground. See Bromus Ereétus. Upricut Goofe-Gra/s, a noxious weed of the perennial kind, often met with in meadows and wet paftures, in dif- ferent diftri&s and parts of the country. Upricut Mat-Gra/s, a kind of grafs, which, at the time - the feed is ripe, is found to produce, on the acre, 6125 ten pounds, which weighs in the dry ftate 2450 4, and which lofes in drying 3675 6 pounds. It affords 215 5 10 pounds of nutritive matter on the fame fpace. See Narous Strida. Upricut Sea-Lyme Grafs, a fort of grafs, that, at the time the feed is ripe, produces from the acre of clayey loam foil 43,560 pounds, which weigh when dry 24,502 8, and which lofes by drying 18,957 8 pounds. The quantity of nutritive matter afforded by the fame fpace of land, is 3403 pounds and rather more. See ELymus Arenarius. Upricut Screw Cheefe-Prefs. See Winpine Screw Cheefe-Pre/s. UPSAL, or Ursata, in Geography, a city of Sweden, in the province of Upland, fituated on an open plain fertile in grain and pafture, is a fmall but neat town, containing, UPS fays Coxe, exclufively of the ftudents, 3000 inhabitants. The ground plot is very regular: it is divided into two al- moft equal parts by the rivulet Sala, and the ftreets are formed at right angles from a central kind of fquare. Some of the houfes are built with brick, and ftuccoed ; but they are generally conftru@ted with trunks, fmoothed into the fhape of planks, and painted red, and the roofs are covered with turf. Each houfe has a fmall court-yard or garden. Old Upfala is a place of high antiquity, and is {uppofed to have ftood at a {mall diftance from the fcite of the prefent town. In times of Pagan fuperftition it was much celebrated as the principal place of facrifice, and as the refidence of the high prieft of Odin. New Upfala is anterior to the foundation of Stockholm, and is faid to have been a fuburb of Old Upfala, and to have rifen on its ruins. Upfala was formerly the metropolis of Sweden, and the royal refidence. Its ancient palace, begun in 1549, by Guftavus Vafa, and com- pleted by his fon Eric, was a {pacious and magnificent edi- fice until the year 1702, when great part of it was confumed by fire. What remains of it commands, on account of its ele- vated fituation, a fine profpe& of the adjacent country; and its principal front, which has been repaired, is covered with ared ftucco. Many traces are ftill left of its ancient fplen- dour. The few remaining apartments in the ruined wing are ufed as a common gaol. Under it are three dungeons, formerly appropriated to the confinement of ftate-prifoners, the moft remarkable of whom was count Svante Sture, of an ancient family, which before the eleétion of Guiftavus Vafa had the faireft pretenfions to the throne. The extine- tion of this family was owing to the madnefs of Eric, who, in the year 1567, murdered both count Svante and his fon Nicholas. After this frantic and cruel deed, he wandered about the woods in a {tate of remorfe and diftraGtion, until at length, being difcovered by his wife, her prefence reftored him to a temporary poffeffion of his under{tanding. How- ever he foon relapfed, and his government became fo odious, that in the following year he was depofed by his two bro- thers, and John afcended the throne. Upfala is an archiepifcopal fee, and one of the moft an- cient Chriftian eftablifhments in Sweden. The firft bifhop was Everinus, an Englifhman, who in 1026 vifited Sweden, at the requeft of king Olaus Scotkonung, to affift in con- verting the natives of Old Upfala to Chriftianity. His fuc- ceffors in the fee refided for the moft part at Sigtuna, until the year 1120, when Nicholas Ulphfon fixed the refidence at Old Upfala. The firft archbifhop was Stephen, a native of Eaft Gothland, and he was elevated to that dignity in 1164, and died in 1185. Falke, who was confecrated in 1267, firft transferred the refidence to New Upfala, in the year 1273. The firft Proteftant archbifhop was Laurentius Petri of the province of Nerike, who in conjunétion with his brother Olaus Petri firft preached the reformed doétrines to the Swedes, and tranflated the Bible into his native tongue. He died in 1570. In the facriftary of the cathedral are feveral ancient relics ; one of which is a log of wood, carved into a figure that rudely refembles a human head, called the image oF Thor, formerly worfhipped in thefe parts, and to whom human facrifices were offered at Old Upfala. The kings of Sweden were formerly crowned in this cathedral ; but the laft fovereizn who was inaugurated at Upfala was Ulrica Eleonora. Upfala is celebrated for its univerfity, which is the moft ancient in Sweden. In 1246 Birger Jarl eftablifhed a fchool at this place, and in 1478 Steno Sture, law adminiftrator of Sweden, laid the firft foundation of the univerfity ; the plan of which had been formed, but not executed, by Eric of Pomerania; its regulations being mo- delled after thofe of Paris. The inititution was confirmed nn UPS in a dict which met at Strengnzs on the 2d of July; and the univerfity was opened with due ceremony on the 7th of Oc- tober. It was warmly patronized by Guttavus Vafa, and liberally endowed by him, fo that he has been regarded as its fecond founder. Under John III. it was removed to Stockholm, but reftored to Upfala by Charles IX. After declining for fome time, it was revived by Guftavus Adol- phus, who coniftruéted a large building at his own expence, and endowed it with his patrimonial eftate of Vafa. His example was followed by his fucceflors and by various indi- viduals ; fo that the number of f{cholars has confiderably in- creafed. At the head of the univerfity is a chancellor, chofen by the profeffors and confirmed by the king. The prefidency devolves by rotation on one of the profeffors, ftyled “ Re€tor Magnificus.”” The univerfity has its own court of juftice, called “* Confiftorium Minus,”’ for the trial of the ftudents and dependants. From this court an appeal lies to a * Confiftorium Majus.’? The number of profeffors is about twenty-four, of whom the principal are thofe of divinity, eloquence, botany, anatomy, chemiitry, natural philofophy, aftronomy, and agriculture. Students are ad- mitted into the univerfity at the age of fixteen, for the completion of their academical {tudies. They do not inha- bit, as in our univerfities, any diftin@& colleges, but lodge in the town, and repair to the le¢tures of the profeffors, either at their houfes or at the public halls. The poorer ftudents are affifted by f{cholarfhips, called ‘* {tipendia,’’ fome founded by the crown, others by private perfons ; the common degrees granted by this univerfity are ‘‘ Philofo- phiz Candidatus,” correfponding to bachelor of arts, and * Philofophie Magifter,”? anfwering to matter of arts. In order to obtain the firft of thefe degrees, he candidate un- dergoes feveral previous examinations, and compofes a Latin thefis. His exercifes for the fecond, are a Latin thefis, holding a public difputation, and reading a lecture in the fame language. ‘There is no academical difcipline. Al- though the ftudents have no regular drefs, yet on fome oc- cafions, as when they take a mafter’s degree, they appear in a black filk cloak, which they ought alfo by the ftatutes of the univerfity to wear when they keep their ats. The profeffors, on days of ceremony, are clad in black cloaks, the doétors of divinity are diftinguifhed by a hat of black filk, the doétors of law by one of white, and thofe of phy- fic by one of green or fky-blue. The number of ftudents varies, but has been ftated at an average of ten years at 500. This univerfity, ftyled by Stillingfleet, “that great and hitherto unrivalled fchool of natural hiftory,’”? has pro- duced perfons eminent in every branch of {cience. The library contains many valuable books and MSS. ‘This owes its origin to Guftavus Adolphus. Among the moft valuable pieces of literary curiofity is a manufcript of the four gofpels, called from its filver letters Coprx Argenteus, which fee. The Royal Society at Upfala, the oldeft literary academy of this kind in the North, took its rife in 1720. At firft it eonfifted of a number of learned men, who publifhed reviews of books, under the title of «* AG@a Literaria Sueciz ;’? but in 1730 the tranfactions of the fociety confifted of original acts and differtations ; and when patronized by the king, it afflumed the name of * Societas Regia,”’ and the tranfac- tions, publifhed annually, were denominated “ A@a Lite- raria et Scientiarum Sueciz.”’ In 1740, it was called “ So- cietas Regia Literaria et Scientiarum Upfalienfis,” thus dif- tinguifhed from the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, which was denominated “ Academia Regia Suecie.?? In 1750 their publications ceafed, but they were again re- newed in 1772, under the title of “ Nova AGa Regie Ue Societatis Scientiarum Upfalienfis.”” They are written in the Latin tongue, and printed in 4to. The original num- bers iffued from 1720 to 1750 are comprifed in fix volumes. The place where the ancient kings of Sweden were eleéted lies about feven miles from the town of Upfala, and is {till marked by mutilated ftones, one of which is called ‘* Mo- rafteen,’? or the ftone of Mora; on which the fovereigns were enthroned with due folemnity, and received the homage of their fubjeéts. Olaus Magnus relates that the Mérafteen was placed in the middle of twelve other ftones in a circle. A fimilar monument near the village of St. Buriens, in Corn- wall, is defcribed by Camden. The botanical garden of Upfala is {mall, but laid out with judgment, and the collec- tion of exotics is numerous. Upfala is 45 miles from Stock- holm. N. lat. 59° 51'. E. long. 17° 26/. UPSARA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a poe- tical race of water-nymphs, proverbial for their beauty and fafcinations. They are the dancing girls of Indra*s court, an{wering to the fairies of the Perfians, and to the damfels called in the Koran Huruluyun, or with antelopes’ eyes. The name has been derived from up, water, the feventh cafe plural of which is upfo, and ra/a, tafte. UPSAW, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 6 miles S. of Patna. UPSILOIDES, in Anatomy, a name for the os hyoides. See DeGLuriTIon. UPSTART, Care, in Geography, a cape on the N.E, coaft of New Holland. S. lat. 19° 39’. W. long. 212° 32’. UPTON, a town of Maffachufetts, in Worcefter county, containing 935 inhabitants ; 38 miles S.W. of Bofton. Upton upon Severn, a market-town in the lower divifion of the hundred of Perfhore, and county of Worcelter, Eng- land, is fituated on the banks of the river Severn, at the diftance of 10 miles S. from the city of Worcefter, and 109 miles N.W. by W. from London. Though a {mall town, it has long been in a {tate of progreffive improvement, which may be in fome meature attributed to its having a handfome ftone bridge of fix arches, built in 1605, and a harbour for the reception of the barges employed in the navigation of the Severn, by which a confiderable traffic is carried on. Upton fuffered much in the civil war of Charles I.; when the bridge was partly broken down for military purpofes, and a battery erected in the church-yard to prevent the par- liamentary forces from crofling the river. At that time alfo the church fuftained great injury, and.though afterwards re- paired, it was found neceflary, in the year 1756, to take it down; when, it is to be regretted, little attention was paid to the prefervation of the painted glafs and ancient monu- ments in the old ftruéture. It was replaced by a very neat modern edifice, the chief ornament of thetown, This was opened in 1758; but the tower was not completed till 1774. A charity-fchool for fixteen girls is eftablifhed here. No manufactures worthy of notice are carried on: but four fairs are held annually, for the fale of horfes, cattle, fheep, and leather: a weekly market is kept on Tuefday. Ac- cording to the population return in the year 1811, the parifh of Upton then contained 394 houfes, occupied by 2023 per- fons. In the year 1787, a circular cavity, about fix feet in diameter, was difcovered in a corn-field in this vicinity : on examination, this aperture led to a cavern at the depth of about ten feet from the furface, extending in every dire€tion twenty feet in diameter ; at about thirty-five or forty feet is a pit or fhaft full of water, and nearly 140 feet deep. Va- rious conje€tures have been formed refpecting this pheno- menon ; but whether it proceeds from a natural or artificial caufe has not been determined. About four miles from Upton, and near the villa ” arl’s UPU Earl’s Croome, is Croome Court, the feat and park of the earl of Coventry. The manfion is modern, and the ftyle of its architeGture is very plain; but the elegance of the in- terior makes up for any thing that may appear a deficiency without. The drawing-room is hung with tapeftry of the Gobeline manufa@ture, of crimfon ground with coloured figures.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv. Wor- cefterfhire. UPULUS, in Botany, the old Latin name for the /upulus, ar hop. This word /upulus is not old Latin, but a more modern name, formed on the word upulus. UPUPA, in Ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to the order of Pice, the chara@ters of which are, that the bill is bent, long, flender, convex, fubcompreffed, and fomewhat obtufe ; the noftrils are {mall at the bafe of the bill; the tongue obtufe, entire, triquetrous, and very fhort ; and the feet formed for walking. In the Linnean fyftem by Gmelin there are eight {pecies, which are as follow : Epors. Crefted and variegated, or the ferruginous hoopoe, with the wings barred black and white, the tail black, with a lunated white bar, and the creft tipped with black and white. This is the upupa of Bell. Gefn. Aldrov. Ray, &c. ; the bubbola of Olin. ; the ter-choas or meflenger-bird of Pocock; the hoopoe of Willughby, Pennant, Edwards, &c.; the common hoopoe of Latham ; and the la huppe of Buffon. It is an elegant bird, generally inhabiting the warmer and temperate parts of the old conti- nent, and migrating occafionally, at different feafons, in different direétions. In our ifland it is much more rarely feen than in other northern climates. It is about the fize of a common thrufh. The colour of the head, neck, and body, is pale ferruginous or cinnamon-brown ; the wings and tail are black, the former crofled by five white bars, the latter by a white crefcent ; the rump and lower part of the abdomen are white, and the fides generally marked by a few longitudinal dufky ftreaks ; on the head is an elegant creft, which it can either ere& or expand, or deprefs and clofe at pleafure, compofed of feathers which are cinnamon-coloured, with black tips, a white bar feparating the tip from the reft of the feathers; the legs are fhort and blackifh. ‘The hoopoe migrates during the {pring from Africa into various parts of Europe, and returns in winter. In various parts of Egypt, however, it is nearly domefticated, building even among the houfes. The flefh of thefe domettic hoopoes is rank and unfit for eating, but that of the migrating birds is confidered in many parts of Europe as an agreeable food, particularly in Italy, the fouth of France, and in the Gre- cian iflands. Its neft is to be fometimes found in a wall or tree, and is generally faid to have a peculiarly fetid {mell, fup- ofed to be chiefly owing to the remains of various kinds of infe&ts. The number of eggs is from five to feven. In Egypt the migrating hoopoe never affociates with thofe of the towns, but frequents remote and folitary places. Such is generally the difpofition of thofe which appear in Europe, but in Africa they affociate in gceat numbers. Their ordinary food confifts of various kinds of infeéts and worms, in order to obtain which they follow in Egypt the retreat of the Nile. Thefe birds are generally feen on the furface of the ground, being very rarely obferved to perch on trees. Dr. Shaw mentions as a variety the blue-crefted hoopoe, obferved at Florence and on the Alps, near the town of Rota, and differing from the common hoopoe in having the creft-feathers tipped with fky-blue inftead of black. The upupa minor, {maller hoopoe, ferrugineus, with the wings varied with white, and the creft tipped with black, the la huppe d’Afrique of Buffon, may probably be another va- riety, of the common hoopoe, which inhabits the fouthern UPU parts of Africa, and is found in the kingdom of Congo, and at the Cape of Good Hope, frequenting low grounds in the neighbourhood of thickets, and not migratory. Capensis. Crefted brown, beneath white, with a white fpot on the wings. This is the Madagafcar hoopoe, white, with cinnamon-brown wings and tail, and loofe-webbed creft ; la huppe noir et blanche du Cap de Bonne Efperance of Buffon. The tail-feathers of this fpecies are twelve in number ; the colour of the creft, throat, and all the under parts of the bird, is white, without any variegation ; that of the upper parts, from the back of the head to the end of the tail, dufky or greyifh-brown, deepeft on the wings and tail; on the edge of the wing is a white fpot, the tips of two or three of the larger coverts being of that colour: the legs and feet are yellowifh. It is a native of the ifland of Madagafcar, as well as of fome of the African ifles, and is faid to feed on feeds and berries. From the ftru€ture of the tongue, which is rather broad, and divided at the ex- tremity into feveral fibres, Dr. Shaw infers, that it is nearly related to the genus merops, or bee-eater. Promerops. The hoopoe with fix tail-feathers, the in- termediate being the longeft. This is the promerops cafer, or brown promerops, whitifh beneath, with rufefcent breaft, and very long tail. Upupa promerops, or Cape promerops of Latham, and promerops of Buffon. The fize of this bird 1s that of alark ; its colour is rufous brown, fomewhat deeper on the wings and tail; throat white, with a narrow, longi- tudinal, duiky ftreak on each fide ; under part of the ab- domen whitifh, dafhed with dufky ftreaks, vent yellow, tail very ftrongly cuneated, bill black, and alfo the legs. In fome, probably the males, the breaft as well as the abdomen is fpotted, and the wings are crofled by a narrow grey or whitifh ftripe. A native of Africa, common about the Cape of Good Hope. Mexicana. The grey hoopoe, with a mixture of fea- green and purple. Underneath yellow, greater quill-feathers blueifh, and the four intermediate tail-feathers longer than the reft. This is the grey promerops with green and purple glofs, blueifh wings, yellowith belly, and very Jong tail; the Mexican promerops of Linnzus, the promerops Mexicanus of Briffon, and promerops 4 ailes blancs of Buffon. The body of this bird is of the fize of a thrufh. The bill is near .two inches long, and blackifh ; the whole of the upper parts, except the quills, which are light blue, are grey, with green and purplifh gloffes. The under parts of the body are light yellow, and a {pot of the fame colour is fituated above each eye. This f{pecies is faid to be a native of Mexico, fre- quenting mountainous regions, and feeding on various kinds of infects. Parapisea. The crefted chefnut-coloured hoopoe, with the two middle tail-feathers much longer than the reft. This is the chefnut promerops, grey beneath, with black-crefted head, and very long tail. The avis paradifiaca eritata orientalis rariffima of Seba, the promerops of Buffon, and crefted promerops of Latham. It is about the fize of a ftarling ; the bill is curved, and of a lead colour, as are alfo the legs; the head and neck are a fine-deep black ; the crown of the head being ornamented by a very confpicuous lengthened femi-pendant creft ; the whole remainder of the bird on the upper parts is bright brown, on the under pale afh-colour. A native, according to Seba, of the Eaft Indies, where, as he fays, it is very rare. ; Fusca. The brown hoopoe, underneath grey, ftriped with white and black, the crown of the colour of polifhed fteel, the throat and neck black, and two intermediate tail-fea- thers very long. This is the brown promerops, beneath white, with black undulations, and very long tai]. ‘The promerops 5 brun, UR brun, 4 ventre et eyé of Buffon, and New Guinea brown promerops of Latham. According to Sonnerat, who firlt defcribed and figured it, the neck, back, wings, and tail of this bird are brown ; the breaft and remaining under parts white, undulated by numerous tranfverfe black ftripes, each feather having two white and two black bars ; the tail very long, and ftrongly cuneated, the bill confiderably curved, of a blackifh colour ; and the legs yellowifh-brown. A native of New Guinea, inhabiting large woods. Macna. The black hoopoe; the head, hind part of the neck, breaft, and exterior part of the falcated {ca- pular feathers golden green, and very long tail. This is the fuperb promerops, with violet and green glofs, falcated golden-fhining {capular feathers, and very long tail ; the grand promerops a paremens frifés of Buffon, and grand prome- rops of Latham. Its fhape is flender, the tail almoft three times the length of the remainder of the bird, which is not larger than a common pigeon ; the bill narrow, black, and pretty much curved ; the general colour of the whole bird is black, accompanied, according to the different dire¢tions of the light, by varying refleGtions of blue, green, and violet ; the other parts as above defcribed. The fcapular feathers, or thofe fituated along the fides of the body, rife up into two rows of reverfed falciform plumes, gradually en- larging from the fhoulders to the rump, beyond which they become much longer but lefs curved, and are ftretched to fome diftance on each fide of the bafe of the tail ; the colour of their inner or fhallower fcales is purplifh-black, but along the edges and tip of the wider web it is of a brilliant golden-green : on each fide of the lower part of the body, beneath the wings, is alfo fituated a thick and moderately long group of loofe-webbed, pendent, brownifh feathers ; the tail confifts of twelve feathers ; and the legs are {trong and black. This bird was firft defcribed by Sonnerat, and is a native of Guinea ; but its hiftory and habits are unknown. Avurantia. The yellow hoopoe, with golden head and neck, and tail even at the end. This is the orange-coloured promerops, with tail of moderate length, and even at the tip ; the avis paradifiaca Americana elegantiflima of Seba, the promerops orange of Buffon, and the orange promerops of Latham. This bird is about the fize of a ftarling ; its bill is fomewhat curved, fharp-peinted, and yellow, as are the legs ; the head and neck are of a deep yellow or gold colour, with a few red feathers round the bafe of the bill; the re- mainder of the bird is orange-yellow ; the larger quill-fea- thers of a redder caft than the reft. A native of Guiana, frequenting the fmall iflands in the mouth of the river Berbice. The fuppofed female of this fpecies is defcribed by Fernandez, in his Hiftory of Mexico, under the name of “‘Cochitolotl ;”’ it is introduced by Gmelin as a variety of the former ; Buffon reckons it a female, and Briffon deno- minates it promerops Mexicanus luteus. The head, throat, neck, and wings are faid to be irregularly varied with grey and black; the reft of the bird yellow; the bill black and the legs grey. Of the “ black hoopoe,” nothing but its exiftence and native country feems to be known: it is mentioned by Son- nini, on the authority of Monf. Viollet, who fays that it is found in Africa, towards the kingdom of Congo. For other fpecies, fee Promerors, and Shaw’s Zoology, vol. viii. UR, in Ancient Geography, a city of Chaldea, where Terah, the father of Abraham, refided ; and whence Abraham himfelf removed to the land of Canaan, which was granted to him and his pofterity. (Gen. xi. 28.) The precife fituation of this city is not known ; fome think that it was Camerina, in Babylonia. Ptolemy and Strabo fuppofe that URA it was Orcha or Orchea, in Chaldea; and others are of opinion that it was Ura, or Sura, in Syria, on the Euphrates. Bochart and Grotius maintain, that it was Ura in Mefopotamia, two. days’ journey from Nifibis. The difficulty that occurs in afcertaining its fituation, is partly owing to the confufion that attends the fettlement of the precife boundaries of Chaldea and Mefopotamia; the former being fituated towards the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the latter between thefe rivers fomewhat farther north. The word Ur, in Hebrew, fignifies fire ; and hence fome have pretended, that when Mofes faid God brought Abraham out of Ur of the Chaldees, he alluded to a fire into which the Chaldeans caft him. But this feems to be fabulous, as St. Jerome, who once adopted their opinion, afterwards acknowledged: and therefore others have thought, that the name Ur was given to this city, becaufe fire was the obje& of worfhip ; and Abraham, by his re- moval to Canaan, was releafed from all obligation to prac- tife that kind of worfhip. URA, in Geography, a town of Natolia; 10 miles §. of Milets. URABA, a town and diftri& of South America, in the province of Carthagena. : URAC, the moit northerly of the Ladrone iflands, in the Eaft Indian fea, about g miles in circumference. N. lat. 20° 45/. URACH, a town of Wurtemberg, with confiderable manufaétures of damafk, and other linens, on the Rems; 21 miles S.S.E. of Stuttgard. N. lat. 48° 27/. E. long. a URACHUS, in Anatomy, a fibrous cord paffing from the fundus of the bladder to the umbilicus: it is hollow in the foetus of animals, and communicates with the allantois. See Empryo and Kipney. URACONDA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Gooty. URAGO, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mela, on the Oglio; 15 miles W. of Brefcia. URAGUAY, a river of South America, which rifes in Paraguay, about S. lat. 26° 30'; and, aftera courfe of about 609 miles, joins the Para, in S. lat. 34°, and the united ftreams take the name of La Plata. ‘The country on this fide the river is alfo called Paraguay. URAIN, Sr., a town of France, in the department of the Nyevre ; 7 miles N.E. of Cofne. URAL, formerly the Yaik, a river of Ruflia, that has its fource in the weftern fides of the Ural mountains, from which it iffues near the fort of Orfk, and fora long interval purfues a weftern courfe, then turns diretly fouth, and at about 47° N. lat., and 70° long., falls into the Cafpian. The current is rapid, and its water pure ; and it was known to the an- cients under the name of Rhymnus. Its courfe is efti- mated at 3000 verfts. From time immemorial it has coniti- tuted the boundary between the Kirghiftziand the Bafkhirtzi ; and upon it are flill 30 forts and feveral fore-pofts againft the former. The moft confiderable rivers which the Ural takes up are, to the left, the Or and the Ilek ; and to the right, the Kifil and the Sakmara. In the upper regions, its banks are ridged with fteep and lofty rocks; but lower down it flows through a tolerably dry and very faline fteppe. It abounds with fifth. The fifhery on the Ural forms the principal occupation and fupport of the Uralian Coffacks ; nor is this trade any where fo well regulated, by the laws of ancient ufage, as here. Ever fince the government granted the fifhery to the Coffacks, in return for the payment of the moderate ftipulation formerly annexed to the utfchiug or fifhing ftakes at Gurief, they have completely broken = e URA the faid fifh-weir, and inftead of it, inclofed the whole river about the town of Uralik by a permanent ut{chiug ; fo that, -though the fifth come freely out of the Cafpian into the . Ural, they cannot proceed higher than Uralfk. The Ural has all the kinds of fifh that are found in the Volga, excepting the bream, the red falmon, and a {mall fpecies of fturgeon. The -firft and moft important capture in the year is in January, -with hooks ; the fecond laits from May till towards the middle of June; and the third, which is the leaft con- fiderable, is performed with nets, in O@ober. The firft great fifhery in January is chiefly for fturgeons and belugas. On the day when the fifhery begins, all the Coffacks who have tickets of licence aflemble before fun-rife, with their -fledges and implements, at a ftated place before the town, ‘ranging themfelves in rows and feétions, according to the order in which they arrive. They are then muftered by a proper officer and formed ; notice is given by firing of cannon when the operation is to commence, or the breaking up of the ice for fifhng. The order and ceremonial are the fame for the fecond great capture of the fevrugas in {pring as in the winter fifhery, and a certain boundary is fixed for marking the extent of the fifhery. The Coffacks, while fifhing, fit fingly in little canoes, commonly made of the trunks of the black or white poplar, paid over with afphaltus inftead of pitch. The nets are between 20 and 30 ells in length. The autumnal fifhery is alfo conduéted in the fame manner withthe others. This is performed with large cafting nets, and they are allowed to take, befides the {maller fpecies of fifh, all forts of fturgeons. The largeft belugas caught in the Ural weigh often 25 pood, and yield about 5 pood of ka- viar or cavear, which on account of its {tringinefs is reckoned the worft. The fturgeons are about a Econ in length, and the largeft of them weigh 5 pood, and contain a pood of kaviar, whichis moft efteemed for its quality. The fifh here, as at the Volga, are moftly falted ; kaviar 1s prepared from the roes, and fifh-glue made of the mucilaginous tubftances ; but the winter-fifh are tranfported frozen. ‘Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. iii. Ura Mountains, a famous chain of mountains in Ruffia, which forms the natural boundary between Europe and northern Afia, called Ural, or the belt, as if it girted the whole world, The ancients gave this chain the appellation of the Hyperborean andthe Ryphzan mountains, and fome- times * Montes Rhymnici.””? Under the laft of thefe deno- minations, the Bafhkirian Ural was more particularly de- fignated. The Northern Ural they termed ‘ Montes Hyper- borzos”’ or “ Riphzos ;’’ and the fouthern ‘* Rhymnicios.”’ The former were afterwards called the Yugorian mountains. Ural is a Tartarian word, fignifying a belt, or girdle; by which the Ruffians likewife denote this range ; for they call it Kammenoi, and Semnoi Poyas; that is, the rock, or earth-girdle. Thefe mountains extend from S. to N., almoft in a dire& line, much above 1500 Englifh miles. They commence with the mountains between the Cafpian and the lake Aral, and attain their greateft height and bulk about the fources of the rivers Ural, Tobol, and Emba ; and from thence they ftretch on towards the origin of the Tfhuf- fovaia and the Ifets, and further on to the fources of the Petfhora and the Sofva; and laftly, form two great pro- montories about the Karian haven of the Frozen ocean : after being divided by the ftraits of Vaygat, or Waygat, they terminate in the mountains of Nova Zemla. From this chain fome confiderable collateral branches take a weftern as well as an eaftern courfe. The moft material from the former fide are thofe called Obfchtfchei-Sirt, the mounts of fepara- tion, running out between the river Ural and the Sakmara, Vor. XX XVII. URA uniting on one fide with an arm iffuing from the Kirghiltai- fteppe, on the left fhore of the Ural ; and on the other fide projecting into the old Kalmuck-fteppe, between the Volga and the Ural, and northerly joining the fand-ftone moun- tains, which accompany the main courfe of the Ural on the weitern fide. Near the forts of Orfk and Guberlinfk, a part of the mountains runs out fouth-eaftward into the Kirg- hiftzi deferts, and reaches to the mountain Ulutau, which ftands about the centre of that region, and is attached to the great Altay. This arm is called the Guberlinfkoi moun- tains. Another courfe, fmaller than the preceding, runs fouth-eaftward, between the rivers Ural and Ui, under the name of Okto-Karagai, through the open fteppe of the middle horde of the Kirghis-kaifaks, and then purfues its way, under the appellation of Alginfkoi-Sirt, towards the Irtifh and the Altay mountains. The whole Ural chain may be divided into three parts, viz. the Kirghiltzi Ural, extending from the Cafpian and the Aral, and eaftward out of the great fteppe of the Kirghis-kaifaks, as far as the ori- gin of the Tobol and the Yemba; the Ural rich in ores, or Ural ore mountains, comprehending the whole mountainous track, with its weftern and eaftern appendages, from the rife of the faid rivers and the Guberlinfkoi mountains, quite up to the fources of the Solva and Kolva; and the defert Ural, extending from thefe rivers to the Frozen ocean. The Ural abounding in ores may be fubdivided into the Oren- burg, the Ekatarinenburg, and the Verchoturian Ural. This main courfe of the Ural mountains declines much more on its wetftern fide than on the eaftern, and on the for- mer has a confiderable track of collateral ridge, very rich in copper, and moftly compofed of fchiftofe fand-ftone. The higheft mountain of the Ural chain is in the Bafhkirey (or in the Orenburg Ural), andin the Verchoturian Ural. The Ural chain is of itfelf a main mountain, whofe highett ridges, for the moft part, confift of granite, and of all the properly primitive rocky materials. Jn minerals the Ural mountains are very rich ; abounding with beautiful forts of granite, porphyry, excellent jafper, fine quartz, petrofilex, pebbles, whetftones, flints, agates, chalcedonies, large moun- tain cryftals, {moky topazes, or brown rock cryttals, fine amethytfts, chryfolites, porcelain and pipe-clay, bolus, fhelly felfpar, ferpentine, potftone, window-mica, afbeftus, and amianthus ; beautiful marbles, table-fchiftus, gypfum, flowers of fpar, turf, coals, mineral oils, naphtha, native fulphur, marcafites, foffile falts, fources of common falt, bitter lakes, alum, vitriolic earths, falt-petre, natron, “iron, copper, gold, and {pecimens of filver and lead. For work- ing of the gold, copper, and iron, very expenfive and pro- duGtive fabrics are here ere&ted. The Ural mountains are alfo amply furnifhed with woods ; fuch as pines, birch, fir, cedar, larch, afpin, alder, and on the S.W. fide a few oaks, elms, lindens, &c. In the vallies adjoining to this range of mountains are rich and verdant glens, and dales and meads in alternate fucceffion ; fo that the breed of cattle is not incon- fiderable. Among the wild beafts and birds, which are very plentiful, may be reckoned fables, beavers, rein-deer, elks, &c. The various elevations are copioufly fupplied with beautiful pellucid lakes, ponds, and numberlefs ftreams, all teeming with fifh. The principal rivers that take their rife in this chain of mountains are the Sofva, the Tura, the Tffet, the Ui, the Tobol, the Yemba, the Ural, the Belaia, the Tihuffovaia, the Kamma, the Petfhora, &c. Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. i. URALLA, 2 confiderable Turkifh village, fituated on the fide of a mountain, at about the diftance of a mile from the fhore, commanding a profpeé& of the whole of the {pa- 3R cious URA cious gilt of Smyrra, as far as Mitylene. The greater part of the fine Smyrna raifins come from Uralla, where feveral cargoes are prepared annually, At the feafon of the racolta, or fruit-harveft, the Smyrna merchants fend their clerks to attend its ingathering, and at that time there is much bufinefs tranfaéted in this village. URALSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Cau- cafus, on the Ural; "328 miles N.N.E. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 51° 1o!. E. long. 51°54'. URAMARCA, atown of Peru, in the diocefe of Gua- manga; 60 miles E. of Guamanga. URAMELU, atown of Brafil; 48 miles N.E. of Para. RAN. See Ouran. VRANA, a town of Iftria; g miles E.S.E. of Pedena.—Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Servia; 25 miles E.S.E. of Priftina—Alfo, a river of Bulgaria, which runs into the Black fea at Varna. Vrana, or Urana, a town of Dalmatia, fituated on a lake to which it gives name, anciently an important fortrefs belonging to the Templars, and the refidence of the grand prior. ‘Thiscaftle, which at the time of its foundation was named Brana, or Vrana, by way of dignity, is now a frightful heap of ruins, reduced to that ftate by the Vene- tians. Some writers have thought that Bandona was an- ciently feated there; but no veftige of Roman antiquity is to be feen about thefe walls, and ruined, uninhabited towers. The khan, or caravanferai, is worthy of obfervation, although it is now in aruinous ftate, being abandoned to the barbarity of the Morlacchi, who inhabit the neighbouring lands, and carry off whatever materials fuit them, to be employed in their wretched cottages. "The name of Vrana is now tranf- ferred to a wretched village, that ftands about a mile from the ruins of the fortrefs, in the very place where an eminent Turk of the laft age, called Hali Bey, had his gardens ; and the {qualid habitation of the curate of the parifh lately went by the name of Hali Bey’s gardens. ‘The lake of Vrana is more famous and better known at Venice than any other in Dalmatia, not only on account of its confiderable extent of 12 miles, but from the project formed by a’pri- vate perfon, and partly put in execution, to cut a paflage by which the water might be difcharged into the fea; 15 miles E.S.E. of Zara. URANA, a river of South America, which runs into the Caribbean fea; g miles W.of Cumana bay. URANDA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xicoco ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Tofa. URANDUK, atownof Bofnia; 2 miles E. of Seraja. URANIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifle of Cyprus, taken by Demetrius, according to Diodorus Siculus. Uranta, in Botany, a name for which the claffical Schreber has well exchanged the barbarous Ravenaua of Adanfon and his followers; fee that article. This latter feems, by Jacquin’s account, to be altered from Ravenne ala, fignifying, as he had fome reafon to believe, the /eaf of God, among the inhabitants of Madagafcar. In the appli- cation of Urania, Schreber had probably in view, not fo much the “ heavenly mufe,”’ according to the explanation of De Thers, as the Greek adjeGtive ovessos, great, admirable, or fublime, which fo well anfwers to the majeftic fta- ture and large proportions of this very fine plant.—Schreb. Gen. 212. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.7. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. (Ravenala; Juffl. 62. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 222.) — Hen and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Mufe, Soff. Gen. Ch, Cal. Common Sheaths alternate, each of one U RA leaf, ovato-lanceolate, concave, many-flowered ; partial ones inferior, each of two linear-lanceolate, long, channelled, pointed, ere&t, coloured, permanent valves: perianth none. Cor. Petals three, fuperior, oblong, channelled, ereét, acute, equal. Neétary of two equal leaves, one of them cloven, (according to Adanfon). Stam. Filaments fix, thread- fhaped ; anthers vertical, ereét, linear, longer than the fila- ments, and about equal to the neétary, inclining at the fum- mit. Pif. Germen inferior, oblong ; ftyle rather longer than the ftamens ; ftigma in fix converging fegments. Peric. Capfule oblong, abrupt, triangular, of three cells, and three woody valves, conneéted at the bafe; the partitions from the centre of each valve. Seeds numerous, in two rows, roundifh-oblong, each with an umbilicated, flefhy, laciniated, coloured, radiating tunic, fpreading from t {car. Eff. Ch. Sheaths general and partial. Perianth none. Petals three. NeCtary of two equal leaves, one of them cloven. Capfule inferior, of three cells. Seeds numerous, in two rows, each with a coloured tunic. 1. U. fpeciofa. Superb Urania. Willd. n. 1. Ait. Epit. 376. (Ravénala madagafcarienfis; Sonnerat Voy. aux Ind. Or. v. 2. 223. t. 124—126. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. I. 47. t. 93.)—Native of marfhy ground in the ifland of Madagafcar. Cultivated in the Mauritius, from whence it was carried to the imperial garden at Schoenbrun, in £782, and to the ftoves of Kew, in 1810. This is one of the moft ftately of plants, with refpeé& to its habit, and the proportion of every part, though perhaps in- ferior in ftature to many trees. The /fem is ereét, and, ac- cording to Sonnerat, very lofty, though he does not men- tion its precife height, round, marked with numerous fears where the foliage has formerly been, otherwife naked and {mooth, quite fimple, crowned at the fummit with an ample, radiating, vertical tuft, of very numerous, ftalked, alternate leaves, {preading in two ranks, like a valt fan, many feet wide. Each /eaf is oblong, entire, obtufe at each end, with one rib, and numerous tranfverfe, parallel veins, {mooth, re- fembling the leaves of the Mu/a, or Plantain-tree, but larger and thicker. Fot/falks fheathing from the bafe about half way up. Sonnerat makes their length about two feet, but Jacquin fays ten, adding that each leaf is fix feet long, and two wide. If this be correét, the whole diameter of the fan-like head may be thirty-two feet! We might have felt afufpicion that Jacquin’s plant, which, in the courfe of fif- teen years’ cultivation in the ftove at- Schoenbrun, never flowered, nor formed any ftem, might be the Strelitzia au- gufla of Thunberg, Willdenow, and Aiton ; had not the au- thor exprefsly mentioned its having been raifed from feeds taken out of the cap/ules delineated in his plate, which indu- bitably belong to our Urania, whofe flower-flalks are axil- lary, fcattered, fhorter than the footftalks, zigzag, very ftout, and finally woody, each bearing fix or eight alternate, two-ranked, rigid, pointed fheaths, filled with numerous, ereét, whitifh flowers, whofe petals are {even or eight inches long. Capfules brown, rugged, three or four inches in length. Seeds the fize of a horfe-bean, black, their tunics of a fine blue, and curioufly jagged.—The inhabitants of Madagafcar ufe the leaves as a covering to their houfes. Flacourt, it feems, has defcribed this plant, in his Hiftory of Madagafcar, by the name of Voafoutf, (Botany is happy to have efcaped this name, ) and he there relates that the na- tives make an oil from the tunic of the feeds, and grind the fubftance of the latter into meal, which they eat with milk. After all that we can colle, the Urania itfelf, if diftin@ from Strelitzia augufta, is {o very nearly allied to Strelitzia in genus, URA genus, that we fhould not wonder if they prove the fame. We have been fhewn at fir J. Banks’s, a native capfule and Seeds of a Strelitzia from the Cape, which anfwer exaétly to the chara€ters of Urania, though no tunic is defcribed in SrreLitTzi1A ; fee that article. Urania, or Celefis, in Mythology, one of the nine Mufes that prefided over aftronomy : fhe is reprefented as clothed with an azure-coloured robe, crowned with ftars, holding a globe in her hand, or fometimes with the globe at her feet, and furrounded with feveral mathematical inftruments. On medals the globe ftands upon a tripod. Urania, a goddefs of the Arabians, and of the Moors of Africa, called alfo lilat and Celeftis. The Urania of the Arabs is fuppofed to have been the Moon, as Bacchus was the Sun; and thefe two luminaries were among them objeéts of worfhip. The Ceeleftis of the Moors, mentioned by Tertullian, was the Venus Urania, fo well known in Syria, that is, the planet of that name; for it is certain that almoft all nations worfhipped the ftars, and had gods natural and gods animated. URANIBURGH, gq. d. the City of the Heavens, a term often heard among aftronomers, being the name of a cele- brated obfervatory, in a caftle in the little ifland Weenen, or Huen, in the Sound; built by that noble Dane, Tycho Brahe ; and furnifhed with inftruments for obferving the courfe and motions of the heavenly bodies. This famed obfervatory, finifhed about the year 1580, did not fubfift above feventeen years; when Tycho, who little thought to have ereéted an edifice of fo fhort a dura- tion, and who had even publifhed the figure and pofition of the heavens, which he had chofen for the moment to lay the firft ftone in, was obliged to abandon his country. Soon after this, thofe to whom the property of the ifland was given, made it their bufinefs to demolifh Uraniburgh : part of the ruins was difperfed into divers places; the reft ferved to build Tycho a handfome feat upon his ancient eftate, which to this day bears the name of Uraniburgh. For as to the ancient Uraniburgh, there is now no foot{tep of it remaining. It was here Tycho compofed his cata- logue of the ftars, _M. Picart, making a voyage to Uraniburgh, found Ty- cho’s meridian line, drawn thereon, to deviate from the meridian of the world: which confirms the conjefture of fome, that the pofition of the meridian line may vary. See Tycuo Braue. URANIUM, in Mineralogy and Metallurgy, a metal fo called from the planet Uranus or Herfchel, by the cele- brated chemift Klaproth, who difcovered it in 1789, in an ore which had been formerly fuppofed to contain zinc or iron. Uranium is of an iron-grey colour ; it poflefles con- fiderable metallic luftre ; it is brittle and hard, but yields to the file. It has hitherto only been obtained in grains, or in fmall quantities as a porous cohering mafs. The fpecific gravity of uranium, according to Klaproth, is 8.01; but according to Bucholz, 9. Uranium melts with great difli- culty ; but when heated to rednefs in an open veffel, it un- dergoes a fpecies of combuftion, glowing like a coal, and is converted into a black powder, gaining in weight about five parts in the hundred. This powder is the black oxyd. The yellow oxyd is obtained by precipitating uranium from its folution in nitric acid by an alkali. The yellow oxyd of uranium is infoluble in pure alkalies, but is foluble by the alkaline carbonates; the former property diftinguifhes it from the oxyd of tungften. The yellow oxyd confifts of eight parts metal, and twenty of oxygen. The combina- tions of uranium with the other metals are unknown. With fulphur the yellow oxyd of uranium may be combined, by URA mixing two parts of fulphur and one of oxyd, and expoling the mixture to heat in a crucible. Moft of the fulphur is driven off ; the refiduum is a blackifh-brown mafs, being a fulphuret of uranium. If the heat be increafed, the whole of the fulphur is fublimed, and the uranium remains in 4 metallic ftate, in the form of a black coarfe powder. Me- tallic uranium is only perfetly foluble in nitric acid. Bucholz fuppofes that there are feveral oxyds of this metal, diftinguifhed by their different colours, as under : Protoxyd, - Greyifh-black. Second oxyd, - Dark grey, inclining to violet. Third oxyd, - Greenifh-brown. Fourth oxyd, - Greyifh-green. Fifth oxyd, - Orange. Peroxyd, - Lemon-yellow. To obtain uranium from its ores, in which it exifts in the {tate of oxyd, the ore mult be diffolved in dilute nitric acid. The folution may contain iron, copper, and lime. By evaporating it to drynefs, and expofing the dry mafs to a moderately {trong heat, the iron is rendered infoluble, but the other ingredients will be taken up by diftilled water. Ammonia poured into this folution, and digefted in it for fome time, retains the copper, but throws down the uranium. The precipitate is to be wafhed with ammonia till the liquid comes off colourlefs; it is then to be diffolved in nitric acid, and to be concentrated by evaporation, and fet by to cryftallize. The green-coloured cryftals that form, may be picked out and dried on blotting-paper, then dif- folved in water, and the liquid partly evaporated and left to cryftallize. By this means the whole of the lime will re- main behind. The cryftals will confift of pure oxyd of uranium united to nitric acid; they are to be expofed to a red heat ; a yellow powder remains, which is the oxyd of uranium. This powder is to be mixed with a {mall quan- tity of charcoal powder, and expofed to a violent heat, by which it is reduced to a metallic ftlate. The experiment fucceeds beft when the oxyd is mixed with only the one- twentieth part of charcoal, and inclofed in a charcoal cru- cible to exclude the air. Klaproth employed a heat equal to 170° Wedgwood, to obtain this metal. No flux has hitherto been found of any fervice in facilitating the reduc- tion of uranium. Uranium has not hitherto been applied to any ufeful pur- pofe in the arts, either in its metallic flate, or in combina- tion with acids as a metalline falt. With nitric acid, oxyd of uranium unites in two propor- tions. The nitrate is an extremely foluble falt, of a lemon- yellow colour. The cryftals have generally the form of hexagonal tables, more or lefs perfect ; but by careful ma- nagement, they may be obtained in large four-fided reCtan- gular flat prifms. At the temperature of 100°, they tall into a white powder. In a damp atmofphere, they {oon deliquelce. They confift, according to Bucholz, of Oxyd of uranium - - o1 Acid - - - - - 25 Water < S = 4 14 100 When nitrate of uranium is heated till its colour becomes orange-red, it does not diffolve completely in water, but leaves a yellow powder, which has been fhewn by Bucholz to be a fubnitrate. The oxvd of uranium combines with the muriatic and : ZR 2 fulphuri¢ URA fulphuric acids, alfo with the acetic, the tartaric, the phofphoric, and fluorie acids, and with thofe of tungi{ten and molybdena. Richter formed likewife the borate, oxa- late, citrate, malate, benzoate, fuccinate, and febate of uranium ; but the properties of the latter falts have not been deferibed. See Sauts and Acips. Ores of Uranium.—Pitch-blende or Pitch-ore, Pecherz, Werner ; Uran Oxidulé, Hauy. This mineral was firft ob- ferved in a mine at Johan-Georganttadt, in Saxony. From its black colour, and other properties, it was for fome time fuppofed to be a blende, or ore of zinc. M. Werner placed it among iron-ores, and afterwards fuppofed that it contained wolfram. Klaproth analyfed this ore in 1789, and found that it confifted principally of fulphur, combined with a metal to which he firft gave the name of uranium. This ore occurs in veins in primitive rocks, in feveral places in Cornwall, in Saxony, and in Norway ; it is commonly accompanied with galena, copper pyrites, and iron ochre, and with quartz, calcareous {par, and fulphate of barytes. It is alfo fometimes aflociated with ores of filver and co- balt. The colour of pitch-blende is velvet-black, or greyifh- black, fometimes inclining to green and brown. It occurs maffive, and difleminated alfo reniform, botryoidal, and pulverulent. The luftre internally is refinous, more or lefs fhining. The ftruéture is fometimes imperceptible; in other {pecimens it is lamellar. Pitch-blende is brittle; the fracture is imperfectly conchoidal ; the fragments are an- gular and fharp-edged. It yields readily to the knife, but the colour of the ftreak is not changed. The fpecific gra- vity of this ore is 7.5. Pitch-blende is infufible without addition by the blow- pipe: with borax it yields a grey flag ; with phofphate of foda, a clear green globule. It diffolves imperfetly in the fulphuric and muriatic acids, but is almoft entirely diffolved in the nitric and nitro-muriatic acids. The folution has a pale orange-green colour ; and from this folution the metal is precipitated by the phofphate of potafh and the alkalies : with the former, the colour of the precipitate is a brownifh- red; with the latter, yellow. The conftituent parts of this ore, as given by Klaproth, are, Oxyd of uranium - - 86.5 Black oxyd of iron - - 2.5 Galena = =) z = 6 Silex - - - - 5 100 Pitch-blende may be diftinguifhed from brown blende by its colour, f{pecific gravity, fracture, and ftreaks ; from wol- fram by its ftreak and fra€ture. Uranite, or Uran mica, Urane oxidé, Hauy. The colour of this ore is lemon-yellow, pafling into orange, and into apple-green and emerald-green ; it becomes brownifh by de- compofition. It occurs cryftallized in re€tangular prifms and tables, and fometimes in imperfeé& o€tohedrons. The edges of the cryftals are frequently bevelled and truncated. The ftruture is lamellar, with diftin@ joints in one direc- tion, parallel to the bafes of the cryftals; the other joints are indiftinét. The lamelle are inflexible, and tranfparent or tranflucent, with a fhining pearly luftre. Uranite yields eafily to the knife; the fpecific gravity is 2.19. The cry{- tals are generally fmall. Sometimes this mineral occurs maffive, in granular diftin@ concretions; and fometimes it is found pulverulent, and in {mall tubercles, which have a glimmering or dull luftre, and an orange or green or reddifh- URA brown colour. Uranite decrepitates violently before the blow-pipe ; it lofes about 33 per cent. by ignition, and ac- quires the colour of brafs. With borax it yields a yellowifh- green glafs. This ore diffolves without effervefcence in nitric acid, and communicates to it a lemon-yellow colour. Its conftituent parts, as given by M‘Gregor, are, Oxyd of uranium, with a trace of oxyd of lead 74.4 Oxyd of copper - - - - - 8.2 Water - - - - - - - 15-4 ofsiaues - s - - = - 2 Ico Uranite occurs in veins in the mines of Cornwall, and in Saxony and France: it is generally accompanied with the ores of iron. The pulverulent uranite is called by the Germans uran- ochre. Indurated uran-ochre alfo occurs with the other ores of uranite, either maffive or difleminated ; the colour is the fame as the pulverulent. It is foft and brittle; the fpecific gravity is 3.15. According to Klaproth, the yel- low varieties are pure oxyd of uranium; but the brownifh and reddifh contain a little iron. URANOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Pamphylia, and in the country called Carbalia. Ptolemy. —Alfo, a town of Macedonia, in the Chalcide ; fituated on mount Athos, near the fouthern fide, and the promontories Nymphaum and Auvathon. Pliny. Athenzus fays, that this town was founded by Alexarchus, the brother of Cai- fander, king of Macedonia.—Alfo, an epithet given by Athenzus to the city of Rome. URANOSCOPUS, in Jehthyology, the name of a fith, called in Englith the ffar-gazer ; and by fome authors, ca//i- onymus. The uranofcopus, in the Linnean fyftem, is a genus of the order of Jugulares: its characters are, that the head is deprefled, rough, and large; the mouth has the upper jaw fhorter than the lower ; the branchioftege membrane has five rays, and is covered with {mall eminences like teeth; the opercula are membranous and ciliated; the anus is in the middle of the body. Gmelin mentions two fpecies: viz. feaber, or ftar-gazer, with bearded lips and f{mooth back. It is ufually caught about feven or eight inches in length, but fometimes it grows to a foot ; its head is very large, of a fort of fquare figure, covered by a {trong bony cafe, roughened by an infinite number of {mall crefts or protube- rances; each fide of this cafe is terminated above by two’ fpines, the under part has five {pines fmaller than thofe above. Its mouth is large, and opens perpendicularly’ downward, being placed in the fame direétion with the eyes in the upper part of the head; the tongue is thick, fhort, and roughened with a number of fmall teeth ; under its chin is a beard or long cirrus extending to fome diftance beyond: the lips ; its eyes are {mall and prominent, and are fo paced near each other in the upper part of its head, as naturally to look up to the heavens, whence it has its name ; and though’ many of the flat fifh have their eyes placed like thofe of this fifth, yet the pupils in thefe are directed fideways, whereas in this only they are turned ftraight upward ; the body is of a fquarifh form as far as the vent, and then it becomes cy- lindric : it is covered with {mall f{cales, and marked near the back by a lateral line, compofed of {mall pores or points bending from the neck to the pectoral fins on each fide, and from thence in a ftraight line to the tail: on the back are two fins, the firfl being much fhorter than the latter, and furnifhed with ftronger {pines ; the pectoral fins are large, with foft rays; the ventral fins are {mall ; the tail is of mo- derate URB derate fize, and rounded at the end; the colour of the body Is brown, with a whitifh or filvery caft towards the abdo- men; the head, pectoral fins, and tail having a {trong fer- ruginous caft, and the firft dorfal fin being marked towards its hind part by a large black {pot. ‘ The ftar-gazer is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and Northern feas, frequenting chiefly the fhallow parts near the fhores, and concealing itfelf in the mud, with the top of its head only expofed: in this fituation it waves the beards of the lips, and particularly the long cirrus of the mouth, in various direGtions, thus alluring the fmaller fifhes and marine infe&ts that are near, who miftaking thefe organs for worms, are inftantly feized by their concealed enemy. As an article of food it is coarfe, and of an ill flavour: the gall was an- ciently confidered as peculiarly efficacious in external dif- orders of the eyes. ~The reafon of the fituation of the eyes of the uranofco- pus, is the providence of nature for a fifh, which, always Keeping at the bottom, has no where to look for prey but in the water above it. But if other fifh had been well exa- mined, this peculiar name would never have been given to this. The eyes of the rana pi/catrix are placed in the fame rnanner, and thofe of a great number of other fifth, whofe cuftom it is to keep at the bottom, are more or lefs alfo thus fituated. -Gefner. Gmelin. Shaw. Japonicus. With the back roughened by a femi-range of fpinous feales. Found in the fea encompafling Japan. This is above yellow, and underneath white. URANUGRATZ, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 18 miles N.N.W. of Novi. URANUS, in Mythology, the great divinity of the Pheenicians. According to Sanchoniathon, he was the fon of Elion, called Hypfiftus, who lived in the perenne of Byblos, by his wife Beruth. Thefe had a fon, firft called Epigeus, and afterwards Uranus, and a daughter named Gé. The names of thefe two children the Greeks have given to heaven and earth. Hypfiftus, having died at a hunting- match, was advanced to divine honours, and had facrifices and libations offered to him. Uranus took pofleffion of his father’s throne, and having married his filter Gé, had feveral children by her. Uranus, as the fabulous hiftory relates, was expelled from the throne by his fon Chronus, on ac- count of the offence given to his mother Gé by his infidelity, who fucceeded to his power. According to the theogony of the Atlantide, who lived in the weftern parts of Africa, preferved by Diodorus Siculus, Uranus, or Coclus, was their firit king, and brought his fubje&ts, who had before his time wandered about without any fixed refidence, to live in fociety, and to cultivate the ground. He alfo ftudied aftronomy, and regulated the year by the courfe of the fun, and the months by that of the moon; and by calculating the motions of the heavenly bodies, he delivered predictions, the accomplifhment. of which aftonifhed the Atlantide to fuch a degree, that they thought him divine, and after his death enrolled him among the gods. Uranus had by his fe- veral wives forty-five children, and by Titza alone eighteen, whence fprang the appellation of Titans. See Tirans. VRASA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro- vince of Smaland; 16 miles S. of Wexio, URATOOR, atown of Hinadooftan, in the circar of Cuddapa ; 14 miles W. of Cuddapa. VRAZZA, a town of Bulgaria, on the Efker; 24 miles N.E. of Sophia. URBAIN, Sr., a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne; 3 miles S.E. of Joinville. URBAN L., Pope, in Biography, fucceeded Calixtus I. A.D. 223, and occupied the pontifical chair till the year UR B 230, when, as it is faid, he was beheaded under the empe- ror Alexander Severus ; fo that the Roman fenate has ranked him in the number of its martyrs. Bower. _ Ursan II., Pope, named Orho, or Eudes, was born, as it has been generally thought, at Chatillon-fur-Marne, and educated under Bruno, founder of the Carthufian order 3and devoting himfelf to a monattic life in the monattery of Cluny, became abbot of that inftitution. Being called to Rome, in 1078, by pope Gregory VII., he was made cardinal and bifhop of Oftia ; and in 1088, after the death of pope Vic- tor III. in 1087, the Romans unanimoufly eleéted him as his egies when he affumed the name of Urban II. He was no lefs proud and arrogant than his patron Gre with lefs fortitude, but ete feasts In the fecal year of his pontificate he afiembled a council at Rome, which excommunicated the anti-pope Guibert, together with Henry IV., of Germany, by whom he was fupported, and all his adherents. He alfo held another council at Melfi, in Apulia, which confirmed the decrees of Gregory againft lay inveftitures and the marriage of the clergy. The pope, in order to countera& the power of the emperor, promoted a marriage between Guelph, duke of Bavaria, and the countefs Matilda ; upon which Henry marched into Italy, and having reduced Mantua, and other places, recalled Gui- bert to Rome, and put him in poffeffion of the Lateran pa- lace, when the emperor’s progrefs was checked by the revolt of his fon Conrad: under the inftigation or approbation of Urban, Guibert was expelled, and Urban returned to Rome in 1093. Inthe year 1095, a council was held at Placentia, to which a folemn embalt was fent by Alexius Comnenus, emperor of Conftantinople, the objet of which was to ftate the oppreffions of the infidels, and to requeft aififtance on behalf of the Chriitians of the Eaft. The pope and feveral great lords interefted themfelves in their caufe, and propofed perfonally and otherwife to afford them fuccour. At this council, the doétrine of tranfubftantiation was afferted 3 the marriage of the clergy was rigoroufly prohibited; and Gui- bert and his partifans were again anathematized. After an interview between Conrad and the pope, he was recognized as king of Italy, on the condition of an oath of allegiance to the apoftolic fee. In 1095 Urban vilited France, and held a council at Claremont, the firft bufinefs of which was the excommunication of king Philip, for refufing to part with Bertrade, who had been his miftrefs, and whom he had mar- ried, after having repudiated his queen Bertha. Among other canons pafled by this council, one forbade a bifhop or prieft to promife fidelity to a king or any layman. The “ Treuga Dei” (fee Truce of God) was itrongly enforced, and all former decrees relating to it were confirmed. But this council rendered itfelf peculiarly famous, by firft introducing the project of crufades. (See Crorsapk. ) During Ur- ban’s abode in France, he held other councils; and in one of them abfolved Philip, who had difmiffed Bertrade ; and he returned to Italy in 1096. At Salerno he had an inter- view, in 1098, with Roger, duke of Sicily, when he is fup- pofed to have granted the bull of the “* Monarchy of Si- cily,” in confequence of which, the fovereign of Sicily is fupreme head of the church in his dominions. Although the authenticity of this bull has been difputed, the powers confirmed by it have been occafionally exercifed ever fince that period. This pope took part with Anfelm, archbifhop of Canterbury, and the other Englith clergy, againft William Rufus, who had made free with their teme poralities, and threatened the king with excommunicatiom In the year 1ogg, the fecond male de took place, in which Jerufalem was captured ; but Urban did not live to receive this agreeable intelligence ; for he terminated a bufy pontifi- cate URBAN. eate of eleven years and above four months, at Rome, in July of this year.. Over his tomb in the Vatican was placed this infcription: ‘* Urbanus II. Auétor Expeditionis in Infideles.?? Miracles have been afcribed to Urban by the monkifh orders; but they have not been fan&tioned by the Roman church. Several of his letters, and of the decrees of councils convened by him, are extant. Bower. Mofheim. Ursan III., Pope, was elected to the pontificate on the deceafe of Lucius III., in December 1184. Several dif- putes were excited between him and the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa, which oceafioned his menace to excommunicate the emperor; but Barbaroffa appealed to an affembly of prelates and princes in Germany in vindication of his rights, and they wrote a letter to the pope on the fubjeé&t of com- plaint. Such was his indignation, that he threatened to fulminate his fentence at Verona, but the inhabitants of that city would not permit it. Soon after he is faid to have died of grief, upon hearing of the capture of Jerufalem by Sala- din, in 1187. Bower. Unsan IV., Pope, named Pantalion, was born of mean parentage at Troyes, in Champagne, ftudied at Paris, and rofe through feveral gradations of preferment to the papal chair, on the death of Alexander IV., in 1261. At two promotions of cardinals, he is faid to have created fourteen, who did honour to his choice. Manfred, who ufurped the crown of Sicily, was excommunicated for refufing to obey his fummons to Rome, and a crufade was alfo preached againft him. Afterwards difturbances occurred in the city, which caufed the pope to retire to Orvieto, where he refided with his cardinals during the greateft part of his pontificate. He made an unfuccefsful attempt, by the interference of his authoritative counfel, to terminate the war which raged in Germany on account of a competition for the empire: and having failed in his negotiation with Manfred, he offered the kingdom to Charles of Anjou, brother of king Louis IX., by whom it was accepted; but before he was informed of the refult, he died at Perugia, in O&ober 1264. This pope inftituted the feftival of «« Corpus Chrifti,”” in honour of the holy facrament, by a bull dated in 1264. The fanétity of his manners, and his liberality to the poor, have been re- corded to his honour; and Tirabofchi produces evidence of his having been an encourager of philofophical ftudies ; and the mathematician Campano compliments him with being the patron and aflociate of men of learning. He is faid to have laid his injun@ions on the famous Thomas Aquinas, to write commentaries on Ariftotle. His own epiftles that are ex- tant are of littleor no importance. Dupin, Bower. Ursan V., Pope, was at an early age a Benediétine, and ftudied civil and canen law at Montpellier, of which he became a profeffor in that univerfity, and at Avignon, Touloufe, and Paris. After fome fubordinate promotions, he fucceeded Innocent VI. in the papal chair, A.D. 1362. At the commencement of his pontificate he was vifited by three fovereigns ; one of whom, viz. Lufignan, king of Cyprus, folicited his affiftance againft the Turks, who threatened to invade his dominions. In compliance with this requeft, the pope engaged the other two kings, viz. John of France, and Waldemar of Denmark, to engage in a crufade for that purpofe ; but the defign was rendered abortive by the death of the French king. In 1365, the emperor Charles IV. vifited the pope at Avignon, which was then the feat of the papal fee ; but foon afterwards the pontiff was invited to Rome, and to make that city, which was his proper capi- tal, the place of his abode. Accordingly, on the laft day of April, 1367, he fet out on his journey, and in O&ober made his folemn entry into Rome. In the following year he was vifited by Charles, who accompanied him from Viterbo, 9 on his fecond entrance into Rome, walking by his fide, and holding his ftirrup from the Colline gate to St. Peter’s. He was alfo honoured by the vifit of another emperor, John Palzologus, of Conitantinople, who profeffed every article of faith held by the Roman church, acknowledg- ing its primacy, and {wearing perpetual obedience. This vi€tory over the Greek church was highly gratifying to the pope. At this time Urban announced, to the furprize and difappoimtment of the Italians, his intention of returning to Avignon. Various attempts were made to difluade him from accomplifhing his purpofe ; and St. Bridget, then fa- mous for her revelations, predi€ted that if he undertook fuch a journey he would not be able to compleat it. Notwith- ftanding every kind of oppofition, he retained his purpofe, and arrived at Avignon in September, 1370. But the ter- mination of his life was approaching, and having made thate kind of preparation for it which his religion enjoined, he re- figned himfelf with compofure and acquiefcence, expiring December 19,1370. This pope has been highly commend- ed for his public and private virtues. He extirpated abufes, checked the ambition and reftrained the avarice of af- piring ecclefiaftics, and deviated from the example of other pontiffs, by raifing only one relation, vz. his own brother, to the purple, and not permitting even his father, who lived to 100 years, to accept a penfion from France. To the poor he was liberal, and in erecting public works munifi- cent. He encouraged learning by founding univerfities, and he is faid to have maintained 1000 ftudents at his own charge. He reitored to its ancient {plendour the univerfity of Bo-~ logna, which fervice was highly extolled by Petrarch. Se- veral of his letters have been publifhed, and a volume of them exifts in the Vatican library. Dupin. Moreri. Gen. Biog. Ursan VI., Pope, was eleCed, if the expreflion may be ufed, by a conclave of cardinals, compelled by the populace of Rome to name and enthrone Bartolomeo Prignani, arch- bifhop of Bari, who aflumed the name of Urban VI., and who was then 60 years of age. He was born at Naples, and deemed to be an excellent civilian and canoniit, and a perfon of great probity. He was exemplary in his attention to the forms of devotion, and fingularly humble and modeft in his demeanour. The cardinals apprehended that he would re- nounce an eleétion that had been the refult of force; but this was far from being his intention. He began with re- proving the cardinals for their culpable qualities, and with urging them to reform their condué ; and at the fame time he ingratiated himfelf with the Roman people. The cardi- nals were incenfed by the haughty fpirit which he manifeited, and determined upon making void his eleGtion. For this purpofe they withdrew to Anagni, and from thence fent an admonition to Urban to refign a dignity to which he muit be confcious he had no title. When they found that,their ad- monition was unavailing, they proceeded to a new election, under the prote¢tion of a guard from Viterbo. At length, the ultramontane cardinals, being fixteen, whilft the Italian were no more than four, pronounced, in Auguft 1378, a fentence of nullity againit the eleGtion of Urban, and of excommunication againft his perfon. The Italian cardinals afterwards joined them; and they concurred in chufing for a new pope cardinal Robert, brother of the count of Geneva, and allied to moft of the royal houfes of Europe. He afflumed the name of Clement VII. The countries of Europe were divided between thefe two popes : Urban being acknowledged in Italy and the greateft part of Germany, England, Portugal, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Pruffia, and Norway; and Clement poffeffing France, Spain, Scotland, Sicily, Rhodes, and Cyprus, URB Each of thefe claimants was adhered to and fup- orted by men of learning and reputation. The former re- fided at Rome, and the latter at Avignon. We fhall not detail the contefts, no lefs difgraceful to the one than to the other, by which thefe competitors for ecclefiaftical power and their refpeCtive adherents maintained their authority and influence. One of Urban’s laft a€ts was that of reducing the period of the Jubilee from every soth to every 33d year. He clofed a very unquiet pontificate of 114 years, and a life of atrocious mifcondu@, in OGober 1389. Notwith- ftanding the apparent irregularity of his eleGtion, the church has fanétioned it as canonical, enrolled him among the true popes, and referred his rival to the clafs of anti-popes. Dupin. Bower. Ursan VII., Pope, fucceeded Sixtus V. in September, 1590, and died on the twelfth day of his pontificate. Bower. Ursan VIII., Pope, named Mafeo Barberini, was born of a noble Florentine family in 1567, educated in Florence and the Jefuits’ college in Rome, and graduated in law at Pifa. He was well acquainted with the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, and became a prelate by powerful in- tereft at the age of 19 years. Under the patronage of Cle- ment VIII. he fuftained many offices of diftinétion; was made cardinal by Paul V. in 1606, and elevated to the pon- tificate on the death of Gregory XV. in 1623. Immedi- ately upon his elevation, he created two of his nephews cardinals, and conferred the title of eminence upon all of that order. On the death of the duke of Urbino, in 1632, he took poffeflion of that duchy, as a fief of the holy fee. Of the part which this pontiff took in the controverfy that prevailed with refpe& to the doétrines of Janfenius, we have already given a brief account under the article JANSENISM. Among his other pontifical ats we may mention his appro- bation of the order of the Vifitation, and his fuppreffion of that of the Jefuitefles. He alfo iffued a bull for renewing the decrees of the council of Trent, and of other popes, which enjoined the refidence of prelates on their fees. Hav- ing, at the inftigation of his nephews, entered into a war with the duke of Parma, from whom he had ravifhed, in -1641, the duchy of Cuftro, as a forfeiture to the holy fee, which he was afterwards obliged to reftore, on condition of obtaining peace, he died in 1644, in the 77th year of his age, and the 21ft of his pontificate. His charatter, ex- cepting only the charge of nepotifm, which he incurred in common with many other pontiffs, was upon the whole re- f{peGtable. He was a fcholar, and an encourager of litera- ture. Of his poems a magnificent impreffion was publifhed, during his life, at Paris, in 1642, under the title ‘ Ma- phzi S.R.E. Carl. Barberini nunc Urbani VIII. Poemata.”’ He alfo corrected and rendered more pure and elegant the Latin hymns ufed in divine fervice. Among other {plendid buildings, which he caufed to be ereted in the capital, one was the palace of Paleftrina, for the refidence of a nephew, whom he made prince with that title. By ftripping the brafs from the roof of the Pantheon, in order to decorate the altar of St. Peter’s, he furnifhed occafion for the fol- lowing pafquinade: ‘* Quod non fecere Barbari, fecere Barberini.””? His family he had fo enriched, that he fub- jected them to a fevere perfecution in the fubfequent ponti- ficate. Dupin. Bower. URBANIA, or Caflel Durante, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the duchy of Urbino. ‘This town owes its name to pope Urban VIII., who rebuilt it, and fur- rounded it with baftions. It is the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Urbino; 7 miles $.S.W. of Urbino. URBANNA, a town of Virginia, on the Rappahannoc ; Cyprus. URB 50 miles E.N.E. of Richmond. N. lat. 37° 40’. W. long, 6° 4o0!. URBARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauritania Czfarienfis. Ptolemy. URBATA, a town of Pannonia, upon the route from a to Salone, between Cirtifa and Servium. Anton. tin. URBE, in Geography, a river which rifes in the county : Waldeck, and runs into the Dimel, 5 miles W. of War- urg. URBIACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania Citerior, at a {mall diftance from mount Ubeda, towards the eaft, on a {mall river which ran towards Bilbilis; marked in Anton. Itin. between Valeponga and Albonica. URBICARY Provinces. See SuBuRBICARY- URBICUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain. URBINATES, a people of Italy, in Umbria; of whom there were two clafles, viz. the Metaurenfes, who in- habited the banks of the Metaurus; and the Hortenfes, who inhabited the city of Urbinum, near the Flaminian way. The Urbinum Hortenfe, or town of gardens, was fituated ona lofty hill, and had only a fountain to fupply the whole town with water. The Urbinum of Metaurus lay fouth-eaft of the former, on a river from which it took its name. It was municipal. URBINO, Tiwoteo v1, in Biography. See Vitx. Ursino, Duchy of, in Geography, a province of the Pope-. dom, bounded on the north by Romagna, on the north-eaft by the Adriatic, on the fouth-eaft by the marquifate of Ancona, on the fouth by the Perugiano, and on the weft by Tufcany and Romagna. The air is reckoned unwhole- fome; one of the chief produétions is filk ; game and fifh are plentiful. Urbino was formerly governed by its own dukes, of whom the laft, Francis Maria, of Rovera, dying in the year 1631, without male iflue, the pope took pof- feffion of his territory. The faid duke had by will, in 1626, confirmed the pope’s claims, and already, in effe&, made over the country. Victoria, daughter of his fon Ubaldi, and fpoufe to Ferdinand II. great duke of Tuf- cany, inherited the allodial eftates; and hence it is that Poggio Impériale, and other places in this country, be- longed to the duke of Tufcany. In the year 1764, the pope purchafed the rights claimed by the duke of Tufcany. During the French revolution it was transferred to the king- dom of Italy. URBINO, a city of the Popedom, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, near the head of the Foglio, the fee of an archbifhop, and refidence of a legate. It is fituated on a hill, at the union of two rivers. ‘The univerfity or aca- demy is one of the moft ancient in Italy. It contains a noble college, and 16 convents. The ducal palace, which at prefent belongs to the pope, was built by duke Frederic, who furnifhed it with many ancient ftatues of marble and bronze, excellent paintings, and a library of curious and rare books. The library was conveyed to Rome by pope Alexander VII. In the churches are feen fome works of the celebrated painters Raphael and Frederic Barocci; as likewife of Genga, Vincent St. Geminiano, and Timotheus d’Urbino, pupils of Raphael. Raphael was a native of Urbino; 54 miles E. of Florence. N. lat. 43° 48’. E. long. 12° 32/. URBI-SAGLIA, a town of the marquifate of Ancona ; 5 miles S. of Macerata. URBS. See Kerr. Urss, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Liguna, —Alfo, a foreft of Italy, in Liguria, near the fore-men- tioned river. Ures URC Ures Se/via, a town of Italy, in the interior of Pi- cenum, on this fide of the Apennines. Ptolemy. : Urss Vetus, Orviette, a town of Italy, in Etruria, on the river Clanis. URCAS, in Geography, rocks near the coaft of Brazil. S. lat. 4° 50. W. long. 35° 44!. URCEO, Anronio, (Coprus Urceus, Lat.), in Bio- graphy, an eminent fcholar, was born in 1446, at Rubiera, in the territory of Reggio, in Lombardy ; and having been educated at Bologna, and under the famous Guarini at Fer- rara, he became, in his 23d year, a teacher of the claflics at Forli. At Forli he had for one of his pupils the fon of Pino, lord of that place, who having once politely recom- mended himfelf to Urceo, the latter jocofely replied, “© Good God! how well things go with us! Jupiter re- commends himfelf to Codrus ;”’ ie to the name of a poet in Juvenal, whofe poverty was proverbial. From this circumftance he obtained the appellation of Codrus. The lofs of fome written paper, and of an opera entitled “ Paftor,”? by fire, roufed his paffion to fuch a degree, that he vented his rage by uttering the moft horrid blaf- phemies, and hurrying into a wood near the city, where he remained a whole day without food. Upon his return the gates were fhut, and he was obliged to pafs the night upon a dunghill. Inthe morning he repaired to the houfe of a car- penter, and remained there in a ftate of melancholy for fix months ; but he afterwards refumed his occupations till the death of Pino. Upon this event difturbances occurred in the city, which occafioned him, after a refidence of 13 years, to remove to Bologna, where he taught grammar and elo- quence with great applaufe. His difregard of religion, however, and the freedom with which ‘he exprefled his doubts concerning a future ftate, rendered it neceflary for him to engage the prote¢tion of the molt reputable citizens. Notwithftanding the fcepticifm and irreligion of his life, he had recourfe, at his death, to the facraments of the church, which he received with tokens of deep contrition. He died in the year 1500, much regretted by his difciples, who carried his remains to the place of interment. His diftin- guifhed reputation, as one of the moft learned Greek and Latin {chelars in his time, has been teftified by his con- temporaries, and particularly by Angelo Poliziano and Aldo Manuzio. His works, confifting of Latin letters, orations, and poems, and of a fupplement to the ‘ Aulu- laria”’ of Plautus, were publifhed at Bologna in 1502, and have been often reprinted ; but they are thought inadequate to the reputation which he had acquired during his life. Moreri. Bayle. Gen. Biog. URCEOLARIA, in Botany, a genus of the tribe of Licurngs, (fee that article,) eftablifhed and named by Acharius, from urceolus, a little pitcher, in allufion to the form of the fhields, funk, like little depreffed cups, deep into the fubftance of the cruft.—Achar. Prodr. 30. Meth. 141. ‘* Lichenogr. 74. t. 6. f. 8, 9. 11.7? Syn. 137. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 305.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Alge. Nat. Ord. Algae, Lichenes. Eff. Ch. Receptacles fhield-like, concave, coloured, {mooth, funk in the cruft; their furrounding margin ele- vated, feffile, of the colour and fubftance of the crutt. Acharius remarks, in his Methodus above cited, that the prefent genus is, as it were, intermediate between his Lecidea and Parmelia, being diftinguifhed from both by the uni- formly concave, as well as funk, fhields, which moreover are moft frequently furnifhed with a proper, as well as ac- ceffory, margin. The former indeed, never prefent in Par- melia, is not very evident in Urceolaria, being fmall, and of the fame colour as the difk: the latter, never obfervable in 7 URC Lecidea, is in Urceolaria an annular elevation of the fub- {tance of the cruft, overtopping the margin of the fhield. ‘Twenty fpecies are defined in the Synopfis of Acharius, whofe fynonyms appear, in fome inftances, not correély applied ; but we are well aware of the great ambiguity at- tending the plants in queftion, and fhall propofe our doubts with caution. Few of thefe {pecies are known in England, moft of them being either of Swifs or Lapland origin. They frequently grow on hard ftones, that are occafionally inundated, or on naked expofed rocks; fometimes on the bark of trees. They are, for the moft part, of fmall di- menfions, and of rather inconfpicuous appearance. We fele& the moft remarkable. U. Achariit. Acharian Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. ¥. Meth. 150. (Lichen Acharii; Ach. Prodr. 33. with a figure in the title-page. Eng]. Bot. t. 1087. L. lacuttris ; With. v. 4. 21. t. 31. f. 4.) —Cruft limited, fmooth, a little cracked, pale brick-coloured. Shields red ; acceflory border tumid.—Found on large ftones, of the hardeft kinds, that border alpine lakes or rivulets, in Sweden, Wales, &c. and are inundated in winter. Mr. Griffith firft noticed this fpecies in Britain, and the name J/acuffris, under which it appeared in Dr. Withering’s work, is fo very excellent, that nothing but the claims of our illuftrious friend Acharius could induce us to refignit. The cruf looks like an ochra- ceous fediment from the water, but is hard and firm, infe- parable from the rock, fmooth and even, as if partly polifhed, or rubbed down, becoming cracked with age. Its colour is a pale yellowifh-brown, rarely a dirty white- Shields {mall, varioufly fcattered, of the diameter of a {mall pin’s head, concave, funk, of a deeper redder hue than the cruft, furrounded at firft by a pale elevated border from the cruft, which fubfequently difappears, probably from the {moothing aétion of the water. Dr. Acharius gives, as a variety of this, the Lecanora cyrta/pis of his Lichenographia, Pp: 397, for which he quotes Lichen pun@atus, Engl. Bot. t. 450. We cannot conceive the latter to be an Urceolaria, or to be even allied to the {pecies before us. It feems a Parmelia, whofe cruft is white or greenifh, not reddifh, nor is the difk of the fhields concave, nor bordered. Though greenifh, or brown when young, that part is finally hake We do not mean to infift on the fynonym of Fi. Dan. t. 468. f. 2. U. diamarta. Red and black Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 2: Meth. 151. (¢¢ Lichen diamartus ; Wahlenb. Lapp. 414.”?)— Cruft fomewhat limited, cracked, rather warty, of an ochrey-red. Difk of the fhields rather convex, black ; acceflory margin elevated, finally zigzag.’’—On rocks near the fhore of the gulf ef Bothnia. Dr. Acharius declares this to be a widely different {pecies from Endocarpon finopi- cum, with which, he fays, ‘* it feems to be confounded in Engl. Bot.’ At p. 1776 of that work we have, indeed, mentioned a fuggeftion of Mr. Turner’s, that thefe two plants may probably prove one and the fame. But we pre- fume there is no error or confufion in the figure and defcrip- tion annexed of our Lichen finopicus, which we found to agree with Mr. Wahlenberg’s original {pecimen of his Endo- earpon {fo called. Of the Urceolaria in queftion, we have never feen a {pecimen, unlefs it be Lichen Oederi of Dickfon, as hinted by Acharius in his Methodus, 152; but this is not given as afynonym in the Synop/is. U. gibbofa. Tumid Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 7. Meth. 144, excluding the fyn. of Bellardi and Villars. (U. fim- briata; Ach. Meth. 145. Lichen fibrofus; Engl. Bot. t. 1732.)—-Cruft covered with papillary warts, {moothifh, of a light fmoky brown; the edge more or lefs fibrous. Shields in the fnmmit of each wart, concave, blackifh; ac- ceflory URC ceffory margin elevated, contraéted, pale, minutely crenate. —Found on expofed rocks and ftones, in various parts of Europe. On the fmooth flints fcattered over the downs of Suffex this fpecies appears in its greateft perfection ; fome- times having a fine radiating marginal fringe, by which the cruft extends itfelf; the central part being occupied, fre- quently to the breadth of two or three inches, with crowded, angular, elevated, convex warts, of a grey or brownifh hue. Thefe are lefs diftin€@, and more polifhed, towards the cir- cumference, where they vanifh into a thin, dilated, infe- parable border, often more granulated than fibrous, except where the flint is broken and polifhed. Each of the perfeé&t warts bears one, rarely more than one, fmall, irregular, concave /hield, whofe difk is blackifh, fomewhat glaucous, internally reddifh-brown, encompaffed by a pale, roughifh, raifed margin, which looks as if it had become vifible by rubbing. When the plant has its fringed edge, it is the U. fimbriata of Acharius, now juitly reduced by that in- telligent author to his own gibbo/a. U. cinerea. Ath-coloured Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 11. Meth. 143. (Lichen cinereus; Linn. Mant. 132. Welt- ring Lich. v. 1. 247. t.18. Ach. Prodr. 32. Verrucaria ocellata; Hoffm. Pl. Lich. v. 1. 92. t. 20. f. 2.)—Cruft grey, rugged and cracked, with a black border. Shields black, funk, flightly concave; at length elevated along with their prominent, thickifh, entire, acceflory margins. — Common on large ftones, rocks, and fcattered flints. Few Lichens have been lefs underftood, nor would Linnzus’s fpecific name have been changed, probably, if botanifts had been able to afcertain, with any certainty, what he intended by it. His herbarium gives no information on this fubjeét ; but we rely with confidence on the tradition of his Swedifh pupils. The general appearance of this fpecies is like a bad imperfe&t ftate of Hudfon’s Lichen ater, but the latter is not an Urceolaria. The cruff is thin and infeparable ; its edge, when crowded and condenfed, narrow and black ; but when allowed to f{pread on fmooth flints, it is more dilated, zoned, and greenifh, not fibrous. The central part {wells into fmall, irregular, grey knobs, and at length cracks. The copious /bields are either folitary or cluftered, {mall, black, with the decided acceffory border of this genus, growing more and more above the common level. Accord- ing to the experiments of Mr. Weftring, this fpecies affords very fine rich fhades of orange, or red-brown, for dyeing filk. Acharius indicates four varieties, chiefly decribed by himfelf, which we have had no opportunity of comparing. U. ferupofa. Powdery Spherical Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 13. Meth. 147. (Lichen ferupofus; Schreb. Lipf. 133. Hoffm. Enum. 41. t. 6. f. 1. Dickf. Crypt. fafe. 1. 11. Engl. Bot.’ t. 266. Lichenoides cruftaceum et leprofum, fcutellis nigricantibus majoribus et minoribus, varietas @; Dill. Mufc. 133. t. 18. f. 15, 8. Patelkaria ferupofa; Hoffm. Pl. Lich. v. 1. 54. t. 11. f. 2.)—Cruft corrugated, greyifh-white, granulated, mealy. Shields nearly fpherical, black, with a tumid, inflexed, narrow- mouthed, finely crenate acceflory border.—Frequent on dry chalky heaths, and on brick walls, fometimes on rocks, or fpreading over decayed moffes. The cruf is thick and chalky, moftly cream-coloured, or greyifh ; very white when dry, almoft covered with the crowded globular warts, each of which lodges a blackih, or flightly glaucous, hollow /hield, of the fame fhape. Lichen impreffus, Ach. Prodr. 104. (Patellaria mufcorum ; Hoffm. Pl. Lich. v. 1. 93. t. 21. f. 1.) is acknowledged to be a variety of this, whofe cruft affumes a leafy appearance from other plants which it over- runs. Vor. XXXVII. oR C U. diacapfis, Ach. Syn. n. 15. (Lichen diacapfis ; Engl. Bot. t. 1954.) is furely a Lecidea of Acharius, having _nething of an acceffory border to the fhields. U. calcarea. Chalky Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 16. Meth. 142. t. 4. fi. 3. ae (Lichen calcareus; Linn. Fil. Suec. ed. 2. 407. L. cinereus; Engl. Bot. t.820. Ver- rucaria contorta; Hoffm. Pl. Lich. v. 1. 97. t. 22. f. 1—4.)—Cruft limited, finely cracked, fomewhat pow- dery, very white; at length greyifh. Shields minute, irre- gular, concave, greyifh-black, with a thin edge, and a flightly prominent acceffory border.—Found on calcareous rocks and wrought ftones. The plant of Englifh Botany forms broad con{picuous infeparable patches, on grey-marble tomb-{tones, in the country church-yards of Norfolk and Suffolk. Dr. Acharius determines it to be the Lichen cal- careus of Linneus, to whofe defcription and remarks it well anfwers, efpecially where he fays that it is a fure indication of calcareous ftones, and proves very troublefome to the decy- pherers of runic infcriptions. The cruf? is extremely hard and folid. The form of the /hields is {carcely ever exa@ly circular. Whether U. Hoffmanni, Ach. Meth. 145, Lichen rupicola, Hoffm. Enum. 23. t. 6. f. 3, be the fame fpecies, or whether the eight other varieties, adopted by Acharius chiefly from Florke in the Berlin Magazine for 1811, be- long to it, we are equally, at leaft, in doubt with himfelf. Patellaria multipund@a, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 63. f. 1—3, we now agree with Acharius in feparating from the prefent {pecies. He makes it a variety of Lecidea albo-cerulefcens, Ach. Syn. 29, which is Dickfon’s Lichen pruinatus ; but we prefume here to exprefs our doubts. U. compunda. Many-dotted Urceolaria. Sm. in Ach. Meth. 143. Syn. n. 19.—Cruft continued, very thin, fmooth, greyifh-white. Shields numerous, crowded, mi- nute, concave, black, white-edged, with a tumid acceffo border.—Found by the late Mr. Chrift. Smith, on the bark of trees in Amboyna. The cru/f appears to be divided into teffellated portions, but thefe are rather cracks in the bark, to which its thin uninterrupted fub{tance exaétly conforms. Each portion contains innumerable cavities, as if made with the point of a needle, every one of which lodges a minute blackith hollow difk, whofe proper margin, unconneéted with the acceffory one, is contra¢ted, and very pale, almoft white. We can affure our worthy friend Acharius, who has relied on the writer of this for the prefent curious fpecies, that, notwithftanding his doubts, nothing can be more unlike U. calcarea. U. efculenta. Eatable Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 20.— “ Cruit tartareous, thick, rugged and warty, greyifh. Receptacles wart-like, with a hollow difk.’’— Native of the chalky hills, of the deferts of Tartary. The ae is eat- Acharius appears never to have feen a {pecimen, able ! and he is not certain of the genus. He quotes no au- thority. URCEOLUS, in Ecclefiaftical Writers. See Aqux- MANILIS. Urceotus, in Mythology, a {mall vafe of brafs, filver, earth, or fome other material, which had a {traight neck, and wide mouth, much after the fafhion of the burettes, or cry{tal bottles in which they put the wine and water ufed in the facrifice of the mafs, which the inferior minifters carried for wafhing the prieft’s hands. They are often to be found upon antique monuments, in the hands of their minifters. URCESA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Celtiberi. URCEUS, in Antiquity, the name of a meafure of liquids, which in different places was of different capacity ; its moft 35 ufual URC ufual ftandard feems to have been between twelve and fix- teen ounces. URCHIN, a common name given to the hedge-hog. Urcuin, Sea, in Ichthyology. he echinus marinus of au- thors is, in fome parts of England, called the /ea-ege, and in others the fea-urchin, or hedge-hog. It is a genus of fith, of which there are a great number of fpecies. See Ecuino- DERMA, and CENTRONIA. The manner of thefe creatures moving at the bottom of the fea has been difputed among naturalifts; the general opinion of the world has been, that they did it by means of their {pines or prickles, which ferved them by way of legs ; but fome of late, particularly Mr. Gandolphe, pretend that the {pines of the urchins are of no ufe to them on this occa- fion, but that they move by means of certain legs, like the legs of the ftar-fith, which they occafionally put out when they walk, and at other times retraét them into their body. The world was readily falling into this fyftem, particularly as Mr. Gandolphe affirmed, that he had been often an eye- witnefs to it; but the indefatigable M. Reaumur tried the experiment himfelf, and often made himfelf an eye-witnefs of the contrary faét, having frequently feen them walk at the bottom of a fhallow bafon of fea-water, with no other affiftance than that of their fpines, and even having made them perform the fame motion, by the fame means, upon his hand. This curious inquirer into nature did not, however, ftop here; but took occafion from hence to inquire accurately into every circumftance of their progreffion, which is per- formed by fo uncommon means. It is certain that the fea-urchin does throw out at the lower aperture of the hell, when it pleafes, certain bodies which refemble not a little the legs of ftar-fifh; but thefe ferve not at all to its motion; but, on the contrary, their real ufe is to keep the creature ftill, and fixed in the fame pofition; and, to defcribe them more exadtly, they very aptly refemble the horns of {nails; whence M. Reaumur has chofen rather to call them horns than legs. The ufe the urchin makes of thefe horns, while it is in motion, is to feel about, and try the ground on which it marches ; and they ferve the creature as a ftaff does a blind man in his walking, to touch and try every thing that lies in the way; and to make them ferve to this purpofe, it is continually extending or retraéting them during the time it is moving. Thefe horns are not only placed about the orifice of the fhell, but they are every where difperfed among the fpines, all over the furface of the fhell. In order to underftand the pofition of thefe horns, we mutt confider, that the fea-urchin fhell is a hard body, ap- proaching in form to that of a fegment of a fphere, with two apertures, one commonly at the fummit of the fhell, and another oppofite to it at the bafe: the former hole ferves, as it is fuppofed, for difcharging the excrement, and the latter for the mouth of the animal. The whole ex- ternal furface is divided by protuberances, of different fizes, into ten fpherical ifofceles triangles, which have their vertex at the upper aperture, and their bafe at the lower: five of thefe are large and five fmall; the larger are feparated from the {maller by triangular bands pierced with {mall holes, ar- ranged in a beautiful and regular order. ‘The triangular {paces are divided by feveral lines, commencing at the upper aperture of the fhell, and terminating at the lower; thefe lines are marked by fundry eminences of different fizes, each of which refembles a fort of nipple: on thefe parts the bafe of every {pine is fixed, and as he bafe is hollow, it is able to turn round each eminence. Of thefe fpecies M. Reau- URE mur found more than two thoufand on every fifh; and the number of perforations on each fhell is not lefs than thirteen hundred. From each of thefe perforations, there proceeds a horn, which horns are only vifible when the fifh is in the water, and even then it puts forth only fome of them at once: thefe ferve as anchors to the fifh, becaufe it glues them faft to the ftones, &c. The {pines are all capable of affifting the creature in its motions, but thofe it principally employs are fuch as are placed near its mouth; as thefe can turn upon their balls every way with equal facility, the creature finds it equally eafy to move on any fide; and when it has determined which way it will move, thofe {pines which ftand direétly toward that point, and thofe which are dire&ly oppofite, are of equal fervice to it ; it draws itfelf forward by means of the firft, and pufhes itfelf on with the others; to do this, it firft thrufts out the foremoft ones as far as poffible, and prefling them againft the bottom, it draws on its body by them; and this is fucceeded, by drawing up the hinder ones clofe to its fhell, and then fixing them againft the bot- tom, it pufhes itfelf forward by them. This is the manner of this little creature’s marching in the common way, with its mouth downward; but it has this ftrange fingularity, that it is not confined to this pofture alone in marching, but can, with equal eafe, walk with its mouth upwards, or run along fideways in the manner of a wheel; or in any direc- tion between thefe. The legs and the horns cover all parts of it, and are in every part of it equally able to move fepa- rately thirteen hundred horns, and more than two thoufand fpines, which ferve for legs. Mem. Acad. Par. 1712. URCLI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in Beetica, at the mouth of a river, on the frontiers of the Tarragonenfis of Beetica. URCINIUM, a town fituated on the coaft of the ifland of Corfica, between Rhium Promontorium and Arenofum Littus. Ptolemy. URCIZE, Sr., in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal; 21 miles S. of St. Flour. URCOS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Cufeo; 20 miles S. of Cufco. URCUNAZO, a river of Spain, which runs into the Orio, in the province of Guipufcoa. URDACHE, a town of Spain, in Navarre; 22 miles N. of Pamplona. URDASIM, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Ural, at Fort Tanalitzkaia. URDASIMSKATA, a fort of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Upha; 128 miles E. of Orenburg. URDE, or Urpéx, in Heraldry. A crofs urdé feems to be the fame with what we otherwife call clechée. URDIALA, in Geography, a town of Spain, im the province of Tavaftland; 28 miles W. of Tavafthus. URE, or Yours, a river of England, in the county of York, which rifes at and paffles by Mafham, Rippon, Bo- roughbridge, &c. and about two miles below the laft town joins the Swale, and takes the name of Oufe. Ure, in Rural Economy, a provincial term fometimes applied to the udders of particular forts of domettic animals, as thofe of cows, fheep, and fome others. See Upper. UREA, or Ure's. Fourcroy and Vauquelin gave this name to a principle contained in human urine, which, in combination with many others, Rouelle junior firft pointed out fo early as 17733; and the defcription of thefe cele- brated chemifts, and that of Mr. Cruickfhanks, who examined it about the fame time, have been generally adopted by fue- ceeding writers, with one or two exceptions only, even to the URE the prefent time. Berzelius appears to have been the firft who obtained it in a feparate ftate, but the account he has given of it does not feem to have much attracted the atten- tion of chemi{ts, for the more recent defcription of it by Thenard is much lefs correét. M. Vauquelin is faid to have procured it very lately in the pure ftate in which we are about.to defcribe it, which defcription we adopt from Dr. Prout, who has juft publifhed an account of this finzular principle in the Tranfaétions of the Medico-chirurgical So- ciety of London. To obtain urea in any quantity is no eafy tafk. This arifes from the care with which it is decompofed, and the ob- ftinacy with which the colouring matter, and other urinary principles, adhere to it. Dr. Prout recommends that urine fhould be carefully evaporated to the confiftence of a fyrup; that nitric acid fhould be flowly added to it in this tate, which combines with the urea, and thus feparates it from many other principles. The nitrate of urea is then to be decompofed by carbonate of potafh, and after the nitre formed has been feparated by cryftallization, animal char- coal is recommended to be added to the coloured folution of urea, which feparates moft of the colouring matters: laftly, the folution of urea is again ordered to be evaporated to drynefs, and heated with ftrong alcohol and heat ; the al- coholic folution thus formed is then to be concentrated by evaporation, and on cooling the urea feparates from it in a pure cryftalline ftate. Thus obtained, urea has the follow- ing properties : “ Urea mott frequently affumes the form of a four-fided prifm. Its cryftals are tranfparent and colourlefs, and have a flight pearly luftre. It leaves a fenfation of coolnefs on the tongue like nitre. Its fmell is faint and peculiar, but not urinous. It does not affet litmus or turmeric papers. _ It undergoes no apparent change on expofure to the air, except in very damp weather, when it flightly deliquefces, but does not feem to fuffer decompofition. Expofed to a ftrong heat it melts, and is partly decompofed and partly fublimed apparently unaltered. The f{pecific gravity of its eryttals is about 1.350. -* Water at 60° diffolves more than its own weight of urea, and the folution expofed to the air for feveral months underwent no change. Boiling water diflolves any quantity of it whatever, and the urea does not appear to undergo any change at this degree of temperature. «« Alcohol (fp. gr. .816) at a mean temperature diffolves about 20 fer cent., and at a boiling temperature more than its own weight, and the urea feparates on cooling in the form of cryftals. It is very fparingly if at all foluble in fulphuric ether, or the effential oil of turpentine, though thefe fluids are rendered opaque by it. _ “©The pure alkalies and alkaline earths decompofe it, efpecially when affifted by heat, and the refult is chiefly carbonate of ammonia. It unites with moft of the metallic oxyds, The combination with filver is greyifh, and de- tonates on being heated, and the filver is reduced. It does not feem however to be alone capable of decompoiing any metallic falt, but in order to effect the union in queition the aid of double decompofition is neceflary. “ Tt combines with nitric acid, and forms a cryftalline compound but fparingly foluble in water. It forms alfo a fimilar compound with oxalic acid. In neither of thefe compounds are the properties of the acids neutralized.” Urea has the remarkable property of changing the cryf- talline forms of thofe falts with which it is in folution. Thus the cubical form of the muriate of foda is changed into an oGohedron, while the ofohedral form of the muriate of ammonia is converted into a cube. The prifmatic form of URE nitre alfo is liable to be varioufly modified. Thefe changes do not appear to take place unlefs the urea be in excefs in a folution, and the proportional quantities of the different falts be fuch as to cryftallize flowly. Urea fubmitted to analyfis, by combuiftion with the oxyd of copper, was found to confift of 2 atoms or 2 volumes of hydrogen 2.5} “6 (hydrogen 6.66 I atom or 1 volume of carbon 7-538 carbon 19.99 I atom or Z volume of oxygen 10.0 ee oxygen 26.66 I atom or 1 volume of azote 17-5} 5 azote 46.66 37-5 100.00 The nitrate of urea, the cryftalline compound before- mentioned, confifts, according to Dr. Prout’s analyfis, of Nitric acid 47.37 or one atom. Urea 52.63 or two atoms. 100.00 Hence we are enabled, by means of this analyfis, to efti- mate the quantity of urea in a given fpecimen of urine. Urea fometimes exifts fo abundantly in urine, as to cryf- tallize fpontaneoufly on the addition of nitric acid. In fuch inftances it is ufually accompanied by an excefs of the phof- phates. A remarkable relation was found by Dr. Prout to fubfift between urea and the faccharine principle, which, in his opinion, fatisfaCtorily explains the phenomena of diabetes, a difeafe in which fugar is known to be prefent in the urine, in the proportion in which urea is abfent. Another re- markable circumftance is, its compofition being in con- formity to the atomic theory, or theory of definite propor- tions. This however is not peculiar to urea, but was found by Dr. P. to hold good in other urinary principles. See Uric Acid. URECOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Moljass 6 miles N.N.W. of La Marche. UREDEN, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Muntter, on the Berckel; 26 miles W.N.W. of Muntter. UREDO, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers to exprefs the virtues of metals communicated to them from the fun. Pliny ufes the fame word to exprefs the {mut af- feting fruits ; and fome medical writers have exprefled by it a very violent and excruciating pain in the head: and others an extreme itching or burning in the fkin. See Smut, Brast, and Bricut. Urepo, in Botany, an old Latin name, from ro, to burn, or parch, applied to thofe occafional difcolorations on the furfaces of plants, which were attributed to blafts, or inju- ries of the atmof{phere or heavenly bodies, but which are now generally found to be parafitical fungi ; at leaft fuch is the ftate of thefe appearances, when they come under our obfervation, whatever injury or difeafe, in the plant which bears them, may have favoured their production. The above name is now applied to one particular genus of this kind of vegetable.—Perf. Obf. Mycol. fafe. 2. 23. Syn. Fung. 214.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi. Eff. Ch. Coat none. Powder naked, deciduous. Seeds uniform, generally globofe. Such is Perfoon’s generic charaéter, by which the dif- ference between this genus and another of the fame author’s, named Puccinia, feems to be, that in the latter what he terms, with a mark of doubt, Sporule, feeds, are faid to be 352 cluftered UREDO. cluftered into little tufts, roundifh, and fomewhat turbinate, with a tail, or elongation at the bafe, and interrupted by in- ternal partitions. What are analogous to thefe in Uredo are faid to be “uniform, generally globofe.’’ This diftinc- tion is clear enough, but the denomination of the parts in queftion proves erroneous. This is evident from the elabo- rate inveftigation of the blight in wheat, by the right hon. fir Jofeph Banks, illuftrated by the microfcopic drawings of Mr. Francis Bauer, republifhed in Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot. y. 2. 51. t. 3,4. By this treatife, and indeed by Perfoon’s own definition, it is manifett, that his Sporule ‘are not feeds, but real feed-veflels, or cap/ules. Therefore the Uredo frumenti, Sowerby’s Fung. t.140. Lambert in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 193. Kirby ibid. v. 5. 122, which was the fubje& of fir Jofeph Banks’s examination, and is the Puccinia graminis of Perfoon, Syn. Fung. 228, rather anf{wers to the charaéter of the genus Licea in the fame work, p. 195, given as follows: ‘* Head diftin&, round- ifh or fomewhat indeterminate, brittle, without any fub- jacent membrane. Seminal powder deftitute of threads.’’ We know not what is meant, in Perfoon’s generic character of Uredo, by the diftin@tion between pu/vis, powder, and Jporula, feeds, nor whether the latter, if examined with equal care, might prove, as in the Uredo frumenti, to be cap/ules. The fubjeét indeed is in its infancy. Mr. Bauer has long been collecting faéts and appearances to illuftrate it, which are regiftered in his inimitable drawings, but materials are not yet fufficiently plentiful to form therewith any fyite- matic arrangement of thefe minute produétions, in which the greatnefs of the Creator, and our own ignorance, have long been acknowledged. Neverthelefs, we are obliged to thofe who have made any {cientific attempt at defining this cryptogamic tribe, for prefent convenience, however imper- feét fuch muft neceflarily be. In this light Perfoon fhines confpicuous, and we fhall extra& what will beft illuftrate his genus Uredo. The fubjeét is important in an agricul- tural view, fome of thefe parafitical fungi being fuppofed, at leaft, to be very detrimental to the corn, or other plants, on which they grow. We are rather difpofed to believe that the effet has generally been miftaken for the caufe, and that an injury to the corn, from cold or wet, has merely dif- pofed it to afford nourifhment for the fungi. This, how- ever, is a theoretical queftion, not neceffarily conneéted with the botanical part of the fubject. Perfoon defines 30 fpecies of Uredo, difpofed m four fegtions, according to the colour of the apparent powder ; whether that powder be naked /eeds, or, as there is reafon to fuppofe, from the above obfervations, a congeries of excef- fively minute cap/ules. Se&. 1. Powder yellowifh. Rusico ; 16 fpecies. U. mycophila. Mufhroom Blight. Perf. n. 1. (Mucor chryfofpermus ; Bulliard Fung. v. 1. 9g. t. 504. f. 1, and t. 476. f.4. With. v. 4. 402.) — Widely {preading, ex- tremely fine, yellow ; feeds folitary or aggregate, on capil- lary ftalks, fimple or branched.—Found covering the whole furface of feveral kinds of Boletus, which grow in fhady places, and even penetrating their fubftance, in the form of an apparently impalpable yellow powder, ftaining the fingers when touched ; in Auguft and September, Dr. Withering fays, it powerfully repels wet, like the feeds of a Lycopordium, a {pecimen in his poffeffion not being moiftened, though im- merfed in a fluid for a year. Perfoon remarks, that this {pecies rarely occurs on any Agaric, and that the Boleti attacked with it are not fully expanded before they languifh and rot, being at firft involved in a white evanefcent downi- nefs, and then copioufly impregnated with the above bright yellow powder, which Bulliard compares to the pollen ofa lily. I U. Alchemille. Ladies’-mantle Blight. Perf. n. 3. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 1. 98.—Crowded, yellow, breaking out into nearly parallel lines. — On the leaves of Alchemilla vul- garis, efpecially in mountainous fituations ; common in the Hartz foreft. The leaves which bear this parafite are much {maller than ufual. The powder is nearly orange-coloured, in ovate, elliptical, or more frequently linear {pots, like the fruGtification of an A/plenium. Perfoon. U. Euphorbia heliofcopie. Spurge Blight. Perf. n. 4.— Scattered, nearly globular, prominent, yellow. — Frequent in fummer on the plant mentioned, which when fo occupied has always a pale fickly afpe& ; but whether in confequence of the prefence of the fungus, or whether the latter attaches itfelf to weak plants only, we know not. The {pots are various in fize, deep yellow, prominent like warts. A {maller variety, more regular in fhape, is found on E. EXiZUCs U. linearis. Long linear Blight. Perf. n. 7. (U.- longiflima ; Sowerb. Fung. t. 139.)—Linear, parallel, very long, yellow, ftaining ; at length of a darker hue. —Ob- ferved by Mr. Sowerby, on the leaves of Poa aquatica. Perfoon fays, it is abundant in fummer on the ftraw and leaves of barley, oats, and rye, but he fufpeéts it may be the early ftage of his Puccinia graminis above mentioned. If fo, the epithet ‘ ftaining’’ is not applicable. The fame author indicates a fmaller and paler variety, found rarely on the ftalks of Polypodium fragile of Linneus. U. Rubi fruticof. Bramble Blight. Perf. n. 11.—Mi- nute, nearly globular, powdery, bright yellow, deciduous. —On the leaves of brambles, not uncommon. Perfoon juftly obferves, that the powdery balls of this {pecies are fo flightly attached to the leaf, that, when a branch is gathered, they fly off, as it were elaftically, if perfectly ripe. U. Rubi dei. Rafpberry Blight. Perf. n. 12. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 2. 24.— Scattered, yellow, fomewhat conical, breaking out in curved lines. — On the upper furface of ra{pberry leaves, towards the margin, where it forms curved crowded lines, refembling the receptacles of an umbilicated Lichen, Gyrophora, of a pale whitifh hue. In an advanced {tate the powder is brownith. U. Tufflaginis. Colt’s-foot Blight. Perf. n. 13.—Scat- tered in fomewhat concentric, reddifh-orange, dots; at length confluent.—Common in autumn on the leaves of colt’s-foot, which it finally covers with orange powder en- tangled among the pubefcence. This often difappoints thofe who are fearching for the equally common Aecidium Tuffilaginis, (Lycoperdon epiphyllum of Linneus,) found on the under fide of colt’s-foot leaves, in the form of orange dots, crowded together, each with its own white notched volva. But thefe two fungi are very diftin@, though young botanifts fometimes fuppofe one changes to the other. Sect. 2. Powder-brown, bay, chefnut, or fomewhat blacki/b. Nicrepo ; 8 f{pecies. U. Suaveolens. Sweet-fcented Blight. Perf. n. 19. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 2. 24.—Confluent, fragrant, unequal. Powder pale brownifh-purple.— Frequent in fummer on the leaves of Gnicus arvenfis, ( Serratula arvenfis Linn.) which, according to Perfoon, is thus rendered barren. The leaves attacked, at firft afflume a thickened or fucculent appear- ance, marked with little blackifh dots, or round tubercles, and exhale a pleafant fcent. When the fungus arrives at maturity, a bright brown powder takes place of thefe tu- bercles, and fpreads over the furface of the leaf. U. Vicie Fabe. Bean Blight. Perf. n. 20. Difp. Meth. Fung. 13.—Crowded, orbicular, or partly irregular, deprefled. Powder brownifh-chefnut. — Plentiful on the ftem, and efpecially on the leaves, of the common bean. U. bullata. ————— URE U. bullata. Tumid Blight. Perf. n. 22. Obf. Mycol. fafe. 1. 98. t. 2. f. 5. and t. 5. f.9, 6.— Prominent, blad- dery. Powder chefnut-coloured. Seeds conftrifted in the middle. — Rarely met with, on the ftems of umbelliferous plants. The cuticle on the ftem is raifed in the form of an ovate bladder, enclofing a tumid mafs of orange-brown powder, each particle of which appears, under a very high* ae like the figure of 8, as it formed of two rounded lobes. U. Anemones. Anemony Blight. Perf. n. 24. Difp. Meth. Pung. 56.—Rather large, depreffed, burfting from a longitudinal fiffure in the cuticle of the leaf. Powder co- pious, black.—Found in the fpring, on curled leaves of Anemone nemorofa, in whofe fubitance it is lodged. Sed. 3. Powder white. AtBuco; 2 f{pecies. U. candida. Cream Blight.—Shapelefs, tumid, white. Frequent throughout the fummer, on the branches and ftalks of Shepherd’s Purfe, which appear greatly {wollen, twilted, abounding with whitifh foetid powder, which burfts irregularly through the fhining cuticle. Perfoon thinks it grows along with his Botrytis parafitica, Ob{. Mycol. fafc. 1. 97. t. 5. f. 6, a, 6. — He notices two varieties, one found on different fpecies of Tragopogon in fummer, which is fmaller and more deprefled than the above, with lefs pro- minent powder ; the other on A/y/fum calycinum, {maller and roundifh, though variable in fhape. U. Cheiranthi. Stock Blight. Perf. n. 26.— Scat- tered, nearly globular, prominent, white.— Found rarely on the foliage of Cheiranthus incanus. This, which we have never chanced to meet with, is deferibed by Perfoon as con- fitting of fmall globular maffes, half a line in breadth, each encompafled with the torn cuticle of the leaf. On account of this difference of form, he thought proper to diftinguifh the prefent fpecies from all the varieties of the laft. Se&. a. Powder blackifh or brown, parafitical on the parts of fruttification of different plants. Ustitaco; 4 fpecies. U. Segetum. Corn Blight, or Smut. Purfh. n. 27. Bulliard Fung. v.1. 90. t. 472. f. 2.—Powder copious, black, produced within the glumes of graffes. This gene- rally appears like a transformation of the fubftance of the feed, in whole ears of barley, wheat, or oats, or even Agroftis, into a fcetid footy powder, and conftitutes the difeafe termed {mut by farmers, concerning whofe caufe, and the means of prevention by fteeping the feed-grain in lime-water, &c., fo many various opinions have been held. See Smur. U. Caricis. Carex Blight. Perf. n. 28.— Powder black, naked, encompaffing the feeds. — Found on the fruit of different fpecies of Carex, as the montana, and more efpe- cially the pilulifera, on which laft it is very frequent and confpicuous. U. Tragopogi pratenfis. Goat’s-beard Blight. Perf. n.29. Difp. Meth. Fung. 57.—Powder copious, brown- ifh-purple, on the receptacles of Tragopogon. This is not uncommon in fummer, on the receptacle of the above plant, within its permanent calyx, and is the largeft of the genus. Perfoon. U. Violacea. Violet-coloured Blight. Perf. n. 30. (Farinaria Stellarie ; Sowerb. Fung. t. 396. f. 1.) — Powder of a violet purple, in the anthers of flowers.—Very frequent in Saponaria officinalis, Silene nutans, Stellaria gra- minea, the white-flowered Lychnis dioica, and efpecially Silene inflata and maritima of Fl. Brit. The anthers of thefe flowers often {well prodigioufly, and their natural contents are replaced by a great quantity of foft dull-purple powder, which ftains the petals, and gives the flower the appearance of being fprinkled with fomething like foot. The impreg- Dek nation of fuch flowers fails, of courfe ; but we do not ob- ferve them to be otherwife, as Perfoon declares, languid or fickly. Mr. Sowerby fays, this fungus often burfts from the ripening germen of Stellaria graminea and S. holoflea ; and that it occurs alfo in Bromus mollis, which we likewife have remarked, and fome other graffes. Every anther of the fame flower is thus afleéted. We are much prepofleffed with the idea of this fuppofed fungus being a difeafe, origi- nating in the conftitution of the plant, and ending in a mor- bid fecretion ; but we muft allow the opinion of Perfoon to be fupported by analogy. UREGUR, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cey- lon; 60 miles N.W. of 'Trinkomaly. URELLYCONDA, a town of Hindooftan, in My- fore ; 20 miles N. of Bangalore. UREMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Sy- ria, upon the banks of the Euphrates, near Aradus. Pto- lemy. URENA, in Botany, from the Malabar name Uren. This name, introduced by Dillenius, is allowed by Linnzus, Phil. Bot. 164, among fome others, which, though of bar- barous origin, might, as he thought, be new-modelled, fo as to prove not altogether intolerable. We mutt allow that the prefent is as little exceptionable in found as any barbar- ous name can well be.—Linn. Gen. 355. Schreb. 467. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 800. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.222. Dill. Elth. 430. Juff. 272. Ca- van. Diff. 334. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 583. Gaertn. t. 135. —Clafs and order, Monadelphia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvaceae, Suff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth double, inferior, The outer of one leaf, in five broadifh fegments. Inner of five narrow, angular, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, oblong, broadeft at the extremity, blunt with a point, narrowelt at the bafe, which is attached to the tube of the ftamens. Stam. Fila- ments numerous, united in their lower part into a cylindrical tube ; feparate above, below the top of the tube ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh, with five an- gles; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens, divided into ten branches at the top, each tipped with a capitate, hairy, reflexed ftigma. Peric. Capfule roundifh, with five angles, prickly, of five cells, which finally feparate from each other without burfting. Seeds folitary, roundifh externally, com- prefled and angular at the oppofite part. Eff. Ch. Calyx double ; the outermoft five-cleft. Cap- fule of five cells, feparating entire. Seeds folitary. We find much to correét, and fomething to add, in the diferi- mination of the f{pecies. 1. U. /obata. Angular-leaved Urena. Linn. Sp. Pl. 974- Willd. n.3. Ait. n.1. Cavan. Diff. 336. t. 185. f. 1. (U. finica, xanthii facie; Dill. Elth. 430. t. 319. Trifolio affinis, Indie orientalis, xanthii facie; Breyn. Cent. t. 35.)—Leaves roundifh-heartfhaped, angular, with three glands at the bafe underneath.—Native of China. A greenhoufe fhrub in our gardens, cultivated in the Chelfea and Eltham colleGions, about the year 1730, but not gene- rally to be met with,"being inferior in fplendour to our Wild Mallow, common on every bank. The flowers of this Urena are neverthelefs of a delicate peach-bloffom hue, and though fhort-lived, lafting but a few hours, are produced in plentiful fucceffion through the fummer. The /fem is two or three feet high, ereét, not much branched. Leaves broader than long, toothed, flightly lobed, finely downy ; paler, and rather hoary, beneath. Fvot/lalks flender, round, downy, generally longer than the leaves. F/owers axillary, folitary, on fhort ftalks, about the fize of Malva rotundi- folia. Capfules near half an inch in diameter, armed with prominent URENA. prominent barbed prickles. We remark with regret, that the erroneous citation of Dillenius, 340 for 430, is copied without correction from Linneus, by Cavanilles, Willde- now, andeven in Hort. Kew., which proves that thofe au- thors did not confult the book cited, and therefore greatly weakens our confidence in their authority or judgment, as to critical fynonymy, throughout. 2. U. reticulata. Reticulated Urena. Cavan. Dill. 335. t. 183. f.2. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves with a folitary gland at the bafe beneath, reticulated ; the lower ones three-lobed ; upper oblong, fomewhat fiddle-fhaped.—Native of South America. Defcribed by Cavanilles from Lamarck’s her- barium. The lem is fhrubby, a yard high, branched ; the branches and foot/lalks fomewhat downy. The /eaves are green above; hoary with fhort down, and reticulated with veins, beneath: the lower ones on longifh flalks, like the foregoing, large, deeply three-lobed, their middle lobe longeft : the reft narrow and undivided, varioufly contracted, on fhort ftalks. The midrib of all the /eaves bears a folitary gland. Flowers rather {maller than in the former. 3. U. tricufpis. Three-pointed Urena. Cavan. Diff. 334. t. 183. f. 1. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves with three pointed, angular lobes, and a folitary gland at the bafe beneath. Stem hairy.—Native of the ifles of Mauritius and Bourbon. The /fem is three feet, or more, in height, flender, clothed with copious upright hairs. Leaves large, ferrated, foft and downy, on hairy ftalks. Flowers aggregate, at leaft in the lower part of the plant, yellow. 4. U. americana. Fig-leaved Urena. Linn. Suppl. 308. Willd. n. 4. excluding Sloane’s fynonym. (U. finuata ; Swartz. Obf. 263, but not of Linnzus.)—Leaves three- lobed, rounded and bluntifh, much longer than their foot- ftalks ; entire and abrupt at the bafe, with a folitary gland beneath. Stem nearly fmooth. Native of Surinam. We have no {cruple in removing Sloane’s fynonym to our follow- ing fpecies. His plate by no means exprefles the form of the leaves of U. americana, which, in the original Linnean {peci- men, have wide rounded finufes between the lobes. Their under furface is very foft, and finely downy ; the upper more harth. Flowers fmall, moftly aggregate. Fruit muricated, with fhort rigid prickles, rather large and broad. Very dif- tiné from U. finuata, hereafter defcribed. 5. U.ribefia. Currant-leaved Urena. (Malva vel Alcea fruticofa, ribefii foliis, feminibus afperis ; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 37. t. 11. f.2.)—Leaves acutely three-lobed ; rounded or heart-fhaped at the bafe, with a folitary gland beneaths Segments of the outer calyx fpatulate, bluntifh.—Native of Surinam ; Herb. Linn. of Barbadoes; Sloane. ‘The /fem is much more hairy or downy than in the laft. Foot/alks longer. Leaves roughifh above, finely downy beneath, as in that fpecies; but their lobes are acute, not dilated nor rounded, nor are the finufes wide. The outer calyx has greener, more leafy and dilated, very deep fegments. Prickles of the fruit much fhorter than eyen the foregoing. Sloane’s figure cannot be miftaken. 6. U. repanda. Wavy-leaved Urena.— Leaves wavy, fer- ° rated, fearcely lobed; reticulated beneath, with a folitary gland. Segments of the outer calyx awl-fhaped. Fruit {mooth.—Native of the Eaft Indies ; communicated by the late Dr. Roxburgh. The /fem is downy, with many flender axillary branches, hardly fo long as the leaves, on which the flowers are chiefly fituated. eaves broadly ovate, longer than their footftalks, ferrated or fharply toothed, wavy, or flightly lobed; their upper fide even, rough with ftarry hairs ; under ftrongly reticulated with copious veins, paler, but fearcely more foft or downy. Flowers crimfon, axil- lary, on fhort ftalks, generally folitary. Outer calyx cloven but half way down, into five narrow acute fegments; the tube becoming ftrongly ribbed after flowering, and contain- ing the very {mall and unarmed fruit. 7. U. finuata. Cut-leaved Urena. Linn. Sp. Pl. 974. Willd. n.5. Ait. n.2. Cavan. Diff. 336. t. 185. f. <. (* Uren; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 10. 3. t. 2.?? Alcea in- dica frutefcens, foliis ad marginem exafperatis, bryonic albe divifuris; Pluk. Phyt. t. 5. f. 3.)—Leaves five-lobed, with broad, deep, rounded finufes ; lobes three-cleft : pale and hairy beneath, with three glands at the bafe.—Native of the Eaft and Weft Indies. This is known at firft fight by the peculiarly wide rounded finufes of the Jeaves, which are generally clofed, by the fides of the lobes touching or over- lapping each other ; the middle lobe, and fometimes the two adjoining ones, have three broad, fhallow, dilated and angu- lar lobes: both fides are clothed with fimple or divided, not much ftellated, hairs, and the under one, though pale, is not hoary: its three principal ribs each bear a tumid open gland at the bafe beneath. F/owers {mall, axillary, ftalked, folitary or in pairs. Segments of the outer calyx, according to Cavanilles, narrow and awl-fhaped. 8. U. heterophylla. Various-leaved Urena. (U. finuata; Swartz Obf. 263? Malvinda foliis inferioribus multifidis, fuperioribus incifis, flore folitario; Burm. Zeyl. 150. t. 69. f. 2. Alcea indica frutefcens, foliis in lacinias varié diflec- tis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 74. f.1.)—Leaves deeply five-lobed, with wide finufes; middle fegment deeply three-lobed: upper leaves elongated and contrated at the bafe : all hoary and downy beneath, with a folitary gland.—Native of the Eaft, and perhaps Welt, Indies. To this fpecies, which appears to us very diftin€t from the la{t, belongs the remark under U. finuata, in Linn. Sytt. Veg. of there being “ one glandular pore on the mid-rib beneath ;”? which remark is copied by Willdenow, though it dire€tly contradiéts his own obfervation in the next paragraph. If the number of glands be invariably three in U. /inuata, this is certainly diltinguifhed by its folitary gland on the mid-rib ; but befides that cha- racter, the /eaves are very differently fhaped ; their finufes lefs rounded, and their under fide more white and downy ; to fay nothing of the fingularly contra¢ted upper leaves, The fegments of the outer calyx are lanceolate. Corolla purple. Prickles of the fruit elongated, doubly or triply barbed. g. U. multifida. Jagged-leaved Urena. Cavan. Diff. 336. t. 184. f.2. (Lappago laciniata; Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 59.t. 25. f. 2? Cavanilles.)—Leaves hairy, deeply and acutely five-lobed, jagged, with a folitary gland beneath. Stem much branched. Flowers fomewhat racemofe.—Na- tive of the ifland of Mauritius. The whole plant is clothed with fhaggy down, apparently fimple. Leaves heart-fhaped, longer than their ftalks, their five-lobes deeply cut or pinna- tifid, acutely and unequally ferrated. Flowers yellow, on the fmaller or ultimaté branches, on fhort {talks ; the lower ones axillary, the upper almoft leaflefs. The /eaves are re- prefented by Rumphius with far flighter lobes than in the figure of Cavanilles, and yet his fynonym, cited by Rei- chard and Willdenow for /obata, and marked /inuata by Lin- nzus, agrees better with the prefent fpecies. It may, how- ever, belong to fome fpecies not yet known to fyitematic botanifts. See our n. 11. 10. U. procumbens. Procumbent Urena. Linn. Sp. Pl. 975. Willd. n.7. Cavan. Diff. 337.—‘ Leaves haf- tate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, undivided, ferrated. Stem procumbent.”’—Gathered by Ofbeck, on little hills in China. The ffem is fhrubby, creeping, much branched. Leaves the fize of Origanum, not lobed, fmooth, fharply ferrated. The flowers are larger than the leaves. Linneus. His URE His herbariam contains no {pecimen anfwering to this de- {cription, nor have we ever feen any. : 11. U. Lappago. Bur Urena. (U. procumbens ; Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 462. Lappago laciniata; Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 59. t. 25. f. 2 ?)—Leaves finuated, ferrated, fomewhat heart-fhaped : hoary and downy, with a folitary gland beneath. Outer calyx in five deep lanceolate feg- ments. Prickles of the fruit elongated, cylindrical, many- barbed.—Native of the Eaft Indies. The Jranches are round, fubdivided, flightly downy. eaves on fhortifh italks, acutely lobed, clothed with ftarry down on both fides, but moft hoary beneath ; their length about an inch and a half. uit large and tumid, muricated with prickles half a quarter of an inch long, each tipped with feveral pale hooks. We fhould have little doubt of Rumphius’s fyno- nym, had there not been fo many different opinions concern- ing it. Our defcription is taken from {pecimens to which Linneus, long after he publifhed his Sp. Plantarum, at- tached the name of procuméens, fabricating from them a new fpecific character, which ftands in the fecond volume of his Syit. Nat., and is adopted by Willdenow ; but which is alto- gether irreconcileable to the defcription of the original pro- cumbens. 12. U. viminea. Rhomb-leaved Urena. Cavan. Diff. 335- t- 84. f. 1. Willd. n. 8.—Leaves acute, ferrated, flightly lobed; rounded at the bafe, with a folitary gland beneath: upper ones rhomboid or oblong. Outer calyx in five deep lanceolate fegments.—Gathered by Commerfon in Brafil. This feems next akin to the laft, but the /eaves are not finuated, nor of fo uniform an oblong figure ; they are hoary beneath. Of the fruit we have no account. U. Typhalea, Linn. Mant. 258, and U. leptocarpa, Suppl. 308, are referred by Cavanilles and Willdenow to Pavonia ; fee that article. Urena, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the woody perennial exotic kind, among which the {pecies cultivated are, the angular-leaved urena (U. lobata); and the cut-leaved urena ( U. finuata). Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be increafed by feeds, which fhould be fown on a hot-bed, or in pots plunged into it, in the early {pring feafon. When the plants have fome growth, they fhould be removed into feparate pots, being replunged in a frefh hot-bed, requiring afterwards the fame management as tender exotic plants. When placed in the ftove in the {pring, they ripen feeds the firft year, but otherwife in the fecond, and feldom continue longer. They afford variety among other fiove plants, by their flowers, and the manner of their growth, fome rifing high, the others more procumbent. URENTIA, are fometimes ufed for medicines of a hot or burning quality. See Causric. gard, VRESEN, in Geography, a {mall Danifh ifland in the Great Belt; 4 miles N. of Langeland. | URETER, in Anatomy, the tube which conveys the urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. See Kipney. URETHRA, the canal by which the urine pafles out of the urinary bladder ; and through which the feminal fluid of the male is conveyed into the vagina of the female. See GENERATION. Uretura, Stridures of. A ttricture of the urethra may be defined to be a preternatural diminution of the diameter of a part of that canal. By the late Mr. Hunter, ftri€tures of the urethra were divided into three kinds: firft, the true permanent ftriGture, arifing from an alteration in the ftruc- ture of the paflage ; fecondly, a mixed cafe, compofed of a permanent ftri€ture and fpafm ; and thirdly, the true fpaf- modic ftrifture. (See Treatife on the Ven. Difeafe, 6 URE p- 111.) This mode of dividing thefe cafes fuppofes the urethra to poflefs a natural power of contraétion and relaxa- tion; a circumftance which, though moft probably true, and moft commonly believed, is not univerfally admitted. The do€trine of Mr. Hunter, however, has been ably fup- ported by the obfervations of his brother-in-law, fir Everard Home ; and it has always appeared to us, that the fas in favour of the contraétile power of the membrane of the urethra are equally obvious and convincing. It may be dif- ficult, and perhaps impoffible, fays the latter author, to prove this membrane to be mufcular, either from its ap- pearance, or from examination of its texture; fince the pe- cular ftruéture, upon which the contra@ion of a mufcle depends, has not as yet been afcertained. Other ftru€tures apparently membranous, and equally unlike the fafciculated fibrous texture commonly met with in mufcles, are endowed with a power of contra¢ting and relaxing, in a much greater degree, than is ever found to take place in the membrane of the urethra. The tenia hydatigenia ovalis, an animal con- fifting of a femitranfparent membranous bag, met with in the brain, liver, and omentum of fheep, when taken from its natural fituation, and kept in tepid water, contraéts and relaxes the different parts of its bag to a confiderable ex- tent. (See Praét. Obf. onthe Treatment of Stri€ures, &c. p- 15.) The mufcular ftru€ture of the ureters cannot be demonitrated, yet no one doubts that they poflefs a con- tractile power. As is obferved in the article Kipnry, of this Cyclopedia, their fun@tion of conveying the fecreted urine from the kidney to the bladder requires the exercife of tonic powers; and the idea of this fluid finding its way by the force of gravity, is not only repugnant to the laws of the animal economy, but is irreconcileable with obvious phenomena. ‘The adhefion of the fides of the tube, where it penetrates the coats of the bladder, prefents an obftacle, which can be overcome only by the exertion of fome force ; and this obftacle is vaftly increafed in the diftended ftate of the bladder, during which the fluid is conftantly finding its way into this receptacle. In the fame manner, although the mufcular ftru€ture of the urethra cannot be demonitrated, yet many phenomena are in favour of the affirmative, and, at all events, leave no doubt of the canal poffeffing a power of altering its diameter. Here the funGtions of the part, and certain fa&ts remarked in practice, afford a better criterion than anatomy, which, it 1s allowed, does not in this inftance give us any kind of evidence. When the urine paffes out, the canal is large ; when the femen is thrown out, it is {mall. When a portion of its membrane is in an inflamed ftate from gonorrheea, its furface is more readily ftimulated, and the irritation of the urine makes it contraét fo much, that frequently the fluid is voided only by drops. In this ftate, if the penis be im- merfed in warm water, the urethra often becomes fuddenly relaxed again, and the urine is more eafily difcharged. In many cafes, the furgeon finds, when he attempts to intro- duce ftimulating injeGtions into the urethra, that they will not pafs on towards the bladder, but bring on fo ftrong a contraétion of the paflage, that they are rejeGted again with contiderable velocity. The celebrated Soemmerring has explained the formation of itriétures by a thickening of the difeafed part, and he does not appear to entertain any belief in the {pafmodic nature of thefe cafes. (See Abhandlung iiber die Schnell und Lang- fam tédtlichen Krankheiten der Harnblafe, und Harnrohre bey Mannern im hohen alter. Frankf. 1809.) Mr. Charles Bell alfo contends, that the white condenfed fubftance, which conftitutes the moft common kind of ftriGure, muft be equally incapable of yielding to preffure and Apaltiete action. URETHRA. action. He obferves, that this fa& of the firm nature of a ftri@ure, pointed out by Mr. Hunter, is a fufficient proof to himfelf, that a ftri€ture cannot be fpafmodic ; and that even if the difeafed part of the urethra were originally muf- cular and contraétile, the condenfation and callofity of the part muft be attended with lofs of the contraétile power. Mr. C. Bell argues, that it is from confounding the effect of the proper mufcles of the urethra, the canal has been imagined to poffefs a mufcular property. ‘‘ I made,” fays he, “ the following fimple experiment, in order to put this to the teft. I got a {mall ivory ball, to which I attached a thread. I introduced the ball into the urethra. I made the man endeavour all he could to pufh it out, but he could not; neither was it retained in the flighteft degree, when pulled by the thread. I thought it might be more fatif- factory, if I imbued the ball with fomething ftimulating. I tried coarfe foap and fpirits ; but ftill there was no power in the urethra to retain the ball, or to pufh it forth. This could be done only by the urine behind it, and the operation of the bladder, or the ejaculator feminis. I need not add, that this experiment was made upon a part of the urethra anterior to the feat of the ejaculator feminis. In the courfe of praétice I find, that, when the filver ball is introduced down to the ejaculator feminis, it is refifted by that mufcle, efpecially when the parts are irritable. I find it fometimes thrown out of the grafp of the mufcle; but when pufhed fairly into the finus of the urethra, which is into the middle of the mufcle, the ball is allowed to remain.’’ (Letters concerning Difeafes of the Urethra, p. 95, Lond. 1810.) The fame gentleman alfo endeavoured to afcertain whether the urethra had any aétion on fluids. He employed a glafs tube to throw an injection into the urethra, the end of the tube being conftructed for pafling into the orifice of the paflage. Preffure was made on the urethra five inches down, By elevating the tube or column, the fluid diftended the urethra; but no irregularity in the height of the fluid in the tube indicated any mufcular power of the urethra to difcharge its contents. When the urethra was diftended, the flighteft touch upon it with the finger elevated the Auid in the tube; but no effort of the patient produced the effet. When he made the effort, it was with the ejaculator feminis behind the part of the urethra compreffled by the fingers. (P. 96.) The conclufion drawn by Mr. Bell from thefe faéts is, that the part of the canal, anterior to the mufcles which furround it, has no mufcular power. Mr. Bell thinks, that we can be at no lofs to account for {pafm in the pofterior part of the urethra, fince five inches of the canal in that fituation are furrounded by mufcles ; the accelerator urine or ejaculator feminis, the fphinéter vefice, the compreflor proftate, and the levator ani. And he adds, that it muft never be forgotten, that it is the fenfi- bility of the urethra which governs their contraétion. Although we conceive, that the mufcles in the perineum have in fome degree the effet which the foregoing writer imputes to them, he is far from having convinced us that the membrane of the urethra is not endued with mufcular power. In the firft place, the two experiments, above related, are by no means fo decifive as the author fancies them. The firft with the ivory ball proves nothing ; except that this body was not expelled at once by the mufcular power of the canal. But it is conceivable, that fuch power might exift, and yet operate rather fo as to grafp and retain the foreign body, than force it out. Nor is it explained how much time was allotted to the experiment ; a point effential to be known : becaufe it is not to be fuppofed that the ivory ball would be inftantly forced out again. The experiment of the injeétion is alfo nugatory ; becaufe as a itimulating fluid was not ufed, (perhaps only water,) it is not likely that any particular contraétile ation of the urethra would be thus excited. In oppofition to Mr. Bell’s opinions, therefore, we continue to believe that the membrane of the urethra poffeffes a contraétile power. We think in this manner alfo, becaufe there are certain phenomena, which cannot be explained by the contra¢tion of any of the mufcles with which the urethra is embraced. Thus, for inftance, a bougie may frequently be eafily introduced as far as a f{tric- ture ; the patient fuffers little uneafinefs, and no refiftance is experienced ; but no fooner is the paflage irritated by the preflure of the bougie againit the obftruétion, than it con- traéts and grafps the inftrument with manifeft force. Much refiftance is now felt on withdrawing the bougie ; and it is in a great meafure continued, till the inftrument is quite out of the urethra. There are few furgeons of any experience who have not obferved this faét. Did the refiftance depend upon a fpafm of the mufcles in the perineum, it could only © laft while the bougie was in the contiguous part of the urethra. We find, however, that even the laft inch of the bougie is evidently grafped. The experiments of Haller are alfo at variance with the conclufions above related; for he diftin@ly mentions, that chemical ftimulants will make the urethra contract. Indeed, as a late writer obferves, the mufcular power of this canal may be proved almoft in any inftance, by introducing a bougie of moderate fize into the healthy urethra, and lightly fupporting the end that pro- jects from the penis in a horizontal pofition. If the aétion of the urethra is then watched with attention, it will be found, that the power which expels the inftrument, in other words, the contraétion of the urethra, is uniform through its whole extent. The point of the bougie is not pufhed forward more quickly while it moves through the bulb of the urethra, where the canal is furrounded with ftrong mufcles, than it is afterwards; but, on the contrary, its motion is exceedingly flow, and perfectly equal throughout, until the whole of the inftrument is expelled, and the point fairly drops from the orifice of the urethra. (Howfhip’s Praét. Obf. on Difeafes of the Urinary Organs, p. 180.) Thefe confiderations are alfo favoured by analogy, fince comparative anatomy demonftrably proves, that in the larger animals, particularly the horfe, whofe ftruGure is more eafy of inveftigation, and the funétions of the urethra precifely the fame as in man, the ftrong mufcular fibres, en- circling the urethra, cannot be overlooked. Op. Cit. p- 182: On the whole, however, it does not appear to us, that the queftion is of great importance in a praétical point of view ; fince the treatment of {tri€tures fhould in all proba- bility be conducted on precifely the fame principles, whether the fpafm, that fometimes has a fhare in increafing the im- pediment to the exit of the urine, depend upon the muf- cularity of the membrane of the urethra itfelf, or upon the mufcles fituated near the canal, efpecially as their action is faid by Mr. Bell himfelf to be entirely governed by the fenfibility of the paflage. We think alfo, that the term {pa{modic ftricture might as well be dropped, and that no cafe ought to be called a ftri€ture, until there is fome per- manent contraction, arifing from a change of ftru€ure, in the difeafed part of the urethra. Nor does it appear to us, that any material light is thrown upon the mode in which the difeafe is formed, by imputing fo much to fpafm as fe- veral writers have done. According to Mr. Hunter, the difeafe generally occupies no great length of the paflage ; and in moft of the cafes which he had feen, it extended no further in breadth, than if the part had been furrounded with a piece of packthread. Indeed, URETHRA. Indeed, in many of the examples, the ftri€ture is faid to have prefented a great deal of that appearance. Mr. Hunter adds, however, that he had feen the urethra con- traGted for more than an inch in length, owing to its coats, or internal membrane, being irregularly thickened, and forming a winding canal. (P. 113.) Sometimes, alfo, as fir E. Home obferves, two ftrif&tures form within an inch of each other, and the fpace between them becomes nar- rower than the reft of the canal. A ftriGture, fays Mr. Hunter, does not arife, in all cafes, from an equal contraction of the urethra all round ; but, in fome, from a contra€tion of one fide. And fir E. Home informs us, that he has met with cafes where there were three ftri€tures, and all on the fame fide of the urethra; the other being perfeétly {mooth. This form of the difeafe throws the paflage to the oppofite fide, and often renders the introduétion of the bougie difficult. Mr. Hunter alfo acquaints us, that the contra¢ted part is whiter and harder than any other part of the urethra. Sometimes there are more {tri€tures than one ; and this eminent furgeon had feen half a dozen in one urethra, fome of which were more con- traéted than others. Indeed, fays he, many urethras, that have a ftri€ture, have {mall tightneffes in other parts of them. The urethra naturally is not of the fame diameter throughout its whole extent ; and fome parts of it are found to be much more liable to ftri@ture than others. In order to determine with precifion the length, as well as width of the urethra, fir E. Home took exa& cafts of it in wax. The fubje&ts from which they were taken were of different ages: one was between 70 and 80; the other, 30. The length of the canal correfponded exaétly in both catts. From the external orifice to the neck of the bladder was g inches; but, in a note, this gentleman obferves, that, in a relaxed ftate, the canal is commonly about 84 inches in length. From the external orifice to the bulb of the urethra was 7 inches. ‘The membranous part, extending from the bulb to the proftate gland, 14 inch; and the canal pafling over the proftate gland was half an inch in length. The following were the diameters of the cafts of the urethra in different parts. Years old. —_—*) S80 30 At three-quarters of an inch fromthe external? , , , orifice - - - - - - = ee a At 44 inches from the external orifice a eg! te At the bulb, 7 inches from the orifice Et a lL ta UE In the membranous part dire&tly beyond the Baas bulb, 74 inches from the orifice - AOD Sarre In the membranous portion near to the proftate : gland, 84 inches from the orifice _-- a a sida Where the membranous part terminates, and the proftate gland begins, 84 inches from 3: +3 the orifice - - - - . At the neck of the bladder, 9 inches from the Sree orifice - - - - - - =i, Ye aaa Thefe dimenfions, it is to be underftood, are much be- yond thofe of the eafy ftate of the urethra. The two parts of the urethra, which are naturally the moft narrow, are found alfo to be thofe moft liable to ftric- ture. In fad, ftri€tures occur moft commonly juft behind the bulb of the urethra, the diftance from the external ori- fice being 64 or 7 inches. The fituation, next in order of frequency, 1s about 44 inches from the orifice of the glans. Stri&tures do alfo form at 34 inches from this orifice, and fometimes almoft clofe to it. Mr. Hunter never met with Vou. XXXVII. a ftri€ture in that part of the urethra which paffes through the proftate gland. P. 114. In fome cafes, as fir E. Home further remarks, the ex- ternal orifice itfelf is contra&ted. When this happens, it is fometimes the fource of confiderable errors, the furgeon fuppofing the whole canal to be naturally formed of the fame fize. The prepuce alfo is very often contraéted, which is called a natural phymofis. Sir E. Home believes, that this more frequently happens in thofe who are difpofed to ftriGures than other men. In almoft all the cafes which have come under this gentle- man’s care, there has been one ftriéture about feven inches from the external orifice, whether there have been others or not. Such part of the canal feems much more difpofed to contract than the reft of it. It is noticed by Mr. Hunter, that moft of the obftruc- tions to the paffage of the urine, if not all, are attended with nearly the fame fymptoms, fo that there are hardly fuf- ficient marks for diftinguifhing the different caufes. Few patients take notice of the firft fymptoms of a ftriéture, till they have either become violent, or have been the caufe of other inconveniences. For inftance, a patient fhall have a confiderable ftri@ture, without obferving that he does not make water freely ; he fhall even have a tendency to inflam- mation and fuppuration in the perineum, and not feel any obftruétion to the paffage of his urine, nor fufpeé&t that he has any other complaint than the inflammation in the peri- neum. In all thefe obftru€tions, the ftream of water be- comes f{mall, and that in proportion to the ob{truétion; but this fymptom, though probably it is the firft, is not always obferved by the patient. In fome the urine is voided only in drops, and then the diforder cannot efcape notice ; in others the ftream is forked or feattered. (Hunter, p. 112.) Al- though, as fir E. Home obferves, the firft progrefs of the contraction is generally very flow, yet, when once it has fo far increafed, that the urethra is not wholly relaxed by the force of the urine, its fubfequent advances are more rapid, and new fymptoms are perceived. The urine is yoided more frequently ; does not pafs without a confiderable effort, at- tended with pain, and a ftraining continues after the bladder is emptied. If the patient accidentally catches cold, drinks a allt of fpirituous liquor, acid beverage, or punch, com- mits an excefs in drinking wine, or removes quickly from a warm to a cold climate, the urine will pafs only in drops, or be entirely obftru€ted ; thefe caufes, inducing in the con- tracted part a {pafmodic ation, by which it is clofed. Cold, externally applied to the body (continues fir E. Home), has fo great an effeé&t upon a f{pafmodic ftri€ture, that a ° patient who can make water without the fmallett difficulty in a warm room, upon attempting it in the open air fhall be entirely unable to void a drop; but, even in this difficulty, if he returns to a warm room, and fits down fome little time, the urine will come away. The experience of the fame gentleman tends to prove, that the fymptoms of ftric- ture come on more frequently while the patient is leading a {edentary than an aétive life. Permanent ftri€tures are generally attended with a dif- charge of matter, or a gleet. This is often confidered by the patient as the whole difeafe ; and fometimes it is not till after the furgeon has long in vain tried every means that he can imagine to effet a cure, that other fymptoms are no- ticed, and a ftri€ture at laft fufpected. In difeafes of the urethra, and alfo in thofe of the proftate gland and bladder, there is ufually an uneafinefs about the perineum, anus, and lower part of the abdomen; and, as Mr. Hunter remarks, the patient can hardly crofs his legs without pain. Frequent ‘ URETHRA. Frequent intercourfe with women generally renders ftric- tures worfe. Under thefe circumitances, fays fir E. Home, the membrane of the urethra is kept longer in a ftate of con- traction ; and the part difpofed to ftri€ture lofes the power of relaxing itfelf again. Although the paflage is not com- pletely clofed, it is rendered much narrower, and remains in an extremely tender ftate. Hence, the paflage of the urine irritates it, and in a few hours a difcharge of matter comes on fimilar to that from gonorrhea. In certain inftances, the contraGtion is fo great, that it {tops the emiflion of the femen altogether, and forces it back into the bladder ; whilé in fome other cafes this fluid pafles through the {triture after the orgafm has taken place, but with little or no force. There is one cireumftance which has a great tendency to make a ftricture be miftaken for a gonorrhoea ; viz. the pain in making water is confined to the fame fpot in both dif- eafes. A ftricture in the membranous part of the urethra does not render the part itfelf particularly fenfible; but all the painful fenfations are felt about an inch and a half from the orifice of the glans penis. This is a general fact, and unaccountable as it may feem, it is not more extraordinary than the burning pain felt in the glans, in cafes of ftone, even when the whole of the urethra is perfe@ly found. When a ftrifture is in an advanced ftage, the difeafed art is at all times much narrower than the reft of the canal. The ftri@ture, however, according to fir E. Home, {till re- tains a power of contraéting and relaxing itfelf; in the con- traGted ftate, clofing up the paflage; in the relaxed ftate, allowing the urine to pafs through it in a {mall ftream. In this ftate the {tream is fo fmall, and the exertion neceflary to empty the bladder fo great, that the patient can feldom be wholly ignorant of his complaint. The f{pafmodic contraction, upon any irritation being ap- plied to the part, is, as fir E. Home defcribes, very great. This is known by the urine being unable to pafs in a ftream; and by the extreme difficulty of now pafling a {mall bougie, which, in the relaxed {tate of the canal, met with no refiftance. The bougie alfo, if allowed to remain a few minutes, is not unfrequently grafped fo tight by the fpafmodic contraction, that it cannot be withdrawn without confiderable force. The bougie, when examined (continues fir E. Home), puts on an appearance exa@tly refembling what would have been produced, if a piece of packthread had been tied round it. In this ftage, the fpafmodic contra¢tions, although more violent, occur lefs frequently than while the ftricture was in a more recent ftate. When the ftrifture has been of fome years ftanding, the coats of the bladder become thickened, in order to increafe the power of this organ to expel the urine, the evacuation of which is rendered difficult by the obftru@tion. The bladder, in this thickened ftate, does not admit of the ufual dilatation, fo that the patient is obliged to make water every three or four hours, or oftener. See Home’s Pract. Obf. on Striftures. In addition to the foregoing fymptoms, we have further to enumerate, amongft the numerous effeéts of ftri€tures in the urethra, noéturnal emiffions ; and, in irritable patients, a variety of unufual fenfations about the membranous part of the urethra, conveying to the mind the idea of fome- thing crawling or fluttering. In many cafes alfo, there is a periodical difcharge, brought on by cold, or other occa- fional caufes. When this happens, the inflammation extends to the bladder ; the frequency of making water is very much inereafed 5 and the urine very turbid. Sometimes the blad- der inflames more violently, and fecretes purulent matter, which paffes out after the urine. In {till worfe attacks, the difcharge from this yifcus is glairy, like the white of an egg, and of a ftrongly tenacious confiftence. The difcharge of pus and gelatinous mucus with the urine, has been regarded as particularly evincing an ulcer, or calculus in the bladder ; but it is afymptom which arifes from any irritation of that organ, and is frequent in cafes of old ftritures. Attacks of the preceding kind may bring on peritonitis, and the patient is carried off. Sometimes irritation of the ftri€tured part, by the efforts to make water, brings on a gradual diminution of the canal, and, in a few inftances, a total obliteration of a portion of it. This laft event cannot happen without deftroying the patient, un- lefs another outlet be formed for the urine. Complete ftric- tures, therefore, as fir E. Home remarks, are only met with where filtule in perinzo have been produced. Some patients with ftri@ures feem extremely liable to complete paroxyfms of fever; that is to fay, they often have a cold, hot, and fweating ftage of febrile diforder in regular fucceffion. The {weating is alfo remarked to be much more profufe than in a common ague. % Stri€tures in the urethra likewife occafion a {welling of the tefticle. When permanent and confiderable, they are alfo apt, under particular circumftances, to caufe ftrangury and retention of urine. If a patient goes fuddenly from a warm into a cold fituation ; if he drinks too freely of wine ; eats high-feafoned difhes; catches cold; commits any fpecies of intemperance; or delays making water too long, after feeling the inclination, he expofes himfelf to the danger of thefe latter grievances. The caufes of ftri€tures in the urethra are not known with any degree of certainty. The origin of the difeafe is often imputed to the effects of gonorrhcea, or to the method of curing it. Mr. Hunter, however, conceives that there are many reafons why this doGtrine is not likely to be corre&. Strictures, he obferves, are common to molt paflages in the human body; they often occur in the efophagus; in the inteftines, efpecially the rectum; in the anus; in the pre- puce producing phymofis; and in the lachrymal du@, without any previous difeafe. ‘They fometimes happen in the urethra itfelf, without ever having been preceded by any venereal complaint. Mr. Hunter faw an inftance of this kind in a young man of nineteen, who had had a ftrifture for eight years, and which therefore muft have begun when he was only eleven years of age. The cafe was treated at firft as the ftone or gravel. The patient was of a weak {crophulous habit, and the ftricture in the moft ufual place, about the membranous part of the urethra. Mr. Hun- ter had alfo feen a ftri€ture in a boy only four years of age, and a fiftula in the perineum in confequence of it. He re- minds us alfo, that ftriCtures are as common. in perfons who have had gonorrhcea flightly, as in thofe who have had it violently. They are alfo never found to come on during the inflammation which attends a clap, nor for fome time after the infection is gone. Thirty and forty years fometimes elapfe between the cure of a gonorrhcea and the beginning of a ftriCture, the health being all that time perfe@ly good. If ftri€tures arofe in confequence of the inflammation ac- companying this diforder, we fhould expeé to find them of fome extent, becaufe the inflammation is itfelf of fome ex- tent ; and we fhould alfo expe& to find them molt frequent in that part of the urethra which is ufually the feat of go- norrhea. But the fact is, they are not fo frequent there as they are in other parts of the urethra. Sir E. Home, how- ever, differs from Mr. Hunter on this point, in thinking, with moft other furgeons, that gonorrhea is a very general caufe of ftrictures. It is fuppofed by many, fays Mr. Hunter, that ftri€tures arife from the ufe of injeGtions in the cure of gonorrhoea ; but fo the inceflanc” URETHRA. but he thought the opinion founded on prejudice ; for he had feen as many ftri€tures after gonorrheeas, which had been cured without injections, as after other cafes, which had been cured with them. Such modes of accounting for ftric- tures, he obferves, give no explanation of cafes which have not been preceded by gonorrhoea, or the ufe of injections. Sir E. Home alfo thinks differently from Mr. Hunter re- fpe€ting injeCtions, the injudicious ufe of which he conceives may often caufe ftri€tures. StriCtures have fometimes been .fuppofed to arife from the healing of ulcers in the urethra ; but Mr. Hunter fays, he never faw a fore in this paflage, ex- cept in confequence of a ftricture, and he therefore does not fubfcribe to the opinion. The {tone is fometimes a caufe of {tri@ture, and this occa- fionally happens in infancy. Sir E. Home has met with cafes of this kind in children only fix years of age; and, from other examples which he has recorded, it would appear, that the difeafe is frequent in calculous patients of more ad- vanced years. In the Eaft Indies, and other warm climates, ftrictures are much more readily brought on than in Europe ; and it is thought, that the exceffes, in which the inhabitants of hot countries indulge, have great effect in promoting the formation of the dint . Stri€tures have been known to arife from the application of external violence to the perineum ; from the irritation of blifters affeGting the membrane of the urethra; and from the irritation of a difeafed proftate gland. Cafes, in proof of thefe obfervations, may be perufed in fir E. Home’s publication. In the treatment of this difeafe, the firft thing is to afcer- tain the precife fituation of the ftri€ture neareft the orifice of the urethra. For this purpofe, a common bougie, pro- portioned to the fize of the orifice of this canal, is to be gently introduced. If the bougie eafily enters the paflage, the furgeon may be well affured, that, if there be no ob- itru€tion, the fize of the inftrument cannot be too large for the reft of the canal, the orifice of which is naturally lefs capacious than moft other parts of it. Small bougies, and fuch as are too much pointed, however, are frequently itopped by the lacunz, or orifices of the mucous glands, and lead inexperienced furgeons into error. In introducing any inftrument properly into the urethra, fome degree of {kill is difplayed. When a bougie or cathe- ter is to be paffed, the furgeon fhould take hold of the penis, by placing the fore-finger and thumb of his left hand on each fide of the prepuce, oppofite the corona glandis: thus he avoids making any preffure on the paflage into which he is about to pafs the bougie. This being oiled is to be in- troduced at firft a little way ; then the furgeon is to draw the penis forward, as it were over it, with the fore-finger and thumb of his left hand, while, at the fame time, he gently and fteadily perfifts in pufhing the inftrument further into the paffage with his right hand. The bougie itfelf is to be held like a writing pen, and, as it enters the urethra, it ought to be artfully rotated, firit in one direion, then in the other, in order that its extremity may more certainly efcape being entangled in any natural fold of the membrane lining the paflage. Having afcertained, by the introduGtion of a bougie, the exiftence and fituation of the ftri€ture neareft the mouth of the urethra, the next defideratum is to learn, whether the con- traction is fuch as would be produced by tying a piece of packthread round the canal; whether, on the other hand, it occupies a confiderable extent of the paflage; and, laftly, what is the fize of the bougie which can be introduced through it. A knowledge of the extent of the ftri€ture is a circumftance that would always be of effential ufe to the practitioner, if it could be obtained ; becaufe, we prefume, no furgeon, knowing that the obftruétion and difeafe extend far along the urethra, would ever in fuch a cafe give a pre- ference to the employment of armed bougies. Thofe armed with the nitrate of filver could never be expected to burn their way through a {tri€ture an inch in length ; and if other bougies, armed with the cauftic potafla, are conceived to admit of being applied to fuch a ftri€ture with any degree of precifion, or any other real efficacy than what actually arifes from the mechanical aétion of thefe inftruments themfelves, when paffed through the ftri€ture, we confefs that it is more than our obfervations authorize us to believe. We have no hefitation in giving it as our opinion, that, in all cafes of ‘this defeription, as well as in others, in which two ftrictures are near together, and the intervening part of the canal much contraCted, cauftic bougies ought not to be ufed. Having afcertained that a common-fized bougie will not pafs beyond a particular point of the urethra, we ought to make an impreffion on the inftrument with the finger-nail, clofe to the mouth of the urethra. Then the bougie fhould be withdrawn, and the furgeon fhould take one of a {maller fize, which he is to mark with his nail, exa&tly at the place correfponding to that of the impreffion on the firft bougie. This {maller one is to be introduced fufficiently far to bring its marked part exaCtly to the orifice of the urethra, at which period the furgeon knows that the extremity of the bougie has juft arrived at the contra¢tion, which’ would not allow the firft common-fized bougie to pafs. If the fecond bougie cannot be introduced farther than the firit, a {till {maller one is to be tried; but the furgeon fhould not have recourfe to the fmalleft bougies at once, as the largeft bougie which can be got through the ftriture ought to be the model of the foft white one, which fhould now be intro- duced for the purpofe of fhewing the fhape and extent of the ftri@ture by the impreffions made upon it. If, after the foft bougie has remained a minute or two in the itri€ture, it fhould be marked with a diftinét circular or femi-circular narrow furrow, on being withdrawn, we have reafon to be- lieve, that the ftridure does not occupy much of the extent of the urethra. On the contrary, when the impref- fions and irregularities on the {oft bougie are extenfive, it is to be fufpeéted that the ftri€ture is not confined to a limited point of the canal. At the fame time it muft be acknow- ledged, that it is fomewhat difficult to form a certain judg- ment from the appearances of the bougie, becaufe thefe wall depend very much upon the force or gentlenefs with which the inftrument is ufed. In particular, it is extremely diffi- cult to learn pofitively whether the urethra is diminifhed in diameter immediately behind the moft contraéted part of the ftriGure. Mr. C. Bell propofed the employment of a particular fort of probe for determining the extent of ftri€tures. ‘I pro- cured (fays this gentleman ) a feries of filver and gold probes, with circular knobs ; the knobs varying from the full fize of the urethra to what will juit pafs the narrowett {tricture. By fucceflively introducing {maller balls, I afcertain the de- gree of ftri€ture by the ball which pafles eafily ; and I am fecure of being in the paflage by pafling the probe onward, when it has got beyond the ftri€ture. Then by the flight . feeling of refiftance in paffing the ball, and in withdrawing it again through the obitrudtion, I afcertain the extent of the contra@tion. If the ball of this probe be liable, like the point of the bougie, to enter one of the lacunz, or, on pafling it, to rub upon its edge, yet, by feeling whether the fame roughnefs or difficulty attends the withdrawing of the bulb of.the probe as when it pafled downward, we may be affured whether there be a ftri€ture of the canal, or whether Bez the URETHRA. the obftruGion be not caufed merely by the lacune.” Oper. Surgery, vol. i. p. 104. _ This author further obferves, that as the lacuna opens ia a direétion towards the orifice of the urethra, its edge cannot catch the probe when this is withdrawn, at which period a uniform {moothnefs muft be felt, unlefs there be difeafe. When there is an irregular hardening of the urethra for a confiderable extent, the probe is faid to move along it with difficulty ; but no fooner has it paffed the ob- ftrution, than it moves on with freedom. Likely as thefe ball-probes for the urethra at firft feem to be to afford de- firable information refpecting the fpecies of ftri€ture, they are at prefent not much ufed by furgical praétitioners. In faét, in practice they do not anfwer ; and it is the contrac- tile power of the urethra, or (if others will not allow it) it is the action of the mufcles contiguous to this paflage, which fometimes ftops the eafy introdu€tion of the probe even when there is no permanent ftricture whatever, and which makes it more difficult to afcertain the nature and extent of the obftru€tion than would otherwife be the cafe. That great utility in pra@tice would be derived from being able to learn the nature of the ftriture, mutt be as obvious as the fact, that a cautftic bougie is not at all calculated to remove the obftru€tion when it is of any extent. Such an inftrument (we mean particularly a lunar cauftic one) could only act on the anterior part of the contraGtion, without prefenting any profpeét of being fufficiently efficacious to burn its way, by repeated applications, through the whole extent of the ftri@ure. Even could we imagine that it had this power, our judgment and common fenfe would revolt at the doétrine of this being the proper plan to be purfued. The common bougie, on the other hand, is introduced through the whole extent of the ftri€ture, and ating like a wedge on every part of it, produces a general dilatation of the obftruction, When the ftriure is attended with a coni- cal leflening of the canal in front of it, a common bougie mutt alfo merit a preference. Treatment with the common Bougie—This inftrument acts by producing a mechanical dilatation of the ftriéture. As it operates, however, on living matter, it either makes the dilated part adapt itfelf to its new pofition, or recede by ulceration. If the cafe is one that will allow even the {malleit bougie to be introduced through the ftri€ture, the cure may be confidered to be within our power. In many cafes in which the ftri€ture is confiderable, a great deal of trouble is given by occafional fpafms, which either prevent the introduétion of the bougies altogether, or only allow a very {mall one to pafs. In fuch cafes, Mr. Hunter was fometimes able to make the bougie pals, by rubbing the perineum with one hand, while he pufhed forward the bougie with the other. He alfo frequently fucceeded by letting the bougie remain clofe to the ftri€ture a little while, and then pufhing it forward. The fpafm has fometimes been removed by dipping the penis in cold water. It is fometimes difficult to know, whether a fmall bougie has paffed through a ftri€ure, or only bent. In this cafe, a common-fized bougie fhould be previoufly introduced to learn the fituation of the ftri€ture; and, afterwards, when the end of the {mall bougie is known to have reached the obftruction, the furgeon fhould pufh the inftrument forward very gently, and for a fhort time. If the bougie enters the pems further, he may know whether it has entered the ftriéture by removing the preffure from the bougie ; for, if this recoil, it has not pafled, but only bent. After all, however, every practical furgeon knows, that it is fome- times incorrect to take even fuch a criterion, and a very {mall bougie frequently bends, and yet does not afterwards recoil in the leaft. When the bougie has paffed a little way through the ftri@ture, and remained there a fhort time, we fhould with- draw it, and examine its extremity. If this fhould be flat- tened, grooved, or have its waxen coat pufhed up for fome extent; or, if there fhould be a circular impreffion on the bougie, or only a dent on one fide made by the ftri@ture, we may be fure that the inftrument has paffed as far as thofe appearances and impreflions extend. Now it becomes neceffary to introduce another bougie of exactly the fame fize, and let it remain as long as the patient experiences no particular inconvenience. When the end of the firft bougie is blunted, we may be fure that it has not paffed the ftriture at all. The beft time for wearing bougies is when the patient is in bed in the morning, or when he has an opportunity of keeping himfelf perfe€tly quiet. “The bougie fhould be gradually increafed in fize, as the ftri€ture dilates, till the largeit one can eafily pafs, and its ufe fhould be continued for three or four weeks afterwards, in order to habituate the parts to their new {tate. It 1s well known that ftri€tures are very liable to return, and hence the treatment with common bougies has been accufed of inefficacy. We have known, however, fome cafes in which the cure lafted many years ; and others in which the ftri€ture returned, although cauftic bougies had been employed. One reafon why the difeafe often relapfed in former times was, becaufe furgeons had no eorreét notions re{peéting the naturally capacious diameter-of the urethra, and confequently they never increafed the fize of the bougie, as far as it ought to have been, in proportion as the difeafe gave way. In the employment of cauttic bougies, on the other hand, furgeons have always preferred large ones; and, if thefe inftruments ever render the cure more durable, we conceive that the fuccefs is in a great meafure afcribable to this circumftance. Common bougies have one advantage over thofe armed with lunar cauftic ; viz. that of being fometimes capable of acting upon feveral ftri€tures at once, when they are intro- duced into the urethra ; a thing which is impoffible in the other method. Treatment with Elaftic Gum Catheters and Bougics.—Per- haps there is no plan of treating ftri€tures in the urethra which is fo mild and unirritating ‘as that with inftruments coated with elaftic gum. It is the common method of treatment followed in France, where cauftic bougies appear to be entirely abandoned. The celebrated Default, who had confiderable fuccefs in the treatment of ftri€tures, rarely employed any means of cure except an elaftic gum catheter. That this inftrument can frequently be introduced through a ftri@ure, even when nothing elfe will pafs, feems well known to every practitioner in furgery ; for, whether he is an advocate for one method of cure or another, he no fooner fails in his attempts to get through a ftri€ture, than he tries what can be done witha gum catheter. It is quite unne- ceflary to dwell long on the mode of curing ftri@ures with this inftrument, or the elaitic gum bougie.. The cure is ef- feted on the principle of dilatation; the very fame prin- ciple on which the common bougie operates. The catheter will fometimes pafs without the itilet, when it will not do fo with it.| This inftrument, being much lefs irritating than a common bougie, can be longer worn without inconvenience, efpecially as the patient can alfo void his urine without taking it out. Indeed, it may be worn feveral days to- gether, if judged advifable; but we believe it is’ generally better to withdraw it fooner, and endeavour to get in as quickly URETHRA. quickly as poffible other elailic gum catheters of larger fize. The elaftic gum bougie fometimes will not pafs a {tricture in the membranous part of the urethra, owing to the elafti- city of the inftrument tending to keep its point from af- cending over the ridge in the canal. In fome cafes we have found them on this account not to anfwer, and have been obliged to ufe either a common bougie, or an elaftic catheter containing a wire,” Treatment with Bougies armed with Nitrate of Silver.—The practice of applying cauftic to ftri€tures was known to Wifeman, who is juitly efteemed the father of Englifh fur- gery. The cauftic which he ufed was the common red precipitate, and he introduced it into the urethra by means of a cannula. It appears that Mr. Hunter was not aware that any propofal of the kind had ever been made by others, when he firit conceived the proje&t of curing ftriétures in the urethra with cauftic. It was only afterwards that he learned what Wifeman had done; and there can be no doubt, that if the idea had not exifted previoufly, we fhould ftill have derived it from the fertile genius of Mr. Hunter. The inftruments with which he employed cauttic confifted of a filver cannula and a ftilet. One end of the ftilet had a fmall bulb, which filled up the end of the cannula, and made it pafs more eafily down to the ftri€ture. The other end was a port crayon, containing the piece of cauttic which was introduced through the cannula, and applied to the itri@ture. The application having been made, the port crayon was drawn back into the cannula, and the whole taken out of the urethra. It is obferved by fir Everard Home, that the foregoing method of ufing cauftic was found in practice to be liable to a variety of objections. No filver cannula could be well adapted to the flexible canal of the urethra. Hence, when the cauftic was applied, and any degree of preffure exerted, the effe& of the cauftic was neceflarily produced upon the angle, between the ftri€ture and fide of the urethra, and not upon the middle of the ftri€ture, the part intended to be de- ftroyed. Mr. Hunter not only faw the inconveniences of the cannula, but he aétually endeavoured to obviate them by devifing a more fimple and commodious method of ap- plying cauftic accurately to the centre of the ftri€ture. The following is the improved mode, as explained by fir E. Home: Take a bougie of a fize that can be readily paffled down to the ftricture, and infert a {mall piece of lunar cauftic into the end of it, expofing the furface of the cauftic, but furrounding it every where laterally with the fubftance of the bougie. This fhould be done fome little time before it is ufed ; for the materials of which the bougie is compofed become warm and foft by being handled in the infertion of the cauftic ; and, therefore, the hold which the bougie has of the cauftic is rendered more fecure by the in- {trument being allowed to cool and become hardened. This bougie is to be oiled, but before paffing it, a com- mon bougie of the fame fize is to be introduced down to the ftri€ture, in order to clear the canal, and to meafure ex- aétly the diftance of the ftri€ture from the external orifice. This diftance being marked upon the armed bougie, the latter is to be pafled down to the ftrifture as foon as the common one is withdrawn. In its paflage the cauftic can {earcely come into contaé with any part of the lining of the urethra, as the point of the bougie, of which the cauttic forms the central part, always moves in the middle line of the canal ; and indeed the quicknefs with-which it is con- veyed to the ftricture muft alfo prevent any injury of the membrane. When the armed bougie is in conta& with the ftri€ure, it is to be fteadily retained there, with a moderate degree of 5 preffure at firft, which is to be afterwards diminifhed, or elfe it would bend the bougie when this becomes foftened by the warmth of the urethra. The time which it is to re- main depends a good deal upon the fenfations of the patient, and the length of time the parts have been difeafed ; but on the firft trial it fhould be lefs than a minute, as it then com- monly gives greater pain than at any fubfequent application. Every other day is generally as often as the cauftic bougie can be ufed with prudence. However, in obftinate cafes, fir E. Home has fometimes employed it every day. The bougie, which is introduced into the urethra previoufly to the armed one, fhould be made of foft materials, in order that it may mould itfelf to the form of the paflage, and communicate fome information relative to the extent, degree, and pofition of the ftri€ture. The pain arifing from the application of the nitrate of filver, or lunar cauftic, to ftri€tures, is reprefented by fir E. Home as much more moderate than might @ priori be ap- prehended. This gentleman has even related inftances, in which the piece of cauftic flipped out of the bougie, and remained in the urethra; yet without occafioning any very fevere fymptoms. In the courfe of the ufe of cauftic bougies, efpecially when the patient is guilty of any imprudence, it is poffible for fome uncommon fymptoms to arife. The firft is a {welling in the perineum. It is very apt to be brought on when the furgeon is endeavouring to remove that part of the itri€ture which is neare{t to the fides of the urethra. The {welling, which is of confiderable fize, is to- tally different from that which is produced by the irritation of the long continuance of bougies in the paflage, and which ends in an abfcefs. It is entirely caufed by blood ex- travafated in the cellular membrane, and which is readily ab- forbed. The inflammation is alfo flight, and foon fubfides. A fecond effe&t of cauftic, in fome particular cafes, is a very profufe hemorrhage. According to fir E. Home, the bleeding never occurs with violence, except when the ftric- ture has been completely deftroyed. This gentleman has related feveral examples of fuch hemorrhage, and others are on record. See Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. v. A third ill confequence, fometimes induced by the ufe of armed bougies, is ftrangury. According to fir E, Home, it is not common for cauftic to produce this effeét. On the contrary, he ftates, that in many inftances it removes it, by taking off fpafmodic aétion from the {trifture. Patients, however, who are fubje& to occafional retentions of urine from the ufe of common bougies, are alfo not lefs liable to the complaint when they are ufing armed ones ; and fome- times they fuffer in a ftill worfe degree. In certain conftitutions, it appears alfo, that the applica- tion of cauftic to a ftri€ture brings on an attack of ague. This effeét is faid to be moft common in patients who have paft a good deal of their life in hot climates. It fometimes happens, however, in perfons who have never been out of England. We faw in St. Bartholomew’s hofpital, a few years ago, an elderly man who had very bad ftrictures, for which the cauftic was ufed. After the plan had been fol- lowed about a fortnight, a ferious fhivering fit came on di- rectly after the application of the bougie. The method was difcontinued for atime, and the man’s health got rather better. The cauttic was now again reforted to, and again a moft violent rigour immediately followed, and the febrile difpofition which took place proved fatal in a couple of days. Cauftic bougies are at prefent much lefs employed than they were ten or fifteen years ago. In France, however, and upon URETHRA. upon the continent in general, the practice never gained any partifans. The great thing which rendered the plan a fa- vourite one with many furgeons fome time ago, depended upon its alleged fuperiority in radically curing ftri€tures, and leaving no chance of a relapfe. We believe, however, that this was only a fuppofition ; for we have feen feveral re- turns of ftriture after the ufe of cauftic; and, if the dif- eafe fhould recur rather lefs frequently on the whole, the fuc- cefs may be very well afcribed to the larger fize of the armed bougies ordinarily employed. In fhort, we have no doubt, that common bougies would permanently cure ftri€tures quite as well as any armed ones, if care were taken to in- creafe the fize of them in a proper degree, in proportion as the obftruétion gives way. For thofe ftri€tures, however, which are like what would be produced by tying a piece of packthread round the urethra, we think armed bougies generally anfwer very well. They have alfo been particularly recommended for irritable ftriGtures, the irritability of which is faid to be deftroyed with the difeafed part of the canal. There are fome cafes in which no bougie nor catheter, of the fmalleft fize what- ever, can be got through the obftru€tion. Here the fur- geon has the choice of ufing the armed bougie ; of exciting ulceration of the ftri€ture with the preflure of a common one; or of imitating the French, and fome of our own fur- geons, in boldly forcing a way through the obftru€tion with aconical catheter, of which we fhall prefently fpeak. Treatment of StriGures with other Bougies, armed with the Cauflic Potaffa—Mr. Whately confiders ftri€tures of the urethra, not merely as contra¢ted fibres, but as really difeafed portions of the membrane lining that canal. Hence he has propofed a remedy, calculated, as he thinks, both to remove the difeafed affection, and to dilate the contraéted part, without putting the patient to the inconvenience of wearing a bougie. Such a remedy he thinks cauftic, whenit is judi- cioufly ufed. But his great obje& is to recommend the em- ployment of the cauftic potaffa, or kali purum, in a parti- cular manner, as being, according to his own account, more efficacious, and lefs painful and hazardous, than bougies armed with lunar cauftic. Before the cauftic potaffa is employed, the urethra ought to be rendered fufficiently capacious to admit a bougie above the {malleft fize into the bladder; and the ftriétures, if very irritable, are to have this irritability previoufly leflened by the ufe of common bougies. The following is the manner of arming a bougie with this cauftic, according to Mr. Whately’s defcription. Put a {mall quantity of the cauftie wpon a piece of {trong paper, and break it with a hammer into little bits, about the fize of large and {mall pin’s heads. When thus broken, it fhould be kept for ufe in a phial, clofed with a ground ftopper. The bougie muft have a proper degree of curvature given to it, by drawing it feveral times between the finger and thumb of the left hand, and it fhould be jut large enough to enter the {tri€ture with fome degree of tightnefs. Then let it be pafled gently into the urethra, and when its point ftops at the ftriéture, which it almoft always does before it will enter it, make a notch with the finger-nail on the upper portion of the bougie, exa&ly half an inch from the extre- mity of the penis. When the bougie is withdrawn, a fmall hole, about the fixteenth part of an inch deep, fhould be made at the extremity of its rounded end. Some of the broken cauftic fhould then be put upon a piece of paper ; and a bit, {maller than the {malleft pin’s head, is to be fe- leG&ted for the firft application. Let this be inferted into the hole of the bougie with a pocket-knife, and pufhed into it with the blunt end of a pin, fo as to place the cauftic rather / below the margin of the hole. In order to prevent the po- taffa from coming out, the hole is then to be contraéted a little with the finger, and the remaining vacancy is to be filled with hog’s-lard. The bougie, being then oiled, is to be paffed, with the curvature upward, to the anterior part of the ftri€ture, the fituation of which has been afcertained be- forehand, and the bougie marked as already explained. The inftrument fhould reft there for a few feconds, for the pur- pofe of letting the cauftic begin to diffolve. It fhould then be very gently pufhed forward, about one-eighth of an inch, when there muft be another ftop for a fecond or two. The bougie fhould next be carried forward in the fame gentle manner, till it has got through the ftri€ture. After this, it fhould be immediately withdrawn, by a very gentle motion, to the part at which it was firft made to reft awhile. It is next to be very flowly pafled through the ftri€ture a fecond time ; but without letting the bougie ftop in its paflage. If pain or faintnefs arife, the operation is now to end, and the bougie is to be immediately withdrawn; but if no fuch effe€ts be produced, the inftrument may be pafled and with- drawn once or twice more. Mr. Whately direéts the application to be repeated once every feven days; and if the {triéture be found dilated, the bougie muft be proportionally increafed in fize every time. The piece of cauftic, in no cafes whatever, ought to be larger than a common pin’s head. © By proceeding in the way above related, Mr. Whately conceives that the cauftic will be equally diffufed over every part of the ftriétured furface, and that the application will only abrade the membrane of the ftriGture, without pro- ducing a flough. It deferves notice, that this method of treatment feems little adapted to ftri€tures, which are confined, as it were, to a point of the urethra; the cafes which are alfo the moft fre- quent, if we are to credit the authority of Mr. Hunter. The poffibility of applying the cauftic accurately to the place intended has always appeared to us doubtful; and, indeed, notwithftanding there are fome good furgeons, who occafionally try the plan and think it anfwers, we are inclined to afcribe more to the paflage of the bougie itfelf than to any effet of the little bit of cauftic on the ttricture. Treatment of StriGures with metallic Bougies.—For fome years paft, a new plan has prevailed of treating ftri€tures in the urethra with bougies, compofed of a foft, flexible metal. The inftruments alfo have a highly polifhed furface, of a filvery hue ; and as the diameter of fome of them is confiderable, they poflefs a fufficient degree of firmnefs, both for introduction, and for retaining the curve of the patient’s urethra. This laft circumftance, indeed, is confidered by fome practitioners a great advantage, exclufively belonging to metallic bougies. Hence, as foon as they have received the curvature which is judged to fuit the patient beft, they are carefully preferved in this form throughout the cure, and are kept in a cafe which alfo has a bent fhape. Formerly, we have heard of objections to thefe inftruments, on the ground of their being liable to break in the urethra; but, although they are now often ufed, we have not been acquainted latterly with fuch an accident. Perhaps this is to be imputed to their prefent compofition, which is firmer and lefs flexible than it ufed to be fome years ago. Many patients bear the employment of metallic bougies better than any others, It feems only ne- ceflary to add, that they effe& a cure on the principle of di- latation, like common bougies. Treatment of Stridures with a conical Silver Catheter.—It is remarkable that the French furgeons, who have always ob- jeGted to the ufe of armed bougies, which appear to them too violent a means of cure, have fet the example of treating ftrictures URETHRA. ftri@tures in the urethra on the ‘principle of a€tual force. We cannot+explain this matter to the reader better than by qxoting what Mr. Crofs, an intelligent furgeon at Norwich, who lately vifited the hofpitals of Paris, has {aid upon the fubje&. ‘ When I firft went to La Charité, (fays this gentleman, ) out of fifty-three male patients in the furgical ward, there were five cafes of ftri€ture of the urethra, and three or four of difeafes of the tefticles. In the treatment of the former complaint, the cauftic bougie is not ufed in any of the hofpitals, and it was cenfured by all the furgeons I met with, as ‘ @ very dangerous and har/b remedy,’ which I believe moft of them have never given a trialto. It ap- pears to me, however, that the Parilian method of treating many cafes of ftrifture in the urethra is not more mild than the ufe of the caultic.”? Mr. Crofs then recites a cafe which he faw in La Charité. A man who had had for along while a permanent ftricture, had been repeatedly treated for it. There was difficulty of making water, but not complete re- tention. Unfuccefsful attempts were made, for feveral days, to pafs an inftrument into the bladder by gentle means. The patient was full able to void his urine, although with great pain and difficulty. M. Roux took a conical filver catheter, with a very flight curvature, and an extremity almoft pointed, and by force regularly applied, he made his way into the bladder in fpite of all oppofition. He took care to keep the inftrument central, and to judge of the direétion of the point by the lateral rings. The rule mentidned by M. Roux, for commencing the great depreffion of the outer extremity of the inftrument, was when, by the finger in the reétum, he could feel the point to have reached the apex of the prof- tate. He gave great pain to the patient, but fucceeded in getting the inftrument into the bladder. The urine in the bladder was not fuffered to flow out immediately, the cathe- ter being left in the urethra, and its end plugged up with a piece of wood. Mr. Crofs well obferves, that M. Roux acted very judicioufly in direéting the catheter to be kept de- preffed between the thighs, becaufe from its fhortnefs, and the {mallnefs of its curvature, the bringing of the outer extremity of the inftrument up to the abdomen would have drawn the other extremity out of the bladder. F Three or four days are the time M. Roux commonly keeps the conical catheter in the paflage ; but this patient fuffered fo intolerably, that it was taken out at the end of four and twenty hours. Anelaftic gum catheter, of rather a {mall fize, was immediately introduced without difficulty ; its extremity faftened to the abdomen ; and its orifice plugged up, in order that the urine might be allowed to flow only at certain pe- riods. The next day the patient was comparatively eafy. On the fourth day there was a {welling of the tefticle, fero- tum, and perineum. A poultice was applied, and the elaftic catheter continued. In four days more the {welling of the parts had fubfided, and the poultice was no longer neceffary. A freth gum catheter ofa larger fize was introduced. Suffice it here to add, that in about fix weeks a catheter of the largeit fize could be introduced. Another cafe, fays Mr. Crofs, went on lefs favourably. The fonde conique had been employed, and a gum catheter introduced ; but in lefs than a week the patient, believing he could make water without the inftrument, took it out himfelf. The next day, an effufion of urine in the ferotum had taken place, and the fluid was freely let out by two long incifions. The elaftic catheter, however, could not be in- troduced again. The urine now came away in drops from the urethra. The free incifions in the ferotum prevented floughing ; but the patient, who was very weak, and in bad health, died in a few days. It was, obferves Mr. Crofs, an inveterate cafe of ftri€ture, and the patient would probably have died under any treatment. DifleGion fhewed a difeafed bladder, whofe coats were above half an inch in thicknefs; a cartilaginous ftrifture and extenfive finufes communicating with the once-membranous part of the urethra. « The effeGting of a fpeedy cure, in bad cafes of ftric- ture,” is the argument advanced by the French furgeons for the ufe of the conical catheter, where that of elaftic gum cannot be introduced without its affittance. They tell us, {ays Mr. Crofs, even of bad cafes being cured, or greatly relieved, in a month or fix weeks; and certainly in one cafe, under M. Roux, a catheter of the largeft fize could be re- ceived by the urethra, a month from the introduétion of the conical catheter. _ M. Roux affured Mr. Crofs, that he had never feen any inflammation or irritation from this treatment, which was not readily managed and fubdued. In his clinical leGture, how- ever, he mentioned two fatal cafes, which he had witnefled, and examined after death. In one of thefe, on taking out the fonde conigue d’argent the third or fourth day after its introduction, the furgeon could not introduce the gum catheter : in attempting to do which, faid M. Roux, another pafflage feemed to have been made. Extravafation of the urine, floughing, and death enfued. The fecond cafe was fomewhat fimilar; peritoneal inflammation was the im- mediate caufe of its fatal termination, the inftrument hay- ing paffed between the pubes and anterior part of the bladder. Whoever defires more information refpe@ting this violent mode of treating ftri€tures, muft confult Mr. Crofs’s pub- lication. Enough, we conceive, has been faid to prove that it is a dangerous plan, which can only be juttifiable in the moit inveterate and obftinate cafes. It feems that, in fuch examples, the late John Hunter alfo ufed the filver catheter with confiderable force ; and the praétice of Mr. Pearfon and of Cooper is likewife cited, as a fanétion of this bold mode of proceeding. The French even fometimes prefer this way of pun@turing the bladder, the-catheter be- ing forced through the proftate gland ; and we have heard of one or two diftinguifhed furgeons in this country, who never perform any of the ordinary methods of pundturing the bladder, but invariably fucceed in getting a catheter into that organ, by forcing the inftrument forward through the proftate gland. See Hunter’s Treatife on the Venereal Difeafe. Whately’s improved Plan of treating Strictures. Firft Lines of Surgery, edit. 3. Sir E. Home’s Praétical Obf. on Stri@ures. C. Bell’s Letters on Dif. of the Urethra. Crofs’s Sketches of the Medical Schools of Paris, &c. Urerura, Jmperforate. Children, when firft born, are fometimes incapable of making water, in confequence of the prepuce or urethra being imperforate. In the firft cafe, the nurfe takes notice that the child’s linen is not wet, and the extremity of the penis prefents a foft, oblong, fhining, tran{parent tumour, occafioned by the colleétion of the urine between the prepuce and the glansi_ Relief is to be given by making an incifion into the anterior and inferior part of the fwelling, and thus opening the prepuce. The frefh-cut furfaces are then to be kept apart with a doffil of lint, until healed. When the prepuce is very long, it is even recome mended to cut off a piece of it, in order to remove all rifle of a phymofis. When the inability to evacuate the urine depends upon an imperforate ftate of the canal of the urethra, the membrane which clofes its orifice is to be opened with a lancet, and a piece URETHRA. piece of lint introduced between the fides of the pundture, until they are cicatrized. In the female fubje&, the meatus urinarius is fometimes found imperforate, though lefs frequently fo than the vagina. As foon as a furgeon is apprifed of the caufe of a young female child not being able to void its urine, he is to divide the membrane which clofes the orifice of the meatus uri- narius. The frequent evacuation of the urine, and the in- trodu@tion of a {mall doffil of lint, will prevent the fides of the incifion from growing together again. An imperforate urethra in the female fubje& has been known to give rife to an urinary fiftula at the navel. In this cafe, the retained fluid makes its way by the urachus to the umbilicus. The urachus, which in the adult is folid and ligamentous, con- tains in fome fubjeéts an inconfiderable cavity, which afcends more or lefs towards the navel. It is conceivable, that in fuch individuals, who are analogous to quadrupeds, in which the urachus is a true canal, the urine may afcend along this procefs to the navel, elevate the fkin there, and at length makes its way out, and caufe a fiftula in the fame fituation. Even when the urachus is folid, it is poffible that the lining of the bladder may be propelled in this direction, and pro- trude alfo at the umbilicus, where it may afterwards burit. However it may be, nothing is more certain than the poffi- bility of the urine afcending along the urachus, and the formation of an urinary fiftula at the navel, in young female children, in whom the urethra is imperforate. Cabrol’s twentieth obfervation affords a complete proof of the fact. In a cafe of the fame kind, we could not alfo do better than imitate the pratice, which this praétitioner adopted. It confifted in firft eftablifhing the natural paffage for the urine by a fuitable incifion, and the ufe of an elaftic gum catheter. A ligature was then applied round the fungous protube- rance at the navel, where the urine had been previoufly dif- charged. Perhaps, however, the latter proceeding would generally be unneceflary, becaufe, unlefs the fiftula had ex- ifted very long, it would fpontaneoufly heal, on the urine finding its natural outlet. Unerura, Orifice of, Mifplaced. In {peaking of malform- ations of this paflage, it deferves notice that the orifice of the urethra is not always found fituated at the anterior part of the glans. This particular cafe, which is not very un- common, is termed by furgeons Aypo/padias. It prefents the following varieties :—Sometimes the orifice of the urethra is below the glans; fometimes it is very far back, near the crura of the penis, but {till at the under furface of this organ. There are alfo cafes, in which the urethra is found fituated above the corpora cavernofa; and the malformation ought then to be called epi/padias. Richerand mentions having feen a remarkable inftance of this defcription in a young confcript. The penis was extremely fhort; fo much fo, that, at firft view, there feemed to be only the glans, which, in the flaccid ftate of the parts, was the only thing vifible in front of the pubes. Along the upper part of the bafe of the glans there was a fiflure, which extended through the fkin of the dorfum of the penis, refembling a vulva of about an inch in length. The malformation, termed Aype/padias, caufes no impediment to the evacuation of the urine ; and it is even afferted, that it does not certainly deprive the indi- vidual of the generative power. ‘The truth of this obferva- tion muft depend very much upon the exaé fituation of the orifice of the urethra; for if it were towards the perineum, impotence muft be the confequence. In this latter kind of cafe alfo, no attempt at a cure would be pratticable ; though, perhaps, when the orifice is near the glans, fome- thing might be done, with a view of forming a continuation of the paffage to its proper extent. Such, however, would be the tendency of any new opening to clofe again, that the refult would be very uncertain ; and we believe that the re- cords of furgery evince no faés in favour of the trial. There is another ferious malformation of the urethra, which confifts in a preternatural fhortnefs of it. The canal does indeed extend to the glans penis, where it terminates in the ufual way ; but its aétual length does not correfpond with that of the corpora cavernofa. Hence, a permanent curvature of the penis is produced, and the perfec erection of this organ is hindered. The cafe is {aid to be entirely incurable. Uretura, Calculi lodged in. Stones of moderate fize may efcape from the bladder, and, lodging in different parts of the urethra, may occafion great pain, and a difficulty of making water. An inftance has been recently publifhed, in which a ftone in the urethra was miftaken for a ftricture, and the cauftic a€tually applied. (See Marcet on Calculous Diforders, p. 9.) Whatever may be their fituation in this canal, their evacuation ought to be promoted by all fuch means as tend to relax the paflage; as bleeding, the warm bath, fomentations to the perineum, diuretic drinks, and the inje€tion of oil into the paffage. Thefe means are to be affifted by the gentle and fkilfully dire@ted preffure of the fingers, applied juft behind the foreign body. When a very {mall calculus is fufpeted to be in the bladder, and it will not pafs through the urethra, M. Delpech has lately propofed dilating the paflage as much as poflible with elaftic gum catheters ; and when the largeft inftrument can be in- troduced, he thinks a good chance of the calculus being voided might be obtained, by fuddenly withdrawing the large catheter, and defiring the patient to void his urine as forcibly as poffible. Particular forceps have likewife been conftruéted for the extraGtion of calculi from the urethra; but they feldom anfwer, except when the foreign body is near the orifice, and would foon -efcape of itfelf. A to- bacco clyfter has been known to effeét the difcharge of a calculus from the urethra. See Edinb. Med. Surg. Journ. vol. xii. p- 373- When all the foregoing proceedings are ineffe@ual, and the patient fuffers a good deal of pain and inconvenience, it becomes the duty of the furgeon to cut down to the calculus, and extract it. The patient fhould then wear an elaftic gum catheter for a few days, until the opening is healed. “The writer of this article was once confulted by a gentleman’s coachman, who had contrived to let a large head-drefs pin flip a confiderable way into the urethra, fo that he could not get it out again. The point of the inftrument, in faét, was more than three inches from the orifice of the urethra. Its extraGtion was eafily accomplifhed, by pufhing its point through the urethra, when it was taken hold of, and with- drawn as far as it could be in this manner. The head of the pin was then pufhed towards the mouth of the canal, and the whole inftrument extracted. Urerura, Falfe Paffage in. One of the greateft evils, arifing from the unfkilful and too violent ufe of catheters, bougies, and other inftruments, is the formation of anew or falfe paflage, by the rupture of the urethra. Whenever an inftrument is afterwards introduced, it does not follow the courfe of the urethra, but enters the ruptured opening. Thus, the difficulty of curing the ftri€ture, if there be one, is ferioufly increafed, becaufe the furgeon can hardly ever get the bougie to reach it again; and if his obje& is to pafs an inftrument into the bladder, he is equally fruftrated. Nothing feems more likely to caufe a falfe paflage, than the violent ufe of the conical filver catheter, in cafes of bad flriCtures 5 — URG firiGtures ; a plan which is now in vogue at Paris, and of which we have already delivered an account in a foregoing column. The formation of a falfe paflage is alfo a dan- gerous accident, inafmuch as it may give rife to an extrava- fation of the urine, floughing of the perineum and fcrotum, and even death itfelf. When a furgeon has reafon to fufpe& that there is a recent falfe paflage, perhaps his wifeft plan is to defift from the intro- du@tion of inftruments into the urethra, and keep the patient very quiet for a few days, in order to take the chance of the breach of continuity being repaired. If, however, the urine fhould be effufed, he would be warranted in attempt- ing to pafs an elaftic gum catheter, without any delay, in the hope of ftopping the increafe of the extravafation. ’ Were the effufed fluid confiderable, he would alfo be called upen to make immediately one or two free incifions, for the fame purpofe. Should he be fo fortunate as to fucceed in getting a catheter introduced, the patient muit be direéted to wear it for feveral days, without interruption. In this manner, the urine would be conveniently difcharged, and the falfe paflage perchance heal up. Mr. Hunter has advifed the performance of the following operation for the cure of a falfe paflage:—Pafs a ftaff into the urethra, as far as it will go, which will probably be to the bottom of the new paflage; and this, we may be fure, is beyond the ftrifture. Feel for the end of the in- ftrument externally, and cut upon it, making. the wound about an inch long, if the difeafe be before the fcrotum ; and an inch and a half, or more, if in the perineum. If the new pafflage be between the urethra and body of the penis, you will moft probably get into the found urethra, before you come to the inftrument, or new paflage. If fo, in- troduce a probe into the urethra, through the wound, and pafs it towards the glans penis, or, in other words, towards the ftri@ure. When it meets with an obftrution, this muft be the ftriéture, which is now to be got through, and after- wards dilated. ‘To complete the operation, withdraw the probe, and, inftead of it, introduce a cannula forward to the ftrifture. Then pafs another cannula from the glans downward, till the two tubes are oppofite each other, hav- ing the ftrifture between them. While an affiftant holds the cannulz in this pofition, the ftri€ture is to be perforated with a fharp inftrument, introduced through the upper can- nula. A bougie is then to be introduced into the cannule, through the perforated ftri€ture, and the tubes are to be withdrawn. The bougie is now to be paffed into the blad- der, and worn. Inftead of bougies, modern furgeons would now invariably prefer, in fuch cafes, elaftic gum catheters, which allow the patient to make water with convenience, create lefs irritation than common bougies, and can be worn for a longer time, which are great confiderations, in addi- tion to the important advantage of keeping the urine from pafling either through the wound, or the falfe paflage. Befides the foregoing fteps, it would be neceffary, in fome old cafes, to lay open the falfe paflage before it would heal. URGAS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in Betica, at fome diftance to the left of Betis, and weft of Corduba, belonging to the Turduli, furnamed Alba by Pliny. URGEL, in Gengrapty, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Tarragona; 65 miles N.N.W. of Barcelona. N. lat. 42° 24'. E. long. 1° 22/. URGENUMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia sha ang according to Strabo: the Ernagium of Pto- my. Vox. XX XVII. URI URGHENTZ, or Urcentz, in Geography. See Ur- KONJE- URGI, in Ancient Geography, a people of European Sarmatia, between the Danube and the Boryfthenes. URGNANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Serio; 5 miles S. of Bergamo. URGO, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated on the coaft of Etruria. Pliny fays that it was larger than the ifland Plantaria, and that it took the name of Gorgon. URI, a people of India, on the bank and towards the fource of the river Indus. Pliny. Unt, in Geography, a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the north by Schweitz, on the eaft by Glaris, on the fouth by the Italian bailiwicks, and on the weft by Under- walden, about 60 miles in length, and 28 in breadth. It confifts almoft every where of high mountains and deep valleys; the fummits of the former of which are perpe- tually covered with ice and fnow. The loftieft among them, and indeed the higheft in Europe, is that of St. Go- thard. On the Alps in this canton, during the fummer, are fattened many thoufand heads of cattle; and the cheefe is famed for its goodnefs. The vales between the high moun- tains here in fummer are very hot and fertile, when not ex- pofed to the northern winds; among the mountains too are found numbers of beautiful cryftals ; the greateft part of which are bought up, and fent off to Italy to be wrought. In this canton are only market-towns, villages, and {cat- tered houfes; and the inhabitants, being inured to a rough and hard way of living, are hardy, vigorous, and brave, and ftrenuous affertors of that liberty which was fo dearly purchafed by their patriotic anceftors. They are all Roman Catholics. “They were once as a free people, immediately under the jurifdi€tion of the empire. An union between Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden, for throwing off the Auftrian yoke, was effe€ted in the beginning of the year 1308 ; and in 1315, thefe three cantons entered into a per- petual alliance. At that time Uri held the firft place among the confederates, but at prefent only the fourth, though among the fix leffer cantons it is ftyled the firft. Its govern- ment is democratical, like that of Schqweitz ; which fee. Thefe two cantons, including their fubjeéts, contain about- 50,000 fouls ; and, in cafe of neceflity, could furnifh above 12,000 militia. The fame kind of foil, and the fame pro- du&tions, are common to the two cantons: the whole country, being rugged and mountainous, confifts chiefly of pafture, produces little corn, and has no vines. The natives, however, have improved a barren foil into a wonderful ftate of fertility. The purity, or, as fome would call it, the aufterity of morals, which ftill prevails among thefe people, cannot eafily be conceived by the inhabitants of opulent cities. The beautiful defeription given in Goldfmith’s “‘ Traveller” is peculiarly appropriate to thefe people. «© Dear is that fhed to which his foul conforms, And dear that hill which lifts him to the ftorms : And, as a child, when fearing founds moleft, Clings clofe and clofer to the mother’s breaft : So the loud torrent, and the whirlwind’s roar, But bind him to his native mountains more.’’ The capital of this canton is Altorf. URIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Apu- lia. —Alfo, a town of Italy, in Meflapia, upon the Ap- pian way. (Strabo.) Herodotus calls it Hyria, and fays that it was founded by the Cretans, about a century before the fiege of Troy.—Alfo, the name of a lake of Acarnania. URIAS, a {mall gulf of Italy, difficult of entrance. 3 U URIBACO, URE URIBACO, in Ichthyology, the name of a Brafilian fea- fith, efteemed a very well-taited and wholefome one. It is fomewhat of the figure of the perch ; its back is rigid, and its belly is fomewhat protuberant. It grows to ten or twelve inehes long. Its teeth are {mall and fharp, and the ends of its gills and gill-fins terminate in a triangular point : its belly- fins are fuftained by a very rigid and {trong {pine : its long fin, behind the anus, is {upported by flexile and fhort {pines ; it has only one fin on the back, equally broad, and, reach- ing nearly to the tail, fupported by prickly rays ; its tail is deeply forked ; its fcales are of a fine filvery white, with a faint caft of pale but bright red ; its belly-fins are white, and its back-fin and tail reddifh : its fide-lines are broad, and of a fine red ; over thefe and under them, near the tail, there is on’ each fide a large black fpot. Margraave. Ray’s Ichthyol. p. 338. ; URIC Aci, in Chemifiry. This fubftance was difcovered by Scheele in 1776. The French chemifts named it /ithic acid, from its being a common ingredient in urinary calculi, but Dr. Pearfon fubfequently changed its name to that by which it is at prefent generally known. The original name, however, is likely to be again adopted, as Dr. Marcet has adhered to it in his recent work upon urinary calculi. Uric acid feparates {pontaneoufly from fome urine in the form of red granular cryftals ; or it may be procured more readily in this impure ftate by the addition of either of the mineral acids to the urine. The beft way of obtaining it in quantity, however, is to diffolve urinary calculi compofed chiefly of it in an alkaline lixivium, and to precipitate it from this by a mineral acid. Uric acid, thus obtained, and afterwards repeatedly well wafhed, has the following properties. 2 ; It appears in the form of a beautiful white powder, which feels rather harfh, but not gritty, and is deftitute both of tafte and {mell. According to Dr. Henry, it diffolves in about 1150 times its weight of water at 21°, or in about 1720 times at 60°. In boiling water it is more foluble, and its folution faintly reddens litmus. It readily diflolves in fo- lutions of the fixed alkalies, but not fo readily in ammonia, It is incapable of decompofing the alkaline carbonates, or any earthy or metallic falt. The nitric acid diffolves it, and when this folution is evaporated to drynefs, it aflumes a beau- tiful pink colour, which becomes of a fine carmine hue on the addition of water. This colour is not permanent if expofed to the action of the air; but paper ftained with it, and dried and kept in clofe veflels, retains the colour for a long time. Chlorine produces a fimilar effeét upon this acid ; an effect which is quite peculiar, and therefore charaéteriftic of it. On being fubjeéted to heat, uric acid emits a ftrong odour, and yields a large proportion of pruffic acid. Submitted to diftillation in clofe veffels, it yields a principle of a peculiar nature, which Dr. Henry has afcertained to be a diftiné& acid. According to Dr. Prout’s analyfis, uric acid con- fits of 1 atom or 1 volume of hydrogen 1.25) 6 (hydr. 2.857 2 atoms or 2 volumes of carbon 15.00{ & J carb. 34.286 1 atom or £ volume of cxygen 10.00 & oxyg. 22.857 i atom or 1 volume of azote 17.50) 5 (Lazote 40.000 43-75 100.000 Dr. P., therefore, feems difpofed to confider it as com- pofed of one atom or volume of eyanogen, and one atom or volume of water. Unie acid combines with the alkalies and alkaline earths, and forms a fet of falts, none of which are very interefting, I Wik t except the sleper urate of foda, which conftitutes the gonty, calculus, or chalkflone. ‘The urates may be formed by boil- ing the bafe with an excefs of acid in a proper quantity of water, filtering the folution, and evaporating it to drynefs. The urates of potafh, foda, ammonia, barytes, ftrontites, lime, magnefia, and alumina, obtained by the preceding procefs, are neutral, have neither tafte nor {mell, and can {carcely be diftinguifhed from uric acid itfelf. They diffolve with great difficulty in water, urate of ammonia being moft foluble, and urate of barytes the leaft. They all appear, however, to form fubfalts much more foluble than the neutral falts. See’ Urinary Calculi. URICACHI, in Geography, a town of New Navarre ; 160 miles S.S.E. of Cafa Grande. ; URICONIUM, Viroconium, or Vrioconium, in An cient Geography, a town of Great Britain, in the fecond Itin. of Antonine, between Rutanium (near Wem) and Uxacona (near Sheriff Hales). It belonged to the Cor- navii, and was fituated at Wroxeter, in Shropfhire, on the N.E. fide of the Severn, about three miles from Shrewf- bury ; which is fuppofed to have rifen out of the ruins of that ancient city. At Wroxeter many Roman coins have been found, and the veftiges of the walls and ramparts of Uriconium are {till vifible. It is highly probable, that the neighbouring mountain, the Wrekin, derives its name from Uriconium; for it preferves the ancient Britifh name Urecon. URIE Water, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which runs intothe Don, near Inverarie. 5 URIES, Cape, acape on the N. coait of Staten ifland. See Sraten J/land. URIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the Loiret ; 6 miles S. of Pithiviers. URIGO, a burning with a-cauttic, or cautery. VRIHASPATI, in Afronomy, is the Hindoo name of the planet Jupiter. In an invocation to the different planets, given in the feventh volume of the Afiatic Refearches, he is thus addrefled : “* O Vrihafpati! fprung from eternal truth, confer on us abundantly that various wealth, which the mott venerable of beings may revere ; which fhines glorious among all people.” Intelle€tual wealth is probably here meant ; Vrihafpati being preceptor to the gods, the moft venerable of beings. He is alfo their meffenger in intercourfe be- tween the three principal deities, beimg proverbial for elo- quence. A cycle is called after Vrihafpati ; and it is the name of a celebrated legiflator ; fo that this name, originally probably of fome highly gifted perfon, occurs very. fre- quently in aftronomical and legal points ; though in others, whatever hiftorical facts may be conneéted with it, he is hidden in the veil of mythological fable. (See Sanz, the Saturn of the Hindoo zodiac.) As with the weitern aftro- logers, Friday is with the Hindoos the day of Vrihafpati, or Jupiter. (See Zopiac.) He is reprefented of golden afpeét, clothed in red, bearing a lotos, and a ftaff in his hands ; and fometimes mounted on a boar. Many of the Hindoo deities have vehicles affigned them, which are called vahan. See under that word for an enumeration of many of them. Under our article SuLTEE, the authority of Vrihafpati as a legiflator is quoted; as it is very frequently in Cole- brooke’s valuable digeft of Hindoo law. In the article Siva, that important Serio of the Hindoo triad is faid to guide the motions of the planet Jupiter, as Vifhnu does thofe of the fun, and Brahma of Sani, or Saturn. And under Tara we have given a legend, fufficiently ridiculous, if taken literally, of Vrihafpati having begotten a monkey fo named ; URI named ; but we refer to the article defcriptive of the caufe of fo ftrange a fiction. The name of Vrihafpati occurs often in the Vedas; a proof of the early age of the perfon, whoever he was, that firft bore the name. He had a daughter named Romafa, married to the king Bhavayavya ; but we have no particulars of their hiftory. Angiras, one of the holy perfons to whom the Veda was revealed, is fometimes called father of Vrihaf- pati ; other authorities fay Devala was his father. In the Ramayana, Vrihafpati is called Vachafpati, and noticed as proverbial for eloquence. The name may be tranflated lord of fpeech. See Vacu. URIM and Thummim, YM TIN: gq. d- light and perfection, the name of a kind of ornament belonging to’ the habit of the Jewifh high-prieft ; in virtue of which he gave oracular anfwers to the people. The high priefts of the Jews, we are told, confulted God in the moit important affairs of their commonwealth, and re- ceived anfwers by the urim and thummim. What thefe were is difputed among the critics: fome take them to be the twelve precious {tones in the prieft-plate of the high- prieft, on which were engraven the names of the twelve tribes of Ifrael; and they maintain that the oracle gave its an{wer to any queftion propofed, by caufing fuch letters in them to fhine with fuperior luftre, or to appear prominent above the reit, as formed the words of the anfwer; or by an audible divine voice pronouncing the words, the high- prieft was prevented from miftaking the anfwer. Jofephus, and fome others, imagine, the anfwer was returned by the ftones of the bresfbeplate appearing with an unufual luftre, when it was favourable, or in the contrary cafe, dim. Others fuppofe, that the urim and thummim were fomething-enclofed between the folding of the breaft-plate ; this fome will have to be the tetragrammaton, or the word \), Jehovah. Chriftophorus de Caltro, and after him Dr. Spencer, main- tain them to be two little images fhut up in the doubling of the breaft-plate, which gave the oracular anfwer from thence by an articulate voice. Accordingly, they derive them from the Egyptians, who confulted their lares, and had an oracle, or teraphim, which they called truth. This opinion, however, has been fufficiently confuted by the learned Dr. Pococke, Comment. on Hofea, chap. iii. 4. and by Witfius in his A®gyptiaca, lib. il. cap. 3. 10, 11, 12. The more common opinion among Chriftians concerning the oracle by urim and thummim, and which Dr. Prideaux efpoufes, is, that when the high-prieft appeared before the veil, clothed with his ephod and breaft-plate, to afk countel of God, the anfwer was given with an audible voice from the mercy-feat, within the veil: but, it has been ob- ferved, that this account will by no means agree with the hiftory of David’s confulting the oracle by Abiathar ; 1 Sam. xxili. g. 11. chap. xxx. 7, 8. becaufe the ark, on which was the mercy-feat, was then at Kirjathjearim ; where- as David was in the one cafe at Ziklag, and im the other in the foreft of Hareth. Braunius and Hottinger have adopted another opinion: they fuppofe, that when Mofes is com- manded to put in the breaft-plate the urim and thummin, fignifying lights and perfeétions in the plural number, it was meant that he fhould make clivice of the moft perfeé fet of ftones, and have them fo polifhed as to give the brighteft luftre: and on this hypothefis, the ufe of the urim and thummim, or of thefe exquifitely polifhed jewels, was only to be a fymbol of the divine prefence, and of the light and perfeGtion of the prophetic infpiration: and as fuch, con- ftantly to be worn by the high-prieft in the exercife of his facred funétion, efpecially in confulting the oracle. See URI Prideatx’s Connetion, vol. i. p. 123, &c. Jewith Ant. vol. i. p.233, &c. Diodorus Siculus relates, that there was alfo a ceremony in ufe among the Egyptians, whofe priacipal minifter of Jennings’s _ juftice wore a collar of precious {tones about his neck, wBich was called aardssa, or truth. URIMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, fituated on the wettern bank of the Euphrates, S.E. of Samofata. URIMAO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan ; 35 miles N. of Zacatula. URINAL, in Domeftic Economy, a veffel fit to receive and hold urine ; and ufed accordingly for the conveniency af fick perfons. It is ufually of glafs, and crooked ; and fometimes it is filled with milk, to affuage the pain of the gravel. Uninat, in Chemifiry, is an oblong glafs veffel, ufed for making folutions, and fo called from its refemblance to the glaffes in which urine is fet to fettle, for the infpeGtion of the phyfician. URINARIUM, in Agriculture, a name fometimes ap- plied to a fort of refervoir, or place conftruéted in the ground for the reception of urine, and the liquid matters dif- charged from the ftables, cattle-fheds, pig-{ties, and other places fituated about the farm-yard. It may be noticed, that a bafon or receptacle of this nature is effential to every well-contrived farm-yard ; as by blending vegetable, earthy, and other fimilar materials with thefe liquids, a vaft increafe.of valuable manure may be readily and conveniently provided. Thefe bafons fhould always be formed in the moft fhady parts of fuch yards or places, and be well conneéted with the buildings deftined for the horfes, cattle, pigs, and other forts of live-ftock. In particular fituations, too, they may be fo contrived as to be capable ot being difcharged and thrown over the grafs-lands that may lie below them. An ufeful and well-contrived cavity or refer- voir of this fort is defcribed by Mr. Pew in the feventh volume of the Bath Letters and Papers, in which the cow and other cattle-ftalls are faid to be placed on the fide of a nap, or {mall elevation ; and that, by means of gutters formed behind, the liquor is conveyed into a fink or drain, which runs under the {table, where, by the help of another drain or fink, it meets with the ftable liquor ; and thefe, with that from the pig-fties, run through an under-ground drain into the receptacle or refer- voir. Itis the practice of the proprietor, it is faid, to put all forts of refufe vegetable and animal matters into this re- ceptacle, where it quickly rots ; and when the weather turns moilt, he has it itirred well up with poles, when it is dif- charged over a meadow that lies below, or any particular part of it, by means of trenches cut for the purpofe, which 1s in this way rendered, it is aflerted, aftonifhingly fertile and produétive, as well as much more early than even watered lands. It isfuggefted, further, that this plan might be ex~ tended, by having the ftables, in fuch cafes, placed on the centres of the knolls, as in this cafe three or four refervoirs might be formed ; and that by topping fome drains, and opening others, the fluid contents might be dire¢ted one year to one fide and another year to another fide, as circumt{tances might render neceflary. Thefe kinds of refervoirs are fometimes fo fituated in re- fpeét to the dung-{teads, as to have pumps fixed in them for throwing the urine and liquid matters over the manure heaps, as by that means much waite of fuch matters is prevented, and the dung greatly improved. Befides, in this way, fuch fluid materials can be the molt readily difperfed over different forts of rich earthy fubftances, and the increafe of manure Buu) 2 be URI be thereby the moft fully and conveniently promoted. Manure and Yarp-Dung. URINARIUS Meavus, in Anatomy, the urethra of the female. See UretHra. URINARY Asscessks, in Surgery, are fo called when an extravafation of urine in the cellular membrane of the fcro- tum, penis, perineum, &c. excites {uppuration in the parts, fo that purulent matter and urine are found mixed together in the tumour. Such an effufion of urine always arifes ae a breach of continuity in the bladder or urethra, moft fre- quently in confequence of the diftention of that vifcus in ob- ftinate, protraéted, and improperly treated retentions of urine ; or in confequence of abfceffes, which form in the courfe of the urethra, and burft into that canal. The making of a falfe paflage in the urethra, by the unfkilful ufe of bougies and catheters, and the laceration of this tube by forcible contufions, are alfo common caufes of an extravafa- tion of urine. There is not in the whole body any fluid, whofe extravafation produces more ferious mifchief than the urine. If it be not promptly difcharged, it foon excites a putrid fuppuration in the cellular membrane containing it ; makes this part flough ; caufes mortification of the fkin; and a gangrenous inflammation of every ftruéture with which it comes into contaét. When the opening, by which the urine has efcaped from the bladder, is fituated either in this vifcus or the urethra, there are invariably two principal indications to be fulfilled. The firfl is to prevent the further increafe of the extravafation, by introducing a catheter, drawing off the urine, and defiring the patient to wear the inftru- ment. The fecond indication is to give an outlet to the effufed urine ; fo that the mifchief, likely to refult from its prefence in the cellular membrane, may be leflened as much as poffible. This is effeéted by fuitable incifions, which alfo have the good effeét of tending to hinder the urine from {preading more extenfively amongit parts, in which it would be fure to produce inflammation, abiceffes, and gangrene. The manner of opening fuch colleétions varies according as the urine may be in one cavity, or widely effufed in the cellular membrane. In the firft cafe, a fimple incifion, the whole length of the cavity, will fuffice for emptying and healing it. In the fecond, if the extravafation is extenfive, the incifions muft be multiplied. It would be abfurd to {pare the parts ; for all thofe with which the urine has come into contaét feldom efcape mortification. ‘The incifions which are made hardly ever have the effeét of faving them ; but, by accelerating the difcharge of putrid fanies and ftag- nant urine, they prevent the mifchief which would originate from their further lodgment. If thefe incifions, however, were practifed a few hours after the extravafation, and before f{uppuration, the parts might be completely freed from urine and preferved. When the operation is at all delayed, their deftruétion is inevitable. The approach of mortification is indicated by the crepitation under the biftoury, refembling the kind of noife produced by tearing parchment. The extent and depth of the incifions muft be proportioned to thofe of the abfcefs. When the extravafation occupies the {crotum, long deep fcarifications fhould be made in that part, as well as in the fkin of the penis, and in every place where the urine is effufed. Practitioners, unaccuftomed to fee fuch difeafes, would be alarmed at the extent of the fore produced by the fepara- tion of the efchars. Sometimes the whole fcrotum, flcin of the penis, and that of the groins, perineum, and upper part af the thigh, mortify, and the naked tefticles hang by the f{permatic cords in the midift of this enormous ulcer. It is See URI hardly conceivable how cicatrization could take place over the expofed tefticles; but the refources of nature are un- limited. She unites the tefticles and the cords to the fubja- cent parts; and, drawing the {kin from the circumference to the centre of the ulcer, fhe covers thefe organs again, and furnifhes them with a fort of new ferotum. This ftate- ment is founded upon numerous cafes, in which nature always followed this courfe. The cicatrization of the ulcer is even more expeditious than might be expected, confider- ing its extent. In all this bufinefs, what does art do? If the introduGtion of the catheter be excepted, which, indeed, is abfolutely neceflary for the radical cure, her affiftance is very limited, and almoft nothing, in the generality of inftances ; for when the patients are not exhaufted by the tedioufnefs of the diforder, when they are of a good conftitution, and in the prime of life, they get well-as quickly and certainly, with the aid of a good diet and fimple dreflings, as when they take internal medicines, and ufe a multiplicity of com- pound topical applications. The praétice of Default at the H6tel-Dieu confifted in applying emollient poultices, until the floughs were detached. The ulcer was then fometimes drefled with pledgets charged with ftyrax ; but frequently mere dry lint was ufed, and continued till the cure was com- pleted. If any complication occurred in the courfe of the treatment, fuitable remedies were prefcribed for it. Thus when proftration of ftrength, and tendency to floughing exifted, bark, cordials, and antifeptics were ordered. But in every cafe, the catheter is the eflential means of cure ; without it, the treatment is almoft always imperfe&, and the ulcer will not heal without leaving feveral urinary fiftulz. See Cuvres Chirurgicales de Default, par Bichat, tom. iii. p- 277—287. . : Urinary Calculi. The formation of concretions in the urinary paflages being occafioned by the precipitation and confolidation of particular ingredients in the urine, caleuli mutt of courfe be liable to occur in any of the cavities to which the urine has accefs. In faét, experience proves that they are frequently met with in the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It 1s commonly believed, that moft of them are originally formed in the kidneys, from which organs they afterwards defcend with the urine into the other mentioned parts. We muft however regard, as exceptions to this ob- fervation, the cafes in which calculi are formed round foreign bodies, introduced into the bladder through the urethra, the digeftive organs, or fome accidental wound. In the centre of urinary calculi, furgeons have often met with bullets, {plinters of bone, bits of wood, pins, &c. Nor is it necef- fary for fuch foreign bodies to be large, in order to produce this effe&t: a clot of blood, or a little bit of chaff, if not very foon voided, appears to be capable of caufing a preci- pitation of the urinary {alts. That urinary calculi are in many inftances originally pro- duced in the kidney, we have the moft unequivocal proofs ; firft, from the fevere pain which the paflage of fuch foreign bodies down the ureter always excites ; and, fecondly, from their being often difcovered in the infundibula and pelvis of that vifcus after death. This laft fact is well illuftrated in the firft plate of Dr. Marcet’s interefting Effay on the Che- mical Hiltory and Medical Treatment of Calculous Difor- ders. The engraving is taken from a preparation in the mufeum of Guy’s hofpital. In this inftance, there were feve- ral calculi clofely prefled againft each other ; but, in another example, drawn from a fpecimen in Mr. Abernethy’s mu- feum, the renal concretion was compofed of a fingle mafs, which reprefented a complete caft of the pelvis and part of the infundibula of the kidney. In this form of the difeafe, the URINARY the kidney lofes at laft all veftiges of its natural ftruéture, and is converted into a kind of cyft, tilled with the ex- traneous fubftance. As Dr. Marcet obferves, when fuch a complete alteration of ftru€ture takes place, the fecretion of urine muft of courfe be entirely carried on by the other kidney. This, however, in fome inftances, is attended with fo little inconvenience as almoft to efcape notice; and it fometimes even happens, that both kidneys are difeafed in a very great decree, and yet life is preferved for a confider- able time. Op. cit. p. 3, 4. Calculi are fometimes found in the ureters, efpecially at their upper part; but it is not fuppofed that they are in general originally formed in that fituation; an event not likely to happen, unlefs there be fome caufe ob- ftru€ting or retarding the defcent of the urine through thofe tubes. The common belief is, that all calculi found in the ureters are firft produced in the kidneys, from which they afterwards defcend in the courfe of the urine. The generality of calculi, however, which leave the kid- ney, are of fmall fize, and confequently, after a time, and exciting fome pain and inconvenience, they ufually get into the cavity of the bladder. Indeed, as Dr. Marcet remarks, the bladder is the moft frequent feat of calculi, not only becaufe all urinary concretions, or their nuclei, formed in the kidneys tend to fall into that organ, but alfo becaufe a ftone may be, and probably often is, originally formed in the bladder itfelf. It is, however, in the infundibula and pelvis of the kid- ney, that the firft nuclei of urinary calculi are commonly produced. Renal concretions vary confiderably in their number, fize, and fhape. In fome cafes, a fingle {mall cal- culus has been found occupying one of the foregoing fitua- tions; while, in other inftances, an innumerable colle@tion of calculous fubftances are obferved filling the whole of the cavity of the pelvis and infundibula of the kidney, diftend- ing its parietes, and even obftruéting the paflage of the urine out of this vifcus, which is converted into a fort of mem- branous cyft. Laftly, a fingle ftone in the kidney may ac- quire a very large fize there; or a great number of {mall calculi, in the fame {fituation, may become cemented toge- ther by the depofition of frefh concreting matter between them, fo as to form one mafs of enormous dimenfions, and the fhape of which invariably correfponds to the {pace in which it is, as it were, moulded. Hence it is, that renal calculi often prefent a variety of odd’ irregular figures, re- fembling thofe commonly obferved in {pecimens-of coral. We have already remarked, that urinary concretions of large fize very often exift in the kidney, without their pre- fence being indicated by any external circumftances, or at- tended with any fymptoms, fufficiently unequivocal to con- ftitute a ground for fufpeéting the importance of their caufe. On the other hand, it is very ufual for renal calculi, of mid- dling dimenfions, to excite ferious and alarming complaints. The reafon of this difference becomes obvious, when it is recollected that {mallifh concretions are readily carried with the urine into the ureter, and become fixed in the narrow portion of the tube. But very large calculi can be contained only in the upper part of this canal, where its parictes are more yielding, and the fpace in them more capacious. Calculi of middling fize, in their paflage through the ureter, caufe, at firft, a feeling of heavinefs, or an indeter- minate fenfe of uneafinefs, and an obtufe pain in the region of the correfponding kidney. Thefe complaints occur at intervals of greater or lefs duration. At length, the pain grows more urgent and annoying, attended with flatulence, heartburn, frequent vomiting, painful retraGtion of the tef- ticle, and fometimes acute fever. The patient makes water CALCULI. frequently, and in {mall quantities at a time ; and the urine is high-coloured and bloody. The patient cannot fit upright, his body being bent forwards towards the affeéted fide. Thefe fymptoms may have more or lefs duration, and then fuddenly ceafe. They may alfo fubfide and recur feveral times fucceflively, with intervals of fome days. In the latter cafe, the pain is felt at each attack to be fituated lower in the track of the ureter. Laitly, when the fymptoms have entirely difappeared, the urine is more abundant, not fo high- coloured, and eafily difcharged, the ftream fometimes bring- Ing out with it the urinary concretion, which has now en- tered the bladder. Suppuration of the kidney, and an abfcefs in the lumbar region, in confequence of renal calculi, are not very common events. This, however, is the only cafe of the kind, in which the interpofition of furgery can be ufeful. By ad- verting to previous circumftances, and the irregularity of the pain about the kidney, the praétitioner may fufpe@t the nature of a phlegmonous tumour in the fituation of this vifcus. Whatever may be his conjeétures, however, he muft carefully abftain from the ufe of his lancet, until purulent matter is obvioufly under the integuments. He may then fafely make an opening, from which urine and pus will be difcharged, and through which the calculi themfelves may fometimes be felt and extraéted. If they fhould not be readily touched with a probe, let not the furgeon rafhly con- ceive, that he is juftified in endeavouring to difcover them with his knife. Their fituation may be fuch as to baffle all his endeavours, and the operation itfelf might caufe a moft dangerous hemorrhage, and other fatal mifchief. The open- ing of an abfcefs of the kidney may remain along while fif- tulous, and the circumftance may indeed warrant the con- clufion, that the healing is prevented by the prefence of fome extraneous fubftances ; but a prudent practitioner will never think of performing any operation for their extraGtion, be- fore nature has brought them tolerably near to the furface. Urinary calculi, which form upon foreign bodies acciden- tally introduced into the bladder, and acting as nuclei, are always fingle, unlefs the number of foreign bodies themfelves happen to be greater. It is curious alfo to find, from the ob- fervations of Dr. Marcet, that, in fuch inftances, the depofi- tion moft frequently, if not always, confifts of the earthy phof- phates, and efpecially of the fufible calculus. But when calculi originate from a particular diathefis, there may be many of them lodged in the bladder at the fame time. Seve- ral diftin& nuclei may defcend fucceffively from the kidneys, and each may increafe in a feparate manner. Sometimes, however, calculi in the bladder, which were at firft diftin® and unconnected, become afterwards cemented together, fo as to make only one mafs. The magnitude of calculi in the bladder is generally in an inverfe ratio to their number. Some hundreds have been found in one bladder, but they were not larger than a pea. Others of fo large a fize have been met with, that they were more than fix inches in diameter. In Fourcroy’s mufeum, and in that of the Ecole de Médécine at Paris, may be feen fome calculi which filled the whole cavity of the bladder ; and in the Phil. Tranf. for 1809, the late fir James Earle has defcribed an enormous ftone, which he extraéted after death from the bladder of a gentleman who had been unfuc- cefsfully cut for it. This calculus weighed three pounds four ounces, and was of an oval fhape, its long axis meafuring fix- teen inches. It was of the fulible kind. Their average fize may be compared with that of 4 chefnut, a walnut, or a {mall hen’s egg. Their weight differs from a few grains to upwards of Ety ounces. Common {tones of the bladder, however, weigh from two to fix ounces. Their weight is not URINARY CALCULI. not always proportioned to their fize. Subftances of dif- ferent qualities enter into their compofition, and diverfify their heavinefs. Thus, the falts which have filica for their bafe, and which are very uncommon, render fuch calculi as contain them the heavieft of all in proportion to their fize. On the other hand, fome urinary falts cryftallize when pre- cipitated: of this kind is the ammoniaco-magnefian phof- phate, the cryftals of which frequently leave confiderable interfpaces, which are not filled up by the fubfequent pre- cipitations. “ The urinary falts, in calculous patients, are not contt- nually precipitated in the fame quantities: in fome cafes, indeed, the procefs appears to be even fufpended for a con- fiderable time. Hence, a ftone of middling fize, already ‘formed, may increafe but very flowly ; and it has actually ‘happened, that a calculus, which could be plainly felt with a found, has remained more than ten years in the bladder, and yet, after all this time, been only of a moderate fize. © According to Dr. Marcet, the form of urinary calculi is mottly fpheroidal, fometimes egg-fhaped, but often flattened on two fides like an almond. P.- 50. Sometimes the calculous matter, which defcends from the kidneys, is in the form of minute {pherical grains, which have a fingular tendency to unite either to each other, or to calculi already lodged in the bladder. When there are feveral loofe calculi in the bladder toge- ther, they feldom lie long in contaét with each other, while their fize is diminutive, but are inceflantly changing their fituation as the patient moves about or alters the pofition of his body. Hence, their increafe is at firft regular and uni- form ; but when they have attained a more confiderable fize, or by their numbers compofe a large mafs, their relative fituation is more permanent, and many of their furfaces, being in this manner ufually covered, no longer receive any additional depofitions. Every other part of thefe calcul, however, goes on increafing. It is thus that ftones with furfaces correfponding to thofe of other ftones are produced, and which are aptly denominated by the French writers “‘ pierres a facettes.”? This fhape neceflarily indicates the pre- fence of feveral calculi. A different form, however, is by no means a certain criterion of the ftone being fingle. Calculi alfo occafionally occur which are angular, and fometimes almoft cubic; but, as Dr. Marcet obferves, this is a rare occurrence. The fame phyfician has likewife given the engraving of a fpecies of calculus which fomewhat re- fembles a pear, with a circular protuberance at its broader end, apparently moulded in the neck of the bladder. This writer alfo particularly calls our attention to the variety in the colours and furfaces of calculi, which often afford indications of their chemical nature. ‘* When they have a brownifh or fawn colour, fomewhat like mahogany wood, with a fmooth though fometimes tuberculated furface, they almoft always confift of lithic acid. When cut open, they appear to be formed of concentric layers, fometimes homogeneous, fometimes alternating with other fubitances. The colour, however, cannot be confidered as a certain eri- terion, fince other kinds of calculi may often be coloured in the bladder in a fimilar manner, by bloody mucous or other vitiated fecretions. “© When calculi are white, or greyifh-white, they always confift of earthy phofphates. This is particularly the cafe with the fpecies called fufible. And when they are dark- brown or almoft black, hard in their texture, and covered with tubercles or protuberances, they are generally of the {pecies which has been diftinguifhed by the name of mulberry, and confifts of oxalate of lime. “ Calculi have fometimes an uneven cryftalline furface, ftudded with fhining tranfparent particles. This appearance . always denotes the prefence of the ammoniaco-magnefian phofphate.”” Mfarcet, p. 52. ; : A large calculus, efpecially when it has a rough irregular furface, produces a great deal of irritation of the bladder, which contraés more clofely round it. The contaé, how- ever, is remarked to be particularly exat at the tranfverfe line, which extends between the terminations of the two ureters in the bladder, a part of this organ which generally becomes more thickened than the reft. Sometimes, indeed, the cavity of the bladder is almoft entirely effaced, and the urine can be retained only a very fhort time, or, if jt be not evacuated, it fpreads uniformly round the calculus, efpe- cially above and below the above-defcribed tranfverfe projec- tion, which is lefs yielding than other parts of this organ. Hence, the furface of the ftone, towards the orifices of the ureters, does not enlarge fo fatt as the other fides of it, and a circular groove is produced, giving the foreign body the fhape of a calabafh. Such calculi are generally very large, and fometimes even of enormous fize. In the latter circum- ftance, the foreign body fills the cavity of the bladder fo com- pletely, that there is no fpace left for the lodgment of the urine there, which fluid then generally paffes along a fort of ‘groove, fituated in a line reaching from the lower termina- tion of the ureter to the neck of the bladder. This ftate is of courfe accompanied with a complete incontinence. Urinary calculi are not always loofe and moveable in the cavity of the bladder, being fometimes fixed in various ways to certain points of the circumference of this organ. 1. When a calculus has reached that part of the lower termination of the ureter, which pafles obliquely between the coats of the bladder, it may obitrué the inferior orifice of the canal, and produce an accumulation of urine above it. The diftention thus arifing may lead to the formation of a cavity betwixt the coats of the bladder, where the calculus is lodged. In fact, calculi have fometimes been found fixed in a cavity of this defcription, the infide of which communicates both with the lower end of the ureter and with the bladder. In fuch a fituation, calculi have alfo been known to attain a confiderable fize. 2. It fometimes happens, that an urinary calculus de- {cends to the very bottom of the ureter, and one end of it projects fome way into the cavity of the bladder ; but the other end cannot difengage itfelf from the tube. If things remain in this ftate long, the confequence is, that the ftone grows larger at its two extremities, while the part which is clofely embraced by the lower termination of the ureter remains much narrower than the reft of the foreign body. 3. Sometimes, in confequence of the diftention of the urine or other caufes, the inner membrane of the bladder protrudes between the fafciculi of its mufcular coat, in the form of pouches or cy‘ts, which are of different fizes, and occafionally numerous. Small calculi, after getting into thefe cyits, frequently attain a very large fize; and as the inner coat of the bladder more readily yields than the muf- cular fibres admit of feparation, the fundus of fuch ponches: becomes capacious, while their orifice remains of a diminu-: tive fize. Hence, avery {mall part of a ftone thus encyfted is naked in the cavity of the bladder, and fometimes the whole of the extraneous body is concealed under a fort of moveable fold of the mucous membrane. 4. There are on record very authentic cafes, proving that calculi, fome of which were of confiderable magnitude, have been fixed and lodged in a cavity that confilted of the upper portion of the bladder, feparated from the reft of this vifcus by a circular contration. Difficult as it may be to account for fuch faéts, the truth of them is unqueitionable. 5. The URINARY 5. The tranfverfe projection of the bladder, between the lower terminations of the ureters, is fometimes fo confider- able, as to conftitute a kind of partition, and divide the in- ferior part of the bladder into two cavities. From this par- tition, large fungi have fometimes been found proje€ting, which materially increafed the depth of the two cavities betwixt which it was placed. In thefe cavities, {tones have been obferved, which were of courfe completely feparated. 6. Sometimes calculi in the bladder are found to be ad- herent to the inner furface of this organ. The irritation of the foreign body having excited ulceration, fungi arife, which grow into the cavities and irregularities obfervable in fome urinary calculi, and thus produce a mechanical fort of ion. - When the bladder protrudes from the abdomen, fo as to form hernia, a ftone is occafionally fituated in the difplaced portion of that vifcus. It is a circumftance that has the fame effe&t as the encyfted ftate of a calculus; for the foreign body is thereby fixed, and it cannot be propelled towards the neck of the bladder at the period when the urine is difcharged. It fhould alfo be known, that in cafes of prolapfus of the uterus, when the bladder is drawn down- wards, it has fometimes been found to contain a ftone at the loweft part of it. The poffibility of the compliéation of a calculus, with fuch difplacements of the bladder, ought to. be well remembered, fince, if the nature of the cafe be detected, its treatment becomes materially fimplified. The fymptoms of a ftone in the bladder have been de- tailed in the article Lirnotromy, and we fhall therefore not repeat them in the prefent place. They are all fo equivo- cal, and bear fo great a refemblance to the effects of feveral other diforders, that they cannot be depended upon, and confequently no furgeon will venture to pronounce pofi- tively, that there is a calculus in the bladder, unlefs he can feel it with a found. (See SEarcuinc.) As for the operation, it is always totally unjuftifiable, if the furgeon cannot plainly feel the calculus immediately before he begins his incifions. The caufes of the formation of urinary calculi is a fub- je& which is ftill quite obfcure. The conje€tures which have been ftarted ref{pecting the effeét of particular kinds of food, drink, air, &c. do not appear to reft upon a good foundation. We may lay down the following obfervations, however, as tolerably corre&t. 1. If a foreign body be introduced into a cavity, which is naturally a receptacle for the urine, whatever may be the nature of the immerfed fubftance, it is fure to become in- crufted with the urinary falts, without any change however in its compofition. In this cafe, the obfervations of Dr. Mareet tend to prove that the concretion moftly, if not always, confifts of the earthy phofphates, and particularly of the ammoniaco-magnefian phofphate. In this inftance, there is not the leaft reafon for fufpeéting the operation of any peculiar diathefis in producing the calculus, fince the pre- fence of the foreign body, which forms the nucleus for it, would occafion the fame confequence in all defcriptions of patients. ‘ 2. There are fome countries where calculi are exceed- ingly common ; others where they are very rare, and yet one cannot explain the difference by any geographical circum- ftance which is conftant, or by any particularity in the con- ftitutions of the inhabitants. Calculi are found to be un- common both in very cold and very hot countries. . When the urinary organs are not much injured, pa- tients with ftone may be healthy in every other nefpe&. CALCULI. _ 4. Subjeéts, indeed, gifted with the ftrongeft conftitu- tions, are liable to urinary calculi, quite independently of the accidental introduétion of any foreign body into the urinary organs. In thefe cafes, the origin of the complaint is to be afcribed to a peculiar diathefis, the nature of which is at prefent entirely unknown. 5. Women have been thought to be lefs liable than men to urinary calculi; but yet it is a point which is by no means certain. The queftion, indeed, ftill continues thus : Are women in reality lefs liable than men to urinary calcu- li? Or do they only fuffer lefs frequently from the diforder in confequence of the facility with which the calculi are ge- nerally difcharged through the fhort and capacious canal of the meatus urinarius ? 6. Childhood and infancy prefent numerous inftances of urinary calculi; but, according to Delpech, relapfes are feldom obferved at thefe periods of life: that is to fay, an entirely frefh ftone is hardly ever formed again. If areturn of the complaint happens, the quicknefs of the recurrence, and an attentive examination of the calculus, will in general fufficiently prove, either that the ftone has formed round a fragment which had not been extraGted in the previous Operation, or that it was already completely formed at the fame period, but inadvertently left behind. On the fubje& of the frequency of the {tone in children, Dr. Marcet thinks that this is the cafe only among the poor claffes. He remarks, that in the higher ranks, or even in the loweft claffes, provided they are well fed, the fame fre- quency is not obferved. ‘In the Foundling Hofpital, for inftance, within the laft twenty-feven years, during which 1151 children have been admitted, only three cafes of ftone have occurred, all of which were among children while at nurfe in the country. And in the Military Afylum at Chelfea, which contains about 1250 children, and into which upwards of 6000 of them have been al- ready admitted, no more than one fingle cafe of ftone has occurred.”? See Marcet’s Efflay on Calculous Dif- orders, p. 36. 7» Youths and adults are not very commonly troubled with calculi, even though they may have been thus affliéted in their infancy or childhood. 8. Old men are much more liable to the diforder, and in them the difpofition to it continues through life. Hence, in fuch patients, relapfes are very frequent. Delpech, Précis Elém. des Mal. Chir. t. ii. p. 193, &c. _Of all the writers who have inveftigated the caufes of urinary calculi, none have interefted us fo much as Dr. Marcet. This able phyfician has endeavoured to eftimate the comparative frequency of the difeafe in various countries, and in the different ftations of life, and to determine whether its frequency be influenced by varieties of climate or fituation, or by peculiarities in our habits and occupa- tions. He inftituted inquiries at all the great hofpitals of the metropolis, in the hope of getting at fome ufeful records concerning the vaft number of patients on whom lithotomy had been performed in thofe eftablifhments. In London, he found it impoffible to obtain all the particulars of fuch cafes, as no entry of them was preferved. The Norwich hofpital, however, afforded him fome details, which are interefting. All the calculi, which have been extra¢ted in that hofpital for the laft forty-four years, and which amount to 506, have been carefully preferved, with the circumftances an- nexed to each ftone, and the event of the operation diftin@ly recorded. Dr. Marcet has given the refults of thefe records in the following table : Returns URINARY Returns of the cafes of lithotomy in the Norfolk and Norwich hofpital, from 1772 to 1816, making a period of forty-four years : Number of Operations. Deaths. Children} A guts, Total. ||Children.| Adults. | Total. under 14. | Males 227 | 251 | 475 12 56 68 Females 8 20 28 I I 2 235 | 271 | 506 |j, 13 | 57 | 70 It appears, fays Dr. Marcet, from the above table, that the mean annual number of cafes of lithotomy in the Norwich hofpital, during the laft forty-four years, has been 114 or 23 in every two years; and that the total number of fatal cafes in the 506 operations, is 70, or 1 in 74, or 4 in 29. It appears alfo, that the proportion of females who have undergone the operation is to that of males, as 58 to 1000, or about 1 to 17; that the mortality from the oper- ation in children was only about 1 in 183; while, in adults, it was 4 in 1g, or nearly quadruple. From the year 1772 to 1816, the Norwich hofpital has received 18,859 patients of all kinds, mais an average of 428 annual admiffions ; and Dr. Marcet obferves, that the proportion of 506 operations of lithotomy, out of 18,859 patients, which correfponds to about 1 in 38, exceeds, in an aftonifhing degree, that obtained from any of the other pub- lic inftitutions, whofe records he examined. Next to the records of the Norwich hofpital, Dr. Marcet derived the moft diftin& information of this kind from Che- felden, who mentions in his work on anatomy, that, during the courfe of his public pra¢tice in St. Thomas’s hofpital, a period of about twenty years, he had performed the oper- ation of the ftone 213 times, and loft only 20 patients. This was about 2 cafes in 21, which is much lefs than the common average. In St. Thomas’s hofpital, during the laft ten years, the operation of lithotomy feems to have been done, on an average, 11 times in each two years ; and 1 cafe of ftone has occurred in each 528 patients admitted. In St. Bartholomew’s, lithotomy was performed 56 times in the years 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815, and 1816. ‘The an- nual average about 11, or 1 in each 340 patients of all defcriptions. In Guy’s hofpital, Dr. Marcet has reafon to believe that lithotomy has been performed, on an average, about g or 10 times annually, during the laft 20 or 30 years. The pro- portion of calculous patients there is alfo eftimated at 1 in about 300 cafes of all kinds. Dr. Marcet’s inquiries incline him to think, that, on the whole, the occurrence of lithotomy in the London hofpitals has for fome years been gradually diminifhing ; and this he conceives may be owing partly to a real reduétion in the frequency of the ftone, from fome alteration in the diet or habits of the people; partly to the ufe of appropriate medi- cines ; and partly to the circumftance of calculous patients not reforting fo exclufively, as was formerly the cafe, to the great London hofpitals for the operation. In the Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh, the average number of ftone cafes annually, during the laft fix years, is faid not to have exceeded two, although about zo000 patients are admitted there every year, CALCULI. Dr. Marcet has been informed by M. Roux, that in La Charité, at Paris, ten or twelve cafes of ftone occur every year out of about 2600 patients; and that the proportion of deaths from the operation there is 1 in 5 or 6. In the Hépital des Enfans Malades, in the fame city, Dr. Marcet ftates, on the authority of Dr. Biett, that about fix cafes of {tone are received every year into that eftablifh- ment, where about 3000 children of both fexes are annually admitted. There have been only three cafes in females, and, what is remarkable, only two deaths from the opera- tion, in the courfe of the laft feven years. Dr. Marcet has been acquainted, that at Vienna litho- tomy is comparatively rare, not on account of the want of good furgeons, or the unfrequent occurrence of ftone cafes in that part of the continent, but in confequence of the little attention paid to this difeafe by the moft eminent furgeons of the Auftrian capital. It is certainly no credit to thefe practitioners, to find them encouraging Pajola’s plan of operating, which is a revival of one form of that barbarous method, the apparatus major. The fuccefs which this litho- tomift is faid to have had is almoft incredible, when his way of operating is confidered; for he is ftated to have per- formed the operation 550 times with fuccefs. At Geneva, fays Dr. Marcet, in a population of 30,000 fouls, lithotomy, including both public and private praétice, has been performed only thirteen times in the laft twenty years, though good furgeons are never wanting in that town to perform the operation, when an opportunity occurs. Out of thefe thirteen patients, feven were not ftriGly Genevefe, though belonging to the neighbouring diftri&ts, and one was an Englifhman; fo that the difeafe would, at firft fight, appear to be a rare occurrence at Geneva. But, continues Dr. Marcet, if the fmallnefs of the Genevefe po- pulation be taken into account, this proportion of calculous cafes may not fall very fhort of that obferved in other places. At Lyons, a populous town, which is not more than 80 miles diftant from Geneva, the difeafe is ftated to be rather frequent. In tropical climates, urinary calculi are almoft unknown ; and, as Dr. Marcet obferves, we have, in confirmation of this fingular and important fact, the recent ftatement of Dr. Scott, who, from his long refidence in India, and his well- known habits of obfervation, may be confidered as one of the beft authorities. Dr. Scott indeed affirms, that, be- tween the tropics, he never met with a fingle inftance of the formation of a ftone in the urinary bladder, although he knew of fome cafes which had been imported, and which were not cured by climate. See Marcet’s Effay on the Chemical Hiftory and Medical Treatment of Calculous Diforders, chap. z. London, 1817. Urinary calculi are faid alfo to be very uncommon in Spain and Africa. If, however, it be an undoubted faé, that the diforder is rare in hot climates, {till it is impoffible to offer any rational theory of the circumftance, becaufe the difeafe is likewife unufual in very cold countries, fuch as Sweden. See Richerand’s Nofographie Chir. tom. ii. p- 528. edit. 4. With regard to the chemical nature of urinary calculi, there was nothing known until as late a period as 1776, when the celebrated Swedifh chemift, Scheele, publifhed a paper on the fubjeét, in the Stockholm Tranfaétions. In this effay, he ftated, that all the urinary calculi which he had examined, confifted of a peculiar concrete fubftance, now well known by the name of the /ithic or uric acid, which he alfo fhewed was foluble in alkaline lixivia. Scheele further difcovered, that the lithic matter was in fome degree capable URINARY capable of being diflolved in cold water ; that this folution polleffed acid properties, and, in particular, that of red- dening litmus ; that it was a¢ted upon in a peculiar manner, wher boiled in nitric acid; and, laftly, that human urine always contained this fubftance in greater or lefs quantity, and often let it feparate in the form of a brick-coloured fedi- ment, by the mere effe& of cooling. '» The difcovery made by Scheele was confirmed by Berg- mann and Morveau, and the inveitigation of the fubje&t was afterwards profecuted by others with redoubled ardour. As profeflor Murray obferves, experiments continued to be repeated and diverfified on thefe concretions, and on their folvents. At length, it was fully afcertained, that there ex- - ifted others, befides thofe compofed of uric acid; and, lat- terly, our knowledge of them has been much extended by the refearches of Pearfon, Wollafton, Fourcroy, and Vau- quelin. Several important faéis have alfo been eftablifhed by the talents and induftry of fome other diftinguifhed men ; viz. Dr. Henry of Mancheiter, profeffor Brande of the Royal Inftitution of London, and Dr. Marcet of Guy’s hofpital. The credit which is due to Dr. Wollafton, for his valu- able and original difcoveries refpeGing urinary. calculi, is very confiderable ; a truth which we have particular pleafure in recording here, fince his merits have not been fairly ap- preciated by the French chemifts. Indeed, as Dr. Marcet obferves, it is the more defirable that his claims fhould be placed in the cleareit point of view, as the late celebrated M. Fourcroy, both in his ‘ Syf{teme des Connoiffances Chimiques,” and in his various papers on this particular fubje&, has, in a moft unaccountable manner, overlooked Dr. Wollafton’s labours ; and in defcribing refults, exaétly fimilar to thofe previoufly obtained and publifhed by the Englifh chemift, has claimed them as his own difcoveries. Yet Dr. Wollafton’s paper was printed in our Philofophical Tranfaétions two years before Fourcroy publifhed his memoir in the * Annales de Chimie,’ and three years be- fore he gave to the world his “ Syftéme des Connoiflances Chimiques ;”? and he difcuffed in thefe works a paper of Dr. Pearfon on the lithic acid, publifhed in a volume of the Philofophical Tranfa€tions for 1798, fubfequent to that which contained the account of Dr. Wollafton’s difcoveries. Effay on Calculous Diforders, p. 60; alfo Murray’s Sytt. of Chem. vol. iv. p. 636. edit. of 1809. From what has been itated, it appears, then, that Scheele firft difecovered the nature of thofe urinary calculi which confift of lithic acid; but that Dr. Wollatton firft afcer- tained the nature of feveral other kinds, fome of which have alfo been defcribed at a later period by Fourcroy and Vau- quelin. On the whole, there are five {pecies of concretions, whofe chemical properties were firft pointed out by Dr. Wollafton, and no lefs than four belong to the urinary or- ans. Thefe are, 1ft, Gouty concretions; zdly, The Fufible calculus; 3dly, The mulberry calculus; 4thly, The calculus of the proftate gland; sthly, The cyltic oxyd, which laft was difcovered in 181o. Dr. Marcet, in his late ingenious eflay, arranges urinary calculi under the following heads: 1. The lithic calculus. 2. The bone-earth calculus, principally confifting of phofphate of lime. 3. The ammoniaco-magnefian phofphate, or calculus in which this triple falt obvioufly prevails. 4. The fufible calculus, confifting of a mixture of the two former. 5- The mulberry calculus, or that compofed of oxalate of lime. Vor. XXXVII. CALCULI. 6. The cyftic calculus, confifting of the fubftance called by Dr. Wollafton cyftic oxyd. 7- The alternating calculus, or concretion compofed of two or more different {pecies, arranged in alternate layers. 8. The compound calculus, the ingredients of which are fo intimately mixed, as not to be feparable without chemical analyfis. g- Calculus of the proftate gland. Dr. Marcet likewife defcribes two other {pecimens, which are not referrible to any of the foregoing {pecies. 1. Lithicor Uric Acid Calculus. —The lithic acid forms a hard, inodorous concretion, of a yellowifh or brown colour, fimilar to that of wood, of various fhades. According to profeffor Murray, calculi of this kind are in fine, clofe layers, fibrous, or radiated, and generally fmooth on their furface, though fometimes a little rough. They are rather brittle, and have a fpecific gravity, varying from 1.276 to 1.786, but ufually above 1.500. One part of lithic acid is faid to diffolve in 1720 parts of cold water, and 1150 parts of boiling water (Marcet, p. 65.); and this folution turns vegetable blues to a red colour. When it has been diffolved in boiling water, fmall yellowifh cryftals are depofited as the fluid becomes cold. Lithic acid calculi blacken, but are not melted by the blow-pipe, emitting a peculiar animal {mell, and gradually evaporating, until a fmall quantity of white afh remains, which is alkaline. By diftillation, they yield ammonia and pruffic acid. They are foluble, in the cold, in a folution of pure potaffa, or foda; and from the folution, a precipitate of a fine white powder is thrown down by the acids. Lime-water likewife diffolves them, but more {paringly. In folutions of the alkaline carbonates, they re- main, according to Scheele, unchanged: according to the experiments of Dr. Egan, however, they are diffolved even by a weak folution, and alfo when the acid is fuperfaturated by carbonic acid. (Tranf. of Irifh Acad. 1805.) They are not much aéted upon by ammonia. They are not fo- luble either in the muriatic or fulphuric acid ; though they are fo in the nitric, when affifted by heat ; and the refidue of this folution, when evaporated to drynefs, affumes a re- markably bright pink colour, which difappears on adding either an acid or an alkali. In many of thefe calculi, the lithic acid is nearly pure ; in others, there is an intermixture of other ingredients, particularly of phofphate of lime, and phofphate of ammonia and magnefia; and, in almoft all of them, there is a portion of animal matter, which occafions the {mell, when they are burnt, and the lofs in their ana- lytis. See Murray’s Chemiitry, vol. iv. p. 640; and Mar- cet’s Effay on the Chem. and Med. Hitt. of Calculous Diforders. 2. Bone-earth, or Phofphate of Lime Calculus.—TVhe ex- iftence of phofphate of lime in urinary calculi had been men- tioned by Bergmann and others, when Dr. Wollafton firft afcertained that fome calculi are entirely compofed of it, forming a diftin& fpecies of thefe concretions. From the obfervations of the laft mentioned eminent chemift, it ap- pears that this fubftance fometimes compofes the entire calculus ; though, in more common initances, it is mixed with other ingredients, particularly with uric acid, and with phofphate of magnefia and ammonia. In the firft cafe, the calculus is defcribed as being of a pale brown colour, and fo {mooth as to appear polifhed. When fawn through, it is found very regularly laminated, and the laminz, in general, adhere fo flightly to each other, as to feparate with eafe into concentric crufts. It diflolves entively, though flowly, in muriatic or nitric acid. Expofed to the flame of the blow-pipe, it is at firft flightly charred, but foon becomes perfeétly white, retaining its form, until urged with the ut- 3X moft URINARY moft heat rom a common blow-pipe, when it may be com- pletely fufed. It appears to be more fufible than the phof- phate of lime, which forms the bafis of bone; a circum- ftance which Dr. Wollafton afcribes to the latter containing a larger quantity of lime. (Phil. Tranf. 1797.) Calculi, altogether compofed of phofphate of lime, are rather un- common: with this fubftance there are ufually other ingre- dients, efpecially the phofphates of magnefia and ammonia, and lithic acid. 3. Triple Calcitlus, or Ammoniaco-magnefian Phofphate.— The exiflence of this calculus in the inteftines of animals was firft pointed out by Fourcroy ; but its being a conftituent part of fome urinary calculi of the human fubje& was ori- ginally afcertained by Dr. Wollafton. (Phil. Tranf. 1797.) Calculous maffes, confifting folely of this fubftance, are perhaps never met with; but concretions often occur, in which it obvioufly prevails; and, as Dr. Marcet obferves, “ this triple falt frequently appears alfo in the form of mi- nute fparkling cryttals, diffufed over the furface, or between the inteftines of other calculous Jaminz. Calculi, in which this triple falt prevails, are generally whiter and-lefs com- pact than thofe of the former clafs. When the blow-pipe 1s applied, an ammoniacal {mell is perceived, the fragment diminifhes in .fize; and if the heat be ftrongly urged, it ultimately undergoes an imperfe& fufion, being reduced to the flate of phofphate of magnefia.”’? (P. 69.) Dr. Wol- lafton defcribes the form of the cryftals of this falt, as being a fhort trilateral prifm, having one angle a right angle, and the other two equal, terminated by a pyramid of three or fix fides. Thefe cryftals, as Dr. Marcet has explained, are but very fparingly foluble in water, but very readily in moft, if not all, the acids; and on precipitation, they reaflume the cryftalline form. From the folutions of thefe cryftals in muriatic acid, fal ammoniac may be obtained by fublimation. Solutions of cauftic alkalies difengage ammonia from the triple falt, the alkali combining with a portion of the phof- phoric acid. 4. The fufible Calculus.—Mr. Tennant firft difcovered that this fubftance was different from the lithic acid, and that, when urged by the blow-pipe, inftead of being nearly confumed, a large part of it melted into a white vitreous globule. The nature of the fufible calculus was afterwards more fully inveftigated and explained by Dr. Wollafton. (Phil. Tranf. 1797.) According to the excellent defcrip- tion lately given of this calculus by Dr. Marcet, it is com- monly whiter and more friable than any other fpecies. It fometimes refembles a mafs of chalk, leaving a white duft on the fingers, and feparates eafily into layers or lamine, the interflices of which are often ftudded with {parkling eryftals of the triple phofphate. At other times, it appears in the form of a {pongy and very friable whitifh mafs, in which the laminated ftru€ture is not obvious. Calculi of this kind often acquire a very large fize, and they are apt to mould themfelves in the contra¢ted cavity of the bladder, affuming a peculiarity of form, which Dr. Marcet has never obferved in any of the other f{pecies of calculi, and which confifts in the ftone terminating, at its broader end, in a kind of peduncle, correfponding to the neck of the bladder. The chemical compofition of the fufible calculus is a mixture of the triple phofphate and phofphate of lime. Thefe two falts, which, when feparate, are infufible, or nearly fo, when mixed together and urged by the blow-pipe, eafily run into a vitreous globule. The compofition of this fubftance, fays Dr. Marcet, may be fhewn in various ways. Thus, if it be pulverized, and acetic acid poured upon it, the triple eryftals will be readily diffolved, while the phofphate of lime will fearcely be ated upon; after which the muriatic 9 CALCULI. acid will readily diffolve the latter phofphate, leaving a {mall refidue, confifting of lithic acid, a portion of which is always found mixed with the fufible calculus. It is an obfervation made by the fame interefting writer, that many of the calculi which form round extraneous bodies in the bladder, are of the fufible kind. The fame thing is remarked with refpeét to the calculous matter fometimes de- pofited between the prepuce and glans. For many other particulars, re{peéting the fufible calculus, we refer to Dr. Marcet’s Effay and Dr. Wollafton’s paper in the Phil. Tranf. 5- Mulberry Calculus, or Oxalate of Lime.—This is moftly of a dark brown colour, and frequently its interior is grey. Its furface is ufually uneven, prefenting tubercles more or lefs prominent, frequently rounded, fometimes pointed, and either rough or polifhed. It is very hard, difficult to faw, and appears to confilt of fucceffive unequal layers. Except- ing the few ftones which contain a proportion of filica, it is the heavieft of the urinary concretions. Though this calcu- lus has been named mulberry, from its refemblance to that fruit, yet, as Dr. Marcet has obferved, there are many con- cretions of this clafs which, far from having the mulberry appearance, are remarkably {mooth and pale-coloured, as may be feen in plate 8, fig. 6. of that gentleman’s effay. According to Mr. Brande, perfons who have voided this f{pecies of calculus, are much lefs liable to a return of the complaint, than other patients who difcharge lithic calculi. Phil. Tranf. 1808. With regard to chemical charatters (fays profeflor Mur- ray), it is lefs affeCted by the application of the ufual re- agents than any other calculus. The pure alkaline folutions have no effe@ upon it, and the acids diffolve it with great difficulty. When it is reduced, however, to fine powder, both muriatic and nitric acid diflolye it flowly. The folu- tions of the alkaline carbonates decompofe it, as Fourcroy and Vauquelin have obferved ; and this affords us the eafieft method of analyfing it. ‘The calculus in powder being di- gefted in the folution, carbonate of lime is foon formed, which remains infoluble, and is eafily diftinguifhed by the effervefcence produced by the addition of weak acetic acid, while there is obtained in folution the compound of oxalic acid with the alkali of the alkaline carbonate. From this, the oxalic acid may be precipitated by the acetate of lead, or of barytes; and this oxalate, thus formed, may be after- wards decompofed by fulphuric acid. Another method of analyfing this calculus is by expofure to heat: its acid is decompofed, and by raifing the heat fufficiently, pure lime is obtained, amounting to about a third of the weight of the calculus. According to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, the oxalate of lime calculus contains more animal matter than any other. ‘This animal matter appeared to them to be a mixture of albumen and urée. ‘The compofition of a caleu- lus of this fpecies, analyfed by Mr. Brande, was oxalate of lime 65 grains, uric acid 16 grains, phofphate of lime 15 grains, animal matter 4 grains. 6. The Cyftic Oxyd was firft defcribed by Dr. Wollafton in the Phil. Trani. for 1810. In external appearance, it bears a greater refemblance to the triple phofphate of mag- nefia, than any other fort of calculus. It is however more compact, and does not confift of diftiné lamine, but ap- pears as one mafs confufedly cryftallized throughout its fub- fiance. It has a yellowifh femi-tranfparency, and a peculiar gliftening luftre. Under the blow-pipe, it gives a fingularly fetid fmell, quite diftin@ from that of lithic acid, or the {mell of pruffic acid. Diitilled in clofe veffels, it yields fetid carbonate of ammonia, partly fluid and partly folid, and a heavy fetid oil; and there remains a black fpongy coal, which — = URINARY CALCULI. which is much fmaller than that left by lithic acid. Water, alcohol, acetic, tartaric, and citric acids, and faturated car- bonate of ammonia, can only diffolve a very flight propor- tion of it. The folvents of it, on the other hand, are numerous ; as, for inftance, the muriatic, nitric, fulphuric, phofphoric, and oxalic acids; potafh, foda, ammonia, and lime-water, and even the neutral carbonates of potafh and foda. When, therefore, it is intended to feparate it from acids, the neutral carbonate of ammonia is beft adapted to the purpofe, as it is not capable of rediffolving the precipi- tate even when added in excefs; and, for the fame reafon, the acetic and citric acids are beft fuited to precipitate it from alkalies. + In confequence of the difpofition of this fpecies of cal- culus to unite both with acids and alkalies, in common with other oxyds, and the faét of its alfo containing oxygen, (as is proved by the formation of carbonic acid in diftillation, ) Dr. Wollaiton named it an oxyd, and the term cy/fic was added from its having been originally found only in the blad- der in two examples. Dr. Marcet, however, has fubfe- quently met with no lefs than three inftances of calculi formed of cyftic oxyd, all of which were unquettionably of renal origin. 7- Compound Calculi in diftin® Layers.—Lithic ftrata fre- quently alternate with layers of oxalate of lime, or with the phofphates. Sometimes alfo the mulberry alternates with the phofphates, and, in a few inftances, three or even four fpecies of calculi occur in the fame {tone difpofed in diftin& concentric lamine. For fpecimens of thefe facts, we refer to Dr. Marcet’s interefting effay, in which varieties of fuch calculi are corre€tly delineated and coloured. 8. Compound Calculi with their Ingredients intimately mixed. —Under this title, Dr. Marcet comprehends certain calculi, which have no charaéteriftic feature, by which they can be confidered as diftin@tly belonging to any of the other claffes. He obferves, that they may fometimes be recognized by their more or lefs irregular figure, and their lefs determined colour, by their being lefs diftin@tly if at all ftratified, and by their often poflefling a confiderable hardnefs. By chemi- cal analyfis confufed refults are obtained. See Marcet’s Effay on the Chem. and Med. Hitt. of Calc. Diforders, : ee Calculi of the Proftate Gland—The compofition of thefe calculi is faid to have been firft explained by Dr. Wol- lafton. (See Phil. Tranf. for 1797.) They all confift of phofphate of lime, the earth not being redundant as in bones. Their fize varies from that of a pin’s head to that of ahazel-nut. Their form is more or lefs {pheroidal, and they are of a yellowifh-brown colour. Fourcroy has defcribed a fpecies of urinary calculus, which is charaéterized by its being compofed of the urate of ammonia. Dr. Wollafton, Mr. Brande, and Dr. Marcet have not, however, fatisfatorily afcertained the prefence of this fubftance in any of the concretions which they have examined. It is alfo to be recollected, that urea and the triple phofphate, both of which afford ammonia, are fre- quently prefent in lithic calculi, and they may have given rife to the analytical refults from which the exiftence of urate of ammonia has been inferred. Brande in Phil. Tranf. 1808. Marcet’s Effay, p. 93. Dr. Marcet has met with two fpecimens of urinary cal- culi entirely different from any which have hitherto been noticed. One of thefe he propofes to name xanthic oxyd, from £90, yellow, becaufe one of its moft charatteriftic properties is that of forming a lemon-coloured compound, when acted upon by nitric acid. The chemical properties of the other new calculus, mentioned by Dr. Marcet, cor- refpond to thofe of fibrine, and he therefore fuggefts the propriety of diftinguifhing it by the term fibrinous. For a particular defcription of thefe new fubftances, we refer to this gentleman’s effay. In addition to the remarks which have been offered in the article LitHoromy, on the fubje€ of lithontriptic medi- cines, we mean to fay very little in the prefent place. Who- ever ftudies the chemical properties of the urine will learn, that “if any alkali (a few drops of ammonia for inftance) be added to recent urine, a white cloud appears, and a fedi- ment, confifting of phofphate of lime, with fome ammoniaco- magnefian phoiphate, fubfides, in the proportion of about two grains of the precipitate from four ounces of urine. Lime- water produces a precipitate of a fimilar kind, which is {till more copious ; for the lime, in combining with the excefs of phofphoric, and perhaps alfo of latic acid, not only precipi- tates the phofphate of lime which thefe acids held in folution, but it decompofes the other phofphates, thus generating an additional quantity of the phofphate of lime, which is alfo depofited, “If, on the contrary (fays Dr. Marcet), a {mall quantity of any acid, either the phofphoric, the muriatic, or, indeed, even common vinegar, be added to recent healthy urine, and the mixture be allowed to ftand for one or two days, {mall reddifh eryftalline particles of lithic acid will be gradually depofited on the inner furface of the veffel. “It is on thefe two general facts, that our principles of chemical treatment ultimately reft. Whenever the lithic fe- cretion predominates, the alkalies are the appropriate reme- dies, and the acids, particularly the muriatic, are the agents to be reforted to, when the calcareous or magnefian falts prevail in the depofit.”” P. 147, 148. It is a fa& perfeGtly well afcertained, that the alkalies taken into the ftomach reach the urinary paflages through the medium of the circulation ; and it is alfo ftrongly fufpeéted, that the acids likewife do fo, though this circumftance may not be fo well proved. Unfortunately, the quantity of either alkalies or acids, which thus mixes with the urine, is fo {mall, that no impreffion is made upon calculi of magnitude. The experience of Dr. Marcet and others, however, has clearly afcertained that fuch medicines are often capable of checking a tendency to the formation of ftone, and fome- times of bringing on a calculous depofit depending upon the altered ftate of the fyftem. This writer, indeed, exprefles his decided opinion, that even fuppofing not an atom of alkali or acid ever reached the bladder, ftill it would not be unreafonable to expeét that thefe remedies may refpeCtively produce the defired changes during the firft {tages of affimi- lation, in one cafe by neutralizing any morbid excefs of acid in the prime viz, and in the other by checking a tendency to alkalefcence, or otherwife difturbing thofe affnities which, in the fubfequent proceffes of affimilation and fecretion, give rife to calculous affeGtions. P. 153. When muriatic acid is prefcribed, from five to twenty-five drops may be given two or three times a day, diluted with a fufficient quantity of water. The beft way of taking the alkalies is by drinking foda- water as a common beverage. It is afferted, however, on the authority of fir G. Blane, that when the alkalies are combined with citric acid, as in the ordinary faline draught, they alfo have the effect of depriving the urine of its acid properties. Dr. Marcet, with every appearance of probability, refers to carbonic acid itfelf no folvent power, and he does not even adopt Mr. Brande’s opinion, that this acid pafles into the urine, when patients drink fluids which are impregnated with it. 3K 2 Sir UR ft Sir E. Home and Mr. Hatchett firft fuggefted the utility of giving magnefia in cafes of ftone, and the propofal was communicated to the public by Mr. Brande. (Phil. Tranf. 1810.) It is, as Dr. Marcet obferves, often found advan- tageous in long protracted cafes, in which the conftant ufe of the fubearbonated or cautftic alkalies would injure the fto- mach. But, he properly remarks, that if magnefia is fome- times beneficial, it has of late years often done harm. For, as this earth is the bafe of one of the moft common fpecies of calculi, the ammoniaco-magnefian phofphate, there is nearly an even chance, when magnefia is prefcribed, without any previous knowledge of the nature of the calculus, that it will prove injurious. Magnefia alfo, when obftinately ad- miniftered, fometimes forms large maffes in the inteftinal canal, caufing ferious diftrefs, and even fatal confequences. According to Dr. Prout, purgatives will fometimes ftop calculous depofitions, efpecially in children ; and Dr. Henry, of Manchefter, has obferved, that a quack medicine, com- pofed of turpentine and opium, will occafionally produce a plentiful difcharge of lithic acid from the bladder. For many of the foregoing obfervations, we are indebted to Dr. Marcet’s interefting Effay on the Chemical and Medt- cal Treatment of Calculous Diforders, London, 1817. Some other remarks on inje¢tions, as a means of diffolving calculi in the bladder, and on lithontriptics in general, will be found in the article LirHoromy. Urinary Fifule. See FistuLm in Perineo, and Uri- NARY Ab/fceffes. Urinary Pafage. See URETHRA. URINE, in Phyfiology, the fluid fecreted by the kidney. See Kipney. Urine, Bloody. See Hamaruria. Urine, Incontinence of. An incontinence of urine is when this fluid comes away from the patient involuntarily, without his having any power of retaining it. The diforder is one to which children are particularly liable ; adults are lefs frequently affited with it ; and itis a cafe which feldom occurs in perfons of very advanced years. The latter affer- tion, as Default remarks, muft appear erroneous to thofe who frequently meet with old perfons unable to retain their urine, were it not well afcertained, that patients often miftake for an incontinence of urine the overflowing of this fluid out of the urethra, in cafes of retention, of which that occur- rence is only afymptom. ‘There are even fome furgeons, fays Default, who imbibe this popular error, and feem unaware that an involuntary difcharge of urine may exiit together with a retention, and be the effect of it, as 1s gene- rally the cafe in fuch retentions as depend upon weaknefs and paralyfis of the bladder. In thefe inftances, the dif- tended fibres of this vifcus reat upon the urine which then iffues from the urethra, until the refiftance of the fphinéter and of the canal is in equilibrium with the expelling power. Sometimes the urine even dribbles away inceflantly, which happens whenever the aétion of the bladder has been com- pletely deftroyed ; for, in this ftate, this vifcus being con- ftantly full, cannot receive any more of the urine that is brought to it by the ureters, unlefs an equal quantity at the fame time efcape through the urethra. his is a cafe which will more properly fall under confideration in the ar- ticle Urine, Retention of, and we need not therefore dwell upon it at prefent. The caufes of an incontinence of urine, properly fo called, are diametrically different from thofe of a retention. The latter cafe happens whenever the bladder becomes weak, and the refiftance in the urethra increafed. An incontinence, on the other hand, arifes either from the expelling power of the bladder being augmented, while the refiftance in the urethra URE is not proportionably increafed 3; or from the refiitance being leffened, while the expelling force remains unchanged- According to thefe principles, it is eafy to explain why the diforder fhould be mo{t common in children. At this age; it is well known that there is more irritability than at any other period of life. It is alfo well known that the expul- fion of the urine is entirely effe€ted by mufcular aétion, while the refiftance is merely owing to the fphinéter vefica, the levatores ani, and perhaps to a few other inconfiderable fafciculi of mufcular fibres ; for the different curvatures of the urethra, and the contra¢tile power of this tube itfelf, can make but a paffive and feeble refiftance to the iffue of the urine. An incontinence happens in children, becaufe the bladder contraéts fo fuddenly and forcibly, that its contents are voided almoft before thefe young fubjeéts are aware of any defire to make water, and without their being able to reitrain the evacuation. There are alfo many children who, from indolence or careleffnefs, do not make water imme- diately the firft calls of nature incite them, and who after- wards, being urgently preffed, wet their clothes. In other young fubjects, the fenfation which makes the bladder con- tra&, and accompanies the expulfion of the urine, is fo flight, that the funtion is performed without any formal aé& of the will, without even exciting an impreffion fufficiently ftrong to difturb fleep. This is the cafe with fuch children as are troubled only with an incontinence of urine in the night-time. Increafing years, by diminifhing the irritability of the blad- der, and making man more attentive to his neceflities, ufually bring about a cure of the infirmity, which feldom continues till the patient has attained the adult ftate. It muft not be fuppofed, however, that no period of life excepting childhood can be affli@ted with the complaint. Other ages are alfo liable; but then the diforder almoit al- ways depends upon a defe& of refiftance to the iffue. of the urine, and it may be occafioned by weaknefs, or paralyfis of the {phinGer vetice, or levatores ani: fometimes, alfo, b a forcible dilatation of the urethra, and lofs of its elaf- ticity. Frequently all thefe caufes are at the fame time concerned. A calculus, a fungus, or any other extraneous body of an irregular fhape, may be fixed in the neck of the bladder, and not accurately filling it, may allow the urine to efcape at the fides ; or the foreign body may even form forts of channels, through which the fluid pafles. Frequently, alfo, a violent contufion or forcible diftention of the {phinéer is followed by an incontinence of urine. The complaint ufed to be very common formerly after the mode of lithotomy called the apparatus major ; and it is even at prefent not an unufual confequence of the extraction of calculi from females by the dilatation of the meatus urina- rius. (See Lirnoromy.) Theneck of the bladder and the urethra are forcibly diftended in thefe operations, and, ‘confequently, they lofe their contraétile power, continue di- lated, and no longer duly oppofe the efcape of the urime. Women who have had difficult labours, and in whom the child’s head, by compreffing the neck of the bladder, has {erioufly contufed and weakened this part, are alfo fubjeét to a {pecies of incontinence of urine ; which, however, is in general only experienced when they laugh, or make any confiderable exertion. Mott authors, who have treated of incontinence of urine, have related, that perfons afflicted with palfy and apoplexy are very liable to the complaint. But, as we have already explained, they have here miftaken what the French furgeons aptly call the ‘retention d’urine avec regorgement,”’ for an incontinence. In this fort of cafe, the fame writers have attributed the involuntary difcharge of the urine to paralyfis of URINE. of the fphin@er of the bladder ; but they have not remem- bered that the bladder itfelf alfo participates in the paralytic affeGtion ; for the {phin@ter not being a particular mufcle, but only a fafciculus of flefhy fibres, formed, as Default obferves, by the junGtion of thofe which compofe the inner layer of the muicular coat of the bladder, it can only be weakened in the fame degree, and at the fame time, as the reft of this organ. Befides, fays Default, we have proved, and all phyfiologifts admit the fa&, that the aétion of the bladder is abfolutely neceffary for the expulfion of the urine, and that an inert condition of this vifcus is always fol- lowed by a retention. A\n incontinence of urine is not attended with fo much danger as aretention. It is, however, a moft affliGting in- firmity to a perfon obliged to mix with fociety : his clothes being continually wet with urine, the ftenth which he carries about with him is equally an annoyance to himfelf, and every body elfe who approaches him. An incontinence of urine in children ufually gets well of itfelf as they grow up. When they wet their beds really from idlenefs and careleffnefs, moderate chaftifement may be proper, inafmuch as the fear of corre€tion will make them _pay more attention to the earlieft fenfations of the defire to make water. We fear, however, that this doGtrine is carried _ to rather an unjuftifiable extent, particularly in fchools ; and, _at all events, punifhment in fuch cafes fhould never be fevere, as, in ninety cafes out of a hundred, the diforder is a true infirmity, arifing from the caufes already indicated, and not from indolence; the fuppofed crime taking place, in fa&, when the child is afleep, and unconfcious of what is happening. When an incontinence of urine depends upon an exceffive irritability, in which ftate the bladder is forced to contract -by.a very {mall quantity of urine in it, and involuntarily overcome the refiftance of the urethra, an endeavour fhould be made to leffen fuch irritability by the ufe of the warm or cold bath, fea-bathing, mucilaginous drinks, &c. If the accident fhould happen only in the night-time, the child fhould not take any drink for fome time before being put to bed ; fhould empty the bladder before going to fleep ; and, if neceffary, be taken up in the night to do the fame thing again. When: the incontinence depends on a want of aétion in the parts producing the refiftance in the urethra, tonics may be externally and internally employed. They feldom fuc- ceed, however, when the diforder is of long ftanding. In this circpmitance, palliative means muft be reforted to ; viz. inftruments calculated to comprefs the urethra, and intercept the paflage of the urine. This objet is more difficult to accomplifh in women than men; but it may be done by means of an inftrument which confifts of an elaftic hoop, which goes round the pelvis, and from the middle of which, in front, a curved elaftic piece of fteel defcends, and termi- nates in a {mall comprefs, which is contrived to cover accu- rately the orifice of the meatus urinarius. See CEuvres Chir. de Default, par Bichat, t. iii. p.. 95, &c. The application of blifters to the facrum has often proved very effectual in curing incontinence of urine, both when the complaint feemingly arofe from exceffive irritability of the bladder, or from paralyfis and lofs of tone in this organ, and _the parts which naturally refift the expulfion of the urine fromit. The reader will find fome very interefting cafes of this kind in the Medical Obfervations and Inquiries. Urine, Retention ofe When, from any particular caufe, the urine cannot be difcharged from the bladder through the urethra, it accumulates in that receptacle, which it gra- dually diftends fometimes even to an incredible magnitude. The difeafe has been defcribéd by the ancients under the generic name of i/churia. Certain writers make a diftiric- tion between this diforder and other cafes, to whieh they apply the terms dy/ury and /frangury ; while others have confidered thefe lait only as different kinds of retention of urine. Some furgeons always mean by dyfury the cafe in which the urine is difcharged with great pain and difficulty ; and by the word frangury, the example in which the evacu- ation can be made only by drops; while they reftri& ifchuria to the form of the difeafe in which no urine at all can be voided. Default very juftly imputed this variety in the fymptoms to different degrees of the fame difeafe, and he therefore, with much propriety, preferred the divifion into the complete and imcomplete retentions of urine. As Mr. Hey has obierved, the diftin@ion which has fometimes been made between a fuppreffion and retention of urine, 1s practical and judicious. "The former moft properly points out a defect in the fecretion of the kidneys ; the latter an inability of expelling the urine when fecreted. We alfo like the following fimple and plain definition : “ The difeafe (fays he), of which I am {fpeaking, under the term retention of urine, 1s an inability, whether total or partial, of expelling by natural efforts the urine contained in the bladder.’? Praét. Obf. in Surgery, p. 389. edit. 2. ‘When the urine is retained in the bladder, the parietes of this organ fuffer from diftention, and after the tone of its mufcular fibres has been ftrained, it can make only a feeble refiftance to its further dilatation, and fometimes it becomes of confiderable fize. In an infant a year and a half old, it has been known to contain a pint of urine ; and in adults, fix or feven pints. The bladder, thus diftended, has been found to fill not only the cavity of the pelvis, but to rife up into the abdomen higher than the navel. It has fometimes been obferved to extend itfelf even through the abdominal rings, fo as to conftitute a ferotal rupture; or under the crural arch into the groin. Such elongations of the blad- der, it is true, are not very common ; yet many inflances of them are recorded in the Memoirs of the French Aca- demy of Surgery. In ordinary cafes of retention of urine, the natural fhape of the bladder does not undergo any ma- terial change ; but ftill all its dimenfions do not increafe in the fame proportion. It fpreads more from below upward than in any other direétion. Its inferior portion becomes broader, and more deeply fituated, prefling downwards and forwards the perineum; and propelling, in women, the va- gina backwards ; or, in the male fubje@, the rectum. In thefe latter tubes, it forms a fwelling, which either com- pletely or partially obftruéts them, and interrupts the paf- fage of the feces through the rectum. The pofterior part of the bladder, which is covered by the peritoneum, lifts upward and backward the mafs of {mall inteftines, and rifes into the cavity of the belly. The extreme part of its fundus mounts above the os pubis, and, as it were, in- finuates itfelf between the peritoneum, which it raifes, and the abdominal mufcles. Indeed, the anterior and fuperior portion of the bladder forms a {welling in the hypogaltric region, and is in a€tual conta&t with the reéti and tranf- verfales mufcles, with which it is conneéted by means of a loofe cellular fubftance. The knowledge of this laft difpo- fition of the parts is of great importance to the furgeon, fince it leads him to underitand, that the bladder admits of being punctured, without any danger of wounding the pert- toneum, and caufing an extravafation of urine. It is not uncommon (fays Default) to find in bladders, which have fuffered fuch diftention, cells or pouches often containing calculi, and fituated between the fafciculi of flefhy fibres. See Unyjnary Caleult. 5 When URINE. ‘When the urine has diftended the bladder to the utmoft, and the obftruction in the urethra continues unremoved, that fluid next colleés in the ureters, which in their turn become dilated. The fort of valve which covers their ter- mination in the bladder difappears, and the opening, by which each of thefe tubes communicates with this recep- tacle, fometimes becomes nearly an inch in diameter. As the diforder advances, no more urine can at length defcend from the kidneys, and the fecretion is totally fuppreffed. To the well-informed furgeon, the diagnofis of a reten- tion of urine is generally attended with no difficulty ; but the cafe is far otherwife to the man whofe experience and attention to the fubjeét have been very circumfcribed. What Default has called the rational fymptoms are numerous ; but yet moft of them are of an equivocal nature: as, for inftance, the ftoppage of the difcharge of urine for one or feveral days ; its evacuation by drops, or in very {mall quan- tities at a time; continual inclination to make water; the efforts which precede the performance of this funétion ; the defire which the patient {till feels to empty the bladder, after he has voided nearly as much urine as in the natural {tate ; a diminution either of the force, or ftream of the urine ; a fenfation of weight about the perineum, tenefmus, conftipation, hemorrhoids. To thefe fymptoms are to be added, acute pain in the hypogaftric region, extending along the urethra to the extremity of the glans penis, and after- wards towards the kidneys, fometimes attended with ftupor and numbnefs of the thighs. The pain is rendered much worfe when the patient walks about, coughs, or keeps him- felf in an ereét pofition ; and it is leffened when he bends his body forward, and relaxes the mufcles of the abdomen. Laftly, we have to join to the foregoing fymptoms, fever, naufea, laborious re{piration, and per{piration, that is faid to poffefs a decided urinary odour. All thefe rational {ymptoms, as they were denominated by Default, are vague and uncertain. The whole of them to- gether can only afford more or lefs probable conje€tures re- {peting the exiftence of a retention of urine. The certainty of the thing can never be made out, unlefs there be com- bined with the preceding defcription of complaints an ob- vious and manifeft tumour, formed by the bladder, not only above the pubes, but likewifein the reGtum of the male, and in the vagina of the female fubjeét. The {welling above the os pubis varies confiderably in its fize. Sometimes it reaches above the navel. It is cireumfcribed, and unattended with any alteration in the colour of the fkin, or any hardnefs at its circumference. It is more expanded below than above, elaftic, and free from tendernefs; except it be preffed upon with force, and then the propenfity to make water is increafed, and fometimes a few drops are even urged out of the urethra. The {welling in the re@um or vagina is readily difcover- ed by manual examination. It is fituated only at the anterior fide of thefe cavities ; and, like the hy pogaftric tumour, it is every where elaftic, equal, and free from any particular in- durations. Another pathognomonic fymptom, deferving the utmoft attention of the practitioner, is the flutuation, or rather the fort of undulation, which is perceptible on alternately prefling upon both the fwellings. Thefe, however, do not conftantly exift; for, as Default remarks, retentions of urine, even of the moft complete kind, have been known to occur, where the bladder, not being very extenfible, hardly contained a few {poonfuls of urine. Mr. Hey has not adverted to the {welling in the re@tum, or vagina; nor to the cafes of contraéted bladder, where, of ¢ourfe, the information derived in ordinary inftances from the tumour above the pubes, could not be ge meee but, in other refpeéts, his obfervations on the diagnofis are praéti- cal and corre&. According to this experienced writer, the charateriftic fymptom of a retention of urine, previous to the introduction of the catheter, is a diftention of the blad- der (to be perceived by an examination of the hypogaltrium), after the patient has difcharged all the urine which he is ca- pable of expelling. «As this complaint may fubfift when the flow of urine from the bladder is by no means totally fuppreffed, great caution is required to avoid miftakes on this fubjeé. “¢ Violent efforts to make water are often excited at inter- vals ; and during thefe ftrainings, fmall quantities of urine are expelled. Under thefe circumftances, the diforder may be miftaken for the ftrangury. «« At other times, a morbid retention of urine fubfifts, when the patient can make water with a ftream, and dif- charge a quantity equal to that which is commonly dif- charged by a perfon in health. Under this circumftance, I have known the pain in the hypogaftrium, and diftention of the bladder, continue till the patient was relieved by the catheter. « And, laftly, it fometimes happens that, when the bladder has fuffered its utmoft diftention, the urine runs off by the urethra as faft as it is brought into the bladder by the ureters. I have (fays Mr. Hey) repeatedly known this cir- cumftance caufe a ferious mifapprehenfion of the true nature of the difeafe. “¢ In every cafe of retention of urine which I have feen, the difeafe might be afcertained by an examination of the hy- pogaftrium, taken in conne€tion with the other fymptoms. The diftended bladder forms there a hard and circum{fcribed tumour, giving pain to the patient when preffed with the hand. Some obf{curity may arife upon the examination of a very corpulent perfon ; but in all doubtful cafes, the catheter fhould be introduced.’? Praé. Obf. p. 389. A retention of urine is always a ferious difeafe, and when it is complete, it demands the moft prompt fuccour. When relief is too long deferred, the confequences are truly affli&- ing; for, when the bladder continues for a time preternatu- rally diftended, it lofes its contractile power, which it re- covers with difficulty. Irritated alfo by the quantity, and perhaps by the quality of the confined fluid, 1t foon becomes affected with inflammation and gangrenous mifchief. Sometimes the bladder burfts, and the urine is extravafated in the cellular membrane of the pelvis ; {preading behind the peritoneum as far up as the loins ; producing fwellings in the perineum ; and becoming effuied alfo in the fcrotum, com- mon integuments of the penis, and upper part of the thighs. Indeed, as Default remarks, the urine has fometimes been known to be effufed in the parictes of the abdomen, as far up as the fides of the cheft, producing gangrenous abfeceffes and fiftule of the parts. To thefe evils are to be added others, arifing from the total interruption of the fecretion of urine, and from the abforption of a part of that which is confined in the bladder. In the treatment of every retention of urine, there are two principal indications. The firft is to give {peedy iffue to this fluid, in order to prevent the foregoing difaitrous confe- quences ; the fecond is to obviate the caufes which prevent its expulfion from the bladder. At prefent we fhall confi- der only the firft of thefe indications, as the fecond can be more appropriately treated of when we come to notice the various caufes of the complaint. The urine is commonly let out of the bladder by the in- troduGtion of an inftrument termed a catheter. Default con- fiders this operation in two points of view; firit, when the urethra URINE. urethra is unobftruéted, and the inftrument can be intro- duced without refiftance ; and, fecondly, when there exifts an impediment to its introduétion. As the hiftory of thefe obftacles cannot be feparated from that of the caufes of the diforder, we fhail follow Default, and now only take into confideration the operation of introducing the catheter when the urethra is pervious. What ought to be the conduct of the furgeon under other circumftances will be noticed hereafter. With refpe& to catheters, three things are to be confi- dered: 1, the inftrument itfelf; 2, the manner of intro- ducing it; and, 3, the line of condu& to be purfued after its introduétion. Catheters were anciently compofed of copper: Celfus knew of no other kind. As thefe, however, had the incon- venience of becoming incrufted with verdigreafe, they at length fell into difufe, and others, made of filver, were fub- ftituted forthem. This change had been made as early as the time of the Arabian practitioners, and it {till receives the approbation of the beit modern furgeons. Catheters vary confiderably in their length. For an adult female fubje&t, they fhould be about fix inches long; and for young girls, four or five. For grown-up men, the length ought to be about ten inches and a half ; and for male chil- dren and boys, fix oreight inches. 'Thefe are the ordinary lengths. ‘There is alfo much diverfity in the fize or thick- nefs of the inftrument. For a woman, the diameter ought to be about two lines; and for young girls, a line and a half. For male adult fubjeéts, Default recommends the thicknefs of two lines and one-third ; and for boys, that of a line and a half. In general, whenever the urethra is per- vious, itis better to follow the advice of Default, and em- ploy a largifh catheter, which will enter the paflage more eafily, not get entangled in the folds of the membranous lining of the canal, and afford a more ready outlet for the urine. On the other hand, {mall catheters fhould be pre- ferred, when there are ob{truétions and indurations in the paflage. Catheters alfo differ in fhape. Thofe which Default ufed had only a flight curvature of one-third of their length; a curvature which began infenfibly from their ftraight part, and continued to their beaks inclufively. The curvature was alfo regular, fo as to form the fegment of a circle fix inches in diameter. The female catheter, however, had only a flight curvature towards its beak ; a fhape which is adapted to the direGtion of the meatus urinarius. Default alfo improved filver catheters, by caufing them to be made with elliptical openings at the fides of the beak, with rounded edges, in- ftead of the. longitudinal flits, which were previoufly con- ftru&ted. The inconvenience of thefe flits had been acknow- ledged by every practitioner in furgery ; the lining of the urethra having: been frequently entangled in them, pinched and lacerated, which produced acute pain, and fometimes profufe hemorrhage. With a view of preventing thefe evils, Default alfo was careful to fill the elliptical openings with lard, which could not fall into the hollow of the cathe- ter, as an elaftic gum bougie was pafled into the cavity of the inftrument, in order to hinder the occurrence, and was not withdrawn before the end of the catheter was actually in the bladder. See CEuvres Chir. de Default, t. iii. p. 118, Gs Befides filver, or inflexible catheters, furgeons now fre- uently employ flexible catheters, made of elaftic gum. Thefe laft inftruments, indeed, are of fo much importance, that they may be faid to conftitute one of the greateft im- provements in modern furgery. They are ftated to have been originally invented by a Frenchman of the name of ‘ fitions from the urine. Bernard. Imperfe& attempts, however, had been made by others, at an earlier period, to invent catheters pofleffing the property of flexibility. Van Helmont propofed the ufe of catheters made of horn; but this fubftance was found to be too ftiff, and to become very quickly incrufted with depo- Fabricius ab Aquapendente recom- mended the employment of flexible catheters made of leather ; but thefe were objeétionable, as they were very foon foftened by the urine and mucus of the urethra, fo that they fhrivelled up, and were rendered impervious. There were alfo other flexible catheters, formerly tried, which were compofed of fpiral fprings of filver wire, covered with the fins of particular animals. Thefe laft were found to fpoil very quickly, in confequence of putrefaétion ; and when left in the urethra any time, the beak was fometimes entirely fe- parated from the reft of the inftrument, and left behind. The elaftic gum catheters now in ufe are liable to none of the preceding inconveniences. They are formed of filk tubes exprefsly woven for the purpofe, and covered with a coat of elaftic gum. They are fufficiently flexible to accommodate themfelves to the different curvatures of the urethra; they are not foftened by the urine, and they con- {tantly remain with their cavity unobliterated. Their {mooth and polifhed furface makes them continue a long while free from incruftations of the urine. Sometimes they are intro- duced without a ftilet or wire, which is paffed into their canal, for the purpofe of giving them a certain curvature, and greater degree of firmnefs. This plan is adopted when the catheter will not pafs with the ftilet ; but, in general, the ftilet is employed and withdrawn as foon as the tube is in the bladder. There are two methods of introducing a catheter; viz. with the concavity turned towards the abdomen ; or, on the other hand, with the concavity of the inftrument turned downwards in the firft ftage of the operation. The latter plan of courfe requires the inftrument to be turned as foon as its beak has arrived in the perineum ; and, confequently, the French furgeons diftinguifh this method by the name of the “‘ tour de maitre.”’? The operation of introducing a cathe- ter, or catheterifm, as it is fometimes termed, may be prac- tifed either when the patient is fitting up or lying down: the laft pofition, however, is accounted the moit favourable. When the catheter is introduced, with its concavity turned upward, and the patient is in the recumbent pofture, the thighs are to be feparated, and the legs moderately bent. The furgeon is to draw back the prepuce, and to hold the penis between the thumb and fore-finger of his left hand, which are to be applied on each fide of the corona glandis, and not at all to the under furface of the penis ; as this would prefs upon the urethra, and ob{tru& the entrance of the ca- theter. The handle of the inftrument being now held pa- rallel to the axis of the body, its beak is to be introduced into the urethra. While the penis is extended and drawn forward, as it were, over the catheter, the latter inftrument is to be gently pufhed on, until its beak has arrived as far as the arch of the pubes. At this particular moment, the handle is to be deprefled towards the patient’s thighs, and the ma- neeuvre, well managed, generally at once directs the end of the catheter, through the proftatic portion of the urethra, into the cavity of the bladder. : When the catheter is to be introduced with its concavity turned downwards, or by the ‘ tour de miaitre,”’ the beak of it is to be pafled into the urethra, and the penis drawn forwards over it, as it were, juft as in the foregoing method. As foon, however, as the end of the catheter has reached the point at which the canal begins to form a curve under the pubes, the furgeon is to make the penis and the inftru- ment URINE. ment perform a femicircular movement, by inclining them towards the oppofite groin, and thence towards the abdo- men. In the execution of this manceuvre, care is to be taken to keep the beak of the catheter ftationary, fo that it may be the centre of the movement, and fimply revolve upon itfelf. ‘The handle of the inftrument is then to be de- preffed, and the operation finifhed exa€tly in the fame man- ner as when the other mode is purfued. As Default properly obferves, the only cireumftance in which the two methods differ is, that, in one, the fame thing is performed by two movements, which is done in the other by one; fo that the operation is protracted, and ren- dered more difficult and painful. Hence, the majority of good furgeons never praétife the “tour de maitre,’”” except when their patients are either corpulent, or placed in the pofition ufually chofen for lithotomy, when the other mode of introducing the catheter would be lefs convenient. When the urethra is free from obftruétion, an experienced furgeon can generally fucceed in introducing a catheter into the bladder, without any difficulty or force. But this operation, which is fo eafy to furgeons accuftomed to it, frequently proves extremely difficult to young pra¢titioners, who, inftead of guiding the-inftrument in the courfe of the urethra, create obftacles by prefling its beak againft the parietes of this canal, or entangling the inftrument in folds of its membranous lining. When this happens, it muft be withdrawn alittle, in order to be pufhed on again, with its direétion fomewhat altered. If this fecond attempt fhould not anfwer better than the firft, and the catheter fhould be flopped in the perineum, the furgeon mutt apply his fingers to the latter part, in order to difcover towards which fide the beak of the catheter has deviated, and to guide it pro- perly as it paffes further. ’ When the catheter cannot be got through the portion of the urethra, which is contiguous to the retum, the fore- finger ought to be introduced into the bowel, for the pur- zh of fupporting the end of the inftrument, and rendering the coats of the inteftine fomewhat tenfe, by drawing them a little downward and forward. If all thefe expedients fhould fail, the catheter fhould be changed for one of larger or {maller fize, or of another curvature. A gum elaitic catheter ought alfo to be tried, without the ftilet. In no cafe, however, is it juflifiable to pufh forward the catheter with much force, left the urethra fhould be lacerated, and a falfe paflage produced. The depth to which the catheter has entered, the cefla- tion of any feeling of refiftance to the motions of the beak, when revolved upon its axis, and the iflue of the urine, are the circumftances by which the furgeon knows that the in- ftrument has paffed into the bladder. According to the experience of Default, the practice of letting out gradually only a part of the urine, after the ca- theter has been introduced, is on every account wrong and detrimental. He alfo difapproves of running into the op- pofite extreme, that is to fay, of letting the urine flow out of the bladder, through a catheter, as faft as it arrives in this receptacle: as, by the laft praétice, the bladder is con- {tantly kept in a {tate of rélaxation, its fibres cannot recover their proper tone. When alfo the bladder is continually empty, it comes into contaét with the end of the catheter ; a circumftance which has fometimes caufed confiderable irri- tation, pain, and even ulceration of that vifcus. Befides thefe inconveniences, there are other objeétions: the ca- theter becomes fooner ob{tructed with mucus, and covered with incruftations, than when it is clofed with the ftilet. The patients are likewife compelled to remain in bed, where they are either wet with their urine, or obliged to have in- ceffantly a pot for its reception. The beft praétice, there- fore, feems to be that of letting out all the urine, as foon as the catheter is introduced, and then clofing the inftrument until the bladder has become moderately diftended again. Experience proves, that fuch moderate diftention and as a tion of the mufcular fibres of the bladder, alternately kept up, have the fame good effeéts on the organ, as moderate exercife has upon other parts of the body. When an elaftic gum catheter is ufed, care muft be taken that it does not pafs unneceffarily far into the bladder ; and if it be too long, a part of it ought to be cut off. When a catheter is to be left in the urethra, it fhould al- ways be properly fixed with a narrow piece of tape, or elfe it is apt to flip out, or fometimes even to pafs too far down the paffage. Some furgeons ufe cotton thread for this pur- pofe: they firft faften it to the rings, or round the outer portion of the catheter, and then carry its two ends fome way along the dorfum of the penis, when a fort of noofe is made, and the thread carried round the part and tied. When a filver catheter is employed, a tape or narrow rib- band is pafled through each of the rings, and conveyed to the right and left fide of the pelvis, where it may be faf- tened to a circular bandage. But there are numerous me- thods of fixing, which need not be fpecified ; for, although they are of importance, the principles, which ought to be obferved in adopting them, are the main things to be under- ftood. Thefe are, firft, never to fix a catheter in fuch 2 way, that too much of the inftrument projects into the cavity of the bladder; and, fecondly, to be careful that the thread, or tape, which is applied, will not chafe and irritate the parts. Having premifed thefe general obfervations on the chief indication in cafes of retention of urine, viz. that of giving iffue to this fluid, we next follow Default, in order to con- fider the particular modifications to which the indication is liable ; a fubject which cannot be comprehended, without treating alfo of the caufes of the difeafe. 1. Of the Retention of Urine to which Perfons of advanced Age are liable.—Old men are fo frequently affi€ted with re- tention of urine, that the diforder is generally allowed to be one of the grievances to which their period of life is parti- cularly expofed. The bladder, like the reft of the body, becoming lefs irritable, is no longer duly itimulated by the prefence of the urine, and is only apprifed of the neceffity of emptying itfelf by the painful fenfation ariling from the diftention afte coats. It then contraéts; but, to ufe De- fault’s expreffion, its elongated fibres have hardly force enough to overcome the natural rea€tion oppofed to them by the canal of the urethra. There is almoft an equilibrium betwixt the power and the refiftance, and the urine could not flow out, if it were not for the affiftance derived from the powerful ation of the abdominal mufcles. Nor is the expulfion of the urine even now complete, fince the bladder no longer retains fufficient contraGtile power to-efface the whole of its cavity. Some drops of the urine, after each evacuation, are ftill left undifcharged, and already conftitute an incipient retention. ‘The quantity daily augments, and the fibres of the bladder becoming habituated to the pre- fence of the urine, it happens at length that, at each eva- cuation, not more than half the fluid contained in this organ is a€tually voided. According to the obfervations of Default, all old men are not equally hable to the complaint. It particularly at- tacks thofe who are of a phlegmatic temperament, plethoric, and of fedentary and ftudious habits. It alfo efpecially afllits thofe who, from careleffnefs or indolence, do not give themfelves time to expel the laft drops of urine; and others, URINE. - others, who make a practice of voiding their urine into a pot as they lie in bed, inftead of getting up to make the evacuation. ‘ Although,” fays Bichat, ‘the latter fa&t may not be explicable upon any phyfiological principles, its truth is fufficiently eftablifhed by clinical obfervation, and we cannot doubt its reality.”” Thus, the hiftory of the patients’ lives, their age, and kind of conftitutions, form fo many grounds for fufpeéting the nature of this {pecies of retention of urine; but the fufpicion is changed into cer- tainty, when the following circumftances are joined with the ufual fymptoms of a retention of urine in the bladder. The patients declare that’ they have never had in the urethra, or neighbouring parts, any affeétion capable of impeding the fue of the urine; that this fluid has always come away freely, and in a full ftream; but that, although the ftream was undiminifhed, the urine could not be dif- charged with the fame force, nor to the fame diftance, as formerly. At length, inftead of defcribing an arch as it flows out, it falls down perpendicularly between the legs. Towards the clofe of the evacuation, the patient alfo is no longer fenfible of the final contraétile effort of the bladder to expel the laft portion of the urine ; a particular fenfation, of which he ufed to be confcious in his younger days. When he is about to make water, he likewife finds that he has to wait fome time before the evacuation commences. As the diforder increafes, he begins to perceive that he can- not make water without confiderable efforts; that the quantity of urine, voided each time, manifeftly decreafes ; that the defire to empty the bladder becomes more and more frequent ; and, laftly, that the urine only comes away by drops, and that an incontinence has fucceeded to a re- tention. In this ftate, the patient’s fufferings are not very great. The tumour, formed by the bladder above the pubes, is al- moft indolent; and, if it be preffed upon with fome force, a certain quantity of urine is difcharged from the urethra. The retention of urine arifing from old age is feldom complete: the urine, after having filled and diftended the bladder, dribbles out of the urethra, fo that the patient voids as much of this fluid in a given time as he does in a itate of health. Nor is this fpecies of retention of urine commonly attended with very urgent fymptoms. It does not occafion, like complete retentions, a fuppreffion of the urinary fecretion in the kidneys; and as the urine efcapes through the urethra, after the bladder is diftended to a cer- tain degree, the diforder is lefs apt to produce a rupture of this organ, and dangerous extravafations of the urine. The {welling of the bladder then continues, without the patient being ferioily annoyed, except by a fenfe of weight about the pubes and perineum. Sabatier has feen patients, who have laboured under the difeafe fix months, without ever having fufpeGted its nature. The efcape of the urine has indeed fometimes deceived furgeons, and led them to con- fider the {welling to be of a totally different character. Sabatier once attended a lady, who had been recommended to refort to a diftant town, in order to try the effe& of its mineral waters in difperfing a {welling brought on during her confinement in childbed, and which proved to be no- thing more than a diftention of the bladder with urine. There are many old men who have been troubled with this fort of retention of urine a long time, and yet make no endeavour to get relief, fuppofing that the infirmity is na- tural to their period of life. The urine, however, ftagnat- ing in the bladder, undergoes a decompofition, and the coats of that organ itfelf at length become difeafed. This cafe prefents two indications, viz. to evacuate the urine, and to reftore the tone of the bladder: frequently, VoL. XXXVII. both thefe things may be accomplifhed by the fame means. Wher the retention is incipient, and the bladder is merely in an inactive ftate, its proper aétion may often be reftored by laying cold applications upon the hypogattric region, or the thighs, and by the patient going from a warm into a cool place, in order to make water. The patient muft alfo be ftri@ly careful not to defer making water immediately the leaft inclination is felt to do fo ; for, when the call of nature is not at once attended to, the diftended fibres of the bladder lofe their fenfibility more and more; the defire to make water fubfides; and the re- tention, which at firft confifted of only a few drops, very- foon becomes complete. It would then be in vain, as De- fault obferves, to have recourfe to the means which have been above recommended. No flimulus will now make the bladder contraé with fufficient force to expel the mafs of urine which it contains, and the catheter is the only thing by which this fluid can be difcharged. This artificial mode of evacuation, however, only affords momentary relief; for, as the relaxed fibres of the bladder are flow in recovering their natural tone, the patient would neceffarily fall into the fame condition again, if the employment of the catheter were not continued. Hence, it is abfolutely indifpenfable either to leave this inftrument in the bladder, or to introduce, it as often as the patient has occafion to make water. When there is a fkilful furgeon conftantly at hand, or when the patient knows how to pafs the catheter himfelf, Default thinks it better only to introduce the inftrument when the bladder is to be emptied; by which means, the incon- venience arifing from the continual prefence of a foreign body is avoided. In this cafe, either a filver catheter or an elaftic gum one may be ufed with equal advantage; but if the inftrument is to be kept in the bladder, that made of elaftic gum, and provided with a curved ftilet, is to be pre- ferred. -Whatever fort of inftrument is ufed, however, ex- perience fully proves, that in old fubjeéts, in whom the canal is as it were flaccid, a large catheter enters more eafily, and with lefs pain, than one of {maller diameter. Ass the treatment of the complaint muft be continued for a long while, and the bladder feldom perfeGily regains its proper tone in old age, the patient fhould be initructed how to introduce the catheter himfelf, and he is to pafs it when- ever he wants to make water. After a certain time, how- ever, he may try if he can empty the bladder without this inftrument. . When he finds that he can expel the urine, he fhould certify himfelf by means of the catheter, that the laft drops of this fluid are duly voided. Should they not be fo, he muft perfevere in the ufe of that inflrument. Without this precaution, fays Default, the retention will foon attain the fame pitch again, at which it was on firft commencing the treatment. In this fort of retention of urine, it has been propofed to throw into the bladder a variety of aftringent injeétions, made with the fulphate of iron, decoétion of bark, &c. Default tried them, but never found much good from their ufe. Warm, balfamic, diuretic medicines, cold bathing, and liniments containing the tin&tura lytte, have likewile been praifed; but, according to Default, thefe means frequently prove hurtful to perfons of advanced years, and are feldom ufeful. He reftrigted his own praétice to the ufe of the catheter, which, when fkilfully employed, often reftored the tone of the bladder; and when it failed, other means alfo were ineffectual. 2. Retention of Urine from Debauchery.—This cafe, as De- fault obferves, 1s very analogous to that, which depends upon old age; both of them are unconneéted with any previous oY difeafe URINE. difeafe of the bladder, and fimply originate from general languor and debility. Their commencement is indicated by the fame circumftances, their progrefs is fimilar, they ex- hibit refembling fymptoms, and they merely differ in their predifpofing caufe; the defeét of irritability being in one cafe the confequence of old age, in the other that of intem- perance. In the former inftance, the diforder depends upon a decrepitude, the natural effect of advanced age; in the other, it arifes, as it were, from a premature and unnatural old age. Nothing is more weakening to the conftitution than an immoderate indulgence in venereal pleafures. From this kind of excefs, the bladder, as well as other organs, be- comes lefs irritable, and is at length rendered totally inca- pable of expelling the whole of the urine. Hence originates a retention. It is unneceflary here to repeat the diagnoftic figns of this diforder, depending upon weaknefs of the bladder. The hiftory of the cafe can alone difcriminate it from that which is produced by old age. The prognofis, however, is not fo unfavourable as in the other example ; for, when the patient is gifted with a flrong conftitution, and he has not been too much reduced, the complaint may be radically cured. ; An elaftic gum catheter left in the bladder is here, ac- cording to Default, one of the moft powerful means of relief which can be employed. It not only has the advan- tage of affording a ready outlet for the urine, exciting the irritability of the bladder, and promoting the ation of its mufcular fibres; but its continual prefence in the urethra hinders the patient from yielding to thofe depraved habits, which are the very caufe of the diforder. The latter ufe of the catheter is the more worthy of confideration, afmuch as it is proved by experience, that moft patients, who are not reftrained by this obftacle, cannot refift the force of habit, though fully aware of the dangers. Together with the employment of the elaftic gum cathe- ter, every endeavour fhould be made to ftrengthen the patient, and obviate the general relaxation and debility of the parts. Cold bathing, fteel medicines, and cinchona, are the means which are ufually preferred. The patient ought likewife to have the advantage of a falubrious air, nutritious and eafily digeftible food, undifturbed fleep, plenty of exer- cife, regular evacuations, tranquillity of mind ; and more efpecially he ought to be diverted from what has been the caufe of his indifpofition. 3. Retention of Urine from the immoderate Ufe of Diuretics. —This is the next cafe which Default confiders. Diuretics, both cold and warm, taken in excefs, may equally occafion the diforder. He conceived that, by the former, the fibres of the bladder were hurtfully relaxed; and that, by the lat- ter, their proper fenfibility was gradually deftroyed. In this laft circumftance, the bladder being habituated to the impreffion of ftimulating diuretics, is, when thefe are dif- continued, not fufficiently irritated by the urine to contract, and it no longer obeys the calls of nature. Default has the candour, however, to acknowledge that the foregoing theory is rather founded upon reafon than experience; he even confeffes that he has met with no example eftablifhing its reality, but he thought there was fome probability in it, deduced from the well-known effeéts of {trong liquors on the {tomach. If we exclude from confideration the information refpe&- ing the nature and quantity of the drink which the patient has been taking, before the funétions of the urinary organs were difturbed, there are abfolutely no circumftances, nor fymptoms, by which this fpecies of retention of urine can be diftinguifhed from that induced by old age and intem- perance; nor is the local treatment to be different from what has been advifed for the above cafes. Befides the ufe of the elaftic gum catheter, the furgeon muft recommend cold bathing ; the throwing of ice-cold water on the abdo- men, perineum, and thighs; the application to the fame parts of compreffles wet with vinegar; dry fri€tion on the hypogattric region ; or ftimulating liniments, containing am- monia or the tinftura lytte. Should all thefe means prove ineffe@tual, a blifter may be laid over the facrum and lower part of the loins; and it may either be kept open, or healed and then applied again, as Default particularly advifed. 4. Retention of Urine from an Affedtion of the Nerves of the Bladder.—Thefe nerves may be afteéted either at their origin, or in the courfe of their diftribution. Injuries of the brain are feldom followed by a retention of urine; but the com- plaint often. accompanies thofe of the fpinal marrow. A concuffion of this medullary fubftance, from blows or falls upon the vertebral column ; the injury which it fuffers in fra&tures and diflocations of the vertebrz, or from a violent ftrain of the back ; its compreffion by blood, purulent mat- ter, or other fluid effufed in the vertebral canal; and the effeéts which a caries of the fpine has upon it, may all ope- rate as fo many caufes of a retention of urine. This form of the complaint may alfo be the confequence of tumours fituated in the track of the nerves which are diftributed to the bladder. It is not neceffary that all the nerves, which ramify on this organ, be affe€ted before the complaint is oc- cafioned ; for the compreffion of fome of the nervous fila- ments is adequate to weaken the aétion of the bladder, and render it incapable of overcoming the natural refiftance to the difcharge of the urine. When a retention of urine is caufed by an affeCtion of the {pinal marrow, an infenfibility and weaknefs of the lower extremities are almoft always concomitant fymptoms. The patients fuffer very little ; moft of them are ignorant of their condition, and do not complain of any thing being wrong in the funGtions of the urinary organs. The furgeon, aware that a retention of urine is a very common occurrence in thefe cafes, fhould examine whether any interruption of the evacuation prevails, either by feeling the ftate of the abdomen juit above the pubes, or by introducing a catheter. As this {pecies of retention of urine is only fymptomatic, and not dependent upon any previous defeé& in the bladder, it is not in itfelf alarming ; but, with reference to the caufe that has produced it, it is exceedingly dangerous. Affec- tions of the f{pine, complicated with injury of the fpinal marrow, are frequently fatal. By means of a catheter, it is always eafy to relieve the inconveniences arifing from the bladder not contracting, and thus fulfil the only indication which this fort of retention of urine prefents, viz. the eva- cuation of the urine. But thefe means are merely palliative, and the bladder will not recover its contraétile power until the caufes of its weaknefs are removed. © The laft then is the main objec in the treatment, which muft vary according to the nature and extent of the diforder. The confideration in detail of all the means which may be requifite for the relief of the different accidents and difeafes of the {pine, would form too long a fubje& to be brought into the prefent article. (See Fractures and LuxaTions of the Vertebra, and SPINE, Difeafe and Curvature of.) We {hall merely obferve here, that Default had a high opinion of the utility of cupping in fhocks and concuffions of the {pinal marrow. This was done on the part of the back which had been ftruck, or in its vicinity ; and the fearifica- tions were multiplied according to the ftrength of the patient. The plan was fometimes repeated the fame day, and for feveral days in fucceflion; and when the patient could not bear the lofs of more blood, dry cupping was employed. URINE. employed. In caries of the {pine, Default alfo gave a pre- ference to the ufe of the moxa, inftead of cauttic. 5- Retention of Urine brought on by Diftention of the Fibres of the Bladder.—As Default obferves, this {pecies of reten- tion of urine may be called /écondary, fince it is invariably preceded and produced by a primary retention. It follows of courfe, that its remote caufes confift of all thofe circum- {tances which may bring on the other forms of the com- plaint ; but its immediate caufe altogether depends upon the weaknefs and lofs of irritability in the bladder, occafioned by the immoderate diftention of its coats. Thus, we fre- quently find the diforder occur in perfons who, from bafh- fulnefs, indolence, or intenfe occupation, negle& to make water when they firft have the defire, or who cannot for a time empty the bladder, in confequence of fome temporary obftru€tion in the urethra. Although the impediment to the efcape of the urine no longer exifts, and the bladder is in other refpeéts found, yet as this organ has been weakened by the exceffive diftention of its coats, it cannot contract with fufficient force to obliterate the whole of its cavity, and expel the laft portion of urine. The indication in this cafe is very fimple, for there is not here, as in other retentions of urine, another difeafe to be remedied. The catheter, when left in the bladder, generally proves adequate to the reftoration of the tone and contractile force of this vifcus. Default alfo conceived, that the obje& might be promoted by the exhibition of warm diuretics, and the employment of tonic injeCtions, and other ftrengthening means. Before the catheter is difcontinued, the furgeon ought to be fure that the bladder can completely expel the whole of the urine, without the aid of this inftrument; for it is impoffible to fpecify any particular period when the bladder will regain its power of contraéting. The time will vary according to the duration of the difvafes and the age and conttituticn of the patient. In fome perfons, a eure is effe€ted in a few days; in fome, not till after feve- ral weeks or months; and in others, the contraétile fun@tion of the bladder is fo irremediably deftroyed, that the catheter is neceffary during the reft of the patient’s life. 6. Retention of Urine from Inflammation of the Bladder.— The majority of authors who have written on the difeafes of the urinary organs, fays Default, have afcribed different effets to an inflammation of the neck of the bladder, and to the fame affection of the body of this vifcus. They have in fa&t regarded the firft occurrence as one of the caufes of retention, and the laft as a caufe of incontinence of urine. It has been imagined, that an inflamed highly fenfible blad- der, inftead of being weakened in this ftate, acquired an in- creafe of energy, and contraéted with greater than ordinary vigour, But, even if we had not been undeceived upon this fubjeee by the obfervation of retentions of urine, which could be referred to nothing but inflammation of the bladder, ftill analogy would have protected us from error. We never find an inflamed mufcle contra@, and if we oblige it to aé&, its aétion is always weak. Default alfo conttantly noticed, in opening the bodies of perfons who had died of inflammation in the abdomen, that the inflamed inteflines were diftended, and not diminifhed and contratted. Plethoric bilious fubje&s, with full habits, are particularly liable to this fpecies of retention. It is alfo frequently oc- cafioned by the abufe of wine or other fpirituous liquors, heating diuretic drinks, or the external or internal employ- ment of cantharides. This form of the complaint makes its attack fuddenly, and may be recognized; rft, By the fre- quent defire to make water. 2dly, By the acute pain in the region of the bladder; pain which is increafed by the efforts to make water, and which fhoots up to the loins and along the urethra to the end of the glans. 3dly, By the frequency and hardnefs of the pulfe, and other fymptoms of fever. 4thly, By the aggravation of the pain, when the hy pogattric region is handled or preffed upon. sthly, By the eafy paf- fage of a catheter into the bladder. 6thly, By the acute pain which is excited by the inftrument touching the infide of the bladder. 7thly, By the red inflammatory colour of the urine. 8thly, By the abfence of all thofe fymptoms which peculiarly charaterize other cafes of retention. This form of the diforder demands the moft prompt affift- ance. The urine, the prefence of which is a new fource of irritation, fhould be immediately drawn off. The catheter fhould be introduced with great gentlenefs, and merely far enough to let its eye get beyond the neck of the bladder, as its beak might otherwife ferioufly irritate this vifeus, the lining of which is now extremely fenfible. After the urine had been difcharged, Default ufed to throw in mucilaginous injeCtions ; but of thefe we entertain no opinion. ‘The inflammation of the bladder is to be re- fitted by the moft powerful antiphlogiftic remedies, fuch as repeated venefe€tion, the application of leeches to the peri- neum and hypogaltric region, the warm bath, glyfters, fo- mentations on the abdomen, and cold mucilaginous beverages. When, notwithitanding thefe means, the inflammation in- creafes, extends to the other abdominal vifcera attended with hiccough and vomiting, and continues beyond the fixth day, the patient’s life is in extreme danger, and death almoft in- evitable. 7. Retention of Urine from Hernia of the Bladder.—The fecond volume of the Memoirs of the French Academy of Surgery prefents us with numerous inftances of this {pecies of retention of urine. We there learn that it is a fymptom almoft conftantly attending hernia of the bladder. But the weaknefs of this organ is not always the fole caufe ; for the urethra itfelf alfo makes greater refiftance than natural to the iffue of the urine. The neck and adjoining part of the bladder are drawn out of their right pofition by the portion of this organ which protrudes. Hence, the beginning of the urethra alfo undergoes an elongation, and a change of its curvature, by being prefled towards the fymphyfis of the pubes, and its diameter is likewife diminifhed. The urine may alfo be detained in the pouch compofing the hernia, in confequence of the communication between this and the other part of the bladder being too diminutive. This ftate, indeed, is very common, and it accounts for thofe partial retentions of urine which take place only in the protruded portion of the bladder, and not in that of the receptacle which lies within the pelvis. Sometimes, however, {uch retentions depend upon the preffure of the abdominal mufcles being removed, and upon weaknefs of the protruded part of the bladder. At the fame time, it rarely happens that the reft of this or- gan, fituated in the pelvis, can itfelf expel the laft drops of the urine which it contains. Its complete contraé¢tion can- not be accomplifhed without great difficulty ; and, in the end, it almoit invariably follows that the urine is retained in both the protruded and unprotruded portions of the bladder. When a retention, arifing from a hernia of the bladder, is complete, and occurs in both parts of this organ, there is, in addition to the fymptoms common to other retentions pro- duced by weaknefs of the bladder, a more or lefs confider- able {welling in the fituation of the hernia. The tumour is unattended with any change of the colour of the {kin ; is not very tender on being handled ; and it prefents a feeling of flu&tuation, fometimes obfcure, fometimes very difliné. When the {welling is preffed upon, the defire to make water is excited or increafed, and occafionally a few drops efcape 3-Y 2 trom URINE. the urethra. As foon as the urine has been drawn off aa acatheter, the part of the bladder which is out of the pelvis {ubfides, on the patient being put into a pofture in which {uch portion of the bladder is higher than the reft of this organ within the pelvis. The hernial tumour feems then to be compofed of thick membranes, which are foftifh, move- cable, but yet incapable of being reduced. It is alfo fome time in enlarging again; and, after its re-appearance, it refents the fame fymptoms as before. When the retention of urine is confined to the hernia, and the opening, by which this communicates with the pelvis, is free, the tumour is indolent, increafing when the patient empties the other part of the bladder, and fubfiding after the evacuation. As foon, however, as this is finifhed, the patient feels a defire to make water again; fo that there is a {ort of interval in the completion of this funétion. But, fhould the communication with the pelvis not be open enough, the {welling would be incompreflible, or it could not be made to fubfide without a good deal of force. Were it ftrangulated, the circumftance would be indicated by the tenfion of the fwelling, pain, heat, fever, and hiccough, fucceeded by vomiting. , ! The firft indication is to difcharge the urine with a cathe- ter, or by-comprefling the hernial tumour ; but thefe expe- dients are only palliative. When the difeafe is recent, and the protruded portion of the bladder {mall and reducible, the part ought to be returned and kept up with a trufs, by which means a perfe@ cure may be effe€ted. When the part is adherent and irreducible, the {welling ought to be emptied, and a fufpenfory bandage made to fit and fupport it. If the hernia were in this way gradually got into the ab- dominal ring again, a trufs would afterwards be requifite. Propofals have been made to endeavour to excite the adhetive inflammation in the cavity of the protruded part of the bladder, by methodical comprefiion, gradually increafed, and obliterate the pouch in which the urine is lodged out of the pelvis. Although Default thought the attempt cautioufly made juftifiable, he deemed the refult very uncertain. Were the retention of urine accompanied with a ftran- -gulated flate of the protruded bladder, and the contents could not be prefled into the other part of this organ, a punéture of the {welling with a trocar might be proper. But if there were an enterocele alfo prefent, as often happens, this operation would be attended with rifle of injuring: the inteftine. Hence Default preferred opening the tumour by a careful incifion ; and he even approved of cutting away the © protruded cyft, if the communication betwixt it and the reft of the bladder were obliterated. ; ; 8. Retention of Urine caufed by Difplacement of the Vifcera of the Pelvis —Thele difplacements, which may occafion a retention of urine, are a retroverfion, prolapfus, or inverfion of the uterus, and a prolapfus of the vagina and re€tum. When the intimate connexions of the bladder with the uterus and vagina in the female, and with the reétum in the male, © are confidered, it is obvious that thefe latter parts cannot be difplaced without drawing along with them the bladder ; and that in this ftate, whatever may be its contraétile power, it cannot contra& completely upon itfelf, fo as to expel the whole of the urine. To this deficient ation of the bladder is neceffarily joined an increafe of refiftance on the part of the urethra. The beginning of this canal, being drawn by the bladder, changes its accuftomed dire€tion, and fuch alteration cannot be made without the fides of the tube being preffed together, and thus a more or lefs confiderable obftacle formed to the paffage of the urine. It is in this manner that, in the retroverted uterus, the os tince, being carried up above the pubes, drags along with it the pofterior. 10 fide of the bladder, which, in its turn, draws after it the commencement of the urethra, pulls it upwards, and in- creafes the curvature which this canal defcribes under the fymphy fis of the pubes, again{t which it is forcibly applied. In a prolapfus or inverfion of the womb, vagina, and reGtum, the back part of the bladder, inftead of being drawn upward and forward, is pulled downward and back- ward, and the curvature of the urethra is totally altered. Below the pubes, the bladder forms a convexity, and not a large concavity, as in the inftance of a retroverfion of the womb. This pofition of the parts fhould always be recol- leéted in pafling the catheter, as it fhews what curvature and direétion fhould be given to the inftrument, in order to faci- litate its introduction. The retention of urine, arifing from difplacement of the vifcera, may always be eafily diftinguifhed from the other {pe- cies of this diforder. The fymptoms, however, by which it is charaCterized, have been detailed in other articles, to which the reader is referred. See Protapsus Ani, Pro- Lapsus Uteri, Vacina, UrErus, Retroverfion of, Sc. Thefe kinds of retention of urine are not frequently fol- lowed by any very bad confequences. It is generally fuffi- cient to rectify the wrong pofition of the bladder, and com- mencement of the urethra, by the reduction of the difplaced vifcera, and a cure is then a matter of courfe, unlefs the exceflive diftention of the fibres of the bladder has in- duced confiderable weaknefs in the parietes of this organ. When this is the cafe, we muft have recourfe to the particu- lar means which have been recommended for this caufe of the difeafe. The reduétion of the vifcera ufually conftitutes the firft indication. For an account of the manner of doing this, we mutt refer to the above-mentioned articles. When the reduétion can- not be immediately accomplifhed, or when it fails in dire&tly relieving the retention of urine and fymptoms depending upon it, the catheter is to be ufed. Frequently, when the urine has been drawn off, the redu€tion becomes more eafy ; but fometimes the altered diretion of the urethra makes the introduction of the catheter difficult; nor can fuccefs be obtained, except by accommodating this inftru- ment to the faulty ftate of the canal. For example, in the retroverfion of the uterus, a catheter very much curved an- f{wers better than a ftraight one, like that ordinarily ufed for females. A curved catheter, fays Default, alfo anfwers in cafes of prolapfus uteri, &c.; but with this difference, that, in a re- troverfion, the concavity of the inftrument muit be turned towards the pubes, but, in the prolapfus, towards the anus. Sometimes the catheter will not pafs unlefs it be ro- tated, as it were; and fometimes, when a filver catheter cannot in any manner be introduced, one made of elaitic gum, which adapts itfelf better to the curvature of the canal, will readily enter. ‘ Were every effort to reduce the vifcera and get a cathe- ter into the bladder to fail, at the fame time that a rifle of this vifcus burfting prevailed, the operation of puncturing it would become indifpenfably neceflary. See PARACEN- resis of the Bladder. 9. Retention of Urine from the Preffure of the Uterus, or Vagina, on the Neck of the Bladder.—It is alleged, that in pregnancy there are two periods when women are particu- larly liable to a retention of urine ; viz. during the fourth month, and at the time of labour. In order to have an ex- a&t idea of this cafe, we muft remember that,-in the firft months after conception, the uterus continues to lie concealed in the pelvis ; that 1t does not afcend above this cavity till the fifth month, or later; that, at this period, as its fize and weight URINE. weight have progreflively increafed, it defcends lower into the vagina, and compreffes, in the manner of a wedge, the rectum, which is fituated behind; while it prefles the neck of the bladder and urethra, which are in front, again{t the fymphyfis of the pubes, fometimes in fuch a degree, as entirely to clofe them, and ftop the paflase of the urine through them. ¥ _ From this account of the progrefs of the gravid uterus, the mechanifm of this f{pecies of retention of urine appears fofimple, and, as it were, natural, that one would expeé to find the diforder frequently happen in the fourth and fifth months of pregnancy; yet, out of a great number of women who had been delivered in the Hétel-Dieu at Paris, Default did not meet with a fingle one who had been thus affeted. He does not, however, prefume to affert, that the complaint may not occur ; but he believes, that the manner in which the uterus enlarges muft almoft always proteé the neck of the bladder and urethra from compreffion. In faét, fays he, it is well known that the increafe of this vifcus begins at its fundus, and then extends to its body, while the cervix retains. its fize and length until the fixth month, when the uterus, being too large to be contained in the lefler pelvis, mounts up above the fuperior aperture. As this vifcus is larger at its fundus-than its cervix, while fituated within the cavity of the pelvis, it muft rather com- prefs the ureters and body of the bladder than the neck of this organ and the urethra, above which the moft bulky por- tion of the uterus is always fituated, unlefs. there be a com- lete prolapfus of this organ. Although moft writers have aber of a retention of urine as being often occafioned by the Jodgment of the head of the fcetus, yet, according to Default, not a fingle inftance occurred at the Hétel-Dieu, during eight sor ten years, in which {pace of time fifteen or fixteen hundred patients were there delivered. ‘Therefore, without denying altogether the poffibility of the cafe, he conceives himfelf juitified in concluding that it is much lefs common than is ufually fuppofed. Itis true, fays he, women often complain of a defire to make water when the head of the child continues ‘a long while in the paflage ; and fuch defire may have led fome carelefs pra€titioners to imagine that it proceeded from a full {tate of the bladder, who ought to have known that any irritation about this organ would caufe the fame kind of fen- ation. When the pofition of the head of the child, at the time of its being wedged in the leffer pelvis, is confidered with re- gard to the bladder, it appears that the body of this laft organ and the ureters are more expofed to compreflion than the urethra and neck of the bladder. Default even thought it probable, that the urine, far from accumulating in this re- ceptacle, could not defcend into it, and was confined in the “ureters. This conjecture feemed to Default the more likely, inaf- much as a retention of urine is more frequently a confequence of, than an attendant upon, the lodgment of the child’s head in the paflage. The complaint then comes not from any obftruction of the meatus urinarius, but from weaknefs of the bladder, which has fuffered contufion, which fome- times caufes floughs between the vagina and bladder, and produces urinary fiftule, always difficult of cure, and often incurable. Were, however, a retention of urine to happen at one of the above periods of pregnancy, the diagnofis of it would be obvious enough. The ftate and pofition of the uterus, or the fituation of the head of the infant, could eafily be a{certained by manual examination ; and the patient would be able to fay whether the paflage of urine had been previoufly free, and whether fhe knows of any other caufe that can im- pede the evacuation. Frequent inclination to make water, and none of the urine at the fame time coming away, are, in this cafe, very equivocal figns of a retention ; Er, as Default remarks, any irritation of the bladder will caufe the firft fymptom, and the laft may depend upon compreffion of the ureters. If the complaint were caufed, as is fuppofed, by the pref- fure of the uterus upon the neck of the bladder and the urethra, about the fourth month of pregnancy, we could not expect the diforder to be permanently relieved before the enlarged uterus had rifen out of the pelvis. Until this had happened, the practitioner could only endeavour to facilitate the evacuation of urine by prefling the uterus away from the neck of the bladder and urethra, by introducing his finger fufficiently high behind, and a little on one fide of the fym- phyfis pubis. Should this method fail, it would be neceflary to have recourfe to the catheter. Were the retention of urine produced by: the child’s head. delivery fhould be expedited by changing the pofition of the head with the forceps, &c. If the labour fhould ftill feem likely to be lingering, the urine ought to be drawn off with a catheter. Befides the diftention of the uterus and vagina in pregnancy and parturition, there are other conditions of thefe organs which may give rife to a retention of urine. This diforder fometimes arifes from the prefence of various kinds of tu- mours, or colleétions of blood or water in the uterus, or ovary; and it occafionally proceeds from diftention of the vagina with the menftrual difcharge, the ufe of peflaries, &e. A\s this laft kind of retention of urine is only fymptomatic, the prognofis muft be more or lefs unfavourable, according as the difeafe, of which it is a fymptom, may happen to be more or lefs ferious. It is of itfelf not very dangerous, be- caufe, by drawing off the urine with a catheter, it is always practicable to prevent or remove the inconveniences which it caufes. But even the ufe of the catheter is not always ne- ceflary, efpecially when the caufe of-the retention of urine is eafily removable, and the tone of the bladder is not im- paired. This is generally the cafe when the complaint is in- duced by a peflary, or colleétion of blood in the vagina. In other examples, in which the caufe of the difficulty of ‘making water cannot be immediately obviated, as in fevera! cafes of tumours, the catheter muft be employed. In {cirrhous and cancerous difeafes of the uterus, alfo, this in- {trument is the only means of relieving the retention of urine, as nature and art can do little for the removal of the caufe. It ought to be known, however, that, as thefe laft difeafes increafe, an incontinence often fucceeds to a retention of urine, in confequence of ulceration taking place between the upper furface of the vagina and the lower part of the bladder. 10. Retention of Urine from Preffure of the Ref&um upon the Neck of the Bladder.—Ab\{cefles in the vicinity of this in- teftine, hemorrhoidal tumours, alvine concretions, and the {cirrho-contraéted ftate of the gut, &c. may bring on a re- tention of urine by making preflure on the neck of the bladder. The irritation, allo, exifting in thefe cafes, may tend to produce the complaint by exciting a {pafmodic con- tra€tion of the urethra. Here the relief of the obftruc- tion of the urine is to be effe&ted by removing or curing the other diforder, which operates as its caufe. If this cannot be immediately accomplifhed, the catheter muft be ufed, though, in feveral inftances, it will be better to avoid even the irritation of the catheter, and try the effects of bleed- ing, URINE. ing, the warm bath, and opium, which will frequently enable the patient, to make water. The laft means, how- ever, will not fuffice, when the caufe of the retention is likely to continue any length of time. t1. Retention of Urine from Tumours fituated in the Bladder.—Fungous difeafes, carcinoma, and hydatids, fays Default, are the principal tumours which may caufe a reten- tion of urine. Of all the difeafes of the bladder, there are none which are fo affli&ting as fungous tumours; fortu- nately, they are not frequent. Default, however, had feen feveral cafes in the dead fubje&t. By the introdution of a found into the bladder, the prefence of a fungus might be fufpected ; fomething unufual would be felt; but the cafe could hardly be difcriminated from an induration of the coats of the bladder, or other forts of tumours of this vif- cus. The caufes and mode of curing the affliftion are equally unknown. In one inftance, however, in which the fungous excrefcence had a narrow bafe, Default is’ faid to have made an incifion into the bladder, and extra&ted the {welling with a pair of forceps. No hemorrhage, nor any other bad fymptoms, enfued. In carcinomatous difeafes of the bladder, the ufe of the catheter is neceflary, at leaft, until, by the progrefs of the diforder, ulcerated communications are formed betwixt that organ and the rectum, or uterus and vagina. 12. Retention of Urine from foreign Bodies in the Bladder. —When the urine is ob{truéted by a calculus at the neck of the bladder, the patient, by altering his pofition, fre- quently changes the fituation of the ftone, and he is imme- diately able to make water again. This expedient, how- ever, will only procure relief while the calculus is loofe in the cavity of the bladder ; for, after it has become fixed in the commencement of the urethra, it muft either be pufhed back with a catheter, or extraéted by a kind of operation refembling the apparatus minor. See LirHoromy. Default never met with any cafe in which the bladder con- tained worms ; but he was aware of there being many fuch inftances on record. Tulpius, Schenckius, Bianchi, &c. have been eye-witnefles of the occurrence. Thefe worms are not all alike; fome refemble fcarabei, fome are like afcarides, and others have the appearance of lumbrici. Ruyfch and Hagendorn affirm, that they have feen fome which had wings, and were able to fly as foon as they were voided. An interefting paper on this fubjeét was publifhed about fix years ago by Mr. Lawrence, who met with an example in which an undefcribed fpecies of worms was abundantly voided from the bladder. ‘* The origin of thofe animals (fays Mr. Lawrence), which inhabit the internal parts of living bodies, is involved in much obfcurity. Al- though the inteftinal worms appear manifeftly, from their peculiar form, confiftence, and organs, to be particularly defigned for thofe fituations in which they are found ; al- though they have generative organs, and no fimilar animals are known to exift out of living bodies; yet, it has been generally conceived, that the genus from which they {pring enter from the mouth. The produétion of hydatids in va- rious parts of the body cannot, however, be accounted for on fuch a fuppofition ; neither can we very eafily conceive that ova fhould enter from without into the urinary organs.” The following facts, alfo ftated by Goeze, (as Mr. Lawrence obferves,) entirely overturn this opinion. Pro- feflor Brendel, of Gottingen; found afcarides in the reétum of an immature embryo. Blumenbach difcovered teenie in the inteitinal canal of young dogs a few hours after birth, &c. Verfuch einer naturgefchichte der Eingeweidewtirmer, Lies jo 7 The cafe which Mr. Lawrence has recorded is interetting, as it exhibits an unqueftionable inftance of peculiar and undefcribed worms voided from the urinary paflages. This gentleman fays, that he knew of no other cafe in which a diftin& fpecies of worm has been clearly proved to come from the bladder. Moft of the cafes publifhed were in- ftances of common inteftinal round worms, which fometimes perforate the inteftines, and are difcharged by abfceffes, or get into the bladder, after the formation of adhefions be- twixt this organ and the bowels. In other inftances, coagula of blood, mucus, or portions of the mucous coat of the bladder, have been miftaken for worms; and, as Mr. Lawrence further obferves, fome of the defcriptions can apply only to larve of infe&ts. Two fpecimens of this laft fort he has feen himfelf, which were fent from the country as worms voided from the bladder. See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 382, &c. In whatever way thefe animals get into the bladder, a re~- tention of urine may be produced, either when they are numerous, or when there is only one prefent, but large enough to obftrué the vefical orifice of the urethra. . In the very curious example related by Mr. Lawrence, the paflage of the urine was obftruted, and the ufe of the catheter con- tinually neceflary. The oil of turpentine was given in- ternally, with fome appearance of benefit at firft; but it afterwards brought on febrile fymptoms and eryfipelas, and its exhibition could not be kept up. It was then inje@ed into the bladder, with an equal part of water. This rather accelerated the difcharge of the worms; but they came away at times whether the injeCtion was ufed or not, and as this means produced the eryfipelatous indifpofition again, it was left off. Olive oil was afterwards injeéted ; the irrita- tion after it was lefs, and the fits of pain about the bladder lefs violent. It was calculated, that at the time when Mr. Lawrence was writing the particulars of the cafe, from 800 to 1000 worms had been difcharged. For a detail of the fymptoms, and a particular defcription of the worms them- felves, we muft refer to the above-mentioned publication. According to the obfervations of Default, a retention of urine is frequently occafioned by coagula of blood in the bladder. The blood is faid fometimes to come from the kidneys, fometimes from the bladder, and fometimes it even regurgitates from the urethra. While fluid, it may be ex- pelled with the urine ; but when coagulated, it is no longer capable of being difcharged. It is the blood which gets into the bladder after wounds, or the operation of lithotemy, that is moit difpofed to coagulate. The diagnofis of a retention of urine, produced by coagu- la of blood, is not very clear. The iffue of blood with the urine might raife fufpicions ; but there could be no cer- tainty of the nature of the cafe, until the catheter were in- troduced. If the clots of blood fhould be too large to pafs through this inftrument, lukewarm water fhould be inje&ted into the bladder, for the purpofe of loofening and diffolving the coagula. We fhall merely notice one more example of retention of urine, arifing from the prefence of extraneous fubftances in the bladder ; we mean that in which a piece of bougie has flipped into this vifcus. It has frequently happened, that entire bougies, which were not properly fixed, have glided into the bladder. As Default obferves, the urethra appears to poffefs a kind of antiperiftaltic ation, by which it tends to draw into the bladder whatever fubftances it includes ; for, fays he, it is conftantly noticed, that when thefe fub- ftances are once within the urethra, if they be not expelled by the current of urine, they always advance towards the bladder. URINE. bladder. This circumftance cannot be accounted. for by their weight, and it muft be afcribed to a contractile power of the urethra. ; The bougies formerly made, and particularly metallic ones, and catheters made of fpiral wire fprings, frequently broke, and thus pieces of thefe inftruments were often left in the bladder. Such an accident, however, is much lefs common now, that the fabrication of all forts of bougies and catheters has been brought to a high itate of per- fe&tion. . The infinuation of thefe foreign bodies into the bladder is a ferious occurrence both for the patient and furgeon. The former cannot avoid the confequence, which will fooner or later originate from the extraneous fubftance, except by _fubmitting to a dangerous and painful operation : the latter will be accufed of being the author of all the evil, and will ‘find it difficult to exculpate himfelf. In order to do away the neceflity of cutting into the bladder, in fuch cafes, Default propofed the ufe of {mall {pring forceps, pafled into the bladder through a cannula; but although the in- ftrument feemed to anfwer on the dead fubje&, there have hitherto been no inftances of its doing fo on living patients. . We next proceed to notice the retentions of urine arifing from affections of the urethra. 13. Retention of Urine from Inflammation of the Urethra.— It is eafy, fays Default, to conceive how inflammation of the urethra may occafion a retention of urine. In order to underftand the mechanifm of the cafe, we need only re- member the axiom in chirurgical pathology, that inflam- mation never exifts without a {welling of the inflamed part, and that every tumefa¢tion of the lining of the urethra mutt neceflarily diminifh its diameter. Inflammation of the urethra is moft commonly produced by the external appli- cation, or internal exhibition, of cantharides, gonorrhcea, the unfkilful ufe of the catheter, the employment of ftimulating injeGtions, bougies, &c., together with the leffening of the canal by the effect of {welling ; there can alfo be no doubt, that, in many of thefe inftances, a {pafmodic contraGtion of the urethra and neck of the bladder alfo contributes to the retention of urine. Default, indeed, entertained the opinion that inflamed parts, endued with a contractile power, were not difpofed to contra in that ftate ; yet, it fhould be re- colle@ed, that even admitting this to be true, it feldom happens that the whole length of the urethra is inflamed, and that the reft may be affe&ted with a {pafmodic aétion. The effeG&s of opium, tobacco, and other antifpafmodics, often evinced in immediately relieving thefe kinds of reten- tion of urine, feem indeed to leave no doubt refpeéting the exiftence of a fort of {pafm in the paflage. Whatever may be the caufe of the inflammation of the urethra, the diagnofis is free from all obfcurity. Befides the general fymptoms of inflammation, the patient complains of a fcalding fenfation in the paflage; he experiences a great deal of {marting, which is fometimes infupportable when he makes water ; tke penis becomes in fome degree fwollen, and more ten- der ; and a very little preflure on the urethra gives acute pain. In the mean time, the ftream of urine becomes gra- dually but yet quickly leffened ; and at length this fluid can only be voided in a very narrow current, or only by drops, and often not at all. The diforder is to be treated on antiphlogiftic principles. Diluting, cooling, mucilaginous beverages, venefection, leeches to the perineum, the warm-bath, opium, foment- ations to this part and the penis, are the means which ufually fuffice to give relief. When inflammation exifts in the urethra, it is always defirable to avoid, as long as pof- fible, the employment of catheters, which create irritation, and of courfe increafe the caufe of the retention, It is par- ticularly in cafes of this defcription, and in the retentions of urine arifing from ftritures, that Mr. Earle has fuggefted the ufe of tobacco in the form of clyfters ; a method de- ferving adoption when the means above enumerated are una- vailing, and preferable to the ufe of the catheter, becaufe not occafioning any increafe of irritation and inflammation in the urethra. See Medical and Chir. Tranf. vol. vi. p- 82, &c. To this propofal we fhall advert again, in confidering the retention originating from ftrictures.. When, in confe- quence of inflammation, however, an abfcefs forms in the vicinity of the urethra, and burfts into this canal, the ufe of an elaftic gum catheter is proper, in order to prevent the urine from infinuating itfelf into the cavity which contains the pus, 14. Retention of Urine from Laceration of the Urethra.— The urethra is fometimes ruptured by violent contufions on the perineum, and the rough and unfkilful ufe of metallic catheters. The confequences ufually are, an extravafation of urine in the cellular membrane of the fcrotum and penis ; a confiderable dark-coloured {welling of thefe parts, often followed by floughing ; and retention of urine. Refpe@ting fuch cafes, we fhall merely obferve, that the treatment ought to confift in introducing an elaftic gum catheter into the bladder, and keeping it there until the breach of con- tinuity in the canal is repaired. At the fame time, the evils threatened from the effufion of the urine are to be leflened as much as poflible, by making two or three free incifions in a depending part of the {welling produced by the extra- vafation. The tumour fhould alfo be well fomented, and antiphlogiftic means adopted. 15. Retention of Urine arifing from Tumours jfituated in the Perineum, in the Scrotum, or on the Penis.—No confiderable tumour can form in any of thefe fituations, without making more or lefs preffure on the canal of the urethra. Whether fuch {welling proceed from a fimple tumefa@tion of the parts, or from a colleétion of any fluid in a cavity, or from the lodgment of an extraneous body, the effeét will be the fame. A retention of urine has been obferved to arife from phleg- monous {wellings and abfcefles, extravafations of blood, and urinary tumours and calculi formed in the perineum and fcrotum. The diforder has alfo been known to be caufed by a farcocele, hydrocele, a very large fcrotal hernia, an aneurifm of the corpus cavernofum, a ligature on the penis, &c. We fhall not repeat what has been already faid refpeGing the fymptoms of a retention of urine originating from affec- tions of the retum. ‘The impediment to the evacuation will be known to depend upon one of the caufes above {pecified, if the patient could make water quite freely before fuch caufe exifted, and no other reafon can be affigned for the obftacle. Of courfe, the radical cure of all fuch reten- tions of urine can only be accomplifhed by curing the other difeafe, on which they are dependent. However, until the caufe can be obviated, the urine muft be drawn off with a catheter. Elaftic gum catheters ufually enter more eafily than thofe made of filver, as, by their flexibility, they ac- commodate themfelves better to any deviation of the urethra from its ordinary direétion. Default particularly recom- mended a catheter of middling fize to be fele&ted, and in- troduced armed with its ftilet, until it ftopped in the canal ; when he advifed withdrawing the ftilet for about an inch, in order to leave the beak of the inftrument quite free, fo that it might follow the curve of the urethra. Then the tube and the itilet are to be puthed further into the canal; care being taken, URINE. - taken, however, to keep the ftilet drawn back fome diftance from the extremity of the inftrument. By thefe precau- tions, fays Default, the catheter may always be got into the bladder. Should the introdu@ion prove neither painful nor difficult, Default thought it would be better not to annoy the patient by making him continually wear the inftrument, unlefs its prefence in the urethra were effentially neceflary to deftroy the caufe of the retention of urine, as it would be in the inftance of urinary {wellings. 16. Retention of Urine from Difeafe of the Proflate Gland.—As Default remarks, it would be fuperfluous to endeavour to prove by examples the reality of this {pecies of retention of urine. If the fa& were not eftablifhed by a multitude of obfervations, we fhould be convinced, by advert- ing to the relation of the proftate gland with the commence- ment of the urethra, and underftanding how this canal is only compofed of a delicate membrane, that the gland could not be affeéted with {welling, without leffening in fome de- gree the tube which it embraces. An enlargement of the proftate gland may depend on in- flammation, abfceffes, calculi formed within its fubftance, a varicofe {welling of the veffels which furround it, or on a {cirrhous tumour and induration of it. When a retention of urine arifes from inflammation of the proftate, it makes its attack very fuddenly, and rapidly increafes. The patient at firft complains of a fenfe of heat and weight about the perineum, and very foon afterwards of acontiaual throbbing pain about the neck of the bladder. This pain is feverely increafed, when the patient goes to ftool; and he is affifted with tenefmus, and frequent in- clination to make water. He feels alfo as if a large mafs of excrement filled the extremity of the rectum, and were ready to come out. When the finger is introduced into the bowel, the projeétion of the proftate can be felt at its anterior part. J. L. Petit adds another fign of a fwell- ing of this gland: “ Si Von eft curieux de voir les malades aller 2 la felle, lorfqu’ils rendent des excrémens durs, on trouvera que la partie intérieure du boudin formé par les matiéres fécales, fera creufée, comme ayant paffe fur la faillie, que forme la proftate dans la partie antérieure du. reGum.’? Bichat conceives, however, that fuch an appear- ance may be obliterated in the paflage of the excrement through the {phin&ter ani. When the patient attempts to make water, it is along while before the firft drops come out ; and if he fhould now increafe the efforts, he makes an additional impediment, by pufhing the {wollen proftate more and more againft the neck of the bladder, the aperture of which becomes ftopped up, and no water can be voided, until the efforts are leflened. The ftream of urine is {maller, and the pain arifing from its expulfion more acute, in pro- portion as the inflammation of the proftate is more confider- able. We may alfo add, as a particular fymptom of this fort of retention of urine, that if an attempt be made to in- troduce a catheter, it paffes without the leaft refiftance as far as the proftate, where it ftops, and caufes great pain. The pulfe is hard and frequent ; there is much thirft ; and all the ufual fymptoms of fever prevail. This kind of retention of urine, as well as all thofe which originate from an enlargement of the proftate gland, or other obftrutions in the canal, are, according to Default, generally more dangerous than other cafes, which merely depend upon the weaknefs of the bladder, and in which there is very little rifk of this vifcus giving way. When the urethra is free from ob{truétion, the urine, after diftending the bladder to a certain degree, generally oozes through that canal; and the patient may live in this condition for years, without any alarming confequences. But the cafe is different, when the retention of urine de- pends upon any ftoppage or ftri€ture in the urethra. The urine does not then partially efcape; this fluid ftagnates in the bladder; the diftention increafes ; and if {peedy relief be not afforded, that vifcus inflames and floughs, and a perilous effufion of its contents enfues. In the retention arifing from inflammation of the proftate, the indication is obvious: it is to ufe every poffible means of refolving the inflammation. Venefeétion, leeches to the vicinity of the anus, the warm bath, emollient clyfters, and poultices, are the remedies which feem mott eligible. Thefe mutt be affifted with a regimen ftri€tly antiphlogiftic. It muft be confefled, however, that the efficacy of thefe means is often too flow, and the fymptoms too urgent, te allow us to wait for the urine to flow of itfelf. Frequently, alfo, the tone of the bladder is fo much weakened by the diftention, that this organ cannot expel its contents. The catheter muft then be employed; but the contra&ion of that part of the urethra which runs through the proftate, fometimes renders the introduétion of this inftrument diffi- cult, and always very painful. According to Default, a large catheter generally anfwers better than a fmall one, and it may either be of filver or elaitic gum. The latter, though the beft for the purpofe of being kept in the paflage, has not always fufficient firm- nefs to get through the obftruétion in the canal, not even with the aid of the ftilet. In this refpe@, a filver catheter is fometimes preferable. But whatever may be the kind of catheter employed, it generally pafles as far as the proftate with perfeét facility, where it is ftopped, not only by the narrownefs, but alfo by the new curvature, of the paflage : for the proftate cannot be enlarged, without pufhing for- wards and upwards, or to one fide, that portion of the urethra behind which it is fituated. This circumftance ought never to be forgotten, in regulating the length and diretion of the beak of the catheter, which fhould alfo be longer, have a more confiderable curvature, and be more elevated, at the time of its introduétion, than in other cafes of obftruétion in the urethra. In fwellings of the proftate gland, Mr. Hey has parti- cularly pointed out one advantage which belongs to elaitic catheters, viz. that their curvature may be increafed while they are inthe urethra. This gentleman was introducing an elaftic gum catheter in a patient, whofe proftate gland was much enlarged, and finding fome obftruétion near the neck of the bladder, he withdrew the ftilet ; in doing which, he accidentally repreffed the tube, which then went into the bladder. In faét, he found that the a¢t of withdrawing the ftilet increafes the curvature, and lifts up the point of the catheter. Pract. Obf. in Surgery, p. 399. edit. 2. After being tolerably certain, fays Default, that the end of the catheter correfponds exactly to the dire&tion of the urethra, and that the obftacle to its entrance into the bladder only depends upon the narrownefs of the paflage, we may, without being too fearful of making a falfe paflage, forcibly pufh forward the catheter. This inftrument will certainly rather dilate a canal, that already exifts, than form anew paflage for itfelf. Default confeffes, however, that this plan would be attended with great danger in the hands of young inexperienced furgeons; and he adds, that itis only fit to be praétifed by thofe, whe, combining great ex- perience in the ufe of the catheter with an accurate know- ledge of the different curvatures of the urethra, have at length attained that degree of fkill, which never lets them lofe fight of the fituation and dire€tion of the beak of the catheter. For, fays he, if, while the inflrument is forced forward, the beak fhould be inclined too low, or to one fide, URINE. fide, &c. a falfe paffage would inevitably be occafioned by a laceration of the membranous portion of the urethra; an accident which is always of a ferious nature, increafing the inflammation of the proftate, and rendering the introduc- tion of the catheter more difficult. This bold practice, fuggefted by Default, is frequently purfued by Boyer and Roux, and fometimes in this country by Mr. A. Cooper, Mr. Pearfon, &c. (See Crofs’s Medical Sketches of Paris.) We have indeed heard, that Mr. Thomas Blizard, and fome other furgeons in London, always force their way through the proftate gland with a conical filver catheter, in preference to puncturing the bladder, when no inftrument can be introduced through the urethra in a gentle manner. The urine afterwards pafles through this fort of falfe paflage, feemingly as well as through the natural one. We have not, however, brought our own minds to think that much good is ever likely to refult from this exertion of violence in the urethra: therefore, when the cafe is urgent, and no catheter can be introduced through the natural canal, we fhould prefer pun&turing the bladder, which, in thefe cafes, fhould always be done above the pubes. See PARACENTESIS of the Bladder. Notwithitanding the many examples of the fuccefs that has attended this operation, the proceeding, as Default ob- ferves, has its dangers; and, confequeutly, it fhould never be reforted to, before repeated unavailing attempts have been made to get a catheter into the bladder; nor before a trial has been made, whether a bougie left in the paflage a few hours will not bring on an evacuation of the urine; an event which has often happened, even though the inftrument did not pafs beyond the obftruGtion. Punéturing the bladder, in fuch cafes, fhould alfo never be determined upon, without a previous confultation with another practitioner, efpecially if one be at hand, who has had greater experience in the ufe of the catheter. When a catheter has been introduced, ought it to be left in the bladder, or withdrawn, after the difcharge of the urine? Its prefence no doubt will increafe the irritation about the neck of the bladder; but, on the other hand, if it be taken out, the furgeon may not be able to introduce it again. No general precept, fays Default, can be laid down on this point. The courfe which the practitioner will purfue muft depend upon the difficulty he has experienced in getting the inftrument into the bladder, and upon the confidence which he may have in his own {kill, and which is deduced from conftant fuccefs in analogous inftances. According to Default, when an abfcefs follows inflam- mation of the proftate, the body of the gland itfelf does not fuppurate, but only the furrounding parts, and the cellular fubitance, which conneéts its lobes together. This, at leatt, was what was obferved in examining feveral dead fubjects, who were publicly opened in the amphitheatre of the H6tel-Dieu. When the fymptoms of inflammation have lafted a week, and all this time have continued to increafe ; when, after this period, they have abated a little, and then become violent again; and when the febrile fymptoms get worfe in the evening, and have been preceded by fhiverings ; there is reafon to fufpeét the formation of matter. It can- not be known whether the pus is colleted in one particular place, or diffufed. When the matter is external to the gland, the cafe is lefs ferious than whem it occupies the cellular fubftance conneéting the lobes. According to De- fault, the latter form of the difeafe feldom gets well. There are no peculiar fymptoms which denote it; the matter does not readily make its way outward; and the ftate of things is not clear enough to admit of an incifion being made. Be- fides, Default doubted whether an incifion could be of VoL. XX XVII. much ufe, fince it would probably only let out the matter in its vicinity. Things are different when the pus is colleéted in one place, and is more fuperficial. If fituated between the gland and neck of the bladder, it will often fpontaneoufly burft into this vifcus, or it may be let out with the point of the cathe- ter. It will then either be difcharged through the inftru- ment, or come away with the urine. Should the abfcefs lie near the rectum and perineum, and admit of being diftin@lly felt, a free opening would expedite the cure. In all thefe cafes, the ufe of the catheter is requifite, in order to let out the urine; and as the inftrument mutt be left in the paflage fome time, one made of elaftic gum is to be preferred. When the abfcefs burfts of itfelf, either into the urethra or bladder, the catheter muft be kept in as long as pus con- tinues to be difcharged with the urine. In the latter cafe, however, Default chiefly ufed the inftrument for the pur- pofe of throwing mucilaginous injeétions into the bladder, which many furgeons would not confider neceflary. Morgagni.has taken notice of the retentions of urine arifing from the prefence of calculi in the proftate gland. The nature of thefe concretions we have already defcribed in a preceding article. See Urinary Calculi. Calculi alfo fometimes form after lithotomy, when the outer part of the wound heals fooner than the bottom. A kind of urinary fiftula then forms; and as the extraneous fubftance is conftantly expofed to the contaé of frefh urine, it may increafe to a very large fize. The diagnofis of prof- tatic calculi is feldom very clear. A retention of urine, and an impediment to the emiffion of the femen, are only fymp- toms which are common to feyeral other affeGtions of the proitate gland and urethra. When the finger is introduced into the rectum, the gland may indeed be felt to be enlarged, but the nature and caufe of fuch enlargement cannot in gene- ral be diftinguifhed. In one inftance, however, lately re- corded by Dr. Marcet, the calculi could be plainly felt through the coats of the rectum, and a propofal was made to extract them by an incifion in that fituation; but the patient did not accede to fo judicious a meafure. (Med. and Chem. Hilt. of Calculous Diforders, Lond. 1817.) When a calculus projects from the proftate into the urethra, the end of a found will ftrike againft it; but then it can rarely be known whether the extraneous fubftance may not be a calculus that has paffed out of the bladder into the urethra, or lies clofe to the neck of this vifcus. Whether the cafe be of one defcription or the other, how- ever, the treatment fhould be the fame; viz. the calculus fhould be extracted by an incifion, refembling that praGtifed in the lateral operation. Another fpecies of retention of urine is that produced by a confiderable varicofe affeCtion of the veffels furrounding the proftate gland, which part is alfo generally fomewhat enlarged. In this cafe, the water fhould be drawn off with an ela{tie gum catheter, which fhould be kept in the urethra ; and a large inftrument is to be preferred to a {maller one. For an account of the fymptoms of this cafe, we mult refer to Default’s Geuvres Chir. t. 3. p. 234. The portion of the urethra which pafles through the proftate, is afterwards to be gradually dilated with bougies or elaitic catheters, which are to be worn a long while, and cleaned and changed at proper intervals. A {cirrhous induration and enlargement of the proftate gland form another very common difeafe in old fubjeéts. The fize and hardnefs of the gland are faid to vary confiderably, according to the duration of the complaint. It has often been found as hard as a cartilage ; more commonly its ftruc- 3Z ture URINE. ture prefents an appearance as ff filled with a firm tough lymph. Sometimes the part is two or three times as large as natural, and J. L. Petit once faw it as large as the fift. In fome inftances, only a part of it is {cirrhous; in others, the whole of it is thus affected. The hardened gland can be felt in the re€tum, and the examination does not give much ain. F A retention of urine is an ordinary fymptom of a fcirrhus of the proftate ; the catheter is alfo here neceffary, and the introduétion of it is often attended with greater difficulty than in other affeGtions of this gland. As the induration of the part does not allow it to yield, {mall catheters are better than thofe of large fize. It alfo frequently happens, that confiderable force muft be ufed; and as this cannot be done with elaftic catheters, a filver catheter, of the fize ufed for children, was recommended by Default. The moderns fome- times employ a conical filver catheter, as we have already noticed. Sometimes, however, no inftrument can be intro- duced unlefs it be rotated, in doing which it is effential to recolleé& that the urethra in thefe cafes makes a very fudden turn upward before it terminates in the bladder. After the filver catheter has been worn three or four days, the canal is ufually freer, fo that one made of elaftic gum will now admit of being pafled. This laft muft in general be continually employed for four or five weeks, and in the mean while attempts fhould be made to check the difeafe in the proftate by the exhibition of mercurials, conium, &c. Suppofitories of hemlock have alfo been particularly recom- mended. Some of Mr. Hunter’s remarks on this complaint will be found in the article Prostate Gland, Difea/e of. 17. Retention of Urine brought on by Stridures.—This 1s another cafe, which we deem neceflary to notice in this work. The common nature, moft frequent fituation, and different methods of treating ftri€tures in the urethra, have been al- ready explained. (See Urerura, Stridures of.) Perfons who have been long fubje& to ftri€tures in the urethra, but who are ftill able to void their urine in a {mall ftream, are liable, from accidental caufes, to have a complete retention, and are incapable of expelling the contents of the bladder. This arifes in fome cafes from the diameter of the urethra being {till further diminifhed by attacks of inflammation, but more frequently from the {pafmodic ftate of the urethra and mufcles of the perineum. ‘The fame effeét may be produced by fuch patients retaining their urine too long after the firft defire to void it is experienced. It happens not unfrequently, that the permanent f{tri€ture may be of fuch a nature, as not to admit of the introdution of any inftrument into the bladder, even under the moft favourable circumftances. A fpafmodic ftate of the urethra, as Mr. Earle has further ob- ferved, would not facilitate fuch attempts. Other cafes again occur, in which perhaps an initrument can be paffed, when the urethra is in a more tranquil ftate, but where it would be highly injudicious, and often impra€ticable to in- troduce fuch inftruments under circumftances of irritation, by which attempts the fpafm would be increafed, and the patient rendered liable to returns of retention, even were we to fucceed in the firft inftance. In all fuch cafes, it is, as Mr. Earle remarks, highly de- firable to overcome the retention by other means than the in- troduétion of inftruments. For this purpofe purgatives, general and local bleeding, warm-baths, the tinétura opii, and tinétura ferri muriatis, are commonly reforted to. With refpe&t to purgatives, their aétion neceflarily requires more time than, from the urgency of the fymptoms, is frequently admiffible. ‘The other remedies are highly ufeful, and will frequently fulfil every indication. Sometimes, however, they are unavailing, and we are compelled to refort to ope- rations for relieving the diftended bladder. Mr. Earle then proceeds to recommend the ufe of tobacco in the form of an enema, either of fmoke or the decoétion, which he found, in fome cafes which are detailed, a powerful and expeditious means of relieving the retention of urine, when other more common remedies had failed. See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. vi. p. 84, &c. 18. Retention of Urine produced by foreign Bodies in the Urethra.—Mok of the foreign bodies, occafionally met with in the bladder, may caufe a retention of urine, when they are lodged and ftopped in the urethra. Thus, calculi, bougies, &c. fixed in this canal, may become obftacles to the tranfmiffion of the urine through it. "The means which have been recommended for promoting the removal of fuch extraneous fubftances are numerous. Some advife oily in- jections to be thrown into the urethra, in order to make its furface more flippery, while others think it better to dilate the canal as much as poffible with catgut bougies. The ancients propofed the trial of fuétion. But, fays Default, thefe and other fimilar means are ineffe@tual, when the foreign body is clofely embraced by the urethra. In this cafe, he obferves, if the extraneous fubftance cannot be pufhed for- ward with the fingers applied externally, an endeavour may be made to extraé it with the forceps, invented for the pur- pofe by Mr. Hunter, and which are contained in a cannula. When, however, the foreign body is too large to be got out in this manner, it muft be extraéted by an incifion. The wound of the operation will afterwards be found to heal up very well, if care be taken to keep an elaftic catheter in the urethra, in order to prevent the urine from coming into con- tact with the cut part. There has lately been publifhed a cafe of calculus in the urethra, attended with dyfury, where almoft inftantaneous relief was obtained from the exhibition of an enema of tobacco. The patient foon felt a ftrong de- fire to void his urine, and ‘‘upon making the attempt, a large calculus came rolling along the urethra, with complete relief of all his complaints.” See Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. xii. p. 373. URINE, Suppreffion of, in Animals, a difeafe arifing from the want of making water in confequence of fome affeGtion of the parts concerned in pafling it. The complaint is caufed, according to fome, either by inflammation obftru- ing the funétions of the kidneys, or by the ureters being obftructed by ftones, {mall gravel, or other fuch foreign matters, or when affected with any numbnefs, or other de- fe&t, that may difable them in their office of feparating the urine from the blood. In this.laft cafe, the bladder is, for the moft part, empty, fo that the animals make no motions to pafs urine, but ftand in the ftraddling manner, as in other diforders of the urinary paflages, when the bladder is full or the urethra inflamed ; this is particularly the cafe in the horie kind of animals; and if they continue a few days in this condition, without the fecretion of urine, their bodies are liable to {well to a very great degree, and they, in this fort of animals, often break out univerfally in blotches and die, unlefs {peedy relief be afforded. Where the difeafe is caufed by ftrangury, it is commonly attended with a partial, if not a complete fuppreffion of urine, but in general without much appearance of fever, though there are figns of uneafinefs and irritation with lofs of appetite. The diforder may be produced from different other caufes, as from whatever has a tendency to affect the parts about the neck of the bladder, fuch as certain articles of food, blows, a fpafmodic ftate of the mufcles inducing contraétion in them, and fome others. In the cure of the difeafe, it will firft moftly be neceflary, in cafes where there is a tendency to inflammation, to take away a few pints of blood im proportion to the ftate of the affection URINE. affeGtion and the fize of the animal. Where horfes are fub- je to an obftruétion in the paflages of the urine from cal- culi, but which is rarely the cafe, the proper method of cure is, according to fome, to begin with ftrong diuretic remedies, in connection with ftimulating clyfters ; and if there fhould be any fufpicion of inflammation either in the kidneys or ureters, it may be proper to bleed in a plentiful manner, to the amount in fome cafes of three or four pints. And balls compofed of the following ingredients are likewife advifed to be given and repeated two or three times the firft day, and as often the next, as in fuch cafes no time is to be loft ; for, if the horfe or other animal does not ftale or pafs urine in the courfe of thirty hours, the cafe is moftly defperate : Juniper-berries in fine powder, an ounce; focotrine aloes and nitre in powder, each fix drachms; oil of turpentine, three drachms, and of amber and juniper, each two drachms ; liquorice powder and treacle, fufficient quantities to form a mafs of fuitable confiftence for being divided into two balls, to be given at one time as above. At the fame time a clyfter prepared in the following man- ner may be thrown up with great benefit: Barbadoes aloes, two ounces; the fame quantity of turpentine, beaten up with the yolks of eggs; half an ounce of powdered jalap ; four ounces of nitre, and juniper and bay berries bruifed, each a {mall handful; infufed in two quarts of a decoétion of marfhmallows, to which is then added a pint of linfeed oil. Where thefe remedies fail in removing the complaint, the horfe or other animal’s loins are advifed to be rubbed with a mixture of oil of turpentine and of amber, and to lay a ca- taplafm over the {mall of the back and kidneys, formed of pounded garlick, muftard-feed, camphor, and foap. This, it is thought, may prove beneficial as a ftimulant to the kid- neys, in cafe they happen to be deficient in nervous in- fluence ; and that, in cafe of inflammation, the fame remedy may aét as a blifter without the danger of producing a ftran- ury, and in that way too be of fervice. It fhould be pread on a coarfe flannel cloth doubled, bound on with a broad woollen roller, and renewed once in two days, until the horfe or other animal comes to ftale or pafs urine freely : calomel too in the quantity of a drachm and a half or twe drachms, made up into a ball, and repeated every two days, once or twice, may be of ufe in cafes where the kidneys are not inflamed ; after which the horfe or other animal may be purged gently where it is neceflary. In cafes where the fuppreffion of urine is caufed by or at- tended with itrangury, after bleeding and opening the bowels when neceflary, a ball, compofed in the manner directed be- low, and given in a pint of the decoétion, once or twice in the day, as there may be occafion, will often be found very beneficial: pure opium in powder, half a drachm; camphor rubbed into a powder, three drachms; nitre in powder, half an ounce; common foap, fix drachms; balfam capivi fuf- ficient to make them into a ball. In preparing the decoétion, four ounces of linfeed and the fame quantity of mallow root bruifed, with three ounces and a half of gum arabic, fhould in the whole be boiled for a few minutes in three pints of water, and the liquor then ftrained off for ufe as above. Wet cloths frequently fqueezed out of a warm decoétion of chamomile, and other fimilar herbs and flowers, may often be applied with great benefit to the parts between the legs, near to the neck of the bladder. The animals fhould have mafhes of bran, malt, and other fuch matters, occafionally given to them, with warm water or eatmeal gruel for drink. By thefe means, affections of this fort may commonly be {peedily removed without any great difficulty. Urine, Chemical Properties of. Perhaps no animal pro- du& has more attraéted the attention of chemifts than the urine, not only on account of its fuppofed conneétion with difeafes, but alfo on account of its compound nature, and fingular chemical properties. The older chemifts, Brandt, Kunckel, Boyle, &c. were led to examine its nature chiefly on account of the phofphorus which they extraéted from it. Since their time others have examined it with different and various views, among whom may be mentioned Boerhaave, Haller, Margraff, Pott, Rouelle jun., Cruickfhanks, Four- croy and Vauquelin, Prouft, Klaproth, and more lately Berzelius, who has given by far the beft and moft rational account of this fluid which has yet been publifhed. Frefh human urine differs confiderably in its appearance, according to the {tate of a perfon’s health, his food, or the period at which it has been voided. In general, the urine of a perfon in health, voided in the morning, is a tranfparent liquid of a light amber colour, an aromatic odour, refem- bling that of violets, and a difagreeable tafte. When it cools, the aromatic {mell leaves it, and is fucceeded by an- other, well known by the name of urinous. In two or three days this is fueceeded by another, which has been compared to that of four milk. This alfo gradually difappears, and is finally fucceeded by a fetid alkaline odour. Frefh urine, juft voided, reddens turnfole paper, and there- fore contains a free acid. The {pecific gravity of urine, according to Mr. Cruickfhanks, varies from 1.005 to 1.033. According to the recent experiments of Dr. Scudamore, the fpecific gravity of healthy urine lies between 1.010 and 1.015. The fpecific gravity of morbid urine, according to the fame author, is frequently as high as 1.030, and occa- fionally as high as 1.040. = We fhall give the refults of Berzelius’s analyfis of this fluid, and afterwards make fome remarks upon the more im- portant ingredients contained in it. According to this accu- rate chemift, 1000 parts of urine are compofed of Water - - - - - - - 933.00 Urea - - - - - - - - 30.10 Sulphate of potafh - - - - - 3.71 Sulphate of foda - - - - - - 3-16 Phofphate of foda - - err - 2.94. Muriate of foda - - - - = = 4-45 Phofphate of ammonia - - - = - 1.65 Muriate of ammonia —- - - - - 1.50 Free laGtic acid - - - - - - Laétate of ammonia - - - - - Animal matter foluble in alcohol, and ufually ac- wien companying the laétates_— - - - - fas Animal matter infoluble in alcohol - - - Urea, not feparable from the preceding - - Earthy phofphates, with a trace of fluate of lime 1.00 Uric acid - - - - - - - 1.00 Mucus of. the bladder - - - - - 0.32 Silex - - - - - - - ~ 0.03 1000.00 Of this analyfis, Berzelius remarks, that ‘¢ the relative pro- portions of the ingredients probably vary independently of difeafe. I believe, however, that in urine they are never very different, unlefs from pathological caufes, which ma- terially affe& the health.’ Of thefe numerous ingredients we fhall briefly fpeak of 3Z2 the URINE. the acids only of the urine, having treated at length of urea in its proper place. The acids of the urine may be confidered as of two kinds, thofe peculiar to it, and generated in the a& of fecretion ; and thofe common to it and the blood, and which of courfe pre-exifted in that fluid. In the firft clafs are comprifed the fulphuric acid, the uric acid, and occafionally the benzoic and carbonic acids ; in the fecond, the phofphoric and laétic acids, which appear to be more abundant in the urine than the blood, and confequently may be fuppofed to be formed in part in the kidneys alfo ; in the third, the muriatic and fluoric acids which appear to pafs from the blood to the urine without any increafe from the kidney. As by the laws of chemical affinity thefe acids will unite with any alkaline bafe that may be prefent, and faturate themfelves with it in the order of the force of their refpeétive affinities, it mut follow, as juftly obferved by Berzelius, that when the quantity of alkali is infufficient to faturate all the acids prefent, the weakelt acids muft be thofe that will remain uncombined, and will confe- quently impart to the urine their peculiarly acid charaéters. Thefe therefore muft neceffarily be the lactic and the uric acids. The fulphuric acid does not exift in the blood, but it is found in confiderable quantity in the urine. Rouelle fenior long ago pointed out this faét, but it feems to have been re- garded by fubfequent chemifts rather as an accidental than as a conftant occurrence. Berzelius, however, has fhewn the contrary, and {tates that he has good reafon for believing that this acid is an effential conftituent of the urine. The fame excellent chemift alfo has fhewn that the whole of the fulphur contained in the blood is not acidified in the kidneys, but that a portion of it ftill remains in an unaltered though com- bined ftate in the urine. The leading properties of the wric acid have been difcuffed under its proper head ; we fhall therefore confine ourfelves here to a few circumftances connected with its formation and feparation from the urine. The red cryftalline depofit, or gra- vel, which occurs in urine that has been kept for a few days, confifts chiefly of uric acid united with the colouring matter of the urine, or, according to Berzelius, with ammonia. What is termed alfo the pink, or Jateritious fediment, a fubitance fre- quently formed in derangements of the digeftive organs, and efpecially in gout, and which was formerly confidered a dif- tin& principle by Prouft, who named it the rofacic acid, has been lately fhewn to confift chiefly of uric acid, combined with colouring matter and foda. The benzoic acid, aceording to Scheele, is fometimes found in the urine of infants. Berzelius, however, has never been able to deteé& it, and feems to doubt if it ever exifts in healthy human urine. - With refpe& to the carbonic acid, Berzelius feems to doubt if it ever exifts in healthy urine, and fuppofes its occafional prefence to arife from the decompofition of urea. Dr. Mar- cet itates that he has fometimes found traces of carbonic acid in the urine, and fometimes not ; and concludes, ‘ that the evolution of this gas from the urine, whether ariling from the prefence of. uncombined carbonic acid, or from fome decompofition of the animal matter contained in that fluid, depends upon certain {tates of the body at the moment the urine is fecreted, rather than upon the introduétion of the gafeous acid through the digeftive organs.” The phofphoric acid, for the reafons before mentioned, can hardly be ever fuppofed to exift in urine in the free ftate. Its falts, however, form very important ingredients of that fluid. What is termed qwhite gravel, or fand, ufually con- fifts of the phofphate of magnefia and ammonia, and of the I phofphate of lime, and are perhaps chiefly formed in the kidney. / To the /aéie acid, and the peculiar animal matters which accompany it, Berzelius afcribes chiefly the acid properties, as well as the peculiar colour and {mell of the urine. The muriatic acid, and its compounds, the muriates of foda and ammonia, exift in the urine, (more efpecially the muriate of foda,) in confiderable quantity. The muriate of foda is probably never a produé of fecretion, but derived from the blood. The origin of the muriate of ammonia is more ob{cure. The prefence of a {mall portion of the fluoric acid in urine in combination with lime has been demonftrated by Berze- lius ; but the exiftence of this principle, as well as of flex in the urine, refts at prefent, we believe, upon his authority alone. The urine is not only liable to be much modified by difeafe, but from the fame caufe occafionally contains fubftances which never exift in it in a healthy ftate. The principal of thefe are albumen, faccharine matter, and oxalic acid, all which, as well as others, probably depend either upon a ped anes or perverfion of the fecreting powers of the idney. Thus the albumen feems to be derived at once from the blood. The faccharine matter, as ftated under UREA, ap- pears to be formed by fome unknown procefs from that fub- ftance, while the oxalic acid is probably derived from the fame fource. The above obfervations apply to the human urine; we come now to make a few remarks upon the urine of other animals ; a moft extenfive field of refearch, but which has not at prefent been much invetligated. Urine of the Lion and Tiger.—The urines of thefe ani- mals, according to Vauquelin, clofely refemble one another, and likewife bear fome analogy to the human urine; they differ from it, however, in the following effential points ; they contain no uric acid, nor any combination of that prin- ciple, as might have been expected from the food on which thefe animals live. They contain, however, a great propor- tion of urea, though very little muriate of foda. They have a peculiar fetid {mell, which is derived, in part, pro- bably from the ammonia developed from the decompofition of the urea. This {mell is well known to be common to the urine of all the feline animals, and may in every inftance be fuppofed to be owing to a fimilar caufe. The urines of the /orfe and cow do not differ much from one another, according to the fame chemift. Both become muddy in cooling; both are alkaline, and contain a large proportion of carbonate of lime, benzoic acid, and urea, but no uric acid. One thoufand parts of the urine of the horfe, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, are compofed of Water and mucus - - - 940 Urea - - - - - - 7 Carbonate of lime - - - It Benzoate of foda - - - - 24 Carbonate of foda - - - 9 Muriate of potafh = - = 9 1000 The urine of the camel has been examined by Rouelle. Its odour refembles that of the cow. Its colour is that of beer ; it is not mucilaginous, and does not depofit carbonate of lime. It is alkaline, and contains the carbonate, fulphate, and muriate of potafh, and urea. Mr. Brande, who has fince URINE. fince examined this fluid, thought he difcovered in it traces of uric acid. i The urine of the deaver has been examined by Vauquelin. It bears a ftrong refemblance to the urine of herbivorous animals in general. It contains carbonate of lime, held in folution by excefs of carbonic acid ; alfo benzoic and acetic acids, urea, muriate of foda, and fulphate of potafh, but no uric acid nor phofphates. It contains, however, muriate of ammonia, and carbonate and acetate of magnefia, accord- ing to the fame chemift, though we think the exiftence of the lait principle is doubtful. The {pecimen examined by Vau- quelin alfo afforded diftin& traces of the colouring prin- ciple of the willow bark, on which this animal feeds. The urine of the rabbit has been examined by the fame chemift, who found this, as well as the urine of the guinea pig, to refemble very clofely the urines of the herbivorous quadrupeds above defcribed. The fame indefatigable chemift alfo, aflifted by Four- eroy, has examined the urine of domeffic fow/s, in which they found uric acid, a fa&t which has been confirmed by fuc- ceeding chemifts. They alfo found the fame acid in great abundance in the excrements of a South-fea bird, called guano. Lattly, Dr. Prout has given the following analyfis of the excrements, or urine, of the boa con/frifor. One hundred parts were found to confift of , Uncadidyentm i'P= sesuce teoctteins tp) pier GO Potafh - — - - - - - - - 3-45 Ammonia - - - - - Epis 1.70 Sulphate of potafh, with a trace of muriate of foda 95 Phofphate of lime - - - - - Carbonate of lime - - - - . 80 Mapneligy jo 37 » [so 2 pe on Sten wote 2 Animal matter, confifting of mucus, and a at 2.94 colouring matter - 100.00 The uric acid, in this inftance, was in combination with the potafh and ammonia, and was eafily obtained in a per- fe&ly pure ftate by the ufual procefles. Hence it appears that the urine of quadrupeds agrees with the human urine, in containing urea; but materially differs from it, in being without phofphoric or uric acid, and in containing an excefs of carbonic acid: while the urines of birds and ferpents feem to contain an excefs of uric acid, and a deficiency of the other ingredients exifting in the human urine. Urine; in Agriculture, the faline fluid fecreted from the blood of animals by the kidneys, and difcharged by the canal of the urethra, which is highly ufeful as manure in different cafes, in promoting vegetation, and increafing the fertility of land. It is, indeed, in this laft way, of great ufe, in improving moft forts of foil. Befides its value in other in- tentions too, Columella has aflerted, that old urine is excel- lent when applied to the roots of trees. Hartlib alfo has much commended the Dutch for preferving the urine of cows as carefully as they do the dung, for enriching their lands. This is therefore a fluid which is capable of being em- ployed with great fuccefs and benefit both on meadow and on arable land, and which affords uncommon fertility and improvement to both in many cafes. In the former café, the beft time for fprinkling or applying the liquid over the® land, is -fuppofed by fome to be during the winter months, when the rains will have the moft power in wafhing the fertilizing parts of it into the foil; or, the land may be fprinkled over with it, early in the fpring, juft before it is laid or fhut up for hay; becaufe no cattle will touch the grafs fo long as the faline matters adhere to the blades of it. Another circumftance which is neceflary to be at- tended to in fuch cafes, in order to make the moft of this very valuable fluid manure; is, that it be carried out to the meadow and pafture-grounds that are intended to be drefled with it, in a dry time, as the urine and farm-yard liquor in the refervoirs is at fuch periods the moft ftrongly impreg- nated with faline and other matters, as may be known by the deep brown or blackifh colour that is prefent. All fuch refervoirs or ponds, as are appropriated for the recep- tion of it, fhould conftantly be kept, in fome meafure, in a ftate of readinefs for the purpofe, at fuch feafons ; and the lands may be fprinkled or moiftened as often as occafion may render it neceffary or proper. The praétice of moft modern farmers in refpe@ to pre- ferving urine is, it is faid, as oppolite as poffible ; for they not only fuffer that of their cattle to flow away, but have generally their dung-heaps fo fituated that they are drenched and impoverifhed by rain, which conveys their moft valuable ingredients into the next river. The more heavy and cum- berfome materials, which the water can neither diffolve nor fweep away, are frequently, it is faid, alone referved, - be beftowed, at a great expence, on the defrauded and. It is conceived by a writer in the fourth volume of Com- munications to the Board of Agriculture, that the quantity of moft valuable manure which may thus be carried away, is much greater than is perhaps imagined. Lately, the writer obtained more than half an ounce of a dry fetid fubftance from one quart of human urine. Suppofing the urine of cattle, it is faid, to be equally produdtive, every hogfhead of it which ‘flows out of a farm-yard, without even any impregnation from the dung-heap, carries away feven and a half pounds of folid matter. This fhould in- duce farmers in all cafes to waite liquors of this fort as little as poffible, and to convert them as much as can be to the improvement of land, and earthy fubftances as manure, for applying upon it. It is remarked that urine is very liable to change, and to undergo the putrefaCtive procefs; and that that of car- nivorous animals does it more rapidly than that of the grami- nivorous kind. ‘That in proportion as there is more gela- tine and albumen in urine, fo in proportion does it putrefy more quickly. That the forts of urine that contain moft albumen, gelatine, and urea, are the beft as manures; and that all urine contains the effential elements of vegetables in a {tate of folution. That as during the putrefa@tion of urine, the greateft part of the foluble animal matter that it contains is deftroyed, it fhould, of courfe, it is faid, be ufed as freth as poffible ; but that if not mixed with folid matter, it fhould be diluted with water, as when pure it contains too large a quantity of animal matter to form a proper fluid nourifhment for abforption by the roots of plants. The ancients had, however, a notion of ufing urine ftale: but of mixing it with rich earthy matters, which is probably the beft and moft economical mode of applying it, they had, it would feem, no idea. Putrid urine, it is faid, abounds in ammoniacal falts ; and that though lefs aGtive than frefh urine, is a very powerful manure. In fome northern diftri€ts very great improvement is pro- duced on grafs land by the application of urine and dung- liquor in the beginning of the autumn, as about November. The fluid is conveyed and applied to the land by means of a rum- Welk: I a rum-puncheon, which is mounted on wheels, being filled by large pails with long handles. ‘Two perfons, a man and boy, are employed in the work. One puncheon full is ca- pable of doing forty-fix rods (of feven yards) forward, and three yards in breadth. In this way, it is very readily and conveniently made ufe of, when applied in the liquid ftate. The writer of the Agricultural Report of the County of Peebles obferves, that the urine of cattle, until of late too much neglected, is now more attended to ; it is colleéted by earth laid down to abforb it, as well as the liquids that run off from the dungtteads, or it is received into a pit furnifhed with a pump. Some colleé it in the firft manner, and apply it to the land by putting it into a puncheon mounted as above, and furnifhed at the hindermoft end with a pipe, terminating in a large rofe, f{omewhat like that of a watering an. It is drawn over the field by one horfe, and the urine Bom the rofe befprinkles to the breadth of nine feet, fo that an eighteen-feet ridge is done in the going and returning of the carriage. It is obferved, too, that as urine is of a {corching quality, it is unfafe to apply it to any growing crop, in great heat or drought ; fo that, in general, it is un- advifeable fo to apply it after the month of May. ‘That it ought not to be applied to any land in winter, from its being fo ealily wafhed away by rains; and never on wet lands, earlier than the month of March; and then only in dry weather. That it may be laid on fallow, at any time when it is dry enough to abforb it readily. That, in dry warm weather, it is advantageoufly thrown over dunghills, efpe- cially thofe of the compoft kind. Notwithitanding thefe remarks on the great ufe of urine, it is ftated in the feventh volume of the Bath Letters and Papers, that an attentive and diligent farmer took the trouble one year to carry out all the ftable liquor alone, but without obferving any good effeéts from it, and that another perfon was known to him who had done the fame thing without any better fuccefs. The time, manner, or fort of land to which it was applied are not, however, mentioned, which would probably have explained the reafon of its want of fuccefs in fuch cafes. Urine, Salt of. See Fufible Sat. URINOUS Satts are the fame with what we otherwife call alkaline falts, or alkalies. There are two kinds of urinous falts, the one fixt, the other volatile. The fixt prevail in plants, and the volatile in animals. They are called urinous, in refpect of their tafte and {mell, which bear fome refemblance to thofe of urine. URIPA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Cufco; 120 miles W.N.W. of Cufco. URIQUE, a town of New Mexico, in the province of Cinaloa; 120 miles N.E. of Cinaloa. URISAL, atown of Sweden, in the province of Up- land; 6 miles N. of Stockholm. VRISHADWAJA, a name of the Hindoo deity Siva. It is a compound word, meaning he who rides a bull; this animal being the vehicle on which that deity rides. VRITRA, a demon, according to Hindoo legends, flain by their god Indra, regent of the firmament, who is thence named Vritrahan. See INDRA. URITANUS Acer, in Ancient Geography, a territory of Italy, mentioned by Appian and Velleius Paterculus. URITH, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes ufed to fignify the bindings of hedges in thofe of the ftaff and band or rife kind. See Fence and Hepes. URITZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Loire; 14 miles N.N.E. of Ancenis. URIVES, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied URM to the nets which are ufed to catch hawks, and other fimilar birds of prey with, in different places. URIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in Beetica, on the confines of Lufitania, belonging to the Tur- ditani. Ptolemy.—Alfo, one of two rivers of Beetica, be- tween the Axas and the Beetis. URIUMKAN, in Geography, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Arguna, N. lat. 51° 55’. E. long. 124° 15/. URJUP, or Urup, one of the Kurile lands, diftant from Shirpo Oi 25 verfts. This ifland is larger than moft of the others, being 200 verfts long, and 20 broad. Its mountains are high, with bald heads; they are very fteep, and about them are deep glens. On the north coaft lie four fmall ifles almoft contiguous. In the vales, and befide the {treams, a plain is occafionally feen; and in the valleys as well as on the mountains, and indeed over the whole ifland on the north and eaft fides, are high forefts of birches, elders, the forbus fylveftris, and fturdy rattans. On the fhores and in the yalley-plains the herbs fhoot to an uncom- mon height. Confiderable ftreams flow from the mountains into the fea, and yield a variety of fifh. In the northern part, about the middle of the ifland, is an inland fea, which difcharges its waters by a level ftream into the ocean; which ftream teems with fifh. The ifland abounds with rats, and with red and white foxes. In the clefts of the mountains is found ore, fuch as copper pyrites mixed with quartz, ful- phur pyrites as hard as fteel, with quartz, and a poor cop- per pyrites in a calcareous gangue. ‘This ifland is only frequented for taking the foxes. Tooke’s Ruff. vol. i. URK, a {mall ifland in the Zuyder Zee; 11 miles E. of Enckhuyten. URKEND, or Uzxunn, or Adercand, a town of Tur- keftan ; 90 miles N.E. of Toncat. URKOK, a town of Bengal; 14 miles N. of Doefa. URKONGE, or Korkange, or Orkanje, or Urgentz, a town of Afia, and capital of Charafm, on a branch of the Jihon, which runs into the lake Aral. In the year 1221, this place was befieged by the troops of Jenghiz Khan, and after an obftinate defence, and the death of the governor, the inhabitants fet fire to their houfes: thofe who remained after the flaughter which followed the furrender were condemned to flavery ; 320 miles W.N.W. of Samarcand. N, lat. 42° 35'. E. long. 58° 30. URKUP, or Yurxup, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania, on the Kizil-ermuk; 10 miles W.S.W. of Tocat. N. lat. 38° 37!. E.long. 34° 18!. , URLINGFORD, a {mall town of the county of Kil kenny, Ireland; about 10 miles S.W. from Durrow. URLIUTIUPSKOI, a fort of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Kolivan, on the eaft fide of the Irtifch. N. lat. 53° 36’. E. long. 75° 34!. URMIAH, or Urumea, a diftri@ of Perfia, in the province of Azerbijan.—Alfo, an ancient city of the fame province, the Thebarma of Strabo, and fuppofed birth-place of Zoroafter, fituated on a noble plain, which is fertilized by the river Shar, and on the fouth-weit of the lake to which it gives name. This town is diitant 32 furfungs from Ta- breez, and contains a population of 12,000 fouls. It is de- fended by a ftrong wall and deep ditch, that may be filled with water from the river, and the vicinity produces wine and corn in abundance. It cannot boaft of a fingle river of confequence. N. lat. 37°. E. long. 45° 40'.—Alfo, a lake generally believed to be the Spauto of Strabo, and Marcianus of Ptolemy, about 80 furfungs or 300 miles in circumference. The water is more faline than the fea, and it emits a difagreeable fulphurous {mell, fo that no fifh can live in it. Some fay that the furface is occafionally in- 9 crufted URN erufted with falt; but this is not always, if ever, the cafe. On one of the iflands in the lake (for there are feveral) Ho- laku built a fortrefs, in which he fecured the fpoil he had colle&ted during his conquefts. The largeft of thefe iflands forms, in the dry feafon, a kind of peninfula, and is 25 miles in circumference; only inhabited by wild affes, deer, and many other kinds of game. In fkirting the northern fide of the lake, which is of an elliptic fhape, we meet the town and diftri& of Sa Bulagh*(the cold ftream). It is 12 fur- fungs from Maraga, and poffeffed by the Kurdifh tribe of Meekree. Maraga (which fee), fuppofed to be the Ga- marga of Diodorus, has a {pacious bazaar ; is encompaffed with a high wall, and is pleafantly fituated in a low valley, at the extremity of a well-cultivated plain, opening to the lake, from which Maraga is diftant 9 or 10 miles. The town has about 15,000 inhabitants, a glafs manufactory, a handfome public bath, and near it an obfervatory built on the top of a mountain by Holaku, for his friend Nafer-a Deen, the moft famous aftronomer of his time, who here formed the tables known by his name. The elevated country in the vicinity of lake Urumea was the feat of the Affaffins, finally extirpated by Holaku. M*‘Kinneir’s Perfia. URMUK, a {mall ifland in the Red fea, near the coaft of Arabia; 3 miles S.S.W. of Loheia. URMUND, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Meufe; 1o miles N.N.E. of Maeftricht. URN, Urwna, a kind of vafe, of a roundifh form, but biggeft in the middle, like the common pitchers; now fel- dom ufed, but in the way of ornament over chimney-pieces, in buffets, &c.; or, by way of acroters, at the tops of buildings, funeral monuments, &c. The great ufe of urns, among the ancients, was to pre- ferve the afhes of the dead, after they were burnt; for which reafon they were called cineraria, and urna cineraria ; and were placed fometimes under the tomb-ftone, upon which the epitaph was cut, and fometimes preferved in vaults in their own houfes. Urns were alfo ufed, at their facrifices, to put liquid things in. They were alfo of ufe in the fortes Preneftine, or cafting of lots. At Rome, alfo, the cuftom was to ab- folve or condemn the accufed, by the fuffrages, or calculi, which the judges caft into the judicatory urn. Virgil reprefents Minos, the judge of hell, fhaking the urn, to decide the lots of mankind.— Que/fitor Minos urnam movet. The urn is ftill the attribute of rivers, which are painted leaning on urns, reprefenting their fources by the waters flowing from them. We find them reprefented, in the fame manner, on antique medals, and relievos. Thefe veffels are frequent in many parts of this kingdom, where there have been Roman ftations, and are of very various kinds and manner of workmanfhip. Dr. Lifter, who was very fortunate in his refearches into the ftruéture and differences of thefe remains of antiquity, obferved, that in Yorkfhire, where there are great numbers found, there were met with three very different kinds, as to their matter and tempers. 1, A blueifh-grey fort, which had a great quantity of coarfe fand wrought in among the clay. 2. A fort of the fame blueifh colour, but containing a fand of a much finer kind, and full of mica, and probably made of a clay na- turally fandy, or a fine {mooth and {tiff loam. And, 3. A red fort, made of a fine pure clay, with little or no mixture of fand. Thefe are throughout of a fine red colour like bole, and many of them are elegantly adorned with figures URN in baflo relievo, and ufually thefe have on the bottom, or elfe on the cover, the name of the workman, which fome have miftaken for the name of the perfon whofes afhes they inclofe ; but this muft be an error, fince great numbers of pots and urns are found with the fame name. Thofe are varnifhed all over, both infide’ and out, with a varnifh of a bright red colour. The feveral matters of thefe urns informed this ingenious inquirer of the place where they were made ; which he found to be in the fame county on fand-hills, now never ufed as potteries; but, as he well obferves, the difference is very great between the potteries of thofe days and of ours, fince we, who ufe great quantities of clay, and but little fand, ere&t thefe works where there is much clay, and bring the fmall quantity of fand we ufe to it; whereas the Romans, on the other hand, who ufed much fand, and but little clay, naturally eftablifhed their works where there was plenty of fand, and brought their clay to it. The Roman urns differ from the earthen-ware made at this time in feveral particulars. 1. They have no lead- glazing, which feems a modern invention, and is, in many re{peéts, a very bad one. (See Guazinc.) 2. They are compofed of a far larger quantity of fand than clay. And, 3. They are baked not in an open fire, as our common earthen-ware, but have been inclofed in large earthen veflels, to defend them from the immediate contaét of the flames ; and hence it is, that the natural colour of the clay they are made of is not altered in them. The red urns feem to have been the mafter-piece of the workmen, and to have employed their greateft art; the em- boffed work upon them is often very beautiful, and their coral-like glazing is more beautiful than any thing of the modern times, and feems to have been done by dipping them all over in fome appropriated liquor, and afterwards baking them in the clofe manner before defcribed. This has cer- tainly been the method they ufed, fince the fragments of thefe large coffins, or cafes, are found near all the Roman potteries. Hooke’s Philofophical Colleétions, p. 87. The Romans, and moft other nations, contented them- felves to make their funeral urns of potters’ ware, or baked earth; but we find there have been fome people who have made them of gold, on particular occafions. In the year 1685, as a peafant of the ifland of Funen was ploughing a piece of land, which had before lain barren, he turned up no lefs than fix golden fepulchral urns. They were all full of a greyifh fubitance, which fome took to be a grey earth ; but it was much more probably afhes. Thefe are all preferved at this time in the mufeum of the king of Denmark at Copenhagen; the largeft of them weighs two ounces and a half, and the others about two ounces and one drachm each. Wormius, and fome others, give accounts, that it was an ancient cuftom among the northern nations to burn their dead, and when they were great perfons to colleé their afhes, and bury them in golden urns; and the finding of thefe feems an evident proof of the truth of that account. Thefe urns were very thin, and each had three rings of gold about their necks, and feveral circles, one within another, with one common centre carved on the outfide round the body of the urn. They held about five ounces of liquids a-piece, or a little more than that; one near fix ounces. Sepulchral urns of cryftal were alfo not uncommon; the fame mufeum has fome of thefe: they are of a conic figure, and have ufually a gold wire wound round them. Urns of this kind have been found buried in fome parts of Norway. Urns URN ) Urns of another kind were thofe which they called Jachry- males, or the tear-urns: thefe were contrived to receive the tears of the friends of the deceafed, which were afterwards mingled with the afhes of the burnt corpfe. Thefe were made of various materials, and of various fhapes and fizes, according to the fancy of particular people. Phil. Tranf. N° 285. Waey Vafes, &c. in Ornamental Gardening, objects ufed for the purpofe of beauty in fome cafes of this fort of gar- dening. Ithas been obferved by Mr. Loudon, in his work on farming and improving country refidences, that thefe are materials which fhould be introduced with caution; and that none of the others require fo much tafte and judgment to manage them with propriety as urns, ftatues, bufts, mo- numents, and infcriptions. ‘The introduétion of ftatues, except among works of the moft artificial kind, is feldom or ever, it 1s faid, to be allowed; as when they ob- trude themfelves among natural beauties, they always difturb the train of ideas that ought to be excited in the mind, and in general deftroy the charaéter of the fcenery. In the fame way, urns, bufts, monuments, and other fuch figures, in flower-gardens, are, it is thought, quite mif- placed, as may be felt in many fuch, by any perfon capable of attending to his own mind, and who uhderttands the prin- ciples of tafte. The obvious intention of fuch appendages is, it is fuppofed, to recal to mind the virtues, qualities, or actions of thofe for whom they were ereéted. Now, it is faid, this requires time, feclufion, and undifturbed attention, which muft either render all the flowers and other decora- tions of the ornamental garden of no effeét ; or, if they have effe&t, it can only be to interrupt the train of ideas excited by the other. As the garden, and the produétions of na- ture in it, are what are intended to intereft the {peétator, it is plain, the writer thinks, that the others fhould not be in- troduced. This reafoning, while on the one hand it fhews the abfurdity of fuch a practice, on the other, it is faid, direéts that urns, monuments, and fuch like figures, fhould only be placed in folitary and unfrequented parts, where the mind is naturally led to contemplate, and where the remem- brance of the virtues of great men, or the worth of relations now no more, afford proper fubjeé&ts of contemplation. But even in places apparently folitary, or fecluded, thefe have been introduced in fo affeted or improper a manner, as to furnifh reafon, it is faid, for the greateft caution in future. Though ftatues may fometimes come in well in fublime produGtions of architef&ture, they can feldom raife any fublime emotion, when they become principal in any fcenery, as when they are ufed among trees, flowers, or in fhrub- beries. If placed among fuch feenery to be admired as works of art, as fine pieces of {eulpture, they will never, it is faid, fufficiently intereft any but fuch contraéted con- noifleurs as would not enjoy the other objects, and would much diftraé the attention of men of true tafte, as is the cafe with thofe in many places. Infcriptions, merely as fuch, it is faid, are in general def- picable refources, and only indicate conceit and want of mind. If the infcription be appofite, we are much better pleafed to feel or recolleét the coincidence on reading, it is faid, than to be told it by others; if it be foreign, or far fetched, it argues a gro{s defeét in thofe who placed it there, and ferves to excite ridicule; if it be merely a whim or fancy, as where an urn or feat in a pleafure- ground exhibits in large letters fomething trifling, it is difgufting. Urn, Urna, was alfo a Roman meafure for liquid things ; URQ containing about three gallons and a half of Englifh wine meafure. The urn was half the amphora, and four times the congius. UROCRITERIUM, or Urocrista, compounded of 2p0, urine, and xgirnpiov, criterion, mark, fign, a cafling of water, or giving judgment on difeafes by the fight of water. See Urine. Hence, alfo, uromancy, urofcopy, &c. UROGALLUS Mayor, in Ornithology. See TetRao, and alfo Cock of the Mountain, and Grouse. Urocatius Minor. See TreTrao, and alfo Grouse. UROMASTIX, in Zoology, a name ufed by fome au- thors for that fort of lizard called cordylus. UROPIGIUM, in Ornithology, or rump, is that part of birds which is furnifhed with two glands, fecreting a fattifh liquor from an orifice in each, and which the birds exprefs with their bills, in order to oil the difeompofed parts of their feathers. UROS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Ligu- ria, W. of Cariftum. UROSPERMUM, in Botany, from oupa, a tail, and onepuc, feed, a name which originated with Scopoli, and is retained by Juffieu for the ARNoprocon of recent authors ; fee that genus, defcribed at length, at the end of our article 'TRAGOPOGON. UROTAL, in Mythology, a name given among the Ara- bians to Dionyfius, or Bacchus, under which appellation they worfhipped the fun. See Voffius de Idol. 1. 1. c. 8. UROTCHITSCHE Tascurt, in Geography, a moun- tain of Ruffia, on the north coaft of the feaof Aral. N. lat. 45° 30'. E. long. 60° 14/. UROV, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Argunia, near Urovka. UROVKA, a town of Roffia, on the Argunia, on the borders of China; 120 miles E. of Stretenflk. _ VROW-Fisu, in /chthyology, the name of a frefh-water fifh of the malacoftomous, or, as we call it, the leather- mouthed kind, caught in the lakes and rivers of Germany, and efteemed a very delicate fifh. ; It is fomething like the Englifh rudd or finfcale, but its body is fomewhat longer, in proportion to its breadth; its back is brown, and its belly yellow ; the belly-fins near the anus are a little reddifh, but all the reft are brown ; the fcales are large and filvery, and the irifes of the eyes have each, in their lower part, a blood-coloured {pot ; the tail is forked ; and its ufual fize is about feven or eight inches, though it is fometimes caught confiderably larger. Willughby’s Hitt. Pifc. p. 253. URPANUS, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable river of Pannonia, which difcharged itfelf into the Danube. URPHA, in Geography. See OuRFa. URQUHART, a parifhin the fhire of Elgin, Scotland, is fituated on the coaft of the Moray Firth, between the rivers Loffie and Spey, and extends about four miles in length, and three in breadth ; but contains no creek or land- ing place of any kind. The north-weit part is flat, and the foil fandy, rifing only a few feet above the level of the fea; and probably has been formerly inundated, as there are evi- dent marks of the fea having receded from the coaft. The remainder of the parifh is more elevated, and of an unequal furface ; the air is mild and falubrious ; the roads are in ex- cellent repair; and the church is in good condition. The loch of Cotts, which is about a mile in circuit, contains pike only ; it is frequented in winter by a great number of fwans ; and in the fpring and autumn by vail flocks of wild fowls. In URQ In the population return of 1811, this parifh is ftated to contain 229 houfes, and 936 inhabitants. Four-fifths of the parifh isthe property of the earl of Fife, whofe plantations cover an extent of 2478 acres, and add greatly to the beauty and ornament of the country. Innes-houfe, one of the nu- merous feats of the earl, isa noble manfion: it was formerly the refidence of the ancient family of Innes, whofe annals are marked with fignal calamities. A priory was founded in this parifh fo early as the year 1125, by king David I.; the {cite has been recently converted into an arable field ; and the name of Abbey-Well, which the country-people ftill give to the fountain that fupplied the monks with water, is the only memorial now remaining.—Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlifle’s Topographical Di€tionary of Scotland, 1813. Ureaunart is alfo the name of a parifh, now united with that of Glen-Morifton, inthe fhire of Invernefs, Scotland. The united parifhes occupy an extent of 30 miles in length, and from 8 to 12 miles in breadth. By the return of the year 1811, the population is ftated to be 2446 ; the number of houfes 482. The church is fituated at Kilmore, in Urquhart : at Meikly, fix miles up the country, is a good chapel; and in Glen-Morifton are two refpeCtable meeting-houfes, where the duty is performed by a miffionary minifter. The fur- face is, in general, mountainous, but comprehends the two valleys of Urquhart and Glen-Morifton, which extend in a wetternly direétion from loch Nefs, nearly parallel to each other, and feparated by a ridge of lofty mountains; the higheft of which, Mealfuarmhonie, is elevated 3060 feet above the level of the fea. Urquhart is a rich, though not a deep, loam, and uncommonly fruitful; the foil of Glen- Morifton is very inferior, being light and fandy. Three rivers pafs through thefe parifhes, the Morilfton, Emeric, and Coiltie ; they all fall into loch Nefs, and in their courfe form feveral magnificent cafcades. The roads and bridges are in good repair; and at Borlem, a fubftantial bridge of three arches has been recently built over the Coiltie. Ona rocky promontory, on the W. fide of loch Nefs, are the ruins of Urquhart-caftle: the loch wafhes the eaft wall, and the other three fides were fortified with a ftrong rampart, a ditch, and a drawbridge. Within the walls were accommodations for five hundred men. This caftle was a royal fort, and was granted by king James IV. in 1509, with the lordfhip of Urquhart, to fir John Grant, chief of that ancient family, and anceftor to the prefent earl of Seafield. In the valley oppofite to the caftle are the remains of a religious houfe which belonged to the knights templars ; and the {cite is ftill called * The Temple.”” At Corrymony, in Glen-Morifton, are to be feen veftiges of a druidical temple, in which the middle of the circle is occupied by a cairn of loofe ftones, on the fummit of which is one very large ftone.—Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806. Beauties of Scotland, vol. v., Invernefs- fhire, 1808. Carlifle’s Topographical DiGtionary of Scot- land, 1813. Uraqunart is alfo a parifh, now united with that of Logie-Welter, fituated partly in the fhire of Nairn, and partly in the fhire of Rofs, Scotland. It extends about nine miles in length, and four in breadth ; lying along the eaftern fide of the Firth of Cromarty, and terminated by the river Conan, which here difcharges itfelf into that arm of the fea. The furface is level, diverfified by fertile fields, and fheltered by plantations. A new church has been lately built, on a more eligible fituation than the old ftru€ture. The population of the united parifhes was ftated, in the re- turn of the year 1811, to be, for that part in the fhire of Nairn, 1510, occupying 369 houfes, and for the part in Rofsfhire, 2664, in 634 houfes; making a total of 1003 Vor. XXXVII. URS houfes, and 4174 ihhabitants. The property of the whole is divided among three heritors, who all poffefs elegant feats. Thefe are, Findon, the property of fir Roderick Macken- zie, of Scattwell: on this eftate is a {mall market-town, on the high road from Dingwall to Cromarty, where four an- nual fairs are held: Ferrintofh, belonging to Mr. Forbes of Culloden ; this barony long enjoyed the exclufive privilege of diftillmg whifly without being fubje& to the excife laws ; but in 1786 the right was refumed by government, the fupe- rior of the barony being allowed 20,000/. as a compenfation : and Conan-fide, the feat of fir He€&tor Mackenzie, of Gair- loch, on whofe eftate are plantations of firs and foreft-trees, of confiderable extent, and in a flourifhing condition.—Ga- zetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlifle’s Topographical Dic- tionary of Scotland, 1813. URRIN, a river of the county of Wexford, Ireland, which joins the Slaney, alittle fouth of Ennifcorthy. URRIS Heap, acape of the county of Mayo, Ireland, the northern point of the peninfula of the Mullet. N. lat. Tepes IVs lOnperQunG Ton URRISBEG, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of Galway, near the fea-coalt ; 38 miles W. of Galway. URROLA, ariver of Spain, in Guipufcoa, which runs into the fea, between the Orio and the Deva. URROZ, atown of Spain, in Navarre; 12 miles S.S.E. of Pamplona. URRY, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied to a fort of blue or black clay, lying near a vein of coal. URSA, in Affronomy, the Bear, a name common to two conftellations of the northern hemifphere, near the pole ; dif- tinguifhed by Major and Minor. Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, according to Ptole- my’s Catalogue, confifts of 35 {tars ; according to Tycho’s, of 56; according to Hevelius’s, of 73; but in the Britan- nic Catalogue, we have 87. See CoNsTELLATION. Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, called alfo Charles’s Wain ; and, by the Greeks, Cynofura; and its neighbourhood to the north pole gives the denomination opxroc, bear, to it. Ptolemy makes it confift of 8 ftars; Tycho, of 7; He- velius, of 12; but Mr. Flamfteed of 24. See ConsTxL- LATION. Ursa, Cape, in Geography, a cape of Sicily, on the N. coaft. N. lat. 38°18’. E. long. 13° 11/. URSAKOWA, a town of Pruflia, in the territory of Culm ; 15 miles N.E. of Thorn. URSCHENDOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Ga- licia ; 28 miles S.W. of Lublin. URSEL, a town of Germany, in the county of Ko- nigftein ; 5 miles E.N.E. of Konigftein. URSENTANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in the interior of Lucania. Pliny. URSEOLA, or Ursoris, a town of Gallia Narbon- nenfis, upon the route from Milan to Vienna, in pafling by the Cottian Alps. See Ursoxt. URSEREN, in Geography, a celebrated valley of Swit- zerland, into which is an opening by a fubterranean paflage, through a rock of granite, called “ Urner-loch,’”’ 9 feet broad, 10 high, and 220 long. In this valley are four vil- lages, viz. Urferen, Hopital, Realp, and Zandorf, which form a {mall republic under the proteétion of Uri. Its ter- ritory is about nine miles in length, and two in breadth, and contains about 1300 inhabitants. The people, in their ge- neral affembly, ele& their “‘ Talamman,” or chief, and a fo fome other magiitrates ; and there is a permanent council of fifteen members, who affemble in each of the different dif- 4 A tricts. URS tri&ts. The people enjoy great privileges, but are not abfo- lutely independent; for in civil caufes an appeal lies from their courts of juftice to Altdorf, and in criminal proceed- ings, two deputies from the government of Uri are prefent at the trial, and deliver to the judges of the valley the opi- nion of the council of Altdorf. This valley, though ele- vated and cold, affords excellent pafture. Above the village of Urferen is a {mall plantation of pines, the only wood in the valley, excepting a fmall quantity of underwood and {tubbed willows, that feather the banks of the Reufs. In the adjacent country there are feveral mines of cryital, a con- fiderable quantity of which is exported. The language of the natives is a kind of provincial German, but almoit every perfon {peaks Italian. The valley of Urferen is furrounded by high mountains, covered with pafture, terminating in barren rocks, in many parts capped with fnow. Coxe’s Switzerland, vol. i. URSHULT, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ; 22 miles S. of Wexio. URSIGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares ; 16 miles W. of Morzapour. URSINIA, in Botany, fo named by Gertner, appears to have been intended as a tribute to the memory of the Rev. John Henry Urfinus, formerly a clergyman at Ratif- bon, author of a learned oétavo volume, entitled Arboretum Biblicum, publifhed at Nuremberg in 1685, after its author’s deceafe, in 1667. Gaertn. v. 2. 462. t. 174. Poiret in Lamarck Did. v.8. 256. This is the fame genus with Mr. Brown’s SPHENOGYNE, (fee that article,) under which it ought to have been cited as a fynonym. We know not why its earlier name was changed, the labours of Urfinus, though generally compilations, undoubtedly entitling him to fuch a memorial. There was alfo a Leonard Urfinus, profeffor of Botany at Leipfic, who died in 1664, at the age of forty- fix, having written upon the Tulip, and on the White Lily, with a double flower ; but thefe treatifes were merely acade- mical effays, probably of no greatmoment. See Dryander’s Bibl. Bankf. v. 3. 260, and Hialler’s Bibl. Bot. v. 1. 536, and v. 2..685. ~URSINJAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Fars, principally diftinguifhed for a ftrong and narrow-defile, bearing the fame name. This pafs is on the dire& road leading from Shirauz to Kerman ; 58 miles from the former, and 100 from Robat, the eaftern frontier of Fars. It is nearly two miles long, and not exceeding fifty yards in breadth. In fome places, the mountains on either fide rife perpendicularly to a great height ; and, in the opinion of Mr. Pottinger, the place might be defended, with a very’{mall force, againft any number of men. ‘The coun- try between this and Robat is tolerably cultivated, and in fome places very picturefque. URSINS, Jean-JouveNAL DES, in Biography, a prelate and hiftorian of the 15th century, was advanced to feveral potts, civil and ecelefiaftical, and in 1449 became archbifhop of Rheims, under which charaGter he confecrated Lewis XI. In confequence of his revifion, in concert with other prelates, of the fentence pronounced againft the maid of Orleans, it was revoked. His learning and epifcopal virtues eftablifhed a refpeGtable chara&er ; and he clofed his life at the age of eighty-five, in the year 1473. His “¢ Hiftory of the Reign of Charles VI., from 1380 to 1422,”’ is faid to be written with correGinefs and integrity. It was firft publifhed by ‘Theodore Godefroi, in 1614, 4to.; and an improved edition rae fon appeared in 1653, fol. Moreri. Nouv. Dict. ift. URS URSINUS, Fotvius. See Orsini. Ursinus, Zacuary, whofe family name was Breer, or Bear, a German Protettant divine, was born at Breflau in 1534, and in the courfe of feven years’ ftudy at Witten- berg, recommended himfelf by his abilities and diligence to Melanéthon, who was then principal of the univerfity. He accompanied his tutor to the conference at Worms in 1557, and having vifited Calvin at Geneva, ftudied Hebrew at Paris under the learned Mercer. In the following year, he accepted an invitation from the magiftrates at Breflau to be- come reétor of their public fchool; but here a complaint was lodged again{ft him by fome Lutheran minifters, on account of his explanation of the article on the Lord’s Supper, in a book of Melanéthon’s, which they conceived to be inconfiftent with the true principles of Lutheranifm. Although he defended himfelf by a traét on the Lord’s Supper and Baptifm, the ftorm continued, fo that he applied for a difmiflion from the magiltrates, and returned to Zurich. In 1561, he was invited to Heidelberg, and was made profef- for in the college of Sapientia. In 1562, he obtained the honour of D.D., and that of the profeflorfhip of «« Loco- rum Communium,”’ or of common places ; and in this year he drew up the Heidelberg, or Palatine catechifm, publifhing alfo, by order of the elector Frederic IfJ. an apology for it, in anfwer to the remarks of fome Lutheran theologians. To the eleGtor, he rendered effential fervice in forming the plans and ftatutes of feveral fchools which he founded ; and continued at Heidelberg till Frederic’s death, in 1577. By his fuc- ceffor, Lewis, who was a ftri€t Lutheran, Urfinus was dif- miffed ; and afterwards fettled at Neuftadt, as theological profeffor in a feminary founded by prince Cafimir, the fon of Frederic. Here he alfo gave private leétures on logic, and publifhed feveral works ; but intenfe application haftened his death, which took place in 1583, when he had attained the age of forty-nine years. He was eminently learned, and an excellent teacher: in his difpofition modeit, but irritable. His various writings were colleéted after his death, and pub- Faly in 1611 at Heidelberg, in 3 vols. folio. Bayle. Gen. iog. Ursinus, BENJAMIN, originally Brur, a German ma- thematician, was born at Sprottaw, in Silefia, in1587 ; and refided for a long time as tutor to two young noblemen, along with Kepler, whom he aflifted in the conftruétion of the Rudolphine tables, firft at Prague, and then at Lintz, in Bohemia. In the latter place, he was teacher of mathema- tics; and from thence he removed to Frankfort on the Oder, to undertake a fimilar charge; and here he died in 1633. In 1628, or 1629, he publifhed, at Cologne, hie “‘ Curfus Mathematicus,”’ containing Napier’s logarithms, and fome additional tables of proportional parts; and in 1624, he printed, at the fame place, his “ Trigonometria,” with a table of natural fines and their logarithms, in Napier’s form, to every ten feconds in the quadrant, the computation of which was a work of great labour. Haller. Gen. Biog. URSITZ, Sr., or St. Urfenne, or Sonderfitz, in Geogra- phy, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Rnine ; 20 miles S.W. of Bale. N. lat. 47°25’. E. long. we 6! URSKOG, a town of Norway, on the Glanmen; 44 miles N.N.E. of Frederickttadt. URSNACH, a town of the Helvetian republic, in the canton of Appenzel; 8 miles S.W. of Appenzel. URSO, (Ofura or Ofana,) in Ancient Geography, atown of Hifpania, in Beetica, fituated towards the weit. It had the title of a republic in an infcription; and its medals, badly URS badly executed, had on one fide an unknown head, and on the other a {phynx. URSOLI, a place that occurs in the Itin. of Anton. be- tween Valence and Vienne. URSPERG, in Geography, a princely abbey of Germany ; 16 miles W.S.W. of Aug(burg. ; ~ URSULA, Sr., a town of the duchy of Stiria; 8 miles W.S.W. of Marburg. ~ URSULINES, an order of nuns, who obferve the rule of St. Auguftine; and are chiefly noted for taking on them the education and inftru€tion of young maids. ‘ They take their name from their inftitutrefs St. Urfula, and are clothed in white, or black. This inftitute was firft eftablifhed in Italy by Angelus de Brefcia, in 1537; it was afterwards approved in 1544, by pope Paul III. and united in one nunnery by folemn vows, by Gregory XIII. The Urfulines of France were founded in 1611 by Magdalen Lhuillier, lady of St. Beuve. Their chief houfe is at Paris, whence they have f{pread through other parts of the kingdom. URSUS, Bear, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs of Mam- malia and order of Fere, the charaéters of which are, that the front teeth are fix both above and below, excavated within alternately ; the two lateral ones of the lower jaw longer than the reft and lobated, with fmaller or fecondary teeth at their internal bafes; the canine teeth are folitary ; the grinders are five or fix on each fide, the firft approxi- mated to the canine teeth; the tongue is fmooth; the fnout prominent ; eyes furnifhed with a ni€titating membrane. Gmelin enumerates eight f{pecies, befides feveral varieties : viz. Anrcrtos. Blackifh-brown bear, with abrupt tail. This is the urfus of Gefner, Aldrovandus, Ray, &c. the ours of Buffon, and brown bear of Pennant. The varieties men- tioned by Gmelin are the black bear with a fmaller black body, the brown bear with a brown and ferruginous body, the white bear with black body and white hairs intermixed, and the variegated bear with a body of various colours. The common bear, with fome variations as to fize and co- lour, is a native of almoft all the northern parts of Europe and Afia, and is faid to be found in fome of the Indian iflands, as Ceylon, &c.; and the brown bear is alfo found in fome of the northern parts of America, where it deftroys cattle ; but this is a different fpecies from the American black bear, which is not carnivorous. The common bear inhabits woods and unfrequented places, and feeds chiefly on roots, fruits, and other vegetables, occafionally preying on animals. In the Alpine regions, the bear is brown; in fome other parts of Europe, black; and in fome parts of Nor- way of a grey colour, and even perfe@ly white. The brown, the black, the grey, and the white land bears, are all of the fame f{pecies: though it is obferved, that the brown and the black varieties differ in their mode of life; the black confining itfelf almoft wholly to vegetable food ; whereas the brown bear frequently attacks and preys upon other animals, and deftroys lambs, kids, and even fometimes cattle, fuck- ing the blood like the cat and weafel tribes. Linnzus adds, that the bear has a mode of blowing up his prey, and of hiding or burying a part of it. Bears are faid to be fond of honey, and to climb trees in fearch of it among the nefts of wild bees. They fometimes take up their refidence in the hollows of very large trees. They will alfo catch and devour fifth, occafionally frequenting the banks of rivers for that purpofe. The bear paffes a confiderable part of the winter in a ftate of repofe and abftinence, emerging from his den occafionally at diftant intervals, and then concealing himfelf in his retreat URS till the approach of the vernal feafon. The females continue in this ftate longer than the males, and during this period bring forth their young, which are commonly two in number. The young, though not fhapelefs animals, as fome have er- roneoufly conceived, differ in their afpe& from the grown animal, the fnout being much fharper, and their colour yel- lowifh ; and they are faid to be blind for nearly a month. Amenricanus. The black bear, with ferruginous cheeks and throat; the black bear of Pennant. This, fays Dr. Shaw, is a fpecies dittin@ from the black bear of Europe, and has a Jong pointed nofe, and narrow forehead ; the hair of a glofly black colour, fmoother and fhorter than that of the European kind, and is generally fmaller than the Eu- ropean bear. This animal inhabits all the northern parts of America, and occafionally migrates to the more foutherly parts in fearch of food, which is faid to be entirely vege- table; and it is affirmed, that when urged by extreme hunger, they will difregard all animal food whenever they can obtain a fupply of roots and grain. They, however, fometimes deftroy fifh, and particularly herrings, when they come up into the creeks in fhoals. They are faid to con- tinue in their winter retreats, either in dens beneath the fhow under ground, or in the hollows of old trees, for the fpace of five or fix weeks without food. The yellow bear from Carolina is fuppofed to be a variety of the former: it is rather fmaller than the European bears, with a more agree- able countenance, and is perfeétly tame and fociable; the colour being of a lively bright orange, inclining to reddifh ; the hair is thick, long, and filky. Maritimus. White bear, with elongated neck and head, and abrupt tail: the urfus maritimus albus major ar€ticus of Martens Spitzbergen, the ours blanc of Buffon, and the Polar bear of Pennant. (See Porar, or White Bear.) Thefe bears, when on land, feed on deer and other animals, as hares, birds, &c. and various kinds of berries. They are faid to be frequently feen in Greenland in large droves, allured by the fcent of the flefh of feals, and will fometimes furround the habitations of the natives, and attempt to break in; and it is added, that the moft fuccefsful method of repelling them is by the {mell of burnt feathers. They grow extremely fat, a hundred pounds of fat having been taken from a fingle beaft. The flefh is coarfe, but the fkin is valued for coverings of various kinds, and the Green- landers often wear it for clothing. Thefe fkins were for- merly offered by the hunters in the artic regions to the high altars of cathedrals and other churches, for the prieft to {tand on during the celebration of mafs in winter. The fplit tendons are faid to form an excellent thread. Pennant and Shaw. For the method of hunting the bear, fee Bear. Metres. The Badger (which fee) with unmarked tail, body cinereous or grey above, black below, and a longitu- dinal black band through the eyes and ears. ‘The common badger is the meles of Gefner, the taxus of Aldrovandus, and the blaireau of Buffon. This animal is an inhabitant of all the temperate parts of Europe and Afia: its form is clumfy, being thick-necked and thick-bodied, with very fhort legs. It commonly lodger in a hole under-ground, whence it emerges in the night in queft of food, which confifts chiefly of roots and fruits, and occafionally of frogs, worms, &c. Its eyes are {mall, and its ears fhort and round; and the claws of its fore-feet are very long and {traight, which latter circum- itance has induced Pennant to rank it under a genus diftiné from that of urfus or bear. Some have, without juft reaton, diftinguifhed between the fow-badger and the dog-badger, the difference being merely fexual. The hair is thick; the teeth, legs, and clatvs, are very ftrong; fo that it defends it- felf vigoroufly when attacked. The young badger may be 4A 2 eafily URS eafily tamed, and it generally prefers raw flefh to every other food in a ftate of captivity. It is a cleanly animal, and keeps its habitation very neat. The female produces about three or four young. Like the bear, this animal is fond of honey, and will attack hives in order to obtain it. Pennant will not admit the badger to be a carnivorous animal, though Buffon afferts, that it drags young rabbits out of their bur- rows, and feizes birds, eggs, {nakes, and many other animals, for feeding her young. The badger fleeps much, efpecially in winter, confining himfelf to his den in a_ftate of femi- torpidity. Ridinger has figured a fingular variety of badger, of a white colour, with brown and reddifh patches. Gmelin mentions two varieties, one white above and below yellowith; and the other {potted, white with reddifh and brown fpots. The former is found in New York ; the latter is very rarely met with in forefts, in the fiffures of rocks and ftones. For the method of hunting the badger, fee Hunrine. Lasraporius. The badger with the tip of the tail vil- lous, and of a brownifh-yellow colour ; the throat, breaft, and abdomen white, and the feet four-toed: it is the pale yel- lowifh-grey badger, with the throat and belly white, and the head ftriped with black. This is the American badger of Pennant and carcajou of Buffon: and fo much refembles the common, that it may be taken for a variety of it. This fpecies is rather fcarce in America, It is found in the neighbourhood of Hudfon’s bay, and in Terra di Labrador, and, according to Pennant, as low as Pennfylvania, where it is called the ground hog. A variety of this occurs in fome parts of America, with the under parts flightly tinged with yellow : it is the firft variety of common badger mentioned by Gmelin. Loror. The bear with annulated tail, and black tranf- verfe band acrofs the eyes. This is the bear with a long tail of the Stockholm aéts 1747, the bear with annulated varie- gated tail of Briffon, the mapach of Fernand and Nieremb., the raton of Buffon, the coati of Ray, &c. and the raccoon of Kalm, Pennant, &c. See Rackoon. Luscus. The bear with a long tail, ferruginous body, dufky fnout, the forehead and lateral part of the body whitifh. This is the quick-hatch or wolverene of Edwards, and the wolverene of Pennant. Dr. Shaw fuggeits, that it is merely a variety of the next fpecies. It 1s about twice the fize of the common fox, and the defcription given of it by Edwards is as follows :—All the fnout, upper and under jaw, as far as the eyes, is of a black colour; the forehead above becomes gradually of a whitifh colour; the eyes are of a dark colour; the throat and lower fide of the neck white, the firft {potted with black, having fome tranfverfe bars of black on the under fide of the neck; the ears are {mall and round, appearing but little longer than the hair that grows on the head; they are covered with fhort brown hair; the hind part of the head and neck, the whole body both above and beneath, the legs and tail, are all of a brown or chefnut-colour, clouded lighter and darker, viz. the up- per fide of the neck and beginning of the back is dufky, or very dark brown, which gradually changes to a lighter or more pleafant brown in the middle of the back ; this colour again grows by degrees darker, till it becomes almoft black in the hind part of the back; the tail towards the tip be- comes of a dufky-colour; it hath a broad bar of very light afh-coloured brown paffing round the body, beginning at each fhoulder, proceeding on the fides backwards, and meet- ing on the rump, juit above the tail, where it is broadett. The fur on the whole body is pretty long, and feems not to lie fo flat to the {kin as in fome animals. All the feet, as far as the heel or firft joint, are covered with fhort black 10 URS hair, which gradually becomes brown above the knees ; the claws are of a light horn-colour ; it hath on each foot for- wards four toes; the hind feet have five toes each. Guo. The bear with tail of the fame colour, rufous- brown body, and middle of the back black. The gulo of Gefn. and Aldrov., and the glutton of Buffon. It is confi- derably larger than a badger, but varying in fize: the muzzle, as far as beyond the eyes, is blackifh-brown, and covered with hard fhining hair; over the forehead, down the fides of the head between the eyes and ears, runs a whitifh or afh-coloured band or fillet; the top of the head and whole length of the back are black-brown, the colour widening fomewhat over the fides as it pafles on, and again leffening or contraGting towards the tail; or the defcription might be given in other words, by faying, that the colour of the body is a fine glofly black-brown, with a ferruginous tinge along the fides, fo as to form a broad lateral zone ; but it is to be obferved, that the animal varies confiderably in colour; fometimes appearing black, with a fubferru- ginous lateral band ; and at other times of a chefnut-colour ; the feet are black. Agreeably to its name, it has the cha- raéter of being very voracious, preying indifcriminately both on frefh food and carrion. One of thefe animals would eat thirteen pounds of flefh in a day, without being {atisfied. It attacks deer, birds, field-mice, &c. and even fometimes the larger cattle ; and is faid to fit on the branches of trees, and fuddenly to fpring down on fuch animals as happen to pafs beneath; tearing them, and fucking the blood, till they fall down through faintnefs, when it begins to devour the fpoil. In winter, it feeks out and catches ptarmigans under the fnow. What it cannot devour at once it is faid to hide under ground, or in the cavity of fome tree. It is faid to be an animal of uncommon fiercenefs and ftrength ; and will fometimes difpute the prey both with the wolf and bear. It is alfo extremely fetid. It breeds once a year, and brings from two to four young at a litter. The fur is much ufed for muffs, linings, &c. Thofe fkins are faid to be preferred which have leaft of the ferruginous tinge ; and for this reafon the Siberian variety, which is blacker than the reft, is moft efteemed. The glutton is a native of the moft northern parts of Europe and Afia, and is found in Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Siberia, as well as in fome of the Alpine regions, and in the forefts of Poland and Courland, and in the northern parts of America. Inpicus. The badger white above and black beneath, firft defcribed by Pennant from a {pecimen brought from India, and in the poffeffion of the late Mr. John Hunter. It had five toes on each foot, with long, ftraight claws; the head {mall, the nofe pointed, with fcarcely any appearance of external ears; the colour of the nofe, and face a little be- yond the eyes, black ; the crown, upper part of the neck, back, and upper part of the tail, white, inclining to greyifh; the legs, thighs, breaft, belly, fides, and under part of the tail, black. Its food is flefh, and its difpofition lively and playful. Dr. Shaw obferves, that this animal feems to be nearly allied to the genus viverra; and particularly to the fpecies V. mellivora and V. capenfis. See VIVERRA. URTAMSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tobolfk, on the Oby; 52 miles W. of ‘Tom{k. URTICA, in Botany, an ancient name, derived from uro, to burn, or fting, and alluding to that property, for which the original and familiar fpecies of this genus, our common Nettles, are univerfally known. For the mode in which this ftinging is accomplifhed, fee Pusrscence. A great proportion of the {pecies, however, are fimply downy, and URTICA. and harmlefs.—Linn. Gen. 486. Schreb. 633. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 347- Mart. Mill. Dig. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. to14. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 233. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 261. Purfh 112. Juff. 403. Tourn. t. 308. Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 4. 636. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 761. Gertn. t. 119.—Clafs and order, Monoecia Te- trandria. Nat. Ord. Scabride, Linn. Urtica, Juff. Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of four roundifh, con- cave, obtufe leaves. Cor. Petals none. Neétary, the rudi- ment of a germen, central, {mall, pitcher-fhaped, undivided, tapering at the bafe. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, f{preading, the length of the calyx, and oppofite to its leaves ; anthers of two globular cells. Female, generally on the fame plant, .Ca/. Perianth of two ovate, concave, erect, permanent valves. Cor. none. Pift. Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyle none; ftigma downy. Peric. none, except the clofed calyx. Seed folitary, ovate, comprefled, blunt-edged, polithed. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of. four leaves. Rudiment of a germen cup-fhaped. Female, Calyx of two leaves. Corolla none. fuperior, polifhed. Corolla none. Seed one, Se&. 1. Leaves oppofite. 1. U. pilulifera. Roman Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1395. Willd. n. 1. Fil. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 148. Mill. Illuftr. t. 79. Dodart Mem. t. 38. f. 1. (U. romana; Ger. Em. 706. Fuchf. Hift. 106. Lob. Ic. 522. U. prima; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 469.) @. U. balearica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1395. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. “ Blackwell Herb. t. 321. f. 1.” Leaves oppofite, ovate or fomewhat heart-fhaped, deeply ferrated. Heads of fruit globofe.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Abundant amongft ftones and rubbifh on the coafts of Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering in June and July, and laden with ripening feed through the autumn. Root annual. Herb branched, bufhy, armed in every part with extremely venomous ftings, whofe wounds are more painful than thofe of our two common fpecies. The /fem is bluntly quadrangular, often purplifh. Leaves ftalked, varying much in breadth; fometimes nearly lanceolate ; fometimes broadly ovate, or heart-fhaped, even from the fame feed, or on the fame plant, fo that U. balearica, which has the latter charaéter, is a mere variety : they are always of a dark and lurid green, copieufly and very coarfely ferrated, rugged, veiny. Flowers pale green, on axillary, generally twin, ftalks, one of which is panicled, bearing numerous diftant male blofloms; the other capitate, with only female ones. The fruit is a very prickly ftinging ball, three quarters of an inch in diameter, compofed of numerous tumid calyces, each containing a brown /eed, like flax, but fmaller, as Diofcorides well defcribes it, this plant being, doubtlefs, his firft fpecies of axadvdn, or Nettle. Dr. Sibthorp found it very common in Greece and the Archipelago. Linnzus quotes under U. balearica, U. pilulifera, foliis cordatis cir- cumferratis ; Hall. Helv. 27. By way of correction, Will- denow inferts ed. pr. or the firft edition! But it fhould be Hall. Goett. 27, where this paflage may be found, with a reference to Dodonzus, and to Malchant, which fhould be Marchant, or rather perhaps Dodart. This reference, however, belongs to U. pilulifera. Schorigenam; Hort. Mal. v. 2. t. 39, is moreover quoted, though the plant there figured and defcribed is Tragia involucrata. Such is too often the hiltory of fynonyms! The following fpecies will fhew why we judged it neceflary to unravel, with much labour, the above citation. 2. U. Dodartii. WDodart’s Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1395. Willd. n. 3. Ait. a. 3. (U. altera pilulifera, parietariz foliis; Dodart Mem., Amiterdam edition, 633. t. 38. f, 2.)—Leaves oppofite, ovate, nearly entire. Heads of fruit globofe.—The native ceuntry of this fpecies is not known, but the plant occurs frequently, as an annual weed, in cultivated ground, in England as well as in France, and is, to ufe the words of Dodart, more difficult to deftroy than to raife. Linnzus juftly thought the prefent a doubtful {pecies, there being no difference between it and the fore- going, except the nearly entire /eaves, and more flender habit. The late Mr. Davall gathered a wild {pecimen near Martigny, in Switzerland, of what he took for U. pilulifera, but which feems to us U. Dodartii, more ferrated than ufual, though ftill very unlike the broad coarfe pe&tinated ferratures of the pilulifera or balearica, to which this {peci- men, neverthelefs, betrays an affinity, and confirms the fuf- picion of Linneus, of their being all too nearly related. Haller’s having none of thefe fpecies in his work on Swifs plants, made us anxious to determine Mr. Davall’s plant, and to clear up the citation above mentioned. U. Dodartii ought now perhaps to find a place in the Flora Helvetica, though Schleicher has it not in his lifts. U. integrifolia, Lamarck n. 4, we prefume to be a lanceolate-leaved variety of Dodariii. 3. U. pumila. Dwarf Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1395. Willd. n. 4. Purfh n. 1.—Leaves oppofite, ovate, blunt- pointed, three-ribbed, ferrated. Flower-ftalks fomewhat corymbofe, fhorter than the footftalks.—In fhady woods, among rocks, from Canada to Carolina. Annual, flower- ing in July. Smooth and fhining, very variable in fize. Purfh. he /lem in our f{pecimens is fimple, about a {pan high, fquare, flightly downy, almoft naked in the lower part. Leaves an inch long, more or lefs, bluntly ferrated, nearly fmooth and naked; the lower foot/lalks longett. Flowers crowded, as if whorled. 4. U. longifolia. Long-leaved Nettle. Willd. n. 5. (U. verbafcifolia; Lamarck n. 21.) — Leaves oppofite, elliptic-obovate, acute at each end, triple-ribbed, ferrated. Corymbs axillary, denfe, fhorter than the footftalks.—Ga- thered by Commerfon, in the ifland of Mauritius. Accord- ing to a note, attached to one of Commerfon’s {pecimens, what Lamarck and Willdenow took for a branch, is nearly the whole of the plant, its fem being fimple, not much above a foot high, angular, clothed with minute clofe- prefled hairs or briftles, and bearing about four pair of ftalked, rarely almoft feffile, eaves, four or five inches long, and one and a half or two inches broad, roughifh on both fides with minute depreffed briftles. Their ferratures are fhallow, moft numerous towards the extremity. Flowers copious and fmall. Seeds thick-edged. The afpe& of this {pecies is like a Procris or ELarostema (fee the latter article). Lamarck’s name, verba/cifolia, is changed unwar , rantably for the worfe, by Willdenow. 5. U. cujfpidata. Pointed-leaved Nettle. Willd. n. 6. (U. lucens ; Lamarck n. 22, without any doubt. )—Leaves oppofite, ovate, pointed, ferrated, three-ribbed, fmooth, and fhining. Corymbs axillary, capillary, lax, {preading, nearly as long as the footftalks.—Gathered by Commerfon in the Mauritius. The dranches are round, purplifh, very {mooth, leafy. Leaves two or three inches long, ftrongly though bluntly ferrated ; fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe ; their points bluntifh and entire. oot/lalks varying in length from one to two inches. Corymbs often in pairs on one common ftalk, on fome {pecimens much fhorter than the footitalks. Flowers very {mall. Seeds minute, brown, {carcely bordered. 6. U. peduncularis. Long-ftalked Nettle.—Leaves op- polite, ovate, pointed, ferrated, three-ribbed, {mooth. Panicles URTICA. Panicles axillary, racemofe; their common ftalks longer than the footftalks, or even the leaves.—Native of Java. Communicated by Thouin to the younger Linnzus. We cannot find any account of this {pecies, which is very dif- tin@, and among the moft handfome and confpicuous. The /eaves are three inches long, and half as broad ; their bafe not heart-fhaped ; their points fmaller than in the latt 5 their ferratures finer and fharper. Flowers in large axillary panicles, whofe branches are alternate, racemofe, and tufted; the male ones thrice as large as in the foregoing, and their common ftalk ftout, longer than the adjoining leaf with its footftalk ; the female panicle is lower down, rather fhorter than the leaf, with much {maller flowers. 7. U. crafffolia. Thick-leaved Nettle. Willd. a. 7.— “ Leaves oppofite, ovate-oblong, acute, three-ribbed, fer- rated, thickifh; reticulated and pale beneath. Corymbs ftalked, forked, longer than the leaves. Flowers tufted.”’— Suppofed to be a native of South America. Willdenow faw only an imperfe&t garden fpecimen, with the above name. The /fem is fhrubby. Leaves ftalked, an inch and a half long, veiny, rather flefhy, clothed on both fides with fhort hairs, which on the under one are fo copious, as to give a whitifh hue to that furface. Foot/talks half an inch long. Corymbs’ axillary, on long ftalks, reaching beyond the leaves. Flowers in roundifh heads. 8. U. grandifolia. Great-leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1396. Willd. n.8. Ait. .n. 4. (U. iners racemofa fyl- vatica, folio nervofo; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 124. t. 83. f. 2.) —Leaves oppofite, ovate, pointed, copioufly ferrated. Stipulas elliptical, entire, glaucous. | Corymbs much branched, axillary, longer than the footftalks.—Native of Jamaica, in fhady woods. Svem from eighteen inches to four feet high. Leaves from five inches to a foot or more in length, three-ribbed, ftalked; roughifh above ; fmooth and glaucous beneath. Stipulas in pairs within the foot- ftalks, permanent, broadly ovate, or fomewhat heart-fhaped, fmooth, glaucous and purplifh. //owers brownifh, minute, very numerous, tufted. g- U. macrophylla. Doubly-ferrated Japan Nettle. Thunb. Jap. 69. Willd. n. 9.—‘‘ Leaves oppofite, roundifh, doubly ferrated. Flowers panicled.””? — Found near Nagafaki, and in Kofido, in Japan, flowering in Sep- tember and Oétober. The /lem is {quare, furrowed, pur- plifh, and like the reft of the plant finely downy. Leaves ftalked, by no means heart-fhaped, three-ribbed, acute, four inches wide, rough with hairs, with deep-cut ferratures, which are feparately ferrated. Foot/lalls fhorter than the leaves. Panicles axillary. Thunb. 10. U. verticillata. Whorled Nettle. Vahl Symb. v. 1. 76. Willd. n. ro. (U. iners; Forfk. Aigypt.-Arab. 160. )—* Leaves oppofite, ovate, ferrated. Flowers axil- lary, crowded, feffile.””—Native of hills in Arabia Felix. Perennial. Stems herbaceous, a foot high, branched, {quare, flender, moft hairy upwards. eaves ftalked, an inch long, bluntly ferrated, fomewhat hairy ; entire at the bafe; paler beneath. Footflalks flender, hairy, the length of the leaves. Flowers fomewhat whorled, hairy. VaAl. 11. U. reticulata. Net-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 286. Willd. n. 11. Ait. n. 5.— Leaves oppofite, elliptic-oblong, acute; ferrated towards the point; reti- culated beneath. Stipulas ovate, entire. Clufters panicled, about the length of the footftalks.—Native of ftony moun- tainous places, in the interior of Jamaica, according to Dr. Swartz, from whom we have a f{pecimen. ‘The root is pe- rennial, with many long tough fibres. This {pecies in many points approaches U. grandifolia, n. 8, but the /fem is more fhrubby, and rather taller, though the /eayes are very much 7 {maller, hardly three inches long, thicker, and reticulated beneath; they are nearly fmooth to the touch, though covered with clofe depreffed briftles, efpecially the upper furface. The flowers are very minute, copioufly panicled. Calyx of the female ones white, with an extremely narrow reddifh border. Swartz. ry we 12. U./axa. Spreading Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 288. Willd. n. 12.Leaves oppofite, ovate; pointed, ferrated. Stem lax. Flowers dioecious; the male in round heads; female in cylindrical clufters.—Native of bufhy fhady places, on the banks of rivers, in Hifpaniola, flowering in the {pring. The /fems are from three to five feet high, {mooth, pale, roundifh, branched; the branches loofely fpreading and zigzag. Leaves two or three inches in length, and nearly half as broad, ftrongly ferrated, with three principal ribs, and two {mall lateral ones, roughifh; pale and a little hairy beneath. Flower-/falks axillary, flender, longer than the footttalks. 13. U. diffufa. Recumbent Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 290. Willd. n. 13.—Leaves oppofite, ovate, acute, fer- rated, hifpid. Stipulas revolute. Stem procumbent. Clufters panicled, longer than the leaves.—Native of ftony mountains in Jamaica. The ffem is fhrubby at the bafe, procumbent, fending forth numerous {mooth, forked, round branches, lying on the ground in every direétion, to the ex- tent of two feet, but afcending at their leafy extremities. Leaves about an inch long, three-ribbed, fhining, clothed with a few fcattered harmlefs briftles. Fotfalks half as long as the leaves. Stipulas intrafoliaceous, {mall, cloven, reflexed. Cluffers axillary, oppofite, panicled, twice. the length of the leaves. #/owers monoecious, very minute. 14. U. betulefolia. Birch-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 291. Willd. n. 14.—Leaves oppofite, nearly orbi- cular, fomewhat heart-fhaped, ferrated. Stipulas oblong. Clufters compound. Stem nearly proftrate, with long run- ners.—Gathered by Dr. Swartz, in ftony fhady places, near {prings, on the hills of Hifpaniola, flowering in May and June. Root perennial, creeping, thread-fhaped. Stems herbaceous, a foot high, lax, fcarcely branched, round, leafy, fmooth, throwing out very long, flender, brittle runners from the bottom. Leaves on long fmooth ftalks, three-ribbed, veiny, {mooth, near an inch broad, deeply ferrated; thefe of the runners nearly feflile. Stipulas whitifh, undivided, obtufe, erect. Flowers extremely mi- nute, whitifh, with reddifh ftalks. 15- U. rufa. Rufty Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 292. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 6.— Leaves oppofite, elliptical, acute, ferrated, triple-ribbed ; their veins hairy. Stipulas roundifh, permanent. Clufters flightly branched. Stem fhrubby, fhaggy with rufty hairs.—Native of ftony moun- tainous places, in the fouth part of Jamaica, flowering in {fpring. The /fem is a foot high; woody, fimple, naked and fmooth in the lower part; bufhy above, leafy, and clothed with long, denfe, rufty down. Leaves three quar- ters of an inch long, neatly ferrated; their ftalks half as long. Stipulas whitifh, clafping the ftem above the foot- ftalks. Cluflers on long, hairy, axillary ftalks. Flowers minute ; the male ones largeft, intermixed with the female. Thefe laft five Weft Indian fpecies are all deftitute of flings, as well as grandifolia, n. 8, to which they are more or lefs akin, though far inferior in fize. 16. U. wrens. Small Stinging Nettle. 1396. Willd.n. 16. Fl. Brit.n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1236. Purfh n. 2... Curt. Lond. fafc. 6.t.70. Fl. Dan. t. 739. Bulliard t. 230. (U. minor; Ger. Em. 707. Fuchf. Hift. 108. Brunf. Herb. v. 1. 154. U. tertia; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 471.)—Leaves oppofite, elliptical, itrongly ferrated, Linn. Sp. Pl. URTICA. ferrated, about five-ribbed. Stipulas lanceolate, reflexed. Clufters oblong, nearly fimple.-—Common throughout Eu- rope, in cultivated ground, where it proves a moit trouble- fome annual weed, of quick growth, and very prolific, often producing two crops in a year. In America it is more rare. The herd is rather bufhy, bright green, armed all over with venomous ftings. Leaves an inch or more in length, coarfely and deeply ferrated, full twice as long as their foot/talks. Stipulas {mall, narrow, reflexed. Clu/fers ftalked, drooping, hardly equal, in general, to the foot- ftalks, compofed of male and female flowers intermixed. Seeds bordered. 17. U. /patulata. Spatulate Stinging Nettle. (U. minor urentiffima ; Commerf. MSS.)—Leaves oppofite, orbicu- lar-heartfhaped, deeply ferrated, fhorter than their foot- ftalks, moftly three-ribbed. Cluifters capitate, very fhort. —Gathered by Commerfon at Monte Video. The /fem is more elongated, and lefs branched, than in the foregoing, very denfely leafy. Whole Aerd plentifully armed with long venomous ftings. Fovet/fa/ks near an inch long. Leaves about half that length, with deep-cut, acute, radiating fer- rvatures. The /fipulas we have not feen. Flowers much like U. urens, but in fhorter tufts, and the feeds appear to be lefs confpicuoufly bordered. We fufpe& this to be a perennial f{pecies. 18. U. dioica. Great Stinging Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 7396. Willd.n. 17. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 1750. Purfh n. 3. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 69. Fl. Dan. t. 746. (U. urens; Ger. Em. 706. U. major; Fuchf. Hilt. 107. Brunf. Herb. v.1. 151. U. fecunda; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 470.)—Leaves oppofite, heart-fhaped, fharply ferrated. Stipulas ovate,-diftin, {preading. Cluiters much branched, in pairs, longer than the footitalks, moftly dioecious.— Common in waite ground, throughout Europe, as well as in North America and Afia, flowering in the middle of fummer. The perennial creeping reot, larger fize and duller een of the whole plant, and the large branching flower- ftalks, render this very obvioufly diftiné from n. 16. The _ftems are three feet, or more, in height. Every part is armed with ftings. Flowers chiefly male on one plant, fe- male on another. Calyx of the latter often furnifhed with a pair of braéeas at its bafe. The fibres of the lem may be manufaCtured into thread, but are inferior to hemp. The young leaves, boiled in {pring, are not a bad fubititute for f{pinach, to which herb the Nettle is allied, as well as to the hemp, in botanical affinity. Leers remarks the two addi- tional leaves, or braéeas, to the female calyx, in, U. urens, as well as in the prefent fpecies. 19. U. gracilis. Slender-ftalked Nettle. Ait. ed. 1. Vv. 3. 341. ed. 2. n. 12. Willd. n. 29. (U. procera ; Willd. n. 18. Purfh n. 4.)—Leaves oppofite, ovato-lanceolate, ferrated ; heart-fhaped at the bafe. Stem and footftalks hif- pid. Flowers dioecious. Cluiters in pairs, fomewhat branched, about as long as the footitalks.—Native of Hud- fon’s Bay, from whence it was brought to Kew, in 1782. Aiton. Found by the fides of waters, in rocky fituations, from Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering in July and Augutt. Perennial. The fpecimen of U. gracilis, in the herbarium of A. B. Lambert, efq., agrees in every refpeé with pro- cera. Purfh. his being the cafe, we retain, of courfe, the original name. We have feen no fpecimen of either plant. U. procera is defcribed by: Willdenow as very nearly related to the common dioica, fo as to be poflibly no more than a variety ; but differing in its lefs heart-fhaped /eaves, whofe ferratures are fmaller. The footfa/ks are fringed with briftles towards the bafe of each leaf, where the divica is downy only. The /pikes, or cluflers, moreover, are lefs compound, fometimes fhorter than the footftalks, not longer. 20. U. morifolia. Mulberry-leaved Nettle. — Leaves oppofite, heart-fhaped, broadly and bluntly ferrated. Stipulas ovate, combined, reflexed. Clufters in pairs, cylindrical, unbranched, drooping.—Sent by Mutis from Mexico. Linnzus confidered it as U. dioica, from which, when examined, it manifeitly differs in the above characters, and, even at firft fight, in the broad blunt ferra- tures of the nearly naked, though rough, /eaves, whofe furface is even, not wrinkled, except when very young. The cluffers are flender, and in our {pecimen entirely female. Seed nearly orbicular, crowned with a fhort /yle. 21. U. chamedryoides. Germander Nettle. Purfh n. 5. —‘“* Leaves oppofite, almoft feffile, ovate, ferrated ; briftly beneath. Tufts of flowers axillary, feffile, nearly globofe, reflexed. Stem armed with ftings.”W—On the iflands of Georgia, St. Simon’s, &c. Me, Lyon. Annual, flower- ing in May. The aves are fmall. Stings white, very confpicuous. Purfh. 22. U. membranacea. Wing-{talked Nettle. Poiret in Lamarck n.g. Willd. n. 19. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 340. (U. caudata; Vahl. Symb. v. 2.96. U.dioica@; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1396.)—Leaves oppofite, broadly ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, coarfely ferrated. Flowers monoecious ; the male in twin, upright, unbranched, {talked fpikes, with a winged receptacle ; female in nearly feffile {pikes, fhorter than the foot{ftalks.—Native of the fouth of Europe, the north of Africa, and the ifle of Bourbon, in which laft place our fpecimen was gathered by Commerfon. The root is perennial. Herb ftinging, refembling U. dioica, but paler, more delicate, of a brighter green; the /eaves alfo are broader, rounder, lefs fharply ferrated, on longer ftalks. The /lipulas are almoft perfectly combined, fpreading. The upright, ftalked, unbranched, linear male /pikes, with their membranous-winged receptacle, form the moft remarkable charaéter of the prefent fpecies. They grow in pairs, from the bofoms of the upper /eaves, which they greatly exceed in length. The female /pikes, fituated lower down, are much fhorter, and lefs con{picuous. Their calyx is downy. 23. U. ferox. Armed Nettle. Forft. Prodr. 66. Willd. n. 20.— Leaves oppofite, haftate-heartfhaped, coarfely toothed, fringed with briftles ; downy beneath. Stipulas heart-fhaped. Clufters panicled, in pairs, longer than the footitalks.—Gathered by Forfter, in New Zeeland. A fhrub, whofe éranches and footfalks are clothed with hoary down. The midrib of each /eaf is befet, on the upper fide, with rigid briftles ; the under fide is downy. The habit of the plant refembles U. dioica. Willdenow. 24. U. ficifolia. Fig-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 10. Willd. n. 21.—Leaves oppofite, heart-fhaped, fomewhat hattate, acutely five-lobed, crenate ; downy beneath. Pa- nicles cymofe, divaricated.—Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifle of Bourbon. This appears to be a tree, with thick, rather flefhy, branches, leafy at their extremities. The leaves grow on longith footffalks, and are three inches long, nearly as much in breadth, very-irregularly five or feven- lobed, with taper points ; their upper furface almoft {mooth ; under clothed with white filky pubefcence. The fame tree fometimes bears deeply three-lobed, as deeply pinnatifid, leaves. Flowers very numerous, {mall, whitifh, in large, compound, f{preading panicles, fomewhat like the cymes of Elder, but not fo large. 25. U. cannabina.’ Hemp-leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1396. Willd. n. 22. Ait. n.g. (U. foliis profunde la- ciniatis, femine lini; Amman. Ruth. 173. t. 25.)—-Leaves oppofite, in three deep pinnatifid fegments. Clufters cy- lindrical, URTICA. lindrical, in pairs, ere&t.—Native of Siberia, efpecially beyond lake Baikal. Miller appears to have had it at Chel- fea, in 1749. A hardy perennial, five or fix feet high, flowering from July to September, well compared, in its foliage, to Hemp. The J/eaves are of a deep rich green, rough with very minute points, and a few marginal briftles, on the upper fide ; fmooth at the back. oot/lalks half the length of the leaves, armed, like the fem, with {cattered, large, and powerful ftings. C/uffers thick, an inch and a half or two inches long. being about half the length of the leaves with their footftalks. Flowers and feeds very large in proportion to moft of the foregoing. Calyx befet with flings. : BG U. virgata. Wand-like Nettle. Forft. Prodr. 66. Willd. n. 23.—* Leaves oppofite, ovate, ferrated, three- ribbed. Spikes axillary, folitary, interrupted.’’—Native of the Society Ifles. forfler. 27. U. rugofa. Rugged-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 293. Willd. n. 24.—Leaves oppofite, elliptical, fer- rated, three-ribbed, rugged. Clufters fhort, denfe, termi- nal. Stem fimple, ereét.—Native of moift ftony places, about the banks of rivers, in Hifpaniola, flowering in ipring. Root annual. Stem a foot high, round, downy. Leaves crofling each other in pairs, ftalked, from one to two inches long, finely and regularly ferrated, rough but not ftinging, fomewhat plaited at the margin; hairy beneath. S*ipulas large, ovate. Flowers dioecious, very minute and crowded, in tufts fhorter than the ftipulas. 28. U. repens. Creeping-ftalked Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 294. Aét. Holm. for 1787. t.1. f.1. Willd. n. 25. —Leaves oppofite, roundifh-ovate, obtufe, bluntly ferrated, three-ribbed ; entire at the bafe. Clufters capitate, axillary, ftalked. Stem fimple, creeping.—Found on the fandy banks of rivers in Hifpaniola, flowering in the {pring. The root is annual and fibrous. Stem a {pan long, creeping clofe to the ground by means of radicles from each joint. Leaves hardly an inch long at the utmoft, flightly hairy, not fting- ing. ootfalks hairy, fhorter than the leaves. Flowers monoecious, in little oblong c/u/fers, on capillary, oppofite ftalks ; much fhorter than the leaves. 29. U. flolonifera. Trailing Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 296. Willd. n. 26.— Leaves oppofite, elliptic-oblong, flightly ferrated. Stem afcending, with radical runners. Panicles terminal, folitary, dioecious, on flender ftalks. —Found on the rocky banks of rivers, among mofles, in the interior part of Hifpaniola. Root perennial. Stem none, or very fhort ; in Dr. Swartz’s {pecimens two or three inches long, fimple, moft leafy at the top, fending out trailing fhoots from the bafe, clothed with very {mall /eaves. The /eaves of the main ftem are about an inch long, rough to the touch, and rather downy, but not ftinging; the footfalks about the fame length. Stipulas oblong, entire, membranous, accompanying all the leaves. Flower-/ralks from the middle of the crowded terminal (not radical) leaves, which they exceed in length. Flowers green, {mall ; the male in a roundifh denfe tuft ; female in an oblong, lax, compound panicle ; on diftiné plants. 30. U. nudicaulis. Naked-ftalked Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 311. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 11.—Leaves chiefly terminal, oppofite, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, three-ribbed, entire, nearly {mooth. Stem angular ; leaflefs below. Cluf- ters lateral, dioecious.—Native of lime-ftone rocks, in the interior of Jamaica. Root fibrous. Stem one or two feet high, nearly ere&, fcarcely branched, jointed, angular, and ftriated, contraéted at the joints ; its light-green colour, and {mooth furface, in fome degree refembling the flems of fe- veral fpecies of Epidendrum, or their allies. Leaves chiefly about the top of the plant, on fhort ftalks, generally fmooth and naked, one and a half or two inches long, very minutely dotted, deftitute of /ipulas. The uppermott clu/- ters are axillary, the reft at the joints of the ftem, oppofite, {mall. Flowers minute, white, crowded, very rarely mo- noecious. Dr. Swartz mentions a variety, with narrower, fomewhat hifpid, /eaves ; longer, more diffufe, cluflers ; and a lefs naked fem. 31. U. lanceolata. Lanceolaie-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 15. Willd. n. 28.—Leaves oppofite, linear-lanceolate, three-ribbed, entire, nearly feffile. Clufters capitate, axil- lary, folitary.—Native of Hifpaniola. J. Martin. Poiret fays this fpecies is remarkable, and very diftin&, on ac- count of its narrow, linear-lanceolate, nearly feffile, leaves. The flems are weak, herbaceous, naked, almoft cylindrical, jointed. Leaves about an inch long, and two or three lines broad, fomewhat wavy at the edges; paler beneath. By the defcription, there feems fome reafon to doubt whether this be diftinét from the laft, but we have feen no {pecimens of it. On the other hand, nudicaulis is in the lift of fpecies unknown to M. Pourret. 32. U. corymbofa. _ Corymbofe Entire-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 17. Ait. n. 30.— Leaves oppofite, ovate, pointed, entire; unequal at the bafe. Corymbs axillary, on elongated ftalks.—Native of Guadeloupe. Badier. Stems very rough, with glandular points. Leaves about five inches long, and three broad, one fide fhorter than the other at the bafe; their furface rough to the touch. Fooi- Stalks very long, but fhorter than the leaves. Corymbs each on a long, fimple, axillary common italk, probably like our peduncularis, n. 6. 33- U. Parictaria. Pellitory-leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1397. Willd. n. 31. Ait. n. 13. Swartz Obf. 357. (Parietaria foliis ex adverfo nafcentibus, urtice racemifere flore; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 144. t. 93. f. 1.) — Leaves op- pofite, ovato-lanceolate, entire. Stem much branched. Flowers dioecious.—Native of lofty mountains in the Weft Indies, flowering throughout the year. Stem from two to eight feet high, ereé&t ; fomewhat fhrubby in the lower part ; much branched and herbaceous above, red, quadrangular, flriated; the ultimate branches flender, wavy, leafy, and {mooth. eaves ftalked, an inch or inch and a half long, pointed, three-ribbed, veiny, fringed, very flightly, if at all, unequal in the two halves: on the fmall flowering branches one of two oppofite leaves is but a third the fize of the other. ootfalks long, red, fpreading. Cluflers ftalked, axillary, terminal, or oppofite to fome of the . leaves; their ftalks flender, coloured, ereé&t, {mooth, quadrangular, longer than the footitalks. Flowers very {mall. Seed minute, black, shining. Such is Sloane’s and Swartz’s plant, of which we are obliged to the latter for {pecimens. It is wanting in the Linnean herbarium. 34. U. ciliaris. Fringed Three-furrowed Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1396. Willd. n. 32. (Parietaria racemofa, foliis ad oras villofis; Plum. Ic. 111. t. 120. f. 2.)—Leaves oppo- fite, ovate, entire, ftrongly three-ribbed, fringed. Clufters divaricated, corymbofe, much branched.—Native of the Weft Indies, but rare. A {pecimen was given by fir Jofeph Banks to the younger Linneus. The dbranches are very fmooth, reddifh, obtufely quadrangular. eaves ftalked, from one to two inches long, pointed, fmooth, except fome feattered and marginal white hairs; the three ribs remark- ably prominent beneath, and furrowed above. Clu/fers axil- lary, oppofite, ftalked, level-topped, widely fpreading, half the length of the leaves. The fringe of the latter is far lefs evident in our fpecimen, than in Plumier’s figure, and yet we have no doubt of its identity. 35. U. URTICA. 35. U. hederacea. Ivy-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 29.— ¢ Leaves oppofite, roundifh-ovate, crenate ; abrupt at the bafe. Clufters fhort, on long ftalks.’>—Native of Guade- loupe. Richard. A {mall fpecies, with fibrous roots, and weak /fems, two or three inches high, clothed with fine fhort hoary hairs. Leaves ftalked, fmall, with large notches, like thofe of Ivy in miniature, with a few f{cattered hairs, efpe-.. cially on their ribs and footitalks. Flowers in little denfe tufts, on axillary ftalks twice the length of the leaves. Poiret. : 36. U. rhombea. Rhomb-leaved Nettle. Linn. Suppl. 417. Willd. n. 33.—Leaves oppofite, rhomboid, entire, three-ribbed, flat, about the length of their footftalks, which are longer than the cymofe axillary panicles. —Sent - by Mutis from Mexico. The /fem is herbaceous, about a foot high, much branched, {mooth, leafy. . Leaves from half an inch to an inch, or rather more, in length, and above half as much acrofs their middle, obtufely pointed at each end, fmooth and even on both fides, without ftings. Stipulas fhort, membranous, abrupt. Flower-falks axillary, ‘folitary or in pairs, fearcely ever fo long as the footftalks. Braéeas lanceolate, membranous, at each of their fubdi- vifions. F/owers crowded into little heads, fmall, monoe- cious. Seeds elliptical, beaked. The whole plant refembles a Parietaria. 7. U. ciliata. Speedwell-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 298. Willd. n. 34.—Leaves oppofite, elliptical, three- ribbed, crenate, fringed, acute at each end; entire at the bafe. Stem divaricated. Flowers aggregate, on axillary ftalks, about the length of the footftalks.—Found in rocky woods, in the interior of Jamaica. The att is herbaceous, dividing from the bafe into feveral fmooth, fpreading, afcending branches, about fix inches high. Leaves an inch long, not unlike Veronica officinalis in general afpeé&, but fhorter, on longifh ftalks, crenate rather than ferrated, mi- nutely downy, not itinging. S¥ipu/as minute, accompanied by tufts of hairs. F/owers moft affuredly axillary, not ter- minal, forming a kind of umbels, in which the male ones feem to occupy the upper part. This fpecies is, as Dr. Swartz obferves, totally different from the Linnean VU. ciliaris, but we would beg leave to remark that their names are too much alike. 38. U- radicans. Parafitical Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 299. Willd. n. 35.—Leaves oppofite, ovate, crenate, fhin- ing; flightly wedge-fhaped at the bafe. Flowers axillary, nearly feffile. Stem and branches trailing, with downy ra- dicles.—Native of umbrageous forefts, in the interior of the northern part of Jamaica, where it trails over the trunks of trees, even to their very fummits, thriving plentifully under their fhade, as well as on the rotten trunks of fallen trees in the fame fituations ; but it rarely blofloms. The f{pread- ing ffems are fometimes attached throughout their whole length, by fhaggy or downy radicles ; they are brittle, fub- divided, with many oppofite leafy branches. Leaves talked, horizontal, obtufe, half or three-quarters of an inch long ; their upper furface covered with minute deprefled briftles, though not harfh to the touch, nor ftinging. Svipulas fearcely difcernible. Flowers minute, green, the male and female ones in the fame axillary tuft. 39- U. pendula. Pendulous Nettle. Willd. n. 36. (U. rupipendia; Lamarck n. 18. ‘U.umbellata; Bory de St. Vincent Voy. v. 3. 173.”?)—Leaves ovate, bluntly ferrated, generally four in a whorl, on unequal footftalks. Clutters axillary and terminal, on long folitary ftalks, fomewhat co- rymbofe.—Native of the ifles of Mauritius and Bourbon, hanging from the rocks in an elegant manner. The root is fibrous, apparently perennial. Stems from eight to twelve Vou. XX XVII. inches long, covered with minute depreffed briftles, and di- viding at the extremity into many {preading, oppofite, leafy branches. Leaves hardly an inch long, broadly ovate, fome- what triple-ribbed, and marked with many tran{verfe veins ; their under fide fmooth, brown or purplifh; upper bright green, covered with very minute deprefled briftles, as in the lait, which do not interfere with their {moothnefs to the touch. Some of the foot/lalks are as long as the corref{pond- ing leaf; others in the fame whorl but half that length. Flower-ftalks longer than the tongeft footftalks, flender, fmooth, folitary, forked at the upper part, bearing feveral little round tufts of floqers, which in our {pecimen are all female, and in feed; nor do we find any traces or remains of male ones. M. Poiret in Lamarck defcribes the upper fide of the /eaves {mooth, the under flightly downy ; yet we can- not doubt his plant being the fame as ours. He fpeaks of a variety with narrower, more lanceolate and pointed, /eaves, which has not fallen in our way. 40. U. fafciculata. Tufted Nettle. Poiret in Lamarck n. 19.—** Leaves oppofite, ovate, toothed, on long ftalks. Flowers tufted at the divifions of the panicle.’’—Native of Carolina. M. Poiret {ays this is very diftin from the pre- ceding. The /eaves, like every other part, are {mooth, much larger than the laft, acute, generally remarkable for the great length of the fmooth flender foot/lalks. Cluflers many-flowered, very denfe, crowded, aggregate and axillary, hardly longer than the footftalks.—We have feen no fpeci- men anfwering to this defcription, nor is the prefent fpecies adopted by Willdenow or Purfh; at leaft not by the above name. 41. U. feffilifolia. Seffile-leaved Whorled Nettle. Poiret in Lamarck n. 30. Willd. n. 37.—Leaves nearly feffile, lanceolate, fharply ferrated, three or four in a whorl.—Ga- thered by Commerfon in the ifle of Mauritius. The fems are rather woody, with ftraight leafy branches. Leaves moitly four in each whorl, their teeth, or ferratures, pointed ; both furfaces covered with fhort, white, not very evident, hairs, fuch as are found alfo on the ftem ; the upper fide is of a fine green; the under a little reddifh. The flowers have not been obferved, fo that the genus is prefumed from the habit only. 42. U. nummularifolia. Moneywort-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 301. A. Holm. for 1787. t.1.f. 2. Willd. n. 38. (Nummularia faxatilis minima repens, floribus albis, foliis .crenatis villofis; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 208. t. 131. f. 4.) —Leaves oppofite, orbicular, crenate, hairy. Clufters denfe, terminal, monoecious. Stems thread-fhaped, fimple, creep* ing.—Native of fiffures of rocks, among the mountainous woods of Jamaica. A pretty little creeping {pecies, downy, or minutely hairy, all over. The /eaves are about half an inch in diameter, obtufe, bright green, crenate like thofe of a Chry/ofplenium; paler beneath. Stipulas membranous, whitifh, obtufe. C/u/lers from the bofoms of the uppermoft leaves, each of feveral male and female flowers ; the former largeft, on longer ftalks; the latter very minute. Seeds nearly orbicular, brown, tumid. 43. U. depreffa. Depreffed Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 303. Willd. n. 39.—Leaves oppofite, roundifh, crenate, {mooth. Clufters denfe, terminal, dioecious, Stem creep- ing, fubdivided.—Native of fhady grafly borders of fields, in the interior of Jamaica. Perennial. Stem three or four inches long, fucculent, preffed clofe to the earth, and fixed by many {mall radicles. The fhort branches form a kind of turf with the adjoining plants. Leaves {mall, ribbed, rather fucculent, of a brownifh green. Stipulas ovate, {mall and white. Flowers dioecious, about three to five, in little ter- minal feffile clufters; the female ones extremely minute. 4B Seeds URTICA. Seeds roundifh, black. Differs from the laft in its {mooth- nefs, darker colour, dioecious fowers, and more numerous, entangled, deprefled, copioufly branched, flems. 44. U. herniarifolia. Rupture-wort Nettle. Willd. n. 40. (U. herniarioides ; Swartz Ind. Occ. 309. A@. Holm. for 1787. t. 2. f. 1.)—-Leaves oppofite, roundifh, entire ; tapering at the bafe: the terminal ones four in a whorl. Flowers terminal, ftalked, monoecious. Stem thread-fhaped, diffufe.—Found on large ftones, in the rivers and rivulets of Hifpaniola. A very {mall, flender, {mooth, trailing, annual herb, three or four inches long at moft, not much branched. Leaves ftalked, fomewhat fpatulate, bluntifh, fearcely two lines in diameter ; their upper furface covered with deprefled briftles, as if ftitched, but not rough to the touch. Flowers exceffively fmall, in little terminal monoecious tufts. Seed brown. 45..U. microphylla. Small-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 305. Willd. n.q1. Ait. n.14. (Parietaria micro- phylla; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1492. Am. Acad. v. 5. 412. Her- niaria lucida aquatica; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 145. t. 93. f. 2.)— Leaves oppofite or cluftered, ovate, acute, fucculent, nearly entire. Flowers fcattered, dioecious. Stems afcending, branched in the upper part.—Very common throughout the Weit Indies, in wafte or watery places, or on old walls, &c. flowering throughout the year. The roots are perennial, long and capillary. Herb much ftouter and more ereé& than the preceding, about four inches high, with innumerable minute /eaves, refembling that {pecies, but more ovate and acute, as well as occafionally notched; their upper fide in fike manner clothed with clofe briftles. Flowers axillary, {talked ; the male largeft, reddifh; the female on a feparate plant, with fhorter ftalks, crowded, very minute. Seed roundifh, polifhed. 46. U. trianthemoides. Purflane-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 307. Willd. n. 42.—Leaves oppofite, obovate, obtufe, entire; one much fmaller than the other. Flowers monoecious. Stem ere&t, branched.—Native of fhady rocky places, near rivers, in Hifpaniola. Perennial. Stem herba- ceous, a foot high, jointed, branched from the bafe, fuccu- lent and f{mooth; ultimate branches alternate, fpreading, leafy. Leaves ftalked, of a fhining green, fmooth to the touch, but ftriated, as it were, with fmall, infeparable, flat- tened briftles, on the upper fide; the under being dotted, and only partially hairy. The largeft af of each pair is not an inch long; the f{maller fearcely one-fifth that fize. Stipulas none. Flowers numerous, in axillary or lateral tufts, at each joint of the branches. The female calyx is faid to confift of three valves. 47- U. ferrulata. Blunt-notched Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 313. Willd. n. 43.—Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, ab- ruptly ferrated, nearly feffile ; tapering at the bafe. Heads of flowers axillary, ftalked. Stem fhrubby, quadrangular. —Native of limeftone rocks, in the interior of Jamaica, flowering in the vernal months. AA little, fhrubby, bufhy plant, about a foot high, with feattered, {quare, roughifh, but not hairy, leafy branches. . Leaves about an inch long, dark green, minutely briftly, or ftitched, as it were, on the upper fide, like feveral of the foregoing; paler beneath; tapering at the bafe into fhort foos/falés ; furnifhed in their upper part with blunt, fomewhat glandular, ferratures. Flowers monoecious, their flalks red, fhorter than the leaves; the male ones with a red calyx. 48. U. lucida. Shining Cut-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 315. Willd. n. 44.—Leaves oppofite, pinnatifid, fhin- ing, clothed on both fides with depreffed briftles. Heads of flowers on axillary ftalks, longer than the leaves. Stem thrubby, angular.—~Found in rocky, or waite places, among 11 the cooler mountains of Jamaica, fewer in fpring. A very pretty little fhrub, the height of the laft, with brown quadrangular branches. The bright-green fhining Jeaves, {carcely half an inch long, refemble thofe of an Oak, or rather of Myrica quercifolia, in miniature, their lobes and finufes being rounded in a fimilar manner. Their flattened briftles are large in proportion. lower-/falks fimple, capil- lary, each bearing a very {mall head, in which the male and female flowers are intermixed. 49. U. #rilobata. Three-lobed Glauccus Nettle. Poiret in Lamarck n. 14. Willd. n. 45.—Leaves oblong, obtufe, undivided or three-lobed, ftalked, three or four in a whorl, hoary with clofe-preffed briftles. Stem round, with quad- rangular branches.—Gathered in the ifland of Mauritius by Commerfon, one of whofe fpecimens is before us. This, like what M. Poiret examined, is deftitute of fruétification, but the habit, and efpecially the remarkable deprefled briftles of the /eaves, fo copious as to render the plant glaucous or hoary, fcarcely allow of a doubt as to the genus. The /fem is fomewhat fhrubby, bufhy, of taller ftature than the two lafk; round, glaucous, and leaflefs be- low; furnifhed at the upper part with elongated, fquare, leafy, oppofite or ternate, branches. Leaves on longi ftalks, fpreading, of a greyifh-green, {mooth to the touch, linear-oblong, rounded at each end, fcarcely an inch in length; fome of them quite undivided and entire; but the greater part are furnifhed at each fide, about the middle, with a fmall, fpreading, obtufe lobe. A few of the lower leaves are oppoiite only. 50. U. cuneifolia. Smooth Wedge-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 319. Willd. n. 46.—Leaves oppofite, obovate- wedgefhaped, very fmooth, toothed at the end; one much fmaller than the other. Cluiters terminal, on capillary ftalks. Stem fhrubby, round.—Native of mafly lime-ftone rocks, among the mountains of Jamaica. Root creeping. Stem from three inches to a foot in height, ere&t, branched, ftriated, {mooth. Leaves almoft riblefs, on very fhort ftalks, without /fipulas, one of each pair fix times the fize of its companion, which is obovate and nearly entire. Flowers monoecious, in little tufts, not capitate, on foli- tary, reddifh, {preading ftalks, from the bofoms of the ter- minal /eaves, which they do not equal in length. Male flowers with a thick red calyx, and white anthers; female ones more numerous, and much {maller. Dr. Swartz men- tions a dwarf variety, only an inch high, with ovate /eaves, and extremely minute flowers. This is one of the very few fpecies of which we have feen no fpecimens. ; 51. U. cuneiformis. Roughifh Wedge-leaved Nettle. Poiret in Lamarck n. 20. Willd. n.’47.—Leaves oppo- fite, ftalked, obovate-wedgefhaped, ferrated, triple-ribbed, minutely hairy. Flowers tufted, on fhort axillary ftalks. Stems fimple, afcending.—Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifle of Mauritius. Root perennial, creeping. Stems feveral, about four or five inches high, roundifh, leafy, rather woody, and numeroufly jointed. eaves almoft an inch long, ftrongly ferrated except at the tapering bafe, the op- pofite ones very flightly unequal in fize. Flowers reddith, few together, on Teal ftalks, about the length of the footftalks. Se&. 2. Leaves alternate. 52. U. lappulacea. Bur Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 317. A&. Holm. for 1787. t. 2. f. 2. Willd. n. 48.—Leaves alternate, ovate, roughifh, hairy, entire. Flowers terminal, nearly feffile. Seeds triangular. Stem diffufe——Very com- mon in dry ftony places in Jamaica, flowering in {pring. The afpe& of the plant is like a Parictaria. Stem trailing, much branched. JLeaves ftalked, from a quarter to three- quarters URTICA. quarters of an inch long, fomewhat hairy, not ftinging, im- perfeGtly fringed. Stipulas none. Flowers crowded be- tween the terminal leaves, fomewhat racemofe, the male and female ones together, the latter feffile. Germens two, one to each valve, triangular. The permanent valves of the calyx, fringed with minute hooked briftles, attach themfelves to any thing that comes in their way, and carry the feeds along with them. Swartz defcribes a fort of rough cover- ing to the feeds, befides the calyx-valves, and juftly remarks that this {pecies is a very fingular Urtica, very near the Parietarig in habit; and we may add fomewhat fimilar, perhaps, in character. 53- U. glomerata. Tufted-flowered Nettle. Willd. n. 49.—Leaves alternate, ovate, entire ; rough above; moft hairy beneath. Flowers pentandrous, nearly feffile, in axil- lary tufts. Stem ereét, with flender elongated branches.— Native of the Eaft Indies. Communicated by profeffor Willdenow himfelf. The /fem is fomewhat fhrubby, a foot and a half or two feet high, with alternate, long, flender, angular, leafy, reddifh branches, downy when young. Leaves numerous, fcattered, ftalked, from half an inch to an inch, rarely more, in length, bluntifh, three-ribbed ; dark green, and rough with minute points, as well as a few hairs, on the upper fide ; paler, and clothed with prominent briftly hairs, beneath. Flowers reddith, hairy, monoecious, in numerous little round tufts; the males five-cleft. The whole plant has altogether the appearance of a Parietaria. 54. U. mollifima. Silk-leaved Nettle.—Leaves alternate, ovato-lanceolate, bluntifh, entire; foft and downy on both fides. Flowers nearly feffile, in axillary tufts. Stem ereé, with downy branches.—Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifle of Mauritius. We find no defcription in any author anfwerable to this plant, though it is avery diftin& {pecies. The branches have a fhrubby afpe&, being ftout, angular or furrowed; filky, and fometimes zigzag, when young. Leaves two inches, or two and a half in length, ovate at the bafe, tapering to a blunt point, three-ribbed, of a bright light green; minutely dotted on the upper fide, and very hairy on both, with foft filky pubefcence. Foot/falks one- third of an inch long, broad, very downy. Flowers nu- merous, in denfe, globular, axillary tufts, intermixed with fcaly brafeas. They appear to be all males in our fpeci- mens, but are in too young a ftate for precife determination. We have been inclined to fufpe& that this may be the Pa- rietaria verbafcifolia of Poiret in Lam. Dié. v. 5. 16, but the /eaves in our fpecimens are all alternate, ovate, rather than lanceolate, and blunt, not fharp. It is, however, fuf- ficiently akin to P. arborea of the fame author, though abundantly diftin, to excite this fufpicion. This P. ar- borea, (Urtica arborea; Linn. Suppl. 417. L’Herit. Stirp. t. 20.) is Bochmeria rubefcens, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 344; a handfome greenhoufe fhrub, flowering copioufly in the fpring. 55- U. rotundifolia. Pepper-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 38. Willd. n. 50.— Leaves alternate, roundifh-ovate, pointed, coriaceous, nearly entire, {mooth; minutely dotted above. Spikes axillary, aggregate, interrupted. Flowers in round balls, with linear downy bra¢teas.—Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifland of Mauritius. A fine large fhrubby fpecies, with the afpe€t of a Pepper-vine. The branches are round, fmooth, hollow. Leaves three inches long, and two broad, with three ribs, conneéted on the under fide by tranfverfe parallel veins, and innumerable re- ticulations ; the upper dotted with minute callous points. Willdenow miftranflates Poiret, fo as to defcribe thefe latter onthe under furface. Footfalks above an inch long, very fmooth. Clufters, or fpikes, twice that length, erect, three together, unbranched, but formed of feveral denfe, diftant, globular, many-flowered heads, interfperfed with long, nar- row, rufty braaeas. All the flowers appear to be female in Commerfon’s {pecimen, but we cannot clearly afcertain the generic character, fo as to be free from doubt on that fub- je&. We fhould gladly have named this {pecies maeahiere 56. U. heterophylla. Various-leaved Nettle. Wahl Symb. v. 1. 76. Willd. n. 51. (U. palmata; Forfk. Aigypt.- Arab. 159. Ana-fchorigenam; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 2. 77. t. 41.)—Leaves alternate, ovate, with tooth-like ferratures ; the upper ones three-lobed. Clufters axillary, ftalked, oblong, compound.—Native of Arabia Felix, and the Eaft Indies. Root apparently annual. Stem fimple, eighteen inches high, furrowed, fpotted, briftly. Leaves fomewhat heart-fhaped, pointed, with three principal ribs, from two to four inches long, and nearly as broad. Foot- Jfialks briftly, fhorter than the leaves. Flowers monoecious ; the males in globofe cluffers ; the females below them ; their cluffers hifpid and forked when in fruit. 57- U. eftuans. Surinam Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1397. Willd. n. 52. Ait. n. 15. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 72. t. 388? fee n. 66. (Pino, five Urtica; Pif, Brafil. 235-)—Leaves alternate, ovate, ferrated; minutely heart- fhaped at the bafe. Clufters axillary, forked. Fruit in orbicular corymbs.—Native of Surinam. Linnzus raifed it in the Upfal garden. The root is annual or biennial. Herb ftinging, with a furrowed, fimple, hairy Leaves on long hairy ftalks, larger than thofe of U. dioica, and lefs deeply or fharply ferrated ; contra€ted in a peculiar manner towards the bafe,. where their two {mall lobes make a heart- like finus. Cluflers in our {pecimen fhorter than the foot- ftalks, forked and fubdivided; in Pifo’s figure they are longer, and aflembled about the top of the ftem, as in Jacquin’s plant, which latter is faid to have no ftinging pro- perty- Hence arifes a doubt as to his fynonym, which, without comparing f{pecimens, we cannot remove. Pifo {peaks of his plant as powerfully ftinging, and Linnzus im- plies the fame in the fpecific name. The briftles on the Jeaves indeed appear conftruéted like thofe of our Stinging Nettles, but thofe of the /fem look like what Linneus terms them, ‘ harmlefs prickles.’’ 58. U. capitata. Many-headed Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1397. Willd. n. 53. Purfh n. 6.— Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, ferrated, roughifh, nearly naked. Heads ot flowers globular, denfely fpiked. Stem fmooth.—In fhad woods, near rocks, from Canada to Carolina; perennial, flowering in June and July. Purfb. This fpecies bears fome refemblance to U. dioica, or rather to our morifolia, n. 203 but the /eaves have three well-marked principal ribs, and are more pointed than in the latter, befides being alter- nate. The cluffers, or rather /pikes, are axillary, erect, fo- litary, various in length, compofed of crowded or confluent heads, of f{effile flowers. Sometimes thefe /pikes aflume the nature of branches, and terminate in a few leaves ; fometimes they are much fhorter than the footflalks. The feeds are ovate, with a broad tumid border. 59- U. japonica. Hairy Japan Nettle. Thunb. Jap. 70. Willd. n. 54.—Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, villous, un- equally ferrated. Flowers in globular, axillary, {talked heads. Stem downy.—Grows near Nagafaki in Japan, flowering in September and Oétober. The cortical fibres ferve to make cables for {mall veflels. The /fem is {quare, furrowed, ereét. Leaves an inch and a half long ; paler be- neath. Foot/lalks half that length. 60. U, villofa. Small Shaggy Japan Nettle. 4B2 Thunb. Jap. URTICA. Jap. 70. Willd. n. 55.—Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, bluntly ferrated, hairy, on very fhort ftalks. Flowers in feflile, fcattered, globular heads.—Native of Japan. The fiem is herbaceous, round, hardly a fpan high, with alter- nate wide-{preading branches. Leaves obtufe, unequal, as long as the nail. Heads of flowers minute, difperfed over the branches. 61. U. fefiliflora. Denfe-whorled Nettle. Swartz Ind. Oce. 321. Willd. n. 56.—Leaves roughifh, elliptical, ta- pering at each end; ferrated towards the point: the upper ones fometimes oppofite. Clufters very fhort, in denfe axillary whorls. Stem ere&, round, nearly fmooth.—Na- tive of rocky mountainous places, in the interior of Jamaica. Root perennial, branched, fibrous. Stem a foot high, fhrubby at the bafe, divided upwards, fearcely roughith ; the branches generally, not always, alternate. Leaves two inches or two inches and a half long, and an inch and a quarter wide acrofs the middle, fomewhat triple-ribbed, rather flefhy ; roughifh on the upper fide only, (not fting- ing,) with very minute fhort briftles. Fot/alks an inch or inch and half long, {mooth- Stipulas none. Flowers mo- noecious, very fmall, forming little denfe whorls. 62. U. muralis. Arabian Wall Nettle. Vahl Symb. v. 1.77. Willd. n. 57. (U. parafitica; Forfk. Agypt.- Arab. 160. )—Leaves alternate, ovate, three-ribbed, downy, equally ferrated. Stipulas lanceolate, pointed, diftinét. Clufters very fhort, in denfe axillary whorls.—Found by Forfkail, on the walls of Coffee-gardens, in Arabia. Pe- rennial. Stem a foot high, round, downy; hoary in the upper ‘part. Leaves an inch and a half long, pointed, fharply ferrated, clothed with foft fhaggy pubefcence, efpe- cially the upper ones, not ftinging ; entire at the bafe and point. Fvot/falks an inch in length. Whorls villous and hoary. Differs from U. japonica, n. 59, in the equal fer- ratures, and even furface, of its /eaves, as well as in its feffile heads of flowers. Vahl. 63. U. caffra. Caffre’s Nettle. Thunb. Prodr. 31. Willd. n. 58.—Leaves alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart- fhaped, ferrated. Flowers axillary, feffile. Stem weak, not quite ere&t.—Native of Southern Africa. Thunberg. 64. U. ruderalis. Otaheite Nettle. Forft. Prodr. 66. Willd. n. 59.—Leaves alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart- fhaped, bluntly ferrated, {mooth. Panicles axillary, co- rymbofe, divaricated, ftalked, nearly equal to the leaves. — Gathered by Forfter in Otaheité and the Society ifles. His fpecimen before us is a foot long, woody, alternately fubdivided, and appears to be but a branch of a fhrubby lem, of confiderable fize. Willdenow, on the contrary, {peaks of the ftems as only a finger’s length. The /eaves are above an inch long, on long ftalks; paler beneath, but we do not find them at all rough. Panticles on long, {mooth, angular ftalks. Seeds ovate, bordered, light brown, fome- what wrinkled. 65. U. leptoflachya. Slender-fpiked Nettle.—Leaves al- ternate, ovate, ferrated ; rough on the upper fide. Spikes axillary, folitary, fimple, cylindrical, downy, on ftalks much longer than the leaves. Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifle of Bourbon. We do not’ find-it any where de- feribed. The root is perennial, creeping very extenfively. Herb not ftinging. Stem a foot high, or more, ereét, round, fimple, leafy, downy or roughifh.. Leaves feattered, an inch or inch and a half long, on flender downy and briftly italks, half that length; their upper furface harfh' to the touch ; under fmoother, but with hairy ribs. Flower-falks ereét, three or four inches long, fiender, undivided, from the bofoms of the fmaller upper leaves, befides a terminal one, 6 larger than the reft ; they are all naked below ; minutely braéteated in the upper part ; and each terminates in a denfe {pike of numerous feffile flowers, all female, as far as we can difcern, in our fpecimen. Calyx ovate, turgid, downy. 66. U. divaricata. Wing-ftalked Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1397. Willd. n. 60. Purfh n.7. (U. racemofa major virginiana, mitior, five minds urens; Pluk. Phyt. t. 237. f. 2, excluding the fynonyms. ) — Leaves alternate, ovate, roughifh, ftrongly ferrated. Clufters compound, di- varicated, as long as the leaves: male flower-ftalks winged, wedge-fhaped. — Gathered in Canada by Kalm, whofe ori- ese {pecimen is before us. If Mr. Purth’s plant be the ame, of which there appears fome doubt, we have his au- thority for this fpecies inhabiting fhady woods, in rocky fituations, from Canada to Carolina, flowering in Auguft. Neither Willdenow nor Poiret ever faw U. divaricata. Its general afpect is fo like Jacquin’s figure of U. efluans, fee n. 57, that we fhould fuppofe that figure belonged to the prefent {pecies, were the very peculiar wedge-fhaped, mem- branous-winged ftalks, of the male flowers, there reprefented. Thefe could not have efcaped the obferving Jacquin, though not expreffed by Plukenet, whofe plant may indeed be dif- ferent from our’s, and yet not the fame with the following. The fiem of U. divaricata is tawny, ftrongly furrowed, flightly prickly. Leaves three or four inches long, ovate, with a {mall finus at the bafe, pointed, copioufly and fharply ferrated, on briltly foot/alks ; they have {carcely more than one principal rib ; they are roughifh on both fides, but ef- pecially the upper, with extremely minute points, and fome {cattered briftles. The c/u/fers are terminal, or at leaft crowded about the top of the ftem, feveral together, fpread- ing, {tout, twice compound ; their common ftalks briftly, as are the partial ones, more or lefs. Thofe of the male flowers, a quarter of an inch long, we have already defcribed ; thefe flowers are all paft in our fpecimen. The /eeds are of greater diameter than muftard-feed, nearly orbicular, oblique, comprefled, fmooth, brown, with a curved point; their ftalks fhort and fimple. Calyx very {mall. We hope fome North American botanift will illuftrate this curious fpecies, and its fynonyms. 67. U. canadenfis. Canada Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1397. Willd. n. 61. Ait. n. 16. Purfh n. 8. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 178, excluding Plukenet’s fynonym. (U. racemofa canadenfis ; Dodart Mem., Ami{terdam, ed. 631. t. 37. U. virginiana major racemofa mitior, feu minus urens; Morif. feét. 11. t. 25. f. 2.)—Leaves alter- nate, ovate, fomewhat hairy, ferrated. Stipulas obtufe. Clufters axillary, compound, fpreading, fhorter than the leaves ; the lower ones male, feffile; upper female, ftalked. —Near rivulets, in rocky or fandy fituations, from Canada to Carolina, efpecially on the mountains, flowering in July and Auguft. The root is perennial, reddifh, rather woody, with ftout fibres. Stems four or five feet high, annual, ereét, fimple, roundifh, ftriated, flightly briftly ; their fibres tough. Leaves three or four inches long, pointed, fome- times a little unequal at the bafe ; flightly hairy on both fides, rather harfh to the touch, but not flinging. Foot- Jlalks an inch long, briftly, with a pair of rounded reddifh Jlipulas at their infertion. Our Linnean fpecimen is defti- tute of flowers. Dodart compares them to thofe of the “©Common Nettle ;’? we prefume U. dioica; and fuch is nearly their appearance in a fpecimen from Jacquin’s old herbarium, at fir J. Banks’s, marked by miftake divaricata ; but they are more flender and branched than in dioica. 68. U. hirfuta.~ Hairy Arabian Nettle. Vahl Symb. v1. 77- Willd. n.62. (U. divaricata; Forfk. A.gypt.- Arab. URTICA. Arab. 160.)— Leaves alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart- fhaped, ferrated. Stem and footftalks hairy. Stipulas linear-lanceolate. Clufters compound, longer than the leaves.—Native of Arabia. The herbage has no ftinging quality. The /em is but a foot high, moft hairy in the upper part. eaves about an inch long, acute; paler be- neath, with hairy ribs. Foot/lalks the length of the leaves. Cluflers axillary, folitary, lels compound than in the laft, hairy. Flowers tufted. 69. U. capenfis. Horehound-leaved Cape Nettle. Linn. Suppl. 417. Willd. n. 63. Thunb. Prodr. 31.—Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, crenate; downy and foft beneath. Clutters axillary, erect, aggregate. Flowers fafciculated.— Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good Hope. The fem is round, ere&, with fpreading branches, f{omewhat hairy, not ftinging. Leaves an inch and a half long, and nearly as broad, acute, broadly and rather fharply crenate ; fmooth above; denfely downy and hoary beneath. Foot- Jlalks downy, about as long as the leaves. Cluflers two inches or more in length, ftalked, flender, cylindrical, un- branched, compofed of fmall, round, flightly diftant, tufts of flowers. 70: U. argentea. Silvery Cape Nettle. Forft. Prodr. 65. Willd. n. 64.—* Leaves alternate, elliptic-lanceolate, nearly entire ; glaucous beneath. Spikes axillary, folitary, inter- rupted.””Native of the Society ifles. Forjfer. 71. U.nivea. Chinefe White-leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1398. Willd. n.65. Ait.n.17. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2.78. t. 166. (Ramium majus; Rumph. Amboyn. V. 5.214. t. 79. f. 1.) — Leaves alternate, roundifh-ovate, pointed, toothed, three-ribbed ; fnow-white and downy be- neath. Clufters axillary, repeatedly compound. Flowers fafciculated.— Native of China, and the remote iflands of the Eaft Indies. Miller appears to have cultivated this fpecies at Chelfea in 1739, and it ftill exifts there, in the open border, though generally confidered as a greenhoufe or ftove plant. The fem is fhrubby, ereét, but little branched, three or four feet high. Leaves from three to fix inches long, and three or four in breadth, on long hairy ftalks ; their upper furface dark-green, opaque, rough to the touch ; the under clothed with foft, very clofe, pubef- cence, of the pureft moft brilliant white, marked with three principal ribs, and many fine veins, all reddifh or green, hairy, not downy. Clujlers repeatedly compound, bearing numerous {mall round heads of flowers, all female in the fpecimens we have examined. We fee no reafon to doubt the fynonym of Rumphius, though Jacquin expreffes a con- trary. opinion ; led perhaps more by the figure, which is di- minifhed and bad, than by the defcription. This Urtica is a very handfome and fingular plant, well worthy of cultiva- tion in warm fheltered parts of a flower-garden, or fhrub- bery, at leaft in our fouthern counties. 72. U. elata. Jamaica Tree Nettle. Swartz Ind. Oce. 322. Willd. n. 66.—Leaves alternate, ovate, acute, ferrated, fomewhat briltly. Stem arboreous. Clufters much branched, divaricated, lateral, below the leaves. Flowers dioecious.—Native of hills in the fouthern part of Jamaica. A #ree about ten feet high, whofe ¢runé is an inch or two in diameter, with a fmoothifh grey bark, and fpread- ing branches, armed when young with ftinging briftles. Leaves on the young branches only, ftalked, pointed, an inch or two long, with broad, fometimes fhallow, ferratures ; green on both fides, and befprinkled, more or lefs, with fine ftinging briftles, fome of which are marginal. Cluffers on the naked parts of the branches, from above the fears left by the laft year’s leaves, an inch long, flender, briftly. Flowers minute, diftant, feffile. Dr. Swartz never met with the male bloffoms. 73. U. caraccalana. Broad-downy-leaved Nettle. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 71. t. 386. Willd. n. 67.—Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, acutely crenate ; rough above ; foft and downy beneath. Panicles lateral, leaflefs, forked, diva- ricated. Flowers capitate, dioecious. Stem arboreous. — Native of the Caraccas. It flowered in autumn, in the ftove at Schoenbrun. We find an old fpecimen, without name or place of growth, in the Linnzan herbarium. The flem is eight feet high, and an inch thick, round, woody, but light. Leaves on downy ftalks, broadly heart-fhaped, from five to eighteen inches long, copioufly but not ftrongly crenate, furnifhed with one principal rib, which fends off many obliquely tranfverfe ones ; green on both fides, though the under is clothed with dent velvet-like pubefcence, which has rather lefs of a ftinging property than the hairs on the footfalks and young branches. Panicles from above the {cars left by laft year’s leaves, two or three inches wide, .repeatedly forked, their ftalks white, fmooth and tender. Flowers purplifh, in {mall round heads. We have feen only the males, which are four-cleft. 74. U. baccifera. Berry-bearing Nettle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1398. Willd. n.68. Ait. n.18. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 71. t. 387. Andr. Repof. t.454. Swartz Obf. 358. (U. arborefcens baccifera; Plum. Ic. 259. t. 260. )—Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, toothed, prickly as well as the fhrubby ftem. Calyx of the fruit pulpy. — Native of lofty fhady mountains in South America and Jamaica ; flowering in the ftove in fummer. A {tout /hrub, or {mall #ree, of a coarfe rather fuceulent habit, armed all over with copious large venomous prickles, of a conical figure. Leaves a {pan long, acute, dark-green ; paler be- neath. Panicles numerous, lateral or axillary, large, droop- ing, lax, very much branched, with red prickly italks. Flowers {mall, dioecious; we have feen the female plant only, and confequently no perfect fruit. The /ligma is a beautiful tuft of radiating hairs. The calyx is permanent, {welling, and becoming pulpy, as the /eed ripens, which is clearly exprefled in Plumier’s figure. 75. U. fliimulans. Buffalo’s Nettle. Linn. Suppl. 418. Wilid. n. 69.—Leaves alternate, oblong, entire ; contracted and flightly heart-fhaped at the bafe ; roughifh on the upper fide. Stem fhrubby, prickly. Panicles axillary, compound, divaricated, hairy. — Native of Java, where, according to Thunberg, it is called Buffélblad, or Buffalo’s leaf, being ufed to drive thofe animals, by means of the large flings, with which the branches are armed. Of thefe ftings we find no traces on the dried fpecimen. The branches are woody, round; the young ones leafy, rough to the touch, with extremely minute points, fuch as are found likewife on the foliage. The Jeaves are a {pan tong, (on ftalks rough in a fimilar manner, an inch in length,) furnifhed with a fingle {tout mid-rib, which fends off numerous alternate, tranfverfe veins or ribs; the under fide is f{mooth, rather pale. Svipulas ovate, membranous, partly hairy, deciduous. Panicles ftalked, twice the length of the footftalks, with fomewhat racemofe branches, clothed with numerous, ap- parently flinging, briftles. //owers fomewhat tufted, {mall, probably dioecious. 76. U. laurina. Laurel-leaved Nettle.—Leaves alter- nate, ovate-oblong, pointed, nearly {mooth, with fhallow ferratures. Panicles lateral, divaricated, downy. Flowers capitate.—Sent by the late Mr. Chriftopher Smith, from Amboyna. The ffem is fhrubby or arboreous, with woody folid branches, leafy at the extremity. Leaves deciduous, about UR. about four inches long, of an elegant, fomewhat elliptical, taper-pointed form, bordered with fhallow ferratures chiefly towards the end, and furnifhed, as in the laft, with a fingle mid-rib, fending off tranfverfe veins; the upper fide is {mooth to the touch, though covered with callous points, even more minute than in the preceding ; the under paler, fome- what downy when young, but afterwards fmooth, except the rib and veins, which are finely hairy. Footftalks downy and hairy, three-quarters of an inch long. Stipulas nearly as long, lanceolate, hairy, deciduous. Panicles copious, from the fcars of the naked branches, left by the laft year’s foot- ftalks, each of feveral ftraggling, flightly divided, racemofe branches, finely downy, not hairy or flinging. Flowers in little round heads, all male in our fpecimen, four-cleft and tetrandrous. U. cylindrica, Linn, Sp. Pl. 1396 ; /picata of Thunberg, which is japonica, Linn. Suppl. 418; alenata of Linn. Sytt. Veg. which is Parietaria zeylanica, Sp. Pl. 1492 ; interrupta, Sp. Pl. 1398 ; and, as we have already faid, arborea, Suppl. 417; are all referred by Willdenow to BorHmerta, in his Sp. Pl. v. 4. 340; fee that article. Urtica, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the hardy her- baceous kind, among which the fpecies cultivated are, the Tartarian or hemp-leaved nettle (U.cannabina) ; the Canada nettle (U. canadenfis) ; and the fnowy Chinefe or white- leaved nettle ( U. nivea). The firft is a rather curious plant, rifing with many fquare ftalks to the height of five or fix feet, and flowers hanging in the form of long catkins near the top parts of them. The fecond fort, or Canadian nettle, has ere& ftalks two feet in height, and the flowers produced in the form of branching upright aments or catkins. The third fort is perennial, with upright numerous ftalks three or four feet in height, with the flowers in loofe aments, the whole plant having a hoary white appearance. Method of Culture-—Thefe plants may be increafed by parting or flipping the roots in the autumn, or early in the {pring, and planting them out where they are to remain. The third fort is rather tender, and fhould have a dry fitu- ation where it is warm and fheltered, or be kept in pots to be fheltered under frames, or in the green-houfe, during the feverity of the winter feafon. The two firft forts afford variety in the borders and clumps of pleafure-grounds, in afflemblage with herbaceous plants, by the fingularity of their manner of flowering, and the laft among potted plants. ‘They will continue for many years, efpecially the two firft forts. Urtica Errans, in Zoology, the name of a fea-animal of the nature of the common urtica marina in many particu- lars; but as that is always fixed down to the rocks, this {pecies is always found loofe. See the next article. It has been fuppofed that thefe creatures affeéted the fkin with a pain like that of the ftinging of nettles on touching them, and even the eyes of thofe who only look attentively on them; but M. Reaumur, who faw prodigious numbers of them on the coafts of Poiftou, declares that he found no fuch property in any of them, any more than in thofe fixed to the rocks. . Thefe in fubftance fo much refemble a ftiff jelly, that if they were called fea-jellies, there would want but a fhort additional defcription to make them underftood. Their flefh, if it may be fo called, appears of the colour as well as the confiftence of a common jelly ; and if a piece of one of them be taken up, the mere heat of the hand is fufficient to make it melt away into plain water. Thefe are notwith- ftanding true and perfe& animals ; and thofe who have been of a contrary opinion, have not examined them with fuffi- OB a cient attention. There are very different figures among them ; but this is owing to their being of different {pecies ; for all thofe of the fame fpecies are ever exaétly of the fame figure. One great reafon of people’s fuppofing them un- organized bodies, is, that what is feen of them about the fhores is very often a fragment of a dead animal, not the whole of a living one; and no wonder if all the neceflary parts of an animal could not be found in fuch a piece of one. Though the generality of thefe animals are of the fimple colour of a jelly, there are fome of a greenifh caft, and others which have a broad band of a beautifully purple round their extremity; and fome are beautifully {potted with brown. Their figure is vety well expreffed by that of the head of a large mufhroom; their upper furface is convex in the fame manner, and this convexity is greater or lefs in the different kinds, as it is'in the different fpecies of mufhrooms. If one of thefe animals be dried in the fun in hot weather, there remains nothing of it but a fubftance like a thin parch- ment ; but if one of them be boiled in water, it does not diffolve away as might have been expected, but only regu- larly decreafes in fize ; and when it has become of about one- fourth of its natural bignefs, it there ftops the decreafe, and continues nearly of that fize, and after that will not melt away upon the hand. All the creatures of this fpecies, which we fee thrown upon the fhores, are found lifelefs and without motion ; but there is nothing wonderful in that, becaufe the violent fhocks and blows which they muft have received, in being dafhed again{t the rocks or fands by the waves, are enough to kill fo tender an animal. One proof that thefe animals once lived, is, that all thofe which we find about the fhores are heavier than the water, and fink to the bottom; whereas all thofe feen out at fea, fwim upon the furface; and this could not be the cafe in regard to any fubftance heavier than water, unlefs kept up by fome voluntary motion. This motion M. Reaumur has obferved to be a reciprocal contraétion and dilatation of the whole body, in the manner of a fyftole and diaftole. In the contraétion, it elevates the convexity of the body, and in the dilatation it makes it more flat; and by continually repeating thefe motions, it keeps above water as a man does by fwimming. Mem. Acad. Par. 1710. Urtica Marina, the name of a remarkable genus of aquatic animals, fo called from a fuppofition of their affe&- ing the fkin on touching them, with a painful fenfation like that of the ftinging of nettles. Thefe are animals of the loweft clafs, and have by many been reckoned among thofe creatures called zoophytes, or plant-animals, as fuppofed to partake of the nature of vegetables and of animals. Some of the {pecies of this animal are found loofe upon the {mooth fhores, and fome fixed to the roeks which are always covered with water. This has given birth to a diftin@ion of them into two claffes, which is as old as Ariftotle ; thofe of the one being fuch as move in the open fea, called by later writers urtice folute, and referred by Linnzus to'the eles of medufa, and denominated by the common people ea-jellies and fea-blubbers (fee Urtica Errans) ; and thofe of the others fuch as are fixed to rocks, and were fuppofed always to remain immoyeably in the fame place, which be- long to the actinia of Linnezus. The accurate M. Reau- niur has obferved, however, that even thefe laft have a power of a progreflive motion, and are not doomed to an eternal refidence on the fame fpot. The motion of thefe creatures is fo flow, that it might eafily pafs unobferved by lefs accurate obfervers ; this gentleman comparing it to that of the hour-hand of a clock, and adding, that a journey of an URT an inch takes them up commonly between one and two hours. He obferves alfo, that many of the {pecies have no property of ftinging, or caufing any painful fenfation on the flefh. Dr. Gertner obferves, that there is not a fingle fpecies of the urtica marina poffeffed of that ftinging quality which the ancients afcribed to them; their tentacula indeed feel rough and clammy, when touched with the finger ; but this roughnefs is not perceptible, except when the animal at- tempts to lay hold of the finger; in which cafe it throws eut of the whole furface of the feeler a number of ex- tremely minute fuckers, which, fticking faft to the fmall protuberances of the fin, produce the fenfation of a rough- nefs, which is fo far from being painful, that it even cannot be called difagreeable. Thefe creatures occafionally change their bodies into fo many different forms, that there is no giving any defcription of their figure. The moft natural and general fhape feems that of a truncated cone, the bafe of which is applied to the rock ; but this bafe is often round, often elliptic, and often of a perfeétly irregular figure. The furface of the top of the cone is not flat, but convex, and has in its centre an aperture, which the creature makes larger or {maller at pleafure. In fome pofitions, the whole animal not unaptly re- fembles a purfe, only with this difference, that the body is not drawn up into any folds or wrinkles by the clofing of the aperture or mouth. In the middle of this purfe, as we callit, is placed the body of the creature, touching this outer covering at the bottom on every fide, and of a conic figure, as that is. At its top, however, it is loofe, and ftands every way free from its covering ; the fides are more or lefs diftant from this free or loofe part of the body, as the aper- “ture at the top of the cone is more or lefs open; when it is nearly fhut up, very little of the body of the animal can be feen; but when it opens into different widths, more or lefs of the body becomes vifible ; and when it is at the wideft, every part of it, and all the horns, are feen perfectly dif- tin. Thefe horns refemble in appearance thofe of the common fnail; but in their ufe they feem much more allied to the pipes or probofcides of the chamze kind, the animal generally throwing out water at them on being touched. They are placed in three ranges on the internal furface of the covering, and are very numerous, their whole number not being lefs than a hundred and fifty.. The creature very often not only opens the outer cover- ing or purfe to the utmoft width it is capable of, but at the fame time turns back its extremities: in this cafe, the in- ternal part, or body, becomes vifible on the furface, and at. the fame time all the horns being, by this bending back of the fkin on which they grow, thrown into the poiture of fo many rays, the whole makes a very remarkable figure, and not unaptly refembles an anemony, or fome other fuch flower, when fully open. Very often alfo there is a great addition to the beauty of this appearance, by feveral round veficles of water, which appear blue, or of fome other lively colour. The general colour of the different {pecies of this ani- mal, or indeed of the fame fpecies in different circumiftances, is as variable as the fhape; fometimes they are feen pellucid and colourlefs, fometimes white, often yellowifh, fometimes of a rofe colour; at other times, they are of a beautiful green, and often of various fhades of brown. In fome, thefe colours are equally diffufed through every part; in others, they are only feen in form of {pots and clouds, or variega- tions ; fometimes thefe are irregularly difpofed, fometimes more regularly, but always with great beauty. The green ones have ufually a broad line of blue all round their bafe. UR T Neither the colour nor fhapes of thefe animals can be any, marks of different fpecies; but the firmnefs of their flefh may: in this they remarkably differ one from another, and this is a difference the more obvious, as their flefh is always open to the touch, there being no fhell, nor any other hard fubftance to cover it. However flow the progreffive motion of this creature is, when examined it is found to depend on avery remarkable mechanifm, to underftand which we muft atten- tively confider what is obvious to the eye in the ftruGture of the creature, and remember the comparifon of the whole to a purfe. We find that what refembles the bottom of that purfe is flat, and is fixed to the rock, while the body is contained in the reft of the purfe, but never fills it, unlefs when the mouth of the purfe or covering is clofe drawn together. The whole covering is a colleétion of muf- cles, which are all tubular. The bafe of the animal never appears to us, becaufe always fixed down to the rock; but when the creature is raifed from that pofition, and the bafe examined, it appears compofed of a vaft number of tubes placed one behind another, and running from the centre to the circumference. Thefe tubes are often filled with an aqueous liquor, which may be forced out on prefling them. Befides thefe tubes, there are alfo many circular ones fur- rounding one another. The progreflive motion feems to be thus performed : when the creature has determined which way it will march, it diftends all thofe longitudinal tubes which are on that fide of its body which is placed toward the point it would move to ; this, from its round fhape.at the bafe, gives it an oblong one ; that is, it throws the fore-part fomewhat forward upon the rock; and, at the fame time, if the longitudinal tubes on the oppofite fide of the body be all left empty, and the circular ones diftended, thefe naturally draw the whole body toward the fore-part, and thus a {mall advance is made and preferved, and this, often repeated, is the flow progreflion of this animal. All this is, however, performed fo very flowly, that though there is a continual change going on in the creature, both as to fhape and place, yet if the eye is kept continually on the objet, neither is perceived ; but if taken off for fome time, and the place and figure both kept in mind, both will be found to be altered on viewing again. There is a f{pecies of this animal alfo which moves by means of its horns; this is known from the reft by the length of the horns, and their being covered with a glutinous moifture. This f{pecies lives in the cavities and holes of rocks ; and when it has a mind to move, it turns itfelf bottom upwards, and crawls flowly on by means of its horns, which then touch the rock. The food of the urtica marina is not lefs wonderful than its ftru€ture and motions. It fhould feem very ftrange that an animal, foft like this creature, with no feet nor inftru- ment of that kind to help itfelf with, fhould be able to feed on the flefh of mufcles, fea-{nails, and other fhell-fifh ; yet thefe are its conftant food. They find means to take in the fhell-fifh whole into the body, and then clofe the aperture faft upon it, fo that it is not to be feen that they have any fuch thing within them; they keep them here as long as they pleafe, and afterwards throw out the empty thells by the fame aperture, which they can, as before obferved, widen and contraé& at pleafure. By what means the urtica is able to get out the body of thefe fifh, is not known, as it all pafles in the body ; but it very often fails, and the creature is obliged to throw out the fhell-fifh alive again ; and fome- times when it has greedily gorged too large a morfel, and it is got into a wrong pofition to be thrown out the fame way, it is obliged to let it through the bafe, where there is a natur URT natural aperture, and where its paflage muft be attended with a terrible wound. The manner, in which the larger {hells are thrown out by the mouth, is by opening it ex- tremely wide and turning it back, fo that the infide appears outward for a little way down ; and this motion is alfo ufed on another very neceflary occafion, the excluding of the young ones, for thefe animals are viviparous. Mem. Acad. Par. 1710. It has been found that this creature has the remarkable property of the polype, in reproducing fuch parts as it had loft. MM. Reaumur tried many experiments on the various {pecies of this, and of the ftar-fifh kind, and found that whatever parts were cut off, the wound foon healed; and M. de Villars had opportunities of watching the whole pro- grefs of the growth of the animals afterwards, and found that they not only feemed alive and well after cutting, their wounds foon cicatrizing, but that they, in a very little time, regained what had been cut off, and became as perfect as before. See Sea~-ANEMONIES. Dr. Gertner refers the urtice marine, or fea-nettles, to the hydra of Linneus, commonly called the polype; for he fays, that they agree with that genus in the following general chara¢ters, befides many of its lefs effential or acci- dental qualities: they are of a gelatinous fubftance; they have only one opening in their bodies which gives a paflage to the food, as well as to the excrements of the animal; and they have alfo a fet of feelers, which furround this opening, and ferve thefe creatures for claws, to catch their prey with, and convey it to their mouths. Phil. Tranf. vol. li. art. 13. P-.73> Ke. Thefe animals were known to the Greeks and Romans by the names of my US H poperys and he founded his predictions of fuch an event on is interpretation of fome paflages of Scripture; and it has been faid, that at fome feafons he feemed to think himfelf warranted to {peak of future events in a higher tone of au- thority than as a mere conjecturer. A popular opinion prevailed, that Ufher was endowed with a prophetic {pirit ; but there is no fufficient evidence that he himfelf pretended to this extraordinary gift. It was his intention to have left his library, confifting of nearly 10,000 books and MSS. to his “ alma mater’? at Dublin ; but being ftripped, by the difafters of the times, of all other property, he thought it right to bequeath it to his daughter, to whom he had given nothing, and who had a large family. The king of Den- mark and cardinal Mazarin bid for it; but the Proteétor con- ceiving it siracetel to his adminiftration to allow fucha treafure to be fent out of the kingdom, prohibited the difpofal of it without his confent. Probably through his private fuggeftion, the officers and foldiers of the viftorious army in Ireland purchafed it for 2200/., with a view of appro- priating it agreeably to the firft intention of the primate. Tt lay at the caftle till the Reftoration, and after fuffering va- rious depredations, it was beftowed by Charles II. upon Dublin college. It has been a fubjeé&t of difpute, how far the opinions of Ubfher differed from thofe of the eftablifhed church. Dr. Peter Heylin alleged againft him many charges of non-con- formity. Thefe are fummed up under diftiné heads, and particularly examined by Dr. Parr. _ Our limits will merely allow a recital of them. 1. The divine authority for keep- ing the fabbath, or feventh day’s reft, as transferred to the Chriftian Sunday. 2. His opinion that bifhops and prefby- ters differ in degree only, not in order; and, as an infer- ence, that prefbyterian ordination and facraments are valid. 3. His limitation to the eleé&t of that univerfal redemption of mankind by the fufferings and death of Chrift, which is the do@trine of the church of England. It is, however, a fubje& of controverfy not yet decided, whether the articles of the Englifh church, as to thefe points, are to be under- ftood in a Calviniftic or an Arminian fenfe. In early life, the theological fy{tem of Uther was Calviniftic ; but it has been faid that he changed his fentiments concerning the doétrines of Calvinifm before his death. 4. The primate is accufed by Heylin of not holding the doétrine of the ¢rue and real prefence of Chriit’s body and blood in the facrament of the eucharift, conformably to the church of England. But it is hardly conceivable that any modern divine of the church of England would go farther than the primate, who diftin- guifhed between the outward and inward aé& of the com- municant : ‘‘ in the firft of which he really receives the vi- fible elements of bread and wine; in the fecond, by faith, really receives the body and blood of our Lord, that is, is truly and indeed made partaker of Chrift crucified to the fpiritual ftrengthening of the inward man.”’ 5. The next charge is, that he did not admit the power of the prieft to forgive fins, in the fenfe of the church of England. Heylin contends for an authoritative power in the prieft to remit fins ; whereas the primate’s opinion feems to have been, that the prieft’s abfolution is only declarative, or on condition of repentance ; or optative, by the way of prayers and intercef- fion. Dr. Parr contends, that the doétrine of the church is that held by the primate. 6. His opinion concerning Chrift’s defcent into hell is alleged to have deviated from that of the church, inafmuch as he did not admit of a local defcent into the real hell, or place of punifhment for the wicked, but a mere feparation between the foul and body during the time that Chrift lay in the grave. As a man of learning, Ufher’s name became celebrated USI throughout Europe, and he carried on a correfpondence with feveral learned perfons, both at home and abroad. Of his works we fhall here fubjoin a catalogue. Publications of archbifhop Ufher:— De Ecclefiarum Chriftianarum Succeffione et Statu, 1613; The Religion of the ancient Irifh and Britons, 1622; Gottefchale: et Predeftinarie Controverfie ab eo Mote Hittoria, 1631 3 Veterum Epiftolarum Hibernicarum Sylloge, 1632; Im- manuel, or the Myltery of the Incarnation of the Son of God, 1638; De Ecclefiarum Britannicarum Primordiis, 1639; A Difcourfe on the Origin of Bifhops and Metro- politans, 1641 ; A Geographical and Hiftorical Difquifi- tion on the Lydian or Proconfular Afia, 1641 ; Polycarpi et Ignatii Epiftole, &c. 1644; Appendix Ienatiana, 1647 ; Diatriba de Romane Ecclefiz Symbolo Apoftolico aliifque Fidei Formulis, 1647; De Macedonum et Afianorum Anno Solari, 1648; Annalium Pars prior, 1650; Epif- tola ad Ludov. Capellum de Textus Hebraici variantibus Le&tionibus, 1652; Annalium Pars potterior, 1654; De Greca Septuaginta Interpretum Verfione Syntagma, 1655. — Pofthumous: Various Tras, edited by Dr. Bernard, 1657; Chronologia Sacra, edited by Dr. Barlow, 1660 ; The Power of the Prince, and Obedience of the Subject, written 16%1, printed afterthe Reftoration ; Hiftoria Dog- matica Controverfie inter Orthodoxos et Pontificios de Scripturis et Sacris Vernaculis: Acceffere Differtationes duz, 1690. See the life of Ufher by Dr. Aikin, who appeals for the faéts which he has recited to the Life of Uther by Dr. Parr, who was the primate’s chaplain at the time of his death; and who has annexed to his account a large coileétion of letters, that paffed between Usher and his correfpondents ; and alfo to the Life of Ufher by Dr. Smith, which is the firft and principal article of his work, entitled “‘ Vite quo- rundam eruditiflimorum et illuftrium Virorum,” 1707, 4to. USIA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Vaga; 8 miles S. of Vielfk, in the government of Vologda. USIATIN, a town of Poland; 28 miles N. of Ka- miniec. USIDICANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in Umbria. USIDITANA, a town of Meefia, in the vicinity of Thamyris. USIJES, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro- vince of Yemen ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Chamir. USILLA, Ins-xitts, in Ancient Geography, a place of Africa, upon the coaft of the Mediterranean fea, S. of Rufpa. USIMADO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 86 miles S.W. of Meaco. USINGEN, a town of Naffau Ufingen, which gives title toa branch of the houfe of Naffau, with a family feat. In 1793, it was taken by the French; 12 miles S.S.E. of Weilburg. USIPII, or Usretans, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany, who at occafional intervals of time, inhabited the fame places with the Teuchteri. The Ufipii anciently dwelt between the Cherufci and the Sicambri ; but the Catti expelled them ; and after having wandered for about three years in different countries of Germany, they eftablithed themfelyes upon the Rhine, in the vicinity of the Sicambri. The Menapii occupied the two banks of this river ; and therefore it muft have been with their confent that the Ufi- pians and Teuchteri took poffeffion of the country of the Menapians, fituated to the E. of the Rhine. In the year 698 of Rome, the Ufipians and Teuchteri were almott 4D2 entirely USK entirely exterminated. A very {mall remnant of a populous nation repaffed the Rhine, and eftablifhed themfelves with the Sicambri: but in the time of Auguftus, or a little more than half a century after the terrible defeat juft mentioned, they found themfelves in a condition to make war, firft with the Sicambri, and then with the Romans. From the expe- dition of Drufus into Germany, we learn that the country of the Ufipians and that of the Teuchteri were then dif- ferent. ‘The Ufipians extended along the right bank of the Lippe; but when Drufus paffed the Rhine, and fubjugated the Ufipians, he threw a bridge over the Lippe, by which he entered into the country of the Sicambri. The Teuch- teri inhabited aterritory W. of the Sicambri, and the Rhine {eparated them from the Menapians. Tiberius, having af- terwards tranfported the Sicambri into Gaul, the country which they had occupied in Germany was given to the Ufipians and Teuchteri; at length the Teuchteri extended themfelves along the Rhine from the Segos (the Sige) as far as the Roer, and along the Lippe and the Alife (the Alene). As to the Ufipians, they remained on the two banks of the Lippe and the Rhine, perhaps as far as the place where the Rhine divides to form the ifle of the Batavi. At the commencement of the reign of Trajan, it appears that the Teuchteri had been almoft exterminated by the Cherufci and Angrivarians, who took poffeffion of a great part of their territory. The Ufipians muft alfo have fuffered. In the time of Conftantine, the Ufipians and the Teuchteri ceafed in a manner to have any political exiftence, having probably fubmitted to fome people more powerful than themfelves. ‘ USITZA, in Geography, a town of Servia, taken by the Turks in 1738; 23 miles N.W. of Jenibafar. USK, a borough and market-town in the upper divifion of the hundred of the fame name, and county of Monmouth, England, is fituated at the confluence of the rivers Olwy and Ufk, at the diftance of 14 miles S.W. from the county- town, and 144 miles W. by N. from London. Though fcarcely a vettige of Roman remains has, at leaft in modern times, been difcovered at this place, all antiquaries, except Salmon,who makes this the fite of Ifca Silurum, have agreed to fix here the Burrium of Antoninus’ Itinerary, and the Bul- lzum of Ptolemy. It is evident that Usk is a place of high antiquity, and has been of much larger extent and greater importance. The hiftory of its caftle furnifhes the earlieft written records of the place; and though from fome of its architeGtural features, it appears to have been of Roman or Roman-Britifh origin ; yet the remoteft notice that has hi- therto been difcovered is, that, in the time of Henry III., it formed part of the poflfeffions of Richard de Clare, earl of Gloucefter: from his family it came to the Mortimers, earls of March. In the third year of Henry VI., on the death of Edmund Mortimer without iffue, his great pof- feffions were granted to his nephew Richard duke of York, whofe favourite refidence this caftle appears to have been: his fons, Edward IV. and Richard III., were born here. Qn the death of the latter, it became the property of Henry VII.: it afterwards belonged to William Herbert, firft earl of Pembroke: the duke of Beaufort is the prefent proprietor. This fortrefs experienced frequent affaults dur- ing the alternate fucceffes of the Welfh chieftains and the Anglo-Norman lords: and it fuffered particularly, together with the town, in the ravages of Owen Glendwr, who, at length, here met with a compleat defeat. The prefent re- maing of the caftle confift of a court, the principal entrance to which is by a tower gateway, having a pointed arch with a groove for a portcullis: an area of confiderable extent is Surrounded by walls, fanked with round and {quare towers, USK deftitute of windows, but having occafional narrow aper~ tures: within are the keep, a fquare tower, and feveral apartments, one of which appears to have been the baronial hall. A priory was founded in this town, previous to the year 1236: a few remains of the building are ftill ftanding 5 and in an apartment on the firft floor, the frieze of the ceil- ing is decorated with thirty emblematic devices and embla- zoned arms. Ufk is a borough town and fince the 27th year of Henry VIII. has been privileged with eletive fran- chife, being, in conjun@ion with Monmouth and Newport, reprefented by one member of parliament. By a charter granted in 1398, the civil government is velted in a bailiff, community, and burgefles. The town is of confiderable extent, but, according to the population return of the year 1811, contains only 164 houfes, and 844 inhabitants. Several ways bear the name of ftreets, though fearcely deferving that appellation: for the houfes in general are ifolated, having gardens, orchards, and paddocks intervening ; which, though they give an irregularity to the town, tend much to comfort and convenience. Two fairs are held annually, and a {mall market weekly on Mondays: the town has no trade, and only a {mall manufaétory of japan ware. Some of the inhabitants derive advantage from its being a thoroughfare ; fome are employed in hufbandry ; and fome gain a main- tenance by the falmon fifhery, which is abundant in the river Utk. The church, which belonged to the priory, appears to have been erected in the Anglo-Norman era. By found- ations yet remaining, it was built cruciform, in the manner of a cathedral: the fquare embattled tower, now itanding at the eaft end, was in the centre, and feems to have com- municated with a tranfept and choir, both of which have long been deftroyed. Many alterations have taken place in the building ; the circular columns and arches of the tower exhibit the Norman charafter; but the nave is feparated from the north aile by four pointed arches, and the win- dows and doorways are in the fame ftyle. The interior affords nothing worthy of notice, except an infcription on a brafs plate, which has for more than half a century been a perplexing fubje&t to antiquaries, and {till appears to defy critical difquifition. It was firft publifhed in the fecond volume of the Archzologia, thence copied into Gough’s edition of Camden, and fince given more correét by Mr. Coxe. A ftone bridge of five circular arches, flanked on each fide by triangular buttreffes, is the only other public ftructure deferving mention. Near the foot of the bridge was formerly a Roman Catholic chapel; it is now the com- mon prifon. In the vicinity of Ufk are feveral ancient en- campments ; almoft every two or three miles exhibit veitiges of hoftile pofitions, and the tumuli of heroes flain.—Beau- ties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Monmouthfhire, by J. Britton, F.S.A. Coxe’s Hiftorical Tour through Mon- mouthfhire, two vols. 4to. 1801. Usk, ariver of South Wales, which rifes in the S.W. part of the county of Brecknock, and runs into the Severn, below Newport, in Monmouthfhire. USKALINMAA, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 18/.. E. long. 21° 5’. USKEI, an ifland belonging to Ruffia, in Beering’s ftraits. N. lat. 65° 58'. E. long. 189° 21’. USKELA, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo; 27 miles E. of Abo. USKER, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Kur, on the Kur; 12 miles N.N.E. of Akalzike. USKOLOMSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the provinee of Uftiug, on the Vitchegda; 80 miles E.N.E. of Eait Sifolfk. ; USKUBS, a town of Natolia; 36 miles N.W- of Boli. I USLAH, USN USLAH, a town of Bengal; 9 miles S. of Curruck- deah. ~ USLAR, a town of Weltphalia, in the principality of Calenberg. In the year 1575, duke Frederic ordered the name to be changed to Freudenthal; 17 miles W.N.W of Gottingen. USMAN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tam- boy, on a river of the fame name; 40 miles S.W. of Tambov. N. lat. 52°8!. E. long. 40° 24!. USNAU, Jfland of, fometimes called Hutten’s [fland, a {mall ifland in the lake of Zuric, Switzerland, about an Englifh mile in circumference, belonging to the abbey of Einfedlin. It contains only a fingle houfe, two barns, a kind of tower or fummer-houfe, a chapel that is never ufed, and a church in which mafs is faid once ayear. Within is the tomb of St. Alderic, who built an hermitage in the ifland and retired hither, where he died, after a life of re- puted fanétity, in 1473. It is called Hutten’s ifland, from an extraordinary perfon of that name, famed for his learn- ing and valour, and for his intemperate ardour in defence of the opinions of Luther. After having rendered himfelf an object of terror both to Lutherans and Catholics, he fought repofe in this fequeftered ifland, and died here in 1523, in the 36th year of his age. The ifland, which is agreeably di- verfified with hill and dale, is very fertile in pafture, pro- duces hemp, flax, a few vines, and a {mall tufted wood, which overhangs the margin of the water. This is the only ifland in the om except an uninhabited rock, which yields a {mall quantity of hay. nal USNEA, in Botany, a name retained by Dillenius, for which he modeitly folicits the indulgenee of botanifts, not- withftanding its Arabian origin, being derived from the Axneeh and Ufnee of Serapio. It has long been the officinal name of one of this genus, which, though funk in Lichen by Linnzus, is now reftored by Acharius, under the above appellation.—Dill. Mufc. 56. Achar. Prodr. 223. Meth. 306. Lichenogr. 127. t. 14. f. 5. Syn. 303. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 322. Hoffm. Germ. v. 2. 132.— Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Adige. Nat. Ord. Algae, Li- chenes. Eff. Ch. Receptacles? orbicular, peltate, fcarcely co- loured, without a border; fubtended by a dilatation of the frond, which is branched, and contains a central elattic ith. : The filamentous Lichens of Linnzus chiefly compofe this genus. (See Licuen, fect. 9; and Licuengs, n. 6, n. 28, and n. 21.)—-We need not repeat the account and obfervations there given, refpecting the fruétification of the genus before us. With refpect to its technical difcrimina- tion, Acharius confiders as effential the very tough, elaftic, central thread, which pervades the whole frond and its branches, remaining unbroken when the outer coat, tumid and cracked, aflumes, in feveral fpecies, a jointed or beaded appearance. The orbicular difks are not circum{cribed by any tumid border from the frond, but are often bounded by an indeterminate, or irregular, dilatation of that part, very frequently fubtended, or fringed, with prominent briftles, or threads, refembling young branches. How far thefe difks are real receptacles of /eeds muft appear, from the ob- fervations above cited, very doubtful; or rather it feems clear that they are not fo, and that the convex more coloured tubercles, deftitute of any border, found in fome of the {pecies, are more probably the receptacles. According to this idea, we fhould rather prefer the following : Eff. Ch. Receptacles lateral, feffile, tumid, rugged, eoloured, without a border. Frond thread-fhaped, branched, with a central elaftic pith, USN Leaving the queftion thus open, for future examination and determination, we proceed to the clucidation of the {pecies, which are very prudently curtailed in the laft work of Dr. Acharius, his Synopfis. 1. U. melaxantha. Orange and black U{nea. Ach. Syn. n. 1. Meth. 307. (Lichen aurantiaco-ater ; Jacq. Mife. V. 2. 369. t. 11. f. 2. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 965.)— Frond nearly ereét, tufted, rough, tawny: ultimate branches tapering, black. Difks concave ; black above ; corrugated underneath ; naked at the margin.—Commerfon, Menzies, and other voyagers, have gathered this handfome fpecies, at the {traits of Magellan, Staten land, Falkland iflands, &c. The /lem is fimple at the root, but divides immediately into a denfe bufhy mafs of fubdivided, entangled, round, very tough éraaches, and is three or four inches high. The fur- face is rough with minute points, partly tawny or orange- coloured, partly black and fhining ; the {maller branches are beautifully annulated with tawny and black alternately ; the ultimate ones black, tapering to a fharp point. The in- ternal fubftance is folid, white, very hard. Receptacles \ate- ral, folitary, caufing the branch to form an acute angle at the infertion of each, When young they are almoft globu- lar, then hemifpherical, or nearly flat. Their difk is dark brown or black, and of a diftinét fubftance from the pale or tawny acceffory border, formed from the frond, inflexed when young, corrugated beneath, remaining thin, even, {mooth, naked and uninterrupted, encompafling the difk. We admit this fpecies here chiefly in conformity to our diftinguifhed guide. While we beg leave to proteft againft his change of the excellent original name, we decline reftor- ing that name combined with U/nea, becaufe we feel fome fulpicion that the plant may belong to Dr. Acharius’s new genus Evernia, Syn. 244. ‘The frond, though corticated, is folid, and the receptacles are fhield-like, feflile, with a thin coloured concave di/k, furrounded by an elevated inflexed margin from the fubftance of the frond, which are the cha» racters of Evernia, rather than of U/nea. 2. U. jamaicenfis. Jamaica Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 2. “ Lichenogr. 619. Nov. A&. Upfal. with a figure, un- publithed.””—** Frond nearly ereét, rough, pale, forked: branches divaricated, widely {preading. Difks peltate, nearly feflile, rather concave, of the colour of the frond; fmooth, appendiculated and proliferous beneath; naked in the cir- cumference.””—Native of trees in the Weft Indies. Acha- rius. 3- U. cornicularia. Brown-horned Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 3. “Lichenogr. 619. Nov. Act. Upfal. with a figure, unpublifhed.””—‘* Frond fpreading, rigid, very {fmooth, thread-fhaped, flender, white, much branched : branches in- tricate, zigzag: ultimate ones partly brownifh.’?—Found on the trunks of trees in New Zeeland. Acharius. 4. U. ceratina. Intricate-horned Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 4. “ Lichenogr. 619. Nov. A&. Upfal. with a figure, un- publifhed.”’—** Frond proftrate, rather pendulous, rigid, very rough, whitifh, lightly fibrous: branches very long, fubdivided, f{preading, diffufe. Difks concave, of the colour of the frond; fomewhat proliferous beneath ; encompafled with long, ftout, curved rays.””—Found on trees in Silefia. The author mentions a variety, found on rocks in France, Spain, and North America, thus diftinguifhed. b. /cabrofa. ** Frond ereé&, rough, rigid, fomewhat tufted, pale, branched: branches ftraight or zigzag, tapering, widely {preading.”’ Some fpecimens from America are furnifhed with red tubercles, or cephalodia. 5. U. florida. Flowery Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 5. 307. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grac. ns 2482+ Meth, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. v. 2. USNEA. v. 2. 19. t. 30. f. 2. (U. vulgatiffima tenuior et brevior, cum orbiculis; Dill. Mufe. 69. t. 13. f. 13. Lichen flori- dus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1624. Ehrh. Crypt. n. 148. Engl. Bot. t. 872.)—Frond nearly ere&t, rough, greyifh, with crowded horizontal fibres; branches widely {preading, {carcely divided. Difks flat, very broad, whitifh, with long rays. Tubercles flefh-coloured, nearly globular, wrinkled. —Frequent on old trees, efpecially about the tops of aged oaks, fometimes on pales, in various parts of Europe. The fronds form upright, bufhy tufts, of a pale greenifh-grey when moift, whiter when dry, {pringing from a hard black bafe; they are round, confifting of a cruftaceous bark, en- clofing a toygh white fibre, the bark flightly cracking here and there, but not widely. The innumerable branches, crowded with taper fibres, are polifhed, though minutely warty. When of full age, they bear very broad, unequal, irregular difks, at firft lateral, but by the flexure of the branch, and the ftoppage of its growth, becoming terminal. They are {mooth on both fides, paler or flightly flefh- coloured on the upper, having all the appearance of the fhield of a Parmelia, &c.; their border of the fubftance of the frond, narrow, elevated when young, copioufly fringed with radiating fibres. The fame plant bears, though rarely, {mall flefh-coloured tubercles, fituated like the difks, deftitute of rays ; having when young a tumid even border, of their own fubftance and red colour, which is fubfequently obli- terated, as in the genus Lecidea, by the great elevation and {welling of the middle part, forming a tubercle like thofe of a Cup-Lichen, Baomyces. Thefe were noticed by Hoff- mann, Perfoon, and Schrader, though that circumftance was unknown to us, before they appeared in Engli/h Botany ; and the difcovery is the molt curious that has for a long while been made in the hiftory of the Lichen tribe. Acharius enumerates the following varieties. b, rigida. ‘Frond elongated, itraight, rigid, flender, fomewhat dependent, rough; branches rather long, zigzag, befet with fibres and {mall branches.’?—Native of Lufatia and England.—We have not met with any thing anfwering to this. , c, firigofa. Ach. Meth. 310. t. 6. f. 3.—Frond fpread- ing, branched, dirty grey, rough: branches elongated, zig- zag, forked, lax, clofely befet all over with prominent pa- rallel fibres. Difks flefh-coloured, very broad, fomewhat lobed, with radiating teeth.—Found in North America. This feems merely the effect of age. d, villofa. ** Frond and branches dirty afh-coloured, dif- fufe and entangled, clothed with very fhort and crowded villous fibres.”? e, rubiginea. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 332.—“ Frond fomewhat fibrous, of a rufty red, with difks of the fame colour.’”’—Native of North America. f, We have a very long, ftraggling, minutely fibrous, va- riety, brought by Mr. Menzies from the Cape of Good Hope, which hardly comes under any of the above defini- tions. On this we have feen one folitary flefh-coloured tubercle, fituated on the main /fem, as in U. hirta. 6. U- hirta. Common Rough Ufnea. Hoffm. Pl. Lich. v. 2. 17. t. 30. f.1. Sm. Pradr. Fl. Grec. n. 2483. (U. florida 8; Ach. Meth. 309. U. plicatac; Ach. Syn. 305. n. 6. UU. vulgatiflima tenuior et brevior, fine orbiculis; Dill. Mufc. 67. t. 13. f. 12. Lichen hirtus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1623. Ehrh. Crypt. 0. 138. L. floridus 8; Hudf. 560. Ach. Prodr. 224.)—Frond ere@, fome- what fhrubby, much branched, greenifh-grey : branches {preading, wavy, fibrous, roughifh, entangled, tapering. Tubercles lateral, flightly elevated, flefh-coloured, rugged. Radiating difks none.—Extremely common on trees, pofts, 7 and pales, throughout Europe, as well asin America. We cannot conceive this to be a variety, either of the preceding or the following fpecies. The whole plant is more finely fibrous than U. florida, and rather greener. The tubercles are lateral, and do not difturb the direé&t continuation of the branch beyond them; nor are they fo perfeGtly feffile, but rather elevated on a fhort thick ftalk. Sometimes we find them accompanied by a few radiating fibres, but never ap- proaching to the nature of an expanded difk. To this we prefume muft belong the variety d, glabrata, of Ach. Syn. 306. n. 6.— Frond nearly upright, rather fhrubby, white, very fmooth and naked: branches crowded, widely {preading, nearly fimple, fibrous; powdery at the fummit.’?—Native of Switzerland. Wool boiled in water with U. hirta, without alum, takes a fine permanent tawny yellow. 4. U. plicata. Stringy Ufmea. Ach. Syn. n.6. Meth. 310. (U. vulgaris, loris longis implexis; Dill. Mufec. 56. t. 11. f. 1. Lichen plicatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1622. Engl. Bot. t.257- Weftring Lich. t. 8.)—Frond pendulous, fmoothifh, pale grey: branches lax, compound, entangled, partly fibrous; the ultimate ones capillary. Difks flat, fringed with flender fibres. — Found hanging from the branches of old trees, in dark fhady woods of the more mountainous countries of Europe. ‘l'he whole plant, when full grown, meafures from one to two feet in length, bein a denfe mafs of entangled branching fibres. Its hue is lels green than that of U. dirta, nor have any flefh-coloured tubercles been remarked on this fpecies. The di/s at firft refemble fuch tubercles in form, but not in colour; foon becoming concave, with an inflexed fomewhat radiated mar- gin; and at length expanding into a flat fhape, {mooth and even on both fides, very flightly tinged with red-brown above, their border more or lefs fringed with radiating, fometimes elongated, fibres. ‘To this is now reduced, asa variety, : b, comofa. (Lichen comofus; Ach. in Stockh. Tranf. v. 16. 209. t. 8. f. 1.)—‘ Frond rather ereét and fhrubby, pale and whitifh: lateral branches widely {preading, diffufe, crowded, fmooth, much divided; the ultimate ones taper- pointed, roughifh, flightly drooping. Tubercles pale-flefh- coloured, finally brown.”—Found chiefly on tall ftems of Birch-trees, in Sweden. We have not examined this plant, but its tubercles feem to agree rather with U. hirta, as well as its habit. ‘ 8. U. barbata. Bearded Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 7. Meth. 313. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 2484. (U. barbata, loris tenuibus fibrofis; Dill. Mufc. 63. t. 12. f. 6. Li- chen barbatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1622. Engl. Bot. t. 258. faze tales Ach. Syn. 306. n. 7. (U. plicata y, da- fopoga; Ach. Meth. 312. U. barbata; Hoffm. Germ. v. 2. 132, excluding the reference to Dillenius.”? Achar.) c, articulata; Ach. Syn. ibid. (U. barbata 8; Ach. Meth. 313. U. capillacea et nodofa; Dill. Mufe. 60. t. 11. f. 4, Lichen articulatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1623. Engl. Bot. tulZnSa dees) aA] d, inteftiniformis ; Ach. Syn. ibid. ; Frond pendulous, {mooth, tumid, cracked, inflated, greyifh-white: branches divaricated, fibrous, with capillary points. 'Tubercles lateral, flefh-coloured, fomewhat lobed. —Found on the branches of old trees in various parts of Europe, fcarcely bearing tubercles but in Italy, and other fouthern countries. The variety d we have from Exmouth warren, Devonfhire, where it grows on the fandy ground, in large patches. This elegant and ftriking f{pecies has always more or lefs of a jointed, or bearded, appearance, the PEs cipa rl | USN cipal /lems refembling a necklace: in the laft variety, d, they are fingularly inflated and pitted, though lefs interrupted or broken, while the fubdivided branches are more fuddenly capillary than the ufual habit of the plant. That the Lichen barbatus and articulatus of Linnzus conftitute but one fpecies, and are hardly varieties of each other, Mr. a firft hinted, nor could any one have a doubt on the fubje& after examining the Dillenian fpecimens. What the variety, b, dafopoga, of Acharius may be, we have no authentic inform- ation. It has been referred to plicata, but if at all like that fpecies, it can have no affinity to the prefent. U. barbata never exhibits, as far as we can learn, any traces of radiated difks. Its proper fruétifications are the lateral, flefh-coloured, much wrinkled or lobed, ‘ubercles, ranged numeroufly along fome of the branches, without caufing any flexure, or change in their diretion. Thefe we have gathered near Vi- terbo. (See Tour on the Continent, ed. 2. v. 1. 335.) They are reprefented in Engl. Bot. t. 258, and in Micheli, Nov. Gen. 76. t. 39. f. 1,2. The central pith in this fpecies is very flender, appearing between the difunited por- tions, like a rough thread of very white cotton. 9. U. longiffima. Long Slender Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 8. Nov. A&. Upfal. with a figure, unpublifhed.— Frond pendulous, thread-fhaped, flightly compreffed, rough and fomewhat powdery, pure white, very long, {carcely branched, clothed with horizontal, twifted, fimple, afh- coloured fibres.?’—-Found on the branches of trees, in the woods of Lufatia. The frond is flender, with a few branches, two, three, or four feet in length. Receptacles unknown. Acharius. 4 10. U. angulata. Angular Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 9.— « Frond pendulous, nearly fimple, zigzag, pale grey, with acute rough angles; fibres horizontal, crowded, fimple, fhort, round, tapering.’’—Native of trees in North Ame- rica. Fruéfification unknown. At firft fight this {pecies refembles the variety c, /frigo/a, of U. florida, but is more related to Jongifima, from which, as well as from the reft of the genus, it is fufficiently diftinguifhable by the conforma- tion of the frond. Acharius. 11. U. trichoidea. Capillary Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 10. Meth. 312. t. 8. f. 1.—Frond proftrate, fmooth, whitifh, thread-fhaped, very flender, branched; fibres horizontal, feattered, partly turned one way. Difks of the fame co- lour, terminal, with a narrow, elevated, naked, entire bor- der.—Found in Nova Scotia, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the ifle of Java. Differs from the reft of its genus in the capillary, {preading, not pendulous, frond, and in the want of rays to its di/és, which are very flightly con- cave. The medullary thread is blackifh ; the cortical fub- itance cruftaceous, thin, fcarcely jointed. Ach. Meth. 12. U. gracilis. Slender Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 11. Nov. A&. Upfal. with a figure, unpublifhed. —“ Frond pendulous, white, very {mooth and fhining, thread-fhaped : branches feattered, uniform, {ftraight, fimple, flightly fibrous.””—Native of the ifle of Bourbon. Acharius thinks this a diftin& fpecies, though he never met with the fruéi- fication. 13. U. filaris. Greenifh Thread Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 12. (* U. gracilis; Perf. in AG. Soc. Wetteran. 2. t. 10. f. 6.”?) —“ Frond thread-fhaped, greenifh. Difks feattered, fmall, fringed with briftles.””—Native of America. Perfoon. Acharius had not feen a {pecimen, but he con- ceived this {pecies to be really diftin@ from the laft, and was, therefore, obliged to change Perfoon’s f{pecific name. 14. U. incarnata. Red-pithed Ufnea. — Frond pendu- lous, pale, fmooth, capillary, cracked, with numerous horizontal tapering fibres; the medullary thread reddifh. US. P Difks lateral, concave, fringed with long diitant briftles.— Gathered in Nova Scotia, by Mr. Archibald Menzies, to whom we are obliged for {pecimens. We eannot refer them to any of the preceding fpecies, but without a comparifon with fome of thofe, particularly the two laft, the queftion muft remain in a little uncertainty. The fronds are fix inches long, of an ivory white, polifhed, not at all warty or powdery, very flender, copioufly cracked, but not tumid nor.inflated ; the central thread, when laid bare, appearin of a flefh-colour, or light red. Di/es copious, fmall, flightly reddifh, with a thick inflexed border, befet with a few unequal, rather long, fpreading briftles. In a young ftate, when fmaller than muftard-feed, they greatly refemble the fhields of a Parmelia. 15. U. denudata. Naked-branched U{nea.— Frond thread- fhaped, tawny, greenifh, rough with minute points, fub- divided, deftitute of lateral fibres. Difks lateral, flat, glaucous, fringed with tapering briftles:—Gathered by Mr. Menzies in Otaheité. We cannot tell whether this be pen- dulous or ereét, but the frond and branches are all nearly of equal thicknefs, without any fine tapering lateral fibres or fubdivifions. They are flightly cracked here and there, but not tumid; their colour partly tawny, partly a dirty greenifh-white. Difgs ranged along the uninterrupted frond ; when young globular, concave, naked at the edge ; finally flat, a quarter of an inch wide, brown, with a glau- cous bloom ; their border narrow, wavy, flightly elevated, more or lefs copioufly fringed with cracked briftles ; very unequal in length. USNEN, a name given by Avicenna and Serapion to the plant kali, of which the alkali falt called pot-a/hes, and ufed in the compounding of our foap, is made. ‘There are alfo feveral other things called by this name, and, in general, all that were ufed in the feouring or cleaning of clothes. The dung of f{parrows was ufed by fome people for this purpofe, as the dung of hogs is at this time ; and this was, therefore, called by fome u/nen. Hyflop, a plant famous for its clean- ing virtue, was alfo called by the fame name ; and fome have alfo applied it to the foldanella, or fea bind-weed. Wherever, in the Arabian writers, the word u/nen is ufed in any of thefe latter fenfes, there is fomething added to dif- tinguifh which of the things before exprefled is meant by it ; but whenever it ftands alone and unexplained, it is to be un- derftood as meaning the kali. USOZA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Svopa, near Phatez, in the government of ‘Kurfk. USPALLATA, a f{pacious plain, about 50 miles Jong and 6 broad, fituated on the eaftern mountains of the Andes, in the province of Acancagua, which gives name to the moft celebrated filver mine, as Chili. The vein of filver, on the fkirts of the eaftern chain of this plain, has been traced to the enormous length of go miles; nor is its termination yet fixed. It is fuppofed by many to extend to Potofi, which lies in the fame’ dire€tion, or through a {pace of 14°, or 840 geographical miles. The grand vein is al- ways nine feet in thicknefs, and on both fides throws off numerous branches, which may be faid to penetrate a chain of mountains 30 miles in breadth. This productive mine, though difcovered in 1638, was negleéted till the year 1762, when the people of Mendoza, a town not far from Ufpal- lata, invited two expert miners from Peru; and they con- tinued to work the mine with prodigious advantage. USPENSKOE, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Ekaterinoflav; 16 miles S. of Donetzk. USPENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Uttiug ; 28 miles S. of Uftiug.—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Archangel ; 80 miles S. of Kola. USQUE- USS USQUEBAUGH, a ftrong, rich, compound liquor, chiefly taken by way of dram; its bafis being brandy, or a more ordinary {pirit. d The manner of making it is fomewhat various, and the ingredients numerous. We fhall give a receipt, much com- mended formerly, as a {pecimen. To two gallons of brandy, or fpirits, put a pound of Spanifh liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun, four ounces of currants, three of dates, fliced; tops of thyme, baum, favory, and mint, and tops or flowers of rofemary, of each two ounces; cinnamon and mace bruifed, nutmegs, anifeeds, and coriander-feeds, bruifed likewife, of each four ounces ; citron, or lemon and orange-peel, fcraped, of each an ounce : all thefe are to be left to infufe forty-eight hours in a warm place, often fhaking them together; then fet them in a cool place, for a week; after which, the clear liquor is to be decanted off, and to it is to be put an equal quantity of net white port-wine, and a gallon of canary. The whole is finally to be {weetened with a proper quantity of double refined fugar. h USRENUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, in Syria, which had its fource in a branch of mount Amanus, and by a fouth-weft courfe difcharged itfelf into a lake, near the gulf called Ifficus. USSAC, in the Materia Medica of the Arabians, a name given by Serapio to the gum ammoniacum of the Greek writers. It feems no other than a falfe {pelling of the word affac, which is the common name of the gum in Avicenna, and other of the writers of that nation; but this does not feem to be the fame drug, which we call gum ammoniacum at this time. USSARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis, fituated in the vicinity of Lamida. USSASI, or Ussasye, in Botany. Rumph. Amboin. 4.3. 60. t. 33. Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 8. 261. This is a tree found in Ceram, and fome other {pice iflands, but not in Amboyna. Its ftature equals the Lemon-tree. Branches oppofite, crofling each other in pairs; quadrangular when young. Leaves oppolite, ftalked, ovate, acute, en- tire, fingle-ribbed, from four to fix or feven inches long, and the breadth of three or four fingers, nearly fmooth, of an acid, not unpleafant, flavour, like that of an unripe grape. Fruit lateral, feffile, irregularly ovate, or fome- what globular, green, various in fize, with a thin tough fkin, inclofing a watery acidulous ‘grateful pulp, full of numerous thin flat feeds, like thofe of a cucumber, or ourd. The fmaller-fruited variety, perhaps a diftin® oe has a firmer pulp, with only four or five /eeds. Both kinds raife the bafe of the /fem, upon forked roots, high out of the ground. Nothing is known of the parts of the flower, nor indeed of the true ftruéture of the fruit, by which thefe plants could be fcientifically defcribed or claffed. USSASSYR, in Geography, one of the Kurile iflands, which lies 17 ver{ts from Raflagu, and in length and breadth may be 25 verfts each. It confifts properly of two iflands lying clofe together, compofed of confiderable rocks and cliffs. Opening to the fouth is a round bay, in the fhape of a kettle encompaffed with hills, where the ftrand is fandy ; and along it, as well as on the fea-fhore, runs a fource of almoft hot water, and not far from it another. Here too are fome {pouts, running ftrong, and throwing the water to a confiderable height in the air. In many places are perceived chaps and chafms in the earth, 100 fa- thoms in length, and fometimes more. Near the great {pout the fhore is fteep and high, producing large lumps of fulphur and falmiak, which partly fall down, and partly Us'tT are colleé&ted there. In other refpeéts, the ifland is like Raffagu ; which fee. ; USSEL, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&, in the department of the Correze ; 32 miles E.N.E. of Uzerches. N. lat. 45° 33'.. E. long. 2° 23!. USSES, a river of France, which runs into the Rhéne, near Seiffel. USSETA, a town of the ftate of Georgia; 160 miles W.S.W. of Aucufta. USSITERNA, a town of Servia; 24 miles W. of Piftrina. USSITZA, a town of Servia; 32 miles W.N.W. of Novibafar. USSON, a town of France, in the department of the Puy-de-Déme; 16 miles W. of Ambert.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 12 miles N.E. of Civray. USSORA, a river of Bofnia, which runs into the river Bofna ; 32 miles N. of Serajo. USSUBUM, in Ancient Geography, a place marked in the Itin. of Anton. on the route from Bourdeaux to Agen, between Sarione and Fines. USSUI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 86 miles N.W. of Jedo. USTAK, a town of Natolia; of Karahifin. USTARITZ, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&, in the department of the Lower Pyrenées; 48 miles W. of Pau. N. lat. 43° 23'. W. long. 1° 23/. USTAYANTHO, a lake of New York, from which the river Delaware takes its rife. USTCHOTZKOI, three iflands on the weft coaft of Kamtfchatka. N. lat. 57° 10!. E. long. 156° 14/. USTERIA, in Botany, fo named by Willdenow, in honour of Dr. Paul Ufteri, of Zurich, member of feveral learned academies, as well as of the legiflative body of his own country, and well known by his very ufeful periodical compilation, entitled Asnalen der Botanick, as well as by the Magazin fiir die Botanik, edited by Romer and himfelf. Thefe works extend to many o€tavo volumes, and haye been eminently ferviceable.to German readers, in making them acquainted with fome of the moft valuable and expenfive botanical publications of other countries, at a cheap rate ; feveral of fuch works being copied entire in thefe volumes. Willd. in Rom. and Uft. Mag. fafc. 8. 151, without aname. A&. Soc. Berol. vy. 10. 52. t. 2. Schreb. Gen. 782. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 18. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Afzel. Gen. Pl. Guineens. part 1. 1—11, with a figure.—Clafs and jerder, Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiacee, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, four-cleft, permanent ; the three inner fegments minute, clofe-preffed, acute; the outer one very large, petal-like, horizontal, linear-lanceolate, very blunt. Cor. of one petal, falver- fhaped, deciduous: tube narrow, cylindrical, twice the length of the longeft fegment of the calyx : limb in four deep, lanceolate, acute, unequal fegments, rather turned to one fide. Stam. Filament folitary, fhort, tapering, inferted into the margin of the tube, between the two larger feg- ments of the limb ; anther prominent, arrow-fhaped, sa tile, of two oblong diverging cells. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, ovate-conical ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the tube of the corolla; ftigma quite fimple, flightly corrugated. Peric. Capfule ovate-oblong, compreffed, with two furrows, two, partly cloven, concave valves, and two cells, the partition tran{verfe, double, from the inflexed parallel margins of the valves, 22 miles N. UST valves, fo that the capfule eafily feparates into two lobes. Seeds imbricated in two rows, upon a large, deciduous, con- vex, longitudinal receptacle in each cell, numerous, ovate, peltate, depreffed, {mall, obtufe, each encompaffed with a large, nearly orbicular, cellular, reticulated wing. Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft ; the outer fegment very large. Corolla falver-fhaped, four-cleft. Capfule of two cells, with inflexed partitions. Seeds imbricated, winged. Obf. We have adopted Dr. Afzelius’s more accurate defcription of this curious and very diftin& genus, compared with dried fpecimens. That of Willdenow is in many re- {pets very incorreét ; nor can all his miftakes be well ac- counted for. He took the receptacle for a folitary feed. 1. U. volubilis. Twining Ufteria. Afzel. as above, five. (U.guineanfis; Willd. n. 1. Monodynamis Iferti; Gmel. Syft. Nat. Linn. v. 2. 10.)—Native of the Guinea coaft, efpecially of the hills of Sierra Leone, and of Bananas and Plantain iflands, in dry {tony places, where Dr. Afzelius found it in great abundance, flowering from September to December, and bearing ripe capfules from February to May. The negroes Know this plant by the name of Makbot, or Makbot-T’bot. Willdenow received it from Mr. Ifert, fee Isertia; but the firft fpecimens ever brought to Europe by any botanift, were thofe of Mr. Smeathman, many years before. The /lem is fhrubby, with long, flender, round, fmoothifh, oppofite, twining branches, fupporting themfelves on any thing that ftands in their way ; their bark, when firft tafted, fweetifh, afterwards bitter. Leaves flalked, oppofite, croffing each other in pairs, elliptical, entire, {mooth, from two to four inches long, bluntifh, with one rib, and many tranfverfe veins. Footftalks two or three lines long, conneéted by a very fhort, annular, intrafoliaceous ffipula. Panicles terminal and axil- lary, large, compound, corymbofe, forked, finely downy or hoary, as well as the’ calyx, and che tube of the white, or partly violet, corolla. Cap/fule one inch and a quarter long, much refembling that of a Cinchona, to which genus this plant is naturally allied, though fo diftin@ in its flower. Dr. Afzelius confirms this affeticy by informing us that the natives of Guinea fometimes cure fevers with an infufion of the leaves and young branches. Usreria is alfo the name of a genus in Cavanilles’ Icones, v. 2.15. t. 116, now called Mauranpia ; fee that article. USTIA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia, on the Dniefter ; 88 miles E. of Jafly. USTJAK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 20 miles N. of Kiutaja. USTIANO, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio, on the Oglio; 26 miles W. of Mantua. USTICA, an ifland in the vicinity of Sicily, with a town of the fame name. It was oppofite to Pacopus, and appears as one of the Lipari iflands. This ifland was for centuries uninhabited, except by fome wild goats, till, in the year 1765, acitadel was built here, furnifhed with a garrifon: at the fame time a colony was fent, which flourifhes, though the ifland is without f{prings, and only fupplied with frefh water by rain kept in cifterns ; 25 miles from the coaft of Sicily. N. lat. 38° 44!. E. long. 13° 36!. USTILAGO, in Botany. See Urepo. USTION, Uftio, formed from urere, to burn, in Pharmacy, the preparing of certain fubftances, by burning them. The ancients made ufe of burnt horns, nails, feathers, and other parts of animals, for divers remedies ; and the moderns fill ufe zs uftum, which is burnt copper, or copper that has undergone the uftion, with fulphur. . Vor. XXXVII. Us F The uftion of minerals is a more imperfe& kind of cal- cination. It is a degree beyond torrefaétion. USTIUG, or Verix1, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and capital of a province, in the government of Vologda, fituated on the Dwina, at the conflux of the Suchona and the Jug, the fee of an archbifhop. It contains ten or twelve churches, built of ftone, with fome others, which, with the houfes, are of wood. The merchants are numerous, and great quan- tities of grain are fent to different parts. The city is chiefly on the left fide of the Dwina; 1002 miles from Peter{- burg. In order to charaGterife the weather of the northern region of Ruffia, we obferve, that Uttiug lies 516 miles from the neareit fhore of the Frozen ocean, and 154° more to the N. than St. Peterfburg : and that the mean heat and cold here is above Reaumur’s freezing point in the month of April until September ; below the freezing point in the month of O&ober until March. The mercury in the fame thermometer, in the month of June alone, falls never below o, and only in January never rifes above o. The cold in- creafed at times fo late as in the middle of Aprilto 30°, and the quickfilver may, fometimes fo early as November, and again in the firft days of March, be hammered. In every winter are 120 days, in which the cold is more than 5°; and of thefe, 65 days in which it exceeds 10°; yet the fummer has more hot than the winter has cold days. The thermometer ftood, upon an average of feveral years, the whole day above 0, on 152 days, and below o, on 150; and confequently there were 63 days on which it ftood al- ternately above and below o. ‘The rivers are navigable about the roth of May ; at the end of that month the fum- mer corn is fown, and about the middle of June the fields are manured for winter fowing: the harveft is commonly in Auguft. The trees fhed their leaves fometimes fo early as the roth of Auguit, but ufually about the 2oth. On the 4th of November, 1786, the quickfilver froze in the open air, during a cold of 304° of Reaumur’s thermometer ; the 1ft of December, at 40°, it fell the fame day to 51°, and the 4th of December was down to 60°. The quickfilver then froze to 2 folid mafs, fo as to bear beating with a hammer, in a warm room, feveral times before any pieces flew off from it. See the Obfervations of Mr. Fries, in Crell’s Annals, 1787, p. 2, cited in Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. i. N. lat. 60° so’. E. long. 45° 4o!. Usriue, a province of Ruffia, and by far the moft con- fiderable part of the government of Vologda, being 400 miles in length, and 240 in breadth. USTIUZNA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Novgorod, on the river Mologa; 144 miles E. of Novgorod. : USTRINA, among the Romans, the place where they burnt the bodies of the dead. It was commonly in the Campus Martius, or fome other place in the fuburbs, and fometimes in the city for perfons of quality; and for the common people on the Efquiline mount. See Busrum. USTVIANSKOI, in Geography, an oftrog of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the Yana. N. lat. 70° 30). E. long. 131° 38/. USTULATION, Uftulatio, a word ufed by phar- maceutic writers to exprefs the roafting or torrefying of humid or moift fubftances over a gentle fire, fo as to render them fit for powdering. The fame word is alfo ufed by fome for what we call burning of wine. USTUM, 4s. See Es U/fum. USTURANTZKOL, in Geography, a fortrefs of Roffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the borders of China ; 76 miles S. of Selenginfk. 4E USUBIS, USU USUBIS, in. Botany, a name of Burmanh’s. ScHMIDELIA.- i a F USUCAPTION, U/fucaptio, in the Civil Law, is an acquifition of the property of a thing by a poffeffion and enjoyment of it for a certain term of years prefcribed by law. Fh) Some make a difference between prefeription and ufucaption; maintaining that the latter is only ufed with regard to moveables, and the former with regard to im- moveables. But there is no eflential difference between them; and, accordingly, prefeription and ufucaption are generally held fynonyma. seth ‘ Ufucaption denotes the acquifition of domain founded on a long poffeffion uninterrupted and undifputed, or on an acquifition folely proved by this poffeffion. Wolf defines it, an acquifition of domain founded on a prefumed de- fertion ; by which definition he explains the manner in which a long and peaceable poffeflion may ferve to elta- blith the acquifition of domain. Modeftinus fays, in con- formity to the principles of the Roman law, that ufucaption is the acquifition of domain from a continued poffeffion, during a time expreffed by the law. Thefe three defini- tions, fays Vattel, are not incompatible with each other. Prefcription is the exclufion of all pretenfions to a right founded on the length of time during which it has been negleéted ; or, as Wolf defines it, the lofs of a proper right in virtue of a prefumed confent: this definition is al- lowed by Vattel to be juft; that is, to explain how a long negle& of a right occafions its being loft ; and it agrees with the nominal definition which he has given, and in which he explains what is commonly underftood by this term. Ufucaption, however, is a term little ufed ; pre- fcription being adopted in lieu of it. Many celebrated authors (Grotius, Puffendorf, and Wolfius) have afferted and proved, that ufucaption and prefcription are derived fromthe law of nature ; and Vattel has inveftigated and eftablifhed this point, which fome others have difputed. Nature, fays this excellent writer, has not herfelf eftablifhed property with re{peét to wealth, and in particular with regard to lands: fhe only approves this introduction, for the advantage of the human race. It would therefore be abfurd to fay, that domain and property being once efta- blifhed, the law of nature can fecure to a proprietor any right capable of introducing diforder into human fociety. Far from giving fuch a right, the law of nature prefcribes to the proprietor the care of what belongs to him, and lays him under an obligation to make known his right, that others may not be led into an error: for nature does not approve his property, and only fecures it to him on thofe conditions. Ifhe negleéts this for a time long enough not to be admitted to reclaim it, without endangering the rights of others, the law of nature will not permit him to reclaim it. Why does the law of nature order all to refpect this right of property in him who poffeffes it, if it be not for the peace, fafety, and advantage of human fociety? Nature muft then, from the fame reafon, require that every pro- prietor, who for a long time, and without any juft reafon, negleéts his right, fhould be prefumed to have entirely renounced and abandoned it. This forms the abfolute prefumption, or juris et de jure, of its being abandoned, and upon which another is legally entitled to appropriate the thing abandoned to himfelf. This prefumption com- pofes a title as firm and juft as that of property itfelf, eftablifhed and fupported by the fame reafons. The honeft poffeffor, who had founded a prefumption of this kind, has then a right approved by the law of nature ; and this law, 5 See veg whieh requires that the right of every one fhould be firma and certain, does not permit their being difturbed in their poffeffion. . Sa ong The right of ufucaption properly fignifies, that the honeft poffeffor is not obliged to fuffer his property to be dif- puted ; he proves this by his pofleffion itfelf, and he re- pulfes the demand of the pretended proprietor by preferip- tion. Nothing can be more equitable than this rule. Pre- feription, being only founded on an abfolute or lawful prefumption, has no place, if the proprietor has not really negleéted his rights. This condition implies: 1. That the proprietor cannot allege an invincible ignorance, either on his own part, or on that of his friends: 2. That he cannot juttify his filence by lawful and folid reafons: 3. That he has neglected his right or kept filence during a confiderable number of years. Thefe remarks relate to ordinary pre- {cription. Jmmemorial pre{cription, founded on’ immemorial pofleffion, that is, on a pofleffion, the origin of which is un- known or obfcure, fecures the poffefior’s right, and it cannot be taken from him. Ufucaption and prefcription, founded on the law of nature, form a part of the law of nations, and ought to take place between different ftates: for the law of nations is nothing but the application of the law of nature to nations, rendered, in a manner, fuitable to the fubje& : and fo far is the nature of the fubjec& from forming here any exception, that ufucaption and prefcription are much more neceflarily ufed between fovereign ftates than between individuals. However, they are often more difficult in their application to nations, as thefe rights are founded on a prefcription drawn from a long filence. The tranquillity of the people, the fafety of ftates, the happinefs of the human race, do not allow that the poffeffions, empire, and other rights of nations, fhould remain uncertain, fubject to difpute, and always ready to occafion bloody wars. It is, therefore, ne- ceflary to admit between nations a prefcription founded on a long interval of time, as a folid and inconteftible method. Ufucaption and prefcription being neceflary to the tranquil- lity and happinefs of human fociety, it is juftly prefumed that all nations have confented to admit the ufe of them as lawful and reafonable, with a view to the common adyvan- tage, and even to the particular benefit of each nation. Prefcription of many years ftanding, as well as ufucaption, is therefore eftablifhed by the voluntary law of nations. Vattel’s Law of Nations, b. it. ch. 11.° See Pre- SCRIPTION. ' USUFRUIT, U/us frudus, in the Civil Law, the tem- porary ufe or enjoyment of any lands or tenements; or the right of receiving the fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other thing, without a power of alienating or changing the property thereof. When the ufufru€tuary dies, the ufufruit returns to the proprietor. The dower of the jointure of a widow is only an ufufru€tuary due; that is, fhe only enjoys the ufufruit thereof, and cannot difpofe of the principal. All mutual prefents between man and wife only import the ufufruit of the goods of the firft that dies, to the profit of the furvivor. The incumbents of benefices are only ufu- frutuary. An ufufruétuary has full right over the coppice, but he cannot fell timber-trees. ; USUM, in Geography, a river of Romania, which runs into the Mariza, 4 miles S.E. of Affarli. , USURA Maritima, terms applied. to contraéts for the repayment of money borrowed, not on the fhip and goods only, but on the mere hazard of the voyage itlelf ; as when a mam lends a merchant 1000/, to be aad in a benefi- cial 7 ee US v cial trade, with condition to he repaid with extraordinary intereft, in cafe fuch a voyage be fafely performed. This kind of agreement is fometimes called fenus nauticum. See Bortomry,,and ResPponDENTIA. - USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or a& of gufarye’) woh ne , . The laws of our ancient Saxon and Norman kings are very fevere upon ufurers, or letters-out of money upon in- tereft. ‘* Ufurarios quoque defendit rex Edvardus (Con- feffor), ne remaneret aliquis in toto regno fuo; & fi quis inde conviétus effet, quod feenus exegerat, omni fubftantia propria careret, & poftea pro ex lege habeatur: quoniam ufura radix omnium malorum.’”? Leg. Edy. Confeff. cap. 37+ Thy were, indeed, allowed to difpofe of their goods be- fore conviétion, and whilft they were living ; but after their death they were confifcate, if it could be proved they lent money to ufe within a year before their death. If a clergyman were an ufurer, his goods were not to be confifeated, but to be diftributed to pious ufes. In thofe days ufury was thus defined : ¢ Eft ufura fuos quifquis tradit mihi nummos Spe lucri, foenus duplex ufura vocatur.” USURIOUS Gontra@ is any bargain, or contra&t, where _ aman is obliged to pay more intereft for money than the ftatute allows. It is enacted by ftatute 13 Eliz. cap. 8. that all brokers fhall be guilty of a premunire, who tranfaét any ufurious contra&t where more than ten per cent. intereft is taken. USURPATION, in Law, an injurious ufing or enjoy- ment of a thing for continuance of time, that belongs of right to another. See Tyranny. UsuRpATION, in a more peculiar fenfe, denotes an abfo- lute oufter or difpoffeffion of the patron of a church; and. happens when a itranger, that hath no right, prefenteth a clerk, and he is thereupon admitted and inftituted. In which cafe of ufurpation, the patron loft by the common law not only his turn of prefenting pro hac vice, but alfo the abfolute and perpetual inheritance of the advowfon, fo that he could not prefent again upon the next avoidance, unlefs in the mean time he recovered his right by a real a¢tion, viz. a writ of right of advowfon. However, becaufe bifhops, in ancient times, either by carelefinefs or collufion, frequently inftituted clerks upon the prefentation of ufurpers, and thereby defrauded the real patrons of their right of poffef- fion, it was in fubftance enaéted by the ftatute Weftm. 2. 53 Edw. I. cap. 5. fet. 2. that if a poffeflory action be brought within fix months after the avoidance, the patron fhall (notwith{tanding fuch ufurpation and inftitution) reco- ver that very prefentation which gives back to him the feifin of the advowfon.. Yet ftill, if the true patron omitted to bring his a€tion within fix months, the feifin was gained by the ufurper, and the patron to recover it was driven to the long and hazardous procefs of a writ of right. To remedy which, it was further enaéted by ftatute 7 Ann. cap. 18. that no ufurpation fhall difplace the eftate or intereft of the patron, or turn it to a mere right ; but that the true patron may prefent upon the next avoidance, as if no fuch ufurpation had happened. So that the title of ufurpation is now much narrowed, and the law ftands upon this reafonable founda- tion, that if a ftranger ufurps my prefentation, and I do not purfue my right within fix months, I fhall lofe that turn without remedy, for the peace of the church, and as a pu- nifhment for my own negligence ; but that turn is the only one I fhall lofe thereby. Ufurpation now gains no right to the ufurper, with regard to any future avoidance, but only USU to the prefentsvacancy : it cannot indeed be remedied after fix months are paft ; but, during thofe fix months, it is only a fpecies of difturbance. Black{t. Comm. book iii. Usurpation of Franchifes and Liberties, is when a fubje& unjuftly ufes any royal franchifes, &c. And this is faid to be an ufurpation upon the king, who fhall have the writ of quo warranto againft the ufurpers. USURY, Usura, in the general, denotes a gain or pro- fit which a perfon makes of his money, by lending the fame; or it is an increafe of the principal exa¢ted for the loan thereof; or the price a borrower gives for the ufe of a fum cfedited to him by the lender: called alfo interef, and in fome ancient ftatutes, dry exchange. For lawful intereft, fee INTEREST. The word ufury is ufually taken in an evil fenfe; viz. for an unlawful profit which a perfon makes of his money ; in which fenfe it is, that ufury 1s forbidden by the civil and ec- clefiaftical law, and even» by the law of nature. In this fenfe it alfo is, that it is held ufury to lend money on pawns, to exaé intereft for money, without furrendering the prin- cipal, and to ftipulate intereft for money which is not em- ployed in trade, nor brings any profit to the perfon who re- ceives it: but, as the Latin word w/ura, at leaft the plural of it, ufure, may be underftood of a lawful intereft, ufury, in Englifh, might alfo be ufed in the fame harmlefs fenfe. Ufe or intereft, by the civil law, is divided into /ucrative and compenfatory. Lucrative is, when it is paid where there hath been no advantage made by the debtor, and no delay or deceit in him: and this is condemned by the civil law. Compenfatory is, when it is given, where the thing lent hath been advantageous to the debtor, and difadvan- tageous to the,creditor that he was not fooner paid: and this is permittéd by that law. Wood. Civ. L. 213. And by the civil law (Swinburn tells us), a manifeft ufurer cannot make a teftament; and though he make one, it is void in law concerning goods and chattels, unlefs he fatisfy for the ufury, or put in caution for fatisfaGtion to be made. Swinb. ror. And as manifeft ufurers are forbidden to make teftaments themfelves, or to difpofe of their goods by their laft wills ; fo are they forbidden to reap any benefit by the teftament of others, or to be capable of any legacy of goods. Swinb. 76. ; Thefe are the anathemas of the popes, and not the re- {cripts of the emperors. (See Cod. 5. 5.) The punifhment by the civil law was once a quadruple penalty, (L. 2. Cod. Theod. de Ufuris,) but this feems to have been mitigated by Juftinian, who contents himfelf with declaring that whatever is paid more than the legal intereft, fhall be accounted part of the principal. Cod. 4. 32. 26. Noodt, de Foen. et Uf. lib. 2. cap. 16. By a conttitution of Edmund archbifhop of Canterbury ; “We forbid any man to detain a pledge, after he hath re- ceived the principal out of the profits, after deduction of the expences, for this is ufury.”” Lind. 160. The pledge in this cafe muft be fuppofed to be lands, cattle, or fuch like, out of which a profit arifeth. Johnf. And by Can. rog. If any offend their brethren by ufury ; the churchwardens or queftmen and fidemen, in the next prefentments to their ordinaries, fhall faithtully prefent every fuch offender, to the intent that he may be punifhed by the feverity of the laws, according to his deferts; and {uch notorious offenders fhall not be admitted to the holy communion, till they be reformed. And in general, it is faid, that by the ecclefiaftical laws, if a man be a manifeft ufurer, not only his teftament is void (as hath been faid) 5 but his body, after he is dead, is not 4E2 to USURY. fo be buried amongft the bodies of other Chriftian men, in any church or churchyard, until there be reftitution or caution tendered, according to the value of fuch goods. Swinb. ¥O2. Mott of the early fathers of the church have condemned ufury in the ftrieft fenfe, i.e. any profit made of the loan of money, as contrary to the divine law. Alexander III. in the council of Lateran, prohibited the taking of all inte- reft for money ; and it has been obferved, that Gregory IX. places the chapter of ufury after that of theft. But the Mo- faic law, though it forbade the Jews to take intereft from their brethren, allowed them to take intereft from ftrange®8, or to borrow from them on the fame terms ;. and that this law has not condemned the lending of money on intereft as malum in ‘fe, and contrary to the law of nature and of nations, which many have thought, but merely prohibited it amongit the Jews, as dangerous in a political view, confidering their itinerant and agricultural life, has been ably demonttrated by Noodt in his Treatife de Foenore et Ufuris, c. 10. and ur. (See Inrerxst.) Nearly the fame regulations ob- tained amongft the Romans in the infancy of the republic; but when commerce was introduced amongift them, the con- traét of lending money at a certain profit became frequent. The higheft rate of legal intereft among the Romans, from the time of Cicero and Juftinian, was the centefima or twelfth part paid every month, amounting to 12 per cent. per annums but the fatirifts inform us that fome ufurers exacted three, four, or even five times that profit. Juftinian in his code fixed the legal rate of intereft at 4, 6, 8, or 12 per cent. ac- cording to the ftation of the lender and the nature of the contraét. (Cod. 4. 32. 26.) Various evafions of the laws, however, were practifed at Rome, and fome of thefe were not unknown to the canonifts ; for ufurious profit might be fecured under the contraé& of a fale and repurchafe, or let- ting to hire, or might be ftipulated for in confideration of the gain of the borrower, or of the lofs which the lender fuffered by the detention of his money. 'To thefe, modern money lenders have added the purchafe of annuities, in which, as the purchafer rifks his capital, he is allowed to take a greater fhare of intereft, though this muft be within equitable bounds. (Vaughan v. Thomas, 1 Bro. 556. Heathcote v. Paignon, 2 Bro. 167.) But if any of thefe tranfaétions ap- pear from circumftantial evidence to be merely the covering of an ufurious contra&t, they are held to be within the fta- tute of Ann. See Chefterfield v. Janflen, 2 Vefey, 125. By the laws of king Alfred, it was ordained, that the. chattels of ufurers fhould be forfeited to the king, their lands and inheritances fhould efcheat to the lords of the fee, and they fhould not be buried in the fanétuary. Swinb. 102. 1 Haw. 245. Alfo it feems to have been the opinion of the makers of divers aéts of parliament fince the Reformation, that all kinds of ufury are contrary to good confcience. 1 Haw. 245. However, cuftom has now diftinguifhed betwixt ufury and legal intereft ; and appropriated the term ufury to that which exceeds the intereft determined by ftatute. The legal intereft is five per cent. by 12 Anne, ft. 2. cap. 16. commonly called the ftatute againft ufury, which ordains not only that all contra&ts for taking more than §/. per cent. and proportionably for a greater or lefs fum, are m them- felves totally void, but alfo that the lender fhall forfeit treble the value of the money borrowed. And farther, if any feri- vener or folicitor takes more than 5s. per cent. procuration money, or more than 12d. above the ftamp duties for mak- ing a bond or bill for loan or forbearing thereof, or for any counter-bond or bill concerning the fame, he fhall for- feit 2o/. with cofts, and fhall fuffer imprifonment for half a year. As this aét declares all ufurious contraéts void, the in- dorfee of a bill of exchange give nupon an ufurious confi- deration cannot recover, although he had no notice of the ufury; and had given a valuable confideration for the bill. (Low v. Waller, Doug. 736.) And if more than the princi- pal and legal intereft be paid, an aétion will lie to recover the furplus: per Ld. Mansfield, in Smith v. Bromley, Ib. 696. In thefe days, a diftinétion feemeth to be made betwixt ufury and legal intereft: for what exceedeth the legal inte- reft is properly ufury ; and he who exaéteth it feemeth ftill to be punifhable as an ufurer. 1 Dom. 126. And, upon the whole, it feemeth now to be generally agreed, that the taking of reafonable intereft for the ufe of money is in itfelf lawful, and confequently that a covenant or promife to pay it, in confideration of the forbearance of a debt, will maintain an action. See IyTErest. The ufury laws have lately become a fubjeé of parliamen- tary and public difcuffion ; and an excellent treatife of Mr. Jeremy Bentham, of which a new edition was publifhed in 1816, has claimed peculiar attention. The prejudices in which thefe laws had their foundation maintained their ground, notwithftanding the ruins of the mercantile fyftem to which they naturally belong ; and they foon derived fup- port from an opinion in their favour, delivered by Dr. Smith, in a work which powerfully operated towards difpelling the other errors of the mercantile theory. Mr. Bentham was the firft writer who openly and fyftematically attacked them, and this he did with fuch fuccefs, as to produce a general conviction of their injuftice and impolicy. He afcribes, per- haps, too much importance to religious bigotry: to this purpofe, he obferves that the practice of felf-denial was fubftituted at a very early period for aétive virtue; and as the greater the temptation the greater the merit, much vir- tue was arrogated to themfelves by thofe who declined the ufe of means for making money, which was generally re- garded as a favourite purfuit. Hence, he fays, the obvious method of making wealth produ@tive, by lending it for a profit, was profcribed as an illegal gratification ; and befides, as the Jews were much addi&ted to this praétice, and had the money-trade principally in their own hands, the Chrif- tians, very anxious to avoid their cuftoms, deemed it pecu- liarly finful The authority of: Ariftotle had alfo great weight in determining the judgment and condué. (See Interest.) Our author alfo remarks, that’ the natural antipathy of the {pendthrift towards the faving man, arifing from the envy-with which he regards him, had no inconfi- derable influence. To which it may be added, the feeling excited againf? a rich man, as the trader muft always be com- pared with the borrower, and in favour of a poor one, by the very circumftance of the former making the latter pay for half, according to his neceffities, and reaping a profit without any labour or even trouble on his own part. The reafons commonly alleged in juftification of the laws againift ufury have been fuch as follows ; the firft is the prevention of prodigality. Mr. Bentham replies, that if this be a good work at all, it is at leaft a work of fupererogation, but in reality, the reftraints under confideration do mot operate in this way. Would any man of found mind think of giving fix per cent. for the ufe of money, howfoever prefling his wants, if he could get it for five! Or, can a man, how- ever prodigal, be prevented from felling all he can get rid of by fale, and pledging all which he cannot fell? Thofe who have’ fecurity of any kind to offer the lender are not protected by the law; for the lender never makes his bar- gain upon a view of the borrower’s character and a 8 ut USURY. but of his fecurity. If the f{pendthrift has no’ fecurity to offer, how is he more likely to get money at a high than at a low rate? A friend is the only perfon likely to accommo- date him, and he will not take more than the ordinary rate. Prodigals ufually borrow money in moderate fums, at the ufual rate, in various quantities ; and when they can find a lender difpofed to fpeculate, and obtain a compenfation for the great rifk of trufting them in the high profits of the tranfaction, fuch a perfon will negle& the prohibitions of the ufury laws, and make the poor man pay fo much more . for the additional rifk they make him run. Befides, the moft certain road to ruin for all prodigals is to obtain goods upon credit, as long as their credit lafts, and here no law interferes. The protetion of indigence is another reafon urged in behalf of thefe reftraints: but it may be afked, Can any one rate of intereft be adapted to every man’s fituation? To fome it may be profitable to borrow even at ten fer cent., whilft others may find fix per cent. too high, compared with the fum in profpeét, whereas the ufury laws determine one flandard of exigeucy for all. This arrangement operates, not in protecting, which is the pretext, but in crufhing the indigent. If the prote&tion of indigence were the obje& of thefe laws, they ftop fhort of their pretended obje& : they without doubt prevent a poor man from borrowing at a high rate; but they take no means of compelling the rich to lend him at a lower rate. A third reafon alleged is the protection of fimplicity. But how fiaple muft that man be who = a more than he knows, or may eafily learn to be neceflary, for the ufe of money! Nothing may be more eafily afcertained than the market rate of intereft. It is toa very great degree inva- riable, and it is the fame throughout the whole community. AQ fimple man, or a man who is not very fimple, may be de- ceived in other bargains ; ‘but in cafe of loans, the legiflator neither does, nor can afford, him the leaft affiflance. The unwary borrower has always the fecurity in his own hands ; and if he has been really over-reached, he can have no diffi- culty in obtaining redrefs. If, indeed, perfons may be fup- pofed to be fo fimple as to need proteétion in their money bar- gains, they are expofed to as great a danger in all their other tranfaétions, in which no lawgiver ever dreamed of afford- ing protection to fimplicity. As a fourth reafon in favour of thefe reftraints, it is al- leged that a free accefs to the money-market tends to en- courage projectors. Dr. Smith has very much contributed to the prevalence of this notion. He clafles projectors with prodigals ; ftigmatizes both as perfons likely to wafte the capital of the community, and approves of the maximum for its tendency to keep a portion of that capital out of their hands. We cannot, within our limits, do juftice to Mr. Bentham’s elaborate refutation of this dogma, and the ex- pofition of the prejudices upon which it is founded. ' The reftraint, as he juitly remarks, profeffing to fall upon rafh, imprudent, ufelefs {chemers, does in fac fall upon fuch perfons as, in the “ purfuit of wealth, or even of any other objeét, endeavour, by the afliftance of wealth, to ftrike into any channel of invention. It falls upon all fuch perfons as, in the cultivation of any of thofe arts which have been by way of eminence termed u/2ful, dire& their endea- vours to any of thofe departments in which their utility fhines moft confpicuous and indubitable; upon all fuch perfons as, in the line of any of their purfuits, aim at any thing that can be called improvement ; whether it confift in the production of any new article adapted to man’s ufe, or in the meliorating the quality, or diminuhing the expence, of any of thofe which are already known to us. It falls, in fhort, upon every application of the human powers, in which ingenuity ftands in need of wealth for its affiftant.” It is indeed manifeft, that, in this view, the ufury laws are abfurd, unlefs it be poffible to diftinguifh, before trial, good from bad, that is, fuccefsful from lofing proje@s ; in which cafe, the law ought to fix a maximum for the loans to the one, and leave the other free accefs to the market,— which is plainly impoffible. Thofe who are too prudent to rif their money upon an unpromifing fcheme, will rifk it upon no fcheme at all, but will lend only to eftablifhed con- cerns. ‘The temptation of higher profit than ufual is abfo- lutely neceffary, to prevail upon capitalifts to embark in new trades. ‘The ufury laws prevent, therefore, any capital from finding its way into thofe channels by way of loan, and dire@tly difcourage projeéts, that is, invention and im- provement in all the arts of life; for, without difcouraging the ufeful and the good, they cannot difcourage the wild and the bad. Shall we then fay, that the danger to the capital of the community, from a failure of certain fchemes, is fo alarming as to juftify us in putting down all manner of {chemes, as far as lies in our power? Let it only be re- membered, that every thing valuable in civilized life is the fruit of fchemes; that all we enjoy above the lot of favages, comes from arts that were once mere projects ; and we {hall not be difpofed to condemn, in one {weeping fentence, every innovation. This is in truth to denounce, as rafh and ill-grounded, (we ufe the author’s forcible illuftration, ) all thofe projeéts by which our f{pecies has been fucceffively ad- vanced, from feeding upon acorns, and covering themfelves with raw hides, to the itate in which it at prefent ftands. What- ever (as he fays) is now the routine of trade, was, at its com- mencement, projed; whatever is now cftabli/bment, was at one time innovation—And why {uch fears, after all, of our being impoverifhed by failing fchemes? Long before the exiltence of the ufury laws, the profperity of our race was running on in an accelerating courfe ;—long before the {tatutes in this country, its wealth and general improvement was rapidly and conftantly advancing. There were every now and then failures, and individual Joffes in confequence ; {till their proportion to the bulk of fuccefsful proje&s was trifling ; and no one can maintain, that, fince the reftraints were impofed, the proportion has diminifhed. Were the law filent on this head, money would ftill be lent to pro- jectors, by thofe moft deeply interefted in the prudent dif- pofal of it. We may fafely truft their difcretion for its being kept out of defperate rifks. No one, indeed, has ri- diculed the over-anxiety of fuch regulations as pretend to fave men’s capital from injudicious application, more hap-. pily than Dr. Smith himfelf. Tt is the great text, of which his immortal work is the illuftration, almoft in all its pages ; and in no paffage is he more fevere, than where he reprobates the intermeddling of government to prevent private impru- dence. After remarking, that the number of prudent and fuccefsful undertakings is every where much greater than that of injudicious and unfuccefsful ones ; he adminifters the following memorable correétion to rulers for their love of meddling, and we may obferve, that it is quite as well merited by the promoters of the ufury laws, as by any other clafs of legiflators. ‘It is the higheft impertinence and prefumption, therefore, in kings and minilters ¢o pretend to watch over the economy of private people, and to reftrain their expence, either by fumptuary laws, or by prohibiting the importation of foreign luxuries, They are themfelves al- ways, and without exception, the greateft fpendthrifts in the fociety. Let them look well after their own expence, and they USURY. they may fafely truft private people with theirs. If their own extravagance does not ruin the ftate, that of their fub- jects never will.” ' . However prefumptuous and impertinent it may be, fays Mr. Bentham, for the fovereign to attempt in any way to check by legal reftraints the prodigality of individuals; to attempt to check their bad management by {uch reftraints, feems abundantly more fo. To err in the way of prodi- gality is. the lot, though, as you well obferve, not of many men, in comparifon of the whole mafs of mankind, yet at leaft of any man: the ftuff fit to make a prodigal of is to be found in every alehoufe, and under every hedge. But even to err in the. way of projeting is the lot only of the privileged few. Prodigality, though not fo common as to make any very material drain from the general mafs of wealth, is however too common to be regarded as a mark of diftinc- tion, or as a fingularity. But the ftepping afide from any of the beaten paths of traffic, is regarded as a fingularity, as ferving to diftinguifh a man from other men. Even where it requires no genius, no peculiarity of talent, as where t confifts in nothing more than the finding out a new market to buy or fell in, it requires however at leaft a degree of courage, which is not to be found in.the common herd of men. What fhall we fay of it, where, in addition to the vulgar quality of courage, it requires the rare endowment of genius, as in the inftance of all thofe fucceflive enter- prizes by which arts and manufa¢tures have been brought from their original nothing to their prefent fplendour ? Think how {mall a part of the community thefe muft make, in comparifon of the race of prodigals ; of that very race, which, were it only on account of the {mallnefs of its num- ber, would appear too inconfiderable to you to deferve at- tention. Yet prodigality is effentially and neceflarily hurtful, as far as it goes, to the opulence of the ftate: projecting, only by accident. Every prodigal, without exception, impairs, by the very fuppofition impairs, if he does not annihilate, his fortune. But it certainly is not every pro- jector that impairs his: it is not every projeétor that would have done fo, had there been none of thofe wife laws to hinder him: for the fabric of national opulence—that fa- bric of which you proclaim, with fo generous an exultation, the continual increafe—that fabric, in every apartment of which, innumerable as they are, it required the reprobated hand of a projeétor to lay the firft ftone, has required fome hands at leaft to be employed, and fuccefsfully employed. When, in comparifon of the number of prodigals, which is too. inconfiderable to deferve notice, the number of pro- jeCtors of all kinds is fo much more inconfiderable—and when from this inconfiderable number muft be deducted, the not inconfiderable proportion of fuccefsful projeCtors—and from this remainder again, all thofe who can carry on their pro- jets without need of borrowing—think whether it be pof- fible, that this laft remainder could afford a multitude, the reducing of which would be an objec deferving the inter- pofition of government by its magnitude, even taking for granted that it were an obje& proper in its nature ? But we forbear, and proceed with the fame admirable writer, to ftate the mifchiefs which the ufury laws create in all dire€tions. The moft obvious mifchief is, the de- priving many perfons altogether of the loans of which they ftand in need. A perfon having the means of fupplying himfelf with money, and being alfo prefled by neceflity, 1s precluded from all chance of obtaining it, unlefg he has ftill further means of meeting his wants by evading, at an addi- tional coft, the laws in queftion. Had it not been for thefe laws, fuch a perfon might have relieved his wants with eafe ; and he is one of thofe who have the greateft occafion for affiftance, and the beft claims to it. Since, by the fup- pofition, they cannot do without the loan, and are both able and willing to pay the extraordinary rate of intereft. The next mifchief is that which the law of ufury infliéts upon thofe who haye the means of giving, not only fuch an extraordinary rate of intereft as the lenders, but for the re- ftri€tions, would be fatisfied with, but fomewhat more. Thefe are not excluded altogether from the money market, like the former clafs; but the terms of the bargain are raifed to them. Suppofe they have nothing to fell, by which they can raife the money they want, then they muft pay for the breach of the law, and this in two ways, both by giving a fufficient premium to the lender to make him run the extraordinary rif, and becaufe the illegality of the trade keeps many dealers out of it, and by narrowing the competition, raifes the profits. In the courfe of the laft twenty years, a great trade has been driven in annuities, which admirably illuftrates the operation of thefe laws, this being a perfetly legal mode of evading them, and yet one attended with ruinous expence to the borrower. The law has impofed a number of regulations upon fuch tranf- actions, with the view of preventing them from becoming too eafy a means of evading the ufury laws. Thofe regu- lations increafing the rif of the lender, fomewhat raife the price to the borrower. ‘Then the nature of the tranfaétion renders an infurance neceflary upon the life of the borrower ; and this is a large increafe of price. Moreover, the number of lenders at ufurious intereft in the illegal way being nar- rowed by the competition, as all who are driven from this traffic do not neceflarily refort to the line of annuities, the market is, notwithftanding the legal method of evafion, con- fiderably narrowed. It has thus happened, that perfons with excellent fecurity, and who could eafily have gotten loans at fix and a half or feven per cent. but for the law, are obliged to pay eight or nine, befides the infurance, or from ten to twelve in all; and this, not to private money- lenders, who exaé&t much more, but to the great infurance- companies, who have fallen upon this way of employing their fuperfluous capital, tempted by the double gains of lenders and infurers. ; Moreover, fuppofe now, that the laws have prevented a man from borrowing at feven fer cent,, and that he has ftill goods which he can part with to raife the money. But for the law he might keep his goods ; and nothing can prevent his felling them at an under price, according to his neceffities. No one who has known any thing of fales made in diftreffed circumftances, will think a lofs of thirty per cent. very extra- ordinary in fuch cafes. To fuch a lofs as this, the moft exorbitant ufury bears no proportion ; yet this is exaétly the premium which the diftrefled man is compelled to pay for money, by the law which fays he fhall not borrow at the rate of five anda half. The preflure upon proprietors of real eftates is ftill more fevere. Suppofe a man comes into poffeffion of an eftate worth two hundred a-year, charged with a thoufand pounds; and that the incumbrancer wifhes to have his money rather than the legal intereft, but would be fatisfied with one or two fa cent, above that rate ;—at any rate, if he would not, fome other certainly could be found to advance the money at that premium, upon the fame fecurity. The laft mifchief occafioned by the ufury laws is, per- haps, more important than all the reft ; viz, the corrupting influence upon the morals of the people, by the pains they take, and, as Mr. Bentham obferves, cannot but take, to give birth to treachery and ingratitude. ns “ To ~ ee ee a ae . ine » ge : © To purchafe,” fays the author, “a poffibility of being enforced, the law neither has found, nor, what is very mate- rial, muit it ever hope to find, in this cafe, any other expe- dient, than that of hiring a man to break his engagement, ‘and to crufh the hand that has been reached out to help him. In the cafe of informers in general, there has been no truth plighted, nor benefit received. In the cafe of real criminals invited by rewards to inform againft accom- plices, it is by fuch breach of faith that fociety is held toge- ther, as in other cafes by the ob/ervance of it. In the cafe of real crimes, in proportion as their mifchievoufnefs is ap- parent, what cannot but be manifeft even to the criminal is, that it is by the adherence to his engagement that he would do an injury to fociety, and, that by the breach of fuch engagement, in{ftead of doing mifchief he is doing good. In the cafe of ufury this is what no man can know, and what one can fearcely think it poffible for any man, who, in the character of the borrower, has been concerned in fuch a tranfaGtion, to imagine. He knew that, even in his own judgment, the engagement was a beneficial one to him- felf, or he would not have entered into it: and nobody elfe but the lender is affe&ted by it.” Tt has been further alleged, that the laws againft ufury allow of tranfaCtions fubftantially ufurious; and, indeed, that they cannot prevent thefe, without wholly putting a ftop to the courfe of trade. Some of the moft ordinary Occurrences in commerce, are in their nature ufury. The practice of drawing and redrawing, by which merchants are accommodated with money for a fhort time, at a certain commiffion over and above the five per cent., and then for as much longer, until they pay ten, twelve, and more per cent. during the whole year, is only a more cumbrous and ex- penfive method of borrowing above the legal rate of intereft. But other well-known lines of traffic, though apparently more remote from ufury, are not lefs clofely conneéted with it :— pawn-broking, bottomry, and refpondentia, will immediately occur to the reader. Nay, infurance in all its branches, and the purchafe and fale of po/t-obits, with all cafes in which a man is allowed to undertake an unlimited rifle for an unlimited premium, are in their principle ufurious tranfactions. Of thefe, the moft notorious is the traffic in annuities; which, accordingly, has been found to be the eafieft and fafeft mode of evading the ufury laws, although we have already fhewn how greatly it increafes the rate of intereft. For further particulars we muft refer to the Treatife above cited ; and alfo to the Edinburgh Review, N° liv. USUS, in Roman Catholic times, was a term for the particular manner of performing the cathedral fervice ; ‘as almoft every diocefe had its own plain-chant, or at leaft dif- fered in performing fome parts of the mafs from the reft. The Ufe of Salifoury, Secundum ufum Sarum, was the mott eneral. e USWAY, in Geography, a river of Northumberland, which runs into the Coquet. , USZCZA, atown of Poland; 25 miles E. of Cracow. USZITERNA, a town of European Turkey, in the rovince of Servia; 25 miles S. of Jenibafar. USZOMER, a town of Ruffian Poland, in Volhynia ; 70 miles N.W. of Kiev. USZTAN-UTAR, a town of Charafm ; 250 miles N. of Urkonje. UT, a Latin term, fignifying, literally, as; much ufed in the ftating of ratios and proportions. Sir Ifaac Newton affigns its ufe thus: if indeterminate quantities of divers kinds be compared together, and one of them be faid to be uf, as, any other, direétly, or iriverfely ; the meaning is, that the firfl is increafed, or diminifhed, in COPE the fame ratio as the latter. And if one of them be faid to be, wt, as, two or more others, direGly, or inverfely ; the meaning is, that the firft is increafed, or diminifhed, in a ratio compounded of the ratios in which the others are in- creafed or diminifhed. Thus if A be faid to be as B dire&tly, and as C dire&tly, and as D inverfely ; the meaning is, it is increafed, or dimi- nifhed, in the fame ratio with B x Cx 5} that is, A Ge 3 : and ae are to each other in a given ratio. Ur, the name of the firft found in each of the hexachords of Guido. By tranfpofitions, wt (or do) is the key-note in folmifation of all major keys, and the mediant or 3d in minor keys. This note, with the reft, were taken out of the hymn of St. John the Baptift, compofed about the year 770, in the time of Charlemagne, according to Poffevin, by Paulus Diaconus of Aquileia. U¢ queant laxis, &c. See Mustc. UTAJARVI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the government of Ulea; 28 miles S.E. of Ulea. UTAMANIA, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the web-footed kind, wanting the hinder-toe. It is common about the ifland of Crete, and is very expert at diving. It is of the fize of a teal, and has its head and back black, and its belly white. Its feathers refemble down rather than plumage ; but though they are foft and flender, they are very firmly affixed to the fkin. Its beak is fharp at the edges, and covered in a great part with down. From the defcription of Bellonius, as well as his figure, this bird approaches to the common razor-bill, if it is indeed effentially different from it. UTAS, Ocrava, in our Statutes, the eighth day following any feaft or term, as the utas of Si. Michael, &c. And any day between the feaft and the otave is faid to be within the utas. The ufe of this is in the return of writs, as appears by ftat. 51 Hen. IIT. UTAWAS, or Utrwas, in Geography, a river of Canada, which joins the St. Lawrence, near lake St. Francis. UTENDORYF, a town of the county of Henneberg ; 4 miles N.E. of Meinungen. . UTENSIL, Uvensire, a little domeftic moveable, par- ticularly fuch as belong to the kitchen. Such as pots, pans, plates, &c. UTENSILS are more particularly ufed in war, for the move- ables which the hoft is obliged to furnifh the foldiers quar- tered with him ; which are a bed with bed-cloaths, a pot, and a fpoon. They are likewife to have a place at their hoft’s fire, and candle. Utenfils are fometimes furnifhed in money, and fometimes in kind. UTERINE, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various parts belonging to the uterus; as its arteries, veins, &c. The uterine portion of the placenta is the part immediately adhering to the uterus. See Emsryo, and GENERATION. Urerine, Fatus extra. It fometimes happens that the fecundated or impregnated ovum, inftead of falling from its calyx into the fimbriated end of the correfponding Fal- lopian tube, (fee Conception, ) and thence defcending into the uterus, its natural nidus, either continues adherent to the ovarium, and is there nourifhed and increafed; or, fepa+ rating from the ovarium, and miffing the mouth of the tube, falls into the cavity of the abdomen, and adhering to the mefentery, or fome of the bowels, abforbs and takes its nourifhment from thence ; or, laftly, having entered one of the Fallopian tubes, and not able, from the ftraightnefs of the paflage, to pafs on to the uterus, it is there detained and nourished. UTERINE. nourifhed. In this cafe, it frequently happens that after the ovum has attained the fize of a hen’s or a goofe’s egg, the fides of the tube (not pang able to bear further dilten- fion) burft, and hemorrhage from the ruptured veffels en- fuing, the woman dies. De Graaf and Santorinus have each of them related a cafe of this kind that fell under their notice (fee Obf. Anatom. J. D. Santorini, 4to. p- eA) and have given engravings, reprefenting the appearance of the parts on diffection. In which it is remarkable, that though the foetus, in neither cafe, had reached the uterus, yet that vifcus had increafed, and its cavity was diftended, nearly to the fame fize it would have been if the foetus had been there. But when the ovum is not reftrifted in its growth by the ftraightnefs of the place where it happens to be depofited, or is not blighted and deftroyed by any other caufe, it continues increafing, and the inclofed foetus grows, and attains nearly the {ame fize it would have done if it had been lodged in the uterus, and at the end of nine months, the ufual term of geftation, the woman has pains fimilar to thofe of labour ; but as there is no opening by which the fcetus can be excluded after fhe has been tormented with pains for fome days, they ceafe, and the child dies. If the cyft or bag in which the ovum is contained happens to be placed in a part not very fufceptible of pain, it may remain in a quiefcent ftate many weeks, months, or even years, without occafioning much difturbance to the woman, and the foetus, with its involucra, attain a cartilaginous con- fiftence. It more frequently happens, however, that the foetus becoming putrid foon after death, and the flefh dif- folving, the now denuded bones, prefling againft the cytt, excite inflammation and pain in the parts of the woman to which it is contiguous, which at length fuppurating, or floughing away, an opening is made either externally, thrpugh the mufcles and teguments of the abdomen, or in- ternally, through the coats of the bowels, and the bones of the foetus are either voided with the ftools, or through the abfcefs in the abdomen. Women after thefe diftreffing cir- cumftances, during which their fufferings have been extreme, not unfrequently recover a good ftate of health, and live many years. In thefe cafes, though art can do but little, yet fome affiftance may be occafionally given. When the cyft has opened internally into the bowels, after the difcharge of the putrid colluvies, into which the foft parts of the child has been diffolved, the bones begin to come away ; and if one of them fhould lie acrofs the reétum, occafioning violent ftrainings and pain, by pafling a finger into the gut, the ofition of the bone may be altered, and its exit promoted. he paffage of the bones may alfo be facilitated, and the pain occafioned by them alleviated, by injeéting emollient glyfters, to which it may be fometimes ufeful to add thirty or forty drops of the tin€ture of opium. When the abfcefs is external, its f{uppuration may be promoted by poultices, or the aperture, after it has burft, may be enlarged with a lancet or knife, and the bones taken out with a pair of for- ceps. When the foetus makes its exit through the bowels or vagina, it may fometimes be many weeks, months, or even years, before the bones are completely evacuated ; but when the opening is external, through the parietes of the ab- domen, the whole procefs is ufaally over, and the abfeefs healed in the {pace of a few weeks. Ordinarily there are no fymptoms, in the early months of pregnancy particularly, by which we may fufpeét the foetus not to be in the uterus. The menfes ceafe, and there is the fame naufea, ficknefs, and fullnefs of the breafts, as in na- tural conception or pregnancy. The uterus increafes in bulk, and its cavity enlarges, though not to the fame extent 10 as when the foetus is included. At the end of the period of geftation, pains are excited fo like to thofe in a natural la- bour, as to deceive for atime even experienced pra¢titioners. Many cafes of this kind have been recorded by medical writers, befides thofe mentioned by De Graaf and Santo- rinus. The following account of a fetus of fix months, which was voided entire by the anus, is taken from Mr. William Giffard’s Colleétion of Cafes in Midwifery, N° 157, publifhed by Dr. Edward Hody, in 4to. 1734. The woman died a few days after the exclufion of the foetus, and was opened by Mr. Giffard, affifted by Mr. Nourfe, one of the furgeons to Bartholomew’s hofpital, in the prefence of Dr. Dodd, phyfician to the fame hofpital. ‘The parts were exhibited to the Royal Society, and drawings of them taken, under the diretion of fir Hans Sloane, the prefident. From them two engravings were executed, which are publifhed with the volume. The ovum appears not to have completely left the ova- rium, which, with the fimbriated end of the Fallopian tube, and the ligamentum Jatum of the right fide, appear to be confufedly joined together, and each of them contributing towards forming the facculus, or bag, containing the ovum. The foetus had been perfect, but was beginning to be putrid. It was of the fize fcetufes ufually are at fix months. It is not delineated. ‘The woman had the ufual figns of breeding, and at the proper time felt the motion of the child, which increafing, and by its weight finking down behind the uterus, and dragging the fundus of that vifcus with it, at length, by its preffure on the re€tum, occafioned inflammation, and a portion of the re¢tum, and of the bag floughing off, the foetus fell into the gut, and was voided by the anus. The uterus was not examined, but it appears by the drawing to have been of a larger fize than it is ufually feen to be in women who are not pregnant, and if it had been opened, the cavity would doubtlefs have been found propor- tionably increafed. De Graaf, in his work “* De Organis Mulierum,” p. 252. tab. 21, has given a delineation of an ovum that was detained in one of the Fallopian tubes, from Vefalius, who difle&ed the body of the woman. The embryo was between three and four months old, when the fides of the tube giving way, the woman died. Wefalius thought the cavity in which the ovum had been retained was a fecond uterus. Ciprianus, in a letter to Dr. Millington, prefident of the college of phyficians, London, has given the cafe of an ex- traordinary foetus that had continued in the abdomen of its mother twenty-one months. He extraéted it by enlarging the opening of an impoithume that had broken naturally. The letter is dated Leyden, 1707. Straufius gives an account of a woman, aged fixty-three years, who died in confequence of a fall. She had, for twenty years previous to her death, complained of a pain and {welling in the middle and lower part of the abdomen. On opening the body, a foetus was found perfetly formed, but of the hardnefs of ftone. ‘* Cutiferat faxi in modum dura,”’? he fays, ‘“‘ Caput erat malleo frangendum, &c.’’ Laur. Straufii ,Refolutio cafus Muflipantani foetus extra uterum, &c.’ p. 39. , Urerine Hemorrhages. See FLoopine. In this dangerous diforder the fly ptic powder of Helvetius is much recommended: and the ftibium ceratum has alfo been tried with great fuccefs. See ViTRUM antimonit ceratum. In the Stockholm As, 1770, there are feveral cafes of uterine hemorrhages cured by a third or half a grain of ipecacuanha, rubbed with fugar, given every four hours or oftener. UTE oftener. In one cafe, the hemorrhage returned on difcon- tinuing the medicine, and ceafed on repeating it. Thefe fmall dofes had good effeéts in catarrhal coughs, even in thofe which attend confumptions; and if not beneficial, are at leaft not hurtful, in bloody coughs, in which vo- miting has feveral times been obferved to come on, without any increafe of the hemorrhage. They may be ufeful in peripneumony and pleurify, in which cough is often the moft troublefome fymptom, and in which feneka root (which in increafed dofes proves alfo emetic) has been fo much recommended. Urerine Brothers or Siflers are thofe born of the fame mother, but by different fathers. UTERINUM Jecur. See Jecur. UTERINUS, Furor, in Medicine. See Furor. Men are fubje& to the like difeafe, as well as women ; fo that it might with more propriety be called, the furor wenereus, or venereal fury. It had its name, furor uterinus, from an opinion, that it proceeded from vapours, rifing from the womb to the brain. It has been frequently found, that maids, fuppofed to be poffeffed, were only feized with uterine fury. Urerinus Lapis, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by fome authors to a ftone found in New Spain, and in fome other parts of America; it is very hard and heavy, of a beautiful black, and capable of a very elegant polifh. The natives cut it into various fhapes, and apply it to the navel in difeafes of the womb, and pretend that it poffeffes very great virtues. UTERUS, in Anatomy, the womb, the organ in which the embryo is received from the ovarium, to which it becomes adherent fo as to receive the materials of its growth, and in which it is retained for a longer or fhorter time in various {pecies, until its expulfion in the procefs of parturition. A proper uterus belongs only to the mammalia ; oviparous generation, under various modifications, is found in the other claffes, and the female organ is therefore reduced to a mere canal (oviduét) for the tranfmiffion of the ova. See GeneraTion. See alfo Conception, GesTATION, and Empryo. Uterus, Jnverfion of. Sometimes the uterus defcends through the os tincz into the vagina, and occafionally quite out of the vulva. The firft cafe is termed the incomplete ; the fecond, the complete inverfio uteri. In the latter, the vagina is alfo drawn downward, and inverted, fo that the whole tumour, fituated before the parts of generation, feems to hang by a pedicle, compofed of the inverted vagina. Between this pedicle and the labia, there is no interfpace which will admit a probe. The outer furface of the tumour is, in fact, the lining of the uterus itfelf. It being obvious, that the fundus uteri cannot defcend through the os tincz, unlefs this aperture be confiderably dilated, it follows, that an inverfio uteri can only happen juft after delivery ; and one common caufe of the accident is, the unfkilful employment of force in the extraction of the placenta. Polypi, growing from the fundus uteri, however, are particular cafes, in which the inverfion of this organ may take place from its being drawn downwards by the weight of fuch tumours. Great pain, inflammation, tumefaCtion, and hemorrhage, are the ufual confequences of an inverfion of the uterus. Even mortification, convulfions, and death may refult from the complete form of the difeafe, efpecially when it has occurred in a very fudden manner. The reduétion of an inverted uterus ought to be attempted without the leaft delay. The longer the operation is de- Vor. XXXVII. UTE ferred, the more difficult it becomes; for, in thefe cafes, pain, inflammation, and {welling, generally come on with great rapidity. If inflammation fhould already prevail, there are fome practitioners, who think it beft to apply leeches and fomentations to the fwelling, before undertaking its reduction. It is certain, however, that very little time fhould be allotted to any proceedings, before endeavouring to reduce the part, which can hardly be kept from inflaming more and more, the longer it remains out of its natural fituation. Leeches, fomentations, and even venefetion, muit, however, be highly proper, whenever the firft attempts at reduétion do not immediately fucceed. In very old cafes, in which the fundus uteri has fuffered long compreffion in the vagina, fuch an alteration takes place in the fhape and ftru€ture of the uterus, that the in- verfion is totally incurable; and all that can then be done is to reftrain its further defcent by means of a peffary. The uterus, befides being inverted, may alfo be in a {cirrhous, or actually cancerous ftate. In this circumftance, the propriety of amputating the difeafed organ has been eftablifhed by feveral precedents recorded in the annals of furgery. Yet the prudence and utility of this operation mut very much depend upon, whether the uterus is the only part affected with the difeafe; whether the lymphatic glands in the groin and within the abdomen are found ; and whether the general ftate of the patient is fuch as to juftify a rational hope of recovery. ‘ Uterus, Polypi of. See Potypus. Hcg Se Procidentia or Prolapfus of. See PRoLAPsus tert. : Urerus, Retroverfion of. See Rerroversio Uteri. Urerus, Rupture of. This accident may happen in any kind of labour ; the caufe of it is probably the uterus being thinner and weaker in fome part than is ufual, particularly near to its union with the vagina, that being found to be the moft common feat of the accident. That it is not occafioned by any peculiar difeafe of the uterus, is probable, as there are no fymptoms occurring during pregnancy from which we might judge it to be likely to happen, but in the courfe of the labour, an hour or two before the accident takes place, the women complain of an exceedingly acute pain in fome part of their bellies. At the moment of the rupture, they feel that fomething has given way within them. ‘The labour-pains ceafe; and, if the head of the child has not paffed the veins of the pelvis, it recedes, and gradually gets out of the reach of the fingers. Vomiting, palenefs of the face, fighing, and a cold {weat, fhewing the magnitude of the difafter, eee The pulfe becomes weak, quick, and fcarcely perceptible ; and at the end of twenty-four, thirty-fix, or forty-eight hours the woman dies. If the perfon attending is competent to the bufinefs, it is right to follow the child with his hand through the rent in the uterus, into the abdomen, and to bring it away by its feet. This isnot done fo much with a view to preferve the life of the woman, who almoft inevitably perifhes, as to fave the child, which, if the operation is immediately performed, may often be done. The late Dr. Andrew Douglas relates the hiftory of one cafe in which the woman was alfo faved. It is the only cafe of the kind on record, or perhaps that ever occurred. ‘To give the woman this chance, the opera- tion muft be performed immediately, for as the uterus is found fpeedily to contraét, and diminifh the aperture, to attempt it after that has taken place, would be to reopen the wound, to renew the hemorrhage, and confequently to haften the death of the woman. Uterus of ff. Among the fifh kinds, all thofe which 4F are OT are oviparous have no uterus ; but, on the contrary, all the viviparous fithes have this part. The whales, and all the cetaceous kinds, as alfo many of the cartilaginous ones, have the uterus very fair. It is probable that the eel kind alfo have it; but this is lefs certain, the generation of thofe fifhes being yet fomewhat obfcure. The uterus in the cetaceous fifhes is always divided into two procefles or horns ; but in the cartilaginous ones it is divided into two glandulous bodies, which are pervious, and, according to the opinion of Needham, difcharge a whitifh liquor into the womb, and are of gteat ufe in gravidation. Urert, cornua, are alfo called horns of the womb. Uren, hydrops. See Dropsy. _ Uren, vagina, or cervix. See thefe articles. UTFANGTHEF, in our Law-Books. See OuUTFAN- THEFE. UTHINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the interior of Africa Propria, between Tabraca and the river Bagrada. It had the title of a colony. UTHISIA, a town of Africa, in Numidia. UTHLEDE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Bremen; 23 miles N.N.W. of Bremen. UTICA, ( Boofbatter,) in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Africa, between Carthage and the promontory of Apollo. It was a colony of Tyrians, and named by the Greeks Invxn, Itica. This town, by its magnitude and dignity, was inferior only to Carthage ; and after the.deftruc- tion of this city, it became the capital of the province. According to Strabo, it was fituated upon the fame gulf with Carthage: Auguftus granted the title of Roman citizens to its inhabitants. It is often mentioned in the hiftory of the civil war of Czfar; and it became {till more famous by the death of Cato. On its {cite are found old walls, a very large aqueduG, cifterns, and other veftiges of edifices, which announce a large and magnificent city. ‘To the S.W. of thefe ruins may be feen fpacious fields, which the Romans rendered famous by their military exercifes. Boofhatter, by the accumulation of mud brought down by the river Bagrada, is now about 7 miles from the fea. Urica, in Geography, a flourifhing incorporated poft- village of New York, the commercial capital of the great wettern diftri& of this ftate, fituated on the S. bank of the Mohawk, 93 miles W. of Albany, in the town of Whitef- town, Oneida county. It ftands on the {cite of Old Fort Schuyler, 13 miles N.E. of Rome, anciently Fort Stanwix, and is handfomely laid out in ftreets, fquares, &c., and was incorporated as a village in 1798, and again in 1805. Al- though Utica is fmall-in area, it contains a population of - 1700 perfons, and has 300 houfes and ftores, a Prefbyterian and an Epifcopal church, a grammar-[chool, &c. Befides thefe buildings it has many others, with mills, fa¢tories, fhops of mechanics, printing-offices, and large book-ftores. Weekly papers are publifhed here, and widely circulated through the furrounding country. The Manhattan bank has eftablifhed a bank at Utica, and in 1812 it obtained a charter for a bank, with a capital of one million of dollars. The foil is fertile, and the fituation healthy and pleafant. This village is the central point for all the principal avenues of communication by common roads and turnpikes, and forms the key of trade and travel between the weitern country and Atlantic ports and towns. N. lat. 43° 6’. W. long. 1° 12! from New York. UTICNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Pro- pria, fituated to the S. of Adrumetum. UTIDAVA, a town of Dacia. Ptolemy. UTIDORSI, a people of Afiatic Scythia, upon the UsER coaft of the Cafpian fea, towards the river Cyrus, Pliny. UTIEL, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 48 miles S.E. of Cuenga. UTIL, in Ancient Geography, a people who were Perfians, or fubje&ts or allies of the Perfians. They had for their commandant, in conjunétion with the Myci, Arfamenes, fon of Darius, according to Herodotus. From various cir- cumttances, it has been inferred that the Outians or Utians of Herodotus are the Uxians of Strabo and Ptolemy. UTIKON, or Orrixon, in Geography, a town of Swit- zerland, in the canton of Zurich; 12 miles N.E. of Zurich. UTILA, an ifland in the gulf of Honduras, about 30 miles from the coaft ; about 15 miles long, and 5 broad. N. lat. 16° 4! W. long. 87° 45/. UTILE, a Latin term, fignifying probable, or ufeful ; fometimes ufed, by Englifh authors, in the fame fenfe. The utile and the dulce, profit and delight, are both to be aimed at in poetry ; but it is difputed, which of them is to be aimed at in the firft place. Corneille fays, ex- prefsly, ‘* Dans la tragedie l’utile n’entre que fous la forme du deleétable.”’ In the language of the philofophers, there is nothing utile, but what is juft and honeft : nihil bonum, nifi honeflum : nihil malum, nifi turpe. Cic. de Fin. lib. ii. Urite Dominium. See Dominium. ; UTILITY, in Moral Philofophy, is the tendency of any action to promote the general happinefs. According to archdeacon Paley, aétions are to be eftimated by their ten- dency. Whatever is expedient is right: andit is the utility of any moral rule alone which conftitutes the obligation of it, and this is the criterion of right. On this fubje&, fee Ostication, Moral PutLosopuy, and Virtue. UTILLO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 50 miles 5.S.E. of Havanna. UTINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of ancient Venetia, now Ondina. : UTIS, a river of Italy, or rather of Gallia Cifalpina. UTKINSKATA, or Urxinsxkot, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Ekaterinburg, on the Tchu- fovaia ; 36 miles N.W. of Ekaterinburg. UTLAGARIZ Perponatio. See PERDONATIO. UTLAGATIO, in Law, an outlawry. UTLAGATO capiendo, quando utlagatur in uno comitatu, &F poflea fugit in alium, a writ for apprehending a man who is outlawed in one county, and flies into another. See OurLawry. UTLAGATUM Captas. See Carias. UTLAGH, Urracuus. See Ourtaw. UTLAND, Outland, is oppofed to Jnland. UTLARY, or Urrawry, UTLAGARIA. LAWRY. UTNEMSKOT, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Uttiug, on the Vitchegda. \N. lat. 62° 56’. E. long. 54° 14!. UTON, an ifland near the eaft coaft of Sweden, in the Baltic. N. lat. 58°57’. E. long. 18° 5’. _. UTPHA, a town of Germany, in the principality of Solms Laubach, on the Horlof; 2 miles S.W. of Hungen. UTRACH, a town of Auttria; 7 miles N. of St. Wolfgang. UTRAQUISTA, in Church Hiflory, an appellation given by way of reproach to thofe in Bohemia who com- municate under both {pecies, bread and wine. UTRECHT, in Geography, a department of Holland, late one of the Dutch States, which, excepting in one fmalk See Ourt- UTR {mall {trip of laid to the northward, and bordering on the Zuyder See, is wholly environed by Holland and Guelder- land: it enjoys a good air, and in moft parts the foil is very fruitful; to the eaftward it is indeed a high and fterile country, confifting either of fandy hills or {mall eminences, which are in general over-run with wood; and weftward the country perfe€tly refembles Holland, being for the moft part rich meadow, though in many parts full of turf grounds. Urrecut, a city of Holland, and capital of the ftate or department fo called; in Latin, Ultraje@um, Trajedum In- Serius, Trajedum Utricenfium, Antonina Civitas, which laft name was given it from Antoninus, a Roman fenator, by whom it was built, in the time of Nero; and Trajedlum ad Rhenum, to diftinguifh it from Maeftricht, which was called Trajecium ad Mofam. It is a handfome, large, and rich city, fituated on the ancient Rhine. The Wiltes ruined it, and left nothing but the caltle, which they called Wiltenbourg. In the year 718, Clotaire king of France re- built it, and firft called it Utrecht, from the word Trecht, which fignifies paflage, becaufe it was the grand paflage over the Rhine, before that river had changed its bed. It was enlarged, and furrounded with walls, about the year 934, by Balderic de Cleves, the fifteenth bifhop. Its figure is oval, and it is about four miles in circumference, befides four large fauxbourgs; but though fortified with fome baftions and half-moons, it is not flrong. The em- peror Charles V. when he became matter of the figniory and.city of Utrecht, in the year 1529, built a chateau, which he called Vrebourg, or the Chateau of Peace; and in the year 1546, celebrated a chapter of the order of the Golden Fleece in the cathedral church, when Maximilian king of Bohemia, and afterwards emperor, Cofmo duke of Florence, Albert duke of Bavaria, Emanuel! Philibert duke of Savoy, and eighteen other lords, were inttalled knights. The déme, or the cathedral church, it is faid, was firft built in the year 630, by king Dagobert I., and St. Willebrord made it an abbey church, and foon after it became a cathe- dral. The height of the tower is 380 feet, and from the top in a clear day fifteen or fixteen cities may be feen. The cathedral was at firft dedicated to St. Thomas, after- wards to St. Martin. ‘ihe church of Notre-Dame, com- monly called Buur-Kerch, and Exglifh church, has a {mall library, which contains fome ancient manufcripts ; the other parifhes are St. James, St. Nicholas, and St. Gertrude. It has hikewife hofpitals for orphans, foundlings, &c. Before the Reformation, it had many religious houfes. The magif- tracy is compofed of a grand bailly, two burgomatters, twelve echevins, a treafurer, an intendant of buildings, a prefident, three commiffioners of finances, and a fenator, which are changed eyery year on the 12th of O€tober, and affemble in the town-houfe, which is a handfome ftru€ture. The principal ftreets are cut through with canals, two of which run through the whole city, namely, the Vaert, and the new Gracht, over which there are thirty-five bridges. Thefe are the principal canals of the town, and the buildings on the banks of the new Gracht are magnificent. The market-place is very large, and the centre of feveral hand- fome itreets. The houles are of brick, and many of them flately ; they have in general good cellars, which they cannot have in the ftate of Holland, the ground there being too marfhy. Without the town there are beautiful rows of trees, to which the Englifh have given the name of the Mall, by reafon of their having fome refemblance to St. James’s Park. This place was the feat of an archbifhop, before it fell into the Proteftants’ hands, and had four ERSETR aepate churches, two commanderies, and feveral abbeys, which have been all fecularized by the States, and applied to other ufes. As it ftands in a very healthful air, it is fre- quented by perfons of diftin@tion, who have very fine houfes in this city. The univerfity, which has been very famous, was originally only a public fchool, founded by David of Burgundy, bifhop of Utrecht ; but in the year 1636, it was converted into an univerfity by the States. The univerfity is fubject to the magiftrates of the city, and has not many privileges. The ftudents wear their ordinary drefs, and board in private houfes in the town, for there are {carcely any endowed colleges in Holland. Here the ftates of the province affemble to take cognizance of the affairs of the whole province. There is a public library, well ftocked with books in all branches of learning. The town is famous for the treaty of union, figned in 1579, between the Seven Provinces, which laid the foundation of the republic; as likewife for the treaty of peace, figned here in 1713, between France and the Grand Allies. Utrecht gave birth to pope Adrian VI., whofe houfe they always fhew to foreigners ; and to the celebrated Ann Mary Schurman, fo admired in the laft century for her learning; 18 miles S.S.E. of Amfterdam. N. Jat. 52°6!. E. long. 5° 11’. Urtrecut, a townfhip of New York, in Long ifland. UTRERA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville. It contains two parifhes, four hofpitals, and eight convents; near it is a falt {pring ; 21 miles S, of Seville, UTRICULARIA, in Botany, fo named by Linnews, from the numerous little bladders, ufriculi, which often ac- company the leaves, and ferve to float the plant.—Linn, Gen. 14. Schreb. 19. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. ir. Mart, Mill. Di&. v. 4. Vahl Enum. v. 1. 194. Sm. Fl. Brit, 28. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. vy. 1. 11. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.430. Purfh is. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 45. Epit. 376. Juff. 98. Poiret in Lamarck Di&, v. 8. 267. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 14.—Clafs and order, Di- andria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Corydales, Linn. Lyf» machiis affine, Jufl. Lentibularie, Richard and Brown. Gen. Ch. (Ca/. Perianth inferior, of two equal, ovate, concave, fmall, moftly undivided, permanent leaves. Cor, of one petal, ringent: upper lip flat, obtufe, ereét: lower larger, flat, undivided; its palate heart-fhaped, more or lefs prominent between the lips. Neétary a fimple or double fpur, protruding from the bafe of the petal behind. Stam. Fikments two, inferted into the bafe of the corolla, very fhort, incurved; anthers {mall, cohering together. Piff. Germen fuperior, globofe ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the calyx; ftigma conical, fometimes divided. Perie. Capfule large, globofe, of one cell. Seeds numerous, fmall, attached to a large globular receptacle. Eff. Ch. Corolla ringent, {fpurred. Calyx of two equal leaves. Capfule fuperior, of one cell. A very curious and elegant genus, of herbaceous, ftem, lefs, aquatic or bog plants, found in various parts of the world, but perhaps more numerous in New Holland than in any other country. Linnzus in the 14th edition of his Syit. Veg. has but nine fpecies in all. Willdenow has eleven, Vahl thirty-four, Poiret thirty-fix. Three are found in Britain; nine, according to Mr. Purfh, in North America. But Mr. Brown defines twenty-four Utricularia, natives of New Holland alone. Of thee feveral were de- teéted by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander. We have heard the former of thefe eminent botanifts relate, that al- moft every morning’s walk afforded them a new Ufricularia ; but the delicate flowers were generally fo frail and tranfient, or the diflinétive charaéters of the fpecies fo difficult to de- ee 2 fine, UTRICULARIA. fine, that feveral of thefe beautiful novelties were neceflarily left undetermined. Any botanift poffeffed of an extenfive herbarium, cannot fail to acknowledge that he is reduced to the fame neceffity; for Vahl, who has given the beft general account of the fpecies of this genus, confeffes that he had feen many more, that were undoubtedly diftin&, but for which he could not hit upon fpecific charaéters, fuch being fcarcely difcernible in dried fpecimens. None of thefe plants appear capable of cultivation, at leaft none have as yet been introduced into gardens. Vahl diftributes them into four feGtions, which we fhall adopt, with fuch addi- tions and correétions as we are enabled to attempt. Our kind friend Dr. Afzelius has fupplied feveral apparently new fpecies from Sierra Leone, which, as far as poffible, we fhall try to reduce to order. It is very probable, efpe- cially as the whole genus is more or lefs aquatic, that the fame fpecies may occur in the old and new continent, or other widely diftant countries. But as we find not a fingle inftance of this kind recorded, we fhall not venture to refer any of our unknown fpecies, from one quarter of the globe, to the defcriptions of any found in another. The Guinea fpecies, for inftance, we muft prefume to be all different from thofe of New Holland, or of South America. The herbarium of the younger Linnzus contains perhaps eight {pecies, without any indication of their native country, or any mark whatever. Thefe muft of courfe be omitted, as they may poffibly be New Holland fpecies, communicated, like many other plants, to their late poffeffor, by his friend Solander ; and it would be too precarious to refer them, by examination in-their dried and imperfe& condition, to any ef Mr. Brown’s defcriptions, however excellent the latter may be with a reference to living plants. Vahl has a nu- merous feétion, fifteen {pecies, faid to have no leaves. Such indeed is the frequent appearance of many of the plants, in the dried ftate, in which alone he had an opportunity of ex- amining them. But Mr. Brown, who faw fo many alive, mentions none that are truly leaflefs, though he fays the foliage is often deciduous in thofe with undivided leaves. There is great likelihood, therefore, that feveral of Vahl’s laft fe€tion may properly belong to his firft; as proves to be the cafe with his uliginofa, afferted by Mr. Brown to be either graminifolia, or cyanea, he could not pofitively fay which. For the reft we can only truft to his opinion or obfervation. Se&. 1. Leaves radical, fimple. 1. U. alpina. Alpine Bladderwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 25. Willd. n. 1. Poiret n. 1. (U. montana; Jacq. Amer. 7. t.6. U.unifolia; Fl. Peruv. v.1. 20. t. 30. f. b.”?)— Neétary awl-fhaped. Stalk moftly fingle-flowered. Roots tuberous. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate. Lips of the corolla nearly equal.—Gathered by Jacquin, on the loftieft moun- tains of the ifland of Martinico, in wet expofed fituations, flowering in February. Root fibrous, furnifhed with many {mall elliptical knobs. Leaves two, radical, ftalked, acute, entire, an inch and a half long, fmooth, fhining, rather flefhy. Flower-fialks folitary, fimple, ereét, fmooth, fix inches high, bearing two oppofite dra&eas, and one, fome- times two, large handfome flowers, above an inch in dia- meter, whofe corola is white, the calyx and necary only being flightly tinged with yellow. Jacquin. This feems to have the largelt flower of any known fpecies, except the following. 2. U. montana. Mountain Bladderwort. Poiret n. 2.— Ne@tary conical, acute. Stalk naked, moftly two-flowered. Roots verficular. Leaves radical, ovato-lanceolate.— Native of Martinico. ‘This might be fuppofed the fame as the laft, 14t but Poiret fays “the lower /eaves, or rather the roots, are brown, confifting of numerous fpreading fibres, a little comprefled, laden with fhort fetaceous filaments, which bear a few minute globular veficles. Radical /eaves ftalked, at leaft an inch long, bluntifh, fmooth, flefhy, entire, with fine branching veins. oot/lalks full as long as the leaves. Flower-ftalks fix or eight inches high, bearing feveral dif- tant, minute, membranous, oval-oblong, fcaly brafeas, and divided at the top into two widely fpreading branches, each bearing one flower, an inch at leaft in diameter, apparently white ; with a tinge of blue. Calyx-leaves oval, obtufe, very thin, broadeft at the bafe, marked, like the corolla, with ftraight longitudinal lines. The two lips of the latter are flat, very broad, nearly equal, rounded, almoft entire. Spur rather fhorter than the lips, awl-fhaped, flightly curved.”’ 3. U. hifpida. Branched Rough Bladderwort. La- marck Illuftr. v. 1. 50. Wahln.2. Poiret n. 3.—* Nec- tary awl-fhaped, reflexed. Stalk branched; hifpid in the lower part. Leaves linear. Calyx-leaves roundifh.”— Found in Cayenne, by M. Richard. Roofs fafciculated, fubdivided, hardly an inch long. Leaves three, radical, an inch long, acute, fmooth, without rib or veins, each taper- ing at the bafe into a footftalk. Flower-/falk half a foot high, or more, round; fmooth in the upper part, where it divides into two or three zigzag branches; partial flalks four or five, diftant, fingle-flowered. Flowers imall. Nec- tary nearly the length of the petal. Vahi. 4. U. volubilis. Twining Bladderwort. Brown n. 3.— ‘¢ Stalk twining, round, about two-flowered. Lips of the corolla undivided; the upper wedge-fhaped; ‘lower very large, hatchet-fhaped. Spur defcending, obtufe, depreffed. Calyx obtufe.’’—-Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the fouthern coaft of New Holland. 5. U. fpiralis. Spiral-ftalked Bladderwort. — Stalk twining {pirally, with feveral diftant flowers. Lower lip very large, cloven. Spur defcending, awl-fhaped, pointed. Calyx acute.—Native of Sierra Leone. Afxelius. The fialk of our only fpecimen is a foot or more in height, flen- der, {mooth, unbranched, twining round the ftem of a grafs, and bearing four flowers, two inches at leaft afunder, except the two uppermoit. Each flower ftands on a flender partial ftalk, half an inch long, accompanied by two fmall ovate bradeas. The /pur is very fharp, the length of the partial ftalk, and rather longer than the lower /ip. The colour of the flowers, as far as can be judged, is purplifh. We have feen no /eaves nor root, and therefore place this fpecies here merely from the agreement of its /fem with the laft, of which we have but few examples. 6. U. fpeciofa. Handfome Bladderwort. Brown n. 4. (U. dichotoma; Labillard. Nov. Holl. v.1. 11. t. 8. Poiret n. 9.)—Stalk ftraight. Flowers oppofite. Upper lip abrupt; lower very large, hatchet-fhaped, undivided. Spur obtufe. Leaves linear-fpatulate, ribbed; tapering at the bafe.—Native of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s ifland. Root of many tufted fibres, bearing {mall knobs. Leaves radical, fpreading, above an inch long, immerfed in water, as well as half the ffa/k, which is twelve or fifteen inches high, quite fmooth and naked till within three or four inches of the top, where it bears about three diftant pairs of oppofite, ftalked, braGteated, large and handfome purple flowers ; whofe palate is bearded; /pur thick and abrupt, half the length of the lower Jip; one leaf of the calyx cloven. 6 7. U. oppofitiflora. ppofite-flowered Bladderwort. Brown n. ee ie firaigtt, round. Flowers oppofite. Lips UTRICULARIA. Lips undivided; the lower very large, hatchet-fhaped. Palate lobed. Spur obtufe. Leaves ovate, obtufe, ftalked.”’—Gathered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. The /a/é grows altogether out of the water. 8. U. uniflora. Single-flowered Bladderwort. Brown n. 6.— Stalk ftraight, round, fingle-flowered. Leaves few, roundifh, deciduous. Upper lip wedge-fhaped, abrupt ; lower very large, hatchet-fhaped, undivided. Palate lobed. Spur obtufe.”’—Native of the fame country, and of Van Diemen’s ifland; growing likewife above water. 9. U. Baueri.. Bauerian Bladderwort. Brown n. 7.— “ Stalk capillary, moftly fimple, with a few diftant fcales about the middle. Flowers racemofe. Lips undivided ; the uppear linear ; lower broader thanlong. Spur ftraight, defcending, bluntifh, longer than the lips.””—Gathered near Port Jackfon, by Mr. Ferdinand Bauer. 10. U. lateriflora. Lateral-flowered Bladderwort. Brown n. 8.—* Stalk capillary, fimple, round, with diftant fcales at the bafe. Flowers lateral, fomewhat fpiked. Upper lip linear, rather abrupt; lower roundifh, obfcurely cre- nate. Spur emarginate.’’—Native of Port Jackfon, and Van Diemen’s ifland. Brown. 11. U. parviflora. Small-flowered Zigzag Bladderwort. Brown n. 9.—Stalk nearly fimple, arate, fomewhat zig- zag, with minute fcales at the bafe. Flowers lateral, dif- tant, nearly feffile. Upper lip linear, emarginate; lower roundifh, undivided. Palate rugofe. Spur ftraight, bluntifh. Lower calyx-leaf emarginate.—Sent by Dr. White, from New South Wales, in 1792. The fa/é is from four to fix inches high, and though feldom branched, feems to elongate itfelf annually by a lateral fhoot juft below the top. Of the Jeaves we know nothing. There are many minute pointed /cales, {cattered along the ttalk. The /pur is thick, full as long as the lips. Palate downy. 12. U. fimplex. Simple Capillary Bladderwort. Brown n. 10.— Stalk capillary, quite fimple, fingle-flowered. Lips rounded, undivided ; the lowermott broader than long. Spur ftraight, deprefled, emarginate.’? — Found by Mr. Brown, on the fouth coaft of New Holland. 13. U. violacea. Simple Violet Bladderwort. Brown n. 11.— Stalk capillary, quite fimple, fingle-flowered. Lips nearly entire ; the lower deflexed, as long as the de- f{cending, nearly cylindrical, undivided fpur. Leaf ovate, generally folitary.’’—Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the fame country. 14. U. Menziefii. Menziefian Bladderwort. Brown n. 12.—* Stalk thread-fhaped, fingle-flowered. Leaves numerous, fpatulate. Lower lip undivided. Spur de- {eending, cylindrical, obtufe, twice the length of the lips.’’ —Gathered by Mr. Menzies, on the fouth-weft coatt of New Holland. We do not difcover it amongft the fpeci- mens with which he has favoured us; nor did Mr. Brown gather this fpecies himfelf. 15. U. albiflora. Small White-flowered Bladderwort. Brown. n. 13.—‘ Stall thread-fhaped, fingle-flowered. Upper lip emarginate; lower wedge-fhaped, with three teeth. Spur conical, defcending.’? — Gathered by Banks and Solander, in the tropical part of New Holland. 16. U. compreffa. Flat-fpurred Bladderwort. Brown n. 14.—“ Stalk.... Upper lip emarginate ; lower fome- what three-lobed, the middle lobe emarginate. Spur conical, flattened, pointing upwards.”—Found by the dif- tinguifhed botanifts juft named, in the fame part of New Holland as the preceding. 17. U. friatula. Little Striated Bladderwort.— Leaves orbieular. Stalk fimple, angular, with a few racemofe flowers. Spur awl-fhaped, acute, as long as the lips. Calyx-leaves permanent, very unequal; the upper one orbi- cular, emarginate, ftriated.—Brought from Sierra Leone, by Dr. Afzelius. A {mall delicate {pecies, whofe fibrous roots bear a few minute tubercles. The /eaves are feveral, ftalked, fearcely a line in diameter, {mooth, with divari- cating veins; fome of them apparently concave, or blad- dery. Stalk near three inches high, flender, fmooth, bearing {carcely more than one f{cale towards the middle, and termi- nating in a clu/fer of three or four purplifh flowers, on ca- pillary ftalks, whofe lower /ip feems cloven. The mem- branous cap/ule is accompanied by the likewife membranous, pale, permanent, {preading calyx, whofe lower leaf is {mall and obtufe ; the upper five times as large, orbicular, with feveral purplifh longitudinal ribs. 18. U. cyanea. Sky-blue Bladderwort. Brown n. 15.— “Stalk fimple, ftraight, with a few lateral remote flowers ; partial ftalks with three braéteas. Calyx acute, about equal to the corolla. Lips entire. Spur conical-awl- fhaped, acute, defcending. Capfule compreffed. Leaves linear, decumbent.”’—Gathered by Mr. Brown, at Port Jackfon, New South Wales. 19. U. graminifolia. Graffy Bladderwort. Vahl n. 3. Brown n. 16. (U.czrulea; Herb. Linn. but not Sp. Pl. UV. uliginofa; Wahl n. 25?)—Stalk fimple, angular, dif- tantly racemofe ; partial dtalks with three bracteas. Calyx acute. Upper lip of the corolla emarginate ; lower fome- what three-lobed. Spur defcending, conical. Capfule compreffed. Leaves linear-elongated.—Native of the dried margins of ponds, in the Eaft Indies. We have {pecimens from Dr. Buchanan, gathered in the Myfore country. Sir Jofeph Banks found this fpecies in the tropical part of New Holland. Linnzus confounded it with his original cerulea, deferibed in our 4th feGtion, n. 47, but the prefent plant is furnifhed with one or more grafly, acute, feffile, radical leaves, half as tall as the ftalk, dete€ted by profeffor Vahl and Mr. Brown. The common flower-/la/é is rather ftout, from three to fix inches high, not branched, but fometimes, as in feveral other fpecies, elongated by a lateral fhoot, either in confequence of its having flowered before, or having been broken off. Clufler wavy, lax, of three or four blue flowers, whofe partial flalks {pread horizontally as they ripen feed. Calyx permanent, its leaves ovate, acute, membranous, ftriated, clofely embracing the capfule; one of them emar- ginate. One of Koenig’s original fpecimens of his U. ulé= ginofa, now before us, is fo imperfe&, that we labour under the fame difficulty as Mr. Brown, in deciding whether it belongs to this or the laft {pecies. 20. U. bifida. Divided Yellow Bladderwort. It. 243. t.3. f.2. Englifh ed. v.2. 1. t. 3. f 2) duinn. Sp. Pl. 26. Willd. n. 8. Vahl n. 24. — Stalk fimple or divided, racemofe. Bratteas folitary. Calyx acute. Upper lip of the corolla ovate, undivided; lower cloven. Spur defcending, conical, acute, the length of the upper lip. Leaves linear, ftalked.—Gathered by Ofbeck, near the wa- tering-place on the Danifh ifland, off Canton, in fwampy ground, but not under water, flowering in Oftober. It has alfo been found in Ceylon, from whence we have fpeci« mens, one of which is accompanied with /-aves, hitherto un- noticed by any botanift. The very {pecimens delineated in Ofbeck’s voyage, are preferved in the Linnean herbarium. This fpecies is certainly allied to the laft, but rather {maller, with yellow flowers. The flal/é is fometimes di- vided, or interrupted, as in that. Leaves very {mall, narrow and obtufe, fpringing from the fibrous roofs, or rather ra m Ofbeck UTRICULARIA. fmall tuberous offsets. Salt three or four inches high. Calyx permanent, membranous, as in the foregoing, but more orbicular, and lefs evidently ftriated. 21. U. biloba. Two-lobed Bladderwort. Brown n. 17. —‘ Stalk fimple, round, with diftant clofe-preffed fcales. Clufter of few flowers. Braéteas folitary. Upper lip of the corolla emarginate ; lower in two blunt lobes. Spur itraight; defcending, obtufe, fomewhat flattened.””—Found by Mr. Brown, in the vicinity of Port Jackfon, New South Wales. 22. U. limofa. Mud Bladderwort. Brown n. 18.— “ Stalk fimple, round. Clufter many-flowered. Upper lip of the corolla undivided ; lower in two fharpifh divaricated lobes. Spur prominent, fomewhat flattened.’ — Gathered by Banks and Solander, in fome part of the tropical region of New Holland. 23. V.pygmea. Dwarf Bladderwort. Brown n. 19.— “ Stalk fimple, about two-flowered. Upper lip of the co- rolla undivided ; lower in three deep undivided fegments, the lateral ones linear, divaricated. Spur conical, promi- nent.”’—Found by the fame travellers, along with the pre- ceding fpecies. 24. U. tenella. Delicate Bladderwort. Brownn. 20.— ‘Stalk nearly fimple, few-flowered. Upper lip of the corolla deeply divided ; lower in three undivided lobes, the central one largeft. Leaves elliptical.” — Found by Mr. Brown in the fouthern part of New Holland. 25. U. barbata. Bearded Bladderwort. Brown n. 21.— “ Stalk nearly fimple, few-flowered. Upper lip of the co- rolla emarginate ; lower three-cleft, the middle fegment di- vided. Palate internally bearded. Spur awl-fhaped, de- f{cending.’’—Found by Banks and Solander, in the tropical part of New Holland. 26. U. flava. Slender Yellow Bladderwort. Brown n. 22.— Stalk thread-fhaped. Clufter of many difperfed flowers. Upper lip of the corolla divided ; lower in three undivided lobes. Spur awl-fhaped, defcending.”? — From the fame part of New Holland, gathered by the fame botanifts. 27. U. chryfantha. Branched Golden-flowered Bladder- wort. Brown n. 23.— ‘Stalk fomewhat branched. Clufters many-flowered. Upper lip of the corolla cloven ; lower four-lobed. Spur conical-awl-fhaped, defcending. Braéteas three to each partial ftalk, coloured lke the calyx.’’—Gathered by fir Jofeph Banks, in the tropical region of New Holland. 28. U. multifida. Many-lobed Bladderwort. Brown n.24.—Stalk fimple, thread-fhaped, about two-flowered. Upper lip of the corolla oblong, with two awl-fhaped feg- ments; lower in three, nearly equal, divided lobes, with emarginate fezments. Spur obtufe, compreffed. Leaves fpatulate.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies, at King George’s Sound, on the fouth-weft coaft of New Holland. The roots are fibrous, befet with fmall knobs. eaves numerous, colleGted into a tuft at the crown of the root, fpatulate, or obovate, tapering down into flender ftalks, about twice their own length, both together fcarcely exceeding half an inch. Stalk fix inches high, ftraight, fmooth and naked, bearing at the fummit two crimfon flowers, whofe large fub- divided lower /ip makes a very confpicuous appearance, and is thrice as long as the fhort broad /pur. Set. 2. Leaves radical, compound, Stalks whorled with leafy bladdery braéleas. 29. U.inflexa. Inflexed Whorled Bladderwort. Forfk. fEgypt.-Arab. 9. Wahl n. 4. —‘* Whorled braGeas lan- ceolate, fomewhat cylindrical, undivided, flightly bearded at lit theend.” Ne&ctary conical, afcending.”*—-Found by Forfkall plentifully in the ditches of rice-fields at Rofetta. The Arabians name it Hamul. The fame was obferved by Thonning, in ftagnant waters on the coaft of Guinea. Vahl. ‘The radical /bcots are afpanlong or more. Leaves three or four in a whorl, with fcattered, very narrow, forked leaflets. Braéeas from four to eight towards the bafe of the flower-ftalk, feffile, often an inch long, acute at each end, bearded at the fummit with leafy fragments. Stalk a finger’s length, thread-fhaped, bearing from fix to nine flowers, with a dry, lanceolate, fheathing /cale, at the bafe of each partial ftalk, and of thefamelength. ‘The radical leaves are with or without bladders. Vasil. , Mr. Thonning, quoted by this author, informs us that the inflated cellular bradeas ferve to float the upright flower-ftalks upon the fur~ , face of the water. he corolla is whitifh, with purple veins; its upper lip tapering, obtufe, emarginate, concave ; /ower roundifh ; mouth clofed by the palate. Spur nearly the length of the lower lip, conical, obtufe, curved upwards. Cap/ule the fize of a pea, globofe, very {mooth, pointed with the ftyle, burfting all round, its bafe attached to the flefhy enlarged calyx. 30. U. flellaris. Yellow Whorled Bladderwort. Linn. Suppl. 86. Willd. n. rr. Vahln. 5. Roxb. Coromand. v.2. 42. t. 180. — Whorled braéteas globofe-oblong, un- civided, copioufly bearded. — Native of deep ditches in the rice-fields of the Eaft Indies, where it was firft noticed by Koenig. Very nearly akin to the laft, which was long con- founded with it, but Vahl obferved truly, that the radical ftalks, bearing the /eaves, in the true U. /fellaris, are not fo flout, nor, as far as can be afcertained from dried {pecimens, at all cellular. The flccuer-falk alfo is more flender, bearing its whorl of dra@eas above half way up, towards the flowers, not at the bafe. _Thefe dradeas are but a quarter the fize of the others, being {carcely three-quarters of an inch long, and are obtufe, much more copioufly bearded, though we do not find them, as he fays, all over covered with leafy frag- ments. The flowers, too, are fmaller, and yellow, not whitifh veined with purple. The /pur is thick and blunt, twice the length of the ca/yx, but {horter than the lower lip of the corolla, as Koenig rightly defcribes it. Roxburgh’s figure has no beard to the braéeas. 31. U. ceratophylla. Horn-leaved Bladderwort. Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer, v.1.12. Wahl n.6. Purfh ni. (U. inflata ; Walt. Carol. 64.) — ‘* Whorled bratteas cy- lindrical, bladdery, divided, copioufly bearded at the extre-, mity.’’—T'loating in the ponds and lakes of Virginia and Lower Carolina, flowering in June and July. Flowers yel- low. Purfh. Like the foregoing. The /eaves are five or fix, an inch and a half long, firft deeply divided, then three- cleft, flightly dilated towards the ends. Stalk f{mooth, a fpan high, or more, bearing from four to fix diftant racemofe flowers, their lower partial ftalks an inch in length. The beards of the draéeas are longer, and more branched, than in U. frellata. Vahl. Seét. 3. Leaves radical, compound. Stalks leafle/s. 32. U. foliofa. Fennel-leaved Bladderwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Willd. n. 2. Vahl n. 7. (U. n. 1973 Loefl. It. 281. Linaria paluftris, foeniculi folio ; Plum, Ic. 158. t. 165. f. 2.) —Spur conical, acute. Clufter cylindrical, many-flowered. Fruit drooping. Root creeping. Leaves without bladders. —Native of South America. The float- ing horizontal thread-fhaped roots throw out long fibres, and from the fame point alternate, repeatedly compound /eaves, two or three inches long, with briltle-fhaped, or almoft ca pillary, /eaflets, but unattended by the remarkable bladders of UTRICULARIA. of our European fpecies hereafter cefcribed. - Some leaves © -are accompanied by an ere&t racemofe fower-/lalk, from four to eight inches high, bearing from fix to twelve ere&t yellow flowers, the fize and fhape of U. vulgaris, but with a more “pointed nedary, and the fruit is bent downwards as it ripens. 33. U. flexuofa. Zigzag-ftalked Bladderwort. Vahl n. 8. Poiret n. 11.—Stalk zigzag, racemofe. Fruit-ftalks reflexed. Leaves furnifhed with bladders. — Native of the Eaft Indies. Leaves and bladders as in the following, but the flowers are {maller, fix or feven upon each /alé ; their {cales and draéeas fimilar to that {pecies. . 34. U. vulgaris. Greater Bladderwort, or Hooded -Milfoil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Willd. n. 3. Vahl n. 9. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 253. Purfh n.2. Poit. -et Turpin Paris. t.30. Fl. Dan. t.138. (Lentibularia ; Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 79.) —Spur conical. Stalk ftraight. ‘Clufter fomewhat corymbofe. Upper lip of the corolla the length of the palate, reflexed at the fides.— Native of ditches taad deep ftanding waters, throughout Europe, from Lap- -land to Greece ; alfo in the weftern parts of New York and Pennfylvania, according to Mr. Purth ; flowering in July. The trailing or floating perennial roots, or runners, bear al- ternate, repeatedly compound, capillary /eaves, furnifhed with minute briftles, and bearing numerous little oval com- -prefled curved d/adders, open and bearded at the tip, each -containing a bubble of air, along with a drop of watery fluid. Minute aquatic infeéts take up their abode in thefe bladders. Flower-/falks folitary, a foot. high, though rifing but a few inches above the furface of the water, each bearing -a corymbofe clu/fer of from five to eight large handfome yel- low flowers, each of whofe partial ftalks is fubtended by an elliptical, blunt, purplifh, fcaly draéea, fimilar to what are fcattered down the main ftalk. Calyx purplifh ; its lower leaf emarginate. Palate of the corolla tumid, orange-co- eps {triped, projecting nearly as far as either of the ips. It feems beft to confider the floating fhoots of this herb, -and the fpecies of the fame fe¢tion, which bear alternate, re- peatedly compound, /eaves, rather as runners from the roof, :than real lems. At leaft this hypothefis is countenanced by many of the plants in the firft, as well as fecond, fection. +35. U. intermedia. — Intermediate Bladderwort, or - Hooded Milfoil. Hayne in Schrad. Journ. for 1800. 18. t. 5. Wahln. ro. Sm. Compend. ed. 2.5. Engl. Bot. “t. 2489. (U. vulgaris minor; Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Fl. Suec. 9. Millefolium aquaticum, flore luteo galericulato ; Lob. Ic. 791. M. paluttre galericulatum ; Ger. Em. 828.) .—Spur conical. Stalk two or three-flowered. Upper lip of the corolla flat, twice as long as the palate. Leaves with deep, forked, flat fegments. Bladders radical.—Na- .tive of lakes and ftagnant waters, in Sweden, Germany, and Ireland, flowering in July. The runners feem to ori- »ginate from an ovate, fcaly, hairy, tuberous root, or knob, .and are thickly clothed with much fmaller, more fimple, - leaves than the laft, whofe fringed fegments are broader and flatter. . Thefe /eaves {carcely bear any bladders, the latter being found on other parts of the runners, on branching -ftalks, and more fparingly. Sra/k flender, bearing but two, or at moft three, flowers, {maller than thofe of the vulgaris, but in like manner ftreaked with red; their palate lefs pro- _minent ; upper lip flatter. The wooden cut in Lobel and Gerarde exaétly reprefents the herbage of this fpecizs, with its large knobs, and no doubt their fynonyms are to be transferred hither. The flowering portions may have been, partly at Jeaft, delineated from the lait, both being, as it feems, nearly equally com- mon on the continent, atid having been generally confounded together, even by Linneus himfelf. We mutt not, how- ever, omit to obferve, that M. Turpin, in his exquifite plates of the Flora Parifienfis, reprefents &nobs, or as he perhaps more correétly terms them, duds, in the vulgaris, and even the minor, though of a{maller fize, in both, than we find them in the intermedia. Thefe appear deftined to produce plants in the following feafon. 36. U. auffralis. Southern Bladderwort, or New Hol- land Hooded Milfoil. Brown n. 1.—* Stalk with few flowers. Lips undivided ; the lower twice as broads long. Spur afcending ; flat in front ; keeled underneath, Leaves bearing bladders.””—Obferved by Mr. Brown, about Port Jackfon, New South Wales, as well as in the ifland of Van Diemen. Very nearly related to U. vulgaris. Brown. 37. U. minor. Leffer Bladderwort, or Hooded Milfoil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Willd. nq. Vahl noir. Fi. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t. 254. Purfh n. 3. Poit. et Turp. Parif. t. 31. Fl. Dan. t.128. Schmidel Ic. t. 21. f. 1. (Millefolium paluftre, galericulatum minus; Pluk. Phyt. t. 99. f.6, very bad. Aparine aque innatans Terevifana, &c.; Bocce. Muf. v. 1. 23.,t.4, without flowers, but other- wife fufficiently corre. )—Stalk with few flowers. Spur fhort, obtufe, keeled, deflexed. Corolla gaping ; palate nearly flat; lips undivided.—Native of ditches, on bogs in moft parts of Europe, but not common in England, flowering in July. Mr. Parfh met with it in fwamps and ditches on the * pine-barrens’’ of New Jerfey, flowering in Auguft. This {pecies ‘is not half the fize of U. vulgaris, with which it agrees in habit, foliage, though lefs compound, and bladders. The /lalk is lefs ftraight, more’ flender. Flowers rather fewer, with a much fhorter and very blunt {pur ; lips {carcely divided, or notched ; palate fo little ele- vated as not to clofe the mouth. 38. U. exoleta. Faded Bladderwort, or Hooded Mil- foil. Brown n. 2.— Stalk with one or two flowers. Lower lip undivided ; upper fometimes half three-lobed. Spur afcending, emarginate.’’—Found by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. It is faid to be clofely related to the latt. 39. U. fibrofa. Fibrous Bladderwort. Walt. Carol. 64. Vahln.12. Purfh n. 4.—Stalk with one or two flowers, almoit capillary. Spur obtufe. Leaves briftle- fhaped.—In morafles on the pine-barrens of Carolina, flower- ing in July. Stalks purple. Flowers orange. Purfb. Vahl terms the /eaves, as well as /fa/é, peculiarly flender. The former are furnifhed with roundifh-oblong bladders ; the latter is a finger’s length, comprefled, bearing one or two large flowers. Poiret confounds this fpecies with the /eacea of Michaux ; but as Vahl, who appears to have feen both, keeps them diftin@, we confide in his opinion. Purth confiders fetacea as the /udulata of Linnzus, fee n. 45. 40. U. obtufa. Abrupt-fpurred Bladderwort. Swartz Prodr. 14. Ind. Occ. 41. Willd. n. 5. Wahl mn. 13. (U. n. 1; Browne Jam. 119.)—Stalk with two or three flowers. Spur inflexed, fomewhat emarginate. Mouth of the corolla clofed.—Native of {tagnant waters, and boggy rivulets, in Jamaica, flowering throughout the fummer. Linnzus miftook Browne’s plant for his own folio/a, n. 32, which is much larger, and very different in other ‘refpects. The obtufa is rather {maller than our minor, with more ca- pillary leaflets, and {maller bladders. Stalk two to four inches high, flender, without fcales, racemole, bearing from two to four fmall, yellow flowers, ‘¢ in beautiful fucceffion,”? as Dr. Browne exprefles it. Their upper /ip is ovate, con- vex, undivided ; Jower rather fmaller, ovate, its prominent heart- UTRICULARIA. heart-fhaped palate clofing the mouth of the corolla. Spur fearcely longer than the lip, inflexed towards its under fide, conical. Swartz. 4i. U. gibba. Tumid-fpurred Bladderwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Willd. n.7. Vahl n.30. Purh ng. (U. florum ne&tario gibbofo, {capo nunc unifloro, nunc bifloro ; Gron. Virg. ed. 1. 129. Fucoides viride non ramofum, folia ad genicula diverfa, tenuiflima, fericea, oppofita, vefi- culis nonnihil comprefiis lentibus fimilibus, colore antimonii, obfita, gerens; Clayton n. 759. Herb. Linn.)—Stalk wavy, almoft capillary, with one or two flowers. Spur conical, tumid, bluntifh. Lips of the corolla rounded.— Native of the boggy foil of New Jerfey and Carolina, flowering in July. Flowers yellow. Purfb. This has been erroneoufly arranged among the leaflefs {fpecies. The leaflets are briftle-fhaped, accompanied by numerous bladders, larger than in the lait, though the flower-/talks are {maller, from two to three inches high, almoft capillary, and fome- what zigzag. Flowers about the fame fize. The Linnean {pecimens, from Gronovius and Clayton, will not allow us clearly to afcertain the fhape of the corolla. The /pur feems ftraight and prominent, rather fhorter than the lips. am U. hAydrocarpa. Reflexed-ftalked Bladderwort. Vahl n. 14.— Stalk thread-fhaped ; partial ftalks alter- nate, remote; reflexed when in fruit. Leaves briftle- fhaped.”’—Found by M. Richard in Cayenne. Leaves very flender, fhort, fcarcely divided, furnifhed with d/adders. Stalk the length of the middle finger, with five partial flalks, half an inch long. Braéieas ovate. Calyx of the fruit ovate, fpreading at the fummit. Corolla purplifh. Cap/ule globofe, the fize of the calyx, beaked with the /fyle. Rossie fent from Ceylon, under the name of U. major, what feemed the fame with this in its whole ftru€ture, and in which the /pur was conical, obtufe, the length of the upper lip. They could fearcely be fpecifically diftinguifhed, efpecially as the /pur of the U. hydrocarpa is unknown. Vabl. 43. U. aurea. Golden Floating Bladderwort. Loureir. Cochinch. 26. Vahl n. 22.—Stalk round, ere&t. Flowers racemofe. Calyx lanceolate. Spur conical, compreffed. Leaves capillary, with bladders.—Native of flow ftreams in Cochinchina, where this fpecies is known by the name of Cady raong. 'The runners are very long, flen- der, branched, floating. Leaves very numerous, capillary, green, fubdivided, furnifhed with bladders. S*a/é three inches high. Flowers of a golden yellow. Calyx incurved. Corolla deeply divided, its throat (rather palate) convex, emarginate. Loureiro. It is evident that what Loureiro calls /fem, is what we have in fome preceding {pecies termed runners, and that his roots are real Jeaves. Vahl, therefore; might juftly doubt whether he had done right in placing this among the leaflefs {pecies. He appears by fome acci- dent to have tranfpofed the places of aurea and recurwva ; fee n. 51. 44. U. biflora. Little Two-flowered Bladderwort. La- marck Illuftr.v.1. 50. Wahln.16. Purfhn. 5. (U. pu- mila; Walt. Carol. 64.) —Stalk moftly two-flowered, thread-fhaped. Spur awl-fhaped, ftraight, about equal to the upper lip. Leaves briftle-fhaped.—On the margins of ponds in Lower Carolina, flowering in July. Flowers {mall, yellow. Pur/b. Leaves fhort, furnifhed with blad- ders. Stalk flender, four inches high, fometimes zigzag, in a dry ftate aie below, naked. Partial talks one or two at the top, as long as the nail. Bradea membranous, abrupt, at the bafe of one of the patial ftalks, and on the other to- wards the calyx. Upper /ip as long as the nail. Vahl. We are not without a fufpicion of this being the fame plant Bene gibba, fee n. 41, but have no means of proving it fo.~ 45- U. fubulata. Awl-fhaped Bladderwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 26. Willd. n.113. Vahl n.34. Purfhn.6. (U. fetacea; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. vy. 1. 12. Wahl n. 17. Poiret n. 14, excluding the fibrofa of Walter and Vahl. U.- neGtario fubulato ; Gron. Virg. 6, excluding the abfurd re- ference to Clayton, of a Ppa with round ferrated leaves. ) — Stalk about two-flowered. Spur obtufe, fhorter than the upper lip.”?—In fandy wet places, near ponds and rivers, from Canada to Carolina, common, flowering in July and Auguft. Root annual. Flowers {mall, bright yellow. Purfh. This author compared his {pecimens with the origi- nal ones of Gronovius, the only authority in this cafe. No {pecies has given us more trouble than the prefent. Lin- neus, in Mant. 2. 317, fays, on the authority of Clayton, that the /eaves are capillary, and the fowers white. This is tranfcribed by Willdenow, but noticed by no other perfon. Linnzus, fubfequently to the publication of Sp. Pi., laid into his herbarium for U. /ubulata, a totally different plant of Kalm’s, which happens to have an awl-fhaped f{pur, and is the cornuta of Michaux, Vahl and Purfh. This cannot be the plant of Gronovius. The reader will perceive that, though Vahl has kept /ubulata and /etacea diltinét from each other, his fpecific charaéters are of little avail, unlefs the latter f{pecies be deftitute of /eaves, in which cafe it ought to have been placed in the next feétion. 46. U. purpurea. Little Purple Bladderwort. Carol. 64. Vahl n. 28. Walt. Purfh n.7.— Stalk with two or three flowers. Spur keeled, very fhort. Lips of the corolla rounded. Leaves capillary.—An annual fpecies, found floating in the lakes and ponds of Carolina; alfo in thofe of Pennfylvania, on the broad mountains ; flowering in Auguft. F/owers bright purple, {mall. Purfh. Se&t. 4. Deflitute of leaves. 4. U.carulea. Blue Ceylon Bladderwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 26, excluding the fynonym of Rheede. Willd. n. ro. Vahl n. 20? (U. {capo nudo-fquamis alternis vagis fubula- tis; Linn. Zeyl. 9.)—Stalk ere&t, thread-fhaped, with fcattered awl-fhaped fcales. Spike denfe. Calyx-leaves orbicular. Spur the length of the lips.—Native of Ceylon. Examined in Hermann’s herbarium, from whence Linnzus defcribed this fpecies, referring to it fynonyms which be- long partly to the following. The /fem is without leaves, about fix inches high, terminating in a fhort denfe /pife, of nearly feffile fowers, whofe colour, according to Hermann, is blue. The orbicular calyx-/eaves clearly diftinguifh this from the following, as well as from our graminifolia, n. 19, confounded herewith by Linnzus, in his own herbarium. 48. U. reticulata. Reticulated Bladderwort. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2.119.t. 119. (Nelipu; Rheede Hort. Malab. Vv. 9. 137. t. 70.)—Stalk twining, round, with feattered acute fcales. Calyx pointed, as long as the corolla. Spur awl-fhaped. Lips rounded. Palate reticulated, two-lobed. Native of inundated rice-grounds, in various parts of the Eaft Indies, which, according to Dr. Buchanan, are co- vered with its moft elegant blue flowers, in December. Root {mall, with whorled fibres, apparently annual. Leaves none. Stalk from nine to twelve inches high, twining round the rice-ftems, in the manner of our /piralis, n. 5, {mooth, either fimple or divided, bearing many {mall, alternate, clofe-preffed fcales. Clujlers one or more, terminal, lax. Flowers the fize of violets, and nearly of the fame colour ; their palate clofing the mouth, very prominent, divided, white, reticulated with pale blue veins ; their partial /lalks tapering at the bafe, each accompanied by three fmall per- manent UTRICULARIA. manent braGeas. Spur blucith-white, the length of the lower fip, which is fomewhat the largeit. 49. U. juncea. Ruthy Bladderwort. Vahl n. 21.— Stalk ftraight, racemofe, with minute diftant fcales. Spur awl-fhaped, the length of the upper lip.— Native of Cayenne, and Porto Rico. Roots fibrous, very fhort, and nearly fimple. Sva/é a foot high, ere&, ftraight, quite fimple, round, fmcoth. Scales ovate, acute. Flowers from five to eight, on very fhort partial falks, with a minute dry braéea at the bafe of each. Vahl. , 50. U. angulofa. Angular Bladderwort. Poiret n. 23. —** Stalk thread-fhapec, angular, with minute dittant {cales. Flowers fomewhat racemofe, nearly feffile. Spur awl-fhaped, fearcely fo long as the upper lip.””—WNative of wet fitua- tions inCayenne. Very nearly relatedto U. juncea. Roots compofed of fhort and flender fibres, without leaves. Stalé fimple, ftiff and ftraight, ten or twelve inches high, quite {mooth, compreffed and angular, yellowifh; cylindrical, and of a brighter yellow, fometimes blueifh or purplifh at the bafe. Scales fhort, oval, pointed, fearcely. difcernible. Flowers from four to fix, or more, in a ftraight terminal Jpike rather than cluffer, with a {mall braéea to each. Ca- lyx-leaves fhort and obtufe. Corolla middle-fized, deep yellow. Spur ftraight, acute. Cap/ule {mooth, the fize of a pepper-corn, crowned with the fiyle. Poiret. 51- U. recurva. Recurved Bladderwort. Loureir. Cochinch. 26. Vahl n. 15.—Stalk flender. Flowers {piked. Spur conical, recurved, about the length of the lip.—Found in the river Hon Mo, not far from the royal city, in Cochinchina.— Rot fhort, without bladders. Leaves none. Stalk four inches high, fimple, ere&t. Flowers yel- low, in a fimple oblong /pike. Calyx large, round, com- prefled. Cap/ule lenticular. Loureiro. It can only have been from fome accidental error, that Vahl placed this f{pe- * cies in the former feétion, all his information concerning the plant being derived, like our’s, from Loureiro, who is fuf- ficiently clear as to its having no eaves. Seen. 43. 52. U.pufilla. Little Cayenne Bladderwort. Vahln. 23. —* Stalk capillary, fubdivided ; zigzag in the upper part. Flowers racemofe, remote.””—Found in Cayenne, by Rich- ard, and Von Rohr. Roof very thort, fubdivided. Stalk a finger’s length, either quite fimple, or divided towards the top, with a minute ovate feale. Partial ffalks from five to eight, half the length of the nail, occupying nearly the upper half of the main italk, and each having at its bafe an ex- tremely minute bradea. Capfule very imall. Vahl. We have {pecimens from Sierra Leone, gathered by Smeathman, and others by Afzelius, which fo ftrikingly anfwer to every tittle of this defcription, that we cannot but confider this as one of the very few f{pecies of its genus found in Guinea as well as in South America. 53- U. pubefcens. Downy-ftalked Biadderwort.—Stalk capillary, downy, about two-flowered. Spur obtufe, the length of the upper lip ; half the length of the lower, which is divided.—Gathered at Sierra Leone, by Dr. Afzelius. The root is a tuft of {mall fibres, without leaves or bladders. Stalk three or four inches high, ere, fimple, flender, round, or flightly angular, perhaps from drying, clothed all over with fine prominent pubefcence, not vifible to the naked eye, but, as far as we can perceive, quite deftitute of feales. Flowers two, one below the other, {maller than U. minor, each with a broad, obtufe, membranous bra&ea. Lower lip broad, deflexed, two-lobed. 54. U. nivea. Snowy Bladderwort. Vahl n. 26.— * Stalk about four-flowered, with clofe-prefled fcales, fepa- rate atthe bafe. Spur conical, obtufe. Capfules drooping, globofe.’’—Gathered by Koenig, in moift dewy places Vor. XXXVII. in Ceylon. Stalé flender, from four to feven inches high, generally bearing four, rarely but three, large white flowers, on fhort partial ftalks. Vahl. 55- U. humilis. Humble Bladderwort. Vahl n. 27.— Stalk angular, with few flowers. Spur conical, acute, fhorter than the upper lip. Calyx-leaves roundifh. Cap- fule keeled.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Roots very Short, fearcely branched. Stalk hardly above an inch and a half high, often bearing a folitary flower, fometimes two, three or four. Scales two or three, remote, ovate as well as the Jraéeas. Vabl. 56. U. crenata. Crenate-lipped Bladderwort. Vahl n. 28. (© U. aphylla; Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 20. t. 31. f. d.??)—Stalk about three-flowered. Roots furnifhed with bladders. Brac- teas fheathing. Spur awl-fhaped. Lips crenate.—Native of moift or inundated ground at Lima. Annual. Root of feveral long fibres, bearing a few bladders, the fize of muftard-feed. Stalk thread-fhaped, from four to fix inches high, fmooth, naked, terminating in from two to four diftant partial ftalks, each an inch long, fpreading, furnifhed at its bafe with a fheathing, abrupt, membranous, entire bradea. Corolla yellow; its upper /ip with three or five notches ; lower with three. —Our fpecimen, from the late abbé Cavanilles, though defti- tute of any evident eaves, or leaflets, yet having bladders at- tached to a long fimple fibre, feems to indicate the pro- priety of ranging this {pecies in the preceding feGtion. We fubmit, neverthelefs, to the decifion of Vahl, and the authors of the Flora Pedemontana ; more efpecially as the opinion of Mr. Brown, founded on fuch wide-extended obfervation as few botanifts have had in their power, feems in favour of there being no Utricularia deititute of leaves at every period of its growth. This being the cafe, the whale genus mutt require to be diftributed afrefh. The next fpecies ftands in the fame predicament. 7 57- U. tenuis. Briftle-ftalked Bladderwort. Cavan. Ic. V. 5.24. te 440. f.2. Vahl n. 29.—Stalk fingle-flowered. Roots furnifhed with bladders. Bra¢teas oppofite. Spur awl-fhaped, twice the length of the fhorteft lip.—Gathered by Louis Nee, in moift places, near the town of Coquimbo, in Chil, flowering in April. A {mall annual {pecies, whofe roots, confifting of feveral zigzag fibres, about an inch long, are copioufly furnifhed with {mall, alternate, feffile bladders. (See our remarks on the lait.) The /lalé is briftle-fhaped, an inch and a half or two inches high, quite naked, except two or three oppofite dradeas near the top, which mark the bafe of the folitary partial flalk. Flower folitary, yellow. Calyx ovate, bluntifh, permanent. Lips of the corolla very unequal, undivided, nearly ovate, the larger ere&, accompa- nied by a prominent fe/ate bordered with red; fmaller de- flexed, as well as the neéfary behind it. The flower therefore feems to be reverfed. The cap/ule is globular. 58. U. micropetala. _Small-lipped Bladderwort.—Stalk about two-flowered. Partial ftalks club-fhaped. Braéteas oppofite. Spur conical, dependent, thrice as long as the lips. —Gathered by Dr. Afzelius at Sierra Leone. A very diftin& and remarkable fpecies. The root is {mall and fibrous, without leaves or bladders. Sval/é three inches high, bearing a few diftant, ovate, white-edged feales. Flowers in our {pecimen two, one above the other, yellow, on ftalks of unequal length fwelling upwards, and having two oppofite, ovate, pointed braéieas at the bafe of each. Calyx-leaves ovate, pointed; the lower one emarginate. Lips of the corolla about the length of the calyx, nearly equal, undivided ; the lower of a deeper yellow, with a prominent palate, not clofing the mouth. Spur remarkably large in proportion, making the chief part of the flower, ftout, pointed. Cap/ule elliptical. 4G 59. U. Ur 59. U. ramofa. Branching Drooping Bladderwort. Vahl n. 31.— Stalk fimple or branched, with few flowers. Spur conical, fhort. Fruit-ftalks drooping.””—Found by Koenig in the Eaft Indies. Roots fimple, and very fhort. Stalk a finger’s length, angular, fometimes fimple, often divided, the branches once or twice fubdivided, two or three-flowered. Scales, as well as braéeas, ovate. Flowers {mall. V. abl. 60. U. capillacea. Capillary Bladderwort. Willd. n. 9. Vabl n. 32.—* Stalk capillary, with about three drooping flowers. Spur round, bluntifh. Capfules awl-fhaped.””— Gathered by Dr. Rottler, in watery places in the Eaft Indies. Root of feveral naked, fomewhat branched, fibres. Wahl found, in one fpecimen, at the fide of the crown of the root, an oblong-roundifh bulb, the fize of a Coriander-feed, clothed with briftles ; feparate at the fummit and bafe, but attached to the root by a central ring. He juftly prefumed this to be a bud, by which the plant increafes itfelf. The Aflalk is often hardly an inch high, angular, bearing one, two or three flowers, on fhort, drooping partial flatks, each accompanied, at the bafe, by an extremely minute ovate bradea. Capfule awl-fhaped ; covered by the permanent calyx. 61. U. minutiffima. Little Malacca Bladderwort. Vahl n. 33.— Stalk capillary, two or three-flowered, un- branched. Scales and braéteas pointed. Spur conical. Lower calyx-leaf broadeft, concave, keeled. —Gathered by Koenig, in the neighbourhood of Malacca. Root fibrous, fmall. Stem two inches high in our original {pecimens, Vahl fays half an inch, or an inch. It appears to elongate itfelf, after flowering, by a lateral, upright, fimple fhoot, as is the cafe with graminifolia, n. 19, and fome others. Scales one or two, tapering at eachend, fmall. F/oqwers one, two, three or even four, each on a very fhort partial ffalk, with feveral taper-pointed braéfeas at its bafe. Corolla blue, ex- tremely {mall, with a prominent /pur full as long as the lips. Calyx inflated and enlarged confiderably as the fruit ripens. rca U. cornuta. Great Horned Bladderwort. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1.12. Vahln.1g. Purfhn.8. (U. fubulata; Herb. Linn. but not Sp. Pl.) — Stalk ereét, lightly {ealy, with about two nearly feffile flowers. Spur awl-fhaped, acute, rather curved, nearly as long as the very broad lower lip.—Near mountain lakes, from Canada to Virginia, flowering in July. Pur/b. Our fpecimens from Mr. Francis Boott, a young botanift of great zeal and acti- vity, have denfe alternate tufts of numerous radical fibres, without leaves or bladders. Stalk a foot high, ftraight, {mooth, bearing a few fmall, diftant, pale, membranous {cales, and terminating in two or three crowded large flowers, of a bright yellow. Calyx-leaves broad, ovate, unequal, coloured ; the lowermoft not half the length of the /pur. Lower lip very broad, deflexed, cloven. Palate downy.— Linnzus received this plant from Kalm, and laid it into his herbarium for U. /ubulata, which he had long before defcribed from Gronovius’s herbarium, but had forgotten the appear- ance of it; fee our n. 45. We therefore adopt the name given by Michaux, for what muft be confidered as not deferibed by Linneus, he having no where adverted to Kalm’s {pecimens. Vahl erroneoufly ranges this with the leafy fpecies. UTRICULUS, (a little bladder, ) aterm ufed by Gart- ner, for a particular fort of capfule, which he defines as “ of one cell, and containing a folitary feed ; it is often very thin and femitranfparent ; conftantly deftitute of valves, and of a fhape approaching to ovate, or fomewhat globofe.” He adds, that ‘all naked feeds may, ftri€tly fpeaking, be faid to be inclofed in fuch a pericarp ; but he limits the applica- 137 j UT? tion of the above term to thofe coverings of feeds, which, in the firft place, are capable of being rubbed off by a flight fri€tion between the fingers, as in Chenopodium, Atriplex, and Beta; fecondly, to fuch as are furnifhed, within their cavity, with an evident umbilical cord, as in Adonis, Tha- liGrum, and Atragene; thirdly, to thofe between which and the feed there is a vacant fpace, or cavity, fufficiently evi- dent, of which Elcufine, Achyranthes, Zueria, Illecebrum and Polycnemum axe examples ; and fourthly, to fuch as contain their feed in an inverted pofition, fo that the radicle of the embryo is turned towards the ftyle, as Callitriche, Zannichel- lia, Zoftera, &c.; the contrary pofition being moft ufual in the greater number of naked feeds, as in the natural orders of Gramino, Compofite, Verticillate, and Stellate.? See Pr- RICARP and SEED. UTRUM, Juris Uirum. See Junts, Assisn, &c.’ UTSCHENYA, in Geography, a cape on the north coaft of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 77° 20!. E. long. 67° 24!. UTSCHING. See Votea. UTSJOKI, a town of Swedifh Lapland; z40miles N. of Tornea. N. lat. 69°45'. E. long. 26° 54!. UTTA, atown of the ifland of Sardinia; 6 miles W.S.W. of Cagliari.—Alfo, a river of Sardinia, which runs into the fea, near Cagliari. UTTAMA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of one of the feven holy men bearing the appellation of Menu, under which article their names and fome notice of them will be found. In fome theogonies Uttama is made the fon of Pa- vaka, the regent of fire. UTTARI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, on the route from Bracara to Afturica, between Pons Neviz and Bergidam. Anton. Itin. UTTENDORYF, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, on the Mattig ; 7 miles S. of Braunau. UTTER, Barrister, in Law. See BARRISTER. UTTERCUL, in Geography, a province of Aflam, north of the Burhampooter. UTTINGEN, a town of the county of Wertheim; 8 miles E. of Wertheim. UTTOXETER, an ancient market-town in the fouth divifion of the hundred of Totmanflow, in the county of Stafford, England, is fituated 13 miles N.E. by E. from the county-town, and 136 N.W. by N. from London, on the weftern bank of the river Dove, over which isa ftone bridge, conneéting the counties of Stafford and Derby. Great da- mage has been formerly fuitained by this town from fire : but it is now large and well built, having a fpacious market- place in the centre, with three ftreets branching out from it~ The market, which is held on Wednefdays, is confidered as the greateft in this part of the country, for cattle, fheep, pigs, butter, cheefe, corn, and all kinds of provifion and agricultural produce. This is attributed to the extenfive meadow and pafture lands in this diftriét, which are juftlp efteemed the moft fertile and luxuriant England can boatt. Leland fays, “¢ Uttok Ceftre one paroch chirch. The menne of the towne ufith grafing. For there be wonderful paftures upon Dove. It longgith to the erledom of Laneafter.”” Here are four annual fairs. In the population return of the year 1811, this town is ftated to contain 637 houfes, occu- pied by 3155 perfons. Of thefe, the chief fource of employ- ment is the manufadture of iron, which is carried on to a great extent, the town being furrounded by forges. A great increafe in this trade has taken place, in confequence of the facility of communication the town now enjoys by means of the inland navigation, not only with the metropolis, but; direGly or indire@ly, with every port in the kingdom. The church is an ancient edifice, with a lofty fteeple, but no way remarkable UVA remarkable either for ftru€ture or embellifhments. Here are feyeral mecting-houfes for Diffenters; and a free-fchool founded and endowed by Thomas Allen, a diitinguifhed an- tiquary and mathematician of the fixteenth century. The late admiral lord Gardner was born at Uttoxeter, April 12, 1742: he died in 1810, and was buried in the abbey church of Bath.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii. 1813. ; PTUGARL in Anctent Geography, the name of a people, who made part of the Huns. Ptolemy. UTUS, a river, whieh, according to Pliny, had its fource in mount Hzmus, and watered Meefia.—Alfo, a town of Dacia Ripenfis. Anton. Itin. UTZHOF, in Geography, a town in the territory o Dantzic ;. 5 miles E. of Dantzic. UTZNACH, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a bailiwick, which belongs to the cantons of Glaris and Schwitz, formerly belonging to the counts of Toggeburg. In the year 1469, it was fold to thofe two cantons, who alternately appoint a bailiff, whofe office continues two years. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics; 23 miles S.E. of Zurich. N. lat. 47°8'. E. long. 8° 59!. UVA, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of Tobolfk, about 28 miles in circumference; 68 miles S.E. of To- bolfk. Uva, Grape. See Vine. Uva Gruina, in the Materia Medica, the name of the fruit of the great American vitis idea, or cranberries. Uva Lupina, wolf-berries, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the common water-elder, and by others to the 4erba Paris, or herb true-love. Uva Marina, Sea-fide Grape, Uvette of the French. See Epuepra. Uva Paffa, in the Materia Medica, the dried fruit of the vine, of which two kinds were formerly mentioned in our Pharmacopeeias, viz. uve pafle majores et minores, or raifins and currants ; the latter is a variety of the former, or the fruit of the vitis corinthiaca feu apyrena, of C. B. The manner of preparing them is by immerfing them in a folution of alkaline falt, and foap ley made boiling hot, to which is added fome olive oil and a {mall quantity of com- mon falt, and afterwards drying them in the fhade. Thefe fruits are ufed as agreeable lubricating acefcent {weets, in pectoral deco&tions, and for obtunding the acrimony of other medicines, and rendering them ¢rateful to the palate and ftomach. They are direted in the decoétum hordei compofitum, tinétura fenne, and tin€tura cardamomi com- pofita. Uva Quercus, in Natural Hiftory, a name given to certain accidental produ@tions of the oak, a tree famous for pro- ducing many fuch, befides its common fruit; the beft ac- count we have of this in particular is from Mr. Marchant. He obferved a vaft quantity of this produétion upon an oak of about twelve feet high ; this tree had no acorns, but there hung from almoft all the branches a great number of greyifh threads, of two inches or more in length, and of a filky flexible matter ; to feveral parts of thefe there were fixed certain round berries, fometimes two or three, fometimes ten or twelve on a thread; thefe were of the fize of a half- ripe red goofeberry, but they had no umbilicus, nor any appearance of fibres ; they were hard and not hollow, but filled with a cottony matter, very clofely compa&ted. The threads on which thefe berries were produced all grew out of the ale of the leaves, in the very places where the buds of the rudiments of young branches fhould have come; and over thefe filaments there were often a few {mall leaves, of the regular fhape of the oak-leaf. U V A: ros of infects It is generally afferted, that there are eg lodged in all thefe extraordinary produtions of the oak, which are fuppofed to be produced by a wrong derivation of the juices, occafioned by the puncture of the fly which leaves thofe eggs; but the moft accurate fearch could not difcover the leaft appearance of any animal remains in any part of thefe productions, neither in the berries, nor in the threads that fupport them. There is another fpecies of this remarkable produétion, differing from the former, by not having the long threads on which the berries of that are fupported: this, however, has been confounded by the generality of naturalifts under the fame name, and of this Mr. Marchant has given an equally accurate defcription. In the month of O&ober he obferved a young oak of about fix feet high, in a coppice- wood, in a very flourifhing condition, very full of branches and leaves, but without fruit. The young branches of this oak were loaded with clufters of red berries, of the fhape and fize of common red goofeberries ; they ftood principally at or near the extremities of the branches, and were of a very polifhed and fhining furface, and of a fpongy and tender fubftance. They flood in clufters of three, four, and five together, and each grew immediately to the branch, without any pedicle; they had fome appearance of fibres, but not the leaft mark of an umbilicus, as in the regular fruits. On opening thefe berries, they were found full of mucilaginous and vifcous juice, of a red colour, tolerably fluid, and having fome fibres intermingled with it; the tafte of this juice was acrid, and its {mell difagreeable, and like that of rotten wood ; but there appeared not in thefe, any more than in the other fpecies, any the leaft appearance of any thing Genes to an animal, no egg, no worm, no fly, nor indeed any foreign body of any fort whatever. Thefe berries, though fo large and fucculent, are but of a very fhort duration ; for Mr. Marchant going three days after he had feen them in the greateft perfeCtion, to gather fome of them, with intent to try their juice on different liquors, found they were all become flaccid and withered ; and returning again three days after this, they were fo en- tirely perifhed and gone, that there remained only a few veftiges of thin {kins on the places where they had been fixed to the tree, and fome few fallen ones among the bufhes that grew under the tree ; and upon inquiring of the people who lived thereabout, to know whether thefe berries were a re= gular annual produétion of the tree, they told him that they never remembered to have feen any thing of the kind before. Tt may not be eafy, perhaps, to account regularly for thefe fortuitous produtions, for they feem merely of the nature of montters among animals; and it may be allowed no im- probable conjeéture in regard to them, that the roots of thefe fmall trees having taken in more nourifhment than they could circulate, when it came to load the tender extremities of the young branches, may have made its way through their laxer texture, and being retained yet in fome of their membranes, may have {welled out more and more, by the addition of frefh matter, and finally have been matured by the fun’s heat into thefe feemingly regular -produétions. Mem. Acad. Par. 1692. Uva Urfi, in Botany, the name of a f{pecies of arbutus, (fee ArzuTus, n. 9.) with trailing ftalks, and entire leaves, called in Englith bear’s whortleberry. This plant is found on the fnowy hills of Auftria and Styria, but more plenti- fully on the Swedifh hills: it is alfo a native of the High- lands of Seotland, and is now cultivated in fome of our gardens. The leaves of this plant have a bitterifh aftringent tafte, without any remarkable {mell. Infufions of them in 4G 2 water Uw A water flrike a deep black colour, with folution of chalybeate vitriol, but foon depofit the black matter, and become clear. For their ufe in dyeing, fee Dyr1ne of Cloths, &e. The leaves of the uva urfi, though employed by the an- cients in feveral difeafes requiring a{ftringent medicines, had almoft entirely fallen into difufe, till about the middle of the laft century, when they firft drew the attention of phyficians as a ufeful remedy in calculous and nephritic complaints, and other diforders of the urinary organs. See STONE. De Haen relates, after large experience of this medicine in the hofpital of Vienna, that fuppurations, though obitinate and of long continuance, in the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, fcrotum, and perineum, without any venereal taint or evident fharks of a calculus, were in general completely cured by it; that of thofe who had a manifeft calculus, fe- veral found permanent relief, fo that, long after the medi- cine had been left off, they continued free from pain or inconvenience in making water, though the catheter fhewed that the calculus ftill remained; that others, who feemed to be cured, relapfed on leaving off the medicine, and were again fucceffively relieved on repeating the ufe of it; while others obtained only temporary and precarious relief. In feveral cafes, paregorics were joined to the uva urfi, and other mild aftringents have been recommended for the fame intentions. Encouraged by his fuccefs, and by the practice of the phyficians at Montpelier, who had been in the habit of prefcribing uya urfi in the difeafe above mentioned for many years before his time, many medical men in this country have been induced to try its effeéts; and though the ufe of this plant has been frequently obferved to mitigate the pains in calculous cafes, yet in no inftances do we find that it has produced that effential or permanent relief, which is faid to have been experienced by the German phy- ficians. From the experiments of Dr. Alexander, the leaves of uva urfi feem to poffefs very little diuretic power, and thofe made by Murray fhew that they have no material effet upon the urinary calculi: the eflicacy they may, therefore, have in relieving the calculous difeafes, we are difpofed to afcribe to their aftringency ; and in confirmation of this opinion we may cite the obfervation of Dr. Cullen, who, in his chapter on Aftringents, notices the differtation of De Heucher, under the title of “ Calculus per adftringentia pellendus :” and though he does not think, with this author, that aftrin- gents are lithontriptics, yet from his own experience, and that of others, he believes they often have a powerful effet im relieving calculous fymptoms; and in proof of this he refers to the exhibition of the uva urfi. The leaves may be employed either in powder or decoétion ; the former is moft commonly preferred, and given in dofes from a feruple to a drachm two or three times a day. Dr. Lewis obferves, that the trials of the uva urfi, made in this country, have by no means an{wered expeétation : in all cafes within his knowledge, it produced great ficknefs and uneafinefs, without any apparent benefit, though con- tinued fora month. And ina cafe of incontinence of urine, Dr. Fothergill obferves, the uva urfi, fo much extolled of late in ulcers of the urinary paflages, feemed but to aggra- vate the fymptoms. (Med. Obf. and Inf. vol. ii. p. 144.) But in the pretace to this volume we are told, that the uva urfi had been frequently prefcribed fuccefsfully by many of the members of the Society of Phyficians in London. It is obferved by Murray, the calculi were macerated in a ftrong decoétion of the uva uri. Dr. Withering, {peaking of the effects of this plant, fays: Perhaps, upon the whole, we fhall find it no better than other se os altringents ; sf UVA fome of which have been long ufed by the country people in gravelly complaints, and with very great advantage ; though hitherto unnoticed. by the regular praétitioners. Cullen. Lewis. Woodville. Uva Vulpis, a name given by fome authors to the com- mon nightfhade. UVARIA, in Botany, fo named by Linnzus, from uva, a grape, or bunch of grapes, in allufion to the appearance of its fruit.— Linn. Gen. 279. Schreb. 374. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1261. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 333- Jufl. 284. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 495. De Candolle Syft. v. 1. 481. Gaertn. t. 114.—Clafs and order, Polyandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Coadunate, Linn. Anone, Jull. Anonacea, De Cand. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flat, in three deep, ovate, acute, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals fix, lanceolate, feffile, {preading, longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments none; anthers numerous, oblong, abrupt, covering the convex receptacle. Pi/?. Germens numerous, crowded, concealed by the anthers; ftyles numerous, the length of the anthers; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Berries dif- tinét, numerous, fomewhat ftalked, nearly globular, of feveral cells. Seeds four or more, in two rows. Eff. Ch. Calyx in three deep fegments. Petals fix. Berries numerous, ftalked. Seeds feveral, in two rows. Linnzus and feveral following authors have referred to this genus a confiderable number of {pecies, with the nature of whofe fruits they were not, in every inftance, perfeGtly acquainted ; efpecially without fufficient difcrimination be- tween fuch as were true berries, and others of a capfular nature. The learned profeffor De Candolle, now happily efcaped from public perfecution in France, as a Proteftant, and fettled, with diftinétion, at Geneva, has juft publifhed the firft volume of his Regni Vegetabilis Syftema Naturale, a moft profound and elaborate work, where the natural order to which the prefent genus belongs is illuftrated, by a far greater number of fpecies than it had ever before been fup- pofed to contain. This author removes to Unona (fee that article) many things hitherto confidered as Uvaria, making the character of Unona to confilt in its dry fruits, of an ovate-oblong, or fomewhat beaded, fhape. Hence the faid genus 1s extended to thirty-fix {pecies. We regret that our account of it had been fent to the prefs, before the work of our learned friend reached us. We can now only profit by his labours, and trace his iteps, through the genus Uvaria, of which he makes but eight fpecies. Thefe are all natives of the Eaft Indies, or the adjacent iflands. They: are trees or fhrubs, with ereét or trailing /fems; the flower- Jflalks either axillary, oppofite to the leaves, or lateral, foli- tary, or two or three together, bearing from one to four flowers, and often furnifhed with {mall draéeas, or jointed in the middle. Several ipecies referred by various botanifts to the genus before us, now help to conftitute a new one in profeflor De Candolle’s work, by the name of Guatteria, confifting of twenty in all. Its fruits, numerous likewife in each Hower, are dry, coriaceous, ovate or globofe, fingle- feeded. Uvaria japonica of Linnzus, Thunberg, Willde- now, &c. ftands by itfelf in a genus bearing the barbarous Japanefe name of Kad/ura, which Juffieu, it feems, has un- happily feleéted, m the Annales du Mufeum, v. 16. 340. It comes next to Anona, having like that an aggregate pulpy fruit, but with two /éeds in each cell, inftead of’ the folitary ones of Anona. 1. U. xeylanica. Ceylon Uvaria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 756, excluding the fynonyms of Rheede and Rumphius. De Cand. u. 1. Gertn. f. 1. Lamarck f. 2. (Uvaria; Linn. Zeyl. roo. n. 224, not 234. Uva zeylanica fylvef- tris, GVA tris, mali armeniace fapore; Burm. Zeyl. 231.)—Branches trailing. . Leaves ovato-lanceolate, fmooth. Berries nu- merous, ovato-cylindrical, with tapering ftalks. Internal proceffes of the coat of the feed in parallel. plates. —Native of Ceylon. Linnzus and Burmann defcribe this as a trailing forub, with fmooth, pointed, ftalked /eaves, and {carlet flarry flowers, each producing fix or feven {mall, foft, grey, rather hairy, fomewhat cylindrical derries, half an inch long, with a vinous tafte, refembling that of an apricot. A {pe- cimen communicated, if we miftake not, by Thunberg to the younger Linnzus, for Uvaria zeylanica, has ovate, acute, fmooth, entire eaves. The common flower-falks are axillary, ftout, half an inch long, each bearing two or more fingle-flowered, angular, downy partial flalks, thrice that length. Calyx half an inch in diameter, in three deep, broad, obtufe, coriaceous, downy fegments, like La- marck’s fig. 1. d, f, g- -Anthers oblong, {preading, yellow. We cannot fay this is the true plant of Linneus, Burmann, &c. becaufe our fpecimen wants the fruit, which is almoft all that is known of that fpecies, with any precifion. 2. U. Gertneri. Gertner’s Uvaria. De Cand. n. 2. (U. trifoliata; Gertn. f. 2. Lamarck f. 3.) —<¢ Berries ovate, with tapering ftalks. Internal proceffes of the coat of the feed awl-fhaped.’’—Native probably of Ceylon. No- thing is known of this fpecies but from Gertner’s figure of the fruit, which is rather larger, and lefs cylindrical, or conftriGed, than the foregoing, and differently conftrued within. : 3. U. lutea. Yellow Uvaria. Roxb. Coromand. y. 1. 32. t. 36. ‘Willd. n.8. De Cand. n. 3.—Leaves elliptic- oblonz, acute, fmooth, fhining. Stalks folitary, from one to fix-owered. Berries oval, with fix feeds.—Native of the hills of Hindooftan, adjoining to the coait of Coro- mandel, flowering in the hot feafon. A large evergreen #ree, with a fmooth brown bark, and alternate branches. Leaves two or three inches long, alternate, two-ranked, on fhort ftalks. Flower-/lalks oppofite to the leaves, folitary, fhort and thick, each bearing ufually about three dull- greenifh flowers, above half an inch broad. Petals five times the fize of the calyx. Berries four to fix from each flower, {preading in the form of a ftar, on fhort ttalks, nearly oval, orange-coloured, pulpy, each of them hardly an inch in length. Nothing is recorded of their flavour or qualities, nor of any ufe to which this tree is put. The Telingas call it AZuoy. : 4. U. tomentofa. Downy Uvaria. Roxb. Coromand. Ve I. 31. t. 35- Willd. n.5. De Cand. n, 4.—Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, downy. Stalks fingle-flowered, ufu- ally folitary. Berries globular, with four feeds.—Native of the Circar mountains of Hindooftan, flowering in the hot feafon. This is alfo a large tree, with wide-{preading branches. Leaves foft and downy, on fhort ftalks, their fize rather exceeding thofe of the laft fpecies. Flowers folitary or in pairs, of a brownifh-green, on {talks above an inch long. Three outer petals imall and awl-fhaped ; three inner ovate, acute, above half an inch long. Berries nearly globular, from ten to fifteen, dull purple, the fize of a bullace plum. 5. U. dulcis. Sweet Uvaria. —‘* Dunal Monogr. go. t. 13.”? De Cand. n. 5.—* Leaves oblong-elliptical ; ta- pering and heart-fhaped at the bafe ; velvet-like beneath, as well as the branches. Flower-ftalks in pairs, axillary, or oppofite to the leaves ; jointed and bra¢teated in the middle. —Native of Java, defcribed by De Candolle from the herbarium of M. De Leffert. Branches round; villous and rafty in the upper part. Leaves from two to four inches long, on fhort villous ftalks ; fometimes pointed, and occa- VUB fionally undulated ; nearly fmooth above; rufly, with a reddifh rib, beneath. Calyx villous, rufty, in three broad, ovate fegments. Petals villous, flightly wavy; the outer ones ru{ty at the back; inner broader, but rather fmaller. Pifiils villous. Dunal. 6. U. javana. Java Uvaria. ‘ Dunal Monogr. g1. t. 14.” De Cand. n. 6,—‘“ Leaves oblong-elliptical ; heart-fhaped at the bafe; rufty and downy, like the young branches, beneath. Stalks axillary, or oppofite to the leaves, few-flowered: partial ones fomewhat umbellate, bracteated in the middle.””—Gathered in Java, by M. La- haie. The branches are round, marked with whitith {pots ; their young extremities clothed with ruity down. Leaves on very fhort ftalks, fometimes pointed, fometimes blunt, waved at the edges, flightly falcate, with pinnate ribs; fhining and nearly imooth on the upper fide. Stalks folitary or in pairs, rufty, each bearing a fort of umbel, of from two to four flowers, whofe partial flalks are jointed at the bafe, and furnifhed about the middle with one large clafping bragea. Sezments of the calyx deep, broad, rather acute. Three inner petals reddifh, rather larger and more oblong than the three onter. Pi/fils villous. Dunal. 7- U. velutina. Velvet-leaved Uvyaria. De Cand. n. 7. (U. villofa; Roxb. MSS. Dunal Monogr. g1.)—* Leaves nearly feffile, ovate, pointed, clothed, like the branches, with velvet down; heart-fhaped at the bafe. Stalks lateral, branched, downy ; partial ones corymbofe, fingle-flowered.” —Sent by Dr. Roxburgh, from the Eaft Indies, to Mr. Lambert. The young éranches, both turfaces of the eaves, the frotfialks, flower-/alks, and calyx, are clothed with very fhort, foft, greyifh, velvet down. Branches round. Leaves almoft perfectly feffile, two or three inches long, an inch and a half or two inches broad, with pinnate ribs, which are prominent and moft downy at the back. Partial fower- Jralks three or four, elongated, fingle-flowered, fomewhat corymbofe. Calyx {mall. Petals three, ovate, thick, bluntifh ; downy externally ; brownifh and fmooth on the upper fide; it is f{uppofed there may be three others, which are deciduous. Anthers very fhort, nearly feffile. Germens denfely crowded, fomewhat downy. De Candolle. 8. U? /pedabilis. andfome-flowered Uvaria. De Cand. n. 8.—* Leaves oblong, pointed, almoft fmooth ; clothed, like the branches, with rufty velvet down when young. Stalks lateral, or oppofite to the leaves, fingle- flowered. Petals obovate ; inner ones cloven at the end.”?— Gathered in Guiana by M. Martin. Branches round, clothed when young with rwufty-coloured velvet down. Footftalks very thort, callous. Leaves fix or eight inches long, two broad, entire, abruptly pointed ; fcarcely taper- ing at the bafe; their lateral ribs alternate, all terminating in one which runs parallel to the margin: when young they are clothed beneath with reddifh velvet pubefcence ; as are alfo the very fhort flower-/falks. I*lowers large. Segments of the calyx three or four lines long, ovate, coriaceous, downy at the outiide only. Petals fix, obovate, nine or ten lines long, coriaceous, filky on both fides with clofe-preffed whitifh hairs; rather contraéted at the bafe: three outer ones rather the fmalleft, entire; three inner divided at the point, one fegment very rarely again cloven. Outer row of the ffamens abortive, coriaceous, oblong, brown, fmooth, rather longer than the perfect ones, and lying over them, with two internal furrows at the end. Germens very denfely crowded, f{carcely diftin&. Fruit unknown. The author doubts whether this {pecies ought not to conftitute a genus by itfelf. “VUBARANA, in Ichthyology, the name of an harengi- form fifh, caught in the American feas. It VUK It refembles in figure our river trout. Its body is very nearly of the fame thicknefs all the way, but it is elevated a little on the back, and fomewhat flender juft near the tail. It grows to a foot in length, and to fix inches in thicknefs. It is a very well-talted fifh, and is generally dreffed with the {cales on, they being not offenfive in eating. Margraave’s Hiftory of Brafil. UVEA, in Anatomy, the pofterior furface of the iris. See Eye. It is called uvea, on account of its refembling the figure and colour of a grape, called by the Latins uva. For which reafon, alfo, fome have given it the name of acini- formis, from acinus. UVEDALIA, in Botany, received its name from Mr. R. Brown, in memory of Uvedale, LL.D.., the friend and fellow-collegian of PLuKENET (fee that article), who refided at Enfield, where he had a botanic garden, on the old walls of which, if we are rightly informed, the Hieracium murorum, from the north, is naturalized, and full remains. His herbarium makes a part of the botanical colleétions in the Britifh Mufeum, but we have no particulars of his do- mettic or perfonal hiftory. We only know by tradition that his name was popularly pronounced Oodle. Petiver etta- blifhed, under the appellation of Uvedalia, a fyngenefious genus, now funk in PoLyMNIA (fee that article), from which the fynonym Tetragonotheca, Linn, Gen, 438, fhould be erafed.—Brown Prodr. Noy. Holl. v. 1. 440.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scrophularie, Jufl. Scrophularine, Brown. Eff. Ch. Calyx prifmatic, five-toothed. Corolla rin- ent: upper lip two-lobed; lower three-cleft; its middle fe rather diffimilar, with two prominences at the bafe. Anthers with divaricated lobes. Stigma flattened. Cap- fule covered by the permanent calyx, of two cells and four valves: the partition from the inflexed margins of the valves, inferted into the central receptacle. A genus of herbaceous plants, with oppofite Jeaves. Flower-ftalks axillary and terminal, fingle-flowered, without braéeas. Corolla blue. Mr. Brown himfelf fufpedis it may. be fcarcely diftin&, in reality, from Mruutus. (See that article.) He mentions no other fpecies than one from New Holland, the reft, whatever they may be, are, we prefume, natives of other countries; perhaps of the Eait Indies. 1. U. dinearis. Linear Uvedalia, Br. n. 1.— Leaves linear, feveral times fhorter than the flower-ftalks.’?—Ga- thered by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New Hol- land. This genus being confefledly very near Mimulus, we have not attempted to draw up its natural chara¢ters at full length. UVELEN, in Geography, an ifland of Ruffia, in the Frozen fea; 12 miles N. of Cape Tchukotfkoi. N. lat. 66° 25’. E. long. 188° 44!. ; UVELKA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Tobol. UVELSKATA, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of Upha; 56 miles W.S.W. of Tcheliabinfk. UvetskaiaA, Niznei, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of Upha, on the Uvelka; 28 miles S.S.W. of Tchelia- binfk. VUERTIER, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc; 10 miles S.S.E. of Annecy. VUESCIKER, a town of Norway, in the province of Chriftiania ; 32 miles E. of Chriftiania. VUKA, a river of Sclavonia, which runs into the Da- nube, 8 miles N.W. of Illok, VUL VUKOLANIL, a fortrefs of China, in Chen-fi; 27 miles N. of Han-tchong. VUKOVITZA, a town of Sclavonia; 8 miles W. of Verovitza. } VULCAN, in Mythology, the fon of Jupiter and Juno, who, on account of his deformity, was caft down from heaven into the ifland Lemnos, and breaking his leg with the fall, is always reprefented as lame. At Lemnos he fet up the trade of a {mith, and taught the Lemnians, in re- compence of the fuccours they afforded him, the manifold ufes of fire and iron: he is alfo reprefented as the manufac- turer of Jupiter’s thunder, and the arms of the other gods. The poets defcribe him as blacke‘ed and hardened from the forge ; with a face red and fiery, whilft at his work; and tired and heated after it. This poor god is almoft always the fubject either of pity or of ridicule. He is the great cuckold of heaven ; and his lamenefs ferves to divert the gods. The great celeftial deities feem to have admitted Vulcan among them merely to make them laugh, and to be the butt of the whole company. Spence’s Polymetis, p. 81. Cicero mentions three other Vulcans: one the fon of Ccelum ; the fecond the fon of the Nile, acknowledged by the Egyptians as their protector, and called Opas; and the other the fon of Menalius, who inhabited the Vulcanian ifles. Banier mentions another Vulcan, more ancient than either of thefe, viz. the Tubal-Cain of {cripture, who, having applied himfelf to the forging of iron, as Motes informs us, became the model and original of all the reft- The Vulcan of the Greeks was the god of black{miths, and a blackfmith himfelf ; accordingly Diodorus Siculus (lib. v.) gives this account of him: Vulcan is the firft founder of yee in iron, brafs, gold, and filver ; in a word, of all fufible materials. He alfo taught the ufes to which the artifts and others can employ fire; and for this reafon all thofe who work in metals, or rather men in general, call fire by the name of Vulcan, and offer facrifices to that god, in acknowledgment of fo ufeful an invention. ‘The fecond Vulcan above men- tioned, or the fon of Nilus, was probably an ancient Egyptian king; or rather he.was the moft ancient divinity of the Egyptians, fince we find him in Herodotus, Syn- cellus, and other authors, at the head of the divinities of thefe people, unlefs we revert backwards to Tubal-Cain, or to fome one of the kings of thofe countries, who fignalized himfelf in the art of forging iron. Vulcan, the fon of Jupiter and Juno, is fuppofed to have been a Titan prince, the fame, according to fir Ifaac New- ton, with Thoas, king of Lemnos, whofe wife had an in- trigue with Bacchus, and the hufband foon difcovering it, Bacchus contrived to appeafe him by caufing him to drink wine, and creating him king of Byblos and Cyprus; after which he paffed the Hellefpont with his army, and con- quered Thrace. To thefe events the poets are thought to allude, when they feign that Vulcan fell from heaven into the ifland of Lemnos, and that Bacchus, after having paci- fied his wrath, fucceeded in recalling him to heaven. He fell, it is faid, from the heaven of the gods of Crete, when he departed from Crete to Lemnos to forge medals ; he was reinftated in heaven, when Bacchus made him king of Byblos and Cyprus; for the courts of the princes of thofe times, in imitation of that of Jupiter, were looked upon as heaven. Newton’s Chronology. As the ifland of Lemnos was very fubje& to earthquakes and volcanoes, or as the art of forging arms was invented in this ifland, Vulcan is reprefented as falling into it. The forges of this god were alfo eftablifhed in Mount /Etna for the fame reafon, and in the Vulcanian iflands. os: VUL » OF all the ancient nations, the Egyptians were the prin- cipal worfhippers of this god. Accordingly he had at Mem- phis a magnificent temple, and a coloffal ftatue, feventy-five feet high. His priefts were much efteemed by the Egyp- tians, fo that one of them, named Sathos, afcended the throne. This god was alfo highly honoured by the Romans. Tatius is faid, by Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, to have ereéted for him a temple, and Romulus confecrated to him a chariot of brafs drawn with four horfes. His facrifices were holo- caufts: and Tarquin the elder, after the defeat of the Sa- bines, burned their arms and fpoils in honour of this god. The lion was, who feems to dart fire from his mouth, con- fecrated to Vulcan; and dogs were fet apart for guarding his temples. Of thefe he had feveral in Rome, but the moft ancient one, built by Romulus, was without the bounds of the city ; the Augurs being of opinion, that the god of fire ought not to be within the city itfelf. But the higheft token of refpeét rendered by the Romans to this god, according to Dion. Halic. was their holding in his temple thofe affemblies, where the moft important affairs of the republic were debated ; the Romans thinking that they could invoke nothing more facred, for the confirmation of their decifions and treaties, than the avenging fire of which that god was the fymbol. All men in general, fenfible of their obligations to this god for the difcovery of the various ufes which artifts and others make of fire, offered facrifices to him. There were alfo feftivals inftituted in honour of Vulcan, of which the principal was that, at which it was the cuftom to run with lighted torches, that were to be car- ried to the goal without being extinguifhed, under pain of difgrace; and Pliny informs us, that he who embraces another had his torch for his reward. Moft of the medals of the ifland of Lemnos reprefented this god, with the legend, “ Deo Vulcano.”? The Gauls paid adoration to this god 150 years before Julius Cefar entered into their eountry. VULCANALITA, among the Romans, a feftival in ho- nour of Vulcan, which was kept, as fome fay, from the 23d to the 29th of Augult, or, according to others, on the roth before the calends of May, or the 22d of April. On this occafion the people ufed to throw animals into the fire. VULCANTI Insura, in Ancient Geography, an ifland near that of Sicily, confecrated to Vulcan, according to Diodorus Siculus. Strabo calls it the temple of Vulcan, and Virgil denominates it the houfe and territory of Vulcan. It was under this name that the Lipari iflands were defcribed, and they were alfo named the ifles of @Eolus. Thus Virgil fays, Aneid. |. viii. v. 416. “ Jnfula Sicanium juxta latus, CEoliumque Erigitur Liparea fumantibus ardua Saxis. * * # %* * Vulcani domus, et Vulcania nomine tellus.”’ VULCANIA, the name of the Ciclian ifle where Vul- ean’s forges were ereéted. See Lipari, &c. VULCANO and Vutcanex1o, in Geography. Vulcano is one of the /Xolian ifles fituated to the fouth of Lipari. Vulcanello was formerly a {mall ifland near Vulcano, but is now joined to it by the matter ejected from a volcano, which has been continually burning in Vulcano fince the earlieft records of hiftory, though in modern times the violent erup- tions are lefs frequent. Vulcano has been eftimated to be twelve miles round ; but, according to the account of it given by lieutenant-general Cockburn, the circuit of this ifland is about nine miles. The fide of the ifland which looks towards Lipari is entirely barren, and does not pro- duce any kind of vegetable; but the other fides, which VUL front the wett and the fouth, are partly covered with thé ilex and the oak, befides quantities of broom and other fhrubs. As the whole of the ifland is compofed of voleanic fubftances, it may be inferred that thofe parts which fup- port vegetation have been more fubje&t to decompofition than the barren parts. The fubftances, of which the foil is compofed in the fertile parts of the ifland, are lavas foftened to a great depth by atmofpheric agency. On removing this foil, Spallanzani found the fubjacent lava hard and por- phyritic. Mixed with the lava were large pieces of obfi- dian, fimilar to that of Lipari. Vulcano is not inhabited, but is vifited by {portfmen from Lipari, who go there to fhoot rabbits. The firft account we have of Vulcano is given by Thucydides, who relates, in his hiftory, that Vul- cano threw out flames by night and fmoke by day. Arif- totle, in his Treatife on Meteors, defcribes an ancient erup- tion of Vulcano, a part of the ground {welled and rofe with a great noife, forming a hill which burft, and from whence a violent wind iffued forth, with flames. At the fame time fo great a quantity of afhes were thrown out, as entirely to cover the neighbouring city of Lipari. The eruptions of Vulcano were vifible in his time. Polybius, as quoted by Strabo, fays there were three vol- canoes in this ifland, two well defined, and one with the cra- ter partly fallen in. The mouth of the larger was five f{tadia in circuit. The bottom was only fifty feet in diameter, and fituated about one ftadium above the level of the fea. The form of the other two craters were fimilar. At a later period, in 1726, there were two burning craters on this ifland. See Votcano. From the text of Strabo, it may be inferred, that the volcanoes in this ifland threw out lava, fince he fays the burning matter ejeGed filled up a part of the fea to a con- fiderable extent. Callias, in his life of Agathocles, tyrant of Syracufe, relates that, on a lofty eminence of Vulcano, there are two craters, one of which was three ftadia in cir- cumference, cafting a great light to a vaft diftance, and that from this mouth burning ftones of great fize were thrown out, with fo loud a noife that it might be heard to the dif- tance of 500 ftadia. Cluverius and Fazello, in more recent times, deferibe Vulcano as being in a {tate of aétive eruption. The {mall ifland of Vulcanello, which now joins Vuleano, rofe from the fea about the year of Rome 550. It was feparated from Vulcano by a very narrow ftrait, which was open in the time of Fazello, but afterwards filled up by new erup- tions from Vulcano. At prefent there is only one burning crater on Vulcano, from which there have been two contiderable eruptions in modern times, the one in 1775, the lateft in 1786, which threw out an immenfe quantity of fand mixed with volumes of fmoke and fire, accompanied with fubterranean noifes and thunders. This eruption continued for fifteen days, and appears to have changed the form and depth of the crater. See Votcano. The prefent crater of Vulcano nearly equals in fize that of Vefuvius, and greatly exceeds it in the variety of pro- ductions with which the fides are lined. Thefe prefent the moft beautiful colours, red, orange, deep yellow, and green. They confilt of fulphur in various ftates of combination, and of faline and metallic matter and volcanic glaffes. (See Vor- cano and Votcanic Produés.) About half way down the crater, a hot {pring iffues from the fide; but the quantity of water which flows is {mall, and is foon loft among the mafles of feorie and lava. Above the fpring are pendant ftalactites of alum of various forms and fizes. The height of the fum- mit of the crater of Vulcano is not given by any traveller Yu that we are acquainted with; but from a comparifon with Stromboli, it can fearcely be eftimated at more than 1500 feet above the level of the fea. The fand on the fhore, in fome parts of the ifland, though covered with the fea, pre- feryes a certain degree of heat. The ancients attached much importance to the appearance of the {moke of Vulcano. hey inform us, that before a fouth wind blew, the ifland was enveloped in fo dark a cloud, that Sicily could not be feen from it. When a north wind was to be expeéted, a pure flame rofe above the crater. The various founds of the explofions likewife, and the dif- ferent places where the eruptions began, with the appearance of the flames, were all prognoftics of the wind which would blow three days afterwards. This account, given by Poly- bius, does not accord with the prefent phenomena of Vul- cano; and in all probability, it originated not in any accurate obfervations, but from the prejudices of ancient mariners. Modern obfervers have alfo pretended to prediét the ftate of the weather from the appearance of Vulcano. If it could be eftablifhed that there was any conneétion between the ftate of the atmofphere, and the intenfity of the volcanic fire, the fact would be well deferving attention. It is how- ever neceflary to obferve, that the eke and vapour from common fires and breweries, &c. aflume a very different appearance in different ftates of the atmofphere, and that this fhould be the cafe with the vapour and {moke iffuing from volcanoes appears highly probable, without allowing that any real change takes place in the volcano itfelf. In a book entitled «'T'raéts by Sicilian Authors,” printed at Palermo in 1761, there is a differtation on the manner in which the weather may be foretold twenty-four hours before hand, in which the following account is given by a native of Lipari, who made his obfervations between the years 1730 and 1740. ‘The change of weather and winds is indicated by mount Vulcano twenty-four hours before it takes place, by a louder noife than ufual, refembling diftant thunder, and if we then obferve the fmoke that iflues in a greater quan- tity than ufual, we may difcover what kind of wind will fucceed. When the wind is about to change to the fouth- ea{t, the fmoke rifes fo denfe and black, and in fo great a quantity, and to fuch a height, and afterwards falls in fo black a duit, as to ftrike the beholder with awe. At the fame time a loud roaring is heard, frequently accompanied. with tremblings of the earth, When the wind is on the point of changing to the north-north-eaft, or north-north- weft, or north-weft, the fmoke rifes more flowly, is lefs denfe, and the colour is entirely white, as is that of the duft which falls from it. . Nor does any loud noife or trembling of the earth take place. When the wind is about to change to the eaft, or eaft-north-eaft, an explofion is heard in the body of the mountain, which foon after throws out a little white {moke, of which colour are likewife the afhes which fall when the fmoke is difperfed. The mountain in the mean time explodes, and roars fo violently at intervals, that the fhock of an earthquake is dreaded. Laftly, previous to a change of wind to the weit, the welt-fouth-welt, or weft-north-weit, vaft volumes of fmoke arife of a dark afh- grey, approaching the colour of lead, and fo thick that when they difperfe they occafion a continued fhower of afhes.”” Thefe obfervations, whether correét or not, indicate a more active ftate of the volcano than what it prefents when it has recently been yifited. Spallanzant, who notices the above predictions relative to Vulcano, fays, ‘ I fhould juftly incur the imputation of rafhnefs were I abfolutely to deny thefe faéts, without having fufficient reafon fo to do, efpe- cially as they are fo precile, and are faid to have been ob- ferved on the {pot. Befides, it does not appear credible VOL that Abbate Roffi, who gives them, would have publifhed his obfervations in a place where he was liable to be contra- died by all his countrymen. I muft, however, with phi- lofophic candour, fay, that during my refidence of feveral weeks in Lipari, where I continually faw Vulcano during the blowing of the different winds mentioned in this extraét, particularly the fouth-eaft, the weft, and the fouth-weft, I never obferved, either before they begun, or while they con- tinued to blow, any tremblings of the earth, fubterranean roarings, lofty columns of fmoke, or fhowers of afhes.. Once only, when a violent fouth-weft wind was on the decline, the column of {moke which iffued from Vulcano increafed pro- digioufly, but when it had rifen a little diftance above the upper edge of the crater, it grew thinner, and foon after vanifhed. Though the wind continued to blow, this pro- digious cloud of {moke {till continued to rife from the cra- ter for feveral hours. I once obferved the fmoke to be ex- ceedingly rare when a flrong weft wind blew; and twice, when the air was perfeétly calm, I obferved the fmoke ex- tremely copious, and rifing toa great height. To conclude, after carefully noticing day by day every change that took place in the phenomena exhibited by Vulcano, during my flay in its vicinity, I could perceive none which afforded fupport to thefe famous prognoftics. The failors at Lipari alfo were not agreed refpeéting them. I am not, however, fo pofitive as to deny the whole of thefe obfervations. To know with certainty whether any dire& relations exift be- tween the various fymptoms of Vulcano, and the changes of the atmofphere, it would be neceflary to refide for fome years in the ifland, a place truly wild and defolate ; and he who, like Empedocles at Etna, fhould go to ereét his dwel- ling there, in order to obferve the changes of the volcano, would haye no other companions than the rabbits which make their burrows in the fouthern fide of the ifland,’? Spallanzani’s Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. ii. : When M. de Lue vifited Vulcano in 1757, it appeared to be ina more quiefcent ftate than at prefent; for though fmoke and vapour iffued from the crater, he does not men- tion being incommoded by the heat when he defcended into it. Yet he noticed a faét which we believe has-not fince been remarked. The fulphureous vapours had a communi- cation with the fea, which was in many places of a yellowith colour, and in others emitted fumes; and in the places where the fumes iffued, the heat was intolerable, fo that the fith which approached the coaft died, and the beach near the Jevel of the fea was covered with dead fifth. Pliny ftates, that when the ifland of Vulcanello was thrown up, a great number of fifh were found dead, and caufed the death of thofe who ate them. An opinion exifts, and has exifted for centuries, that the ground under Vulcano is hollow, and that it will fome time be fwallowed up. This opinion probably originated from the hollow found occafioned by the throwing of a ftone, or any hard fubftance, on the bottom of the crater. Probably Vulcano, Stromboli, and all the /£olian ifles, are only the chimneys of one immenfe fubterranean fire, extending under the whole, and communicating from thence to Etna and Ve- fuvius. Stromboli threw out unufually denfe and fuffocating volumes of {moke for fome days before the, earthquakes which defolated Calabria in 1783; and was uncommonly violent at the time of the great earthquake which deftroyed Euphemia. See VoLcano. VULDEP, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Inn, near Ratenburgh in the Tyrolefe. VULGAGO, a name given by fome botanical authors to the afarum or afarabacca, whofe leaves and root are ufed in medicine, VULGAR VUL VULGAR Arithmetic, Fradions, and Purgation. the fubftantives. VULGATE, a very ancient Latin tranflation of the Bible ; and the only one the church of Rome acknowledges to be authentic. The ancient Vulgate of the Old Teftament was tranflated, almoft word for word, from the Greek of the Septuagint. The author of the verfion is not known, nor fo atch as gueffed at. See Verston, Jtalic and Latin. It was a long time known by the name of the //alic, or old verfion; as being of very great antiquity in the Latin church. It was the common, or vulgar verfion, before St. Jerom made a new one from the Hebrew original, with occafional recurrences to the Septuagint ; whence it has its name Vulgate. Nobilius, in 1558, and F. Morin, in 1628, gave new edi- tions of it; pretending to have reftored, and re-collated it, from the ancients who had cited it. The Vulgate was held, by St. Auguttine, to be preferable to all the other Latin verfions then extant; as rendering the words and fenfe of the facred text more clofely and juftly than any of the reft. Tt has fince been retouched from the correction of St. Jerom; and it is this mixture of the ancient Italic verfion, and fome corrections of St.Jerom, that is now called the Vulgate, and which the council of Trent has declared to be au- thentic. It is this Vulgate alone that is ufed in the Romifh church, excepting for fome paflages of the ancient Vulgate left in the Miffal, and the Pfalms ; which are ftill fung according to the old Italic verfion. St. Jerom declares that, in his revifal of the Italic ver- fion, he ufed great care and circum{peétion, never varying from that verfion but when he thought it mifreprefented the fenfe. But as the Greek copies to which he had accefs were not fo ancient as thofe from which the Italic verfion had been made, fome learned authors have been of opinion that it would have been much better if he had collected all the copies, and by comparing them, have reftored that tranflation to its original purity. It is plain that he never completed this work, and that he even left fome faults in it, for fear of varying too much from the ancient verfion, fince he renders in his commentaries fome words otherwife than he has done in his tranflation. This verfion was not intro- duced into the church but by degrees, for fear of offending weak perfons. Rufinus, notwithftanding his enmity to St. Jerom, and his having exclaimed much againft this per- formance, was one of the firft to prefer it to the Vulgar or Italian. This tranflation gained at laft fo great an autho- rity, by the approbation of pope Gregory I. and his de- clared preference of it to every other, that it was fubfe- quently in public ufe through all the Weftern churches, although it was not regarded as authentic, except by the council of Trent: it is certainly of confiderable ufe, as it may ferve to illuftrate feveral paffages both of the Old and New Teftament. The two principal Popith editions of the Vulgate are thofe of popes Sixtus V. and Clement VIII. The former was print- ed in 1590, after pope Sixtus had colleéted the moft ancient MSS. and beft printed copies, fummoned the moft learned men out of all the nations of the Chriftian world, aflembled a congregation of cardinals for their affiftance and counfel, and prefided over the whole himfelf. This edition was declared to be corrected in the very beft manner poffible, and pub- lifhed with a tremendous excommunication of every perfon, who fhould prefume ever afterwards to alter the leaft parti- cle of the edition thus authentically promulgated by his holinefs, fitting in that chair, in gua Petri vivit poteftas, et Vou. XX XVII. See VU Z@ excellit auétoritas. The other edition was publifhed in 1592, by pope Clement VIII. ; which was fo different from that of Sixtus, as to contain two thoufand variations, fome of whole verfes, and many others clearly and defignedly con- tradictory in fenfe ; and yet this edition is alfo pronounced authentic, and enforced by the fame fentence of excommu- nication with the former. See Kennicott’s State of the printed Hebrew Text, &c. vol.ii. p. 198, &c. VuLGATE of the New Teflament. "This the Romanitts generally hold preferable to the common Greek text, be- caufe it is this alone, and not the Greek text, that the council of Trent has declared authentic: accordingly that church has, as it were, adopted this edition, and the pricits read no other at the altar, the preachers quote no other in the pulpit, nor the divines in the fchools. Yet fome of their beft authors, F. Bouhours for in- ftance, own, that among the differences that are found be- tween the common Greek and the Vulgate, there are fome wherein the Greek reading appears more clear and natural than that of the Latin; fo that the fecond might be cor- rected from the firft, if the holy fee fhould think fit. But thofe differences, for the generality, only confift in a few’ fyllables, or words ; they rarely touch the fenfe. Befides, in fome of the moft confiderable, the Vulgate is authorized by feveral ancient manufcripts. Bouhours {pent the laft years of his life in giving a French tranflation of the New Teftament, according to the Vulgate. In 1675, a new edi- tion of the Greek Teftament was publifhed by the univer- fity of Oxford; and great care taken therein to compare the common Greek text with all the moft ancient manu- {cripts in England, France, Spain, and Italy ; and to note the differences obferved therein. In the preface of this work, the editors, {peaking of the divers verfions of the Bible in the vulgar tongues, obferve of the Vulgate, that there is no verfion of any language to be compared with it. And this they juftify, by comparing paflages that occur in the moft celebrated Greek manufcripts, with the fame paflages in the Vulgate, where there is any difference between that and the common printed copy. In effeét, it is probable, that at the time the ancient Italic or Vulgate verfion of the New Teftament was made, and at the time it was afterwards compared with the Greek ma- nuferipts by St. Jerom, as they were then nearer the times of the apoftles, they had jufter Greek copies, and thofe bet- ter kept, than any of thofe ufed when printing was firft fet on foot, * Highly as the Vulgate is extolled by the church of Rome,” fays profeffor Michaelis, ‘‘ it has been depreciated beyond meafure at the beginning of the 16th century b feveral. learned Proteflants, whofe example has been fol- lowed by men of inferior abilities. At the reftoration of learning, when the faculty of writing elegant Latin was the higheft accomplifhment of a {cholar, the Vulgate was re- garded with contempt, as not written with clallical purity. But after the Greek manufcripts were difcovered, their readings were preferred to thofe of the Latin, becaufe the New eftament was written in Greek, and the Latin was only a verfion; but it was not confidered that thefe Greek manufcripts were modern in comparifon of thofe originals from which the Latin was taken ; nor was it known at that time, that the more ancient the Greek MSS, and the other verfions were, the clofer was their agreement with the Vul- gate. This has been already evinced by Simon, who made it a particular obje& of his attention in his ‘ Hift. Crit. du Texte et des Verfions du N. T.,’ and has pointed out the real merits of the Latin verfion. Our ableft writers, fuch as Mill and Bengel, have been indyged by this treatife 4 H to VUL to abandon the opinion of their predeceffors, and have af- cribed to the Vulgate a value perhaps greater than it de- ~ferves.”? Michaelis’s Introduétion to the New Teftament by Marth, vol. ii. part 1. Campbell’s Prelim. Differtation to his Comment on the Four Gofpels. A complete ac- count of all the editions of the Vulgate is given in Le Long Bibl. Sacra, ed. Mafch. part 2. vol. iii. cap. 2. M. Simon calls the Greek verfion of the Septuagint, be- fore it was revifed and reformed by Origen, the ancient Vul- gate Greek. Origen’s corre€tion was preferred to the ancient Greek, which was confequently difufed; fo that we have now {carcely any copies of it. See SepTUAGINT. VULGIENTES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia Narbonnenfis, N. of the Salgii; to whom Pliny afligns the town of Apta Julia. Ricalt VULKAN, in Geography, a mountain of Tranfylvania ; 24 miles W. of Weiffemburg. VULNERARY, formed from vulnus, wound, in Medi- cme, an epithet given to remedies proper for the cure of wounds and ulcers. There are divers vulnerary herbs; as ariftolochia, or birth-wort ; fanicle, or felf-heal; plantain, moufe-ear, veronica, or fluellin; agrimony, vervain, or the holy herb, &c. There are alfo vulnerary potions, compofed of various fimples ; vulnerary balfams, unguents, plafters, &c. See Batsam, &c. Voutnerary Waiter. See WaAtmER. VULPANSER, in Ornithology, a name given by fome authors to the fhell-drake, or borrow-duck, a very beau- tiful {pecies of duck, common on fome of our coafts, and called by the generality of authors fadorna. See Duck. VULPECULA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Bel- lonius and Gefner to the fifh called by the generality of au- thors centrine. See CutmmRA and SQuaLus. VutrecuLa et Anfer, Fox and Goofe, in Aftronomy, a conttellation made out of unformed ftars by Hevelius, in which he reckons twenty-feven ftars; but Flamftead enu- merates thirty-five. See CoNSTELLATION. VULPES, in Entomology, a fpecies of ScaARABxUS, which fee. Vourprs, in Zoology. See Fox. Vutrres Bahamenfis, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Esox, with a fin in the middle of the back, and the branchiofte- gous membrane three-rayed. It is found in America. Vutrrs Marina. See Sea-Fox. Vuvrrs Putoria, in Zoology. See DipeLpuis Opoffum. VULPINALIA, among the Romans, a feaft celebrated on the 19th of April, in which they burned foxes. VULSINIENSIS Lacus, or Vulfinian Lake, in Ancient Geography, a lake of Italy, in Etruria, nearly S. of the lake of Trafimené, It took its name from that of Vulfinti, which fee. See alfo Vorsinensis Lacus. VULSINII, Bolfena, a town of Italy,in Etruria, upon the northern bank of the lake above-mentioned. It was one of the moft confiderable towns of Etruria; and its inhabitants armed themfelves againft the Romans in the year of Rome 363. This town afterwards fell under the power of flaves ; but when they were introduced into the order of fenators, they would not fuffer any aflembly to be convened without their confent, and they aflerted their own impunity for many crimes which entailed difhonour on families. This fingular faét occurred in the year 489. According to Florus, thefe flaves were under the condué of a perfon named Fabius Gur- gites. The Romans eftablifhed the order in Vulfinii ; but they defpoiled it of a great number of ftatues. This town was savaged at three different times: firlt by the Romans; then 5 VUL by a moniter, of whom no adequate idea can eafily be given ; and laftly, by a thunderbolt. VULSON, Marc pr, Sieur de la Colombiere, in Bio- graphy, an heraldic writer, lived at Grenoble in 1618, and difcovering his wife in the at of adultery, killed her and her gallant, and obtained a pardon at Paris, whither he fled. His work, entitled “‘ La Science Heroique, traitant de la Nobleffe, de Origine des Armes, &c.’’ 1644, folio, reprinted with additions in 1669, is reckoned the moft com- plete French work on Heraldry. He alfo publifhed, ** Le Theatre d’Honneur et de Cavalerie, ou le Miroir Hitto- rique de la Nobleffe,”’ 2 vols. folio, 1648, and ** Recueil de plufieurs Piéces et Figures d’ Armoiries,”’ folio, 1689: and died in 1658. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. VULTONA, La Boutonne, in Ancient Geography, a river of Aquitaniain Gaul; after purfuing the courfe nearly from E. to W., it difcharges itfelf into the Charante. This river is alfo denominated “¢ Vultumna.’’ VULTUR, or Vutrure, in Ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to the order of Accipitres, or hawks. The characters of which are, that the bill is ftraight, and hooked only at the apex, and covered at the bafe by a cereor {kin ; that the head has no feathers, and covered in front with a naked fkin; that the tongue is flefhy, and generally bifid, the neck retra@ile, and the feet ftrong, with moderately crooked claws. Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnzan fyftem, reckons 13 fpecies, befides varieties, which are as follow : Grypuus, or Vulture Condor, or largeft vulture, or black vulture, with the fhorter wing-feathers white; the head furnifhed with an upright, comprefled, flefhy creft or comb ; the throat naked and red; and the neck carunculated en each fide. We are enabled, by Dr. Shaw, who had an opportunity of examining two birds of this kind in excel- lent prefervation in the Leverian Mufeum, to give a more correét defcription of this genus than that which was fur- nifhed when the article condor was written. (See Conpore. ) Thefe birds, which are more frequently feen in Peru than in any other parts of South America, were brought from the ftraits of Magellan. They were fuppofed to be male and female. The male bird has “a kind of gular pouch, or large dilated fkin, of a blueifh colour, proceeding from the bafe of the lower mandible, and reaching to fome dif- tance down the neck. On each fide of the neck is alfo fituated a row or feries of flat, carneous, femicircular, or ear-fhaped flaps or appendages, to the number of feven on each fide, and which gradually decreafe in fize as they de- fcend; being fo difpofed as to lap flightly over each other. The whole neck and breaft are of ared colour, and perfectly bare of feathers; being only coated here and there with a few ftraggling filaments of blackifh hair or coarfe down. The colour of the lateral wattles or caruncule in- clines to blueifh. The creft or comb on the head is large, upright, thick at the bafe, fharpened on its edge, and not entirely even in its outline, but fomewhat finuated, finking flightly in the middle, and rifing higher on the back part : it is fmooth, and irregularly convex on the fides, and in its texture or fubftance not greatly diffimilar to that of the V. papa of Linneus, or king vulture. Ata flight diftance be- hind this, on each fide, is fituated a much fmaller, femi-oval nuchal creft, of a fimilar fubftance, and befet with coarfe down. The colour of the creft is blackith, flightly inclining to red and blue in fome parts. Towards the lower part of the neck is a pendent pear-fhaped tubercle: the lower part of the neck is furrounded by a collar of milk-white down or fine plumes, reprefenting exa@tly a tippet of white fur. The extent of the bird, from wing’s end to wing’s end, was faid to VULTUR. . to be more than twelve feet when meafured immediately after it was fhot.”’ The back of the bird has been erroneoufly defcribed as white, whereas it is coal-black ; an error evidently owing to the bird’s having been feen with the wings clofed over the back, fo that the white fecondaries covered it from view. Gmelin copied this error from Molina, and thus Mr. Latham was mifled. In their defcriptions, the tail is faid to be fmall, which, on the contrary, is rather large in pro- portion to the bird. The fuppofed female had not the leaft appearance of a comb on the head, which, with fome other particulars, inclined Dr. Shaw to conclude that it was either a young bird or a female. The extent of its wings from tip to tip was not far fhort of 10 feet. Another of thefe birds, mentioned in the 18th volume of the Phil. Tranf. and fhot in Chili, had wings which extended more than 16 feet. The beak of the fore-mentioned female was of a dark jead colour, becoming gradually whitish towards the tip. The head and neck were deftitute of feathers, but covered with a fhort ftraggling fort of hairy down ; the top of the head imclined to a dark colour, but the reft of the neck was paler, and probably in the living bird of a reddifh colour. ‘Towards the lower part of the neck, where it joins to the fhoulders, was a ruff or circle of white downy feathers ; and beneath the breaft a confiderable bare fpace: the reft of the bird was black, except the fhorter or fecondary wing-fea- thers, which were white with black tips: the legs and feet were blackifh, very ftrong, but the claws not much incur- vated: the tail even at the end, and very flightly rounded at the fides. On comparing the remiges or wing-feathers of this bird with fome of thofe which were brought over by Mr. Byron as thofe of the real condor, Dr. Shaw found them to be exaétly fimilar, except in fize. From an examin- ation of thefe fpecimens, Dr. S. concluded that the phy- fiognomy of this bold and formidable vulture is not of a fe- rocious caft, but rather exhibiting an appearance almott bor- dering on mildnefs. M. Humboldt makes fome deduction for the alleged fize of this bird, as he had feen none which exceeded 3 feet 3 inches in’ length, and 8 feet g inches in extent from the end of one wing to that of the other. He admits, however, that the condor may fometimes be fuppofed to arrive at a much greater magnitude, and to meafure in extent of wings 11 or 12 feet. Its ufual refidence, as he informs us, is among lofty rocks in the region of the Andes, juit below the boundaries of perpetual fnow, and it may be confidered as a co-inhabitant with the guanaco. Nothing can exceed the fagacity with which the condor perceives the fcent of its prey at a diftance, or the boldnefs with which it flies down to feize it. It preys both on dead and living animals, and two birds will feize on a heifer, and begin their work of deftruétion by picking the eyes and tearing the tongue out. A method of taking condors alive is often praétifed in Peru and Quito, and is as follows: — A cow or horfe is killed ; and in a little time the {cent of the carcafe attracts the condors, which are fuddenly feen in numbers in places where no one would fuppofe they exifted. They always begin with the eyes and tongue, and then proceed to devour the inteftines, &c. When they are well fated, they are too heavy and indolent to fly, and the Indians take them eafily with noofes. When thus taken alive, the condor is dull and timid for the firft hour, and then becomes extremely fero- cious. M. Humboldt had one in his poffeffion for fome days, which it was dangerous to approach. The condor is extremely tenacious of life, and will furvive fora long time fuch wounds as might be fuppofed to prove immediately fatal ; and {uch is the fulnefs of its plumage, that it has the power of refifting or repelling the force of a ball fired at it fromagun. This indeed is not peculiar to the condor, but has been obferved in fome other well-feathered ‘and thick- fkinned birds, particularly thofe of the order Anferes. Bencavensis, the Brown Vulture. With the head and neck naked before, and faintly chefnut-colour ; the bill lead colour, with black tip ; or brown vulture, paler beneath, with the head and neck covered by fufcous down; the lower part encircled by a brown ruff. This is the Bengal vulture of Latham, two feet fix inches in length ; bill and legs dufky black, and crop hanging over the breaft, as is the cafe in many others of the vulture tribe. It is a native of Bengal. ; Papa, Vulture. With carunculated noftrils, and naked erown and neck ; or whitifh-rufefcent vulture, with naked variegated head and neck ; noftrils furnifhed with a loofe orange-coloured caruncle, and neck with a grey ruff. This is the cozcaquauhtli of Hernand. Mex., king of the vul- tures of Edwards, and exceeds every other {pecies in the elegance of its appearance, about the fize of a hen turkey, and of a light-reddifh brown or buff colour, with black wings and tail, accompanied with a glofs of green, the edges of the wing-feathers being of a whitifh ail the under parts of the body are white, with a flight caft of yellow ; the legs and feet pale flefh-colour ; but what conftitutes the peculiar ornament of the bird is the vivid colouring of the head and neck, which are bare of feathers. This beautiful fpecies is a native of many parts of South America, and is alfo found in the Weft Indies: it feeds on carrion, like the reft of the tribe, and occafionally preys on feveral of the fmaller ani- mals, as lizards, &c. Monacuus, Monk Vulture. With gibbous crown, and black body; or brown vulture, with lengthened ruff, and downy occipital creft. This is the crefted black vulture of Edwards ; the cinereous or Arabian vulture of Latham; and vautour, or grand vautour of Buffon. This bird is an inhabitant of the deferts of Arabia, and is faid to be not un- common in the Pyrenean mountains. Aura, the Brown-greyifh Vulture. With black wing- feathers, and white bill; or blackifh vulture, with pice and green reflexions, and red, naked, papillated and wrinkled head and neck. . This is the tzepilotl of Hernandez; the aruba, &c. of Willughby and Marcgrave; the gallinazo of Ulloa; the turkey-buzzard of Catefby ; and the carrion- crow of Sloane ; the carrion-vulture of Pennant and Latham ; and vautour de Brafil of Buffon. Some fay that there are two diftin& {pecies, viz. the V. aura, whichis of a blackifh- brown, and the V. uruba, which is entirely black, the bill, head, and neck excepted, which latter is moft prevalent in South America. Gmelin mentions a variety, black, with brown wing-feathers, and cinereous bill. This fpecies, with fome variations, appears to be generally diflufed over the whole continent of South America, but moftly in the warmer regions. In fome parts of Britifh America it is popularly called the turkey-buzzard, and in other parts carrion-crow. It is fomewhat {maller than a turkey ; it feeds on every kind of animal matter, and is highly efteemed in the Weit Indies on account of its aétivity in clearing away fubftances that might otherwife render the air noxious in thofe warm climates. In confequence of ‘this mode of life, the birds themfelves have alwaysa very offenfive odour. According to Mr. Pennant, thefe birds are common from Nova Scotia to Terra del Fuego, and though they are mif- chievous in attacking and dafiroying cattle in a weak or difeafed ftate, they are beneficial in leffening the number of alligators, which would otherwife become imtolerable by their multitudes. 4H2z CINEREUS, VULTUR. Cinertus, the Brown-blackifh Vulture. With wing and tail-feathers yerging towards cinereous, and legs covered with brown feathers. _ This is referred by Shaw to the V. monachus. It is the V. cinereus of Ray ; the cinereous or afh-coloured V. of Willughby and Latham. It inhabits high mountains of Europe. Gmelin fuggetts it to be a va- riety of percnopterus. ' Fuscus, the Brown Vulture. With wing-feathers brown or blackifh, the primary white at the apex {potted with brown, and tail-feathers grey-brown, and naked legs. This is the vautour de Malta of Buffon, and found in Europe, chiefly in the ifland of Malta. Gmeiin queftions whether it be different from the percnopterus ? 7 Nicer, Black Vulture. With wing and tail-feathers brown, and legs covered with black feathers. This is de- fertbed as larger than the golden vulture, of a black colour, and is faid to be common in Egypt and Sardinia. Gmelin fuggefts that it is a variety of percnopterus, and Dr. Shaw alfo inclines to think that it is a variety. LeucocerHatus, Vulture. With {nowy feathers, wing and tail black, with a white ruff. This is the white or ci- nereous vulture of Willughby, and the vautour de Norvege of Buffon; found in Sardinia and Norway ; and fuggelted to be a variety. Futvus, Vulture. From grey to reddifh above, head, neck, aud ruff white, wing and tail-feathers black ; or fulyous- chefnut vulture, with black wing and tail-feathers, downy whitifh head and neck, and white ruff. his is the V. falvus of Briffon, the fulvous V. and golden V. of Wil- lughby, and le griffon of Buffon. This is one of the Jargeit of the genus, exceeding the fize of the golden eagle. The general colour of the plumage, when the bird is in its beft itate, is a full rufous or tawny chefnut ; the legs and feet are afh-coloured. This bird, often confounded with others, is found in the mountains of Perfia. Prrcnorrerus, Vulture. With black wing-feathers, the exterior margin, that of the outmoft excepted, greyith or hoary ; or white V. (the female brownifh) with length- ened narrow beak, naked face, and black wing-feathers with grey edges. This is the V. (percnopterus) with naked head and plump throat, or Egyptian mountain-falcon of Haffel- quift ; the aquiline V. of Albin. ; the vulterine eagle of Al- drovand. ; and the rachamah of Bruce’s Travels. Its fize, ac- cording to Gefner, is that of a ftork. Shaw thinks it pro- bable, that the rachamah of Bruce, the Angola vulture of Pennant, the afh-coloured vulture of Latham, and the petit vautour or vautour de Norvege of Buffon, are in reality the fame fpecies, and conftitute the male V. percnopterus of Linnzus. He alfo inclines to believe that the Maltefe V. of Latham, or vautour de Malte of Buffon, is merely the female of this {pecies. If this be the cafe, the V. percnop- terus feems to be a pretty general inhabitant of the old con- tinent, being found not only in many of the temperate and warmer parts of Europe, but in various parts of Afia and Africa. It is plentiful in Egypt, where it is efteemed for its beneficial fervices in deftroying various putrid fub{tances in the vicinity of towns and cities. Its general fize is that of a female turkey, but in this re{pect it varies in different countries. The male alfo varies in the caft of its colour, which is fometimes nearly white, and fometimes a dirty pale rufous-jwhite ; the quills are black, but the fecondaries are externally of the fame colour with the reft of the plumage. The female is faid to exceed the male in fize. Bruce in- forms us, that it is a very great violation of order, or police, to kill any of thefe birds near Cairo. Cristatus, the Crefted Vulture. From reddifh to blackifh, the breaft more inclining to red, the legs naked, ‘This is the brown vulture of Willaghby and Latham. It is found in thick and defert forefts. Barsarus, or Barsatus. The vulture brown to black, underneath white inclining to brown, woolly legs, lead-coloured toes, and brown nails ; or blackifh-brown V, fubfulvous beneath, with the head and neck covered by lan- ceolate whitifh plumes, and the bill bearded beneath. ‘This is the bearded V. of Edwards and Latham. It is one of the largeft of the European vultures, and is principally ob- ferved among the Alps of Switzerland, where it is called lammer-geyer, or lamb-vulture.. It is defcribed and figured in the works of Gefner, under the title of V. aureus. It exceeds the golden eagle in fize. This f{pecies feems to be a native of the wilder regions both of Afia and Africa, and feems to be recorded by Mr. Bruce under the name of ‘niffer-werk.”? Mr. Bruce’s defcription, for which we refer to the Appendix to his Travels, affords a {triking in- {tance of the boldnefs and voracity of this bird. This vul- ture is faid to build in the inacceflible cavities of lofty rocks, and they fometimes aflemble in {mall flocks about the mountainous regions of the countries which they inhabit. Dr. Shaw mentions fome other f{pecies, befides thofe that are above enumerated. Ca.irornianus, Black Vulture. With whitifh beak ; head and neck unfeathered, and of a pale colour ; the plumes of the collar and breaft lanceolate. This bird is one of the largeft of the genus, and approaches to the fize of the con- dor. It was brought over from the coaft of California, and is now in the Britifh Mufeum. Avricutatus, Brown Vulture. With naked neck, {kin of the ears lengthened, and pale ruff. This is the oricou of Levaillant, and it is a very large bird, meafuring ten feet from one wing’s end to the other: its general colour is brown, the throat being black, and covered with coarfe hairs. Thefe birds inhabit the fouthern parts of Africa, and are of a gregarious nature, aflembling in large flocks about the caverns of the rocky mountains, where they breed. This bird is very voracious, and when attacked or wounded defends itfelf with furprifing ftrength and refolution ; but it is naturally of an indolent and fluggifh character. Ponricertanus, Black Vulture. With nearly naked flefh-coloured head and neck, and a flefhy red caruncle down each fide of the neck. It is the vautour royal de Pondi- cherry of Sonnerat, whence its name. Its fize is that of a very large goofe, with black bill and yellow legs; and is a native of India, particularly about Pondicherry. Inpicus, Brown Vulture. With naked, rufous head and neck, and black wing and tail-feathers. It is the Indian V. of Latham, and le grand vautour des Indes of Sonnerat. It is of the fize of the preceding, and native of India, ex- tremely voracious, principally frequenting the fea-banks, and preying upon dead fifh and other putrid fubftances; and, like other birda of this genus, fometimes aflembling in vait numbers on a field of battle. Castaneus, Chefnut Vulture. © With whitifh downy head and neck, brownifh ruff, and black wing and tail- feathers. This is the percnoptere of Buffon, and differs little from the fulvous vulture, fo that it might be thought to be amere variety of that {pecies. This bird is remarka-~ ble for a brown fpot fhaped like a heart, and edged with a {traight white line, fituated on the breaft under the ruff. It is deformed in figure, and difgufting in appearance, from a continual flux of rheum from its noltrils, and of faliva from two other holes in the bill. According to Buffon, it is of the fize of an eagle, and an inhabitant of the Alps and Py- renees, and of the mountains of Greece. GinGINIANUS, White Vulture. With black wing- feathers, VUL feathers, and grey beak and legs. The vautour gingi of Sonnerat, who fays it is of the fize of a turkey, and is found about the coafts of Coromandel. Its flight is {trong and rapid, and its voracity infatiable : it lives on carrion and reptiles; is generally feen fingle and in marfhy places. Prancus, Whitifh Vulture. With tranfverfe blackifh lines, brown wings, and flightly crefted black crown. This is the V. plancus of Latham, the falco plancus of Lin- nzus and Gmelin, the plaintive eagle and plaintive vulture of Latham. It is a native of Terra del Fuego. Cuertway, Vulture. With rofe-coloured cere, yellow legs, ferruginous body, and whitifh head with ferruginous ereft, This isa kind of doubtful fpecies, which may be confidered either as a vulture or aneagle. Jacquin firft de- {cribed it, after having obferved it in the ifland of Aruba, near the coaft of Venezuela in South America. The following fpecies are denominated by Dr. Shaw doubtful: wiz. Tawny Vulture of Latham, faid to be a native of Falk- fand iflands, with very fhort bill, large cere, and chin flightly bearded. Hare Vulture, probably a fpecies of eagle rather than vulture. Armed Vulture. Mentioned by Brown in his African tra- vels, and faid to be very frequent in the country of Darfur, flying about by thoufands, and devouring all kinds of car- rion, &c. Bold Vulture of Latham, fo bold as to attack the natives in New Holland, where it is called ‘* Boora Morang.”’ It is faid that there are no vultures in Great Britain, nor any north of the Baltic ; but the various fpecies are found in the fouthern parts of Europe, Afia, Africa, and Ame- rica, as low as Terra del Fuego. They are a fluggifh un- generous race, preying oftener on dead animals, and even on putrid carcafes, than on living creatures: their fenfe of fmelling is moft exquifite : they colle& in flocks from great diftances ; and are direéted to their prey by the fagacity of their noftrils: they fly flowly and heavily ; are very greedy and voracious to a proverb ; and they are bold and fearlefs, preying in the midft of cities, undaunted by mankind. Pennant’s Genera of Birds, p. 2. The vulture was a bird confecrated to Mars and Juno ; and ufed among the Romans in the exercife of augury. Vuttur, Mons, (Mount Vulturno,) in Ancient Geogra- phy, a mountain of Italy, in Apulia, forming a chain which extends from the S.W. to the N.E. fouth of Ve- nufias We learn from Livy, that the inhabitants of the country called the wind which proceeded from this moun- tain Vulturnus ; which wind is faid to have blown in the faces of the Romans during the battleof Cannz. But Po- lybius does not mention this circumftance; and it appears that the Romans were to the S., and the Carthaginians to the N., fo that the faces of the former were turned towards the N. or the E. Accordingly, the wind of which Hanni- bal fpeaks, was one of the collateral winds, which the an- cients called Vulturnus, and which was E.S.E. Horace fpeaks of this mountain in one of his Odes (lib. iti. od. 4.) ; and Lucan alfo mentions it (lib. ix. v. 183.) VULTURIA, or Vutrurtna, a fortified place in Gallia Cifalpina, S.E. of Cremona; which furrendered to the Lombards. VULTURIUS, among the Romans, a throw of the ¢aii, otherwife called canis. See Tararius Ludus. Alfo, an epithet given to Apollo, from a whimfical cir- cumitance, which was that of releafing a poor fhepherd, who had been deferted with ftolen treafure by his companion, and left in the cavern of a rock, from which he had no UVU means of afcending. Apollo advifed him to wound his body with a flint, upon which a number of vultures, al- lured by the {cent of blood, flocked round him, and plant- ing their bills in his wounds and cloaths, mounted upwards with him, and delivered him from the cave. The fable fur- ther reports, that the other fhepherd was fentenced to death by the Ephefian magiftrates, and the furvivor having re- ceived by their award half the gold which was found in the cave, and which his companion had purloined, built with it, upon the mountain where the adventure had occurred, a temple in honour of his deliverer, under the name of Apollo Vulturius. Vuvturius Lapis, a name given by many to the ftone called guandros. VULTURNALIA. See Votturnatia. VULTURNIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fitua- ted between Sicily and the coalt of Africa, according to the Itin. of Anton. VULTURNUM, atown of Italy, at the mouth of the Vulturnus. VULTURNUS, (Le Vulturne,) a river of Italy, in Campania. It commenced towards the north, in Samnium, _ among the Caracenians, and for a long interval feparated Samnium from Campania. At Benevento, it turned to the W.., and difcharged itfelf into the fea. Towards the fea, on the right of the river, was the territory of Falerna, on this fide of mount Mafficus, which was celebrated for its excellent wine; but in the time of Pliny it was negleéted, and began to decline in reputation ; that of the vineyard of Fauttinus being more efteemed. Livy informs us, that in the fecond Punic war, a fort was erected at the mouth of this river, which afterwards became a town, in which was eftablifhed a Roman colony. Varro gives this town the name of a colony. VULTUS de Luca, the fame with veronica. VULVA, quafi Valve, doors, a name which fome phy- ficians give to the vagina, and others to the uterus, or womb. Vutva is fometimes alfo ufed for the cunnus, or whole udendum muliebre. VUNENA, a name given by the people of Guinea to a kind of catch-fly, or lychnis, common in that part of the world, and much ufed by them in a decoétion to cure {well- ings of the legs. Petiver has called it /ychnis Guineenfis frudu caryphylloide foliis roris marini, hirfutis, angujtioribus. Phil. Tranf. N° 232. VUOD, in Mythology, a god of the Arabians. VURNWEY, in Geography, a river of North Wales, in the county of Montgomery, which runs into the Severn, on the borders of Shropfhire. VUSHOUG, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 60 miles N. of I{pahan. UVSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of To- bolfk, on the Irtifch ; 68 miles N. of Tobolfk. VUTSHIM, a town of Sclavonia; 18 miles N. of Pefoega. UVULA, in Anatomy, the {mall conical body, project- ing from the middle of the foft palate. See Drcrurtirion. Uvura, Difeafe and Amputation of. When the uvula is permanently elongated, fo as to interrupt {wallowing, and occafion uneafinefs in the throat, coughing, vomiting, &c. it is proper to remove the redundant part. Slight relaxations of the uvula may generally be cured by aftringent gargles, compofed of the infufion of rofes, alum, tinture of bark, &c. ‘When, however, the inconvenience cannot be removed by fuch means, the fuperfluous portion of the uvula may be cut off with a pair of fharp os ne UVULARIA. The fear of hemorfhage, and the recommendation of the ligature, in thefe cafes, are almoft abfurd, notwithftanding the contrary ftatements of a few modern writers. UVULARIA, in Botany, a genus eftablifhed and named. by Linnzus, is recorded, Philof: Bot. 168, to owe this ap- pellation to the refemblance of its inflorefcence to the uvula, “ figura inflorefcentie uvula.’”’ Now this not being the cafe with the genus in queftion, though Linnzus fays, in Hort. Cliff. 121, “ frudiificatio uvule inflar dependet,’? we might have wandered far in fearch of a meaning, or, like our predeceffors, _ been content with little or no enquiry, had we not flumbled, at the outfet, upon Uvularia as an old fynonym for Ru/cus Hypoglofium, to which the firft explanation is obvioufly ap- plicable, on account of the diminutive leaf, not unlike the uvula of the human throat, lying over the inflorefcence. Perhaps, therefore, Linnzus, finding this name unoccu- pied, was the more induced to adopt it for his new genus, on account of the affinity, and refemblance in general habit, of the latter to Ru/cus. We cannot juftify the meafure, but it is, at any rate, preferable to deriving the name, as a di- minutive, from Uvarra, (fee that article,) according to the explanation of De Theis. ‘This indeed would be even lefs intelligible, the Uvaria and Uvularia having no charaéters in common; it would alfo be totally inadmiffible, no gene- ric names being more contrary to rule, or good fenfe, than diminutives of others already eftablifhed. (See VALE- ~RIANELLA and Fepra.)—Linn. Gen. 164. Schreb. 219. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 93. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 246. Purfh 231. Juff. 48. Lamarck Tluftr. t. 24.7. f. 2.—Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn. Lilia, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals fix, inferior, oblong- lanceolate, acute, ere&t, flraight, very long. Neétary an oblong groove in the bafe of each petal internally. Stam. Filaments fix, fhort, rather broad; anthers vertical, longer than the filaments, erect, oblong, about half the length of the corolla, Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; {tyle one, divided half way down into three parts, thread-fhaped, longer than the flamens ; ftigmas fimple, reflexed, longitudinally downy. Peric. Capfule ovate-oblong, triangular, of three cells and three valves, each with a central partition. Sveds feveral, nearly globular, with a tunicated fcar. Eff. Ch. Corolla of fix upright petals, inferior. Neary a chink in the bafe of each. Stamens fhorter than the co- rolla. Stigmas reflexed. Capfule triangular, of three valves, with central partitions. Seeds feveral, globofe, with a tunicated {car. Obf. From this genus is now feparated the U. amplexifo- fia of Linnzus. (See Srrepropus.) The genuine f{pecies are perennial herbaceous plants, with alternate, fimple, un- divided, entire, fimple-ribbed eaves. Flowers axillary or terminal, folitary or umbellate, drooping, yellow, whitifh, or brown. They are all ftrangers to Europe, inhabiting rather mountainous umbrageous fituations, in temperate cli- mates, and flowering early in the year. They are obvioufly allied to Fritillaria, but have not flat feeds, nor are the /fa- mens equal in length to the corolla. 1. U. perfoliata. Pale Perfoliate Uvularia. Pl. 437.) Willd. n. 4. Ait..n. 3. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 95. t. 49. (U. perfoliata minor ; Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 199.)—Leaves perfoliate, ellip- tical, obtufe with a {mall point. Corolla bell-fhaped, rough on the infide. Anthers pointed.—Native of North Ame- riea; in fhady woods, among rocks, in rich vegetable mould, from Canada to Carolina, flowering in May and June. BPurfh. Root of feveral f{preading, tapering, flefhy, pale fibres. Stem folitary, annual, ereét, twelve or Linn. Sp. Purfh ns 1. Sm. fifteen inches high, round, fmooth, leafy; often a little branched, or fubdivided, in an alternate manner. Leaves perfoliate at near half an inch from their bafe, where they-are quite flat, not undulated ; they are two inches long, fmooth on both fides ; paler, and rather glaucous, beneath. Flowers terminal, folitary, pendulous, on fhort ftalks. Petals three- quarters of an inch, or an inch, long, of a pale greenifh buff-colour ; their inner furface rough with yellowifh protu- berances. Neétariferous furrow linear, and very fmall. Stamens full half as long as the petals. Anther about the length of its filament, burfting longitudinally at the inner fide of each cell, and tipped with an awl-fhaped point. The fynonyms colleéted under this fpecies belong to va- rious others, which Linnzus, in his early acquaintance with the genus, confidered as all the fame, nor have they hither- to been reduced entirely to order, though much has been done to that effeé&t in the Exotic Botany, as well as by Mr. Purfh. Polygonatum latifolium perfoliatum Brafilianum, Bauh. Prodr. 136, defcribed as “‘ two cubits high, with perfoliate leaves, two inches broad, and four long, and a large white flower, whofe narrow petals, five in number, are two inches long,’’ cannot be clearly referred to any known {fpecies. The {pecimen is reported to have been obtained by Burfer from Toupinambault, in Brafil, and Linneus, by a mark in his copy of Bauhin’s Prodromus, appears to have feen it. He hints, by a note in the Sp. Plant., that Burfer’s fuppofed Brafilian plants all feemed to have really come from Canada. However this may be, Linnzus’s own herbarium fhews that he confounded fpecimens of different {pecies, as well as their fynonyms, under U. perfoliata, and therefore we dare not confide in him for the above reference, which poflibly appertains to fome plant unknown to modern botanifts. See n. 3- 2. U. flava. Small Yellow Uvularia. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1.97. t. 50. Purfhn.2. Ajit. Epit. 376. (U- perfoliata ~; Ker, late Gawler, in Curt. Mag. t. 955. U. caule perfoliato ; Gron. Virg. 51, according to Clayton’s defcription. _Anonymos pudica; Walt. Carol. 223.)— Leaves perfoliate, elliptic-oblong, bluntifh ; waved at the bottom. Corolla tapering at the bafe ; rough on the infide. Anthers pointed.—In fhady woods, on a fandy foil, from New Jerfey to Lower Carolina, flowering in May and June. Purfh. We have no doubt of this being a very dif- tin& {pecies from the former. The /eaves are more oblong, and more revolute ; angular or wavy at the bafe. Flower larger, more taper and elongated, with narrower, fharper getals, one inch and a quarter long, yellow, with orange- coloured granulations on the inner furface. Point of the anthers longer and more confpicuous. 3. U. grandiflora. Large Yellow Uvularia. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 99. t.51. Ait. n.4. Purfhn.3. Curt. Mag. t. 1112. (U. perfoliata; Redout. Liliac. t. 184, with many erroneous fynonyms. _U. perfoliata major ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1.199. U. lanceolata; Ait.n.2. Willd. n. 3. Polygonatum ramofum, flore luteo majus; Cornut. Canad. 38. t.39. Barrel. Ic. t.723. Sigillum indicum flore luteo; Stap. in Theophr. 1067. f. 3.)—Leaves per- foliate, oblong, acute ; wavy at the bafe. Petals fmooth on both fides. Anthersalmoft pointlefs. Ne€tary roundifh. —On fhady hills, in a fertile foil, and among#t rocks, from Canada to Carolina, flowering in June. Purfb. Nearly twice the fize of the laft; the /eaves more oblong and taper- pointed, as well as more wavy, and in fome degree plaited, at the bafe. Flowers of a brighter yellow; their petals full an inch and a half long, more confpicuoufly ribbed, def- titute of internal granulations, and furnifhed with a green roundifh neétariferous depreffion, more like that of a Fritil- > UVULARIA. daria, at the bale. Anthers longer, and quite linear, with but a flight membranous rudiment of a point, not al- ways difcernible. This flowers in our gardens nearly a month earlier than either of the laft. We humbly prefume that if any two fpecies of any genus be diftin&, this and the + Heed to fay nothing of fava, mutt be fo, or botany will prove a moit uncertain ftudy. The truth is, that no competent botanift had, tilllately, feen them together, in a fufficiently perfeét ftate for difcrimination. Bauhin’s Poly- gonaium, mentioned under our firft {pecies, may poflibly be the grandiflora, the petals being fuppofed white, from their appearance when dry, and being commonly no more than five in the lowermoft flower of our plant. Mr. Purfh has verified the /anceolata of Mr. Aiton, by an authentic {peci- men. Indeed the fynonym of Cornuti fufficiently determines that point. 4. Uz feffilifolia. Seffile-leaved Uvularia. Linn. Sp. Pl437. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n.5. Purfh n. 4. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. t. ror. t. 52. Curt. Mag. t. 1402.—Stem fmooth. Leaves {feffile, elliptic-lanceolate ; glaucous be- neath. Petals imooth on both fides. Neétary oblong. Capfule ftalked.—In fhady woods, from Canada to Caro- lina, flowering in May and June. The fize of this f{pecies, and the pale colour of its flower, moft accord with U. per- foliata, but its effential difference from all the preceding confifts in the eaves being feffile, not in any manner perfo- liate. They are fometimes very finely downy beneath, or rather atthe edges. Petals rather {patulate, with a greenifh oblong zedéary, and no roughnefs. Anthers very flightly pointed. Stem {mooth, purplifh. All thefe fpecies thrive in moift fhady borders of bog-earth, with a portion of loam, and as the herbage dies down to the root, furvive our ordi- nary winters without injury. U. /efflis, Thunb. Jap. 135, is probably diftin& from our /e/fflifolia, but the author fur- nifhes no difcriminating characters. 5~ U. puberula. Downy Uvularia. Michaux Boreal.- Amer. y. 1.199. Purfh n. 5.—Stem rather downy. Leaves feffile, ovate ; rounded at the bafe. Petals {mooth on both fides.— Found by Michaux, on the loftieft mountains of Ca- rolina. He defcribes it as related to the laft, but diftin& in its petals, being rather larger, though in like manner fmooth on the infide, tapering at the upper part into an acute point. The /eaves are green on both fides, partly em- bracing the flem. We have a fpecimen gathered by Mr. Menzies on the weft coaft of North America, which an- fwers exaétly to this defcription. The /eaves are truly ovate, pointed, having ftrong ribs, conneéted by confpicu- ous tranfverfe veins, and are nearly twice the fize of the laft. The fem is reddifh, befprinkled with loofe hairs. Flower-flalks hairy, as is likewife the /lyle. Anthers linear, pointlefs, like thofe of the grandiflora. This fpecimen an- fwers in foliage and inflorefcence to U. lanuginofa, Curt. Mag. t. 1490, our SrREPTOPUS, n. 3 ; but the fower-flalks and /yle are there reprefented {mooth. 6. U. hirta. airy Uvularia. Thunb. Jap. 136. Willd. n. 2.—* Stem fhaggy. Leaves hairy, clafping the ftem.”—Gathered by Thunberg, near Jedo, in Japan. The flem is round, a foot high, ereét, the thicknefs of a quill, and clothed with long denfe hairs. Leaves alternate, fpreading, heart-fhaped, oblong, pointed, feven-ribbed, two inches long, clothed with very fhort hairs. F/owers not ob- ferved. Thunberg. 9. U. cirrhofa. 'Tendril-leaved Uvularia. Thunb. Jap. 136. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves feffile, linear, each ending in a tendril— Found by Thunberg, in Japan. ‘ Stem round, jointed, ftriated, {mooth, fimple, ere&. Leaves two from the fame bud, fmooth, a finger’s length. Fvowers from the fame bud as the leaves, flalked, drooping. Footflalk ve- flexed, fingle-flowered, the fength of the nail. Petals fix, oblong, yellow, nearly an inch long. Filaments half that length, white. Anthers oblong, two-lobed, within the flower. Style one, rather fhorter than the corolla, but longer than the ftamens. Stigmas three, reflexed.”” Thun- berg. This defcription does not leave any doubt refpe@ting the generic charaéter, but it does not exprefs whether the flowers are folitary, as in all the American genuine Uvularia, or aggregate, as in the following oriental doubtful ones. _ There being two /eaves from one bud with the flowers, is remarkable, but the author has not clearly exprefled whe- ther thefe are all the leaves borne by one fem, of which his defcription excites fome fufpicion. Mr. Gawler { Ker) has defcribed in Curt. Mag. t. 916, an U. chinenfis, of which we were favoured, in May 1811, with an authentic fpecimen from the ftove at Kew. This may be defined—flowers in an umbel, feflile on the foot- {talk of aleaf. It is reported to be a native of China. The Jfiem 1s herbaceous, about eighteen inches high, angular, {mooth, leafy, a little zigzag, branched alternately in the upper part. eaves alternate, on fhort ftalks, ovato-lan- ceolate, pointed, many-ribbed, {mooth, two or three inches long ; three of their ribs ftronger than the reft. Umbel of three or four drooping flowers, feffile on the footftalk of one of the leaves ; its partial falks about half an inch long, with feveral roughifh angles. Petals pointed, brown, twice as long as the ftalks; f{mooth within, all elongated and gib- bous, almoft f{purred, at the bafe. Filaments two or three times the length of their anthers, both together nearly equal to the petals. Germen turbinate, triangular. Sfy/e nearly as long as the /famens, with three recurved fligmas. Nothing is known of the fruit. The clofe affinity of this plant to one we fhall now defcribe, which is certainly no Uvularia, will not allow us to admit either into our lift of {pecies. We allude to a fpecimen gathered by Dr. Buchanan, on the moift banks of rivers at Chitlong, in Upper Nepaul, in April 1802. This bears its flowers in a {talked umbel, from the footftalk of a leaf.—The /fem and leaves clofely accord with the Chinefe fpecies juft defcribed ; but the umbels, con- fifting of feven or eight green flowers, are each fupported by a common deflexed fall, almoft as long as the partial ones, and, like them, rough-edged. Peta/s but half the length of the ftalks, gibbous, and almoft tubular at the bafe ; the three outermoft a little the broadeft and fhorteit. Filaments thrice the length of the anthers, which are linear, cloven at each end. Stigmas three, recurved, deeply fepa- rated. Berry, according to Dr. Buchanan, three-lobed, of three cells, with folitary feeds. Such a fruit cannot belong to Uvularia. Thefe two f{pecies mutt therefore, in the pre- fent ftate of our knowledge, be referred to STREPTOPUS, (fee that article,) to which we would make the following additions. 2. S. rofeus. (Uvularia rofea; Curt. Mag. t. 1489. )— Flowered in Kew-garden, in May 1812. The flowers are bigger than thofe of S. amplexifolius, and are elegantly {potted with red. 3. S- Januginofus. (Uvularia lanuginofa; Curt. Mag. t. 1490-)—Brought from North America by Mr. Lyon, with whom it flowered in May 1812. The flowers ftand in pairs, their falks flightly combined at the bafe. Stamens but half the length of the narrow green petals. 4. S. chinenfis. Brown Chinefe Streptopus. (Uvularia chinenfis; Curt. Mag. t. 916. Ait. n. 6.)—Leaves on fhort ftalks. Umbels feffile. See its defcription above. 5. S. peduncularis. Long-ftalked Streptopus. (Uvu- laria Pitfutu ; Buch. MSS. )—Leaves on fhort ftalks. On bels UX A bels on general ftalks, nearly as long as the partial ones. Of this alfo we have juft given a defcription. We know nothing of the fhape of the /eds in this {pecies, nor whether they are furnifhed with any appendage, or tunic, at their fear. If they fhould prove to want this character, that circum- ftance, added to the gibbous, almoft tubular, neétariferous bafes of their petals, and the great comparative length of their filaments, with refpeé&t to the anthers, might almott lead to their eftablifhment as a new genus. Before this could be done, however, we ought to be well acquainted with the fruit, feeds, and their fear, in Streptopus lanuginofus, whofe twin flowers conneét thefe two umbellate {pecies with — the folitary inflorefcence of the S. amplexifolius and rofeus. The concluding paragraph of our article SrREPTOPUS fhould now be erafed. . Uvourarta, in the Materia Medica, the name given by authors to the plant called Aypogloffum, or double tongue. UUZEDERINA, in Geography, a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube ; 50 miles W. of Nicopolis. UWCHLAND, a townhhip of Pennfylvania, in Chefter county, containing 1178 inhabitants. UXACONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great Britain, in Antonine’s fecond Itin., marked between Uri- conium (Wroxeter) and Pannocrucium (at or near the river Penk, and town of Penkridge). Dr. Gale and Mr. Cam- den place Uxacona at Okenyale, and Mr. Baxter at New- port; but Mr. Horfley, following the tract of the military way, and obferving the diftance, fixes it at the banks of a rivulet near Sheriff-Hales. UXAHVER, Ox-sprine, a boiling fountain of water, about a mile from a place called Hufavik, in the north of Iceland, not far from Skalholt, more regular, and nearly equal to, the Geyfer in the magnificence of its operations. It is faid that this name was given to it from the circum- ftance of an ox having fallen into it by accident, and having been boiled alive. We fhall here add, that the Geyfers are celebrated foun- tains, about 16 miles N. of Skalholt, fituated in a country indicating many traces of volcanic eruptions. They lie on the fide of a hill, which does not exceed 300 feet in height, and which is feparated from the mountain towards the W. by a narrow ftripe of flat boggy ground, connected with that which extends over the whole valley. On the E. fide of the hill there are feveral banks of clay, from fome of which fteam arifes in different places, and in others there are cavities in which the water boils brifkly. Below thefe banks there is a gentle flope, compofed of matter, which, at fome diftant period, has been depofited by {prings that no longer exift. The ftrata or beds thus formed feem to have been broken by the fhocks of earthquakes, particularly near the Great Geyfer. Within the fpace of about a mule there are numerous orifices in the old incruftations, from which boiling water and fteam iffue, with different degrees of force ; and at the northern extremity is the Great Geyfer, fuffi- ciently diftinguifhable from the others by every circumftance connected with it. Amidft the depofitions of matter is a mount about feven feet high, lying on the W. fide, wherea difruption has taken place. On the top of this mount is a bafon, extending 56 feet in one dire€tion, and 46 in another. ‘The bafon was fl of hot water, a little of which was run- ning over. Above the Great Geyfer, and near it, is a large irregular opening, the beauties of which it is hardly poff- ble to defcribe. The water which filled it was as clear as cryftal, and perfeétly ftill, though nearly at the boiling point. Through it were feen white incruftations, forming a variety of figures and cavities, to a great depth ; and be- low was perceived a vaft and dark aby{s, over which the 7 UX A cruft that fupported the obfervers formed a dome of no great thicknefs ; a circumltance which contributed much to the effeét of this awful fcene. Near this fpot are feveral holes, from which vapour continually rifes; and from one of which a rumbling noife proceeded. One of the moft re- markable of thefe f{prings threw out a great quantity of water ; and from its continual noife it was called the Roar- ing Geyfer. The eruptions of this fountain were inceflant. The water dafhed out with fury every four or five minutes, and covered a great {pace of ground with the matter it de- pofited. The jets were from thirty to forty feet high. They were fhivered into the fineft particles of {pray, and fur- rounded by great clouds of fteam. The fituation of this {pring was eighty yards diftant from the Geyfer, on the fide of ahill. It is probable that an earthquake has damaged the mechanifm of this {pring, or the produétion of heat, at the particular {pot where it is fituated, has ceafed to be fuf- ficient to produce the phenomena which it formerly exhi- bited. In colle€ting incruftations near the bafon, and ftriking on its brink many blows with a hammer, a found was heard like the diftant difcharge of a piece of ordnance, and the ground fhook. The found was irregularly and rapidly repeated ; and then the water, after having feveral times fuddenly rifen in a large column, accompanied by clouds of fteam, from the middle of the bafon to the height of ten or twelve feet, the column feemed as if it burft, and fink- ing down, it produced a wave which caufed the water to overflow the bafon in confiderable quantity. After the firft propulfion, the water was thrown up again to the height of about 15 feet ; and there was a fucceffion of jets, to the num- ber of eighteen, none of which appeared to exceed fifty feet in height, and they lafted about five minutes. After the laft jet, which was the moft furious, the water fuddenly left the bafon, and funk into a pipe in the centre. The heat of the bafon foon made it dry, and the wind blew afide the vapour almoft immediately after the {pouting ceafed. The pipe, into which the water had funk about ten feet, was imme- diately examined, and it appeared to be rifing flowly. The diameter of the pipe, or rather pit, is 10 feet, widening near the top to 16 feet. The perpendicular depth of the bafon is three feet, that of the pipe is fomewhat more than 6o feet. When the water was flill, ftones were thrown into the pipe, and a violent ebullition followed. The tem- perature of the water within reach, when the pipe was full, was found to be 299°. At repeated intervals frefh jets oc- curred, none of which exceeded 30 feet in height. But we have not room to enlarge in the detail of various other cir- cumitances obferved by thofe who examined thefe extraor- dinary fountains. ‘he depofitions of the prefent and former {prings are vifible to a great extent, about half a mile in every dire€tion, and they probably extend themfelves under the furface, now covered with grafs and water toa very confiderable diftance. Although hot fprings occur in every part of the country, the Geyfers are the moft remarkable, and muft have exilted for a loug time; but as they are fituated on the verge of that vaft diftri@ of uninhabited and defolate country which forms the interior of Iceland, they have not been parti- cularly noticed by the early Icelandic authors; nor are they now much vifited by the natives. In order to account for the phenomena exhibited by the operations of thefe {prings, it is fuppofed that they are occafioned by fudden produc- tions of heat, whatever may be the caufes of that heat. A column of water is fufpended in a pipe by the expanfive force of fleam confined in cavities under the furface. An additional quantity of fteam can only be produced by more heat being evolved. The heat is fuddenly evolved, and elaitic UXB elaftic vapour fuddenly produced, we may account for the explofions accompanied by noifes. The accumulation of fteam will caufe agitation in the column of water, and a far- ther production of vapour. The preflure of the column will be overcome ; and the fteam efcaping, will force the water upwards along with it. For a further account of thefe f{prings, and of the caufes that produce them, illuf- trated by appropriate engravings, we refer to Mackenzie’s Travels in Iceland, p. 211, &c. See Boiling Sprincs. UXAMA, (Ofma,) in Ancient Geography, a town in the interior of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Arevaci, S.E. of Clonia. UXAMABAREA, a town of Hifpania Citerior, be- longing to the Autrigones. Ptolemy. UXBRIDGE, in Geography, a market-town in the hundred of Elthorne, and county of Middlefex, England, is fituated 18 miles W. by N. from St. Paul’s cathedral, London. Though the mott confiderable town in the county, it is only a hamlet to the parifh of Hillingdon. The name of this place was anciently written Oxebruge, and in fubfe- quent records Woxebruge or Woxebrugge: the mode of ortho- graphy in prefent ule appears, however, to have been adopted for feveral centuries. The compound term of which this appellation was formed, appears eafy of explana- tion: the place was noted, in remote ages, for the paflage of oxen from the adjacent rich pafture lands of Buckingham- fhire, and a bridge was conftruéted over the river Colne at a very early period. Leland fays of this town—* In it is but one long ftreet, but that, for timber, well builded. There is a celebrate market once a week, and a great fayre on the feaft-day of St. Michael. There be two wooden bridges at the weft ende of the towne, and under the more wefte goeth the great arme of Colne river. The leffer arme goeth under the other bridge, and each of them ferve there a greate mille.” Uxbridge, at prefent, confifts principally of one long and wide ftreet: the greater part of the houfes are old; but there are feveral of modern conftru@ion, which are at once commodious and ornamental. The main ftream of the Colne, and feveral of its diverging branches, water the town on the Buckinghamfhire fide, where the principal channel is croffed by a fubftantial bridge of brick. Over the Grand Jun@tion Canal, which pafles the fame divi- fion of the town in its progrefs along the weftern border of Middlefex, is likewife a bridge of a fimilar defcription. The difference, as to the appearance and charaéter of the place, between the 16th century and the prefent period, thus feems to confift chiefly in the fubftitution of brick for timber, in the houfes and bridges. The moft memorable hiftorical event conneéted with Uxbridge, is the unfuccefs- ful treaty which here took place between commiffioners appointed, by the king on one fide, and by the parliament en the other, during the civil difturbances of the 17th cen- tury. Thefe commiffioners, fixteen on the part of the king, and twelve for the parliament, met in January 1645 ; all of them diilinguifhed noblemen or perfons of great emi- nence on each fide: commiffioners from the parliament of Scotland likewife attended the meeting. It was foon found that no rational difcuffion could be expeéted: the demands of the parliament were exorbitant, and their commiffioners were not inclined to accommodation: after twenty days paffed in debate, in which the refult appeared to be pre- determined, the commiffion was diffolved, and the decifion unhappily left to the fword. The manfion in which the commiffioners met is {till remaining, and is fituated at the weftern extremity of the town. It has been recently con- verted into an inn, bearing the fign of the Crown, and has undergone confiderable alterations. Two principal rooms Vor. XXXVII. UXB remain in their original ftate ; one of which, from tradition, and from its capacious dimeniions, appears to be that ufed by the commiffioners, To the prefent day, the building is termed the Treaty Houfe. This manfion, with the cere- monial and procedure of the commiflion, is particularly de- {cribed by lord Clarendon in his ‘“ Hiftory of the Great Rebellion.”” Uxbridge does not afford any public build- ings peculiarly interefting. Its chapel is an irregular edifice, chiefly compofed of flint and brick: it is in the pointed ftyle of architecture, but quite deftitute of the impofing beauty which that mode of building is capable of producing : its interior comprifes a chancel, a nave, and two aifles, divided by pointed arches. It is believed that a chapel exifted here fo early as the year 1281 ; but it is not men- tioned in the records of Hillingdon till 1469: yet, that Uxbridge did poflefs a chapel prior to the latter date is evident ; for, in 1447, Robert Oliver and other inhabitants founded a guild “in the chapel of St. Margaret at Wox- bridge ;?’ and in 1459 a chantry in this chapel was founded and endowed by fir Walter Shiryngton. In 1682, George Townfend, efq. taking into confideration that in fuch a femiey town the place of worfhip was deftitute of a uitable endowment, bequeathed certain tenements in Lon- don for the maintenance of a minifter to refide in or near Uxbridge : and in 1706, a houfe was built by the inhabit- ants for the ufe of the refident miniiter, on condition of his inftru€ting fix poor boys in reading and writing, or other- wife paying 6/. per annum to the churchwardens. This houfe is let by the prefent minifter, and fix boys are in- ftruted at his coft in the parochial {chool. Here are meet- ing-houfes for Quakers, Prefbyterians, and Methodifts. In 1695, George Pitt, efq. conveyed the manor of Ux- bridge, with its tolls and appurtenances, to certain inhabit- ants of the town, in truft, that the profits fhould be applied to charitable purpofes. This liberal grant is immediately connected with the f{chools for gratuitous education, of which there are two in the town, both much enlarged in 180g. The fchool for boys is affifted with fifty guineas annually from the fund ; and the girls’ {chool with twenty guineas ; and both are further aided by voluntary contri- butions. Two hundred boys and fixty girls are thug educated ; and the girls are clothed and further qualified to become valuable fervants. The Lancafter fyitem is adopted in each fchool; and both eftablifhments are accommodated with convenient fchool-rooms in the upper part of the mar- ket-houfe, which is an extenfive brick edifice, ereéted in 1789. Beneath it is a fpacious area for pitching corn, and for the refort of the farmers and dealers. Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, obtained, in 1294, the grant of a weekly market on Mondays, and an annual fair on the feaft of St. Michael. The market is now held on Thurfdays, and is one of the moit confiderable marts for corn in this part of the kingdom. A fair is ftill held on Michaelmas day for hiring fervants, &c., and here are three other fairs for cattle. ‘The internal police of the town is regulated by two bailiffs, two con- {tables, and four tything-men or headboroughs, In the furvey of the year 1811, the population of Uxbridge was returned as 2411, occupying 450 houfes. No manufactures of im- portance are cultivated ; but here are feveral corn-mills on a large fcale, and meal may be faid to form the chief trading purfuit of the town. Great advantages in trade arife from the market, and from the numerous feats in the vicinity. This town gives the title of earl to the Paget family, Henry lord Paget was created earl of Uxbridge in 1744: by the death of his grandfon, the title became extinét in 1769; but was revived in 1784, in the perfon of Henry Bailey, a coufin and heir of the deceafed, who had atures 4 I the UX B the name and acceded to the barony of Paget: the fon of this nobleman is now earl of Uxbridge, and has recently been created marquis of Anglefey, in confequence of his military achievements on the continent. At a fhort diftance from the town, on the eaftern fide of the road leading towards London, is the feat of Richard Henry Cox, efq. This manfion was erected in 1717 by the laft duke of Schomberg, who had refided feveral years in an ancient houfe on the eftate. It was afterwards the property and refidence of the Chetwynd family, and about 1785 was purchafed by the late marchionefs of Rockingham, who paffed the remainder of her life here. It was after- wards purchafed by Jofiah Du Pre Porcher, efq. who fold it to Mr. Cox, the prefent proprietor. On the border of Uxbridge Common, in the immediate vicinity of the town, is the refidence of Thomas Harris, efg. joint patentee of Covent Garden theatre. This is a fpacious brick dwelling, with extenfive gardens, on which the proprietor has been lavifh in embellifhments. One portion of this domain requires particular notice—a mimic hermitage, decked with fculpture, {pars, &c. opens to a fpacious room, in which are preferved portraits of the prin- cipal theatrical performers, from the date of Garrick to the prefent period. About one mile N.E. from Uxbridge, in the parifh of Ick- enham, is Swakeley or Swateley Houfe, the property and refi- dence of Thomas Clarke, efq. It was ereéted in 1638, by fir Edmond Wright, who, in 1641, was appointed lord mayor of London by the parliament, after the removal of fir William Aéton from that office. The manfion was afterwards fuc- ceffively the property of fir William Harrington, one of the judges of king Charles I., and of fir Robert Vyner, the facetious lord mayor of London, who entertained Charles II. at Guildhall. It was fubfequently the feat of Benjamin Lethieullier, efq. of whom it was purchafed in 1750, by the father of the prefent proprietor. The houfe, which is a fquare fubflantial ftru€ture, with two flightly projeéting wings, is compofed of brick, with ftone coinges, window- cafes, and finifhings. The entrance is through a porch in a fquare central turret, which opens into a hall paved with black and white ftone. Here is a carved f{ereen, furmounted by a buft of Charles I. A ftaircafe of oak, with the fides and cieling painted, leads to a fuite of apartments, in which capacious and well-proportioned dimenfions are pleafingly blended with an air of domeftic comfort. Within two miles of Uxbridge, on the fouth-weit, is Delaford-Park, the feat of Charles Clowes, efq. The an- cient manfion of Delaford, which ftood in a low and un- favourable f{pot, was taken down about the year 1790, and the park attached to it was added to the adjacent grounds belonging to Mr. Clowes, whofe dwelling occupies a more elevated {cite, and was partly built by the late vifcount Kil- kenny, but has been confiderably enlarged by the prefent owner. The village of Hillingdon, in which parifh Uxbridge is comprifed, is one mile diftant from the town, to the fouth- eaft, and contains many fubftantial and commodious houfes. The parifh church, which ftands on the fide of the high road, is an ancient ftru€ture, chiefly compofed of flint and ftone, having a fquare tower at the weft end, with an embattled parapet, and a bell-cafe of wooden frame-work : the interior is divided into a nave, chancel, and two aifles, feparated by o&angular pillars and pointed arches. Monuments: and other fepulchral memorials are unufually numerous, both in the church and cemetery, in confequence of the parochial connection of this place with Uxbridge. In the church- yard is the tomb of John Rich, efq. formerly a patentee of UXE Covent Garden theatre, well-known as the inventor of the Englifh harlequin, and for his excellent performance of that charaGter, under the aflumed name of Lun. On the north fide of the church is an ancient manfion, commonly called the Cedar-houfe, from the celebrated cedar-tree which grew in the garden. This tree was planted by Samuel Reynardfon, efq., who appears to have refided in this houfe from 1678 till his death in 1721. The firft in- troduétion of the cedar into England was in 1683 ; and it is probable, as Mr. Reynardfon was a naturalift, and had a curious garden of exotics, that this was one of the earlieft planted. It was accurately meafured in 1779, when its dimenfions were in perpendicular height fifty-three feet ; diameter of the horizontal extent of the branches, from eaft to welt, ninety-fix feet ; from north to fouth, eighty-nine ; girth of the trunk, clofe to the ground, fifteen feet fix inches, and at the height of fourteen feet and a half, juft under the divifion of the principal branches, fifteen feet eight inches. The girth of the larger branch, at a foot and a half from its divifion, was twelve feet ; it then divided into two fecondary branches; one of which was eight feet fix inches in girth, the other feven feet ten inches; the other principal branch, at its divifion, meafured ten feet in girth, and foon dividing, formed two fecondary branches, each five feet fix inches in girth. In September 1789, one of the largeft branches was broken off by a high wind, in confequence of which the tree was cut down. Above eighty years’ growth were difcernible beyond the centre- piece. The tree produced 450 feet of timber, fix loads and three-quarters of ftack-wood, and one hundred and a quarter of faggots. Mr. Lovett, a carpenter of Denham, purchafed the tree for 10/., and retailed it for 22/. 175. After the death of Mr. Reynardfon, the Cedar-houfe was the feat of general Rich Ruffell, who died in 1735. It is now the property of Richard Heming, efq., and in the occupation of Lacey Primatt, efq. At a fhort diftance from the church, to the fouth, is the reétory-houfe, a {pacious building, ereéted in 1604. It appears that a manfion on this {cite was formerly held by the bifhops of Worcefter as an inn, or refting-place, in their journeys to London. On Hillingdon Heath, a confiderable traé& of land to the fouth-eaft of the village, are feveral refpeétable villas, chiefly of a modern date. One of thefe, an old manfion, formerly occupied by the duke of Buccleuh, is now the refidence of Thomas Bent, efq. by whom it has been greatly improved, and who has been at a very confiderable expence in ameliorating part of the heath. In this vicinity is Hil- lingdon-Place, a feat ereéted by the late admiral Drake, and now in the occupation of the Mifs Fullers. On the fouth fide of the heath is a fpacious dwelling, built by the late Peter de Salis, count of the Roman empire, who refided here feveral years. This houfe ftands on an eftate ealled Coomes, alias Little London, and fometimes termed Hil- lingdon Park. The parifh of Hillingdon, exclufive of Uxbridge, was, in the year 1811, ftated to contain 419 houfes, and 2250 inhabitants.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. x. Middlefex. By J. N. Brewer, 1816. Lyfons’ Middlefex Parifhes, 4to. 1800. Uxsripee, a town of the ftate of Maffachufetts, in the county of Worcefter, containing 1404 inhabitants ; 35 miles W. of Bofton. UXELA, or Uxexra, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain, belonging to the Damnonii, the ancient inhabitants of Devonfhire and Cornwall ; fuppofed by Mr. Camden to have been fituated at Loftwithiel ; by Mr. Baxter, at Saltafh ; and by Mr. Horfley, at Exeter. Others have placed it on the river Parret, near Bridgewater. See DAMNonii. UXELLO- WV YOA UXELLODUNUM, a place which was the laft which Cxfar held in Gaul; but its fituation has been much dif- puted. Sanfon refers it to the territory of the Cadurci, or Cahors ; others have fixed it at Cadenac, upon the confines of Kouergue ; and others again at Luzeto, upon the Olt, but _below Cahors. But the pofition of Uxellodunum, and which unites the greateft number of fuffrages, is that of Pucach d’Iffola. Podium Uxelli” is the northern part of Querci, towards the frontier of Limofin. UXELUM, atown of the Selgove, placed both by Horf- ley and Baxter at Caerlaveroch near Dumfries; and this _ opinion is the more probable, becaufe the two names, Uxelum and Caerlaveroch, feem to be derived from Britifh words, which fignify a town near the fea-coaft. Carbantorium, placed by Camden at Gaerlaveroch, below Dumfries, was probably fituated where Dumfries now ftands, or near it. UXENA, a town of Hifpania, in Beetica. UXENTUM, a town of Italy, in the interior of Meffa- pia, belonging to the Sulentini; fituated S.W. of Hya- runtum. Ptol. UXENTUS, a mountain of India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptol. UXIA, a town of Afia, in the Perfide, at a fmall dif- tance from the fea. Ptol. ] UXII, a people of Afia, in the Elymaide. They inha- bited a territory on the other fide of the town of Suze, be- yond the Pafitigris, and on the confines of proper Perfide, according to Quintus Curtius and Arrian. The river Pafi- tigris had its fource in the mountains of the Uxians, ac- cording to Diodorus Siculus. Thefe people were divided into two nations: thofe who inhabited the plain were fubjeét to the Perfians, and of thefe Diod. Sic. fpeaks (1. xvii. c. 67.) Thofe who inhabited the mountains before the Per- fide maintained their liberty, and of them Strabo fpeaks (1. xv.) This author calls the country of the Uxians by the name of Uxia, and he fays that they were great robbers ; and Pliny gives them the fame charaéter. See Urit. UXITICO, in Geagraphy, a town on the fouth coalt of the ifland of Rhodes. N. lat. 36°9!/. E.long. 27° 34'. UXOR, in the Language of the Chemifis, the mercury of metals. This is the wife they fay, and fulphur is the huf- band. See Marirtus. UXORIUM, in Antiquity, a fine, or forfeit, paid by the Romans for not marrying. UXUML, or Oosumi, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the ifland of Kimo. N. lat. 32°. E. long. 133°. UYA, a {mall ifland near the weft coaft of Shetland. N. lat. 60° 43’. W. long. 1° 54!. VYAGRAYAHL, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo goddefs Parvati, confort of Siva. The name means tiger- mounted; this goddefs, like Cybele, being feen riding in a car drawn by liens or tigers, and turret-crowned. ; : VYAHRITIS, myftical words ufed by enthufiaftic Hin- doos in their abftraéted modes of worfhip called Jap, which fee. Every thing ternary being myfterious with the Hin- doos, the Vyahritis are of courfe three ; viz. bhur, bhuvah, fwer, or earth, fky, heaven. This triverbal phrafe is pro- foundly myftical. \ VYASA, in Biography, a perfonage of great celebrity and fanétity in the hiftory of the Hindoos, as arranger or com- piler of their facred books called the Veda. His real name is fuppofed to have been Dwapayana, or Krifhna Dwapay- ana; and his furname of Vyafa, or Divider, to have been given him from his great work. Awn incarnation of the god Vifhnu is fometimes mentioned as the arranger of the Hindoo {eriptures in their prefent form. In the eighteenth Purana, ealled Sri-Bhagavata, twenty-two incarnations of Vifhnu, UZE there called Krifhna, the Preferver, are enumerated ; the feven- teenth is thus noticed : “ As Vyafa he divided the Veda for the inftru€tion of mankind.” See Krisuna, Purana, and Sri-Buacavar. But this probably means that he aGed under the influence of immediate infpiration ; an idea fully concurred in by the numerous believers in the divine origin of the Vedas. It is ufual with the Hindoos to afcribe to Vyafa the Pu- ranas and Mahabarat, as well as the Vedas. (See Mana- BARAT and Purana.) But it is not credible that the talent and induftry of any human being, and we are not, in this in- ftance, required to believe in any fuperhuman aid, could effe& fo much. Nor, from internal evidence, is it poffible that they could have originated in the fame age. To Vyafa is likewife afcribed a celebrated and popular fyftem of philofophy, grounded wholly on the doétrines of the Veda, and thence named Vedanta; which fee. It is written in a very dogmatical, fententious ftile, and is very obfcure. A commentary by the learned Sankaracharya (fee his article) explains, however, in a very admirable man- ner, almoit every fentence and difficult word. The doétrines of Vyafa were expounded and fupported alfo by a difciple named Jaimini, who appears to have been cotemporary with his mafter. His fchool is called Mi- manfa, which fee, and JarmInI. It is not neceflary to inquire into the time in which an author flourifhed, who conneéts himfelf with works ftated to be thoufands of years old ; and on which confiderable dif- ferences of opinion exift among the beft informed. Nor is it very profitable to inquire after the family of a perfon be- lieved to have been an incarnation of a deity. It may, how- ever, be noticed, that fome books mention a fon of Vyafa named Sucha; Parafara his father, grandfon of Vafifhta, is mentioned in the Veda as an author of fome portions of the work ; but this is explained to mean that he was one of the Rifhis, or faints, to or through whom fuch portions were revealed by Brahma. See Risur and VasIsHTA. The encomiums on Vyafa fcattered through the poetical works on all fubjeéts, fince his embrace all throughout the Eaft, are endlefs. See an inftance of this in our article TRIVENI. UZAN, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, of the number of thofe which Ptolemy places between the river Bagradas and the river Tabraca. UZBEKS, or Ussexs, in alle ag a tribe of Tar- tars, who inhabit Kharafm, (which fee,) and Great Bu- charia, and who, according to Abulgafi, confift of four main ftocks, of which the Naimanes and Igures are known from the hiftory of Jenghis, Tchingis or Zingis khan. Thofe two hordes formerly dwelt, the former on the weftern fide of the native territories of Tchingis, and the latter in Turfan. Of their fettlement in Great Bucharia, and other circum- {tances relating to them, we have already given an account under that article. ‘They are faid to have derived their name from Uzbek, khan of Kipjak. UZECIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, S. of Adrumetum, and at a {mall diftance from Thyfdrus. UZEDA, or Ucepa, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, on the Karama ; 30 miles N. of Madrid. UZEL, atown of France, in the department of the North Coatts ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Loudeac. UZERCHE, a town of France, and principal place of a diftriét, in the department of the Correze ; 13 miles N.W. of Tulle. N. lat. 45°25!. E. long. 1° 39). UZE'S, a town of France, and principal place of a dif- tri&t, in the department of the Gard. Before the Revolution, 41 2 the UZE the fee of a bifhop ;, near it is a medicinal fpring, and a little below the bifhop’s palace is afpring which fupplies the aque- duG of Nifmes; 12 miles N. of Nifmes. N. lat. 44° 1/. E. long. 4° 30!. Uzzs. called alfo Kumanizans or Potoorzes, in Ancient Geography, are mentioned both by Herodotus and Strabo. At the period when hiftory records their aétivity as a nation, (A.D. 883,) that is, when, in conjunéction with the Kha- zares, they drove the Petfchenegrans from their homefteads, they had already extended themfelves from Alhava toward the mountains of Kitzig-tag, as far as the nether Volga. They now took the countries of the expelled Petfchenegrans into poffeffion, and one of their ftems feized the occupancy of the original abodes of the Khazares (fee Kuazares), on the weltern fide of the Volga and the Cafpian as far as Der- bent. In the eleventh century, they {pread into the eaftern parts of Europe. They wreited from the Petfchenegrans almoft all which they had hitherto poffeffed in that quarter of the globe, particularly the Krim, the countries between the Don and the Dnieper, with Moldavia and Walachia. After they had continued their ravages for a long time in Bulgaria, Thrace, Tranfylvania, and Hungary, and were ina great meafure brought to ruin, they at laft fettled in Hun- gary. ‘Towards the end of theeleventh century, they cap- tured the north-eaftern part of the Kuban from the Ruf- fians, who were at that time torn to pieces by inteftine diffentions. In the former half of the thirteenth century, they loft by the Tfhingifes, Moldavia, Valachia, and the Krim. In the year 1392, the Kumanians were numbered among the nations which belong to the ftate of Hungary; but from UZN that time they ceafe to be an hiftorical nation. The Petf- chenegrans above mentioned, named by themfelves Kengar or eagle were a powerful wandering nation on the rivers — Volga and Ural. They became firlt known in Europe by their marches into the Khazarian empire in 839, and by their wars in 867 with the Slavonians, a little time before made tributary to the Khazares. Driven from their feats by the Uzes and Khazares, they made themfelves mafters of the country between the Don and the Dniefter, and expelled thence the Hungarians fubje& to the Khazares. In the ele- venth century, they migrated towards Moravia, Bulgaria, and Thrace, and eftablifhed themfelves, after committing frequent ravages, in the countries of the Eaft Romans in Dardania and the lefler Scythia. At the clofe of the twelfth century, they pofleffed a part of Tranfylvania, and about that time they gradually vanifhed out of hiftory. Tooke’s Ruffia, vol. i. UZETTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gironde ; 6 miles W. of Bazas. UZIFIR, Uzurar, or Uzirur, in Chemiftry, a name which fome authors give to cinnabar. UZITA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, S.of Adrumetum. Ptolemy. UZKUND, in Geography. See URKEND. UZMEY, a diftrict of Dagheftan, fituated between two {mall rivers, extending about 60 verfts along the Cafpian, and about the fame diftance in breadth. See Da- GESTAN. UZNEK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir- beitzan ; to miles S. of Selmas. W. W W A letter peculiar to the northern languages and 9 people; as the Englifh, Dutch, Polifh, and others of Teutonic and Sclavonic original. The form and the found of qw are excluded from all the languages derived from the Latin; though it is not impro- bable, fays Dr. Johnfon, that by our w is exprefled the found of the Roman v, and Eolic f. However, the w is fometimes admitted into the French, Italian, &c. in proper names, and other terms borrowed from the languages in which it is originally ufed. In Englifh, the w is ufually a confonant; and as fuch, may go before all the vowels, except u; as in want, weapon, winter, world, &c. If it be a confonant, its found is uniform, Some gram- marians have doubted whether w ever be a confonant ; and not rather, as it is called, a double u or ou, as water may be refolved into ovater: but letters of the fame found are always reckoned confonants in other alphabets; and it may be obferved, fays Dr. Johnfon, that w follows a vowel 9 We eA reas without any hiatus or difficulty of utterance, as frofly winter. It is fometimes alfo a vowel; and, as fuch, follows any of the vowels a, e, 0; and unites with them into a kind of double vowel, or diphthong; as in Jaw, ewe, fow, &c. The Englifh w is founded as in Latin u, in quantum, fuadeo, lingua. Its found is commonly like the grofs, or full u, rapidly pronounced. In French, the found of the w does not differ from that of the fingle x, or rather ou. See U. WA, or Wang, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of Schonen; 4 miles N. of Chriftianftadt. WAACKHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Bremen, on a moor, near the river Hamme; the houfes of which are built of ftone, fand, and turf. On the Hamme’s overflow- ing its banks, whole diftri€ts on this moor, with the oaks growing thereon, (though, to fpeak more properly, their roots only run along the furface,) the firs, elders, barns, and ovens, are raifed by the water to the height of ten or twelve feet. W ANC feet. The trees, however, fubfide again with the foil, but on the water’s ebbing fuddenly, frequently fall down; 12 miles N. of Bremen. - WAAG, or Vac, a river of Hungary, which rifes in the N. part, and runs into the Danube, 6 miles below Comorn. WAAL. See Wanat. WAALITA, in Ornithology, a pigeon, fo called by Bruce, which frequents the low parts of Abyflinia, perching upon the higheit trees, and fitting quietly in the fhade during the heat of the day. Thefe birds fly to a great height, in large flocks, and feem to fele& a fpecies of the beech-tree for their cuftomary abode, on the matt or fruit of which they chiefly depend for their food. They are rarely feen in the high country, which is f{uppofed to be too cold for them. They are very fat, and the; beft, without exception, of all pigeons. The Abyffinians, however, do not eat this bird ; and dread being defiled by touching it, when it is dead, The waalia is lefs than the common blue pigeon, but larger than the turtle-dove. Its whole back, and fome of the fhort feathers of its wings, are of a beautiful unvarnifhed green, more light and lively than an olive: its head and neck are of a duller green, with lefs luftre ; its beak is of a blueifh-white, with large noftrils; the eye black, with an iris of dark orange; the pinion, or top of its wing, is a beautiful pompadour; the large feathers of the wing are black ; the outer edge of the wing narrowly marked with white ; the tail a pale dirty blue ; below the tail it is {potted with brown and white ; its thighs are white, with {mall {pots of brown; its belly a lively yellow; its legs and feet are a yellowifh-brown ; its feet ftronger and larger than thofe of birds of this kind. Bruce’s Travels, Appendix. WAALWYK, in Geography, a town of Brabant; 10 miles W. of Bois le Duc. WAAREN. See Wannen. WABASH, a beautiful river of America, with high and fertile banks, which waters the Indiana territory, and difcharges itfelf into the Ohio, about N. lat. 37° 33’. W. long. 80° 30', by a mouth 270 yards, 1020 miles below Fort Pitt. In the fpring, fummer, and autumn, it is paflable with batteaux, drawing three feet water, 412 miles to Oui- atanou, a fmall French fettlement on the W. fide of the river, and for large canoes 197 miles farther, to the Miami carrying place ot portage, g miles from Miami village. The communication between Detroit and the Illinois and Ohio countries is up Miami river to Miami village, thence by land g miles, when the rivers are high, and from 18 to 20 when they are low, through a level country to the Wabafh, and by the various branches of the Wabafh to the refpective places of deftination. A filver mine has been lately difco- vered about 28 miles above Ouiatanou, on the N. fide of the Wabafh ; falt-fprings, lime, fand-ftone, blue, yellow, and white clay, are found plentifully on this river. Wasasn, Little, a river of America, which runs into the Wabafh, N. lat. 37° 40! W. long. 88° 35!. WasasH, a townfhip of Indiana, in Knox county. WABEN, a town of France, in the department of the ftraits of Calais; 7 miles S.W. of Montreuil. WABUSKAGAMA, a river of Canada, which runs into the Saguenay, N. lat. 48° 20!. W. long. 70° 18. WACHBRUN, a town of the county of Henneberg ; 9 miles S.E. of Meinungen. WACHEIN, a river of Carniola, which rifes in the lake of Wacheiner, and runs into the river Save, near Retmanf- dorf. WAC WACHEINER, a lake of Carniola; 10 miles W. of Feldes. WACHENBUCHEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Hanau Munzenberg; 1 mile N.W. of Hanau. WACHENDORFIA, in Botany, was fo named by Burmann, in honour of his countryman Everard James van Wachendorff, profeffor of phyfic, as well as of botany, at Utrecht, who died in 1758, aged fifty-fix. He publifhed, in 1743, an oration on the infinite wifdom of God, as dif- played in the Vegetable Creation; and in 1747, Horti Ul- trajettint Index, an 8vo. of 394 pages.—Linn. Gen. 27, Schreb. 38. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 248. Mart. Mill. Dia. vy. 4. Vahl Enum. y. 2. 163. Burm. Monogr. Amtt. 1757, Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 106. Ker in Sims and Kon, Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 234. Juff. 59. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 34. Gaertn. t. 15.—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Enfate, Linn. Jrides, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cai. none. Cor. inferior, permanent, wither- ing, irregular, of fix obovate-oblong petals; three upper ones moft ereét, of which the two lateral ones have each a {pur at their bafe ; three lowermolt widely fpreading. Nec- tary in the fpur of each lateral petal, accompanied by a briftle. Stam. Filaments three, thread-fhaped, divaricated, declining, curved upward, fhorter than the corolla; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pi. Germen fuperior, roundifh, with three furrows ; ftyle thread-fhaped, declining ; {tigma fimple, tubular. Peric. Capfule three-lobed, triangular, obtufe, of three compreffed cells, and three valves, enveloped in the faded corolla; partitions from the centre of each yalves Seeds folitary, rough or hairy, compreffed. Eff. Ch. Corolla inferior, irregular, of fix petals; two of them fpurred at the bafe. Capfule of three cells. Seeds folitary, rough. 1. W. thyrfiflora. "Vall-flowering Wachendorfia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 59. Willd. n.1. Vahln.1. Ait. n.1. Thunb. Prodr. 12. Burm. Monogr. 2. t. 1. f. 2. Curt. Mag. t. 1060. Redout. Liliac. t. 93.—Leaves perennial, {mooth. Panicle oblong, clofe.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope; thriving in our green-houfes with little care, and indeed al- moft hardy, flowering in May and June. The root is peren- nial, flefhy, faffron-coloured or red, with long {imple fibres. Stem folitary, fimple, ere&, leafy, round, or a little com- prefled, downy, flightly zigzag, about a yard high. Leaves numerous, two-ranked, plaited, many-ribbed, tapering at each end, fheathing, permanent. Panicle racemofe, ere, a fpan or more in length, compound, downy, compofed of numerous large and handfome, but inodorous and fhort- lived flowers, of a fine golden yellow; externally downy, with an orange or tawny hue. The lobes of the capfule are much comprefled, and fharp-edged. Seeds clothed with fhaggy chaffy pubefcence. 2. W. paniculata. Spreading Panicled Wachendorfia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 59. Willd. n. 2. Vahl n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Thunb. Prodr. 12. Burm. Monogr. 4. t. 1. f.1. Sm. Ic. Pi&. t. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 616. (Afphodelus latifolius, floribus patulis flavefcentibus, rubicundis ints maculis no- tatis; Breyn. Prodr. 3. 22. t.g. f. 1.) —Leaves annual, {mooth. Panicle fpreading.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, in fandy ground. It feems from Plukenet’s Mant. 70, where it is called Red-bulb, to have been cultivated by Dr. Uvedale. (See Uvepania.) This fpecies however is more tender than the preceding, and rarely flowers in the Englifh colleGtions. The knobs of the root are browner, oblong, and nearly vertical. Stem but a foot high. Leaves fewer, entirely deciduous. lowers larger and handfomer of a deeper orange at the outfide ; their three upper petals marked WAC marked with a tranfverfe green or brownith line, and all nearly equally f{preading, though the central one is rather {maller than the other two. 3. W. hirfuta. Narrow-leaved Hairy Wachendorfia. Thunb. Prodr. 12. Willd. n. 3. Vahl n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (W. villofa; Andr. Repof. t. 398.)—Leaves linear-fword- fhaped, hairy. Panicle rather oblong.—Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg, from whom we have a {pecimen. It flowers in our green-houfes in June, but is not common. Mr. Andrews received his f{pecimen from Mr. Vere’s garden at Kenfington-gore, where the plant flourifhed abundantly under the care of Mr. W. Anderfon, now curator of the Chelfea garden. This fpecies is well diftinguifhed by the narrownels, and remarkable long fhaggy white hairs, of its leaves. - The ffem and panicle alfo are rather more hairy than in the preceding, and the form of the latter is more elon- gated, lefs corymbofe. Flowers large and handfome, bright yellow; externally tawny; their central uppermoft petal concealed in front by the two next, which meet before it: they are all broadifh-obovate, fhaggy at the back. ~ 4. W. brevifolia. Short-leaved Hairy Wachendorfia. Ait. n. 4. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1166. (W. hirfuta; Ker in Curt. Mag. t.614? Silyrinchium ramofum zthio- picum, foliis plicatis nervofis et incanis, radice tuberofa phoenicea ; Breyn. Cent. t. 37. Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 13. f. 10. )—Leaves elliptic-fwordfhaped, hairy. Panicle fpread- ing.—Native of the Cape, from whence, according to Mr. Aiton, it was introduced into the Englifh green-houfes, in 1795. It flowers in March or April. We have feen no {pecimen, and therefore can only prefume, not affert, that the dingy-flowered plant, figured in t. 1166 of the Botanical Magazine, and the brighter yellow one in t. 614 of the fame aL. are varieties of each other. The fhortnefs of the leaves, compared with their great breadth, diftinguifhes. the prefent fpecies. The two lateral upper petals nearly conceal the central one, feen in front, according to Mr. Ker’s juft remark, by which the fowers obvioufly differ from thofe of W. paniculata. 5- W.. tenella. Linear Smooth-leaved Wachendorfia. Thunb. Prodr. 12. Willd. n. 4. Wahl n. 4.—* Leaves linear, three-ribbed, fmooth. Panicle fpreading, fomewhat compound.’’—Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg, whofe fpecific charaéter is all we know of this {pecies. 6. W. graminea. Grafs-leaved Wachendorfia. Thunb. Prodr. 12. Willd. n. 5. Vahl n. 5. (W. graminifolia; Linn. Suppl. 101.)— Leaves fword-fhaped, channelled, {mooth. Panicle fpreading, compound. —From the fame country. Thunberg confiders this as the rareft Cape plant of its tribe. He has favoured us with a {pecimen of the panicle only, not having a duplicate leaf. The inflorefcence is hairy, as in all the fpecies we have feen; the branches of the panicle racemofe, fomewhat zigzag. Flowers yellow ; externally tawny. Ger- men very hairy, but this feems to be more or lefs the cafe with the whole genus, the fpecies of which differ lefs in their parts of fruétification than ufual. Wacuenvorria, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the exotic flowering perennial kind, for the~green-houfe, in which the fpecies cultivated are, the fimple-ftalked wachen- dorfia (W. thyrfiflora) ; the panicled wachendorfia (W. pa- niculata) ; and the hairy wachendorfia (W. hirfuta). The firft is a red thick tuberous-rooted plant of the flowering kind. The fecond fort has a creeping tuberculated root, and is fingle-flowered. _ The laft chiefly differs from the above in the hairinefs of its leaves, and its long reddifh-brown ftem, WAC Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be increafed by offsets, taken from the heads of the roots, in the beginning of autumn, planting them in pots filled with foft loamy earth, mixed with a little fea-fand; and when the feafon proves dry, placing them fo as to have only the mornin fur, until the offsets have taken new roots, when they mutt be placed in a fheltered fituation, fo as to have the full fun. On the approach of frofts, they fhould be placed in frames, and managed as plants of the tender kind. They are alfo fometimes capable of being propagated by root-fuckers and feeds. The fecond fort is very impatient of cold, and feldom flowers in this climate. They produce variety among other potted plants of the green-houfe kind, in colleétions of that fort. ; WACHENHEIM, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Mont Tonnerre ; 15 miles W. of Man- heim. N. lat. 49° 25'. E. long. 8° 12!. WACHENROTH, atown of Bavaria; 11 miles $.S.W. of Bamberg. WACHINELLORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Ma- dura; 20 miles W. of Coilpetta. WACHOVIA, or Dobbs Parif/h, a tra& of land fo called in North Carolina, confifting of 100,000 acres, purchafed of lord Granville, in 1751, by the Moravians, who named it Wachovia after an eftate belonging to count Zinzendorf, in Germany. In1755, it was made a feparate parifh, and named Dobbs by the legiflature. Salem is the principal town. WACHOWICZE, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 40 miles S.E. of Lucko. WACHQUATNACH, a Moravian fettlement in Con- neéticut 3 20 miles N. of Stratford. WACHTENDONK, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Roer, fituated in a marfhy country, on the river Niers, whofe waters fill the ditches ; 22 miles N.W. of Duf- feldorp. WACHTERSBACH, or WacTersBAcH, a town of Germany, which gives name to a branch of the counts of Ifenburg, with a chateau, in which the counts of Ifenburg Wachterfbach refide ; 15 miles E.N.E. of Hanau. N. lat. 1°25’. E.long. 6° 14!. WACHUSET Moounran, a mountain of Maflachu- fetts, 2990 feet above the level of the fea. WACKE, or Wacken, in Mineralogy and Geology, a name given to a rock nearly allied to bafalt, and which may properly be regarded as a more foft and earthy variety of the latter rock: it paffles both into bafalt and green-ftone. See Trap. Its colour generally inclines to greenifh-grey, brown, or black ; it is opaque and dull, yields eafily to the knife, and has rather a greafy feel. It occurs with bafalt and green- ftone in beds, or mountain mafles, and graduates into the above-named rocks. Wacke is fometimes compact, and fome- times veficular or amygdaloidal. At Calton-hill, near Edin- burgh, it is porphyritic, containing diftin& cryftals of augite and felfpar. The wacke which is faid to occur in mineral veins, we fufpe&ted to be indurated green earth. The {pecific gravity of wacke varies from 2.617 to 2.887. Wacke is claffed with fimple minerals by Werner, but is confidered by Cordier as a compound rock of volcanic ori- in, and compofed of minute cryftals and particles of augite, Pinas and the other minerals which are found in the dif- ferent varieties of lava. (See Volcanic Produds at the end of the article Vorcano.) In compound rocks, no two ae Il mica © Sa WAC mical analyfes can be expeCted to agree, as they muft vary with the proportions of the prevailing ingredient. A fpeci- men of amygdaloidal wacke analyfed by Withering gave Silex “ = 63 Alumine - - 13 Lime Z 2 7 Tron = - 17 Wacke, is fufible, melting into a vitreous flag, the colour of which will vary according to the prevailing ingredient which compofe this rock. This mineral muft not be con- founded with another rock called grey wacke or grau waccé. Wacke, Grey, or Grey Wacke, or Waccé, a name given by later geologifts to a very extenfive feries of rocks, the mem- bers of which differ greatly from each other in compofition, firuéture, and appearance: indeed the name has been ap- plied fo indefinitely, that it has occafioned much confufion and obfcurity in geological defcriptions, and we confider the introduction of the term as having tended greatly to retard the progrefs of practical geology. A great variety of very different rocks, the nature of which was not precifely known, have been claffed with grey wacke, which ferved as a name to conceal ignorance under the veil of fcientific arrangement. Some geologifts reftri& the term to thofe rocks which have a bafis of clay-flate; others extend it to all the coarfe grit ftones which contain rounded and angular fragments united by a cement of any kind; and the French, under the name of pfammite (which they have recently introduced ), comprife along with grey wacke all the coarfe fand-ftones of the coal formation. In all extenfive formations of clay-flate, the upper beds will frequently contain particles of quartz, flinty flate, and other minerals, which fometimes give them a coarfe and fometimes a granular appearance; and even in the midit of beds of pure flate, beds of this coarfe flate frequently occur, which, when they have a {chiftofe ftru€ture, are the grey wacke flates of the German geologilts. Mr. Jamefon defines grey wacke to be a kind of fand-ftone very different from any of thofe that occur in the fletz rocks. It is com- pofed of grains of fand, which are of various fizes, and fome- times even approach in magnitude to rolled mafles. -Thefe are conneéted together by a bafis of clay-flate, and hence this rock derives its grey colour and folidity. Thefe frag- ments are quartz, a kind of indurated clay-flate, or flinty fate. When the fandy particles of grey wacke become fo fmall as {carcely to be perceptible by the eye, it acquires a flaty ftruGture, and then forms grey wacke-flate, which, he adds, bears a ftriking fimilarity to clay-flate. ‘ This flate has feldom a greenifh or yellowifh colour, as is the cafe with primitive flate, but is ufually blueifh, afh and fmoke grey. It does not fhew the filvery continuous luttre of primitive clay-flate, but is rather glimmering, which originates from feales of mica. Quartz fcarcely occurs in it in layers, but ufually traverfes it in the form of veins. It does not con- tain cryftals of felfpar, fchorl, tourmaline, garnet, or horn- blende, nor beds of garnet, talc, chlorite-flate, or magnetic iron-ftone. Grey wacke-flate contains petrifa€tions, parti- cularly three varieties that border on grey wacke. “Grey wacke and grey wacke-flate alternate, and are dif- tinétly ftratified ; but the ftratification of the former is more diftinG than that of the latter. They fometimes alternate with beds of tranfition lime-flone, trap, flinty flate and coal-blende. This rock is uncommonly produétive of metals, not only in beds but in veins, which latter are frequently of great mag- nitude. Almoft all the mines of the Hartz are fituated in ey wacke. The whole of the lead veins of Lead Hills and Wanlockhead, in Scotland, are fituated in grey wacke,”’ WAD It was for a long time contended, that the killas er flate of Cornwall was grey wacke : it is now confidered as a true clay-flate, refting immediately on the granite of that diftri@. Grey wacke was, by the Wernerian geologifts, regarded as partly of chemical and partly of mechanical formation; the fragments which it contained were fuppofed to be the debris of older rocks ; but on this hypothefis it muft appear ex- traordinary that thefe fragments fhould be fo limited in their kind, and that granite, fyenite, gneifs, and the other primi- tive rocks, fhould rarely, if ever, occur in it. The hypothefis of the mechanical formation of grey wacke is now abandoned by its former fupporters ; and it 1s even contended, that the rounded maffes in many conglo- merated rocks and in fand-f{tones have been formed chemi- cally, and that plum-pudding ftones are in many inftances chemical formations, as thefe ftones fometimes graduate into the adjoining rocks, and the nodules themfelves not unfre- quently alfo graduate into the rock in which they are im- bedded. The occurrence of grey wacke, imbedded in what has been called primitive flate, offers a further proof that the origin of this rock, in fuch inftances, is not derived from the debris of pre-exifting rocks, but is more analogous to the formation of porphyries, though the procefs by which it has been folidified did not allow the imbedded particles or nodules to take a regular cryftalline form. From what has been ftated, it will appear, that under the name of grey wacke may be clafled a great variety of rocks, fome ap- proaching to the nature of porphyry, others to plum-pud- ding ftone; others again, where the fragments are imbedded in a pafte, refemble coarfe grit-ftones, whilft many rocks of clay-flate, which are not perfe&tly homogeneous, may be alfo claffed with grey wacke, though they nearly refemble primitive flate. Whulft fuch latitude is allowed to the ap- plication of the term, it is obvious that no geological de- {cription can convey accurate information where it is intro- duced, unlefs it be accompanied with a definite account of the compofition of the rock to which this name is given; and geologifts would do well to reftri@ its ufe, or to banifh it altogether from the nomenclature of rocks. WACKENITZ, in Geography, a river which runs from Ratzeburg lake into the Trave at Lubeck. WACKMOYJUST, a town of Birmah; 12 miles S. of Raynangong. WACSAW, a town of America, on the line which di- vides North from South Carolina, where, in the year 1781, 700 Britifh troops, under the command of lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, came up with a party of Virginian troops, under colonel Burford, amounting to 300 men; the latter being fummoned to furrender refufed, and a moft bloody engage- ment enfued, when few of the Americans efcaped ; 53 pri- foners only were taken, except the wounded. WADAN, or Zara, a town of Fezzan, in the road from Tripoli to Mourzouk; 160 miles N. of Mourzouk. N. lat. 29° 59'. E. long. 15° 12!. WADD, or Wapopine, in Gunnery, a ftopple of paper, hay, ftraw, old rope-yarns, or tow, rolled firmly into the form of a ball, and forced into a gun upon the powder, to keep it clofe in the chamber; or put up clofe to the thot, to keep it from rolling out, as well as to prevent the pow- der, when fired, from dilating round the fides of the ball, by its windage, as it paffes through the chafe, which would confiderably diminifh the effort of the powder. From fome experiments recited in the Military Dictionary, it is in- ferred, that the judicious ramming of a little ame over the powder adds about one-fourth part of the whole effect. Wann, or Wad, in Mineralogy, a name given to a Apecin ° WAD of manganefe ore, of which there are four kinds: fibrous wad, ochrey wad, pulverulent ochrey wad, and dendritic wad. See MANGANESE. , The wad of Derbyfhire is compofed of nearly equal pro- portions of the oxyds of manganefe and iron. The plumbago of Borrowdale, in Cumberland, is pro- vincially called wad. See PLUuMBAGo. Wap is alfo fometimes applied to the light tufts of hay which are fhaken together; and, in which cafe, the hay is then faid to be wadded. It is likewife occafionally ufed in fome places, to fignify the plant woad or would, which is ufed in dyeing. See Woap. Wanpp, Pea and Bean, in Agriculture, the {mall handfuls or portions of thefe crops which are fet up together in a flanting manner, after being cut or pulled, for the purpofe of drying, and which are fometimes afterwards tied. ~ Wanp-Hook. See Worm. Wanpp-Mill is a hollow form of wood, to make the wadds of a proper fize. WADDEL, in Geography, a town of North Carolina ; 30 miles W. of Exeter. WADDEN, a channel of the German fea, between the ifland of Ameland and the coaft of Friefland. WADDLE, in Agriculture, a name applied in fome places to the flatted hurdle of the {plit-wood kind. It is a very preferable fort of hurdle for many different purpofes on farms. See Hurpie. WADDO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of Upland, on a narrow creek, which communi- cates with Aland’s Haff; 15 miles N. of Nortelge. N. lat. 60°. E. long. 18° 4o!. WADE?’s Pornt, a capeon the coaft of North Caro- lina. N. lat. 36° 7’. W. long. 76° 20!. - WADEBRIDGE, an inconfiderable market-town in the hundred of Trigg, and county of Cornwall, England, is fituated partly in the parifh of St. Breock, and partly in that of Eglofhaile, at the diftance of 25 miles W.S.W. from Launcefton, and 239 in the fame bearing from London. A weekly market on Fridays, and two annual fairs, were granted by king Edward II., in the year 1312, to Walter Stapleton, bifhop of Exeter, then lord of the manor. The market is {till held, though on a very {mall {cale, for butchers’ meat and other commodities ; and here are now three fairs. The only obje& of notice in the town is the bridge over the river Alan, about 320 feet in length, and confifting of 17 arches, which conneéts the two parifhes wherein the town ftands. It was built in the reign of Edward IV. by public contributions, and begun by John Lovibond, then vicar of Eglofhaile. Hials fays, that an indulgence was granted to the contributors in the year 14853 but no record of this appears in the regifters of the fee of Exeter. The fame author adds, that Lovi- bond gave lands, then worth 20/. per annum, for the fupport of the bridge: thefe lands are not now let for quite fo much. This bridge was made a county-bridge in the reign of James I. Pad{tow-Haven is navigable to Wadebridge, whither veflels of about 40 or 50 tons carry coals, falt, lime, &c.—Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. iti. Cornwall, 4to. 1814. : WADEIJ, atown of Arabia, in the province of Ye- men; 80 miles S.S.W. of Saade. WADELS, a river which rifes in Radnorfhire, and runs into the Lug, in Shropfhire, about 3 miles E. of Pref- telgn. WADENSCHWEIL, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Zurich; 9 miles S. of Zurich, WAD WADERO, an ifland near the weft coaft of Sweden, in the North fea. N. lat. 56° 24’. E. long. 12° 30’. WADESBOROUGH, a town of North Carolina; 76 miles S.W. of Fayetteville. WADEY, acountry of Africa, fituated to the weft of Darfur. It formerly confifted of feveral ftates, but being conquered by the Arabs, they were all united into one. The Arabic is the principal language, though many others are faid to be fpoken. WADHAM Istanps, a clufter of {mall iffands, near the north-eaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 49° 57!.. W. long. 53° 37’: WADI Asasst, ariver of Arabia, which runs into the Red fea, 10 miles S.S.E. of Hodeida. Waonrel Arkik, a fmall river of Arabia, which waters the city of Medina. Waot Elmahad, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons runs into the Red fea, 25 miles S.S.E. of Hodeida; at other times lofes itfelf in the fands. > Waot Faran, a river of Arabia, which runs into the Red fea, 25 miles N.W. of Tor. Want Fatima, a {mall river of Arabia, which runs north- weit of Mecca. Want Gamus, or Valley of Buffaloes, a valley of Egypt on the eaft fide of the Niles 5 oa S. ‘of Enfereh. ae: Wao el Kbir, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons runs into the fea near Mocha. Want Meidam, a river of Arabia, which runs into the fea, 8 miles W. of Aden. Want Schab, a river of Arabia, which lofes itfelf in the fands, about 18 miles N. of Hodeida. Want Schan, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons runs into the Red fea, 6 miles N.N.W. of Hodeida; in dry feafons it lofes itfelf in the fands. Want Suradaj, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons runs into the Red fea, about 18 miles S.W. from Zebid. Want Zebid, a river of Arabia, which pafles by Zebid. This river, at a particular feafon of the year, overflows and fertilizes the foil; it afterwards {preads itfelf into a fhallow lake, and is loft among the fands. WADING, Loxg, in Biography, an Irifh ecclefiattic, more diftinguifhed for probity and piety than for diferimina- tion of judgment, refided at Rome, where he died in the year 1655. His works, in which he has occafionally inter- mixed fabulous relations, are ‘‘ Annals of his Order,” which was that of St. Francis, in 8 vols. folio, continued by other authors till they amounted to 17 vols. folio; and a * Bibliotheca of Writers of the Francifcan Order,”? 1630, folio, held in confiderable eftimation. Moreri. WADMELAW, in Geography, a river of South Caro- lina, which feparates the ifland of St. John from the con- tinent.—Alfo, a {mall ifland on the coaft of South Carolina, which communicates with St. John’s ifland by means of a bridge. WADREAG, a diftri& of Africa, in the country of Sahara. WADSAOS, a town of Norway, in the diocefe Drontheim ; 120 miles N. of Drontheim. WADSETT, in Agriculiure, a term applied to an an- cient fort of tenure or leafe of land, in the Highland parts of Scotland. ‘The writer of the account of the agriculture of the county of Invernefs has remarked, that wadfetts were, at a former period, frequent and numerous there; but that they have now been moftly refumed, the price being paid wp fo foon as the term of redemption arrived. Thefe wadfetts were commonly, it is faid, granted to the younger fons and near relations of the great barons, and for thefe of WAF thefe reafons: 1ft, Being more attached to the head of the tribe than any other defcription of men, they were appointed the officers of the clan, when an expedition was undertaken ; zd, The fcarcity of money made it more convenient for the needy nobility or chieftains to borrow or raife money in this -way than in any other, or to give their children a patri- mony, when about to fettle in life; and 3d, When every man’s occupation was war, or farming and grazing, before the fpirit of adventure in going abroad to acquire wealth was known, the youth remained at home, on wadfetts or leafes of ground at a moderate rent. In this manner, it is faid, a clan, during the patriarchal no lefs than the feudal fyftem or ftate, were in fa&t a battalion of armed men, liv- ing clofely together, and united by the moft powerful ties of confanguinity and intereft. Accordingly, it is faid, we find the Highland tribes fettled in clufters, in the fame valley or ftrath, unmixed with any other people; nor was it at one period, it is thought, very fafe for a ftranger to attempt fettling among{t them. A few, and but very few, of thefe redeemable rights now exift, it is aflerted, in any part of the Highlands; and that if the wadfetter continue in the fame poffeffion, the right of wadfett is changed into an ordinary leafe. See TENURE. WADSOE, in Geography, an ifland in the Frozen ocean, N. lat. 70° 6', with a copious hot fpring, the heat of which is about 364° of Fahrenheit. WADSTENA, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland, on the Wetter lake, with a caftle, built by Guftavus Vafa in the year 1544, and defended at its four corners by round towers, covered with fmall domes. In the year 1567, this town was burned by the Danes; 20 miles W. of Linkioping. N. lat. 58° 25'. E. long. 14° 59’. WADSWORTH, a town of New York, on the Genefe river; 90 miles W.N.W. of Chenango. WADWORTH, a townfhip in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire ; 5 miles N.W. of Halifax. WAELHEIM, a town of France, in the department of the Two Nethes; 3 miles N.W. of Malines. WAELWYE, a town of Brabant; 10 miles W.N.W. of Bois-le-Duc. WAER, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Agra; 20 miles W.S.W. of Fattipour. WAERDER, a town of Holland; 5 miles N.E. of Gouda. WAERFLIET, a town of Germany, in the county of Delmenhorft ; 8 miles N. of Delmenhortft. WAERTH, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine; 9 miles S.S.W. of Wiflemburg. WAES, a diftri& of Flanders fo called, fituated on the bank of the Scheldt, between Ghent and Yfendick. WAFE. See Warr. WAFERS for fealing letters are made by mixing fine flour with glair of eggs, ifinglafs, and a little yeaft, and beating the mafs into a pafte ; then fpreading it when thinned with gum-water, on even tin-plates, and drying it in a ttove, and cutting it for ufe. The different colours may be given by tinging the pafte with brazil or vermillion for red; in- digo, or verditer, &c. for blue ; faffron, turmeric, or gam- boge, &c. for yellow, &c. WAFT, in Sea Language, a fignal difplayed from the ftern of a fhip for fome particular purpofe, by hoifting the enfign, furled up together into a long roll, to the head of its ftaff. It is particularly ufed to fummon the boats off from the fhore to the fhip to which they belong ; or as a fignal for a pilot to repair aboard. Falconer. To waft a /bip, is to convoy her fafe, as men of war do by merchants’ fhips. Vout. XXXVII. WAG WAFTERS, Warrorzs, condudiors of veffels at fea. King Edward IV. conftituted a triumvirate of officers with naval power, whom the patent ftyles cu/lodes, ton- duéores, and waftores; their bufinefs chiefly was to guard our fifhermen on the coafts of Norfolk and Suffolk. WAGA, or Vaca. See WEIGH. Waca, in Botany, H.M. a filiquous Indian tree, with a tetrapetalous ftellated flower, and flat pods, three inches in length. It is very like the intfia, but without fpines, and climbs about high trees. The pods are two inches in breadth, thin, and very flat; when dried, of a reddifh co- lour, and have a cortex of a fnow-white colour on the infide. The beans are aftringent, bitter, round, and fmooth, a little flattifh, lying in a tranfverfe pofition with refpeé to the pod, and of a green, inclining to a chefnut colour. It is ever- green, and grows in MeL Eee The juice of this tree, together with lemons and green turmeric, boiled for a confiderable time in cocoa-nut oil, is a good ointment for the leprofy, and of great ufe in inveterate ulcers. Raii Hift. Plant. 1766. WAGEERAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Balana; 20 miles W.N.W. of Naffuck. WAGENAAR, Jonny, in Biography, a Dutch writer, diftinguifhed by his moral qualities as well as literary ac- quirements, was born in 1709 at Amfterdam, of which he was appointed hiftoriographer in 1758. He died in 1773. His principal work, which is reckoned one of the chief ornaments of Dutch literature for depth of refearch and purity of ftyle, is a “ Hiftory of Holland from the earlieft Period till 1751,”’ in 21 vols. 8vo. ; of which a fecond edi- tion with engravings, both maps and portraits, was printed at Amfterdam in 1752—1759. Among his other per- formances are enumerated, ‘ An Hiftorical Defcription of the City of Amfterdam,”” Amit. 1760, 3 vols. folio ; «* The Character of John De Witt placed in its true Light ;”? and * Hiftorical and Political Mifcellanies,” Amft. 8vo. 1776. Gen. Biog. WAGENDRISL, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 5 miles S. of Kapfdorf. WAGENINGEN, a town of Holland, in the depart- ment of Guelderland, fituated in a marfhy country, on the north fide of the river Leck, fuppofed to be the Vada of Tacitus, which was fo ftoutly defended by Julius Briganticus again{t his uncle Civilis, the famous Batavian general. On one fide there is a large barren heath, and on the other are pleafant meadows and arable lands. It is tolerably well built, and reckoned the third town of that part of Guelderland called the “* Veluwe.’? Its inhabitants have a pretty good trade in cattle and tobacco ; 7 miles W. of Arnheim. WAGENIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz ; 12 miles E. of Konigingratz. WAGENSEIL, Joun Curistorner, in Biography, was born at Nuremberg in 1633, and having ftudied at fe- veral univerfities, he became tutor to the fon of a nobleman at Altdorf, and accompanied him in his travels through a great part of Europe. At Turin he difcovered in the cabinet of the duke of Savoy the famous Ifiac Table, which had been loft ever fince the pillage of the duke of Mantua’s cabinet. In the progrefs of his life he acquired a high de- gree of reputation, and was diftinguifhed among other fo- reign literary perfons by the munificence of Lewis XIV. Having been honoured with the degree of LL.D. at Or- leans, he became profeffor of law and hiftory in the univerfity of Altdorf in 1667, and afterwards was advanced to the chair of Oriental languages, and the {tation of public li- brarian. He was alfo a member of the academies at Turin and Padua; and died at Altdorf, at the age of 72, in the 4 K year WAG year 1705. The moft diftinguifhed of his writings are, “ A Differtation on a fuppofed Fragment of Petronius ;”’ “ Fafciculus Opufculorum variorum Hiftoricorum et Phi- lologicorum ;”? ‘* Tela ignea Satanz,” 2 vols. ato. being a colle€tion, with a refutation, of fome of the principal Jewifh works again{t Chriftianity ; “ Differtatio de Mone- tali veterum Romanorum ;’? ‘* Commentatio de Civitate Norimburgenfi ;”? and ‘ Differtatio de Academiis.” He had a daughter, named Helen-Sibilla, celebrated for her knowledge of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. Moreri. WacenseiL, Gerorce CuRIsToPHER, a_harpfichord mafter and compofer at Vienna, a difciple of the learned Fouchi, firft maeftro di capella to the emperor: Tull Emanuel Bach changed the ftyle of playing on keyed in- ftruments throughout Germany, Wagenteil’s compofitions for the harpfichord were in favour throughout Europe, and juftly admired for their fpirit and originality ; as he had quitted the dry, laboured, and crowded ityle of his prede- ceffors, and given way to fancy, with no unfuccefsful at- tempts at new effects in his accompaniments. Wagenfeil was many years harpfichord mafter to the archduchefs Maria Therefa, afterwards emprefs-queen, on which account he enjoyed a penfion of 1500 florins a year, But in 1772, when we faw and heard him at Vienna,. he had been confined to his room feveral years by a lamenefs, which came on by degrees in a very uncommon manner. The finews of his right thigh were contraéted, and the cir- culation ftopt, fo that it was become incurably withered and ufelefs. Befides this calamity, which conftantly con- fined him to his couch, his left hand had been fo ill treated by the gout, that he was hardly able to move two of his fingers. However, at our urgent requeft, he had a harp- fichord wheeled to him, and played feveral capricios, and pieces of his own compofition, in a very fpirited and maf- terly manner ; and though we could certainly believe that he had been a much greater player, yet he had fufficient fire and fancy remaining to pleafe and entertain, though not to furprife us very much. He was at this time nominal mafter to the archduchefles, for which he had a fmall penfion. Though utterly unable to quit his room, he had {cholars who attended him there ; and he continued to compofe for foreign countries, where his fame was eftablifhed by his early compofitions. In a fecond vifit which we made this worthy and in- genious man, he had with him a little girl, his fcholar, about eleven or twelve years old, with whom he played duets on two harpfichords, which had a very good effeét. The child’s performance was very neat and fteady. There was a young count with him at this time, another of his f{cholars, who hada very rapid finger, and executed fome yery difficult harpfichord leffons with great precifion. Wagenfeil, with all his corporeal complaints and infirmi- ties, was allowed very extraordinary longevity; as, ac- cording to Gerber ( Hift. and Biogr. Lexicon), he lived till 1777, when he had arrived at his g2d year. We never heard of more than three vocal compofitions by this compofer, which were an oratorio, ‘* Gioas Re di Gruda,” written by Metaitafio, and two cantatas for the imperial court, by the fame author ; but for the harpfichord, nine different works of his compofition were publifhed in different capitals of Europe, fome with and fome without accompaniments ; which, like their author, were allowed to live longer than ufual. WAGER, Waeine, in Law, vadari, fignifies the giving of fecurity for the performance of any thing. Thus, to wage law, is to put in fecurity, that you will WAG make law at’ the day affigned, i. ¢. take the benefit which, the law has allowed you. Our anceftors confidered, that there were many cafes in which an innocent man, of good credit, might be overborne by a multitude of falfe witneffes ; and, therefore, eftablifhed this {pecies of trial, by the oath of the defendant himfelf. This method of trial is not only to be found in the codes of almoft all the northern nations that broke in upon the Ro- man empire, and eftablifhed petty kingdoms upon its ruins, but its original may be traced back as far as the Mofaical law. Exod. xxii. 10. A manifeft refemblance may alfo be difcerned between this fpecies of trial, and the canonical purgation of the Popith clergy, when accufed of any capital crime. Similar to this is alfo the /acramentum decifionis of the civil law. But, though a cuftom fomewhat like this prevailed formerly in the city of London, yet in general the Englifh law does not thus, like the civil, reduce the defendant, in cafe he is in the wrong, to the dilemma of either confeffion or perjury. The manner of waging and making law is this. He that has waged, or given fecurity, to make his law, brings with him into court eleven of his neighbours; a cuftom which is particularly defcribed fo early as the league between Alfred and Guthrun the Dane. The defendant then, ftanding at the end of the bar, is admonifhed by the judges of the na- ture and danger of a falfe oath; and if he ftill perfifts, he is to repeat this or the like oath: ‘ Hear this, ye juftices, that I do not owe unto Richard Jones the fum of ten pounds, nor any penny thereof, in manner and form as the faid R. hath declared againft me. So help me God.’? And thereupon his eleven neighbours, or compurgators, fhall avow upon their oaths, that they believe in their confciences that he fays the truth; fo that himfelf muft be fworn de fidelitate, and the eleven de credulitate. Some have maintained, that fewer than eleven compurgators will fuffice ; but fir Edward Coke is pofitive, that there muft be this number; and his opinion is approved and fupported by judge Blackitone, who obferves, that as wager of law is equivalent to a verdi& in the defendant’s favour, it ought to be eftablifhed by the fame or equal teftimony, namely, by the oath of twelve men. In the old Swedifh or Gothic conttitution, wager of law was ‘not only permitted, as it {till is in criminal cafes, unlefs the fa&t be extremely clear again{ft the prifoner, but was alfo abfolutely required in many civil cafes. But with us in England, wager of law is never required; and is then only admitted, where an aétion is brought upon fuch matters as may be fuppofed to be privately tranfacted between the parties, and in which the defendant may be prefumed to have made fatisfa€tion without being able to prove it; as in actions of debt upon fimple contraét, or for an amercement in actions of detinue and of account, where the debt may have been paid, the goods reftored, or the account balanced, without any evidence of either ; and not, when there is any fpecialty, as a bond or deed to charge the defendant, but when the debt groweth by word only. Nor doth it lie in an action of debt, for arrears of an account, fettled by audi- tors in a former action. By fuch wager of law, when ad- mitted, the plaintiff is perpetually barred; for the law, in the fimplicity of ancient times, prefumed, that no one would forfwear himfelf, for any worldly confideration. Wager of law, however, lieth in a real action, where the tenant alleges he was not legally fummoned to appear, as well as in mere perfonal contracts. A man outlawed, at- tainted for falfe verdi&, or for confpiracy or perjury, or otherwife become infamous, fhall not be permitted to wage his law. Neither fhall an infant under the age of twenty- one, SF a ee - W AVG one, for he cannot be admitted to his oath; nor fhall the defendant, where the plaintiff is an infant, wage his law. But a feme-covert, when joined with her hufband, may be allowed to wage her law; and an alien fhall do it in his own language. It is, moreover, a rule, that where a man is compellable by law to do any thing, by which he becomes creditor to another, the defendant in that cafe fhall not be admitted to wage his law; for then it would be in the power of any bad man to run in debt firft, againft the in- clinations of his creditor, and afterwards to {wear it away. But where the plaintiff hath given voluntary credit to the defendant, there he may wage his law. Inno cafe where a contempt, trefpafs, deceit, or any injury with force is alleged againft the defendant, is he permitted to wage his law. Executors and adminiftrators, when charged for the debt of the deceafed, fhall not be admitted to wage their law. The king alfo has his prerogative ; for, as all wagers of law import a refleGtion on the plaintiff for difhonetty, ' therefore there fhall be no fuch wager on ations brought by him; and this prerogative extends and is communicated to his debtor and accomptant ; for, on a writ of quo minus, in the exchequer for a debt on fimple contra@t, the defendant is not allowed to wage his law. - Notwithftanding all the reftriGions to which wagers of law were fubje&, it was at length confidered, that it threw too great a temptation in the way of indigent or profligate men; and, therefore, by degrees new remedies were de- vifed, and new forms of aétion were introduced, in which no defendant is at liberty to wage his law ; fo that wager of law is quite out of ufe, being avoided by the mode of bring- ing the a€tion; but ftillit is not out of force. And, there- fore, when a new ftatute infliéts a penalty, and gives an action of debt for recovering it, it is ufual to add, in which no wager of law fhall be allowed: otherwife a hardy delin- quent might efcape any penalty of the law, by {wearing he had never incurred, or elfe had difcharged it. Blacktt. Comm. book iii. - Wacer of Baitl. See Battie and Duet, &c. Wacer’s Straits, or River, in Geography, a river of North America, which empties itfelf into Hudfon’s bay, N. lat. 65° 8! W. long. 87°. WAGES, the plural of the obfolete fingular wage, denote the pay or recompence given, according to cuftom, ftipulation, and enatment of law, for any kind of work or fervice. (See Lasour, Lazourer, and Servant.) As difputes have often occurred between mafters and fervants, ‘the law has interpofed to fix the ia ee of thofe that are employed in various departments of fervice. Accordingly by 5 Eliz. c. 4. the juftices of every fhire, riding, and liberty, or the major part of them, the fheriff, and every mayor, and other head officer within any city or town corporate, in which is any juftice of the peace within the limits of the faid city or town corporate, and of the faid corporation, fhall yearly in Eafter feffions, or within fix weeks afterward, affemble fuch difcreet perfons as they fhall think meet, and having refpe& to the plenty or {carcity of the time, and other circumitances, fhall have authority to limit, rate, and appoint the wages as well of fuch artificers, handicraftfmen, hufbandmen, or any other labourer, fervant, or workman, whofe wages in time paft have been by any law rated and appointed, as alfo the wages of all other labourers, artificers, workmen, or appren- tices of hufbandry, which have not been rated, as they fhall think meet by their difcretions, to be rated, limited, or appointed, by the year, or by the day, week, month, or otherwife, with or without meat and drink, and what wages every workman or labourer fhall take by the great for mowing, reaping, or thrafhing of corn and grain, or for WAG mowing and making of hay, or for ditching, paving, rail- ing, or hedging, by the rod, perch, luge, yard, pole, rope, or foot, and for any other kind of reafonable labour or fer- vice. Alfo, by 1 Jac. c. 6. the juftices, or major part of them, refrant in any riding, liberty, or divifion, where the feffions are feverally kept, fhall have power to rate the wages within fuch divifions, as if the fame were done in the general feffions of the county ; and by the faid ftatute, the faid aét of 5 Eliz. fhall extend to the rating of wages of all labourers, weavers, fpinfters, and workmen or workwomen, whatfoever, either working by the day, week, month, or year, or taking any work by the great or otherwife. If any juftice refiant within the county, or mayor,’ fhall be abfent at the rating of wages, and not hindered by fick- nefs or other lawful caufe to be allowed by the juftices then affembled for rating of wages, upon the oath and affidavit of fome credible perfon, he fhall forfeit to the king ro/. to be recovered in the feffions or other court of record, by indiét- ment or otherwife. And the juftices fhall yearly, between September 29-and December 25, and between March 25 and June 24,. make fpecial and diligent enquiry of the good execution of this ftatute, and punifh defaulters ; and fhall have for every day that they fit about the execution thereof (not exceeding three days at a time) 5s. each out of the forfeitures due to the king. By the aforefaid a&t of 5 Eliz. the rates were to be cer- tified into the chancery ; but by the 1 Jac. c. 6. they need not to be certified into the chancery, but fhall be kept among{t the records of the county or town corporate. And after the faid rates are made and engroffed in parch-' ment under the hands and feals of the perfons having autho- rity to rate the fame, the fheriff or mayor may caufe pro- clamation thereof to be made in fo many places as to them fhall feem convenient, and every perfon fhall be bound to. obferve the fame. - If any perfon upon the proclamation publifhed fhall di- re€tly or indire€tly retain or keep any fervant, workman, or labourer, or fhall give any more or greater wages, or other commodity, than fhall be fo appointed in the faid-proclama- tion; he fhall on conviction before any of the juftices or other head officers above mentioned be imprifoned for ten days without bail, and fhall forfeit 5/.; half to the king, and half to him that fhall fue before the faid juftices in their feffions. But yet mafters may reward a well-deferving fervant over and above his wages, according as he fhall deferve, fo it be not by way of promife or agreement upon his retainder. And every perfon that fhall be fo retained and take wages contrary to the faid ftatute of the 5 Eliz. or to the faid pro- ‘clamation, and fhall be thereof convicted before the juttices aforefaid, or any two of them, or before the mayor or other head officers aforefaid, fhall be imprifoned for 21 days with- out bail. Every retainer, promife, gift, or payment of wages, or other thing contrary to the faid aét, and every writing’ and bond to be made for that purpofe, fhall be void. If any clothier, or other, fhall refufe to pay fo much wages to their weavers, fpinfters, workmen, or workwomen, as fhall be rated, and be convicted thereof by confeflion, or oath of two witnefles, at the aflizes, or feflions, or before any two juitices (1 Q.); he hall forfeit ros. to the party grieved, to be levied by diftrefs and fale. All artificers and labourers, being hired for wages by the day or week, fhall, betwixt the mid{t of March and midft of September, be and continue at their work from five in the morning till after feven at night (except in the time of break. 4K 2 fait, WAGES. faft, dinner, or drinking, which fhall not exceed two hours and an half in a day, that is to fay, at every drinking, one half hour, for his dinner one hour, and for his fleep, when he is allowed to fleep, that is, from the mid{ft of May to the midft of Auguft, half an hour at the moft, and at every breakfaft one half hour :) and all the artificers and labourers between the midft of September and the midft of March fhall be and continue at their work, from the fpring of the day in the morning until night, except it be in the time before appointed for breakfait and dinner; on pain to forfeit id. for every hour’s abfence, to be deduéted out of their wages. And every artificer and labourer lawfully retained in building or repairing any church, houfe, fhip, mill, or other piece of work taken in great, in tafk, or in grofs, or who fhall take upon him to make or finifh any fuch thing or work, fhall continue and not depart therefrom (unlefs for non-payment of the wages or hire agreed on, or appointed to ferve the king, or other lawful caufe, or without licenfe from the mafter or owner of the work, or of him that hath the charge thereof,) before the finifhing thereof, on pain of imprifonment by one month, without bail, and forfeiture of s/. to the party from whom he {hall fo depart, recoverable by aétion of debt in any court of record; befides fuch ordinary cofts and damages as may be recovered by the common laws for any {uch offence. We fhall here obferve, that the firft ftatute, regulating the wages of labour in England, paffed in the reign of Ed- ward I1I.; and in the {ame year (1351) the earlieft law in Spain on the fame fubjeét was publifhed by Peter the Cruel. At an earlier period, labourers were ferfs, and confequently no laws were required to regulate their wages. ‘The imme- diate caufe of the laws paffed in both countries, in the middle of the 14th century, was the plague which laid watfte Europe from 1347 to 1349, and carried off a great portion of its inhabitants. The confequence of this devaftation was a fearcity of labourers, and a rife in the price of labour ; which alarmed the employers of labourers both in Spain and in England, and induced them, in their legiflative capacity, to enaé& laws, which reduced the price of labour to its former ftandard, and impofed heavy penalties on all who gave or accepted more. A few years probably reftored Europe to its former population, and rendered thefe laws fuperfluous ; but they ferved as examples to future times, and encouraged governments to interfere and regulate the wages of their fubjeéts. In England, the ftatute of labourers was frequently renewed, with fuch alterations as the change of circumftances required ; and, by an equitable provifion, the juftices of every county were empowered, by the ftatute 13 Richard II. c. 8. tomeet once a year between Eafter and Michaelmas ; and after taking into confideration the price of provifions, to regulate, by proclamation, the wages that fhould be received in the enfuing year. But though this power was confirmed to the juftices by the flatute 5 Eliz. c. 4. they feem to have exercifed it fparingly ; and, when they aéted, to have been guided by a fteady bias in favour of the matters. By the ftatute 11 Henry VII. c. 22. a common labourer was allowed 4d. a day, without diet, from Eafter to Michaelmas. In the 35th of Elizabeth the juftices in the Eaft Riding of Yorkfhire, determined that the wages of the common labourer, without meat or drink, fhould be limited to 5d. a day, from the 1ft of March to the feaft of All Saints. At the former period, a labourer who had 4d. a day could earn a quarter of wheat (at 6s, 8d. its price) by 20 days labour, a quarter of rye (at 4s.) by 12 days labour, and a quarter of barley (at 3s.) by.9 days labour. At the latter period, or in the latter part of the reign of queen Elizabeth, a common labourer could not earn a quarter of wheat (at 20s.) by lefs than 48 days labour, nor a quarter of rye (at 13s. 4d.) in lefs than 32 days, nor a quarter of barley (at 12s.) in lefs than 282 days. In other words, a common labourer could earn a greater quantity of wheat in 1495, than he could of barley in 1593. If, therefore, barley was his common fuftenance, he could earn more than three times as much in 1495 as in 1593; if rye, 23 as much; and if wheat, 22. Confequently, as far as the neceflaries of life are concerned, the fituation of the labourer was not one-half fo advantageous in 1593 as it had been in, 1495. Inthe interval, America had been difcovered, the precious metals depreciated throughout Europe, and the currency of England deteriorated by the operations of the government. i A change in the value of money, fimilar to what happened in the 16th century, has taken place in our own times. The precious metals have been depreciated throughout Europe, in confequence of the increafed. produétivenefs of the Ame- rican mines during the laft 40 years; and in our own country, the rife of prices, which this neceffarily produced, has been aggravated by a depreciation of our currency, oceafioned by the exceflive ifflue of paper not convertible into fpecie. What have been the confequences? The price of labour has not rifen in proportion to the rife of commodities. But the labourer has the difference made up to him in the fhape of poor’s rate. An unmarried man can ftill fupport himfelf by his nominal wages. But a married man, who has two children to maintain, receives as a matter of courie afliftance from his parifh. A calculation is made of his wages, and of the price of bread. So much bread is allowed to him, according to the number of his family. What his wages will not furnifh, the parifh provides. ‘This beneficent fyftem, as it has been called, tarns out to be an engine in the hands of mafters, to keep wages as low as will fuffice for the maintenance of the labourer and his wife, with a provi- fion in the fhape of charity for the fupport of his children. It cannot be doubted, that if fuch a provifion had never exilted, the wages of the labourer would have been higher— that what he now receives as charity, he would then have received as his own—and that the operation of this fcheme of benevolence is to increafe the gains of the rich, and to deprive the poor of that fhare in the good things of this life, which the provifions of nature, and their own induftry, might otherwife have given them, In thus keeping down the wages of labour, the poor-laws have accomplifhed, under the mafk of charity, what the old ftatute of labourers had. vainly attempted by the infliction of pains and penalties. Waces, in Agriculture, a term employed to fignify the price or hire which is paid to fervants or labourers for the performance of different kinds of farm-work. It is noticed in the Report on the Agriculture of the County of Peebles, in Scotland, that the demand for labour, as for every other marketable article, neceffarily varies according to circum- ftances ; and that the price muft, of neceflity, be regulated by the proportion between the exifting quantity of the article and the demand. That where capital, and profitable employment for capital, abound in proportion to the popu- lation, the demand for, and confequent reward of labour, will neceflarily rife to the higheft rate; but that the reverfe muft as neceffarily enfue upon the oppofite fuppofition. That if, in the former cafe, it fhould be attempted to lower the wages of labour below what the demand can afford, the competition of employers, poileffed of capital, would lead them to break through, or evade, all fuch,regulations. If, in the latter cafe, it fhould be. attempted to raife wages above WAGES. above what the demand can allow, the competition of labourers for employment would beat them down, avowedly or fecretly, to their natural market price. And that the only effeét of fuch nugatory regulations, muft iffue in the occafioning of more or lefs embarraffment, in the contrivance of evafions to efcape the penalties of their contravention. Indeed, in the above way alone, it is faid, could the exifting capital in employment be equally diffufed among the labourers of a country, fo as that each fhould receive his proper fhare of it, in proportion to his willingnefs and ability to work: if it were poffible to carry into effect any regulations for raifing wages to an higher rate, the infallible confequence mutt be, it is thought, that the diftribution of the above noticed capital would be confined to a fmaller number of labourers, and that the remainder could get no work or employment, and mutt therefore fubfift on charity. But that if the charity comes exclufively from the pockets of thofe poffeffed of capital, the capital, thus fhortened, is able'to employ {till fewer at the regulated rate: if it comes, in part, from the employed labourers, it is to them, it is faid, all one whether this diminution of wages arifes from their giving it in charity to the idle, or from its being taken from them through the competition of the induftrious. The writer of the correéted account of the Agriculture of Middlefex, too, ftates, that the high value of the landed eftates of this: country depends very much upon the low price of labour: that if the farmers could have their work executed for one moiety of the preient coft, other things re- maining the fame, it would enable them to pay a much higher rent for the land which they hold. Suppofing the labour of land, it is faid, to be twenty fhillings an acre, in cafe this could be reduced to ten fhillings, proprietors might then add fifty per cent., it is thought, to their rentals, and that the farmers could pay fuch increafed rent, with more convenience to themfelyes, than they can pay their prefent rents at the prefent price of labour. The rent of land is, it is faid, about fourteen fhillings an acre; if the price of labour could be lowered ten fhillings, the farmer, by adding fifty per cent. to his rent, would pay his landlord feven fhillings, it is faid, and increafe his own profits three fhillings. That, on the other hand, if, by any means, the price of labour fhould be increafed from twenty to twenty-four fhillings per acre, the rent would, it is faid, be abforbed in the price of the labour, in which ftate-of things the landlord would be unable to procure any rent. The then (1807) price of labour, and rent of land, being as. much as the farmer can afford to pay ; increafing the labour at once, fo much as to be equal to the prefent labour and rent, would, it is fuppofed, reduce the rent to nothing. It would feem to be evident, it is thought, that an addition to the then price of labour of about feventy fer cent. would annihilate the rental of land. It is confequently afked, if the advocates for increafing the price of labour or rate of wages, are aware of the evil tendency of their arguments and opinions ? have they, it is enquired, contemplated the diftrefs which would take place, if the land fhould not produce any rent ? Advancing the hire of labour, without, at the fame time, increafing the price of the produce of land, would create, it is foppoted, a ftruggle of fhort duration between the land- lords and the farmers, which would reduce the former to farmers, and the latter to labourers. The labouring clafs would be inordinately increafed in number, and the work to be done greatly reduced in quantity. The former would be employed two or three days in a week ; this would create a competition among the labourers to obtain conftant work, which could. only be done by working for lefs money than ufual ; the price of labour would fall greatly. below: what it I was at this time ; the land would be imperfe@tly cultivated, and the agricultural part of the nation would be thrown, it is faid, fome hundred years back. _ Every advance in the coft of agricultural labour mutt, it is faid, be paid either by the community or the landlords. If grain and animal food are made to advance in price, in order to enable the farmers to pay additional wages to their labourers, it becomes a tax, it is faid, on the community, and to which thofe identical labourers contribute. If the price of grain and animal food fhould continue ftationary, and labour fhould increafe in price, it will infallibly, it is thought, oceafion an equivalent dedu@tion in the rents of the land. It is of high importance, it is contended, to the landed intereft, that the labourers in agriculture fhould be fed at a very low rate of expence. Any material increafe of the wages of labour can only be made, without doing great injuftice to the landlords, by a proportionate advance, it is faid, in the prices of grain an@ cattle. The writer would feel much fatisfa@tion at meafures being taken to increafe the price of labour, and ameliorate the condition of the workmen of the country, if it could be accomplifhed without greatly injuring the nation, and par- ticularly if it could be effe¢ted without any material inter- ruption to the progrefs of f{cience, of arts, and of commerce. But the fuccefs of agriculture, manufactures, and com- merce, all depend upon the price of labour being low, even very low: in order that our arts and our commerce fhould be highly fuccefsful, the price of labour, it is maintained, fhould be low as poffible. It is further remarked, that the circumftances of the country have of late, until within this little while, made dias calls than ufual on the labouring clafs; the con- equence of which has been, what under fimilar caufes always will be the cafe, an advance in the wages of labour. At the former price of corn, that would have lowered the rent of land, which would, it is faid, have fallen exclufively on the landed intereft ; therefore, to prevent fo confiderable an inconvenience, the corn laws and regulations have been altered in fuch a manner as to allow the price to rife. The fame able writer, in {peaking of the bad effeéts of public- houfes on labourers, remarks it as almoft a general rule, that the higher their wages are, the lefs they. carry home, and confequently, the greater is the wretchednefs of them- felves and their families. Comforts in a cottage are moftly found, it is faid, where the man’s wages are low, at leaft fo low as to require him to labour fix days in every week. For inftance, a good workman, at nine fhillings per week, if advanced to twelve, will fpend a day in the week at the ale- houfe, which reduces his labour to five days, or ten fhillings ; and as he will {pend two fhillings in the public-houfe, it leaves but eight fhillings for his family, which is one lefs than they had when he earned only nine fhillings. And that if by any means he be put into a fituation of earning eighteen fhillings in fix days, he will get drunk, it is faid, on Sunday and Monday, and go to his work in a ftupid ftate on the Tuefday ; and. fhould he be a mechanical journeyman of fome genius, who by conftant labour could earn twenty-four fhillings or thirty fhillings per week, as fome of them can, he will be intoxicated half the week, infolent to his employer and every one about him. Further, too, fhould his mafter have bufinefs in hand that requires particular difpatch, he will then, more than at any other time, be abfent from his work, and his wife’ and. children will experience the extreme of hunger, rags, and cold. It has alfo.been fuggefted by Mr. Ruggles in another fitu- ation, that if greater wages are given, they will be aes for expences in articles widely different from’ the’neceffaries of life 1, WAG: life — they will be given for the encouragement of idlenefs, and for the increafe of the excife revenue. Idlenefs is the root of all evil, it is faid ; —articles of excife are the moif- ture which nourifhes that root. The increafing number of public-houfes is confequently to be greatly deplored as it operates in this way. Ass there the poor and thoughtlefs labourers are irrefiftibly, it is faid, tempted to fquander their money, in bad beer and fpirits, to the manifeft injury of their conftitutions ; whereas, it is thought, a fubftantial meal at home, with a little good ale, would enfure that health and vigour fo effential to thofe who mutt earn their bread by the fweat of their brows. It cannot but be noticed, it is faid, that the increa/e of thefe forts of houfes is more ruinous to the loweft orders of fociety than all other evils put together. The depravity of morals, and the frequent diftrefs of the poor labourers’ families, if traced to their true fource, would, it is thought, be gene- rally found to originate in the public-houfe. That, on the contrary, where there is not fuch a houfe in the parifh, and fome fuch parifhes there ftill are, though in diftant fituations, the wife and children of the labourer, generally fpeaking, it is faid, enjoy happinefs, compared with thofe where many ublic-houfes are feen. They are alfo, it is thought, lefs difpofed to deceive and pilfer; are better clothed, more cleanly in their perfons, and agreeable in their manners. In all cafes, a great deal more, probably, depends upon the manner of training and bringing up the working clafs than is commonly fuppofed ; as where they are taught and accuftomed from infancy to depend upon themfelves and their own induftry, exertion, hard labour, and honefty, they will form much better and more orderly fervants and la- bourers than where they are made to place their dependance, from fuch an early period, on the bounty or charity of others, as is too much the cafe, without having the exam- ple of fuch habits of honeft induftry, exertion, and in- dependance before them. A better, more induftrious, and fuitable mode of educating and bringing up the children of the labouring poor, is indeed a matter which is much to be defired. The wages of fervants and labourers differ greatly, in dif- ferent diftriéts and fituations, as the nature of them may be, and according to the goodnefs or indifference of the workmen they may contain, but in all they have confiderably increafed for the laft fifteen or twenty years, except very lately. They may, perhaps, be ftated, as varying under different circum- {tances, from eight or nine to fixteen or eighteen fhillings by the week, and from eight or nine pounds to fourteen or fifteen by the year. This is nearly the cafe in the two great arable diftri€ts of Effex and Norfolk. However, in addition to the ftipulated wages, the la- bourers have often other advantages from their employers, fuch as corn or meal at a reduced price, pieces of potatoe grounds or gardens, cow grounds, or cows kept, {mall houfes, and many others, which increafe the real, though not the nominal wages. A plan and form of book for regulating and keeping an. aecount of the time and wages of all forts of work-people employed by the day, or in other ways, have lately been prepared and printed at Liverpool, by which, it is faid, the trouble of arranging-and managing fuch accounts will not be a tenth of what it is in the ufual modes of proceeding in fuch bufinefs. If thefe means fhould be found capable of leffening the difficulty and trouble of this fort of accounts on a full trial, they will certainly be of great utility in many departments of labour, as fomething of this fort has long heen wanting. WAGGAMAM, in Geography, a lake of North Caro- W APS. lina; 30 miles S.W. of Exeter.—Alfo, a river of North Carolina, which runs into the Crete Pedee, 15 miles S. of Kingfton, in South Carolina. WAGGEL, in Ornithology, a name given by the people of Cornwall to a fpecies of the /arus, or fea-gull, Sides among authors by the name of martinazzo. WAGGON, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, a kind of vehicle or carriage in common ufe. There are divers forms of waggons, accommodated to the divers ufes they are intended for. The common waggon confifts of the Jbafts, or rads, which are the two pieces the hind horfe bears up; the welds; the /lotes, which are the crofs pieces that hold the fhafts together; the do//er, being that part on which the fore-wheels and axle-tree turn, in wheeling the waggon acrofs the road; the chef, or body of the waggon, having the ftaves or rails fixed thereon ; the bales, or hoops, which compofe the top; the #i/f, the cloth thrown over the hoops ; befides the wheels, axle-tree, &c. Waggons are too frequently conftruéted without that proper attention to the nature of the roads, or the forts of articles which are to be conveyed by them, which is necef- fary, being in general heavy, clumfy, and inconvenient convey - ances. There is, however, a waggon of this kind,which is much employed in the county of Berks, that is formed and built on a more fimple and convenient principle than thofe com- monly met with in moft other fouthern parts of the country, and which has not either the height or weight of them, while it poffeffes fufficient ftrength, and is eafy in the draught. The writer of the firft account of the’ agricul- ture of that diflri& has, however, fuggefted an improve- ment to be made in it, which is that of leaving the {pace fufficiently deep in the body or bed for the fore-wheels to lock round in the fhorteft poffible curve, as in the prefent manner of its con{truétion, a great deal of time is neceffarily loft in the turning at the ends of the fwaths and plats in carrying hay or corn, as well as on fome other occafions, as in this way the inconvenience may be removed without doing the fmalleft injury, it is faid, to the fymmetry or ftrength of the carriage or waggon. In the correéted report on the agriculture of that diftri€, which has been more lately drawn up, it is however noticed, that fome farmers of the foreft part remark on the above, that the waggon would be much weakened by the propofed alteration; and add, that an improvement has lately been made on the waggons of this county, which is found to an- {wer the purpofe of the above fuggeited alteration, which is the locking chain, as it is called; which is a chain from the pillar of the waggon, to about fix inches before the middle bed ftay, which is made of fuch a length, as effec- tually to prevent the waggon catching on the lock. Where the beds of the waggons are ftraight, as is common, it is faid, in the fouthern parts of the fame county, the improve- ment firft propofed would probably, it is thought, be ufe- ful; but that in the vale and middle parts, the beds are otherwife conftru@ted, and fcarcely admit of alteration for the better. A waggon, too, which is peculiar to Cornwall, is faid to be light and elegant, being ufed there for carrying corn and hay in harveft time, and faggot-wood, as well as for many other purpofes. The body is open, which with a lade of five bars fixed before and behind gives it great length, while an arch put over the hind wheels gives it breadth; the fore- wheels turn clear under the body, fo that it can fweep round in a very narrow compafs ; the load is fecured by two ropes tightened by a fort of winch fixed behind the waggon ; it carries about three hundred {heaves of corn ata time. A tongue tree, fometimes called a middle tree, or fhafts, are occa~ WAGGON. vecafionally fixed to the axle of the fore wheels, according as it is intended to be drawn by an ox or a horfe-team. This light waggon is thought to be deferving of a place on almoft every large farm in the kingdom. : But the writer of the rural economies of the different counties of the kingdom, who has attended much to the fubjeé&t, thinks that thofe which are employed in the county of Gloucefter are to be preferred to any others in the coun- try; as by means of crooked fide rails, bending archwife over the hind wheels, the bodies or frames of them are kept low, without the diameter of the wheels being much leffened. The bodies are likewife, it is faid, made wide in proportion to their fhallownefs, and the wheels run fix inches wider than thofe of moft other waggons, whereby advantages in carry- ing top-loads are, it is faid, evidently obtained. Mr. Rudge, too, in his account of the agriculture of the fame diftriét, has remarked that, in many parts of it, waggons are the prin- cipal carriages employed in getting in the hay and corn, and are either full-bedded or with three-quarter beds. That the former have the advantage of a greater length of bed, but are not fo convenient for turning ; and that the latter, though diminifhed in fize, have the convenience of locking the fore wheels, and turning in almoft as narrow a compafs as a chaife, in confequence of the bed being hollowed out on each fide near the middle, to admit the exterior part, or fel- loes of the fore wheels. Both thefe forts of waggons are capable of carrying nearly, it is faid, the fame weight, though the former, as being deeper in the bed, is fomewhat better adapted, it is thought, for the carriage of heavy articles, fuch as bags of corn, and other fuch materials. For the purpofe of carrying hay and ftraw, or of harvelting, their length and width are, it is faid, increafed by light lad- ders before and behind, and of fimilar contrivances, called *¢ rathes,”’ the whole length of the fides. The ladders are put on and taken off at pleafure in both kinds, but the fide additions are generally fixed ; except in the ftraight-headed fort, which are in ufe, it is faid, on the weftern fide of the Severn, in this county ; in thefe they are made removeable, fo'as to leave the bed quite naked. _ Another fort of waggon, which partakes, in fome mea- fure, of the properties of both the waggon and cart, on which account it has been appropriately denominated the hermaphrodite, is, it is faid, frequently made ufe of in the county of Norfolk, when the pair of fore wheels and fhafts are occafionally attached to a common cart by a pole con- ne&ted with the axle, to which are added the ladders. This is, it is faid, a light, cheap, and convenient fort of waggon, which is capable of carrying nearly as much hay or ftraw as that of the Berkfhire. As it has been obferved, that from its having been long a complaint among large farmers, and others, whofe bufinefs requires the conftant ufe of carts, and only the occafional ufe of waggons, that the waggon, however well preferved by a fhed or other fuch building, is daily decaying and get- ting worfe while out of ufe, particularly the iron work of it, which is fhortly deftroyed by ruft; and that, in like manner too, with thofe whofe concerns require the almoft conftant ufe of waggons, and but the occafional ufe of carts; the latter, while unemployed, bear a very confiderable pro- portion to the wear and tear of carts which are in con{tant ufe: thefe circumftances and effe&s have led and induced a Mr. Rood to devife and bring to perfetion, at a very confi- derable expence, a contrivance of this particular kind, by which the fame carriage may, in a few minutesy be made by the carter into two complete tip carts of the common dimen- fions, and applicable to all the ufes of carts in general, or into one waggon, fo complete, that a narrow infpection is, it is faid, ‘neceffary to diftinguifh it from a common waggon. And that there is no complication of parts in this waggon, the whole being fo contrived, that none of its parts are ever out of ufe, confequently not liable to be miflaid or loft. The carts, too, when it is formed into them, have a contri- vance by which to render them more fafe and eafy to the horfe in going down a hill, and have moveable fide ladders, which will, it is faid, be found of great ufe in carrying corn, bark, and other fuch materials. It is noticed, that it ma be conftruéted by the wheelwrights of any county or dif- trict with perfe&t eafe and facility, and that its fhape and particular dimenfions are capable of being fuited to the wifhes of the owner, or to the local fafhion of the neigh- bourhood in which he lives. That the refult of confiderable experience and enquiries enables the inventor to ftate that it may be completed, in any county or diftri€, for about five pounds more than the coft of two common carts. It is ad- mitted, however, that it is fomewhat more clumfy than a common waggon. , It is united and held together by four ftrong pins, which are to be removed when it is difunited and ufed in the fepa- rated ftate. A reprefentation of it may be feen in the fecond volume of the “ General DiGtionary of Agriculture and Huf- bandry.”’ In the county of Norfolk, Mr. Douton, of Brandon, according to the writer of the corrected report on the agri- culture of that diftri€&, has found a confiderable faving by the ufe of light caravan waggons for two horfes abreait, with which he carries, it is faid, a chaldron and half of coals, and other loads in proportion ; and that, it is thought by him, every man, who reduces the teams of any county or diftri@, will be fure to do this until he arrives at perfection in a one-horfe carriage. In moft counties, however, ftill much too heavy carriages of the waggon kind are in ufe for the bufinefs of farming as well as road purpofes. In Kent, the carriages of this fort employed in conveying the corn to market and other places are large, and called hutches, being drawn by four horfes ; and generally loaded with not more than from feyen to twelve quarters of corn, according to its weight, and the diftance it is to be carried. They are thirteen feet long, are made crooked at the fides, the width cannot however be pofitively afcertained; but they are generally three feet wide before, and four behind at the bottom; and about fix or eight inches wider at the top, being twenty inches deep: they are boarded at the fides and ends clofe enough to carry fand. If made with wooden axle-trees, they coit, it is faid, about twenty guineas: if with iron, twenty-five. Such waggons are, however, quite unfit for many farm ufes. In Staffordfhire, it has been obferved by Mr. Pitt, that the reduétion of the weight of waggons, in moft cafes, but particularly to thofe who are common carriers, is highly be- neficial, being a gain of not lefs than fifty pounds a year by each team con{tantly employed on the road ; and that if it be made with good materials a light waggon will laft as long as a heavy one. The coft of a narrow-wheeled waggon there is twenty-fix pounds; fix inch, thirty-fix ; the axle- tree is moft commonly of wood. The author of the ‘ Prefent State of Agriculture and Hufbandry in Great Britain,” remarks that waggons are chiefly ufed in getting in the hay and corn harvelts, carrying the hay and grain to market, and bringing manure and coals from a diftance. That they are generally drawn by the whole team on the farm, where one only is kept, what- ever number of animals it may confift of, and that two me ani WAG and a boy are moftly neceflary to attend them. That in erforming diftant carriages, when the roads are level and {ubftantially made, and the waggons at all times fully loaded, one of them may probably be as advantageoufly ufed as two or more carts of lefs dimenfions. But that where the labour is required to be performed with expedition, as in the hay and corn harvefts, thefe unwieldy machines and contrivances are without doubt ill calculated for the purpofe; and that on every occafion, when they return half or a third loaded, it is evident the farmer fuftains a confiderable lofs. Inftances have occurred to the writer, it is faid, in more than one open-field parifh in this part of the country, where a waggon, with three or four perfons and as many horfes, has been difpatched to collect and carry home {eattered parcels of hay from the ends of ridges, which, after going over a great extent of the parifh or diftri&t, returned only partly loaded. Confidering the very high rate of labour, and the fhamefully extravagant manner in which, in hay or corn harveft, labourers and farm fervants are maintained in this part of the kingdom, it is furprifing, it is thought, that every farmer does not exert himfelf to devife and find out means by which he may perform his work with greater ex- pedition, and at lefs expence. There are fome, however, who think that this fort of carriage or conveyance, however well formed and conftruéted, from its neceflary great weight and unwieldinefs, as well as its expence, is moftly far from being advantageous to the intereft of the farmer ; as while it is highly deftru@tive to the roads, it requires great power to draw it, which muft be procured at much coft, without affording an adequate compenfation in the increafed quantity of materials which it carries. Waggons unqueftionably require much more power in the draught in proportion than carts, which is certainly a material objection againit them, though they are capable of conveying a much greater load; but, befides, they are far from being fo handy and convenient for many forts of farm- work ; and fome too are of opinion that more bufinefs may be done in any particular {pace of time, with the fame number of horfes, by carts than by waggons, in the general run of hufbandry work, efpecially where the diftance is {mall between the places of loading and unloading. That where waggons are ufed for farm-work, they fhould be made wide and low, as the moft fuitable in different intentions. Manures may be carried in thefe forts of waggons almolt as well, it is f{uppofed, as in carts. Broad wheels are improper for pafling and repafling upon tillage lands ; as if in fallow they prefs the land too much, making it fo hard as to prevent its being ploughed until wet comes ; but on grafs- land, wheels of the broad kind are proper and fuitable for all purpofes. In Berkfhire, Mr. Loveden is faid to put narrow fore-wheels to his waggons, and broad ones behind, in order to prevent injury to tender grafs-land. The hind- wheels in this way roll over the tracks made by the fore, and remove the mifchief they have done. The method is thought to be excellent, and of very eafy application. On the whole, waggons are probably the moft proper and fuitable fort of conveyances for different kinds of heavy loads that are to be carried to a diftance ; but that for home ufes, efpecially field and other work, which requires to be executed in a fpeedy manner, carts with proper fhelvings and other conveniences are to be preferred, as more ready and economical. See Carr. In the work of reducing the weight of waggons for farm ufes, as well as for road and other purpofes, it fhould always be done with much care and attention, in order that it may betaken from fuch parts of them as have not great force of draught or preffure upon them, and that thofe parts which WAG are much expofed in thefe ways may be left fufficiently ftrong. In the weight and fhape of the wheels fome reduc- tion and alteration may likewife take place, as may be feen in fpeaking of wheels. See WHEEL. Wacecon, in the Military Economy, is a four-wheeled carriage, drawn by four horfes, and applied to various purpofes. Waccon, Ammunition, in Military Language, is awaggon ufed in carrying all kinds of ftores, and alfo bread ; for which purpofe it is lined on the infide with bafket- work. Waccon-Mafter-General is he who has the ordering and marching of the baggage of the army. On a day of march he meets the baggage at the place appointed in the orders, and marfhals it according to the rank of the brigade or re- giment each waggon belongs to, which is fometimes in one column, fometimes in two ; fometimes after the artillery ; and fometimes the baggage of each column follows their re- fpective column. Waccon-Way, the fame with Rart-Way ; which fee. WAGGONER, in Afronomy, a kind of conftellation; called alfo Charles’s wain. Wacconer is alfo ufed for a routier, or book of charts, deferibing the feas, their coafts, &c. Wacconer, in farm work, the perfon or labourer who has the care and management of the waggon teams in driving, feeding, and other ways. It is of confiderable ad- vantage to the farmer to have good and careful waggoners, in faving time, wafte, and labour. A waggoner is alfo a term applied to the man who drives and direéts waggons on the public roads. See Roan. Wacconrrs, Royal, or Royal Waggon Train, a corps of waggoners lately eftablifhed, confifting of nine troops, each troop being 60 rank and file: but fince its firft eftablifh- ment reduced. WAGHEUNK, in Geography, a town of New York; 7 miles N.W. of Kingtfton. WAGING, a town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg ; 17 miles N.W. of Salzburg. WAGIOL, one of the fmaller Papuan iflands. See New GUINEA. WAGNA, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on the Salm ; 17 miles S. of Gratz. WAGNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on the gulf of Cambay ; 45 miles S.S.W. of Gogo. WAGNER, Joacuim, in Biography, a celebrated Ger- man organ-builder, who ereéted a large organ, in the gar- rifon church at Berlin, in 1725, which is remarkable for compafs, &c. having 50 keys in the manuals, and for its number of pipes, amounting to 32203; but {till more fo for the ornaments and machinery of the cafe, which are in the old Teutonic tafte, and extremely curious. At each wing is a kettle-drum, which is beat by an angel placed behind it, whofe motion the organilt regulates by a pedal ; at the top of the pyramid, or middle column of pipes, there are two figures, reprefenting Fame, fpreading their wings when the drums are beat, and raifing them as high as the top of the pyramid ; each of thefe figures founds a trum- pet, and then takes its flight. There are likewife two funs, which move to the found of cymbals, and the wind obliges them to crofs the clouds ; during which time two eagles take their flight, as naturally as if they were alive. The name of Wagner occurs twelve times in Gerber’s con- tinuation of Walther’s Mufical Dictionary. Seven of the number have diftinguifhed themfelves in mufic, fome way or other W, A, other by their talents. The other five have been organ- builders and makers of keyed inftruments. WAGOE, in Geography, one of the Faroer iflands, weft of Stromoe. WAGOLY, atown of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; 15 miles N.E. of Poonah. WAGON, a {mall ifland on the weft fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat.63° 12!. E. long. 13° 38/. WAGRA, a town of Auftria; 6 miles S.E. of Mauttern. WAGRAIN, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz- burg, near the Gros Arl; 6 miles W. of Radftadt. WAGRAM, a town of Auftria; 2 miles N.E. of Voglabruck. Wacram, or Deutfch Wagram, a town of Auftria; 8 miles E. of Korn Neuburg. WAGRIA, a diftri& of Hblftein, fituated in the N.E. part, between the Baltic and the Trave. WAGSTADT, or Bitowgs, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Troppau; 24 miles W. of Tefchen. N. lat. 49° 28’. E. long. 18°. WAGTAIL, in Ornithology. See Moracitra. WAGTER, Norp, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Tonquin, near the coaft of China. N. lat. 21° 13/. E. long. 109° 30’. Wacrer, Zuyd, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea, near the coaft of Cochinchina. N. lat. 17° 18/. E. long. 106° 34!. WAGUOIT Bay, a bay of the Atlantic, on the S. coaft of Maffachufetts. N. lat. 41° 30’. W. long. 0° 28!. WAGUR, Lirtte, a diftri& of Hindooftan, on the coaft of the gulf of Cutch. WAHABEES, Wauatizs, or Wehhabis, appella- tions that diftinguifh a formidable body of warlike feCtaries, who f{prung up in Arabia about a century ago, commenced their career as reformers of the Mahometan religion, and extended their migrations and conquefts. According to Niebuhr, the founder of this fe&t was one Abd ul Wehhab, (Abdoulwehhbah, or Ubdool Wahab,) a native of Aijene ( Ujuna), a town in El Ared (Ool Urud), one of the two diftri€&ts of Nedsjed in Arabia. This man, in his youth, is faid to have ftudied at home (or at Medina) thofe fciences which are chiefly cultivated in Arabia; he afterwards fpent fome time at Bofra, and made feveral journeys to Bagdad, and through Perfia. After his return to his native place, fays Niebuhr, he began to propagate his opinions among his countrymen, and fucceeded in converting feveral inde- pendent fchiecks, whofe fubje€ts became followers of this new prophet. Thofe fchiecks, who had before been ina ftate of hoftility againft one another, were reconciled by the mediation of Abd vl Wehhab, and agreed for the future to undertake no enterprife without the advice of their apoftle. In procefs of time, Abd ul Wehhab reduced great part of El Ared ; and being afterwards joined by fehieck Mecrami, of Nedsjeran, who was alfo the head of a particular feé, he, or rather his fon Mahomet, as he fucceeded his father, was enabled to reduce the Sunnite fchiecks, and as they acted in concert to fubdue many of their neighbours. After the death of Abd ul Wehhab, his fon retained the fame authority, and profecuted his father’s views, of courfe he futtained the fupreme ecclefiaftical charaéter in El Ared ; and though the hereditary {chiecks, which were more independent, {till re- tain a nominal authority, yet Mahomet is in fact the fove- reign of the whole, and exatts a tribute, under the name of « fikka,” or aid, for the purpofe of carrying on the war againft the infidels. The Sunnites complain of his perfe- Vout. XXXVII. W, A, cution; but, more probably, as Niebuhr fays, this bigotted and fuperititious fe& hate and calumniate Mahomet for his innovations in religion. Howevyer-this be, the inhabitants of Nedsjed, who demur againit embracing the new religion, are retiring to other parts of the country. Zobaner, the ancient Bafra, which had decayed to a condition little better than a hamlet, has been peopled by thefe refugees, and is now a large town. As to the religious doGtrine taught by Abd ul Wehhab, and adopted by his followers, Niebuhr ftates, that he be- lieved God to be the only obje& of worfhip and invocation, and the creater and governor of this world. He forbade the invocation of faints, and fo much as the mention of Mahomet, or any other prophet, in prayer, as practices fa- vouring of idolatry. He confidered Mahomet, Jefus Chrift, Mofes, and many others, refpected by the Sunnites, under the character of prophets, as merely great men, whofe hiftory might be perufed with improvement ; at the fame time de- nying that any book had ever been written by divine infpi- ration, or brought down from heaven by the angel Gabriel. He alfo forbade, as a crime again{ft Providence, the making of vows, in the manner of the Sunnites, with a view of ob- taining deliverance from danger. This new religion of Abd ul Wehhab, according to the account given of it by the fchiecks, which, however, in fome refpeéts, differs from the ftatement of the Sunnites, may be regarded as a re- formation of Mahometanifm, propofing to reduce it to its original fimplicity. Experience muft decide whether a reli- gion, fo ftripped of every thing that might ferve to itrike the fenfes, can long maintain its ground among a people fo rude and ignorant as the Arabs. Abd ul Wehhab has alfo thought it neceffary to impofe fome religious ob- fervances on his followers ; and has interdiéted the ufe of tobacco, opium, and coffee ; and he has enaéted a variety of civil regulations, with regard to the colleétion and diftri- bution of the revenues. Of thefe Wahabees other travellers have more recently detailed a variety of particulars, and we fhall here avail our- felves of the information concerning them, communicated in the travels of Ali Bey, whofe refidence in Arabia, and pil- grimage to Mecca, afforded him an opportunity of acquaint- ing himfelf with the hiftory and religious ufages of this tribe of feétaries. Of their founder we have already given a brief account. He commenced his career among the wandering Bedouin Arabs of the defert; and his firft profelyte of any importance is faid to have been Ibn Saaoud, a prince of cer- tain tribes inhabiting the country to the eaft of Medina; and this prince took occafion, in the diffemination of his new doérine, to attack and fubjugate the neighbouring tribes. His fucceffor, or, as fome fay, his coadjutor, was Abdel- aaziz (Ubdool Uzeez), who profecuting his fyftem, carried in one hand his creed of reform, and his {word in the other ; and having made himfelf mafter of the interior of Arabia, extended his military excurfions as far as the vicinity of Bagdad ; and in the year 1801, totally deftroyed by fire the town of Imam Hoffein, near this capital, The men and male children were all put to the {word ; while a Wehhabite doctor, from the top of a tower, excited the maffacre, by calling on the foldiers to kill ‘all the infidels who gave companions to God.”? In 1802, Mecca was taken after a trifling oppofition by Saaoud, the fon of Abdelaaziz, who razed to the ground all the mofques and chapels confecrated to the prophet or his family. This young warrior fuc- ceeded to the command of the Wehhabis the following year, on the affaffination of his father; and, in 1804, made him- felf mafter of Medina, which had before refifted his arms. The conqueft of Arabia was now nearly completed ; and 4 1e the WAHABEES. the fultan Saaoud became a formidable neighbour to the furrounding pachas of Bagdad, Damafcus, and Egypt. — The conftitution of this new fovereignty was fingular in its kind. ‘The town of Draaiya, among the deferts, 390 miles to the eaft of Medina, formed a fort of capital, or centre, of the governments of the Wehhabis. The various tribes of Arabs, feattered widely in tents and barracks over this vaft extent of country, yielded obedience, both civil and military, to the fultan Saaoud. The tenth of their flocks and fruits was paid in tribute; an order from the fultan ra- pidly aflembled a multitude of armed men, fubfifting them- {elves at their own expence, totally unorganized as foldiers, but deriving force from their numbers—from their active {pirit as feCtaries—and from the rs: plunder they obtained in their military expeditions. Defcending frequently from their defert recefles upon the coaft of the Red fea, they ar- refted the caravans, and levied contributions upon the pil- grims journeying to Mecca and Medina. In the year 1807, when Ali Bey vifited Mecca, the Wehhabis were in their greatett power. Their army, which he faw encamped in the vicinity of the facred mount of Arafat, he eftimates at 45,000 men,—a large proportion of the number mounted on camels and dromedaries, and with a train of a thoufand camels attached to the different chiefs of the army. He de- feribes with fome fpirit the appearance of another body of Wehhabis, whom he faw entering Mecca, to take poffeffion of the city, and fulfil the duties of their own pilgrimage :— a multitude of copper-coloured men, who rufhed impetu- oufly into the place, their only covering a narrow girdle round their waift, to which was hung a édanjear, or large knife, each one carrying befides a firelock on his fhoulder. Their devotions were of the moft tumultuous kind ; the lamps furrounding the facred kaaba were broken by their guns ; and the ropes and buckets of the well of Zemzem deftroyed in their eagernefs to reach the holy water. All the other pilgrims quitted their more decorous ceremonies, till the Wehhabis, having fatistied their zeal, and paid their alms to the well in gunpowder and coffee, betook themfelves to the ftreets, where, in conformity with the law of Abd ul Wehhab, their heads were all clofely fhaved by the barbers of Mecca. The fultan Saaoud, whom Ali Bey faw at Arafat, was almoft as naked as his fubjeéts, diftinguifhed chiefly by the green ftandard carried before him, with the chara@ters, “ La illahé illa Allah,’ —* there is no other God but God,”’ embroidered upon it. With refpeG to their religious tenets, the Wehhabis may be defcribed, generally, as the Socinians of the Mohamme- dan church. Abd ul Wehhab, while acknowledging fully the authority of the koran, profeffed obedience only to the literal text of this book ; rejeCting all the additions of the imams and doétors of law, and condemning various fupertti- tions which had fullied the purity of the faith. He forbade all devotion to the perfon of the prophet, and pilgrimage to his tomb at Medina ; regarding him fimply as a man charged with a divine miffion ; which being completed, he became again an ordinary mortal. The ftory of Mahomet’s afcent to Paradife on El Borak, the horfe of the angel Gabriel, he wholly denied ; together with a hoft of other miraculous events, with which hiftory has celebrated the life of the pro- phet. The Wehhabis fimply fay “* Mohammed,”’ inftead of «© Our Lord Mohammed,” according to the ufage of other Muffulmen. ‘They have equally rejected the indirect wor- fhip of certain faints, who had been gradually infinuated into the Muffulman calendar, deftroying the chapels and tombs which had been confecrated to them. The grand doétrine of the fe&, and what they regard as the batfis of true Iflamifm, is the unity of God. ‘This forms their cry gx when they go to war, and jultifies to themfelves the violences they commit upon the corrupters of the faith. The Muf- fulmen who deviate from this fimple principle of belief they call Moufchrikinns, or {chifmatics; making a diftinétion between this term and that of Coffar, or idolaters. As it was the general cuftom of Muffulmen to fhave the head, with the exception of one tuft of hair, the law of the Wehhabis forbade the tuft, and enjoined the fhaving of the whole head. ‘Their founder alfo prohibited not only the ufe of tobacco, but that of filk and the precious metals. Their religious fervices are performed underneath the open fky, and not below the roofing of a mofque. Not- withftanding thefe changes, however, and the general fpirit of their doétrine, they ftill retain certain fuperttitions, com- mon to other Muffulmen. While forbidden to make fome pilgrimages, others are permitted to them. ‘They kifs the ftone of the Kaaba, drink of the water of Zemzem, and throw ftones againft the pillar faid to have been built by the devil at Mina. The pacha of Egypt, with a view of employing his troops, amounting, at this time, to 15,000 men, and in order to gain favour with the Porte, and reputation among true Muffulmen, determined to liberate the holy city and fhrine from the power of thefe heretics, and declared war againft them. In the vigorous profecution of it, his army was tranfported to the Arabian coafts; and the men and horfes compofing it, were fupplied with provifions, carried up the Nile as far as Kenneh, thence tranfported acrofs the defert on camels to Coffeir, and fhipped for Jambo, or fome other port on the eaftern coaft of the Red fea. Several armed veflels alfo were built at Alexandria, taken to pieces, and conveyed on the backs of camels to Suez, where they found a {mall fleet, which greatly aided his military opera- tions on the Arabian coait. The pacha, it is faid, received fome arms from the Englifh ; but permiffion was refufed, as we are told by Mr. Legh, to his requeft that his veffels might go round the Cape of Good Hope, to enter into the Red fea. The Wehhabis, on the other hand, are reported to have received affiftance from the French government, con- veyed through the Ifle of France, and with the policy of creating a French intereft in Arabia, which might be fub- fervient to their pretenfions in the Eaft. The campaign of the pacha of Egypt againft the Wehhabis, in 1812, had been unfuccefsful ; and his army . fuffered very greatly in an engagement at Jedda, the port of Mecca on the adjoining coaft. He redoubled, however, his exertions ; organized new troops; and, early in the {pring of 1813, brought the war to a triumphant termina- tion. The Wehhabis were driven with lofs from the coatt ; Mecca, Medina, and Jedda, were all retaken, and reftored again to the authority of the Porte, and to the worfhip of the true believers. Mohammed Ali fent his youngeft fon, Ifmael-Pacha, to Conftantinople, to lay the keys of Mecca at the feet of the grand fignior. The acquifition was ren- dered of the utmoft importance, by the peculiar feeling of all Muffulmen towards the actual poffeflor of the holy city. The progrefs of this fe&, fays Mr. Kinneir, appears to be now at a ftand; few profelytes have been made for a number of years pa{t; and the moft paltry fortifications have been found fufficient to arreft the career of their conquetts, It does not appear certain, however, that this fuccefs is complete, or that its confequences will be permanent. The Wehhabis retired from the coaft to their defert recefles in the interior of Arabia ; where their loffes may eafily be re- paired, if the fpirit of the fe& is maintained in its former vigour. IW, ANEL vigour. We have very recently heard, from what we be- lieve to be good authority, that they are again becoming more attive ; and, though the military talents of the pacha of Egypt may reftrain them at the prefent moment, we fhall not be at all furprifed, amidft the many revolutions of the Eaft, if they fhould re-eftablifh their power in Arabia ; and concur, with other caufes, to overthrow the tottering fabric of Turkifh empire in this part of the world. Niebuhr’s Travels, vol. ii. Waring’s Tour to Sheeraz. Legh’s Narrative of a Journey in Egypt, and the Country beyond the Cataraéts. Ali Bey’s Travels in Morocco, &c. 2 vols. 1816. Kinneir’s Geog. Mem. of Perfia. Edinb. Rev. No. liv. WAHAL, a river which branches off from the Rhine at Schencken Schans, joins the Meufe firft at the {mall ifland of Voorn, feparates from that river, and wafhes the north fide of the ifland of Bommelwaert, and joins the Meufe again at Worcum, when both rivers form one ftream, fometimes called Merwe, and fometimes Meufe. See SAHALIS. WAHE. See Wa. WAHLBO, a town of Sweden, in Geftricia; 4 miles S.W. of Gefle. WAHLBOMIA, in Botany, named by Thunberg, in honour of his countryman, Dr. John Guitavus Wahlbom, of whom he {peaks as an ardent botanift, and celebrated phyfician.— Thunb. A&. Holm. for 1790. 215. t- 9- Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1244. Lamarck Illuttr. t. 485. Poiret in Lam. Dia. v. 8. 782. — Clafs and order, Poly- andria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Senticofe, Linn. Ro/facee, Juff. Dilleniacee, De Candolle. Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves. Petals four. Fruit oblong. Styles permanent. Willdenow. 1. W. indica. Thunb. as above. Willd. n. 1.—The only f{pecies, found by Thunberg in the ifland of Java, near Batavia, flowering in January. A /hrub, with round alter- nate branches, covered with hoary pubefcence. Leaves alternate, ftalked, elliptic-lanceolate, acute, ferrated, three or four inches long ; entire at the bafe; paler, but fcarcely downy, beneath. Flowers fomewhat umbellate, or cymofe, near the ends of the branches, on downy ftalks. Calyx ex- ternally downy. Petals yellowifh, deciduous. Stamens brown, with yellow anthers. Pericarps four, beaked with the permanent /fy/es. We have mentioned already that Willdenow was inclined to fink this genus in TeTRAcERA; fee the end of that article. Profeflor De Candolle has a€tually done fo, in his Syft. Nat. v. 1. 403, where the plant in queftion ftands under the following name and character. T. Wablbomia. “ Leaves elliptical, pointed; ferrated towards the end; downy beneath, like the footftalks ; fur- nifhed with ftipulas at the bafe? Panicle of four or five flowers. Segments of the calyx four, externally downy.” —The author doubts whether this plant be even {pecifically diftin& from his T. Affa, defcribed in the fame place, the Affa indica of Houttuyn, of which we have already {poken likewife at the conclufion of TETRACERA. WAHLIS, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county of Henneberg; 5 miles N.W. of Smal- kalden. WAHLSTADT, i.e. The Field of Battle, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Lignitz ; near which, in the year 1241, a moit bloody battle was fought between duke Henry IJ. and the Tartars, wherein the latter were victo- rious, and the duke flain. In memory of this event the place was built ; and the narrative of this engagement is annually read to the people from the pulpit, in the Lutheran church ; 5 miles S.E. of Lignitz. » WyAw WAHLWINKEL, a town of Saxony, in the princi- pay of Gotha; 4 miles S.W. of Gotha. AHOE, one of the Sandwich iflands, 37 leagues to the N. of Morotai, and about 30 from Owhyhee, nearly 40 miles long, from N.W. to S.E., and abont half that extent in breadth. It is the moft important ifland in the group, on account of its fuperior fertility, and becaufe it poffeffes the only fecure harbour in thefe iflands. ‘The ca- pital of the ifland is Hanaroora, the refidence of the king. Pearls and mother-of-pearl fhells are found here in great abundance. WAHR, a river of Germany, which rifes near Fran- kenau, in the principality of Heffe, and runs into the Lahn near Kirchhayn. WAHREN, or Waaren, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg, fituated’ near the lake of Calpin ; 22 miles S.E. of Guitrow. N. lat. 53° 30!. E. long. 12° 39). Wauren See, a lake of the Ucker Mark of Branden- burg; 11 miles W.N.W. of Prenzlow. WAHRENBRUCK, a town of Saxony; 2 miles N.N.W. of Liebenwerda. WAHRIEN, a town of Mecklenburg, in the princi- pality of Schwerin; 14 miles N.E. of Schwerin. N. lat. 53° so’. E. long. 11° 38!. WAHTO, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo; 10 miles N. of Abo. WAIBLINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg. This town was almoft deftroyed in the thirty years’ war ; 7 miles E.N.E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 50’. E. long. 9° 25/. WAICHMAR. See WeEcHMAR. WAIDENHOLZ, a town of Auftria; 5 miles W.N.W. of Efferding. WAIDERSFELDEN, a town of Auftria; 12 miles E. of Freyftatt. WAIDGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 30 miles E. of Allahabad. WAIDHAUSEN, a town N.N.E. of Nabburg. WAIDHOVEN, or Bavarian Waidhoven, a town of Auttria, on the river Ips ; 26 miles S.S.W. of Ips. N. lat. 47° 54'. KE. long. 14° 43!. WarpHoven, or Bobmifch Waidhoven, a town of Auitria, on the river Taya; 40 miles W. of Laab. N. lat. 48° 48". E. long. 15°. WAIDPOUR, atown of Bengal; 25 miles N.N.W. of Iflamabad. WAIF, or Wars, a term primarily applied to ftolen goods, which a thief, being either purfued, or overburdened, flies, and waives or throws away in his flight. on The king’s officer, or the bailiff of the lord within whofe jurifdiGion fuch waifs or waif goods were left (having by grant, or prefcription, the franchife of waif), may feize the goods to his lord’s ufe; except the owner come with frefh {uit after the felon, and fue an appeal of robbery within a year and a day, or give in evidence againft him, and he be attainted. In which cafes, the owner fhall have his goods again. on Waived goods do alfo not belong to the king, till feized by fomebody for his ufe; for if the party robbed can feize them firft, though at the diftance of twenty years, the king fhall never have them. If the goods are hid by the thief, or left any where by him, fo that he had them not about him when he fled, and therefore did not throw them away in his flight; thefe alfo are not bona waiviata, but the owner may have them again when he 4L 2 pleafes, of Bavaria; 16 miles WaAtl pleafes. The goods of a foreign merchant, though {tolen and thrown away in flight, fhall never be waifs. Waifs, things loft, and eftrays, are faid to be pecus va- grans, and are nillius in bonis ubi non ae dominus. And therefore they belong to the lord of the franchife where they are found; who muft caufe them to be cried, and publifhed in the markets and churches near about : élfe the year and day do not run to the prejudice of him that loft them. See Estray. Though waif be properly fpoken of things ftolen, yet it may alfo be underftood of goods not ftolen. As, if a man be purfued with hue and cry, as a felon, and he flies, and leaves his own goods, thefe fhall be forfeited as goods ftolen; and they are properly called fugitive goods. WAJIDA, in Geography, a town of Algiers; 25 miles S.W. of Tremecen. WAIJOO, or Wanso0, one of the moft confiderable of the Papuan iflands, fituated at the N.W. extremity of Papua, or New Guinea; which fee. ‘This ifland is faid to contain 100,000 inhabitants. The land is high, with lofty mountains, and on the N. fide are two excellent har- -bours, Piapis and Offak. This ifland is called by the natives Ouarido ; it is covered with very large trees, and abounds with mountains of a confiderable height, even at a {mall diftance from the fhore. | Cottages of bamboo wood are feen, elevated on ftakes about 12 feet above the ground ; and covered with leaves of the macaw tree. The natives are wholly naked, except the parts generally concealed, which are covered with a coarfe cloth. Their chiefs are dreffed in very large pantaloons, and waiftcoats of cloth, which they buy of the Chinefe, whofe language they fpeak, and like them they wear conical hats made of the leaves of a tree. They have thick and long curly hair; their fkin is not very dark, and fome of them let their whifkers grow. They fubfift upon hogs, tortoifes, fowls, Siam oranges, cocoa, papays, pompions, rice, fugar-canes, potatoes, lemons, allfpice, and ears of maize, which they boil when green. Labillardiere found in this ifland the beautiful promerops of New Guinea, of Buffon, the large cockatoo, quite black { pfittacus aterrimus ), and a new f{pecies of hydrocorax. The wild cock and ground-pheafant of the Indies are very com- mon in the woods. WAIL, a town of France, in the department of the flraits of Calais; 5 miles S.E. of Hefdin. WAIN, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to an ox or horfe-cart of a particular form, and which, in fome diftri&ts and places, is without any fide-rails, or ladders ; but which in others has fhelvings added to it, the body being large and open. The Cornifh wain, the writer of the account of the agriculture of that county reprefents as a light ufeful carriage for conveying corn and hay: it con- fifts of a light open long body, borne upon two wheels ; a railed arch put over the wheels prevents the load bearing upon them : it will carry from two hundred to two hun- dred and fifty fheaves of corn, they being fecured by ropes, as in the waggon. Mr. J. Dayman, of that diltriG@, con- fiders it alfo as an admirable contrivance for clearing hay or corn-fields ; and that when well conitructed, it is thought the beft invention for that purpofe yet contrived. That it is likewife cheap, as the fhafts and wheels of a common cart may be ufed with it, and, of courfe, the only additional ex- pence is the body. Befides the railed wings, which prevent the load from choaking the wheels, it has a roller behind, with a hole in it, in which is faftened the rope which croffes the load, and which, after taking-a turn round a crook put for the purpofe, returns again to the back of the carriage, 1o* them. Wy AVI and then forward to the other fide, where it is faitened ; the whole is then draws tight by the roller, which is wrought by two iron handles, in the manner of a {mith’s vice. Thefe wains are made either with tongue-trees, or fhafts, as they may be defigned for oxen or horfes, In the county of Gloucefter, too, they adapt their wains to harveft-work, it is faid, by fixing ladders and rathes on In the lower part of the vale of that diftri@, they are called, it is afferted, dung-pots ; but in the foreft part, where drawn by oxen, wains. They are a fort of carriage which is not very commonly met with at prefent in many farming diftri@s. See Cart. Wats, in Afronomy. See Cuarves’s Wain. Watn-Houfe, in Rural Economy, a term made ufe of in fome diftrifts to fignify a waggon and cart houfe, or lodge. WAINFLEET, or Waynrrere, in Geography, a market-town in the wapentake of Candlefhoe, in Lindfey divifion of the county of Lincoln, England, is fituated in a marfh, on a {mall creek through which the river Limb flows into Bofton deeps, at the diftance of 17 miles N.E. from Bofton, and 132 miles N. by E. from London. Dr. Stukeley affirms it to be the Vainona of Ravennas; whence he fuppofes the name to be evidently derived. He ob- ferves that Salter’s Road, which croffes the fen, was pro- bably the Roman road between Banovallum and Lindum. Leland defcribes Wainfleet as “a praty market ftonding on a creke nere to the fe. To this toune long {maul veffels. It hath beene a very godde toune, and yn it 2 paroch chirches. The fchole, that Wainflete bifshop of Win- cheftre made and endowid with xli. lande, is the moft no- table thing. Shippeletes cam in hominum memoria up to the{chole. The haven now decayith.”’ The negle& of the haven was in confequence of the waters of the fens being diverted more foutherly towards Bofton, by which that place became the port town: Wainfleet haven, however, affords fecurity to veflels driven on the coaft in tempeftuous weather. It is probable that the town, previous to the decay of the harbour, ftood higher up the creek, for the church of All Saints ftands at a place called High Wain- fleet. This church is a refpeétable edifice, but apparently not older than the time of bifhop Waynflete: it has a brick tower of modern date, and is rapidly decaying. In the fouth aifle is an alabafter monument, which was ereéted by the pious bifhop to the memory of his father. St. Mary’s church, in Low Wainfleet, has nothing worthy of note. The fchool-houfe, founded in 1459, is yet ftanding, and has a handfome window, alfo two o€tagonal turrets. Four annual fairs are held, and a {mall weekly market on Satur- days. Inthe return to the population aé& of the year 1811, the number of houfes in Wainfleet is ftated to be 229, in- habited by 1165 perfons. This town is memorable as the birth-place of that celebrated prelate above-named, who was lord chancellor, and founder of Magdalen college, Oxford. He died Auguit 11, 1486.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix., Lincolnfhire: by J. Britton, F.S.A. See Chandler’s Life, &c. of Waynflete. WAINSCOT, in Building, the timber-work ferying to line the walls of a room; being ufually made in panels, and painted, to ferve in lieu of hangings. Even in hails, it is common to have wainfcot breatt-high, by reafon of the natural humidity of walls. It was formerly the cuftom to wainfcot rooms up to the ceiling, and to terminate it by a cornice; but it is now commonly raifed only chair high, or from two to three feet; the reft of the wall is either covered with paper, which EN eee WAI which is often pafted on thin cloth, and fixed in frames, to prevent its being fpoiled by the dampnefs of the wall, or elfe it is finifhed with ftucco. Walls fhould be tho- roughly dry before they are wainfcotted, and the ftuff of which the wainfcot is made fhould be dry and well fea- foned. Some joiners put charcoal behind the panels of the wain- {cot, to prevent the {weat of ftone and brick-walls from ungluing the joints of the panels. Others ufe wool for the fame purpofe. But neither the one nor the other is fuffi- cient for fome houfes: the only fure way, is by priming over the backfides of the joints with white lead, or Spanifh brown and linfeed oil. Wainfcotting is meafured by the fquare yard of nine feet ; and in taking dimenfions, they ufe a itring, which they prefs into all the mouldings ; it being a rule, that they are to be paid for all where the plane goes. The cornice is meafured and paid by the foot in length. WAIORA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kaarta. N. lat. 14° 48!. W. long. 6° ro’. WAISCHOWIZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Profnitz. WAIST, in Ship-building, a name given to that part of the topfide of a fhip, above the upper-deck, between the main and fore drifts: or it is that part which is contained be- tween the quarter-deck and fore-caftle, being ufually a hollow {pace, with an afcent of feveral fteps to either of thofe places. When the waift of a merchant-fhip has only one or two fteps of defcent from the quarter-deck and fore- caftle, fhe is faid to be galley-built ; but when it is con- fiderably deeper, as with fix or feven fteps, fhe is called frigate-built. Falconer. WAIT’s River, in Geography, a river of Vermont, which runs into the Conneéticut, N. lat. 43° 58’. W.long. rie 4 WAITS, in Mujfic, attendant muficians on great perfon- ages, mayors, and bodies corporate, generally furnifhed with fuperb dreffes, or fplendid cloaks. We have an account in Rymer’s Foedera, (tom. ix. “* De Miniltrielles propter Sola- tium Regis providendis,’’) and inthe * Liber niger Domus — Regis,” of the eftablifhment of the minftrels and waits, ’in the fervice of the court during the reign of Edward IV. The account of the allowances to the waits at this early period is curious. « A wayte, that nightelye from Mychelmas to Shreve Thorfdaye pipethe the watche withen this courte fower tymes; in the fomere nyghtes ij tymes, and makethe bon gayte at every chambere-doare and offyce, as well for feare of pyckeres and pillers. He eateth in the halle with myniftrielles, and takethe lyverey at nighte a loffe, a galone of alle, and for fomere nightes 1j candles pich, a bufhel of coles ; and for wintere nightes half aloafe of bread, a galone of ale, iiij candles piche, a bufhel of coles ; daylye whilfte he is prefente in courte for his wages in cheque roale allowed iiij d. ob. or elfe iijd. by the difcrefshon of the fteuarde and tref- forere, and that, aftere his cominge and diferuinge; alfo cloath- inge with the houfhold yeomen or mynftrielles lyke to the wages that he takethe ; and he be fyke he taketh twoe loves, ij meffe of great meate, one gallon of ale. Alfo he partethe with the houfholde of general gyfts, and hathe his beddinge cafried by the comptrollers aflygment ; and under this yeo- man to be a groome watere. Yf he can excufe the yeoman in his abfence, then he takethe rewarde, clotheinge, meat, and all other things lyke to other grooms of houfhold. Alfo this yeoman-waighte, at the makinge of knightes of the bathe, for his attendance upon them by nighte-tyme, in WAK watchinge in the chappelle, hathe to his fee all the watchin ge- clothing that the knight fhall wear uppon him.” WAITSFIELD, in Geography, a town of America, in the ftate of Vermont, and county of Chittenden ; containing 647 inhabitants. . WAITZEN, or Varrz, a town of Hungary, fituated on the Danube ; the fee of a bifhop, founded in the year 1074. ‘This town chiefly owes its profperity to a large annual fair, and a good market for cattle. The number of inhabitants is about 8000 ; 72 miles E.S.E, of Prefburg. N. lat. 47°29/. E. long. 18° 38). WAITZENKIRCH, a town of Auftria; 4 miles W-.N.W. of Efferding. WAIVE, in Law, a woman that is put out of the pro- teGtion of the law. ~ She is called waive, as being forfaken of the law; and not outlaw, as a man is; by reafon women cannot be of the decenna, and are not {worn in leets to the king, nor to the law, as men are ; who are therefore within the law ; whereas women are not, and fo cannot be outlawed, fince they never were within it. In this fenfe we meet with waviaria mulieris, as of the fame import with wtlegatio viri. f WAIWODE, or Waywops, the appellation that dif- tinguifhes, in the Ottoman empire, the governor of a {mall province, or of a town, which not forming part of a pa- chalik, is fometimes the appendage of a fultana, of the grand vifir, of the captain-pacha, or of any other great officer of the empire. He enjoys all the prerogatives of a pacha with two tails, but occupies an inferior rank. When he is re- quired to march at the head of the armed force of his de- partment, he joins his colours to thofe of the pacha with three tails. Both the one and the other are charged with carrying into execution, in their provinces, the fentences pro- nounced by the judges. In the iflands of the Archipelago, the Muffulmen or Greeks fimply charged by the Porte with the gathering of the tax, and with the police of the place, are likewife diftinguifhed by the name of waiwode. The palatines, or governors of provinces in Poland, alfo bear the quality of qwayavodes, or waiwodes. See Para- TINE. The Poles likewife call the princes of Walachia and Mol- davia waywodes; as efteeming them no other than on the foot of governors ; pretending that Walachia and Moldavia are provinces of Poland, which have withdrawn themfelves from the obedience of the republic. Every where elfe thefe are called hofpodars. Du Cange fays, that the name waywode is ufed in Dal- matia, Croatia, and Hungary, for a general of an army ; and Leunclavius, in his Pandeéts of Turkey, tells us, it ufually fignifies captain or commander. WAKARI, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the eatt fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60°51/. E. long. 20° 47!. WAKAYGAGH, or Fort, a river of America, which runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 42°58!. W. long. 87° 9! WAKE, Wirt1Am, in Biography, a famous Englifh pre- late, was born at Blandford, in the county of Dorfet, in 1657, and admitted at Chriftchurch college, at Oxford, in 1672, where he took his degrees in arts, and entered into holy orders. He afterwards accompanied his fellow-collegian, lord vifcount Prefton, to France, as his chaplain, and return- ing from thence to England after the acceflion of James II. was elected preacher to the fociety of Gray’s Inn. In 1686 he publifhed “ An Expofition of the Doétrine of the Church of WAK of England,” upon the plan of Boffuet’s ‘* Expofition of the Doétrine of the Catholic Church ;’’ and he alfo publifhed two defences of his treatife againft the replies of Boffuet and his coadjutor. In the popifh controverfy, which at that time occupied the public attention, he wrote other pieces, and clofed the difpute with his ‘* State of the Controverfy.” In 1685, having abandoned his patron lord Prefton, who was attached to king James, he arrived in 1688, took a degree of D.D. at Oxford, became canon of Chriftchurch, and in 1689, deputy-clerk of the clofet to king William and queen Mary. In 1693 he publifhed “ An Englifh Verfion of the genuine Epiftles of the Apoftolical Fathers, with a pre- liminary Difcourfe concerning the right Ufe of the Fa- thers’ In this work, of which an enlarged edition was publifhed in 1710, he afcribes an “ authority to the fathers in matters of doétrine next to infallible.” In 1694 he was prefented to the reétory of St. James’s; and in 1697 he publifhed his “* Defence of the Power of Chriftian Princes over their Ecclefiaftical Synods, with particular refpect to the Conyocations of the Clergy and Church of England.” By this and fome fubfequent publications of a fimilar kind, fuch as his “‘ Vindication of the King’s Supremacy againft both popifh and fanatical Oppofers of it,’’ and “* The State of the Church and Clergy of England,”’ 1703, fol. he re- commended himfelf to the crown; fo that in 1702 he ob- tained the deanery of Exeter, and in 1705 the bifhopric of Lincoln. During the prevalence of whig principles, which were then fafhionable, the bifhop recommended a comprehen- fion with the Diflenters, and zealoufly concurred in the cenfure and punifhment of Dr. Sacheverel. He maintained his mo- deration in the reign of queen Anne, and oppofed the into- lerant meafure of the {chifm-bill. Soon after the acceffion of George I. he was advanced, January 1715-16, to the fee of Canterbury. This elevation gave a new turn to his fen- timents and temper, fo that in 1718 he oppofed the repeal of the fchifm and conformity bill, and alfo of the teft and corporation acts, alleging that “ the Diffenters were never to be gained by indulgence ;”’ and exprefling much difplea- fure again{t Hoadly’s celebrated fermon, ¢ Chrift’s Kingdom not of this World ;”’ and concurring in a bill for impofing a new teft againit the opinions of the Arians. Thefe mea- fures, which did no credit to the confiftency of his character, were juftified under a pretence of zeal for the church. By his earneft endeavours to effe& an union between the Englith and Gallican churches, on the condition that each fhould retain the greateft part of its peculiar doétrines, he incurred a con- fiderable degree of cenfure, particularly on the part of the author of the ‘¢ Confeffional ;?? but his charaéter and inten- tions were vindicated by Dr. Maclaine, in an appendix to his T'ranflation of Mofheim’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, to which, as well as to the Biographia Britannica, we refer for a ftatement of this bufinefs. After all, his difcretion and faga- city as to the objet and conduét of this tranfation did not efcape juft animadverfion. Such, however, was his con- ciliatory difpofition, and his difpofition to promote concord and union, that he acknowledged the foreign Proteftant churches to be true members of the Chriftian community, and recommended forbearance and toleration with regard to theological doétrines. It is, however, a matter of regret, that his treatment of feparatifts at home did not manifeft, to the degree that might have been wifhed, a fimilar fpirit of toleration. His condué towards father Courayer, an emi- nently hberal Catholic, redounded greatly to his honour. In the latter period of his life, his increafing infirmities ren- dered it neceffary for him to transfer the exercife of his ecclefiaftical duties to Dr. Gibfon, bifhop of London ; and at length he clofed his life and labours, January 1736-7, in W 22K his 80th year, leaving fix daughters, who were all married, and bequeathing his library, MSS., and coins, to the college in which he was educated. Four editions of a treatife, intitled ‘‘ A Preparation for Death,’ &c. and 3 volumes of his Sermons, Charges, &c. were publifhed.—Biog. Brit. Moth. E. H. Appendix, N° iv. vol. vi. ed. 8vo. 1811. Wakg, in Geography, a county of North Carolina, con- taining 17,086 inhabitants, including 5878 flaves. Wake of a Ship denotes the print or track imprefled by the courfe of a fhip on the furface of the water. It is formed by the reunion of the body of water, which was feparated by the fhip’s bottom whilft moving through it, and may be feen to a confiderable diftance behind the ftern, as fmoother than the reft of the fea. Hence it is ufually obferved by the compafs, to difcover the angle of lee-way. By this, a guefs alfo may be made of the fpeed fhe makes. When, ina fhip’s ftaying, fhe is fo quick, that fhe does not fall to leeward, upon a tack, but that, when tacked, her wake is to the leeward, they fay, /he ftays to the weather of her wake; which isa fign fhe feels her helm well, and is nimble of fteerage. Alfo, when one fhip, purfuing another, is got as far into the wind as fhe, and fails direétly after her, on the fame tack, or on a line fuppofed to be formed on the continuation of her keel, they fay, /he is got into her wake. Two diftin& objeéts obferved at fea are faid to be in the wake of each other, when the view of the fartheft is inter- cepted by the neareft ; fo that the obferver’s eye, and the two objects, are all placed upon the fame right line. Waxe- Robin, or Cuckow-Pint, in Botany. See ARuM. The root of arum, dried and powdered, is ufed by the French for wafhing their fkin, and is fold at a high price under the name of Cyprefs powder; it is both a good and an innocent cofmetic. Thefe roots are faid to poffefs a faponaceous quality, and have been ufed in wafhing linen inftead of foap. In their dry ftate, when they have been deprived of their acri- mony, they have been made into bread, and alfo prepared as ftarch. The leaves and flowers of arifarum equalis, broad-leaved friar’s cowl, are deterfive and vulnerary ; and applied either in the form of ointment or decoétion to malignant ulcers. Its root taken in powder is efteemed againit the plague, the dofe being from a fcruple toa drachm. Of the root alfo are made collyria, shih are ufed in curing fiftulas of the eyes. Vide Lemery, des Drog. in voc. WAKEFIELD, Gurzert, in Biography, an eminent claf- fical {cholar, wasthe fon of the Rev.George Wakefield, re&tor of St. Nicholas, Nottingham, and born in that townin the year 1756. After a previous grammatical education, he was ad- mitted, in 1772, into Jefus college, in the univerfity of Cam- bridge. Here he purfued his ftudies with an affiduity which eftablifhed his reputation ; and having taken his degree of B.A. in 1776, he was foon afterwards elected a fellow of his college. At this early period, he publifhed a {mall col- leG&tion of Latin poems, and a few critical notes on Homer. Having direéted his particular attention to theological in- quiries, he began betimes to entertain doubts concerning the articles of the church, and though he took deacon’s orders in 1778, he reproached himfelf for complying with the pre- vious forms. He commenced his minifterial labours as a curate at Stockport, and thence he removed to Liverpool, difcharging the duties of his office with a fuitable fenf€ of their importance. Diffatisfied, however, with the doétrines and liturgy of the church, he determined to furrender his conneétion with it; and having married in 1779, he accepted an WAK an invitation to be claffical tutor at the aifentne academy of Warrington, without avowing himfelf as a Diflenter. Having in 1781 publifhed his plan of a new verfion of the New Teftament, with a fpecimen of the propofed work, he prefented to the public, in 1782, “ A New Tranflation of the Gofpel of St. Matthew, with Notes critical, philological, and explanatory,” 4to., which was well received. Upon the diffolution of the academy at Warrington, he removed to Bramcote in Nottinghamfhire, where he received private pupils; and here he publifhed in 1784 the firft volume of an Enquiry into the Opinions of the Chriftian Writers of the firft Three Centuries concerning the Perfon of Jefus Chrift,’? 8vo., which was received in a manner that dif- couraged him from purfuing his plan. Being difabled by the attack of a diforder in one arm to undertake any literary performance that required any confiderable exertion, he intermitted his conftant occupations ; till at length in 1789 he commenced his “ Silva Critica, five in Autores facros prophanofque Commentarius Philologicus ;” of which three parts appeared fucceflively to the year 1795, the three firft being iffued from the Cambridge prefs. Mr. Wakefield, in 1790, removed from Nottingham to Hackney, in order to affume the office of claffical tutor in the diffenting college of that place, where his fervices were highly acceptable, till the publication of his “‘ Enquiry into the Expediency and Pro- priety of public or focial Worfhip,”’ in 1791; which being intended to juftify the difufe of the public exercifes of de- votion, occafioned a termination of his conneétion with that inftitution. From this time he employed himfelf in atten- tion to the inftru@tion of his own family, and to feveral lite- rary works; the principal of which were his ‘ Tranflation of the New Teftament, with Notes critical and explanatory,” 3 vols. 8vo. 1792, of which a fecond edition appeared in 1795, 2 vols. 8vo.; and ** Memoirs of his own Life,’’ publithed in the fame year. His other produtions were “ Evidences of Chriftianity,”’ and “ Replies to the Two Parts of Thomas Paine’s Age of Reafon ;”? a volume of Pope’s Works, a volume of * Notes on Pope,’’ and an edition of his verfion of the Iliad and Odyfley of Homer. His “ Silva Critica” was alfo enlarged to the sth volume; and he prefented to the public editions of fele& ** Greek Tragedies,’’ of ‘‘ Homer,” “ Bion and Mofchus,”’ “ Virgil,” and ‘ Lucretius,” in 3 vols. 4to., a work highly efteemed. Avowing himfelf an enemy to war in general, and to the war againft France in particular, he publifhed a pamphlet in 1798, entitled ‘“« A Reply to fome Parts of the Bifhop of Landaff’s Addrefs to the People of Great Britain,’’ which fubjeéted him to a profecution: this terminated in a trial and conviction in February 1799. His fentence was imprifon- ment for two years in the county gaol of Dorchefter. Many concurring circumftances contributed to render this punifh- ment fingularly grievous to him ; but it was in a confiderable degree alleviated by the fympathy and refpeét of his friends, and by a liberal fubfeription towards the fupport of himfelf and his family. His courfe of {tudy was thus unfortunately interrupted, fo that he could only prepare for the prefs ** Se- le& Effays of Dio Chryfoftom, tranflated into Englifh from the Greek, with Notes,’’ 1800, 8vo., and ‘“* Noétes Carce- rariz, five de Legibus Metricis Poetarum Grecorum, qui Verfibus Hexametris feripferunt, Difputatio,’”’ 1801, 12mo.; and make colleGtions for his propofed Lexicon, Greek and Englifh. In May 1801 he was liberated from his confinement ; but on September the gth of the fame year, a typhus fever terminated his life, in his 46th year, to the grief of his family and the regret of numerous friends, by whom he was highly efteemed. The affiduity of his literary application, and the fingular WAK temperance of his habits, though they occafioned a feclu- fion from much of that focial intercourfe which was inte- refting to his family, and a degree of referve in his own temper, enabled him, however, to acquire great. reputation as a philological writer and critic during comparatively a fhort life. Under this charaéter, he refembled Bentley and Markland, being, like them, in his conje€tural criticifm, ‘always learned, fometimes bold, and frequently happy.” Poffeffing a very retentive memory, his extenfive reading furnifhed him with an ample ftore of paffages for illuftration or parallel, of which he could avail himfelf as occafions oc- curred. With regard to his moral difpofition and charac- ter, they were marked, as a biographer who knew him well has delineated them, “by an opennefs, a fimplicity, a good faith, an affe€tionate ardour, anoble elevation of mind, which made way to the hearts of all who nearly approached him, and rendered him the obje& of their warmeft attachment.’ The fecond edition of his ‘* Memoirs,’’ publifhed after his death, contains a catalogue of all his works, feveral of which have been omitted in this concife account of his life and labours. A colle&tion of letters between him and Mr. Fox, by whom he was highly efteemed, chiefly on fubjeéts of Greek literature, has alfo been publifhed. Memoirs. Gen. Biog. WAKEFIELD, in Geography, a large market-town in the lower divifion of the hundred of Agbrigg, in the Weft Riding of the county of York, is fituated on the fide of an eminence, gently floping fouthward to the river Calder, at the diftance of g miles S. from Leeds, 32 miles S.W. by 8. from York, and 182 miles N.N.W. from London. It con- fifts of nine ftreets, of which three are very large and com- modious ; and many of the houfes are fpacious and lofty. The market-place is {mall, but has been recently rendered much more convenient by the removal of the corn-market into Weft-gate, an adjacent ftreet of great extent. Here is a neat building called the Market-crofs, formed of an open colonnade of the Doric order, fupporting a dome, with an afcent of a circular flight of ftairs leading to a large room, which receives its light from a lantern at the top: in this chamber moft of the bufinefs of the town is tranfa@ted. The market is held on Fridays, which is well attended, par- ticularly for the fale of wool, which is fent from various parts of England to the fa€tors in Wakefield, who difpofe of it among the manufaéturers in the adjacent diftri@s. Here are two annual fairs, each of which continues two days, for horfes, horned cattle, pedlary ware, &c. A fair is alfo held every fortnight, on the alternate Wednefdays, for cattle and fheep, which affords a conftant fupply of butchers’ meat to almoft the whole of this riding, and the borders of Lanca- fhire. The parifh church of Wakefield is a fpacious and lofty edifice ; and the fpire is one of the higheft in the county. By the Domefday record there appears to have been a church here at the time of the Conquett, but no part of the prefent ftru€ture can be referred to a more early pe- riod than the reign of Henry III., and it has undergone many moderr repairs and improvements. In 1724 the fouth fide was entirely rebuilt ; and the greateft part of the north fide, together with the eaft end, towards the clofe of that century : a veftry-room has likewife been erected. About half a mile to the north is the new church, built about the end of the eighteenth century. The ground on which it ftands was bequeathed for that purpofe by Mrs. Newttead, a widow lady, together with rooo/. towards the fupport of a minifter. But the will being litigated, the matter lay dormant for fome years, till the whole property of the tef- tatrix was purchafed by Meflrs. Maude and Lee, who, in concurrence with fome other opulent perfons, procured an ac& WAK a&t of parliament for building the church and enlarging the town. The church was accordingly erefted, and a great number of houfes, difpofed in ftreets and fquares, forming a diftri&, which, as well as the church, is denominated St. John’s. In the town are three meeting-houfes for Dif- fenters of the Prefbyterian, Calviniftic, and Methodift de- nominations. Here is alfo a free grammar-fchool, founded and endowed by queen Elizabeth, but much improved by private benefaétions: the fchool-houfe is a fpacious ftruc- ture, ereéted by the Savilles, anceftors of the earl of Mex- borough. A charity-fchool is alfo eftablifhed here for the inftruétion and clothing of 106 boys and girls. Charitable donations to this town are very confiderable, amounting to 1000/. per annum, under the direGtion of fourteen truttees, called governors : this money is applied to the maintenance of feveral exhibitions in both univerfities, to the apprenticing of poor boys to various trades, to the fupport of aged and infirm perfons, and to other benevolent purpofes at the dif- cretion of the governors. At the end of Weft-gate, the principal ftreet in the town, is the houfe of correétion for the whole riding : this prifon is a {pacious ftone building, fur- rounded by an outer wall, and contains above 150 cells. A commodious feffions-houfe has been recently erected ; and great improvements are confequently taking place in the adjacent ftreets. The quarter feffions for the Weft Riding are held here in January ; and private feflions every fortnight by the juftices in the vicinity. At the fouth-eaft entrance into Wakefield is a ftone bridge, of nine large arches, over the Calder: it exhibits a fine {pecimen of the mafonry of Ed- ward IIT.’s reign, in which period it was built. In the centre of this bridge, projeéting from the eaftern fide, and partly refting on the ftarlings, is an ancient chapel, formed in the richeft ftyle of ecclefiaftical architefture, about ten yards in length and eight in breadth. The eaft window, overhanging the river, is adorned with tracery, and the parapets are perforated ; the windows on the north and fouth are equally rich ; but the weft front facing the paflage over the bridge exceeds all the reft in profufion of ornament, being divided by buttreffes into compartments forming re- ceffes with lofty pediments and pointed arches, with {pan- drils richly flowered, and above is an entablature fupporting five baffo relievos, the whole being crowned with battlements. This chapel was built by Edward IV. in memory of his father, Richard duke of York, and thofe of his party who fell in the battle of Wakefield. This fuperb relic of an- tiquity has of late years been ufed as a warehoufe, and its embellifhments haye received confiderable damage. Wakefield was noted in Camden’s time for its extent, build- ings, cloth trade, and markets, as well as for the chapel above defcribed. Since that period, the improvements in the woollen-cloth manufaéture, with the introduétion of thofe of tammies, camblets, and fancy articles, have greatly in- creafed its wealth and population. A handfome hall has recently been erected by fubfeription for the fale of the ftuffs: it is two ftories high, extending in length about feventy yards, and ten in breadth; through the middle, in each ftory, is a row of repofitories, in all about two hundred, facing each way, and properly labelled, fo that the ftand of any manufacturer may be readily found. Wakefield being fitu- ated on the edge of the manufaéturing diftri€, of which the Calder forms the eaftern boundary, fearcely a fingle manufac- turer is feen to the eaftward. The navigation of the Calder has greatly promoted the trade of this town, to which the river was rendered navigable in 1698. Great quantities of coals are carried hence by water for the fupply of York, Hull, and the adjacent parts. In the population return of the year 1811, Wakefield is ftated to contain 1959 houfes, WAK and 8593 inhabitants. The manor of Wakefield is very ex. tenfive, including that of Halifax, and ftretching from Nor- manton weftward to the confines of Lancafhire: it is more than thirty miles in length, from eaft to weft, and comprifes 118 towns, villages, and hamlets. By the Domefday-book it appears to have been part of the royal demefnes of Edward the Confeffor, and at the time of the furvey it belonged to the crown. During the four fubfequent centuries, it was granted to various branches of the royal families, and other diftinguifhed nobles. In 1461 it reverted to the crown in the perfon of Edward IV., and remained in the poffeffion of the kings of England till 1554, when it was united to the duchy of Lancafter. In the reign of Charles I. it was granted to Henry earl of Holland, who was beheaded in 1649, by the fentence of the high court of juttice. Being afterwards granted to Robert earl of Warwick, the manor went, by the marriage of his daughter, to fir Gervafe Clifton, who, ia 1663, fold it to fir Chriftopher Clapham, from whofe heirs it was purchafed in 1700 by the duke of Leeds, in whofe family it ftall continues. About a mile and a half to the eaft of Wakefield is the village of Heath, which, for fituation, variety of feats, and beautiful lawns, is jultly efteemed the fineft in the kingdom. Here is an elegant feat of W. Farquier, efq. ; and at this place was alfo the feat of the late right honourable John Smyth, member for Pontefraét, and a lord of the ad- miralty. Two miles fouth of Wakefield is Sandal, a {mall village chiefly remarkable for its ancient caftle, built in the reign of Edward II. by John earl of Warren, and afterwards the property of Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, who, afpir- ing to the crown, was flain before its walls, December 31, 1460, in the memorable “ battle of Wakefield,”? fo calkea from Wakefield Green being the fcene of aétion. The place where he fell was inclofed with a wall, and on it was ereGed acrofs of ftone, which was deftroyed in the civil war of Charles I., in whofe behalf the caftle was garrifoned ; but it furrendered after a fiege of three weeks in O€tober 1645, and in the following year the caftle was demolifhed by order of parliament. At prefent fcarcely a veftige is left of its former ftrength and magnificence ; the principal remaining part is occupied as a farm-houfe.— Beauties of England and Wales, vole xvi. Yorkthire. By J. Bigland. WAKEFIELD, a town of America, in the ftate of New Hamphfhire, and county of Strafford ; containing 1166 inha- bitants ; 30 miles E. of Concord. WaxerieLp, Upper, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Bucks, containing 1271 inhabitants. WakerieLp, Lower, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Bucks, containing 1089 inhabitants. WAKEFULNESS, or Warcuine, infomnia. WATCHING. WAKES, formed from the Saxon wecce, vigilia, ex- cubie, watch, vigils, or country-wakes, are certain ancient anniverfary feafts, in feveral parifhes; wherein the people were to be awake at the feveral vigils, or hours to go to prayer. See ViciL. They are ufually obferved, in the country, on the Sun- day next before the faint’s day to whom the parifh-church is dedicated. The learned Mr. Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchetter, hath given a particular account of the origin of wakes and fairs. He obferves, that every church at its confecration received the name of fome particular faint: this cuftom was practifed among the Roman Britons, and continued among the Saxons; and in the council of Cealchythe, in816, the name of the denominating faint was exprefsly required to be infcribed on See Wak on the altars, and alfo on the walls of the church, or a tablet within it. The feaft of this faint became of courfe the feftiyal of the church. This Chriftian feftivals, in the room of the primitive 2yarec, or love-feafts, were fubftituted for the idolatrous anniverfaries of heatheni{m: accordingly at the firft introdution of Chriftianity among the Jutes of Kent, pope Gregory the Great advifed what had been previoufly done among the Britons, viz. Chriftian feftivals to be infti- tuted in the room of the idolatrous, and the fuffering-day of the martyr whofe relics were repofited in the church, or the day on which the building was aétually dedicated, to be the eftablifhed feaft of the parifh. Both were appointed and obferved ; and they were clearly diftinguifhed at firft among the Saxons, as appears from the laws of the Confeffor, where the dies dedicationis, or dedicatio, is repeatedly difcrimi- nated from the propria feftivitas fandi, or celebratio fanéi. They remained equally diftiné till the Reformation ; the dedication-day in 1536 being ordered for the future to be kept on the firit Sunday in Otober, and the feftival of the patron faint to be celebrated no longer. The latter was, by way of pre-eminence, denominated the church’s holiday, or its peculiar feftival ; and while this remains in many parifhes at prefent, the other is fo utterly annihilated in all, that bifhop Kennet, fays Mr. Whitaker, knew nothing of its dif- tin&t exiftence, and has attributed to the day of dedica- tion what is true only concerning the faint’s day. Thus inftituted at firft, the day of the tutelar faint was obferved, moft probably by the Britons, and certainly by the Saxons, with great devotion. And the evening before every faint’s day, in the Saxon-Jewifh method of reckoning the hours, being an actual part of the day, and therefore like that ap- propriated to the duties of public religion, as they reckoned Sunday from the firft to commence at the fun-fet of Satur- day ; the evening preceding the church’s holiday would be obferved with all the devotion of the feftival. The people aétually repaired to the church, and joined in the fervices of it ; and they thus fpent the evening of their greater feftivi- ties inthe monafteries of the North, as early as the conclufion of the feventh century. Thefe fervices were naturally denominated from their late hours qweccan or wakes, and vigils or eves. ‘That of the anniverfary at Rippon, as early as the commencement of the eighth century, is exprefsly denominated the vigil. But that of the church’s holiday was named cyric weccan, or church-wake, the church-vigil, or church-eve. And it was this commencement of both with a wake, which has now caufed the days to be generally preceded with vigils, and the church-holiday particularly to be denominated the church- wake. So religioufly were the eve and feftival of the patron faint obferved for many ages by the Saxons, even as late as the reign of Edgar, the former being fpent in the church, and employed in prayer. And the wakes, and all the other holidays in the year, were put upon the fame footing with the o¢taves of Chriftmas, Eafter, and of Pentecoft. When Gregory recommended the feftival of the patron faint, he advited the people to ereé& booths of branches about the church on the day of the feftival, and to feaft and be merry in them with innocence. Accordingly, in every parifh, on the returning anniverfary of the faint, little pavilions were conftruéted of boughs, and the people indulged in them to hofpitality and mirth. The feafting of the faint’s day, how- ever, was foon abufed ; and even in the body of the church, when the people were affembled for devotion, they began to mind diverfions, and to introduce drinking. The growing intemperance gradually ftained the fervice of the vigil, til the feftivity of it was converted, as it now is, into the rigour of a faft. At length they too juftly fcandalized the Puri- Vox. XXXVII. WyA vk tans of the feventeenth century, and numbers of the wakes were difufed entirely, efpecially in the eaft and fome weftern parts of England; thqugh the order for abolifhing them was reverfed by the influence of Laud: but they are commonly obferved in the north, and in the midland counties. This cuftom of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the church, on the days of particular faints, was introduced into England from the continent, and muft have been fami- liar equally to the Britons and Saxons; being obferved among the churches of Afia in the fixth century, and by thofe of the weft of Europe in the feventh. And equally in Afia and Europe, on the continent, and in the iflands, thefe celebrities were the caufes of thofe commercial marts which we denominate fairs; which fee. The people re- forted in crouds to the feftival, and a confiderable provifion would be wanted for their entertainment. The profpeét of intereft invited the little traders of the country to come and offer their wares ; and thus, among the many pavilions for hofpitality in the neighbourhood of the church, various booths were ereéted for the fale of different commodities. In larger towns, furrounded with populous diftri@s, the refort of the people to the wakes would be great, and the attend- ance of traders numerous ; and this refort and attendance conftitute a fair. Bafil exprefsly mentions the numerous ap- pearance of traders at thefe feftivals in Afia, and Gregory notes the fame cuftoms to be common in Europe. And as the feftival was obferved on a feria or holiday, it naturally aflumed to itfelf, and as naturally communicated to the mart, the appellation of feria or fair. Indeed, feyeral of our moft ancient fairs appear to have been ufually held, and have been continued to our time, on the original church-holidays of the places : befides, it is obfervable, that fairs were generally kept in church-yards, and even in the churches, and alfo on Sundays, till the indecency and fcandal were fo great as to need reformation. See Burn’s Eccl. Law, art. Churches. WAKI, in Geography, atown of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 60 miles W. of Meaco. WAKKAMAW, a lake of North Carolina, which communicates, by means of a river of the fame name, with Winyah Harbour, after a courfe of about feventy or eighty miles. WAKOW. See WicsrapseEt. WAKUA, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60°45’. E.long. 21° 15!. WALA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Weft. manland ; 26 miles N. of Stromfholm. WALACHIA, a province of European Turkey, bounded on the north by Moldavia and Tranfylvania, on the eaft by Beffarabia, on the fouth by Bulgaria, and on the weft by the bannat of Temefvar and 'T'ranfylvania ; about 280 miles from E. to W., and 150 from N. to S., where wideft ; but in fome places hardly 60: by the inha- bitants it is called “ Romulia,” and by the Hungarians “* Havafalfoldgye.’’? The air is temperate, the foil very fruitful, particularly in grain, wine, and melons; graziery here, too, is very confiderable ; but its principal reputation is for excellent horfes. The country is watered by a confiderable number of large and fmall rivers, moft of which run from N. to §., difcharging themfelves imme- diately into the Danube, or in conjunétion with other rivers. The principal of thefe are the Alaut, which rifes in the mountains of Tranfylvania, and divides Walachia into two unequal parts, namely, the Weft and Ealt ; the Jalonitza, which has alfo its fource in the borders of 'Tranfylvania ; and the Sireth, or Sirech, the boundary on the fide of Mol- davia. Their bridges are all built with wood, which is plentiful in the country. The Walachians, confidered as 4M inhabitants WAL inhabitants of the country, are defcended from the old Ro- man colony fettled here by the emperor Trajan. They profefs the Eaftern Greek religion ; and as in writing they ufe the fame letters with the Ruffians, fo they agree with them in all their religious ceremonies. According to the ac- count given of them by Jackfon (Journey from India), they feem to be very fuperftitious. They ereé crucifixes, fome of ftone and others of wood, near the roads; all of them are painted; fome having Jefus Chrift, fome the Virgin Mary, others the twelve apoitles, fome the ten commandments, prayers, &c. depicted upon them. Thefe crucifixes are very numerous, and moft of the country-people pay refpeét to thent as they pafs. The commonalty are moft wretchedly ignorant ; and even the higheft attainments which the eccle- fiaftics themfelves aim at, feldom go beyond reading and finging well. Buchareft is a kind of univerfity to them, whither they go to learn a polite deportment, the elegancies of the Walachian language, and ceremonies of the church. The perfons of rank among the Walachians are fo fond of the Italian language, that they apply themfelves to it more than their mother-tongue, and generally fend their fons to ftudy at the univerfity of Padua. Great numbers of Ma- hometans live alfo intermixed with the Walachians; fome Jews, and alfo Germans. The Romans, after their decifive victory over Decebalus, king of Dacia, made themfelves matters of his kingdom. Trajan fent hither feveral Roman colonies, who not only cultivated the land, but built them towns, which they embellifhed with fine edifices. His fuc- ceffor, however, in the empire, tranfplanted the greatelt part of them into Mcefia and Thracia, where, mingling with the Bulgarians, Thracians, Servians, and Ligurians, they came to {peak a new language or jargon. Thefe kingdoms, which lie on the Danube, afterwards conftituted part of the dominions of the emperors of the Eaft. In procefs of time, the Walachians moved farther north, to the borders of Podolia and Ruffia, where they applied themfelves to agri- culture and the breeding of cattle. The converfion of the Bulgarians and their neighbours to Chriftianity was followed, in the ninth century, by that of the Walachians, who em- braced the Grecian doétrines. Towards the beginning of the twelfth century, a numerous colony of Walachians, under the conduét of one Nigers, or Negrovot, for the fake of pafturage, religion, and other motives, paffed on towards the fouth, and fettled in the modern Walachia, founding the towns of Tergovifta, Buchareft, and Pitefti. They choofe their own princes, whom they ftyle waywodes, or defpots. The kings of Hungary, becoming powerful, made feveral attempts on the Walachians ; and, in the four- teenth century, obliged them to pay tribute. But in the year 1391, and 1394, they were greatly haraffed by the Turks, who, in the year 1415, alfo laid the whole country wafte with fire and {word, compelling Dan, the waywode, to pay them an annualtribute. It was in the year 1608, be- fore the Walachians could rid themfelves of this burthen, when they put themfelves under the protection of the em- peror of Germany. But the treaty of Carlowitz refigned them up again to the Turkifh dominion. In the beginning of the feventeenth century, they fuffered various calamities by the plague, war, and the many revolutions among their princes. At the treaty of Paflarowitz, in 1718, the weftern part of Walachia, as far as the river Alaut, was ceded to the emperor, but loft again in the year 1739. Walachiais governed by a waywode, or prince, ftyled alfo the hofpo- dar, who is a vaflal of the Ottoman Porte, and whofe yearly tribute generally amounts to 58 or 60,000 ducats. WALADIA, EL, a town of Morocco, fituated in an extenfive plain, 35 miles S. of Mazagan. Annexed to it is 9 WAL a fpacious harbour, capable of containing 500 fail of the line, but the entrance is obftruéted by a rock or two, which might, it is faid, be eafily blown up; otherwife this would be one of the fineft harbours for fhipping in the world. The coaft of El Waladiais lined with rocks, at the bottom of which, and between them and the ocean, is a table land, almoft even with the furface of the water, abounding with fprings, where every neceflary and luxury of life abound. The view of the land from the plains above the rocks is ex- tremely beautiful and picturefque. The town of El Wa- ladia is {mall, and encompaffed by a fquare wall, and con- tains but few inhabitants. Its name feems to indicate that it was built by Muley El Walad, towards the middle of the feventeenth century. Jackfon’s Morocco. WALEUS, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated anato- mift, was born in 1604, near Middleburg, in Zealand, and ftudied phyfic at Leyden, where he graduated in 1631. In 1632 he was nominated a medical profeffor extraordinary, and in 1648 he obtained a chair in ordinary. His praétice was extenfive, and his academical duties numerous; and yet he employed himfelf much in the diffe€tion of living animals, and was enabled to illuftrate the funGtions of di- geftion, the diftribution of the chyle, and the aétion of the heart. He firft taught publicly the Harveian doétrine of the circulation of the blood ; though from jealoufy of the honour of the inventor, he was difpofed to announce vef- tiges of the faét which he difcovered in the writings of the ancients. He died at Leyden in 1649. His Anatomical Obfervations, which are reckoned excellent, are contained in “ Epiftole due de Motu Chyli et Sanguinis ad T. Bar- tholinum,”? Lugd. B. 1641. Haller. Eloy. WALAFRIDUS, furnamed Strabo, or Strabus, from a {quint in his eyes, was born in Swabia in 807, and edu- cated in the monaitery of Reichenau, whence he proceeded to Fulda, to receive further inftruGion from Rabanus. After his return to his monaftery he became diretor of its {chool, and very much contributed to its reputation. Being fent on an embafly by king Louis to his brother Charles the Bald, he died in the year 849. Of his works, which are numerous, thofe moit worthy of notice are his ‘¢ Gloffa or- dinaria,”’ or fhort obfervations on the whole text of the Bible, chiefly derived from the expofition of Rabanus, and annexed to many editions of the Vulgate, printed in the fifteenth and fixteenth centuries; “* De Exordiis et Incre- mentis Rerum Ecclefiafticarum ;”? ‘* De Vita beati Galli Confefforis, lib. ii.;?? ‘* Vita Otmari Abbafis S. Galli ;’’ “« Poemata,’? among which are, ‘* Hortulus,” or a defcrip- tion of the garden which he cultivated, with its herbs and flowers, and their medical ufe. Gen. Biog. WALAJABAD, in Geography, a towu of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 10 miles E. of Conjeveram. WALAKA, a Iow, infalubrious, but fertile, province of Abyffinia, fituated between the two rivers Gefhen and Samba, having to the S. of it Upper Skoa. This province is furrendered by the reigning prince to the Galla, who, at his defire, have furrounded Skoa on every fide. But as it is full of the braveft and beft horfemen, and beft accoutered of any in Abyflinia, they can, whenever they pleafe, dif- poffefs the Galla. WALAN, in Botany, Rumph. Amboin. y, 3. 214. t. 139. Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 8. 783, the Amboyna name of a tree, which Rumphius alfo calls /chthyoconos mon- tana, from its ufe in killing fifh, but of whofe botanical cha- raters little or nothing is known. ; This tree has a ftraight and lofty trunk, whofe dark is thick, dry, brittle, reddifh, of a bright fiery red towards the root ; the wood white, and of lsttle value, except the heart WAL heart of old trees, which is brown and. compact. The reacts are red and copious. Leaves feattered, ftalked, obovate, pointed, entire, eight or ten inches long, three or four wide, fmooth, rather flefhy, having a mid-rib, with feveral flight tranfverfe veins. Of the flowers no defcription is given, but they are reprefented on fimple lateral ffa/és, folitary or in pairs, and feem formed of four round petals. The “aed is faid to be as large as an orange, and of the fame colour, drooping, making a beautiful-appearance, intermixed with the green leaves, in OGober. Its fhape, however, is more ovate, with a point, and the bafe is embraced by a cup-fhaped, five-angled, permanent calyx, not unlike that of an acorn. This fruit after a while turns red, and finally blackifh. The pulp is infipid, dry, and fungous, containing four or five feeds, or nuts, attached to the point of the fruit by four cords. Each feed is near two inches long, and one broad, compreffed, roughifh, of a fine brown colour. Sometimes there is but a folitary /eed. The Walan-tree grows, not very frequently, in the mountainous woods of Amboyna, where the foil is rich, and of a red colour. The only ufe made of it is to catch fifh. For this purpofe the roots are collected and prepared, with many foolifh ceremonies. An entire root, with its bark, is beaten to pieces upon a ftone, and when this is nearly accomplifhed, one perfon, of the party affembled on the occafion, commands all the reft to lie down at once in a circle, while he ftands in the centre. They are to remain thus in perfect {tillnefs, till one of them crows three times, like a cock, upon which they ftart up all together. While the bruifing of the root goes on, they are forbidden to fpeak, cough, or fpit, or to make any noife whatever. The powder of the root thus prepared is col- leGed into bafkets, and taken very early in the morning, about the crowing of the cock, to the river fide. It is there thrown, by a handful at a time, into the water, and ftirred about till a foam is raifed to the height of feveral inches. This being accomplifhed, the whole party prefent lie down asif dead, but if any one of them crows, they all {tart up. While the powder is mixing with the water, no one may go within fight of the river, except with fome cutting inftru- ment, for fear of defeating the whole intention. At fome diftance, lower down in the ftream, a net is placed acrofs, which in the courfe of an hour becomes filled with fith, floating, half dead, upon the furface of the water; the acrimony of this root caufing fuch an irritation in their eyes, as they cannot endure. If thrown into frefh water, they recover. Fifh thus caught are wholefome for immediate eating, but will not keep for any time. Rumphius em- ployed his fervants fuccefsfully to catch fifh in this manner, omitting, as may be fuppofed, the above-mentioned peculiar ceremonies. Perfons who bathe in the water thus impreg- nated, feel only a flight itching of the {kin ; but the fame water is not good for drinking. The natives of Amboyna reftrain the exercife of this kind of fifhing, to perfons of particular families ; and endeavour to promote a belief that others, who fhould attempt it, would be afflicted with in- curable ulcers, or malignant cutaneous diforders. WALBACH,, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Rhine ; 4 miles S.W. of Colmar. WALBECK, a town of Germany, belonging to the principality of Halberftadt, infulated in the duchy of Mecklenburg ; 24 miles S. of Halberftadt. WALBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up- land; 23 miles S.S.W. of Upfal. WALCA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on a lake ; 56 miles N. of Pofen. Fe WA TE WALCHEN Szs, a town of Autftria, on the Atter See ; 4miles S.W. of Voglabruck. WALCHEREN, the moft wefterly and moft confider- able ifland of the fate of Zealand, about thirteen miles from north to fouth, and eight from eaft to weit ; fituated in the German fea, at the mouth of the Scheld. Middleburg is the capital. N. lat. 51° 34’. E. long. 3° 20). Watcueren or White Carrot, in Agriculture, a fort of that root, which is faid to be cultivated there with much fuccefs and advantage, as fome forts of the parfnip are in the ifland of Guchnley. See a paper on the latter fubjeé& in the firft volume of the ** Memoirs of the Caledonian Hor- ticultural Society.”” WALCKENSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Auf- tria; 2 miles N.W. of Eggenburg. WALCKERSBRUN, a town of the territory of Nu- remberg ; 3 miles W. of Grafenberg. WALCOUDR, a town of France, in the department of Gemappe, on the Heure. It was furrounded with walls in the year g10 ; 21 miles W.S.W. of Namur. WALD, a town of the duchy of Berg. Here is a ma- nufaéture of knives; 4 miles N.W. of Solingen.—Alfo, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles S.S.E. of St. Polten. WALDACH, a river of Wurtemberg, which rifes 3 miles E.S.E. of Dornftett, and runs into the Nagold, about two miles S. from Nagold. WALDAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Lignitz ; 3 miles N.W. of Lignitz. WALDAW, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Samland ; 8 miles E. of Konigfberg. WALDBECK. See Wo.seck. WALDBURG, a town and caftle of Germany, which gives name to a county, fituated between the Iller and the Danube; 7 miles N. of Wangen. WALDEBA, a town of Abyflinia; 5 miles S.W. of Siré. WALDECK, a county of Germany, bounded on the north by the bifhopric of Paderborn, on the eaft by Heffe, and prefeCturate of Fritzlar, in the ele€torate of Mentz, on the fouth by Heffe, and on the weft by the duchy of Wettphalia. The length is computed at twenty-four mules, and its breadth twenty. The county abounds in grain and cattle, having alfo large woods, and the mountains in it con- tain lead, iron, and copper, and even fome gold, which is efteemed equal in value to that of Hungary. Of the gold which is gathered out of the Eder, the princes have caufed medals to be ftruck, and a magnificent fideboard to be made. Some parts alfo afford marble, alabafter, flate, and turf. This county contains thirteen towns and a market village. The greater part of the inhabitants are Lutherans, and the reft Calvinifts, with fome Roman Catholics intermixed. The manufactures are, coarfe cloth, barragon, callimanco, dimity, rateen, and other ftuffs ; as alfo paper, and great quantities of iron-ware, for exportation. The county of Waldeck is thought to bring in above 100,000 rix-dollars per annum to the prince, and that not improbably, it being one of the moft confiderable counties in the whole empire, and preferable even to not a few principalities, The prince’s circular contingency was two companies of foot, but he ge- nerally maintained three more. Watpeck, a town of Germany, capital of a county of the fame name, fo called from an ancient caftle, which has been repaired within the laft century, and fitted up to re- ceive a garrifon ; part of the records of the principality are kept here, and it is likewife ufed asa prifon; 18 miles W.S.W. of Caffel. N. lat. 51° 13’. E. long. 9° 2'. 4M 2 WALDECK, WAL Watpecrk, Hohen; a town of Bavaria, and capital of a lordfhip, formerly belonging to the princes of Waldeck, but which, in the year 1734, fell to the ele€tor of Bavaria ; 30 miles S.S.E. of Munich. WALDEN, Sarrron. See SarrRoN-WALDEN. WaALpEN, a town of America, in the ftate of Vermont and county of Caledonia, containing 455 inhabitants; 40 miles N. of Rutland. Watpen’s J/land, a {mall ifland in the North fea. N. lat. 80° 37!. E. long. 18° 10. f WALDENBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the bi- fhopric of Hildefheim ; 13 miles S.E. of Hildefheim. WALDENBRUCK, a town of Wurtemberg ; 8 miles S. of Stuttgart. WALDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the prin- cipality of Hohenlohe; 6 miles E. of Ohringen.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the lordfhip of Schonburg, on the Mulda. The old town of Waldenburg, which lies dire@lly fronting Waldenburg, on the other fide of the Mulda, is famous for its brown and white earthen-ware, which confifts of veffels for laboratories and apothecaries’ fhops, together with pots of feveral kinds, fuch as pitchers, drinking vef- fels,, &c. Here is likewife a confiderable linen manufac- ture. It is a lordfhip, inveftedin the houfe of Schonburg, called Schonburg-Waldenburg ; 44 miles W. of Drefden. N. lat. 50° 48’. E. long. 12° 21'.—Alfo, a town of Swit- zerland, and capital of a bailiwick, in the canton of Bale ; 15 miles S. of Bale-—Alfo, a town and citadel of the duchy of Weftphalia; 6 miles N. of Olpe. Wa pensure, or Wallenburg, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Schweidnitz; 8 miles S.W. of Schweid- nitz. N. lat. 50°35’. E. long. 16° 5!. WALDENFELS, a town of Auftria; 3 miles N.W. of Freyftatt. Watpenrexs, or Wallenfells, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 34 miles N.E. of Bamberg. WALDENGELOCH, a town of Wurtemberg; 5 miles N.N.E. of Gochfheim. WALDENSES. See Vaupors. WALDERSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 1 mile N.N.W. of Freyberg. WALDHAUSEN, a town of Auftria; 4 miles E.S.E. of Zwetl. : “WALDHAUSER, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt- land ; 1 mile N.W. of Plauen. WALDHEIM, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfic, on the Zfchopa; 25 miles S.E. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 4!. E. long. 12° 51!. WALDKAPPEL. See Carpet. WALDKIRCH, a town of the Brifgau, on the El- fach; 6 miles N. of Friburg. N. lat. 48° 7!. E. long. 8°. WALDKIRCHEN, a town of Bavaria, in the bi- fhopric of Paffau; 10 miles N.N.E. of Paffau.—Alfo, a town of Auftria; 7 miles N.W. of Efferding. WALDMICHELBACH, a town of Heffe Darm- ftadt ; 8 miles N.E. of Heidelberg. WALDMUNCHEN, a town of Bavaria; 30 miles N.E. of Ratifbon. WALDNEUKIRCHEN, a townof Auftria; 6 miles S.W. of Steyr. WALDOBOROUGH, a fea-port town of America, in the diftri@ of Maine, and county of Lincoln, containing 2160 inhabitants ; 50 miles N.E. of Portland. N. lat. 44° 2/. W. long. 60° 16. WAL " WALDRAN, a town of Auftria; 8 miles S.\W. of Aigen. WALDRAPP, in Ornithology, a name given by fome to the wood-raven, or corvus /ylvaticus of Gefner, a bird of the fize of a hen, of a glofly black, and adorned with a creft on its head. WALDREICHS, in Geography, a town of Autftria, near the Kamp; 10 miles E. of Zwetl. WALDSAXEN, or WaAtpsacu, a town of Bavaria, formerly imperial, but pillaged and almott deftroyed in the wars of the Huflites and the Palatinate ; fince which it has never recovered itfelf. Near it is a rich Ciftertian abbey; founded in the year 1133, the abbots of which were form- erly princes of the empire. In 1802, this abbey was given to the king of Bavaria; 4 miles S.S.W. of Egra. WALDSCHACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 14 miles S. of Gratz. WALDSCHMIDIA, in Botany, a name given to the Menyanthes nympheoides of Linnzus, by Wiggers, in his Primitie Flore Holfatice, 20; which, like Gmelin and a few other botanifts, he confidered as a diftin& genus from MenyanTHeEs ; fee that article and Virtarsia. If, how- ever, this opinion were correét, the name is foreftalled by Limnanthemum, given to the fame fuppofed genus by Gme- lin, near twenty years before, and liable to no exception. Waldfchmidia was intended to commemorate William Ulrick Waldfchmidt, formerly profeflor at Kiel, who wrote a trea- tife on the fexes of plants, in which he is faid to have well explained the ufe and phyfiology of the anthers. WALDSEE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Baden; 12 miles N.N.E. of Ravenfperg.—Alfo, a lake of Stiria ; 6 miles E. of Schlaming, WALDSHUT, a town of the duchy of Baden, on the Rhine; 19 miles W. of Schaffhaufen. WALDSICH, a town of the county of Henneberg ; 4miles N.N.E. of Salzungen. WALDSTADT, i. ¢. The Foret Towns, a name given in Switzerland to the cantons of Lucern, Uri, Schwitz, and Underwalden, probably on account of the quantity of forefts found in them. WALDSTADTER Sex, or Lake of Lucern, or Lake of the Four Cantons, one of the largeft lakes of Switzer- land, extending from Lucern to Altdorf, 20 miles in length. Its figure is very irregular, and it is for the moft part fur- rounded with high mountains. The. river Reufs pafles throughit. See Lake of Lucrern and Lake. WALDSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 12 miles N.W. of Gratz. WALDSTEINIA, in Botany, was fo named by the late profeffor Willdenow, in compliment to a botanift of great eminence, Francis von Waldftein, author of the Flora Hungarica.— Willd. Noy. Aét. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Bero- lin. v..2. 105.7? Sp. Pl. v.2. 1007, . Alt. y¥. 3..204.—— Clafs and order, [cofandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Senticofe, Linn. Rofacee, Jul. Eff. Ch. Calyx in ten fegments, the alternate ones {maller. Petals five. Styles club-fhaped, deciduous. Seeds two, obovate, without awns. 1. W. geoides. Avens-like Walditeinia. Willd. as above, vy. 2. 106.t.4. f. 1. Sp. Pl.n. 1. Ait.n.1. “ Waldit. et Kitaib. Hung. v. 1. 79. t- 77.”’—Native of umbrageous forefts in Hungary, from whence it was introduced into Britain, by the late Mr. George Don, in 1804. A hardy perennial, flowerin in June and July. diton. Stem afcending, round, itriated, rather hairy, the length of the radical leaves, which are ftalked, five-lobed, ribbed, fome- 12 what WAL what hairy ; their lobes obtufe, flightly three-cleft, toothed. Stem-leaves three-lobed, deeply toothed. Stipulas oblong, acute, entire, Flower-/falks two or three, terminal, thread- fhaped, very long. Flowers yellow. This plant is allied to Grum, (fee that article, ) but is diftinguifhed by the {mall number of i/fils, and the club-fhaped deciduous /ly/es. From Porenritia, (fee that article and ToRMENTILLA, ) it differs widely in habit, number of fi/fi/s, and form of the Jes. Willdenow. WALDSTETTEN, in Geography, atown of Germany, in the marquifate of Burgau; 7 miles S.W.of Burgau. —Alfo, a town of the county of Wertheim, in the Spef- fart; 11 miles E. of Afchaffenburg. WALDT, a town of Upper Bavaria; 8 miles S. of Neu Oetting. Watpt 4us, a river of Auftria, which rifes on the bor- ders of Bohemia, and runs into the Danube, 8 miles below Steyrege. WALDTHURN, atown of Germany, in the county of Sternftein ; 21 miles N.E. of Amberg. WALDTNIEL, or Niet, a town of France, in the department of the Roer; 2 miles E. of Ruremond. WALDUBBA,a {mall province of Abyflinia, fituated be- tween therivers Guangueand Angrab. Waldubba, fignifying “* the valley of the hyzna,”’ is a territory entirely inhabited by monks, who have retired to this unwholefome, hot, and dangerous country voluntarily, to {pend their lives in peni- tence, meditation, and prayer. This too is the only retreat of great men in difgrace or difguft. Thefe firft fhave their hair, and put on a cowl like the monks, renouncing the world for folitude, and taking vows which they refolve to keep no longer than exigencies require ; after which they return to the world again, leaving their cowl and fanétity in Waldubba. Thefe monks, however, are held in great ve- neration, and are believed to have the gift of prophecy, and to work miracles ; and they are very aétive inftruments to ftir up the people in the time of trouble. There are alfo wo- men, who fhould be called nuns, that occafionally go to Waldubba, though not conftantly refident there, and live in familiarity with thefe faints, not altogether confiftent with their fanétity. A hermit and a nun fometimes’ fequefter themfelves for months, to eat herbs together in private upon the top of the mountains. Thefe, on their return, are ex- hibited as wonderful patterns of holinefs, lean, enervated, and exhaufted. Mr. Bruce (Travels, vol. iii.) does not prefume to decide, whether this change is to be wholly aferibed to the herbs, as he never was at thefe retirements of Waldubba. Thofe who inhabit this diftrit are perpe- tually fubje€ to fevers, and their colour is that of a corpfe : many of them are deftroyed by their neighbours the Shan- galla; though it is faid that they have been lately topped by the prayers of the monks: but Mr. Bruce afcribes the difcontinuance of the inroads of the Shangalla to the ra- vages of the f{mall-pox, by which their ftrength and number are reduced, and whole tribes of them extinguifhed. WALE, Samuet, in Biography, an artift of fome ce- lebrity in his day, was born in London, and was one of the founders of the Royal Academy. He was firft engaged as an engraver on plate, but having ftudied drawing in the Academy in St. Martin’s-lane, he applied himfelf to paint- ing, imitating the manner of Francis Hayman. He exe- cuted feveral decorative pieces for cielings, but was chiefly employed in making drawings of hiftorical defigns for. the bookfellers, the greater part of which was engraved by Mr. Grignion. He affifted Gwynn the archite& in his drawings, and as he had made himfelf acquainted with per- {pe€tive, he was appointed the firft profeffor in that {cience WAL in the Academy. Upon the death of Wilfon he was ap- pointed librarian, and held both places till his own death, which happened in 1786. WALE-KNOT, or Watt-Knot, Single, is made by un- twifting the ends of a rope, and making a bight with the firft ftrand ; then paffing the fecond over the ae of the firft, and the third ftrand over the end of the fecond, and through the bight of the firft, and haul the ends tight. (See Plate I. Rigging, figs. 4, 5+) Wate-Knot, Double, is made by pafling the ends, fingly, clofe underneath the firft wale, and thrufting them upwards through the middle, only the laft end comes up under two bights. Fig. 6. Wate-Reared, an obfolete phrafe, implying wall-/ided. WALEN, Et, in Geography,.a town of Africa, in the country of Twat; 115 miles W. of Gadamis. N. lat. 22° a5f) Eslong.)3° gol: WALENBURG, a town of the county of Henneberg ; 5 miles N.W. of Smalkalden. WALES, a large diftri& or portion of Great Britain, fituated at the north-weftern extremity of the ifland, and bounded on the north and weft by the Irifh fea, on the fouth and fouth-eaft by the Briftol channel, and limited on the eaft by the Englifh counties of Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Chefter. The length from north to fouth is, on an average, 150 miles; and the width from eaft to welt 65 miles. This area comprifes about 8125 fquare miles, or 5,206,900 acres of land: of which, it appears, by the reports to the board of agriculture, g00,o00 acres are arable, and 2,500,000 under pafturage ; leaving 1,700,000 acres in a ftate of waite, of which 700,000 acres are re- ported as capable of being brought into cultivation. Wales was formerly of greater extent, having for its boundaries the rivers Severn and Dee, as natural lines of demarca- tion. The ancient dimenfions were, however, at various periods, contracted, by fevering from it portions of the feveral counties, fituated weltward of thofe rivers; and taking out of it the whole county of Monmouth. The limits of the various diftriéts of Wales, with the above ex- ception, and their names, have been retained from a very remote period to the prefent time, independently of the mo- dern arrangement of them into fhires, as impofed by the Englifh government. The divifion made in the time of Llewelyn ap Gruffydh, the laft prince of North Wales, was into the three provinces of Aberfraw, Mathraval, and Dinevwr. In the diftribution of thefe into cantrefs or hundreds, Aberfraw comprifed fifteen, which were again fubdivided into thirty-eight comots, or {maller diftriéts ; Mathraval, fourteen cantrefs, fubdivided into fourteen co- mots; and Dineywr, twenty-four, further divided into feventy-eight comots. Nearly fimilar to this, is the prefent civil divifion of the principality into twelve counties, fix in- cluded in North Wales ; viz. Anglefea, Caernarvon, Den- bigh, Flint, Montgomery, and Merioneth; and fix in South Wales, viz. Cardigan, Radnor, Brecknock, Glamorgan, Caermarthen, and Pembroke. ‘The centurial divifions re- main nearly the fame as in Llewelyn’s time. The whole contains 58 market-towns, and 751 parifhes; and according to the enumeration made under the population act of 1811, the number of houfes amounted to 123,512, inhabited by 611,788 perfons ; viz. 291,633 males, and 320,155 females: 36,044 families were returned as employed in trade, manu- factures, or handicraft; and 72,846 in agriculture: and the average fcale of mortality, according to regiftered burials, for a period of ten years, appears to have been in the proportion of 1 to 60 of the exifting population. For the adminiftration of juftice, Wales is divided into four cir- cults, WALES. cuits, viz. the Chefter circuit, including the counties of Chetter, Flint, Denbigh, and Montgomery : the northern circuit, for thofe of Anglefea, Caernaryon, and Merioneth : the fouth-eaftern, for thofe of Radnor, Brecknock, and Glamorgan: and the fouth-weftern, comprifing the three fhires of Cardigan, Caermarthen, and Pembroke. By a ftatute, paffed in the reign of Elizabeth, the king was em- powered to appoint two perfons learned in the. law to be Judges in each of the Welfh circuits, which before had but one juftice. And by another ftatute of George II., it was enacted, that where the kingdom of England is mentioned in any act of parliament, the fame fhall be underftood as comprehending the dominion of Wales, and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. Wales fends twenty-four members to the Britifh fenate, one knight for each fhire, and one Punaete for each county-town, except that of Merioneth ; in leu of which, two towns in Pembrokefhire return a member each, viz. Pembroke and Haverford-weft. The eldeft fon of the kings of England has, ever fince the time of Edward I., been invefted with the title of prince of Wales: and feveral branches of the peerage derive their titles from various places in the principality. Ancient Hiftory, Roman Stations, and Roads.—Cambria, the ancient name of this portion of the ifland, is deduced by hiftorians from the original inhabitants having been a tribe of the Celtz, or Gauls, known under the denomination of Cimbri, or Cymri; and the Romans called the country in- habited by fuch people Cambria. Wales appears to have been the acknowledged name of this region in the poetry of a Welfh bard, fo early as the fixth century. The deriva- tion of the Britons from the Gauls, both Czfar and Tacitus deduce from the vicinity of the two countries, and the fimilarity of the manners and charaéter of the people : but a ftronger argument is found in the national appellation of Gael and Gaul, equally attached to both countries. It appears that the inhabitants of Wales were part of the aboriginal poffeffors of the ifland, whofe numbers muft have been greatly increafed by thofe Britons, who, retreating before the victorious Romans, fled to this diftri€t, as a der- nier refort, to preferve their independence. After the in- vaders had fecured the central part of Britain, by forming ftations, and appointing garrifons, and had given to it the name of Britannia Prima, they turned their attention to the reduétion of the unconquered country lying weft of the Severn. When Oftorius, the Roman general, furveyed this country, which he was fent with an army to fubdue, he found it pofleffed by three tribes of people, denominated from their refpective diftri€ts, Ordovices, Silures, and Dimetz. The Ordovices poffeffed all the country com- prifed in the prefent North Wales: the Silures occupied the diftri& now comprehended in the counties of Hereford, Radnor, Brecknock, Monmouth, and Glamorgan, and the {mall portion of Gloucefterfhire now weft of the Severn; and had for their capital Caer-Gwent, in Monumouthhhire : the Dimete were fituated weft of the Silures, and poffeffed the country at prefent including the counties of Cardigan, Pembroke, and Caermarthen. Such were the inhabitants of Wales, when the Romans firft entered it with an hoftile army. Refpeting the condition or ftate of thefe Britons, at the period in queftion, a great difference of opinion pre- vails among our hiftorians. Some, in defpite of unexcep- tionable authorities, treat thefe people as illiterate favages, deftitute of cloaths, dwellings, and arts: while others, fol- lowing the Britifh hiftory, defcribe them as a martial, learned, and Soe nation, poffeffing foreign trade, and. at home ereting ftately edifices. Both thefe accounts are probably much exaggerated. ‘The beft hiftorians ftate that the Britons had a religion remarkable for its numerous ceremonies ; they poffeffed an eftablifhed government ; and had regular and well-difciplined troops, divided into cha- rioteers, cavalry, and infantry. With refpe& to any great naval power, though attempted to be proved by the learned Selden, well-founded objeétions may be urged; but as to fmaller veflels, Czfar bears ample teftimony to the ingenuity of their conftru€tion, and their great convenience: the facility with which thefe vehicles were made, and their peculiar portability, has occafioned a continuance of their ufe, and corracles ftill form the fifhing-boats: employed on fome of the rivers of Wales. They had fufficient corn for their fupport, and their paftures were abundantly ftocked with cattle, fheep, and hogs. In their dealing with each other, for money they ufed rings, or fmall plates of iron {trung together, which pafled among them by weight, as well as tale : fuppofing they poffeffed no minted coins, this circumftance alone would be a fufficient evidence of their civilization ; fince it is deducible from hiftory, that no nation in a ftate of barbarifm ever adopted a circulating medium in buying and felling. From the earlieft periods, the Britons breathed a fpirit of genuine freedom, and always ftudied to procure and preferve their liberty. Stimulated by a noble ambition, never to be fatisfied but by victory, nor extinguifhed but by death, they fought with a degree of bravery that aftonifhed the legionary troops ; and dif- puted every acre of ground with a tenacity and obftinacy that extorted from their conquerors the tribute of admira- tion. Suetonius Paulinus overcame the Ordovices, and ex- tirpated the remainder of the Druids, and their followers, who had fled to the ifland of Mona, or Anglefea. Not- withftanding this, the heroic Silures for years continued their ftruggle for liberty, till at length Julius Agricola was fent with a powerful army by the emperor Vefpafian ; and having entirely defeated the Britons under their intrepid leader Cara&tacus, in a decifive battle near Caer-Caradoc, on the borders of Salop, he completely reduced that part of the ifland to the Roman yoke. The affability of Agricola gained the affe€tions of the people, and difpofed them to imitate the Roman manners: he beftowed on them the privileges of citizens; received them into his armies ; pro- vided for the education of their youth ; and lived amongit them in a ftyle of great hofpitality. Thus, fecuring by policy what he had gained by force, Cambria was dignified with the name of Britannia Secunda: and the conquerors, as they had previoufly done in Britannia Prima, began to eftablifh jurifdiGtions, and adopt meafures for the due admi- niltration of the laws. ‘Towns were built, {tations appointed, and roads formed for communication between them. So fpeedily and fuccefsfully did they proceed in their fettlement of this country, that in a few years Wales affumed all the appearance of a Roman colony. The following {tations were then formed. Caer Gybi, Holyhead, in Anglefea ;— Segontium, Caer-Seiont, Caernarvon ;—Varis, Bodvary, in Flintfhire, near Denbigh ;—Caergwrle and Holt, alfo in Flinthhire, appear to be fcites of {tations ;—Banchorium, Bangor-Ifcoed, on the banks of the Dee ;—Heriri Mons, placed by Stukeley near Bala, in Merionethfhire ; but, with greater probability, at Tommen-y-mur, near Feftiniog ;— Caer Gai, in the vicinity of the former place, feems alfo to have been a ftation ;— Mediolanum, Meivod, or Myfod, in Montgomerffhire ; three other places in this county feem to lay claim to fuch honourable diftin@tion, wz. Penalet, near Machynlleth; Caer-Swes, in the vicinity of Newtown ; and the Gaer, near Montgomery ;—Magna, Gale and Stuke- ley place at Old Radnor, but Horfley has removed it to Kenchefter, near Hereford ;—oventium, Lanio-ifa, in Car- diganfhire ; WALES. diganfhire ;— Advigefimum, mentioned only in the Itinerary of Richard of Cirencefter, is f{uppofed by fome to have been fituated at Caftel Fleming, and by others near Narberth, in Pembrokefhire ;— Menapia, the port for Ireland, near the prefent St. David’s ;—Maridunum, Caermarthen ;—Lianvar ar y Bryn, in Caermarthenfhire, is evidently the {cite of a’ ftation ;—Leucarum, Louchar, or Lougher, in Glamorgan- fhire ;— Bomium, Boyerton, near Ewenny ;—Nidum, Neath ; —Tibia Amnis, Caerdiff ;—Gobannium, Abergavenny, in Monmouthhhire ;—Béefium, Monmouth ;—Burrium, Utk ; —ATfca Silurum, the capital of the colony, and refidence of a pretor ;—Venta Silurum, Caerwent ;—Ad Sabrinum, on _ the Severn, near the new or old paflage. “ OF the Roman Roads, though more diftin& traces might be fuppofed to exift in Wales than in England, from their veftiges not having been equally liable to obliteration from cultivation ; yet for want of due inveftigation, few of them have been traced in a fatisfaCtory manner.—Via Julia Mari- tima, which received the name of Julia, from Julia Frontinus, who fuccefsfully conduéted the Roman arms againit the Silures, is fuppofed to have conneéted the {tations con- tained in the eleventh Iter of Richard of Cirencefter. This road was a continuation of the Akeman-ftreet from Agua-Solis, Bath; and direting its courfe weftward acrofs the Severn, pafled through Glamorganfhire, Caermarthen- fhire, and Pembrokefhire, to Ad Menapium, near St. David’s: few traces of this road have been difcovered.— Via Julia Montana was an upper road, forming a communi- cation from the more central parts of the ifland, by the Ryknild-ftreet, coming from Glevum, Gloucefter, and paf- fing through part of Monmouthfhire, entered the county of Brecknock, proceeded over the mountains to Llanvair ar y Bryn, and thence along the vale to Caermarthen, where it coalefced with the maritime or lower road above mentioned, and both terminated at St. David’s.—Via Occidentalis ap- pears to have extended along the weftern coaft of Wales, from Ad Menapium to Segontium, and formed conneéting links between the intermediate ftations.— Via Devana takes a direction through the centre of the principality from the fouthern coaft about Nidus, Neath, to Deva, Chefter.— Via Orientalis took a north-eafterly dire€tion from Ifca Silurum, to Uriconium in Staffordfhire.—A branch of the Northern Watling-ftreet entered Wales at Chelter, and incli- ning to the weit, paffed the ftation Varis, to Conoyium, near Conway.—A branch of the Southern Watling-ftreet, ex- tending from Uriconium to Segontium, enters Wales near the village of Llandrinio, and proceeding to Mediolanum. is there met by the Via Devana; it afterwards joins the Via Occidentalis, and continues with it to Segontium. Numerous vicinal roads alfo traverfed the country from ftation to ftation, veftiges of which are traceable in various places. A road of communication branched off from the Via Occidentalis at Penallt, and proceeded eafterly to Caer Sws. Another road extended north-eafterly from Llanvair ar y Bryn towards the ftation on the river Ython, betsveen which places it is difcoverable on the extenfive wattes in the vicinity of Llanrindod Wells. From Maridunum, a road leads to Loventium: the conftruétion is evidently Roman, being formed of various ftratifications ; is about thirty feet wide, and edged with ftone. Another may be traced from Llanio, running eafterly by Llanvair mountain, and pafling through Caio, it goes to Llanvair ar y Bryn, thence to the Gaer near Brecknock, and fo to the grand ftation Glevum, Gloucefter. In feveral places, having the denomination of Sarn, traces of vicinal roads are diftinguifhable ; and wherever this Britifh word occurs, it is probable a Ro- man road pafled near; as Talfarn, Penfarn, and Sarnau in Cardiganfhire. Numerous villas, fudatories, aquedudcis, walls, milliaria, or mile-{tones, ftatues, votive altars, in- {cribed ftones, teffellated pavements, urns, pottery, bricks, tiles, medals, coins, and various other remains, have been difcovered, which evidently point out the veftiges of Roman refidence, and by which the occupation of the country by the. Romans may be clearly deduced. Civil Hiflory of Wales.—After domineering over Britain above four centuries, the Romans bade a final adieu to the ifland ; which was foon expofed to the inroads of numerous enemies. Affailed on the north by the Pi&s and Scots, it was equally infefted by the Irifh on the weft. The native ftrength of the country had been exhaufted by war; the number of its inhabitants further diminifhed by famine and peitilence ; and the navy was fallen into decay. Under thefe difadvantages, the people were alfo in want of that unanimity fo effential in times of emergency. They had recourfe to their ancient form of government, and eledted for their governors certain reguli, or chieftains ; but thefe, inftead of combining to oppofe the common enemy by well- concerted plans of co-operation, were principally occupied in fecuring their feparate interefts. In this fad fituation, without union, order, or difcipline, and attacked on alk fides by inveterate foes, the Britons adopted the moft impolitic of all expedients for national {fafety,—that of calling in the affiftance of one barbarous nation to drive out another ; which fubjeéted them to a new and heavier yoke. At this period, befides the many chieftains under whom the ifland was divided, a perfonal competition exifled between one who tyrannized over the reft and held the fovereign autho- rity, named Gwtheyrn, or (as called by moft Englifh writers) Vortigern, and a chief of Roman parentage, called Ambrofius, but by the Welfh, Emrys Wledig. During this conteft, Gwtheyrn, to repel the incurfions of the Scots and Piéts, called in the affiftance of the Saxons, an army of whom arrived under the command of Hengift and Horfa, defcendants of Woden, the founder of their nation. The Saxon generals having driven back the enemy, and dif- covered the pufillanimity of the Britifh monarch, turned their attention towards eltablifhing their troops, and fecur- ing to themfelves a portion of the territories they had de- fended: this plan, through the treachery or incapacity of Gwtheyrn, they were enabled to accomplifh. The enraged Britons depofed Gwtheyrn, and placed Emrys on the throne: he for a time prevailed againft the Saxons, but frefh troops arriving under the command of Ella, they be- came viétorious, and extended their territory. On the death of Emrys, his brother Uther, commonly called, from his office, Pendragon, was eleéted to the fovereign dig- nity. The inteftine warfare was carried on with varied fuccefs between the Britons and Saxons; but numerous hordes continually arriving from the north, the latter be- came formidable in feveral parts of the ifland. Arthur, the celebrated fon and fucceflor of Uther, for a feries of years conduéted the war againft the invaders ;.and in many def- perately-fought battles led on the Britons to decifive vic- tory. During the reigns of Uther and Arthur, the ancient Britons had attained the meridian of their glory ; but it was now drawing to a clofe: the death of Arthur decided the fate of Britain, Civil diffentions prevailed among. the Britons, which were promoted by their crafty adverfaries. During thefe troubles, many of the people fubmitted to the Saxons and Scots; others, to preferve their freedom, fled to Armorica, which, from the number of the refugees, ac- quired the name of Bretagne ; fome retired into the wilds of Devonfhire and Cornwall; fome took fhelter in the mountainous parts of the north of England ; but by far the greateft WALES. greateft number found an afylum in the faftneffes of Wales, where they defended and preferved their independence long after the expiration of the Saxon dynafty. At the period when the Saxons had conquered the greater part of Britain, and made their approaches to the borders of Wales, this country appears to have been divided into fix principalities, over which Maelgwyn, king of North Wales, was invelted with the fovereign dignity, about the year 552. The conteft was continued under feveral fucceeding mo- narchs, till the death of Cadwallader, in the year 703, clofed the imperial dignity, which for many centuries had been annexed to the Britifh government ; during which time the paramount princes chiefly refided at Diganwy, on the water of Conway, and at Caer Segont near Caernarvon. Roderic Moelwynoc nominally fucceeded to the fovereignty in 7203; but by continual and unhappy divifions, the ftrength of the country was fo diminifhed, as to be unable fuccefsfully to refift the incurfions of the Saxons. The Mercians, under king Offa, frequently laid wafte the country, and at length wrefted a portion from the Welfh princes; and to prevent the new occupants from the retaliating vengeance of the Welth, Offa caufed that famous boundary to be made, from the mouth of the river Dee to the Wye, which itill goes under the appellation of Clawdd Offa, or Offa’s Dyke. By this the region was confiderably narrowed, and nearly reduced to its prefent limits. Though the Saxons made frequent inroads, yet they do not appear to have had any permanent footing in the country ; fo that though the pages of hiftory record many fanguinary confli€ts between them and the Welth, yet fcarcely any veltiges remain to mark the incurfions of the invaders. The Danes called off the atten- tion of the Saxons from Wales, which from this circum- ftance was left for many years in unufual tranquillity, and furnifhes but few fubjeéts of hiftorical record during the Danifh dynafty. ‘The Danes made fome incurfions on the coaft, but effeted no permanent conqueft of the country. On the acceflion of William I. to the throne of England, the Welfh having refufed the annual tribute, which had been extorted from them as a mark of fubmiffion by king Edgar, the conqueror invaded their country with a power- ful army, quickly awed them into fubmiffion, and obliged them to do homage, and take an oath of fealty, as due from vaffals to their fuperior lord. From this period the Englifh monarchs preferred a claim to Wales, as their heritable pro- perty. Onthe death of William, the Welfh, feeling the galling yoke of their humbled condition, attempted to re- cover their loft independence ; and joining in revolt with fome refractory Englifh barons, entered England, and by fire and {word carried their devaftation to the banks of the Severn. Thefe outrages determined William Rufus to attempt the fubjugation of the country ; and for this purpofe he excited his barons to conquer, at their own charge, under homage and fealty to him, the territories of the Welfh. Thefe barons, who were denominated lords marchers, endeavoured to fecure their conquefts, by peopling them with Englifh, and ereting {trong fortrefles to defend them from the in- roads of the Welfh. Thus was the laft afylum of the Bri- tons broken into on eyery fide, and invefted by their enemies. South Wales was fubdued ; while North Wales, now greatly reduced, alone preferved the national chara¢ter, and fupported its independence ; and the inhabitants, aided by the valour of their princes, ftill upheld the ftruggle ; and acquiring vigour from union, diated by neceffity, not only prevented the marchers from achieving further conquetts, but rendered their exifting acquifitions of precarious tenure. For a long period the Welfh, favoured by the mountainous nature of the country, fupported an unequal but fpirited conteft with their unjuft invaders. The death of David, who had fucceeded his unfortunate brother Llewelyn, in the reign of Edward I., clofed the only fovereignty that re- mained of the ancient Britifh empire. Edward having at length obtained the obje& of his ambition, by the entire conqueft of Wales, annexed it to the crown of England, He did not, however, for fome time, enjoy a tranquil pof- feffion ; for three infurre€tions broke out at one time in dif- ferent places. To fuch a height did thefe commotions ar- rive, that Edward was conftrained to conduét the war in perfon, when he fhortly compelled the infurgents to lay down their arms, and make an unqualified fubmiffion. Thefe difturbances, the fubfequent revolt of fir Gryffydd Liwdd, and the rebellion of Owen Glendowr, were the laft efforts. the Welfh made to recover their independence. From that period the concerns of the country, till the time of Henry VILI., are little interefting ; for the inhabitants were reduced to a {tate of the fevereft bondage. Henry VII., from the affiftance the Welfh had afforded him in obtaining the crown, was more favourably inclined towards them than preceding monarchs, and granted the principality confider- able immunities. Several ameliorating ftatutes were pafled in the reign of Henry VIII., to exonerate them from the tyrannical oppreffions of the lords marchers ; and at length the people, awake to their true intereft, folicited the king to give his liberal defigns a more falutary effe&t, by extend- ing to them all the privileges of the Englifh jurifprudence. The prayer of their petition was granted, and Wales was formally united and incorporated with England. Wales abounds with the remains of encampments, hill- fortrefles, caftles, and caftellated manfions: {pecimens of military architeéture, therefore, in the diverfified ftyles of different and diftant periods, conftitute fome of its moft pro- minent and interefting features. While the Romans gene- rally chofe for the {cite of their camps, or forts, a rifing ground near fome river, or a lingula formed by the con- fluence of two; the Britons feleéted the moft lofty, in- fulated, and inacceffible mountains, the fummits of which they fortified by excavating deep trenches in the folid rock, adding valla, by heaping up the loofe {tones dug out of the foffes ; and in fucceeding times, by adding ftrong walls, and erecting mafly circular towers. The Normans introduced a new ftyle of military fortification ; and to fecure their un- juttifiable feizures, and proceed in their aggreffions, they ereted caftles, more formidable both in number and extent, fo that what are termed the marches of Wales confift of a feries of fortreffes from the mouth of the Dee to the em- bochure of the Wye. Flint, Denbigh, Montgomery, Powys, Brecknock, Caerphili, and Caerdiff, furnifh bold examples of the ftyle of thofe people. More were erected by the Anglo-Normans, as they progreffively encroached on the country ; for, to fecure the conquered poffeffions from the retaliating vengeance of the expelled owners, they were neceffitated to repair and flrengthen the fortrefles they took, or build others. Thus did thefe buildings fo far increafe, that Mr. Pennant enumerates 143 caftles in the principality ; and that number is probably fhort of the a€tual amount. On the conqueft of Wales by Edward I., that monarch, who had been crufading in the holy land, and had there im- bibed a fpirit of caftern magnificence, for the purpofe of overawing his new but refractory fubjeéts, conftruéted three caftles in a ftyle, which for ftrength and grandeur have never yet been furpaffed in this country. Harlech, Caernarvon, and Conway, remain the proud monuments of that monarch’s age and times. Ancient Conftitution, Government, and Laws.—From the accounts given by the Roman writers, a monarchical form of WALES, of government was prevalent among the early Britons. The ifland was divided into feveral petty fovereignties, each fub- je& to a feparate prince; but in time of emergency and danger, they were united in one, under an officer, fimilar to a di€tator among the Romans, called a pendragon. To him, by joint confent, was committed the whole military government of the independent ftates. Nor was this dignity temporary, like the power; for though the latter appears to have ceafed with the neceffity that demanded it, yet the former continued for life, and was hereditary to the male heir. But the right of fucceflion to the feparate govern- ments does not feem to be itri¢tly indefeafible ; for, in fome inftances, the lineal fucceflion was violated by the rule of taniftry. By this the king’s fon, brother, or nephew, be- came the cuftomary inheritor of the crown; the particular perfon being feleéted by the reigning monarch, with the advice of his nobles. This fovereign ele€t was denominated by the law the tanift, or fecond in dignity. The Britons were not unacquainted with that rational reftraint on mo- narchical defpotifm, parliamentary fuffrage; for a decifive argument in favour of the exiftence of Britifh parliaments is found in the preface or introduétion to the laws of the great Cambrian legiflator, Howel Dda. Six of the moft intelligent and powerful perfons were fummoned out of every cantreff, or hundred, to affift the king in the great work of legiflation. This parliament being aflembled, pro- ceeded to examine the ancient laws, cancelled fome, reformed others, enaéted new ones, and digefted all into one regular code of jurifprudence. This revifion they prefented to good king Howel, who having approved it, gave the rati- fying fanction of royal authority. Both the monarch and parliament then imprecated the power of the ftate and the wrath of heaven upon any perfons who fhould violate, or at- tempt to abrogate, any of thefe inftitutes, unlefs they fhould be cont{titutionally annulled in a national council, fimilar to the one in which they had been recently decreed. From the circumftances of this revifion, many of thofe in the code of Howel Dda were pre-exiftent ftatutes, by which the early Britons had been regulated in previous times. From thefe it appears, that immediately below the fovereign ranked the Uchelwyrs, or great men holding their lands from the crown, and each prefiding as lord over his particular domain. As immediate tenants of the king, they were obliged to per- form certain fervices. Inferior to thefe, and holding from them as feudatory lords, were the general mafs of the com- munity, being in a ftate of villainage, but divided into two claffes: firft, fuch as might retain or relinquifh their lands at difcretion, poffeffed the power of buying and felling, and whofe feignorial fervice was the leaft degrading of the menial kind; the other, denominated Caeths, were confidered the property of the lord, attached to the foil, and faleable with the eftate. Thefe were bound,to fervices the moft fervile, to build or repair houfes for the Uchelwyr, and perform all the drudgeries of hufbandry. Both were {ubject, like the chiefs, to military attendance in time of war, and to contri- butions in money or kind. Such were the tenures of lands in Wales, prior to the introduction of Englifh cuitoms, as appears by the laws of Howel Dda, not formed by him, but referable to previous inftitutes, afcribed to the early Britons. And as they were evidently feudal in their effence, and military in their defign, the opinion of antiquaries, who deduced the introduétion of a fy{tem of feuds into this ifland from the Normans, muft be erroneous; for the laws in which it is found to have exifted in Wales were collected into a digeft, in the early part of the tenth century. he moft prominent feature in the Howellian code is the law of inheritance, denominated gavel find, by which the property Vor. XXXVII. . was divided among the fons; the females of every degree being excluded till the utter extin&tion of the males, among whom no diftin€tion was made between the legitimate and the fpurious. While the Welth preferved their independence, this law of defcent univerfally prevailed ; but on the con- queft of the country by king Edward I., he dire&ted cer- tain commiffioners to inquire upon oath into all the former laws and ufages of the principality ; and the firft law pro- mulgated by that monarch for the ufe of Wales was the celebrated ftatute of Rhyddlan. By this he permitted the ancient ftem to continue, but lopped off two of its principal branches, viz. the admiffion of {purious offspring to the in- heritance, and the preclufion of feniales. But in the 34th year of Henry VIII., the venerable trunk was for ever levelled with the ground, all the lands in Wales having been required ‘ to be holden as Englifh tenures to all intents.” Since which period the laws of England, with the exception of a few formal peculiarities, have continued to form the jurifprudence of Wales. Ecclefiaftical Hiflory, Religion, c.—The religion of the Britons, when Czfar firft vifited the ifland, was of a kind peculiar to them, and to the kindred tribes of Gaul. It abounded with fingular tenets, and the mode of worfhip comprifed numerous fuperftitious rites, the remaining vef- tiges of which form fome of the moft interefting antiquities in the country. Bardifm, or the Druidical fyftem as it is generally called, has been varioufly reprefented; and the term dard, given to the Welfh poets who were not of the Bardic order, has tended to increafe the confufion on the fubje&. What may be confidered as the foundation of the order was the principle of univerfal benevolence, fo that a bard was prohibited by his tenets from bearing arms; and being recognifed as the herald of peace, he could pafs, when clad in his azure robe, unmolefted from one hoftile country to another. The bards were divided into three claffes, the bard braint, ovydd, and derwydd. To the bards braint be- longed the perpetuation of the cuftoms and privileges of the fyftem, and of its moral and civil inftitutes ; the ovyddon, or ovates, particularly attended to the cultivation of the arts and {ciences; the derwyddon, or druids, were the priefts who officiated in religion: from which circumftance, and from the great influence they confequently obtained over fociety, this clafs was moft confpicuous, and became the general denomination of the whole. Their origin, learning, religion, authority, revenues, de- cline, and extinétion, have been fully detailed in this work under the article Drurps. In the fixth century, the archiepifcopal feat of Wales was removed from Caerleon to Menevia, which was fubfequently known by the appellation of St. David’s. At that time the archbifhop had under him three fuffragans, the bifhops of St. Afaph, Bangor, and Landaff. In the tenth century, St. David’s loft its archiepifcopal honours ; and in r1or, it became fubjeét to the metropolitan fee of Canterbury ; to which, on the fubjugation of the country by Edward as the whole of Wales, as to ecclefiaftical affairs, fubmitted ; and at the diffolution of monafteries, the Welfh having been fubjected to the Englifh laws, the clergy in Wales were brought under the fame regulations as thofe in England. And from the clofe incorporation of the two countries, the hiftory of the church, after that time, is nearly fimilar in both. In Wales are many feéts of what are confidered regular Proteftant diffenters from the eftablifhed church, which had their rife in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., and more efpecially during the proteCtorate of Oliver Cromwell. But the greate{t number of feceders from the eftablifhed church are the different defcriptions of Methodifts, whofe places of 4N affembling, WALES. aflembling, multiplied over the face of the country, receive the appellation of chapels. Of this increafing diflent, one reafon is affigned to be the generally illiterate flate of the regular clergy: for moft of the livings in Wales are fo fmall, and the ftipends of curates fo fcanty, that no induce- ment is held out for youth being properly inftruéted for the miniftry, and confequently the churches muft be ferved by incompetent minifters. But this evil is likely foon to be remedied; for by the zealous endeavours of the prefent worthy bifhop of St. David’s, two feminaries are inftituted for the education of youth defigned for holy orders, who are provided with tutors. Moft places in Wales have the benefit of a free-fchopl; and in the year 1749, for the in- ftruGtion of the children of the lower orders, 142 itinerant {choolmafters were appointed by the fociety for promoting Chriftian knowledge. Thofe among Proteftant diflenters have been provided for in this refpeét by the pious bequeft of Dr. Daniel Williams, many years the refpeétable pattor of a congregation in London, who left a large fum of money for eftablifhing charity-fchools, where fuch inftitutions were wanted ; by virtue of which the truftees have erected many in the principality. The lovers of ecclefiaftical, monaffic, and fepulchral architec- ture, will find ample fcope for amufement and admiration, in the remains of religious edifices, both in an integral and di- lapidated ftate, ftill vifible in various parts of the princi- ality. i Mersin Lakes, Rivers, and Climate.—Wales exhibits all the features of a detached diftri€ from England, confift- ing of almoft continued ranges of lofty mountains, and im- pending crags, interfeéted by numerous deep ravines with extenfive valleys, and affording endlefs views of bold, wild, or romantic fcenery. To enumerate the mountains which are nominally known to the natives, and form very ftriking objects to the traveller, would be fuperfluous ; but a general view of them, as they are grouped with multifarious ramifications, may be ufeful. The chains generally extend in a direction from. fouth-eaft to north-weft, having their efcarpment, or moft abrupt declivity, on the latter bearing. Numerous projecting ridges laterally expand on various parts of the compafs, in countlefs ramifications, many of which are fur- mounted by lofty eminences, that are formed into fo many diftin@ mountains, fo that, like the Alps, they feem to be mountain piled upgn mountain, and hills conglomerated upon hills. The principal range in North Wales is that denominated the Snowdonian chain, from the lofty moun- tain Snowdon occupying its centre. Commencing at Bardfey ifland, in the fouth-weft extremity of Caernar- vonfhire, the line, varied at irregular intervals by conical peaks, extends in a north-eafterly direétion to the promon- tory of Penmaen-bach, in the bay of Conway. ‘The inter- mediate parts confift of the loftieft mountains in Wales. The Ferwyn chain occupies the eaftern part of Merioneth- fhire, and branches out into Denbighfhire. Its length is about fixteen miles, and the breadth varies from five to ten: Cader Ferwyn, Cader Fronwen, and the Sylattin, are the mott elevated points. Another line branches off into Mont- gomeryfhire, and joins the Breddin chain, extending into Shrapfhire. Another chain, or rather a continuance of the fame, extends in a fouth-weft direétion from Pennant, near the vale of Tanad, in Montgomeryfhire, to the fea-coaft near Langyllinin in Merionethfhire. In this extenfive ridge are confpicuous feveral lofty mountains, known under the appellation of the Arrans and the Arrenigs; the moft emi- nent of which are Arran-ben-llyn and Arran-fowddy, and the extremity of the line is grandly marked by the triple head of the lofty Cadir Idris, The celebrated Plinlimmon proudly elevates his creft above a range of table land, ex- tending from the vicinity of Llanvair in the north-eaft, till they decline in the fouth-weft, and end in the abrupt cliffs, which bound part of the bay of Cardigan, near Aberytt- with. Among particular elevations in this line, after the fovereign of the group, the Carno mountains ftand the moft pre-eminent. South Wales, though not equally mountainous with the northern part of the principality, nor fo diftin- guifhable for its Alpine heights, is yet far from being de- ficient in elevations and depreffions. An extenfive chain of mountains ftretches from Bleddva foreft, north-eaft of Lhan- drindod Wells, in Radnorfhire, croffes the northern part of Brecknockfhire, continues in a fouth-wetterly direétion through Caermarthenfhire, and terminates in the confpicuous ridge of the Prefcely or Prefcelau mountain in the county of Pembroke. The Fothoc hills, on the ealtern fide of Brecknockfhire, commence another line, principally known under the general appellation of the Black Mountains, from the appearance given to them by the dark vegetable covering of heath and ling. Among individual elevations, remark- able for their height, are T're-beddw. mountain, Pen Mallard hills, the black mountains ftri@tly fo denominated, and the high table land which in the fouth part of Caermarthenfhire is clofed by the ifolated mountain, called Pembre hill. In this mountainous region, Jakes are exceedingly abundant ; an attempt to defcribe, or even to enumerate them, would be endlefs: Mr.Gough reckoned from fifty to fixty in Caer- narvonfhire only. The moft diftinguifhed for extent, or the beauty of the furrounding fcenery, are, in North Wales, Lynian Nantle, Llyn Cywellin, Llynian Llanberris, and Llyn Conway, in Caernarvonfhire ; with Pimble-meer, and Talyllyn, in Merionethfhire. In South Wales, Llyn Bych- lyn, in Radnorfhire, and Llyn Savathan, or Langor’s pool, in the county of Brecknock. Rivers.— Wales, though a mountainous country, is equally remarkable with England for its numerous ftreams, which iffuing from confiderable lakes, or aided by their waters, meander through the country, and form excellent harbours at their confluence with the fea. The principal rivers are the Severn, the Wye, and the Towy, in South Wales; the Conwy, the Clwydd, and the Dee, in North Wales: thefe have not only attained pre-eminence in fame for the utility of their navigation; but, by poets, have been celebrated in fong. The former conftitutes the eaftern, and the latter the north-eaftern boundary of the country, between the em- bochures of which many others, though lefs diftinguifhed in a commercial point of view, are highly valuable for their fifheries and other properties. Thefe, tracing their fources in the order in which they unite their waters with the ocean, are, in North Wales, the Ogwen, Sciont, Gwynedd, Drwydd, Avon, and Dovey ; in South Wales, the Rhei- diol, Yftwith, Eiron, Tivy, Nevern, Gwyn, Cleddy, Itrog, Taf or Tave, Loughor, Tawy, Nedd, Avon, Taf or Taffe, Rhymny, and Ufk. A particular defeription of the moft confiderable, will be found under their refpective names. The climate of Wales differs materially from that of the portion of England, lying in the fame parallel of latitude ; and affimilates more with the northern parts of the ifland. In a general view the air is fharp; in the mountainous parts bleak ; moderately mild in the vales, and thofe parts adja~ cent to the ocean, efpecially on the fouthern coait, and particularly in the celebrated vale of Glamorgan. From: the greater degrees of cold prevalent in the Cambrian atmo- {phere, {now is more frequent in Wales than in England, lies much deeper, and is feen covering the tops of the higheit mountains, for many months in the year. The wet feafon in this country is not ufually confined ta the winter ne 3 or WALES. for rains are frequent at all times of the year. The gaged quantity of rain which annually falls in England, according to the experiments of Dr. Hales, is about twenty-two inches ; while the average that defcends in Wales may be eltimated at thirty-four. From numerous obfervations refpeCting this fubje@, the refult has uniformly been, that more falls on the weftern than on the eaftern fide of the kingdom, and moft in the mountainous diftriéts ; confequently Wales muit participate largely in fuch an excefs of humidity. In the year 1802, the quantity of rain which fell in London was fifteen inches, and in Brecon twenty-fix inches. Moift as the climate of Wales muft confequently be from this va- porous ftate of its atmofphere, yet the air is in general highly falubrious, and the country healthy. Scarcely a cemetery in the principality, but bears fome teftimony to the longevity of the inhabitants, even to the protracted age of a century, and in fome inftances even to a greater extent. y é Natural Produéions and Minerals.—¥ew countries can vie with Wales in the multifarious variety of its produétions, while none perhaps have been fo long and undefervedly neg- leGted. Some animals, rarely to be met with, frequent the wilds of this diverfified country. The goat is here found in its ferine ftate, and is far fuperior in fize, and in the length and finenefs of his hair, to that of moft other mountainous coun- ‘tries. Though this ufeful animal has been long domefticated, yet many of the inhabitants of North Wales fuffer the goats to run in a wild ftate, and bound from crag to crag. Thefe they are accuftomed to kill during autumn for the fake of the fat and fkins; thus goat-fhooting and goat-hunting are ftill praétifed by the people in Wales. Roebucks were an- ciently numerous, but are now confined to the moft intri- cate parts of the country, and they are rarely to be feen. Of the feathered tribes, many fpecies, not found in other parts of the ifland, are to be met with here. The golden eagle is an inhabitant of the Snowdonian mountains, which thence are fuppofed to have derived their appellation of the Eagle rocks. The peregrine falcon, fuppofed to be the bird which furnifhed the amufement of falconry to our ancef- tors, and formed a fort of criterion for nobility, breeds abun- dantly among the rocks of Llandidno, in Caernarvonfhire. The merlin, ufed in hawking, migrates from’ Wales to Eng- land generally in September. ‘The water rail is found in Anglefea, early in the fpring; and immenfe flocks of puffins vifit the ifland of Prieftholme about the fame time. The guillemot, and the black-backed gull, frequent the Welfh coaft during the winter. Among the numerous fith, which abound in the rivers of Wales, in addition to thofe generally known in England, may be noticed the crooked perch found in Llyn Raithlyn, Merionethfhire, and the de- formed trout, faid to be peculiar to a brook, called Syrcian, in Cardiganfhire: (thefe two {pecies are defcribed by Daines Barrington, in a communication to the Royal Society 1767): alfo the famlet is frequent in the upper part of the Severn and the Wye; the fewin, the red char, the filver char, and the gwiniad. Some of thefe, however, are not exclufively peculiar to the principality, but are found in fome of the rivers of Scotland, and in the lakes of Weit- moreland and Cumberland. : The mineral productions of Wales form the moft inte- refting part of the fubjeét, and furnifh an inexhauftible fource of profitable inveltigation to individuals, and of na- tional wealth. The mountains and hills may be feparated into three diftin& clafles, viz. primitive, fecondary, and de- rivative, which in a general view may alfo be diltinguifhed by the peculiarities of their form, as well as their relative fituation. Primitive granite mountains confit of craggy fteep rocks, teuding in the afcent more or lefs towards an acute or {lender pointed fummit, the loftieft mountains are centrically fituated in the chain, which commencing and ter- minating in abrupt precipices, with the infulated peaks that interrupt the general outline, form a {triking and dif- tinétive charaéter. Secondary mountains, chiefly compofed of {chiftofe fubftances, range next in the fcale, and are dif- tinguifhable from the former by their inferior height, the evennefs and fquarenefs of the individual links which com- pofe the chain, and by the eafy waving though varied line of the general contour: inftances of which are confpicuous in the Ferwyn and Breddin mountains previoufly noticed. Derivative, or calcareous and filiceous hills, range confider- ably lower than the fecondary or flate mountains, ufually rifling by a gradual afcent at one extremity, and terminating abruptly at the other. The lime-ftone hills frequently affume a pyramidical fhape, while the ridges of the fand rocks, and banks, are broader and rounder than thofe of lime. Thefe, however, often trap into each other, and then little diffimila- rity is difcoverable in their form. The primitive mountains in mafs contain no metals ; copper is however found in fe- veral of the horn-ftone ftratified mountains, of which the Parys mine, and thofe at Llanberis and Pont-Aberglaflyn, are examples. In thefe mines, the ore is for the moft part yellow, fulphuret of copper, the green and blue malachites or carbonates of copper, are found in lime-ftone, as at Ormes-head and Llanymynech hill, where copper is not pro- duced in any other ftate but that of carbonate, which is alfo found in the calcareous cement of fand rocks. ‘The ftrata generally moft productive of the metallic ores are lime-ftone ; and moft fpecies of whin-ftones, or the argilla- ceous mountain rocks, of which there are many varieties ap- pearing in thick, thin, and mediate ftrata; fome of thefe rocks are: moderately and others exceedingly hard. They affume various colours, though principally one or other of the numerous fhades of grey. Several rich and valuable mines are difcovered in granite or moor-ftone mountains. Thefe three orders or clafles of rocks, with their concomitant ftrata, are ufually interfeéted by mineral fiffures, and con- tain the largelt quantity of mineral fubftances, and metallic ores. But of all claffified ftrata, in which the richeft mine- ral veins have been difcovered, the indurated argillaceous mountain rocks are the moft prolific and extenfive. Many of the mines in North Wales, nearly the whole of the nu- merous valuable lead mines in the county of Cardigan, and mott of the mines in other parts of South Wales, are found in this kind of matrix or ftrata. The principal fubterra- neous fubftances produced in Wales, may be divided into three claifes, metalline, mineral, and lapideous; and the places where they are dug receive the diftin@ive appellations of mines, pits, or quarries. Silver is obtained in confidera- ble quantities, though not at prefent found in what may be exclutively denominated filver mines. Cwmfymlog mine in Cardiganfhire confifts of filver ore, lead ore, and quartz ; which, from the rich produce of the more precious metal, received the appellation of the Welfh Potofi.. Daren vawr, Daren vach, Goginan Cwm Evyn, and Mynydd bach, con- tain fimilar fubftances to thofe of Cwmfymlog, though not equally produGtive of filver. Llanvair is at prefent the richeft mine worked in the principality ; comprifing filver, lead, quartz, fpar with a {mall portion of copper, and yields about one-fixth of lead ore. About fixty to eighty ounces of filver are extracted from a ton of ore, and twelve hundred and a half weight of lead. Copper, which was known and appreciated by the Romans while in poffeffion of Britain, is abundant through different parts of the ifland, but was not an object of commercial inveltigation till within 4Nz about WALES. about two centuries paft ; nor in Wales to any confiderable purpofe till the middle of the laft. The copper works of the Romans lay for ages neglected ; and to the public and enterprifing fpirit of Nicolas Bailey, the country owes the revival of refearch for this valuable metal. Parys moun- tain in Anglefea coniifts wholly of copper, either in a ftate of native copper, fulphate, black ore, or malachite : the matrix is a dark grey chertz, and the fuperftratum alumi- nous flate. The copper ore found at Llanberris in Caer- narvonfhire, is of a very fuperior quality to that of Parys mountain, yielding from eight to ten per cent. weight of metal. This ore fubfifts in the primitive ftratified rocks, and generally in a matrix of {chiftofe hornblende, or quartz. The fame mountainous ridge, confifting principally of whin and horn-ftone, divided by the immenfe chafm over which is thrown the bridge called Pont-aberglaflyn, contains an- other copper mine producing ore fimilar in quality to that of Llanberris; and it is highly probable the whole of this diftria is pregnant with copper. Efcair vraith mine in Car- diganfhire confifts of copper ore, {par, quartz, and a fub- ftance, termed by the miners gozin, which forms an envelope to the quartz. Lead, for which this ifland was always fa- mous, is found in a variety of places through Wales, but particularly in the counties of Flint, Caernarvon, Montgo- mery, Caermarthen, and Cardigan ; indeed the latter may be confidered as the moft extenfive and richeft mining field in Bri- tain. A mineral traé ftretches from Pen-yr-allt, or Bryndi- gri, in a line to the weftern borders of the parifh of Holywell in Flintfhire, and is known under the name of Whiteford rake. ‘The ores differ in quality ; the lamellated, or common kind, ufually named potter’s ore, yields from fourteen hundred to fixteen hundred and a quarter of lead, out of twenty hun- dred of the’ore: but the laft produce is rare. The veins are found either in chert or lime-ftone rocks, and fome of the beft ore has been dug at the depth of ninety yards. In this traét feveral levels have been driven and fhafts funk, and lead con- tinues to be obtained in very confiderable quantities. Be- tween Gwydir and Capel Cerrig in Caernarvonfhire, within an extenfive dip between lofty mountains, are very exten- five lead works. The furrounding rocks confift of flate, bituminous fhale, and trap or whin; the matrix of the ore is quartz, and calcareous {par ; they produce lead and cala- mine, mixed with iron ochre, and a {mall quantity of cop- per pyrites. Thefe different fubftances are fo blended, that in the fame fpecimen a variety of them may be found. But Cardiganfhire may be peculiarly denominated the region of lead mines, the whole country apparently having its rocks cemented together with veins of this metal. For a vatt ex- tent the land is excavated, and the furface covered with the opening of mines already worked, or the veftiges of nume- rous others that have furnifhed their fubterraneous treafures to remote generations. The principal lead mines in this county are Cwm-y{twyth, Llewerneg, Inys Cynvelin, Peny- banch, Bron-y-goch, Liwynwnwch, Grogwnion,Gellan Erin, and Nant-y-Crier. The ore found in mott of the Cardigan- fhire mines is nearly of a fimilar nature, confifting chiefly of lead, mixed with quartz and fpar, accompanied frequently with quantities of an ore of zinc, denominated by the mi- ners, from its dark appearance, black jack. This, which farmerly was appropriated to the repair of the roads, has lately been difcovered to be a valuable article, conttituting an excellent flux for brafs; and, mixed in due proportions with copper, makes a hard metal, fimilar to the orichaleum of the ancient Romans. J/ron, the moft uieful, and through the wife diftribution of Providence, the moft common of all metals, is plentifully difperfed over the Britifh ifles; and Wales is not deficient in this particular. Yet, notwithftand- ing the mountains of this country are full of iron-ftone, it was not till within about half a century, that the public at- tention was turned to this inexhauftible fource of internal wealth. Iron is moft abundant in South Wales, though evident marks of its exiftence may be traced in North Wales; and it has lately been procured, and works ereéted in the vicinity of Ruabon in Denbighfhire. The feveral fpecies of iron which have been difcovered are hematites, kidney ore, or compaé brown iron-ftone; grey ore, or black iron-ftone ; bog ore {wampy iron-ftone ; and a variety of fulphurated and arfenical ores, which clafs under the ge- neral denomination of pyrites; but the kidney and grey ores are the moft frequently found. The principal iron works are Merthyr Tydvil, Aberdare, and Cyfartha, in Glamorganfhire ; and the Union, Llanelly, Beaufort, and Hirwan, in Brecknockthire. Coal is found in every county of Wales except Cardigan, Merioneth, and Caernarvon. The coal fometimes underlays the calcareous ftrata, or, in the miner’s phrafe, has a lime-ftone roof; but more fre- quently it is found on the northern or fouthern fide of a lime-ftone ridge ; and when a traét of low land is included between two fuch ridges, it may be inferred, that coal lies beneath. Two parallel lines of calcareous ftrata extend through South Wales in an eafterly direction, from St. George’s Channel acrofs the whole country. Thefe are accompanied by two lines of coal. Upon the upper line, coal has been found at Johnfton, Piéton, Jeffrefton, and Begeley, in Pembrokefhire. Thence keeping on the fouth- ern fide of the lime-ftone ridge, it crofles the Towy, form- ing the bar at the mouth of that river; and pafling through the upper part of Caermarthenfhire, Brecknockfhire, and Monmouthfhire, croffes the Severn to the collieries of Kingfwood near Briftol. The different fpecies of coal in Wales are the newcaftle, the rock, the ftone, or fplent, the cannel, or parrot, and the culm, or blind coal, denomi- nated in England Welth coal, becaufe almoft peculiarly the produce of Wales. Some varieties of the cannel coal are fo fine and folid in the contexture, and fo fufceptible of a high polifh, as to be capable of being turned in the lathe, and formed into various utenfils, toys, and trinkets. The {chiftofe mountains of Wales afford another fubftance, if not of equal importance, yet of general utility. Svates, cuftomarily called Cornifh tile, becaufe originally procured from Cornwall, conftitute an elegant and ufeful roofing to houfes much cheaper than lead, for which it is latterly be- come a very common fubititute. Slate quarries are nume- roufly feattered over the country, but the principal are thofe of the Rheidiol near Aberyftwith, Cardiganfhire ; Llangynnog, Montgomerytfhire ; and the extenfive ones in Snowdonia, Caernarvonfhire. Thofe of the former place produce {pecimens of the large and coarfeft kind of flate, which lie in compaé maffes, refembling flag-ftone, of a rough texture, but feparating eafily into large plates. Llan- gynnog flate alfo divides into large plates, is not of quite fo coarfe a quality, and forms a very profitable building article. Thefe quarries, Mr. Pennant obferves, yielded from No- vember 1775 to the fame month in the following year 904,000 flates, which were fold from fix to twenty fhillings per thoufand. The Snowdonian flates are generally of a very fine grain, a beautiful blue colour, and when quarried fe- parate into exceedingly thin lamine; properties, which render them particularly eligible for handfome roofing, and manufacturing into writing flates. So great have been the quantities of late years procured from this diftri€t, that a {mall infignificant creek has been dignified with the name of Port-Penhryn, from the export trade of this article only. On viewing the different apertures of the fchiftofe moun- tains, tains, a ftriking geological fa& will refult, correfpondent with the principle of uniform though unequal declivity. It is obfervable that the flates are always coarfeft in their texture on the northern or north-weitern fides of the ridge, and lefs fo on the fouth and fouth-weftern fides; be- coming gradually finer as they approximate the lime-ftone hills. ftones; viz. different kinds of marble fit for monuments, columns, chimney-pieces, and other ornamental {culpture ; ferpentine and other fpecies of horn-ftone ; chert or petri- folex, and pure quartz, for the ufe of the potteries. Nor fhould that rare and curious fubftance be omitted, which furnifhes the afbeftus, indeftructible by fire, found on the fhores of Anglefea. The mona marble, from the ifle of Anglefea, is now much ufed in chimney-pieces and fancy furniture. (See Marste, Briti/h.) The Britons, as already obferved, underftood the ufe of metals, and were further in- _ ftru&ted in the arts of mining by the intelligent Romans ; but after the departure of the latter, felf-prefervation occu- pied the attention of the natives, and peaceful fcience funk under the devattating hand of war. Yet their mines were not wholly negleéted, for it was probably by means of this fubterraneous wealth, that the Welfh were enabled to fup- port againft the Englifh an unequal warfare for fo long a time. During centuries after the conqueft, in England the crown afferted its exclufive right to all mines and mine- rals; and no perfon could fearch for ore unlefs empowered by a royal grant, under conditions impofed at the difcretion of the monarch. Edward I., on his conqueft of Wales, ex- tended his mining authority over that country ; and it does not appear that the proprietor of the land, on which a mine was opened, had any fhare in the profits, till the reign of Henry VI., when the duke of Bedford having obtained a leafe of all mines containing any gold or filver, a refervation was made of a twentieth part of the proceeds to the owner of the land. Queen Elizabeth, however, adopted a found policy: fhe fent over for fome experienced Germans, and anted letters patent to them and their heirs for ever, to faa for and conduét the bufinefs of mines, through feve- ral {pecified Englifh counties, and the whole principality of Wales. The patentees divided part of their tenure into fhares for fale ; and with the purchafers of fuch fhares, they were incorporated by the ftyle of the “ governor, affiftants, and commonalty of the mines royal.”? But though the foundation was thus laid for the prefent fuccefs in mining, yet little of importance was effected till the reign of Charles I. According to the teftimony of Schlutter, the lead mines in Flintfhire were not worked before the year 1698, when Dr. Wright and his affociated adventurers eftablifhed a f{melting-houfe at Halkin. The fubfequent extenfion of mining concerns was encouraged by the repeal of former reftrictive ftatutes, and by the enactment in the firft year of William and Mary, that perfons having mines fhall enjoy the fame, although claimed as royal mines; the king having the right of pre-emption in the ore’ at certain regulated prices. Agriculture, Bridges, Roads, and Canals. Wales ina general view may be confidered a century, at leaft, behind England in its itate of agriculture. The mode of ploughing, the courfe of crops, the deficiency of manure, the want of drain- ing, and the rude implements of hufbandry, are ill calcu- lated for making a progrefs in agricultural amelioration. Many of the errors evidently arife from the ignorance, pre- judice, indolence, and poverty of the tenants; but other caufes are attributable to the proprietors of eftates. One is, not granting proper leafes, the lands for the moft part being let from year to year: a ftill more injudicious cuftom is the Wales affords numerous quarries of other valuable - letting farms by auction. But though this is the general ftate of agriculture, yet ftriking and honourable inftances occur, in divers places, of more rational condu@. Many gentlemen are fetting the example of the moft improved practice ; and almoft in every county, aflociations of intel- ligent agriculturifts have been formed for the introduétion and encouragement of a better fyftem of hufbandry. From the nature, as well as number of the rivers in Wales, the erection of bridges muft have excited, at an early period, the attention of the Welfh. Infurmountable barriers mutt have been oppofed to the traveller, without the aid of what may be termed pendent bridges ; that is, fuch as are thrown from crag to crag, at a prodigious height above the water. Of this kind is the bridge, or rather two bridges, called Pont-ar-Mynach, near Hafod, in Cardiganfhire, forming a pafs over an awful yawning chafm, through which the river rolls its waters to the Rheidiol. Another, called Pont- aber-glas-lyn, forms a communication over a narrow defile in the mountainous ridge feparating the counties of Caer- narvon and Merioneth. Numerous bridges, of a fingle arch, are f{cattered over the country ; of this clafs is the celebrated Pont-y-Prydd, croffing the boifterous Taffe in Glamorgan- fhire. Among thofe bridges compofed of more than one arch, the triangular-arched bridge over the river Dee at Llangollen, is curious for its mode of conftruétion, and great antiquity: the bridge acrofs the Conwy, near Llanrwit, is an elegant ftructure, and does honour to the {kill of its ar- chiteét, Inigo Jones. the bridge of five arches at Bangor- ifcoed, in Flintfhire, is a fine {pecimen of architefture. The town of Caermarthen is entered by a long ancient bridge ; but the ftupendous aquedué&, by which the continuation of the Ellefmere canal is carried over the Dee, at Pont Cyffyllte, between Llangollen and Chirk, in Denbighthire, is the chef d’ceuvre of this fpecies of archite€ture ; and can only be exceeded in grandeur or utility, by the projected bridge over the Menai ftraits, by which it is propofed to form a land communication between the county of Caernarvon and the ifland of Anglefea. Wales, though long famed for its bridges, was, till of late years, nearly a ftranger to good roads. Except the two great mail-roads, forming the com- munication with the north and fouth of Ireland, by the way of Milford and Holyhead, whence the packets fail for that country, fearcely a road could be found, calculated for the pafling of carriages. But to this effential point for profit and convenience, the land proprietors have recently direéted their attention with the moft beneficial effef&ts; and the country may now be traverfed in almoft every direétion. Under the aufpices of that public-fpirited nobleman, the late lord Penrhyn, a grand road has been cut throsgh the immenfe range of lofty mountains, denominated Snowdonia, by which an extenfive communication has been opened be- tween the internal parts of North Wales and the coalt ; and the great thoroughfare from London to Dublin by way of Holyhead diminifhed in length, compared with the formes one by way of Shrewfbury and Conway, twenty-five miles. Numerous roads have been widened, fhortened, and otherwife improved, by the addition of drains, arches, bridges, &c. to the great accommodation of travellers, and general be- nefit of the inhabitants. Already has the country begun to experience the advantages by new communications having been opened for the produce of the interior, in the reduction of the rate of carriage, and in the eafy accefs thus afforded for the conveyance of ponderous articles to the fea-coait, or to the inter-communications with the navigable rivers by inland canals. Improvement by internal navigation was long neglected in thig country, though equally capable of fuch advantages aa WALKS. - as England. In North Wales, the firft project which en- gaged the attention of the landed intereit, was the junétion of the navigation on the rivers Severn and Dee, by opening an aquatic communication through the counties of Denbigh and Flint, with various ramifications into the mining and mafufacturing diftri€ts in the adjacent counties. ‘This is called the Ellefmere canal, conneéted with which is the Montgomery canal. Thofe in South Wales are the Kid- welly, Cardiff and Merthyr Tydvil, Aberdare, Neath, Brecknock, and Swanfey canals. For a particular deferip- tion of each, fee their refpective names under the article CANAL. Manufadures, till within thefe few years, were not very extenfively diffufed, nor could be confidered of much ac- count in the general fcale of produétive induftry. Wales, however, has for centuries been celebrated for its flannels, and may be confidered as ftanding unrivalled in this ufeful article. The woollen fubftances manufactured are webs, flannels, ftockings, wigs, gloves, and focks. Webs are dif- tinguifhed by the trade into two forts; the {trong or high country cloth, and the {mall or low country cloth. Strong cloth is made in Merionethfhire, and principally in the vi- cinity of Dolgelly and Machynlleth: at the latter place is a manufaétory upon a fmall fcale, a circumitance only worthy of notice, as forming the commencement of a change in preparing the wool, which will probably foon become general. The ftandard width of this cloth is feven-eighths of a yard; the length of a piece, or what is emphatically ftyled a web, is about 200 yards; the quality is of various degrees. Small cloth is the produce of Denbighfhire ; it is chiefly manufactured within the parifh of the Glynn, a large tract of country including Llangollen and Corwen. This article is about one-eighth of a yard narrower than ftrong cloth; the length is the fame. Flannel conftitutes the moft im- portant of the Welfh manufaGtures: it is chiefly the pro- duce of Montgomeryfhire ; but by no means confined to that county, being made in various places within a cirele of about twenty miles round Welfhpool. A manufactory of note has been eftablifhed a confiderable time at Dolobran; and two on a large fcale have been recently erected near Llanydloes, where the various machines, ufed in the woollen trade by the Englifh, are applied to the purpofes of manual labour. The principal markets for webs and flannels are Welfhpool and Shrewfbury ; the quantity made is not eafily afcertained. Mr. Pennant, in his Snowdonia, pub- lifhed in 1781, mentions, that there were brought ‘ annually to Salop 700,000 yards of webs; and to Welfhpool an- nually between 7 and 800,000 yards of flannel.’? Stock- ings, wigs, focks, gloves, and other {mall knit articles, are fold chiefly at Bala, Merionethfhire, being made in that town and neighbourhood. Stockings, to the amount of from two to five hundred pounds worth, are fold each weekly market- day. Very confiderable manufaétories of cottons and cot- ton twilt have been eftablifhed in the counties of Flint and Denbigh, the principal of which are Northop, Greenfield, Sceiving, Newmarket, and Denbigh. In fome of thefe fa€tories cotton yarn is fpun of fo fine a texture, that 130 hanks, each being 830 yards in length, make but a pound weight. Numerous manufactures of copper, iron, lead, tin- plates, &c. have alfo been recently fet up in various towns both in North and South Wales. Commerce may juitly be confidered at prefent in its infancy, being chiefly confined to the coafting trade. Except Caernarvon and Swanfea, which have lately extended their views to Spain, Portugal, and the Weft Indies, few of the Welfh ports poffefs veifels of very confiderable tonnage ; though no part of the ifland contains a greater proportion of harbours and roads, fome 7t of which are fafe and good, and more might foon be made fo, by the building of piers and other improvements, which are obvious at the refpective places. Peculiar Cuftoms, Superftitions, Sc.—Among a variety of Welfh cuftoms, thofe in courtfhip, marriage, and at fune- rals, excite particular attention. Hymeneal negociations are frequently carried on by the Welfh peafantry in bed : the young {wain goes fometimes feveral miles to vifit the objeét of his choice at her refidence ; the lovers retire to a bed-chamber, and between the blankets converfe on thofe fubje&ts which the occafion fyggefts. This ufage is con- fined to the labouring clafles of the community ; and is fearcely ever produétive of thofe improprieties which might naturally be expected. Previous to the celebration of a wedding, a friend undertakes the office of a bidder ; who goes round the neighbourhood to invite all perfons of nearly the fame fituation of life as the contra¢ting parties : in con- fequence, the friends and neighbours for a great extent make a point of attending the wedding, laden with prefents of money, butter, cheefe, and other provifions ; thefe are carefully recorded by the clerk of the wedding, oppofite to each re{pective name, and are to be repaid in the fame pub- lic manner, on fimilar occafions, whenever demanded. ‘This cuitom is called pwrs a gqwregys; and making the pre- fents is termed paying pwyddion. As an ancient ufage, it is confidered as recoverable by law ; but a fenfe of the re- ciprocal duty generally prevents litigation, Funerals in Wales are attended by greater crowds of people than even their weddings. When the proceffion fets out, every perfon kneels, and the minifter repeats the Lord’s prayer. At every crofs-way, the fame ceremony is repeated, till they ar- rive at the church ; the intervals of time being filled up by finging pfalms and hymns. A remarkable cuitom prevails, in fome parts of Wales, of planting the graves of departed friends with various evergreens and flowers. Box-thnft, and other plants fit for edging, are planted round in the fhape of the grave for a border, and the flowers are placed within, fo that the talte of the living may be known by the manner of embellifhing thefe manfions of the dead. The fnow-drop, violet, and primrofe, denote the infant duit ; the rocket, rofe, and woodbine, fhew maturer years ; while tanfey, rue, and ftar-wort, mark declining life. Each has its little ever- green, fond emblem of that perennial ftate where change is known no more. It has been obferved, that mountainous {cenery is peculiarly friendly to thofe aerial and imaginary exiftences which conttitute the objeéts of fuperitition. This is exemplified in Wales. The belief of witchcraft is ftill ftrong, and many are the fatal effeéts fuppofed to be pro- duced by fupernatural agents: at every houfe may be feen a horfe-fhoe, a crofs, or fome charm of defence. Many old women, on account of their age, and perhaps deformity, bear the odium of preventing the cows from yielding milk, and of infli€ting diforders on men and cattle. The fup- pofed witches find it their intereft to deny nothing that is alleged to them ; and thus become held in fuperititious fear by the people, and obtain a livelihood from their imagined extent of power. The belief of thofe elvine beings called fairies appears to have been ancient and general, and is not yet wholly eradicated. In fome degree conneéted with fairies, is another {pecies of fuppofed aerial beings, called knockers: thefe, the Welfh miners fay, are not to be feen, but are heard under ground, in or near mines, and by their noifes, which reprefent the different tages in the progrefs ot mining, generally point out to the workmen a rich vein of ore. An opinion is prevalent within the diocefe of St. David’s, that previous to the death of a perfon, a light is fometimes feen to proceed from the houfe, and purfue its way WAL way to the church, precifely in the track that the funeral will afterwards follow. This is traditionally attributed to the fpecial prayer of St. David, that no one in his diocefe fhould die without this intimation of departure, which is called Canwyll corph, or the corpfe candle. ; Language, (Fc. — The Welfh language, has an undeniable claim to very high antiquity, as a dialect of the Hebrew, fpoken by the defcendants of Japhet: in its formation, as well as grammatical conftruction, it has a near refemblance to the original tongue ; and is, perhaps, without exception, the moft primitive and uncorrupt living language in the weftern world. It abounds with original words, more efpecially technical terms, which other languages borrow from the Greek, or exprefs by aircumlocution, and is faid to be peculiarly fitted for poetry. The orthoepy of the Welfh is very different from that of the Englifh. In the language of Cambria are forty-three letters ; fixteen of which are radicals, expreflive of the primary founds; and the reft may be confidered as ferviles, becaufe ufed as in- flexions or mutations of the former; for each of thefe there is an appropriate chara¢ter. But the language is gradually getting into difufe, efpecially in the fouthern part of the prin- cipality. The gentry of the country are principally edu- cated in England, and confequently few of them {peak it, and many with for its extermination. ‘The example of the higher clafles extends, and ere long the language and man- ners of Cambria may coalefce with thofe of the inhabitants to the eaft of the Severn. See grammar attached to Owen’s DiGionary of the Welfh Language, which contains an ample critical differtation, &c. 2 vols. gto. 1803. : Poetry was in high eftimation among the ancient Britons : Wales, as their place of refuge, was early the feat of the poetic mufe, and modern effufions of original genius evince that fhe has not deferted her favourite mountains. In no nation, except the Hebrew, was genealogy confidered of fo much importance, or carried to an equal extent, as in Wales. Family diftinGtion is purfued fo far, that perhaps it induces the Cambrian to think more highly of himfelf than is rational. Pride of anceftry was a delicate and ef- fential point among the ancient Britons, and confequently they were more defirous of noble than of rich conne¢tions. So deeply was this principle rooted, that even the loweit claffes of the people carefully preferved the defcents of their families, and were in general able from memory not only to recite the names of their proximate progenitors, but to trace their various relations back through numerous generations. Whoever reads the hiftory of the moft ancient inhabitants of this ifland, the Cambro Britons, will find innumerable inftances of the reverence which they paid to their poet- muficians, the bards, both of Pagan and Chriftian times ; ard fongs of very high antiquity have been preferved in the Welfh language, though not all the tunes to which they were fung. ‘The harp, with which thefe fongs ufed to be accompanied, was in fuch general favour in Wales, as to be regarded among the pofleffions neceflary to conftitute a gentleman. (Leges Wallice.) The moft ancient Welth poetry that is now intelligible was written about the year 1100, and fome of the tunes that are preferved in the late Mr. Morris’s MS., which were tranfcribed from the mufic- book of William Penllin, the harper in queen Elizabeth’s time, are fuppofed by Dr. Davies (In Pref. ad Gram. Brit.) to be coeval with the verfes to which they were fung, when he compofed his grammar and catalogue of ancient Cambro-Britifh fongs. Unluckily the notation, or tablature, in which thefe tunes have been written, is fo un- common aad difficult to reduce to modern characters, that W AE though the gravity or acutenefs of the feveral notes can be afcertained, yet their lengths, or duration, cannot be efta- blifhed with any degree of certainty, by any rule which we have been yet able to devife. The northern annals abound with pompous accounts of the honours conferred on mufic by princes who were them- {elves proficients in the art, and the Cambro-Britith inftitutes, with laws and privileges in favour of its profeffors. As the firft mufician, or bard, was the eighth officer in dignity, at the court of the Welfh kings, and had a place in the royal hall next to the fteward of the houfhold, fo the re- {pect and dignity with which bards in general were treated about this time, in all the courts of Europe, were equal to thofe which Homer tells us their predeceffors Demodocus and Phemtus enjoyed in Greece. Mufic was now a regal accomplifhment, as we find by all the ancient metrical ro- mances and heroic narrations in the new-formed languages of the times ; and to fing to the harp was neceflary to a perfect prince and complete hero. The firft Greek muficians were gods; the fecond heroes ; the third bards; the fourth beggars! During the early times of mufic, in every country, the wonder and affections of the people have been gained by furprize; but when muficians became numerous, and the art was regarded of eafier acquirement, they loft their favour, and from being feated at the tables o kings, and helped to the firft cut, they were reduced to the moft abject itate, and zanked among rogues and vagabonds. For more particular accounts of different parts of Wales, the reader is referred to the names of the twelve counties : viz. ANGLESEA, BRECKNOCKSHIRE, CAERNARVONSHIRE, CAERMARTHENSHIRE, CARDIGANSHIRE, DENBIGHSHIRE, FLINTSHIRE, GLAMORGANSHIRE, MERIONETHSHIRE, MontTcGoMeErysuHire, PEMBROKESHIRE, and RADNORSHIRE. —Hoare’s Giraldus Cambrenfis, 2 vols. 4to. 1806. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvii., North Wales, by Rev. J. Evans, 1812. Ditto, vol. xviil., by Rev. T. Rees, 1815. Warrington’s Hiftory of Wales, 2 vols. 8vo. 1788. Malkin’s Scenery and Antiquities of South Wales, 2 vols. 8vo. 1807. Aikin’s Journal of a Tour through North Wales, 12mo. 1797. Evans’s Tour through North Wales, 8vo. 1802. Ditto through South Wales, 8vo. 1804. WALEs, a town of America, in the diftri@ of Maine, and county of Lincoln, containing 471 inhabitants; 55 miles N.E. of Portland. Wates, New, a name given to a part of North America, fituated to the fouth-eaft and fouth-weft of Hudfon’s bay, and divided into north and fouth: the former name is loft in the more general term of Labrador. New South Wales is fituated to the north-weft of Canada, and extends along the fouth borders of Hudfon’s bay 450 miles, from N. lat. 54° to 58°. W. long. 85° to 95°. Wates, New South, a name given to the eaftern part of New Hotranp; which fee. WaALEs, in a Ship, an affemblage of ftrong planks ex- tending along a ihip’s fide, throughout her whole length, at different heights, and ferving to reinforce the decks, and form the curves by which the veffel appears light and grace- ful on the water. As the wales are framed of planks broader and thicker than the reft, they refemble ranges of hoops encircling the fides and bows. They are ufually dif- tinguifhed into the main-wale, and the channel-wale. The fituation of the wales, being afcertained by no invariable rule, is generally fubmitted to the fancy and judgment of the builder. The pofition of the gun-ports and fcuppers ought, however, to be particularly confidered on this aos ion, WAL fion, that the wales may not be wounded by too many breaches. Falconer. Thofe ftrakes of thick ftuff that are wrought on the outfide of the fhip upon the main-breadth, or broadeft part of the body, are called the main-wales. Thofe that are wrought between the ports, which are the channel-qwales in two-deck fhips, and the channel-wales and middle or fheer-wales in three-deck fhips. See Suie-Building. WALET, ‘in Geography, a city of Africa, and capital of Beeroo, or Biroo; 250 miles W. of Tombuctou. N. lat. 15° 45. W. long. 2° 45/. WALGOM, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 10 miles N.W. of Candi. WALGRUND, an ifland in the gulf of Bothnia, and one of the clufter called the Quarken Iflands, about ten miles long, but of unequal breadth, in fome places three miles, in others not halfa mile. The figure is very irregular. N. lat. 63° 13’. E. long. 20° 58!. WALHAUSEN, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia ; formerly an imperial palatine town; 3 miles W.S.W. of Sangerhaufen.—Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne; 10 miles W. of Lucerne. WALHEIM, a town of France, in the department of the Sambre and Meufe; 4 miles N. of Gemblours. WALHOF, a town of the duchy of Courland; 34 miles E. of Mittaw. WALHORN, a town of France, in the department of the Ourthe; 9 miles S. of Aix-la-Chapelle. WALI, or Waxra, the title of an officer of the police in various parts of the Ottoman empire ; who is the deputy of the pacha, and patroles night and day, keeping a watch- ful eye on the feditious, apprehending robbers, and, like the pacha, judging and condemning without appeal. This officer has a multitude of fpies, moft of whom are thieves, and by their means knows every thing that pafles. It is not, therefore, aftonifhing, fays Volney, that cities Kke Cairo, Aleppo, and Damafcus, fhould be fafer than Genoa, Rome, or Naples; but how dearly is this fafety purchafed ! and how many innocent lives are facri- ficed to the partiality and injuftice of the wali and his agents! The wali likewife prefides over the police of the markets, infpeéting the weights and meafures, and punifhin delinquents with extreme leenunn For the {malleft def- ciency in the weight of bread, meat, dates, or confeétionary, he infliéts 500 ftrokes of the baftinado, and fometimes even death. However, the office of wali does not comprehend various objeéts of utility that ought to be under the regu- lation of the police, fuch as the cleanlinefs of the ftreets, and the falubrity of the cities. They are never paved, {wept, or watered, neither in Syria, nor in Egypt. WALILABO, in Geography, a river of the ifland of St. Vincent, which runs into the fea, one mile north from Prince’s bay. WALINCOURT, a town of France, in the department of the north ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Cambray. WALINGHURU, in Botany, a name by which fome authors have called the plant, of which the medicinal zerum- beth is the root. WALK, in Gardening, a dry firm track in the garden or pleafure-ground, which is formed of different forts of materials, as gravel, fand, &c.; but where thefe cannot be procured, it is fometimes laid with powdered coal, fea-coal afhes, and powdered brick : thefe are, however, rarely ufed, when either gravel or fand can be procured. Where fea- coal afhes can be had they are preferable to powdered coal or bricks, as they bind very hard, and never ftick to the Sf WAL feet in frofty weather. And for wildernefs-walks they are better than moft other fubftances. There are likewife walks fometimes formed of turf, or what are called grafs-walks. In forming the firft fort of walks, when they have been marked out, the earth fhould be taken away to a certain depth, that the bottoms may be filled with lime-rubbifh, coarfe gravel, flint-{tones, or other rocky materials, to pre- vent weeds from growing through the gravel, as well as to keep away worm-cafts. It fhould be laid ten inches or a foot thick, over which the coat of gravel fhould be fix or eight inches, which fhould be very fine, but not fereened, the large ftones only being taken out. When the gravel has been laid to this thicknefs, they muit be exaétly levelled, and raked true from all great drips, as well as little holes: by this means, moft of the ftones will be raked under the feet, which may either be evenly {prinkled back over the laft length that is raked, or buried in the bottom. Walks are frequently laid too round, fo as fcarcely to be walked upon with pleafure, and fo as to leffen the effet of their breadths. The ufual allowance for a gravel-walk of five feet breadth, is about an inch rife in the crown: confe- quently, if twenty feet wide, it will be four inches higher in the middle than on each fide; and for twenty-five feet, five inches ; for thirty feet, fix inches; and fo on in the fame proportion. When the walk has been carefully laid, trodden down, and raked, either in lengths, or the whole together, it fhould be rolled well, both in length and crofs- ways ; the perfon who rolls wearing fhoes with flat heels, that he may not make holes ; as, when thefe are once made in a new walk, they are not eafy to roll out again. In- order to lay them firm, it will be neceffary to give them three or four rollings, after good waterings or heavy rains, - as this will caufe the gravel to bind, fo that when they be- come dry they will be as hard as terrace. Iron-mould gravel is faid to be the beft for binding, or fuch as has a little binding loam amongft it ; which latter, though it be apt to ftick to the heels of fhoes in wet weather, binds better than any thing elfe in dry weather ; and when the gravel is over-fandy or fharp, clay is frequently mixed with it, which, when caft together in heaps and well mixed, binds like 2 rock: loofe gravel is very uncomfortable and uneafy to walk on. Walks of this fort are not only neceflary near the houfe, but one fhould always be carried quite round the garden, as being foon dry after rain, and proper for walking on in all feafons and times. Thofe about the houfe fhould be larger than the others, and laid out according to the particular nature and fituation of the grounds in which they are to be formed. And the walks laid with fand or other materials, in the other different parts of gardens or pleafure-grounds, fhould be formed in the fame manner, having regard to the nature of the foil, fo as to render them as dry as poflible at all feafons. The breadth in thefe walks fhould be in fome meafure according to the nature of the ground. Where this is fmall, five or fix feet may be fufficient; but in large grounds much wider, as ten or twelve. In modern grounds of this fort, they are moftly laid out in winding or ferpentine direétions, according to the nature of the fcites, fo as to have them concealed, and rendered as private as poflible, by the trees and plants on their fides; the turns being contrived in as eafy and natural a way as can be effected. See GARDEN, GRAVEL, &e. In forming gra{s-walks, different methods are had recourfe to; but previous to any of which, it is conftantly neceflary to WALK. to have the ground properly prepared by fuitable levelling, treading, and raking, as well as other means, in the view of making the furfaces perfeCtly firm and even for the pur- pofe. In making walks of {mall and moderate extents, the common prattice is then to have them laid with turf cut from fome neighbouring watte-ground, or other place, beat- ing it well down at the time, fo as to form a clofe, fmooth, even furface. But where the extents of them are very con- fiderable, it is moftly found more convenient and proper to have the {ward formed by the fowing of them with proper grafs-feeds at fuitable feafons, in doing which, they fhould be fown in rather a thick and regular manner, and the feed be raked into the earth in an even way, the furfaces being afterwards, when quite dry, rolled regularly with a mode- rately heavy roller, in order to render their upper parts level, and to clofe the earth or mould well over the feeds. See TuRFING. The walks of pleafure-grounds and gardens have a rela- tion to utility as well as ornament. In the former, they are for the moft part more {pacious and extenfive than the neceffary ones in thofe of the common latter kinds, being ufually made in conformity with the other decorative com- partments, fo as to form and conftitute variety in the com- pofition of the general plan and defign, and for conne&ing with them, and the pleafure of walking through them, to enjoy the view and beauty of their differently varied arrange- ments, and the diverfified growths of their refpeétive plants, trees, fhrubs, flowers, and fruits, as well as any thing elfe that may be curious. In the latter, or gardens, they are neceflary as forming the communication between the different parts, and for dividing the ground into fuitable portions, as may be need- ful in any fort of culture, as well as for the purpofe of oc- cafional walking on for pleafure, and by way of ornament. In general, all thofe walks of the garden, whether of the kitchen or other kinds, may be faid to be ufeful, which are required for the feparation of the ground into quarters, beds, and borders, as well as other fimilar parts; and which ferve to conneé& and lead to the different parts, or from one to another crofs-wife ; and which extend round them at the diftance of a proper border from the boundary fence. And where kitchen-gardens and pleafure-grounds are connected, the principal walks fhould be of a more capacious nature, having handfome borders on the fides, fuch borders being deftined for {mall efculent plants, as well as thofe of the flower and ornamental kind. Walks which are very much wheeled and wrought upon in kitchen-gardens fhould always be made of fuch firm folid materials as the above; but where they cannot be had, good road-ftuff, that is, the fcrapings of them, may be employed. Grafs-walks are never to be had recourfe to in thefe cafes. The walks in the principal divifions, or more conf{picuous parts of pleafure-grounds, fhould in general be of larger dimenfions, and more elegantly formed, than thofe of the ordinary kitchen-garden, thofe near the refidence being often of very confiderable width, as already noticed. They fhould moftly be laid with fome of the above forts of hard mate- rials, though, in fome cafes, large turf-walks are in ufe in particular parts. The walks in pleafure-grounds are ufually varied as much as poffible, running in winding irregular direétions, and occafional varying ftraight lines, as may be moft fuitable to the nature, plan, and quality of the grounds ; and the fame is the cafe in large gardens ; but in thofe of the {maller fort, they are commonly made in fomewhat ftraight and crofs directions. In moft large pleafure-grounds a large walk is Vor. XX XVII. : run fomewhat parallel to the main refidence, extending to the interior of them and the gardens and other parts, having other walks conneéting with it, with fhrubberies, clumps, and flower-borders ; but in fome others, the chief walks go off to the right ard left towards the fides, leaving the middle parts in lawns with fhrubberies, flower-borders, and plantations of other kinds, or lead to fome fide plantation of a fhady nature, as private walks, or are carried forward in an eafy, winding, natural manner through the whole extent of the grounds and plantations in different turnings to other more extenfive grounds of the nature of parks, &c. at a greater diftance; there being other fimilar fmaller walks within the confines of the pleafure-grounds, branching off and diverging in a varied irregular manner to other in- ternal parts of the fhady kind, as thofe of groves, thickets, and fhrubberies, as well as to thofe of the more open and airy fort, as large grafs divifions, detached planted clumps, and other kinds, in various bendings for the purpofe of ex- hibiting various views of the different fhrubby compartments, trees, plantations, flower-borders, grafs lawns, plots of water, and other curious and interefting rural ornaments. However, on the whole, the beft and moft modern modes of laying out the walks of pleafure-grounds and gardens, are thofe which moft perfectly accord with the nature and fituations of them, and which are the moit remote from any fort of regularity and formality in their defigns. In ornamented grounds, Mr. London thinks, that walks have partly one of the effects of buildings, which is that of giving force and fpirit to the fcenes of verdure and cul- tivation. Their dire€tions, it is fuppofed, fhould be die- tated by their propriety and convenience, and their width by the utility of them. In refpeé to their ornamental effets, they chiefly depend upon their margins, their fur- faces, and the colour of the materials from which they are formed. In avowedly artificial fituations, the firft fhould be parallel to each other, and properly limited ; but where the contrary is the cafe, they fhould be irregular in their direGtions as well as compofitions, as in natural pleafure- grounds, pafture-fields, parks, forefts, dingles, &c. In loofe {cattered bufhy lawns with trees, the fweeps and turns of the walks fhould, in a comparative degree, be abrupt, the breadths being varied to a great extent, groups of fhrubs, or fingle trees, frequently dividing them, and reducing their widths to narrow courfes which are nearly in the fame direc- tion, by which they fhortly unite again in the fame track, and affume their former breadths. Woody banks and commons, it is faid, abound with walks of this nature. In thickets and woods, whether of natural trees and under- growths, or of exotics, as in complete fhrubberies, the edges of the walks or paths fhould be wholly annihilated on both fides, and be bounded only by the irregularity of the loweft growths. Many places, as thofe of Foxly and Dunglafs, afford beauties in full illuftration, it is fuppofed, of the propriety of thefe principles. In fhort, the formal, ftiff, harfh edges of made walks, it is thought, conftitute one of the moft ftriking deformities in rural works of this kind. In cafes where grafs-walks are intended, they fhould com- monly be of fome extent in refpe& to width, as narrow trifling flips have a bad effeét, as already feen. In large pleafure-grounds they fhould be fufficiently fpacious to fut their different extents; and in thofe of the fmaller kinds, as well as in gardens, they fhould feldom have lefs breadths than eight, ten, or twelve feet.. Their fituations and diree- tions may be various, according to the nature and pofitions of the grounds ; as fome near the refidence for ornament and fummer-walking upon in dry feafons; others more 40 diftant, WAL diftant, in the internal parts, chiefly for variety. They may be laid out in various irregular direétions, fo as to fuit the tafte and the nature of the grounds, having broad, irregular borders of flowers, floping winding fhrubberies, and trees or plantations on their fides, and in other parts. In regard to the general care and management of walks, thofe of the gravel, fand, or other hard kinds of materials, fhould be conftantly kept in neat and clean order by occa- fional weeding, {weeping, and cleaning them, and by fre- quently rolling them well with an iron or ftone-roller, as once or twice a week during the fummer months, as their furfaces may appear in a loofe and difordered ftate, taking the opportunity of doing it, as often as poffible, after fhowers of rain. This renders them firm and folid, fettling any inequalities that may be prefent, and brings them into a {mooth even ftate of furface. They fhould alfo be occa- fionally rolled in dry open weather, during the winter and {pring months, to keep them in a level regular ftate. When the furfaces of them become foul, moffy, or full of weeds, the gravel or other materials fhould be turned, which is beft done in the early f{pring, by means of digging them up toa flight depth, and placing the former furface part downwards, by which the frefh bottom gravel will become the top, and then treading, raking, and rolling the whole well down again, by which means a new clean furface for the enfuing ftiits and fummer feafons is obtained without any great trouble or expence. The different grafs-walks fhould have the {ward con- ftantly kept clofe and clean by frequent mowing, fweeping, and rolling, during the {pring and fummer months; and in the winter time by occafional poling and rolling when the weather is open and dry, the former fcatterimg the worm- caft earth about, while the latter, which is commonly of the wooden kind, cleans up the difperfed earth by its adhering to it, and thereby not only renders the furface free from dirt, but the whole furface clofe, firm, and even, whereby it be- comes capable of being mown with eafe and facility. The walks of pleafure-grounds, gardens, and other fuch places, fhould never be fuffered to have leaves, weeds, or any fort of rubbifh, remaining upon them for any length of time, as they foon become injured and fpoiled by them. Where feats are had recourfe to in the walks of fuch grounds, they fhould be introduced and managed with con- fiderable judgment, tafte, and nicety, fo as to {uit the nature of them and the grounds, and be at the fame time as ornamental as poffible. Watk, in the Manege, is the floweft and leaft raifed of all a horfe’s goings. The duke of Newcaitle fays, that this motion is performed with two legs, diametrically oppofite in the air, and two upon the ground at the fame time, in form of a St. Andrew’s crofs; but this, in reality, is the motion of atrot; and accordingly all the latter writersagree, that this author is miftaken, and that the walk is performed, as any one may obferve, by the horfe’s lifting up its two legs on a fide, the one after the other, beginning with the hind leg firft. Thus, if he leads with the legs of the right fide, then the firft foot he lifts is the far hind-foot, and in the time he is fetting it down (which in a ftep is always fhort of the tread of his fore-foot on the fame fide) he lifts his far fore- foot, and fets it down before his near fore-foot. Again, juit as he is fetting down his far fore-foot, he lifts up his near hind-foot, and {ets it down again juft fhort of his near fore-foot, and juft as he is fetting it down, he lifts a near fore-foot, and fets it down beyond his far fore- oot. This is the true motion of a horfe’s legs in a walk; and this is the pace in which many things are beft taught. For WAL inftance, when the horfe is to be taught to turn to the right and left, or from one hand to another, he is firft to be taught it on the walk, then on the trot, and finally on the gallop. The walk is a pace to which team, carriage, and road horfes, fhould conftantly be well broke, as being of great ufe in all fuch cafes and intentions. It is an excellent pace, too, in a faddle-horfe, when well performed by being properly taught. WaAtx, Ring, among Hunters. See Rinc-Walk. Watk, Terrace. See TERRACE. Watks, Sheep, in Agriculture, the high dry lands where fheep pafture in fome diftri€s. Thefe walks and paftures may, it is f{uppofed, be rendered more found and healthy, in fome cafes, by fowing parts of them with artificial grafs feeds, fuch as thofe of rye-grafs, rib-grafs, white clover, or tre- foil, and others of the fame kind, in mixture with thofe of the natural grafs fort, and keeping them clofely fed down in a proper manner. In different inftances, a number of va- luable plants of this nature are found to rife fpontaneoufly on the foundeft fheep-walks, and moft of them, when de- firable, are capable of being raifed and produced by feed as above. Such plants are faid to protect fheep well againft the rot or poke, and fome other difeafes, in fuch walks and paftures. See Ror and Sueep. Watx-Mill, in Rural Economy, a name fometimes ap- plied to the fulling-mill. WALKZEPETHIGA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors have called the tree, on which the gum lacea of the fhops is ufually found. WALKENRIED, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip of Klettenberg, with an abbey, founded in the year 1127, by Adelheida, confort to Volkmar, count of Klettenberg, and countefs of Lohra. The doétrine of Luther was introduced in the year 1546; at the peace of Weltphalia, the abbey was affigned to the duke of Brunf- wick ; 8 miles N.W. of Nordhaufen. WALKENSEE, a town of Bavaria, fituated by the fide of alake of the fame name ; 18 miles S.S.E. of Weil- haim. WALKER, Rosert, in Biography, one of the earliett of our portrait painters: he was contemporary with Van- dyck, and improved himfelf by ftudying the works of that eminent artift. He did not attra much public notice till the time of the Commonwealth, when Cromwell made him his portrait painter, and he drew that extraordinary per- fonage feveral times. One piéture of him by Walker is at Horfeth, the feat of lord Mountford in Cambridgefhire : it was given to his lordfhip by Mr. Commiflary Greaves, who found it at an inn in that county. Another is at Ca- fhiobury, the earl of Effex’s. Another piture of him, with general Lambert, was in lord Bradford’s collection. A fourth was purchafed at the coft of 5oo/. for the grand duke of Tufcany. Walker had for fome time an apart- ment in Arundel Houfe, and died a little before the Refto- ration. His own piéture which is a very fair fpecimen of his power is in the gallery at Oxford. Waker, Grorce, F.R.S., a diffenting divine, and eminent mathematician, was born at Newcaftle-upon- Tyne, about the year 1734, and completed his education at the univerfity of Edinburgh, under the celebrated mathematician Dr. Matt. Stewart, and at Glafgow, where he ftudied theology and ethics. In 1756 he fettled at Durham as a diffenting minifter, and thence removed to Yarmouth, where he remained for fome years, and was highly efteemed. ‘During his refidence at Yarmouth he II married ; WAL married ; and foon after, in 1772, he undertook the office of mathematical tutor at the academy in Warrington. In this place he publifhed, in 1775, his “ Do@rine of the Sphere,”” a work highly appreciated, not only as a complete treatife on the fubjeét, but as a model of geometrical de- monftration. In the fame year he removed to Nottingham, and became one of the minifters of the high pavement meeting-houfe. Ardently attached to the principles of liberty, and feeling no diffidence or timidity in the de- claration of his fentiments, his talents and difpofition con- curred to give him influence amongft thofe who aflembled for political purpofes ; and his charaéteriftic energy of fpirit and ftyle is difcernible in the addreffes and petitions that iffued from the corporation of the town. Of one of thefe produ@tions Mr. Burke declared, that he had rather have been the author of it than of all his own compofitions. So much was Mr. Walker efteemed for his talents and temper, that thofe who detefted his political principles fought his com- pany and converfation, and both honoured and loved him. His hofpitality and beneficence far exceeded his ability. After a refidence of twenty-four years at Nottingham, he was induced by a variety of circumftances to undertake the office of theological tutor and dire¢tor of a diffenting aca- demy at Manchefter. For the office of fuperintendant of a public ceremony he was not peculiarly qualified, either by the liberal difpofition of his mind, or the habits of his life ; and he foon found this fituation unpleafant to him, more efpecially as he was now advancing in years, and relaxation from conitant labour became effential to his enjoyment. He therefore quitted this connection, and retired to the vicinity of Liverpool. Since he had left Warrington, he had pub- lifhed feveral fingle fermons; two volumes of fermons, cha- racterized by original thought and fervid expreffion ; * An Appeal to the People of England,” upon the teft-laws, much admired and commended by Mr. Fox ; and the firft part of a “ Treatife on Conic Seétions,” referred to with deferved commendation in our article Conic Seéfions. In 1807 Mr. Walker vifited London, in order to publifh two additional volumes of fermons, and two volumes of Philofo- phical effays ; but he was feized with a diforder, which ter- minated his life at the age of feventy-three, and his remains were interred in Bunhill-fields, on which occafion Dr. Rees delivered, at the vault, an oration, which was printed by his friends, and which contained a brief fketch of his cha- rater. ‘ To a ftock of claffical knowledge,” fays one of his biographers, ‘he added an intimate acquaintance with hiftory, ancient and modern, a familiarity with the beft au- thors of various claffes, a natural and glowing eloquence, and a heart, in which every kind and focial affe€tion occu- pied a place.” Atheneum. Watxer’s Cove, in Geography, a harbour on the weit coaift of North America, in Behm’s canal: fo called from Mr. Wal- ker, furgeon of the Chatham. N. lat. 55° 42’. E. long. 229° 20! ; Watker’s Key, one of the fmall Bahama iflands. N. lat. 26° 50’. W. long. 78° 54’. WALKERIA, in Botany, was fo called by Schreber, in juft commemoration of the founder of the botanic gar- den at Cambridge, the Rev. Richard Walker, D.D. vice matter of Trinity-college. To this foundation a leéture- fhip is attached, and both together are in the gift of five truftees, unfhackled by any of thofe limitations which ufually tend only to defeat the purpofe of fuch eftablith- ments ; for Dr. Walker exprefsly orders, by his will, that any perfon, even a faites fhall be eligible to the ap- pointment, and may, if he pleafes, read his leétures in Latin. The prefent worthy profeffor of botany, the Rev, WAL Thomas Martyn, B.D. is the only perfon who has hitherto held the le€turefhip in queftion, of which, as long as his health would permit, he regularly performed the duties. Another Walkeria, in honour of the fame liberal patron of botanic fcience, was named by Miller and Ehret ; but that genus having accidentally had various previous appellations, is now eftablifhed by the Linnzan one of Notana, which the reader will find in its proper place.—Schreb. Gen. 150. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1145. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. (Mee. fia; Gertn. t. 70. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 143.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain ; akin to Ocuna. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five evate, acute, concave, {preading, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, acute, {preading, rather longer than the calyx. Svam. Filaments five, capillary, afcending, half the length of the petals ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, globular, five-cleft ; ityle briftle-fhaped, ereét, as tall as the ftamens; ftigma fimple. Peric. Drupas five, obovate-kidneyfhaped, of one cell. Seed. Nut folitary, kidney-fhaped, rather bony. Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep permanent feg- ments. Corolla of five petals. Drupas five. Nuts foli- tary, kidney-fhaped. 1. W. ferrata. Serrated Walkeria. Willd. n. 1. (Mee- fia ferrata; Gertn. v. 1. 344. Tsjocatti; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 5. 95. t. 48. )—Native of various parts of the Mala- bar coaft, lowering and bearing fruit at various feafons. We have not heard of this plant in any garden, nor are its dried {pecimens frequent in colleétions. The lem is fhrubby, about twelve feet high, with round, fmooth, leafy, alter- nate branches. Leaves evergreen, fmooth and fhining, al- ternate, on fhort ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate, acute, more or lefs evidently and acutely ferrated, four or five inches long, furnifhed with a ftrong mid-rib, and many fine, eens reticulated veins. Stipulas none. Panicles terminal, with racemofe, compound, angular, {mooth flower-ftalks. Flowers yellowifh, about half an inch in diameter, without fcent. Fruit reddifh, fhining, acid and bitter, feated on the dark- red enlarged calyx. Some of the drupas, in each flower, are often abortive. The qualities of the various parts of this fhrub feem to be of an aftringent and tonic nature. Gertner gives, as a fynonym to his Meefia, Walkera, a Ceylon name, found attached to the feeds in the colle€tion at Leyden, from which he made his figure and defecription. Schreber, in adopting Gertner’s genus, found it necef- fary to change his name, Mrrsia being appropriated to a genus of moffes, which however is now funk in BryuM3 fee thofe articles. We prefume he meant to re-eitablifh the old name Walkeria, of which, therefore, we retain the pro- perorthography. It is not to be fuppofed that, in this in- ftance alone, he would adopt an entirely barbarous appella- tion ; but the coincidence is fingular. Even this appella- tion indeed proves to be corrupt. We have fought it in vain in Hermann’s Mu/feum Zeylanicum, but we find there Malkira, p. 9, whence, no doubt, it originated ; for Lin- neus has written Ochna againit this Malkira in his own copy of Hermann’s work, the very copy ufed by him in writing his Flora Zeylanica ; and the defcription of the leaves in p- 93, 94, of the latter book, fhews his Ochna, var. ay to be our Walkeria ferrata, whatever doubt may attach to Burmann’s t. 56. WALKERS, a fort of foreft-officers, appointed by the king to walk about a certain {pace of ground, committed to their care and infpeétion. Walkers are the fame with what we otherwife call fo- refters, 402 WAL. WAL WALKERSPACH, in Geography, a river of Wur- temberg, which runs into the Rems. WALKERTON, a town of Virginia, on the Matta- pony; 30 miles N.E. of Richmond. WALKING-Fire. See Ients Fatuus. WALKOOG, in Geography, a town of Holland; 10 miles N. of Alcmaer. WALKUFFA, in Botany, a tree which grows in the Kolla, or hotteft part of Abyffinia. This does not flower immediately after the rains, like the other Abyflinian trees, that is, between the beginning of September and the Epi- phany, but towards the middle of January it appears firft covered with flowers. Although beautiful, it has no fmell, and is found to be deftructive to bees, fo that it is rooted up in thofe countries that pay their revenue in honey. In its appearance it refembles the Englifh Kentifh cherry-tree : the wood immediately under the bark is white, but under that a brownifh-yellow, fomewhat like cedar. Although the wood is heavy, it fwims in water, contrary to the opi- nion of the natives. Mr. Bruce has given a botanical de- {cription of this tree in the Appendix to his Travels. WALL, in Architedure, &c.a work of ftone, brick, or the like, making the principal part of a building; as ferving both to enclofe it, and to fupport the roof, floors, &c. Walls, though built very thick and ftrong, and their foundations laid deep, yet, if carried on ftraight in a line, are apt to lean, or fall; and fuch as are built crooked, though thin and weak, are much more lafting. A wall raifed over a river, on arches of pillars, itands as firm as others, whofe foundation is entire. Hence, it appears, that a wall built much thinner than ufual, by only having at every twenty-feet diftance an angle fet out about two feet, or more, in proportion to the height of the wall; or by having, at the like diftance, a column, or pilafter, ereéted along with it, fix or eight inches on each fide, over and above the thicknefs ef the reft of the wall, will be much ftronger than if five times the quantity of ma- terials were ufed in a ftraight wall. Walls are diftinguifhed into divers kinds, from the matter of which they confift ; as plafered or mud-walls, brick-awvalls, ‘one-walls, flint, or boulder-walls, and boarder-walls. In all which thefe general rules are to be regarded : 1. That they be built exaGtly perpendicular to the ground- work. 2. That the maffieft and heavieft of materials be the loweft ; as being fitter to bear, than be borne. 3. That the walls, as they rife, diminifh proportionally in thicknefs, for eafe both of weight and expence. 4. That certain courfes, or ledges, of more ftrength than the reft, be interlaid, like bones, to {ftrengthen the whole fabric. Mud and plaftered walls are chiefly ufed in ordinary timber-buildings. Thefe walls, being quartered and lathed between the timber, or fometimes lathed over all, are plaf- tered over again with white mortar. In the conftruéting of brick-walls, which are the moft important and ufual of any kind, it is neceflary to take par- ticular care in laying and managing the materials; that in fummer they be laid as wet, and in winter as dry as poflible, in order that they may be made to bind the better with the mortar ; that in fummer, too, they be covered over as fait as they are laid, in the view of guarding and preventing the mortar and other matters from drying too quickly. That in winter alfo, they be covered well, to proteét them from heavy rain, fnow, and froft, which are all enemies to, and greatly deftruétive of mortar; that they be laid joint on WAL joiit, in the middle of the walls, as feldom as.may be; fo that good bond be made there as well as on the outfides. Care is likewife to be taken that the angles be firmly bound, as they may be confidered as the nerves and finews of the whole fabric. In order to which, in working up fuch walls, it is not advifable to raife any of them above eight feet in height, before the the next adjoining ones be brought up to them ; fo that a good bond may be made as the work pro- ceeds. It may be noticed that a wall of this kind, a brick anda half thick, with the joint, will be in breadth fourteen inches, or very near it ; and in which one hundred and fifty, or one hundred and fixty bricks will lay a yard fquare, mea- fured on the face of the wall; and that to the fquare of ten feet, feventeen or eighteen hundred bricks are ufually allowed. In building a houfe in the city of London, the walls are to be of fuch thickneffes as are enjoined by a& of parliament. See Buitpinc, and Party-qalls. In the forming of ftone-walls, the fame fort of care and attention is requifite in protecting and preferving them from the injurious effeéts of external caufes of the above kinds, as well as in that of building them ina folid and fecure manner. The foundations are alfo to be well looked to. The two fides or faces are to be evenly carried up, and the fillings to be put well and fufficiently in the middle parts be- tween them, proper long {tones being occatfionally placed acrofs, to bind the two faces fecurely together, and prevent their feparatng. Thefe attentions are equally neceflary in the ftone-walls of buildings, as in thofe of the better fort of ftone-walls for other ufes and purpofes. In the raifing of double walls in this way, as defences in fields and grounds, which is fometimes done, the faces may be bound in, where proper ftones as throughs cannot be had, by thin layers or ftrips of the ftones, laid in mortar, at about every fourteen inches in height, as they rife, the mortar being in fuch cafes kept foft, fo as that it may lay firm hold of the ftones. And with the fimilar intention of keeping them upright, and preventing their feparation, they may be carried up with a confiderable inclination inward, towards each other, tapering upward as they rife, in the proportion of about one inch, on each fide, to every foot or foot and a half of rife or height. In raifing fingle field-walls, which is not uncommon in fome high fituations, and where large ftones are met with in plenty upon the furface of the land, two benefits are attain- ed, in fome cafes, by running them up in as open a manner as the nature of the materials will permit, fo as to form good work. Such open-work walls are lefs liable to be thrown down by the winds in fuch expofed fituations, than thofe of the clofe kind ; which is an inconvenience to which fingle walls are expofed in fuch cafes ; as by means of part of the blaft paffing through them, its force is confiderably dimi- nifhed. And the wild mountain-breeds of fheep are lefs apt to fcale walls fo conftru&ted, than they are thofe which are formed in a clofer manner, and have a more folid appear- ance. This is particularly the cafe if they be laid with {mall ftones loofely on the tops. It is faid that ftone-walls of the field fort, which are apt to fhatter with frofts, if laid only a foot deep in the middle with mortar, or even road-ftuff made into it, are held well together, and become durable. Flint, or boulder-walls, are faid to be much ufed, in fome parts of the counties of Suffex and Kent, for fence-walls in furrounding court-yards, gardens, and other fuch places. In performing the work of building them, a right and left- handed man fuits well, as they have the hod of mortar poured down upon the work, which they part between 12 them, WALL. them, each fpreading it towards himfelf, and in this way they lay in the flints ; the mortar in this cafe being made very {tiff. Stone and earth walls are only of a temporary, and not by any means of a complete nature ; they may, how- ever, in fome cafes, ferve to defend rabbit-warrens and other fuch places, when ftones are not wholly to be had for the purpofe, and they are formed and conftru&ed in a proper manner. They are, however, very apt to be thrown down by large animals, and to be foon deftroyed, confequently to be expenfive in the end. . Turf or fod walls are in pretty much the fame fituation in regard to their ufe, and form but a very indifferent fort of defence; they are, however, found ufeful on fome oc- cafions, where other kinds of materials cannot be met with. Boarded walls are only had recourfe to in particular cafes, as from their perifhable nature they are conftantly required to be kept coated over with fome fubftance as a proteétion at a confiderable expence. They are formed in feveral different ways, according to the nature of the circumitances, and their intended ufes. Walls of different kinds, and banks of earth, are fome- times employed in defending plantations of young trees from the injuries to which they are liable and expofed in many cafes ; and in fome fituations they form cheap and eligible modes of effecting the bufinefs. In {peaking of building field-walls, Mr. London has re- marked, that when lime is employed in fuch walls, if, in lace of flacking it, and letting it lie to mellow or four for tome weeks, no more were flaked and made ready for ufe than what was worked up in the fame day ;—if the fand were clean and rough, and well incorporated with the lime, _and the coping put carefully on, fuch walls would laft an inconceivable length of time. Lime ufed in this way, it is faid, binds immediately ; and that the longer it itands the harder it becomes. The furfaces of fuch walls, too, would acquire a coating of mofles, which, it is thought, would add greatly to their beauty, and at the fame time prevent decay. Our anceftors, it is faid, ufed lime in this way ; and their buildings, in walls of the field kind, as well as in houfes, though under every difadvantage, remain, it is obferved, as monuments of their fuperior knowledge in this particular. But the modern builders in general, it is thought, deftroy their mortar before they make ufe of it: it is faturated, it is faid, with fixed air, or, in common language, has Jo? band before it is put in the walls: hence the weaknefs and {peedy decay of modern walls and buildings, efpecially thofe of the rubble work kind. A proper notion of the im- portance of this hint is, it is thought, too feldom formed. But let it be afked, whether it be moft defirable to build walls that will ftand for centuries with little or no repair, or to build them in the common way, when, if they ftand half a century, they are to be pointed or rough cafted every eight or ten years; while the different modes coft nearly the fame in the original expence ? The ufes of ftone-walls as field defences are limited to particular diftri&ts and fituations, and the nature of their conftruétion and magnitude muft reft materially upon the kinds and fizes of the ftones which are employed, and the purpofes for which they are defigned. In ereéting fuch walls, thofe of the particular vicinity fhould be attended to, and the moft fuitable forms of them adopted, proper efti- mates of their expence of building being firft procured. See Fence. Watt, Angle of a. See ANGLE. Watt, Coping of a. See Corina. Watt, Plinth of a. See PLintu. WALL, Scenography of a. Watts, Painting on. See Parntine. Watts, Fence. See Fence, and Lanp, Inclofing of. Watts, Party. See Parry. Watt, Pids. See Picts. Watts, Roman, were barriers or defences conftru@ed by the Romans for fecuring the northern frontiers of their Britifh territories. Where they could not avail themfelves of feas, firths, rivers, woods, and mountains, for their protec- tion, they had recourfe to a variety of artificial modes of defence; guarding thofe parts of their frontiers that were moft acceflible by chains of forts, deep ditches, elevated mounds and ramparts of earth, and even ftone-walls. Agricola, having in the fecond year of his government, A.D. 79, conduGted his army northwards, and reduced the Brigantes, the Ottadini, the Gadeni, and perhaps the Selgove, to obedience, obliged them to give hoftages, and begirt them with garrifons and fortreffes to fecure his con- queft. The forts which he built are fuppofed to have been on or near the traét where Adrian’s rampart and Severus’s wall were afterwards ereGed. In his third year he pro- ceeded as far N. as the river Tay, and in the following fummer employed his forces in conftru€ting a chain of forts between the firths of Forth and Clyde. The {pot was wifely chofen for this purpofe ; and this chain of forts, each of which was garrifoned and furnifhed with provifions for a year, ferved to keep the adjacent country in obedience, and reitrained the incurfions of the Caledonians, while Agricola profecuted his operations in Britain. But by the negligence of his fucceffors, thefe forts became an infufficient fecurity after his departure. Although little is known of the oc- currences that filled up the interval between the departure of Agricola, A.D. 85, and the arrival of Adrian A.D. 120; yet we have fufficient reafon for believing, that the Britifh nation, in the fouth of Scotland and in the north of England, had in that interval thrown off the Roman yoke. The emperor Adrian, more intent upon fecuring than en- larging his empire, contraéted its limits in Britain; and for its protection dug a deep ditch, and threw up a lofty and {pacious rampart from fea to fea; and this was the fecond artificial barrier of the Roman territories in Britain. This rampart was conftru€ted of earth, and extended from the Solway firth, a little W. of the village of Burgh on the Sands, in as dire& a line as poffible, to the river Tine on the eaft, at the place where the town of Newcaitle now ftands ; fo that it muft have been above fixty Englifh, and near feventy Roman miles in length. This work confitted of the principal Agger or Vallum (rampart) on the brink of the ditch; the ditch on the N. fide of the Vallum; another agger or mound of earth on the S. fide of the principal vallum or rampart, at about five paces diftant from it, which may be called the fouth agger ; and a large agger or mound on the N. fide of the ditch, denominated the north agger. This laft is fuppofed by Horfley to have been the military way to the ancient line of forts, built by Agricola, and alfo ferving as a military way to this work. The fouth agger is fuppofed to have been made for an inner defence, in cafe the enemy might beat its defenders from any part of the prin- cipal rampart, or to prote¢t the foldiers againft a fudden attack from the Provincial Britons. It is generally fome- what fmaller than the principal rampart, but in fome places itislarger. Thefe four works preferve a conftant parallelifm one to another. The diftance of the north agger or mound from the brink of the ditch is about twenty feet. It is con- jetured that the principal rampart was at leaft ten or twelve feet high ; the fouth one not much lefs, but the north one confiderably lower, The ditch was near nine feet oe and. eleven See ScENOGRAPHY. WALL. eleven feet wide at the top, but fomewhat narrower at the bottom. Such was the rampart or defence erected by com- mand of the emperor Adrian, A.D. 120, for guarding the Roman territories to the fouth of it from the incurfions of the Britons on the north. This work was defended by a competent number of Roman foldiers and auxiliary troops, who garrifoned the forts and {tations, which were fituated at proper diftances along the line of it. Mott, if not all, of thefe forts and ftations had been fixed and conftructed before by Agricola and others. Adrian’s rampart, however, did not long continue to be the extreme boundary of the Roman territories to the north in Britain; for Antoninus Pius, having brought the Mceate again under the yoke, com- manded another rampart to be ereéted much farther north, between the firths of Forth and Clyde, in the traét where Agricola had formerly built his chain of forts. From an infcription on the fragment of a Roman pillar, it is inferred that this work was executed in the third confulfhip of An- toninus, A.D. 140. This wall or rampart, as fome imagine, reached from Caer-ridden on the firth of Forth to Old-Kirkpatrick on the Clyde; or, as others think, from Kinniel on the E. to Dunglafs on the W. Its length ap- pears to have been about 37 Englifh or 4o Roman miles. Capitolinus fays, that it was conftruéted of turf; but from remaining veftiges it is concluded with certainty that the foundation was ftone. Camden fays, that the principal rampart was faced with {quare ftone, to prevent the earth from falling into the ditch. Its chief parts were as follow : —A broad and deep ditch, faid to be twelve feet wide; the principal wall or rampart, about twelve feet thick at the foundation, fituated on the S. brink of the ditch; a military way on the S. fide of the principal wall, well paved, and raifed a little above the level of the ground. This work, as well as that of Adrian, was defended by garrifons placed in forts and ftations along its line. The number of thefe was eighteen, at the diftance of two miles from each other. In the intervals between the forts, there were turrets or watch- towers. After the lapfe of more than 1600 years, we are enabled to afcertain by what particular bodies of Roman troops almoft every part of it was executed. This dif- covery is made by means of infcriptions upon {ftones, originally fixed in the face of the wall, and found near its ruins. The number of ftones with infcriptions now extant is eleven; and from thefe it appears in general, that this great work was executed by the fecond legion, the vexilla- tions of the fixth legion and of the twentieth legion, and one cohort of auxiliaries. If thefe corps were all complete, they would compofe a body of 7800 men. This wall was not long the boundary of the Roman territories in Britain ; for we are told, by an author of undoubted credit (Dio), that, in the reign of Commodus, A.D. 180, he had wars with feveral.foreign nations, but none fo dangerous as that of Britain ; for the people of that ifland, having pafled the wall which divided them from the Romans, attacked them and cut them to pieces. We alfo know, that the country between the walls of Adrian and Antoninus continued to be a fcene of perpetual war and fubjeét of contention, between the Romans and Britons, from the beginning of the reign of Commodus to the arrival of the emperor Septimius Severus in Britain, A.D. 206. This laft emperor, having fubdued the Mceatz, and repulfed the Caledonians, deter- mined to ere&t a ftronger and more impenetrable barrier than any of the former, againft their future incurfions. ‘This laft wall, the greateft of all the Roman works in Britain, was begun A.D. 209, and finifhed A.D. 210. It was built nearly on the fame tra€t with that of the rampart of Adrian, at the diftance only of a few paces north. Its length, from Coufins-houfe near the mouth of the river Tine on the eaft to Boulnefs on the Solway firth on the weft, was a little more than 68 Englifh miles, and a little lefs than 74 Roman miles. To the north of the wall was a broad and deep ditch, fuppofed to have been larger than that of Adrian. The wall itfelf, ftanding on the brink of the ditch, was built of folid ftone, ftrongly cemented with the beft mortar; the ftones which formed both the faces being fquare afhlers, and the filling ftones large flags, fet a little flanting. The height of this wall was speive feet befides the parapet, and its breadth eight feet, accord- ing to Bede, who lived near the W. end of it, and in whofe time it was almoft entire in many places. Confidering the length, breadth, height, and folidity of this wall of Severus, it was without doubt a work of prodigious labour and ex- traordinary magnificence. But the wall itfelf was only a part, and not the moft diftinguifhing part of this work. The great number and different kinds of fortrefles which were built along the line of it for its defence, and the military ways that pertained to it, are much more worthy of admiration ; for an account of which fee Stations. The caftella, or caftles, were the fecond kind of fortifications, which were built along the line of this wall for its defence. They were neither fo large nor fo ftrong as the ftations, but much more numerous, being no fewer than eighty-one. They were exaét {quares of fixty-fix feet every way ; fortified on every fide with thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the N. fide, on which the wall itfelf, raifed much above its ufual height, with the ditch attending it, formed the fortification. The caftles were fituated in the intervals between the ftations, at the diftance of about feven furlongs from each other. In thefe caftles, guards were conftantly kept by a competent number of men detached, from the neareft {tations. The towers, or turrets, were much {maller than the caftles, forming a fquare of about twelve feet, and ftanding out of the wall on its S. fide. (See Turrets.) The ufual complement of troops allotted to the defence of this, confifted of twelve cohorts of foot, each cohort including 600 men, one cohort of mariners in the {tation at Boulnefs, one detachment of Moors, probably equal to a cohort, and four ale or wings of horfe, confifting at the loweft computation of 400 each ;_ the whole number being 10,000. For the convenience of their march from one part of the wall to another, to the wall were annexed two military ways, paved with fquare ftones, in the moft folid and beautiful manner, one larger, and one fmaller: the latter ran clofe along the S. fide of the wall, from turret to turret, and caftle to caftle, for the ufe of the foldiers in re- lieving their guards and fentinels, and fuch fervices; the larger way was not fo neat the wall, nor did it touch at the turrets or caftles, but purfued the moft dire& courfe from one ftation to another, and was defigned for the convenience of marching large bodies of troops. This wall of Severus proved an impenetrable barrier to the Roman territories for near 200 years. But about the beginning of the fifth cen- tury, the Mceate and Caledonians, now called Scots and Piéts, took advantage of the withdrawment of many of the Roman forces from Britain, and broke through the wall, while others failed round the ends, carrying their ravages into the very heart of Provincial Britain. Thefe invaders were often repulfed by Roman legions fent to the relief of the Britons; and the laft of thefe legions, under the com- mand of Gallio of Ravenna, affifted by the Britons, regained the walls and its fortreffes, and then took their laft farewell of Britain. The Scots and Pi&s found little refiftance in breaking through the wall, whofe towers and caftles were tamely abandoned to their deftructive rage. In many ee ey WALL. they levelled it with the ground; and in fubfequent times it was fo far difregarded, that it became the common quarry for more than 1000 years, and of which all the towns and villages around were built ; and it is now {fo entirely ruined, that the moft patient and penetrating antiquarian can hardly trace its vanifhing foundations. Henry’s Hiitory, vol. ii. See Picts Wall, and ScorvLanp. Watts, Sea. See Dixe. Watt, in Fortification. See Rampart. Watt, in Gardening, a fort of fence ereétion in gardens, compofed of hard materials, built for the purpofe of ripen- ing all fuch fruits as are too delicate to be perfected in this climate, without fuch affiftance. Walls are raifed with dif- ferent kinds of materials, as ftone, brick, earth, or mud, &c. according as they can be beft procured, and at the cheapeft rate. But for fruit-trees, brick is the beft, as being not only the handfomeft, but the warmeft and kindeft for the ripening of fruit, as well as affording the beft convenience of nailing ; for {maller nails will ferve in them than in ftone- walls, where the joints are larger; and brick-walls, with copings of free-ftone, and ftone pilafters or columns at pro- per diftances, to feparate the trees, and break off the force of the winds, make not only the moft beautiful but the moft profitable walls that can be ereéted. Rammed earth-walls, as well as thofe formed of muddy clay, anfwer very well in fome intentions, being very clofe, compact, and warm. Sometimes walls are built of mixed materials, as ftones and bricks ; but in this way they fhould be carefully built, or the brick front will feparate from the ftone behind. Where walls are built entirely of ftone, there fhould be trellifes fixed up againft them, for the more convenient faf- tening the branches of the trees: the timber of thefe efpaliers need not, however, be more than an inch and a half thick, and about two inches and a half broad. Thefe fhould be fixed acrofs each other, at about four inches dif- tance ; for if they are at a much greater diftance, it will be difficult to faften the fhoots of the trees properly. As this trellis will be laid clofe to the wall, the branches of the trees will lie about two inches from the wall; in which pofition the fruit ripens better than when it lies quite clofe to the wall. Many improvements have been attempted in building walls in different forms, as in femicircular methods, in angles of various forms, and projeéting more towards the north, to fcreen off the cold winds ; but not any method has yet been found which fucceeds fo well as that of making them ftraight, and building them in an upright manner. Some- thing of the long-oval from eaft to weft might probably be beneficial in the prodution of fruit, as there would be the {malleft {pace of it hid from the influence of the fun at any one time. Many other fchemes of expediting the ripening of fruits on walls have been tried, fuch as painting them black, or of a dark colour, as the dark colour is Popa’ to imbibe more of the fun’s rays, and retain the warmth longer. This has, however, on the fame principle, anfwered better -in theory than praétice. Walls, where fubftantially built, anfwer much better than thofe which are flight, not only in their duration, but alfo in their warmth. A wall two bricks thick will be found to anfwer better than one brick and a half; and if, in the building of garden-walls, they are grouted with foft mortar, to fill and clofe all the joints, the walls will be much ftronger, and the air not fo eafily penetrate through them, as it does through thofe which are built in the ufual manner. In refpe& to the afpeé& for walls in this climate, thofe which have one point to the eaftward of the fouth are the beft, as they enjoy the benefit of the morning fun more, and are lefs expofed to the weft and fouth-welt winds, which are very injurious to fruits, than thofe which are built due fouth : and the next beft afpect is due fouth, and after that the fouth-eaft. But as there will, for the moft part, be fouth-weft and weit walls, thefe may be planted with fome forts of fruit which do not require fo much heat to ripen them as thofe defigned for the beft walls: but wherever there are north walls, thofe will only be proper for baking pears, plums, and morello cherries, for preferving ; or duke cherries may be planted againft thefe walls, to continue them longer in the feafon. The ufual thicknefs of building walls with brick is thirteen inches, or a brick and a half; but this fhould be propor- tionable to the height: for if they are built twelve or four- teen feet high, or more, as is often practifed, then the foundations of the walls fhould be at leaft two bricks and a half in thicknefs, and brought up a foot or more above the level of the furface of the ground, of the fame thicknefs ; then be fet off two inches on each fide, which reduces them to two bricks; and five or fix feet above the furface of the ground, they may be diminifhed on each fide, to reduce them to the thicknefs of a brick and a half, which muft be continued to the top. The piers in thefe high walls fhould alfo be proportionably ftronger than is commonly allowed to lower walls; for, as being more expofed to ftrong gales of wind, if they are not well built, they are in danger of being blown down. The piers in thefe cafes fhould be projected the length of a brick in the back fide, and the thicknefs of a brick in the front, and be built about ten or twelve feet afunder. There is, however, no neceflity for building walls higher than nine or ten feet, unlefs for pears. Mr. London, however, thinks that garden-walls fhould feldom be made lower than twelve or thirteen feet, and that they never need be higher than fixteen, except where they are conneted with buildings of the hot-houfe kind. ; ) In building of hot-walls, the ordinary height is ufually about ten feet, which is fufficient for any of thofe forts of fruits that are generally forced ; for by forcing the trees, they are moftly weakened in their growth, fo that they do not grow fo vigoroufly as thofe which are expofed to the open air; and where there is not a quantity of walling planted fufficient to let one part reft every other year, the trees are never very healthy, and laft but a few years. In thefe walls the foundations fhould be made four bricks and a half thick, in order to fupport the flues ; otherwife, if part of them reft on brick-work, and the other part on the ground, they will fettle unequally, and foon be out of order : for wherever there happens any crack in the flues, through which the fmoke can make its efcape, it will prevent their drawing ; and if the fmoke gets within the glaffes, it will greatly injure the fruit, and give it a {moky tatte. _ This thicknefs of wall need not be continued more than fix inches above the ground, where the foundation or the bottom of the firft fue fhould be, which will be fufficient to raife it above the damps of the earth: then the wall may be fet off four inches on each fide, which will reduce it to the thick- nefs of three bricks and a half, fo that the back wall may be two bricks thick, which is abfolutely neceffary to throw the heat out more in front ; for when the back walls are built too thin, the heat efcapes through them. The wall in front next to the fruit fhould be only four inches thick, whereby there will be an allowance of nine inches for the flues, which may be covered with twelve-inch tiles ; for if they have an inch and a half bearing on each fide, it will be fufficient. The places in which the fires are made muft be contrived “0 the WALL. the back fide of the walls, which fhould be in number pro- portionable to the length of the walls. The length ufually allowed for each fire to warm is forty feet, though they do .very well for fifty feet: they fhould be fhedded over with brick and tile, to keep out the wind and rain, otherwife the fires will not burn equally ; and as it is quite neceflary to have the fire-places or ovens below the foundation of the firft flues, there muft be fteps down into the fheds, to come te the mouth of them to fupply the fuel: of courfe, they fhould not be narrower than eight feet in the clear. Where the length of walling requires two ovens, they may be in the middle, being included in one fhed, which will fave expence, and allow more room to attend the fires; as, in this cafe, the fheds muft be at leaft ten feet long, but not more than fix in breadth, the fteps down being at one end. In regard to the lower flue, through which the fmoke firft paffes from the fire, it may be two feet and a half deep: of courfe, the back wall fhould be at leaft two bricks and a half thick, as high as the top of this flue ; and then it may be fet off to two bricks, which muft be continued to the top of the wall. The fecond flue, which fhould return over the firft, may be made two feet; the third, a foot and a half; and the fourth, one foot deep; which four flues, with their coverings, will rife near eight feet in height, fo that there will be about two feet left for fixing of the frames at the top to fupport the glaffes, and for the coping of the wall: thefe four returns will be fufficient to warm the air in the frames. But in the carrying up thefe walls, fome ftrong iron hooks fhould be well faftened at convenient diftances, projecting about two inches from the wall, to which the trellis muft be faftened, which is to fupport the trees. ‘The flues muft be well pargeted with loam on their infide, and loam be fpread under the tiles which cover them, to the thicknefs of the hooks, that the flues may be very {mooth. At each end of thefe flues fmall arches fhould be turned in the back walls, in fuch a manner that there may be holes opening to clean the flues of foot, whenever there is a ne- ceffity for it. ‘With refpeét to the borders in the front of thefe walls, they fhould be about four feet wide, which will make a fufficient declivity for the floping glaffes; and on the outfide of them fhould be low walls, rifing four or fix inches above the level of the borders, upon which the plate of timber muft be laid, on which the floping glafles are to reft. The glaffes muft be divided into two ranges, being contrived in fuch a manner, as that the upper row may flide down, and be faftened at fuitable diftances, but the lower may be either fixed or moveable; and the floping timbers, which fupport the glafs-frames, muft be faitened at bottom into the ground-plate in the front of the border, and at the top into {trong iron cramps, fixed in the upper part of the wall for the purpofe. They are beft made of fir, which does not twift, as oak and fome other wood, where it is laid in fuch pofition ; and on the top fhould be fixed, in a clofe manner, a {trong board, under which the upper row of glaffes fhould flide, in order to fecure the upper part of the ee from being raifed by the winds, and keep the wet rom the trees. It may project on the top glaffes about two inches. ‘The width of the frames may be about three feet, or according to the extent of the wall, the bars being placed lengthways of them. See Srovr, and WALL, Hollow or Forcing. Walls in gardens are not only of great utility, import- ance, and advantage, as ferving the purpofe of defences again{t external injuries, and as fheltering againft cold, cut- ting winds, high ftormy blafts, and all forts of fevere ex- pofure, but alfo as affording the means of having different forts of fruit-trees trained againft them, for the production of finer, more early, and better perfe&ted fruit. Indeed, without their affiftance, many of the more tender forts of fruit-trees cannot be made to mature and ripen their fruit in any full perfeétion, in this climate. Thefe are thofe of the peach, ne¢tarine, apricot, vine, fig, and other fimilar kinds, all of which ftand in need of nearly the beft full fouth walls to produce their fruits in the fulleft and fineft proportion, having their branches trained in clofe, in a regular expanding manner upon them, in order to have the full benefit of their warmth and prote@tion during the time of their early blofloming, and fetting their fruits in the {pring months ; and afterwards to obtain the moft com- plete influence and advantage of the fun, in bringing them for- ward in the moft effe€tual manner to the above noticed ftate of maturity, in due feafon, and with the greateft richnefs of flavour. Walls are likewife ufeful for moft or all of the more com- mon hardy forts of fruit-trees, notwithftanding they are capable of producing good fruits abundantly without the aid of them, as they are thereby afforded more early, and in fuperior ftates of perfeGtion as to fize, beauty, and fine- nefs of flavour. Where any of the better forts of thefe have the advantage of being grown againft a fouth, fouth-weft, or eaft wall, their fruits become ripe early, and in a per- fe&tly mature manner; and commonly the early as well as later kinds acquire ftill more improved ftates of perfeétion and finenefs of flavour, fome of them for immediate eating, others for keeping diffesent lengths of time. This is the cafe in the chief forts of the cherry kind, in the choicer forts of plums, the capital forts of the fineft eating pears, of the fummer, autumn, and winter kinds ; as alfo in fome highly valued forts of the eating apples of thefe different feafons. And by planting fome of thefe feveral hardy forts of fruit-trees againft walls fully to the fouth, others againft thofe which have a wefterly afpe&, and a few on thofe to- wards the eaft and north, the beft forts of their different fruits will be produced in fucceffion, both at an early and late period. Where walls are fituated in the interior parts of garden grounds, or near their boundaries, with pieces of ground and boundary fences exterior to them, they may be fur- nifhed and planted with the moft choice forts of fruit-trees on both fides, fuiting them to the nature of the afpec, im both the tenderer and more hardy kinds, fome being placed on the full fouth walls, others on the weft and eaft afpeéte of them, as well as on their northern expofures; however, in general, allotting thofe of the beft forts, of the former as well as latter dslccintion; to the walls with fouthern ex- pofures or afpeéts, as all thofe of the peach, neétarine, apricot, vine, fig, and other like forts of the tender varieties of fruit-trees, as noticed already ; and fome of thofe of the fineft kinds of cherries, plums, pears, and apples, in the more hardy fruit-tree kinds. The lefs fine kinds of all or moft of thefe tender and hardy forts, but chiefly of the latter, may be planted againft the walls which have weftern and eaftern afpects ; and thofe which haye northern-expofures or afpeéts may have fome of the latter forts, as fome kinds of fummer pears, plums, morello cherries, and currants, for later fucceffional ripen- ing, placed againit them. Experience has now pretty fully fhewn, that the crops of fruit are the moft abundant, and of the befl quality, where the walls, againft which the trees are arranged and nailed, are well built in the perfe@ly ftraight form, as they protect the bloffoms and young fruit in the moft favourable manner for the purpofe. Wait, Hollow or Forcing, that fort of wall which is con- ftructed WAL firuéted in fuch a manner as to contain fire-heat for the pur- pofe of forwarding and ripening the fruit of the trees planted and trained againft it at an early feafon, as already feen in {peaking of garden-walls. It is commonly fupplied with a frame of glafs-work in the front of it, extending to different diftances according to circumftances ; but is fome- times without this convenience, in which cafe the moft ma- terial circumftance, befides the arrangements for the con- veyance of the fire-heat, is that of the furnace, and the contriving and conftru€ting of a covering of canvafs or netting which is to be let down over the trees in fevere weather, and in the night time. The flues being conftru@ted in fuch a manner as to diftribute the fire-heat equally over the whole, and of fufficient thicknefs to prevent its too reat efcape or diflipation, the moft fit and beft adapted Price for the purpofe, is that made in the foundery of Cook and others in London, as well as in thofe of fome other places, and which is employed in moft modern hot-houfes, to which a damper is connected. Its great fuperiority has been found, in a ftriking manner, in many different inftances where trials were made with it by Mr. London. The cover- ing is beft contrived and conftruéted of Scotch gauze, or a {mall fort of netting, on {mall rafters fixed from the top of the wall into the border about three feet diftance from the roots of the trees; along the lower ends of which the roller for containing the covering is to be fafltened; when by means of cords and pullies it can readily and with: facility be drawn up to the top of the wall, or rolled down, as there may be occafion. On all walls of the hollow or forcing kind, a covering of this nature is eflentially neceflary, and fhould not be omitted, as is too often the cafe, as it is of much importance in pre- ferving the heat, and preventing the chilling effeéts of frofts, dews, and other fimilar wetnefles which are continually taking place. ‘The common modes of forming walls of the hollow or forcing kind have been defcribed in confidering garden-walls, and improved methods of conftru€ting the flues in fuch cafes may be feen under the head ftove. See Srove. Hollow walls too, it is fuppofed, may be advantageous for thofe of the common garden kind, in many cafes, by containing air, &c. See a paper by Mr. Stevenfon, in the firft volume of the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticul- tural Society. a Hollow, flued, or forcing walls, are very great acquifi- tions to fruit gardens in the northern parts of the kingdom on many accounts ; and it is faid to be a great improvement in them not to have the furnaces placed too clofe upon the walls, or the flues to lead too dire&tly forward to the front, but the former to be kept back, and the latter to {weep along five or fix feet, before they reach the front brick- work. Watt-Fruit is the name of all that fort which is pro- duced by the trees which are planted and trained againft walls, and which is raifed and procured by means of them, moftly in the fineft perfeétion. It comprehends a great number of different forts of fruits both of the finer and more common kinds, as all the peach and neétarine forts ; mott of the apricot, fig, and vine kinds ; many of the finer varieties of the plum, cherry, and pear forts; fome of the beft and moft early eating apples; fometimes the early and large mulberry ; the earlier and finer kinds of the goofe- berry and the currant; befides a variety of other forts in different cafes. It confifts of much of the beft of our finer as well as commoner forts of fruits, and is that which is generally held in moft eftimation, and of the greateft value for the ufes of luxury. In order to have it at the table in Vou. XXXVII. WA. Ty the greateft perfection, it fhould always, in moft of the kinds, be ufed as foon as poffible after it is taken from the trees, and while it has its peculiar bloom upon it, as it be- comes afterwards far inferior in its qualities for the purpofe of eating as well as the beauty of its appearance. Watt-Trees, fuch fruit-trees as are planted againft walls, and have their branches trained to them in a fanned or fome other regular manner, from three or four to five or fix inches afunder, in order to produce their fruits more early and in.a fuperior degree of perfe€tion. They are trees of the more tender kinds, or fuch as will not ripen their fruits in this climate, unlefs trained againft walls of a foutherly afpeé, to have the advantage of the full fun; and of the feveral forts of the hardier kinds, to obtain their fruits in earlier maturity, and of an improved growth and flavour. The trees of this fort may be confidered as confiiting of two orders or forms of growth; one of which is of the common dwarf wall kind, and the other of the half ftandard wall fort. But thofe of other forms of growth may occa- fionally be employed in this way with convenience and ad- vantage. Thofe of the firft of thefe kinds are fuch as are trained with fhort dwarf ftems of only a few inches in height, and which, of courfe, are made to branch out near to the fur- face of the ground, in order that they may cover the wall by: their different branches in a regular manner quite from the bottom of it in an upward direétion to the very top, being laid in in fomewhat a horizontal or fanning dire€tion, at the diftance from each other of not more than from three or four to five or fix inches, according to circumftances as al- ready fuggefted. Thefe are the.common fort of wall-trees for general planting in this way, all the different kinds being ufually originally trained in the wall-tree order ; and for which ufe thofe commonly raifed by means of grafting and budding are always grafted and budded low in the ftock or ftem, as within four or five inches of the upper part of the ground, the firft main fhoots proceeding direétly from the inferted grafts or buds, being when of one year’s growth headed down or cut in, in the early fpring months, to four or five eyes, in order to the produétion of a proper fupply of late- ral fhoots, the fame year, from them near to the ground, to give the trees the fuitable form of head at firft, they being trained and laid in on the walls in a {preading order both ways of them, at their full lengths during the fummer ; and in the early {pring afterwards they are pruned or cut in to fix or eight eyes for a further fupply of fimilar lateral fhoots, for the purpofe of increafing the bottom branches, which are trained in the fame manner, in order to afford a fuitable foundation, as it were, in the advanced heads, for furnifhing in a gradual manner all the other neceflary branches in a regular way up to the top of the walls, as they may be wanted. And the fame methods mutt be pur- fued with fuch trees as are raifed and propagated by layers, cuttings, and fuckers, as thofe of vines, figs, and fome other forts, when they are intended for wall-trees; their proper after-management being {uch as is dire¢ted under the proper head of each individual fort. See thefe different heads. The latter fort, or the half ftandard wall-trees, are ufually trained with rather high ftems of the ftandard kind, as from three, four, or five, to fix feet, being grafted or budded at fuch heights, in order that they may branch or throw out fhoots above in the way which has been already noticed. Thefe forms of trees are fuited for occafional planting againft high walls between thofe of the common dwarf kind, in the view of having the whole of them, both ae 4 P an WAL and below, covered as foon as poffible, as the dwarf trees occupy the lower parts, while the half flandards take up the higher, and, of courfe, there is not any lofs of empty {pace fuftained. This fort of wall-trees have likewife their firft and fecond year’s fhoots from the grafting or budding pruned in the fame manner as dire&ted above, for the forma- tion of the heads of the common wall-trees, and they are trained to the walls in exaétly the fame modes; their after- management having a relation to their particular natures, as may be feen under their refpedtive heads. See alfo Sranp- arp Trees, and TRAINED Trees. The other forts are only admitted as wall-trees, in parti- cular cafes and fituations, and where they are of fuch na- tures and kinds, as do not permit of the methods of pruning and training, which are neceflary for the trees which are com- monly employed as wall-trees. Wall-trees. may therefore be either young plantable ones of one year’s growth with proper heads, raifed by means of budding or grafting, planted at once where they are con- ftantly to ftand and grow, to be pruned and trained in the above manner; or they may be ready trained young trees, of three or four years’ growth or more, furnifhed with {preading branchy heads, which have been regulated and wrought on the walls, palings, ftakes, or other forts of fup- ports in nurfery grounds for the above lengths of time, and which are advanced to the proper ftates of growth for im- mediate bearing, being kept in fuch public grounds for the fupplying of fuch perfons as are defirous of having their walls immediately covered with fuch forts of trees. The particular methods to be purfued in pruning, training, and managing each fort, may be feen defcribed under the above heads of Sranparp and Tratnep Trees. But there are befides, moftly in thefe nurfery grounds, a great choice of all the different forts and varieties of the fruit-tree kind for walls, both of the young untrained de- {criptions for being firft planted out and trained from the beginning, as common dwarf or half ftandard wall-trees, and which will reach the bearing ftate in trom two or three to four or five years, according to their kinds ; and of thofe which have been already trained as above in all the different forts proper for bearing in the following feafon. Thefe forts of trees muft be trained to fouth walls, for the principal forts of the more delicate or tenderer kinds, fuch as peaches, ne¢tarines, apricots, grapes, figs, &c., to have the benefit of the full fun, as they do not ripen in good perfeétion without this affiftance. Some of the beft varieties of the principal forts of the hardier fruit-trees, as the moit eiteemed cherries, plums, and pears, fhould be alfo trained to thefe walls to produce early fruit in the greateft’ perfec- tion; alfo fome trees of the choicer forts of fummer and autumn apples, to have the fruit earlier, and of an improved rich flavour for immediate eating : likewife fome of the beit red and white currants and goofeberries ; and on weft and eaft walls to have trees of moft of thefe forts, to ripen in good perfeGtion, in fucceflion to thofe on the fouth walls, efpecially cherries, plums, and pears, and occafionally fome common peaches, nectarines, and apricots; but vines and figs generally on fouth walls, efpecially vines, which require aif poffible benefit of the full fun to ripen the grapes in proper feafon, and with a rich flavour: the north walls are eligible for any of the common hardier fummer and autumn fruits, as cherries, particularly morellos, plums, and pears, for late ripening, to fucceed thofe of the more funny ex- pofures, and to continue a longer fucceffion of particular forts, which ripen for immediate eating from the trees ; alfo white and red currants for fucceffional ripening in the au- tumn as has been already feen. WAL The proper feafon for planting wall-trees is either in au- tumn, as in October, November, &c., or in fpring, as Fe- bruary and March, or not later than the beginning of April, but before that time, if poffible; as late fpring-planting, after the young trees begin to pufh their fhoot-buds, is often attended with bad fsfieta they are apt to become ftunted or quite ftopped in their growth. The foil for wall-trees fhould be a good dry mellow gare den-earth, not lefs than one full fpade deep ; but if two or more it will be advantageous: or where a good moderately light loamy foil prevails, it is fuperior for moft forts of fruit- trees; and when enriched by good garden compoft it is ftill more beneficial. The poorer borders fhould be enriched by means of good furface loam and rotten dung before the trees are planted in them. In planting wall-trees, the borders fhould either be wholly dug over a good depth, as two fpits, or the parts about where the trees are to be placed only, proper fized circular holes or pits being made in depth and width according to the nature of the roots of the tree plants, the mould taken out being laid on the fides; the diftances from each other being regulated by the height of the walls and the nature of the growths of the trees. For thofe of the peach, necta- rine, apricot, fig, plum, and cherry kinds, fifteen or eigh- teen feet are little enough. Vines require from five to ten and fifteen or more feet, according as they may be trained in upright, horizontal, or other direGtions, as they admit of all thefe feveral modes of regulating their heads. Pears, apples, and other trees of fimilar growths, fhould have eighteen or twenty feet, efpecially when worked on free ftocks, and thofe on dwarf ftocks not lefs than fifteen or eighteen feet of diftance from each other. The wall-trees intended to be planted are then to be care- fully taken up from the nurfery or other grounds, with their full {pread of roots as perfeé as poffible, the broken, bruifed, and injured parts, with any tap-roots and {traggling ones, being only cut away and fhortened at the moment of re- planting them; and in the heads where they are young trees of one or two years’ growth only, with the firft main branches or fhoots from the budding or grafting quite entire, not having been headed down or cut in, in the nurfery, they may be retained whole until after they are planted, or not be pruned in until the {pring ; and where they are trained trees of fome years growth with regular trained heads of fome years ftanding, the very irregular ill placed fore-right fhoots, diforderly growths, and rank fummer fhoots, which are unfitly fituated for training in fhould be cut away: all the well placed fide and terminal fhoots being left quite entire until after the time of planting the trees at leaft. Then in planting, place the trees in the pits or holes with the bot- toms of the ftems about five or fix inches or more from the walls, inclining the top parts and heads to them in a clofe manner, fpreading the roots out with regularity in the pits or holes, fhovelling in the mould or earth from the fides with exatnefs and equality, breaking the lumps and clods well, and fhaking the trees up and down a little, in holding them by the ftems, in order to make the mould fink in well be- tween the roots, fibres, and other parts, then filling them in to the tops of the holes in a careful way, feeing that the upper roots are at leaft three or four inches below the fur- face, and ultimately treading the whole down in a moderate manner, to fettle the earth about the roots, and give the trees their proper pofitions againft the walls. Proper watering will moftly be immediately neceffary in moft cafes, and which may be repeated as there is occafion, to fettle the earth more clofely, and promote the ftriking and growth of the trees, Wall- WAL - Wall-trete ‘require. the above methods: of prining and training to form their different heads in their young growths; and. afterwards in an annual manner to retrench their over- luxuriant! fhooting, and keep them within due limits and>in regular order, for the produétion of full crops of the beft fort of fruit of their different kinds. In thefe views they ftand in need of a regular fummer and winter pruning every year, as well as a conftant unnailing and renailing in the pro- ‘methods and times of the feafon. The methods of planting, training, pruning, and nailing of the different forts, are explained in the feveral heads, under their particular culture. Wall-trees befides walls are fometimes planted and trained againft wooden ereétions, fuch as palings and thofe made in a clofe manner with boards, which though they are not fo warm as brick or ftone walls, and confequently not fo pro- duétive of early good fruit, yet they fometimes afford it in tolerably good perfeétion at a little later period. Great advantage is faid to have been lately attained in bringing fome forts of wall-trees into a bearing ftate, efpe- cially pears, by turning the branches of them over the walls, and nailing them in an inverted manner on the other fide. It is ftated by fir Jofeph Banks, in a paper in the firft volume of the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural So- ciety, that he has praGtifed this method, which feems to have been learned from a market-gardener in the vicinity of London, with the beft fuccels on the ganfel bergamot pear, which is not very free of bearing. It had ftood againft a north wall for feveral years, without once making a fruit bud. About three years ago, he turned it over the wall, and had it nailed with the branches pointing downwards : the fpring after, it bore, it is faid, about a dozen of very fine pears, and this autumn, the fouth-fide wood, which has increafed very much, produced at leaft ten dozen of the fineft pears his garden afforded. This praCtice, it is fuggefted, is now become not unfre- quent in the royal gardens, where pear-trees on a weit wall have been turned over to the eaft fide, and confiderable crops annually obtained from fuch inverted branches. Sir Jofeph has likewife fucceeded perfe€tly in bringing duke cherries over from the north wall, on which afpeét they here produce a valuable crop of cherries for the months of July and Auguft. The branches brought over to the fouth wall afforded the earlieft fruit, it is faid, and had the largeft and faireft berries. This, in our climate, is fuppofed a material improvement, as duke cherries feldom fucceed on a fouth wall: the tree requires to have its root cool, and when it is expofed to the rays of a fouth fun, produces in general {mall and imperfe& fruit. The fame mode, and fome other fimilar ones, will prgbably fucceed with many other forts of wall-trees, as well as thefe. The taller forts of wall-trees are fometimes termed wall- ftandards. Watt-Cre/s, in Botany. See ARABIs. Watt-Flower. See CHEIRANTHUS. Watt-Pennywort. See CoTyLepon. Watr-Pepper. See Sepum. Watt-Rue. See AsPLenium. Watt of a Stack, in Agriculture, a term fometimes made ufe of to fignify the ftem, body, or that part which extends from the ground to the eaves, and which fpreads out in its upward direction fo as to throw off the water. It is of fome confequence to have the walls of ftacks built in a neat and. exa&t manner, in the preferving of the grain as well as in the keeping of vermin out of them. See Stack. _ Watt-L£yes, in Horfes, are thofe in which the iris, or WAAL middle part, is of avery light grey colour. Such horfes are not confidered handfomeé ; but fome fay that thofe horfes which have wall-eyes are moftly of a good kind. See Horse. ’ Watt.-Springs, in Agriculture, a term applied to thofe which break out through fome laminated rocky trata, or on cold fpewy or {pringy wet clayey ground. The water in thefe cafes moftly drops or oozes out in a flow manner. See Sprine. Watt-Crecper, in Ornithology. See Picus Murarius. Watt-Mo/s. See Moss. Wa tt-Sided, denotes the figure of a fhip’s fide, when, inftead of being incurvated fo as to become gradually nar- rower towards the upper part, it is nearly perpendicular to the furface of the water, like a wall; whence the phrafe. See Suir. WaAtt’s End, in Geography, a townfhip of England, in Northumberland, famous for its collieries ; 5 miles E.N.E. of Newcaftle. WALLA, the name of an officer in the eaftern nations. See Watt. WALLACE, Sir Wirttam, in Biography, a hero of Scot- tifh fable and romance, was a diftinguifhed patriot and warrior in the thirteenth century, who belonged to an ancient family in the weft of Scotland. Hardy and magnanimous, and ardently attached to his country, he engaged in the arduous under- taking of liberating the land of his nativity from the foreign yoke of Edward I., king of England. “Having killed an Englifh officer in a quarrel, he retired for fafety into the woods, and put himfelf at the head of a band of outlaws, and commenced an incurfive war againft the Englifh, who were ftationed in that country. Succeeding in his firft enterprifes, he was joined by many barons, whofe caufe was fecretly fa- voured by Robert Bruce. But earl Warrene, appointed by Edward to the government of Scotland, collefted an army of 40,000 men in the north of England, and march- ing into Annandale, terrified the infurgents, fo that many of the Scotch nobles fubmitted, and others joined the Eng- lifh army. Wallace, with his adherents, retired northwards, and being purfued by Warrene with his forces, he engaged them near Stirling, and defeated them with great flaugh- ter. This fuccefs enhanced the reputation of Wallace, and he was declared regent of the kingdom under the captive Baliol. Wallace retaliated on the Englifh, and extended his ravages as far as Durham, and recovered Berwick. Ed- ward, upon receiving this intelligence in Flanders, haftened his return, and marched with 90,000 men to the northern frontier. Wallace, perceiving the jealoufy and difcontent occafioned among the nobility by his high rank, refigned the regency, and merely retained his command over his own followers. When the Scotch were joined by Edward at Falkirk, in 1298, a battle enfued, in which the Englifh ob- tained a vidtory ; but Wallace, whofe body of forces was unbroken, retired behind the banks of the Carron. After this defeat Wallace ftill maintained an unfubdued {pirit, and afferted his independence. Edward, apprized that he was infecure whilft fuch an adverfary as Wallace lived, ufed va- rious means for difcovering his retreat and feizing his per- fon. He at length fucceeded, by the treachery of his friend, fir John Monteith. The captive was conveyed to London, where, though he had never fworn fealty to the Englith fovereign, he was tried, condemned, and executed as a traitor, Auguft 23, 1305. His memory is ftill re- vered in his native country, and he has been celebrated by national fongs, and a variety of eulogies, the fubjeéts of which have been partly true, and partly fabulous. Hume. Henry. ane 2 WaALLacr, WAL WALLACE, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the coalt of South Carolina. N. lat. 33° 54’. W. long. 78° 35!. Watrace-Jown, a town of Scotland, in Ayrhhire, founded about the middle of the eighteenth century by fir Thomas Wallace; 3 miles N.E. of Ayr. WALLAGE, a river of Germany, which runs into the Ems, at Lingen. WALLAPATAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of the Nayrs; 14 miles W.N.W. of Palicaud- chery. WALLASEA, an ifland in the German fea, on the coaft of Effex, at the mouths of the Coln and Black Water. It contains two parifhes, Eaft and Weft Merfey. It is about four miles long, and one and a half broad. N,. lat. 51° 38'. E. long. 0° 48. WALLE, a town of Germany, in the county of Ver- den; 4 miles N. of Verden. WALLEBERGA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Schonen; 38 miles S. of Chriftianftadt. WALLENBURG, or WALENBURG, a town of Swit- gerland, and capital of a bailiwick, in the canton of Bale ; 12 miles S. of Bale. WALLENFELS, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 7 miles E. of Cronach. WALLENIA, in Botany, was fo denominated by profef- for Swartz, in honour of Matthew Wallen, efq., an Irifh gen- tleman, long refident in Jamaica, the friend and coadjutor of Dr. Patrick Browne, in his well-known Natural Hiftory of that ifland. Mr. Wallen fpared no expence in the cultiva- tion of plants. The ftoves of our moft diftinguifhed gar- dens are indebted to him for their choiceft rarities. His name occurs amongit the contributors to Kew Garden, and he alfo fent many fine plants to the late marquis of Rocking- ham ; amongft others, in the year 1778, the f{plendid Eu- phorbia punicea, Sm. Ic. Pik. t. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 1961, which, being fuppofed a new genus, for fome time bore the name of Wallenia, though without any {cientific claim to be f{eparated from its congeners.—Swartz Prodr. 31. Ind. Occ. 247. t.6. Schreb. Gen. 789. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 618. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 8. 785. Petefioides; Jacq. Amer. 17.)—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four ere& obtufe fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, tu- bular: tube cylindrical, ereét, longer than the calyx: limb in four fhallow, ovate, obtufe, ere€t, converging fegments. Stam. Filaments four, inferted into the bafe of the corolla, dilated at the bottom, half ere&, as long again as the corolla, and rather {preading in that portion beyond its limb ; an- thers ovate, incumbent. Pi/f. Germen fuperior, oblong ; ftyle awl-fhaped, fhorter than the ftamens and corolla, permanent; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Berry roundith, of onecell. Seed folitary, roundifh, with a brittle fhell. Obf. Some male flowers occafionally occur, which have no piltil, rendering the genus polygamous. Swartz. Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Corolla tubular, four-cleft. Berry with one feed. 1. W. laurifolia. Laurel-leaved Wallenia. Swartz. Ind. Occ. 248. Willd. n.1. Poiretn.1. (Petefioides lauri- folium ; Jacq. Amer. 17, a temporary nameonly. Bryonia nigra fruticofa, foliis laurinis, fioribus racemofis {peciofis ; Sloane Jam. v.1. 234. t. 145. f. 2.)—Branches round.— Native of bufhy places, on the mountains of Jamaica and Hifpaniola, flowering in {pring and autumn. The Spaniards eallit Laurier. The flem is woody, from ten to twenty feet high, having a fmooth bark, and no thorns or prickles. Branches long, fubdivided, round, as thick as a goofe-quill, WAL twining about every thing in their way, marked with {cars from the infertion of former foliage. Leaves on round {mooth footftalks, (whether alternate or oppofite, Dr. Swartz does not mention, nor can Sloane’s figure be trufted; Jacquin fays alternate,) obovate, obtufe, entire, {mooth, fhining, flightly ribbed and ftnated, about four inches long, and almoft half as broad in the middle. Stipulas none. Panicle terminal, with fpreading, alternate, partly level-topped, fubdivided branches. Flowers ftalked, yellow, inodorous, about half an inch long, numerous, and, according to Sloane, very beautiful. Berry fcarlet. The calyx, corolla, fruit, and organs of impregnation, are {prin- kled with glandular, orange-coloured dots. The ripe Zerries are {lightly acid and aromatic, like the parts of the flower ; the feed taftes like the pepper tribe. Swartz. We cannot but remark that Willdenow copies, without examination or fcruple, two errors from Swartz, in the re- reference to Sloane. 2. W. angularis. Angular-branched Wallenia. Hort. Schoenbr. v.1. 13. t.30. Poiret n. 2.—Branches angular.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Jacquin fays it is cul- tivated in the ifland of Mauritius, from whence a living plant was brought to the imperial garden at Schoenbrun. It has flowered there in the ftove, every year in May, but never bore any fruit. The /fem, in the ifland above men- tioned, attains the height of twenty-five feet, and is as thick as a man’s leg. Branches all angular, {mooth. Leaves much like the foregoing, but larger ; alternate on the lower part of each branch; oppofite, or even whorled, above ; all very fmooth and fhining. Panicle terminal, ere&t, many- flowered, fomewhat corymbofe ; its ultimate divifions um- bellate, or capitate. Flowers green, about the fize of W. laurifolia, but the calyx feems lefs deeply divided, more hairy, and the corolla imoother. Stigma downy. WALLENSEN, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia, in the principality of Calenberg; 15 miles S.E. of Ha- meln. WALLENSTADT, a town of Switzerland, near the E. end of Wallenftadt Lake, in the county of Sargans, and principal place of a bailiwick. This place has a Schul- theife, and council of its own; the firft of whom is nomi- nated by the landvogt out of three burghers, prefented for his approbation. It is a great thoroughfare for goods to and from Italy. It is the place “likewife where the Switzers and Grifons hold their conciliatory meetings on all claims made by either party; 35 miles E.S.E. of Zurich. WatuensTapT, a lake of Switzerland, furrounded with mountains and fharp rocks, which render the navigation dan- gerous 3 9 mileslong, and 2 wide; 9 miles S. of Utznach. WALLER, Epmunp, in Biography, an Englifh poet of diftinguifhed celebrity, was the defcendant of an emi- nent family, and born at Colefhill, Hertfordfhire, in March 1605. His mother was the fifter of the famous John Hampden. By the death of his father, when he was an infant, he came into poffeffion of an eltate of 3500/. a year. Having received his fchool education at Eton, he was admitted at King’s-college, in Cambridge ; and exhi- biting fuperior talents, as well as poffefling powerful intereft, he became a member of parliament in his fixteenth or feven- teenth year. Of his poetical talents he exhibited an inte- refting {pecimen in his eighteenth year, by his verfes on the “* Prince’s Efcape at St. Andero,’”? which far furpafs in poetical melody the produGtions of his predeceffors. He alfo, at an early period, augmented his patrimony by mar- rying arich city heirefs. During the intermiflions of par- liament, which occurred after the year 1628, he lived in : retire Jacq. WALLER. retired manner at his houfe near Beaconsfield ; purfued his claffical ftudies under Morley, afterwards bifhop of Win- chefter ; and acquired improvement as well as celebrity from the fociety of polite fcholars into which he was introduced. At the age of twenty-five years he loft his wife, and foon afterwards became the fuitor of lady Dorothea Sydney, eldeft daughter of the earl of Leicefter, whom he has im- mortalized under the appellation of Saccharifla. But much as he admired this majeftic and fcornful beauty, as he deno- - minates her, he was more delighted with the gentle Amo- ret, fuppofed to have been lady Sophia Murray ; but failing to engage the attachment of either of thefe ladies by his poetic itrains, he fought comfort under the anguifh of difappointment in a fecond marriage. When parliament met in 1640, after a long fufpenfion, Waller was again returned for Agmondefham, and joined the party which thought that a redrefs of grievances fhould precede a vote of fupplies, urging their plea by an energetic fpeech. He was alfo amember of the long-parliament, and warmly op- pofed the exaCtion of fhip-money, after the example of his juitly celebrated uncle, Hampden. He farther diftinguifhed himfelf by his eloquence in the impeachment of judge Craw- ley, withthe condué of which he was entrufted by the com- mons. He continued for three years to give his vote in ge- neral with the oppofition, without concurring in all the meafures of this party ;. particularly the abolition of epifco- pacy. In the progrefs of the difpute between the king and parliament, he difcontinued for a time his attendance; though he manifefted his inclination to the royal fide by court panegyric, and when he again returned to the houfe, by remonitrating againit its proceedings ; and when the king fet up his ftandard at Nottingham, it is faid that he fent him 1000 broad pieces. As he was one of the commiffioners ap- pointed by parliament for treating with the king at Oxford, he was kindly noticed by his majefty ; and he was probably thus induced to engage in a plot in his favour. According- ly, he concerted meafures with Tomkyns, clerk of the queen’s council, for refitting the payment of the taxes levied for the fupport of the army, and promoting petitions for peace, and thus conftraining parliament to adopt pacific meafures. In the profecution of this plan, they fought the concurrence of perfons of influence in the city. Whilft they were thus employed, fir Nicholas Crifpe, who was a zealous loyalift, was exciting the king’s friends among the citizens to refift openly the authority of parliament, and with this view he had a€tually obtained a commiffion of array from his ma- jetty. Thefe two plots were, as Clarendon fuppofes, inde- pendent of each other ; but however this be, the commif- jion was known to Waller and Tomkyns. When thefe mea- fures became known to perfons in power, they were arrefted ; and the deficiency of evidence again{ft them was amply fup- plied by the pufillanimity of Waller, who difclofed every {e- cret of his party, and bafely betrayed a number of perfons, of different rank and ftation, who had repofed their confidence in his honour. Of this number were the earl of Portland, lord Conway, and the earl of Northumberland. He at- tempted alfo to perfuade lord Portland to confefs the charge, and to lay the blame on the two other noblemen juft men- uoned. Two confpirators, viz. Tomkyns and Chaloner, were hanged, and Waller faved his life by affeCting a re- morfe of confcience, which difordered his underftanding ; fo that he was merely expelled the houfe, tried and con- demned, and after a year’s imprifonment, and the payment of a fine of 10,cool., permitted to go into exile. Thus dif- graced in the eftimation of all who made any pretenfions to probity and honour, he firft refided at Rouen, and from thence removed to Paris, where he lived like a man of for- tune, and in the exercife of hofpitality, on the means which he derived from the fale of his wife’s jewels. After the in- terval of ten years, being reduced to his rump jewel, as he called it, he folicited permiffion‘to return to his native coun- try, and having obtained a licence to this purpofe, he took poffeffion of a houfe which he had built near Beaconsfield. Unreftrained by principle, he paid his vifit, by the effufien of his proftituted mufe, to Cromwell, to whom he alfo paid a tribute of adulation after his death. He loft no time, however, in congratulating Charles II. on his reftoration ; and when the king took notice that his panegyric on Crom- well furpaffed his congratulatory poem, he replied, with a happy courtly turn, ‘ that poets always fucceed better in fiétion than in truth.’ Waller was again received into the beft company, and though he drank only water, his wit and vivacity made him an agreeable affociate to thofe who lived more freely and intemperately. He alfo obtained a feat in the houfe of commons, of which, though advanced in years, he was a lively and pleafant member. From the king he pro- cured, in 1665, the appointment of provoft of Eton col- lege: but Clarendon, who was then lord-chancellor, re- fufed to fanétion it, becaufe he wasa layman. The con- dué& of the chancellor gave great offence to Waller, fo that he joined the duke of Buckingham in his hoftility againft him, and both fpoke and voted for his impeachment. Upon the acceffion of James II., Waller, in his eightieth year, was returned for Saltafh, and availing himfelf of the privilege of age, {poke freely to the king, whilft he was treated by him with condefcenfion and kindnefs. Once in converfation with the king he {poke of queen Elizabeth as the greateft woman in the world, to which James retorted, ‘* I wonder you fhould think fo ; but it muft be confefled fhe had a wife council.”? ‘ And when, fir,’’ replied Waller, “ did you know a fool choofe a wife one.’? When Waller was about to marry his daughter to Dr. Birch, the king exprefled his wonder, ‘‘ that he fhould think of marrying his daughter to a fallen church.”’ He returned a meflage, in which he ex- preffes his fenfe of the honour done him by the king’s intereft in his domeftic affairs ; adding, ‘* I have lived long enough to obferve that this church has got a trick of rifing again.” Forefeeing the ftorm that was gathering at the clofe of king James’s' reign, he obferved, ‘* that he would be left like a whale upon the ftrand.’? In his ‘¢ Divine Poems,’ indi- cating the ftate of his mind towards the clofe of life, “ it is pleafing (fays Dr. Johnfon) to difcover that his piety was without weaknefs, and that his intelleCtual powers continued {trong and vigorous.’? His death happened at Beaconf- field, in O&ober 1687, in the eighty-third year of his age ; and of feveral children by his fecond wife, his fon Edmund, who reprefented Agmondefham in parliament, became a profelyte to quakerifm. Of his moral principles and con- du, efpecially in the earlier period of his life, we can form no very high opinion. Lord Clarendon reprefents him as ab- je&, and wanting courage to fupport him in any virtuous undertaking, and as combining fervile adulation with a vain and imperious temper ; but Clarendon, it will be recolie&ed, was fomewhat prejudiced in forming a judgment, which is, upon the whole, too juft. He acknowledges, however, that he poffeffed {uperior powers of cloquence, and that the exuberance of his wit, and pleafantnefs of his converfation, which made him a chofen companion, were fufficient to cover a multitude of great faults. As a poet, he is faid by one of his biographers to have poffefled ‘« chara&er and in- trinfic merit enough to retain no mean feat on the Englifh Parnaffus :”” ‘ he trifles with ingenuity, and is ferious with an WAL an air of grandeur :’”?—and “ his works can never fall into negle& with the ftudent of poetry.” Biog. Brit. John- fon’s Lives of the Poets. Clarendon. Gen. Biog. Water, in Rural Economy, aterm applied to a perfon employed in building wall-fences, and other forts of walls, as well as to a labourer engaged in manufaCturing falt from brine in falt-works, who is fo called in confequence of raifing a bank or walling round the pit, by means of the rubbifh colleéted in long preparing falt. They both require to be well experienced perfons. See Fence, Sait, and Satt Brine Springs. Water Sve, in Geography, a lake in the archbifhopric of Salzburg, of an oval form ; four miles long, and two broad, where wideft ; 4 miles N. of Salzburg. WALLERIUS, Nicnotas, in Biography, an eminent Swedith philofopher and divine, was born in Nerika in the year 1706, and completed his education at Upfal, whither he re- moved in 1725. Having here diftinguifhed himfelf by his pro- ficiency in the Wolfian philofophy, he commenced, in 1737, a courfe of le@ures on both philofophy and mathematics, which employed, in confequence of the number of attendants, a very confiderable portion of his time. In 1751 he took or- ders ; in the following year he was honoured with the degree of doétor in theology ; and in 1755 he was advanced to the chair of the new theological profefforfhip, founded by Dr. Kelfenius, bifhop of Wefteros, with a view of vindicating the truth, and evincing the excellence of Chriftianity ; and in this fituation he gained univerfal efteem. He was alfo a member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and of the Academy at Upfal, the tranfaétions of which were en- riched by feveral of his communications. His important and ufeful life was terminated by a feverin Auguft 1764. His prin- cipal works are “ Syftema Metaphyficum,” 1750, 4 vols. 8vo.; « Compendium Logice,”” 1754, 8vo.; “« Compendium Metaphyfices,”’ 1755, 8vo.; ‘‘ Pfychologia Empirica,”’ 1755, 8vo.; * Pfychologia Rationalis,’” 1758, 8vo.; “ Prano- tionum Theologicarum,” fix parts, from 1756 to 1765, 8vo. Gen. Biog. WALLERN, in Geography, a town of Auttria, on the Inn; 4 miles S. of Efferding.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, inthe circle of Prachatitz ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Prachatitz. WALLERSDORYF, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen ; 18 miles S.W. of Brandenburg. * - WALLERSTEIN, a town of Germany, with a caftle belonging to the counts of Oettingen, called Oettingen Wal- lerftein ; 4 miles N. of Nordlingen. WALLERSVILLE, a poft-town of the ftate of Georgia; 729 miles S. of Wafhington. WALLETZ Ser, a lake of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark ; 1 mile W. of New Angermunde. WALLEY, or Warts, a town of Africa, with an European factory, in the kingdom of Yani. WALLHAUSEN, a town of the marggravate of Anfpach ; 4 miles N. of Creilfheim. WALLI, a kingdom of Africa, to the fovereign of which Mr. Park paid cuftom in his journey.—Alfo, a fe- cond river. WALLING of Brick. See Bricr. Wattine, Lead. See Leav-Willing. WALLINGFORD, in Geography, a very ancient bo- rough and market-town in the hundred of Moreton, and county of Berks, England, is fituated on the weftern banks of the Thames, at the diftance of 15 miles N.N.W. from Reading, and 45 miles W. by N. from London. There are reafons for fuppofing it to have been a town in the time cf the Romans, though its ancient name is loft: the WAL prefent, whether derived from the Britifh word Guallen, or the Roman Vallum, owes its origin to the ancient fortifica- tion with which it was furrounded, and its ford over the Thames. The earlieft mention of Wallingford in hiftory is in the year 1006, when it was deftroyed by the Danes: it appears to have been foon rebuilt, as Swein, king of Den- mark was there in 1013. In Edward the Confeffor’s reign it was a royal borough, and contained 276 houfes, the inha- bitants of which owed perfonal fervice to the king. “The town was incorporated by king James I.; by whofe charter the civil government is vefted in a mayor, five aldermen, a town-clerk, and other officers, chofen out of the burgefles, who are eighteen in number. Wallingford has fent mem- bers to parliament from the 23d year of Edward I.: the right of eleGion is in the corporation, and inhabitants pay- ing feot and lot. That eminent lawyer, fir William Black- ftone, who had a feat here, now the property of his fon, re- prefented this borough in parliament. Wallingford is a mar- ket-town by prefcription: it appears by the Norman Sur- vey, that in the reign of William Rufus the market was held on Saturday ; it was afterwards changed to Sunday ; and by acharter bearing date 1218, from that day to Mon- day. Here are now two weekly markets, on Tuefday and Friday, and four annual fairs.) ‘The market-houfe is a con- venient ftruture, having a town-hall, and feffions-houfe over it. The town confifts of two principal ftreets: its population, in the return of the year i811, was ftated to be 1901; the number of honfes 380. The chief employment of the inhabitants is in agriculture and malt- making ; of the latter article, 120,c00 bufhels have been annually made here. Leland fays, here were anciently fourteen parifh-churches, and that in his time there were perfons living, who could fhew the places where they ftood. At prefent here are but three ; St. Mary’s, St. Peter’s, and St. Leonard’s: the two latter were nearly deftroyed in 1646, when the town, being garrifoned for the king, was befieged for the parliament. St. Leonard’s was repaired and opened for divine fervice in 1704: St. Peter’s continued in ruins till the prefent reign ; it was rebuilt principally by the exertions of fir William Blackftone, who erected the {pire at his own expence ; the new church was finifhed in 176g, the fpirein 1777. St. Mary’s, which is the princi- pal church, has a tower furmounted by the figure of an armed knight on horfeback. Here are alfo four meeting- houfes for diffenters of different denominations; a free- fchool, founded by Walter Bigg, alderman of London, in 1659; and an alms-houfe for fix women, endowed by Mr. William Aungear and his filter, about the year 1687. Wallingford-bridge, which crofles the Thames, is a fub- ftantial ftone ftruéture, three hundred yards in length, and confifts of nineteen arches: from its appearance, it feems to vie with the oldeft fabric of the kind on the river, but the time of its ereGtion cannot be afcertained: the pointed angular ftarlings on the upper fide are fo well conftruéted, as to be able to refift the moft violent floods ; and the whole appears to be of immenfe ftrength. Near the river fide are the mouldering ruins of the ancient caftle, which, in the eftimation of former ages, was regarded as impregnable, but they give no idea of that ftrength which regal armies be- fieged in vain. Camden was of opinion that it was of Ro- man origin; and Mr. Gough adds, that ‘¢ the outer work of the caftle is evidently Roman, and in a fragment of the wall at the entrance, the {tones are laid herring-bone fafhion, juft as in the walls of Silcheiter.”? Having been deftroyed by the Saxons and Danes, the caftle was rebuilt and enlarged by William the Conqueror, when we learn, from Domef- day- WAL day-book, that eight houfes were demolifhed to make room for this fortrefs. “ During the conteft between king Stephen and the emprefs Maud, the latter refided in this cattle, which was ftrongly fortified in her behalf : Stephen befieged it feveral times; but all his affaults were fruitlefs; the ftrength of the place, and the bravery of the garrifon, effec- tually refifted his utmoft exertions. In the reigns of king John and Henry III., this fortrefs was the fcene of nego- ciation between the kings and the difcontented barons: it alfo bore a confpicuous part in the civil war between Edward. II. and his nobles. When cardinal Wolfey was about to found a college in Oxford, Henry VIII. gave him this caftle as a part of the endowment of his intended col- lege ; but on the cardinal’s attainder, the grant appears to have been refumed. Leland, who vifited Wallingford about that time, fays, * the caftle yoinith to the north gate of the toune, and hath three dikis, large and deap, and welle waterid. About ech of the two firft dikis rennith an em- batelid waulle, now fore ynruine, and for the moft part de- faced. Al the goodly building, with the tourres and dun- geon, be within the three dike.’’ Camden, fpeaking of this cattle, fays, “* Its fize and magnificence ufed to {trike me with aftonifhment when I came hither a lad: it is environed with a double wall and double ditch, and in the middle, ona high artificial hill, ftands the citadel, in the afcent to which by fteps, I have feen a well of immenfe depth.”? At an early period of the civil war between Charles I. and his par- liament, Wallingford-caftle was put into a ftate of repair ; and being well garrifoned, was efteemed one of the moft im- portant fortrefles in the king’s poffeffion. It efcaped a fiege till nearly the termination of the war: in 1646 it furrendered to the parliamentary forces ; and an order of council for its demolition was iffued November 18, 1652. So well was this order obeyed, that the greater part of it was deftroyed. Within the walls of the cattle was an ancient college, founded and endowed by Edmund, earl of Corn- wall, nephew to Henry III., for a dean, four prebendaries, fix clerks, and four chorifters. Its revenues were further augmented by Edward the Black Prince and king Henry VI. Juit within the weft gate of the town was a convent of Be- nedi€tine monks, founded in the reign of William the Con- queror, by Paul, abbot of St. Alban’s. The priory eitate is now the property of William Hucks, efq. who has a farm-houfe on the {cite. Among the more diftinguifhed na- tives of Wallingford, were Richard, abbot of St. Alban’s, and John, a monk of the fame place, who both derived a furname from the place of their birth: the former was emi- nent asa mathematician, the latter asan hiftorian. One mile fouth of Wallingford is Chofeley-farm, one of the largeft and moft compa& in England; being let for 1000l. per annum: there is a barn on it too feet in length. It was formerly inthe poffeffion of the earls of Warwick ; but is now the property of lord Kenfington.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. Berkfhire; by J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 1801. © Lyfons’ Magna Britannia, vol. i. Berkfhire, 4to. 1806. WALLINGFORD, a town of the ftate of Vermont, in the county of Rutland, containing 1386 inhabitants; 40 miles N. of Bennington.—Alfo, a town of Conneéticut, in the county of New Haven. This town, called by the Indians Coginchauge, was fettled in 1671. It now contains 2320 inhabitawts ; 12 miles S.W. of Middleton. WALLIS, Joun, in Biography, a well known mathemati- cian, was born at Afhford, in Kent, in the year 1616, and after finifhing his {chool education, was admitted, in 1632, at Emanuel college, Cambridge, with a view to the church. 10 WAL Having taken orders, he commenced the duties of his mi- nifterial office in 1641, as chaplain to fir William Darnley, in Yorkfhire ; and whilft he occupied the fame ftation in the family of lady Vere, he had an opportunity of exhibiting his extraordinary talent in the art of decyphering. li 1643 the parliament, to which he was then attached, con- ferred upon him the fequeftrated living of St. Gabriel, in Fenchurch-ftreet, London; and in this year he publifhed a quarto volume, entitled “* Truth tried, or Animadverfions on Lord Brookes’s Treatife of the Nature of Truth.” At this time he became poflefled of a handfome patrimony by the death of his mother ; and in 1644 he was appointed one of the fecretaries of the aflembly of divines. In the fol- lowing year he concurred with thofe perfons who laid the foundation of the Royal Society, and communicated fpeci- mens of his fkill in mathematics; and in 1647 he difco- vered a new method of folving cubic equations. When the independents acquired an afcendancy over the covenanters, Wallis united with other minifters, who affembled at Sion college, in fubfcribing a paper, entitled “ A Teftimony to the Truth of Jefus Chrift, and to the Solemn League and Covenant, as alfo againft the Errors, Herefies, and Blaf- phemies of thofe Times, andthe Toleration of them.’? In 1648 he fubfcribed a remonftrance againft putting the king to death, and another paper, denominated “ A ferious and faithful Reprefentation of the Judgment of Minifters of the Gofpel, within the Province of London, in a Letter from them to the General and his Council of War.?? In the next year he was appointed by the parliamentary vifitor Sa- vilian profeffor of geometry, and quitting his church in Lon- don, entered himfelf of Exeter college, Oxford, where he became matter of arts, and feduloufly difcharged the duties of his office, conneéting himfelf with thofe who formed the Philofophical Society in that city. Towards the end of this year he became acquainted with Cavalleri’s method of indivifibles, which he thought applicable to the quadrature of the circle; but after beftowing confiderable attention upon it, it failed in completely an{wering his expeétations. In 1653 he publifhed, in oétavo, his “* Grammar of the Englifh Tongue, in Latin,” with an ‘ Introductory Trea- tife on Speech,”’ containing a philofophical inquiry into the formation of articulate founds. MS. copies of letters which he had decyphered were this year depofited in the Bodleian library, together with an “* Account of the Origin and Pro- grefs of Cryptography, or Secret Writing.”? In the fol- lowing year he was admitted to the degree of doétor in divi- nity. In 1655 he printed the propofition in his ‘ Arith- metica Infinitorum,” relating to the quadrature of the circle, which he fent to Oughtred, and he afterwards publifhed the whole work in quarto, with an introdudtory treatife on the conic feétions, the principal properties of which he demon- {trated, independently of the cone, by his method of infi- mites. At this time he publifhed his “* Elenchus Geometriz Hobbiane,” containing a confutation of Hobbes’s method of quadrating the cirele, which was followed by an angry controverfy of fome continuance. In 1656 he brought out his traét “‘ On the Angle of Contaét,’’ in which he con- tradi€ted the opinion of Peletarius, who had. maintained that this angle had no magnitude. In the following year he publifhed his “* Mathefis Univerfalis, &c.’? and carried on a controverfy with M. Fermat and M. Frenicle, in letters, which appeared in the “ Commercium Epiftolicum,” in 1658. About this time he was chofen * cuitos archivorum’’ to the univerfity ; and he folved fome prize queitions propofed by Pafcal, that related to the cycloid. His letter to Huygens, “ De Conoide et Corporibus inde genitis,” and alfo “* De \ Cycloide, WAL Cycloide, &c.’? was publifhed in 1659. His talent for de- - cyphering recommended him to Charles IL., by whom he was gracioufly received after his reftoration; and who, be- fides continuing him in his offices at the univerfity, made him one of his chaplains in ordinary. In 1660 he was concerned with thofe who were employed in reviewing the book of common prayer ; and having complied with the requifitions of the a& of uniformity, he retained his conneétion with the church till his death. Having fuggefted that it was poffible to teach a deaf man to {peak, he tried his fill, in 1660, upon two deaf fubjeéts, with a confiderable degree of fuccefs. After the eftablifhment of the Royal Society in 1663, Dr. Wallis, who was one of its firft members, very much contributed to its reputation and permanence by his own communications, and by his account of mathematical pa- pers, tranfmitted to it by other perfons. He alfo publith- ed, in 1663, his tra& ‘ De Proportionibus,” and his illuf- tration of the laws of motion in the collifion of bodies ; and in 1668 he prefented to the public his hypothefis concerning the tides, in his treatife “De /Eftu Maris, Hypothefis nova.”? In the following year appeared the firft part of his principal work, intitled “ De Motu,”’ which was followed in the two fucceeding years by the other two parts ; and in 1671 he completed the whole, under the title of « Mecha- nica, five de Motu, TraGtatus Geometricus.”’ His other publications were “ Horocii opera Pofthuma, with Flam- ftead’s Difcourfe on the Equation of Time,”’ 1673, and « Archimedes’ Arenarius,”’ and “ Dimenfio Circuli,”’ “¢ Pto- lemzi Opus Harmonicum,” with Latin verfion, and notes, 1680, and an “* Appendix de Veterum Harmonica, ad ho- diernam Comparata ;” ‘ Porphyrii in Harmonica Ptole- mzi Commentarius ex Codice Manufcripto, Gracé et La- tiné editus, et Manuelis Bryennii Harmonica ex Cod. Man:”’ his “ Algebra,” 1684, with his Arithmetic of Infinites, the Infinitefimal Method of Leibnitz; and that of Fluxions, by fir I. Newton ;””—“ Three Differtations upon Melchi- zedek, Job, and the Titles of the Pfalms,”” 1685 ;—“ In- ftitutio Logica,” 1687 ; “ Ariftarchus Samius de Magnitu- dine Solis et Lunz,” with “ Pappi Alexandrini Libri Se- cundi ColleG&tionum Mathematicarum haétenus defiderati Fragmentum,” 1689 ; and alfo a letter to fir Samuel More- land, in order to prove that Des Cartes borrowed his im- provement in algebra from his countryman Harriot :— The Doétrine of the Ever-blefled Trinity,”? 1690; and “ On the Chriftan Sabbath,”? 1691. About this time the cura- tors of the univerfity-prefs at Oxford began to colleé his mathematical works, with a view of publifhing them in the Latin tongue. The firft volume was committed to the prefs in 1692, and the firft two volumes appeared in 1696 ; and the third volume, containing the Commercium Epittoli- cum, or Letters concerning the original Author of the Me- thod of Fluxions, and a Letter concerning the annual Pa- rallax of the Earth, from Mr. Flamftead, was publifhed in 1698. hus clofed the fcientific and literary labours of Dr. Wallis, who died in O@ober 1703, inthe 88th year of his age ; leaving behind him one fon and two daughters. Of his general charaéter, moral and political, it will be fuf- ficient to fay, that he was prudent and moderate, endea- vouring, in the collifion of parties, to promote what he con- ceived to be the true intereft of religion and fcience, and of the public community. Asa mathematician, he is thought to have excelled in judgment and induftry more than in ge- nius. Biog. Brit. Hutton’s Math. Dic. Dr. Wallis was the firft in our country who wrote on fym- pathetic vibrations, and the difcovery of Leffons Harmo- niques, or the harmonics of a fingle flring (Phil. Tranf.) ; 7 WAL but he feemed not to know that Galileo and Lemmi Rofle in Italy, and Pere Merfenne in France, had preceded him in accounts of that phenomenon. See Bassz FonpAMON- TALE, and Harmonics. Dr. Wallis was the firft man of fcience in England who had read the Geeek writers on mufic publifhed by Meibo- mius, who underftood modern harmony, and who denied it to the ancients. He publifhed Ptolemy’s Harmonics, with a Latin tranflation, and notes; Porphyry ; and Bryennius. He feems to have ftudied and underftood the fubje& of the mufic of the ancient Greeks better than any of our country- men. His papers in the Phil. Tranf., his Appendix to Ptolemy’s Harmonics, and notes on the authors he has tranflated, are fuch as manifeft at once, by their clearnefs, learning, meditation, and fcience. Wattis’s Bay, or Harbour, in Geography, a bay in the {traits of Magellan; 12 miles N.E. of Cape Forward. Wattwis’s L/land, a {mall ifland near the fouth-eaft coaft of New Ireland, at the entrance of Gower’s-harbeur, called Ifle de Marteaux by M. Bougainville; 9 miles N.W. of Cape St. George. Wattts’s Z/lands, in the South Pacific Ocean, difcover- ed by Capt. Wallis in the year 1767, furrounded by a reef of rocks. The inhabitants were robuft and ative, quite naked, except a kind of mat wrapt round the middle. No other animal was feen, either bird or beaft, except fea-fowl. The trees were of different forts, and many of them large, the only fruit were a few cocoa-nuts. §.lat. 13°18’. W. long. 177°. WALLISHOFEN, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Zurich. Here the French were defeated by the Auttrians ; 1 mile S.W. of Zurich. WALLKILL,a poft-townthip of New York, in Orange county, with 4213 inhabitants, on a creek of the fame name ; 20 miles W. of Newburgh. _ WALLOE, or Vattoz, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Zealand; 3 miles S. of Kioge. WALLOE, a town of Africa, on the Ivory coaft. N. lat. 5° 20'. W. long. 4° 55). WALLOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 5 miles S.E. of Ongole. : WALLOP’s Istanp, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of Virginia. N. lat. 37° 48!. W. long. 75° 28). WALLSEY, one of the Shetland iflands, on the North Atlantic Ocean, fituated near the eaft coaft of Shetland ; about fix miles in length, and three in breadth. N. lat. 60° Gir) Wis longeutons |= , WALMER Cast tz, a fort of England, on the eaft coaft of Kent, near Deal. See DEAL. WALMERSLEY, a townfhip of England, in Lanca- fhire ; 4 miles N. of Bolton. WALNEY, a narrow ifland in the Irifh fea, feparated from the coaft of the county of Lancafter by a narrow chan- nel ; about nine miles in length, but hardly one in breadth. It has two or three {mall villages, and achapel. The fouth end is about 16 miles W.N.W. from the mouth of the Lune. N. lat. 54° 3’. W. long. 3° 107. WALNUT, atownfhip of Ohio, in the county of Fair- field, containing 694 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Pickaway, containing 759 inha- bitants. Watnut Hills, a mountainous ridge in the Mifliffippi territory, on the eaft bank of the Miffiffippi, near the mouth of the Yazoo; N. lat. 32° 20!. WALNUT- WALNUT-TREE. Watnut-Tree, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia Medica. See JuGuans. Watnut-Tree, in Agriculture, the common name of a tree which is well known for the ufe of the nuts which it produces for the table, as an article for the deffert, and of their rinds, hufkks, or coats, as well as themfelves in their unripe {tate, as an elegant, valuable, and agreeable pickle ; alfo for its wood as timber, and its ornamental effe&. It is on thefe and other accounts a very defirable tree for cul- tivation ; but, in the firft intention, this is often in a great degree prevented, from the very great length of time which is required, in the ordinary modes of railing it, before it becomes capable of bearing fruit in any fufficient quantity. The inconvenience arifing in this way has, however, lately, in a great meafure, been obviated by direéting the following methods and means of producing and growing it. In addi- tion to what has been faid of its modes of culture under JUGLANS, it may be farther noticed, that an ingenious cultivator of garden and orchard plants has, within thefe few laft years, from confidering the nature of what takes place in raifing fruit-trees of the apple and fome other kinds, from old bearing branches of other trees of the fame forts, by the praétice of grafting; fufpeéting that they never form what may with propriety be denominated young trees, the flocks into which they are inferted only affording them nourifhment ; and the new plants retaining, in all cated the characters and habits of the particular bearing branches of which they once formed parts, and commonly producing, in two or three years from the periods of their infertion, fupplies of fruit ; been induced to believe that the effeéts of time might be anticipated in the culture of this and feveral other fruit-trees, which remain unprodu@tive for a great many years after their being planted; and that parts of the bearing branches of them, when cut and detached from the old trees, and made ufe of as grafts, would ftill retain the charaéter and habits of bearing branches. Some walnut-trees of two years old or growth, which had been planted in the {pring feafon, fome time before, in garden-pots, were, in confequence, raifed up to the bearing branches of an old walnut-tree, by placing them on the tops of poles fet into the earth, and grafted by approach with parts of them. Their union took place during the fummer, and in the autumn the grafts were detached from the parent {tock. The plants thus obtained were afterwards planted in a nurfery-ground, and, without any peculiar care or ma- nagement, produced both male and female bloffoms in the third fucceeding f{pring, and have fince afforded bloffoms every feafon. It is noticed, however, that the froft has rendered their bloffoms, as well as thofe of other trees in their neighbourhood, wholly unproduétive during the laft three years; and in the {pring of the year 1805, almoft wholly deftroyed the wood of the preceding year. It is remarked that a fimilar experiment was made the fame year on the mulberry-tree, but under many difadvan- tages. Not having any young plants of this tree, the ex- periment could only be made with {cions of one year old or owth; and of thefe there were only two, which had feune from the roots of a young tree, in the preceding year. Thefe were planted in pots, and raifed in the former method, to the bearing branches of an oldtree. One of the fcions died ; the other, which had very few roots, fuc- ceeded; and the young grafted tree bore fruit the third year, and has continued annually produétive. In the laft {pring it was introduced into the vinery, where its fruit sipened in the greateft ftate of perfection. The walnut as well as mulberry-tree fucceeds fo ill in Vor. XXXVII. grafting, in any other manner than that by approach, that attempts to propagate them in any other way can fearcely be recommended ; but when they fucceed by other modes of this nature, nearly the fame advantages will probably be ob- tained. It is fuggefted, however, that the habit of the bearing branch is leaft difturbed by grafting in the approach method. The latter has been found capable of being pro- duced by layers and cuttings from the ftrong bearing branches, and to be equally produétive in thefe ways of raifing them. Great advantages, too, have attended pruning them in a careful manner, and training them againit fouth walls, palings, and other fuch fences. The Spanifh chefnut fucceeds, it is obferved, readily, when grafted in almoft any of the ufual ways; and when the grafts are taken from bearing branches, the young trees afford bloffoms in the fucceeding year. And it is further fuggefted, that there is reafon to think, from experiments which have been made on this tree, that by feleéting thofe varieties which ripen their fruit early in the autumn, and by propagating with grafts or buds from young and vigorous trees of that kind, which have only juft attained the age ne- ceflary to enable them to bear fruit, it might be cultivated with much advantage in this country, not only for the ufe of the fruit, but for that of the wood as timber. Similar experiments have likewife been tried on many other different forts of trees, which, it is remarked, have conflantly been attended with the fame refult ; and no doubt is entertained but that the effeéts of time might be thus an- ucipated in the culture of any fruit, which is not produeed until the feedling trees acquire a confiderable age. For the conviction of long and extenfive experience has fully fhewn, that the graft derives nutriment only, and not growth, from the young ftock into which it is inferted ; and that with the life of the parent ftock, the graft retains its habit and con- {titution, as well as perhaps other properties, as already fuggefted. See Juctans. See alfo different papers in the TranfaGtions of the Horticultural Society of London. The walnut is alfo a well-known deciduous tree, which was formerly much grown and cultivated in the field, and held in great efteem in this country for its wood, which is not unfrequently very finely veined; but which, in confe- quence of its aptnefs to be worm-eaten, has now, for the moft part, given place to mahogany. It is likewife an ufeful tree for the purpofes of ornament, and for its produce in fruit. There are different forts of it, which are capable of being raifed and grown in thefe intentions with advantage ; fuch as the common fort of walnut, which is a very large, lofty, {preading tree, and which has many varieties, as the oval and round walnut, the large and fmall-fruited walnut, the double early and late walnut, the tender thin-fhelled walnut, and the hard thick-fhelled walnut ; the white fort of walnut, which has the fruit fhaped like the common walnut, but in which the fhell is not furrowed, the tree being of a light colour. It is faid by fome to be a tall tree in North America, where it greatly prevails under the title of hiccory nut-tree; and the black walnut-tree, which is large, and has the outer covering of the nuts rough, with the form of them more round than in the firft of thefe forts. The fhell is very hard and thick, but the kernel fmall, though very {weet and agreeable to the tafte. Thefe two latter forts of walnut-trees are lefs hardy than that of the common kind, though very proper in fome cafes of planting. It has been noticed that all the firft forts of thefe trees vary again, when raifed from the feed, and that as the nuts from the fame tree will produce different fruit. Thofe who plant the 4Q walnut WAL walnut for the produce of its fruit fhould make choice of the young trees for that ufe, in the places where they ftand, when they have their fruit upon them. However, where thefe trees are intended for timber, it is probably the beft practice to plant them out at once in the places where they are to ftand or grow, as they thrive fafter, and form better trees, it is faid, in that method of raifing them, than by any other means. The feed or nuts of the two latter forts are to be procured from North America, and fhould be fuch as have been well ripened and fecured. Thefe trees delight in a firm, rich, loamy foil, or fuch as is inclinable to chalk or marle; but they will thrive very well, it is faid, in ground which is of a ftony nature, or on chalk-hills, as is evident from thofe large plantations of them about Leatherhead, Godftone, and Carfhalton, in the county of Surrey, where great numbers of thefe trees, planted on the downs near thefe places, produce, it is faid, amually large quantities of fruit, to the no {mall advantage of their owners. Mr. Carlifle found the walnut raifed from feed to be produétive of fruit at a very early period, in one cafe, when grown on a foil the furface mould of which was of a dark colour, and of from eighteen to twenty inches in depth: it was what the workmen called a light foil; and immediately beneath which was a fine filiceous fand, about two feet thick; then a ftratum of ochrey flint gravel ; after which a red clay; and, at the depth of twelve feet, good water, arifing from clean white fand. The writer of the correéted account of the agriculture of Gloucefterfhire has, however, ftated that this fort of tree will grow almoft in any foil, that it wants no pruning or care, and that in lefs time than the oak it will make a large tree. In planting thefe trees, when they are defigned for the purpofe of fruit, in fuch fituations, it fhould not be done at lefs diftance apart than about forty feet ; and if more, it will be the better in many cafes, where the foil is particularly fuitable. But when for the wood or timber only, it may be performed in fomewhat a clofer manner with propriety, in moft inftances; though the trees, in fuch cafes, fhould never be too much crowded together. When for ornament, fingle confpicuous trees have probably the bett effect ; but fometimes a few may be planted together with good effe&. The above writer remarks that the wood of this tree is too valuable to apply to the ufual purpofes of timber-trees, and is confequently always ufed either for cabinet-work, or for gun-ftocks: for the latter ufe indeed, fo great, it is faid, has been the demand for a few years paft, from the Bir- mingham gun-makers, that the diftri@ he is fpeaking of has been ranfacked for this timber-wood, and very high prices have been held out to tempt the fale of it. In confequence of which, the ftock has been much diminifhed there, fo that, with very few exceptions, only a folitary walnut-tree is feen growing here and there; but that in the parifh of Arling- ham, in that county, there are more perhaps than in many other parifhes of the fame diftri€t combined: fo abundant indeed was the fruit, it is faid, that year (1805), that it became an article of commerce, and two veflels were then, in the beginning of Otober, being laden with walnuts for Scotland, at the above place, at a rate as low as four or five fhillings a thowfand ; and that even at this price, the pro- duce of a tree of this fort is highly valuable, as 20,000 nuts are not confidered an extravagant calculation for a large tree. Nay, were it only for the oil that thefe nuts afford, the trees that produce them would, fome think, be worthy of fome care. Evelyn has indeed obferved, that one bufhel of WAL them: will yield fifteen pounds of peeled kernels, and that thefe will yield half that weight of oil, which the fooner it is drawn is the more in quantity, though the drier the nut the better in quality. It1s added too, that the lee, or mare of the prefling, is an excellent: fubftance for feeding hogs with. It would certainly be good manure for land, as are the cakes of linfeed, rape, and fome others, after the oil has been fqueezed out of them. The green hufks boiled, without any mixture, it is faid, make a good colour for dying a dark yellow ; and that the kernel rubbed upon any crack or chink of a leaky veflel, will ftop % better than either clay, pitch, or wax. Thefe trees may, of courfe, be faid to be doubly profit- able, as in their annual crops of fruit, while growing, and in their timber, when felled or cut down. The nuts are the beft preferved, for planting and raifing the trees, in fome fort of dry fandy material; and advantage is faid to be gained, in rendering the trees more early pro- duétive, by fuch means as prevent their roots from running too much downwards. In the intention of preferving and ufing the nuts or fruit as feed, they fhould be left upon the trees until they be perfectly ripe, which is fhewn by the outer hufks eafily fe- parating from the nuts, and by thefe hufks occafionally opening and letting the nuts drop out. It is ufually about the latter end of September. In trees of large growth, the nuts are ufually beaten down by long poles, as it would be difficult and troublefome to gather them by the hand; but it fhould not be done with fuch violence as is commonly ufed, from the miftaken notion that the trees are thereby improved, as moft certainly they cannot be benefitted by fuch a rough manner of forcing off the young wood, upon which this fruit moftly grows at the extremities of the branches. As foon as gathered, they are to be laid in heaps a few days to heat and {weat, to caufe the complete feparation of the hufks, then be cleaned from the rubbifh that hangs about them, and be depofited in a dry room for ufe, covering them well with dry ftraw, when they will keep fome months. Walnuts are always of ready fale in the markets of large towns, in which, at their firft coming in, they are com- monly bought with their hufks on, and fold by the fack or bufhel, but afterwards cleaned, and difpofed of both by meafure and the thoufand. The ordinary length of time required for the walnut to bear well, when raifed from the nut or feed, is moftly about twenty years. WALDO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro- vince,of Upland; 30 miles N.E. of Upfal. WALOM, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 16 miles S. of Puttan. WALOON, or Wattoon, a kind of old French; being the language fpoken by the Walloons, or the in- habitants of a confiderable part of the French and Auttrian Low Countries; viz. thofe of Artois, Hainault, Namur, Luxemburg, and part of Flanders and Brabant. The Waloon is held to be the language of the ancient Gauls, or Celts. The Romans, having fubdued feveral provinces in Gaul, eftablifhed prztors, or proconfuls, &c. to adminifter juf- tice in the Latin tongue. On this occafion, the nattves were brought to apply themfelves to learn the language of their conquerors ; and thus they introduced abundance of the Roman words and phrafes into their own tongue. Of this mixture of Gaulifh and Latin was formed a new language, called Romans ; in contradiftin€tion to the ancient unadulterated WAL unadulterated Gaulifh, which is called Waloon, or Walloon. This diftinGtion is kept up to this day; for the inhabitants of feveral of the Low-Country provinces fay, that in France they fpeak Romans; whereas they fpeak the Walloon, which comes much nearer the fimplicity of the ancient Gaulith. WALOUGA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country of Whidah; 10 miles N. of Sabi. WALPACK, a town of the ftate of New Jerfey, in the county of Suffex, containing 591 inhabitants; 25 miles W.N.W. of Morriftown. WALPERSDORFF, atown of Auftria, on the Trafen ; 4 miles N. of St. Polten. WALPING Sez, a lake of Pruffia, in the province of Ermeland ; 4 miles S.W. of Allenttein. WALPIT, a town of France, in the department of the Lis ; 3 miles N.N.E. of Courtray. WALPO, or Wacpon, a town of Sclavonia, which gives name to a county, fituated on a river which runs into the Drave, defended by an ancient caftle; 20 miles N.W. of Efzek. Watpo Taro, a rock in the Spanifh Main, near the Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 14° 30’. W. long. 82° 4o!. WALPOLE, Rosert, in Biography, earl of Orford, the third fon of Robert Walpole, efq., was born at Hough- ton in Norfolk, the feat of his father, in Auguft 1676, re- ceived his preparatory inftru€tion at Eton, and completed his courfe of education at King’s college, Cambridge ; be- ing diftinguifhed at {chool for his talents for public fpeaking, and at the univerfity by the ardour of his attachment to Whig principles. He was originally defigned for the church; but his views were changed by the death of his eldeft furviving brother in 1698, and he was initiated in the habits and purfuits of a country gentleman. In 1700 he married a lady, whofe fortune enabled him to clear the in- cumbrances of an eftate of 2000/. a year, which came into his poffeffion after his father’s death, and in this year he be- came an a¢tive member of parliament in conne¢tion with the Whig party, as a reprefentative of the borough of Caftle Rifing. In queen Anne’s firft parliament, 1702, he was returned for Lynn, and continued to reprefent that borough till he became a member of the houfe of peers. Having availed himfelf of two or three opportunities which oc- curred for gaining the efteem and confidence of his party, he was appointed by the Whig adminiftration in 1708 fe- cretary of war, which office he held for a fhort time in con- neétion with that of treafurer of the navy. After the trial of Sacheverel, which iffued unfortunately, he publifhed a pamphlet, in which he fixed the ftigma of Jacobitifm on the abettors of that turbulent prieft. Upon the difmiffal of the Whig miniftry, he refigned his office; but having provoked the difpleafure of the ruling party by his fpirited defence of lord Godolphin, he was charged with venality and cor- ruption, while he held the place of fecretary at war, ex- pelled the houfe, and committed to the Tower in January 1712. During his confinement, he was regarded as a mar- tyr to the Whig caufe, and vifited by feveral perfons of diftin@tion ; and he employed himfelf in writing a pamphlet in his own vindication. After his releafe in July, though he could not take his feat, he ferved his party by his coun- fel and by his pen. The diffolution of parliament took place in 1713 ; and Walpole was induced to expofe the mea- fures of the Tory miniftry by a pamphlet, intitled “ A fhort Hiftory of the Parliament,’? to which he affixed the motto, ‘ Venalis populus, Venalis Curia Patrum.’”’ Being returned again for Lynn in February 1714, he was active in oppofing the queen’s Tory. miniftry ; and particularly Wow b diftinguifhed himfelf by a {peech in favour of Steele, who was profecuted by the houfe for two publications. To- wards the clofe of this reign, he difplayed great zeal for the Protetlant fucceffion in the houfe of Hanover. Upon the death of the queen in Auguft 1714, and the acceflion of George I., a new Whig miniftry was formed: and Wal- pole was recompenfed for his fufferings and loffes by the two lucrative places of paymafter of the forces, and of Chelfea Hofpital. He was atively employed in connec- tion with lord Townfhend, principal fecretary of ftate, who had married his fifter ; and became chairman of the fecret committee appointed to inquire into charges againft the late minifters, and moved the impeachment of lord Bolingbroke. _ Being a zealous fupporter of government in the rebellion of 1715, he was advanced to the important pofts of firft lord of the treafury and chancellor of the exchequer. Although illnefs prevented his fupporting the feptennial bill in parlia- ment, he was decidedly attached to the meafure. During the divifions that afterwards occurred in the cabinet, he fteadily maintained his conneétion with lord Townfhend, and on his difmiffion in 1717, refigned his office ; and even joined the Tories in oppofing meafures, for which, as a minifter, he would have been an advocate. He contributed by a {peech delivered on the occafion to the rejeétion of the peerage bill in 1719, and he oppofed in 1720 the South-fea fcheme for the liquidation of the national debt. Lord Townfhend and Walpole received overtures from the earl of Sunderland, whofe muniftry was embarraffed, and a partial coalition was effefted, in confequence of which the latter was reftored to the poft of paymafter of the forces. He had previoufly effeéted a reconciliation between the king and the prince of Wales, between whom a variance had long fubfifted. To him the public attention was dire€ted during the difafters that fucceeded the failure of the South-fea {cheme in 1721; an event which ferved to difplace lord Sunderland from the pott of firft lord of the treafury, in which Walpole was re- eftablifhed. At this time he adopted meafures for advanc- ing the trade and manufa€tures of the country, which have been much applauded by dean Tucker. In 1722 a new parliament aflembled, in which the Whigs compofed a ma- jority ; and Walpole diftinguifhed himfelf in the profecu- tion of bifhop Atterbury for his plot in favour of the pre- tender, which terminated in the banifhment of this prelate. In recompence of his fervicés, which were fuch as not to allow his removal from the houfe of commons, his fon was made a baron. His brother, Horace Walpole, was ap- pointed minifter to the court of France, and he was ho- noured with being nominated knight of the garter. Sir Robert Walpole was at this time prime minifter. In 1725 he promoted the bill for reftoring lord Bolingbroke to his country and eftate, though his attainder was {till fubfifting ; and this partial benefit gave fuch offence to his lordthip, that he became a powerful antagonift to Walpole’s adminif- tration. His pacific meafures highly recommended him both to the nation and the king ; but the death of his ma- jefty in 1727 occafioned changes that are generally incident to a new reign. Walpole was no favourite with George II., but the influence of queen Caroline prevailed againft the in- trigues of both Pulteney and lord Bolingbroke, and when he was confidered as a fallen minifter, re-eftablifhed in the offices of firft lord of the treafury and chancellor of the exchequer, with a greater degree of power than he had ever before poflefled. Of courfe his deferted levees were crowded with thofe who bafk in the fun-fhine of court favour. Wal- pole, however, was aflailed by a hoft of able and a¢tive ad- verfaries ; among whom were Pulteney at the head of dif- contented Whigs, Sir William Wyndham and the Tories, 4Q2 and WALPOLE. and a group of Jacobites. For felf-defence, when argu- ment, which derived every poffible advantage from his elo- quence, failed, he had recourfe to the more powerful in- fluence of corruption; and this latter mode of conviction which he not only praétifed from neceffity, but fyftemati- eally vindicated and recommended, gave a diftinguifhing charaéter to his adminiftration, and entailed reproach on his memory. In order to fecure the favour of the court, he augmented the civil lift, and obtained for queen Caroline a jointure of 100,000/. Soon after, viz. in 1730, the differences with ‘the court of Spain were terminated by the treaty of Seville in 1729, but Townfhend, difgufted by the fuperiority which his kinfman Walpole was afluming, refigned his office of fecretary of ftate, and withdrew from public bufinefs with dignity and honour. In the year 1733, Walpole propofed two meafures of finance, which occafioned much oppofition and clamour; one was the alienation of the finking fund, and the other the introdu@tion of the excife ; but notwith- {tanding the diffatisfa@tion produced by thefe meafures, and by his difappointing expeétations which he had encouraged the Diffenters to indulge with regard to the repeal of the Teft AG, the minifter maintained his ground; and fuc- ceeded in his endeavours for preferving peace with foreign nations. The difagreement between Frederick prince of Wales and his father was the fource of much uneafinefs and trouble, and thefe were aggravated by the death of queen Caroline, who had been long attached to him, and fupported his intereft with his royal mafter. Differences that occurred between this country and Spain, on account of the commerce in South America, was the occafion of additional anxiety ; and though he much wifhed for the con- tinuance of peace, the difcontented party prevailed, and in 1739 war was declared againft Spain. With a mind thus agi- tated, and contending with a powerful oppofition, he fought leave to refign, but the king would not confent. At length, viz. in 1740, a motion was made in the houfe of commons for his removal from the king’s prefence and councils ; but though it was then negatived, the clamour againft him in- creafed ; and lofing the fupport of the houfe, he was created earl of Orford in February 1742, and refigned. He fuc- ceeded, however, by his influence, in forming a Whig minif- try, at the head of which was Pulteney. His condué dur- ing his adminiftration became the fubje&t of parliamentary inquiry, but his enemies could not prevail againft him ; and he fo far retained his majeity’s regard and confidence, as to be confulted by him, and to advife Pelham to be placed at the head of the treafury. Having long been afflicted with calculous complaints, which were aggravated by a journey from Norfolk to London, by command of the king in No- vember 1744, he was obliged to recur for temporary relief to large dofes of opium; but after a difplay of extraordi- nary fortitude and refignation during the progrefs of his fevere diforder, it terminated in his death, on March 18th, 1745, in the 6gth year of his age. As to his political cha- racter, one of his biographers fays, ‘“ that the defire of pre- ferving peace abroad, and avoiding all fubjeéts of conten- tion at home, and promoting gradual improvements in the trade and finances of the.country, and purfuing ufeful ra- ther than {plendid objeéts, joined with a fincere zeal for the Proteftant fucceflion, were the leading principles of his go- vernment ; and the means which he employed were pru- dence, moderation, vigilance, and, it muft be allowed, corruption, though it may well be doubted whether he left public men more corrupt than he found them.’? As a man of bufinefs, he was methodical and diligent ; and, accord- to lord Chefterfield, «* an artful rather than an eloquent fpeaker ;?? and more a man of found fenfe and quick dif- cernment than of genius. In private life, he is faid to have been good-humoured, eafy and agreeable in his temper, frankly familiar in his manner, and of courfe much efteemed by his friends and conciliatory to his enemies. His man- ners, however, were inelegant, his mirth coarfe, his converfa- tion and morals licentious, acceffible to flattery, and the eafy dupe of women. In his domettic relation, he was kind and benevolent ; but he neither loved nor patronized literature. Coxe’s Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole. Gen. Biog. Watrote, Horace, lord Orford, the youngelt fon of the preceding nobleman, was born in 1718, and educated firft at Eton and afterwards at King’s college, Cambridge, where he wrote ‘ Verfes in Memory of King Henry VI.” dated in 1738. Having been nominated on leaving the univerfity to fome patent finecure places, he commenced his tour to the continent in 1739, in which he was accompanied by Gray, from whom he parted, as he candidly acknow- ledges, by his own fault, and to whom in 1744 he was re- conciled. His moft intimate friend, however, was his na- tural coufin, general Seymour Conway, to whom he was attached from his youth, and with whom he correfponded from 1740 to 1795, the year of the general’s death: His firft appearance in parliament was in 1741, as a reprefenta- tive for Callington. But more attached to literature and the arts than to the occupations of public life, and unambitious of obtaining any emoluments befides thofe which his places afforded him, or any rank and ftation conneéted with politi- cal purfuits, he rather chofe to retire from the world than to take an a¢tive part in parliamentary bufinefs. On all occafions, however, he manifefted his fteady adherence to thofe Whig principles which he had imbibed from his youth, and his condu& as a member of the legiflature was always pure and independent. Having, in 1748, purchafed a {mall houfe at Twickenham, called Strawberry-hill, he devoted his time and attention to the improvement of it in the Go- thic ftyle of architeCture ; and to the furnifhing of it with fuch a colleGtion of books, pi€tures, and other {pecimens of the fine arts, as made it a very defirable place of refort in the vicinity of the metropolis, and he gratified the public cu- riofity and tafte by appropriating three hours a day in the fummer months for the accommodation of vifitors. In this fingular and interefting manfion, he amufed himfelf with the cultivation and exercife of his literary talents by contribut- ing {ome papers to a periodical publication, entitled “* The World ;”? by his “* Catalogue of Royal Noble Authors,” printed by his own prefs; and by a colleétion of his “* Fu- gitive Pieces ;’’ by his ‘* Anecdotes of Painting in Eng- land,”’ publifhed in 1761, in 2 vols. 4to., to which he after- wards added two more volumes ; by a political pamphlet on general Conway’s difmiffion from the army for his vote in parliament on general Warrants, which appeared in 1764; and tale of the “ Caftle of Otranto,’? publifhed in 1765. During his vifit at Paris in 1765, he provoked the refent- ment of the irritable Rouffeau, by addreffing to him a let- ter in the name of the king of Pruflia, expofing his vanity and felf-conceit. This letter was afterwards printed, and led Rouffeau to fufpe&, that this was part of a concerted plan to ruin his reputation, and that Hume and the French philo- fophers had contrived it for this purpofe. Walpole was juitly cenfured for the part he took in this bufinefs ; nor could his beft friends vindicate him for the contemptuous treatment with which he treated thofe who were authors by profeflion. In 1767 Walpole withdrew from public bufinefs, and de- clined a return for the borough of Lynn in the enfuing parliament. Soon afterwards he publifhed his ‘ Hittoric Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III.” In 1768, he printed at his own prefs his tragedy of the « Myf- terlous Wi terious Mother ;”’ and about the fame time he was concerned in the tranfaGtions that occurred between him and the unfor- tunate Chatterton. In 1791 the death of his nephew ele- vated him to the rank and title of earl of Orford ; but this circumftance requiring fome change in his fixed habits, gave him rather uneafinefs than fatisfa@tion. Towards the clofe of his life he was much affh€ed with a conftitutional gout, by which he was much debilitated; and yet he at- tained to his 79th year, quietly expiring in March 1797. His printed and MS. writings, of which an edition was pub- lifhed in 1798 in 5 vols. 4to., were bequeathed to Robert Berry, efq. and his two daughters. A pofthumous work, viz. ‘* Letters from the Hon. Horace Walpole, Efg. to George Montague, Efq. from the Year 1736 to 1770,” royal 4to. has been publifhed. Although Horace Walpole, as to the habits of his life, was more inclined to perfonal enjoyment than to focial inter- courfe, his difpofition was affeCtionate, and he was occafion- ally generous to his friends. Although he was not pro- foundly learned, he encouraged literature and the arts by his own writings, and by various domeftic arrangements and conveniences adapted to this purpofe. Nichols’s Lit. Anecd. Walpole’s Works. Gen. Biog. WaALpore, in Geography, a town of New Hamphhire, in the county of Chefhire, on the Conneticut, containing 894 inhabitants ; 76 miles N.W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Maffachufetts, in the county of Norfolk, con- taining 1098 inhabitants ; 21 miles S.W. of Bofton. WALPUSCH, a river of Poland, which runs into the Narew, near Pultufk. WALRABENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Feetty of Naflau Weilburg; 3 miles N. of Id- ein. WALRING, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 4 miles N.W. of Melrichftadt. WALRUS, in Zoology, the name by which fome au- thors call the morfe, or fea-horfe, called alfo by others ro/- marus, a creature very different from the hippopotamus, or river-horfe. See Morse. WALSALL, in Geography, an ancient market-town in the fouth divifion of the hundred of Offlow, in the county of Stafford, England, is fituated on an eminence at the diftance of 16 miles S.E. by S. from the county-town, and 126 miles S.W. from London. Itis a place of remote antiquity, and is regarded as the fecond town in the county. The civil government is vefted in a mayor, recorder, twenty-four aldermen, and a town-clerk: the mayor, late mayor, and fenior aldermen, are in the commiffion of the peace, and regularly hold quarter-feffions. According to the return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of the town amounted to 5541, occupying 1150 houfes, which are difpofed in twelve itreets. The manufacture chiefly carried on here is that of buckles, fpurs, ftirrups, and in general all forts of hard- ware articles conneéted with fadlery. A well-fupplied market is held on Tuefdays; and three fairs annually for horfes, cattle, cheefe, and bacon. A remarkable cuttom, mentioned by Dr. Plot, {till prevails here: on the eve of Epiphany, a gift of one penny is regularly diftributed to every perion refiding in the town, or in the villages, thereto belonging ; not only to the fixed inhabitants, but to al! ftrangers who may happen to be there. ‘This was an ancient endowment of an inhabitant of the name of Morley. The church is a very ancient edifice, of a cruciform con- firuétion. At the fouth-weft angle rifes a ttrong, plain tower, furmounted by an o@agonal fpire. The interior is lofty and f{pacious, and prefents a fingular appearance: each fide of the chancel has feven ftalls, the feats of which are ornamented with a great variety of grote{que figures carved 6 WAL in baffo-relievo. Under this part of the church is an arch way of mafly workmanfhip, forming a common paflage through the eaftern divifion of the church-yard. Here are alfo feveral places of worfhip appropriated to various clafles of diffenters: and a free grammar-fchool founded by queen Elizabeth. This parifh includes the foreign of Walfall, a diftri& com- prehending the hamlets of Great Bloxwich, Little Blox- wich, Caldmoor, Little London, and the Windmill. In the year 1811, the population of this diftri& was ftated to be 5648; the number of houfes 1ogg : making the in- habitants of the whole parith 11,199; the houfes 2249. About a mile anda half to the north of Walfall is Ru/fall- Ffall, the feat and park of the Rev. W. Leigh.—Befcot- Hall is one mile from the town, and occupies the {cite of the ancient baronial manfion of the Hillarys and Mountfords : it is furrounded by a moat, over which is a pi€turefque bridge : the iron-gates, formerly ftanding clofe to the houfe, are now placed at a confiderable diftance, greatly improving the approach. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiil. Staffordhhire. WALSCHIED, a town of France, in the department of the Meufe; 6 miles S.E. of Sarburg. WALSDORF, a town of Germany, in the principality of Nafflau; 3 miles N.E. of Idftein,x—Alfo, a town of Bavaria ; 4 miles W. of Bamberg. WALSEE, a town of Auftria, on the Danube; 14 miles E. of Ens. WALSH, Wiirian, in Biography, was born at Abberly in Worcefterfhire in 1663, and having finifhed his education as gentleman-commoner of Wadham college in Oxford, he travelled abroad for further improvement, and after his re- turn attracted notice as a man of letters and of fafhion. He alfo affumed a political charaéter, and reprefented his native county in parliament, and diftinguifhed himfelf by actively promoting the Revolution. He is fuppofed to have died in 1709. Dryden, with whom he cultivated friendfhip, repaid his attentions with that praife which he was difpofed libe- rally to beftow on thofe whom he wifhed to diftinguifh, de- nominating him ‘ the beft critic of our nation,’? and he furnifhed a preface to his ‘* Dialogue concerning Women.” Pope alfo acknowledges early obligations to him in the fol- lowing terms: “ And knowing Walfh would tell me I could write.” In his * Effay on Criticifm,’? he denominates him the ‘¢ Mufe’s judge and friend,’’ and with the ardour of youth, gives him the credit of having “ taught his early voice to fing.’ It has been obferved, however, that Mr. Walfh’s rank in the feale of literature fearcely entitled him to the high panegyric either of Dryden or of Pope; for neither his mifcellaneous poems, nor his profe pieces, of which one was his ‘* Effay on Paftoral Poetry,’’ juftify the very dif- tinguifhed honour which they conferred upon him. Biog. Brit. Johnfon’s Lives of the Poets. Gen. Biog. Watsn, Joun, opened a mufic-fhop in Catherine-ftreet in the Strand, 1710; and was the firft in our country who ftampt mufic on pewter. He was fucceeded by his fon, who was Handel’s publifher ; the publifher of Corelli, and of the folos and concertos of Geminiani. Indeed he and Hufe in the city, feemed for a long time to monopolize the fale of mufic throughout the kingdom ; till Johnfon of Cheapiide, who attended all the great fairs in the kingdom, and Bremner from Edinburgh, opened a fhop in the Strand, and became extenfive publifhers, and formidable rivals to Walfh and his fucceflor and relation, Randal. The Dutch, during the whole lait century, engraved or ftampt mufic on copper, {uperior to the natives of all other countries. The only engraver in that metal in our own country WAL country was Cluer in Bow sameeren who engraved in Svo. feveral of Handel’s operas in fcore, in the neateft and moft corre& manner which we remember to have feen, par- ticularly Julius Cefar, in 1720, which we keep as a curiofity. net peer 8 Wats, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied in fome cafes to the peculiarly infipid tafte of fome vegetables, roots, and other fuch fubftances. Watsu, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of New Guinea. S. lat. 8° 24/. E. long. 137°. WALSHAM, Norvrn, a market-town in the hundred of Tunftead and county of Norfolk, England, is fituated in a level near the fea, at the diftance of 15 miles N.N.E. from Norwich, and 124 miles N.E. by N. from London. In the year 1600, a deftruétive fire occurred here, which con- fumed 118 houfes, befides many barns, ftables, malt-houfes, &c.; the value of which was eftimated at 20,000/. The town now confilts of three ftreets, which form an irregular triangle. At the junétion of thefe is the parifh-church, the tower of which fell down in 1724. In the chancel is a fine monument, with an effigy, &c. to the memory of fir William Pafton, knt., who died in 1608, aged eighty years. He agreed, in 1607, with John Key, a mafon of London, to ereé&t and fit up this tomb, with his effigy in armour, five feet and a half long, for which he was to pay 200/. Sir William fettled 40/. per annum on the free-fchool, and ro/. a year on a weekly lecturer. In this parifh are meeting- houfes for Quakers, Methodifts, Prefbyterians, and Ana- baptifts. An annual fair is held here, and a weekly ntarket on Thurfday. In the reign of Edward VI. bifhop Thirlby built a market-crofs here, which, being damaged by the fire above mentioned, was repaired by bifhop Redman. In the population return of the year 1811, this parifh is ftated to contain 448 houfes and 2035 inhabitants. In the adjacent parifh of Baéton ftood Broomholme Priory, founded by William de Glanville, in 1113, for monks of the Cluniac order; the remains of this building, near the fea-fide, fome time fince formed an interefting ruin; but mott of the walls are now incorporated with a farm-houfe, and the rooms converted into.domettic offices. St. Bennet?s Abbey, at Holme, in the parifh of Horning in this hundred, was founded in a fenny place, called Cowholme, where formerly was an hermitage, which king Canute, in the year 1020, eftablifhed for black monks of the Bene- diétine order. The ample endowments firft granted were further extended by Edward the Confeflor, the emprefs Maud, and other royal perfonages. It was one of the mitred abbeys, and its abbots had a feat in the houfe of lords. This abbey was fo ftrongly conftruted, that it appeared more like a caftle than a cloifter ; and was fo well fortified, that William the Conqueror in vain befieged it, till a monk, on promife of being made abbot, betrayed the place: the king performed the condition, but hanged the new abbot as a traitor. Some foundations of the walls, which inclofed an area of thirty-five acres, are yet traceable; but the remains of the once-{tately building are now no more, except part of the magnificent gate-way, and this is partially obfcured by a draining-mill erefted over it.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Norfolk. By J. Britton, F.A.S. 1810, from Blomefield’s Hiftory, &c. of Norfolk. WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, in Biography, an eminent ftatefman, was defcended from an ancient family of Walfingham in Norfolk, and born at Chiflehurft in Kent. Having completed his education at King’s college, Cam- bridge, he fought farther improvement by foreign travels, and having remained abroad during the reign of queen Mary, he was introduced to public bufinefs by Cecil on his return to his own country. He commenced his political WAL career as ambaflador to France, where he continued, dif+ charging his public duties with great affiduity and injury to his own fortune, until the year 1573. His condu@ in this office is highly commended by Wicquefort ; and Dr. Lloyd, in his State-Worthies,”? pronounces a very flattering eulogy on his political character. In 1573 he was ap- pointed fecretary of ftate, admitted into the privy-council, and knighted; and fuch was his vigilance in guarding againft plots which threatened to difturb the tranquillity and fecurity of queen Elizabeth, that he is faid to have maintained 53 agents and 18 fpies in foreign courts. In 1581 he went to France as ambaflador for the purpofe of treating concerning a marriage between Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou; and on this occafion, it is faid, that “¢ the fickle coquetry of his miftrefs tried his patience, and exer- cifed all his diplomatic dexterity.”” The refult of his embafly to Scotland in 1583 was a report of James’s abilities and learning more favourable than he really merited. In the unhappy difpute that terminated in the execution of Mary, Walfingham was a principal agent, and he has been charged, as the reader will find under the article EL1zaBeTH, with recommending fome private method of putting that unfortunate princefs to death ; but it has been thought that the letter mentioned under that article, and faid to have been figned by him, is not genuine; and that this is the cafe is rendered more probable by the evidence alleged in proof of Walfingham’s having warmly oppofed fuch an a& of villainy when propofed by the earl of Leicefter. After the death of Mary, Walfingham was principally inftrumental in producing a reconciliation between the Englifh and Scottifh courts. This minifter was a zealous Proteftant, and feemed difpofed to countenance the Puritans, as the moft zealous opponents of popery ; and he alfo manifefted his attachment to the reformed religion by eftablifhing a divinity-leture at Oxford in 1586, for the purpofe of dif- cuffing the fundamental truths of Chriftianity, derived from the {criptures, and of thus forming a wider feparation be- tween the church of England and that of Rome. In ad~- vanced life, Walfingham retired from bufinefs; and died in April 1590, fo much in debt, notwith{ftanding the various poits and dignities which he occupied, that he was buried in St. Paul’s privately and by night, left his body fhould be arrefted. His poverty, however, feems to have been ex- aggerated, though his expences in the conduét of public bufinefs were known to be very great. His only daughter was fucceffively married to fir Philip Sidney, to the earl of Effex, and to the earl of Clanrickard. The negotiations and difpatches of Walfingham, during his refidence at the French court in 1570, were collected by fir Dudley Digges, and publifhed in 1655, fol. Biog. Brit. WaAtstncHamM, THOMAS, a native of Norfolk, was a benedictine monk of St. Alban’s, where he was chanter, and probably regius profeffor of hiftory about the year 1440, in the reign of Henry VI., as he ftyles himfelf hiftoriographer royal. One of his works is intitled * Hiftoria brevis,”? and commences with the clofe of the reign of Henry III., where that of Matthew Paris terminates. Another performance is intitled “ Hypodigma Neuftrie,” and gives an account of the affairs of the duchy of Normandy, from the time of Rollo to the fixth year of Henry V. The materials of this chronicler’s narratives are in good eftimation; and were publifhed b archbifhop Parker, Lond. 1574, fol. Nicolfon’s Hitt. Libs- Gen. Biog. WatsincHaM, Tuomas, in the Hiffory of Mufic, was the author of a treatife in the MS. of Waltham Holy Crofs; for an account of which, fee Lionel Power. Foran account of Wallingham’s treatife, fee the article Pro- LATION. Wat- WAL - WALSINGHAM, a tune in queen Elizabeth’s Virginal Book, with thirty variations by Dr. Bull; fo difficult, that the famous finger, Margarita, after fhe had quitted the ftage, and was married to Dr. Pepufch, though fhe became a great harpfichord player, could never entirely conquer them. See Virernat Book of queen Elizabeth and Dr. Butt. We at firft imagined that this tune might have had its name of Walfingham, from the compofer of whom we have been fpeaking in the preceding article; but find that in Ward’s Lives of the Prof. of Gres. Coll. it is faid to have been firft compofed by Birde, with twenty variations, and that Bull compofed his variations at different times. After- wards, we-thought then that the name might have been a compliment to fir Francis Walfingham, the queen’s minifter ; but that idea was relinquifhed on finding that it was the tune of an old fong, beginning, ** As I went to Walfing- ham,”’ in queen Elizabeth’s book; and ‘“* Have with you to Walfingham,”’ in lady Nevil’s virginal book, where it is inferted with twenty-two variations by Birde. Now it is well known by tradition, in Norfolk, that Henry VIII., previous to the fuppreffion of the monaiteries, vifited that of our lady of Walfingham, fo rich in votive gifts from thofe who had been cured of difeafes, or imagined themfelves cured, by the waters of the holy well, that it has been fup- pofed that Henry, tempted by the riches and fplendour of the religious houfes at Walfingham, precipitated their fall ; and it is probable, that the words to the tune called Wal- fingham were written about this time. Watsincuan, Little, or New, in Geography, a confider- able market-town in the hundred of North Greenhoe and county of Norfolk, England, is fituated on the banks of a {mall river at the diftance of 29 miles N.W. from the city of Norwich, and 114 miles N.N.E. from London. The great celebrity which this town obtained for feveral cen- turies was originally derived from the widow of Ricoldie Faverches founding, about the year 1061, a {mall chapel in honour of the Virgin Mary, fimilar to the Sanéta Cafa at Nazareth. Sir Geflrey Faverches, her fon, confirmed the endowments, made an additional foundation of a priory for Auguitine canons, and ereéted a conventual church. Im- menfe wealth was accumulated by grants and offerings ; and the image of the Lady of Walfingham was as much fre- quented, if not more than the fhrine of St. Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. Foreigners of all nations came hither on pilgrimage ; many kings and queens of England alfo paid their devoirs to it; fo that the number and quantity of her devotees appeared to equal thofe of the lady of Loretto in Italy. Erafmus, who vifited this place, fays, that ‘ the chapel, then rebuilding, was diftiné from the church, and infide of it was a {mall chapel of wood, on each fide of which was.a little narrow door, where thofe who were ad- mitted came with their offerings and paid their devotions ; it was lighted up with wax torches, and the glitter of gold, filver, and jewels, would lead you to fuppofe it to be the feat of the gods.””_ This far-famed image was, in the 3oth year of Henry VIII., conveyed to Chelfea, and there publicly burnt. The prefent remains of this once-noble monaftic pile are, a portal, or weft entrance gateway, a richly orna- mented lofty arch, fixty feet high, which formed the eaft end of the church, fuppofed to have been erected in the time of Henry VII.; the refectory, feventy-eight feet long, and twenty-feven broad, and the walls twenty-fix feet and a half in height ; a Norman arch, part of the original chapel, which has a zigzag moulding; part of the old cloifters, a ftone bath, and two wells, called the Wifhing Wells, from a charm which fuperftition attached to them. The principal parts of thefe venerable ruins are included in the pleafure- 9 WAL grounds of Henry Lee Warner, efq. who has a commodious houfe, which occupies the feite of the priory. The prefent proprietor has progreffively, for feveral years, been making improvements in planting, and laying out the grounds in the immediate vicinity of his manfion. The church of Walfingham is a fpacious and interefting pile, difplaying in its architecture, ornaments, monuments, and very elegant font much to gratify the antiquary. The latter is not only the fineft fpecimen of the fort in the county, but perhaps in the kingdom. It is of an o€tangular fhape, and the whole of its bafe, fhaft, and proje@ting upper portion, is covered with fculpture, reprefenting buttreffes, pinnacles, niches, crocketted pediments, &c. with feveral figures in baflo- relievo. It is elevated on a plinth of four fteps, the ex- terior faces of which are alfo decorated with tracery mould- ings. (See an account and view of it in Britton’s Archi- tectural Antiquities of Great Britain.) A houfe of grey friars was founded in this town about the year 1346 by lady: Elizabeth de Burgh, countefs of Clare; but its fame was eclipfed by the fuperior grandeur of its neighbour, and poverty thruft it ftill further into obfcurity. An hofpital for lazars was founded here in 1492: the building of which is ufed now asa bridewell. A fair is held annually ; and a market weekly on Fridays. The population, by the return of the year 1811, was {tated to be 1008, occupying 236 houfes. At the diktance of a mile and ahalf N. by E. is the village of Old Walfingham, which contains two churches; and in 1811 was returned as having 71 houfes, and a population of 347 perfons. In the adjoining parifh of Binham are the remains of Binham Priory, formerly an edifice of great extent and liberal endowment. Its ruins are now very confiderable and interefting, but are gradually mouldering away. Of the once-{pacious collegiate church, only the nave and north aifle, the chief part of the weftern front, and fragments of the tranfept, are now left. Excepting the weft facade, the whole is of the early Norman archite€ture, and moft pro- bably conftitutes part of the original ftru@ure founded in the beginning of the reign of Henry I. The exterior of the weitern front is wholly in the pointed ftyle, and is an interefting {pecimen of the ecclefiaftical archite@ture of the thirteenth century. Holkham Houfe, in the adjacent parifh of Holkham, the magnificent feat and refidence of Thomas William Coke, efq., was begun in the year 1734 by the earl of Leicefter, and completed by his dowager-countefs in 1760. The central part of this fpacious manfion extends three hundred and forty-five feet in length, by one hundred and eighty in depth, and is accompanied by four wings or pavilions, which are connected with it by reétilinear corridors or galleries ; each of the two fronts, therefore, difplays a centre and two wings. In the centre are comprifed the principal rooms ; and each wing has its ref{pe@tive deftination, and fuite of family apartments. There may be houfes larger and more magnificent than this, but fcarcely any one in the kingdom that can equal it for convenience and appropriate arrange- ment. ‘The fitting up of the interior is in the moft {plendid ftyle, and in fome of the apartments with the moft elegant tafte. A correfponding ftyle prevails in laying out the ex- tenfive pleafure-grounds and park. On the north fide of the latter, a lake, covering about twenty acres, extends in nearly a right line for 1056 yards ; it includes a fmall ifland, and the fhore is finely clothed with wood.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Norfolk. By J. Britton, F.A.S. 1810. Blomefield’s Topographical Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. ix. 8vo, 1808. WaAL- WAL Watsincuam of Davis, Cape, a cape on the E. coatt of America, at the N. fide of the entrance into Cumberland ftraits. N. lat. 64° 10o!. W. long. 66°. Watsincuam of Frobifher, Cape, a cape at the S.E. ex- tremity of Hale ifland in Davis’s ftraits, at the entrance of Frobifher’s ftraits. N. lat. 62° 50’. W. long. 64° 58’. WALSRODE, 7. e. Wato’s Cross, a town of Weft- phalia, in the principality of Luneburg Zell, on the Bolme. It owes its rife to a monaftery founded in 986, by Walo a prince of Anhalt, and is now a confiderable town with a good trade in wool, beer, &c.; 3 miles N.W. of Zell. N. latin 2? salen long. 92 35! WALSTORP, a town of the duchy of Holftein; 11 miles S.W. of Lutkenborg. WALT, in Sea Language, an obfolete or {purious term, fignifying crank. ‘ WALTDORF, or Watrtersporr, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Neiffe; 5 miles N.N.E. of Neiffe. - WALTENBUCH, a town of Wurtemburg ; 8 miles S. of Stuttgart. WALTER Niensurc, a town of Germany, in the principality of Anhalt Zerbft ; 6 miles W. of Zerbit. WALTERSDORYF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim; 13 miles N.E. of Leutmifchl. WALTERSDORFF, a town of Auttria; 5 miles E. of Zitterdorff. WALTERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the principality of Gotha; 4 miles S.S.W. of Gotha. N. lat. 50° 56'. E. long. 10° 38!. WALTERSKIRCHEN, a town of Auftria; 8 miles N.W. of Zifterdorff. WALTHAM, a town of Maffachufetts, in the county of Middlefex, containing 1014 inhabitants ; 11 miles N.W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county of Addifon, containing 244 inhabitants. Watruam, or Weftham, a town of Virginia, on the left bank of James river; 4 miles N.W. of Richmond. Warttuam Abbey, or WatrtHAm ffoly-Crofs, a large irregular market-town in the half hundred of Wal- tham and county of Effex, England, is fituated on low ground near the river Lea, at the diltance of twenty-three miles W. by S. from Chelmsford, and twelve miles N. by E. from London. This {pot was originally part of the foreft of Effex, and derived the appellation of Waltham from the Saxon words Ham, a place, and Weald, woody ; the whole {cite being anciently overgrown with trees. The additional names were derived from the abbey afterwards founded here, and the crofs to which the abbey was dedi- cated. The firft mention of Waltham occurs in the reign of Canute the Great, when Tovy, the king’s ftandard- bearer, founded here a village and a church, placing three feore and fix dwellers in the former, and two priefts in the latter. After his death, Waltham reverted to the crown, and was granted, in 1062, by Edward the Confeffor, to earl Harold, on condition that he fhould build a monattery there. Harold accordingly, in the fame year, re-founded and en- larged the building ere&ted by Tovy, and endowed it as a college for a dean and eleven fecular canons of the order of St. Auguiftine, A diftin& manor was affigned for the main- tenance of each canon, and fix for the fupport of the dean ; the church was enriched with a great number of relics and coftly veffels. The poffeffions of the college were after- wards confiderably augmented by various benefaétions, and it continued in a ftate of progreffive advancement till the reign of Henry II. This monarch, by a charter of licence from pope Alexander, changed the old foundation of fecu- WAL lars into an abbey of regular canons of the fame order, enlarging the number to twenty-four, and proportionably increafing their revenues; and the abbey and church were re-dedicated to the Holy Crofs. Walter de Gaunt was ap- pointed the firft abbot, with an exemption by the pope from epifcopal jurifdition ; and this privilege has defcended to modern times, Waltham being ftill exempted from the arch- deacon’s vifitation. Richard I. granted to the abbey the whole manor of Waltham, with various privileges and gifts, which were greatly augmented by Henry III., from whofe time it became fo diftinguifhed by a feries of royal and noble benefaétors, as to rank with the moft opulent in the king- dom. Henry frequently made the abbey his refidence ; and, to provide, in fome meafure, for the increafed confumption which his prefence and retinue occafioned, granted to the town the privilege of a weekly market, and an annual fair of feven days. The abbey having exifted during the go- vernment of twenty-feven abbots, exclufive of the deans of the firft foundation, was diffolved in the year 1539; when its annual revenues were valued at goo/. 4s. 11d. according to Dugdale; or, as recorded by Speed, at 1079/. 12s. 1d. The fcite was granted to fir Anthony Denny ; from whofe family it pafled in the next century, by marriage, to James Hay, earl of Carlifle ; it has fince been in the family of fir William Wake, bart. The abbey-houfe is faid to have been a very extenfive building ; but it has been long fince wholly demolifhed ; a gateway into the abbey-yard, a bridge which leads to it, fome ruinous walls, an arched vault, and the church, are now the only veftiges of the ancient magnifi- cence of Waltham abbey. The church, which was of a much earlier ftyle of architeCture than the other remains, was built in the ufual form of a crofs, and confifted of a nave, tranfept, choir, ante-chapel, &c. Some idea may be formed of its great extent, from the fituation of king Ha- rold’s tomb, which {tood about 120 feet eaft from the termi- nation of the prefent building, in what was then the eaft end of the choir: the interfe€tion of the tranfept is ftill vifible ; above this rofe the ancient tower, part of which falling through mere decay, the remainder was undermined and blown up, and the whole choir, tower, tranfept, and eaft end, were wholly demolifhed, fo that nothing was left ftanding but the nave, which has fince been fitted up, and made parochial, and conftitutes the prefent church. This venerable relic, though much disfigured and mutilated, con- tains feveral interefting and curious {pecimens of the orna- mented columns, femi-circular arches, and other chara¢ter- iftics of the Norman ftyle of architecture. Its length is about ninety feet ; and its breadth forty-eight. "The body is divided from the aifles by fix arches on each fide; five are femicircular and decorated with zigzag ornaments ; the fixth is pointed, and apparently of a later conftru€tion. At the weft end is a heavy fquare embattled tower, rifing to the height of eighty-fix feet, and having the date of 1558. Almoft every ornamental veftige of grandeur and antiquity, which formerly diftinguifhed the exterior of this church, has been induftrioufly defaced ; and what remains owes its prefervation to the durable nature of its materials. In the infide the hand of violence is lefs confpicuous ; but every thing difplays marks of the moft wretched parfimony: the grandeur and fimplicity of the ancient remains are much injured by white-wafhing ; the braffes are torn from the grave-ftones, and it is with difficulty that their impreffions can be traced. In this church were interred king Harold and his two brothers, Girth and Leofwin, flain with him at the battle of Haftings. Many other perfons of rank and authority in early times were alfo buried here.. The hiftor of Waltham town is fo nearly identified with that of the abbey, WAL abbey, that but little remains to be faid of the former. In the population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of this town are enumerated as 2287; the houfes as 422. Tuefday is the market-day, and here are now two annual fairs. The chief manufaCtures are thofe of printed linens, cand of pins; for the latter purpofe fome large buildings have been recently ereéted, in which a great number of chuil- dren of both fexes areemployed. On one of the branches of the Lea, near the town, are fome gunpowder mills, now in the occupation of government; thefe have been partly re- built fince the year 1801, when confiderable damage was done by the explofion of the Corning-houfe. The various ftreams of the Lea, in this vicinity, are traditionally fup- pofed to flow in the fame channels which the great Alfred made to divert the current, when he drew off the water, and left the Danifh fleet on fhore. Waltham parifh includes the hamlets of Holyfield, Sewardftone, and Upfhire, which are ftated to contain 297 houfes and 1398 inhabitants; making the aggregate population of the parifh 3685, the number of houfes 719.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Effex. By J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1803. Hiftory, &c. of Waltham Abbey, by J. Farmer, Gent. 8vo. 1735. Wa ttuam, Bif/hop’s. See Bisuop’s Waltham. Wartuam, We, or WattHaM Cro/s, a ‘hamlet in the parifh of Chefhunt, hundred and county of Hertford, Eng- land, is fituated half a mile from Waltham abbey, nine miles S. by E. from Hertford, and twelve miles N. from London. It derives the appellation of Cro/s from one of thofe elegant ftone crofles which Edward I. ere&ted to the memory of his confort queen Eleanor, who died in Novem- ber 1291, at Hareby near Grantham, in Lincolnfhire. Her bowels were interred in Lincoln cathedral; her body was brought to London, and depofited in Weftminfter abbey. At each of the places where the proceffion refted, during this journey, the king afterwards ereGted a crofs; of which only thofe of Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham, now remain. Waltham crofs is the leaft perfect of the three, though the Society of Antiquaries have twice interefted themfelves in its prefervation; once in 1721, and again in 1757, when lord Monfon, then lord of the manor of Chef- hunt, at the requeft of the Society, furrounded the bafe with brick-work : it was originally encompaffed by a flight - of fteps, but thefe have been long removed. The upper parts are alfo greatly mutilated ; much of the foliage is de- faced, and the pinnacles and battlements are broken. The form of the crofs is hexagonal: it is feparated into three ‘ftories ; the middlemoft of which is open, and difplays fta- tues of queen Eleanor crowned; her left hand holding a cordon, and her right a {ceptre or globe. Each fide of the lower ftory is divided into two compartments, beneath an angular coping, charged with fhields exhibiting the arms of England, Caitile, Leon, and Ponthieu. The cornice over the firft ftory is compofed of various foliage and lions’-heads, furmounted by a battlement pierced with quatrefoils. The fecond ftory is formed of twelve open tabernacles, in pairs, terminating in ornamented pediments with a finial on the top: this ftory alfo finifhes with a cornice and battlement like the firft, and fupports a third ftory of folid mafonry, ornamented with fingle compartments in relief, fomewhat refembling thofe below.. In this hamlet is an ancient Spital, confifting of four rooms below, and three above, from time immemorial appropriated for poor lame people. The work- houfe for the parifh of Chefhunt is fituated in this hamlet. —Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. Hertfordhhire. By E. W. Brayley. 1808. Lyfons’ Environs of London, vol. iv. 4to. 1796. Britton’s Architeftural Antiquities of Great Britain, vol.i. gto. 1807. Vou. XXXVII. WAL WatrtHam, Great, a townfhip of England, in Effex s 4 miles N. by W. of Chelmsford. Watrtuam on the Wold, a town of England, in the county of Leicefter, which had formerly a weekly market on Thurfday, now difcontinued; 18 miles S.E. of Nottingham. N. lat. 52° 50!. W. long. 0° 48!. See Warron-on-the-Wolds. WALTHAMSTOW, an extenfive village in the hun- dred of Becontree and county of Effex, Bighand, is fituated near the borders of the river Lea, at the diftance of fix miles and a half N.E. by N. from St. Paul’s cathedral, London. Its name is derived from the Saxon word weald, a wood, ham, a manor, and flowe,a place. It covers a con- fiderable tract of ground, and is divided into the following ftreets, or hamlets: Wood-ftreet, Clay-ftreet, Marfh-itreet, Hoo-ftreet, Hale-end, and Chapel-end. ‘The parifh church, a f{pacious brick ftruéture, confifts of a chancel, nave, and two aifles. At the weft end is a {quare tower, which was rebuilt by fir George Monox, alderman of London; who alfo built the chapel at the eaft end of the north aifle about the year 1535: the fouth aifle was built about the fame year with a part of fome monies beqeathed for charitable ufes by Robert Thorne, merchant-taylor, and citizen of London. About the year 1740, a meeting-houfe for Pro- teftant diffenters was eftablifhed in this village: in 1787 fome difputes among the congregation occafioned the build- ing of a new meeting-houfe, which was opened in July in that year: it has a cemetery adjoining. Sir George Monox, before mentioned, built and endowed thirteen alms-houfes on the north fide of the church-yard, for eight men and five women; with a fchool-houfe and apartments for a mafter: the endowments were augment- ed in 1686, by the will of Henry Maynard, efq. Thirty boys are now clothed and educated in the fchool; and the benefits have been extended to twenty girls, in a {chool eftablifhed in 1780. Here is alfo a f{chool for very young children, who are taken care of till of age to be ad- mitted into the other fchools. In the year 1795, fix alms- houfes were built and endowed by Mrs. Mary Squires, for widows of decayed tradefmen. The parifh of Walthamitow contains about 4320 acres of land, of which upwards of 3000 are inclofed; chiefly pafture land. ‘The population return of the year 1811 ftates the number of houfes to be 562 ; the inhabitants 3777.—Lyfons’s Environs of London, vol. iy. 4to. 1796. WALTHARN, a town of Hefle Darmitadt ; 26 miles E.N.E. of Heidelberg. WALTHAUSEN, a town of Auftria, with a convent ; 4 miles N.E. of Grein. ; WALTHER, Aucustine Freperic, in Biography, an anatomift and phyfician, was appointed in 1723 profeflor of anatomy and furgery, in the univerfity of Leyden. Seve- ral of his differtations on anatomical fubjeéts are upon the whole commended, and have been reprinted by Haller. The beit of his larger pieces are, “ De Lingua Humana Libel- lus,’”? 1724, 4to. As a botanift, he publifhed a catalogue of the plants in his own garden, and a work on the ftruc- ture of plants. He died about the year 1746. Haller. Eloy. See WALTHERIA. Watrtuer, BERNARD, an eminent aftronomer, was born at Nuremberg in the year 1430, and having applied princi- pally to the ftudy of mathematics, and more efpecially of aftronomy, under Regiomontanus, was eminently ufeful by his talents and opulence in encouraging the inventions and aiding the obfervations of his preceptor, whilft he con- tinued at Nuremberg ; and when by the invitation of pope Sixtus IV. he removed to Rome, with a view to the re- formation of the calendar, he continued his obfervations for aR nearly WAL nearly forty years, viz. from 1475 to the time of his death in 1504. His inftruments were of the moft perfe&t kind which he could then procure, and he was fkilful and perfe- vering as well as fuccefsful in the ufe of them. He was the inventor of a chronometer, or clock with wheels, which indicated the time of noon with an accuracy correfponding to the refult of calculation; and he is alfo celebrated as the firft of the Moderns who obferved refraétion. (See the article Joun Mutrer.) The fingularity of his charaéter, however, reftri&ted the benefit which aftronomy might otherwife have derived from his own obfervations and thofe of his preceptor Regiomontanus, or John Muller. After the death of Muller, he purchafed his papers and inttru- ments, which he kept in his own poffeffion, without allow- ing any one to fee them; and after his death, they were negleéted by his heirs, fo that many of them were loft. At length the fenate of Nuremberg purchafed the writings of thefe two mathematicians which they could procure, and depofited them in the library of that city. Several parts of them were afterwards extracted, and publifhed by Scho-, ner and his fon. In the work entitled ‘¢ Vranies Norice Bafis Aftronomicx, five Rationes motus annui ex Obferva- tionibus in Solem hoc noftro et Seculo ab hinc tertio Norin- bergz, habitis, a Johanne Philippo a Wurzlebau,”’ Norinb. 1709, are contained obfervations by Walther and Wurzel- bau, with inferences drawn from a comparifon of them, which are faid by Kaftner to be very valuable, as the ob- fervations were made under the fame meridian, and at the interval of a century. Montucla Hift.du Mathem, [att- ner Gefchite du Mathematik, cited in Gen. Biog. Wacruer, Joun Goprrey, author of an excellent hif- torical and biographical mufical di&tionary, publifhed in German at Leipfic, 1782, in 8vo. The German title is ; Muicalileyes Lexicon oder MuGealitche Wibliothec, Of all the books which we have confulted for information con- cerning muficians and their works, we have never met with more iatisfaecion than from this Lexicon; which though compreffed into an octavo volume, is fo ample and accurate, that we have been feldom difappointed, and never led into error by it. his little volume contains, not only all the technica of ancient and modern mufic, but biography, as far as names, dates, and works, of almoft every eminent mufician that has exifted in ancient and modern times, till the year in which the book was publifhed. The author’s information, of courfe, concerning Germany, is the moft ample, but Italy and France have had a confiderable fhare of atten- tion. In 1790 and 1792 a new edition of this work, with addi- tions to the time of publication, was printed at Letpfic in two vols. 8vo. by Ernft Ludwig Gerber. Warner, Joun Luporpn, author of another very curious and ufeful di€tionary, publifhed at Ulm in folio, 1756, in Latin, intitled “* Lexicon Diplomaticum Abbre- viationes fyllabarum et vocum in diplomatibus et codicibus a Seculo VIII. ad XVI. ufque occurentes exponens. Junétis Alphabetis et feripture Speciminibus integris.”” The author was librarian and private fecretary to his Britifh majefty Geo. II. as ele€tor of Hanover. With a very learned preface by John Harry Young, regius fecretary in the univerfity of Gottingen. The whole book is engraved on copper-plates; and in the fecond part, among the {pecimens of writing without abbre- viations, we haye examples of the firft attempts at moufical notation from the ninth century, not only before lines were tn ufe, but even before points of. different elevation were the vocal guides of the priefts in canto fermo. This very curious, learned, and elegant publication feems WAL to have efcaped the notice of all our periodical works of criticifm, nor have we ever feen it mentioned in any of our catalogues of old and curious books. WALTHERIA, in Botany, received its name from Linnzus, in honour of Auguftus Frederick Walther, pro- feffor of Pathology at Leipfic, where he publifhed, in 1735, an alphabetical catalogue of his own garden, with twenty- four plates, no very great acquifition to {cience. The au- thor, being an able anatomift, gave fome attention to the ftru€ture of plants, on which he publifhed an academical treatife in.1740; but, as it appears by Haller’s account, without much that is new or inftru€tive. He wrote alfo on the effential oils of vegetables, on the Egyptian Zotus, and on the Si/phium of the antients, as elucidated, if fuch a term be allowable, by their coins. ‘This author died in 1746, at the age of 58. There have been feveral others of the fame name, but {carcely entitled to claim a fhare in the botanical diftinétion here conferred.—Linn. Gen. 348. Schreb. 453- Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 586. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 138. Cavan. Diff. 315. Juff. 289. Lamarck Illuftr. t.570. Poiret in Lamarck Dia. vy. 8. 323.—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Pentandria. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvacee, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. fPerianth inferior, double; the outer unilateral, of three leaves, deciduous: inner of one leaf, cloven half way down into five acute fegments, cup-fhaped, permanent. Cor. Petals five, inverfely heart-fhaped, fpread- ing, their claws inferted into the lower part of the tube of the filaments. Stam. Filaments five, united into a tube, their upper part feparate, fpreading, fhort ; anthers ovate. Pift, Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyle thread-haped, longer than the ftamens; ftigmas tufted. Peric. Capfule obovate, of one cell and two valves. Seed folitary, obtufe, dilated upwards. E1f. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer lateral, of three leaves, deciduous. Petals five. Style one. Captule of one cell, and two valves. Seed folitary. A tropical genus, whofe flowers are fmaller than in moft of the Mallow tribe, and always aflembled numeroufly into little tufts or heads. The /lem is fhrubby. Leaves undivided, more or lefs ovate, ferrated, generally downy. The fimple capfule, withronly one feed, makes the peculiar chara&ter of Waltheria, oppofed to others of the fame natural otder.— Juffiew refers this genus, along with Hermannia and Maher- nia, to a fe&tion of his Tilacee, which he terms dubie. We make no {cruple to follow the example of Cavanilles, in re-, moving it to the Ma/vacee, with which it accords in every effential point of charaéter and habit. 1. W. Americana. American Waltheria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 941. excluding the fyn. of Breynius. Willd. nr. Ait. nt. (W. Indica; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t.130. Mife. Auftr. v. 2. 323. W.arborefcens; Cavan. Diff. 316. t. 170. f. 1. Monofperm-althea arborefcens villofa, folio majore ; Hnard Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences for 1721, German ed. 751. t. 32. Betonica arborefcens, foliis amplioribus; Pluk. Almag. 67. Phyt. t.150. £. 6.) — Leaves oval, plaited, downy, unequally and fharply toothed. Heads of flowers ftalked.—Native of the Bahama iflands, and South Ame- rica. Cultivated in the royal gardens at Hampton-court, in Plunkenet’s time. A ftove plant, flowering at various feafons, after which it ufually dies, though fhrubby, and perhaps naturally perennial. The dranches are round, downy, leafy, wand-like, very foft when young. Leaves alternate, ftalked, one to two inches, or more, in length, ftrongly veined, plaited at the edges, extremely foft on both fides, with denfe, hoary, minutely ftarry, pubefcence. Si- pulas awl-fhaped. Fowers {mall, yellow, in denfe axillary, 12 folitary eM Wah folitary tufts, each on a {tout ftraight downy ftalk, various in length, but ufually about equal to the correfponding foot- 2. W. Indica. Eaft Indian Waltheria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 941. Willd. n.2. Ait. n.2. (Malvinda ulmifolia, flof- culis pufillis mufcofis conftipatis; Burn. Zeyl. 149. t. 68. Betonica arborefcens maderafpatana, villofis foliis pro- fundé venofis; Pluk. Almag. 67. Phyt. t. 150. f. 5.) — Leaves oval, plaited, downy, bluntly toothed. Heads of flowers feffile.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Cavanilles unites it with the foregoing, but the blunter more fhallow teeth of the Zaves, which are perhaps lefs denfely downy, and the conftantly feffile heads of flowers, of a tawny yellow, appear fufficient marks of diftinGtion, efpecially as the native coun- tries of thefe two plants are fo remote from each other. Mr. Aiton marks the W. Jndica as a fhrub, flowering in the ftove from June to Auguit, and cultivated by.Miller before the year 1759. To the Americana he attaches the charaGter of biennial. 3. W. Lophanthus. Crefted South-fea Waltheria. Forft. Prod. 47. Willd. n.3. (Lophanthus tomentofus; Forft. Gen. t. 14; fee LopHantuus. )— Leaves roundifh-heart- fhaped, ferrated, ftalked, clothed with filky pubefcence. Heads of flowers ftalked. Braéteas imbricated.””?—Native of the Marquis iflands. G. Forfter. 4. W. ovata. Roundifh-leaved Waltheria. Cavan. Dill. 317. t. 171. f. 1. Willd. n. 4.—Leaves roundifh- ovate, acute, unequally toothed, denfely downy. Heads of flowers feffile.—Gathered in Peru by Dombey, who, un- aware of its real genus, named the plant Aubentonia. This is a bufhy forub, three or four feet high, downy and very foft in every part. Leaves of a very broad ovate figure, obfcurely lobed or angular, one and a half or two inches long, fharply toothed. Flowerk yellow, in fmall feffile zufts, fome of the lower ones afflembled upon fhort, leafy, axillary branches, not near fo long as the leaves. 5. W. angefifolia. Narrow-leaved Waltheria. Linn. Sp. Pl. g41. Willd. n. 5. (W. microphylla; Cavan. Diff. 317- t. 170. f. 2.) —‘ Leaves oblong, obtule, plaited, toothed, hoary. Heads of flowers nearly feffile.”,—Native of the Eaft Indies. Willdenow fays, “ the fem is fhrubby. Whole plant invefted with thin pubefcence. Leaves half an inch long, obtufe at each end. Heads fupported by very fhort ftalks.’? We are obliged to adopt from him our ideas of this fpecies, having no certain means of knowing what Lin- news intended. The plant of FY. Zeylanica, n. 244. is pro- bably different from that of Sp. P/. but the fynonyms of this and WV. indica are fo confufed, that they embroil rather than illuftrate the fubje&, nor does the Linnzan herbarium throw any certain light upon it. 6. W. elliptica. Elliptic-leaved Waltheria. Cavan. Diff. 316. t.171. f.2. Willd. n. 6.— Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtufe, plaited, toothed, downy. Heads of flowers feffile. +Gathered by Sonnerat in the Eait Indies. -The Leaves are more downy, and thrice as long as in the laft, though not broader; the petals, according to Cavanilles’ plate, ob- tufe, not emarginate. 7. W. glabra. Smooth-leaved Waltheria. Poiret in Lam. n. 7.—Leaves fmooth, ovato-lanceolate, bluntith, with tooth-like ferratures. Heads of flowers alternate, on axil- lary ftalks.—Native of Guadaloupe, defcribed by Poiret from the herbarium of profeffor Desfontaines. A /brub related in many refpeGts to the W. americana, but {mooth in all its parts. The éranches are flender, a little compreffed, very fmooth, dark brown. Leaves ftalked, oval, fomewhat lanceolate, two or three inches long, one and a half or two inches broad; {mooth on both fides ; paler beneath ; rarely fialk. WAL pointed. Footfalks flender, fix or eight lines long. Sti« pulas lanceolate, pointed, deciduous. Flowers in denfe, al- moft feffile, leaflefs tufts, ranged alternately on an axillary ftalk. Outer calyx of three very narrow, {mooth, deci- duous leaves: inner permanent, bell-fhaped, very {mooth, with long, almoft thread-fhaped teeth. Corolla yellow, {carcely longer than the inner calyx. Capfule membranous, with one feed. Poiret. The genus is clear by this defcrip- tion. 8. W. cordata. Heart-leaved Waltheria. Leaves f{mooth, heart-fhaped, fharply and unequally toothed. Heads of flowers ovate, folitary, on ftraight axillary ftalks.—Native, we believe, of the Weft Indies. The branches are round, elongated, brown ; very {mooth below; their younger fhoots roughifh to the touch with minute points. Leaves from one to two inches long, on roughifh footfalks about a quarter of their own length, broadly ovate, bluntifh, veiny, but not plaited ; more or fefs heart-fhaped at the bafe ; very unequally toothed ; paler beneath. Stipulas awl-thaped. Common flower-ftalks generally much longer than the footitalks, ftout, each bearing a denfe head of flowers, about half an inch long. Calyx, &c. anfwering nearly to the defcription of the laft. The feed is folitary, turbinate, ra- ther hard. The younger Linneus received this plant by the name of MW. anguflifolia, which it cannot be. The {moothnefs of the /eaves and moft other parts diftinguithes it from every defcribed fpecies, except the laft, with whofe defcription its ‘aves and inflore/eence will by no means accord. Wa ttuenia, in Gardening, affords plants of the woody exotic kind, in which the fpecies cultivated are the Ameri- can waltheria (W. Americana); the Indian waltheria (Ww. oe 3 and the narrow-leaved waltheria (W. angufti- olia). The firt is a foft woody-ftalked plant of fmall growth. The fecond fort has a branching fhrubby growth.’ And the lait is of the woody-ftalked kind, They all afford flowers during the fummer months. Method of Culture-—Thefe plants may be increafed by feeds, which muft be fown on a hot-bed; and when the plants are fit to plant out, they muft be each removed into a feparate {mall pot, and plunged into a frefh hot-bed, being afterwards treated in the fame manner as other plants of the fame nature, being kept in the bark-ftove. In the fecond year they flower and produce feeds, but may be continued three or four years if they be often fhifted, and the roots pared to keep them within compafs. In the view of keep- ing the roots out of the tan, they fhould be drawn up out of it at leat once in fix weeks, during the fummer feafon, and the plants be fhifted out of the pots once in two months: with this management the fecond and third forts may be continued feveral years, but the firlt {eldom endures longer than two. They have a good effe& in ftove colletions among other potted plants. WALTON, Brian, in Biography, editor of the Englifh Polyglott Bible, was born about the year 1600 in the diltri& of Cleveland, Yorkfhire, and in 1615 admitted into Magda- len college, Cambridge, whence he removed to Peter-houfe. In 1623 he took the degree of M.A. being then curate and matter of a fchool in Suffolk. Upon his removal to London, he became in 1626 reétor of St. Martin’s Orgar, and was dif. tinguifhed for his talents and diligence among the London clergy. After having been inftituted to other preferments in the church, he took the degree of D.D. in 1639; but in the civil war his livings were fequeftered, and he was under a neceflity of feeking fhelter among the royalifts at Ox- 4R2 ford, WAL ford, where he formed the defign of the Polyglott Bible, and which he aétually commenced, upon his removal to London, in 1653. Indefatigable in his application, he completed this work in fix vols. fol. in 16575; and it was the firft work publifhed in England by fubfcription. The proteétor’s government alfo allowed him to import paper exempt from duty. » For an account of this, as well as the other principal polyglotts, with a brief ftatement of their re{peétive contents, we refer to the article Poryerorr. It is fomewhat curious in the hiftory of literature, that in the firft preface to this work, Dr. Walton acknowledged his obligations to the prote€tor for his patronage; but that after the Reftoration, feveral alterations were made in this preface, and the paragraph in which he acknowledges his obligations to the proteGor is fupprefled, and another tranf- ferring his refpeét to Charles 1s introduced in its room. (See Hollis’s Memoirs, vol. i. p. 425. Bowyer’s Origin of Printing, Appendix.) Thefe alterations have occafioned a diftinGtion. among thofe who are curious in the editions of books between republican and royal or Inyal copies of the Polyglott. The republican copy now before us is the rareft, and therefore bears the higheft price. Dr. Owen in 1659 made an attack upon the prolegomena or appendix of this bible, which was annexed to two of his traéts publifhed at Oxford, and in the fame year Dr. Walton publifhed an elaborate reply. Soon after the Reftoration, Dr. Walton prefented his Po- lyglott to Charles II., who, in recompence of his fervices to religion and learning, appointed him his chaplain in ordi- nary, and bifhop of Chefter, to which fee he was confecrated in December in 1660. In the following year, he was one of the commiffioners at the Savoy conference. After his re- turn to London from a vifit to his diocefe, in the autumn of that year, he was feized with a difeafe, which terminated his life on the 29th of November. His remains were in- terred in the cathedral of St. Paul’s, and a fumptuous mo- nument was ereéted to his memory. Biog. Brit. Watton, Isaac, was born at Stafford in 1593; and fettling in London as a fhop-keeper, he married, about the year 1632, the fifter of Dr. Ken, afterwards bifhop of Bath and Wells. Satisfied with a moderate competency, he left bufinefs, and removed from London. Upon the deceafe of. Dr. Donne, in 1631, whofe miniftry he attended during his refidence in the city, he undertook, at the requeft of fir Henry Wotton, to colleé& materials for his life ; but as Wot- ton, for whofe ufe they were intended, died before he had an opportunity of executing his purpofe, Walton, though deftitute of a literary education, wrote this life, which he publifhed in 1640, and alfo that of Wotton, which appeared im 1644. After his recefs from bufinefs, his favourite amufe- ment was fifhing ; and being expert in the praétical. part of this art, he wrote a book upon the fubje&, which he pub- lifhed in 1653 under the title of ‘‘ Complete Angler, or Con- templative Man’s Recreation,’ 12mo. ‘This {mall traé&, drawn up in the form of dialogue, was rendered interefting by the reflections that were introduced, and by the engrav- ings of fifhes that adorned it. Accordingly it became po- pular, and five editions of it, with fucceflive improvements, appeared to the year 1676; and it is now a kind of ftandard book among thofe who purfue this recreation. Having loft his wife in 1662, he affociated chiefly with the clergy, and whilft he was refident with Dr. Morley, bifhop of Winchef- ter, he was induced, by the fuggeftion of Dr. Sheldon, to write the life of Richard Hooker, which was followed by that of George Herbert ; and both were publifhed in 1670. In 1677 he publifhed the life of Dr. Sanderfon, which clofed his literary labours. His life was prolonged to the age of WAL ninety, when he was carried off at Winchefter, in Decem- ber 1683, by the feverity of a hard froft. In his difpofition and charaéter, he was amiable, loyal, and religious ; and in his {tyle of writing fimple and unaffe&ted. A colleétion of his lives with notes was printed by. Dr. Zouch in 1796, 4to- and again in 8vo., to which is prefixed a copious life of the author. Gen. Biog. WaALton, in Geography, a poft-townfhip of Delaware county, in New York, about 85 miles from Albany ; about 7 miles fquare, fituated on both fides of Conquago, or the W. branch of the Delaware river; it is mountainous and hilly, with good foil along the ftreams; much of the hills is arable or meadow land, and good for grazing. The town- {hip is well watered, and affords timber, which is rafted to Philadelphia. Here are a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe, and feveral f{chools. In 1810 the whole population was 1311, with 128 eleétors, 173 taxable inhabitants, and 183,357 dollars of taxable property. WaxrTon,a townof Virginia; 60 miles S.W.of Richmond. Watton, a town of England, in Derbyfhire; 3 miles S.W. of Chetterfield.— Alfo, a village of England, jin the county of Gloucefter, where there is a medicinal fpring, fimilar to Cheltenham ; 1 mile E. of Tewkefbury. Watton fe Dale, a townfhip of Lancafhire; 7 miles W. of Blackburn. Watrton-on-the-Wolds, a village and parifh in the hundred of Eaft-Gofcote, and county of Leicefter, England ; 4 miles E.of Loughborough. See Nichols’s Hiftory, &c. of Lei- cefterfhire. Watton-upon-Thames, a village in the hundred of Elm- bridge and county of Surrey, England, is fituated on the fouthern bank of the river, 14 miles N.E. by N. diftant from Guildford, and 18 miles W.S.W. from London. Mr. Gough fays it probably derived its name from an encamp- ment on St. George’s-hill, in the vicinity, called Wall-town. Thefe works are faid to have been of Roman conftru@tion as well asa larger encampment at Oatlands, and fome topo- graphers contend that Julius Czfar raifed a bridge over the Thames near this place. This however is very doubtful, although it feems fatisfactorily proved, that many piles and pieces of timber have been raifed from the bed of the river, and that thefe as well as the fpot have long been called Cowey-ftakes. In Walton are two annual fairs, one of which was eftablifhed by grant of king Henry VIII. Apfe- court, in this parifh, is an old manfion, belonging to Ed- mund Hill, efq. ; but the land and extenfive walled gardens are now let to a gardener. At Burwood-park is a handfome modern houfe, built by fir John Frederick, bart., who has lately much enlarged and improved the eftate. Burhill is a feat in this parifh, belonging to fir Charles Kemys T'ynte, grandfon of general Johnfon, who obtained this eftate in ~ 1720 by the bequeft of Peter de la Porte. Pains-hill is much celebrated for its fine grounds and beautiful gar- dens, which were firft laid out by the honourable Charles Hamilton, and obtained very confiderable popularity from having been formed from a fterile heath. ‘Thus an apparent defert was transformed to a terreftrial paradife. Walpole, Gilpin, and other authors, have defcanted on the beauties of this famed feat. One of thefe ftates, ‘there may be fcenes where Nature has done more for herfelf, but in no place that I ever faw has fo much been done for nature as at Pains-hill. The beauty and unexpected variety of the fcene, the happy fituation, elegant ftruéture, and judicious form of the buildings ; the flourifhing ftate, uncommon diverfity, and- contrafted groupage of the trees, and the contrivance of the water, will not fail to awaken the moft pleafing fenfations.’? Mr. Hamilton fold this place to Benjamin Bond Hopkins, efq-s WAM efq., who erected a large manfion on the brow of the hill. Pains-hill is now the feat of the earl of Carhampton. At Walton is a very long bridge over the Thames. In the church is alarge coftly monument by Roubiliac, to the me- mory of Richard, vifcount Shannon, who died in 1740, and who was at that time field-marfhal in the army, and com- mander-in-chief in Ireland. William Lilly, the aftrologer, was buried in the chancel of this church; and in other parts were interred the following perfons: Jerome Wetton, earl of Portland, who died in 1662; fir Jacob Edwards, bart., and his lady; Henry Skrine, efq., author of a tour in Wales, &c. Several of the Rodney family were buried in the church. In the chancel is a brafs-plate engraved with the figures of a man on the back of a ftag, and faid to comme- morate the following perfon and fa&:—John Selwyn, a keeper in Oatlands park, was particularly noted for his itrength, agility, &c. One day when hunting a ftag in the faid park, in the prefence of queen Elizabeth, he fprang from his horfe’s back on that of the deer, and there pre- ferved his feat, till the animal had reached a {pot near her majefty, when Selwyn plunged his {word into the throat of the deer, and killed him on the {pot.—See Antiquarian Re- pertory, yol.i. 1807. Foran account of Oatlands, &c. fee Weysripce. Hiltory and Antiquities of Surrey, by the Rey. Owen Manning and William Bray, efq., three vols. fol. “,WALTUNGI, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65°34. E. long. 25°. WALTWIESE, a town of France, in the department of the Mofelle; 7 miles N.W. of Sar Louis. WALTZ, in Biography, a German bafe finger, with a courfe figure, and a {till coarfer voice, whom Handel, when abandoned by all the great fingers who had performed in the operas which he compofed for the Royal Academy, was obliged to employ in the place of Montagnana. It has been faid, that Waltz was originally Handel’s cook. He fre- quently fung in chorufes and comic entertainments at Drury Lane, in our own memory ; and, as an actor, had a great deal of broad humour. He played a little on the violoncello, and ufed to divert the band in the mufic-room under the ftage when not wanted in the orcheftra, with accompanying himfelf in ridiculous and fatirical fongs. Watrz, the name of a riotous German dance, of modern invention ; of which the definition has not yet had admiffion in any mufical lexicon. The tune is gay, and always in triple time. All our great performers on keyed inftruments have compofed and publifhed tunes of this kind. The verb waltzen, whence this word is derived, implies to roll, wallow, welter, tumble down, or roll in the dirt or mire. What analogy there may be between thefe acceptations and the dance, we pretend not to fay; but having feen it performed by a feleét party of foreigners, we could not help reflecting how uneafy an Englith mother would be to fee her daughter fo familiarly treated, and ftill more to wit- nefs the obliging manner in which the freedom is returned by the females. WALUWE, in Geography, a town on the S.E. coaft of Ceylon; 40 miles S. of Yale. WALWARNO, a river of England, which runs into the Lee, in the county of Chefter. WAMAR, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of Aroo. S. lat. 5°30/. E.long. 134° 57’. WAMBA, a town of Spain, anciently called Gertica ; 6 miles N. of Valladolid.—Alfo, a province of the kingdom of Anziko, S.E. of Pombo. WAMBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ko- nigingratz ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Konigingratz. WAMBRE, a river of Africa, in the kingdom of An- WAN ziko, which runs into the Bancaro, 2 5 miles N.E. of Con- cabella. WAMBULA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Abo; 48 miles S.S.E. of Biorneborg. WAMMELOF, a town of Sweden, in the province of Schonen ; 25 miles S.E. of Lund. WAMPACH,, a town of France, in the department of the Forefts; 6 miles E.N.E. of Houfalife. WAMPOOL, or Wamrut, ariver of England, in Cum- berland, which runs into the Eden, at its mouth. WAMPU, a town of China, fituated on the river be- tween Macao and Canton, where veflels of different nations lie to take in their lading; not being allowed to go up higher. The air is faid to be siaateletoniel 7 miles S. of Canton. WAMPUM, a fort of fhells, feveral of which, being {trung upon threads, are ufed as money among the Indians. It 1s formed of the infide of the clam-fhell, a large fea- fhell bearing fome refemblance to that of a fcallop, which is found on the coafts of New England and Virginia. This fhell is made into {mall cylinders of about one quarter of an inch long, and a fifth of an inch over, and being bored as beads, is ftrung in great numbers upon long ftrings. In this itate it pafles among the Indians in their ufual com- merce, as filver and gold among us; but being loofe it is not fo current. It is both white and black or purple ; and the meaneft is in fingle ftrings, of which the white goes at five fhillings a fathom, and the black at ten; or by number, the white fix a penny, the black at three. The next in value to thefe fingle ftrings, is that which is wove into bracelets of about three-quarters of a yard long, black and white, in ftripes, and fix pieces in a row, the warp confifting of leather thongs, and the woof of thread; thefe the gentlewomen among them wear, wound twice or oftener about their wrifts. The moft valuable of all is that woven into girdles or belts. Thefe are compofed of many rows, and the black and white pieces woven into fquares or other figures. Thefe girdles are fometimes worn as their richeft ornaments; but they are oftener ufed in their great payments, and make their nobleft prefents, and are laid up as their treafure. Grew’s Mufzum, p. 370. WAMWALO, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 55 miles W. of Noanagur. WANA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavaft- land; 5 miles S.E. of Tavaithus. WANASPATUCKET, ariver of Rhode ifland, which runs into Providence river. WANDA, a town of Algiers, in the province of Tre- mecen; 35 miles S.W. of T'remecen. WANDASS. See Wrinpass. WANDECHY, in Geography, a town of Bootan; 4 miles N.W. of Taffafudon. N. lat. 27°52'. E. long. 89° ite é WANDERSLEBEN, a town of Saxony, in the prin- cipality of Altenburg ; 9 miles S.W. of Erfurt. WANDESBECK, a town of the circle of Holftein ; 3 miles N.E. of Hamburg. WANDIPOUR, a town of Bootan, defended by a ci- tadel, and confidered as a place of great ftrength; 15 miles E. of Taffafudon. N.lat.27° 50’. E. long. 89° 47!. WANDIWASH, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carna- tic ; taken by the Britifh troops in 1760; 38 miles N.N.W. of Pondicherry. N. lat. 12° 31/._ E. long. 79° 46/. WANDLACKEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen; 4 miles E. of Gerdaven. WANDLE; WAN WANDLE, ariver of England, in the county of Sur- rey, which runs into the Thames, below Wand{worth. WANDO, a river of South Carolina, which runs into the Athley, N. lat. 33° 50!. W. long. 79°58!. - WANDSU, in Zoology, the name of a {pecies of mon- key found in the ifland of Ceylon. It is all over of a fine deep black; but has along white beard hanging from its chin. WANDSWORTH, or WANDLESWORTH, in Geogra- phy, a village in the weltern divifion of Brixton hundred, in the county of Surrey, England, is fituated on the banks of the {mall river Wandle (which falls into the Thames in this parifh ), at the diftance of fix miles S.W. from St. Paul’s cathedral, London. The parifh, according to the popula- tion return of the year 1811, contained go5 houfes, and 5644 inhabitants, of whom 620 families were employed in various trades and manufaétures.. Aubrey, in his “¢ Antiqui- ties of Surrey,”’ mentions a manufaéture of brafs plates for frying-pans, kettles, and other culinary veffels, which was eftablifhed here by Dutchmen who kept it a myftery: the houfes where this bufinefs was carried on bore the name of frying-pan houfes. ‘Towards the clofe of the 17th century, when great numbers of French Proteftants fled from the perfecution which prevailed in the reign of Louis XIV., many of them fettled at Wand{worth, and eftablifhed a French church, which is now ufed as a meeting-houfe for Methodifts. Among thefe refugees was a confiderable number of hatters, who introduced their manufacture at this place with great fuccefs. Though diminifhed in its extent, the aca ftill exifts. The art of dyeing cloth has been praétifed here above a century, and is now carried on to a confiderable extent : as is alfo calico-printing, of which here are two extenfive manufaétories. Here are alfo eftablifh- ments for printing kerfeymeres, for bolting cloth, and for whitening and preffing ftuffs: likewife iron-mills, oil and white-lead mills, vinegar works, and dittilleries. Wand{- worth church, which itands nearly in the centre of the vil- lage, isa brick ftruéture, and confifts of a nave, chancel, and'two aifles: at the weft end is a {quare tower, built in the year 1630. In 1780the greater part of the church was rebuilt, at the expence of about 3500/. ‘The Quakers have a meeting-houfe and two {chools in this parifh. Among the benefaétions to the poor of Wand{worth is 500/. bequeathed by Henry Smith, alderman of London, who was born here about 1540, died in 1627, when he was buried in the church. He alfo left large eftates, real and perfonal, to be allotted to the poor of various parifhes, according to the difcretion of his executors. In this diftribution the county of Surrey has been principally regarded. Garrett, a hamlet within this parifh, appears to have been about two centuries ago a fingle houfe, called the Garvett. It now contains about fifty houfes, and is well-known as the f{cene of a mock eleétion on the meeting of every new par- liament ; when feveral noted characters in low life appear as candidates, being furnifhed with clothes and equipages by the publicans, who derive confiderable profits from the crowds of people who affemble on fuch occafions.—Lyfons’s Environs of London, vol. i. 1796. WANFRIED, a town of Germany, in the principality of Hefle Rhinfels, on the Werra; 13 miles W. of Mulhau- fen. N.lat.51°12'. E. long. 10° 14. WANG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Frey- fing ; 20 miles S. of Weilhaim.—Alfo, a town of Auttria ; 12 miles S. of Ips. Wanc-Zooth, a term fometimes applied to the jaw-tooth of an animal. WANGA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft WAN Gothland; 11 miles N.N.E. of Linkioping.—-Alo, a town of Weft Gothland ; 46 miles E. of Uddevalla. WANGARA, or Guaneara, a country of Africa, watered by the Niger, which pafles through it from W. to E. and is fuppofed foon after to lofe itfelf in a lake or the fandy defert. This country is fubje& to Bornou, to the S: of which it lies. It was formerly, i. e. about the 11th cen tury, fubje& to the fovereign of Ghera, which was called by the Arabians, according to the Arabian writers on the eaftern part of the great central river, the Nile of the Ne- groes. Wangara, denominated the land of gold, is repre- fented as formed into a {pecies of ifland by branches of the Nile, which furround it on all fides, and which overflowing during the rainy feafons, laid wafte the whole country under water. When the inundation fubfided, the inhabitants are defcribed as rufhing with eagernefs, and digging up the earth, in every part af which they found gold. Soon afterwards the merchants arrived from every part of Africa, to ex- change their commodities for this gold. The principal cities of Wangara were Raghabid and Samagonda, fituated on the fhore of large frefh-water lakes. In the time of Leo Africanus, Ghera, mentioned under the name of Caro, no longer held the fupremacy among the ftates of the Niger, but had become fubje€& to the kingdom of Tombuétoo, founded A.D. 1215. Wangara, or Guangara, had becom an independent kingdom, whofe fovereign maintained a coff- fiderable army ; and the gold, for which this region is fo celebrated, is reprefented by Leo as found, not within itfelf, but in mountains to the fouth. It appears that at a later eriod the caravans traded to Wangara for gold. WANGEN, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a bailiwick, in the canton of Berne; 20 miles S. of Berne. —Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine; 12 miles W. of Strafburg.—Alfo, a town of Ger- many, on the Axsgen, lately imperial, till, in 1802, it was given among the indemnities to the ele€tor of Bavaria. Its territory only included a few villages. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics; 22 miles W. of Kempten. N, lat. 47° ', E. long. 10° 501. WANGENDORFF, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 8 miles S.W. of Gnaa. WANGERIN, a town of Pomerania; 20 miles N.E. of Stargard. N. lat. 53°38’. E. long. 15° 32%. WANGEROEG, an ifland in: the German Ocean ; about 12 miles in circumference ; 4 miles from the coaft of Friefland. N. lat. 53° 44’. E. long. 7° 45! WANGEROW, a town of Pomerania; 12 miles S.E. of New Stettin. WANGWELL, a {mall ifland in the Pacific Ocean, near the S. coait of Waygoo. 5S. lat. 0° 23/. E. long. 131° 35!. WANHOM, in the Materia Medica, a name by which Kempfer has called the plant, of which the great galangal of the {hops is the root. WANJEW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa- latinate of Bielfk, near the conflux of the Narew and the Wanjewka; 24 miles N.N.W. of Bielfk. 1 WANJEWKA, ariver of Poland, which runs into the Narew, near Wanjew, in the palatinate of Bielfk. WANKANER, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 45 miles N. of Junagur. WANKAREY, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Vifiapour ; 6 miles W. of Poonah. WANLASS, in Hunting. See Winpass. WANNAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 22 miles N.W. of Umea. . WAN-NASH-REESE, a lofty rugged mountain of Algiers, eS a ne WAN Algiers, generally covered with fnow, fuppofed to have been anciently called Zalacus ; 45 miles S. of Sherfhell. ~ WANNOUGAH, a mountain of Algiers; 100 miles W. of Conttantina. WANO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavatt- land; 4 miles S.E. of Tavaithus. WANOOAETTEE, a {mall ifland in the Pacific Ocean; 10 miles W.N.W. of Watechoo. -. WANORA, a fmall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. . N. lat. 64° 32’. E. long. 21° 14!. WANOUL, a country of Africa, on the Gold coatt. WANSAWAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 25 miles N. of Junagur. “WANSBECK. See WensBEcK. “WANSEN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Brieg ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Ohlau. WANSINGAR, a fmall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63°5'. E. long. 18° 32/, WANSLEBEN, Joun-Micuact, in Biography, the fon of a Lutheran minifter at Erfurt, in Thuringia, was born in 1635; and having ftudied philofophy and theology at Konigfberg, he acquired a knowledge of the Ethiopic lan- guage under the inftrution of Ludolf, by whom he was fent to London to publifh his Ethiopic diftionary in 1661 ; and he was alfo employed by Caftell in compiling his *¢ Lexi- con Heptaglotton.””? Upon his return to Germany, Ernett, duke of Saxe-Gotha, engaged him to vifit Abyfiinia, for the purpofe of acquainting himfelf with the language and natu- ral hiftory of that country ; but having reached Cairo in 1663, he was prevented from proceeding to Abyfiinia, as it is thought, by his own mifcondu&t, and embarking at Alex- andria in 1665, he arrived in Italy ; and in the following year abandoned Lutheranifm, and entered into the Domini- can order. Upon his being introduced to Colbert at Paris, in 1670, he was engaged to make a vifit to Abyflinia, and to bring home all the manufcripts which he could purchafe. During his refidence of twenty months in Egypt, he tranf- mitted for the Royal Library at Paris 334 manufcripts, Arabian, Perfian, and Turkifh. But not being able to enter Abyflinia, he went to Conftantinople, and from thence in 1676 he was recalled to France, on account of his irregu- lar condu&. Being at length reduced to want, he gained a mere fubfiftence by ferving the village church of Bouron as vicar, where he died at the age of fifty-eight, in the year 1693- His principal publications are, ‘* The Liturgy of Diofcorus, Patriarch of Alexandria,’? Lond. 1662; ‘ An Account of the prefent State of Egypt, in Italian,” 1671 ; “© Nouvelle Relation en forme de Journal d’un Voyage fait en Egypte au 1672 et 1673;” “* Hiftoire de l’ Eglife d’ Alex- andria,”’ 1677; which is faid to contain a more accurate ca- talogue of the patriarchs of Alexandria than that of Ludolf communicated to the Jefuits of Antwerp. Moreri. WANSTA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the rovince of Schonen; 25 miles E. of Lund. WANSTEAD, a village and parifh in the hundred of Becontree and county of Effex, England, is fituated eight miles N.E. from St, Paul’s cathedral, London. The old parifh-church was repaired and enlarged in the early part of the laft century, principally at the expence of the firft earl Tylney ; but being ftill found {mall and incommo- dious, it was pulled down, and a new church erected on a larger’ {cale, nearly adjoining to the old fcite. The firit ftone of the prefent ftructure was laid July 13th, 1787: it was finifhed in 1790, and confecrated June 24th in that year. It is built with brick, and caled with Portland ftone ; the portico is of the Doric order: at the weft end isa cupola, WAN fupported by eight Ionic columns. ‘Fhe interior confifts of a nave, chancel, and two aifles, feparated by columnis of the Corinthian order. In the chancel is a beautiful window of ftained glafs, by Eginton of Birmingham, reprefenting our Saviour bearing the crofs, from the picture at Magdalen col- lege, Oxford : here is alfo a fuperb monument, wlth aie effigy of the deceafed in white marble, to the memory of fir Jofiah Child, bart., who died in 1699. ‘The population of the parifh, as enumerated under the aé& of the year 1811, was 210; the number of houfes 1127. Wanitead-houfe was defigned by Colin Campbell, in the year 1715, and executed under his direGtion for fir Richard Child, who was afterwards advanced to the peerage by the title of earl Tylney. This edifice occupies the {cite of an ancient manfion, which, with the annexed demefne, had pre- vioufly been poffeffed fucceffively by fir William Mildmay, George, marquis of Buckingham, king James I., Charles Blount, earl of Devonfhire, Robert Rich, earl of Leicefter, and his father Robert, lord Rich. The latter built the old houfe, which was called Naked-hall-houfe, and in which queen Eli- zabeth and her court were fumptuoufly entertained in May 1578 for feveral days. Sir Richard Child, finding this houfe inadequate to his domettic eftablifhment, employed Mr. Campbell to build the prefent fplendid mantion. It confifts of a centre with two uniform flanks or wings, and extends about 260 feet in front by nearly 80 feet in depth. The middle portion has a noble pediment, fupported by fix co- lumns of the Corinthian order, which reft on a bold pro- jeting bafement. This forms the entrance, by a double flight of fteps, to the great hall and faloon, the former of which meafures 51 feet by 36, and 36 feet in height ; and the latter forms a cube of 30 feet. Thefe communicate with a double fuite of ftate apartments, which extend along the whole of both fronts, and are conne@ted at the fouth end by a grand ball-room, which is 64 feet by 24. In ftri& accordance with the principal front, and imitative of the ftyle of Italian villas, the architeé&t has raifed a ftone para- pet, with a feries of detached obelifks, to form two fides of the entrance court, the third being bounded by a ha-ha. The whole of this area has lately been laid out asa rich par- terre or flower-garden ; and executed from the defigns of Mr. Repton. Of a ftyle and chara@er with the exterior architeéture is the interior finifhings and furniture of the houfe. Thus formed and thus embellifhed, Wanftead-houfe may be faid to vie with many foreign palaces, and to rank with thofe Englifh manfions which proclaim the riches and fplendour of the country. At the commencement of the prefent century, this houfe was the refidence of the royal family of France ; and here alfo was the firft {plendid enter- tainment given to congratulate the marquis, now duke of Wellington, on his return from his victorious campaigns in Spain and Portugal. .Wanftead-houfe, with its contiguous property, and extenfive eftates in Effex, Hants, Wilts, York- fhire, and Dorfetfhire, came into the poffeffion of William Wellefley Pole, efq., by marriage, in March 1812, with Catherine Tylney Long, daughter and heirefs of fir James Tylney Long, bart.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Effex. By J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 1803. Lyfons? Environs of London, vol. iv. gto. 1796. WANT, in Zoology, a name fometimes given to the mole, WANTAGE, anciently Wawnatine, in Geography, a market-town of confiderable antiquity in the hundred of the fame name, in the county of Berks, England, is fituated on the ficirts of the prolific vale of White-horfe, at the dif- tance of 10 miles S.W. from Abingdon, 26 miles N.W. by W. from Reading, and 59 miles in the fame bearing from London. WAN London. A variety of concurring teftimonies render it pro- bable that this place was once a Roman ftation ; though the numerous alterations which it has undergone almoft preclude the poffibility of tracing thofe remains which would decide the queftion. The vallum, faid to be part of a Roman fta- tion, was plainly to be feen when Mr. Wile vifited it about the year 1738, “‘ inclofing a {pace called the High garden.’ A hollow way into the town from Farringdon, Grove-ttreet, a morafs, and a brook, form the fides of an oblong {quare, containing about fix acres of ground. On this f{pot, con- tinues Mr. Wife, “ ftood the Saxon palace where Alfred was born.”? North of the brook is an inclofure where Roman coins have been found; and the remains of a building called king Alfred’s cellar, which was paved with brick, and ap- pears to have been a bath. Wantage was probably of con- fequence in the Saxon times, as it was undoubtedly a royal villa, and appears, together with the furrounding country, to have been the patrimony of the Weft Saxon kings: by the will of Alfred, it was bequeathed to his coufin Alfrith. It is a market-town by prefcription, having obtained that privilege about the beginning of the 1 3th century, through the intereft of Fulk Fitzwarine, on whom it was beftowed by Roger Bigod, earl marfhal of England, as a reward for military fervices. The market-day is Saturday ; and here are four annual fairs. The civil government is vefted in a chief conftable. In the population return of the year 1811, the town is ftated to contain 510 houfes, occupied by 2386 perfons. The chief employment of the inhabitants is the manufa@ture of coarfe cloth and facking. The parifh church is a fpacious cruciform {tructure, built either wholly, or in part, by the Fitzwarine family, whofe arms and ef- figies are to be feen in various parts of the edifice ; which alfo contains fome old pompous monuments, and a large an- cient font conftruéted of porphyry-ftone. An aé of par- liament paffed in the year 1598, for vefting the town lands of Wantage given in the reigns of Henry VI. and Henry VII. for charitable ufes, in twelve of the “ better fort. of inha- bitants”? to be deemed a body corporate. By this a& the revenues of the faid lands are appropriated to the relief of the poor, the repairs of the highways, and the fupport of a grammar-fchool. An Englifh {chool has, from an early period, been added to the other charitable objects provided for out of the profits of thefe lands. The governors allow 30/. per annum to the matter of the grammar-{chool, who muft be a graduate in one of the univerfities ; and 15/. per annum to the matter of the Englifh fchool. In 1680 an alms-houfe for twelve poor perfons was founded and en- dowed by Mr. Robert Styles. Dr. Jofeph Butler, a learned divine, and bifhop of Durham in the laft century, was born in this town: but its chief celebrity is its having been the birth-place of king Alfred, peculiarly ftiled the Great. See Arrep.—Lyfons’ Magna Britannia, vol.i. Berkshire, 1806. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. Berkfhire. By J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 1801. Wanracs, a town of New Jerfey, in the county of Suf- fex, containing 2969 inhabitants; 15 miles N. of Newtown. WANTI. See Grove. WANTING, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of Lower Siam. N. lat. 7° 39!. E. long. 100° 55. WANTSUM, a name given to the river Stour, which divides the ifle of Thanet from the reft of the county of Kent, and runs into the Downs, below Sandwich. WANTY, in Rural Economy, the name ufually given to a broad girth of leather, by which the load is bound upon the back of the horfe. It is very ufeful in hilly diftri&ts for fecuring various kinds of loads. : WANTZENAU, in Geography, a town of France, in W IAW fe department of the Lower Rhine; 6 miles N. of Straf- urg. : WANTZLAU, a town of the Middle Mark of Bran- denburg ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg. WANZCY, in Botany, a tree very common throughout all Abyffinia. Every houfe in Gondar has two or three planted round it, fo that, when firft viewed from the heights, it appears like a wood, efpecially through the whole feafon of the rains, but very exaétly on the 1ft of September, for three years together, in a night’s time, it was covered with a multitude of white flowers. Gondar, and all the towns about it, then appeared as if covered with white linen, or with new-fallen {now. It grows to a confiderable magnitude, being from eighteen to twenty feet high ; the trunk is gene- rally about three feet and a half from the ground; it then divides into four or five thick branches, which have at leaft 60° inclination to the horizon, and not more. Thefe large branches are generally bare, and half way up the bark is rough and furrowed. They then put out a number of {mall branches, circular at top, in figure like fome of our early pear-trees. (See the defcription of it in the Appendix to Bruce’s Travels.) This tree and the coffee-tree have divine honours paid by each of the feven nations; under. this tree their king is chofen; here he holds his firft council ; his {ceptre is a bludgeon made of this tree, which, like a mace, is carried before him wherever he goes ; it is produced in the general meetings of the nation, and is called ** Buco.” WANZLEBEN, in Geography, a town, of Weftphalia, is the duchy of Magdeburg ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Magde- urg. WAPENTAKE, or WEAPENTAKE, a divifion of cer- tain northern countries, particularly thofe beyond the Trent, anf{wering to what in other places is called a hundred, or a cantred. Authors differ as to the origin of the word. Brompton brings it from the Saxon waepen, and taecan, to deliver, by reafon the tenants anciently delivered their arms to every new lord as a token of their homage. Sir Thomas Smith gives a different account. Mutfters, he obferves, were anciently taken of the armour and wea- pons of the feveral inhabitants of every hundred ; and from fuch as could not find fufficient pledges for their good abearing, their weapons were taken away, and delivered to others. Others give a different account of its rife ; viz. that when firft the kingdom was divided into wapentakes, he who was the chief of the divifion, and whom we now call high-conftable, as foon as he entered upon his office, appeared in the field, on a certain day, on horfeback, with a pike in his hand; and all the chief men of the hundred met him with their lances, who, alighting, touched his pike with their lances, as a fig- nal they were firmly united to each other, by the touching of their weapons. Whence the denomination wapentakes, from the Saxon qwaepen, and tac, touching. WAPESSAGA, in Geography, a lake of Canada. N. lat. 48° 10’. W. long. 71° 40’. WAPITWAGO Istanps, a clufter of iflands near the fouth coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 4’. W. long. 60° 20!. WAPLES, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober- land; 16 miles S.E. of Ofterrode. WAPNO, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin- gratz; 14 miles S.W. of Konigingratz. WAPP, ina Shes that rope with which the fhrowds are fet taught with wale-knots; one end is made faft to the fhrowds, and to the other are brought the laniards. WAPPE, a {pecies of cur, The name is derived from II its WAR its note; its only ufe was to alarm the family by barking, if any perfon approached the houfe. See Doc. WAPPER, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the f{maller fpecies of the river gudgeon. WAPPING’S Creek, in Geography, a river of New York, which runs into the Hudfon, 7 miles S. of Pough- keepfie. WAPPO, a town of Africa, on the Grain coaft. N. lat. 4° 55. W- long. 8° 20!. f WAPPOCOMO, a fiver of Virginia, which runs into the Potomack, 9 miles E.S.E. of Foit Cumberland. WAPSTENO, a town of Swedifh Lapland; 115 miles N.W. of Umea.: WAPUWAGAN Isranps, a clufter of iflands near the coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 2'. W. long. 60° 14!. WAR, Bettum, a conteft or difference between princes, ftates, or large bodies of people ; which, not being deter- minable by the ordinary meafures of juftice and equity, is referred to the decifion of the fword: or, it is that ftate in which a nation profecutes its right by force. Hobbes’s great principle is, that the natural {tate of man is a ftate of warfare ; but moft other politicians hold war to be a preternatural and extraordinary ftate. War may be confidered, fays archdeacon Paley, with a view to its caufes and to its condu@. The su/tifying caufes of war are deliberate invafions of right, and the neceflity of maintaining fuch a balance of power amongit neighbouring nations, as that no fingle ftate, or confederacy of ftates, be ftrong enough to overwhelm the reft. The objeéts of jutt war are precaution, defence, or reparation. In a larger fenfe, every fuft war is a defenfive war, inafmuch as every juft war fuppofes an injury perpetrated, attempted, or feared. A defenfive war is oppofed to that which is offénfive ; and as in the former cafe, the fovereign power of a nation takes up arms to repel the attacks of an enemy, fo, in the latter, arms are taken up in order to attack a nation that lived in peace with the others. War is fo dreadful an evil, and fo deftruétive in its progrefs and effects, that it fhould never be undertaken without the ftrongeft reafons. Humanity is fhocked at a fovereign who, without imperious neceflity, lavifhes the lives of his moft faithful fubjeéts, and who ex- pofes his people to the havoc and miferies of war, when they might enjoy an honourable and falutary peace ; and if this want of love for his people be accompanied with injuttice towards thofe whom he attacks, what guilt does he incur, or rather what a dreadful feries of crimes does he commit ? The flaughter of men, the pillage of cities, the devaftation of provinces, are his crimes. Heis refponfible to God, and accountable to man, for every perfon that is killed. The violences, the crimes, the various diforders attendant on the licentious tumult of arms, pollute his confcience, and blacken his account, as he is the original author of them all.—May this faint fketch, fays the excellent Vattel, affe& the hearts of the leaders of nations, and in miktary enter- prifes fuggeft to them a circum{peétion proportional to the importance of the fubje&t! Vattel ftates the following triple end as the diftinguifhing charaCteriftic of a lawful war : 1. To recover what belongs or is due tous. 2. To pro- vide for our future fafety by punifhing the aggreffor or offender. 3. To defend ourfelves from an injury by re- pelling an unjuit violence. The two firft are the objects of an offenfive, the third that of a defenfive war. Camillus, when he was going to attack the Gauls, concifely repre- fented to his foldiers all the caufes which can juftify a war: « Omnia qua defendi, repetique et ulcifci fas eft.’ Liv. Woixs'c-49. Vor. XXXVII. WAR The in/uffcient caufes, or unjuftifiable motives of war, according to Paley, are the family alliances, the perfonal friendfhips, or the perfonal quarrels of princes ; thé internal difputes which are carried on in other nations ; the juftice of other wars; the extenfion of territory, or of trade; the misfortunes or accidental weaknefs of a neighbouring or rival nation. There are tave leffons of rational and fober policy, fays this excellent writer, which, if it were poffible to inculcate into the councils of princes, would exclude many of the motives of war, and allay that reftlefs ambition which is conftantly ftirring up oae part of mankind againit another. The firft of thefe leffons admonifhes princes to * place their glory and their emulation, not in extent of ter- ritory, but in raifing the greateft quantity of happinefs out of a given territory.” The enlargement of territory by conquett is not only not a juft obje& of war, but, in moft inftances in which it is attempted, not even defirable. What commonly is gained to a nation, by the annexing of new dependencies, or the fubjugation of other countries to its dominion, but a wider frontier to defend, more inter- fering claims to vindicate, more quarrels, more enemies, more rebellions to encounter, a greater force to keep up by land and fea, more fervices to provide for, and more efta- blithments to pay? And in order to draw from thefe aequi- fitions fomething that may maké up for the charge of keep- ing them, a revenue is to be extorted, or a monopoly to be inforced and watched, at an expence which cofts half their produce. ‘Thus the provinces are oppreffed, in order to pay for being ill governed; and the original ftate is ex- haufted in maintaining a feeble authority over difcontented fubje&ts. Do opulence and extent of dominion always con- ftitute the happinefs of ftates? Among the multitude of inftances that prefent themfelves to notice, let us confine ourfelves, fays Vattel, to the Romans. The Roman re- public ruined itfelf by its triumphs, the excefs of its con- quefts and power. Rome, the miftrefs of the world, when enflaved by tyrants, and opprefled by a military govern- ment, had reafon to deplore the fuccefs of its arms, and to look back with regret on thofe happy times when its power did not reach beyond Italy, er even when its dominion was almoft confined within the circuit of its walls. Dr. Paley mentions two cafes in which the extenfion of territory may be of real advantage, and to both parties. The firft is, where an empire thereby reaches to the natural boundaries which divide it from the reft of the world. Thus we ac- count the Britifh Channel the natural boundary which fepa- rates the nations of England aad France: and if France pofleffed any counties on this, or England any cities or pro- vinces on that fide of the fea, the recovery of fuch towns and diftriéts, to what may be called their natural fovereign, though it might not be a juft reafon for commencing war, would be a proper ufe to make of yiGtory. The other cafe is, where neighbouring ftates, bein feverally too fmall and weak to defend themfelves againft the dangers that furround them, can only be fafe by a ftri@ and conftant junétion of their ftrength: here conqueft will effe€& the purpofes of confederation and alliance ; and the union which it produces is often more clofe and permanent, than that which refults from voluntary affociation. The fecond rule of prudence, to which we have above re- ferred, and which ought to be recommended to thofe who condué the affairs of nations, is, « never to purfue national honour as diftin& from national interc/t.”’ « The dignity of his crown, the honour of his flag, the glory of his arms,’? in the mouth of a prince, are ftately and impofing terms ; but the ideas they infpire are infatiable. The purfuit of honour, when fet loofe from the admonitions of prudence, 45 becomes WAR. becomes in kings a wild and romantic paffion ; eager to en- gage, and gathering fury in its progrefs, it is checked by no difficulties, repelled by no dangers: it forgets or defpifes thofe confiderations of fafety, eafe, wealth, and plenty, which, in the eye of true public wifdom, compofe the ob- jets, to which the renown of arms, the fame of victory, are only inftrumental and fubordinate. The purfuit of intereft, on the other hand, isa fober principle ; computes cofts and confequences ; is cautious of entering into war; ftops in time: when regulated by thofe iver maxims of relative juftice which belong to the affairs of communities, as well as of private perfons, it is the right principle for nations to proceed by ; even when it trefpafles upon thefe regulations, it is much lefs dangerous, becaufe much more temperate than the other. Another obje& of confideration, in reference to this fub- jeQ, is the condud of war. If the caufe and end of war be jaftifiable, all the means that appear neceflary to the end are juftifiable alfo. War is a conteft by force, between parties who acknowledge no common fuperior ; and as it does not include in its idea the fuppofition of any convention which fhould reftri& the operations of force, it has naturally no boundary, but that in which force terminates, the deftruc- tion of the life againft which the force is dire€&ted. Never- thelefs, the licence of war authorifes no aéts of hoftility but what are neceflary or conducive to the end and objeét of the war. Gratuitous barbarities borrow no excufe from this plea. The flaughter of captives, the fubjeéting of them to indignities or torture, the violation of women, the profana- tion of temples, the demolition of public buildings, libraries, ftatues, and, in general, the deftruétion or defacing of works that conduce nothing to annoyance or defence :—thefe enor- mities are prohibited not only by the praétice of civilized nations, but by the law of nature itfelf; as having no proper tendency to accelerate the termination, or accomplifh the obje&t of the war; and as containing that, which in peace and war is equally unjuftifiable, ultimate and gratuitous mifchief. The laws of war, which are part of the law of nations, impofe other reftriGtions upon the condué of war. To this head we may refer the duty of refraining in war from poifon, and from affaffination. Such praétices are at pre- fent excluded by the ufage and opinions of civilized nations ; and the firft recourfe to them would be followed by in- ftant retaliation. The licence of war then acknowledges two limitations: it authorizes no hoftilities which have not an apparent tendency to effeCtuate the object of the war ; it re{pects thofe pofitive laws which the cuftom of nations hath fanétified, and which, whilft they are mutually conformed to, mitigate the calamities of war, without weakening its pperationt, or diminifhing the power or fafety of belligerent ates. Before a juft war is undertaken, we owe, fays Vattel, this further regard to humanity, and efpecially to the lives and tranquillity of the fubjeéts, to declare to the unjuft na- tion with which we are about to contend, that we are at length recurring to the laft remedy, and going to make ufe of open force, for bringing it to reafon. ‘This is called “ declaring war.’”? AjJl this is included in the Roman man- ner of proceeding, regulated in their Fecial law. They firft fent the chicf of the Feciales or heralds, called “* Pater Patratus,’’ to demand fatisfaGtion of the people which had offended them ; and if within the {pace of thirty- three days this people did not return a fatisfaGtory anfwer, the herald called the gods to be witnefles of the wrong, and came away faying, that the Romans would confider what they had to do, ‘The king, and afterwards the conful, ufed pis) to afk the fenate’s opinion ; and the war being refolved on, the herald was fent back to the frontier, where he declared it. It is furprifing to find among the Romans fuch juttice, fuch moderation, and wifdom, at a time too when appa- rently nothing but courage and ferocity were to be expected from them. By this religious condué&, previous to its war, Rome laid the moft folid foundation for its future greatnefs. A declaration of war being neceffary as a farther trial for terminating the difference without the effufion of blood, by making ufe of the principle fear, for bringing the enemy to more equitable fentiments; it is, at the fame time that it declares the refolution taken of making war, to fet forth the caufe of that refolution. This is at prefent the conftant practice among the powers of Europe. : If in confequence of fuch declaration, the enemy offers equitable conditions of peace, the right of war ceafes. Formerly the powers of Europe ufed to fend heralds or am- baffadors to declare war; at prefent this is only done in the capital, the principal towns, or on the frontiers. Mani- feftoes are iflued, and the communication, fo eafy and ex- peditious from the eftablifhment of pofts, foon fpreads the intelligence. Befides, it is in fome cafes neceflary for a na- tion to publifh the declaration of war for the inftruction and direétion of its own fubjeéts, in order to fix the date of the rights belonging to them from the moment of this declara- tion, and palatal to certain effeéts which the voluntary law of nations attributes to a war inform. Without fuch a public declaration of war, it would be difficult to fettle, in a treaty of peace, thofe a€ts which are to be accounted the effe&ts of the war, and thofe which each nation may con- fider as wrongs, for obtaining reparation. He who is at- tacked, and makes only a defenfive war, need not declare it; the ftate of war being fufficiently determined by the de- claration of the enemy, or his open hoftilities. Neverthe. lefs, from dignity, or for the dire€tion of his fubjeéts, a fovereign, though attacked, feldom fails of declaring war in his turn. By the law of nations, the declaration of war need not be made till the enemy has reached the frontiers ; but it muft always precede the commiffion of any hoftility. Thus we provide for our own fafety, and equally procure the end of the declaration of war, which is, that an unjuft adverfary may {till ferioufly confider his meafures, and avoid the horrors of war, by doing juftice. The fovereign, having entered a country, and declared war, may proceed, if equitable conditions are not offered him, to hottile opera- tions. The fovereign declaring war can neither detain thofe fubje€ts of the enemy, who are within his dominions at the time of the declaration, nor their effe&ts. He is to allow them a reafonable time for withdrawing with their effects ; and if they flay beyond the term prefcribed, he has a right to treat them as enemies, though as enemies dif- armed. Becaufe the Chriftian fcriptures defcribe wars, as what they are, fays Paley, as crimes or judgments, fome have been led to believe that it is unlawful for a Chriftian to bear arms. But it fhould be remembered, that it may be necef- fary for individuals to unite their force, and, for this end, to refign themfelves to the dire€tion of a common will; and yet it may be true, that that will is often a€tuated by cri- minal motives, and often determined to deftruétive purpofes. Hence, although the origin of wars be afcribed in {eripture to the operation of lawlefs and malignant paffions; and though war itfelf be enumerated amongft the foreit cala- mities with which a Jand can be vifited, the profeflion of a foldier is no where forbidden or condemned. See Luke, ili. 14, Luke, vii. g. Ads, x. 1. On the fubje& of this article, WAR article, fee Paley’s Phil. vol. ii. book iii. The fole prerogative of making war and peace belongs, by the Englifh conftitution, to the king. But as a king of England can neither raife money nor compel his fubjeéts to take up arms, without the concurrence of parliament, his right of making war is only a flender prerogative, unlefs the parliament feconds him with fupplies. Levying war againft the king in his realm is a fpecies of treafon. War, Civil, or Inteftine, is that between fubjets of the fame realm ; or between parties in the fame ftate. In this fenfe we fay, the civil wars of the Romans de- ftroyed the republic ; the civil wars of Granada ruined the power of the Moors in Spain; the civil wars in England began in 1641, and ended in the king’s death, 1648. When a party is formed in a ftate, which no longer obeys the fovereign, and is of ftrength fufficient to make head againft him; or when, ina republic, the nation is divided into two oppofite factions, and both fides take arms ; this is called a civil war. Some confine this term only to a juft infurre@tion of fubje@s againft an unjuft fovereign, to diltin- guifh this lawful refiftance from rebellion, which is an open and unjuit refiftance : but what appellation will they give to a war ina republic torn by two factions, or in a monarchy between two competitors for the crown? Ufe appropriates the term of civil war to every war between the members of one and the fame political fociety. If it be between part of the citizens on one fide, and the fovereign with thofe who continue in obedience to him on the other; it is fufficient that the malcontents have fome reafon for taking arms, to give this difturbance the name of civil war, and not that of rebellion. This laft term is’ applied only to fuch an infor- retion againft lawful authority, as is void of all appearance of juftice. The fovereign indeed never fails to term rebels all fubjects openly refifting him ; but when thefe become of ftrength fufficient to oppofe him, fo that he finds himfelf compelled to make war regularly on them, he mutt be con- tented with the term of civil war. If we confider the reafons why a civil war is warranted or juftified, we recur to a queftion of very delicate inveftiga- tion, and of very difficult folution. It involves the inquiry, in what cafes a fubje&t may not only refufe to obey, but even refift a fovereign, and by force repel force. (See SoverEIGNTY.) But omitting the juftice of the caufe, we fhall here advert to the maxims that ought to be obferved in a civil war, and confider whether it be incumbent on the fovereign to keep within the laws of common war. A civil war breaks the bands of fociety and government, or at leaft it fufpends their force and effe& ; it produces in the nation two independent parties, confidering each other as enemies, and acknowledging no common judge: therefore of necef- fity thefe two parties muft, at leaft for a time, be con- fidered as forming two feparate bodies, two diftin& people, though one of them may be in the wrong in breaking the continuity of the ftate, to rife up again{t lawful authority, they are not the lefs divided in faét. Befides, who fhall judge them? who fhall pronounce on which fide the right or the wrong lies? On earth they have no common fuperior. Thus they are in the cafe of two nations, who having a dif- pute which they cannot adjuft, are compelled to decide it by force of arms. In this ftate of the cafe, the common laws of war, or maxims of humanity, moderation, and probity, fhould be obferved on both fides in civil wars. The fame reafons on which the obligation between ftate and ftate is founded, render them even more neceflary in the unhappy circum- ftance when two incenfed parties are deftroying their com- Vattel’s Law of Nations, WAR mon country. Should the fovereign conceive he has a right to hang up his prifoners as rebels, the oppofite party will make reprifals: if he does not religiSufly obferve the capi- tulations, and all the conventions made with his enemies, they will no longer rely on his word: fhould he burn and deftroy, they will follow his example ; the war will become cruel and horrid ; its calamities will increafe on the nation. Whenever a numerous party thinks it has a right to refilt the fovereign, and finds itfelf able to declare that opinion {word in hand, the war is to be carried on between them in the fame manner as between two different nations ; and they are to leave open the fame means for preventing enormous violences, and reftoring peace. A fovereign having conquered the oppofite party, and reduced it to fubmit and fue for peace, he may except from the amnefty the authors of the troubles, and the heads of the party ; may bring them to a legal trial, and on con- viction punifh them. He may efpecially a&t thus with re- gard to difturbances, raifed not fo much on account of the peopie’s interefts as the private views of fome great men, and which rather deferve the appellation of rebellion than of civil war. When fubjeéts take up arms, without ceafing to acknow- ledge the fovereign, and only to procure a redrefs of grievances, there are two reafons for obferving the common laws of war towards them. 1. Left a civil war becoming more cruel and deftruétive by the reprifals, which, as we haye obferved, the infurgents will oppofe to the prince’s feverities. 2. The danger of committing great injuttice, by the haftily punifhing thofe who are accounted rebels ; the tumult of difcord, and the flame of a civil war, little agree with the proceedings of pure and facred juftice : more quiet times are to be waited for. It will be wife in the prince to fecure his prifoners till, having reftored tranquil- lity, he is in a condition of having them tried according to the laws. As to the condu& of foreign nations, they ought not to interfere in the conftitutional government of an independent ftate. It is not for them to judge between contending citizens, nor between the prince and his fubjets: to them the two parties are equally foreigners, equally independent of their authority. They may, however, interpofe their good offices for the reftoration of peace ; and this the law of nature prefcribes to them. But if their mediation proves fruitlefs, they who are not tied by any treaty may, for their own conduét, take the merit of the caufe into confideration, and affift the party which they fhall judge to have right on its fide, in cafe this party fhall requeft their afliftance, or accept the offer of it: they may, for the fame reafon that they are at liberty to efpoufe the juft quarrel of a nation en- tering into a war with another. As to the allies of a ftate diftra&ted by a civil war, they will find a rule for their con- du& in the nature of their engagements, combined with the circumftances of the war. Vattel’s Law of Nations, book iii. War, Gladiators. See GLADIATORS. War, Holy, is that anciently maintained by leagues and croifades, for the recovery of the Holy Land. War, King’s, Bellum Regis. At the time when parti- cular lords were allowed to make war with one another, to revenge injuries, inftead of profecuting them in the ordinary courts of juitice, the appellation Aing’s war was given to fuch war as the king declared againft any other prince, or ftate: on which occafion, the lords were not allowed to make private war againft each other; as being obliged to ferve the king, with all their vaflals. Wan, Religious, is a war maintained in a ftate, om ac» 442 count WAR count of religion ; one of the parties refufing to tolerate the other. War, Social. See Soctat War. War, 4rt of. See Mirivary Art. War, Council of. See Counciu. War, Habiliments of. See Hast.iments. War-Horfe. See Horse. War, Man of. See Suir, Rare, &c. War, Officers of: , See OrricrRs. War, Place of, is a place fortified on purpofe to cover and defend a country, and ftop the incurfion of an enemy’s army : or it is a place in which are difpofed the provifions of war, for an army encamped in the neighbourhood ; or whither an army retires into winter-quarters. See PLAcE. Wiar-Cry, was formerly cuftomary in the armies of moft nations, when juft going to engage. Sometimes they were only tumultuous fhouts, or horrid yells, uttered with an intent to ftrike terror into their adverfaries ; fuch as is now ufed by the Indians in America, called the war-whaoop. WARA, in Geography, a city of Africa, capital of the country of Bergoo; 35 miles S.6.E. of Bornou. N. lat. 15° 30!. E. long. 25° 30). WARADIN. See Warner. WARADURA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Cuddapa; 18 miles W.S.W. of Cuddapa. WARANG, or Formosa, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Guinea. N. Jat. 11° 26/.. W. long. 16° 28). WARANGER, a town of Finmark; 22 miles S.W. of Wardhys. WARANGOLE, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ; 45 miles N.N.E. of Hydrabad. N. lat. 17°55/. E. long. 79° I5!. WARASDIN. See Varaspin. WARASDINS, a kind of Sclavonian foldiers, clothed like the Turks, with a fugar-loaf bonnet inftead of a hat. Their arms are a fuzee and piftols ; the butt-end of their fuzee ferves for a fpade, when they have occafion to throw up earth. WARBEETLES, in animals, the name by which the arge maggots or worms, which are bred in the backs of neat cattle and other animals, are fometimes provincially called. WARBERG, or Warsure, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhopric of Paderborn. It contains two churches, two convents, and two caftles. It was formerly imperial, and one of the Hanfe towns. In the year 1760, the French were defeated by the Britifh and allies, under the hereditary prince of Brunfwick ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Paderborn. N. late 51°37’. E. long. 9° 11/. Warsere, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the province of Halland. It has a harbour on the North fea, which, at prefent, has only depth enough for forall veffels. Warberg €arries on a confiderable trade, and had ftood on three dif- ferent fituations before the year 1666, when it was built the fourth time on the {pot where it now ftands. A very ancient fortified caftle ftands at the harbour’s mouth, on a rock, furrounded with water, but at prefent is of little fer- vice ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Halmftadt. N. lat. 57° 7’. E. long. 12° 4!, WARBLERS, in Ornithology, a name by which Mr. Pennant diftinguifhes an order of birds, comprehending the nightingale, red-fart, red-breatt, black-cap, petty-chaps, hedge-{parrow, yellow, gold-crefted, and common wren, the fedge-bird, or leffer reed-{parrow, the tit-lark, or grafshopper-lark, the wheat-ear, whinchat, ftone-chatter, and white-throat : their general chara&ters are, that the bill is flender and weak, the noftril {mall and funk, and the ex- 9 Wa s terior toe joined at the under part of the -laft joint to the middle toe. Some of thefe birds have tails of one colour, and others have party-coloured tails. Brit. Zool. vol. i. 363. See Moracitia. WARBLES, in animals, a term fometimes applied to the fmall hard tumours or {wellings on the fides or faddle part of the horfe’s back, that are occafioned by heat in travelling, or the uneafinefs of its fituation ; and alfo to the large worms or maggots in the backs of thefe animals, neat cattle, and fome others. It is faid that a hot greafy cloth, at firft frequently applied, will fometimes remove the firft of thefe forts of tumours; and camphorated {pirit of wine is always very effectual for difperfing them, more efpecially if a little {pirit of fal ammoniac be mixed with it. If the horfe fhould be wanted for work, care fhould be taken to have the faddle nicely chambered and fitted. In thefe kinds of tumours, efpecially where they are caufed by fandy or gravelly matters infinuating themfelves between the fkin of the animal and the faddle, or its girths, much may often be done in difperfing them, by applying to the parts falt dif- folyed in water, brandy, or warm vinegar, and in fome cafes a mixture compofed of four parts of opodeldoc to one of {pirits of turpentine. : In all cafes where horfes are returned to the ftables, after long journeys, the faddles fhould not be removed for fifteen or twenty minutes, the girths being only loofened; as, by this fimple means, many of thefe {wellings may be prevented, which would otherwife take place. In cafes where the fkin is rubbed off the parts, the tinc- ture ufed for wounds, or friar’s balfam, may be applied three or four times a day, and the places defended by dia- chylon plafters, with great benefit. But in the cafe of real warbles, which are produced from a fly, known by the name of ox or gad-fly, by the pun@ur- ing of {mall holes in the backs and fides of thefe different forts of cattle ftock, and there depofiting its ova or eggs, - which are {peedily hatched by the heat of the animal’s body, {mall tumours arifing in confequence, which contain grubs, and which have {mall openings in their middle parts, that anfwer as {piracula, and for cafting out the fuperfluous matter, which, if confined, might foon produce confider- able abfceffes, and deftroy the grubs; other modes of cure or removal are to be had recourfe to. With fome it is the practice to attempt to diflodge them, by prefling ftrongly the different fides of the lumps or tumours with the thumb and fingers. But a more ready and certain way of eradi- cating and deftroying fuch grubs is that of pulling off the {cabs, that commonly cover the holes or openings on the tops of the fwellings, and pouring a few drops of the oil of linfeed, in mixture with the f{pirits of turpentine and vitriolic acid, into the openings on the parts, or by the ufe of the turpentine alone. WARBLING of the Wings, in Falconry, is when a hawk, after having mantled herfelf, crofles her wings oyer her back. WARBURTON, Witt1am, in Biography, an Englith prelate, was the fon of an attorney at Newark-upon-Trent, where he was born December 24, 1635, and deftined by his father for his own profeflion. Wath this view, after he had finifhed his ordinary grammar education, he was articled, in 1714, to an attorney at Eaft Markham, in Nottingham- fhire ; and when he had completed his clerkfhip of five years, he was admitted in one of the courts at Weitminiter; and returning to Newark, commenced the exercife of his pro- feffion. But it was foon found, that his talents and dif- pofition were more adapted to the church than to the law ; and, therefore, in 1723, he took deacon’s orders. Toes r ow WARBURTON. firft work, confifting of ‘ Mifcellaneous T'ranflations in Profe and Verfe,’”? from Roman authors, was prefixed a Latin dedication to fir George Sutton, who, in 1726, pre- fented him to a {mall vicarage. Towards the clofe of this year he vifited London, and became acquainted with fome of the inferior literati of that period, and particularly with Theobald, to whom he communicated fome notes on Shak- fpeare. He joined with thefe in their confederacy againft the reputation of Pope, of whom Warburton faid, that, whilft ‘* Milton borrowed by affectation, and Dryden by idlenefs, Pope borrowed by neceffity.””_ In 1727 he evinced his ability for original writing, by “ A Critical and Philo- fophical Inquiry into the Caufes of Prodigies and Miracles, as related by Hiftorians, with an Effay towards reftoring a Method and Purity in Hiftory, in which the Charaéters of the moft celebrated Writers of every age, and of the feveral Stages and Species of Hiftory, are occafionally criticifed and explained.’”’ This work was dedicated, in very re- fpeétful and complimentary language, to fir Robert Sutton, his firft patron; by whofe intereft he was placed in the lift of king’s mafters of arts, upon his majefty’s vifit to Cam- bridge in 1728; and by this academical degree he fupplied the defedts of his education. He was alfo prefented by the fame patron to the rectory of Broad Broughton, in Lincoln- fhire, where he remained fome years in the affiduous profe- cution of his ftudies. In 1736 he engaged the public at- tention as‘a writer by his well-known work, entitled “* The Alliance between Church and State; or, the Neceffity and Equity of an eftablifhed Religion and a Teft-law, demon- ftrated from the Effence and End of Civil Society, upon the fundamental Principles of the Law of Nature and Nations.”’ The defign of this work, as it is ftated by a defender of it againft an attack of lord Bolingbroke, was “ to vindicate our prefent happy conftitution on a principle of right, by ad- jufting the precife bounds of the two focieties, by fhewing how they came to a& in conjunétion, and by explaining the nature of their union; and from thence, by natural and ne- ceflary confequence, inducing, on the one hand, an effablifhed religion, with all its rights and privileges, fecured by a te/- law; and on the other, a full and free solerction to all who diffented from the national worfhip.”? This was a popular performance, and four editions of it appeared in the author’s Ife-time ; but it gave fatisfaction neither to the high church party, nor to the advocates for religious liberty. Our author’s greateft work was publifhed in 1738, and entitled «The Divine Legation of Mofes, demonftrated on the Principles of a religious Deift, from the Omiffion of the Doétrine of a future State of Rewards and Punifhments.”’ This adventurous and paradoxical performance found adver- faries amongft perfons of all parties, who concurred in criti- eifing and cenfuring the theory on which it is founded. Undifmayed by his opponents, he not only publifhed a *¢ Yindication”’ of his opinion, but perfevered in the profe- cution of his work, abounding with learning and paradoxes, and calculated to amufe rather than to convince its readers. In a fecond correéted and enlarged edition of the firft volume of his “ Divine Legation,’”? he profeffes to have omitted “ paflages, which were thought vain, infolent, and ill- natured.”’ In the year 1738 he publifhed a fermon, entitled « Faith working by Charity to Chriftian Edification,”? and became chaplain to the prince of Wales. Withing probably to regain the good opinion of Mr. Pope, he publifhed, in the “* Works of the Learned,”’ a defence of his * Effay on Man,”’ againft the remarks of M. de Croufaz. Whatever was his defign, Mr. Pope acknowledged his obligations ; and an intimacy commenced between them, which'very much contributed to the fubfequent advancement of the apologift. The fecond volume of ‘the ‘* Divine Legation” was pub- lifhed in 1741, and the work became the general repofitory of the author’s literary effufions, and of various controverfies in which he was engaged. In the courfe of this year he was introduced by Pope to Mr. Allen, at his houfe near Bath, where he was afterwards a frequent vifitor. In return for the poet’s attention, he vindicated his writings by notes and comments, and thus fo far confirmed and enhanced the friendfhip that fubfifted between them, that when Pope died, in 1744, he bequeathed to Warburton half his library, and the property of all his works already printed, and not otherwife difpofed of, the value of which legacy is eftimated by Johnfon at 4ooo/. » The controverfial antagonifts of Warburton and of his ‘* Divine Legation’? were numerous, and comprehended fuch names as thofe of Drs. Middleton, Pococke, Grey, Sykes, and Stebbing.; againft whom he defended himfelf, in 1744 and 1745, in a publication, entitled ‘¢ Remarks on feveral occafional Reflections, &c.’’ with a degree of afperity, and confcious fuperiority and felf-confidence, which difcrimi- nated his ftyle of writing. The introduétion to Mr. Allen’s friendfhip terminated in a marriage with his favourite niece, Mifs Gertrude Tucker, which took place in 1745, and which ultimately put him in poffeffion of the fplendid feat of Prior-Park. His Three Sermons, in defence of the Pro- teftant eftablifhment and civil conftitution, preached on oc- cafion of the rebellion, were held in high eftimation. In the year 1746 he became preacher to the Society of Lin- coln’s Inn; and in the following year he appeared as an editor of Shakf{peare. Bold and original in his critici{ms and conjectures, the abfurdity of feveral of which has been expofed by Edwards, Johnfon, and others, he has never- thelefs thrown light on fome obfcure paflages, and drawn forth into view latent beauties, fo that many of his notes will find a place in the approved editions of this admirable dramatift. Warburton’s ‘ Julian, or a Difcourfe con- cerning the Earthquake and fiery Eruption which defeated that Emperor’s Attempt to rebuild the Temple at Jeru- falem,” publifhed in 1750, on occafion of Dr. Middleton’s “‘ Inquiry concerning the miraculous Powers,’? is com- mended for its candour, a quality for which the writer was not remarkably diftinguifhed, and of which few fpecimens occurred in the controverfy produced by Dr. Middleton’s publication. The notes annexed to his complete edition of Pope’s works, in g vols. Svo., are faid by the moft com- petent judges to have difguifed and perverted the author, and to have aggravated the fatirical afperities of the poet by the malignities of the annotator. ‘Two volumes of War- burton’s fermons, preached at Lincoln’s Inn, were pub- lifhed in 1753 and 1754; and in thefe, as well as in a feries of letters addrefled to a friend in the following year, he ex- hibits ** A View of Lord Bolingbroke’s Philofophy.”” He was now rapidly advancing from one ftage of preferment to another ; from that of prebend of Gloucefter, obtained in 1753, to that of king’s chaplain in ordinary in 17545 and in 1755 to that of prebend of Durham, in exchange for that of Gloucefter, to the honour of a Lambeth degree of D.D. conferred upon him by archbifhop Herring, to the deanery of Briftol in 4757, and in 1759 to the fee of Gloucefter. Being appointed on the following 30th of January to preach before the houfe of lords, he clofed his fermon with the following fummary of the charaéter of the martyr: ‘ Ina word, his princely qualities were neither great enough nor bad enough to fucceed in that moft difficult of all attempts, the enflaving a free and jealous people.’? Of the Methodifts Dr. Warburton had fpoken with fome degree of afperity, in the fecond volume of his ‘* Divine Legation,” in 1742 an WAR and in 1762 he more direétly and feverely attacks their leading principles, in his work entitled ‘‘ The Doétrine of Grace, or the Office and Operation of the Holy Spirit vindicated from the Infults of Infidelity and the Abufes of Fanaticifm.”” In 1763 he was the mover in the houfe of lords of a charge againft Mr. Wilkes, as the author of an indecent * Effay on Women ;”’ for which he was abufively attacked by Churchill, and others of that party. In 1765, a fourth edition of the fecond part of his “ Divine Lega- tion” appeared, as the third, fourth, and fifth volumes of that work. In this edition he treated the father of the learned Dr. Lowth in a manner fo illiberal, as to occafion an acrimonious controverfy between thefe antagonifts. A third volume of his *¢ Sermons’’ was publifhed in 1767; and in 1768 he transferred 5co/. to truftees, for defraying the charge of a leéture at Lincoln’s Inn, inftituted with a view of proving the truth of Chriftianity from a completion of the prophecies in the Old and New Teftament relating to the Chriftian church. The decay of his faculties was foon afterwards accelerated by the death of his only child, who was carried off by a confumption in his 19th year ; and his life terminated at Gloucefter, June 7th, 1779, in the Sift year of his age. His works were colleéted and printed by Dr. Hurd, bithop of Worcefter, in 1788, comprehended in 7 vols. 4to., to which the editor has prefixed an account of his life, writings, and charaéter. In 1809 appeared “ Let- ters from a late eminent Prelate to one of his Friends,’’ (Warburton to Hurd,) containing refleGtions on the litera- ture of the times; but ‘‘ lamentably deformed,” as a bio- grapher before us juftly obferves, “ by the arrogance and imperative fpirit of one prelate, and the adulation of the other.”? Dr. Johnfon, in his “* Life of Pope,’’ has juftly delineated the literary chara&ter of bifhop Warburton, of whom it is faid that he was kind in the domettic relations of life, and ardent in his friendfhip, in the following paflage: ss He was a man of vigorous faculties, a mind fervid and veliement, fupplied by inceffant and unlimited inquiry, with wonderful extent and variety of knowledge, which yet had not oppreffed his imagination, nor clouded his perfpicuity. Te every work he brought a memory full fraught, together with a fancy fertile of original combinations ; and at once exerted the powers of the {cholar, the reafoner, and the wit. But his knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact, and his purfuits were too eager to be always cautious. His abilities gave him a haughty confequence, which he difdained to correct or mollify; and his impatience of oppofition difpofed him to treat his adverfaries with fuch contemptuous {uperiority, as made his readers commonly his enemies, and excited againft the advocate the wifhes of fome who fa- voured the caufe. He feems to have adopted the Roman emperor’s determination, ‘* Oderint dum metuant.’? He ufed no allurements of gentle language, but wifhed to compel rather than perfuade. His ftyle is copious without feleétion, and forcible without neatnefs: he took the words that prefented themielves; his diétion is coarfe and impure, and his fentences are unmeafured.”” Hurd. Nichols. Johnfon. Gen. Biog. WARD, Sern, D.D., in Biography, an eminent mathe- matician, was born at Buntingford, in Herts, in 1617, and completed his education at Sidney college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. Mathematics were his favourite ftudy ; but his purfuits were interrupted by the civil war, as he chofe to fhare the fate of his friend and patron, Dr. Samuel Ward, the mafter of his college, to accompany him in his imprifonment, and to attend him even on his death- bed, in 1643. In confequence of refufing to take the covenant, he was deprived of his fellowfhip in 1644, and of WAR all means of fupport at the univerfity. Many opportunities of private inftru€tion in families of diftin@tion prefented themfelves ; but preferring refidence with Ralph Freeman of Afpenden-hall, efq., whofe fons he taught, he continued with him till the year 1649, when he was appointed chap- lain to Thomas lord Wenman of Tame-park, in Oxford- fhire. On the expulfion of Mr. Greaves, civilian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford, he was chofen to fucceed him, but with the condition of taking the oath called the engage- ment. Having raifed the aftronomical le&ture to reputation, he, together with his friend Dr, Wallis, was made doétor of divinity ; and they both concurred in attending thofe meetings at Wadham college, which laid the foundation of the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in 1661, and for feveral years fecond prefident. In 1659 he was chofen prefident of Trinity college, but refigned it in favour of the legal owner. After the Reftoration, he became vicar of St. Lawrence-Jewry, in London, in 1660; foon ‘after dean of Exeter, and, by the intereft of Monk and Clarendon, bifhop of that fee, which he improved in a va- riety of refpeéts by his munificence. At Salifbury, to which he was tranflated in 1667, he conciliated univerfal re{pe&t by his charity and hofpitality. To this fee he was a diftinguifhed benefa€tor, obtaining for its bifhop the per- petual honour of being chancellor of the order of the Garter, which had been for more than a century alienated from it ; and founding in the town the college of matrons in 1682, for the maintenance of ten widows of orthodox minifters in the diocefe. Although he was not naturally of a perfe- cuting difpofition, yet he was aétive in executing the orders which he received from court for the fuppreffion of con- venticles. In confequence of a fever, with which he was attacked in 1660, his bodily ftrength declined, and his in- telleGtual faculties were impaired ; and at length he clofed a melancholy life in 1689, in the 72d year of his age. Mr. Oughtred gives him the chara¢ter of a prudent, pious, and ingenious perfon, {killed not only in mathematics, but in all branches of polite literature. According to Burnet, he was, in many refpeéts, one of the greateft men of his age : but he elfewhere fays, that his fincerity was much quef- tioned; being a profound ftatefman, but an indifferent clergyman. His various works on mathematics and aftro- nomy were valued at the time when they were written, but they have been fuperfeded by modern difcoveries and im- provements. For an account of the hypothefis that bears his name, fee the article ANomALy. He publifhed, befides fermons, ‘ A philofophical Effay towards the Eviétion of the Being and Attributes of God, the Immortality of the Souls of Men, and the Truth and Authority of Scripture,’? Oxford, 1652, 8vo.; ‘* De Cometis, ubi de Cometarum Natura differitur, nova Cometarum theoria ex noviffima Comete Hiftoria_proponitur. Preleétio Oxonii habita, et Inqui- fitio in If{maelis Bullialdi Aftronomiz Philolaice Funda- menta,’’? Oxon. 1653, 4to.; ‘* Idea Trigonometrie de- monttrata, in Ufum Juventutis,’? Oxon. 1654, 4to.; ‘In Thome Hobbii Philofophiam Exercitatio Epiftolica, ad D. J. Wilkinfium Guardianum Coll. Wadkami,”’ ibid. 1656, 4to.; ‘* Aftronomia Geometrica: ubi Methodus pro- ponitur qua primariarum Planetarum A{ftronomia five El- liptica five Circularis poffit geometricé abfolvi,”? Lond. 1656, 8vo. Biog. Brit. Hutton’s Di&. Warp, Jonny, LL.D., the fon of a nonconformift minifter, was born in London in 1679, and for fome years, after a competent education, occupied a place in the Navy~ office; but devoted to literary purfuits, he quitted this fitua- tion in 1710, and became a {chool-mafter. As a member of a fociety, eftablifhed for literary improvement, he read, in WAR in alternation with others, leGtures on civil law, and the law of nature and nations. His firft produétion as a writer was a {mall Latin effay, containing rules for compofition, pub- lifhed in 1712. In 1720 he was chofen profeffor of rhe- toric in Grefham college; and in 1723 a fellow of the Royal Society, having in that year tranflated into Latin Dr. Mead’s treatife on the plague. To Voffius’s “* Ele- menta Rhetorica,” printed in 1724, he added a valuable appendix, “ De Ratione Interpungendi.’? He engaged in the controverfy between Dr. Mead and Dr. Middleton con- cerning the condition of phyficians in ancient Rome; and he annexed to Horfley’s ‘* Britannia Romana” an “ Effay on Peutinger’s Table fo far as it relates to Britain.””? In 1736 he became a member of the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was afterwards vice-prefident. His ‘* Lives of the Grefham Profeffors’? was publifhed in 1740; and in 1751 he was honoured by the univerfity of Edinburgh with the title of LL.D. When the Britifh Mufeum was eftablifhed in 1753, he was chofen one of the truftees, to which he rendered confiderable fervice by his advice and co-operation in forming the rules of that important and ufeful inftitution. twithftanding the variety of his literary occupations, and his ftudious habits, he prolonged his life to his 8oth year, and died in 1758. After his death, a valuable work, which he had prepared for the prefs, was publifhed, entitled “ A Syftem of Oratory, delivered in a Courfe of Le€tures pub- licly read at Grefham College,” in 2 vols. 8vo. The TranfaGtions of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies cen- tain feveral of his papers, chiefly on fubjects of antiquity. In his religious profeffion he was a Proteftant diffenter, dif- tinguifhed by rational piety, and great moderation and candour towards perfons of all eer frafione. To perfons engaged in literary purfuits he was ready at all times to communicate advice and affiftance; and his modelty was equal to his learning. Nichols’ Lit. Anecd. Gen. Biog. Unfortunately, before we perufed Dr. Ward’s Lives, &c., fays a coadjutor, we had read Fontenelle’s Eloges of the mem- bers of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris; pane- gyrics, which not only afford amufement, but inftrution to readers; as that elegant and ingenious writer fo defcribes the fcience, learning, and peculiar charaéter and abilities of each individual whom he celebrates, that the reader of tafte, if neither fcientific nor learned before he has feen thefe Eulogies, becomes both in the courfe of perufal. But Mr. Prof. Ward’s work, fays Dr. Burney, neither amufes us by the grace, dignity, or eloquence of ftyle, nor inftruéts by its feience. His materials are fcanty, nor has he fufficiently applied to ufeful purpofes thofe which he had amaffed. The genealogy of the profeffors is all that he has laboured, and that not very fuccefsfully. Our chief inquiry of him was confined to the mufic-profeffors ; but we obtained no information concerning any one of them, except Dr. Bull; and all he knew of that great mufician he had from Dr. Pepufch, the ftudious, learned, and worthy or- ganift of the Charter-Houfe. Out of thirteen profeffors of mufic, who had had the honour of being placed in the chair, after Bull, previous to the year 1740, when Ward’s bio- graphical work was publifhed, there appears no reafon for the eleGtion of any one of them for their mufical feience or talents, except Dr. Bull. None of the reft had ever diltin- guifhed themfelves either in the theory or practice of mufic, or been authors of any work on the art or fcience, which could qualify them for becoming candidates for the pro- fefforfhip. The long and dry lift of Dr. Bull’s fugitive pieces is given in a language now utterly obfolete, and unintelligible to the generality of readers, WAR Warp, » an Englifh madrigalift of the fecond clafs, during the reign of James I. Ward was one of the firft who transformed his madrigals into fancies for lutes and viols. No inftrument, except the organ, had been much cultivated in England at this time; fo that fonatas, folos, or concertos, were wholly unknown to us; and like our betters, the ancient Greeks, our inftruments had nothing but vocal mufic to perform: in chorufes, doubling the voice parts in unifons and o¢taves, and playing nomes, and other vocal airs, for their folos. Warp, Warda, Cuftody, or Keeping. See Guarp. . Warp is a word ufed in our Law Books, in divers figni- fications. Thus, a ward, in London, is a part of the city, committed to the fpecial charge of one of the aldermen of the city. There are twenty-fix wards in London, which are as hundreds, and the parifhes thereof as towns. A foreft is alfo divided into wards; fo alfo are moft of our hofpitals. See HospiTat. A prifon is fometimes alfo called a ward. The heir of the king’s tenant, who held by knights- fervice, or in capite, was alfo called a ward, during his non age. But this fort of wardfhip is taken away by the ftatute 12 Car. II. cap. 24. See GuaRpDIAN, in Chivalry. Warp, Watch and. See Watcu. Warp, Cafile. See Casrce. Warp-Room, the apartment in a fhip in which the officers mefs, &c. next under the captain’s cabin, Warp, Warda, Wardagium, is alfo ufed, in our Ancient Writers, for the cuftody of a town or caftle, which the tenants and inhabitants were bound to keep at their own charge. See WARDSHIP. Warp’s Medicines, a denomination given to certain me- dical noftrums, originally prepared and difperfed by Mr. Ward, and which were fome years ago much celebrated for their efficacy in a variety of diforders. The methods of compounding the principal of thefe me- dicines was communicated to the public about fifty years ago by I. Page, efq., to whom Mr. Ward left his book of receipts ; and in order to their being procured at a cheap rate, his late majefty fettled a penfion on Meffrs. White and Ofterman, the two chemifls who had been employed by Mr. Ward in preparing them, on condition that the profits arifing from the fale of them fhould be applied to the fup- port of the Afylum and Magdalen charities. Thefe medicines are the red pill and emetic fack drop, the white drop, fweating powders, liquid {weat, patte for piles and fiftulas, dropfy purging powders, and effence for the head-ache. The method of preparing the antimony for the pill and drop is as follows :—The fineft and pureft crude antimony is powdered, and ten or twelve ounces of it put into an earthen unglazed pan that holds three or four quarts, and fet on a fire ; the mafs is ftirred with an iron fpatula, and the fire raifed till it fends forth fumes, and a flame like burning brimftone ; and the fame degree of fire is continued, and the mafs ftirred, till no fumes efcape from it, and it becomes a grey or afh-coloured powder. If it fhould melt and run into lumps, it mutt be taken out of the pan, and pounded again, and then put in and ftirred as before, till it be tho- roughly calcined. Then four ounces of the crude matter muit be added; and the procefs repeated, till a fufficient quantity has been thus prepared. The procefs muft be performed in a chimney, left the fumes fhould injure the operator. Into a clean crucible, holding about a quart, put about two pounds of the calcined antimony ; fet it ina melting furnace, and make a gradual fire under it; put oe roun WAR round the crucible nearly to the top; keep the mafs in a ftate of moderate fufion, oceafionally ftirring it with an iron rod. “When the matter that adheres to the rod appears bright and tranfparent, which, with a proper degree of fire, will be in about half an hour after it is in fufion, pour the vitrified matter on a {mooth marble, well dried, and heated as het as the hand can bear; repeat the procefs, in order to obtain more of the matter, if neceflary ; and thus will be had a fair and pure glafs of antimony, of a light red colour. In order to prepare the pill, take a quantity of this ‘glafs of antimony ; pound it in a clean iron mortar, and fift it through a fine lawn fieve; then grind, or levigate it, on a {mooth marble, to an impalpable powder: take alfo dragon’s ‘blood dried and powdered; and put one ounce of this to four ounces of the letigated glafs; grind them well to- gether ; and with good fack, or rich mountain wine, make them into a mafs for pills, of about one grain and a half each, which is a full dofe for aman or woman. The hed is made by putting about half an ounce of the fevigated glafs of antimony into a quart of the richeft Malaga mountain or fack ; fhake them well together, and let them ftand two or three days to fettle, and grow clear; then pour it off gently, to be quite fine. The full dofe for a man or woman is half an ounce; but it is advifable to begin with the half or two-thirds, according to the age, or ftrength of conftitution. Thefe medicines, it is faid, cannot be fafely adminiftered, if the vifcera are unfound. They have been ufually given in diforders occafioned by foul ftomachs and indigeftion ; and the pill has been very fuccefsful in inve- terate rheumatifms: both the pill and the drop frequently operate upward and downward, but with lefs ftraining than the emetics ufually given. The pill muft be bruifed, and taken in a fpoonful of any {mall liquid, on an empty fto- mach : if it works upwards or downwards, it will be proper to drink a {mall quantity of balm or fage-tea, between each motion ; and if it fweats, as it fometimes does, let the pa- tient keep himfelf warm, and encourage it by drinking the above {mall liquors; when it is taken, milk, greens, and fruit, muft be avoided. The potion, called the drop, re- quires no vehicle: when the ficknefs comes on, let the pa- tient drink about half a pint of warm water, or thin water gruel, and continue to do fo every time it works. The white drop is prepared by bruifing fourteen pounds of the cleaneft copperas into a rough powder ; then drying “it with a gentle heat, and {preading it thin, till it becomes a dry and fubtile powder, refembling quick-lime, but much whiter. When this operation is finifhed, which requires about fix or feven days, take an equal quantity of good and clean rough nitre, or falt-petre, tolerably dry ; pound the nitre and copperas together ; fift the powder through a fine hair-fieve, put it into a large glafs retort, coated at bottom, and fet it in a fand-furnace about an inch from the bottom and fides of the fand-pan ; fix on with lute a large receiver, leaving a {mall vent-hole in the joint to prevent the burfting of the retort or receiver; make a gentle fire for the firit three hours; and gradually increafe it for three or four hours longer, till the iron-pan be red-hot at bottom; con- tinue the fire about thirty hours; and then let it out, and when it is cool, you obtain a very powerful aqua-fortis ; put this into a bottle, ftop it clofe, and let it ftand fix or eight days to digeft itfelf. Put this aqua-fortis into a glafs retort about half or two-thirds full; fet it in the fand-heat, and fix on a receiver ; make a moderate fire, till the aqua-fortis is come over into the receiver, leaving behind only a brown, reddifh earth: by this procefs is obtained a very {trong and pure aqua-fortis. Put a quantity of this rectified aqua-fortis WAR into a large bolt-head, with a long neck, fo as to make it about a quarter full; then take ofthe pureft and finedt vola- tile fal ammoniac, in which there is not the leaft acid falt, or lime. To fixteen ounces of the aqua-fortis in the bolt- head, add, by half an ounce at a time, feven ounces of the volatile fal ammoniac, {topping the mouth of the bolt-head, (a vent-hole excepted,) till the fermentation ends; let it ftand two or three hours, till the fumes are fettled. Next put it into a {maller bolt-head, half full, and fet it in a mo- derate fand-heat ; when it is warm, put four ounces of the fineft quickfilver to each pound of fixteen ounces of the fo- lution, and let it ftand in the heat till the quickfilver is dif- folved ; increafe the fire, and add quickfilver ; and when it will diffolve no more, take it out of the bolt-head, and put it into an open glafs veflel, or a white, large flone bowl ; fet it in a moderate fand-heat, and let it evaporate till a pellicle or {kin comes over the top of it; then put it in a cool place to congeal. The heavy liquor, or oil, which remains con- gealed, muft be poured off, and thoroughly drained, and the remaining falt muft be put into a glafs body; to each pound adding three pounds of the fineft rofe-water, and ftopping the mouth of the glafs with a piece of double brown paper. Set it again in the fand-heat with a mode- rate fire, till the falt is wholly diffolved, which is ufually effe€ted in twenty-four hours; and thus is the white drop prepared. ; This medicine, it is faid, cannot be accounted dangerous ; as there is not in two drops, ufually taken in twenty-four hours, half a grain of mercury. It has been adminiftered with fuccefs as an antifcorbutic in all ftages of the feurvy, and even when the difeafe has been hereditary. The dofe of two drops is to be taken in a {mall quantity of water in the morning, fafting, or at night, going to reft, for two or three days together ; then after an interval of as many days, proceeding as before. It generally produces its effe& with- out any fenfible operation ; except that in fome conftitutions it produces one or two motions. Mr. Ward adminiftered two forts of fweating powders ; one fort is directed to be made by rubbing together in a mortar four ounces of refined nitre, and as much vitriolized tartar, into a powder; and putting into a red-hot crucible half of this mafs, and ftirring it with an iron fpatula: when the red fumes that arife from it ceafe, put in the remainder of the matter, and ftir it till no more fumes arife ; then pour it into dn iron mortar ; and when cool, add opium, ipeca- cuanha, and liquorice powder, of each an ounce: pound and fift them through a lawn fieve, and mix all together. When the powders are thus prepared, they fhould be {pread thin on white {tone difhes, and fet in a cool place for about two days, mixing them well, and fpreading them twice a day ; then dry them before the fire, or with any other gentle heat. ; The other fort of fweating powder is prepared by fulmi- nating together common tartar, and refined nitre, of each one pound, in a crucible or iron pot, which will reduce them to about fifteen ounces: to thefe add white hellebore, and liquorice powder, of each fix ounces; powder them to- gether, and fift them through a fine lawn fieve. The dofe is from twenty-five to fifty grains. Thefe fweating powders are faid to remove rheumatic and other pains, occafioned by obftruétions ; though it is faid that the red pill has been found to anfwer better in ftubborn rheumatic cafes, and other fettled pains in the limbs. They may be taken in any liquid, going to bed between the blankets, and now and then drinking fome warm diluting liquor, as white wine whey, baum tea, &c. They may be repeated every other night at difcretion. : The WAR The liquid fzveat is prepared by putting a gallon of good fpirits of wine, and half a gallon of good white wine, into a ftrong bottle, and adding half a pound of faffron, four ounces of cinnamon, two ounces of falt of tartar, and one ounce of opium, cut into fmall pieces. Stop the bottle clofe, and fet it near the fire for eight days, fhaking it three or four times a day ; then filter the contents through a fil- tering paper. The dofe is from thirty to fixty drops, ina glafs of good white wine. The ga/fe for the piles and fiftulas is prepared by pounding feparately a pound of elecampane root, three pounds of fennel-feeds, and one pound of black pepper, and fifting the powders through a fine fieve; then melt two pounds of honey, and two pounds of powder fugar, over a gentle fire, fewmming them, till they become bright as amber: when they are cool, mix and knead your powder into them in the form of a foft pafte. This pafte is faid to be a fpecific re- medy for the fiftula, piles, &c. The dofe is the quantity of anutmeg, morning, night, and noon, drinking after ita glafs of water, or white wine. . The dropfy purging powder, as made by Mr. Ward, was formed by powdering feparately jalap, cream of tartar, and Florentine iris, of each four ounces, and mixing them well; as prepared by M. D’Ofterman for Mr. Ward, it confifts of a pound of jalap in powder, a pound of cream of tartar, and an ounce of bole armoniac, in fine powder, mixed well together. The dofe is from thirty to forty grains, in broth, or warm water, to be repeated two or three days fucceflively, and longer, at proper intervals, if neceffary. The effence for the head-ache was formed by Mr. Ward of four ounces of fpirits of wine, two ounces of camphor, and two ounces of volatile {pirit of camphor, well mixed, and applied with the hand. M. D’Ofterman prepared it for Mr. Ward, by puttmg two pounds of true French fpirit of wine into a large ftrong bottle, and adding two ounces of roch alum in fine powder, four ounces of camphor cut {mall, half an ounce of efferice of lemon, and four ounces of the ftrongeft volatile {pirit of fal ammoniac. Stop the bottle clofe, and fhake it three or four times a day for five or fix days. The method of applying it is, to rub a little of it gently upon the palm of the hand, and then holding it to the part affected till it is dry. If the pain is not re- lieved, it fhould be repeated two or three times. For fome remarks on Mr. Ward’s pill and drop, by Mr. Clutton, fee True and candid Relation of their good and bad Effe€&ts, and Med. Eff. Edinb. abr. vol. ii. p. 434. 470, &c. and Ed. Med. Eff. and Obf. vol. vi. p. 423. Warp, in Geography, a townfhip of Maffachufetts, con- taining 540 inhabitants ; 6 miles S. of Worcetter. Warp, a river of Denmark, in North Jutland, which runs into the North fea, 15 miles N.N.W. of Ripen. Warp Law, 2 mountain of Scotland, in the county of Ayr; 16 miles E. of Ayr. Warn’s Creek, a river of Virginia, which runs into James river, N. lat. 37° 1o!. W. long. 77° 11'.—Alfo, a river of Maryland, which runs into the Chefapeak, N. lat. 38° 8'. W. long. 76° 52. WARDA Ecctestarum denotes the guardianfhip of churches ; which is in the king during vacancies by reafon of the regalia, or temporalities. See VACATION. WARDAGE, Warpacium, is fometimes ufed, in our ancient law-writers, in the fame fenfe with wardpenny. Sometimes it alfo feems to denote a being free from ward- fhip. WARDAN, or Ras Wardan, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of Arabia, in the Red fea; 5 miles S. of Maf- tura. VoL. XXXVII. WAR Warpan. See Varpen. : WARDE, or Varnes, a town of Denmark, in North Jutland, on the river Ward. It was formerly. a confider- able city ; but as the depth of its river, which abounds in fifth, particularly falmon, is fo much decreafed, as to be no longer navigable for fhips of burthen, it is fallen into decay. It has two churches; 18 miles N. of Ripen. N. lat. 55° 35’. E. long. 8° 28!. Warve Mauger, La, a town of France, in the depart- "ment of the, Somme ;.4 miles W.N.W. of Montdidier. _ WARDECORNE, among our Ancient Writers, a duty incumbent on the tenants, to guard the caftle, by founding a horn upon the approach of an enemy; called alfo cornage. WARDEIN, in Geography. See Prrer WarpEIN. WarpveEIn, Gros, a town of Hungary, on the river Koros, furrounded by good fortifications; the fee of a bifhop. The town itfelfis not large, but has three fuburbs of very confiderable extent. The adjoining fortrefs is a re- gular pentagon, well fortified, befides a deep and broad moat. Near the city is an excellent cold-bath; 66 miles N. of Temefvar. N. lat. 46° 53'. E. long. 21° 32!. WARDEN, Guarptan, one who has the charge or keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. See GUARDIAN. Such is the warden of the Fleet, who is the keeper of the Fleet prifon, and has the charge of the prifoners there ; efpecially fuch as are committed from the court of chancery for contempt. Such alfo are the warden of the fellowfhips, warden of the marfhes, wardens of peace, warden of the weft marfhea, warden of the foreft, warden of the alnage, warden of the king’s wardrobe, &c. Warben, in an univerfity, is the head of a college; anfwering to what in other colleges we call the mafer thereof. Warpen, or Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, is the governor of thofe noted havens; who has the authority of an admiral, and fends out writs in his own name. See Cinque-Ports, and GUARDIAN. ~ Waroen of the Mint, is an officer, whofe bufinefs is to receive the gold and. filver bullion brought in by the mer- chants ; to pay them for it, and overfee the other officers. He is alfo called keeper of the Exchange, and Mint. Waropens, Church. See CHurcn. Waropen, Renter. See RENTER. Warnen Ledge, in Geography, a rocky fhoal on the weft coaft of the Ifle of Wight. N. lat. 50° 41’. W. long. To2al WARDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the county of Oldenburg ; 6 miles N. of Oldenburg. WARDER, Yeomen Warders of the Tower, are officers, forty in number, who are accounted the king’s domeftic fervants, and are fworn by the lord chamberlain: their duty is, to attend the prifoners of ftate, and to wait at the gates. 4 Ten of them are ufually upon the day’s wait, to take an account of all perfons who come into the Tower; to enter their names, and the names of the perfons they go to, in a book, te be perufed by the conitable or lieutenant. WARDFEOH, or Warprecu, the value of a ward, or heir under age ; or the money paid to the lord of the fee for his redemption. WARD-HOOK, in Gunnery, the fame with wad-hook, or worm. WARDHUS, or Warpuuvys, or Vardhuys, in Geogra- phy, a town of Norwegian Lapland, and chief place of a 47 govern- WAR government, defended by a caftle, in which a governor re- fides, but without baftions ; the town is chiefly inhabited by fifhermen, and is fituated on an ifland called Wardoe, the largeft of three. N. lat. 70° 16! E. long. 30° 28! WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called, which is kept in every ward of the city ; anfwering to the curiata comitia in ancient Rome. WARDO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, E. of Aland, with a town. N. lat. 60° 15/. E. long. 20021. WARDPENNY, Wardpeni, was formerly a cuftomary due paid to the fheriff, or other officer, for maintaining watch and ward, It was payable at the feaft of St. Martin; and is ftill paid within the manor of Sutton-Colfield, in Warwick- fhire ; and that with fome very fingular ceremonies. . WARDROBE, a clofet or little room adjoining to a bed-chamber; ferving to difpofe and keep a per- fon’s apparel in; or for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to wait, &c. Waroprope, in a prince’s court, is an apartment in which his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceflaries, are preferved ; under the care and direétion of proper officers. His majefty has a great wardrobe, a removing wardrobe, and divers ftanding wardrobes, belonging to his bed-cham- ber, in each of his palaces ; viz. at Whitehall, Kenfington, Windfor, Hampton Court, and the Tower ; each under its refpeétive keeper. The removing wardrobe always attends on the king’s perfon ; as alfo on ambafladors, at chriftenings, mafques, plays, &c. It is under the command of the lord chamber- lain: the under-officers are, a yeoman, two grooms, and three pages. The great wardrobe is of great antiquity. Annciently it was kept near Puddle-wharf, in a houfe purchafed for that purpofe by king Edward III.; but, after the fire of London, it was kept in York-buildings. The mafter or keeper of which is an officer of great dignity: high privileges were conferred on him by Henry VI.; and James I. enlarged the fame, and erected the office into a corporation. The officers are, the mafter or keeper, his deputy, and his clerk, befides feveral other officers ; and above fixty tradefmen, all {worn fervants to the kings This office is to provide for coronations, marriages, and funerals, of the royal family; to furnifh the court with beds, hangings, carpets, &c. ; to furnifh houfes for am- baffadors, at their firft arrival here; prefents for foreign princes and ambafladors; furniture for the lord lieute- nant of Ireland, and our ambafladors abroad; robes for the knights and officers of the garter, heralds, purfuivants, minifters of ftate; liveries for the officers of the bed- chamber, and other fervants; liveries for the lord-chief juftices, and barons of the exchequer, and other officers in thofe courts; as alfo yeomen, warders, trumpets, kettle-drums, meflengers, coachmen, grooms, &c. with coaches, harneffes, faddles, &c. the watermen, game- keepers ; linen and lace for the king’s perfon ; tilts, &c. for his barges, &c. WARDS. See Courr of Wards. WARDSBOROUGH, Worth Diftri@, in Geography, a town of Vermont, in the county of Windham, containing 1159 inhabitants. Waropssoroucn, South Difirif?, a town of Vermont, n the county of Windham, containing 894 inhabitants. WAR WARDSBRIDGE, a miles S. of Kingfton. WARDSHIP, in Chivalry. Chivalry, and Warn, fupra. WarosuiP, in Copyholds, is incident only to thofe of inheritance. It partakes both of that in chivalry, and that in focage; like that in chivalry, the lord is the legal guardian, who ufually affigns fome relation of the infant tenant to act in his ftead; and he, like guardian in foc- age, is accountable to his ward for the profits. See GuARDIAN, WarpsuiP, in Socagee See Guarpian and SocaGe. WARD-STAFTF, the conttable’s or watchman’s ftaff. * The manor of Lambourn, in Effex, is held by feryice of the ward-ftaff ; viz. by the carrying of a load of ftraw ina cart with fix horfes, two ropes, and two men in har~ nefs to watch the faid ward-ftaff, when it is brought to the town of Abridge, &c. WARDWAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 80 miles S.W. of Amedabad, WARD-WITE, compounded of the Saxon ward, watch, and wite, mul@, is detined by Fleta, as fignifying a being exempted from the duty of watching. Others oa take it for a duty paid towards the charge ofr it. WARE, Sir James, in Biography, a defcendant of an ancient Englifh family in Yorkfhire, was born at Dublin in 1594, and finifhed his education at Trinity college, Dublin. His proficiency was fuch as to entitle him to the particular. notice of Dr. Usher, then bifhop of Meath, with whom he contraéted an intimate friendfhip. On his firft vifit to, England in 1626, he was introduced by Usher to fir Robert; Cotton, from whofe library he derived much affiftance in his refearches ; of which he again availed himfelf in a fecond journey to England in 1628. In 1629 he was knighted by. the lords juftices of Ireland, and in 1632 he fucceeded to. his father’s eftates, and to his office of auditor-general. He was greatly confided in and often confulted by the earl of Strafford, and by him made a member of the privy council. In 1639 he reprefented the univerfity of Dublin in parliament, and was fteadily attached to the intereit of lord Strafford. He wasactive in his endeavours for fupprefling the Irifh re- bellion which broke out in 1641, and he was held in fuch eftimation by the marquis of Ormond, that he was one of three perfons deputed by him to inform his majefty at Oxford, in December 1644, of the {tate of affairs in Ireland. On his return he was captured by a fhip of war belonging to the parliament, and committed to the Tower, whence he was releafed by exchange. During the progrefs of the civil war, he was invariably attached to the royal caufe, and when Dublin furrendered to the parliament, he was one of the hoftages for the fulfilment of the treaty. After his re- turn to Ireland, he was fufpeéted, and ordered to depart to. any place except England. He chofe France as the place of his exile, and removed thither in 1649, and here he aflo- ciated with men of learning. In 1651 he was allowed to come to London, and from thence he returned to Ireland, which was then in a tranquil {tate. During the embroiled {tate of the country, fir James Ware employed his time in the elucidation of hiftorical antiquities, and publifhed, at dif- ferent periods, a variety of biographical and other works ; and particularly his treatife «‘ De Scriptoribus Hiberniz,”’ lib. ii. commencing with the introduction of Chriftianity into Ireland, and continued to the clofe of the fixteenth cen- tury ; and alfo his principal work, entitled ‘* De Hiberniz et Antiquitatibus 52 16 (fom S| perp 49 6)|''5§2, 67)" 50" 6 17238 | 17576 16851 | 17188 17836 | 17425 | 17453 46 46 463 | 465 42 | 463 | 44% 60 6] 60 8 60 7] 60 6 60 7} 60 8] 60 6 48 6] 48 6 Fa mOwln dic bo 7 | 5o (6) (600 48 6| 66 6 52 6| 60 6 50) 6) | FG \Or|"4 0086 16640 | 17160 17382 | 17550 17234 | 17593 | 17828 463 54 503 | 493 42 60 8]| 60 6 632, 7) 64 7 64 8 | 65 7| 70 8 60 6] 60 7 Gory) 52 64 8 | 62 7|60 7 54 6) 56 7 60 7/50 6 72,7 | 58 7| 52 6 17550 | 17828 17191 | 17168 17115 | 17717 | 16900 48 42 463 46 56r | 43% 48 Ce anneal cee ooo os 70 8 | 72. 8 VAmmen | 75) LO. 96 12 | 96 12 | go Io 66 8] 52 6 68 8 | 72 75 10 | 75 10 | 90 10 OAye fais 25 a6 68 8}|70 7 80 8 | 88 8 | go Io 17160 | 16673 17400 | 15600 15600 | 17160 | 18954 | 50 2 60 60 60 60 44% | Vou. XXXVII. WATCH: TABLE continued. 15 Teeth in the Balance-Wheel. Second Wheel 48 6 Third Wheel Pinion 48° 6| 48 6} 54 6) 54 61 54 6 Third Wheel 45 6 Contrate Pin. 45 6|-45 6148 6| 48 6] 48 6} Contrate Wheel 54 .6 Balance Pin. 58 6| 60 6| 46 6| 48 6) 64 8 Beats 16200 in an Hour 17400 | 18000 | 16560 | 17280 | 17280 Seconds 60 in which the 4th Wheei revolves 60 60 50 50 50 5A Ons) a Oy | 56 756" 656 7158: 6) 586} Go 8 | Go- 8) 608 5Ol 6) | Ay) Glas .6°1 45" (ON 4S NGOMINGo 1S NiA8ONG Niko! 88048" "6. |'48i 6 5G) 7 48 6|56 6]58 6160 6] 46 6] 60 6|46 6/58 6|'58 6] 60 6| 48 6 18000 | 16800 | 17400 | 18000 | 17173 } 18000 | 17786 | 17520 | 17400 | 18000 | 14400 48 60 60 60 48 60 463 594 60 60 60 60 8160 7{|60 8|60 8] 60 8} 60 6|60 6] 60 6] 60 6] 60 10} 60’ 6 56 7156 7|56 7156 7] 56 7160 8 |} 60 10] 60 8] 60 10] 60 6 |} 60 10 56 7|58 7|58 6160 6|60 7 | 48 6) 48 6] 56 7| 58 6| 60 6) 64 8 14400 | 17044 | 17400 | 18000 | 15386 | 18000 | 14400 | 18000 | 17400 | 18000 | 14400 60 525 60 60 60 48 60 48 60 | 60 60 60 8} 60. 8 | 62 8} 63 7] 63 7164 8 | 64 8}| 64 8] 64 6) 65 7] 7o 6 64 8} 64 8) 60 8} 54 4 | 56 7145 6| 60 8 | 60 8] 60 10} 56 7 | 60 to 66 7)70 7160 6| 50 656 7 | 56 6) 58 6)'60 Gyo 8 | 56 71486 16971 | 18000 | 17437 | 17356 | 17280 | 16800 | 17400 | 18000 | 16800 | 17828 | 16800 60 60 612 Sz 50 60 60 60 564 48} 515 FOO | FOr IS: | ¥O' 8) | FOr1oO'| 72 ON 72) Sole A oMeizheG ez Clee On tC emo 60 10 | 64 8 | 64 8] 65 8] 6010} 64 8 | 64 8 | 64 8 | 65 8 | 64 8] 72 9 FO | 50 26 1 58) 7) |60 6:48 64 50) 6 | 5400 yen 64) oe |) Of oO) oI 72mg 18000 | 17500 | 17400 | 17062 | 17280 | 18000 | 16662 | 17280 | 17550 | 18000 } 17280 60 | 513 | 513 | 56% 50 | 50 50° 50 49 | . 48 50 17 Teeth in the Balance-Wheel. | Second Wheel 48 6 Third Wheel Pin. 56 7) 60 8|64 8 Third Wheel 45 6 Contrate Pin. 45. 6156 7)|60 8 Contrate Wheel50 6 Balance Pin. 53n sO ont Ol OOn ay Beats 17000 in an Hour 18020 | 17828 | 17485 geconds 60 in which the 4th Wheel revolves | 60 60 60 GW. SWP. TNS. | GW. SWP. TNS. | 48 10 65 60) 10). 5 Boe Z an Ose. 50m tomo 62) to. a 56 12 62 Fl ipelOu nda 64 10 4% So ue Ge 54 10 5a 7 is a Wy Es Gol. (3226) -), 55 10 5rrf 50 12 Fe | 62 12 5% 56) LOn hs 52 2 are 64 12 5s 58 10 5% 54 12 165 If we divide double the produ& of all the four wheels by the produ& of all the three pinions, the quotient will be the number of deats as given in any of the trains contained in this table; alfo, if we take the fecond and third wheels and their pinions re{petively, as a compound fraétion of an hour, they will give the /econds in which the contrate- wheel, attached to the latter pinion, will revolve; thus, gx of 7, of 60™ = 1™, or 60%, which numbers are confe- quently proper for a watch that indicates feconds ; and if the beats be 18000, or 14400, there will be five or four beats refpectively in a fecond, which are the beft trains for meafuring fractional parts of a fecond. French Repeater. —The mechanifm which conftitutes the repetition portion of a French, and alfo of a Swifs watch, was originally employed by Tompion, Quare, and other Englifh artifts, and is reprefented by the various figures contained in Plate XLV. of Horology; it is eafier of con- ftru€tion than the repetition-motion of Stockten, which follows, but is not confidered fo perfeét. We have put the fame letters of reference to the detached parts, that ftand near them in the larger figures, where they occupy their refpe¢tive fituations ; and that the reader may be able to accompany us through our defcription of the a@tion of the relative parts, we will explain previoufly the appella- tions by which the workmen defignate thefe acting pieces. In figs. 1. and 2. A denotes the pendant-bow, carried at the end of a cylindrical piece, called the pendant, and the hollow piece, into which it is occafionally pufhed, is the pendant-focket ; BCD the triple lever is called the cré- maillére; E is a fixed pulley; and F the hour-fnail, by which the number of hours to be ftruck by the hour-ham- mer is limited; H is the ftar-wheel, to which the hour- fnail F is fixed faft; I K is the tout-ou-rien and G its {pring lying on its plane; L and N are the two fets of teeth, that take hold of the hammer-tails, which {trike quarters by double blows; O is one of the quarter ham- mer WATCH. mer-tails, and Q, or Q 5, the other, which is attached to the hammer that ftrikes alfo the hours; S is the quarter- {nail that determines the number of quarters to be ftruck at any time, when the hour-hammer has ftruck the hours, and has three fteps or arcs of different radii, prefented fuccef- fively to the part that aéts on, or rather refts on it; 7, 8, is the loofe piece attached to, and fecured under the quarter- {nail S ; ais the end of the middle lever of the crémaillére ; & the jumper, that makes the ftar-wheel jump a whole {pace when a tooth, in raifing it, has arrived at its angular point, fo as to give its fpring d its full tenfion; e is the chain made faft at one end to the crémaillére at D, and after paff- ing round the pulley E, attached at the other to a fecond pulley Z, which is inferted on the arbor of the repeating main-{pring, fis the quarter-piece {pring, prefling on a pin in the quarter-piece M ; 4 is the quarter hammer-fpring ; 7 its counter-{pring ; g the quarter hammer-tail {pring ; p the hour-hammer fpring, and o its counter-fpring; g is the hour-hammer quarter tail-fpring, and r the gathering piece or arm fixed on the arbor of the great wheel of the repeat- ing train of wheels, over the pulley Z, that caufes the quarter-piece to aét on the hammer-tails, and is the fame arbor which we have before called the arbor of the repeat- ing main-fpring. Thefe are the pieces of mechanifm that lie under the face of the watch, and appear above the frame when the face is removed, together with the dial- work reprefented by the dotted circles in fig. 1, but by unfhaded wheels and pinions in fg. 2, that the other parts might not be concealed below them. Fig. 3. contains the works under the upper plate of the frame, of which the repetition-train (fetit rouage) only is fhaded, the ordinary movement being given in outline. The connection between the pieces exhibited in figs.1. and 2, and the repetition train in the frame, fhewn in fig. 3, 1s by means of the arbor of the great wheel’ and its circular rack G, feen in this figure, for this arbor protruding above the upper plate of the frame receives on its fquare the main-fpring of the re- peating mechanifm, and alfo the gathering-piece r, fo that whenever this main-{pring, exhibited in fig. 4, is wound up, the ratchet on the great wheel, feen in fig. 5, allows the great wheel to move with it without the reit of the repeat- ing train ; but when the {pring unbends itfelf, and pulls the chain and attached crémaillére back, the click of the ratchet catches and aétuates the whole train, which terminates with a fly on the laft pinion-arbor, as in the flriking part of a clock, and thus regulates the velocity with which the ham- mers’ ref{pectively ftrike. We will now proceed to explain the ation of the repeat- ing mechanifm, which we have defcribed above, and fee how the effe&t is produced by means that are thus appa- rently complex. When the pendant has been pufhed in flowly a fhort fpace, the end a of the middle prong of the cremaillére, being kept down by the fmall cock Y, ap- proaches one of the fteps of the hour-{nail F, and at the fame time pulls the chain, by means of the prong D, round the pulley or friétion-roller E, and winds up the main- fpring coiled in the box of pulley Z, at the fame time making the gathering-piece r retrograde from its pin, in- ferted into the quarter-piece : in fig. 1. this motion is juft ¢ommencing from a ftate of quielcence ; fuppofe now, the retrograde motion of the gathering-piece to take place, while the pendant is pufhed very flowly in; and conceive the circular rack on the face of the large wheel within the frame, viz. G in fig. 3, to be retrograding alfo, as being on the fame common axis; prefently the end a of the third prong of the crémaillére meets with one of the fteps of the hhour-{nail, and ~pufhes againft it; this fnail, and its at- tached ftar-wheel, having their common pivot bore by the fout-ou-rien at H, communicate the pufh received by them to this piece, which turning on its centre of mo- tion at I, has its remote or loofe end K carried from its quiefcent pofition, notwithftanding the oppofing aétion of its {pring ; and when confiderable force is applied to pufh the pendant home, this end K, which forms a detent to the quarter-piece at the points of their conta, quits its hold, and leaves the quarter-piece at liberty to be urged by its {pring f, e its heel-piece c drops upon one of the fteps of the quarter-fnail, as in fig. 2, where it is feen refting on the third ftep, or fhorteft are. At this inftant the repeatng main-{pring begins to relax itfelf, and brings forward the concealed rack G, (fig. 3.) which had retrograded as many teeth only as the hour-{nail permitted, before the sout-on- nien was difplaced; its neareft tooth to the tail-piece 2, 3, of the hour-hammer R R, catches now this tail-piece, and makes the hammer ftrike on the circular rim of {teel, which is fubftituted for a bell, and as many blows are given in fucceffion, as there are teeth in the rack to fall againft the hammer-tail, while the repeating train is running down 5 and during the time in which thefe ftrokes are going on, the little pin between the hammer-tail {pring p, and its counter-fpring 0, may be feen moving backwards and for- wards, as though it gave the ftrokes on the counter-{pring. No fooner are the hours limited by the hour-{nail ftruck, than the gathering piece r returns with the relaxing {pring, till it catches the pin of the quarter-piece, which piece is moveable round a pivot at M, and is now gradually brought back by its pin till one of its teeth N catches O, the tail- piece of the quarter-hammer P, fig. 3, and then one of the teeth at L, at the oppofite end of the quarter-piece, catches Q the upper tail-piece of the hour-hammer, which inftantly repeats the blow with the hour-hammer, and thus as many double blows are given by the two hammers in im- mediate fucceflion for the quarters, as there are teeth to act on the faid tail-pieces, when the quarter-piece begins to return; and this number entirely depends on the ftep of the quarter-{nail S, on which the heel-piece falls, when the tout-ou-rien is difplaced ; hence if any blow is given, ail the blows that the two {nails limit will be given, from which neceffity, the piece fout-ou-rien, (all-or-nothing,) takes its name. But left the quarter-piece fhould return by a jerk before the tout-ou-rien has produced its full effect, the angular point m of the quarter-piece, in its return, flides down the interior face of the fout-ou-rien, in oppofition to the aétion of its {pring G, while the ftrokes of the quarters are making, and arrives at the point K, at the termination of the ftrokes, thus performing the office of a train and fly, after which the fout-ou-rien refumes its quiefcent pofi- tion, and its end becomes a detent to the quarter-piece. It is not neceflary to defcribe the aétion and re-aétion of the two hammer-tail pieces, which perform their opera- tions, as in the ftriking work of a clock heretofore de- feribed ; but it may be proper to fhew how the lower tail- piece 3, 4, of the hour-hammer is detached from the rack G, fig. 3, while the quarters are ftruck, by means of the upper tail-piece Q ating with the teeth of the quarter- piece at L only ; this will be beft underflood by a reference to the detached figures in the group denoted by fg. 6, as will alfo the aGtion of feveral other parts, which we have defcribed and explained as being in their places in figs. 1 and 2; the three pieces marked Q 5 are the fame quarter tail- piece feen in different views, 2 C 1 R, is a part of the hour- hammer, and its arbor 6 paffes the focket of the piece 3, 4, which we have called the lower tail-piece of the hour-ham- mer, before it receives the upper tail-piece Q on its fquare 5 lel: now WATCH. now the part 3, 4, is that which takes hold of the circular rack G in fig. 3, and is thus occafionally detached from the faid rack ; viz. its pin 3 afcends through the upper plate of the frame, fo that its fuperior end is vifible at 3 both in fig-1. and fig. 2, and falls in the way of the extreme end of the quarter-piece, which, on its return from the quarter- {nail, catches it and turns the piece 3, 4, round the central arbor 6 of the hour-hammer, and thereby takes the end 4 out of the circular rack, while the quarters are being {truck, but whenever the hours are to be ftruck, the proper {pring reftores the due pofition of the tail-piece. As the repeat- ing train of five wheels, and as many pinions, are introduced to give motion to the regulating fly, it is of no confequence what the numbers of their teeth be, provided they be duly proportioned to act fmoothly, and to produce the requifite velocity for the proper intervals between the fucceflive ftrokes. The dial-work for hours and minutes 1s the fame as in any ordinary watch, except that the quarter-f{nail is attached to the cannon-pinion, and lies under it, fo as to partake of its hourly motion, together with that of the minute-hand, fhewn in dots, as being above the face, the piece, however, in fig. 6, denoted by the figures 7, 8, and called the loofe-piece, (or furprife,) is alfo faft by friétion to the fame hour-arbor, and revolves contemporaneoufly with the {nail and minute-hand, and when its pin 8 meets with one of the points of the ftar-wheel H, it moves it for- wards until the angular point on the face of the jumper 6 has paffed an oppofite point of the ftar, when it will jump or move at once the remainder of the {pace ; in this ftar are twelve points, and as the hour-f{nail, which has twelve fteps, is made faft to it, the fnail alfo jumps to the fucceeding ftep once every hour, while the three fteps of the quarter- {nail follow one another by a conftant flow motion, keeping pace with the minute-hand. Hence the times at which the re{petive hours and quarters are to be ftruck, correfpond- ing with the pofitions of their proper f{nails, are guided by the common dial-work, and when once they are duly ad- jufted, a motion given to the minute-hand, by a fuitable key, will always keep both the {nails in their requifite pofitions for regulating the number of hour and quarter ftrokes, that the face of the clock has indicated by the hour and minute- hands; and in the fame way the quarters even of the mi- nute might be repeated, if fuch addition were deemed de- firable. In our figs. 1 and 2, we have put the chara&ers of the hours on the rim or edge of the cafe, as the face is removed, merely to fhew how the hands, pointing to the divided {paces, are conne¢ted with the {nails of the repeating mechanifm. From this explanation, it will appear that the movement of the watch is not at all affe¢ted by pufhing in the pendant, nor yet by the motions of the repeating parts, other- wife than as the heel of the quarter-piece falls againft the guarter-{nail carried by the cannon-pinion, and at the mo- ments when the loofe-piece, under this {nail, moves the ftar at its hourly peried ; but trifling as thefe obftacles may ap- pear in acommon watch, they are feldom, if ever, introduced into a chronometer. In the conitruction which we haye here defcribed, a large femi-circular rack and pinion are fometimes fub{tituted for the chain and pulleys, in which cafe the rack is attached to the crémaillére, and the pinion to the arbor of the repeating main-{pring ; and it is obvious that fuch a fubjtitution will remove the objection to the liability of the chain’s breaking, and the confequent derangement of the works. Englifh Repeater.—The conftruétion of the repeating mo- tion, called, after the name of its inventor, a Stockten motion, differs in many refpeéts from and is very fuperior to the ori- ginal repeating motion, which, with a very little alteration in the mode of arranging its parts, is now generally known by the term French motion: this appellation is however im- proper, fince the repeating watch is indifputably an Englifh invention, the merit of which was difputed by Tompion, Quare, and other Englifh watch-makers of celebrity of the laft century. Stockten was an Englifhman, but his hiftory, like that of many other ingenious men, is fo little known to pofterity, that even his fponforial appellation is loft, and his birth- place unknown ; all that can with any certainty be recorded refpeéting him is, that he lived in London, and worked for the celebrated Mr. George Graham, watch-maker and F.R.S, the fucceflor to Mr. Tompion, the motions of whofe re- peaters were always made upon this conftru€tion. The houfes of Mudge and Dutton, Fleet-ftreet ; of Ellicott, Royal Exchange; and of Vulliamy, Pall-mall; who, for many years after the death of Mr. Graham, were the princi- pal makers of repeaters in London, conftantly employed this conftru€tion of motion; and it is now generally made ufe of by all the London watch-makers in the manufacture of their beft repeaters. To enumerate very briefly the advantages of this repeat- ing work, its main-{pring is wound up by a rack and pinion; from its conftruétion the action of the parts is uniform and gradual, and not depending on feveral f{prings, whofe aGtions interfere with each other ; and moreover it is fufceptible of being made to ftrike the half-quarters, without inconvenience or additional work. To underftand the general a€tion of this repeating motion, it is neceflary to be well acquainted with its conftrudtion, the detail of its parts, the manner in which the different pieces come together, and their feparate a¢tions. ‘The pieces com- pofing the pendant work, and the aétion of the pufhing-piece upon the crémaillére, or, as it is generally termed in this con- ftruGtion of a repeating motion, the rack; the brafs edge, and its ufe and mode of being fixed to the pillar-plate; the dial, and the manner of fixing it to the brafs edge, and the hands; the repeating main-{pring and its barrel; the barrel arbor, and the mode of hooking the {pring into the barrel ; the repeating train of wheels, or, as they are frequently called, the running train, and the fituations of the hammers, relative to the wheels between the plates, and their refpec- tive ufes and ations are all fo nearly the fame as in the common motion, previoufly defcribed, that any further de- {cription becomes unneceflary : the ratchet, click, and click- {pring of the great wheel of the repeating train, are alfo the fame ; but the ratchet-wheel G, of twelve teeth (fig. 3. Plate XLV.) which in the common motion aéts upon the hour- hammer, is in thisconitruétion of the repeating motion omitted. In Plate XLVI. fig. 1. reprefents the repeating work complete in its quiefcent ftate, with the wheel Q of 48, the hour-{nail F, retrograding ratchet P, and wheel of com- munication R; and alfo the lantern-pinion w, quarter-fnail G, and hour-wheel S ; by which parts the motion is com- municated to the hour-hand, and the hands carried round, perfectly detached from the other parts of the motion, Fig. 2. reprefents the repeating work complete, as it ap- pears at the inftant of unlocking ; the arm f of the piece D bearing on the hour-{nail F, the arm y of the quarter-rack on the quarter-fnail G, the little all-or-nothing piece I dif- engaged from the piece K, and the hammer-tails L and M in a proper fituation to be aéted upon by the hour and quar- ter ratchets N and O. . Fig. 3. reprefents merely the rack A B and pinion C ; the piece D ; and the two all-or-nothing pieces H and I, in their relative fituations to one another on the pillar-plate, the reft of the work being fuppofed to be taken off. Fig. 4, WATCH. Fig. 4. reprefents the pinion C, and the hour and quarter ratchets N and O, feparate in plan, and in profile ; and alfo a fection of the three together. Fig. 5. reprefents the cannon-pinion w feen from above, as well as below ; and alfo in perfpeétive, with the quarter- {nail G attached to it. Fig. 6. reprefents the wheel Q of 48, the hour-fnail F, the retrograding ratchet P, and the wheel of communication R, feparate in plan, and in profile; and alfo a feGtion of them together. Fig. 7. reprefents the hour-{nail F on the wheel Q of 48, and the little {pring z in the notch of the focket of the hour-fnail. The rack A B (fee Plate XLVI. figs. 1, 2, and 3.) is the piece firft put in motion when the watch is made to re- peat, and is that by the a&tion of which with the pinion C of twenty teeth, concealed in figs. 1. and 2. by the hour and quarter ratchets N and O, the main-{pring of the repeating part is wound up; this rack may be confidered as a portion of a very large wheel, whofe axis or centre of motion is placed, as near as it conveniently can be, to the edge of the watch : this axis is a hollow tube, pafling through a well fitted hole in the pillar-plate, and pivoted into the upper plate; (the reafon of its being a tube will be prefently fhewn ;) it is fet upright in the frame, and confequently at’ right angles to the face of the pillar-plate ; hence it follows, that the rack, which is alfo fixed at right angles to its axis, moves parallel to the pillar- plate, and is placed as near the plate as it can be, to move freely without rubbing it; the rack is cut into twenty-two teeth. Immediately conneéted with the rack are the two pieces D and E, called, the piece D the unlocking-arm, and the piece E the quarter-rack ; the ufe of the piece D is two- fold; firft, to determine the number of blows to be {truck by the great or hour-hammer, by means of its arm /, which, when the watch is made to repeat, comes to bear upon one of the fteps of the hour-fnail F ; fecond, to unlock, or, as it is commonly termed, difcharge the flriking. ‘This effec is produced, as will be explained hereafter, by a motion of the piece D peculiar to itfelf. This piece D is attached to the rack, at its greateft diftance from its centre of motion, by the fcrew 1, which {crew is tapped into the rack up to a fhoulder, leaving a plain part equal to the thicknefs of the piece D, and as much more as is neceflary for the piece not to be bound, between the under fide of the {crew head and the upper furface of the rack ; and the hole in the piece D, through which this {crew 1 pafles, is made to fit very cor- re€tly on the plain part of the fcrew, upon which it moves as its centre of motion. ‘The quantity of motion of the piece D is determined by a circular hole at its other ex- tremity, through which the axis of the rack pafles, fome- what larger than that axis, which, in order to pafs through the end of this piece D, and for it to a&t againft, is purpofely prolonged above the furface of the rack, a very little more than the thicknefs of this fame piece D: in fig. 3. the quar- ter-rack and the cock a are omitted to fhew the fhape of this piece. The quarter-rack E, fituated above the piece D, has its centre of motion within the centre of motion of the rack A.B, or confidering the centres of motion of both the pieces as lines, they may, under that fuppofition, be con- fidered as poffefling one common centre of motion: this rack is alfo fixed at right angles to its axis, which pafles through the tube that forms the axis of the rack A B, the whole Jength of that axis to the upper plate ; the under fide of this quarter-rack bears upon the top of the tube, or centre of motion of the great rack, which terminates a little above the centre of motion of the piece D, as has been before mentioned ; and the upper extremity ¢ of the axis of this piece is pivoted into the cock a, figs. 1 and 2, which coek is {crewed faft to the pillar-plate YZ: in this manner is the quarter-rack confined in its place between the upper end of the hollow arbor of the a A.B, prolonged through the piece D, as before defcribed, and the under fide of the cock a. The ufe of this piece is to determine the number of quarters, if any, or the half-quarter, as the cafe may be, to be repeated after the hour: this effect is produced by the aGtion of one, and one only, of the eight teeth at the end of the rack, on the little al/-or-nothing piece I; and according to the tooth which fo aé&s, the watch, after having repeated the hour, repeats the half-quarter, the quarter, or the quar- ter and half-quarter, &c. as fhewn by the hands ; or if the minute-hand has not paffed the 7™ and 30* after the hour, the firft tooth of the eight caufes the repeating to ceafe imme- diately after the repeating of the hour is completed. Which of the teeth fhall a& on the little all-or-nothing piece is de- termined by the advance of the quarter-rack, which is regu- lated by the ftep on the quarter-fnail G, upon which the arm y comes in contaét, when the watch is made to repeat. The arm y is made a feparate piece from and fixed to the quarter-rack E, by means of the fcrew 2, on which fcrew it moves as its centre of motion, in the fame manner as the piece D moves on the {crew 1, and is kept in its place by the {pring g: the reafon of this piece being thus made, is to prevent the poffibility, in the cafe of the watch being made. to repeat exaétly at the quarter, of the repeating work ftop- ping the watch, by the arm y holding back the quarter-fnail, during the ftriking of the hours: the arm 0, which is a por- tion of the quarter-rack, by its ation with the retrograding- ratchet P, brings the hour-fnail F into its proper place to receive the arm f, of the piece D. The quarter-rack E is kept in its place by the pin 3, tapped into the piece D, which bears againft its edge; and is carried forward when the watch is made to repeat, by the action of its {pring 4, which is {crewed to its extremity the fartheft from the centre of its motion, and fet up by its other extremity being confined in a notch in the cock a. The total furface of the piece D refts on the rack AB, and, confequently when, in the a& of unlocking, it moves on its centre, or {crew 1, its under face rubs on the furface of the rack AB; but the quarter-rack E, on the con- trary, is entirely detached from, and does not touch the furface of the piece D, its under fide bearing upon the prolonged arbor of the rack A B, through the hole in the piece D; and is kept down by the cock a, which bears againit the fhoulder of its upper pivot, as has been before mentioned. There is what is termed, in the peculiar diale&t of watch-makers, a /ight between the under fide of the rack and the pillar-plate, and between the under fide of the quarter-rack and the piece D ; and from their conftruétion, it is evident that they move in planes parallel to one another, and to the pillar-plate, Haying defcribed the rack, and the parts conneéted with it, we will next in order proceed to the defeription of the pinion C, and the hour and quarter ratchets N and O at- tached to it, and alfo their mode of conneétion, by which the hammers are raifed to caufe them to hit the blows, or to JStrike. The larger of the two ratchet-wheels, N, the one next the pinion, has originally been cut into twenty teeth, of which twelve confecutive teeth are left ; then three more teeth, at an interval apart from each other, and from the laft of the twelve teeth, equal to the {pace of a tooth ; the remainder of the teeth, that occupied the fpace from the laft of the three to the firft of the twelve teeth, are taken away. The upper ratchet, O, which aéts on the {mall hammer, has been originally cut into ten teeth, of which only four confe. cutive WATCH. cutive are left. The pinion C fits by a long fquare hole on the arbor of the great wheel of the running train, pro- longed through the pillar-plate, which arbor is pivotted into the upper plate, and the cock 4, which is ferewed to the pillar-plate. The hour ratchet, of fifteen teeth, is fitted to this pinion C, by means of a focket, attached to and form- ing part thereof ; and the upper ratchet, of four teeth, is at- tached by a hole through its centre, in a fimilar manner to the under ratchet ; and the two are firmly held together, and alfo.to the pinion, by means of two fcrews which pafs through them both, and are tapped into the pinion, as reprefented in feétion in fig. 4; confequently, whatever portion of a circle the pinion is made to revolve by the aétion of the rack, the two ratchet-wheels neceflarily do the fame. It may not be amifs to notice in this place, that the arbor of the great wheel paffes through the barrel which contains the repeating main-{pring ; and that the barrel is ferewed to the under fide of the pillar-plate, and is conne€ted with it exaétly in the fame manner as in the cafe of the common re- peating motion, and its operation is the fame ; but the bar- rel arbor is not pivotted between the upper and pillar- plates, as in the cafe of the common motion, but into the upper plate and the cock 4, fcrewed to the pillar-plate ; and the conneétion between both the hammers and the mo- tion is entirely above the pillar-plate, through the medium of the hammer-tails, as will be explained. The pieces next to be defcribed are the two hammers, and their conneétion with the motion. The two pivots or centres of motion of the hammers are generally placed at equal dif- tances from the arbor that carries the pinion C, and perpendi- cular to the plates, and, confequently, parallel to that arbor, and to one another ; they are pivotted into the frame, and their upper pivots are prolonged through the pillar-plate, to receive the hammer-tails, LL and M: there is a pin planted in each hammer, at a fhort diftance from its centre of motion, which alfo paffes through the pillar-plate, in which there are notches or flits forming portions of circles concentric with the centres of motion of the hammers, for thefe two pins to pafs through, as feen in fig. 3; it is by means of thefe pins 4. and 5, figs. 1 and 2, which pafs into notches, made on purpofe to receive them, in the hammer-tails L, M, that thefe tails, when aéted upon by the two ratchets, in their turn aé&t upon the hammers ; were it not for this con- trivance, the hammer-tails, when impelled by the ratchets, would turn on the pivots of the hammers, as their cen- tres of motion, without raifing the hammers. The ham- mers are kept to their places by the two hammer-fprings v and f, which prefs againft the pins 4 and 5, that pafs through the hammers, below the hammer-tails, and as clofe to the furface of the pillar-plate as they can be, to be free from the furface of the plate: it is by thefe fprings that the hammers, raifed by the a€tion of the ratchet-wheels, are impelled forward ‘to ftrike; and the ftronger they are, provided they are not too ftrong for the power of the main-fpring, the louder will be the blow ftruck. Imme- diately conne&ted with the hammers are the hammer-tails L, M, through the agency of which the hammers are raifed to {trike, by means of the two ratchets N and O ; thefe tails require to be extremely well fitted on the upper pivots of the hammers, prolonged through the pillar-plate, which are their centres of motion, though not fo tight but that they will move with eafe up and down on thofe pivots ; for on this adtion depends the whole performance of the motion: the part of the hammer-tail, which, by way of diftinétion, is called the aéting lever or pallet, is that againft which the teeth of the ratchets aét to raife the hammers, the apper ratchet being the fmaller of the two; the lever of 9 the quarter hammer-tail is left as much longer than the lever of the other hammer-tail, as is neceflary for it to reach the ratchet. To prevent the hammer-tails, when aéted: upon by the ratchets, from turning on their centres of mo- tion, there is, as has been noticed in defcribing the ham- mers, a notch in each hammer-tail, to receive a pin planted in each hammer, parallel to its centre of motion, and which pin for this purpofe is made to pafs through a circular notch in the pillar-plate. : .. The next piece to be defcribed is the crofs-piece, or piece K. The furface of this piece, when at reft, is in a plane parallel to the pillar-plate, and the piece moves upon two Pivots, which aét in holes in the two {mall cocks ¢ and d, {crewed, ‘the cock c to the foot of the cock 4, and the cock d to the pillar-plate Y Z. This piece K is maintained in its place, when the motion is at reft, by the end of the little all-or-nothing piece I, which prefles againft its arm 8, on the one fide of its centre of motion, and by the {pring g, which preffing againft the under fide of its arm 9, on the other fide of its centre of motion, caufes it to bear againit the little all-or-nothing piece 1; the hammer-tail L is main- tained in its place, deprefled, or raifed on its centre of mo- tion folely by the aétion of this piece K; the hammer-tail M is alfo depreffed in the fame manner, but is raifed on its cen- tre of motion by the {pring uw, the end of which is made to bear on the under fide of the hammer-tail for that purpofe ; and by the power of this {pring it is impelled upwards, and made to follow the piece K, when it is raifed by the little all-or-nothing piece I, as before defcribed. The ufe of the piece K, when the unlocking takes place, is to deprefs the hammer-tails on their centres of motion, (the prolonged upper pivots of the hammers) to bring them into the fame planes as the hour and quarter ratchets N and O, they being, when the motion is at reft, fituated confiderably above thofe planes ; and as foon as the ftriking is finifhed, to raife up again the hammer-tail LL, and by relitying the other tail M from its preffure, fuffer it to be raifed by its {pring zw, For this purpofe the arm 7 enters into a groove, made on purpofe to receive it in the hammer-tail L, and the arm 6 is made to bear upon the top of the other hammer-tail M. The action of the piece I will be more fully explained prefently. The pieces next to be défcribed are the large all-or-no- thing piece H, and the little ail-or-nothing piece 1. “Phe upper furface of the piece H is in the fame plane, and it is of the fame thicknefs with the piece D, by which it is ated upon: the upper furface of the piece I is on the fame plane with the upper furface of the quarier-rack, and as thick as it can be for its underfide to be perfectly free from the {prings » and p on the pillar-plate : it is neceffarily re- quired to be of a certain thicknefs, being ated upon by the two pieces E and H. Both the all-or-nothing pieces move on ftuds, {crewed into the pillar-plate, which thus become their centres of motion, the piece H on the ftud r, the piece I on the ftud 7: it is indifpenfable that- thefe {tuds fhould be perpendicular to the face of the pillar-plate, and the pieces perfe@ly well fitted upon them: it is more- over abfolutely neceflary that both the all-or-nothing pieces fhould, in all fituations, be parallel to the plane of the pillar-plate ; on which account, the piece H, being a thin piece, is fixed to a focket, the hole through which focket is perfectly well fitted to the ftud, and the ftud is left as high as it can be, to avoid touching the underfide of the dial. The unlocking is effeCted by the aétion of the piece D on the piece H, in the following manner: when the pen- dant is pufhed in to make the watch repeat, the arm f of the piece D comes into contact with the hour-{nail; and caufes Ls . WATCH. caufes this piéce D to move on its centre of motion, (viz. the {crew 1) ; its oppofite end is then preffed againft the extremity of the all-or-nothing piece H, and caufes that end of the piece to move in a dire€tion outwards; con- fequently the other end of the piece H, which prefles againft the little al/-or-nothing piece I, is moved inwards : the neceflary effe& of this motion in the all-or-nothing piece H, is, from the fhape of the two pieces, to caufe the little a//-or-nothing piece to move outwards from under the arm 8, of the piece K; and this aétion is called the unlocking of the motion. ‘The piece I being thus, by the aé of unlocking, difengaged from under the arm 8, of the piece K, this piece K, by the power of the {pring g, deprefles the hammer-tails, and brings them into the fame planes as the two ratchets, and confequently into a fitua- tion to be acted on by thefe ratchets: after the ftriking is completed, the piece I is returned by the quarter-rack into its former fituation, and with it the piece K, and the two hammer-tails neceffarily refume their fitwations. It is to be obferved, that the afl-or-nothing piece H atts upon the little a//-or-nothing piece I, very nearly at its centre of motion 7, and on the end oppofite to that which pafles under the arm 8, of the piece K. We come now to deferibe the wheels that carry the hands, commonly called the dial-work, and their mode of communication, together with the two {nails attached to them, which determine the hour and the quarter, or half- quarter, if any, to be ftruck. The arbor of the centre-wheel, which makes one revo- lution in an hour, is prolonged through the pillar-plate, and on this arbor the pinion w is fitted, fufficiently tight to be carried round by the wheel, but not fo tight as to prevent its turning on the arbor, the upper end w only of the focket of this pinion is feen in figs. 1 and 2, but the pinion is fully reprefented, in fig. 5, detached from the pieces with which it is connected. The centre-wheel arbor is turned with a fhoulder to receive the bottom of the cannon-pinion’s focket, and for it to bear againft, in order to prevent the extremities of its four teeth, that ftand parallel to the arbor of the wheel from robbing on the furface of the pillar-plate: the upper part of its focket, above the dial, is f{quared to receive the minute-hand, and the hand fits down to the fhoulder, formed, by the reduétion of the original cylinder, into a fquare. At the bettom of this pinion’s focket is a collar turned out of the fame piece, of which the pinion is made, purpofely to receive the quarter-fnail; and to this collar in the fame plane with the quarter-rack, is the quarter-{nail G fixed by two fcrews. This {nail is cut into eight fteps, by which the number of blows to be ftruck is regulated: if the arm y reaches the ftep next the centre, the ftriking ceafes with the repeating of the hour; if it only defcends to the next, or fecond ftep, the watch, after having repeated the hour, re- peats the half-quarter, which is invariably defignated by a fingle faint blow; if it defcends to the third ftep, the quarter only is repeated ; if to the fourth ftep, the quarter and half-quarter ; if to the fifth ftep, the half hour; if to the fixth ftep, the half hour and half-quarter ; if to the feventh ftep, the three-quarters ; and if to the eighth ftep, the three-quarters and half-quarter. Under the {nail is the eannon-pinion, which communicates the motion to the wheel Q of 48, and through it to the hour-hand, and which, from its fingular fhape, obtains the name of lantern-pinion. This pinion is of a very peculiar conftruétion, and confifts of four upright, equidiftant, cylindrical teeth, attached at one end to the under fide of the collar, and made out of the fame piece of fteel that forms the foeket and collar above- mentioned, as feen in fg. 5. Above ‘the cannon-pinion, and refting on it, is the hour- wheel S, which makes one revolution in twelve hours ; and this wheel carries the hour-hand by means of ts focket, which fits on the wheel’s focket prolonged through the hole in the centre of the dial. To explain the mode by which this wheel is made to perform one revolution in twelve hours, it will be neceflary to defcribe the wheel Q of 48, fo called from being cut into 48 teeth; the hour-fnail F, with its rat- chet P; andthe wheel R of communication to the hour-wheel. Thefe four pieces have one common centre of motion, which is a ftud x, fcrewed perpendicularly into the pillar-plate, fimilar to the ftuds r and 2; the wheel of 48, to which are attached the other three, is placed as clofe as it can be to the plate to turn freely. To the centre of the wheel is fixed along focket, well fitted to the ftud, by which means the per- fe& parallelifm of the wheel’s plane to the furface of the plate is preferved: from the face of the wheel upwards, equal to the thicknefs of the hour-fnail, this focket is left of a confiderable diameter, equal to the hole in the centre of the hour-fnail; for on this part of the focket it is that the hour-{nail fits, but not fo tight as to prevent its turning eafily on the focket, while its underfide bears on the upper furface of the wheel: above the furface of the fnail the focket is reduced in diameter to the fize of a common foc- ket. The ratchet P is faftened to the hour-fnail by two fcrews, and thus becomes one piece with it; the centre of the ratchet being cut out a quantity equal to about half its diameter, (fee fig. 6,) and it is fo placed on the hour-f{nail, that the fmall circle thus cut out is concentric with its centre of motion. The wheel of communication R (fee fig.6.) forms the laft of the four ; it fits tight, by a hole through its centre, on the focket of the wheel of 48, and on its under fide a collar is left, which fits, but not tight, into the {pace formed by the cutting out of the centre of the ratchet, and which collar bears on the fhoulder of the large focket above-mentioned, that is formed by the reducing it from the fize, at which it paffes through the hour-fnail, to the {maller fize : in this manner the hour-fnail and ratchet are confined between the wheel of Q 48 and the wheel of com- munication R. To enfure the fnail being carried round once in twelve hours by the wheel of 48, and its being preferved in its relative fituation with ref{pe& to the hour- hand, fo that the hour ftruck fhall accord with the hour fhewn ; and alfo to enfure the fafe bearing of the arm f, of the piece D, on the ftep of the fnail, there is a notch in the thick part of the ftud on which the fnail is fitted, and a cor- refponding long flit, commencing at the centre of the fnail, and extending nearly to its circumference ; in which flit is a ftraight {pring z, that takes into the notch in the focket, (fee fig. 7.) ; the effe& of this contrivance is twofold: firft, by the a¢tion of the {pring in the notch it preferves the {nail, when not aéted upon by the armo of the quarter-rack E, conftantly in the fame fituation relatively to the wheel of 48; and fecondly, it allows of its being moved on its centre when required, and at the fame time regulates the quantity of that motion by the width of the notch in the focket. The cafe in which the hour-fnail is required to turn on its centre, independently of the wheel of 48, is, when the minute-hand having juft paft the 60™, and confequently the hour only being required to be ftruck, there would, without this peculiar additional motion of the fnail, be danger of the arm f, which cannot be a line, but mutt poffefs width as well as thicknefs, not coming down fafe on the ftep of the {nail it ought to reach, but, by being ttopped by the preced- ing ftep, of its caufing the watch to repeat one hour lefs than it fhews ; to prevent this, the arm 9, of the quarter-rack, when the watch is made to repeat exadtly at the hour, ane or WATCH. for fome few minutes after, coming int contac with the ratchet, which is fituated in the fame plane as the arm o, caufes it, and alfo the frail, to advance a fufficient quan- tity to enfure the fafe bearing of the arm f on the inail, and confequently the corre@t ftriking of the watch: this effe&, from the conftruétion of the parts as juft defcribed, is produced, without difturbing either the wheel Q of 48, or the wheel of communication R, and confequently without moving the hands. But it yet remains to explain the mode in which motion is communicated to the hour-hand: the cannon-pinion of four teeth, or pins, revolving with the centre- wheel once in an hour, neceflarily caufes the wheel of 48, in which it a@ts, and with it the wheel of communication, to revolve once in 42, or twelve hours ; and the wheel of com- munication aéting on the hour-wheel, fo called becanfe it carries the hour-hand, is of the fame fize and number of teeth as itfelf, and therefore caufes it and the hour-hand to make one revolution in twelve hours. The feveral parts of the motion and their re{peétive ufes being now defcribed in detail, it remains laftly that we defcribe the general a€tion of the whole. Let us fuppofe the watch made to repeat in the ufual manner, by pushing in the pendant at the three-quarters and a half-quarter paft feven o’clock, the rack A B, jig. 2. by the preffure of the puthing-piece, is carried forward until its further advance is ftopped by the arm f, of the piece D, reaching the feventh ftep from the exterior point of the hour-fnail F ; at the fame time the rack, by its action on the pinion C, winds up to a certain degree the main-{pring ; aud the hour and quarter ratchets N and O, being attached to this pinion, are carried forward with it, or rather, relative to the fhape of the teeth of thofe ratchets, are carried backwards with it: the piece D, neceffarily advancing with the rack, being immediately attached to it, difengages the quarter-rack E, previoufly kept in its place by the pin 3, which quarter- rack being difengaged, is by the power of its {pring 4 im- mediately brought forward after the rack A B, until it is ftopped by its arm y, reaching the quarter-fnail G ; but in this cafe, the watch being to ftrike the three-quarters and the half-quarter, the advance of the quarter-rack is almoft immediately ftopped by its arm y, coming againft the ftep, the fartheft removed from the centre of the quarter-{nail G: the inftant the arm f, of the piece D, has, by its preflure againft the hour-fnail F, ated fufficiently upon the large al/-or- nothing piece H, the unlocking is effetted. By unlocking is meant that portion of the total a¢tion of the motion, every time the watch is made to repeat, which confifts in the ham- mer-tails being fet at liberty to defcend into the fame planes the two ratchet-wheels are in. By the ation of the piece D, with the all-or-nothing piece H, which in its turn aéts on the little all-or-nothing piece I, this piece I is thrown from under the piece K; and this piece K, being no longer fupported by the little all-or-nothing piece 1, has its two arms 6 and 7, by which the fituation of the hammer-tails, on their centres of motion is determined, deprefled by the ation of the {pring g, on its arm 9, until the two hammer-tails are brought into the fame planes as the two ratchets N and O, and are thus placed in a fituation to be a€ted upon by thofe ratchets, and through them the hammers. The power of the blows ftruek by the hammers depends on the ftrength of the hammer-{prings 0 and p; which power is communicated to the hammers, by the fprings bearing againft the pins 4 and 5, planted in them, which pafs through the pillar-plate into the hammer-tails : when by the aétion of the ratchet-wheels on the hammer-tails the hammers are raifed, thefe pins prefs againft the hammer- fprings and continue fo to do, thus gradually increafing the power of the fprings until the hammer-tail efcaping from 2 rs the tooth of the ratchet, the hammer is by the ftrength of the {pring fuddenly thrown forward, and made to ftrike. The fri€tion of the running-train and of the parts of the motion, added to the refiftance of the two hammer- fprings, is the whole power the repeating main-{pring has to overcome ; and the ftronger thefe fprings are, provided they are not too ftrong for the power of the main-{pring, the louder will be the blows ftruck. The number of the teeth of the ratchets that are brought to aét on the ham- mer-tails, is the fame as of the hour to be ftruck, which are determined by the two fnails. The unlocking being thus effeGted, the a&t of ftriking commences; the power by which the repeating main-fpring was wound up, being removed, the fpring immediately uncoils, and returns into its former ftate, carrying with it the pinion C, the two ratchets N and O, and the rack A B; the hammer-tails LM, having been depreffed, and from the aétion of the arms 6 and 7 of the piece K upon them, continuing in the fame planes with the ratchets, are neceffarily a€ted upon by them, and thus is the ftriking of the hours and quar- ters effected. The inftant the ftriking is completed, the rack A B continuing to return overtakes the quarter-rack E, and by means : its pin 3, carries it with it: at the moment the quarter-rack begins;to move, one of its teeth, which tooth is regulated by the quarter or half-quarter that has been ftruck, acting on the pallet of the little a/l-or-nothing piece I, this piece is brought back to its former fituation, and through it the piece K, and the hammer-tails; and all the pieces of the motion return by the power of the repeat- ing main-{pring, into the fame fituations they were in before the watch was made to repeat. The mode by which, in this conftruGtion of repeating work, the proper number of quarters, and the half-quarter, if any, as fhewn by the hands, is ftruck, is peculiar to itfelf, and requires to be particularly explained. The hour-fnail and the great ratchet are fo proportioned to one another, that, as has been before obferved, according to the ftep on the {nail, the arm f of the piece D defcends upon ; fo is the number of teeth of the great ratchet fent back, previoufly to the unlocking taking place, to engage as foon as the unlocking fhall be effected, in the harnmer-tail of the hour-hammer: thus, fuppofe the watch to repeat éqwelve, the arm f defcends to the twelfth or loweft ftep of the hour-fnail, and at the fame time the ratchets revolve a fuffi- cient quantity for the twelve fucceffive teeth, that a& on the great hammer-tail, to come into aétion: if, on the con- trary, the watch were required to ftrike one, the arm of the rack would defcend to only the firft or exterior ftep of the fnail, and the ratchet would revolve a fufficient quantity for the firft only of the twelve teeth to come into aGtion with the hour hammer-tail. It is evident, from the above defcription of the aétion of the twelve teeth of the great ratchet that aé on the hour hammer-tail, that the three teeth in the fame wheel which, conjointly with the fmall ratchet of four teeth, are employed to ftrike the quarters, muft be fo fituated relatively to the twelve teeth that {trike the hours, that when the watch is made to repeat they will precede thofe teeth, in their advance towards the hammer-tails ; otherwife the quarters would be repeated before the hours; for if the ation of thefe pieces is at- tended to, it will be feen, that, in the a€t of winding up the repeating main-{pring, as many teeth of the two ratchets will pafs under the hammer-tails, as are to act on them before the unlocking is effe@ted: confequently, the tooth that firft paffes under the hour hammer-tail would be the laft to a& upon it in returning; and every time the watch is made to repeat, the three teeth of the great ratchet, WATCH. ratchet, and the four teeth of the fmall ratchet, muft, by being in advance of the other twelve teeth of the great anes be carried forward, and fo fituated, if not prevented ‘by fome external caufe, as invariably to oceafion the watch to repeat the three-quarters and half-quarter, after the hour, every time the watch is made to repeat. Such effect is pre- vented taking place by the a¢tion of the quarter-rack : the ‘extremity of this rack is cut into eight teeth; (the acting face only of the firft tooth being cut, and the remainder of that tooth left folid, to infure the fafe aétion of the little all-or-nothing piece 1, when the watch has finifhed ftriking,) and thefe eight teeth correfpond with and are ‘proportionate to the eight fteps in the quarter-{nail ; if the hour only is to be ftruck, the quarter-f{nail is fo fituated with refpeét to the quarter-rack, that the arm y, of the latter, defcends to the deepeft ftep in the fnail, allowing the ‘firft tooth of the eight juft to pafs the fhort lever, or, as it is frequently called, pallet of the little al/-or-nothing piece I, and, from the conftruétion of the parts, the quarter-rack is in fuch a fituation, relative to the great rack, that the latter, through the medium of the pin 3, coming into contaé with it, at the inftant the laft blow of the hour is ftruck, carries ‘the quarter-rack with it, and caufes it to return into its original fituation: now the effect produced by the great rack, carrying the quarter-rack back, is, to occafion the ‘latter, by the action of its firft tooth on the little a//-or-nothing piece I, to bring that piece fuddenly into the fame pofition it was in before the ftriking was difcharged, and thus to ‘raife the piece K, and confequently the hammer-tails, and to difengage them from the three teeth of the great ratchet that ftrike the quarters, and alfo from all the teeth of the fmall ratchet, which along with the rack-pinion, all now re- turn into their original fituation. We are indebted to Mr. Benjamin Lewis Vulliamy, of ‘Pall Mall, clock and watch-maker to the King and Prince ‘Regent, for this minute defcription and accompanying plate cof the Stocken repeater, which has never before been de- fcribed, and for which, therefore, we beg to acknowledge our obligation to him. Elllict’s repeating Watch.— A new, cheap, and fimple ap- aratus for repeating the hours and quarters was contrived by J. M. Elliot of Aylefbury-ftreet, Clerkenwell, and pub- lifhed in Nicholfon’s Journal (vol. vii. 8vo. Series, p. 157.), as being applicable to either clocks or watches. The fketches that are given in the original drawings are not cal- culated to give a clear conception of the conneétion of the parts employed ; and, therefore, we have given fuch a new arrangement of the figures, as’ we truft will enable our readers to comprehend the conftru€@tion and aétion’ of Elliot’s mechanifm, as applied to a watch. Fig. 1. of “Plate XLVII. of Horology, exhibits the repeating work of Elliot’s watch, publifhed in 1804; and figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5, fhew the parts detached, with the fame letters of reference ‘as in fig. 1. In this conftruGtion, the ufual apparatus of wheels, pinions, chains, pulleys, and racks, are difpenfed with ; and the ating pieces, inftead of being fpread over the furface of the upper plate of the frame, are arranged concentrically on the axis of the pendant, which is not ‘pufhed in, but made to turn round to the right or left, ac- cordingly as the hours or quarters are required to be ftruck ; either of which may precede, or one only may be ftruck, at the option of the wearer. A AB, in fig. 2, is called the repeating potance, fcrewed to the upper plate at «, in fig. 1, and bears the works furfounding the axis of the pendant CD. The portion for ftriking the quarters, feen iu fig. 3, is attached to the axis 6; but the part feen in fs 2, for ftriking the hours, is on a tube through which the axis VoL. XXXVII. paffes, fo that @ch part will revolve feparately ; a circum- {tance not adverted to in the original defcription. The quarter-fnail, S, in fig. 1, with its loofe piece, the ftar- wheel and its hour-fnail H, the jumper G, and its {pring 1, with the dial-work Y, are fuch as we have already de- feribed. But the levers or detepts M and N, with their {prings r and ¢, act here with the circular racks on the com- mon axis of the pendant, thus; the pendant focket D, in fig. 2, has a connection with the axis, feen in fig. 5, by means of the pin f, on the axis, taking hpld of its projeGting piece a, which may be called the hour-pallet ; ¢ is the hour- locking fnail, in figs. 2 and 4, with its projeéting pin, placed without or beyond the repeating potance, and fixed on a focket that furrounds the axis; on which focket alfo are fixed the repeating wheel g, and its ratchet R, with a {piral fpring, exhibited in fig. 4; then while the tail-piece x, of detent N, of the hour-f{nail, falls on the proper ftep of {nail e, to regulate the number of ftrokes to be made for the hours, the tail-piece 4, in fig. 1, of the hammer V, is caught by the floping teeth of the ftriking-wheel g, and raifes the hammer under the plate of the frame, that ftrikes a circular rim of fteel furrounding the works, inftead of abell; but before thefe flrokes will be made, the pendant muft be turned round by hand gently and regularly, and continued till all the blows are given: this manual turning, therefore, fuperfedes the neceflity of a repeating train of wheels and pinions. The ftriking mechanifm for the quar- ters is fimilar in conftruétion to that for the hours, and is feen detached in fig. 3, where / is the pallet; m, the lock- ing-fnail, with its projeGting pin to be caught by the pallet in the retrograde motion of the pendant; 0, the ratchet- wheel, and x, its fpiral {pring ; and laftly, p, the contrate wheel for ftriking the quarters, by means of the fecond elongated hammer-tail S, while the hammer has its centre of motion at Z. ‘Thus, when the hours and quarters are both ftruck by the fame hammer, as regulated by their refpeétive fnails, the {prings, x and 4, conneéted with the concentric fnails and their ratthets, bring back the a€ting parts to their original fituations, for repeating the fame ftrokes as many times as may be wifhed, for the purpofes of either utility or curiofity. It may be neceffary to notice further, that the rim fubitituted for a bell has a notch cut into it, to admit the arbor of the pendant to pafs without obitruétion; and that we give this conftruétion without having feen the watch itfelf, and, therefore, without making any remark on its merits or demerits, further than that it appears to have the recommendations of fimplicity and cheapnefs. In the fame year and month in which this watch was firft defcribed, the inventor prefented the model of another re- peating watch to the Society of Arts at the Adelphi, an account of which is publifhed in the z2d volume of their Tranfaétions, for which he received their bounty of thirty guineas. We have not given a drawing of this fecond re- peater, as being acceffible to all fcientific men properly intro- duced to the Society’s rooms, and particularly as the mode of ufiag it does not differ from what we have juit defcribed, fo far as the rotatory motions to be given to the pendant, dire& and retrograde, are concerned. In this watch the {nails for the hours and quarters, the ftar-wheel, dial-work, jumper with its {pring, and locking detents, are nearly the fame as in the other; but inftead of the ftriking-wheels, ratchets, and fprings, being on the arbor of the pendant, they are placed on a flat circular rim of fteel, that revolves, by means of friétion-rollers, round the dial-work on the fame plane, to about one quarter of a revolution. This rim is indented about a quarter of its circumference, and is aétu- ated by a beveled pinion, placed on the imer extremity of 5C the WATCH. the pendant’s axis, which, by being turned; to the right or left, will caufe either the hours or quarters to ftrike firft, according to the direétion of motion ; and pins inferted into the plane of the rim, at the fide oppofite to the indentation, lift the hammer-tail to {trike as many blows as the hour and quarter notches made on the inner edge of the rim, and aét- ing with the fecond arms of the detents, refpeétively deter- mine. In this mechani{m, a chain wound round a barrel containing a {pring, and fixed on the pillar-plate, brings the fteel rim back again to its original fituation, which entirely depends on the pofition of the fnails. " A patent was taken out for a repeating watch by the fame ingenious man, dated 30th O&ober, 1806; but as we have not feen the defcription thereof, we are unable to fay how it differs from either of thofe which we have juft defcribed. Berrollas’ Repeater.—Jofeph Anthony Berrollas of Den- mark-ftreet, in the parifh of St. Giles in the Fields, London, took out a patent for what he calls an infallible repeating watch, bearing date 31ft OGober, 1808, of which watch we fhall give a brief defcription in this place. In the plate to which we laft referred, fig. 6. fhews the repeating portion of Berrollas’ watch, in a ttate of action; fig. 7. fhews the calliper of the common movement, hammer, and ring ufed for the bell; and the detached pieces of the repeating por- tion are reprefented fingly in the group of fig. 8. Like Elliot, Berrollas founds his pretenfions to public approba- tion on the fimplicity of his contrivance, and on the confe- quent cheapnefs, where the repeating motion by wheels and pinions is difpenfed with, and where one hammer only is ne- ceflary for ftriking both the hours and quarters. Though we have not feen the watch we now undertake to defcribe, yet as it has fome peculiarities in its conftruction, not quite fo intelligible as could be wifhed in the defcription given in the Repertory of Arts, vol. xiv. p. 364, we will venture to deviate a little from the author’s own account. The outfide of the watch refembles common watches, except in the pendant, which is mounted with a button, confifting of two parts, C and X: the lower one, X, does not move, and the upper one, C, having an endlefs {crew annexed to ait, turns round and comes out to the extent of four turns, and is cut into four turns and a half. The upper part of the button €, being turned to the right, ferews off from the lower part X, and operating upon the hour-rack A, can be continued to be unfcrewed until it has ftruck the hour which the hand indicates, when it cannot be further unfcrewed. The fame part C, being afterwards {crewed to the left, to bring it back again to join the lower fixed part X, operates upon the quarter-rack B, and quarters are ftrock in the fame manner as the hours, until the part C is completely joined to the part X. The piece W draws piece B back to its former ftation. The motion is com- pofed of three principal parts, A, B, and C: A contains the hour-rack, B the quarter-rack, and C the pendant and endlefs fcrew. The piece C, turning on itfelf, afcends per- pendicularly, and is kept in a proper direGtion by the piece E, which performs two objeéts. The interior of it forms the catch-work of the fcrew, whilft the exterior is fixed by two {crews on the. pillar-plate ; and when the piece C 1s turned, it aéts upon the piece A, and gives it a circular motion, firft by means of the piece D D, whofe interior is caught in the notch at the extremity of the piece C, while the exterior part of it is caught in the piece A; fecondly, by the piece F, which holds the piece DD in a groove; thirdly, by the piece G, which is fixed to the pillar-plate with three fcrews, and under which the piece A 1s fixed by means of a pivot, on which it moves. The piece A, being thus moved, eatches by means of twelve teeth, cut in its in- 12 terior part, the pi¢ce H, which puts in action the ham- mer Q, that ftrikes on the bell-{pring R, fixed to the pillar- plate S, as feen in fig. 6. The piece A pafles under the piece K, which is a brafs bar with two fcrews to keep piece A from rifing. In order to give a free and a fteady motion to the piece A, it is operated upon by a pivot faftened to a {pring U, placed on the infide of the pillar-plate ; which pivot, pafling through a hole in the pillar-plate, caufes a fteady fri€tion under the teeth of the piece A. The piece A is regulated by the ftar N and hour-fnail M, in the common way, with a jumper and {pring, when the hours are ftruck ; alfo the quarter-{nail P, the quarter-piece B, and its fpring O, regulate the fame, when the quarters are ftruck, through the agency of the forked piece J, which is on the fame arbor as the tail-piece H and hammer. The tooth V, on the piece A, falls on one of the fteps of the hour-fnail, and determines the number of ftrokes for the hours, when A is turned one way round, and the heel-piece of the quarter-piece near P falls on the quarter-{nail, when the motion is given to A in the contrary direction, and thus determines the ftrokes given for the quarters, while two f{prings keep the tail-pieces H and J in their refpeCtive places; one of which fprings, L, is feen upon the plate, and the other is faft to the piece K, not feen. Thus the ftriking in this watch is produced by manual preffure, as is done in Elliot’s watches, and the me- chanifm differs from that at the rooms of the Adelphi Society only in thefe refpets :—that the motion is produced by a fcrew, inftead of a pinion; and the piece A moves round a pivot at the end of the cock G, inttead of being formed into an exaét ring to move within friction-rollers. Alarum, ’larum, or warning Watch.—The watches which we have above defcribed under the denomination of repeating watches, can be ufeful only to perfons who are awake, and, therefore, do not anfwer the purpofe of giving pre- vious notice of the approach of any particular hour and mi- nute, at which it may be required to be roufed from fleep. This purpofe is ufually effected by a ’larum clock ; but we will now defcribe how the fame thing has been done by fome additions to a pocket-watch. We will firft defcribe the former method of adding the warning mechanifm to a watch, and then explain the conftruétion lately adopted by Berrollas, and fecured to himfelf by a patent. The old ’larum watch has been fo well defcribed by Berthoud, in the firft volume of his ‘* Hiftoire de la Mefure du Tems,’? p- 66, &c. that we eannot do better than give a fimilar drawing and defcription, after omitting his account of the ordinary movement. In the frame of the watch a fpring-box is made faft to the under fide of the upper-plate, and has a great wheel, ratchet, and click, to wind up by; but the winding is per- formed by the key inferted on the fquare end of the fpring- arbor, while the box remains at reft. When the great wheel is made to revolve by the ratchet, it drives two other wheels and pinions, which, with it, conftitute the warning train, and is in every refpect fimilar to a repeating>train, except that there is an efcapement-wheel initead of a fly. This train, therefore, will be the more eafily underftood, from our preceding defcription of the ftriking or repeating train. Fig. 8. of Plate XLVI. exhibits fo much of the warning mechanifm as appears on the exterior face of the upper-plate, and will fuffice to explain the conftruétion and a¢tion of all the effential parts, if we bear in mind that a part of the warning train and the {pring-box are within the frame, of which this plate forms the cover. The arbor of the con- cealed {pring-box is feen at A, bearing a finger that aéts with three teeth cut in the femicircle of the circular piece F, pivotted WATCH. ptvotted into the cock G. In the prefent pofition, the finger carried by the fpring-arbor is refting on the plain or unindented part of piece F, and is keeping the {pring to its required degree of tenfion. When the key for winding is applied to the fquare of this arbor, the teeth of piece F re- gulate the number of turns that the {pring requires to be wound, before it comes to its due tenfion for driving the warning-train. The wheel n, under the cock H, is on the arbor of the pinion driven, within the frame, by the great wheel, and may be called the fecond wheel of the warning- train; and the pinion driven by it is on the fame arbor as the efcapement-wheel R, (pivotted alfo into cock H,) which is the third or laft wheel of the train. The teeth of the efcapement-wheel, when put in motion by the main-fpring urging it through the train, ats with the two pallets a and & alternately, which are conneéted by the portions of two {mall wheels: that reprefented by a is faft to the {quare end of the hammer-arbor, concealed in the frame; and the other, 4, turns on a fixed ftud on the plate. The forked piece or angular lever 1 2, of the piece 4, embraces the angular end d of the warning-detent df4, which is moveable at f, while the remote end 4 preffes on a fpiral plate 4, made faft to the wheel of the hours C, by the ation of the {pring g. Now as plate f revolves once in twelve hours, and has only one ftep at 0, the end of the fpiral, it is ob- vious that, when this ftep comes to the angular point 4 of the detent, this point will drop fuddenly towards the centre of the hours-wheel, and at the fame inftant the angular end d will quit the fork 1 2 of the piece 4, which will now be at liberty to obey the force of the efcapement-wheel R, exerted on the pallets a and 4 alternately ; and the concealed femi- circular hammer, on the arbor of pallet a, will ftrike at both ends alternately againft the fonorous ring that produces the warning noife, until the finger of A has gathered up all the teeth of piece F, and is again arrefted on the oppofite point of the diameter beyond the laft tooth. At x the piece 4 has a tail-piece, which vibrates between the elaftic prongs of the fixed fork P, and thus brings back the hammer after each ftroke to the right and left; and the frequency and loudnefs of thefe reiterated ftrokes are competent to roufe any perfon, not too lethargic, from a ftate of fleep. A {mall dial-plate lying over the centre of the watch-face, and divided into twelve hours and parts, is fo conneéted with the fpiral-plate , that turning this dial to a pointer, made on the fhort end of the hour-hand, will put the ftep o into a proper fituation for making the point 4 of the detent fall at the time required, and will confequently produce the alarm at the time for which the {mall dial is thus adjufted. Warning Watch by Berrollas——In the year 1810 we find J. A. Berrollas refiding in Coppice-row, Clerkenwell, and taking out a patent, on the 26th of May of that year, for a warning watch of a new conftru€tion, which we will next proceed to defcribe; but the defcription given of this in- vention in the Repertory of Arts, &c. is fo imperfeét, at leaft to us fo unintelligible, that we have been obliged to alter both the drawings and explanation, before we could make the mechanical contrivances underftood. The reafons which feem to have induced Berrollas to attempt a new con- ftru€tion of a warning watch, were the inconveniences at- tending winding up, fetting to time, and turning the {mall dial-plate, all which he profeffes to have obviated. We have fhewn the different parts of this mechanifm in feveral figures in Plate XLIV., which we fhall now proceed to explain in our own way. In fig. 10, a fhews the place of the main-fpring, and 4 the fufee of the ordinary works, which are conftru€ted in the common way, but which are not feen in fig. 11, that reprefents an elongated feétion of the warning mechanifm and dial-work only. At ¢ is the arbor of the warning-fpring box, of the great wheel of 60 teeth, and of a ratchet-wheel, which is made of ftcel with 33 teeth, that catch the tail of the hammer d, and make it ftrike againft the circular rim of fteel, while the {pring e brings back the hammer after each ftroke. This part of the mechanifm is not given in the original drawings, nor yet fig. 11, which explains the aGtion. Ass the ftrokes are made by a wheel on the arbor of the fpring-box, it was neceflary that it fhould wind five times round, that the blows might be fufficiently numerous and loud for giving the alarm: hence 165 (33 x 5) ftrokes are given at once winding, and the firft is the loudeft, as being urged by the warning-fpring, without a fufee, at its greateft degree of tenfion; an advantage which the inventor feems to have overlooked in his own account. Thefe parts, and alfo the pinion f, are planted within the frame, as feen in fig. 11 ; but the parts fhewn in figs. 9, 13, and 14, are on the ex- terior face of the upper-plate, agreeably to the calliper given in jig. 9, but aéting together, as more clearly reprefented in we 11, where the pivot-holes are fuppofed to be ina He line, for the fole purpofe of explanation. The arbor of pinion f afcends through the upper-plate of the frame, and has the wheel g attached to it, which drives a fecond pinion on the arbor of an efcapement-wheel 4; which two wheels are pivotted above into a long cock, fcrewed to the upper plate ; all which pofitions are clearly feen in fg. 11, as well as the mode by which the motion and force are tranfmitted from the main-{pring c to the pallets i,i. The wheel g has 45 teeth, the efcapement-wheel 20, and the two pinions each fix leaves. This aflemblage of wheels and pinions con- ititutes the warning-train ; but the warning detent, on which much ftrefs is laid by the inventor, remains yet to be de- {cribed. This detent 4 is feen in two detached pofitions, in Sig: 145 where the parts 1, 2, and 3, are taken off, to render their uies more obvious. The dial-werk confifts of a can- non-pinion of 12 leaves, the wheel g of 36 teeth on the ftud, its pinion r of 10, and the hours-wheel n of 40, which are 2 8436 common numbers, that may be thus exprefled: viz. a7 x ' 40 = ~*° = 12. Between the hours-wheel and the Io 120 f eannon-pinion the ring of the detent 4 furrounds the arbor of the centre-wheel, or rather the tube of the cannon- pinion, but not fo as to be tight upon it: on the hours- wheel n is a pin projecting above and below its plane, as feen in fig. 13, againft which pin the rim of the faid ring is prefled by the fpring ¢, as feen in fig. 9. Now as the {crew 1 takes into the cock 3, made fait to the plate, after it has pafled through a hole in the lever of the detent, this {crew becomes the centre of motion of the detent, and the preffure of the {pring ¢ at one end elevates the ring at the other, and withit the perpendicular bar /, which reaches to the teeth of the efcapement-wheel / ; fo that when the elevation of this bar / exceeds the plane of the efcapement-wheel, the train will be at liberty to run on, and the hammer will be made to ftrike a repetition of blows; but while the elevation of the faid bar / lies in the fame plane with the teeth of the efcapement-wheel, it will operate as a detent to the train, and filence will be preferved. Above the hours-wheel u, and on its tube, revolves a large additional wheel m, bearing a circular piece of fteel, with an oblong notch cut through it, as feen in fig. 13; and the preflure of the upper end of the pin in the hours-wheel is againit this circular fteel piece at all times, except when it arrives at the faid notch, and then it afcends into it by the downward a@tion of the 5C2 {priug ‘ WATCH. {pring t, beyond the centre of motion 1; and at this inftant the bar /, afcending alfo, quits the teeth of the efcapement- wheel, and fuffers the alarm to commence, and to continue until the warning-{pring is relaxed. It does not, however, appear by what means the pin of the hours-wheel is difen- gaged from the oblong hole in the fteel circle of wheel m, when the blows of the hammer are finifhed, unlefs the fecond edge of the flit be made floping ; and its continuance there mutt obvioufly ftop the watch, by preventing the free pro- grefs of the hours-wheel. Either the mechanifm or the original defcription muft be defeétive in this part. Within the ring of the pendant is a button, in form of an acorn, which conftitutes the head of a fteel arbor, termi- nating with a pinion s, that aétuates a contrate-wheel 0, which has teeth-alfo on the edge, that drive the double pinion p; the upper portion of which pinion again impels the large wheel m, that carries the fmall hand, and alfo the circular piece of notched fteel. This train is introduced for the purpofe of fetting the warning-hand, which is the fhorteft of the three feen in fig. 12, to the requifite hour on the fmall fixed diab, without opening the cafe, and de- ranging the other hands for fhewing hours and minutes in the ufual way. At the bottom of the acorn there is a {mall ratchet-wheel, with a click and fpring, feen detached be- tween figs. 11 and 14, the ufe of which is to allow the acorn to turn only in one direction, while the warning-hand is fet to its place. It is a condition to be obferved in fet- ting the hour-hand, that it lie exa@ly over the pin in the hoursewheel, and alfo that the warning-hand lie parallel to the /lit of the fteel circle, attached to the wheel m. Laitly, the warning mechani{m may be put into a ftate of ation, or of inaétion, by moving the button wv, in the cafe, to the right or left, fo as to fall in the way of the end of the detent 2, or to efcape it. Rolling Watch.—After having defcribed various conftruc- tions of watches adapted for the pocket, and contributing to the pun@iuality with which focial intercourfe is carried on in civilized life, we proceed laftly to defcribe the mechanifm of a watch, which will meafure time only by its defcent down an inclined plane, and which therefore is more curious than ufeful. During the time that various experiments on the laws of moving bodies were made, and applied to the regulation of horological machines by Dr. Wallis, fir Chrif- topher Wren, Dr. Hooke, Huygens, Leibnitz, Dr. Hal- ley, fir Ifaac Newton, and others, M. de Gennes and the marquis of Worcefter contrived watches, the former of which would a/cend, and the latter de/cend along an inclined plane, by means of a {pring coiled up at the centre of the frame, which relaxed as the rolling motion proceeded ; but as no explanation had been given of thefe contrivances in the year 1684, Mr. Maurice Wheeler publifhed an account of a rolling watch, invented by him, in the firft volume of Lowthorp’s Abridgment of the Philofophical Tranfa¢tions of London, p. 468, et feq., which account has been co- pied into other works of f{cience; but which we will abridge, agreeably to our own plan of defcription. In fiz. 15. Plate XLIV., let ab be the diameter of the cir- cle afb, ftanding on the dotted horizontal bafe 6m, on the point 4. In this fituation, fuppofing the circle to be an uniform plate of metal, it will remain at reft when placed truly vertical, while the line 4m remains horizontal; but make this line to coincide with the inclined line n 4, and the circle will roll down this inclined plane, becaufe the vertical line, or line of dire€tion, d ¢, raifed from the point d, which will be the new point of contaé, falls behind c, the centre of gravity of the uniform circular plate; fo that the por- tion ef @ becoming fmaller than the portion ¢/d, the cen- fe) tre of gravity will be before the bearing point d, and the plate will roll down the plane ; and the motion thus pro- duced will have the greater velocity, the more the plane n é is inclined to the horizontal line. But if fuch a piece of metal g be attached to the portion ¢ f das will form a coun- terpoife therewith to the larger portion e 4 d, then the plate will have no tendency to roll, but become ftationary, fo long as the inclination of the plane, and the pofition of the addi- tional piece g, remain unaltered; but leffen the angle of in- clination, or remove the weight g towards f, and, in either cafe, the plate will aétually afcend, till the weight g, in its new pofition, balances the-new angle of inclination. Alfo, if the angle be increafed, or the weight g be brought nearer to d, in either cafe the plate will defcend ; but as the defcent of the plate down the increafed inclination, by a rolling — motion, throws the weight g farther from the point of con- ta&t d, the rolling motion will ftop as foon as the retrograde motion of the weight fhall have produced a counterpoife to the portion ed of the plate in the new inclined plane. Thefe premifes being granted, we are now prepared to fhew how the train of a watch in motion may be made to change the pofition of an appended weight in fuch way as to render that weight a maintaining power during the whole time that a cylindrical box, which contains the weight and movement, fhall gradually and flowly defcend down a correfponding in- clined plane, while a pendulous hand or index fhall point out the fucceffive hours and parts during the faid defcent. Let the four wheels and pinions, fhewn in fig. 17, be placed like the common train of a watch, withthe arbor x of the great wheel in the centre of the box, and conceive a bas lance and efcapement to allow one tooth of the laft wheel to efcape at every alternate ofcillation of the moving balances then let the weight w, at the end of the lever x w, be made falt to the faid arbor at the hole x, fig. 16, as is feen in Jig. 17 5 and let its pofition be between d and f; and the ten- dency of the weight cv to come to d, will draw round the great wheel, pivotted to the ends of the box, and give fuch motion to the train as will keep up the ofcillations of the balance ; but this motion of the great wheel will be fo flow, that it will be fearcely perceptible when the angle of incli- nation is {mall ; but increafe this angle, or alter the pofition or the magnitude of the weight, and the force will be in- creafed by which the train is a€tuated ; fo that by one al- teration or other, or all, fuch a final adjuftment may be made, that the box will revolve exactly in twenty-four hours. But before this can be duly effeéted, the train of wheels muit be counterpoifed by a load, attached to the box at the oppofite fide of the centre, fo that there may be one common ¢entre of gravity of all the materials, exclufive of the weight 2, falling in every pofition of the box, at the centre of motion of the weight qw; i. e. at the arbor of the great wheel round which the box revolves.. When this is the cafe, and the angle of elevation of the plane is nicely ad- jufted by afcrew A, as in fig. 18, the regulated train of the watch will allow the weight w to approach d, juft as faft as the rolling motion of the box will throw it back, and the equipoife of thefe two contrary aétions of gravity, and of the rotation of the box produced thereby, will keep up an uniform flow motion down the inclined plane. In fome conftruétions detailed in the “ Recueil d’Ouvrages curieux de Mathematique et de Mechanique ; ou Defcription du Cabinet de Monfieur de Serviere,’? a Lyon, 1733, the hours are drawn on the face of the inclined plane, and indi- cated by the point of conta& of the box ; but in the watch before us, one end of the box contains the figures from I. to XIL. twice over, and a pendulous hand, made heavy. below, and revolving loofely on the pivot of the great wheel, always WATCH. always points upwards to the pafling hour, as reprefented in 218. ~~ the work of which we have juft given the double title, there are various devices for making balls defcend on {piral and zigzag planes ina given time, which are again elevated by a fpring, and which indicate the time by the number of their defcents ; but thefe matters of curiofity are no longer ufeful as horological machines in the prefent ftate of the fcience of horology. Mufical Watch.—The works of a watch may be applied moreover to give motion to various devices and pieces of machinery, at the fame time that the watch performs its own operations ; fuch as aGtuating the handle of a planeta- rium, or orrery, exhibiting the motions of any of the ce- leftial bodies by means of its dial-work, or urging the bar- rel of {mall mufical chimes: but after the detailed accounts we have given of PLranetary Machines, it will only be necef- fary here to explain how a tune may be played by a mufical watch, from which our reader will perceive that the appli- cation of fimilar means to other amufing purpofes is equally practicable. In Plate XLII. of Horology, fig. 4. exhibits, on an enlarged fcale, the internal difpofition of a watch- movement, as {een on the pillar-plate from above, when the other plate of the frame is removed, and the watch laid down on its face; the pillars being fuppofed to be at the circles N, N, N, and N ; the box A contains the main- fpring ; B is the fufee, with the chain or cord winding round it, as it comes from the circumference of the faid box; D is the great wheel, and within it are the ratchet, click, and fpring, as ufual ; E is the pinion of the centre wheel, or hour-wheel, F, and is driven by the great wheel as foon as the main-{fpring is wound up; G is the pinion on the arbor of the fecond wheel, and is driven by F ; and H, that revolves in the fame time with the pinion G, is the third wheel, which wheel again actuates a pinion, I, on the arbor of the fourth wheel, K ; which here is not a con- trate-wheel, becaufe the balance-wheel I is made for the cy- linder efeapement, which we defcribed under the article Escaprement, N° 8. The arbors of thefe wheels and pinions pointing upwards to meet the eye, appear only in plan; and the dial-work, lying under the plate, is con- cealed from view. The parts done only in outline exhibit the calliper of the watch, independently of the mufical train, barrel, fpring, and other appendages, which are JSbaded, for the purpofe of diftinguifhing this portion from the ordinary movement of the watch. In this figure, the calli- per of the mufical train and fpring-barrel may be obferved to lie on one fide of the frame ; but the mode of their ation will be better explained by fig. 5, which is a feétion of the frame, in which the calliper is fo altered into a ftraight line, for the purpofe only of explanation, that the effet to be produced may be clearly comprehended. In both the figures, 4 and 5, the great wheel attached to the f{pring-barrel 1s de- noted by the unit 1, and the wheels that follow, with their refpeGtive pinions in the mufical train, are denoted by 2, 3, 4, and 5, till we come to the regulating fly, 6, placed on the arbor of the laft pinion. This fly performs the fame office as in the ftriking part of a clock, or re- peating train of a watch; that is, it regulates the velocity with which the main-fpring fhall unbend itfelf, and give mo- tion to the barrel in which it is contained ; fo that if a quick motion be required, a few wheels and pinions only are ne- eeflary, and a light fly; but when the motion is required to be flow, there muft be a longer train, or a heavier fly, proportioned to the ftrength of the main-fpring. The in- terior end of the fpring is, as in the common main-fpring boxes; hooked to a pm on the arbor d, and the exterior end to the fide of the box, fo that turning the arbor d round by a cre coils the {pring into its ftate of greateft tenfion, which is adjufted by the notclied piece, or ratchet, e, which is held to its place by the click and {pring in the ufual way, as reprefented in fig. 6. Upon the rim or cylindrical fide of the box a, containing the main-{pring, are inferted various pins in parallel lines, but at unequal diftances, according to the frequency of the occurrence of the refpeGtive notes to be founded by the correfponding prongs of the forked piece of fteel 4 ¢,:im any given tune which is to be played ; and the number of prongs muft be equal to the number of mufi- cal tones and femi-tones to be produced. In the drawing before us the fork has eight prongs, and the notes are pro- duced by the catching of the pins, inferted into the revolv- ing barrel, on the ends of the prongs, which are elaftic and tapered, as well as tempered, to produce the requifite fuc- ceflion of tones that are required in the tune to be per- formed. The upper pivots of all. the arbors of the mufical train are callipered in the cock 4A, while the lower pivots have their holes on the pillar-plate ; and upon this cock 4 4 the bent detent, or double lever fe, with a hook at e, is placed fo as to be moveable round a ferew at the angular point in ° the middle : the hook of this detent is kept clofe to the re- volving barrel by the preffling {pring i, and when the tune is finifhed, a hole is caught on the fide of the barrel, free from the pins, by the hook ¢, which ftays the motion till the button g, in the cafe of the watch, is pufhed in againft the tail-piece of the detent, and frees the hook again from its hole, when the tune is repeated nearly in the fame manner that chimes are ufually performed. (See Cuimrs.) The parts drawn in perfpective in fig. 6. reprefent a conitrution in which the elaftic prongs of the mufical fork are bent into a curve, fo as to occupy lefs {pace than in figs. 4.and 5, or to produce more powerful tones where the {pace will admit of an enlargement of their dimenfions. But inftead of a barrel containmg the main-{pring, fometimes a cylinder, A, revoly- ing in the cocks o and , contains the pins, as is feen in fig. 7, where a pinion on the projecting arbor of the cylinder is actuated by the great wheel attached to the fpring-box ; and this conftru¢tion is beft calculated for a fork with more tones, and confequently for a tune of greater compafs. Fig. 8. fhews how the prong of the fork is caught by the pins in fucceflion, and fig. 9. explains how a number of double- pronged forks, 4c, are feparately {crewed into a frame, &, where the difference in the tones is produced by a correfpond- ing difference in the dimenfions of the prongs. The hole in which the hook ¢ fallsis here in the end of the cylinder, but the motion is not ftayed thereby ; for the flender fpring, prefling againft it, lays hold of the fly-pinion, when it fol- lows the detent, and thus ftops the part that has the greateft velocity, and leaft power ; whereas confiderable ftrain takes place on the barrel when its motion is ftopped by the hook of the detent, as in figs. 4and 6. The arrangement in fig. 4. is beft fuited for a {mall watch, but does not produce the mott audible tones; and is that which is ufually concealed in the Swifs mujical feals, that have been lately intro- duced into England: but the cylinder in fg. 7. is that which the mujfical boxes contain, and which, from its length, is capable of containing two tunes, as well as notes on both the treble and bafs clefs. When the elaftic prongs are tem- pered, they are brought to an exa&t mulical fcale by grind- ing with oil-{tone duit, and the prongs that require to have their tones much flattened, are made more flender at the end moft remote from the cylinder or barrel, where their re- fiftance to motion is diminifhed, fo that the vibrations are rendered lefe frequent,’ and the tones lefs acute. When a fecond WATCH. fecond tune is played, the cylinder is pufhed into and held in. a new fituation, as in a barrel-organ. Wartcu-Mabker is a term that might originally denote the maker of a watch out of the rough materials ; but this was the cafe only in the infancy of the art ; for when the de- mand for pocket-watches became fo great as to render the manufaéture an obje&t of commerce, the confequent divifion of labour was foon found to facilitate the execution ; and each branch of the trade had its appropriate tools and artifans ; fo that thoufands of families have at length been employed and maintained by their refpe@ive manipulations, without interfering with the bufinefs of their neighbours, who are equally occupied in their ref{peétive departments. In this art, the materials are of very little value in their original ftate ; but the workmanfhip is fo various, and requires fuch delicacy in the management, that, as has been ftated to a committee in the houfe of commons, materials that did not coft fixpence in the ftate of ore, have been and frequently are manufactured into a watch that is worth 1oo/. and up- wards. ‘This view of the fubje& induced minifters to with- draw their projected plan of taxing watches, as being, in fa&t, a tax on ingenuity and induftry. We have anticipated much of the fubje&t of watch- making under the articles we have already referred to in ho- rology, for a watch may be confidered as a {pring-clock in miniature ; and what we have faid about calculating, cal- lipering, making, and adjufting the various portions of a {mall clock, is therefore equally applicable to a watch, ex- cept that the balance muft be fubftituted for the pendulum. It may gratify the curiofity of our readers, however, to explain how the labour, we have adverted to, is divided and fubdivided into various branches of manufaéture ; and how perfons fituated at different parts of the kmgdom confpire, without any mutual knowledge of each other, to bring this {mall piece of mechanif{m into its finifhed ftate. The beft watch-movements are made at Prefcot, in Lan- cafhire, by perfons called movement-makers, who furnifh the movement complete to the London watch-makers. The following is a lift of the principal workmen employ- ed in manufaéturing a movement, previoufly to its coming into the hands of the London watch-maker. 1. The frame-maker, who makes the frame ; that is to fay, the two plates, the bar, and the potance. 2. The pillar-maker, who turns the pillars, and makes the ftud for the ftop-work. 3. The cock-maker, who makes the cock and the ftop- work. 4. The barrel and fufee-maker, who makes the barrel, great wheel, fufee, and their component parts. 5. The going fufee-maker, who makes the going fufee, (the means by which the watch is kept going while winding up,) when made ufe of. A 6. The centre wheel and pinion-maker, who makes the ame. 7. The {mall pinion-maker, who makes it of wire, pre- vioufly drawn by another workman, called pinion-wire ; the third and fourth wheels, and efcapement-wheel pinion ; and inthe cafe of repeaters, the pinions of the repeating train of wheels: thefe are all finifhed in the engine. 8. The fmall wheel-maker, who makes the third and fourth wheels, and the wheels of the repeating train for re- peating movements, and rivets them to their pinions. g- ‘The wheel-cutter, who cuts the wheels. 10. The verge-maker, who makes the verge of vertical watches. 11. The movement-finifher, who turns the wheels of a proper fize previoufly to their being cut, forwards them to and receives them from the wheel-cutter, examines all the parts as they are made, to fee that they are as they fhould be ; and finally completes the movement, and puts it together. 12. The balance-maker, who makes the balance of fteel or brafs. 4 Note.—The brafs balance is preferred to the fteel balance by fome watch-makers, in confequence of the latter being fubje& to the influence of magnetifm: but others prefer the fteel to the brafs balance, in coniequence of the latter being more influenced by variation of temperature than the former. 13. The pinion wire-drawer, who prepares the pinion- wire ; this, however, may be confidered as only a branch of the trade of wire-drawing. The plates and wheels are now all made out of rolled brafs ; but formerly, when it was to be had, they were made of Dutch brafs, it being confidered preferable to the Englifh. The movement, in the {tate in which it is fent to the London watch-maker, confifts of the frame, compofed of two plates, conneéted together by four or five pillars, as the cafe may be, which pillars are riveted to one of the plates, called the pillar-plate ; the wheels, confifting of the great wheel attached to the fufee, the fecond or centre wheel, the third and fourth wheels, the fufee and barrel, potance and ftop-work, which latter are attached to the upper plate, (fo called in contra-diftin@ion to the pillar-plate,) but the potance {crewed to it is between the plates; and laftly, the cock fcrewed:to the outfide of the upper plate. The following is a lift of the principal workmen employed on a watch to complete it from the ftate in which the move- ment is received from the country. 1. The flide-maker, who makes the flide. 2. The jeweller, who jewels the cock and potance, and, in a more forward ftate of the watch, any other holes that are required to be jewelled. 3. The motion-maker, who makes the brafs edge ; and, after the cafe is made, joints and locks the watch into the cafe, and makes the motion-wheels and pinions. 4. The wheel-cutter, who cuts the motion-wheels for the motion-maker. 5. The cap-maker, who makes the cap. 6. The dial-plate maker, who makes the dial. 7. The painter, who paints the dial. 8. The cafe-maker, who makes the cafe. g- The joint-finifher, who finifhes the joint of the cafe. 10. The pendant-maker, who makes the pendant. 11. The engraver, who engraves the name of the watch- maker on the upper plate ; and alfo engraves the cock and flide, or index, as the cafe may be. 12. The piercer, who pierces the cock and flide for the engraver, and afterwards engraves them. 13. The efcapement-maker, who makes the horizontal, duplex, or detached efcapements; but the efcapement of a vertical watch is made by the finifher. 14. The {pring-maker, who makes the main-{pring. 15. The chain-maker, who makes the chain. 16. The finifher, who completes the watch, and makes the pendulum-fpring, and adjutts it. 17. The gilder, who gilds the watch. 18. The fufee-cutter, who cuts the fufee to receive the chain, and alfo balance-wheel of the vertical efcapement. 19. The hand-maker, who makes the hands. 20. The glafs-maker, who makes the glafs. ‘ 21. To thefe muft be added the pendulum-fpring wire~ drawer, Wok. 5 drawer, who draws the wire for the pendulum-fprings, whieh is almoft a diftin& trade. The above are the principal workmen employed in ‘the manufaéture of a plain watch; in the manufacture of a re- peater, the fame workmen are employed, with the addition of the repeating motion-maker, in the place of the maker of the plain motion, who makes the brafs edge and motion, and joints and locks or fixes in, which ever way it is done, the watch into its cafe ; and when the repeater is made to ftrike on bell-fprings, the motion-maker makes the fprings. Formerly, repeaters were made to ftrike what was termed dumb ; that is to fay, a dead blow againft the cafe or cap, er elfe on a bell, which bell was made by a feparate work- man, entitled the bell-maker. But the bell-fprings have now entirely fuperfeded the old bells. The fame f{pring- maker who makes the main-{pring of the watch, alfo makes the main-{pring of the repeating train of wheels. The fprings of a hunting-cafe are made by a feparate workman, called a fecret {pring-maker. Single cafes (not hunting-cafes) are frequently made to open with {prings : pairs of cafes (the old-fafhioned box and cafe) are {prung, lined, and polifhed by a workman called a {pringer and liner ; the better defcription of fingle cafes and hunting- cafes are polifhed by a perfon fimply called the polither : this is fometimes done by women, particularly by the wives of fome of the cafe-makers ; and this is the only branch of the trade, probably, in which women are employed in this country. The compenfation-balances for chronometers are fome- times made by the efcapement-maker, and fometimes by a feparate workman, who confines himfelf entirely to making compenfation-balances. Plain watch-movements are made of all prices, from 2s. 6d. to 2/. 12s. 6d.; but repeating movements coft from 2/. to 4/. 4s. each, according to their quality. There are many inferior movements, made as low as 21s. a dozen. The loweft prices at which the movements called Lancafhire movements are fold, is 7s. for plain, and 2/. 10s. for re- peating movements. The principal London watch-makers order the move- ments, as above defcribed, of the movement-makers of Prefcot, who make them according to the callipers they re- ceive from each maker with their orders. But the ordinary defcription of movements may be purchafed at moft of the watch-tool fhops in London; one of the chief of which is Fenn’s, N° 105, Newgate-ftreet, where every defcription of clock and watch-makers’ tools and engines may alfo be procured at moderate prices. At and near Geneva, but chiefly at Locle and Chaux de Fond, in the principality of Neufchatel, the Swifs watches are manufactured in great numbers. In thefe manufa¢tories women are very generally employed, and the fubdivifion of labour is carried ftill further than in our’s; and this concurs with the poverty of the workmen, and other caufes, to render thefe watches cheaper than the Englifh manufa@turers can make them. The Swifs watches have accordingly fupplanted the Englifh in many countries of Europe. In general, the workmanthip of the Swifs watches is exceedingly flight. Wartcu-Making is the art of Warcu-Maker. Watcu-Tools are the tools with which watches are ufually made, fuch as vices, pliers, files, hammers, drills, gravers, turning-tools, broaches, turn-benches, balance-tools, {pring - tongs, gauges, fpring-tools, fufee-adjufting tools, pitching- tools, callipers, {crew-plates, burnifhers, wire-nippers, fcrew- drivers, and various others, which would require feveral making watches. See WAT plates to reprefent them, but which greatly refemble the clock-tools that we have defcribed and explained by a refer- ence to Plates XIX., XX., and XXI., of Horology. Warcu-Glaf;, the concayo-convex portion of a glafs- {phere ufually employed to cover the dial of a watch. The {pheres out of which the watch-glafles are cut are blown. of various dimenfions, according to the degree of convexity required: the edges are then ground to fit the groove of the cover of the watch-cafe. There is a fuperior defcription of watch-glaffes, technically called bottoms, which are not por- tions of fpheres, but are flat on the top, the edges only being concavous. Each of thefe is cut from a feparate piece of hollow glafs, blown in the fhape of a cone, of which the watch-glafs forms the bottom; whence it takes its name. The waite of glafs is, therefore, confiderable, and the flat glaffes are confequently much more expentive than the fpherical. The method of converting a cireular piece of plain glafs into a concave, by a heated convex piece of iron, as recomthended by Boyle, (fee Works Abr. vol. i. p. 135.) is no longer praétifed in the conftruétion of watch-glafles ; but large convex glafles for clock-faces are frequently made in this Way. , Warcu and Ward, in Law, conttitute one of the prin- cipal duties of conftables, who, by the ftatute of Winchef- ter, 13 Edw. I. cap. 4., are appointed to keep watch and ward in their refpective jurifdiétions. Ward, guard or cu/- todia, is chiefly intended of the day-time, in order to appre- hend rioters, aad robbers on the high-ways ; the manner of doing which is left to the difcretion of the juitices of the peace and the conftable; the hundred being, however, an- {werable for all robberies committed therein, by day-light, for having kept negligent guard. Watch is properly applicable to the night only (being called among our Teutonic ancettors qvacht or waéa), and it begins at the time when ward ends, and ends when that begins ; for, by the ftatute of Winchefter, in walled towns the gates fhall be clofed from fun-fetting to fun-rifing, and watch fhall be kept in every borough and town, efpecially in the fummer feafon, to apprehend all rogues, vagabonds, and night-walkers, and make them give an account of them- felves. The conftable may appoint watchmen at his difcre- tion, regulated by the cuftom of the place; and thefe, being his deputies, have for the time being the authority of their principal. Blackft. Com. book i. Warcu Point, in Geography, a cape on the E. coat of Rhode ifland. _N. lat. 41° 13/.. W. long. 71° so’. WATCHER, Norru, or Seven Lflands, a clufter of fmall iflands, in the ftraits of Macaflar, near the W. coait of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 27! E. long. 119° 33!. Watcuer, South, a {mall ifland in the ftraits of Ma- caflar, near the W. coaft of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 3/. E. long. 119° 24/. WATCHET, an anctent borough, market, and fea-port town, in the parifh of St. Decumans, hundred of Williton and Freemanors, and county of Somerfet, England, is fitu- ated in a fruitful vale on the verge of the Briftol channel, at the diftance of five miles E. from Dunfter, 20 miles W. from Bridgewater, and 157 miles W. by S. from Lon- don. In the year 918, the Danes under Ochtor and Rhoald landed here, but were attacked by the inhabitants, and routed with immenfe flaughter. The fcene of this victory 1s marked by three large barrows, called Grab- barrows, in which have been difcovered feveral cells, con- taining human bones, and a variety of weapons anciently ufed in war. In 987 the Danes returned, and fucceeded in laying waite the town, but did no further injury : about ten years afterwards they made a third defcent ; and in order to remove WAT remove every obftacle to a future landing, they fet fire to the houfes, and put nearly all the inhabitants to the fword. This place was one of the vills conferred by William the Conqueror on fir William Mohun, as an appendage to the caftle of Dunfter. The town of Watchet is now compofed of four ftreets, moftly paved, and containing about 140 houfes. It was formerly a place of confiderable trade, and had a very large fifhery ; but now very few veilels belong to the port, and the trade is limited to a trifling freightage of coal, kelp, alabafter, and lime-ftone. In the’time of queen Elizabeth the harbour was cleaned out, and a pier built at the expence of the Wyndham and Luttrell families, then joint lords of the manor: this pier was repaired at the be- ginning of the Jat century, by the care of fir William Wynd- ham; and a duty granted by parliament on all goods im- ported, has been applied to making good the expence of further reparations. Two fairs are held annually, and a market weekly on Saturdays. The population, in the re- turn of the year S11, was included in that of the parifh of St. Decumans, which comprehends the town of Watchet, the village of Williton, (whence the hundred derives it name, ) and the hamlets of Orchard, Donniford, Kentsford, and Stream, and was then ftated to contain in the whole 345 houfes, and 1659 inhabitants. The church of this parifh, which ftands on an eminence about a mile to the fouth of Watchet, is a handfome ftruture, a hundred and eight feet in length, and forty-eight in breadth, and confifts of a nave, two fide aifles, and a chapel, with an elegant embattled tower, eighty feet in height at the weft end: in the north aifle are feveral monuments in memory of the Wyndham family.—Collinfon’s Hiftory and Antiquities of Somerfet- fhire, 4to. 1791. WATCHING. See Sreep. WATEEOO, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pa- cific Ocean, difcovered by Capt. Cook m March 1777; lying in S. lat. 20° 1! and E. long. 201° 45'; about fix leagues in circumference. It is a beautiful fpot, with the furface varied by hills and plains, and covered with verdure. Some gentlemen who landed from Capt. Cook’s company, found the foil where they pafled the day to be light and fandy. But farther up the country, where a different fort perhaps prevails, was feen from the fhip, by the help of glaffes, a reddifh caft upon the rifing grounds. ‘There the inhabitants have their houfes ; for they could perceive two or three which were long and fpacious. Its produce, with the addition of hogs, was the fame as that of Mangeea, which they had laft vifited. (See Mancera.) From cir- - WAT cumftances that are recited, it appears that Wateeoo can be of little ufe to any fhip that wants refrefhment, unlefs in a cafe of the moft abfolute neceflity. The natives, knowing now the value of fome of our commodities, might be induced to bring off fruits and hogs, to a fhip ftanding off and on, or to boats lying off the reef. It is doubtful, however, if any frefh water could be. procured: for, though fome was brought in cocoa-nut fhells to the gentlemen, they were told that it was at a confiderable diftance, and probably it is only to be met with in fome ftagnant pool, as no runnin ftream was any where feen. The manners of thefe iflanders, their method of treating ftrangers, and their general habits of life, appear to be much like thofe that prevail at Ota- heite, and its neighbouring ifles. Their religious ceremonies and opinions are alfo nearly the fame. The language fpoken at Wateeoo was equally well underftood by Omai, and by two New Zealanders. What its peculiarities may be, when compared with the other dialeéts, Capt. Cook was not able to point out. The natives of this ifland fprung originally, without doubt, from the fame ftock, which has fpread itfelf fo wonderfully all over the immenfe extent of the South fea; though from a circumftance mentioned by Qmai they put in their claim to a more iljuftrious extraction ; for they dignified their ifland with the appellation of * Wenooa no te Eatooa,”’ that is, a land of gods, efteeming themfelves a fort of divinities, and poffefled with the fpiritof the Eatooa: and this notion Omai informed our voyagers was entertained by fome at Otaheite, and prevailed univerfally amongit the inhabitants of Mataia, or Ofnaburg ifland. It appears that Omai, on landing in this ifland, found three of his own countrymen, natives of the Society iflands; one born at Matavai in Otaheite, another at Ulietea, and the third at Huaheine. By them he was informed, that about twenty perfons, of both fexes, had embarked on board a canoe at Otaheite to crofs over to the neighbouring ifland Ulietea; but they were driven by a ftorm far from their courfe, and having exhaufted their {tock of provifions, they pafled many days without food or drink. Many of them fell viétims to famine and fatigue, and four only furvived to reach this ifland at the diftance of 200 leagues from their native abode, by the inhabitants of which the furvivors, clinging to their canoe which was overfet, were refcued from their danger and diftrefs, hofpitably received, and treated with fo much kindnefs, that the three who remained, and whe had lived on this ifland above twelve years, had no inclina- tion to return, though an opportunity now offered itfelf for this purpofe. END OF VOL. XXXVII. Printed by A. 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